mlsiWKnH
HANDBOUND AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS
MODERN
LANGUAGE NOTES.
A. MARSHALL ELLIOTT,
MANAGING EDITOR.
JAMES W. BRIGHT, JULIUS GOEBEL, HENRY ALFRED TODD,
ASSOCIATE EDITORS.
VOLUME III. 1888.
BALTIMORE : THE EDITORS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
To Our leaders 1
Gerber, Adolph, Modern Languages In the
University of Prance, 1 1-10
Cook, A. 8., Notes on Old English Words
[ Cumbol. Mittan, Milting] 11-13
Wells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs in Aelfric's
Judith 13-15
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, On a Verse in the Old
Norse "HOfudlausn" 16-18
McElroy, Jno. G. 11., Matter and Manner in
Literary Composition 57-06
Gerber, Adolph, Modern Languages in the
University of France, II 66-73
Bright, James W., The Anglo-Saxon bdmlan
and wrasen 73
McCabe, T., Modern Languages at Cambridge
University, England 74-75
Schelling, Felix E., The Fifth Annual Con- vention of the Modern Language Asso- ciation of America 76-81
Wightman, Jno. R., Convention of the Mod- ern Language Association of Ontario. . . 81-82-
Bowen, B. L., Correction to Whitney's French Vocabularies
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, The Study of Old
Danish 113-115
Todd, H. A., Apropos of Les Trois Mors et
Trois Vis 115-118
Carpenter, Wm. H., A Fragment of Old Ice- landic 117-123
Wells, Benj. W., Sigf ried-Arminius 124-126
Schmidt, H., Cl, Gl > Tl, Dl in English Pro- nunciation 126-130
Egge, Albert E., Scandinavian Studies in the
United States 131-135
Bright, James W., Thraf-caik 138-139
Karsten, Gustaf , The/ in French Soif, Bief,
Moeuf, etc 169-178
Wells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs in Aelfric's
Saints,— 1 178-185
Garner, Samuel, The Gerundial Construction
in the Romanic Languages, III 185-192
Schmidt, H., Postscript to Cl, Gl > Tl, Dl in
English Pronunciation 192
Hart, J . M., Macaulay and Carlyle 225-237
Karsten, Gustaf, Dantesca.— Osservazioni su
alcuni pafaggi del la Divina Commedia. 237-245
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, The Personal Pro- noun in the Old Danish ' Tobiae Com- edie.'.. 245-247
Schneegans, Heinrich, Die Romanhafte
Itiuhtung dor Aluxlualegende In alt- fnmzoHlHchi-n und mlttHluM h.|<-utm-ln-n
Gedichten, 1 247 284
Dwells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs In Aclfrlc'i Saints, II
Garner, Samuel, The Gerundial Coi>8truction
in the Romanic Language r. ... 388-270
McCabe, T., The Use of the Feminine In the Romance Languages to express on in- definite neuter 270-874
White, Horatio 8., The Seminary System In
Teaching Foreign Literature 287-307
Schneegans, Heinrich, Die Komunhafte Richtung der Alexiuslegende in alt- franzosischen und mittelhochdeutech-
... enGedichten.il 307-327
/Elliott, A. Marshall, Origin of tin- minx-
^^' Canada.' 327-3t5
Schmidt, H., ' Sally fn our Alley' and a Ger- man Student Song 345-347
Todd, H. A., A traditionally mistranslated
passage in Don Quijote 347-848
Otto, Richard, Zwei altcatalanische Rechta-
formulare 349-350
. Kent, Charles W., The Anglo-Saxon bvrh and
byrig , 351353
Spencer, Frederic, Corrections in Uartech's Glossary (La Lanyut et la Littfrature Fran$ahes : Paris, 1887) 253-254
Sheldon — Grandgent, Phonetic Compensa- tions : 354-874
Cook, Albert S., Errata in the Sievers— Cook
Old English Grammar 374
Karsten, Gustaf, The origin of the suffix -re
in French ordre, coffre, pampre, etc.. . 374-378
Warren, F. M., D6sir6 Nisard and the History
of Literature 370-380
. Cook, Albert 8., English Rimes 417-439
Garner, Samuel, The Gerundial Construction
in the Romanic Languages, V 436-487
• Bright, James W., The Verb toftU 437-438
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, The pronouns in the
Old Danish ' Tobiae Komedie.' 438-441
Karsten, Gustaf, The Third Annual Neuphi-
lologentag 481-488
Spencer, Frederic, The Old French Manu- scripts of York Minster Library 488-496
Schneegans, Heinrich, Das Verhtlltniss der Franzosischen von Herz hcrausgege- benen Alexiuslegcnde zu ibren lau-ini. schen Quellen 406-500
Fruit, J. Phelps, The Evolution of Figures
of Speech 501-506
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
REVIEWS.
Colbeck, C., The Teaching of Modern Lan- guages in Theory and Practice. [Edw. S. Joynes]
Cledat, L., La Chanson de Roland. [J. A. Fontaine)
Schilling, Hugo, Noch Einmal Meissner- Joynes, I
Rajna, Pio, Osservazioni Sull'alba bilingue "| del Cod. Regina,1462 [F. M. Warren}. I
Rajna, Pio, Un'Iscrizione Nepesina, del | 1131. IF. M. Warren] J
Korting, Gustav, Neuphilologische Essays. [H. Scmidt]
Chauveau, Pierre, Frederic Ozanam, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres. [Chas. H. Grandgent}.
Schroer, M. M. Arnold, Wissenschaft und Schule in ihrem VerhBltnisse zur prakti- schen Spracherlernung. [A . Lodemari} .
Schilling, Hugo, Noch Einmal Meissner- Joynes, II
Joynes, Edw. S., Audi Alteram Partem
Fortier, Alcee, Quatre grands poetes du 19e Siecle. [A. Du Four]
Saintsbury, George, A History of Elizabethan Literature . [//. E. Shepherd]
Wrede, Ferdinand, Ueber die Sprache der Wandalen . [ Julius Goebel]
Lorentz, Alfred, Die erste Person Pluralis des Verbums im AltfranzBsischen. [H. Schmidt]
Hoemer, Jean, The Origin of the English Language. [H. C. G. von Jagemann]..
Becker — Mora, Spanish Idioms with their English Equivalents, embracing nearly ten thousand Phrases. [H. It. Lang] . . .
Seret, W. A., Grammar and Vocabularies"! of VolapUk I
Sprague, Charles E., Hand-Book of Vola- |" ptik . [ Wm. Hand Browne] J
Paris— Ulrich, Merlin, roman en prose du XHIe Siecle. [F. M. Warren]
Tobler, Adolf, Die Berliner Handschrift des Decameron. [P. E. Marcou]
Woodward, F. M. English in the Schools. [Edward 8. Joynes]
Becker — Mora, Spanish Idioms with their English Equivalents, embracing nearly ten thousand Phrases, II. [H. B. Lang] .
Balg, G. H., A Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Language. [Hans C. G. von Jagemann]
Treis, Dr. Karl, Die Formalitaten des Ritter schlags . [J. A. Fontaine]
Lange, Franz, Freytag's Die Journalisten, Lustpiel in vier Akten. [O. B. Super]
Skeat, Rev. Walter M., The Gospel according to Saint Matthew in Anglo-Saxon, Nor- thumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions. [Albert S. Cook.]
Ycld, Rev. Charles, Florian's Fables. [Ed- ward S. Joynes]
Socin, A., Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen nach Zeugnissen alter und neuer Zeit. [H. C. G. Brandt.]
Kluge, F., Von Luther bis Lessing. [H. U. G. £.]
v. Reinhardstoettner, C., Italian Literature in Bavaria. [F. M. Warren.}
18-33 23-34 25-38
29-32
41-42
84-88 88-94
94-96
96-99
99-102
102-104 139-143
143-150 150-153
154-158
159
194-195
196-203
203-207 207-209 209-212
274-277 277-579
279-281 281-282 282-384
Wunderlich, Dr. Hermann, Untersuchung- en ueber den Satzbau Luthers.
[Charles Bundy Wilson.] 284-285
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, Correspondence.... 285-287 Morley, Henry, English Writers. [James
M. Garnett.] 380-387
Karsten, Gustaf, The Study of Romance
Philology 387-393
Collar — Eysenbach, Graded German Lessons.
[ W. H. Uarruth.} 393-398
Diez, Friedr., Etymologisches WOrterbuch
der Romanischen Sprachen. [E. S.
Sheldon.] -399
Goedeke, Karl, Grundriss zur Geschichte der
deutschen Dichturig aus den Quellen.
[Julius Goebel.] 399-400
Sawyer, Wesley C., Complete German Man- ual for High Schools and Colleges. [M,
D. Learned.] 400-403
Skeat, Walter W. , Correspondence 404
Odin, A., Phonologic des patois du Canton de
Vaud. [J. Sturzinger.] 441-446
Joynes— Meissner, German Grammar. [H.
Schilling.] , 446-450
Xanthippus, Was ddnkt euch urn Heine ?
(Dr. E. Mahrenholtz.] 450-453
Hunt, Th. W., Caedmon's Exodus and Daniel.
[James W. Bright.} 453-456
Horning, Adolf, Die ostf ranzoesischen Grenz-
dialekte zwischen Metz und Belfort.
[A. M. Elliott.] 457-464
Sawyer's ' Complete German Manual ' again. 464-467 Vietor, Dr. Wilhelm, EinfUhrung in das
Studium der Englischen Philologie mit
RUcksicht auf die Anforderungen der
Praxis. [ W. E. Simonds.} . 505-508
Michaelis, H., Novo Diccioiiario da lingua
portugueza e allemS, enriquecido com
os termos technicos do Commercio e da
Industria, das Sciencias e das Artes, e
da Linguagem Familiar. [Henry Ji.
Lang.] 509-516
Novati, F., Un Nuovo ed un Vecchio Fram-
mento del Tristran di Tommaso. [F.
M. Warren.] 517-521
Preyer, W., Naturforschung und Schule.
[A. Lodeman.} 521-523
CORRESPONDENCE :
Payne, William Morton 83-84
Schele De Vere, M 135-136
Davidson, Thomas 137
-Corson, Hiram, A Passage of ' Beowulf ' 193-194
Otto, Richard, Modern Language Professor- .
ships in Germany
Lang, H. R., Spanish Atestar
B(rowne), W. H., Derides
Monk, Should a Poet be a Philologist ?
Ingraham, A., 'As She is Spoke '
BRIEF MENTION. 42-53, 104-109, 159-ia5, 212-230, 287-293, 404-414, 470-475,
523-532. PERSONAL.
53-54, 166, 220-333, 393-394, 475-478, 533-534.
OBITUARY.
333, 294, 534.
JOURNAL NOTICES.
55-56, 110-112, 167-168, 223-224, 395-296, 415,-416, 479-480, 535-536.
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Baltimore, January, 1888.
TO OUR READERS.
It is no less a privilege than a pleasure to talk to earnest, sympathizing friends about an enterprise for whose success they have practi- cally worked ; and the editors of MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES desire at the beginning of the third year to tender thanks to their col- laborators, and to all well-wishers who have so cheerfully aided them in passing the test- year of a journal's existence. So cordial and liberal has been the support of the undertak- ing, both on this and the other side of the Atlantic, that the editors feel encouraged to renew their pledge to the public for an ad- vance in the variety and quantity of material to be presented. Two years of experience in editorial matters have shown that the modern languages in America have a scholarly follow- ing and that their friends are able and, it is believed, willing to sustain a publication of more extended proportions than that which has hitherto been issued. To prepare the way for this, the price has been increased by one-third, and in the future the NOTES will be conducted on as liberal a scale as this change may warrant. The various publishers both here and in Europe have been prompt, as- a rule, in forwarding their recent publica- tions for notice in these columns. With their continued co-operation and that of individual contributors, it is hoped to make the NOTES more and more reflect the wishes, plans and doings of American scholars occupied with modern linguistics in whatever direction, and to bring to their notice all the chief home and foreign publications for the three depart- ments, those of the English, Germanic and Romance languages, especially represented here.
MODERN LANGUAGES IN THI
UNIVERSITY OF FRANCI..
I.
University de France is the name of the vast organization which comprises all establish- ments of public instruction from the facnltes of the capital down to the ecole maternelle or infant class of the primary school in the re- motest village of the provinces. At the head of this body is the minister of public instruc- tion, who has the title of grand-master of the university. He is assisted by the conseil su- p'erieur de Finstruction publique, a council of sixty members, and about twenty inspecteiirs ghieraux. To facilitate the administration the country is divided into sixteen educational dis- tricts, called academies. At the head of each of these, with the exception of that of Paris, is a recteur, who in his turn is aided by an aca- demical council and inspecteurs d'academic. These authorities watch over all branches of education, and together with the prefects, ap- point or dismiss all teachers ; the superior council deliberates and prescribes the methods and the plans of study for all schools.
By the side of the -university are the ecoles libres, and in consequence of the law of 1875 now also a few facultes libres. The ecoles libres, especially those directed by the clergy, enjoy still the patronage of a great portion of the nation. The state has excluded all priests and members of religious orders from the pub- lic schools, but it cannot interfere with their teaching in their own establishments, as long as they do not violate the laws or the constitu- tion. It has, however, reserved to itself, that is, to the university, the exclusive right of examin- ation for all certificates valuable in public life, and that of conferring all academic degrees.
An important aid for the study of the govern- ment schools is afforded by the publication through Delalain Freres of a great number of the plans of study and programs of the condi- tions of admission to schools and examinations. The publishers have made these particularly valuable by adding many official documents, such as the reports of committees of the Superior Council and regulations of the minis- ter of public instruction, which show both the
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
motives that have led the council to determine the plans and programs, and the spirit in which the minister would have them applied.
From these documents we discover at once that the measures of the distinguished Council are dominated by a spirit of reform. They are making earnest efforts to have the educa- tion of France keep pace with that of other nations, and do not hesitate to adopt from the neighbouring countries, especially Germany, whatever is conformable to the national genius. Though they may not have avoided mistakes by their frequent, perhaps too fre- quent, changes of program, they certainly realize to the full the great value of the study of modern languages and give them an im- portant place in schools and examinations.
The instruction is either primary (Enseig- nement primaire}, or secondary (Enseigne- ment secondaire), or of university rank (Enseig- nement superieur).
We will consider the training schools for teachers along with that grade of schools for which they prepare.
I. — PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
There are two grades of primary schools ; the ecoles priinaires elementaires and the ecoles priinaires superieures; in case there is need for instruction beyond the lower grade, u ithout the erection of a full ecole primaire superieure being expedient, a cours com- plemcntaire may be connected with the ele- mentary school. A complementary course has usually one year and at most two; an ecole primaire superieure must have two years, and is called de plein exercice in case it comprises three or more. In the lower grade modern lan- guages are excluded from the complementary courses. They are desirable but can be dis- pensed with ; in the higher grade one language is compulsory, and four hours a week through- out the school are devoted to it.
The course aims at the elements of a prac- tical knowledge of the language. Without neglecting grammar, parsing, oral and written composition, special stress is laid upon conversation on topics of every-day life, man- ual labor and travel, and on the writing of simple business letters. Candidates for the certificat deludes primaires superieures have
to pass an oral examination in a modern lan- guage.
I. — ECOLES NORMALES PRIMAIRES.
The primary normal schools are training schools instituted to supply the contingent of teachers necessary for, the primary schools. According to the law of 1879 every depart- ment must be provided with two normal schools, one for men and the other for women ; two departments may, however, unite in estab- lishing one or both of these schools. The course in these institutions comprises three years. At the close of the first year, the stu- dents must pass an examination for the brevet elementaire, which opens the way to a position in an e cole primaire elementaire ; at the end of the third year they can present themselves for the examinations of the brevet superieur, required of teachers of an ecole primaire superieure.
The plans of study promulgated Aug. 3d, 1881, assign for an optional study of modern languages two hours a week for three years in the normal schools for men, and two hours a week for two years in the normal schools for women.
While a special intimation appended to a circular of Oct. 18, of the same year, represents this study as exceedingly desirable though not required for the brevet superieur, an edict of Dec. 30, 1884, renders some knowledge of a modern language compulsory. The candi- dates for this brevet have to be able to trans- late at sight twenty lines of an easy text which they may choose from English, German, Italj ian, Spanish or Arabic.
2. — ECOLES NORMALES PRIMAIRES SUPERIEU- RES.
There are two training schools for professors of primary normal schools ; one for men and another for women. That for men is estab- lished at Saint Cloud, the one for women at Fontenay-aux-Roses near Paris. The course in each of these two schools extends over two years and is divided into the two sections of letters and sciences.
The candidates for a professorship of sciences are not examined in modern languages ; those for a professorship of letters, however, have to translate German or English texts at sight and
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
answer grammatical questions; the list of authors from which the text may he taken is fixed every three years. After Jan. i, 1888, there wHl he added to the oral examination an English or German composition (thtme et version.}
In concluding these few statements on the primary school system of France we may re- mark that the study of modern languages naturally could not have a very large place in the primary schools themselves, but that it is constantly progressing among the teachers.
II. — SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. The secondary instruction of the boys is divided into the .Enseignement secondaire classique and the Ensignement secondaire special; to these has been added as a third division the Enseignement secondaire desjeu- nes.fi lies. All three branches of instruction are given in the lycees de r Etat and colleges connnunaux, but while the first and second are mostly united in the same establishment, they are always strictly separated from the third. According to the salaries of the professors the institutions may be arranged in five groups. The lyceums of Paris, Vanves and Versailles stand highest, then follow the first, second and third categories of lyceums in the depart- ments, and last the communal colleges. Being of the lowest grade, the colleges have many professors that, are only bacheliers, while the lyceums of the departments now require at least licencies, and those of Paris, Vanves and Versailles agreges. The lyceums for boys are directed by proviseurs and censeurs, the colleges for boys by principaux, the colleges and lyceums for girls by directrices.
I. — CLASSICAL INSTRUCTION.
The classical course of the lyceums has ten classes de lettres and two (or three*) classes superieures des sciences. The candidate for the baccalaureat es lettres goes through all the literary classes, that for the baccalaureat "es sciences can leave the literary classes to the end of the flasse de troisitme and, after an ex- amination in the studies of that class, passes through the classes of mathematiques prepa- ratoires and mathematiques elemcntaires ; the third scientific class, called mathematiques spe- ciales, is not necessary for the baccalaureate.
1 '.i -fon- ih. r.-furms of 1880 and 1884, the literary classes had eight years of Latin and six of Greek, and, therefore, might h. compared to the German Gymnasium with its nine years of Latin and seven years of Greek . Now the classical languages h.iv l« « n re- duced so much, in favor of a greater amount of French, sciences, history and modern lan- guages, that the literary classes stand betv the Gymnasium and the Realgymnasium, while the scientific course, but for its deficiency in modern languages and a plus in Greek, would resemble the Realgymnasium. The candidates for the baccalaureat h lettres are becoming so poor in Latin and Greek that the friends of classical culture ardently wish for a truly classical course.
The study of one modern language — for the classical students take up only one modern language — commences at once in the division elementaire, where four hours a week are assigned to it. The pupils are supposed to be from eight to ten years old, and the method is made to suit the age. The work centres in easy reading and conversation and training in pronunciation, while a systematic study of the elements of grammar begins only in the third year. In English they read stories from Miss Edgeworthand Day's 'Sandford and Merton,' in German, Krummacher's ' Parabeln ' and C. v. Schmid's ' Erzahlungen.'
In the division de grammaire the classical languages hold the first place and the modern language is reduced by two hours a week. The systematical study of grammatical forms and syntax is completed, and in English enlarged by some notions on word-formation. To this is added oral and written composition (theme oral et e"crit) and from the classe de cinquieme also written translation into French (version). In English are read among other works Walter Scott's ' Tales of a Grandfather,' B. Franklin's Autobiography, De Foe's 'Robin- son Crusoe,' Washington Irving's ' Voyages of Columbus ; ' in German, Herder and Liebes- kind, ' Palmbliitter ; ' Benedix, ' Der Proo and ' Eigensinn ; ' Niebuhr, ' Griechische He- roengeschichten ; ' Lessing, 'Minna von Barn- helm;' Musaeus, ' Volksmarchen,' Kotzebue and Hoffman.
In the division superieurc the modern Ian-
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
guage keeps its two recitations except in Phi- losophic, where it has only one. The study of grammar is confined to reviews and a study of word-formation. Thtme oral et ecrit and version, as well as conversation, continue as heretofore. The English authors of this grade are Goldsmith, Lamb, Macaulay, Shakespeare (Julius Cesar), Walter Scott, Dickens, Irving, Byron, Tennyson, George Eliot, Pope, Stuart Mill and Adam Smith. In German we find: Goethe, ' Campagne in Frankreich ; ' Schiller, 'Tell' and 'Maria Stuart,' Chamisso, 'Peter Schlemihl,' Auerbach's ' Dorfgeschichten ; ' Goethe, ' Hermann und Dorothea ; ' Schiller, ' Wallenstein ' and extracts from historical works ; HaufT, ' Lichtenstein ;' Kleist, ' Michael Kohlhaas;' Lessing, 'Dramaturgic,' Schiller and Goethe, lyrical poems ; Schiller, ' Braut von Messina,' 'Jungfrau von Orleans;' Les- sing, ' Laokoon ; ' Goethe, 'Faust,' Part I, Correspondence between Schiller and Goethe. In connection with the reading some notions of literary history are given.
In the two scientific classes the reading mat- ter is of a similar character but more restricted. Of the whole literary course — 200 hours, if we count drawing in the lower division — 58, or 29$ are devoted to the classical languages, 44^ hours or 22$ to French, and 25 hours or 1-2% to a modern language. If we count only the two upper divisions, the classics have 44}^$, French 12% as above, German or English 9$. The scientific students get in these two divi- sions 35$, 10% and <)l/2%.
The candidate for the B.iccalaureat ~es let- tres has to pass two examinations, one after the Rhitorique, the other after the Philosophic ; the modern language comes in the first. He has to write an English or German composition (theTne), for which he is allowed the use of a simple le.riqne autorise, and to translate a passage from one of six English or German texts chosen by himself among the authors read in the upper division. The modern lan- guage counts for one-fifth of the first exami- nation and ahout f)l/2% of the whole.
The examination in the modern language for the bacalaiireat ts sciences is only oral. It consists of questions on the grammar, inter- pretation of a passage taken from one of the works prescribed by the program, and a con-
versational exercise. The English works are in this case Pope's 'Essay on Criticism,' Shakespeare's ' Macbeth,' Milton's ' Paradise Lost,' cantos i., ii. The modern language counts for 9$ of the whole.
|
DRAWING |
SUM TOTAL |
PHILOSOPHY |
SCIENCES |
a So H > d o rt C 0 |
MODERN LANG |
FRENCH |
GREEK |
LATIN |
SUBJECTS. (Average ag |
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to |
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Prdparatoire. |
£ |
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CO |
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GHuitifeme. |
s 5- |
||||
|
H |
-o |
OJ |
OJ |
*• |
* |
3 Septi&me. |
r |
3 |
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" |
8 |
., |
OJ |
n |
CO |
0 |
"^Sixieme. |
3 G |
M X |
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|
10 |
0 |
10 |
OJ |
to |
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& |
1 |
,2 Cinqui^me. |
3 rt £n* |
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to 0 |
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-1*. |
j; Secdnde. |
fs |
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8 |
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4- |
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"g^Rhdtorique. |
si- |
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Philosophic. |
||||
|
- |
1 |
VO |
CO £ |
to |
M cn |
4v |
to ^ |
O Vo\ |
D. P <' — . i-«. V — o S • e |
d 1 H |
|
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1 |
* |
10 OJ |
• |
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4 |
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a? a I'' ! !' |
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o c o* P —• "' '"- o 3 ° o S 2 n Er » g- " Jf |
"X n n |
2. — SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.
The so-called special instruction was estab- lished by Duruy in 1865 .and has since been improved upon in 1881, 1882 and 1886. Its aim is to enable French manufacturers, mer- chants and farmers to compete successfully with their neighbours; yet " in order to give a useful preparation for the most elevated phases of industrial, commercial and agricultural pursuits, this instruction must pay a great deal of attention to purely intellectual culture, and borrow from classical instruction as far as possible its procedures and methods." Though
January. MODKK' \ /..I .\'< , ' 'AGE NOTES, 1888. Afc. i.
10
two-fifths of all college studi-nts atti-nd tin- courses of special instruction, it lacks still, in most places, establishments of its own. Since it is injurious to a free and vigorous develop- ment of this instruction to 1>r considered as a m< re annex of a lower grade, (iol)let enconr- ;i-es coininnnities whose colleges have only a feu classical students, to transform their co/lt'ges cltissiqnes into colleges speciai<.\ . To every establishment of special instruction there is attached a coinitc dc patronage, con- sisting of UK- mayor, the president of the school and five members chosen among the engineers and merchants, manufacturers and fanners of note; they are expected to recom- mend students and to find places for them.
The cours normal of this instruction covers six years, corresponding somewhat to the mid- dle and upper division of the classical schools; it leads to the baccalaur£at de /' cnxci^neinent secondaire, a degree which offers several of the advantages of the baccalaureates sciences. If a lyceum or college has only four years of the course, it is de denii exercice.
In 1865 the curriculum was based on French history and sciences ; Latin and Greek were excluded, the modern languages only optional. At present the classics remain excluded, but modern languages have come to form one of the most essential studies. While the classical coarse requires no more than one modern language, the special makes the study of two compulsory. The first language, langue fon- damentale is studied for six years, the second langue contplemeittaire, for three. The fun- damental language must be either English or German, the complementary one German, Knglish, Spanish, Italian or Arabic. The minister of public instruction determines the two languages for every institution.
The reading matter in English and German is essentially the same with that of the classi- cal curriculum, from the classe de septi^me to l\hetorique, except that historical, geographi- .cal and scientific works receive more conside- ration. The study of the second language, though it is allowed hardly half the time of the first, yet covers the same ground. The teacher has to condense his instruction and the students are expected to learn so much the faster for their more mature mind and the training gained from the first. For the rest, the method and aim of modern language teach- ing in this instruction differ considerably from that of the classical.
There, the language was studied mainly from a philological and literary point of view, oral practice being not altogether neglected ; here, practical application stands foremost, grammar being considered only a valuable and necessary auxiliary. All directions given to the teacher are conceived in this spirit.
The first year is devoted to drill in proi. tioii ;ind to the ;K (|iiisition of th«- most : sary words and phrases. These ;ire first pro- nounced by the teacher, then repeated by the students, written on tin- black- copied and committed to memory. In the second year conversational ex--r< ises on ob- jects brought into class are added, and dic- tations extended. In the fourth and fifth year the students are accustomed to reproduce or to give accounts in the foreign language of pieces read in class or at home. In the last finally, the texts are explained in the foreign language.
While in the classical curriculum only from
12-9$ of all recitations were devoted to modern languages, here 22$ are given to them. If we wished to look for similar schools in other countries, the Lateinlose Kealschulen of Ger- many might be taken for comparison.
|
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CiKRHKR.
Earlham College.
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.i.
NOTES ON OLD ENGLISH WORDS.
Grimm characterizes cumbol (Andreas und Elene, pp. 92-3) as one of the most difficult words of Teutonic antiquity. He attempts to establish a connection with camb, but this, he owns, is a mere conjecture, like the suggestion that the French cimier is derived from cumbol. Apparently there are three distinct senses of the word in Germanic : a) 'cairn,' b) 'wound,' 'swelling,' 'tumor,' c) 'sign,' 'ensign.' Of these the first is found in Old Norse, the second in Old Norse and Old English, and the third in Old Norse, Old English, Old High German, and Old Saxon. Which of these is the primi- tive meaning? It has usually been assumed that the third underlies the others. The Cleas- by-Vigfusson Dictionary, after quoting the very few instances in which it is employed in the third sense, illustrates its passage to the first by a reference to the Greek 6ijua. The Bos- worth-Toller Dictionary supports the theoreti- cal evolution of the second meaning from the third by paraphrasing vulnus, of Gregory's Pastoral Care, as morbi signttm, thus introduc- ing the desired signum. My own opinion, as will be seen, is different,
Here it should be noted that the word occurs only once in O. H. G., and is there somewhat doubtful ; only twice in O. E. prose, so far as is known, and each time in the second sense ; and that the third sense is found chiefly in poetry, namely, three times in the O. S. He- liand, three times in O. N. (but twice besides in the Sagas), and frequently in O. E.
As to the form of the word, it occurs both with and without svarabhakti, O. S. cumbal and cumbl, O. E. cumbol*.\\<\ cumbl, O. H. G. cumpal, O. N. cunibl, and with and without b, O. E. prose cnmbl, P. C. 187, 7 (Cotton and Hat- ton texts), cuml, Otho text of P. C., and Saxon Leechdoms, Herb. 158,5(1 60), O. N. <:«;«£/ and cuml (cub I). The fall dissyllabic form is better adapted to metrical purposes, and consequent- ly no other is found in O. E. poetry, except- where inflectional endings are attached ; the form with syllabic /, on the contrary, is the usual one in Old Norse, which has almost none but prose senses, and in O. E. prose. But which of these is earlier? And which is orig-
inal, the form with or without b ? In later En- glish, a secondary, epenthetic b is quite fre- quently developed after ;;/, especially before r and /. But does this occur in the Old English period ? Decisive upon this point are the forms brlmelxnA brernbel, symle and symble (Goth. simlc), of which only the first are supported by the analogy of the cognate tongues. Another instance is O. E. scolimbos (Saxon Leechdoms, I 60) for Gr. tfxoAu/io?. Hence we may con- clude that cuml or cumol is the earlier form. But this corresponds, phonetically and in pur- port, to Lat. cumulus, if we take the Germanic word in the first meaning given above. Noth- ing forbids us to do this, except the difficulty of deriving the second and third senses from the first. But the second presents no difficulty; Sweet translates cumbl (cuml), by swelling (cf. O. N. kumla, to bruise) and Cockayne by ' lump,' ' glandular swelling ' (Gr. (Ixippcajiia), which may readily be evolved from the signi- fication of the Latin word. Only the third sense, therefore, is troublesome. But \i6ijna, from meaning 'sign,' may come to mean 'cairn, 'why may not cumbol from, meaning 'cairn, 'the permanent sign of what is ever memorable, come to mean sign in general, and that by which the sign or signal is given ? If it is objected that this is a broadening, rather than a specialization, of the sense, the fact may be conceded without admitting that the pro- cess is inconceivable. Thus O. N. horgr(O. E. hear.?), fro n signifying 'consecrated place,' ' temple,' arrives at the meaning of elevation,' 'cliff,' ' peak,' through the intermediate sense of 'high place,' regularly associated with horgr, because of the customary situation of the Scandinavian temple. A still better illustra- tion might be Welsh awgrym, which Professor Rhys informs us (Academy, Oct. i, 1887, p. 223) means sign in the widest sense of that term, though originally confined to the sense of numerical sign, or system of signs (cf. Phil. Soc. Diet. s. v. Algorism).
The double form is readily accounted for. Lat. cnmulum would yield Germ. *cumul, and under the historic tendency to strengthen the m in this position, would develop into *cumbul. On the other hand, *cii»nil in inflected forms actually passed into cuml-, as for instance, in the cumlu (for cumu/ii) of the Leechdoms, the
January. MOD/-RN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
I ;
plural from the strengthened form taking no final vowel, i'mnhii/ (cuin/x>/):\\u\ cuinl would therefore be parallel forms; the ground of differentiation would be forgotten, and they would gradually be confounded as cinnbol, ciimb I, cum/, except as the full dissyllabic character of cumbol would recommend it for verse. In Middle Knglish, only cuinl survives (in Layamon), apparently in the sense of ' booth,' that is a pile, but of branches, we may sii|)pose, rather than of stones.
MITTAN, MITTING.
Parallel with (ge)>netan gemeting(gemetting}, O. E. poetry frequently has (ge)mittan, (gdr)- mitting. Hosworth-Toller's Dictionary quotes gemittunghom Aelfred's Orosius, but the text of Sweet's edition shows no trace. If found at all in prose, it is extremely rare. I shall not attempt to give a phonological explana- tion of these variants, but will confine myself to pointing out the fact, which seems to have escaped notice, that they are clearly Anglian. In the Northumbrian Gospels are the following forms : ind. pres. ist sing. mitto(\); ind. pret. 3d sing, initte (8), mittce (i); ind. pret. plur. mitton (i). Of eleven instances of this abnor- mal vowel in the poetry, it may be significant thac three are found in the Psalms, and four in Genesis A.
University of California.
ALBERT S. COOK.
STRONG VERBS IN AELFRICS JUDITH.
This rhythmical version of the story of Judith is contained in Anglia X, 87 ff., and is attri- buted by the editor to Aelfric. It seemed to me therefore that it might be of service, in con- nection with the study which Professor Cook promises us (Notes II., 117) of the verbs in Aelfric's ' Saints,' to gather together the strong forms in this piece. I have retained the ac- cents of the MS., though they are not used consistently and sometimes stand over vowels winch are certainly short.
Class I. Preterit singulars: adraf 12, beldf 109, astah 318. Participles : scinendan 245, gegripen 246.
Class II. Presents, infinitives and parti-
(iplcs: />nn an 270, abtigan 32, 181, 189 ain't gende 182, An Mean 360, leogaft 406, 436. I terit singulars: bead 51, behead 47, 232, 284, bcbtdd $$>, a/fat 247. Preterit plurals: bugon 122, abugon 62, gebugon 253, flugon 37.
Class 111. Infinitives and participles: gebiti- '/<"' '53. TA\,ftolitfndc 64, fintlirf 353, Wurman 147, foruntrftan 252. I'ntcrit singulars: gebealh 37, \^(>,furcearf^\6,feaht 119, a&prang 53> gfwan 65, bewand 306, wearO 77, 155, 158, J76, 197, 246, 289, 293, 343, awearp 228, 427, towearp 11. Preterits and stibium lives y«;/</c»w 90, affinde 364, gehulpe 212, gen'umion 118, wiirdon 116, 123, 222, 370, wtirdon 131, for:, don T2,forwArdon 61, wurde 328, \i\,forwurde
154. Past participles: abolgen 141, gebunden
155, gebundcnnt' 157, aftnden 158, gewordene 124.
Class IV. Infinitives and presents : bectunan 258, becyml 187, nimal 434. Preterits: bter 421, com 261, 287, cdin 86, 114, 316, 338, 386, becdni 73, 236, 327, ofercom 410, comon 315, cdmon 57, bccdmon 310, nam 307. Past parti- ciple :fornumene 58.
Class V. Infinitives, presents and parti- ciples : biddan 82, ii^gebiddan 256, gf bidden m- 276, bidde(ic} 137, 319, biddende 59, 72, cwfd- ende 162, 319, licgan 364, lift 368, forligft 432, forlicgon 430, forseon 164, geseoh (/>«) 163, asittan 171, gewrecan 39. Preterit singulars : bfed 280, abcrd 274, to brccc 51, cwteft 42, 83, 146, gec'wfeft 26,forgea/425, beseah i^geseah 301, gesprcec 209, wees 4. 22, etc., ntrs 117, 420. Preterit plurals and subjunctives: btedon 169, gebcrdon 234, civfedon 59, 174, wiftcit'crdon 34, logon si^csd won T,^,/orsdu'on 40, 81, gesdwe 388, sprtrce 44, wceron 2, 18, ware 33, 59, 80, 210, 311, 325, tiff re 263. Past participles : ge ewe den 2, 25.
Class VI. Infinitives, presents and partici- ples:/flrrtw 101 , «//</# 408, aha/en 409. ofsleanne 342, ofsleati 149, ofslagen 148, 197, o/slagene 131, s tent 404, 440, u'itfstandan 57, u-iffsttindan 78, witistandcnne 127, Preterits: ahdf 29, sl6h 304, forsloh 305, ofsloh 11, ofsl6h 28, 52, 324, stod 288, astdd 104, witistddon 52, .^-wr 38.
Class VII. Infinitives, presents and parti- ciples : tocn&wan \*p, flou'endttin 161. ,^aw 276, j^rf;/ 266, £ttft 350, gehaten 22, 46, gehdten 9, 194, 385, healdan 303, /<#/<• (/>//) \tf,for/<ft 320, geweaxen 93. Preterits : feollon 161, het 19.
'5
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
16
153, 291, htt 155, 266, 268, 303, behet 418, 262, 292, 323, 420, 7/^te 341, beheton 437, heoldon 121, misheoldon 130, /W0« 180, forleton 156, fortiton 100, 372, sp£6w 362.
In this connection it will not be inappropriate to call attention to some peculiar forms in the life of St. Chad, Anglia X, 141 fif.
Class I. gezvitu 23, and also onginnu i, and bebeodu 146, of classes III. and II. retain the old ending. Elsewhere e is regular in the first person of the singular.
Class II. brtsc 243, for breac from britcan.
Classes III., V. gefalh 174, is the only case of a for £a in the preterit singular. In class V geseh 213, for geseah 254, etc., occurs. In bregdon 175, preterit plural of bregdan the verb has gone over to class V where e for ^ is here the rule. The final consonant in gealt 251, from gttldan deserves notice. The strong frignan has become fregnan 39 (fregn 140, fregnaden 178,) and is weak.
Class IV. her 257 from beran, is the only case of accent in this form. Napier suggests that genemad 233 is an error of the scribe for geneomaft, no uncommon form in Anglia and to be traced, though not with certainty till a later date, in Kent also. May not the forms which Bright attributes to «-umlaut (hneoton, scionon, riodun, griopun, geweotan, preterit plurals of I. .Notes II. 160) have a similar origin ? If they were due to w-umlaut would they not be more general and more frequent ?
Class VI. The editor suggests that slenne 193, is a blunder for sleane. Slcefi 194, is probably for sleft ; e is here the usual umlaut of ea. hlahendne 255, shows no trace of the -jan form.
Reduplicating verbs show two peculiar forms, gehelde 57, for geheolde and onfongon 136, for -feng-, cf. lines 23, 25, 55. The pre- terit of hdtan is heht 50, 150. The shortened form, het, does not occur.
BENJ. W. WELLS.
Jena, Germany.
ON A VERSE IN THE OLD NORSE " HOFUDLA USN. "
The Saga of Egil Skallagrimsson may with propriety be styled the skaldic Saga of Ice-
land : for its pages are strewn with short verses to the number of over fifty, and it contains, besides these, three long poems, of which the Hofudlausn is the first. The extreme difficul- ty of Icelandic poetry is caused mainly by the excessive use of obscure figures, and the Hofudlausn is no exception to this rule. The verse here selected for comment is the sixth, or rather the first half of it. The Icelandic reads as follows :
hue fir?! a fit vid fleina hnit.
This passage has been variously explained by different commentators. J6n Thorkelsson, in the Reykjavik edition of the Saga, 1856, page 256, offers the following explanation :
Fir'da (in Vigfusson's Die. spelled only fyrfta) from plural firftar, men, warriors [A. S.fyrda, troop].
fit, a connected row. According to this, fit must be derived from fitja, to knit, or tie together. This meaning is not given by Vig- fusson.
Fir'da fit would then mean, a connected row of men, battle-array. Fleina hnit he renders spear-thrusts.
In the Lexikon Poeticum, we find "fit.f., planta pedis, raped1-, TtoSoS." Our passage from the Hofudlausn is quoted and the first part is explained as follows: "succubuit vir- orum pes, i. e., explicante G. Magnes, viri, pedibus succisis, cecederunt, aut pedibus am- plius insistere non valentes prae lassitudine se dejecerunt."
Per Sorensson* follows closely the rendering of the Lexikon Poeticum : firtie, as in the first : fit, foot, or knee ; fleina hnit is translated spear-thrusts. Hn6 is, of course, the pret., 3d, sing, of hniga, to bend or recede, and can be translated in no other way..
The passage, then, according to the first ex- planation, reads in English :
The battle array receded before the spear- thrusts.
According to the second :
Men's feet (or knees) bent before the spear- thrusts.
It may be noted in this connection that tniiga
* " Egil Skallagrimssons Hiifudlausn,— ofersatt och for- klarad," Lund, 1868.
'7
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
may be applied equally to the sinking or bend- ing of aliiios! any object, from the sun to a dying warrior or a tree (see Vigfusson's Die., page. 276). Hence, neither rendering does violence to the- meaning of the verb.
Unit is rendered, as we have already seen, by 'thrust.' Concerning this word, too, there is some difference of opinion. In Vigfusson we find Iniit rendered as "forging; poet., the clash of battle," with a reference to our poem. In this connection it would be more properly rendered simply by 'clash,' or perhaps better by ' din.'
If din be accepted as the meaning of hnit, it would seem to follow almost as a necessity that firfia fit be translated as battle-array, since to associate the bending of men's feet with the din of spears would form a very bold figure, founded on a very slight resemblance. With a modern poet this argument would certainly hold true, but in criticising Old Norse poetry we must not be governed at all by modern canons of art, remembering always that what would now be considered a blemish might in the tenth century have received unqualified approval. Again, if spear-din be regarded as a simple paraphrase for battle, the appropri- ateness of the figure becomes very much more apparent. (Th&tJleifKl hnit may mean battle, cf. the following figures: " v igelds-prym-rog- ;//;-," din of Swords or spears, battle. Kgil. chap. 58, i. ; " sverfi-dynr," sword-din, battle, Vigf.'s Die., p. 610).
The Lexikon Poeticnin renders hnit very much as Vigfusson does, but without explain- ing clearly the force of the figure employed ; the result of the figure, not its working, is shown in the rendering : collisio, conflictio, Jh'ina hnit, spiculorum collisio, pugna. From this we also derive additional authority for rendering Jicina hnit battle. The Latin trans- lation, contained in the A. M. edition of the Saga, Copenhagen, 1809, gives practically the same result as the above, namely :
Decidit virorum pes
Ad hastarum collisionem.
In the face of these three authorities I should have no hesitation in accepting the rendering of Jit by ' foot,' were it not for one circumstance. In stanza 4, the poet begins the description of Eirik's battles: he tells how "the din of
swords waxed hot against tin- inns of tin- shields; the battle waxed about the king." "The sword's river (blood) ran ;" and in st.ui/a 5, "the ship ran in blood; but the wound boiled." Stan/a 6 is very short, consisting of only four lines, and to my mind it ma\ regarded as a climax to what has gone be! It presents a picture of the battle as a whole : the result of the preceding statement-,. Therefore it would seem more appropriate for the poet to employ the general word battle- array than the specific words men's feet or knees. Again, fit is singular, the nominative plur. being fitjar; but this is perhaps of minor importance. What is to be specially dwelt upon is the poetical appropriateness of the first rendering. This rendering of Thor- kelsson's, further, does no violence to the derivation, since fit is frequently used meta- phorically for a plain or meadow, that which is stretched out (see Vigfusson, p. 155, and l.c.\i- kon Poeticum, page 173), and we often observe figures in Old Norse poetry formed by a com- parison between men and objects of nature, so that to apply the same word to a line <>i men and an extended meadow would be quke in accordance with the train of thought of the Icelandic skald (hr&s-lavar, 'haystacks of the slain,' 'heaps of,' Hofnd/ansn, II., a striking resemblance to meadow of men, battle-array ; a man is often called a tree, etc.).
The arguments in favor of Thorkelsson's rendering of fir 3ar Jit therefore are ; first, the artistic appropriateness, and secondly, the analogy with other figures. The rendering of the verse would then be :
" The battle-array receded at the spear-din (battle)."
DANIKI. KII.IIAM DODC.K.
Columbia College.
The Teaching of Modern Languages in Theory and Practice. Two Lectures, de- livered in the I'niversity of Cambridge in the Lent term, 1887. By C. Colbeck, M. A., Assistant Master in Harrow School, late Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge.— From the I'niversity Press. 1887.
The appearance of a course of lectures, how- ever brief, on the Teaching of Modern Lan- guages, delivered iii the University of Cam-
January. MODERN LANG UA GE NO TES,
No. i.
bridge by a late Fellow of Trinity, now Assist- ant Master in one of the great Public Schools of England, is an encouraging sign of the "new era." The author says, in his modest preface, " There seems to be at last a disposi- tion to regard seriously the pretensions of Modern Languages to a larger place in edu- cation "; and these lectures are interesting to us chiefly as the outcome of this "disposition," and a vindication — surely modest enough — of these "pretensions." It is well known that thus far the progress of modern language study in higher education has in the mother country lagged behind what, almost within the last decade, has been achieved among our- selves. This is due, mainly doubtless, to the greater authority and persistence of the wooden traditions of an exclusive classicism, backed as they have been by every kind of prescrip- tive advantage ; but in part, doubtless, also to the greater proximity of the continent, and the larger demand, therefore, for such teaching only as should enable John Bull to inquire his way in Paris, or to browbeat the waiters along the Rhine. So the mulitudinous "methods" — "natural" and unnatural, and largely in the hands of untrained tutors — have had firmer hold there ; and the effort to place the modern languages upon a sound scientific, or at least pedagogical, basis has had to encounter, first, to a degree now happily unknown here, the blows inflicted in the house of its friends. And this not only in the lower ranks of the "native" teachers, who swarm in the. United Kingdom, but even within the sacred shadows of the University ; for we find Mr. Colbeck combat- ing manfully the views of the " Master of Baliol," who thinks (p.u) that " Modern Lan- guages can be [best] taught between the ages of six and ten, and not one language only but two, and even a third ! and that the linguistic faculty is strongest at ten, and extinct at twen- ty." This, too, in a speech of welcome to the "Professeurs -de Francais at Oxford" — God save the mark ! But under all these discour- agements from below and above, these Lec- tures give ample evidence that the battle for the modern languages has begun in earnest, under earnest and able leaders ; and one can- not doubt that victory, however delayed, will at last be certain and complete. It is as an in-
dication of the direction of this movement that this little book is specially interesting to us at home. We cannot follow its details; but shall only indicate its leading lines of argument.
In answer to the question — Why we teach Modern Languages ? the author replies at once : " Because they are so supremely use- ful." This consideration, now more justly understood, has raised, he says, the study of modern languages "from the status of an ac- compli Jiment, or of a commercial art, mi a level, let us say, with book-keeping, to rank as an integral portion of a liberal education" (p. 3) : and he proudly adds, in a spirit of pro- phetic if not of actual triumph, that "it is not one of the least of the honors of Cambridge that it has recognized that whatever study the world needs, a University should teach in all its breadth and fullness" — while, however, he confesses, "there is still (even in Cambridge) some trace of the old mistrust, I fear I must say, of the old contempt." The Modern Language Tripes, he tells us, "was dubbed a Courier Tripos," and the living languages were said to be "too trivial to be scholarly, too easy to be learned, too useful to be dignified'." But it is encouraging to see that, even in Cambridge, our lecturer is not afraid to strike back, and knows how to hit hard. "How gladly and profitably would nine tenths of our middle classes exchange their little Latin and less Greek for a passable knowledge of even one modern language!" (p. 5). Of the boys to whom we so laboriously teach Greek, he says (p. 6), "we own that nine-tenths of them learn little, forget that little soon, and never touch a Greek book when once they leave school." To the claim that thereby we "train faculty," he replies that we should seek subjects of study " in which we may combine some actual knowledge with the bare' power to know;" and he concludes (p. 8): "Teach a boy Greek, if you can; but give him also, because you can, the power to read in the original " the master- j pieces of modern literature that are found in i the French and German languages. We have happily here passed that stage of the conflict; but it is well to know that our colleagues abroad are not deficient in the "noble art of self-defense," which means giving as well as taking blows.
21
January. MO/)/.'A'.\' LANGUA (, /. NOTES, iSHK.
When he comes to enumerate the elements of the utility whirh he claims for the modern lan- guages, it is interesting to see that tlie lecturer places first the fact (p. 5) that "a knowledge i.t' I'Yench and German doubles and trebles the library whence knowledge may be drawn ; " and in his analysis of method (p.io): tf:e teaching of reading, he says, " I put that clearly first." He says (p. 26) "1 would always begin with a book" and claims (p. 13) "that for all, young or old, the eye is incomparably the swifter gate to knowledge", and "it is the only means of rapidly acquiring accuracy." He insists that elementary (oral) work on lan- guage should be confined to the mother tongue; and adds the important conclusion (p.i6), "that the power of conversing in a foreign lan- guage can be acquired at least as easily late as early ; that it is much less important than trans- lation, much less important than composition, and that in learning it, at whatever age, we waste power if we proceed by ear only." Yet he does not undervalue the office of the ear, and adds an interesting paragraph on Dictation and Audition — that is, writing and listening from oral repetition; — but all these he holds to be subordinate to the main purpose of reading, and to the linguistic training and literary cul- ture to be derived from the study of modern languages. Surely it is gratifying to see how closely the views which Mr. Colbeck repre- sents are in accord with those formally enun- ciated by the .Modern Language Association of America.*
Along the same line of thought the lecturer discusses frankly, yet very modestly, the question of native (English) or foreign teachers — a much more "burning" question in England, we may be sure, than (fortunately) it is now
*Since these lines were written the views of Mr. Colbeck — representing Cambridge — have received confirmation from another source, of still higher authority — representing Oxford. In a paper on Literature and Language^ in the Contem- porary Review reprinted in the Eclectic Magazine for De- cember, 1887, Prof. Edward A. Freeman, the historian, writes, with reference to the new Chair at Oxford : " We may fairly- lay down that it is the business of an (sic) University to teach men the scholarly knowledge of languages ; — that it is not its business to teach men their practical mastery." And again : "The gift of talking this or that language is not one which comes within the scope of an University : it is no part of the scientific study of the language." We wish we could quote more largely: but this suffices to show the consensus of opinion, in the highest quarters, as to the true direction of modern language study for higher education in England. It is of course superfluous to recommend the reading of the whole of Prof. Freeman's paper.
with us. He admits the obvious retort, "voiis <"tt s orfevre, M. Josse"; but yet with allow- ance for illustrious exceptions — so numerous, let us thankfully add, in our own country — he dot -s not hesitate to conclude: "I think that English teachers produce considerably the best results." In his careful and candid analy- sis of this question, he says (p. 30): "The Eng- lishman knows his boys' difficulties. He knows what not to teach, what to begin by teaching, and where to lay stress. He looks at the task from the same side as his pupils," etc. ; and as to the much vaunted use of the foreign tongue in the class room, he adds: "The round of remarks which it involves is very limited : Lisez, traduisez, asseyez-vous, continue/, rC- p£tez, a-t-il raison? vous aveztort; Aufgepasst, sprechen sie deutlich, kein dummes Zeug, soon degenerate into jargon". Can this be a true picture? If not, it is heresy of the worst kind ! Perhaps it were better it should be true; for, surely, it seems to us that in the brief hours assigned to class-room work, of which every minute should be precious, that language should be used which speaks quick- est and clearest to the most immediate intelli- gence of the pupil. But if Mr. Colbeck tells us the worst, there is not so much harm done after all.
In this notice, already too prolonged, we have confined our attention only to the leading points of the first lecture, of 31 pages. Besides what we have noted, there is much of interesting suggestion and criticism on ques- tions of method, with glances at some of the best-known systems. The second lecture, of 54 pages, is devoted mainly to details of in- struction, and contains many striking and in- genious suggestions. These, it may be re- marked, may be usefully compared with a paper by Miss Bracket, in the last number of the (Syracuse) Academy. Mr. Colbeck 's style is bright and breezy. The entire little book is eminently readable, with temptations to quote throughout, as we have already done beyond our proper limits. Without endorsing all of its arguments — as, for example, what is said of the Historical, or "Mediaeval," study of Modern Languages — we commend the book heartily to all teachers of Modern Languages, and we wish Mr. Colbeck and his colleagues ('•od-speed in their good work.
EDWARD S. JOYXKS.
South Carolina College.
II
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. \.
La Chanson de Roland. Traduction archa- i'que et rythme'e, accompagne'e de notes explicatives par L. CLKDAT. Paris, Ernest Leroux. 1887.
Mr. L. Cl£dat vient de publier une traduc- tion archaique et rythm£e de la Chanson de Roland. C'est une reproduction aussi fidele et aussi complete que possible de 1'original, accompagne'e d'excellentes et nombreuses notes. Nous ne saurions qu'approuver 1'id^e de conserver le rythme d'un poeme qu'on a 1 'intention non pas de traduire mais bien plutot de rajeunir. En pareil cas le rythme a pour but cle conserver plus fidelement 1'esprit, le caractere, le style et 1'harmonie du poeme. .C'est deja un immense avantage dont il faut tenir grand compte a 1'auteur. Mais que le rythme rende la lecture du poeme lourde, difficile et en beaucoup d'endroits obscure, c'est ce qu'on ne saurait nier. Mr. Cle"dat aurait pu se dispenser d'une foule d'inversions plus on moins heureuses qui nuisent a la' clart^ de la narration et ne pas s'attacher a reproduire aussi scrupuleusement qu'il 1'a fait 1'ordre des mots du Roland. La lecture en aurait e"te beaucoup plus courante et plus agre"able. D'un autre c6t^, si ce texte est destine1 au public de notre temps, des vers tels que :
Je t'en mourrai si grand deuil et contraire 311
Que j 'en eclaire cette mienne grande ire 322
Roland le conte ne 1'eut du se penser 355
Ne 1'dis pour ce des votres n'aura perte 591
Qui vint a Charles les galope et les sauts 731
Celui n'y a ne pleure de pitie^ 822
Sous son manteau en fuit la contenance 830
Celle ne 1'voit vers lui ne s'esclaircisse 958
Espanelis hors le va adextrant 2648
et nombre d'autres sont a peine admissibles. 11s sont par trop obscurs pour le public d'aujourd'hui. II est juste d'ajouter que des notes viennent au secours du lecteur, mais quand il s'agit d'offrir un poeme d'une lecture courante, il est preferable de lui £pargner les notes, surtout si, par quelques modifications insignifiantes, on pent lui presenter un vers d'un sens et d'une clart£ satisfaisante.
Pour ce qui est des mots anciens que Mr. Cle"dat a laisse's dans sa traduction, ils sont en
trop grand nombre et ne"cessitent trop de notes, trop de " c'est-a-dire." Par mots anciens nous devons ici entendre et ceux qui ont disparu completement de la langue etceux dont un changement radical de signification 6quivaut pour nous a une complete dispari- tion. Que cette ide"e conservatrice puisse con- tribuer a faire reparaitre et a imposer a la langue des mots depuis longtemps oublie's, c'est a souhaiter; mais c'est la une consideYa- tion secondaire pour le lecteur. Avant tout il lui faut comprendre ce qu'il lit. Ce que nous disons des mots peut s'appliquer a la syntaxe : Trop d'inversions et trop d'anciennes tour- nures. En suivant pareil systeme Mr. Cle"dat a re"ussi a conserver plus entier le caractere du poeme, et plus originale 1'expression de la pense"e, mais que le lecteur qui se sent incapa- ble d'aborder le texte primitifde notre vieille e'pope'e ne s'imagine pas avoir une tache facile et £gre"able ayec la pre"sente traduction.
Terminons par quelques retnarques qui sans 6tre d'importance me semblent cependant ne'cessaires. L'unitd de traduction, du moins dans le cas qui nous occupe, demande qu'un mot soit ou remplace" partout on conserve" partout.
Or, guerpir est tour a tour rendu par : .' guer- pir,' 'quitter,' ' abandonner,' 'laisser,' sans raison apparent, cf. vers 536; 1626; 2618; 2683; 3041; — adents par: 'adents,' 'surla face,' 'a terre,' cf. vers 1624; 2025; 2358; 3097 ;— isnel par: ' rapide ' isnel,' 'le"ger,' cf. vers 13^7; 1492 ; 2085 ; 3884 ; 3839 ; — au vers 717 aserie est rendu par attardee, mais attar der n'a jamais voulu dire que 'retarder,' 'se mettre en re- tard'ou ' mettre quelqu'un en retard ' ; — pour- quoi ne pas traduire aserie par 'assombrie,' com me au vers 3991 ?
Passe le jour, la nuit est assombrie.
Ces remarques ne tendent aucunement a diminuer ou a m^connaitre 1'habilet^ que Mr.. Cl^dat a montr^e dans sa traductiou de la Chanson de Roland, disons plutdt dans son rajeunissement, tout au contraire nous faisons un devoir de loner egalement et la fide'lite' de sa traduction et l'originalit£ de sa m^thode.
J. A. FONTAINK.
University of A*e/>msA<t.
January. MODERN LANGUAGE No s. No. i.
NOCII /•:/ A .)/. //. Mt-.lSSMER-JOr.\l:SJ.
Niirhdem Dr. Goebel in seiner Besprediung von Meissner-Joynes ( iranunatik (Decrmbt i nummer iSSji den Character der Kritik Pro- fessor I larrisons ge/eidmet niul das Yerh.'iltnis dt-r Ik-arbeitim?; von Prof. Joynes zu ihrem Ori- ginal iin Allgemeinen festgestellt hat, eriibrigt tins nur noch, das Werk in seiner amerika- nischen (ic-stalt an sich nnd fur sich einer ein- gehenden Untersuchung zu unterziehen. Wir warden dabci nurvoneinem Wunschegeleitet, denjeder Fachgenosse teilen muss, — namlich, nacli Kraften dazu beizutragen, dass ein in hohem Grade praktisches Lehrbuch in der folgenden Aufiage der Vollkommenheit naher geriickt werde.
An allgemeinen Bemerkungen sind die folgenden vorauszuschicken :
Den Grundsatzen der heutigen Padagogik /•i wider wird dem Schiller (vvie auch Dr. Goe- bel bemerkt hat) fast nie Gelegenheit zu selb- stiindigem Denken gegeben ; der Bearbeiter erkliirt die verschiedenen grammatischen Er- scheinungen mil iibermassiger Breite und for- dert das geisttotende mechanische Auswendig- lernen durch zahlreiche Abteilungen und Un- terabteilungen. So scheidet er z. B. in §96 die Hauptworter der schwachen Declination in nicht weniger alssechs Gruppen, woesdoch wirklich nur derenzvveigiebt ; jeder denkende Schiiler wird unschwer unterscheiden konnen, wo das e der Flexionsendung en auszulassen ist und wo nicht. Anderswo (§ 134) wird gar von dem Schiiler verlangt, dass er die Endung- en des Pronomens und des Adjectivs zusam- men " both horizontally and vertically " aus- wendig lerne ! Auch das beste Gedachtnis konnte soldi ein totes Schema nicht lange be- halten ; wenn dagegen der Schiiler das VVesen und die Ursache dieser Erscheinungen einmal verstanden hat, braucht er keirfe mechanische Formel mehr. Ahnliches gilt von den mne- monic words % 408, die sich in einer, wenn auch elementaren, Besprechung von Grimm's ver- schiebuugsgesetz ganz eigentiimlich ausneh- men.
Die grammatischen Definitionen lassen ofters an Klarheit viel zu wiinschen iibrig. So wer- den ^244, 245, Indefinite Pronouns nnd Inde- finite Adjectives unterschieclen ; unter den ersteren finden wir keiner, ehcas und nichts-
//Vuiid n'fuix \\<-rdtn /u den Adjt < tivrn ^cn-< hurt ! In £449 ist di<- nr- spriinglic IK- Kinu-ilimg nidit i-inmal i-ingi-lial- tt-n und di<- \'«-rwirning wird no< h ar^- sind allc, eini^f, i-fliclif, keine und nnimh,- plot/li( li /'nnioiiiiintla (cf. }5 245) nnd mehrtre, verschiedcne, vielc, weuigc sind Indefinites! Von eiiu-r plainniissi^cn. l«.^is- ht-n Unter- sclu-iilung kann da nicht die kedcs*-in. \\'.is ferner £481, 2 von der Bedeutung d. Perf. der intransitiven \\-rba gesagt wird, ist zum Mindesten schw«-r verstandlirh ; wanmi nicht einfach die iibliche Angabe, dass di«-,«-s Part. Perf. active Bedeutung hat ?
Ausserdem finden sich noch zahlreich< In genauigkeiten, sowie grammatische und philo- logische Fehler; unter den let/teren sind t-inige grobe Schnitzer, die uns urn so mehr befremden miissen, als sie durch Zuhulfe- nalime der elementarsten Nachschlagewerke, wie z. B. des Worterbuchs der ilauptsrhuie- rigkeiten, etc., von Sanders, oder dt Prof. Joynes selbst den Schiilent(f) empfohle- nen Etymologischen Worterbuchs von Kluge, leicht hatten vermieden werden konnen. \ < r altete Formen und Ausdriicke, \\: gegen das Idiom, etc., beweisen ferner, dass bei der Abfassung oder Bearbeitung i-iiu-r deutschen Grammatik durch t-iiu-n Auslander die Hinzuziehungeines mil dem besten Sprach- gebrauch vertrauten Eingebornen wenigstens zum Lesen der Correcturbogen unerlasslit h ist.
Wir bringen nun die einzelnen Punkte, die der Verbesst-rung bediirfen, einfach in der Reihenfolge zur Besprechung, in welrher wir ihnen bei der Durchsicht des Buches begegnen.
§ 28 ist doch etwas zuapodiktisch. In fast ganz Mittel- und Oberdeutschland wird s im Anlaut und zwischen X'ocalen tonlos ges- prochen. — SS. 17, 18. Die lu'er gegt-l)ene deutsche Schrift sieht aus, als <>b sie ziun 'IVil einer Fibel aus dem yorigen Jahrhuiukrt entnommen ware. Die Biichstabeii // haben eine ganzlich veraltete Form, a uiul o sind balb lateinisch, halb deutsrh, n ist gan/ lateinisch, C und >"sind \olleiuls falsch, uiul p. 18 unten sind fast keine zwei Buclistabeii von gleicher Lange. Die Schrittproben am Ende des Buches sind dagegen, einige kleiue Versehen abgererhiu-t, mustergiltig.—
' ^
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No, i.
28
Was muss der Verfasser von den Geistesgaben der amerikanischen Jugend denken, wenn er fiir notig halt, derselben mitzuteilen, dass die Worter Jung-ling-, Heft, Pferd, Schiff, Zeug im Plural nicht umgelautet werden ! — § 86 sind hinzuzufiigen mancher und solcher. — § 88 sollte nach § 79 stehen ; ihr 'her' ist vergessen. — § lor gewohnlich des Schmerzes, dem Sch- merze. — § 105. Wo kbmmen jetzt noch die Plurale Bette und Hemder vor? Rohre ist sing. fern. — § 123. Der Augapfel ist the eye- ball.— § 132. Die Plurale Tiicher=^kerchiefs, — cloths und Tuche=cloths=verschiedene Ar- ten von Tuch sollten streng auseinandergehal- ten werden.— § 175. Wozu iin Imperativ die Formen habe er, haben sie, anstatt er habe, sie haben ? — § 202 ist unrichtig ; man sagt ent- weder es sick order sich's — § 235 besagt das- selbe wie 234. — § 242. Fichtst, flichtst, nicht fichst, flichst. Lbschen als starkes Verb wird wol nie transitiv gebraucht, heisst also nicht to put out sondern nur to go out; die transitive (factitive) Form ist regelmassig schwach. Schraiibeu wircl nur sehr selten stark conju- girt. Neben schwor kommt ebenso haufig, wenn nicht haufiger, schwur vor, im Conjunc- tiv fast immer- schwiire. Melken ist im Praeteritum oft schwach, auch vereinzelt im Part. Perf. Ebenso werdenfttmmen, schallen, schnauben nicht selten schwach flectirt, we- niger oft auch gdren und saugen — ^ 243. Man spricht stets und schreibt meistens du \sst, frisst, liest, misst, vergisst (ss fiir sz) anstatt der vollen aber etwas unbehiilflichen Formen du issest, liesest, etc. Dasselbe gilt § 248 von bldsest, lassest, stossest, wdchsest, ivdschest, wofiir man gewohnlich findet blast, Idsst, stosst, wdchst, wdsclist, letzteres sogar wie wascht ausgesprochen. Hierzu gehoren noch § 232 birst(est) und § 242 drisch(es)t, lisch(es)t, schmilz(es)t, — § 246. Keif en ist meist schwach. — § 274. Es fragt sich heisst it is doubtful, nicht it is asked. — § 277. Zu betrilgen ist nicht eigentlich Infinitiv, sondern Supinum, oder " Infinitiv mit zu," wenn man will. — § 278, Der Ausfall des ge- ist nur so nebenbei, sollte aber § 277 ausdriicklich betont werden. — § 313. Doch auch Jan'uar, Feb'ruar. — § 329, Note ist unrichtig ; auf nicht nur folgt stets das Wort zu welchem ' nnr logisch gehort, und das ist meist das Verbum, wahrend nach sondern
auch die Wortstellung normal bleibt. — § 357 Festhalten ist ein trennbares Compositum und gehort zu § 379, da/<?.y/hier (wie los in loslas- sen) Adjectiv, nicht Adverb ist. — § 358. Ver- halten soil vv.ol lieissen aufhalten. — £ 371. Ent- gegnen (entgegen) und entzweien (entzwei) sollen mit dem Praefix ent zusammengesetzt sein ! Dem Worte entzwei wenigstens sieht und hort doch jeder Laie sofort an, dass es mit dem englischen in two auch formell identisch ist. Die ahd. Formen sind in- gagan(i), in-zuvei, mhd. engegen, enzwei. — § 374. Zergliedern heisst to dissect, to divide into (natural) parts. — § 375. Begehen haufiger =to commit, perpetrate ; ergehen—to come out, to be issued, impers. to fare. — § 383. Der Tropf=the dropping, der Tropfen=the drop. Das Band (Plur. Bander) the ribbon, (Plur. Bande) the tie, bond', der Bund^=the union. — § 384. Der Bissen=-the morsel. Hier finden wir wieder eine neue Ableitung: Stopsel mit -sal zusammengetzt ! Das Wort gehort zu Abteilung 3 desselben Paragraphen. — § 386. Gottheit ist meist=G"0#. Das Christen turn heisst Christianity, nicht Christendom ; das Kcnigtum ist abstract=rcy/«//y, kingship; — §387. Die Gebnrt gehort in die Anmerkung zu Gebiet. — § 389. Meist Kurziveil, ohne e. — § 390, Anmerkung. Was fiir Tiiel sind das 1 — § 395- Von welchen compound nouns sind denn breitsclmltrig und vierfussig abgeleitet ? Bis- herig ist of hitherto ; dortig : of that place ; hiesig: of this place (town, city). Die Bemerk- ung iiber — lei ist dem Schiller dunkel -und ist auch sonst nicht am Platze. Schadlich und niitslich gehoren zu ioa. — § 396. Misstrauisch gehort zd 395,8. — § 399. Ruckweise, nicht riickweise. Mai als Adverb ist doch wol im- mer bewusste Kiirzung von einmal('nmal, mat) und als solche nur in familiiirer Umgangs- sprache zulassig ; es ist daher hier die voile Form einmal zu setzen. Der ganze Paragraph macht in seiner Anbrdming wie auch im Inhalt und Styl den Eindruck sehr fliichtiger Arbeit. — § 401. Hinzu ist nur ein zusanimengesetztes Verbalpraefix, kein selbstandiges Adverb.
HUGO SCHILLING.
Wittenberg College.
29
>;<!'•/
Jami-iry. . 1/r >/'/•: A'. V /..l.\'(,r.li, / .\V;//.S, ,sss \,>
sit//' ti/htt hi /illicit,- (ft-/ ('<nt.
.\(n. By I'lo UAINA. (De-print from til- Stii:ij (fi l-'il(>lu<jia Koinanza, Fuse. IV).
I'n' Ixcrizionc AV/V.v/;/</ del 1131. By I'm KA.I.NA. (De-print from the Archivio Storifo Italiaiio, XIX., la).
'1'lu- importance of the- Bilingual Alba of the Vatican ro<U-x Kcgina 1462, as the- earliest monument in which Provencal has been found, has led many Romance scholars to attempt a satisfactory interpretation of it.* Their efforts have hitherto met with but little decided result, owing in great part to the absence of MSS. which might be used for comparison, and also to the carelessness of the copyists; likewise, possibly, to the ignorance of the author himself. The latter was undoubtedly more versed in Latin than in the vernacular, and his imitations of the popular refrains he heard around him are vitiated by the Latin poetical mould into which he casts them. However, making the best of the single MS., Prof. Rajna proceeds boldly by means of text criticism to the desired end. Uniting the various lines of the Alba in which the refrain appears entire or in part, he gains as text for his point of departure:
L'alba part (or par) umet mar atrasol Poypas (orPoy pas) abigil miraclar tenebras.
As is seen, the MS. disregards the separa- tion of words, writing two now together, now apart. This leads the author to examine first the second line of the refrain to determine the meaning of pas abigit, which he resolves into pasa bigil and explains bigil as vigil, Latin r in South-west France sounding as b. The a is hence not a preposition, as Suchier and Stengel had interpreted, but apart of the verb. In the same way, atra sol is read by Prof. Rajna atras ol, the ol being an article and agreeing with ]\)\. Thus, from disregard of the MS. division of words, the author is led to ignore also the lines of the text, and construes the- re fra in : L'alba part ninct mar a Iras ol pny pasa bigil uiiraclar tciichras.
*See articles by Schmidt and Suchier in Ziitschrift fuf dcutsche Philologie, XII., 33355.: by Stengel in Zeitsckri/t fiir romanitche Philologie, IX, 403 ss., etc.
I'.nt here .1 difficulty arises whi< h seems to us more serious than the re< onstnn lion of tin- Prof. Kajna admits th.it <>/ mcurs in Provem.al only as a pronoun, < iting line K.I of Aigar f Mantni: Si <>/ t »n.\t-nf In / A/i-r<in\, where In is the form ol tin- artii le. He is, then-Ion-, obliged to suppos.- ili.r as article, existed in Provin ,• .,., n . \j,t, <| m certain Lombard dialects.— an hy|- which, in the absence of supporting !• somewhat ha/ardous. Tin- division of tin- being thus suggested, the author claims pi>y to be the noun and not the adverb, and gives two decasyllabic lines by the addition of/toy to the first verse, when- it must have originally belonged, until the scribe, intent on the Latin, had forced it fn.m its place. Tin- text of the original refrain would thus be :
I. 'alba part umet mar atras ol \x>y. I'asa bigil miraclar tenebrax ;
which Prof. Rajna would translate in Italian: L'alba, di ladall'umido mare, dietro il poggio, passa vigile a spiar per entro alle tern-lire. The Epic verse is therefore furnished with still another proof of its antiquity, in a monument some hundred years earlier than Jioithitis.
Proceeding from the refrain to the entire- poem, Prof. Kajna argues for a Latin original, composed by a ' poet who was perhaps an imitator of Vergil and < >vid. In his hands the vernacular\f. mutilated, though the Alba differs in no essential respect from the popular forms of the Albas of the XII. and XIII. centi:
The second article of Prof. Rajna leaves the strictly defined field of Pro\«-ncal poetry for the wider ground of C'arolingian legend. The treason of (ianelon at the gorge of Rom < s- valles had been sung as wide as the pi of Roland. The greater the glory of the hero, magnified by the grow ing tradition of succes- sive generations, the deeper the contempt for the traitor who had brought against him over powering forces. Judas alone was a fitting example to be placed by the side of (..melon, and thus the action of the epic on Scripture and of Scripture on the epic worked in the mind of the people until a race of traitors stood forth who, from father to s,.n and through the various lines of kindred opposed the valiant ami the loyal. Such a state of feeling is i-xpic ,srd by the Latin in-
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
scription in the wall of the vestibule of the cathedral at Nepi. In the year 1131, the soldiers of Nepi and the rulers made oath together that should any one break the al- liance he should be deprived of honor and dignity, and moreover should have his portion "cum Juda et Caypha atque Pilato," for they would put him to death " ut Galelonem qui suos tradidit socios."
The historical import of the inscription is considered at length by Prof. Rajna, before turning to the relation it may have with the French epic. The treason of Ganelon, he affirms, must have been known solely through popular tradition. As proof of this, Sutri near Nepi is cited, the region of Italy most abounding in legendary traces of Roland. Now Sutri was a stopping place on the high- way to Rome, most frequented by pilgrims from the north-west. This highway is fre- quently called in the middle ages the Strata Francigena, and many towns in the vicinity bear in their names the marks of French in- fluence. Together with the pilgrims came the wandering minstrels, with their tales of wars against the infidels, and by them Italy was made acquainted with the story of the peers of Charlemagne. Italy in her turn reacted on the singers, who borrowed from her many scenes and who make especial reference to Sutri. (See ' Enfances ' and ' Chevalerie Ogier.')
For the particular mention of Ganelon in other than the French form, Prof. Rajna sur- mises that the word Galelonem is identical with the Spanish Galalon, and that it is due to pilgrims who had visited the shrine of St. James at Campostello and who had made a halt at Roncesvalles. An interesting citation in support of this view is made from Pulci :
E tutti i peregrin questa' novella Riportan di Galizia ancora espresso, D'aver veduto il sasso e'l corno fesso.
Morgante, XXVII., 108.
In connection with this early appearance of Ganelon in Italy, it is interesting to note that he was also celebrated in South France in 1170 (See Bartsch ' Chrest. Prov.' col. 85, 1. 25), and that the Troubadours frequently coupled him, as is suggested by the inscrip-
tion at Nepi, with the arch-traitor Judas. (Birch-Hirschfeld : ' Uber die den Troubadours bekannten epischen Stoffe,' p. 60). f
F. M. WARREN.
Johns Hopkins University.
Neuphilolugische Essays by GUSTAV KOR- TING. Heilbronn, Gebr. Henninger, 184 pp., 1887.
The indefatigable author of the ' Ency- klopadie und Methodologie der Romanischen Philologie,' whose similar work on English philology has recently appeared, puts before the public a series of essays on modern philology. A simple enumeration of the titles will show that the book is not written for the specialist in modern philology, but that the author addresses himself to a wider circle of readers, to all those that take an interest in higher education. These essays, eight in number, treat of the following subjects: — 1. Modern Philology, Romance Philology, Eng- lish Philology. — II. The Study of Modern Philology at the German Universities. — III. Suggestions as to the University Studies in Modern Philology. — IV. " Staatsexamen " of Modern Philologists. — V . The Examination of Modern Philologists for the Doctor's De- gree.— VI. Scientific Criticism in Modern Philology. — VII. Instruction in Modern Lan- guages at the "Gymnasium." — VIII. In- struction in Modern Languages at the Female High Schools (Hohere Tochterschule) — a variety of subjects that undoubtedly will not fail to awaken the interest of scholars and lay- men in Europe, and let us hope, in America also.
In his first article, which he modestly calls aphorism, Prof. Korting' discusses the question whether the academic study of Romance languages and English has a right to the name of philology, and how far we are entitled to speak of modern philology. For his defini- tion of philology he refers to the article in the
fFor the tradition of Ganelon in the French epic see Stengel's Ausg. und Abh., No. 50: Ganelon und sein Ge- schlecht im altfranziisischen Epos, by E. Sauerfeld. In Ro- mania XI., 410 traces are noted of contemporary legends in the d partement de la Somme, France.
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January. .V< >/>/•: A', \' LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No i
' Kncyklopadie uud Methodologie der Roina- nis< hen Sprachen ' which dctinitioii lias since been criticised by Prof. Kl/e in liis 'Grundriss :i;Jischen Philologic.' \Ve arc glad that Prof. Korting did not enter into polemics with 1'rof. Kl/e, as liis work shows well t In- difference between theory and praxis.
Philology considers only the " Cultur- sprachen," tlie languages that have produced a national literature, and it must consider them in their natural development. Lan- guages that are related to each other must be regarded as one group and cannot be separated in philology. Thus Latin and the Romance languages form a philological unity, and so long as the study of the derived tongues remains in close connection with their parent speech we can make use of the name of Romance philology. The case is different with Germanic philology, of which the study of Knglish is only a branch. Here the basis of scientific in- vestigation is the philology of prehistoric times — comparative philology — and since the Knglish scholar like the German scholar who makes the High German branch his special study must found his studies on Sanskrit, etc., to follow the development of the Germanic languages, his science can only be termed Germanic, not Knglish, philology. Romance and Germanic philology can be combined under the name of ' modern philology ' only for practical reasons. ' Modern philology,' like ' Knglish philology ' is merely a name, no science.
Prof. Korting devotes a whole article to this question, because it is the starting point for his ensuing deductions as to the academic study of modern languages. Some of the ideas in the following essays are old acquaintances that are familiar to us from his pamphlet ' Gedanken und Bemerkungen iiber das Studium cler neueren Sprachen auf den deu- tschen Hochschulen ' and occasional remarks in the " Kncyklopadie." When our young science was in its infancy, it was quite natural that the student chose the two modern langua- ges that he could make use of in teaching, and this became so much the fashion that it gave rise to the name of ' modern philology ' and ' modern philologists,' as distinguishing them from the scholars of classical philology. But
since that time modern philology lias \eloped int.. a M i.-i,. - of Midi vast .-\tent that it is beyond any on-- student's ubilit) In embrace it, at l.-.ist during lli<, that he spends at a university. Korting calls for a separation of Krench and Knglish. . of which subjects is to be studied IP its nat- ural connection with Latin or German. 'I lu.s the Romance student would be compelled to follow courses in Latin and attend the Latin urinary, and would be better prepared for his work in Romance philology, while the Knglish student, who formerly contented himself with Anglo-Saxon and Gothic, wmild ha\e to make himself acquainted with the elements of com- parative philology, ( )ld Norse, and the < ierman- ic dialects. The Prussian government, evident- ly pressed by certain universities has in the new " Priifungsordnung." going into effect this year, somewhat remedied this deficiency by combining Krench and the " facultas docendi " in Latin for lower classes. The one chief difficulty in Prof. Korting 's combination of subjects, natural and commendable as it h that the authorities can not reasonably insist on it since the combination of subjects in the "Prii- fungsordnung " is to a large extent dictated Im- practical considerations, and Knglish is not taught in the Gymnasium ; and the student, — who, whatever his enthusiasm tor his chosen science, has to keep in view what will become of him after the time of preparation, — will natu- rally take those subjects that give him tin- best chance to find some position, if necessary, outside of the Gymnasium and Kealsc hule. that is to say, the Krench and the Knglish It is indeed gratifying to see that the scientific spirit among the young generation of modern philologists in Germany, in their struggle for existence, has not abated, for it displays almost the steadfastness of a martyr to write a disserta- tion or some scholarly work with the feeling that one is the seventieth in the number of well qualified candidates who will compete for some obscure position with .1 salary just above the starvation point.
Kvery scholar knows that Germain is tin- seat of philology, classical .is well as modern. Since Grimm and Hie/ laid the foundation for the latter, their worthy su- .ided by
hundreds of enthusiastic co-workers, have built
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January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
up a science that can well compare with its more experienced and more consolidated parent philology. Yet there may, perhaps, be more Latin scholars than Prof. Korting sup- poses (though we are sure they are exceptions) who think it an intrusion that Romance philo- logy should go back to the classical age to dig out treasures that must otherwise be hidden. It is not so long since Prof. Sittl wrote his book : 'Die localen Verschiedenheiten des Latein,' but we feel some satisfaction that his ' vivat sequens ' was addressed to a scholar who has a closer feeling and more sympathy with Romance philology.
If these scholars are exceptions, the number is pretty large in Germany of educated people who feel that occupation with the language and literature of a foreign country is a lack of patriotism, and who wish to see the whole strength and ability of native scholars concen- trated on the study of their own language and history. To all these and others of the same opinion we recommend the reading of Prof. Korting's refutation, in his second essay ; the more intelligent would be convinced that occupation with foreign languages and litera- tures is one of the best, and often the only, means of understanding the national pro- ductions, and that, if other nations do not pay the same attention to German philology as German scholars do to theirs, "this is not the effect of a more highly developed national feel- ing but simply the oatcome of a deficient scien- tific insight." The following lines from the greatest philologist of France, which we read in the last volume of the Romania, would show them how much these studies are ap- preciated abroad: " Les Allemands s'em- parent de plus en plus du terrain des Etudes romanes et sp6cialement du domaine de 1'ancien francais. C'est en vain que nous essayons de marcher au moins de conserve avec eux ; nous sommes vaincus par le nombre d'abord et nous sommes loin de posse"der un outillage aussi commun. Ce que nous avons de mieux a faire est de profiler des travaux qu'ils accumulent et de les remercier quand les travaux sont vraiment utiles."
The fourth essay is full of suggestions as to the regulations of the "Staatsexamen." The author's experience as an examiner in the
" Pfufungskommission " is a guaranty for the possibility of carrying through the modifica- tions he proposes. The "Staatsexamen" really consists of four examinations : the scientific, in which the candidate has to show his acquaintance with the development and the results of Romance, etc., philology; a practical examination, on which the new " Prufungsordnung " puts more stress now than before, to show how far the candidate is able to speak and write the languages he desires to teach ; the examination in pedagogy and— last not least — the ' 'allgemeine Bildung, ' ' which, though restricted to certain branches — Philosophy, Latin, History and Religion — is in examination as in common life an idea capable of wide extension. The last, with the ex- ception of philosophy, has been regarded by many professors as entirely superfluous, and we fully agree with Prof. Korting that it is even injurious. The reason is so obvious and the feeling against it has been so universal among students, teachers and professors that we are surprised to find the same old-fashioned regulation in the new "Prufungsordnung," and fear accordingly that Prof. Korting's propositions will hardly be taken into con- sideration. The rest of the examination the author wishes to have divided into two parts. The first, strictly scientific, ought to "be taken after finishing the university studies, the second, covering the practical knowledge of French and English in speaking and writing, should follow an interval of two years, spent mostly in France and England. Theoretical studies in pedagogy should be left entirely un- til after a practical foundation has been laid during the probationary year. Does it not disgust the commissioners to hear candidates speaking about things that they cannot reason- ably be expected to knovy ? We hope that the candidate will no longer be obliged — as was the case in Alsace — to appear in the class- room, after an absence of about five years, confronted by the rather embarrassing ne- cessity of combining Gothic Grammar and Muspilli's or Lachmann's Theory with the somewhat less scholarly explanation of " Ich hatt' einen Kameraden " !
There is no question whatever that by divid- ing the examination the candidates will be
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January. MODERN I,Ab & No.i.
•
better prepared, scientifically and practically, and tlu- authorities, who do not hesitate to make use of tin- large number of philologists by offering them salaries that only necessity can compel them to accept, should not be too timid to require a little further preparation. Besides, the first " Staatsexamen " and the " 1 )octorexanien " could easily be combined, if the candidate for the former we^e allowed to devote all his time to one thesis, equal to that now required for the Dr. Phil., instead of preparing several papers in his different lines of studies. Something must be done to help teachers who have passed their Staatsexamen without taking the Dr. Phil., — and they are the majority — to some title that they can use in society. We know a teacher in a "Gymnasium" who took his degree in his sixtieth year, in order, after retir- ing from his position, to have some title that might distinguish him from the ordinary public school teacher. For titles are no mere chimera in a monarchial government, and putting the teacher in that respect on the same level with other learned professions is an honor that Ger- many owes to the promoters of her intellectual power, and the ordinance of last year, raising teachers with academical education to the rank of lawyers, etc., has not fully made amends for this fault of omission.
The article on criticism is mostly a plea for a more moderate and polite tone in criticising par- ticularly the works of beginners. Our readers are well acquainted with the often too harsh language seen especially in German journals, and, though this may find some explanation in the transient and even ephemeral character of a review, yet scholars on this side of the water cannot but hope that the time may never come when we shall find our learned periodicals filled with merely personal " Krwiderungen " and " Kntgegnuugen."
The last two essays occupy themselves with the instruction in modern languages. The Gymmasium, Prof. Korting says, is a prepara- tory school for the university, and has in \iew, as its sole object, to fit boys best for subsequent scientific study there. \Ve may admit this, but how about the author's con- tested "Kinheitsschule," the combined Real- gymnasieii and (iymnasium? The number of
students is decreasing in many departments, and we hope the "Kinheitsschule" uill not multiply their number. The remarkable im- personality of Prof. Korting, so a-ie. ably different from those outbursts of scorn « I. ether uttered by the minority striving for <-\ist. or flung with self-sufli( iem \ to tli<- public from the stronghold of a secured position, would have assured a candid hearing to any explana- tion he might have had to offer as to the n of blending (iymnasium and Kealschule, and we much regret that this question has found no treatment among his essays. Certainly the Kinheitsschule cannot be a preparatory school for the university in the same sense as the (iymnasium ; it must embody the whole higher education. We join Prof. Korting in his wish that in the German Gymnasium, Knglish may find a place that has hitherto been denied to it, as well as in his hope that the Classics will always remain the foundation of higher education. Whether a thorough train- ing in Latin and Greek can be obtained in less than sixteen hours a week, during a course of at least nine years, is a question that we lea\e for German scholars. Our experience tea us that the secondary subjects are too much neglected, and that the pupils, especially in the lower and intermediate classes, mostly look upon the weekly Latin exercise as the only essential in their promotion to a higher class.
The end of modern language teaching has been often discussed in this country by various scholars, and most of them, at least those who are free from one-sidedness, agree that the only purpose can be to enable the pupils to read a foreign language, to understand scientific books, and enjoy foreign literature. The abil- ity simply to speak a foreign tongue will hardly extend beyond the common-life phr. that without constant practice will soon be forgotten and this cannot be the aim of an in- struction that means something more than mere superficial knowledge of the subject. Prof. Korting emphasises the great difficulty of learning a foreign language, and denies even the possibility of acquiring in a limited number of hours, the ability to write compositions of any stylistic value, "for writing French ami Knglish is different from writing Latin."
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January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
40
Compared with other subjects the modern lan- guages have been until recently much neglect- ed in Germany. This is due to the fact, as the author remarks, that instruction was given partly by teachers who had no scientific train- ing and who therefore could not, in a body of men and in an institution of a higher character, take a position which entitled them to the necessary respect. Though much remains to be wished for, Germany is now beyond the stage of language masters, and no candidate, is ap- pointed who has not proved that he has suc- cessfully devoted several years to a scientific study of modern philology. Having these thoughts in mind the author, in his excellent article on instruction in modern languages at Girls' High Schools, could not be expected to give us more than a pleasant causerie upon the experiments of killing time by the study of languages from thoughtlessly compiled grammars and handbooks. We must thank the author for his consideration in not allow- ing the memory of Juvenal to betray him in this case into writing a biting satire.
The book contains so many new ideas and suggestions that it is impossible to give our readers a detailed account of its contents here. We highly recommend it to all those who are interested in the study of modern philology and desire information as to its present status in Germany. The essays are, besides, written in so attractive a style and the subject is dealt with in such a masterly manner that the reader will be tempted to finish the book without delay.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell University.
Frederic Ozanam, sa vie et ses ceuvres, a volume of 600 pages, published last year at Montreal, is the first important literary venture of M. Pierre Chauveau, son of the eminent Canadian author. It is an extended study of the labors of the enthusiastic scholar and de- vout and practical Christian who was chiefly instrumental in forming the Society of St. Vin- cent de Paul. The subject is, of course, treat- ed from a thoroughly Roman Catholic stand- point ; indeed, the avowed object of the book
is to place before young Canadians who may be tempted to abandon or slight their religion and give way to the skeptical tendency of the age, a model of saintliness free from all the repulsive elements of narrow-mindedness and intolerance.
Fr^deYic Ozanam was born in 1813, a time when the Roman Catholic religion had not yet recovered its forces after the Revolution. He inherited from his parents the best traits of a Christian character, and these traits were strengthened by his early training. As soon as he was old enough, he joined the ranks of the defenders of his faith. His powers as a controversialist were first shown in an attack on the doctrines of Saint-Simon, which he pub- lished while still a law student at Lyons. Con- tinuing his legal studies in Paris, Ozanam became a leader in the establishment of the conferences of St. Vincent de Paul, and some- what'later he helped found the conferences of Notre Dame. At this period of his life he wrote his second work, Les deux chanceliers d'Angleterre, which attracted some attention.
Having obtained the degree of doctor in both law and letters, he was appointed pro- fessor of commercial law at Lyons. So suc- cessful was his career, that before he was thirty years old he had become professor of foreign literature at the Sorbonne, where he lectured until his early death in 1853. The twelve years of his professorship were spent in almost incessant labor on his life-task, the history of Christian civilization from its beginning down to the i4th century, a task which was destined never to be completed. Fortunately, however, he published the various sections of this great work soon after he finished them, so 'that we have (besides his letters and his unpublished notes) nine volumes of Ozanam's writings, of which the most important are Dante etlaphilo- sophie catholique, Etudes ger»ia>iiqncs and La civilisation an ci nqui^tne siec le. This last pro- duction, which did not appear until after the author's death, was crowned by the French Academy.
It is to an analysis of these historical and literary works that the greater part of M. Chau- veau's book is devoted. Yet Ozanam himself is never forgotten ; the homely, sickly, nervous little man, whose awkward manner could not
January.
LANGUAGE NOTES,
long conceal his \ ast knowledge nor his splen- did talent, is constantly before our eyes ; while his lovable character and his life of patient sulfering and sell-denial an- shown to speak from every page he wrote. M. Chaiiveau's style is perfectly straightforward ; the large amount of information he has accumulated is presented tastefully and modestly, without any kind of pretence; much space is given to quo- tations from other critics and also from Fre'de'- ric Ozanam's own writings.
The book is rendered still more valuable by an introduction from the pen of M. Chauveau, ptre, who speaks briefly of the struggles of the French clerical party during the present cen- tury. In these struggles Ozanam played his part : not that of a political leader, nor that of a violent and one-sided debater, but rather that of man who, without neglecting his re- gular duties, quietly and conscientiously strives to make every action of his life tend toward the desired end. " Toute sa vie fut nne triple predication, par la parole, par Fe'criture, par Faction. Tout ce qu'il a fait, il Fa entrepris dans un seul but, faire du bien a ses semblables, et par-dessus tout, leur procurer le plus ne"ces- saire de tons les biens, la foi."
CHAS. H. GRANDGENT.
Harvard College.
Wissenschaft und Schule in ihrem Verhalt- nisse zur praktischen Spracherlernung. Von Dr. M. M. ARNOLD SCHROER, ao. Professor der Englischen Philologie an der Universitat Freiburg i. B. (Leipzig 1887).
This brochure has for its object the discus- sion of the following dilemma : On the one hand, the university belongs to science, and every science has ideal, not practical, ends in view ; hence, practice in speaking a language has no place in the University. On the other hand, a practical knowledge of the respective living language is absolutely indispensable (ein unumgangliches Erforderniss) to the philologian and, especially, to the future teacher; without it, work in the history of language cannot be carried on with success, nor can the teaching of a modern language
•me really l>.-nHi< ial if the instructor lacks the ability to speak it (praktisc he Spra< hf«-rtij{-
beit).
There are three ways out of this difficulty: The student may be left to j^el a practical knowledge of the ' language oiitsidi- o| tin- university, from private teachers; or In- may neglect the practical study entirely during his university course, in order to devote himself to it afterwards, in the country where the language is spoken ; or, finally, he may be referred to lectors, specially appointed for this purpose by the university authori1 The advantages of, and objections to, each of these methods are well set forth by S< lu On the whole, the third method, which has been adopted by several universities, is the most feasible; but, after all, the author con- siders a sojourn in the foreign country indis- pensable, and a dozen pages of the pamphlet are devoted to the consideration of the ques- tion, how such a sojourn abroad may be brought within the reach of the student and turned to best advantage.
It would seem that the author, while advo- cating the desirability of a practical acquisition of the language previous to admission to the. university, underrates the possibililits in this respect, as well as the importance of such early training to the student of philology.
There is added to the discussion of the main question an excursus on the instruction in English in (ierman schools and an ap- pendix on the foundation of an institute for German philologians for the study of English in London.
The little brochure of sixty pages is full of suggestions to the teacher.
A. LODKMAN.
Ypsilanti, Mich.
In order to prevent any possible misappre- hension, the editors take occasion to remark that the foot-note appended to Dr. Karsten's review of Paul's Principicn in the last number of the NOTES was simply intended to remind our readers, impartially, of the existing oppo- sition to the views presented by Paul.
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January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
44
In a note on Louise von Francois's ' Phos- phorus Hollunder ' (Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1887) innocent young Americans are in- formed by the editor that ' Urania ' and ' Die bezauberte Rose' are 'mediaeval poems.' Poor Tiedge ! Poor Schulze ! Surely there could be no bitterer comment on the words of the original : " Den Zeitgenossen Hollunders brauchen wir kaum zu sagen, dass 'Urania' und ' Die bezauberte Rose ' seine Vorbilder und Lieblingsdichtungen waren ; das jiingere Geschlecht wird sich derselben aus der Lite- raturgeschichte erinnern. "
An attractive title that must of late have more than once caught the eye of teachers of French who scan the lists of new publications is : Beispielsammlung zur Einfuhrung in das Stadium der Etymologie des Neufranzosi- schen, von Dr. Gustav Breddiu (Leipzig, Gus- tav Fock, 1886 ; 410, pp. 31). Unfortunately the collection is not only worthless, but calcu- lated to do positive harm in the hands of the unwary. The etymologically inclined com- piler, who signs himself Oberlehrer, is appar- ently unacquainted even with the difference between words of popular and of learned origin. In short, pretty much everything is grist that comes to his mill. The result can be more easily imagined than described.
Geo. O. Curme, Professor of French in Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa, has in press an edition of Lamartine's 'Meditations.' Prof. Curme has taken special pains to throw as much light as possible on the sources of personal inspiration of each poem. The work will be preceded by an introductory study of the poet's life ; and the poems (those are selected that have the inspiration of "Elvire") are so grouped as to keep the student's inter- est centered on the interesting period from 1816-1820.
The publishers of the above work, (D. C. Heath & Co. Boston), also announce ' His- toriettes Modernes,' selected and annotated by C. Fontaine, Instructor in French in the Washington (D. C.) High School.
Messrs. Henry Holt & Co. have brought out, under the title of 'Whitney's Practical French,' the entire first part of the author's French Grammar, supplemented by a con-
siderable variety of conversational exercises, and by lists of phrases illustrating, in parallel columns, the idiomatic uses of a number of the commoner French and English verbs. This low-priced and handy edition of .the more practical part of the larger grammar will be welcome to many teachers, and will do much, it may be hoped, towards bringing a good book into successful competition with many less valuable rivals.
The attention of students of Italian is called to an Italian semi-weekly newspaper, publish- ed in Chicago, and already in its third year : L' Italia — giornale politico, artistico, dilette- vole. The value of general newspaper reading, for the purpose of becoming thoroughly imbued with the every-day spirit and vocabulary of a foreign language, is too well recognized to need emphasis. L* Italia is intended for the benefit of the better portion of the numerous Italian colonies scattered over the country, and is accordingly a genuine Italian newspaper in all its details. It is in folio form, printed on good paper, with clear type ; and is a high- class journal, treating with dignity the leading questions of American and foreign politics and affairs. The subscription price is $3 per an- num (six months, $1.75). O. Durante, Editore. 404 S. Clark St., Chicago, 111.
We have received from Dr. D. G. Brinton (115 S. 7th St., Philadelphia) his instructive address before the Anthropological Section of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, entitled : " A Review of the Data for the Study of the Prehistoric Chro- nology of America." It is a deprint from the Proceedings of the Association, vol. xxxvi. Together with this, comes the announcement that vol. vii. ('Ancient Nahuatl Poetry') of his important Library of Aboriginal American j Literature is now ready." It contains a number | of songs in the Nahuatl language, most of ; which were composed before the Spanish ! conquest. They are accompanied by transla- I tions and notes.
Mr. William R. Jenkins (Publisher, N. Y.) announces as the next number of his will known series ' Romans Choisis,' Ohnet's popu- lar romance, ' Le Maitre de Forges, ' which was to be ready in November. In Paris, this novel
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January. MO/>/-:/{N LANGUAGE NOTI-IS, 1888. No. \.
has reached its 249111 edition. The next No. of ' Contes Choisis ' will contain, among other things, Claretie's clever little story, ' Boum- Boum.' The new edition, in 1'rench, of Victor Hugo's 'Les Miserable*,' which Mr. Jenkins has been issuing volume by volume, has now reached its completion. It fulfills the pro- mises made by the publisher and is handsome in its appearance; the typography is clear and tasteful and the paper good, while the size is convenient both for reading and for the library shelf. Being the cheapest edition to be had in French, it is also the handiest, as the only Paris edition now published is in large octavo volumes, cumbersome and costly. These five volumes are the most important and extensive French work yet attempted in America and argue well for the -success of Mr. Jenkins' laudable enterprise. 5 vols., paper $4.50, cloth $6.50.
Under the title : Die Urbilder zu Hermann und Dorothea, Albert Bielshowsky publishes an interesting article on Goethe's personal relations to the characters of his classical idyl. While the latter has hitherto been considered a pure work of art, almost entirely free from the personal element which appears so fre- quently in most of Goethe's productions, Bielshowsky in this essay brings conclusive arguments to the contrary. He points to the similarity between Dorothea and Lili Schone- mann, not only in regard to their character, but above all in respect tp the latter's fate during the French revolution, her flight across the Rhine and the courageous self-defence of her virtue on that occasion. By adding to this the evidence of various traits of resemblance between Hermann and Goethe, as well as between the clergyman of the poem and Pfarrer Ewald, our idyl is made to appear not only in the light of a reminiscence of Goethe's beautiful " Brautigamszeit " in Frankfurt, but also as a touching and harmonious expiation of his guilt toward Lili.
The publisher, Andreas Deichert of Erlan- gen (Germany), announces the early publica- tion of a ' Ratoromanische Chrestomathie ' by Dr. C. Decurtins. The work is to be confined to the literature of the Canton des Griso.is, and will be divided into two volumes: vol. I.
comprehending Ob- and Nidwald, Ob«-r- and Unterlialbstdn ; vol. II. < overing IS.-rgiin, the Kngadine and Miinsterthal. The materials are to include the dim-rent p.-riods of the litera- ture, beginning with the s. \eut.-enth ( « ntiiry, to which will be added an introduction, a glossary, biographical not.-s of the individual authors and a description of the NUs. from which the texts are drawn.
1 Contes et Nouvel/es, suivis de conversa- tions; d'exercices de grammaire ; de notes facilitant la traduction (8vo, pp. 3071, is another recent publication of the same house, edited by Mme L. Alliot, lately teacher of French at the Bryn Mawr School, Baltimore. The selections are racy specimens of the work of several of the best modern contettrs, and are all suited to the taste and comprehension of young pupils. One of the stories, 'La Princesse verte,' by Andre" Theuriet, is borrowed from the Revue des Deux Mondes, and another, ' Le Bachelierde Nimes,' is the translation of a prose sketch from the Proven- cal of the celebrated poet, Mistral. ' Mon Professeur,' from ' La Bibliotheque de mon Oncle' by Topffer, is the same narrative, abridged and retouched (presumably by the author), which appears in the Clarendon Press 'French Classics,' vol. Y.. under the title 1 Me"saventures d'un Ecolier,' and elsewhere as ' Le Hanneton.' The retouching reminds one of the later polishing bestowed by Rous- seau on his 'Confessions.' and has been so thorough-going that a systematic comparison of the two redactions would bean instructive exercise in style for an advanced class. In this edition, proof-reading and press-work have been carefully attended to; yet in the table of contents Victor Hugo's ' La bonne puce et le me"chant roi ' is called a Conte a ses petits enfants (petits-enfants) ; on p. 147 grand* - nitre is printed grantl-m^rc; and in t he- conversational exercise on p. 99, ' New England's Memorial ' — from which quaint Colonial volume the pupil, by the way, is re- commended to commit to memory a liberal extract, done into French — is attributed t<> Nathaniel Norton instead of Morton.
The House of Hachette & Cie has under- taken a biographical series of leading French
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January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. i.
authors (' Les Grands Ecrivains Francais '), with the view of placing before the public "studies of their life, works and influence." The separate volumes are assigned to compe- tent critics, who discuss their subject in a direct and comprehensive way, dwelling little on details but emphasizing salient features. Victor Cousin is thus presented by M. Jules Simon; Mme de Sdvigne" by M. Gaston Boissier; Montesquieu by M. Albert Sorel ; and 'George Sand,' the most recent of the series, is the posthumous work of Caro. Among the volumes announced for the future, are ' Voltaire ' by M. Bruneti^re ; ' Villon ' by M. Gaston Paris; 'Rousseau' by M. Cherbu- liez; 'Balzac' by M. Paul Bourget; 'Musset' by M. Jules Lemaitre and ' Sainte-Beuve ' by M. Taine. The appearance of the volumes is most pleasing, both as to print and neatness. Those already published are of moderate size (from 170 to 180 pages), and are accompanied by a portrait of the author, as frontispiece.
The patriotic school of Italian poets is the subject of a series of essays from a some- what unexpected quarter. (' Modern Italian Poets ' ; W. D. Howells. New York : Harper). In his introduction, Mr. Howells quite .apolo- gizes for giving to the world what is the product of his leisure moments ; he excuses himself on the ground that there is nothing in English which covers this particular field. It is the period that begins with Parini, enlarges with Alfieri and continues, through the various phases of the Romantic movement, down to the time when Italian unity became a fact and when the aspiration for it ceased to be an in- fluence in Italian literature. As patriotism is the link which connects the various authors of the period, so Mr. Howells is inclined, perhaps, to accentuate too strongly the patriotic to the detriment of the classic element. The studies on the individual authors vary in length accord- ing to their prominence, but the same clear style and system are maintained throughout : a short sketch of the poet, of his surroundings, is followed by criticisms and translations from his works. Alfieri, Manzoni, Niccolini, whose ' Arnaldo da Brescia ' is analyzed minutely (pp. 211-242), Leopardi, Giusti and Aleardi are naturally most favored. The translations are good and spirited, with especial care to be as
far as possible faithful to the original. Of especial excellence are ' II Cinque Maggio ' of Manzoni, and the chorus in his ' Conte di Carmagnola,' the ballads of Ongaro and a poem of Grossi. To the volume a short bibli- ography is appended.
Though Mr. Howells in all places expressly disclaims that he speaks ex cathedra, his work throws the burden of proof on him by bearing the stamp of accurate scholarship. It is therefore, perhaps, not invidious to call attention to the few errors of fact that are not due to the discrepancies of biographical dictionaries : the Sacred Hymns of Manzoni appear to have been published in 1810 instead of 1815 (p. 137) ; and the date of ' Arnaldo da Brescia ' is generally fixed in 1835 rather than 1843 (p. 203). The usual judgment of con- temporary critics on Leopardi (pp. 265 and 272) is not shared by so competent an authority as Bartoli, who places him "perhaps next to Dante." The tasteful make-up of the book is not enhanced by the poor wood-cuts which accompany many of the sketches.
Teachers of elementary classes in literature as well as private students, will be pleased with the new school-room edition of Scott's Mar- mion, published by Macmillan & Co. The editor, Prof. M. Macmillan (B. A., Oxon.) is a practical teacher at Elphinstone College, Bom- bay. In the Introduction will be found a brief, though well considered, characterization of Scott as a poet, and the Notes, covering many pages, supply an unusually full apparatus of historical allusions, parallels in literature, com- ments on popular customs and beliefs to which the poet makes reference, and of uses of words, constructions, and figures of speech to which the learner's attention is to be directed. The same press has also published for the same editor, as a companion volume to the Ufarniion, Books I and II of the Paradise Lost. This second volume, though not so much needed, is yet quite as efficiently prepared as the first.
The method of studying English Literature, which, several years ago, was set forth by Prof. Isaac N. Demmon (Univ. of Michigan) in a syllabus entitled a "Course in English Master- pieces: references for the use of students," may be found worked out in greater detail,
49
January. .VO/'J-A'N LANGUAGE NOTKS, iHKS. .\u. i.
and applied in a mop- systematic manner to a wider selection of " masteipiei es," ranging from Chaucer to Tennyson, in a new volume by Prof. Alfred H.Welsh (English Masterpiece
Course, Chicago, John C. Buckbee & ('D.I. There art- many teachers of English literature that have become petrified in the deadening prartio- of blindly following the narrow treat- ment of some text-book. Other teachers do practically the same thing, but with certain misgivings ; they would do better. To this latter (-lass Prof. Welsh's hook will be helpful. It will suggest means for making the study of literature a rational and manly performance, an invaluable training not only in feeling and sentiment, but also in the power of estimating opinions, in correlating truths, and in testing theories ; in short it will enforce the idea that literature is to be studied by each individual for himself, more or less independently of others, and will at once show how to make the novel experiment.
The publication is announced of the follow- ing work, important for scholars interested in Provencal literature : Origine et Etablisse- ment de I'Acade'mie des Jeux Floratix de Tou- • Lnise ; Biographic des Troubadours; Sur la langue romane ou le provencal. Par C. Chabaneau, Professeur a la Facult^des Lettres de Montpellier. En i vol. in 410 de 246 pages. Price 27 frs. To be had of H. Welter, 59 Rue Bonaparte, Paris.
A new series of French texts for the use of schools is that edited by Martin Hartmann (Leipzig, E. A. Seeman). The first number contains the comedy of Jules Sandeau, ' Mile. de la Seigliere.' Nothing but praise can be said of the care and the completeness of the text, the abundance of notes both grammatical and literary and the neatness of the volume both as to print and to shape. In a short ap- pendix are found a study on the relation of the comedy to the novel, and the two songs of Beranger alluded to in the text. So thorough lias been the work of the editor that little is left — and we think it a fault in class-work — to be developed by the instructor.
An important contribution to the text of the Breton Cycle is the publication of the Portu- guese Ms. 2594 of Vienna. (A Historia dos
Cavalleiros da M.-s.i Kedonda <• da I ><-manda do Santo Graall ; K. von Reiiihardsloettner, Berlin iSSy-S, Krster Band;. The Ms. belongs t<> the XV. century and is therefore of t cond period of the prose novels. In looking for the original, Prof. K. finds that the Ms. bearsthe most resemblance to the third volume of ' Lancelot du Lac,' published at Paris in J533- It gradually separates from the latter, in that the object of the Portuguese writer is to give a history of the Knights of the Round Table and of the quest of the Grail, while the French novel centers in the person of Lancelot and his deeds. Various points of comparison are made by the editor in an Introduction where clearness of style is not a characteristic quality and where there is an abuse of italic letters. The text printed in- cludes 70 out of 199 folios.
At the annual public session of the French Academy, a prize of 1500 frances was awarded to M. E. Cosquin for his ' Conies populaires de la Lorraine ; ' one of 1200 frs. to M. Brunot for his ' Grammaire historique de la langue francaise.' A prize of 1500 frs. was divided between M. J. F. Blade, for his ' Contes popu- laires de la Gascogne,' and M. J. Fleury, for his ' Litterature orale de la Basse Normandie.'
We have received the first number of the Zeitschrift fiir Vergleichende Litteraturge- schichte und Renaissance Litteratur, the pros- pectus of which was noticed in the November number of the NOTES. This journal is a com- bination of the Zeitschrift fiir I'crgl. Littcra- turgeschichte, edited by Professor Max Koch, and the Jahrcsschrift fiir Kultur etc. der Renaissance, edited by Professor Ludwig Geiger, the latter of which ceased last year to be issued in separate form. The new periodi- cal appears under the joint editorship of Koch and Geiger. The first number presents. <>n various subjects of German, English, Hun- garian and humanistic literature, a series ni essays which are all of peculiar interest and permanent value. The young science of the comparati\e history of literature, hitherto mainly in the hands of dilettanti, po-- in the new Zeitschrift an organ that will com- mand the respect of all scholars interested in this important subject. The names of the
January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. i.
editors vouch for a strictly scientific and phil- ological treatment of the subjects presented, and we take pleasure in recommending the journal cordially to our readers.
Renewed proof of the activity of the Goethe Gesellschaft is given us in the appearance of two volumes of the long expected definitive edition of the poet's works, the " Ausgabe der Grossherzogin Sophie von Sachsen," to whom Walther O. Goethe, the last surviving grand- child of the poet, bequeathed the family.archi- ves. Vol. I, containing a portion of the " Ge- dichte," and Vol. XIV, containing the first part of " Faust," form the society's present contribution, handsome octavos in clear type, a delightful contrast to the stubby little vol- umes of the Cotta and Hempel editions. The material to be published is classified under four heads, which will also serve to suggest the scope of the proposed edition/ Goethe's works (in the narrower sense), his scientific writings, diaries and letters. Confidence in the editorial work is inspired by the list of editors and their associates — to the number of more than three-score — published in the intro- duction to the first volume ; v. Loeper, Erich Schmidt, Herman Grimm, Seuffert and Su- phan as editors-in-chief, while among the as- sistants one notices v. Biedermann, Geiger of the "Jahrbuch," Fielitz, the editor of the " Briefe an Frau v. Stein," Minor, Schroer and others of like scholarship and repute.
For its text and arrangement the present edition of Goethe's works holds closely to the last edition published by Cotta during Goethe's life, the so-called "Ausgabe letzter Hand," 1827-30, with supplementary volumes publish- ed after Goethe's death. The text is accom- panied by a complete critical apparatus, redu- ced however to surprisingly compact form, for which the manuscript treasures of the archives afforded abundant new material. The " Faust" in particular, is enriched by additional parali- pomena and especiallv by the readings of the Gochhausen manuscript, a copy of the origi- nal as brought by Goethe to Weimar in 1775, which E. Schmidt was fortunate enough to discover in January of the present year among the papers of Frl. v. Gochhausen, now in pos- session of her grand-nephew (cf. Nation, No.
1145, Jun. 9, 1887). This manuscript, it should be remarked, has also been published separate- ly by Schmidt, so that the new. material for Faust criticism is now accessible to every Goethe student. The present volumes of the new edition give promise that it will do its part to fulfill the prediction made by Grimm in his enthusiastic preface to the first volume ; " die neue Ausgabe vvird als das Merkmal eines geistigen Umschwunges gelten, von dem heute nur als etwas Zukunftigem die Rede sein kann, von dem die Zukunft aber als von Etwas Vollbrachtem sprechen wird."
The' Life of Dante,' by Miss Ward, published by Roberts Brothers, is an unpretentious little book, which accomplishes satisfactorily what it attempts to do. In a perfectly simple way it tells what is known about the life of the great poet, and gives a short analysis of his works, both prose and poetry. There is no attempt to show wide reading nor philosophic depth in exposition, but the author is both widely- enough read and has grasp enough of the sub- ject to avoid the pitfalls iiito which the pre- sumptuous or unwary are sure to plunge, when writing on such a subject. There is probably no book before the American public which gives so agreeably and in so brief a compass as does this excellent little work — with no valuable criticism, to be sure, but also with little or no vague speculation — the facts con- cerning Dante's life and work.
The same firm sends a reprint of Dante Ros- setti's ' Dante and His Circle,' a book which is almost indispensable to many students of Dante and his times, who have no access to the originals of nearly half of what is here trans- lated with a felicity of expression and- a depth of sympathy so rare as to excite admiration. The fact is that no man of letters in this century, if transported back to the Florence of Farinata or of Giotto, would have felt himself so little out of place as Dante Gabriel Rossetti. This is why his translations — that of the 'Vita Nuova.'in particular — are unsur- passed, and not likely soon to be surpassed, in general justness of tone; though Norton's or even Martin's Vita Nuova may be an improve- ment in single phrases or even passages. In spite of some misgivings on the subject of in-
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January. MOI>t'.k'.\ LANGUAGE NOTES, iS88. No. i.
54
ternationnl copyright, it must be said that Roberts Brothers liave done a real service, in putting within the. read) of all, at a moderate price, so good a work, the original editions of which are not easy to get and expensive be- sides. 1 1 is only to be regretted that they have not made it a handsomer book.
PERSONAL.
Prof. Fr. Kluge Qena, Germany) never flags in industry. He is at present seeing through the press a new edition of his Etymological Dictionary, also a new work on the influence of Luther on the German language, and an Anglo-Saxon Reader.
Prof, ten Brink (Strassburg, Germany), we are told, has in the Press a work on the B£o- wulf. We are unable to give any further char- acterization. His proposed edition of the poem is, however, still far off.
We are authorized to state that Prof. T. W. Hunt will publish the third edition of his Exo- dus and Daniel in March. The Glossary will be materially enlarged.
Dr. Benj. W. Wells, formerly of the Friends' School, Providence, R. I., is pursuing his stu- dies in Old English at Jena, Germany. He is just now specially interested in the writings of Aelfric and Wulfstan, and the Church docu- ments generally, and will in time, doubtless, make known to us his results.
Prof. A. S. Cook (University of California) is fapidly completing his treatise on the North- umbrian documents; Max Niemeyer, the well- know publisher of Halle has undertaken it. The most of the Glossary is now in the printer's hands, and the remaining parts will be ready in a few we'jks. The citations, except in the case of the commonest pronouns, articles, etc., will be practically exhaustive. The intention is to combine Grammar and Glossary in the same volume.
Prof. Cook is also publishing, with Ginn & Co., an Anglo-Saxon Primer, which may be expected to appear soon.
Dr. Francis H. Gnmmere's place at the Su.nn Free School (NYw Medford, Mass.) has Ixjen filled by the appointment of Andrew Ingra- ham, A. B., as Master of the School. It will be remembered that Dr. (iummere, who is at present pursuing his studies in English .it Berlin, was called to Haverford College |d. MOD. LANG. NOTES, Vol. II., p. iSz].
Dr. R. F. Weymouth, 33 Alfred Road, A< ton, London, W., has made a translation of Cyne- wulfs ' Elene,' which he desires to publish, and for which he will receive subscriptions at five shillings per copy. Dr. Weymouth is the editor of Grossetete's ' Castel of Love ' for the Philological Society, author of a work on Early English Pronunciation, and editor of the recently published ' Resultant Greek Testament.'
Rodes Massie, for some years professor of German and French in the University of Ten- nessee (Knoxville), resigned his position at the beginning of the present academic year and has settled temporarily at Charlottesville (Univ. of Virginia) Va. His former Assistant, Wm. I. Thomas, Ph. D., now occupies the place vacated by this resignation.
Professor L. A. Stager, for some time head of a School of languages in St. Louis and after- ward in Philada., has been called to the Col- legiate and Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, with the title, Adjunct Professor of the Ger- man Language.
H. C. Penn has been appointed Assistant in English at the University of Missouri (Colum- bia). Mr. Penn was a graduate at Central College (Fayette, Mo.) in 1885, after which he taught in the Central Collegiate Institute of Altus (Ark.) until he entered upon his present position. He has contributed to the Missouri School Journal several articles, among uhich maybe noted: " When should Anglo-Saxon be begun in the average Western College"? and "Anglo-Saxon as a Substitute tor Latin and Greek."
Professor A. C. Dawson was called at the beginning of the present academic year from Beloit College, Wis., to the Chair of French
and German in Lake Forest I'niversity. Lake Forest, 111.
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55 January. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. i.
JOURNAL NOTICES.
ANQLIA. VOL. X. PART I |.-Kamann, P. Die quel- len der Yorkspiele. -Dieter, F. Die Walderefrag- mente und die ursprtingliche gestalt der Walthersage. — Carl, It. Ueber Thomas Lodge's leben und werke. — Soft'e, E. Eine nachricht tiber englische komo'dianten in Mahren.— Ellmer, W. Ueber die quellen der reim- chronik Roberts von Gloucester.— Horstmann, K. Orologlum Sapientiae or The Seven Poyntes of Trewe Wisdom.— Nuck, B. Zu Trautmann's deutung des ersten und neun und achtzigsten rBtsels.
BEITRAEGE (HRSG. v. PAUL UND BRAUNE) VOL.
XIII., PART II.— Helmburger, K. Grammatisehe dar- stellung der mundart des dorfes Ottenheim.— Leltz- mini n- A. Zur Kritik und erklBrung des Winsbeken und der Winsbekin.— Zimmermann, P. Heinrich GOding-a gedicht von Heinrich dem Lowen.— Bugge, 8. Etymologische studien tiber germanische lautver- schiebung.— Grimme, F. Bin neues bruchstiick der niederrheinischen Tundalusdichtung. — Falk, Hjalmar. Bemerkungen zu den lausavisur der Egilssage.— Holt- hausen, F. Miscellen. Ueber uo = 5 im Heliand.— (in I Ice, J. M. Graphische varianten im Heliand. — Bremer, 0. Ahd. leo Ho leuuo.— Lulck, K. Zur theorie der entstehung der schwell verse.— Kauffmann, Fr.— Geschlossenes e aus e vor i.
LlTERARISCHES CENRALBLATT. NO. 44.— Krel- ten, W. Molieres Leben und Werke. (H. K— ng). — Lange, 0. Die lateinischeii Osterfeiern.— Bartsrh, K. Die altdeutschen Handschriften der Universitttts- Bibliothek in Heidelberg. Die Schweizer Minne- sftnger.— Zarncke, Fr. Das Nibelungenlied.— Martin, E. AusgewShlte Dichtungen von Wolfhart Spangen- berg.— No. 45. Altdeutsche Textbibliothek.. Nos. 7, 8.— El/e, K. Grundriss der englischen Philologie. (R. W.). Beitrftge zur Landes-u. Volkeskunde von Elsass-Lothringen : I. This, C. Die deutsch-franzfisi- sche Sprachgrenze in Lothringen ; IT. Martin, E. Die Badent'ahrt von Thomas Murner.-Norton, (!h. E. 1 Cor- respondence between Goethe and Carlyle: 2. Carlyle, Thomas, Reminiscence, Garnett, B. Carlyle (Ew. Fl.) — Gietmann, G. Parzival, Faust, Job u. einige ver- vvandte Dichtungen.— Cludius, C. Ed. Der Plan von Goethe's Faust.— No. 46.— Devillard, Cr., Chresto- mathe de 1'aiicien f raneais. (H . K — ng). Edda Snorra Sturlusonar. Tomi III. pars 2.— Seemuller, Jos., Sei- fried Helbling.— Boethe, Gust., Die GedichteReinmar's von Loreter (H. P.).— Bleibtrcu, K. Geschichte der englishen Literaturim 19. Jahrhundert (R. W.).— Vet- ter, Th. Chronik der Gesellsch. d. Mahler 1721-1722.— No. 47.— Bramer, K. NationalitHt u. Sprache im Kfinigreiche Belgien.— Bolssler, Gaston, Mme. de Sevigne (H. K— ng).— Baechtold, Jak., Geschichte der deutschen Literaturin der Schweiz.— Porkelsson, Jon: Breytingar & mynduui. Holland, W. L. Zu Ludwig Uhland's Gedftehtiiiss.— Fischer, H., Ludwig Uhland. —Belling, Ed., Die Metrik Lessing's (C.).
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG, No. 44.— stahr,
A. G. E. Leasing, sein Leben und seine Werke (A. Sauer).— Kremer, J. Estienne von Fougi^res' Livre des Mani'.'res [Aus. und Abh. No. 39, Fr. Bischoff]. NO. 45.— Lemko, E. Volkstlimliches in Ostpreussen
(G. Kossinna).— Gaedertz, K. T. Goethes Minchen (E. Schmidt).— Vallat, G. Etude sur la vie et les ceuvres de Thomas Moore (A. Brandl).— No. 46.— Mueller, W. Mythologie der deutschen Heldensage (Max Rddiger). — Martlnetti, G. A. e Antona Traversl, 0. Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis.— No. 47.— Gletmann, G. Parzival, Faust, Job und einige verwandte Dichtungen (R. M. Werner).
LA NCUVELLE REVUE, ler Novtmbre.— Pejrot, M., Symbolistes et Decadents.— 15 November— HenntQuIn E., Charles Dickens, etude analytique.
REVUE CRITIQUE, No. 43.— Bitter, E. Recherches sur le poete Claude de Buttet et son Amalthee (T. de L.).— Godetroy. La lettre N. du Diction nai re (A. Jacques).— No. 46.— Furnivall, F. J., Some 300 fresh allusions to Shakspere, from 1594 to 1694.— M af ray, W. D., The Pilgrimage to Parnassus L1597-1601, J. J. Jus- serand].— Oharmasse, A. de, Francois Pen-in (A. Del- boulle).
REVUE POLITIQUE ET LITTERAIRE, NO. 2 1. -Paris, G., La legende du mari aux deuxfemmes.— No. 22.^ Larroumet, G. De Moliere a Marivaux.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA, FASC. XX.— Dei Lungo, i.
Dante e gli Estensi.— Maz/onl, G. La vita di Moliere secondo gli ultimi studi (Fine).— FASC. XXI.— Fornl- onl, S. La Comedia del secolo XX.— Borgognoni, A. Poeti e Poesia.
REVUE DU MONDE LATIN, Nmembre.— Horatlus, La
Litterature espagnole contemporaine.
NEUPHILOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT, No. 6
(Dezember 1887)— RUckblick. — Zweiter allgemeiner deutscher Neuplilologentag zu Frankfurt a. M. (Schluss.)— Die Uberbllrdungsfrage in Frankreich.— Uber den Gebrauch der FremdwoYter im Deutschen. Besprechung der am 22. MHrz 1887 von Dr. Waag Jaut Jahresbericht der Realschule zu Freiburg i. Br. gehaltenen Festrede. — Berichte aus den Vereinen : Berlin, Cassel, Frankfurt, Hannover ( Hornc maun . Der Franz. Unterricht in Gymnasialquiiita ohne Lesebuch und Grammatik).— Kartellverband neu- philologischer Vereine deutscher Hochschulen (Sch- luss.).—Litteratur: Besprechungen (Gelst, Lehrbuch der italienischen Sprache; Life of Adam Smith; L'Ami MacDonald; The Saracens; Thackeray's Letters.) Neue Erscheinungen. Inhaltsangabe von Zeitschrif- ten. — Nachruf. — Anzeigen.
GlORNALE STORICO DELLA L.ETTERATURA ITAL- IANA, VOL. X. (FASC. 1-2).— Macrl-Leone, Francesco,
Ilribaldone Boccaccesco della Magliabechiana.-Kajna, Plo, Intorno al considdetto ' Dialogus Creaturarum ' ed al suo autore : II. L'autore, 2. Breve intermezzo. 3. Maestro Bergamino. 4. Mayno de' Mayneri (con- tinuazione e fine).— Solerti, Angelo, Torquato Tasso e Lucrezia Bendidio.— Santinl, Pletro, Frammenti di un libro di banchieri florentini scritto in volgare iiel 1211 . Paodi, E. G.— Illustrazioni linguistiuhe ai suddutti Frammenti.— Percopo, Krasmo, Dragpnetto Bonifacio, marchese d' Oria, rimatore del sccolo XVI. — Ferral, L. A., A. Medin, La resa di Treviso e la inorte di Can- grande I della Scala.— Pellegrini, F. (\, P. Vjllari, La storia di Qirolamo Savonarola, nuova ediz., vol. I.— Sciplonl, G. 8.. — Gir. Mancini. Nuovi documenti e notizie sullu vita e sugli scritti di L. B. Alberti.
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MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
r.ali iiiinrr. I'Vbriiur.v, 1 8S8.
MATTER AND MANNER IN LITER- AR Y COMPOSITION.
It is not without retk-ction that 1 put the con- junction (inti between the two principal words of the title of this paper. That conjunction strikes the key-note of what the paper will try to say, namely, that, since every literary pro- duct necessarily has manner as well as matter, as necessarily no literary product is worthy of unreserved commendation, unless in it not only matter, but manner also, is adequately attend- ed to. In no other form would the title have said this. "Manner as opposed to matter" would have implied to a greater or less extent an incompatibility between the terms ; while any other expression that readily suggests it- self would have involved a notion of at least the inferiority of one or the other element of the composition. In fact, however, the terms are interpenetrating and mutually dependent ; it being a truism that matter can not exist with- out form nor form without matter.
A discussion of style, then, that proceeds in forgetfulness of this mutual dependence of form and content, necessarily shoots wide of the mark. And yet it was exactly this depend- ence that a recent discussion seemed to me to forget. In the late Modern Language Conven- tion, a paper by President Shepherd, of Charleston College, on the English of Lord Macaulay, provoked a deal of caustic criticism, unfair, I believe, because one-sided. Never before, perhaps, was Macaulay assigned so hopelessly low a place on the roll of English prose authors. Professor Hart, of Cincinnati, who said that Macaulay always seemed to him to write as if some one were looking over his shoulder and saying, " Bravo ! Lord Macaulay; how well you have turned that sentence ; "" Professor Hunt, of Princeton, who declared that he had yet to receive from Macaulay the slightest intellectual stimulus ; — both ignored, as it seems to me, this fundamental principle of the inseparability, except in thought, o matter and form in literary composition, both
*Quoted from memory.
spoke as if the only nirrit in composition u • its expressing worthy thought. Professor Hi nt did, indeed, confess that about no other u riter had such widely different opinions been ex- pn-ssed, and that the nearly mil oumk-d popu- larity Macaulay had attained was certain!', sign of some power in him; but it was for another speaker to remind the Conven- tion of the indissoluble bond between form and content; while even he damned the illustrious Englishman with faint pra by saying (in effect) that his style was an excellent poison with which to innoculate beginners against the more dreadful forms of " fine writing."
Now Macaulay's case is, of course, but one instance under the principle ; and the discus- sion intended here is of the principle, not of any concrete instance of it. Let us grant, then, freely the many defects of Macaulay both in thought and in style. President Shep- herd undoubtedly praised him over much ; his weaknesses are patent, and need not even be specified. They lie on the very face of his style ; his brilliancy itself making them glare at us the more rudely and insist the more strongly on being observed. But has Macau- lay, therefore, no points of excellence ? Is only the novice, never the practised critic, impressed by him ? Or, to put the question more broadly, is there no merit in a fine style ? Is such a style necessarily bad ? Are we to attend only to the thought of a composition ? Is it not, rather, manifestly unfair to single out a writer's defects, however glaring they are, and dwell on them, holding them so close to our eyes the meanwhile that we can not se.e his excellences at all ? — can not see the woods for the trees, as the German proverb has it? Granted that we outgrow such a writer as Macaulay ; what is it that we out- grow ? Surely not his clearness, not his pow- er of calling for us spirits from the vasty deep, not his admirable choice of words, not any of the merits of his style. Why, then, should we not gratefully recognize these merits and con- fess them elements of a real and true success? On the other hand, we do tire of the inherent contradiction between these excellences of
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
60
form and the writer's too evident failure to maintain his thought at a correspondingly high standard. Such brilliancy of style has a right to exist only as growing naturally out of a cor- respondingly briHiant body of thought ; and the critic is fairly entitled to say so. But he is manifestly unfair when he says this without conceding the other truth ; when he holds the writer up to ridicule as posing before a look- ing-glass and saying, "Ah, you handsome dog! " when , in fact, though the writer is a bit self-conscious, he really gives us something fine to look at. r
Suppose, for example, that Macaulay had thought as Carlyle thought. Would the bril- liancy of his style in that case have offended us? Nay, would not his many charms of man- ner, unimpaired as they would then have been, only have added to his legitimate effect upon us ? We were told in the Convention that Carlyle first wrdte as Macaulay did, but after- wards deliberately changed his style. But Why ? Was it not because he believed that, by intentionally adopting the peculiarities that characterize his later work, he would the more certainly secure an audience ? Surely, there was never a more conceited, self-consci- ous great man than Carlyle. Vice versa, sup- pose that Carlyle's style had remained more finished. Woufd his influence have been less ? Nay, is it not despite his crudities, his " Baby- lonian dialect," as Alexander Everett called it, that he influences us at all ? — despite thatbois- terousness and utter want of self-containment which have secured for him the epithet mega- losaurian ? Or, let us take some examples nearer home. Surely, thecharmof the Mosses from an Old Manse and the sustained interest of The House of the Seven Gables are no whit the less because of Hawthorne's almost match- less literary form? On the other hand, Mr. Marion Crawford is not at all a great novelist — great as Thackeray or Dickens or even Bulwer is great. Yet Mr. Crawford's style makes many a^passage in his works easy that would otherwise be the roughest sailing : nay, more, it furnishes us throughout his writ- ings with one legitimate object of admiration, even where the body of thought is of a texture too light to be valued for itself.
Not that I would champion mere manner.
When a man has nothing to 'say, by all means let him say it — as the familiar epigram warns us ; but when he has something to say, why shall he not say it as well as he can ? What do Professor McMaster's cross-section pictures of American life in 1789 lose by being painted in the brightest colors ? Or what does Carlyle gain by his eccentricities of style ? If a wri- ter's only true object is to influence his age or succeeding ages, if the man of letters should be (in Carlyle's own phrase) a prophet, what shall he gain by conciliating, as Carlyle has done, only a small audience ? Granted that Carlyle's audience is select, if small : he has offended multitudes whom he might have taught, and so has lost no small part of his proper influence. What a power his writings might have wielded, couched in a different style ! Or, to take another example, which ot the two famous passages in Milton's Areopa- gitica has exerted the greater force in human thinking, that in which a tradesman is describ- ed as committing his religion to his pastor for safe-keeping, while he himself is devoted to his trade, or that in which Truth is pictured as hewn, like Osiris, into a thousand pieces, while her sad friends, like Isis, make careful search for her members ? Both passages ex- press worthy thought, thought often dwelt up- on in our own times ; both rise above the plain style of ordinary prose ; each contains a figure of speech worked out to its utmost limits. But the style of the first passage is affected almost to awkwardness ; and the truth it con- tains is to-day re-expressed by our own writers in many different ways. The second passage, inimitable and almost unprose-like as it is, nevertheless impresses the most casual read- er, and is quoted daily from a score- of com- monplace-books. Its delicate style has kept it sweet through all the ages.
Once more, why is it that Milton's prose or the prose of Sir Thomas Browne is so little read to-day? To say that Milton's poetry- overshadows his prose, or that the topics on which he wrote are no longer " living " topics of thought, is no reason why the Urn Burial or the Religio Medici should not be known. Sir Thomas Browne wrote no verse ; and a more profitable book even for our study than the Urn Burial might be looked for in vain.
6i
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
Its inverted ;in<l otherwise un-modern style a'oiie seals it from all but a select lew readers.
The truth, then, would seem to he as stated in my opening paragraph, that holh a good style and a wortliy body of thought art: in sary to the ideally perfect composition. This certainly was (leorge Saintsbury's opinion when, in February 1876, lie printed in the Fortnightly Review his paper Modern English Prose, a paper in which, lamenting the pre- vailing neglect and consequent decay of Eng- lish prose style, he declares this decay not "a mere isolated fact," but " a change which has affected English Literature to a degree and in a manner worthy of the most serious consider- ation." The fine old English style, he hints, has gone out with the fine old English gentle- man, till, in this ultra democratic age, a certain coarseness of manner is as noticeable in liter- ary composition as it is in the conduct of peo- ple who profess themselves of the beau monde. Mr. Saintsbury actually describes the symp- toms of this change, details its causes, and lays down the duty of the critic in view of it ; showing by his earnestness and the minute at- tention he gives the subject, how real and how serious he considers the phenomenon to be.
The opposite opinion, however, has no little vogue. Buffon's doctrine that style is the man himself is interpreted by many teachers to mean that the individuality of a writer is ex- pressed only in his thought; that we are to know an author solely by the opinions he ex- presses. That the foot of Hercules, — or rather his hand, — shall also betray him, seems to these critics an incredible idea ; and their depreciation of form, of style in this its truest sense, grows in proportion. Less and less attention is paid to how an author writes, more and more to what he says. Worse than this, perhaps, the very springs of our literary supply are left unfilled ; until, in the mid-winter dearth that would seem to be threatening us, we shall have only to deplore our insensate folly in neglecting the precautions that might — doubtless would — have secured us springs filled to overflowing. The study of rhetoric and criticism is too much neglected by us. Language studies are too often only philo- logical ; or, at best, the student is left to acquire a good style by " absorption." Cer-
tain worthy writers are put I.efore him; th«-ir biography, the history of their times, th.- his- tory of literature in general, are taught him ; but the fundamental truths arrording to which the authors are good here and bad ther- mit taught him. Even questions of grammati- cal purity are treated as ol little value, ami. with the weightier matt, paragraph building, unity o| < ..nip.. jti,,n. ness, force, and other such topirs. are hiisth d out of court in quiet contempt.
Even professed English scholars give us some extraordinary examples of this neglect of manner in their hot pursuit of excellent matter. Thus, from a recently published book on English prose literature I extract the follow- ing curious fagots of crooked sticks :—
"Then follows, The Chronicle, compiled, partly, by Alfred, and partly, by I'legimund and other less known annalists. This collec- tion, unimportant as it is in itself or in its liter- ary character, is invaluable in its historical and civil bearings. Beginning long before the Conquest, // runs nearly a century beyond it and thus serves to cherish the First-English spirit and language. As the earliest history of any Teutonic people in a Teutonic language, and with the Laws the earliest form of En- glish Prose, it has an interest and [a] value quite aside from its contents. Alfred did for it [what ? the Chronicle or " the earliest form of English Prose " the Chronicle embodies?] what Chaucer did for English Poetry. He made it [?] national, so that from his time to the death of Stephen it [?] was the people's authority. Above all, it [?] was English clear and clean and lies back of all later English as a basis and guide."1
Could anything be more inartistic, unless, indeed, it is the same author's constant prac- tice of referring to headings on his page by mere demonstratives, and of thus making these headings part of his text ? For example, treating of Dr. Johnson's style, he writes,
" This * is one of the first features that im- press the reader as he studies this [?]3 prose structure and diction and it becomes more manifest as the perusal goes on."
i The italics, I need hardly say, are mine.
a " Its Anglo-Latin Element."
3 The context does not make this pronoun clear.
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 Ao. 2.
64
4 applies to subject matter as well as to method and external form."
" This s is a failure common to periodical writing." [Can the absence of impassioned energy be a. failure?]
All three examples are found within ten pages, and the whole volume is full of similar instances. Thus, among the merits of John- son's style is " (2) Literary Gravity," and we are informed about it that " the reference here is not to that excessive seriousness of manner which often ended in confirmed melancholy but to that sober habit of mind and expression which was based on his view of the writer's vocation."
The same writer, (who, let it be said in jus- tice to him, can write and has written not a little unimpeachable English), is fond of long series of those excessively short sentences which Coleridge condemned as "purposely invented for persons troubled with the asthma to read, and for those to comprehend who la- bour under the more pitiable asthma of a short - witted intellect." Thus, "The limits of his [Johnson's] life were too narrow to admit of much diversity. His style was affected by these circumstances and especially in the line of[\] want of adaptiveness to all classes and phases. His method was rigid and mechani- cal and the same to all. He would talk to Goldsmith and Savage and the artisan in the same manner. Whatever the topic might be, the treatment of it was the same. The nar- rative, [the] descriptive, [the] didactic and [the] critical were all run in the same mold and branded with the common mark. They are all in the phrase of Macaulay, 'Johnsonese.' His prose style, as his body, was very much opposed to change. Starting in one direction and at a certain pace he maintained it to the end. In all this he was true to his nationality. In that he was lethargic, he was English. The phlegmatic element in him was native to the realm. The Gallic verve and sprightliness was [sic] as foreign to him as it was to his country. He was constitutionally and mental- ly heavy and could not face about at will. There are few scenes in literary history so amusing as when this ponderous man attempts
4 " The Want of Flexibility and Adaptation."
5 " Absence of Impassioned Energy."
to be playful and unbend himself to passing changes. While he is unbending, the oppor- tunity passes. Here [!] as in the case of dic- tion, naturalness covers many sins. The very uniformity of his prose is natural. It is a fault and yet modified by the fact that it is purely individual and characteristic."
One is reminded of the criticism by Theseus of Quince's famous speech " for the Prologue," " This fellow doth not stand upon points."
So, Mr. Sweet, Anglo-Saxon Reader, p. xlv., finds it in his conscience to write, " Adjectives have the three genders of nouns, and the same cases, with the addition of the instrumental, ending in e, which only occurs in the masc. and neut. in the sing. : in the fern. sing, and in the plur. its place is taken by the dat.6 They also have a strong and [a] weak inflec- tion, the latter employed after the definite ar- ticle and demonstratives generally." Can con- tempt for form go further? Or is this utter want of style merely an unconscious imitation (as the abbreviations are a conscious following) of the great German philologist Dr. Wittern- sieaus ?
Even trained theologians and preachers are not free from such blunders. Thus, in a recent most important contribution to the history of Christianity, I find the following slips (with many more) in the work, the style of which is in general by no means bad :—
" The statesman or [the] ecclesiastical poli- tician whose object it was not to attain [=to attain not] martyrdom but triumph."
" The Greek fathers could not escape [have escaped], even had they been inclined to do so, from the influence of a philosophy like the Stoic."
" The truth of the incarnation as that which can alone \=alone can] meet the needs of spec- ulative enquiry."
Surely, if such things are possible in the writings of authors of no little repute, it is time that some one raised -his voice in behalf of a more careful, more conscientious cultiva- tion of style. Nor is any author to be judged without mercy, who, no matter what his short- comings in thought, has set us so illustrious an example of the importance and the effec-
6 The abbreviations are, of course, Sweet's.
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
66
tiveness of attention to points of style as Macaulay has set. Granting all that can he said as to Macaulay's mannerisms, — even con- ceding that he paid, perhaps, too much atten- tion to mere form, — he remains a model of diligence, of "curious care" in expression, that we dare not despise, and in reading whom the young writer makes a very judicious start.
Should a philosophic basis be demanded for the position taken in this paper, it is not far to seek. Composition is an art, and in every art-process three elements enter, — matter, or content ; form, or style ; and purpose, or end in view. Granting that of these three the first is chief, does it follow that the others or either of them is of no account ? How is it in music, in painting, or even in the technical arts, such as engineering? Shall a painter, because he has a noble picture in his mind, daub it on his canvass, so that we must strug- gle to discover his thought or his purpose? Is Wagner or Beethoven the greater musician ? Browning or Tennyson the greater poet? Which has most clearly set out to less gifted mortals the God-inspired blessings of sound or thought with which his own soul was enrich- ed and exalted ? It can not be that with regard to art in general two opinions can prevail on this subject : why should we be able to enter- tain them with regard to the particular art of composition ?
It is quite possible, then, to overstate the chief importance of having something worthy to say, — to state it, indeed, as if it were the only important element of composition. The truth is that success in all particulars is desira- ble ; that Macaulay (for example), whose de- fects are mainly in matter, is culpable only in another way from that in which Carlyle is to blame, whose defects are in style, and in still another way from that in which De Quincy is wrong, whose defects though in style, are not the same defects of style as Carlyle's. Indeed, if a strict inquiry be made, the pur- pose of discourse, its moral character, would seem to over-shadow even the having some- thing worthy to say. Many a writer has made shipwreck solely because his work has seemed to lack unity or definiteness of aim, so that his readers, like lost children or Spenser's travellers wandering in Error's den, have
i scarcely been able to find their way. OH the other hand, no writer is wholly useless ulio illustrates lor us one or another of the < I. in. nts of good composition. Nay, more; in our da\ . though a revival of the grand manner of the last century is not desirable, a protest is quite in place against the inditfen n« to manner, the undisguised contempt for it, that ft to be a prevailing affectation among us.
JNO. G. R.
University of Pennsylvania.
MODERN LANGUAGES /A THE UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE. II.
3- — L'ENSEIGNEMENT SECONDAIRE DES JEUNES FILLES.
Colleges for women are a rather new feature I in the University of France; they were only | created by the law of Dec. 21, 1880. While the president must be a woman, the teachers may be of either sex. The regular course of studies extends over five years and is divided into the premiere pMode, including the first, second and third year, and the deuxitme pf- riode or cours suptrieur, comprising the fourth and fifth. Outside of this course there may be organized a preparatory department, which would cover the instruction of the lower and middle course of primary schools required for entrance to the college course. The instruction of the first period is given in classes proper; that of the second, in courses uniting students of the same standing ; the modern languages, however, hold an exceptional position, and are taught in courses throughout. The studies are either part of the instruction proper, or ac- cessory exercises, or optional. The instruc- tion proper bears a distinctively literary char- acter ; it is based on the French language and literature with the elements of ancient litera- tures, the modern languages, and universal and national history and geography, which have 52 recitations out of 71 throughout the course ; the other 19 recitations are devoted to mathematics, natural science, physics, chem- istry, morality, physiology, domestic economy, hygiene, law, and psychology. The accessory
33
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
68
exercises are drawing, penmanship, vocal music, needle work and gymnastics. Optional in the last two years are : drawing, vocal music, the ancient literatures, the elements of Latin, mathematics, economical geography, and ani- mal and vegetable physiology. Few students take all these optional studies; most decide either for a literary or for a scientific line.
One modern language is compulsory from first to last and gets 21$ of the recitations of the instruction proper ; students are moreover encouraged to take up two or more, but suc- cessively, not all at the same time. Italian and Spanish are to be taught, but German and English should be studied in the first place, in view of their incontestable superiority for mental drill (gymnastique intellectuelle). The reading matter in English and German equals in most respects that of the other colleges. Of works not given in the list of the classical col- leges I mention : J. Habberton, ' Helen's Babies,' Longfellow, ' Evangeline ' and other poems ; Tennyson, ' The Grandmother,' Ottilie Wildermuth, Ausgewahlte Novellen ; Goethe, ' Iphigenie of Tauris,' and lyrics of the i8th and i gth centuries. On the other hand, several works studied in the classical and special colleges are entirely omitted, others like Shakespeare and Milton are read in family editions, Byron in extracts. Along with the harder works that are examined thoroughly, easier ones are read rapidly ; some poetry is committed to memory. The method and end of study resemble more that of the special col- leges than that of the classical. While not only the study of grammar but also transla- tion from French into the foreign language is limited to what is indispensable, conversation and original composition receive the greatest attention. Conversation proceeds from simple object-lessons to an interpretation of the for- eign authors in their own language ; composi- tion, from simple letters to essays on topics from the various studies of the class. The course is completed by an outline of literary history and some remarks on the origin and principal epochs of the language.
The colleges for women deliver a certificat cT6tud.es secondaires after an examination at the close of the third year, and a dipldme de fin d' etudes after an examination at the end of the
whole course. The students are examined by their own teachers under the presidency of a delegate of the rector. If women wish to pre- sent themselves for one of the baccalaureats in the examination held by the facultes, they are free to do so.
|
SUM TOTAL.... |
B { SCIENCES.... |
(ELEMENTS 01 |
, /ANCIENT LIT. |
VOCAL MUSIC |
III.— OPTIONAL Si DRAWING |
C/) C |
II. — ACCESSORY EXERCISE |
i» CJ K |
MORALS, PHYSIOLOGY, |
SCIENCES |
= I d o I |
MODERN LANGUAGE.. |
I. — INSTRUCTION PROPER. FRENCH LANG. AND LIT .. |
SUBJECTS. (Age minimum) |
|
' LATIN' |
1 B Ul |
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s. (PENMANSHIP. VOCAL MUSIC, NEEDLE-WORK, ETC.) |
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Not organized in 1882. |
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01 |
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Sum total of weekly recita- tions during the entire course. |
III.— HIGHER INSTRUCTION.
The Enseignement suptrieur is not concen- trated in universities, as in .England and Ger- many, but scattered in ti\tfacult&s des tettres, des sciences, de droit, de medecine and de the- ologie, in various normal and preparatory- schools, in the College de France and other institutions. We consider here only the facili- ties afforded for students aiming at professor- ships in secondary schools, and the require- ments made of them in modern languages. First we examine the normal schools, then the study in the faculties, and finally such degrees
34
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
and certificates as cannot be obtained without a modern language.
NORMAL SCHOOLS.
There are three principal normal schools : the renowned Ecole normale superieure at Paris, the Ecole normale speciale of Cluny, and the Ecole normale secondaire de Sevres. The first of these prepares professors for the classical colleges and the institutions of higher instruction; the second, professors for the spe- cial instruction ; the last, women professors for girls' colleges. The course of studies is three years in each, admission by a cone ours (compet- itive examination) ; board and tuition are free, in case the engagement of remaining for ten years in the service of the university is kept. Besides these three schools, there is establish- ed an Ecole normale secondaire at the lyceum of 'the chef-lieu of each academic \ it is formed by the reunion of the maitres repetiteurs aux- iliaires or ellves maitres boarding in the insti- tution.
The Ecole normale superieure does not re- quire any composition in a modern languag;e for admission, but the candidates of the scien- tific section have to pass an oral examination on the authors read in Mathematiques specia- les, those of the literary section on the works prescribed for Rhetorique and Philosophic. The Ecole normale speciale admits students to both the sections of letters and sciences without a special examination on a modern language ; only those who expect to enter the section of modern languages must write a t/ieme and version. The Ecole normale secon- daire of Sevres requires a written theme and version and an oral examination in a modern language of all candidates. The ecoles nor- males secondaires make no special require- ments.
THE FACULTIES.
Before the great reform of the last ten years the professors of Ihefacultes acted principally as examiners for degrees and lecturers to the general public, and had scarcely any regular students at all . Now the state, the departments and the communes have offered so many in- ducements to aspirants, that it has become a very important part of the professors' work to prepare students for the licence and agrega-
tion. The students are either resident or non- resident. The rt-sid. nts consist of boursiers, maitres auxiliaires, maitres d'etudes and auditeurs /tores, all of whom are bound to be regular in their attendance. The boursiers are either holders of a bourse de licence (scholarship) or of a bourse d'agrfgation (fi-l- lowship) ; the former are given after a con- coitrs, the latter according to the judgement of the professors of the faculty with whom the candidate has taken his licence; both bourses are awarded for one year, but can be prolong- ed for another, and require the ten years' engagement. The non-resident students are mostly teachers of the communal colleges of the academy who are working for a licence or agregation. At fixed intervals they send com- positions for correction to the professors or maitres de conferences, and on Thursday, the French weekly holiday, they themselves go to the seat of the faculty to attend certain courses, their travelling expenses being partly paid by the state. Not all faculties are pro- vided with a staff of professors numerous enough to prepare for all licences and agrega- tions.
LA LICENCE.
The licence is the next degree after the bac- calaureat and cannot be obtained till one year afterwards. There are three different licences scientifiques and four licences de lettres : the licence litteraire, the licence philosophique, the licence historique and the licence avec mention 'tongues vivantes.' In the examina- tions for the literary, philosophical and histori- cal degree the requirements in modern lan- guages are limited to the translation of an easy English or German work of literary , philosophi- cal or historical criticism ; for the last degree they are naturally of a more rigorous charac- ter. The candidate writes a thlme and version of four hours each, without a dictionary; inter- prets a text with questions on literature ; and translates at sight into the foreign language ; besides, he renders into French a passage from a prose author of a second foreign language. CERTIFICATS D'APTITUDE.
While the examinations for the baccalaureat and the licence may be taken at any faculty, those for the certificat f aptitude for the secon-
35
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888.- N*. 2.
72
dary instruction, and for the agregation, must be completed at Paris. Nobody can obtain a certificate without possessing one of the bac- calaureats or an equivalent. A modern lan- guage is required for the certificate of a pro- fessor of the elementary classes of classical col- leges, for that of a professor in the literary sec- tion of special instruction, for that of a woman professor in girls colleges, and finally, as a mat- ter of course, for the certificate of a professor of modern languages. For the classical pro- fessor, German has been compulsory since 1884. A short and easy German text is dictated and translated into French, and vice versa a French text into German. Then a German piece is read and partly translated, and some elementary questions are asked and answered in German. The candidate for a literary pro- fessorship in the special instruction writes a theme, interprets an author and answers a few oral questions on the language and litera- ture. For the girls' colleges, a modern lan- guage did not become compulsory till 1886. The scientific section has some oral questions with a theme on the blackboard; the literary division, a four hours' theme and version, fol- lowed by some interrogations.
The certificate for the instruction in modern languages enlists our special attention. The candidates take a preparatory and a definitive examination. The former consists of a thtme, version and a French composition without any aid ; the latter comprises' an oral thlme and version, a le$on grammatical, and a conversa- tion in the foreign language, and two questions, one on the foreign and the other on French literature. The list of authors varies from year to year. In 1886 we find in German : Goethe,' Gotz ; ' Wieland, 'Oberon; ' Gervinus, 4 Litteraturgeschichte ; ' Hauff, ' Lichtenstein ;' Me'rime'e, ' Colomba ' and Racine, ' Phedre ' (Acts I. and V.); tin English: Miss Austen, ' Pride and Prejudice ;' Shakespeare, ' Hamlet ' Montesquieu, ' Grandeur et decadence des Remains.' The pronunciation of the French and the foreign language forms an important factor in the estimate of the jury.
L'AGREGATION.
Every candidate for an agregation must be licencie; an agrege. gets, the .title of professor
and receives a higher salary than a licencie in the same position ; the form of the examina- tion is the concours. Among the different agregations only that of modern languages, and that of instruction in girls' colleges de- serve our notice. The requirements for the agregation of girls' colleges closely resemble those for the, certificate of the same schools ; the examination for the agregation of modern languages is much harder than that for the corresponding certificate. '*"• <
The preparatory part contains a. theme, a version, a French composition and a com- position in the foreign language ; one of these compositions is on a question of literature and the other on a question of language. The first1 definitive examination is the interpretation of a passage drawn by lot among the German or English classics indicated by the Minister ; and an oral theme. The list of 1886 shows, for Ger- man, works of Lessing, Herder(Ideen), Goethe, Schiller (Balladen), A. W. v. Schlegel (Vorle- sungen iiber dramatische Kunst und Litteraitur) Platen, Simrqck (Das kleine Heldenbuch), La Fontaine, Moliere, Mv de Stael, Saint-Marc Girardin,; for English, among others, pieces from Chaucer, Sir Philip Sidney, Shakespeare, Milton, Pope, Gray, Sterne, Shelley, Ch. Bronte, Green, La Fontaine, Racine and J. j\ Rousseau. The second definitive examination comprises two one hour lemons, one in the foreign language and the other in French: The subject of the one is taken from one of the authors of the program, that of the other from literary history. The last examination is finally the translation of a prose author of the other modern language into French.
IV.T— BOURSES DE SKJOUR A L'ETRANGER.
In conclusion I should like to mention- that the French Government sends each year a number of young men abroad to study English and German in the countries where those lan- guages are spoken. The official plan cT etudes of the ecoles primaires superieures contains the announcement of an annual concours among graduates and pupils of that grade of schools for bourses- de sejour a VHranger. Much less known is the fact that normal school teachers also and college graduates are sent abroad. According to the Kblnische Zeitung, there were last year eighteen of such young
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No.
2.
74
men in Austria, Suit/erland and Germany, and twelve in England. In Germany the college graduates take hoard in German families and attend the Untcr- and Oberprima of a Realgymnasium ; they stay eighteen months, but they must spend that time at two different schools. Before they return to France they send a detailed report of their experi- ences and observations to the minister of public instruction. Some of these reports which were communicated to Germans show that the young men generally maintain the most amicable relations both with their Ger- man fellow students and with the families in which they board. Their progress, further- more, in learning the German language and in school exercises is very satisfactory.
MO/)/-A'.\ LANGUAGES AT CAM
fcarlham College.
ADOLPH GERBER.
THE ANGLO-SAXON bdsnian and wr&sen.
The Anglo-Saxon word bdsnian, ' to delay, tarry' etc., though rather odd in appearance, is not so obscure a formation as one might at first suppose. Whatever be the relation be- tween the suffixes of the feminine abstract nouns such as the Gothic sdkns (suffix -ni) and usbeisns (suffix -sni), it is sufficient for the pres- ent purpose to accept the suffix -sni (in all probability at first developed in association with dental bases) as an extension of the simple form -ni. In accordance with this view Kluge in his Nominale Stammbildungslehre § 147 has classed the Gothic usbeisns < *usbeid- sns, anabusns< *anabudsns etc., with sdkns, taikns, siuns etc. Kluge has also called atten- tion to the ablaut-variation which is exhibited, for example, in taikns and usbeisns. By the side, therefore, of *usbeidsni- we may also place, as formed from the same base-group of the verb bidan (A. S.), the stem *baidsni-. From this we should in Anglo-Saxon obtain *bdsn >*bdsen ' an abiding, a delay,' the nomi- nal base of the denominative verb bdsnian. In like manner do we find wrasen (inwit-wrd- sen, etc.) <*zvrai3sni- by the side of the verb wriftan. A verb *ivrdsnian could also have been formed.
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
LAM>.
Readers of MODERN LAM.I *oi Nous \\ill be interested to hear of a meeting of great im- portance which has lately taken place at Cam- bridge University, England. The'. . the National Society of French Professors residing in England was invited by the authori- ties to a session in the university at which the vice-chancellor and all the masters of colleges were present. The occasion was one of im- portance in a variety of respects. It was under distinguished patronage, the chairman being M. Waddington, the French ambassador to England, while among those who expressed their strong sympathy with the work of the Congress we meet the names of Lord Lytton (Minister to France), Lord Tennyson, MM. Jules Simon, de Lesseps, Arsene Houssaye, and Jules Ferry. M. Waddington delivered the inaugural address. He referred with pleasure to the recognition of the Congress by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and expressed the hope that modern languages would soon be placed upon an equal footing with classical and other subjects. Vice Chan- cellor Taylor emphasized the warm interest felt by the university in the study of French. The most important speech, however, was that made by Professor Seeley, the widely known occupant of the chair of modern history at Cambridge. Professor Seeley's long and varied experience and extensive knowledge make his remarks of special value. He believed that a crisis in education has arrived when it is necessary to accord to modern lan- guages their true and prominent place in modern culture. Recognizing most strongly the value of the classics, "himself a classicist of the classics," he still thought that the needs of modern life were peremptorily demanding very much more devotion to the study of modern languages than had ever yet been accorded them. So far from believing that Latin must be learned in order to teach French, "let us," he said, "teach French in order to learn Latin." He emphasized the immense value of French literature, "a litera- ture not less but more extensive and various than the Greek and Roman literatures them-
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selves." "It is absurd," he continued, "to claim the title of humanities exclusively for the classics, to consider that a youth cannot learn grace from Racine, austere purity from Pascal, eloquence from Rousseau, elevation and force from Victor Hugo, not to say from Dante and Goethe." Professor Seeley enumerated the various departments of activi- ty in which the modern languages are of para- mount importance, especially history ; and strongly objected to the statement that in all respects the classics are the preferable object of study. "The modern literatures cannot be introduced by the ancient, but the ancient literatures can be included in the modern by means of translation." The speaker continued in the same strain, and upon closing his ad- dress was greeted with enthusiastic applause not merely by members of the Congress but by some of the dons and by a large body of the students. A banquet at King's College and a conversazione at Trinity College supplied the social element of the occasion. A general feeling of unanimity seemed to reign, both as to the hopeful prospect in regard to the aca- demic study of modern languages, and as to the cessation of the all but monopoly which has so long obtained in favor of the classics, in the great English universities.
The gentlemen entertained by the universi- ty were simply teachers of the French lan- guage and not, in any sense, a body of scholars engaged in the advanced study of modern linguistics, in either their scientific or literary aspect. It may fairly be presumed, then, that had the latter important phases of modern language study been duly represented in the Congress, its reception on this occasion would have been all the more enthusiastic and honorable. The scientific attention which the philology of modern languages is now so widely claiming would certainly have secured for a body representing original research as well as practical instruction the especially hearty endorsement of Cambridge University.
It is gratifying to call attention to these signs of the times. The prospects are certain- ly hopeful when the men who stand guard over the strongholds of classicism are thus frankly outspoken in favor of reform.
T. McCABE. Johns Hopkins University.
THE FIFTH ANNUAL CONVENTION
OF THE
MODERN LANGUA GEASSOCIA TION OF AMERICA.
The Fifth Annual Convention of the Modern Language Association of America, held at Philadelphia on the 28, 29 and 30 of Decem- ber, may be considered memorable in the annals of the Association for several reasons : the large number of members attending and the increase in membership ; the practical nature of the majority of the subjects treated, and the uniform excellence of the papers ; and last, though by no means the least important, the increasing interest which its discussions created in the minds of the more general pub- lic, as witnessed in the fulness of the re- ports of the daily papers. Representing, as such a society does, the progressive rather than the radical spirit of modern education, the extension of its audience to this more gene- ral public can not but be attended with the best results, in forming a public opinion which we trust may in some measure correct the utilitarian tendencies so widely prevalent in both our school and college curricula.
Although the order of exercises did not begin, strictly speaking, until Wednesday evening, December 28, Dr. William Pepper, Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, received informally at his house, on Tuesday evening, such delegates as had already ar- rived. Quite a number availed themselves of Dr. and Mrs. Pepper's kind hospitality.
During Wednesday, in accordance with the provisions already made by the Local Com- mittee, the delegates were enabled to visit such places of interest in and about Phila- delphia as proved most attractive.
On Wednesday evening, the Association met at the University of Pennsylvania to listen to Provost Pepper's Address of Welcome, and to hear Professor James MacAlister in an address on "The Place of Modern Literature in the Education of Our Time." In the absence of James Russell Lowell, the president of the association, and of W. T. Hewett of Cornell University, the second Vice-president, Profes- sor James M. Garnett, of the University of Vir-
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ginia, presided. Provost Pepper, after stating that " the association's success was due to the strong personality of its membership as well as to the strong public interest in the subject they represented," went on to say that while the association must take the lead in an attack on classicism, such attack in its hands must be free from wanton and destructive measures ; for none could be more favorable advocates for the just claims of the Greek and Latin lan- guages than the members of the association. He held that the object of the association was to emphasize its belief " that the modern lan- guages have an equal claim with the classics," in modern education. Provost Pepper conclud- ed with appropriate words of welcome in be- half of the authorities of the University of Pennsylvania and of the local committee.
It must be confessed that, in the address which followed, Professor MacAlister material- ly departed from the very moderate views just expressed by the Provost. He claimed that the present system, in which the classics still maintained an ascendency in education, could not last ; that " the final outcome must be a distinctive system based on the foremost human achievements of modern times. Dante, Cervantes and Goethe, may be taken as the types of modern culture. They can teach us more than all the ancient writers." At the close of the exercises the University gave a reception to the members of the Convention.
The second session opened on Thursday morning with the reading of the annual report by Professor A. Marshall Elliott of Johns Hopkins University. This was followed by the appointment of various committees ; nota- bly one to consider the advisability of me- morializing Congress for an abolition of the tariff on imported books. The reading of pa- pers then began. Professor Albert H.Tolman of Ripon College, Wisconsin, read the first paper, which treated of the Style of Anglo- Saxon Poetry. After an intelligent consider- ation of the contending verse theories as now held by Heinzel, Rieger, ten Brink and others, the speaker devoted his attention to a minute consideration of style proper, laying particu- lar stress upon the vigor and strength of the metaphorical and disconnected style of the early Anglo-Saxon poets. In the discussion
that followed, in which Professors Hart,
Bright and Hunt took an active part, especial emphasis was laid upon the necessity of a com- plete renovation of the entire subje< t of Anglo- Saxon versification in the light of the later researches of Professor Sievers in this field.
Professor Tolman was followed by Pr«. H. S. White of Cornell University, on " Tin- Modern Language Seminary System." He spoke at length upon the needs of our colleges for intelligent work under the personal super- vision of competent instructors, and of the I equipment necessary to carry out these re- quirements. In closing, Professor White was particularly happy in calling attention to the words of James Russell Lowell in his address at Harvard last year, that " language should be made a ladder for literature, and not litera- ture a ladder for language."
The morning session was brought to a close with an elaborate essay on the " Face in the Spanish Metaphor and Proverb," by Pro- fessor Henry R. Lang of New Bedford, Mass. After luncheon, which was served in the j University, the reading of papers was resum- j ed. Professor Sylvester Primer's paper on j "Charleston's Provincialisms" elicited enthus- j iastic approval, and led to lengthy discussion | and comparison of various provincialisms which are still lurking among us. Prof. Joynes, of South Carolina College, gave especial weight to climatic influences in their effect upon pronunciation. However, from the number of parallel cases mentioned by those taking part in the discussion, we may affirm that per- haps not the least difficult part of Professor Primer's task for the future will be found in the discovery of what are and what are not provincialisms peculiar to Charleston.
Professor Henry Wood, of Johns Hopkins University, followed with a paper on "The Brief, or Pregnant, Metaphor in the Minor Elizabethan Dramatists." In the treatment of the brief metaphor he found the greatest origi- nality of the Elizabethan dramatic style, and showed that what we should now consider a mere " fancy " or conceit was to the dramatist of that age the appropriate expression of the highest imaginative thought.
The last paper of the session was that of Professor Alce"e Fortier of Tulane University.
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La., upon "Bits of Louisiana Folk-lore." This proved one of the most entertaining papers of the session, and it was a matter of regret that the limited time prevented anything ex- cept the more popular presentation of the subject.
In the evening the members of the associa- tion were tendered a reception by the Histori- cal Society at its rooms. The reception brought together a large and distinguished gathering, and conversation was general and animated. The last day's session was opened by Pro- fessor Charles F. Kroeh with a paper on the " Methods of Teaching Modern Languages," in which he advocated the "natural method." The Convention now proceeded to the more technical papers. The " Speech Unities and their R61e in Sound Change and Phonetic Laws " by Professor Gustaf Karsten and " Die Herkunft der sogenannten Schwachen Verba der germanischen Sprachen " by Professor Hermann Collitz were both delivered in Ger- man and led to considerable discussion. Pro- fessor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, followed with an interesting paper on "Some Specimens of a Canadian French Dialect spoken in Maine," which elicited from Pro- fessor Elliott the identification of many of its peculiarities with those of the dialects of Northern France. The last paper of the morn- ing session, "On Paul's Principien der Sprach- geschichte," by Dr. Julius Goebel of Johns Hopkins University, dealt largely with meta- physical theories of the origin of language and brought out an extremely lively discussion between its author and Professor Karsten.
After midday luncheon, before the reading of papers was resumed, the reports of com- mittees were in order. Among them was that of the committee appointed to memorialize ' Congress for a removal of the tax upon foreign books. Resolutions also were received and approved embodying the thanks of the asso- ciation to the University of Pennsylvania and to the various organizations that had extended their courtesy to the members of the associa- tion.
The next paper, "A Study of Lord Macaulay's English" by President Henry E. Shepherd of the College of Charleston, called out the ex- pression of so much opinion adverse to the
reat English essayist, that it may well be doubted if anything short of Macaulay's own mpetuous eloquence could have stemmed the ide of disapproval. Professor Hart found no pleasure or profit in him; Professor Hunt had never received from him the least intellectual stimulus ; and finally another gentleman step- led in with the coup de grdce by stating that
owed much to Macaulay as an author who lad taught him the want of something better n the way of mental pabulum.
Professor Albert H. Smyth of Philadelphia then read an essay on "American Literature in the Class-room," putting in a strong plea for the more general recognition of our own au- thors in our school and college curricula. In reply to the position there taken, Professor Wood made an excellent point, by calling at- tention to the greater justice of the term ' En- glish Literature in America ' in comparison with the term 'American Literature.'
In his paper on "The English Curriculum in the University," Dr. James W. Bright of Johns Hopkins dwelt upon the true distinction be- tween the university and the college, and ex- cited much favorable discussion. The exer- cises were brought to a close with a paper on "The Earliest Works'on Italian Grammar and Lexicography published in England," by Prof. A. Marshall Elliott of Johns Hopkins Univer- sity.
In the evening, the members of the Associa- tion met many of their newly-made friends at the Penn Club's Reception, which conclud- ed the list of hospitalities.
The varied character of the papers read calls for some comment. The considerable number and excellence of the papers dealing more or less with pedagogics, can not but be regarded as the indication of an awakening upon a subject too long neglected among us ; while the liter- ary tendency of others indicates that we are not, at least not all of us, given over hopeless- ly to die neue Philologie. The philological depths were sounded in the purely technical papers, but the fact that philology is none the less concerned with living and growing organ- ism was recognized as perhaps it has never before been recognized here in America. In the excellent work of Professors Primer, Shel- don and Fortier, in their representation of the
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living speech phenomena around us — as was justly said during the convention — we must recognize what scorns to be tin- peculiar func- tion of this Association. It is to be hoped that such work may inspire renewed effort for the future in this interesting field of research.
KKLIX E. SCHKI.UNG. University of Pennsylvania.
CONVENTION OF THE
MODERN LANG UA GEASSOCIA TION
OF ONTARIO.
The Second Annual Meeting of the Modern Language Association of Ontario, Canada, was held in the Canadian Institute, Toronto, on Wednesday and Thursday, December 28th and 2gth.
The attendance of members was large and included the names of most of the best known and most successful teachers of French and German in the Province. Upon a survey of the topics treated, it will be seen that though the subjects had a wide range, they yet bore almost exclusively upon what the teacher might directly utilize in his work in the class- room. The seemingly practical bent thus given to the discussions of the Convention was due to the fact that its members were with few exceptions language teachers in Secondary Schools. We may remark that there are in Ontario over one hundred of these so-called High Schools ; that in each of them provision has to be made for the teaching not only of the classics but also of one at least of the modern languages ; and that in all the larger schools special masters are employed for this purpose. The opening address of the convention was given by its Hon. Prest., Dr. Daniel Wilson, the venerable President of Toronto University. The topic treated of was "The Influence of the French Revolution on English Literature." The great English poets who flourished in the brilliant literary epoch marked by the latter part of the reign of the Third George, were named and briefly characterized ; and it was shown what was the influence exerted by the political events in France on their lives and writings.
In the afternoon session o(. \V< dncsday, pa- pers were n ;K! on " English M«-tre," on "'I In- Natural Method of Teaching Language*," and
on " Language and Thought."
At the evening meeting, Mr. Yand<-rsmissi n. the President, opened with an address on " History and Literature," tin- speaker limit- ing himself to the field of Germany. A paper was then read on "The Study of English in Ontario." In the animated discussion which followed on this subject, the majority of tin- speakers held, with the writer of tin- arti that English is well taught in the < >ntario High Schools. Another subject treated of was that of Text-Books, of which it was pleaded that a periodical revision should be made, every five years, by a competent committee.
On the following morning, after the election of officers and of new members, a resolution was passed asking the Modern Language Mas- ters of the Province to send in the names of works in French and German suitable for University Matriculation examination.
The reading of papers was then resumed. The first subject discussed was that of "The Eye and the Ear in Modern Language Teach- ing." These two organs, it was held, should be cultivated simultaneously, as should also the ear and the voice. A plea was also ad- vanced for the application in teaching of the principles of phonetics. The Convention closed with a practical paper on "Translating French."
We heartily congratulate our fellow teachers across the border-line on the success of their recent meeting, and trust that their efforts in the direction of improved teaching of Modern Languages, and of a more thorough study of the same, may meet with even greater success in the future.
JOHN R. WIGHTMAN.
Johns Hopkins University.
CORRECTIONS TO WHITNEY'S FRENCH VOCABULARIES.
A careful perusal of the vocabularies at the close of Whitney's ' Practical French Gram- mar,' suggests the following corrections :
February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
84
i. — FRENCH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.
Aprts-midi is given as masc., — better fern. ; — auberge masc., should be fem. ; — chanson, masc., should be fem. ; — cdte, fem., should be masc. (As this mistake occurs also in the English-French vocabulary, and as the author derives the word from the form costa, ' rib,' it is probable that the error is not a typographi- cal one merely, but due perhaps to a confusion with cdte.} — Faim, masc., should be fem. ; — tortueux is marked as fem. (with no designa- tion as adj .). — Under head of omission, we may note that the word cerise, used on page 97 (sentence 19), is wanting in the vocabulary.
2. — ENGLISH-FRENCH VOCABULARY.
Under the word 'afternoon,' aprts-midi, masc., — better fem. ; — under the words ' many ' and ' too ' the author gives, as one meaning for 'too many," the expression trop beaucoup de (!) (This error is corrected in the abridged edition.) — Under the word 'March,' the gender of the French mars should be given, (same remark for peuple, under the word ' people"). — Under the word 'perhaps,' peutetre should be joined by a hyphen ; — under the word ' side,' cdte, fem., should be masc.
If the question of etymologies were to be touched upon, attention might be called to the inconsistency between examples like : laurier [fr. L. laurum\, orage [fr. L. aura, breeze], etc., on the one hand, and those more accurately given, such as : berger [LL. ber- bicarium, h.berbex, r&m\,fromage \formceti- cum, shaped], on the other.
B. L. BOWEN.
Johns Hopkins University.
CORRESPONDENCE.
To the Editors of Modern Language Notes :
I have had for some years an old dictionary which has afforded me considerable amuse- ment, and I think a few extracts from it may be of interest to your readers. The work is entitled :" A New and Complete American Dictionary of the English and German Lan- guages," By Wm. Odell Elwell (New York, 1852). The significance of the word " Ameri- can " in this title will appear in what follows.
Some time ago, in looking it over, I came upon the expression "catawamptiously chaw- ed up," which I found translated as "ganzlich zerstort, ganz und gar vernichtet." This dis- covery encouraged me to look further, and I append the result of my investigations in the following list of choice excerpts :
ABSQUATULATE. Weglaufen.
ARGUFY. Gewicht haben : beweisen.
BLACKSTRAP. Branntwein und Zucker : Grog.
BOGUS. Eine Art Grog.
BUSTER. Etwas Grosses, Colossales, Ungeheures.
CALIBOGUS, Ein Getrank von Rum und Bier.
DIGGINGS. DerBezirk.
DINGED. Sehr.
DRATTED. Sehr : ausserordentlich.
FARZINER (!). (Corrumpirt aus ' Far as I Know.').
So viel ich weiss. FLUMMUX. Verwirren. GAL-BOY. Ein wildes Madchen. KOOL-SLAA. Der Kohlsalat. LAM. Derb durchprligeln. PESKY. Gross: weit : ausserordentlich; in hohem
Grade : sehr.
RANTANKEROUS. Zankisch. SNOOZER. Der Dieb (in Gasthofen). SPOONEY. Der einf Itige Mensch.
This list might be extended indefinitely. The German's conception of" English as She is Spoke " in America is quite as mirth-provok- ing as that of the Portuguese .grammarian whose little book gave him fame of a sort al- together unexpected.
WILLIAM MORTON PAYNE. Chicago High School.
NOCH EIN MA L MEISSNER-JOYNES, II.
§ 403 ff. Das Capitel iiber die Verwandt- schaft der englischen Sprache mil der deut- schen hatte auf der Grundlage von Grimm's Verschiebungsgesetz zu einem recht fruchtba- ren gemacht werden konnen ; aber leider ist die Behandlung dieses Gegenstandes gerade in den Hauptpunkten unklar und fehlerhaft. Es wird nirgends angegeben INWIEFERN ein grosser Teil der Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Sprachen durch Grimm's Gesetz zu
February. MODERN LANG UA GE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
M
erklaren ist ; imGegenteil, §§405 & 414 niiisscii in jedeni Uneingeweihteii die verkehrte Yor- stellung erwecken, als ob jenes Gesetz nur fiir die Zeit VOR der Lostrennung des Angelsachs- ischen von dem Stammlande in Betracht kame; ein Vergleich der einander entsprechenden deutschen und englischen Laute mit dem Schema S. 221 notigt ferner zu dem Schlusse, dass die englischen Consonanten durchweg einer spateren Entwickelungsstufeangehoren, als die deutschen. Sieht man vollends, wie die englischen Formen den deutschen iiberall nachgestellt sind, und wie §41 1 von Auslassung- en, Einfiigungen und Umstellungen handelt, so ergiebt sich als scheinbar zweifellos, dass der engl. Consonantismus sic haus dem hoch- deutschen entwickelt habe. So wird der arg- lose Neuling von vornherein in die Irre ge- fiihrt. Fast mochte es scheinen, als ob der Bearbeiter selbst nicht ganz im Klaren gewe- sen ware ; denn in dem erwahnten Schema S. 221 ist Grimm's Verschiebungsgesetz in ganz entstellter Form wiedergegeben. Die Reihen- folge sollte sein
Soft— Hard— Aspirate (—Soft), und S. 222 :
English — soft — hard — aspirate — German — hard — aspirate — soft. Es wu'rde sich empfehlen, wie hier, so iiber- all die englischen Formen den deutschen voranzustellen und den Grund dafiir — die Pri- oritat der englischen consonantischen Laut- stufe im Vergleich mit der weiter verschobe- nen hochdeutschen — ausdrucklich zu erklaren und hervorzuheben. — j5§ 409, 410. Die Eintei- lung der lautlichen Abweichungen ist manch- mal sogar fiir ein Elementarbuch zu unwissen- schaftlich. — § 414. Overset ein primitive? — §417. Zu Stande kommen — to be brought about, to be consummated. — § 422. Ehren- bezeigungen, nicht bezeichnungen. — §423. Die Hose, das Beinkleid sind ganz gewohnlich als Singulare ; auch das Ostern, das (die) Pfingsten, das (die) Weihnachten oder die Weihnacht, die Alp kommen haufig vor. — § 425. Die Bemerkung : but in the compound, die Fensterladen, onfy—ist unrichtig. — § 426. Der Chor=the chorus, the choir ; das Chor= the choir. — § 428. (or dem Herrn) ist zu strei- chen; die Frau Professor(in); meine Frau wird nie als Anrede gebraucht, man sagt Madam(e)
(vrraltet)oder hoflichcr gnddige Frau, oder :il)«-r Frau mit nachfolgcn<l< m Naim r. TitH <lrs ( ieinahls: Frau Miiller, Frau Doctor- (i'w)etc.— g 430*. Selten difs(ts) mein Herz.— § 432. Die tttichdruckerkunst wortli< h the art-of-the-printer-of -books. — £ 434C. Kiigehin- 7U : sich t-nlsinnen, to remember. — ^ 437.6. Sich anmassen, to arrogate; Note: d« • brauch des Artikels ware unhoflich, da - be vor Eigennamen oft Geringschatzung aus- driickt. — § 438. Ist favorable im Sinne des deutschen hold guter Sprachgebrauch ? Si« li« Ex. LI, Satz i.— § 450. Alter liebst ist kein absoluter, sondern ein relativer Superlativ (aller=von alien); aber es wird jetzt kaum mehr als Superlativ gefuhlt, das beweist seine praedicative Anwendungund derregelm:i-,sig<- Gebrauch des unbestimmten Artikels vor dem- selben. — § 452. In meinetwegen, seinetu'illen, euerthalben etc. haben wir nicht Genitive der Personalia, sondern Accusative resp. Dative der Possessiva, da wegen, willen, halben ur- spriinglich substantivische Casus sind. Also eigentlich (und friiher thatsachlich so ge- schrieben)rw/ meincn Wegen, umseinen Willfit, (von) eueren Halben imlnl. JiaJ6e=Se\te, Rich- tung). Wegen des / vergleiche man die For- men meinentwegen, derentwillen, allenthalben etc. Mit Ausnahme von halb(en), das schon ganz friih als blosse Praeposition auftritt, ist der gen. sing, der Personalia in Verbindung mit diesen Ausdriicken erst neuerdings, und nur in beschranktem Masse, gebrauchlich geworden.— § 457,3 sollte lauten : Regular- ly, as indefinite antecedent of a relative, he (who) is derjenige — or der — not er, etc. : he who is happy, derjenige welcher glilcklich ist, or wer gliicklich ist; but when the antecedent refers to a certain person before mentioned or understood, it must be translated by the person- al pronoun : auch er (sie, etc.), der (die, etc.) mir so viel verdankte, verliess mich in der Not. — § 459, Remark. Darin diirfte man mit dem Bearbeiter doch nicht ohne Weiteres iibereinstimmen. Dasselbegilt von der Bemer- kung § 462,2. — g 463, b. — continuing up to and during the present time. — §467. Mich bezah- len, nicht mir ; aber wenn das Ding, welches bezahlt wird, erwahnt ist, steht es im Accusa- tiv, die Person, der man etwas bezahlt, im Dativ. — § 468. Um dass ist veraltet. — §472.
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He might have forgotten it wiirde man zu- riickiibersetzen mit er hdtte es vergessen kon- nen, nicht er diirfte etc. Diirfen driickt eher eine Wahrscheinlichkeit, als eine blosse Mog- lichkeit aus ; dazu hat der Conj. Praet. diirfte fast immer Praesensbedeutung. Also das diirfte zu schwer sein : that is probably too hard; er ditrfte es vergessen haben : he has probably forgotten it, etc. — § 474,d. Nach Juhlen, hbren, sehen ist der active Infinitiv mindestens doppelsinnig ; man wird ihn stets eher activ als passiv auffassen. — § 477, Note. Den Fluss durchschwamm, nicht d. F. sch- wamm. c. Satze \vie der letzte (mit um dass) diirfen dem Schiiler nicht als Muster vorgelegt werden. — § 483. Erbittert heisst exasperated ; embittered=verbittert. — § 485. Ja, horen sie einmal kann je nach der Betonung auf ganz verschiedene Weise iibersetzt werden, aber keinesfalls mit just listen to what 1 say ; am nachsten kame wol, dem Sinne nach, ein Aus- druck wie : But, my dear Sir, etc. Ja als Ausrufungswort zu Anfang eines Satzes ent- spricht dem englischen Yes mitangehangtem that is (would be) all very well und driickt meist Ungeduld aus. Horen Sie (einmal) ! ist eine Anrufung wie das englische (/) say \ Kommt er noch nicht heisst is he not coming yet? Wohl bedeutet probably, nicht may-be, manchmal auch indeed: Das ist wol wahr, that is indeed true, oder that is true enough. — § 486,10. Wenn der Hauptsatzmit sobeginnt, heisst das wenn im Nebensatz stets if; so ist es auch in den letzten zwei Beispielen zu iiber- setzen. — § 487, Examples ia. Nach versteckte etc. lies who was ... and who received and con- cealed etc. —
Die Uebungsstiicke zum Uebersetzen ver- lieren dadurch sehr an Wert, dass die allzu reichlichen Anmerkungen dem Schiiler oft gar keine Gelegenheit zur selbstandigen Anwen- dung gelernter Regeln iibrig lassen. Wozu sollen denn solche Uebersetzungen dienen, wenn z. B. iiberall angegeben wird, wann der Conjunctiv ge.braucht werden muss und wie das Verbalnomen auf ing wiederzugeben ist ? Andersvvo wird in ganz leichten Dingen nach- geholfen, wahrend idiomatische Eigentiimlich- keiten, die sich keiner Regel fiigen (wie S. 303 a little way, S. 311 the snows of Lapland, etc.) unerklart bleiben. Auch sonst finden sich
einige Versehen. — p 303, Ex. IV. Wozu ist lying \\\ Klamrnern ? — p 304, Ex. VII. Tore- strain ist hier : in Schranken (im Zaume) hal- ten. — p 306, Ex. X. Anm. i ist fur den Schiiler zu unbestimmt. — p. 310 Ex. VIII. To redeem, hier : siihnen ; to disdain : verse hinahen ; Anm. 9 soil wol heissen anhdngen, aber auch dieses Wort passt hier nicht, vielmehr sollte die ganze, fur den Schiiler zu schwierige Stelle (he bis ignominy) in einer Anmerkung erklart sein. Ex. IX. Tend exceedingly : sind sehr dazu angethan ; gehen sehr weit ware hier un- deutsch. — § 311. To delight in : seine Freude (Lust) haben an.
Zur Liste der starken Verba : Fechten und jlechten sollen auch schwach vorkommen? Von beklemmen ist nur das Part. Perf. beklom- men stark. Klingen ist immer stark. Das Part. Perf. von stecken wird stets schwach ge- bildet.
Endlich sind die folgenden Drjckfehler zu verzeichnen :— § 134. (§ 87) statt (§ 86).— § 206. (§ 456,2.) st. (§ 455,2.).— § 427. Matthei st. Matthdi. — § 434,c. gedst. get. — § 437, 5. forbade st. forebode. — § 462. advatage st. advantage. — § 475, d. under (i) st. in § 474. — § 485,10. Das ist wahr st. Das ist wohl wahr. — §303, Ex. III. gone* si. gone. — §308, Ex. \ .mouth1 st. mouth. ^§ 317. 231 b (vor schinden} st. 2j/ a.
Nach so vielen Ausstellungen gereicht es dem Referenten zur Freude, auch der unter- schiedlichen Vorziige zu gedenken, welchedie amerikanische Bearbeitung vorihrem englisch- en Originale auszeichnen und die dazu beitra- gen werden, dem Buche in einer verbesserten Auflage einen Platz unter den besten vorhan- denen Schulgrammatiken zu sichern.
HUGO SCHILLING.
Wittenberg College.
A UDI AL TERAM PAR TEM.
After two such reviews of the Joynes-Meiss- ner German Grammar as have appeared in the NOTES — with more promised of like kind — surely even a book as limited in its scope and as modest in its pretensions as this declares itself to be, must have some right of defense. That I fully share Mr. Schilling's wish that the book in a future edition mav be made as free
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES,
No.
as possible from error, is proved by the fact that he had been specially asked to communi- cate to the editor his suggestions to that end and, also, that at my request the publishers have since addressed a like printed invitation to all teachers known. to be using the book. I accept this as the avowed object of his paper — in spite of some, doubtless unconscious, features hardly consistent with this single pur- pose ; and I thank him for whatever correc- tions he may have made. Yet I cannot but regret, for his own sake as well as mine and the book's, that he did not subject his work to more careful revision. This — not in depreca- tion of criticism, but in sheer justice — I now propose to do. I shall follow his "points" one by one— so far at least as may suffice for the present purpose; then 1 shall add a few words of conclusion.
1. § 96. It is an error to say that I divide nouns of the weak declension into not less than six groups. I appeal to the text and the context (§§ 93, 94)
2. § 134. The statement that the combined endings of the pronominal and of the adjective should be learned "both hori- zontally and vertically" occurs, in smaller type, in one of those suggestions to teach- ers, referred to in the preface, of which nothing more will now be said. That they should be so learned " auswendig " is a gratuitous addition.
3. § 408. The mnemonic words, referring to Grimm's Law, are taken, with slight change from the Historical English Gram- mar of Dr. R. Morris, by whom they are expressly attributed to his friend, the Rev. W. W. Skeat — a surely sufficient authority. They are here expressly intended only as a help for beginners.
4. § 244, etc. The fact that the Indefinites are divided, in a first statement, into pro- nouns and adjectives ; — that, later, some of the latter are included under the gener- al term pronominals (with reference to the declension of a following adjective) — and that, finally (under syntax), the entire group is treated in detail as indefinites, is perfect- ly simple, consistent, and logical. The same might be said of the demonstratives, etc.
5. g 481, 2. What i-, saiil of the perfect parti- ciples of intransitive verbs is a simple statement of the truth. It would not be true to say that such participles have here active meaning. Das gesunkene Schiff does not mean a ship that has sunk some- thing else.
6. §28. Is the reverse of "apodiktisch." The reference to the "best author!:. • clearly implies that there are other author- ities and other usage. That I have corn c t ly stated the best usage will, I presume, not be denied.
7. Pp. 17-18. That the Schrift letters, here copied from Meissner, are not perfect, may be admitted ; but many teachers think a fair handwriting makes a better copy than a perfect copper-plate. The microscopic accuracy of the criticism is, however, only suggestive of frequent regret elsewhere.
8. § 85. It would be impossible to believe, without referring to the text, that it is nowhere stated that such words as Jung- ling, Heft, P/erd,etc.t are not umlauted in the plural ! They occur only in some groups of words given as exercises in the paradigms— and there, without the least reflection on the " Geistesgaben der Amerikanischen Jugend ! "
9. § 86. Here might be added mancher and solcher; but they come in better else- where.
10. § 88. Might also stand after § 79, but is in its proper place here. Ihr " her," here indeed "forgotten," isduly remembered, §192.
11. §101. The book gives both forms for Schmerz.
12. § 105 is a side remark, in smaller type, calling attention to the occasional occur- rence of unusual, or double forms. In so far, it is entirely correct and in place.
13. §123. Does not Augapfel also mean the " pupil of the eye? "
14. § 132. It would not have been in place to distinguish here the plurals Tucher and Tuche. Such double forms are discussed later.
r5- § J75- The forms habe er, etc., instead of er habe, etc., are given (for imperatives) because they are the more usual forms — as
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is stated in the immediate context — (§ 177), and also, more fully and precisely, § 346.
16. $ 202, 3. Yes ; the statement is too gener- al. "Often" or "usually "should be inserted. Thanks.
17. It is a mistake to say that § 235 " besagt dasselbe wie § 234." See the text.
18. But by far the gravest of all is Mr. Schil- ling's criticism upon the verb-forms, § 242, 243, 232, 246, which for convenience may be grouped together. — He here charges error, or defect, in not less than 28 of the Strong Verbs — surely a serious charge and deserving, if true, of even severer remark — but can it be possible that so grave a charge could be made if not true ? Let us see.
Of these twenty-eight forms, \.wo,fichst, flichst (to* fichtst, flichtsf) occur in the last edition of Meissner, and are not included in the list of misprints kindly sent me by Dr. M. ; nor were they noted by any of my accomplished proof-readers. Still, they may be erroneous.
For one, birst (for birstest) I do not find the requisite authority, though it may exist.
And now, will it be believed that the other 25 forms are given in the grammar with entire correctness, almost in the very terms demand- ed by Mr. Schilling ? And yet this astonish- ing statement is true ! I need only refer to the Alphabetical List, pp. 312-320 — a list not in- cluded in Meissner's Grammar, but made by me as expressly supplementary to the classi- fied lists (intended for earliest exercise only) from which alone Mr. S. has quoted. This, too, from a critic who, in his very first sentence declares that the relation of my work to Dr. Meissner's has been " festgestellt " — strange coincidence ! — by another critic (Dr. Goebel) who, in an express list of "improvements," does not mention this most important addi- tion ! !
Can it be possible that Mr. Schilling had not seen this list, but deliberately set himself to review a book which he had not even read through ? Is this the deutsche Griindlichkeit of which we hear so much ? Is this what was due to the MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES? or to me? or to himself?
Need I go further ? Need I pursue to the end this list of "Punkte," of which there is just one column more — mostly, like the pre- ceding, either mistaken or trivial — to show the essential (yet I would not say, intentional) injustice of this review ? That Mr. Schilling has contributed a few useful corrections, I thankfully acknowledge ; but 1 should be too vain if I imagined the book did not need more careful reading and more helpful criticism than his. These, with the aid of all willing friends, I promise to supply, for the next edi- tion.
Now, having so far followed Mr. Schilling's order, I will venture, in a few concluding remarks, to move backwards. The Veraltete Formen, Verstosse gegen das Idiom, etc., to which he refers, I hope Mr. S. will not fail to communicate, either through the NOTES or personally. But it is only fair to add that, at different stages, the sheets of this book were read by scholars familiar with the best "Sprach- gebrauch " in both German and English. The errors which have escaped them all are, I trust, neither many nor serious. Still, they will be gratefully corrected.
As to the opinion that the detailed exhibi- tion of the paradigms, in an elementary book, necessarily demands "das geistestotende Aus- wendiglernen " I have no reply to make. So far as the remark is meant to apply to the sup- posed methods of the editor of this book, it is an entire mistake. At the same time, I do deem it proper that the student, or the teacher, who needs to consult a paradigm, should know where to find it, in its most complete form.
Still moving backwards, I read the first sen- tence, wherein, with sincere regret, I note the starting-point of this review, in an error so grave that it could hardly have failed to lead the writer astray. That Dr. Goebel, in his paper for December, had " im Allgemeinen festgestellt " the relation of my work to Dr. Meissner's original, is, unfortunately, not true. Mr. Schilling's opinion to that effect is, I fear, only an instance of misplaced confidence! Only my respect for Dr. Meissner and for his work has prevented and still prevents me from pursuing this question in detail ; but I leave its answer to everv candid reader who will
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•
compart- tin- two hooks. That I >r. Goehrl had " ge/eichnet " the character of I' ro|". HarriftOn'8 paper (for November) may he inn- — hut tin- terms in which lie did so arc certain- ly to be regretted hy '-\cry " Fachgenosse."
l'"inally — and with most regret — I observe that Mr. Schilling's indebtedness to Dr. Goe- bel begins even before the (irst sentence, with the title itself: " Nodi /•'.hinni/ Mt issner- Joynes." The hook in question is named by its American proprietors, who have amply satisfied all other rights, \\\v Joy ties- Meiss tier German Grammar. This title was intended to represent the nature of the book, which is, moreover, fully and fairly stated on the title- page and in the preface Mr. Schilling, follow- ing Dr. Goebel, calls it Meissner-Joyties — with what purpose, jocose or serious, 1 will not pre- tend to say. But, I submit, this is not even lawful ; still less is it courteous ; least of all is it worthy of a dignified review. Let me sup- pose a case : if Mr. Schilling had, for any reasons, subscribed his review with the signa- ture Schilling- Goebel would he have deemed it courteous or legitimate in me to quote it by the name Goebel-SehilKngl Yet just so — only in a far graver matter — have he and Dr. Goebel treated the title of the Joynes-Meissner German Grammar.
EDWARD S. JOYNES.
South Carolina College.
P. S. — The editors of the NOTES have been kind enough to send me the proofs of Mr. Schilling's" Noch Einmal Meissner-Joynes II," against which I have hardly anything to object, except — as before — the title, for which I hardly hold Mr. S. responsible. I note with pleasure the absence of that tone — apparent but, I am sure, unconscious — which was so much regretted in the first paper. I am thankful for many helpful criti- cisms, while — as before — some, on closer inspection, would appear to be mistaken and others quite un- important. I have even "heaped a little fire" on Mr. Schilling's head, by* correcting some false refer- ences and misprints that he had overlooked in his own paper. As to the errors in German, it would be amus- ing to see how far — almost without exception — they are taken without change from Meissner, an " Eingc- fiorener;" but this, of course, did not fall within the scope of Mr. Schilling's review, and would be, more- over, no excuse for actual error. I shall thankfully accept his help in a closer inspection of all such points for the next edition.
The only point of Mr. Si hilling's second paper •ic to iioiii-r, is his iritH i-m ujx,n the chapter on the Relation of ( ,ennan to Kngli-h, u ith r- • to tin: brief statement of (or rather, allusion to i Grimrn'h Law. If he will read more carefully, he will ve that I speak only of correspondence between the two languages — not of derivation, nor even chang< one to the other. Historical views are exprewly ex- cluded (lioth here and in the preface). Now, the reason for putting the German first was purely peda- gogical: that is, the German form is considered a-, the pupil's i/iifitni, to be correlated with its corresponding English. In certain cases — as in the latter part of my reply to Mr. Schilling's lir«t paper — it maybe lawful to move backboards. At the same time, I am quite willing to admit — as suggested to me by another very kind critic [Prof. BRANDT]— that it might have been better for my (elementary) purpose to give simply a list of principal correspondences, without any refer- ence to Grimm's I^aw. At any rate, there i enough of this to hurt ; " and the limits of the view presented are very clearly stated in the book.
In conclusion, let me again thank Mr. Schilling for the trouble he has taken, with the promise that not one of his suggestions shall be disregarded in the revision of a book of which — with all its faults — he is good enough to speak so kindly.
K. S. J.
Quatre grands po'etes du /o* siec/t, Conferen- ces, par ALCEE FOR TIER, professeur 5 rUniversite" de Tulane, N. Orleans, 1887.
Ce petit volume nous a interesse'; encore que publi^ en Louisiane, ou la langue francaise n'est pas morte, Dieu merci, il pourrait bien £tre, sous son apparence modeste, un signe des temps. II faut bien qu'on se disc, en eflfet, que le couronnement des Etudes litteYaires est n£cessairement polyglotte, et que, pour ache- ver une vue d'ensemble sur la pense"e d'un peuple, la langue qui lui servit a 1'exprimer est le seul instrument propre a en faire com- prencke la porte'e et les nuances avec fide'lite'. C'est assez dire que nous voudrions \\>ir 1 'usage des conferences franchises se multiplier dans les universit£s ameYicaines, non settlement pour exposer les sujets litteraires aux £tu- diants des degr£s superieurs, mais encore pour faconner leur oreille aux modulations de la langue et de la parole francai
Rien ne vaut 1'anglais pourpark-rde Shake- speare, ralli-mand, pour analyser Goethe, et,
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pour disserter sur Mussel ou sur Lamartine, 1'idiome sonore et precis qui fit vibrer leur lyre.
Au point de vue de 1'histoire litteYaire, les conferences de M. Fortier sont completes, — trop completes m£me, a notregre", — caril nous paralt impossible de trailer d'aussi vastes sujets dans un cadre aussi restreint, si Ton pretend tout dire. Le catalogue des ceuvres prend tant de place, qu'il n'en reste guere pour les appreciations originales. Or, comme M. P. Bourget le dit si justement, l'extr£me civilisation tend & remplacer la faculte de cr6er par celle de comprendre, et nous vivons dans un siecle ou 1'enseignement litte'raire ne sau- rait aller sans analyse. On saisit bien que nous ne parlons pas ici de 1'analyse d'un roman ou d'un conte, — M. Fortier, selon nous, use un peu trop de celle-la, — mais de cette analyse esthetique et psychologique, qui, sous I'emotion donne"e, cherche sa raison d'etre. Nous croyons fermement que quelques mor- ceaux soigneusement choisis, etudies a la lumiere d'une critique personnelle, donnent d'un auteur tine idee plus feconde que l'e"nu- meration de ses ouvrages.
Mais ce n'est la qu'un point de vue, et il est bien possible que 1'auteur des " Quatre con- ferences" ne le partage pas. Cette diver- gence d'opinion ne nous emp£che point de rendre hommage a rendition de M. Fortier, qui, dans ces consciencieuses etudes, a ouvert une voie ou nous voudrions voir d'autres s'engager apr£s lui.
Et puis, il faut le dire, dans 1'idee de 1'auteur, ses conferences etaient, peut-etre, plutdt des lecons qu'autre chose ; il parlait & ses etu- diants, plus encore qu'a un public deja lettre, partant, plus exigeant. — Si c'etait le cas, et nous avons lieu de le croire, les reserves que nous avons faites perdraient beaucoup de leur force, et pourraient bien se transformer en eipges, — car le volume clont nous parlons s'adapte ad- mirablement & cet enseignement, necessaire- ment plus dogmatique que critique, qui reste la base indispensable de 1'esthetique litteraire, logiquement posterieure en date. — A ce point de vue, le livre de Mr. Fortier est un manuel predeux a consulter, dont la place nous parait marquee, d' avance, dans les bibliotheques " coliegiales " et universitaires.
Un mot, toutefois : Mr. Fortier, en prenant (pages 38 et 39) la defense de Lamartine,
qui n'avait m rit •',
Ni cet exc! s d'honneur, ni cette indignit ',
lui a-t-il fait sa veritable place ? A-t-il tenu suffisamment compte de cette justice tardive, mais eclatante, que la critique contemporaine rend a 1'auteur des Meditations? — II n'est, peut-£tre, pas hors de propos de rappeler ici que Mr. Brunetiere disait de lui (R. des D. M., Aout, 1886): "J'ai la confiance que 1'heure viendra, t6t ou tard, pour Lamartine, d'etre
mis & son rang, et ce rang il se
pourrait que ce fut le premier."
Entendez-vous ? Le premier, et cela, dans le siecle qu'on appelle deja, un peu prematu- rement peut-e"tre, le siecle de V. Hugo! — Et Mr. Brunetiere n'est pas le seul, puisque T. Lemaitre s'ecrie: "Et notez que Lamartine, c'est plus qu'un poete, c'est la poesie elle- m£me." (V. Les Coiiteinporains, ie Serie, a propos de F. Coppee).
Chose qui donne, assurement, a penser, que cet accord absolu sur le nom de Lamartine, entre deux critiques eminents, de methodes si diverses, 1'un, gardien jaloux des traditions classiques, 1'autre, si franchement epris de modernite
A. Du FOUR.
Washington, D. C.
ENGLISH LITER A TURE.
A History of Elizabethan Literature. By GEORGE SAINTSBURY. Macmillan & Co., London and New York, 1887. xiv, 471 pp. 8vo.
We have read this book with genuine pleasure and satisfaction. It grows in interest as it expands, and is laid. aside with a feeling of regret and grateful recollection. Mr. Saints- bury's previous training in our own literature, his wide and varied acquaintance with the literature of France, eminently qualify him to be the historian of the most fascinating and comprehensive era in the development of our language. Such the Elizabethan age is ; such it must always be. Its position in our literary evolution is similar to that of Rome in the evolution of European history • it is the central
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Fcbwary. MODERN LA G UAG E NOTES, 1888 No. a.
point; all previous literature converges to it, all subsequent literature diverges from it. The wonderful complexity of infiueiicfs that entered into its development has never been aih -quately investigated; the harvest for special research is still rich anil plenteous. We can in the course of an ordinary review note only the distinctive features of Mr. Saints- btiry's work. The preliminary portion is executed with the characteristic thoroughness of the author ; we are especially pleased with the lucid fashion in which he has explained the genesis of the Elizabethan drama, with its commingling of scholarly and popular, classi- cal and romantic elements. Ample justice is clone almost for the first time, if we except Professor Minto's sketch in his ' Characteristics of "English Poets,' to the strange and isolated genius of Sackville, the author of the ' Induc- tion to "The Mirror for Magistrates." We seem in this unique production to reap for the first time the ripe fruits of the Renaissance in England; with no disparagement of the earlier school of Surrey and Wyatt, nothing in the range of our literature had approached the 'Induction' in sombre splendor and melancholy grace. The opening stanzas never fail to recall the introduction to Keats's ' Eve of St. Agnes,' the style of which must have been sensibly affected by its diligent study. We adhere to the opinion previously expressed, that Mr. Saintsbury in tracing the origin of our prose literature does not carry his investiga- tions to a sufficiently early period in the history of our speech, ignoring the first Biblical trans- lation in which the form and fashion of our sacred style was fixed for all time. The omission is the more conspicuous by reason of the superb tribute he pays to the King James or Authorized Version, itself the consummate flower of many preceding translations and much heroic devotion. Notably is this true of Tyndale, whose undefined English has kindled the enthusiastic admiration of the cold and cavilling Froude.
We believe that no previous historian of this epoch has so thoroughly succeeded in portraying its complex and versatile richness of thought as well as form and color. An anthology of the minor and almost forgotten poets of the Elizabethan age, would form a
most valuable contribution to our liter. itnn- In no era of the world's literature, perhaps, is there so much that is rare and worth survival which has so nearly faded from the memory of after times. Tin- spr« id. iiitliiem <• of the Renaissance in developing m our lit' ture a love of form and color, is discussed l»y Mr. Saintsbury in his wonted stimulating and suggestive manner. It has sometimes been the fashion of literary historians to speak of the " highly colored style now regnant in our poetry." as if it were of modern origin, bein^ coincident with Keats and Shelley, and per- petuated by Tennyson in our own time. Such a view seems to be entirely at variance with the recognized facts of our literary develop- ment. The poetry of the Elizabethan age teems with richness of coloring and splendor of form ; not only the master-pieces of its su- preme artists, Spenser, Marlowe, Shakespeare. and Johnson, but the writings of many almost nameless bards abound in flashes of brilliancy and beauty aglow with the very genius of the Renaissance. However much this feature of Elizabethan times may have been repressed during the critical or reflective dispensation of Dryden and Pope, it beamed forth again under the more auspicious influences of our romantic revival during the closing decades of the eighteenth and the earlier decades of the nineteenth century. We regret that time and adherence to rational limits will not allow us to consider Mr. Saintsbury's view of the strange phenomenon known as Euphuism, and his admirable pages upon the great prose- poets, Taylor, Milton, and Sir Thomas Browne.
If we were to venture a criticism upon Mr. Saintsbury's English, it would assume the form of a gentle protest against the super- abundant employment of "the enemy 'and which,'" to quote his own language in the introduction to his English Prose, p. xxxin. The phrase is a harsh and dissonant one even when " preceded by another which ; " for the most part its use can be dispensed with with pleasure to the reader, as well as with advan- tage to the grace and symmetry of the sen- tence.
A brief review can convey no adequate im- pression of the value of Mr. Saintsbury's work.
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
While not acquisescing in all his views and deploring an occasional looseness of expres- sion, we cordially commend the book to the critical scrutiny of students of English Litera- ture in the United States.
H. E. SHEPHERD.
College of Charleston.
Ueber die Sprache der Wandalen. Ein Bei- trag zur Germanischen Namen- und Dialectforschung von DR. FERDINAND WREDE. Strassburg, Karl J. Triibner, 1886.
Wer die Entwicklung der deutschen Philo- logie wahrend des letzten Jahrzehnts aufmerk- sam und unbefangen verfolgt hat, dem wird es wol nicht ohne Bedauern entgangen sein, wie diese Wissenschaft nach und nach zur einsei- tigen Lautforschung zusammengeschrumpft ist. Dass es bei der herrschenden Mode ein Leichtes sei, sich durch Aneignung beliebter Schlagworter, Schulausdriicke und Formeln einen wissenschaftlichen Narrfen zu erwerben, hat schon Scherer scharf geriigt. Von dem Geiste, der die grossen Begriinder der ger- manistischen Studien und ihre nachsten Schuler beseelte, schien sich nur wenig auf die Epigonen vererbt zu haben, die ihre Grosse gar oft damit zu beweisen suchen, dass sie iiber jene Manner hochmutig herfahren. Ein jeder Versuch die Mode zu durchbrechen und die einseitig atomistische Methode zu iiberwinden, indem er das Ganze der Wissen- schaft im Auge behalt, ist darum von vorn herein wolwollend zu begriissen. Doppelt ist solch ein Versuch aber willkommen zu heissen, wenn er von einem scharfsinnigen, methodolo- gisch und, auch im Sinne der Lautforschung, philolologisch geschulten Kopf ausgeht, wie er uns in der vorliegendeu Abhandlung begeg- net.
Nur wenig ist bisher auf dem Gebiete ge- schehen, das sich der Verfasser erwahlt hat, so sehr auch gerade hier das Fragmentarische der Ueberlieferung Scharfsinn und Combina- tionsgabe des Philologen reizen mogen. Lei- der ist uns ja von der Sprache der vielen Germanenstamme, welche wahrend der V61- kernanderung auftreten, fast nichts als Per- sonennamen, und auch diese meist in
verderbter Form iiberliefert. Hierzu kommt noch, dass wir von den lateinischen und griechischen Schriftstellern, denen wir ihre Erhaltung verdanken, nur einzelne text- kritische Ausgaben besitzen, dass somit die Arbeit des Forschers unendlich erschwert wird. K. Meyers Schrift iiber die Sprache der Langobarden muss in vielen Beziehungen fiir ungeniigend gelten, und es bleibt daher nur iibrig, was J. Grimm in der Geschichte der deutschen Sprache fiir die Losung dieser Fragen auf ostgermanischem Gebiete geleis- tet hat.
Mit Recht betont Wrede in der Einleitung dass die Namenforschung, welche die Unter- suchung hier notwendig sein muss, vom Stand- punkte des Dialectes zu betreiben sei, um zu positiven Resultaten zu gelangen. So mangel- haft das wandalische Sprachmaterial auch ist, das sich auf ca. 53 Namen beschrankt, so scheint es uns doch als habe der Verfasser einige nicht unwesentliche Unterschiede vom gotischen Sprachbestand festgestellt. Denn da uns von dem letzteren ja das meiste Material iiberliefert ist, so hat man es bis jetzt kaum unternommen, auf strenge Scheidung der iibrigen wandilischen Dialecte zu dringen.
In klarer, kritischer Weise behandelt unsere Schrift im ersten Teile die Quellen, welche die wandalischen Sprachreste bis zum Jahre 1000 iiberliefern. Es ist nach unserer Meinung vollig berechtigt, wenn der Verfasser hierbei den La- teinern grossere Zuverlassigkeit zuschreibt als den Griechen, zumal die ersteren weit mehr in personliche Beriihrung mil den Wandalen ka- men als die letzteren und darum weit eher nach dem Gehor berichten konnten. Am deutlich- sten wird dies vielleicht bei der Ueberlieferung von Geisarix, dem Namen des beriihmten Wandalenkonigs. Wahrend sammtliche latei- nische Quellen bis zu Geisarix' Tod den ersten Bestandteil des Namens a'ls gets- (got. *gaiza, ahd. alts, ger, an. geirr) geben, berichten die, Griechen in bunter Mischung ri&pixo?, Fe&- pixot, Ftv&pixoS, etc. Die letztere Form hat schon J. Grimm (Gesch. d. d. Spr. 477) dazu verfiihrt den Namen aus got. gans—anser zu erklaren. Da wir nun nicht wol annehmen konnen, dass sich der Wandalenkonig mit zwei Namen geschmiickt habe, wovon ausserdem der erster nur vollig gesichert ist, so glaube
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ich, dass die Form rtv&ptxot eine griechische Ungenauigkeit ist, die sich auf spatere latei- nische Schriftsteller forterbte. Audi ohne romanischen EHnfluss anzunehmen mag <l;is v sehr vvohl aus nasalirter Aussprache des Diphtongen ei entstanden sein wie sie durch den Zischlaut begiinstigt wurde und heute noch in Dialecten vorkommt.
I in xweiten Teile seiner Schrift behandelt der Verfasser die Namen, welche sicli ihm aus seiner Quellenuntersuchung ergeben haben. In der Herstellung wie in der Deutimg der einzelnen Namen ist der Verfasser gleich scharfsinnig und meist ebenso gliicklich ver- fahren. Einzelnes ist hier schon von Ehris- mann Ltbl. vin, 468 ff. berichtigt worden. So erinnert dieser zur Etymologic des Namens VVandalen mit Recht an luendese, wendehner, die schon Forstemann herbeizog, ebenso an Wendel als Namen des Teufels. In der Her- stellung der Namen Gamtith, Gabadus und Theudarju wird Wrede trotz Ehrismann wol Recht behalten. Bei Thrasamund, der son- derbarer Weise auch als Transamund, wie Genserich neben Geisartx erscheint, ware wol nicht bios an got. prasa-balpei, sondern auch noch an den westgotischen Thursimuud zu erinnern. Beide Formen konnten dann auf die gemeinsame Wurzel dhars 'mutig,' 'kiihn,' ' dreist sein ' zuriickgeben, wozu altir. tren 'heros,' ' vir fortis,' gr. Qpativt an. purs, ags. p>yrs ahd. gaturstmhd. turst, diirse zu verglei- chen waren (cf. Kremer Beitr. vin, 418; H. Zimmer K. Zeitschr. xxiv, 207; J. Grimm Gesch d. d. Spr. 195). Interessant ist es natiirlich in Hasdinge und Theudarix zwei Namen unserer Heldensage zu begegnen.
Im letzten Teile der Abhandlung hat der Verfasser dem mangelhaften, vielfach un- sicheren Character seines Materiales gemass vorsichtig die grammatischen Resultate seiner Untersuchungen zu ziehen versucht. Da er sich selbst den " Mut des Fehlens " zuschreibt und sehr wol weiss, dass er meist nur Andeu- tungen gebenkann, so istes hochst iiberflilssig die Schulmeisternase zu riimpfen, wenn die positiven Resultate der aufgewanten Miihe nicht zu entsprechen scheinen.* Die Griinde, die Wrede dafiir beibringt, dass auslautendes j im Wandalischen nach Dentalen bereits zu schwinden angefangen hat, sind jedenfalls
ernstlich zu priifen. Als absolut sicher er- scheinen mir dagegt-n <lt-s Verfassers Ausfuh- rungen uber den diphtoiiKisi li«-n (liar, von wand, ei sowie die Schlussfolgerun; die er hieraus gegen Bremers Anffassung von got. at vor Vokalen (saiati. vaian Beitr. xi. 51 ff.) zieht.
Anziehend sind die allgemeinen Andeuttmg- en, uber germanische Namengebung am Schlusse des anregenden, fleissig und scharf- sinnig gearbeiteten Buches, in dem wir eim-n schonen Anfang wissenschaftlicher deutscher Namenforschung erblicken, weichem der V.-r- fasser hoffentlich recht bald das beabsichtigte gotische Namenbuch wird folgen lassen.
JULIUS GOEBEL.
Die erste Person Pluralis des Verbums im Altfranzosischen. Dissertation for the Doctor's degree at the University of Strass- burg, by ALFRED LORENTZ. 45 pp. 1886.
It is known to every student of French that the various endings of the ist pers. plur. in Latin in the tenses that have survived, with the exception of the perfect, resulted in the French form -ons. The following forms appear in Old French : (i) -onsand its variants, as -otns, -onies,-ommes,-ums,e\.c.;(2) -tens, -t'ftn, etc.;
(3) -tens, -iems, etc., in the Imperf. Ind. of all conjugations ; (4) -mes, in the three words faintes, dimes, and ermes. They correspond to the following Latin endings: (i) -tintus ; (2) -e(b)amus, -i(b)amus ; (3) -edmus, -Idtnus ;
(4) -Itnus. The remaining forms, viz. -atnus, -emus, -tmus, and -ttbamus, have left no trace.
Thurneysen, in his treatise ' Das Verbum etre und die frz. Konjugation,' Halle 1882, was the first to explain satisfactorily the influence of the -ons ending, originally belonging only to sunius, on the development of all other verbs.
'"Die Art und Weise, wie sich die verschiedeneu " Schulen " unter einander belobhudeln oder gegenseitig zu vernichten suchen, ist ja allbekannt. Durch einzelne Wendungen wie z. \\.inpartibufinfidelium verfUhrt, glaubte ich auch ia Dr. Karstens Recension von Pauls Principien einen paneilichen Ton zu endecken (cf. Decembernummer der NOTES). Inzwi- schen habe ich jedoch vom Verfasser selbst erfahren, dass er denselben keineswegs beabsichtigte und ich freue mich daher meine Anffassung wie meinc Anmerkung zu jenern Artikel hiermit berichtigen zu kimnen.
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The thesis of Mr. Lorentz adds no new mate- rial to this acknowledged theory, except the suggestion that habemus in its Old French form was first affected by sumus, as the Moralium in Job shows only avomes beside somes. The value of the thesis consists in the collecting and sifting of the different forms, and grouping them according to their geographical distribu- tion. As more than sixty texts have been carefully searched, the investigation may be called a thorough if not an exhaustive one. Realizing the difficulty of becoming acquain- ted with dissertations that are not published in journals and that therefore easily escape attention, we hope the communication of the results of the present thesis will be of some service to students in Romance dialectology.
The difference in endings shows plainly the existence of two groups of dialects, one of which wholly rejects -iems and takes only -oms and its representatives, while the other adopts both. The former, moreover, never uses -omes, the latter never -om. These two groups are the West French (Poitou, Aunis, Saintonge, An- goumois, Touraine, Maine, Manche and Nor- mandy) and the Anglo-Norman on the one side, and the rest of the continental French dialect on the other. West French p is repre- sented in Anglo-Norman by u. The West French form -om changes to -d, later written -on ; -ons is used in the twelfth century only for the sake of the rhyme, and so with -uns in An- glo-Norman. Probably -um was also nasalized, though retaining its form.
The second group (Champagne Namur, Cambrai, Belgium, Flanders, Brabant, Hai- nault, Artois, Picardy, Beauvoisis, Verman- dois, lie de France) has only in the pres. ind. -oms, -ons etc. , the other tenses have also -iems, -iens etc.
We recognize three further divisions : (i) East French, the dialects of Wallonia and Hainault, showing -ons in the pres. ind., and -iens in the pres. subj. and impf. ind. andsubj. In the last two dialects and that of Champagne are to be found -omes and -iemes in the respec- tive tenses, at least since the thirteenth cen- tury.— (2) -ons and -omes in the pres. ind. and subj., are to be found in the North French dis- trict ; the exclusive use of -iemes is met with only in Picardy and Artois.— (3) In the Central
French dialect -ons and -iens are used indiffer- ently, with the exception of the pres. ind., which knows only -ons or sometimes -omes ; -ons predominates in the North and -iens in the South ; the first form seems to be used exclu- sively in Beauvoisis.
This thesis will prove a valuable help for the study of the Old French dialects. The micro- scopic inquiry has proved, for instance, that -omes does not necessarily characterize the dia- lect of Picardy, as was formerly supposed. Some of the most genuine documents of that region never employ it. The results acquired also tend to overthrow the hypothesis of Prof. Suchier(Grober's Zeitschriftl, 277) and of Jen- rich (Die Mundart des Miinchener Brut Halle, 1881), who assign the Brut of Miinchen to the dialect of Namur. Besides the occurrence of the -uns forms, which points to a connection with the Anglo-Norman, there seem to be other reasons for the untenableness of Jenrich's opinion. These we propose to consider in a later article.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell University.
BRIEF MENTION.
One of the significant accessory features of the second convention of the Modern Lan- guage Association of Germany, held at Frankfurt in the last Easter Holidays, was the publication, under the general title of ' Frank- furter Neuphilologische Beitrage,' of a Fest- schrift der Neuphilologischen Sektion des Freien Deutschen Hochstifts in Frankfurt a. M. zur Begriissung des zzveiten allgemeinen deutschen Netiphilologentages (Frankfort, 1887, Svo., pp. xii, 136). It opens with an informal account of the origin and activity of the " Neuphilologischen Sektion" of Frankfurt, by Direktor Arthur Kortegarn. This is follow- ed by an extended study of " La Critique litteYaire de Sainte-Beuve," written by Armand Caumont, who quotes the remark of Edmond Scherer : II faut avoir connu Sainte-Beuve, pour savoir 1'importance qu'il attachait a 1'or- thographe d'un nom propre, a un renseigne- ment, a une date. II voulait tout voir de ses propres yeux, tout verifier. II avail vraiment la religion des lettres," Dr. Ludvvig Romer
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contributes an article entitled "/wolf fran. ische Lieder aus dem 16. Jahrhuiulert." One of the literary diversions of Dr. Edmund Sten- 'j,c\, the indefatigable Professor of Romance Languages at Marburg, is the collection and publication of the private correspondence of eminent philologians. He ofl'ers us here two letters from Ferdinand Wolf and Kmanuel Geibel, and extensive contributions from the correspondence of the Brothers Grimm with several of their Frankfurt friends. Dr. Fer- dinand Michel has a study entitled " Hand- schriftliches zu Les Tournois de Chauvenci von Jacques Bretel. ' ' One of the coincidences of similar work done at the same time at wide- ly distant points is marked by Oskar VVinne- berger's " Textprobe aus der altfrz. Uberlie- ferung des Guy de Warwick," considerable extracts from one of the unpublished MSS. of which (Bib. Nat. 1669) are given in the study of " Guillaume de Dole," appearing in the recent volume of 'Transactions of the Mod. Lang. Ass'n of America.' The last article is by Dr. Max Banner; it is entitled " Das Fran- zosische als Unterrichtsgegenstand an unsren Gymnasien." The predominance of critical studies in French in the above showing is noteworthy.
In Science, for December 23, '87, is to be found a short notice of Saintsbury's ' A His- tory of Elizabethan Literature ; ' for January 13, '88, an account of the recent Fifth Annual Convention of the Modern Language Associa- tion of America, held at the University of Penna. (Philadelphia). A review and charac- terization of the work of the same Convention, from the pen of Dr. Julius Goebel, appears in - the New York Belletristisches Journal for January 27th. The University Review (Organ of Garfield University) for December, 1887, contains an Article on "Modern Lan- guages" by J. S. Griffin, Professor of Modern Languages in that University. The December Number (1887) of The Academy (Syracuse, George A. Bacon, Editor) has a characteristic and important article (pp. 385-397) on "Aims and Methods in Modern Language Teaching," by Samuel Thurber, Master in the Girls' High School, Boston.
Following close upon the first appearance of Grandgent's Italian Grammar, recently
noticed in these < olumns (II, 465), conies to us the third edition of a little work of similar form though different treatment, entitl- Manual of Italian Grammar, witli Compara- ti\«- Tables and Historical Remarks. by\V. L. Montague, l'n>lessor ot' French, Italian and Spanish in Amherst College (New York: H«-n- ry Holt & Co., 1887. i2mo, pp. 114). The method of this grammar is purely <l there being no exercises introduced, except one in pronunciation, which in addition to its special purpose " will be of service in the application of the various facts respecting the j parts of speech as they are consecutively- learned in the grammar." The grammatical statements, however, are illustrated by trans- lated examples. The preface to this book received the authors signature in 1874, nor have the subsequent years, so far as the reader is informed, suggested the propriety of any changes or additions. Yet the occasion of offering a new edition to the public might have been utilized to give another form to certain features and statements of the work. Thus, as throwing light upon the information that Dante's classification of the Italian dia- lects has been modified since his time, other authorities than that of the "35th vol. of the North American Review " might appropriate- ly have been mentioned. Care should have been taken to eliminate such misleading com- parisons (for the plural forms) as that given on p. 17 for the definite article :
Sing. ILLE, ILLUM, ILLAM : //, lo, Id \
Plur. ILLI, ILLOS, 1 1. 1. AS: i, gli, le\ while a comparative table in which, for exam- ple, are confronted (p. 34), without any sugges- tion of a reconciliation, such forms as ILLAE (elleno), ILLARVM (di loro), ILLIS (alpro), ILLAS (loro, le), must be mystifying rather than sug- gestive to beginners. As to the 'historical remarks,' we find (p. 15) a note of some length accounting for the origin of the plural s in French, but of the Italian plural forms (includ- ing that in -a) no explanation is offered. The statement, however, is made that there are many " euphonic changes " in the formation of the plural : " i. Nouns ending in ca and ga take an // in the plural, in order to preserve the hard sound of the r and £," etc., etc. — On p. 37 the etyma of questo, cotfsto, qtiflio are
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given as QUEM ISTUM, QUID ISTUM, QUEM ILLUM ; and on p. 42 Sp. quienquiera, cual- quiera are set down as the etymological equivalents of It. chiunque, qualunque, the corresponding Fr. quiconque being misprint- ed quinconque. On the same page we are told that " Si is used less frequently than on in French, to represent an indefinite subject; . . . but when the following accusative is plural the verb agrees with it. Ex. Si vedono molfe persone." — Further on (p. 45), occurs the re- markable statement that "In the Provencal these forms [of the analytical future] were never combined, as in French, Italian and Spanish, to form a single word, and AD vos DICERE HABES is written vos-dir-ai, or dir-vos- ai." — Again, on the same page, "The Spanish imperfect subjunctive in ara and era is formed from AREM, EREM of the same tense in Latin." — P. 74, " Ci and vi as adverbs of place are contractions for quinci, here ; quivi, there. "- In the chapter on ' derivation,' no account is taken of vowel quality and position, or of tonic accent. — With the exception of these, and some other corrigenda, the essential facts of the language are here conveniently grouped and plainly stated,
1 Die Werke des Troubadours N' At de Mons, ' by W. Bernhardt, forms volume eleven of the Altfranzosische Bibliothek(Heilbronn : Gebr. Henninger, 1887 ; pp. XLIX, 169). This poet, who belongs to the decadent epoch of Proven- cal literature, is not mentioned in the old MS. biographies, a neglect which all his contempo- raries shared, save Guiraut Riquier. From a study of the historical allusions in his works, which are almost entirely didactic, the editor .arrives at the following conclusion : N'At de Mons came from Toulouse ; he wrote in the second half of the thirteenth century and was a contemporary of Alfonso X., of Castille, and Peter III., of Aragon. His death occurred about 1290. The poems, now edited for the first time, are five in number, contained in a single MS. ; to them the sirventes already published (Bartsch, Ghrest., col. 303) is added, which completes the sum total of what has been preserved. From passages and citations in the ' Leys d" Amors,' it is evident that many shorter poems were written by the same author and are now lost, — the fate which overtook the
greater part of the literature of South France. Unfortunately for the present popularity of N'At de Mons, the remnants of his literary baggage have little other than linguistic worth : his longest poem, in 2059 six syllable couplets, addressed to Alfonso X. , treats of the influence of the stars on human destiny ; the remaining five are on topics not more attractive. The editor has consequently devoted the greater part of the introduction to the language of the poet and of the MS., to comments on the flexion and versification. A short criticism, in which Dr. Foerster differs from certain yiews of the editor, is appended. Following the text are extended remarks and notes. It will be noticed that in this publication a departure from strictly French texts is made for ihe ' Altfran- zosische Bibliothek.' That the precedent is to be followed appears from the announce- ment of other volumes on Provencal.
To the same field belongs the ' Vie tie Saint George, poeme provencal ' by C. Chabaneau, (Paris, 1877), a deprint from the Revue des lan- guesromanes. The text is unaccompanied by notes, and represents merely the Provencal version of the favorite legend, evidently imitat- ed from some French original. In the few re- marks that precede the text, the editor has evidently overlooked the fact that the episode of the widow (v. 380 ss.) is common to the French poems and their Latin original (See Zeitsch.fur roman. Philologie, v, 508). Also " le poeme de Wace sur le meme sujet " is, without doubt, not by Wace but by some anonymous poet, later by thirty years or more (See Zeitschrift fiir roman. Phi/ologie, v, 504)-
At the last meeting of the Modern Language Association of America, held at the University of Penna. (Philadelphia) during the Christmas holidays, 1887, a Phonetic Section of the So- ciety was formed for the purpose of encourag- ing and promoting the study of phonetics in this country. The desire is to place the prac- tical teaching of this subject upon a more scientific basis, especially in our colleges, and to develop, as far as circumstances will admit, a spirit for scientific research in it. As a prac- tical step toward the accomplishment of this object, it is proposed by the members specially interested, to urge that broader scope be given
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to this subject in public and private instruction, to establish courses of lectim-s suitable to promulgate correct views concerning it, to ar- range a system of exchanges in phonetic litera- ture, and to give, by correspondence, to in- quirers in phonetic matters such help as may be thought adapted to their various circum- stances and needs. To secure agreement as to the general mode of sound notation to be used, a committee will endeavor to formu- late a standard system which will be sub- mitted for suggestions and improvements to all those who take special interest in the subject, and it is hoped that the result of their united efforts will meet with general approval. Equipped with this standard alphabet, young scholars will be able to record intelligibly the various dialect shadings of American speech, of whatever origin, and thus prepare the way to examine critically the interesting phenomena of speech mixture in this country. Suggestions from any quarter touching a definite system of Sound notation will be welcomed by the Committee. The veteran phonetist, Alexander Melville Bell, has accepted the presidency of the newly formed section and Professor Gustaf Kar- sten of Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., has been appointed Secretary; to the latter should be addressed all communications re- lating to the subject of phonetics.
We take pleasure in announcing that the new American Folk-Lore Society, preparations for which have been for some time making, is at present definitely organized under the presi- dency of Prof. F. J. Child of Harvard. The Society will hold an annual meeting, but does not promise a yearly volume of Proceedings and Transactions. In lieu of this, a quarterly journal will be published, to be furnished to members of the Society in consideration of an annual membership fee of three dollars. It is hoped that the first number of the proposed journal will appear in April next. The Acting Secretary of the Society is Mr. W. W. Newell of Cambridge, Mass., to whom those interest- ed may address themselves.
JOURNAL NO'I h .
ZEIT8CHRIFT FUR NEUFRANZO6I8CHE S PR ACHE UNDLITTERATUR BANDIX.HFT. 6. KK/KN-
KuertlBK, H. Victor Kourn. -,. J«-'i.x«-i Heller.H.J. K. « . Pt-u-n.-
Frankreleh. Hll.ler mid Nki/.w,i. Kraak. jMrf. Arthur Tillcy, The Literatim- «.r the Kr.-n.-h H.-HHI- MUII •'•• AII Introductory KMMH) . Borakak. d. pHU| Kiihnt. (iediuikeiii, :.!>-ii/<-ii in JoOHIe'i inn]
(iariiier'H TriiRftdien un<1 Sen.-ra1* KlnttiiiM 11 selben.— Mabrenbollz. K. (iuHtave IJUT.-UI. Com&lie ilc M.iliere. Kautem- et ].• milieu. Makrra- hollz, It. W. Kreiten. Molldre'i Leben und W Horning, H. H. Muhrcnholt/.. Jean- Francois Hommud Hartraann, K. A. Martin. Xeue Krm-helnuiiiren der HIIRO- Litteratur.— Heller, H J. Jan ten Hrlnk. Lit terarische Scheteen en Krltleken: fiinlle Zola.— Heller, H. J. Jan ten llrlnk. 1. ll.-i Nuturaliwne to Rood, etc.— Sckefler. W. C. C. Kleurlot. Auawahl fran- zttsischer SprichwoYter mlt deutscher Cberaetzunir und Erklai-uiiR.— Sarrazln, Jo*e»k- Frankfurter Neu- phiiologrische .Beitrttge.— Ranbeai, A. Lehr un-i DbuiiRsbUcher Kir den Schulgebrauch.— Bercbvlter, W. Xavler de Malstre, Prascovle ou I^a Jeune SiU'n- ciinc. Sarrazln. Jo-.«-ph. Schulausgaben.— Ll«a, Th. I . SehulausKaben.—MiszEi.bBN. Barrelrl, I'karlea. li J. Kacine, Die Gerichtsfexen.— WesBjr, L. Aufrusto v i t it . Leg Mille et une Nuite de Th atre.- MahrtMktltz. R. J. Grand-Carteret, I^a France jutrte par TAIle- maKne.— Heller, H. J. Victor Cberbullez, I.H i Heller, H. J. Catulle Mendds, Zo'har, roman porairi.— Kambeau, A. Nachtrair zu Zschr. ff.; 8. 39 ff — Schulze, 0. Zu Zschr. IV, 8. 188 ff.— Supfle, Theodor. Demerkungen zu dom deuUcb* fnuiy.osischeii Teile des Enzyklopsdlschen WQrter- buchs von Sachs fgrrosse Ausgabe).— HFT. 7.— AB- HANDLUNOEN. Dammhul/, K. 8tudienUberdiefrao- zb'sischc Sprat- IK- zu AnfaiiR des XVII. Jhrhds. iin Anschluss an J. de Schelendre's Tyr et 8idon,Tnuri- comedie divisee en deux journ'es.— MabreibalU, B. f.mile Zola's Selbstbekenntnisse im Roman exp^ri- mental.— MISZELLEN. Klehler. Vondenloaen FlK-h- sen dleser Welt, nur eine ttberaetzung aus dem Fran- zOsischen des Jean Bouchet.— Mabreiholtz, R. Doute* snr leg Opinions recues dans la Social*.— Hea»7, K. Sue, son exil en Savoie 1A12-1H5T.
LlTERATURBLATT FUR QERMANI8CHE UND RO- MANI8CHE PHILOLOOIE.— -Vor. Bebagbel, OMo. Brug- 111:11 1 H. Grundriss der verKl- Grammatlk der Indoor- man. Sprachen I . Khrlomann, (i. W rede, Ueber die Sprache der Wandalen.— Hyaoaft, B. Volo spo. Aui dem Altnord. Ubersetzt von A. Heugler.— M«ck, K. (Jt-riiiR, Glossar zu den Liedern der Edda.— »»reacer. R. Keinhart Fuchs. Hrsgr. von Keissenbenrer.— E*ck, Max. Schmidt, niarakt«-ristik*-n. ProevhoHl. Lud wig. Markscheffel, Thomas Kyds TraKOdien.— Krew- nt-r, Adolf. Saure, Auswahl eiiRl. Gedichte; Gropp und Hausknecht, Auswahl eiitrlischer GedK-htc. KhrNmann. 6. Voxels, Die ungedruckten latein. Versionen Mandeville'g.— Morf, H. Ziesing. Braame ou SaliRnac V Etude sur la lett.re de Fran?. Rabelais. -Sllefel. A. L. Wenzel. Studieu Ober Antoiue de
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February. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 2.
Montehretien.— Mahrenholtz, R. Kreiten, Molieres Leben und Werke. — Meyer, W. Horning, Die ostf ranz. Grenzdialekte zwischen Metz und Belfort.— Goerlich, Ewald. Wendelborn, Rprachl. Untersuchung der Reime der Vcgece- Versification des Priorat v. Besan- ^on.— Belnhardstoettner, i\ Michaglis, Worterbuch der portugiesischen Sprache.— Bibliographic. Literar- ische Mittheilungen, Personal nachrichten etc. Ly- on, Erklttrung. Kahle und Kauffmann, Erwiderung und Antwort. Kolmacevsky, Zu Ltbl. V. 104 ff. und VIII, 391 ff .
ANDOVER REVIEW.— December. Wood, C. J. Dante Gabriel Rossetti.
NEW ENGLANDER.— December. Whitney, E. Dr. Furness's " Othello."— January. Brastow, L. 0. Ca- bot's Life of Emerson.
SCRIBNER'S MAGAZINE.— January. Holden, E. 8. A New Light on Balzac. -Brownell, W. 0, French Traits— Intelligence .
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG. No. 48.—
Boethe, 6. Die Gedichte Reinmars von Zweter (J. See- mttller).— Micbaelis, H. Neues Worterbuch der portu- giesischen und deutschen Sprache (Wilh. Storck). —NO. 49. Meyer, P. Alexandre le Grand (E. Schro- der).— No. 50. de Nolhac, Pierre. La Bibliotheque de Fulvio Orsini (A. Pakscher).— Ottmann, B. E. Grammatische Darstellung der Sprache des althoch- deutschen Glossars (G. Kossinna).— Briinning, J. Le theatre en allemagne (1200-1760).
LlTERARISCHES CENTRALBLATT. NO. 48.— Grober, Grundriss, (Kn).— Knust, H. Gualteri Burlaei liber de vita et moribus philosophorum.— Ortner, M. Reinmar der Alte. DieNibelungen.— No. 51. Adling- ton, W. The most p'easant and delectable table of the marriage of Cupid and Psyche (G. N.).— No. 52. Golther, W. Das Rolandslied des Pfaffen Konrad (Kn).
REVUE CRITIQUE. NO. 47.— Levl, I. Le Roman d'Alexandre, texte hfibreu anonyme, etc. (R. Duval). —NO. 48. Mu'ntz, E. et Fabre. P. La Bibliotheque du Vatican au XVe siecle (P. de Nolhac).— No. 49. Meyer, P. Fragments d'une vie de saint Thomas de j Cantorbery (C. Bemont).— No. 50. Combes, E. Pro- flls et types de la litterature allemande (A. Chuquet). —NO. 51. 1. Scherer, W. Aufsatze fiber Goethe : 2. Schmidt, E. Charakteristiken : 3. Lessing, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften: 4. Wolff, E., Karl Gotthelf Lessing : 5. Lachmann, K. Gotthold Ephraim Lessings sSmtliche Schriften (A. Chuquet).
REVUE DES DEUX MONDES. lerDccembre. Itrune- tiere, F. Theophile Gautier.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA.— fasc. XXIII. Nencioni, E. " Cose Viste," da Victor Hugo.
NINETEENTH CENTURY. December. Gosse, E.
The French Society of Authors.— January. Arnold, M. Shelley.
FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW.— January. Saintsbury, G. The Present state of the Novel, II.
NEW PRINCETON REVIEW, November.— Warner, C. D. Shelley— Vincent, M. B. Dean Plumptre's Dante. Janu- ary, 1888.— American Authors and British Pirates.— Twain, Mark, 1. A Private Letter and a Public Post- script.—Matthews, Brander, 2. An Open Letter to Close
a Correspondence.— Baylor, Frances Courtrnay, Hidal- go : the Washington of Mexico. Men of Letters at Bordeaux in the Sixteenth Century.
REVUE DE L'ENSEIGNEMENT DES LANGUES Vl- VANTES— Novembre. Halbwachs, G. Les Morts du Baecalaureat.— A. . . . Les Langues Vivantes au Bac- calaureat c's Lettres.— I'n Orit ntallste. Notes sur la Langue Anglaise (suite). — Vailat, G. Thomas Moore, imitateur de Catulle et de Tibulle.— Kont, I. Mat ri- aux pour servir ft THistoire des Etudes Allemandes en France au XVIIIe si'cle. — Varia.— Concours de 1887. Agregations et Certificats d'Aptitude.— Traduc- tions. — Licence des Langues Vivantes. Session de Juillet, 1887. — Bibliographic. — Decembre. Sarrnzin, Gabriel. Essai sur Wordsworth.— Forschcr, Z. Emile Deschamps, traducteur de Poesies allemandes.— Kltrln, L. Maitres d'Ecole et Professeurs au XIXe siecle en Allemagne.— Malgrot, N. Les Langues Vivantes dans rEnseignement special. — Concours de 1887. Agr Ca- tions et Certiflcats d'Aptitude (Allemand et Anglais). Traduction des Versions. Certificats d'Aptitude de rEnseignement primaire. Traduction.— Revue des Cours et Conferences. Sujets et Devoirs.— Concouvs de 1888. Auteurs du programme. Bibliographic. — Errata.
NEUPHILOLOGISCHES CENTRALBLATT. — inhait ;
Prof. Sachs. t^ber franzosische I^exikograpliie. — Berichte aus den Vereinen : Hannover, Karlsruhe. — Kartellverband neuphilologischer Vereine deutscher Hochschuleii (Statistisches, Dissertationen). — PrU- fungsordnung ftir Lehrerinnen der franz. u. engl. Sprache.— Litteratur : Besprechungen (Engt'l, Gesch. d. franz. Litt. ; Btgel, Thackeray's Lectures; Lion, Biblioteca-italiana; Horning, Ostfranzflsische Grenz- dialekte; v. Hamel, la chaire de franyais; v. Base, Buchgewerbe : Hatton, Gay World ; Hodgson, Unrest ; Halse, Weeping Ferry ; Tharp, Cradled in a storm ; Tangcr, Engl. Namen-Lexikon ; Morhy, History of English Literature; Braddon, Like and Unlike.)— Neue Erscheinungen. Inhaltsangabe von Zeitschrif- ten.— Miscellen : Konnte Shakespeare FranzOsisch ? Academic fraiifaise. — Antworten. — Bemerkungen. — Anzeigen.
FRANCO-GALLIA-— December. Abhandlungen.— Kress- ner, Entwurf eines Lchrplans t'lir den franzosischen Unterrichtan der hoheren BUrgerschule.— Besprech- ungen und Anzeigen. I. Philologie.— Wolter, Lehr- und Lesebuch der franzOsischen Sprache I.— Pro- gramme zur Methodik des franzfisischen Unterrichts (Schbpke, Bin Wort zur Reform; Gunzel, Der franzOs- ische Unterricht in den lateinloseri hoheren Unter- richtsanstalten ; Jager, Der franzosische Anfangs- unterricht in Gymnasien; Seeger, Mitteilungen liber die Organisation des f ranzo'sischen Uuterrichts in den Mittelklassen).— Marelle, Le petit Monde. 3e edition. — Stange, Auswahl franzftsischer und englischer Ge- dichte. 2. Auflage. — Honncher, Fahrten nach Mond und Sonne.— Ten Brink, Emile Zola und seine Werke. Ubersetzt von Rahstede. — Zeitschriftenschau. — II. Belletristik.— Jules Verne, Le Chemin de France. — Oantacuzene-Altieri, Une Exaltee.— Le Prince Napoleon, Napoleon et ses detracteurs. — Revuenschau.— Neue Publikationen. I. Philologie und Pada^ogik. II. Belletristik, Geschichte, Geographic, Philosophic.
Baltimore, March, isss.
THE STUDY OF OLD DANISH.
By the establishment of the Danish Union of the University-Jubilee (liniversitets-Jubi- laeets danske Samfund), in 1881, the study of Old Danish received a great impulse, and the works published by this society since then have revealed in part the importance of this branch of the Scandinavian languages. Though at present few persons outside of Denmark have interested themselves in this direction, the time cannot be very far distant when this younger sister of Old Norse will find a place in every Scandinavian course. That some knowledge of Old Danish is necessary to a thorough study of the Scandi- navian languages, no one can deny, and now that this publishing society has applied itself with as much diligence and scholarly skill to the providing of material, no worker in this field can longer neglect this branch of his subject. For the phonologist the oportunities are especially good. Only the introductory work has been done, and no one yet knows the extent to which individual inquiries may be carried. The Scandinavian influence upon the English language, further, is but im- perfectly understood ; we learn much from the Old Norse, but I venture to prophesy that in the next decade more light will be thrown upon the subject from a study of Old Danish than can ever be gained from that of the Old Norse. The Old Danish inflectional forms show, even from a superficial examination, much closer resemblances to the correspond- ing forms in English than do those of Old Norse, and the same may be said of the vo- cabulary. The exact value of Old Danish as an aid to the study of English can of course be determined only after careful and thorough investigation, but everything points at the out-set to a brilliant future for this new " Fach."
The study of Old Danish is to be advocated wholly from a linguistic point of view. Its literary value, outside of Denmark, will always be s!ight. In connection with the develop- ment of Danish literature, such study may be of great interest and importance, but not even
tin- most patriotic Dane would compare these early remains with tin- imperishable monu- ments of Icelandic literatim.-. My English and American scholars, Old Danish will l*r studied chiefly for the light it may thr<>\\ ..n the English language ; but if our efforts in this direction meet with any su« . ss. surely the labor will be well spent.
Hitherto our Scandinavian studies have been altogether too one-sided and partial. In our study of Icelandic we have paid tr o little regard to the modern tongue (though Dr. W. H. Carpenter may be cited as a nota- ble exception); in our study of Danish we have altogether neglected the language in its earlier stages. Scandinavian researches have not been in the highest sense scientific, that is, comparative. In our study of Danish, again, we have paid little regard to dialectic differences, satisfying ourselves with a more or less thorough knowledge of the p: literary language. If the study of the Scandi- navian languages is to make any headway, it must embrace all sides of the question. Let the development of Danish be compared with that of Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish ; let the several dialects of each language be compared with one another ; and let these results be compared with our own language ; then, and not till then, will the Scandinavian languages be thoroughly understood and their influence on English clearly seen. \Ve are apt to forget that the Danes that invaded Eng- land at different times, could not all have spoken the same dialect, and even if we do realize this important fact, our in sufficient knowledge of these dialects often stands in the way.
The work of the Danish society has been hitherto wholly local, confined to the study of Danish for itself and without regard to its connection with English. This, of course, is necessary at the beginning ; we must first collect our material before we can draw any sound conclusions ; a thorough knowledge of the language must precede any inquiry as to its outside influences. The time is not yet ripe for any startling disclosures, but in the meanwhile, let us at least watch with interest this new departure in the linguistic Held, and
57
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
116
let us give to these pioneers in Old Danish study our sympathy and encouragement.
The publications issued during 1887 by the Danish Union comprise the following :
1. O. Kalkar's " Ordbog til det aeldre danske Sprog (1300-1700)." This dictionary was begun in 1881, and is being issued in semi-annual parts.
2. 'Tobiae komedie,' edited by S. Birket Smith. A Danish drama from about 1600.
O
3. ' Sprogarten pa Sejer,' by P. K. Thor- sen.
4. ' Bidrag til en Ordbog over jyske
Almussmal," by H. F. Feilberg.
5. ' Blandinger,' consisting of short papers on etymological and phonetic subjects.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
APROPOS OF LES TROIS MORS ET LES TROIS VIS.
In a foot-note to his notice of my edition of the Panthtre d' Amours (cf. Bulletin de la Societe des anciens textes franfais, 1885, p. 96 and Bibliothlque de /' Ecole des Charles XLVII, p. 186), M. Paul Meyer calls attention to three MSS. of the poem of Les trois mors et les trois vis, republished in the introduction to the Pant/tire, which were unknown to me at the time of preparing the edition mentioned. M. Meyer's note reads as follows : A propos du Dit de la Panth'ere,]^ ferai remarquer que le Dit des trois morts et des trois vifs com- mencant par Compains vois tu ce que je voi, dont M. TODD s'est occupe" p. xxx et xxxi de sa preface, se trouve encore dans deux ms. du Muse"e Britannique et dans un ms. qui na- gueres appartenait & M. Didot ; voyez le Bulle- tin de la Socie'te', 1882, pp. 46, 71-2, et 1884, p. 66.
Concerning the last named of these MSS. I have no further information to offer, but hav- ing had an opportunity of consulting the two former in the library of the British Museum, I am in a position to indicate the few facts of interest disclosed by an examination of them.
The MSS. in question are catalogued Arun- del 83, folio 127 (given as 128, Bull. d. 1. Soc. d. anciens textes, 1881, p. 71, according to a pagination since corrected) and Egerton 945, folio 12 (described Bull., 1881, p. 44). The latter of these MSS. offers a text almost pre- cisely identical, excepting slight differences of orthography, with that of the- fourth of the five versions of the poem, as given in Montaiglon's edition of the Alphabet de la Mort (Paris :
Edwin Tross, 1856), according to the MS. of the Paris Bib. Nat. there cited fonds de la Mare, No. 69882-2 The distinctive feature of this version is that it omits an introduction of some length, which appears, from the abrupt- ness of the opening lines as well as from the internal evidence of the fuller versions, to have formed an integral part of the original poem. Owing to the limited time at my dis- posal, I was able to copy from this MS. only some forty lines of the poem, in all of which portion, however, I find but two occasions for emending (except as regards punctuation) the text of Montaiglon, viz., in 11. 8 and 9, fol. a 8, p. 7. Montaiglon here reads :
Li tiers mors dist ya1// est sechie's : " Je sui de mon lignage chids,"
the manifestly correct reading of which is given in Egerton 945 as follows :
Li tiers mors dist, qui e' sechiez : Je/«*'de mon lignage chiez.
The text of the other MS. (Arundel 83), which is closely related to that of Egerton 945, and begins at the same point, is in every respect except that of caligraphy far inferior to it. In fact, while the Egerton version numbers 144 verses, the poem has here been arbitrarily abridged in such a way as to occupy but the lower half of a single page, the upper portion of which is somewhat elaborately illu- minated with designs of the six personages introduced. In the left-hand column are ranged, in succession, the respective ' parts ' of the three morts (represented in the rubric and enluminure as three kings), and on the right-hand side, in the same order, the parts of the three vifs (as below), each part being limit- ed to the first six lines of the corresponding passages in the Egerton redaction. The text, as will be seen, is somewhat stupidly though by no means grievously corrupt, but its very mediocrity and blundering, together with its Anglo-Norman irregularity of versification, afford, in consideration of its brevity and yet factitious completeness, a motive for printing in full this version of the poem. The charac- ters * (/) and u (v) are reproduced as in the original, but the ordinary abbreviations, which are few and offer no embarrassment, are resolved, and the punctuation regulated . By comparison with Montaiglon's edition, it is easy to make the necessary textual emenda. tions.
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
118
D<e uiuis regibus
Primus rex vivus " Compay nouns, veez ceo ke ieo voy ? A poy ke ieo ne me devoy ; De grant pour le quoer me tremble. Ueez la treis mors ensemble, Cum il sunt hidous et divers, Purriz et mange/, des tiers."
Secundus rex uiuus Le secunde dist : " Ieo ay enuie, Compaynoun, de amender ma vie; Trop ay fet de mes volentez, Et mini quoer est entalentez De fere tant ke m'alme acorde Al dieu rei de misericorde."
Tertius rex uiuus Ly tierz uif, ki destreint ses meins, Dist: " Purqnei fut fet homme humeins, Pur ky deit receiuere tiele perte? Ceo fust folie trop aperte ; Ceste folie ne fist unkes dieux, Si courte ioye et si grantz deduitz."
A FRAGMENT OF OLD ICELANDIC. When in Iceland, several years ago, a small piece of old parchment was given to the writer by J6n Arnason, the collector of the legends and folk-lore of Iceland.* Though not of great intrinsic worth, the gift was, in its way, one of no little rarity and value, intended, its recipient was happy to think, as a mark of especial esteem. Thanks to the indefatigabili- ty of early collectors, Arni Magntfsson at their head, Iceland has been as thoroughly stripped of her early vellums, and even of their paper transcripts, as though they had never existed ; and beyond those preserved in the archives in Reykjavik and the few fragments possibly in the hands of some private individuals who know their value, there are absolutely no parchments of any size, sort, or condition, left in the country. When, accordingly, the frag- ment here in question was proudly exhibited to friends in Reykjavik, no little wonder was expressed that it should have been given away to be taken out of the land, and the kind- hearted donor was, no doubt, taken to task for his indiscretion.
The vellum is the leaf of a book, written on both sides, 3^x4^ inches in size; the top and bottom are straight ; on the front is a slight lent which does not extend through the mar- *Islenzkar Thj6fisogur og JEjintyri. Leip- zig, 1862. 2 vols.
De mart nit regidui
I'rimut rex tnartuui Ly premer mort dim : " I>amoy»el, Ne ubliez pa* pur *cl oUel, Ne pur vo» robe* a orfreii, Qc vous ne tiegnez bien le* ley* Qe Jheiu Crist ad on' De sa seinte volente1."
Secundus rex mortuui " Seignour*," dis le *ecund mort. " Uerite e«t ke la mort Nous ad fet lick cum noun *umu«, E vous purirez cume noun sumux, Tut see/ ia si pur ne si fin ; Ore purueez vous devant la fin."
Tertius mortuut Le tierz mort dit : " Sachez, Ieo fu de mon lynage chief, Princes, reys et conustables. Heals et riches, joyanz, me* tables ; Ore su si hidous et si nuz Ke noy ver ne deigne nul* .
H. A. TODD.
gin ; the back is ragged where it has been forcibly torn from the stitching, but the torn places do not affect the text. It is a palimp- sest manifestly cut down to its present size from a larger leaf; traces of the rubrics and of the original characters are plainly visible, but illegible; there is a small hole in the lo\\t-r half of the page, whether in the original MS., or cut when it was scraped, it is impossible now to determine. The parchment is much discolored, but cleaner than most Icelandic vellum, early or late. The ink is black and the hand round and clear ; the catch-words at the bottoms of the pages are cursive. The origin of the fragment is probably to be placed near the middle, or, possibly, in the first half of the isth century.
From a literary point of view the contents of the leaf are of no value. It is simply a part of a homily on the Lord's prayer — whether coincident or not with the one in the homily- book printed by Linger, Cod. A. M. 619,! the writer has no means of knowing, as that book is not at hand. Philological ly, turn ever, the text is not without value, and as this fragment is in all probability, the only scrap of Ice- landic vellum in America, it is, perhaps, worthy of reproduction here. Its peculiarities of diction are those common to almost all Ice- landic MSS. It is, accordingly, first printed as nearly as possible verbatim et literatim and then extended, without, of course, any attempt at a normalization of the orthography.
tGammei norsk Homiliebog. Chrisliania, 1864.
59
H9 March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3. 120
unu 7 ollu folki til gagnf 7 goda \ gf pu
- r _ _ _ _
Drottin gud himnefk fad' \ ollu hRu kg u 7 hdfdingiu \ 7 ollu pm fm fuerdit haf a 7 er a hndi folgid \ fnd fampycki 7 sa
o - -
helldi | vpp a p ad vi mg uu konu 7 born
- " -r d u I 7 aullu put fm pu hf off uar famlg
i - u
a gfid | mcettu Ufa g allri god tygt u \ CB
" " r
dygd | fidfemi 7 Gudhrceflu \ pth pu fialf
- r • • c -
hf fagt | leitid fyrft gudg Rykiff o hnf
- - r ••
Riettlcetis pa fk p allt anad yd t'legiaft \
- w
Og fyr' gf pu off vor fkulld' \ Suo fm
vi fyr* gfu voru fkulldunautu \
•Ul
Upp a p uortt hita m eigi hafa eina
- " w
Rietta huyld 7 fa uifkun gledi 7
" r r ,
ey purfa ad otta ft e miftreyfta \ f
- c
foku mikileika fyndana \ gack ei g dom
d v c r a
mr off e riett \ O pu himnefki fad1 he
r r • tu -
lid fkyl og f lat off vor fynd" \ 7 reika
off
e ^
off ei nie t'leg peer off t' vonda \ put vi
- w r- vu - d
viliu ginan f gfa of hita mg pini u
w
arfaml'ri hlalp 7 tilkomu \ had sm
-r r -
off hf vid giortt a moti \ giorndi fuo pm gott sm off hfa giortt vont 7 tia
- w . r
pm af hita allu kicsrleika \ f put ad
o o o
pu uillt off var fynd' 7 of \ 7 mifgi
r - » '
ninga f gfa \ ^ forlata \ ef ad vi af
w o - r___- _ o
hita f latu 7 / gfu pm fm off hfa git a moti | pra fkulld' 7 brot \
gn Leidd off ecki g freiftni Lat p alldri fkie Drottin Gud himne
60
i2i March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 3.
/£ fad' | «f/ w /o//» £ ttra fynd
r e
e toft I fin P° «M frc>/titft | 7 »r<i
freiftni lydtt \ par ko pu 7 hialpa \
c •• -
off I o «*•;'/ 0/7" kiaftddu 111% f>ynu hci
I'ga anda \ fuo vi' mcettn ftryda 7 sta
H
nda mTa mj ]>ini hialp \ moti holldi
og bio
heimunum og ollum folki til gagns og goda. gef pu Drottinn, gud, himneskr fadir, ollum herrum, konung- um og hoffiingium, og ollum peitn scm stierdit haf- a og er a hendi folgift, frid, sampycki og sant- helldi ; vpp a pafi ad vir meS uorum kanum og born- urn og allu piii sent pti hefir oss nndarsamlig- a gefil mcettum Ufa i allri gotfri tygt, tun feverandu dygft, siftsemt og Gufthrceslu : pui aft pit sia/fr hefir sagt, leitift fyrst guJz rykiss oc hans riettlatiss pa skal pad allt annafi ytar tilleggiast. Og fyrirgef pu oss vorar skulldir, Suo sem vir fyrirgefum vorttm skulldunautum. Upp a pad uortt hiarta meigi hafa etna rietta hu$ld og samuiskunnar glefti, og ey put fa ad ottast edr mistreysta, fyrir soknm mikileika syndanna, gack ecki i dom meftr oss eda riett. O, pu himneski fadir, he- lldr skyl og fyrirlat oss vorar syndir, og reikna
oss
oss ecki nie tilleg peer oss til vonda : pui vir
vilium giarnan fyrirgef a af hiarta, med pititii und-
arsamligri hialp og tilkomu, huad sem
oss hefir verid giortt a moti; giorandi suo
peim gott sem oss hafa giortt vont, og tia
peim af hiarta allum kiarleika ; fyrir pui ad
pu uillt oss vorar syndir og brot, og misgior-
ninga fyrirgef a og forlata, ef a5 vir af
hiarta forlatum og fyrirgefum peim sem oss hafa giort
a moti peira skulldir og brot.
Inn Leidd oss ecki i freistni. Lat pad alldriskie, Drottinn, Cud, himne- skr fadir, ad vir folium i ttockra synd edr last. Enn po uir freistumst og nockra freistni lydum, par kom pu og hialpa oss, oc ueit oss hiastodu med pynum hei- laga anda; suo vir mcettum stryda og sta- tida maunliga, med pinni hialp, moti holldi
og bio
61
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March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES,
No. 3.
124
NOTES.
I. 8. The MS. has plainly pth, which has been rendered, perhaps wrongly, by pvi ad. I. 17. The transcriber evidently first wrote in several words incorrectly and then wrote them over, as best he could, leaving behind, how- ever, above the words, several letters that it was impossible to incorporate and not easy to erase. II. i. peer (Sic). II. 13, 14. Whether nockra or nockura is scarcely to be determined from the abbreviated form used ; ck is written on the analogy of ecki, which is given in full.
Vowels. Vowel length is indicated, but not consistently, by the diaeresis or the second marks : rykiss, huyld, pynum, stryfta, lyfium, pu and pu ; but ey, Gufthrceslu, samuiskun- nar, purfa. In tillegiast\\\z diaeresis indicates consonantal gemination.
Vowel interchange, y takes the place of i in : sky I. With the diaeresis or the seconds it stands for $ in : rykiss, huyld, pynum, strytia, lydum. y is once written ie in : nie for ny. u and v interchange : suerdit, suo, uorum, uortt; but vorar, vorum, uir and vir, 6%>and vpp. ei=e in: meigi for megi. v&r, prn. I. pers. nom. pi., occurs always as vir, uir.
Umlaut, //-umlaut occurs with its proper sign in : hoftfingium, bornum, sokum, hia- stodu ; aullu also occurs ; but allum, ollum three times, folium.
Consonants, j is always written i; it shows itself, as in the present language, graphically in: riettlcztiss, rietta, riett ; after palatal g-k in : giortt and giort, misgiorninga, skie.
7"-final occurs only in : suerdit; it is already weakened to & in : folgid, gefift, leitid, ad, annaft, huad. I have, accordingly, also printed pad, which in this as in other MSS. is written p.
D and ft are throughout both written d.
Oc, ' and,' occurs twice, as does also og ; otherwise it is represented by the sign 7, which has been transcribed og.
Consonantal gemination occurs incorrectly in the following places : tt in : uortt, giortt twice, but also giort. II in : samhelldi, skull- dir, helldr, uillt, alldri, skulldunautum, holl- di. dd (for fid) in : Leidd. .ys-final in : rykiss, riettl<ztis&.
WM. H. CARPENTER. Columbia College.
SIG FRIED — ARMINIUS.
It is of course no new idea that the hero of German history and the hero of the Norse and German saga are the same person. Arminius, the chief figure in their national life, would otherwise be unrepresented in their popular traditions, while we know from Tacitus that he was one of the chief subjects of the songs of that time. It is intrinsically improbable both that so great a man as Arminius should wholly vanish from the minds of those who owed to him their national existence, and that Sigfried should not have some such historic representation as we know existed for Dietrich, Etzel, and others. These considerations led German scholars as far back as Mone, half a century ago, to suggest their identity, though it must be confessed without sufficient proof. The first to bring the matter to a point where it could claim to be more than a fancy was Vigfusson, in his volume of Essays on Jacob Grimm's birthday. Much, however, that he suggested was not of a character to commend his thesis, and several points remained still untouched, so that it is not superfluous to» examine the subject once more, and briefly to summarize the grounds on which their identi- ty is based.
I am indebted for much of what follows to the kindness and generosity of Professor Kluge of Jena, without whose assistance I should have been unable to offer the greater part of what I believe to be new in this paper.
THE NAMES What was Arminius' German name ? Whatever it was, it was not Hermann, which would have given in Latin *Cherman- nus. Arminius is the name of a Roman gens, otherwise not unknown to history, which, we may suppose, adopted Arminius during his stay in Italy in childhood. But we have a clue to his German name in that of his father, Sigemerus. His uncle also had a name of which the first part Sige- was the same, so that this Sige- is obviously a family name, and it is no great stretch of imagination to suppose that, like his father and his uncle, Arminius was named Sige.
Arminius had a brother whom the Latins called Flavius. If we seek for a High Ger- man name of equivalent meaning we shall find it in the O. H. G. Fizzil, and this is of
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126
course the O. E. Fitela of Beowulf 879 and 889, where, as might have been expected in an in- terpolated passage, Sigemund, the father of the Sigfried of the saga, is confused with his son.
Arminius' wife is called by Strabo Thusnelda. This is no German name, but it seems to point to a name ending in -hilde ; Sigfried's wives were Brunhild and Crimhild. Arminius' father was Sigemerus ; Sigemerus's was Sige- mund.
Of course it is not claimed that this partial correspondence is proof, but it may encourage us to consider the question of the places where the chief events of their lives took place.
THE PLACES. Arminius, as we know, was a \Vestphalian, or at any rate from the right bank of the Rhine ; but where did Sigfried come from ? The answer comes from a rather unlikely looking source. A certain Norseman, Nicholas, wrote a guide book for pilgrims to the Holy Land , when I do not know, but he died in 1159. In this book, published in ' Symbolae ad Geographiam Medii -/Evi, Kopenhagen, 1821,' he says "Thence," i. e. from Pader- born, "are four days' journey to Mayence ; between is a village called Horus. Another is called Kiliandr, and there is the Gnitaheath where Sigurd killed Fafnir." Horus is the old Horohus on the Diemel. Kiliandr is Kaldern on the Lahn, an old name for which is Calan- tra. Here then the Germans placed Sigfried. The Norse Edda calls him Hunskr, not, as one might suppose, the Hun, (for how could such a name be given him as an honorable epithet by the Germans?) but the Hun. This, however, was the name of a tribe that originally occu- pied this very region in the valleys of the Diemel and the Lahn, and has left traces of itself in many names of places, hills, and streams. There is the river Hauna, the town Hunfeld, the village Hiinhahn, two castles Hunburg and two Hiinenburg, two Hii- nischeburg, a Hiineburg, and several others (See Vilmar's Idiotikon von Kurhessen, Mar- burg und Leipzig, 1883, p. 178). The saga there is in complete accord with the history as to the place of their birth. Whether there is any possibility of identifying the slaying of Fafnir with the defeat of Yarns in the Teuto- burgerwald I will not examine at present. It
will be better to consider the general course of their lives and see what points of accord can be found there.
THEIR LIVES. While Arminius was still an infant 1m father died. Sigfried was in the <>l<U-r Saga a posthumous child, and in the later Saga his father plays no part. Arminius spent his boyhood in Italy ; Sigfried away from home with Mime, each learning the art that was to make them famous, and each giving little promise in boyhood of future greatness. After Arminius had defeated the Romans he married the person whom, for lack of a better name, we must call Thusnelda. He carried her away by force from her father Segestus, and when her father had afterward recovered her and guarded her in his castle, Arminius endeavored to take it by storm. Sigfried, after killing the dragon, took as it were by force Brunhild from the fiery " Shield - burg."
Crimhild may stand for Arminius' second wife ; and as she was the innocent cause of domestic strife and Sigfried's treacherous murder, so Arminius was killed by his relations as the result of family quarrels and mutual jealousies.
Each died young, in the flower of youthful promise. Arminius was but thirty-seven. We shall hardly reckon the Sigfried of the saga as so old. Each left one son. Arminius died in exile in Italy ; Sigfried in a foreign land, at Etzel's court.
The serious difficulty remains. How can the chief event of Arminius' life, one might say of German history, be passed over in silence ? Why do we hear nothing of Yams? But while this question waits for an answer we may at least say that the connection between Arminius and Sigfried is as close as that between the Dietrich of the Saga and the historic Theodoric of Verona.
BENJ. W. \Yi i.i.s.
Jena, Germany.
CL, GL>TL, DL IN ENGLISH PKO- NUNCIA TION.
In XOTKS vol. II, No. 8 (pp. 222 O, Prof. Tolman calle'd attention to the pronunciation of initial cl and gl as // and dl in F.n-lish
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128
words. This observation is by no means a new one. In his large Dictionary, edition 1828, Webster states that cl is to be pronounced //. As we do not have this edition at hand we quote the following passage from Marsh's Lectures on the English Language, 5th edition p. 350. "Ah extraordinary instance of this confusion (c and t) occurs in the re- marks on pronunciation prefixed to the edition of Webster's large Dictionary, printed in 1828. In that essay, the lexicographer whose most conspicuous defects were certain- ly not those of the ear, after having devoted a lifetime to the study of English orthoepy and etymology, informs the student that the letters cl answering to £/are pronounced as if written tl ; clear, clean, are pronounced Hear, tlean. Gl is pronounced dl; glory is pro- nounced dtory." Webster certainly went too far in his statement and seems to have silently acknowledged it by the omission in the later edition. For the following physiolog- ical explanation, proving the possibility of a change from cl to //, we cannot claim any originality, but shall try to show of how frequent occurrence this phenomenon is in different languages.
The different /sounds, from the interdental to the cerebral, have in common that the closure is formed through the tip of the tongue, while the k is produced at the root of the tongue. That the forward / closure is substituted for the velar, is constantly observed with children whose powers of articulation are imperfectly developed, even in words without consonantal combinations, and was already mentioned by Quintilian I, xi, 5. The language of the natives of the Sandwich Islands is said to lack a distinction between / and k. Protestant missionaries write regularly k, while the French put it down as t. Of what character this peculiar sound is, I have not been able to find out. Byrne (Principles of structure of language I, 223) describes it as "a mere catch in the throat." We shall, I think, hardly be able to pronounce this sound where the / and k articulations have blended, without a parasitic j after it.
If the t is immediately followed by sounds for the utterance of which the middle part of
the tongue has to be raised towards the roof of the mouth, the closure is of course apt to be affected by it, and to come nearer the back part of the tongue, while in the case of the k, the velar closure advances in the same manner towards the hard palate. This is the case with palatal vowels, and with /, r, n ; they account for the change of t> c as well as of Of. In Swedish, k before palatal vowels is pronounced as tj, e. g. .kil (cuneus), kyss (osculum)=//2/, tjyss ; this corresponds exact- ly to Low German dialectic pronunciation, for instance in the province of Westpreussen, where kind sounds like//Y«/, kien (taeda)=//z£, kiste=tjist, etc. Rask teaches the pronuncia- tion tsh, — tshil, etc., which would have an analogy in English chest, child, etc. Swedish books show different spelling ; kceder, kjezder tjteder (Cf. Grimm D. Gr. I,2 535). Thus we shall have to explain Greek r representing an Indo-Europ. velar explosive=Lat. qu ; e. g. Ti'=quid. (Cf. Brugmann, Grundriss § 427). Modern Greek (Tsaconian dialect) changes / before palatal vowels to k, e. g. KI/.IOV — r?//'^ ; -nvi'r'i — r//<;/ etc. (Cf. Foy, Lautsystem der Griech. Vulgarsprache, pp. 7 and 8). The low- er population of French Canada is said to pronounce metier, moitie as mekier, moikie ; the same peculiarity we find in France : amiquie — amitie, quien — tien (Paris), poiiqiie — porter (Luneville). In Southern France the contrary is the case : intieter — inquieter (Cf. Schuchardt, Vocalismus I, 159) In Mussaffia's Beitrage z. Kunde d. nordit. Mundarten im XV. Jahrh. p. 34, s. v. bissestro, I find the German schaltjahr as schalkjar. Vulgar Latin shows as early as the beginning of the second century A. D. the interchange of ci and //, though first mentioned by Servius ; their parallel development in the Romance languages has been the. object of several masterly essays.
If an /follows a /the explosion is invariably lateral, the dental / in this combination can- not be pronounced without a svarabhaktic vowel. The contact is broken at the edges of the middle portion of the tongue, strictly speaking only on one side, thus coming very near the k closure. The anticipation of the /position of the tongue in uttering kl results in the coincidence of // and cl\ thus the vis
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minima will cause clean to be pronounced as //<•<;;/, rA/.v.s as (lass. Neither German nor English has any word beginning with tl, but there are word-combinations of frequent oc- currence— and here a negligent pronunciation is most liable to take place — that bring ft and / into close connection ; thus it may be diffi- cult for Englishmen to distinguish between at least and ac least, (Cf. Victor, Elemente der Phon. 1884, p. 143). In German velar and dental articulation are so strongly kept apart that we shall hardly find any illustration of this change, yet it may occur in dialects. Sievers mentions that people in Saxony pronounce glauben as claum or clom with their ina- bility to distinguish between voiced and voice- less explosives, and very often tlom. (Grund- ziige der Phon. p. 160). I find the pronunciation of t=k attributed to the dialect of Cologne.
In Latin these inconvenient combinations are apt to be simplified by loss of initial ^or c. latus — tuli — rAf/ro?, /amentum — clamare, lib- urn — H\ibavo$, with which we might compare French lapin if we can connect it with clapir. There is, however, in Latin a tendency to velar articulation ; the suffix -tlo changes to do, e. g. exanclo — t^avrXoa ; Modern Greek shows the same change i^ayH\i'^oo, etc. Lucian writes rXf/ua for nXffua. Roman grammarians warn against the pronunciation of // as cl: "Stlataris sine c littera scriben- dum est," " vitulus non viclus," " capitulum non capiclum," " vetulus non veclus." The Roman public, however, cared little for such injunctions; all Romance languages developed words of this class from cl forms. Vetulus — vetlus — veclus, It. vecchio, veclo (Giacomo da Verona), vectre (Bescape), Sp. viejo, Prov. •vielh, Roum. vecliu and vechiu, Fr. vieil ; It. schioppare (scloppus, stloppus) It. fischiare (fistulare) R. R. inclegier (intelligere) clavau (tabulatum) ; situla — It. secchia, Sp. Prov. selha, Fr. seille, to which we can add mod. Greek 6i*\a; Prov. uscl.ir (ustulare), ascla (aatula) etc. (Cf. Diez Gram. d. r. Spr. 4th ed. I. 210 pp.) East Lad. forms a remarkable exception : tlaml — clamare, dlaca — glades. (Cf. Schuchardt, Voc. III. 83). Bavarian klnfe-tlufe, dluva (Greden), klauben-tlupt (Greden), kloster-tloster, etc. (Cf. Gartner, Raetor. Gram.) The phonetic affinity of // and cl and thc-ir
corresponding voiced sounds is so strong that we may look for a language in whi< h tin- change tl>cl, <//>£•/ has become a law. This we find in Lithuanian and Lettic ; e. g. Lett. segli, Engl. saddle (Cf. Brugmann, ibid. 8377 and 378).
A following r ought to have a similar force, so much the more as rand /often interchange, e. g. arbor, arbre-albero. Theoretically the velar r will be apt to change t>c , the dental r, Ot. There are, however, very few illustra- tions, as Sp. Port, crema — Fr. trema, vincere O. Fr. veintre. Tr=cr is a peculiarity of African Latin. But this is sufficient to prove that the etymon of craindre—tremere corre- sponds to the laws of sound.
In modern English k before n is no more pronounced. Marsh dates this loss back to the time "soon after the Norman conquest;" (ibid. p. 351) it was, however, retained during the seventeenth century, g was lost earlier. Skeat (Principles of Engl. Et. p. 358) remarks : "The difficulty of sounding k and g before « has led to their total suppression in mod. Engl." I am inclined to think that kn went through the stage of tn before being complete- ly dropped — a weak explosion takes place through the nose as the « position of the tongue closes the regular passage, as in rotten, pronounced rottn.
That the English language has a tendency to dentalization, is beyond doubt. The pe- culiar nature of the English / brings it more in relation with tl than in any other tongue. I Sweet remarks : " English / not only in nature (before a palatal) but also generally (as in net) is often formed not only by the point, but also the flat of the tongue just behind the point, it | has therefore an approximately palatal charac- | ter." A few English words substitute / for k, mentioned by Skeat, Princ. E. Et. § 329, where he also quotes the words : "I ast your par- don " from Martin Chuzzlewit ch. XXV. (* be- fore f)\
How far this pronunciation has spread here
in America may be worth while recording. I
' hope that the establishment of the phonetic
! section in the Modern Language Association
i will be a new stimulus to investigations of this
kind.
H. SCHMIDT. Cornell Unirtrsity.
March. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888 No. 3.
132
SCANDINAVIAN STUDIES IN THE UNITED STATES.
In Science and Education for May 13, 1887, D. K. Dodge has written an article on " Scan- dinavian Studies in the United States," which contains welcome information for those in- terested in the subject. The writer gives what he believes to be a complete account of the origin and development of Scandinavian studies in this country up to the present day. In 1858, Rev. Paul C. Sinding was appointed professor of Scandinavian languages and literature in the University of New York City, which position he held till 1861, devoting him- self chiefly to Danish history and literature. At Luther College, Decorah, Iowa, founded in 1861, Norwegian has until recently been the chief medium of instruction. Between the years 1868 and 1883 instruction in Icelandic and Norwegian was offered to students at Cornell University by Willard Fiske and H. H. Boyesen. In 1870 a Swedish theological seminary was established at Galesburg, 111., which in 1882 was moved to Evanston, 111., and united with the Northwestern University. In 1885 a Norwegian and Danish theological school was founded at the same university. In each the language of the nationality repre- sented is studied throughout a course extend- ing over three years. In 1869 R. B. Anderson was appointed instructor and, six years later, professor of Scandinavian languages at the University of Wisconsin, holding his position till 1883, when he was succeeded by J. E. Olson. At Columbia, the only eastern college in which Scandinavian languages can be stud- ied at present, instruction in Danish was first given by C. S. Smith during the winter of 1880-81, and in Swedish during the winter of 1882-83. Since 1883 Dr. W. H. Carpenter, Prof. H. H. Boyesen, and Prof. Smith have had classes in Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, and have lectured on Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish literature. Since 1886 the Univer- sity of Nebraska offers courses in Swedish and Danish, Dr. A. H. Edgren being the in- structor. Courses of lectures on Scandinavian literature other than academic, have been deliverd by Prof. R. B. Anderson at the Pea- body Institute, Baltimore, and in other places ; by Dr. W. H. Carpenter at the Johns Hopkins
University (1882), and by Prof. H. H. Boyesen before the Lowell Institute, Boston, and at Columbia College (1886).
Such, in abstract, is the list prepared by Mr. Dodge. Though aiming to give a complete account of the origin and development of Scandinavian studies in the United States, he has made many omissions, and it is the object of this paper to point out the chief of these.
In 1883 Prof. O. J. Breda, formerly of Luther College, Decorah, Iowa, was appointed pro- fessor of Scandinavian languages at the University of Minnesota. He entered upon his new duties in the fall of 1885 and has since been doing successful work. Last year, for instance, seventeen Americans received in- struction in Norwegian, and four Scandina- vians pursued more advanced studies in litera- ture and rhetoric. This year, besides the in- struction in Norwegian for Americans, courses are given in Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish Literature. At St. Olafs School, Northfield, Minn., founded in 1874, to which a college department was added in the fall of 1886, courses in Norwegian have been offered every year, though English is almost exclusively the medium of instruction and the language most- ly used in conversation. During the present term a class of fifteen is studying Old Norse. Norwegian is taught and largely used as the medium of instruction also at Luther Semi- nary, Madison, Wis. ; Red Wing Seminary, Red Wing, Minn. ; and Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis, Minn. ; also to some extent, though English is the principal medium of in- struction, at Lutheran Seminary and Institute, Willmar, Minn. ; Augustana College and Nor- mal Institute, Canton, Dak. ; Lutheran Acade- my, Bode, Iowa ; and an English-Norwegian normal school at Wittenberg, Wis., the two latter founded within the last six months. Danish high-schools giving instruction in the Danish language and literature are located at Elk Horn, Iowa ; Ashland, Mich. ; and Nysted, Nebraska. Danish is also taught in the Scandinavian department of the Baptist Union Theological Seminary at Morgan Park, near Chicago. Among those who have been in- structors here may be mentioned Prof. Edward Olson, now president of the University of Ver- million, Dak. Of Swedish institutions may be
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mentioned Augustana College and Theologi- cal Si-ininary, Rock Island, 111., founded in 1860, and Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minn., founded in 1876, both flourish- ing colleges of a high standing, in which the Swedish language and literature are studied throughout the entire course. Swedish is taught, though to a less extent, also at Beth- any College and Normal Institute, Lindsborg, Kansas, and at Luther Academy, Wahor, Nebraska. Since the fall of 1885, Dr. H. Wood has given an annual course in Old Norse at the Johns Hopkins University. The Indiana University, Rloomington, Ind., offers courses in Norwegian-Danish literature.
The writer next discusses the question as to the profit accruing from the study of the Scandinavian languages. He thinks the study of Icelandic furnishes as good a mental dis- cipline as the study of Greek and Latin, and that the culture of the old Norsemen gives as profitable food for reflection as does the cul- ture of the Greeks and Romans, and that, therefore, Icelandic ought to have a place in every college course. He gives it as the opinion of many that the national significance of Icelandic to all who call themselves Anglo- Saxons is alone enough to offset any possble advantage that the older tongues may possess. Whatever may be thought of this statement by those who think that we should study Latin and Greek to the neglect of the language and traditions of our Teutonic ancestors, Mr. Dodge is no doubt right in holding that the study of the Scandinavian languages in this country has been unwarrantably neglected, and it is to be hoped that his enthusiasm for Icelandic may communicate itself to others. The modern Scandinavian literatures also will compare favorably with the literature of any country, and it seems that to students in Ger- manics, Scandinavian ought not to be of less importance than for instance Wallachian to Romance students. Here in the West, where the Scandinavians form so large a part of the population, the question has also a practical bearing.
Towards the end of his article Mr. Dodge makes some remarks to which I beg leave to take exceptions. The statement that "the views of the Scandinavian religious bodies are
directly opposed to everything distinctively American," that "instead of trying to Ameri- canize the Scandinavian youth of the west, these missionaries do all they can to keep their charges in their present condition," and that "they do not teach them even to use the English language," is inaccurate to say the least. So far from this being the case, there are thorough courses in English in all the high-schools and colleges mentioned above, and in many of them English is the principal language both in the class-room and outside of it.
There is little danger that the Scandina- vians in this country are being Americanized too slowly. The danger is rather the opposite. A people should cherish the language and traditions of its ancestors for the same reason that a man should love his home and parents the best, however humble. As long as the Scandinavians of the United States became good American citizens, for which they re- ceive credit everywhere in the West (there were no Scandinavians in the Chicago Hay- Market riot), there is no reason why they should not be allowed to keep up their an- cestral language for domestic purposes as long as they choose to do so. It is a matter of their own to decide when they wish to break their connection with the past.
It would be interesting to know where Mr. Dodge has got his information. If he had spent some time among the Scandinavians of the west, he could not have misrepresented them as in the remarks quoted. The most impartial authority ought to be the American press, which is unanimous in saying that the Scandinavians "seem to be more willing to take their part and place as good American citizens" than any immigrants that come to our shores. The " Northfield Independent" for Feb. gth, says : " It is estimated that there are 1,800,000 Scandinavians in the United States to-day. They are estimated to consti- tute one-third of the population of our state. 60,000 are in Minneapolis, 30.000 are in St. Paul. Of all from over the sea now coming to us they Americanize most quickly. Their traditions and habits are those of free Protest- ant civilization and there is a very strong and aggressive temperance element among them,
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|
and they are taking their place in the moral |
WRITTEN. |
PRONOUNCED. |
|
warfare of our time in a way that inspires |
Devereux |
Devereu |
|
hope in all wellwishers for our common coun- |
Duchesne |
Ducane — Dukarn |
|
try." |
Froude |
Frood |
|
ALBERT E. EGGE. |
Geoghegan |
Gaygan |
|
Northfield, Minn. |
Glamis Gloucester |
Glams Gloster |
|
Gower |
Gore |
|
|
CORRESPONDENCE. |
Hawarden |
Hardening — Harden |
|
SIRS : — |
Heathcote |
Hethcut |
|
I send you the following list of odd- |
Hereford |
Harford |
|
ly-pronounced, or perhaps better oddly-spell- |
Hertford |
Harford |
|
ed, proper names in the hope that it may lead to two results : the completion of the list, which as here given has been made up of |
Herri es Hobart Hough ton Hume |
Harris Hubbard Hoton Home |
|
jottings as personal intercourse or quotations in books etc., brought them to my knowledge; |
Johnston |
Johnson |
|
and besides this, I hope that some keener eye than mine may discover some law or laws |
Ker Knollys |
Carr Knowles |
|
governing the astounding violence done to some of these names. Such a discovery would be of the utmost interest and import- |
Leicester Leveson-Gower Lyndhurst Lyveden |
Lester Lewson-Gore Lynehurst Livden |
|
ance. |
Mackay |
Mackie |
|
WRITTEN. PRONOUNCED. |
Main waring |
Mannering |
|
Abergavenay Abergaven |
Marjoribanks |
Marchbanks |
|
Ayscough Askew |
Mahown |
Mahone |
|
Barfreestone Barston |
Menzies |
Minges |
|
Bartholomew Battlemore |
Milnes |
Mills |
|
Beaconsfield Beckonsfield Beauchamp Beecham |
Mohun Molyneux |
Moon Mulnix — Molinooks |
|
Beauclerk Boclare |
Montgomery |
Mungumery |
|
Beauvoir Beever |
McLeod |
Macloud |
|
Berkeley Barclay |
Puleston |
Pilston |
|
Bethune Beaton |
Raleigh |
Rawiey |
|
Bicester Bister |
Reay |
Ray |
|
Blount Blunt |
Ruthven (scotice) |
Riven |
|
Blythe Ely |
Sandys |
Sands |
|
Boughton Bawton \ |
Strachan |
Strawn |
|
Brougham Broom |
St. Clair |
Sinclair — Sinkler |
|
Buchan Buckan |
St. John |
Sinjon |
|
Burghersh Burgwash — Burrish |
St. Leger |
Silliger |
|
Cavendish Caudish |
St. Maur |
Seymour |
|
Cholmondeley Chumley |
Theobald |
Tibbald |
|
Circencester Cicester |
Tollemache |
Talmadge — Talmash |
|
Cockburn Coburn |
Trottersclifife |
Trosley |
|
(Joke Cook |
||
|
Colquhoun Cohoon Coutts Coots |
Vaughan & Strahan Vawn & Strawn Waldegrave Walgrave |
|
|
Dalziel Dee-al |
Wemyss |
Weems |
|
Davenport . Devenport |
Worcester |
Wbrster |
|
Derby Darby |
M. SCHELE DE VERB. |
|
|
D'Eresby D'Esrby |
||
|
Des Voeux De Vau |
University of Virginia. |
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SIRS : —
I i-;innot, I ft-.ir, explain all Mr. Browne'? Scotch puzzles ; but some of them I
think I can.
Myance is simply Fr. moyens=means. Netherit, better Nidderit, pinched or awry. Nok, better Nock, spindlehead. Snock is a
common word for nose or bill now. Sewane, is, I take it, Savin or Sabine. Thraff-caik is yeast-cake. We still speak of
TArtf-drinks. Enchaip, like Encheip, is plainly of French
origin. The original word must be
Enchapper.
Figonale is a puzzle which I have tried to solve before now ; but in va*in.
THOMAS DAVIDSON. Orange, N. J.
I am greatly obliged to Mr. Davidson. At the time I made the qi'ery, I had not receiv- ed Donaldson's Supplement to Jamieson. Donaldson's explanations of tough words are too often inferential, but sometimes plausible, as when he deduces figonale from Fr. figue, and explains it as " fig-basket." "Netherit as a nok," he takes to mean " gnarled as an oak " — not a good guess, for an owl's beak is not gnarled. Mr. Davidson is happier, if a spindlehead be bent or crook- ed. "Thraff-caik" as a light or leavened cake, is no doubt correct.
I should be glad to be favored with Mr. Davidson's explanation of this line from Hol- land : —
"Thus wycit he the walentyne thraly and thrawin."
I have my interpretation, but am by no means sure, of it.
W. H. B.
Johns Hopkins University.
P. S. — Apropos of Scottish etymologies, I have just seen a specimen page of Dr. Mackay's Dictionary of Lo-mlaml Scotch. In this one page he is inclined to derive "bang" from Gael, ban, a woman; actually derives "beacon" from Gael, beachan; defines "barmkin " and "barbican " as ''a watch-tower on a castle," and tells us that Shake- speare uses Tybert as the name of a cat.
W. H. H.
'J'liraf-caik.
'l'li«- above discussion of thraf-caik has not, as I think, led to the right conclusion. The whole mystery of the odd word Mm/ is at once dispelled when we remind ours- K. s of the Middle English therj of which thraf %is but a dialectal variant (< f. Scottish tharj thairf which will be mentioned below); and therf takes us back to the Anglo-Saxon peorf, which means primarily ' lacking in something ' (pearf, I need ; German diir/en), and corre- sponds to the German derb. The special uses of this adjective must at all times have been various, applied, for example, to milk it denoted ' skimmed ' (Cockayne, Leechdoms), but the application that is of importance here, is revealed in the uniformity with which Anglo- Saxon, Middle English, O. H. G. and M. H. G. Glosses define pearf (per/) and derb with azymus ; from Aelfric to Wiclif, moreover, the unleavened bread of the Passover is peorf hl&f and per/ breed. That peorf, perf as applied to bread and dough therefore to a late period of Middle English meant 'unleavened,' is shown by the entry in the Promptoriuin Parvulorum p. 490: "therf, wythe owte sowre dowe, azimus " (cf. also Reliquiae Antiquae I, p. 6; and Catholicon Anglicum p. 381, note 2); and the M. H. G. derbe-brot, derpkuoche, derpteic, etc., supply an exact parallel. But the correspondence between the German and English uses of these words does not end here. There was an easy transition from azymus to panis densus, and thence to any heavy or coarse kind of bread ; derbes brot is to-day not an unleavened loaf, but any sort of coarse bread in distinction from the finer and white varieties. In English the same develop- ment of meanings seems to have taken place, an assumption that enables us to understand a passage in Piers the Plowman (A. pass. VII, 269) where perf-cake must mean a cheap and coarse product, better defined in the B and C texts by ' an hancr cake,' and ' a cake of otes' (cf. Mr. Skeat's note). It is highly prob- able then that the ' uplandis and the burges Mous' of Henryson regaled themselves on some coarse kind of bread, perhaps an oaten loaf, which by them would be esteemed quite dainty enough.
It will now be preceived how derb in Modern
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German has developed along two lines of metaphorical meanings: 'firm, strong, hardy,' etc., and 'rude, uncouth,' etc. Here we may again compare the Scottish tharj, thairf, which Donaldson in his Supplement, after blundering with the etymology, defines with 'cold, stiff, unsocial, reluctant.' The signifi- cance of noticing the existence of this adjec- tive fharfby the side of the metathesized form thraf \s of course apparent (see also tharf-bred in Wright-Wiilker's Vocal, p. 657, 30, and Mr. Wright's note).
How, finally, are we to regard the relation between a thraf-cake and a thfaf -drink? My suggestion is that in the expression thraf- drink, the epithet thraf is used with the secondary signification of ' simple, inexpen- sive,' etc., so that a thraf -drink is practically a 'penny ale' or a 'small beer.' In this way ' small beer,' etc., necessarily made with yeast comes to be designated with a word which would originally have implied the lack or absence of barm or yeast. Mr. Davidson is therefore right in implying that a thraf-drink is a yeast-drink, but in taking no account of the curious lucus a non lucendo which we have thus discovered, he leads us astray when he comes to speak of the thraf-cake.
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The Origins of the English People and of the English Language. Compiled from the best and latest authorities by JEAN ROEMER, LL. D., Professor of the French Language and Literature and Vice-Presi- dent of the College of the City of New York. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1888. xxiv, 658 pp. 8vo.
The author of this work, so far known only as a writer of text-books for the study of French, has ventured out of his accustomed sphere to add another bulky volume to the numerous popular works on the English Lan- guage. Since most of the latter are sadly out of date, a well written manual embodying the results of recent investigations would be very desirable. Considering the vastness of the subject which, as the author of this book
states, "involves, first of all, a critical inquiry into the origin, character and distribution of the various races of men — Celts, Romans, Saxons, Danes, Normans — who at various epochs have found their way into the British islands — their idioms and forms of religion, their social and political differences, their relative progress in the arts of civilized life " — we would cheerfully excuse the writer from the task of original investigation, and should be satisfied if, by judicious compilation from "the best and latest authorities " he had produced a work which, while giving in an interesting style a clear idea of the origins of the English language, would be faithful and accurate in every detail. We shall not venture to discuss the historical part at the author's work ; but as far as its philological side is concerned we feel compelled to give it as our opinion that Dr. Roemer has failed to fulfill the above stated requirements. His authorities are frequently not the " best and the latest ; " more frequent- ly still he speaks on his own authority and often not wisely ; in some fundamental points he gives the reader a wrong conception of the development of the language, owing to his predilection for the Norman-French element ; throughout the whole book a great deal of miscellaneous information is volunteered which blurs the clearness of the picture and leaves us in the end without a clear conception of what we have read.
The list of authorities prefixed to the vol- ume is long, and it would be difficult for me to verify my assertion ; yet I venture to say that many of Dr. Roemer's ideas are original with him ; certainly they are not to be found in what are commonly regarded as the best authorities. And here is the mischief such books can do : the public is told that they are compiled from the "best and latest authori- ties;" but all through them are scattered the writers' own favorite ideas and original dis- coveries, which pass for the results of serious investigations and are soon copied in numer- ous text-books of a lower order, to the dis- credit of philological scholarship in general. Throughout the present volume the most startling propositions are advanced as though they were facts known to everybody who had ever looked into the matter.
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Thus p. 67 we are told that the name of the Jutes is probably only a corruption of the word Tent or Dent, which, with its suffix ish, sch, cht has produced the forms Deutsch and Dutch! In defence of his theory the writer cites the mispronunciation jew for dew and ajew for adieu ! This word Tent or Dent (why not add the correct form peod?) is then said to be " after all of remote Celtic origin ! " Here the author evidently confounded deutsch with German. This supposition seems reasonable in view of the fact that almost throughout the rest of the book the author uses the term Dutch instead of German, speaking in all seriousness of the Old High Dutch and the Old Low Dutch, terms which, like the author's " Gothic stock of languages," have an interest- ing archaic air about them. The trouble begins when Dutch is used in the same con- nection in its modern acceptation ; and there is frequent occasion for this, for the author believes with Prof. Skeat (Etym. Diet. p. xiv) that the influence of Dutch upon English has been greatly underrated ; but he probably goes much farther than his authority when he says, p. 68 : " That in the time of King Ethel- bert the people of Kent spoke Dutch is proved by tWe fact that Angustin, on his mission to England, took with him as interpreters men from the Salian Franks, who originally came from the Rhenish Netherlands, where the lan- guage was the ancient idiom of Holland ; " or when, p. 398, he gives a list of so-called Dutch words said to occur in the Ancren Riwle, among them such good old English words as biiiden, bitter, breken, buten, cwellen, delen, drinken, grim, etc., which is followed on p. 430 by a similar list of Dutch words in Chaucer, among them sterven, nemen, stelen etc., words which resemble closely their modern Dutch cognates given in a parallel column.
Frequently the author goes directly against his own -uithorities, and he does this in some cases with a total disregard for phonetic laws. On p. 310 smith is derived from smite although both the etymological dictionaries which the author quotes as his authorities (Skeat and Muller) consider this derivation impossible (Skeat: " we might as well connect kith with kite as far as phonetic laws are concerned "I ; p. 250, doomsday (in Doomsday-book) is deri-
ved from dotnus del ; the author feels no hesita- tion about the etymology ^cockney, in regard to which his authorities confess their ignorance (P- 336) ; on P- 466 we are told that Lerti, a collective name for certain German tribes who settled in the North of Gaul, was " probably- only the Latin way of pronouncing the German word leute " ; p. 379 we learn that "the distinc- tion in our modern pronunciation between the initial sounds of thine and thin did probably not exist in the earliest times, the th always being voiced as in thine"; etc. There are many minor errors which might easily have been avoided, as when the author speaks of " Sigurd in the Song of the Nibelungs " (p. 26) or assigns the He Hand, " Heiland in Dutch," to the tenth century (p. 93) ; or when, p. 529, he derives '^besitzen, to possess, from the Old High German bisazj'an" etc.
The author deserves credit for insisting, p. 373, on the separation of the various classes of Latin and Romance words introduced into the English language at various times, but he fails to follow his own precept when. p. 344, he says : " thus from sol they made soil; from reculer, recoil; pauvre became poor" etc. If the author had given the Norman French and Anglo-Norman forms instead of the modern French, the origin of the English words as we have them would be clear.
The weakest part of the book is that devo- ted to Anglo-Saxon, "an idiom from which English literature has derived but little if any value " (p. 454). Here it is evidently not fa- miliarity which breeds contempt. In the author's list of the "best and latest authori- ties " the names of all the men most promi- nently connected with the study of the Anglo- Saxon language and literature, Grein, March, Sweet, Sievers, Zupitza, ten Brink etc., are conspicuous for their absence. Indeed there is reason to believe that the writer is ignorant of the very elements of an idiom a thorough knowledge of which constitutes a prime re- quisite in the author of a work on the origins of the English language. We can hardly come to any other conclusion when we read, P- 354 : "The Anglo-Saxon prepositions were used as if possessed of the power of altering the cases of the nouns they governed, as oc- curs in Latin and Greek ; but so irregular and
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capricious were the principles of this govern- ment, that in the same sentence the same preposition throws its connected substantives into four different cases." This startling pro- position is then illustrated by the phrase mid ealre thinre heortan and mid eallum mode! If all this means anything, it means that the endings -re, -an, -um, -e are signs of different cases ! No wonder the author remarks : "that amid this confusion of grammar the people could have always correctly understood each other, may be reasonably doubted."
An appendix of nearly two hundred pages is devoted exclusively to the French sources of Modern English. It contains a chapter on the history of the French language from the earliest times to the present ; a chapter on French etymology introduced by observations on the general principles of linguistic science, the latter taken from August Schleicher; and a chapter containing specimens of Early French. This appendix contains much that is foreign to the author's subject, but this is true of the whole book. Thus on pp. 330 ff. we find an account of the rise of universities, with the question as to the priority of Oxford or Cambridge duly considered ; pp. 524 ff. we find a history of the degree of Bachelor of Arts, with remarks on the requirements of the mediaeval curriculum and the meaning of the word " commencement " ; p. 488 we learn that in the Middle Ages in a letter of importance the following order was always strictly obser- ved: viz., " Salutatio, Captatio, Benevolentia (sic !), Narratio, Petitio, Conclusio"; etc. If the author had devoted the time spent in the collection of one half of his material to the verification, correction and systematic arrange- ment of the remainder, he might have produ- ced a useful book.
HANS C. G. VON JAGEMANN. Indiana University.
SPANISH IDIOMS.— I. Spanish Idioms with their English Equiva- lents, embracing nearly ten thousand Phrases, collected by SARAH GARY BECKER and FEDERICO MORA. Boston : Ginn & Co. 1887. i2mo. pp. 331. In the preface to this interesting book an idiom is defined as being "a phrase stamped
by the usage of language with a signification other than its grammatical or logical one." Let us examine this definition in the light of a few idioms ! p. 144 : acabo de llegar, ' I have just arrived.' As venir in French, so acabar in Spanish (and Portuguese) is used as a sort of auxiliary verb with an infinitive, to express immediate past time; acabar de hacer, 'to have just done,' is a verbal construction peculiar to Spanish grammar, the signification of which is neither non-grammaticai nor non- logical. Again, the phrase hacer libro nuevo, ' to turn over a new leaf (p. 128) is a Spanish idi- om, not because its meaning differs from the grammatical or the logical one, but because it is the peculiarly Spanish way of conveying, by an expression taken from a concrete case (here from a particular occupation of man), the abstract idea of ' reforming one's conduct of life.' Its accepted signification is not the literal one, to be sure, but does it for that reason cease to be grammatical and logical ? In short, the idioms of a language are pre- cisely those of its constructions and expressions which, so far from contravening grammar and logic, reflect most faithfully its syntactical and logical structure. Hardly more felicitous than the above definition of an idiom is the state- ment made further on in the preface: " Many of the idiomatic phrases are proverbs, but proverbs not containing idioms are excluded." But it is not so much with the collectors' definition of idioms and proverbs that we must find fault, as with their plan of arranging them. The idioms are divided into such as contain a verb, and such as have or appear to have no verb, as if the verb contained invari- ably the essentially idiomatic element of the phrase. Thus a heterogeneous number of idiomatic and proverbial phrases are indis- criminately arranged together under the verb or one of the verbs which they happen to con- , tain and under which, in most cases, they would never be looked for! Look for instance at the phrases grouped under abrir p. 5-6, andar p. 13-18, estar p. 90-102, haber p. 107- 113, hacer p. 115-131, ser p. 205-223, tener p. 227-239, and their inflected forms ! But even accepting this injudicious arrangement, one fails to understand why the phrase cnando el hierro estd encendido, entonces ha de ser
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batido (p. 95) should be mentioned under estd . rather than under the far more important verb encendido or batido. Was the rule probably to let the first verb determine the place of the expression ? If so, why is ni juega ni da barato under dar (p. 60), why acabo de llegar (p. 144) not under acabar, where it ought to be ; why again el se mete en lo que no le va ni le [not lo] viene (p. 251) under this last verb instead of under meter?, and so on. Not unfrequently, again, it occurs that the same idiom is gratuitously repeated, owing, probab- ly, to the slightly different version or order of words in which it happened to occur. Thus en casa del ahorcado no hay que mentor la soga under hay (p. 109) and ha (p. 152), de la mana & la boca desaparece la sopa (pp. 71 and 170), quien del alacrdn estd picado, la sombra le espanta (p. 98 and 173), cuando la barba de tit vecino vieres pelar, echa la tuya d remojar (p. 76 and 254), callen larbas y hablen cartas (p. 34 and 114) ; and so on. The alphabetical order ought to have been more carefully observed : Tener occurs under temar (p. 227), tender under tener (p. 230), podar ' to prune ' under poder ' to be able ' (p. 173), senior under sentir (p. 205), etc. The arbitrary division of the idioms into those with and those without a verb having been once adopted, it should have been consistently carried out. This is not the case. A goto viejo raton tierno is given under the verb dar (p. 60), whereas, for instance, ablanda breva or ablanda higos (p. 258), d rnata caballo (p. 266), muchos ajos en un mortero, mal los maja tin majadero (p. 266), enganchar la gata en la ancla (p. 279), d tente bonete or hasta tente bonete (p. 266 ; cf. un tente tieso, Gald6s, Baile*n, p. 177), d gaznate tendido (p. 280, but also found under verbs, p. 230), huevos pasados por agua (p. 285) are classed with idioms containing no verb !
Let us now pass on to a few remarks on the English rendering, and other matters which have suggested themselves during a rapid glance through the collection. On the whole the Spanish idioms are happily rendered ; but here as elsewhere in the work greater uniformity of plan and method should have been observed. Otro gallo me cantdra (not cantard, as the book has it) is rendered im-
personally : ' one would fare better ' (p. 36), whereas estar hecho un hospital (p. 99) is trans- lated : ' he is very sickly ; ' and so in many other cases.
P. 31. Buscar pan de trastrigo, 'To look for better bread than ever came of wheat.' This rendering is taken from Ormsby's transla- tion of Don Quijote IV, p. 386, from which the following foot-note is quoted : " Trastrigo is an obscure word, but the application is un- questionably to seeking things out of season, or out of reason." There are a few Spanish words in which tras has very much the same force as re in rebueno, reviejo (cf. Port, re- velho}, Latin per in pellucidus, French par in parfournir. Thus trasanejo, which the Span- ish lexicographers generally explain as mean- ing 'three years old,' signifies 'more than a year old' ' very old ' and is, like de antano, a favorite epithet of good wine. ' Dios te con- suele, hija, que asf me has consolado, sino que temo que [el vino] me ha de hacer mal, porque no me he desayunado; no hara, madre, re- spondi6 Monipodio, porque es trasanejo. Cervantes, Rinconete y Cortadillo (Brockh. ed., p. 103). To this may be added another passage quoted by Sbarbi (Ref. VI, p.' 285), whose explanation of trastrigo agrees with the one here given :
Bebe de lo trataflejo :
Por que con mas gusto comas.*
Kaltasar de Alcazar, La Cena-
A similar force of tras would seem to lie in trasudar as used by Cervantes in the following passage : El pobre gobernador (Sancho), el cual en aquella estrecheza recogido sudaba y trasudaba, y de todo corazon se encomendaba a Dios que de aquel peligro le sacase. DQ. II, 53. Now, another instance of this kind we have precisely in trastrigo, which means 'superior to wheat.' To appreciate the force of such an expression, it must be borne in mind what high value was set on wheat as the best material of which the principal article of food, bread (la gracia de Dios), was made, and to what extent it figures as a valuable thing in proverbial language.
Saberle d uno d trigo, ' to taste of wheat,' is a phrase which 1 have not found elsewhere, but
*Cf. the Proverb : Pan de ayer, carne de oy, vino dt unta o, traen al h ombre sano. ^Sbarbi, Ref. III., p. 45)
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which in the passage here quoted evidently means 'to give satisfaction to one,' 'to turn out successfully : '
Levest pocca gananpia quando luchest comigo, Diote mal salespaqio Onorio mi amigo : Quando quemar me quisisti, non te s'po d trigo, Traeras mientre seas la manziella contigo. S. Mill. 268.
The Virgin is addressed as the Mother of Wheat-bread.
Reyna de los f ielos, Madre del pan de trigo,
Por que fo confondido el mortal enemigo,
Tu eres mi fianza, esso misme te digo . . . Milagros, 659.
Proverb : Da Dios trigo en el ero sembrado. Cast. 6 Doc. p. 175. Such being the signifi- cance attached to trigo and pan de trigo, it appeared senseless to ask for something more or better than wheat-bread. Hence the phrase : buscar mas (inejor) de pan de trigo, ' to seek something unreasonable : '
Probar todas las cosas el apostol lo manda :
Fui a probar la sierra, tfis loca demanda :
Luego perdi la mula, non fallaba vianda,
Quien mas de pan de trigo busca, sin seso anda.
JRoiz, 924.
Assaz eras varon bien casado conmigo : lo mucho te queria commo a buen amigo ; Mas tu andas buscando weior de pan de trigo : Non valdr is mas por esso quanto vale un figo.
Mil. 341 ; cf. 759.
Trastrigo, then, which so far seems to be known only from two passages in the Don Quijote (I, 7 and II, 67), is the equivalent of mas or mejor de trigo, and buscar pan de trastrigo means, as Ormsby well says, ' to seek things out of reason.' In conclusion it may be remarked that, undoubtedly through the translations of Cervantes' popular work, the phrase ' to want better bread than is made of wheat ' has become naturalized in English.
P. 38. Duena ciilpada mal castiga la [mis- printed castigada] mallada. The English idiom is also familiar to the Spaniard. Antes tiraba piedras d mi tejado, agora encoge las manos y las tiene quedas, viendo que es el suyo de vidrio. Guz. de Alf. p. 204. — Quien tiene tejado de vidrio no tire piedras al de su vecino, DQ. I. Pr61. ; Sbarbi, Refranero Espanol, IV, p. 57 ; Alarcon, El Escandalo, p. 272. This is one of the numerous Spanish phrases not con- tained in the collection.
P. 40. No cocersele a uno el pan (gratui- tously repeated immediately below). If,
instead of 'to be anxious to know the truth,' the translation of this idiom read simply, ' to be anxious,' it would be far nearer to the truth. No cocersele d uno el pan is one of the many Spanish idioms expressing impatience, and means 'to be very impatient or restless.' Este nuestro enfermo no sabe qu6 pedir ; de sus manos no se confia ; no se le cuece el pan ; teme su negligencia ; maldice su avaricia y cortedad, porque te di6 tan poco dinero, La Celestina, p. 18 ; cf. Guz. de Alf. p. 228. No se le coda el pan a Don Quijote, como suele decirse, hasta ver y saber . . . DQ. II, 25; cf. ibid. 52, 65; Gald6s, Gloria I, p. 168. Other Spanish expressions for impatience, not to be found in the 'Spanish Idioms,' are: no ver la hora de haceralguna cosa (occurs first in Ber- ceo, S. Mill. 13) \faltarle d uno tiempo para haceruna cosa (Fern. Cab. Lagr. p. 182; Revista Cont. 1887, p. 3:); hacerse tarde d uno (Guz. de Alf. p. 232 ; DQ. II, 53); hacerse d uno el dia mas largo que tin ano (S. Mill. 12 ; JRoiz 451) ; parecerle d uno cada hora cien mil siglos (Guerras civ. de Gran. p. 519 ; cf. Guz. de Alf. P- 353)-
P- 50. Quien te cubre, te descubre, ' ex- cessive secrecy betrays.' This does not convey the idea of the proverb. The literal meaning is: 'he who covers thee, uncovers thee,' that is, he who knows your faults or secrets and covers them up, can also uncover, disclose them (he has you in his power). In this sense at least the proverb occurs in the following passage: <;Sab£is por qu£, rnarido? respondi6 Teresa, por el refran que dice: quien ie cubre te descubre: por el pobre todos pasan los ojos como de corrida, y en el rico los detienen ; y si el tal rico fue un tiempo pobre, alii es el murmurar y el maldecir. DQ. II, 5.- This again is the import of the Portuguese : Quern te cobre, te descobre, according to the follow- ing explanation of a Portuguese friend of the reviewer : Aquelle em quern confiastes para te ajudar (no que pode ser uma falta), depois em inimizade comtigo te descubrira. See also the Dictionary of the Academy.
P. 51. Dios da el frio conforme la ropa. Here belong the synonymous phrases : Da Dios almendras a quien no tiene muelas, Sbarbi, Ref. IX, p. 211 ; Da Dios habas & quien no tiene quijadas. Celestina, p. 14; Garay,
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Cartas (in Sbarbi, Ref. VII, p. TOO) ; cf. Catalan : Deu dona favas a qui no t£ caxals, Sbarbi, Ref. IX, p. 200.
P. 70. No dejar ni roso tit velloso, 'to leave no stone unturned to ensure success.' This rendering is not borne out by any of the passages in which we have found the phrase in question. ' Un juez testarudo .... Ilev6 un vestido que para poderlo concertar y ponerselo, eran menester mas de mil cedulillas y albala de guia, 6 entrarle con una cuerda como en el laberinto, y con aquella hambre nunca se pens6 ver harto ; de donde diere, no dejd roso ni velloso ; en todo hallo pecado : en este, porque si, y en aquel, porque no. Guz. de Alf. p. 224. Now, in this passage the fact that the idiom is coupled with de donde diere, a phrase characterizing indiscriminate pro- ceeding, is sufficient proof against the mean- ing assigned to it. It is evidently a synonym of de donde diere and means here 'without sparing any one.' And this idea it conveys again in the following passage, where it is also joined witli a synonymous phrase : Esto fu6 el diablo, que empez6 & decirque no habia de dejar roso ni velloso, ni piante ni mamante, y que los habia de traer al retortero d todos, y saiga si es hombre. Quevedo y Villegas, Cuento de Cuentos (in: Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, 47). No dejar (quedar) piante ni mamante means : 'not to leave (survive) bird or quadruped,' i. e., not to spare a living being. And so indeed the idiom in question is explicitly interpreted by the commentator on the above passage, F. de Paula Seijas (ibid.), and by Sbarbi him- self (ibid. p. 105-106), who further quotes a copla from the Mingo Revulgo which reads as follows :
Yo soRe1 esta trasnochada, De que estoy estremuloso, Que ni rasa ni velloso Quedard de esta vegada.
The commentator suggests that the reading raso represents the original form of the phrase, raso having in the course of time become roso by the natural tendency to assonance, and that in this case the idiom would mean, as indeed it appears from the passage just quoted: 'to leave or spare neither young (smooth-faced) nor old (bearded),' ' not to spare a living soul." Here is one more instance for
this signification : No tan perdido como algu- nos que yo conocia, que no dejaban roso ni velloso, y en viendo la suya, como buenos tiradores, mataban la caza al vuelo. Don. Hablador, p. 529.1 The Spanish equivalent of ' to leave no stone unturned ' is no dejar piedra por mover-. Mas ellos estuvieron siem- pre erre que erre, dale que le das, y aprieta Martin, de forma y manera que no dejaron piedra por mover Garay, Cartas (in Sbarbi, Ref. V, 82-3).
H. R. LANG.
New Bedford, Mass.
VOLAPUK. Grammar with Vocabularies of Volapuk.
By W. A. SERET, Glasgow : 1887. Hand-Book of Volapuk. By CHARLES E. SPRAGUE. New York : 1888.
In the December number of this Journal, some account was given of the origin and design of Volapuk, the proposed international tongue; but the appearance on the editorial table of the books named in the rubric, offers an excuse for a few more specific details which may not be without interest for those who are as yet unacquainted with this novel and curious experiment in language.
The foundation of Volapuk is a body of stems, mostly monosyllabic, chosen from the principal European languages, but especially from the English, as the tongue most widely diffused. These stems are unchangeable ; and the language is formed from them by affixes and combinations. The rules for this construction are simple, precise, and un- encumbered with exceptions; so that with a knowledge of the rules and a moderate vo- cabulary of stems, the learner can at once proceed to construct sentences, with confi- dence that his language will be correct and intelligible.
Most, if not all, of these stems are nouns; and upon the noun, as the simplest concept, the whole language is founded. Every noun may give birth to other nouns of secondary
iTo these set expressions for 'no one,' 'nobody,' may be compared the following: cuantos aran y cavan 'as many as plough and dig.' No me lo har n creer cuantos aran y cavan. Sbarbi, Ref, VIII, 22. For arar y cavar cf. also DQ. 11,53.
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significations, to a verb, an adjective and an adverb, as also, at times, to a preposition or conjunction. Thus the stem spid (speed, haste) gives spiddn, to hasten, spidel, an ac- celerator, spidik, speedy, spido, quickly, &c.
The noun and pronoun are declined by in- flection, the vowels a, e, i being successively added to the stem to indicate the genitive, dative, and accusative cases ; while other cases are indicated by prepositions, as in English. Thus mot, mother, makes mota, •mote, moti; but ko mot, with a mother, .in plad, in a place, me kik, by means of a key. This succession of vowels is preserved in the tenses of the verb and elsewhere, as a help to the memory. All plurals end in s.
Adjectives are formed from the noun by adding -ik or -lib, as saun, health, saunik, healthy, saunlik, wholesome ; and these may be transformed into adverbs by the addition of -o.
The verb is conjugated somewhat after the pattern of the Greek, the tenses (except the present) being indicated by prefixes, and moods and persons by suffixes, which in the latter case are the personal pronouns, 06, 1, ol, thou, &c., added to the stem. Thus the stem being giv, a gift ; and the verb givon, to give, "I give" is givob (giv-\-ob); "thou givest," givol, &c. The other tenses of the indicative are formed by prefixing successively the vowels a, e, i, o, u, to the present, as agivob, I gave; igivotn, he had given ; ugivoms, they will have given. The other moods are formed from the indicative by the addition of suffixes to the personal sign ; thus from igivom, he had given, is formed igivomov, he would have given. The passive voice is formed by pre- fixing the consonant p (for the present tense, pa) to the corresponding active form ; as alo- fom, he loved, palofom, he was loved.
A simple sentence of Volapiik, with a translation, will give an idea of the look and construction of this artificial language.
Du apolob da nekulivop vola at, akomob al top sembal ko asibinom ninovag, ed aseitobok in top et al slipon.
"As I-wandered through wilderness of- world this, I-came to place certain where there-was cavern, and I-laid-myself in place that to sleep."
While the inventor of Volapiik proposed to himself the invention simply of an extremely easy and convenient form of international communication, some enthusiasts have pre- dicted that in time it will supplant all other tongues, and be the world's one language. Such expectations are extravagant. Volapiik has no idioms of its own, no associations, noth- ing that gives color to its words and phrases. The utmost it can now do is to render color- less statements quite clearly, without ambigui- ty. Indeed it may not be the least of its recommendations that, should it become uni- versal, punning would become a lost art, like the manufacture of Tyrian purple, or an un- committable crime, like adultery in Sparta.
On the other hand, it is amusing to see what animosity Volapiik has aroused in philological quarters, and among learned professors to whom years seem hardly to have brought the philosophic mind. Some flame up in wrath as if they had received personal outrage and bufferings ; while others stare aghast as if Herr Schleyer had turned loose a new bacillus to ravage mankind. One, with a pretty wit, has compared it to Wagner's homunculus in a bottle ; forgetting, apparently, the services that the homunculus afterward renders when Faust is travelling in strange regions.
One of the objections raised against Volapiik is the uncouthness of its appearance. But even Greek in Roman letters looks uncouth enough. "Toisi para sphisi ginomenoisi krokodeiloisi toisi en tesi haimasiesi." What a guffaw would be raised if that were Volapiik, instead of being the words of him whose lan- guage was thought musical as the songs of the Muses themselves.
Others shriek from the topmost battlements of a priori philology that the great goddess Sprachentwickelung has been blasphemed because Volapiik is a synthetic instead of an analytic language. "If," (pathetically laments , one who is not altogether a6n\ay x.v < ?) "he had only said^w ob instead of givob \ " The printer's space, like the * in homoiousios, parts the sheep from the goats. A politer answer than Mr. Burchell's historic monosyllable, is the reminder that Volapiik is not a natural development, but a manufacture — a con- trivance. Does any one blame machinists for
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not making locomotives on the plan of horses ami elephants? A palaeographer does 'not sneer at a st< -tm^rapher because he finds it convenient to make an f without the conse- craU-d Snail's horns.
In certain points of detail, however, it seems, to one looking at it from the outside, to have some defects.
First, the almost total omission of the letter r, (apparently as a concession to the Chinese) which gives rise to such Aztec-like words as dlenon, tie Ion.
Secondly, the placing the accent invariably on the last syllable, so that the whole ac- centuation shifts with every additional suffix. Thus:
VOLAPUK VOLAPUKA vbLAPUKA T'lD VOLAPUKA TIDAL.
Surely it would have been better to attach the accentuation to the significant stems.
The third defect is really important, and that is the lack of a definite article, without which precision of expression cannot be had. Thus, in the bit of translation given above, it is impossible to render Bunyan's phrase, " the wilderness of this world," in Volapiik. The words given mean "« wilderness," which is altogether different.
After all, the only important question is: does Volapiik sufficiently supply the requisites of an international medium of communication ? — that is, is it adequate for the ordinary pur- poses of life ; and is it preeminently easy of acquisition, of use, and of understanding? On this the present writer expresses no opinion. Judicabit orbis terrarum : that is to say, the final verdict on the merits of pud- dings must rest on d posteriori grounds.
WM. HAND BKOUNI .
Johns Hopkins University.
////. OLD FRENCH MERLIN.
Merlin, roman en prose du XIII* siecle, pub- lu'avec la mise en prose du poerne de Merlin de Robert de Boron, d'apres le mamisrrit appurtenant a M. Alfred H. Huth, par GASTON PARIS et JACOB ULRICH : Paris, 1886, 2 vols. XCI-28o, 308 pp. 8vo. (Publication of the Socie'te' des Anciens Textes
By the publication of the Huth MS. the Early French Text Society turns its attention for the first time to the Arthurian legends. The version of ' Merlin ' which it here gives is found in but one MS., unfortunately incom- plete, belonging to the end of the XIII. or to the beginning of the XIV. century. Itcontains, as preserved, three works: ist, a prose ver- sion of ' Joseph of Arimathea ' by Robert de Boron, of which many MSS. exist and which has been published by Weidner; 2d, a prose version of ' Merlin,' by the same author, not published in modern times ; 3d, a unique and incomplete version of a continuation to ' Mrr- lin.' Owing to the edition of Weidner the 'Joseph' has here been omitted. From the linguistic standpoint the MS. offers nothing remarkable : the writing is French, evidently by many successive scribes, but shows still marks of Picard or Wallon dialect. The few words of interest are gathered into a Vocabu- lary, which is followed by an analytical table of proper names and by an analysis of the work. From the literary point of view, how- ever, the Huth ' Merlin ' is of much importance in the history of the Breton cycle, and the Introduction by M. Paris is therefore devoted principally to the discussion of certain of these new features. As noted above, the editors have published that part of the Huth MS. which contains a prose version of the ' Merlin' of Robert de Boron, — the poetical original exists only as a fragment of 504 v., published by Michel, — and a ' Merlin ' which claims to be a sequel to it. The former stopped at the crowning of Arthur, as had been stated by Paulin Paris, and it was the second in a series of three poems by Robert on the ('.rail legend. This author, Robert de Boron, as M. Paris determines, must have written before 1201, and have revised his cycle after 1212, the
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date of the death of his collaborator, Gautier de Montbeliard. Possibly also a fourth poem should be reckoned among his works, the third in the series, on the deeds of Alain ; but all trace of it is lost. He himself was proba- bly a native of North-eastern France, from many vague indications in his poems, none of which however are conclusive. Of the three poems known to have been his, the third, ' Perceval,' exists only in prose, in a much altered MS. of the XIV. century.
Passing to the sources. of the works before us, M. Paris determines that the ' Merlin ' is made up from the ' Historia Britonum,' a translation of which Robert had read and partially remembered, or which had been orally transmitted to him. The story of Geoffrey he changes at will or enlarges from popular stories concerning Merlin (a subject which M. Paris promises to treat in the Ro- mania), with notions borrowed perhaps from the Gospel of Nicodemus. His entire ignor- ance of England is seen in the topography of his work : Carlion he does not mention ; but at Carduel, by the advice of Merlin, Uter founds the Round Table (Wace gives Arthur) after the model of those of the Saviour and Joseph, which has, like theirs, an empty seat that shall not be filled until in the next reign a knight shall come (evidently Percival) who shall have accomplished the search for the Grail. Another variation due to Robert, in order to increase the importance of Merlin, is the concealment for fifteen years of Arthur, who then alone of all is able to draw the sword of royal authority from the magic anvil.1 According to Robert, it was the mother of Kay who nursed the infant Arthur and who was consequently obliged to intrust her own son to a stranger of low birth. Thus the charac- ter of Kay was tainted by the milk of a menial (a common notion in the Middle Ages), and he became " fel et faus et vilains." We have here an ingenious explanation both for the evil traits of Kay in the poems from the time
iThis idea M. Paris would trace to biblical legends: the rod of Joseph which buds, thus designing him to be the husband of Mary ; or to episodes in other poems of the cycle. A more striking parallel seems to me to be found in the German, epic, where Siegmund draws the sword from the oak, unless perhaps, indeed, the latter may have been the original of a popular story which had crept over the German border and which was utilized, by Robert.
of Chretien de Troies and for the indulgence of Arthur towards him.
The ' Merlin ' of Robert had a sequel by his own hand, the ' Perceval ' (perhaps also an intermediate poem on the adventures of Alain). The ' Perceval ' did not, however, meet with much favor ; it was soon crowded out of the series by the ' Lancelot,' which new arrangement of the story demanded a connect- ing link that should relate the end of Merlin's adventures and the history of Arthur up to the arrival of Lancelot. Several writers tried to fill the gap. The one of the Huth MS. evi- dently had the least success, as other versions were preferred to his.
His work proceeds from the crowning of Arthur, and to be consistent he claims to be Robert de Boron. M. Paris shows by many discrepancies that he is not. A character for deceit being thus established in the anony- mous writer, another falsification which inter- ests literary history is easily pointed out. The continuator of the ' Merlin ' of the Huth MS. pretends that he is translating from a Latin book on the legend of the Grail and that to lighten his task he has asked his lord " Helye, qui a este1 mes compains a armes," to translate a branch of the book which he calls " li contes del brait." Further on he shows Helie at work, and finally declares that the branch is finished. All this, with other allusions, proves that there existed a work, probably in prose, called ' li Contes del Brait,' from the last cry of Merlin, written by a cer- tain He'lie. This story is lost in French, but is partially preserved here and there in a Spanish translation of ' Merlin ' bearing the title of ' El Baladro del sabio Merlin.' The rubrics and the closing chapter of this transla- tion are appended by M. Paris to the Introduc- tion. From these references the story may be drawn, somewhat as follows : Baudemagus, angered at seeing Tor, his junior, given a seat before him at the Round Table, leaves the court of Arthur, undergoes many adventures, and finally arrives in the forest of Darnantes. In this same forest, four days before, Merlin had been shut up in the 'Tomb of the Lovers' by Ninienne,2 to whom he had taught his arts.
aThis appears to be the true form of the name : also Ni- niane, Nivienne, etc. Vivienne or Viviane seem to be wrong readings of the MSS.
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On it she had replaced the sword, which ten men could scarcely lift, and had sealed it to the tomb by incantations. Attracted by the laments of Merlin, Baudemagus strives to raise the sword, but is told by the sage that no one save her who placed him there can free him. In terror Baudemagus falls to the ground, whereupon " un poco despues de hora nona " (the allusion is obvious and might suggest the origin of the notion) Merlin utters his last cry, which sounded through the. kingdom of Logres. Th» candles in the hands of the thirteen kings went out and many marvels were accomplished, as Merlin himself had pre- dicted.3
The author of this story is without doubt a person called He'lie, a name not infrequent among writers of the Middle Ages. Who this particular He'lie may be is not yet de- termined, but the allusions to him in the Huth MS. have been curiously twisted. From a comrade in arms of the pretended Robert de Boron he becomes (in subsequent stories as in 1 Guiron le Courtois ' and in an epilog to ' Tristan ') a relative of Robert ; and finally blooms out into literary history as a writer on the Grail, He'lie de Boron — all of which is exploded by the publication of the original. Seeking now the sources of the sequel to the ' Merlin ' of the Huth MS. M. Paris finds that it is, in large part, a development of indications found in the ' Conte du Brait,' 'Lancelot,' ' Mort Arthur ' and the prose ' Tristan,' all of which were unknown to Robert- de Boron. Other material was doubtless drawn from various episodes of Breton stories, and the whole supplemented by poor inventions of the author himself. As the readers of the Middle Ages preferred other sequels of the 4 Merlin ' of Robert to this, its influence in France was not important. It offers, however, peculiar interest to English-speaking peoples, in that if was employed, much abridged, by Malory. It serves the latter as the original for his first four books, minus chapters v-xvi of Book I, which are taken from the common
3"The end of Merlin is much more dramatic than that in the ordinary version and, so far as we can ascertain in the Huth MS., Vivien appears in a much more favorable light. Mer lin teaches her his art in order to win her over, and she while preserving her honor, hates him for his intentions and finally destroys him, thus strongly pointing a moral.
version of ' Merlin.' The author of the Huth MS. wrote not far from 1225-30; was probably from North-east France ; like Robert de Boron he did not know England.
Having thus analyzed the MS. as preserved, M. Paris passes to a conjecture of the nature of the part that is lost. He points out that the anonymous author has given an intimation of his plan in a passage on folio 125 of the MS. There he states that the narrative will be divi- ded into three equal parts of 125 folios each : the first corresponds to the ' Joseph ' and the ' Merlin ' of Robert de Boron, plus 50 folios of the continuation ; the second reaches to the commencement of the Grail, and in the Huth MS. lacks about 20 folios; the third ends with the death of Lancelot and Mark, and is entirely wanting. This third part M. Paris concludes, from the allusions in 'Merlin' and in other works that refer to ' Merlin,' to be a Quest of the Grail. This 'Quest,' like the 'Merlin,' was attributed to Robert de Boron ; was known to the author of the prose ' Tristan ; ' and resembled greatly the ' Quest ' commonly assigned to Walter Map, in fact was probably the original of the latter, which was early in- corporated into the ' Lancelot.'
This prediction was unexpectedly verified the same year it was made (M. Paris signs the Introduction July i4th, 1887), and in a manner most flattering to the penetration of M. Paris, by the publication of a Portuguese translation of the 'Quest (See NOTES III, col. 49) by Dr. von Reinhardstottner, which is in reality the missing part of the work of the pretended Robert de Boron (See Romania XVI, p. 582). The importance of this discovery on the his- tory of the cycle we may hope to see demon- strated soon by M. Paris himself.4
F. M. WARRKN. Johns Hopkins University.
480 far as determined, the work on the Grail legend in its early form may be thus arranged : Robert de Boron is the author of at least three poems which are preserved as follows ' Joseph of Arimathea,' of which we possess the original complete and several MSS.ofthe prose versions; 'Merlin,' original 504 v., and several MSS. of the prose version; 'Perceval,' one MS. of the prose version. The' Perceval,' being unpopular, gave way to another conclusion, which necessitated a connecting story. Thus, for ' Perceval ' in the plan of Robert we have a ' Sequel to Merlin ' and a 'Quest,' which latter was finally united to the ' Lancelot.'
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Die Berliner Handschrift des Decameron, von A. TOBLER. [Sitzungsberichte der Ko- niglich Preussischen Academic der Wissen- schaften zu Berlin]. It is perhaps, after all, not surprising that a work so well known and so often printed as the Decameron should still have no critical edition which the future his- torian of the Italian language could use with any safety. And yet the Decameron is cer- tainly one of the most important monuments of early Italian prose. But then, the pretty stories and graceful style of Boccaccio have doubtless rather repelled than attracted the severe labors of the grammarian. At last, a good beginning has been made, and if those who follow Prof. Tobler perform their task with the same thoroughness and keenness, we shall ultimately have an edition of the De- cameron of great value to the grammarian and lexicographer.
In this pamphlet we have : —
1. An accurate description of a MS. of the Decameron the writing of which is not later than the very beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury. This MS. is part of the Hamilton col- lection of the Berlin library ;
2. A carefully compiled list of the corrupt passages which are common to the Berlin text and to the Mannelli text ;
3. A list of passages in the Berlin text which offer a better reading than that of the Mannelli text ; many of these readings have already been introduced into editions of Boc- caccio from other MSS., or conjecturally ;
4. Corrupt readings which are found in the Berlin MS. but not in the Mannelli text ;
5. A list of divergent readings either of which may be adopted without changing the meaning of the text ;
6. A list of divergent readings where the adoption of one or the other would change somewhat the meaning of the text.
Prof. Tobler shows conclusively that the Berlin MS. is not a 'copy of the Mannelli, and makes it appear very probable that the reverse is the case.
P. B. MARCOU. Cambridge, Mass.
BRIEF MENTION Apropos of Dr. Schilling's recent review of
the Joynes-Meissner German Grammar in these columns, the Editors desire to state that the entire review was furnished to the NOTES at one time, its subsequent division into two parts being simply incidental to editorial con- siderations ; so that the spirit and fairness of the article in question can be judged only with reference to its effect as an undivided whole. As for the title of the review, we are assured that it was already chosen before the appearance of the article on the same subject in our December number ; and the paper throughout was written quite independently of any suggestion from the author of that article.
Professor F. Max Miiller has published a new volume, which comprises a collection of essays, notes, and letters relating to ety- mological, anthropological and antiquarian topics, and has named it ' Biographies of Words, and the Home of the Aryas' (Long- mans, Green & Co., New York). This volume belongs to that class of semi-popular scien- tific writings in which Max Miiller has few equals in the charm of captivating generaliza- tion and readableness, and it is sure to find its peculiar place on every shelf by the side of the household "Chips." General readers will here find some things to satisfy their craving for those inspired deductions that spurn the scientific scaffolding by which ordi- nary mortals raise themselves to the appre- hension of a truth ; here is the philologist, to their own liking, not painfully and weakly ever holding fast to the dead weight of the logic of facts lest, perchance, the wings of his spirit may waft him through the free air of direct perception towards the very s"un and center of absolute knowledge. But if Max Miiller knows how to give one a refreshing airing, and to disappoint one afterwards by not providing the healthful meal for which the appetite has been sharpened, this is but one side of his character. He is a great scholar, and always gives the scientific man something to think about. Whatever our tastes may be we are all obliged to read his books, whether for admonition of how subjects should, or should not be treated ; of how things are, or are not. In the present instance the ' biogra- phy ' of the word persona is alone enough to
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save the whole volume. The author is at his best in sketching the life of this word that has played a marvclously significant role through many centuries.
In the 'Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science,' Fifth Series, No. XI, is to be found a succinct and interesting treatment of " Seminary Libraries and University Extension," by Dr. H. B. Adams, Editor. This account is confined, of course, to history and allied subjects, but, as the system here noted is precisely the same for linguistic investigations, we would heart- ily recommend the article to all modern lan- guage professors seeking light on Seminary Methods. The same writer has published ' The Study of History in American Colleges and Universities ' (Bureau of Education, Circu- lar of Information No. 2, 1887) which, we hope, will suggest to some of our earnest workers the propriety of a similar study for the modern languages, or a department of them, in the United States. A history of English, German or Romance studies in our colleges would reveal an extraordinary de- velopment in the past few years of an im- portant branch of education. No greater revolution has taken place in any department of our educational system than that which might be traced out just here.
We have received a contribution that is likely to do important service for the science of dialectology : ' Grammatikalische und lexikalische Arbeiten iiber die lebenden Mundarten der langue d'Oc und der langue d'Oil,' by Dr. D. Behrens [Deprint from the IX. vol. of Zeitschrift f. Neufranzbs. Spr. u. Litteratur. Oppeln u. Leipzig ; Eugen Franck's Buchhandlung]. In this monograph the writer has presented in the space of 125 octavo pages an historical survey of all the principal publications bearing on North and South French dialects, with here and there short characterizations of the work noted. Every one who has attempted to make such a list will be able to appreciate the difficulties and amount of labor attending it, and feel the more grateful to Dr. B. that he has compiled a bibliography so useful and so nearly complete
as this is. For all those interested in dialect
p
matters it is an indispensable help ; to supple-
ment it will be comparatively easy, now that the first steps in this direction have been taken. It remains to continue the good work by publishing bibliographies of original works in the individual patois. When these texts shall have been made accessible to foreign scholars, the materials necessary for dialect investigation, especially for the important categories of Syntax, Morphology and Sema- siology, will be at hand, and will doubtless attract a goodly number of zealous workers. Sievers* Anglo-Saxon Grammar holds an altogether unique place, being the only full treatment of the early forms of our language according to the most accurate scholarship. It is therefore a just matter of natural pride that an American translator has made this indispensable work accessible in English. A further element of gratification is the gener- ous acceptance, throughout our country, of Professor Cook's version that has encouraged him so soon after the author's own second edition to give us the corresponding edition of the translation (Ginn & Co., Boston). When Professor Cook first came to the pre- paration of his English version it will be re- membered that he could not escape the responsible duty of making many variations from the original, by incorporating a large body of additional matter which the author had collected and published separately subse- quent to his first edition. By carefully per- forming this editorial task, Professor Cook at once gave us the work in a form that properly stood mid-way between the first and second editions of the original. After the author had himself brought his work to embrace his recent modifications, it is clear that the Eng- lish version could be made to correspond more closely to the original than before. And this has been accomplished by Prof. Cook, whose second edition conforms in all es- sentials to the second edition of the author. Prof. Cook has however added a new feature which deserves to be mentioned. He has not only expanded and corrected the somewhat unsatisfactory ' index of words ' of the origi- nal, but has added five supplementary indices in which are collected the Gothic, the O. H. German, the Old Saxon, the Old Norse, the Latin and the Greek words that receive inci-
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dental consideration in the body of the work.
Any criticism of this excellent grammar can only pertain to minor details, and these will not be entered upon at this time. Merely one observation shall be made, namely, that there are serious omissions in the chapter on the Numerals. The student will in vain turn to these pages for information on the method of counting by subtraction by means of Ids, wana or butan, as for example, Chron. 641, he rixode two, Ices xxx geara\ Chrori. 972 he woes pa ana wana xxx wintra, etc. So too we should be told how fractional parts were ex- pressed ; and healf in expressions of number is a very interesting and important phenome- non. Nor is the word twc&de recorded here, and yet it is not of rare occurrence, a single example may suffice : wylle-ponne on cetele o<5 p se wceta sie twcede on bewylled, Leech. II, 332.
The work of translation has been so ad- mirably done that it were quite unfair to lay stress upon the few instances of slight inad- vertence. It is seldom that Professor Cook has, as in the case of the first period of §31, relaxed his hold upon his author, and it were useless to look for another instance of such a curious and rather mischievous mistranslation as that in §340 of <5e -bsic by "we whom," instead of ' us whom ; ' the ambiguity of nos quos must have tripped the unwary.
In a recent circular issued by the American Dante Society, the Council of the Society " desire to call attention to the collection of works on Dante in the Library of Har- vard College, in Cambridge, a collection which the Society has made it one of its special objects to bring together, and to which it yearly adds as many works as it is able to procure. The collection now numbers over a thousand volumes, and may be freely consulted at the Library by every one, and under certain restrictions may" be used by members of the Society who live at a distance. A detailed Catalogue is in course of publication in the Harvard University Bulletin, and will be issued separately as soon as completed." All cor- respondence with reference to the collection should be addressed to Mr. William C. Lane, Asst. Librarian, Harvard College Library, In charge of the Dante Collection.
It is with pleasure that we are able to an- nounce the establishment in New York City of an organisation entitled : "The Modern Lan- guages Publishing Company," whose object will be to publish from time to time works that may meet the demands, both in matter and method, of the recent development of modern language study in America. The ad- dress of the company is 150 Nassau Street.
A useful help to students of Moliere has appeared in the second revised edition of F. Hermann Fritsche's ' Moli£restudien : Ein Namenbuch zu Moliere's Werken, mit phi- lologischen und historischen Erlauterungen ' (Berlin ; Weidmannsche Buchhandlung). The first edition of this work was published in 1868, since which time important and varied researches have been carried on in this branch of French literature both in and out of France. The text followed is that of Despois and Mesnard, and the object of the author is to give here the results of recent investigation as to the explanation of proper names and character-types used by the poet. To this end evidence is drawn from his contemporaries and predecessors, and the studies are laid under contribution which the author has pub- lished from time to time in Herrig's Archiv and in Schweitzer's Moliere- Museum ; The range of names has been extended and hence, naturally, a number of new articles added, while only a few of the old ones have remain- ed untouched ; the most of them have been entirely recast : " Was vor zwanzig Jahren gait gilt grossenteils heute nicht mehr." Working in this spirit, the author has given us virtually a new book, as will be recognised at a glance by those familiar with the older treatise. The onomastic interpretations here bear both upon general and special significations : gene- ral, as to their origin and primitive meaning ; special, as to their restricted use by Moliere and other comic poets before and after his time. Hence, in addition to etymological notes, the author often gives the poetic charac- ter of the names as represented in tradition, in the manners and customs of the time, etc., and the treatise thus becomes a valuable con- tribution to the general history of onomato- logy as well as specially to that of the great French poet. The Namenbuch covers about
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230 octavo pages, preceded by a preliminary study of thirty pages on proper geographi- cal and ethnographical names.
Encouraged by the publication of ' Les Miserables ' in the original French, WILLIAM R.JKNKINS (New York) proposes to publish 'Les Travailleurs de la Mer ' and 'Notre- Dame de Paris,' during the coming year. As the last number of his interesting series, 'Romans Choisis,' the same publisher has given us 'La Neuvaine de Colette,' a bright and amusing romance recently published anonymously in the Revue des Deux Mondes. The perplexing question, Can the art of English Composition be taught? is admirably answered in one of the recent ' Monographs on Education ' (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston) entitled ' English in the Preparatory Schools,' by Ernest W. Huffcut, Instructor in English in Cornell University. Teachers in secondary schools should read this pamphlet if they would know the true doctrine of primary in- struction in English. It would be difficult to point to a more rational discussion of the practical matter of early laying the founda- tion of a clear and effective style in writings. This can be done, as the writer shows, in ac- cordance with the natural laws of the mind's operations and growth, and by the avoidance of the system, historically in bad repute, of requiring " the tale of the bricks" when no straw is provided. The ' essay writing ' bond- age that embitters so many experiences in early life can legitimately be converted into a willing and pleasurable service that will surely produce results of just the desired kind.
The American reprint of Lamartine's charm- ing idyll, 'Graziella,' by W. R. Jenkins (850 Sixth Ave., N. Y.) calls again attention tothe industry and enterprise of this house, which is rapidly supplying us with a choice of French standard works of the recent literature. The appearance of the volume, to correspond with its contents, is bright and attractive. Among the announcements for the near future we re- mark 'Cinq Mars,' by Alfred de Vigny, with English notes, and H. Tamil's ' Les Grands Ecrivains Francais.' The latter will be a most valuable addition to the means of pre- senting the chief points of French literature in the class-room.
PERSONALS.
Professor Joseph L. Armstrong has been ap- pointed to the chair of English and Modern Languages in Trinity College, N. Carolina. Mr. Armstrong attended Randolph Macon College (Va.) for some lime, but was compell- ed to leave before taking his degree. After quitting college (1878), he spent two years in teaching, then passed one year (1880-81) at the Johns Hopkins University, devoting himself especially to English ; after this he went to the University of Leipsic, where he spent one year studying with Wiilker, Brugmann and Techmer. Returning to America, he was en- gaged in teaching for the following two years, when he was appointed Professor of English and Modern Languages in Central College (Mo.), and he remained there during 1885-86. His health failing, he resigned and spent the following year in teaching an academic school in Va., whence he passed to the appointment noted above.
Professor J. S. Griffin was appointed at the opening of the present Academic year to the chair of Modern Languages in Garfield Uni.- versity (Kansas). He was graduated at Abing- don (now Eureka) College (111.) in 1873, and received the Master's degree from the same institution three years later. After gradu- ation, he spent ten years as Principal and Su- perintendent of Graded Schools in Illinois, and three years as principal of a private school in Tennessee. He is now engaged on a translation of Droysen's ' Grundriss der His- torik' and Florian's 'Gonzalve de Cordoue.'
Mr. F. V. Paget was appointed at the begin- ning of the present academic year, Instructor in French and Spanish in the University of California (Berkely). Mr. Paget is a native of France, where he received his early education ; in 1862, he obtained the diploma of Bachelier £s lettres, at the Faculte" des lettres of Stras- burg, and in 1865, that of Bachelier es scien- ces, at Grenoble. In 1876, he came to Ameri- ca and has been teaching privately and in schools of San Francisco up to the date of his present appointment. He is an occasional contributor to the Overland l\fonihlyt where he has published papers on Lamartine and Victor Hugo.
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JOURNAL NOTICES.
REVUE CRITIQUE. No. 52.— Hiiffer, G., Der hei- lige Bernard von Clairvaux. Erster Band : Vorstu- dien (I. L.).— Bobiquet, P., De Joannis Aurati poetae etc., (P. de Nolhac).— Gazler, A., CEuvres poetiques de Boileau (A. Delboulle) 1888, NO- I.— Kltchin, D. B., An^introduction to the study of prove^al (M. H.)— Cherot, H., Etude sur la vie et les ceuvres du P. Le Moyne (1602-1671) (F. Hemon).— No. 3.— Paris, 6. et Ulrich, J., Merlin, roman en prose du Xllle siecle (//).— Bevllllout, Ch., Antoine Gonebaud, chevalier de Mere", etc., (T. de L.).— No. 4.— La Chanson de Roland, traduction far L. Cledat (A. T.).— Pakscher, A., Die Chronologic der Gedichte Petrarcas (P. de Nolhac).— Scherer, E., Melchior Grimm (Ch. J.).
REVUE BLEUE, 1888, No. I.— LemaHre, J., M. Paul Verlaine et les poetes symbolistes et decadents.— Barine, A., Le mariage de Thomas Carlyle. — No. 2. — Larroumet, 6., Les Comediens et les Moeurs, etude historique.— NO. 3.— Darmesteter. J., Poesie anglaise. Miss Mary Robinson.— Larroumet, G.f Les Comediens et les Muoars, etude historique (suite et fin).— No. 4. —Bigot, Charles, Le roman psychologique comtem- porain.— Mensonges de M. Paul Bourget. — Alexandra, B., Les debuts litteraires d'Eugene Labiche.
LA NOUVELLE REVUE.— ler Janvier, Bod, E., Gia como Leopardi, d'apres des publications nouvelles.
REV. DES DEUX MONDES.— 15 Janvier.— Brunetlere, F., La litterature personnelle.— ler fevrier, Brune- tlere, F., Les metaphores de Victor Hugo.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA.— 1888, FASC I— Carducci,G.,
a proposito di una recente edizione delle odi di Gio- vanni Fantoni.
ANDOVER REVIEW— 1888, January, Williams, 8. C., William Wordsworth.— February, Huff, L. J., The Christian character oi Goethe's ' Iphigenie auf Tau- ris.'
ATLANTIC MONTHLY— 1888, February, Lathrop, G. P., George Meredith, The Coleorton Papers.
GOTTINGISCHE GELEHRTE ANZEIGEN, 1888. NO. (.— Hiiffer, G., Der heilige Bernard von CJairvaux (v. Druffel).
DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG, IX, No. I.—
Ascoll, G. I., Sprachwissenschaftliche Briefe, tJber- setzung von Brauno Gtlterbock (F. Hartmann). — Braune, W., Althochdeutsche Grammatik (R. Hen- ning).— Koerting, H., Geschichte des franzosischen Romans im 17. Jahrhundert (M. von Waldberg).— No. 2.— Snider, D. J., Goethe's Faust (E. Schmidt).— Bernhard, W., Die Werke des Trobadors N'At de Mons (O. Schultz).— No. 3. — Brandes, G., Die Litteratur des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts etc., IT. Band. (Minor). —Murray, J. A. H., A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Part III. (J. Zupitza).— No. 4. — Beurath, P., Vocalschwankungen bei Otfried (J. SeemUller).
NATIONAL REVIEW, 1888, January.— Egerton, H. E., Two views of the Novelist.— February, Austin, A., Mr. Matthew Arnold on the loves of the poets.
LlTERARISCHES CENTRALBLATT, 1888, NR. I.— Dlez. Fr., Etymologisches Wftrterbuch der roma- nischen sprachen. 5 Ausg. Mit einem Anhang von Scheler, Aug., (H. K— ng).— Mlehaells, H., Neues WBrterbuch der portugiesischen u. deutschen Sprache. 1 Th. Portugiesisch-Deutsch (H. K— ng).— Gering, H., Glossar zu den Liedern der Edda (-gk).— Hasscnsteln, G., Ludwig Uhland.— NR. 2.— Dante Allghlerl, Commedia and Canzoniere. Translated by Plumptre. E. H., Vol. II. (H. K-ng).-l'herot, H., Etude sur la vie et les oeuvres du P. Le Moyne (1602- 71) (H. K— ng).— NR. 4.— Kortlng, G., Grundriss der Geschichte der englishen Literatur (R. W.).— Crlzc- nach, W., Der alteste Faustproiog.— Itochholz, E. L., Wanderlegenden aus der oberdeutschen Pestzeit von 1348 bis 1350 (Rho. K6).-NR. 5.-Blelbtrtu, K., Ge- schichte der englischen Literatur. 1. Bd. Die Renais- sance und Classicitat (R. W.)— Pflster, H. von, Mun- dartliche und stammheitliche Nachtittge zu Vilmar's Idiotikon von Hessen (H. K.)
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEN DEUTSCHEN UNTERRICHT II, I.— Klee, G., Ausgeftihrter Lehrplan ftlr den deutschen Unt. an den Unter- und Mittelklassen eines sachs. Gymn.— Huther, A., TJeber die realistisch- en Elemente von Goethes Hermann und Dorothea.
FUR LlTTERATURGESCHICHTE. (HR8G.
v. DR. FRANZ SCHNORR v. CAROLSFELD.) VOL. XV, PART IV.— Funch, Hclnrlch, Ein Stuck aus Klopstocks Messias in ursprtinglicher Fassung.— Jacoby, Daniel, Herder und J. W. Petersen.— Freilurr v. Bledermann, Woldemar. Zweite Fortsetzung der Nachtrage zu " S. Hirzels Verzeichniss einer Goethe- Bibliothek, hrsg. v. L. Hirzel " und zu " Goetlies Brief en von F. Strehlke."— E. Minor, Briefe von Fried- rich Schlegel. (With this number the Archiv ceases to be issued). ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEUTSCHE PHILOLOGIE, VOL.
XX, PART II.— Kelle, Jon., Verbum und nonien in Notkers de syllogismis, de partibus logicae, de rheto- riea arte, de musica.— Matthias, E., Ein pasquill aus der zeit des Schmalkaldischen Krieges.— Giske, H., tJber aneinanderreihung der strophen in der mittel- hochdeutschen lyrik.— Keltner, E., Zur Kritik des Nibelungenliedes. VIII. Die texte A und B.— Erd- mann, 0., Particip des praeteriturns in passivischer bedeutung mit haben statt mit tein verbunden. — And roscn, K. G., Der teufel in deutschen geschlechts- namen. — Kettner, G., Zur domscene des Goethischen Faust.— Holsteln, H., Der dramatiker Marcus Pfeffer.
GERMANIA. VIERTES HEFT.— Maroid, t1., otfrids
Beziehungen zu den biblischen Dichtungen des Juvencus, Sedulius, Arator.— Grlmme, Fr., Beitrage zur Geschichte der Minnesttnger, II.— Schnell, Ht-r- niiinn, Zu den MUnchener BruchstUcken von Marien- legenden.— Wllslockl, H., Die Mausethurmsage in Siebenblirgen. Von den drei Frauen.— Galle'e, J. H., Segensprtlche.— Sprenger, B., Zu Gerhard von Minden. — K' horn. K., Der heilige Kumernus oder die heilige Wil^efortis.— Singer, 8., Verzeichniss der in der erzbischOflichen Di5cesanbibliothek in Erlau vor- handenen altdeutschen Codices. — Bartsch, K., Bruch- stticke aus Strickers Karl.— Singer, 8., Zum Willchalm Wojf rams von Eschenbach .
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MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Itiiltiniorc, April, 18HS.
THE F IN FRENCH SOIF, BIEF, MOEUF, ETC.
The problem which I intend to discuss in the present article is this. A number of Old and Modern French words end in /, while their Latin or Germanic etyma have a dental instead: — JOI/SITIM, £/>/BEDUM, inoeuf MOD- DM, blef BLADUM, nif NIDUM, pecchief PECCA- TI-M, maugref MALEGRATUM, fief FEODUM(?), aleu(f} AU.ODUM, pief(?) PEDEM, and buef from -Boooin such words as Albitef ADALBO- DO, Elbuef ELBODO, Gondebuef GUNDOBODO, Condclbuef GUNDILBODO, Maimbnef MAGIN- noix), Marbncf MARBODO, Rusteboeuf(?}, Tnrneboeuf(J}, Paimboeuf (?}, Quilleboeuf^}.
The question is, whether this / is a regular phonetic development of the radical dental, or, if not, to what influence its origin must be ascribed. The various writers on the subject have answered this question in very different ways : YAKNHAGEN in his review of STORM'S J-'.nglische Philologie, Anz. f. d. A. ix, 179 takt-s it for granted that the dental went through ft : f, and he undertakes to support this explanation by citing cases of a similar sound-change from all sorts of other languages. Resuming the subject in GROEBER'S Zs.f. r. Ph. x, 296, he repeats his theory, borrowing tliis time his accessory illustrations from the Middle English and recognizing in English faith a remnant of the old transitory stage th.
( 'iKOEBER, to whom we owe the first thorough investigation of the point in question, Zs.f. r. J'/i. ii, 459 ff., says that the reading sot/, inoeuf, etc., occurred first in MSS. in which both final / and final / were already silent, that thus an orthographical confusion easily arose and under the influence of the resulting erroneous spelling the / became later an audible part of certain of the above words; SITIM, soi(t), soi(f], soif. In inoeuf, -buef, secondary reasons favored the persistence of /, inoeuf being affected by the/-forms of in OH - I'oir, and -buef being associated with boeiif HOVEM ;./?</, whose/must be older because of the derivative fieffer, is traced back not to feodum but to the simple feint . GROEHER expresses himself to the same effect in a
" Beischrift" to VARNHAGEN'S abov«--m. n- tioned article in the Zeitschrift.
Other scholars have incidentally mentioned the phenomenon, some of them without indi- cating their own standpoint. SrcniER, Zs. ii, 298, says simply: "tier Auslaut des neufrz. suif vi\r<\ wie in soif, inoeuf, blef zu erklaren sein." These words of SUCHIER'S are referred to by NEUMANN, Zs. viii, 399, without any further remark. FOERSTER, Lyoner Yzopet xxxvii, calls the forms without/" bekanntlich die regelmassigen afrz. Formen," and so does MACKEL, page 161, and, in accordance with Groeber, on page 29 of his work, Die germani- schen Elemente in derfranz. u. provenz. Spr.
APFELSTEDT, Loth. Psalt. xlv, seems to be- lieve in a phonetic development: "in nif, ntuefw'ird es (f) wohl aus dem nachfolgenden u oder d entwickelt sein." The words "aus dem nachfolgenden «" are to be under- stood, I think, with reference to the theory on va(d)o: vo(is), which has been recently sup- planted by NEUMANN'S explanation (Zs. viii, 384 ff.). GASTON PARIS, Romania viii, 135, says: "je n'aijamais dit que je visse dans \'f une transformation du d fafeodtint."
So we have, 'thus far, but two positive opinions to discuss, those of VARNHAGEN and of GROEBER. — I trust that Romance scholars will excuse my passing over VARNHAGEN'S theory as rapidly as most of the authors just quoted have done; since GROEBER, in his excellent Beischrift,1 has thoroughly treated the points in question. I even think that GROEBER, in his reply, goes rather too far in denying the probability that Continental French d, inter- vocalic and final, may have passed through the fricative before being dropped. The analogy of French b (g) as well as Spanish £, /, perhaps Provencal *pafirc : paire, seems, to speak in favor of th in French also. But that, of course, would in no way save YARNHAGEN'S
iGroeber says that the Anglicist should not suffer himself to admit a French sound-change which runs counter to the phonetic laws of that language, in order to avoid the difficul- ty of explaining the th in English faith.— It seems to me that this difficulty is not so very great. Since we have to admit that the dental became th in Anglo-Norman, the word faith could very well preserve this th in spite of plenty, etc. Faith is the only monosyllabic word of all those quoted by VAKNHA«BN, and by BBHKBNS in b'ra*z. Stud, v, i, 175 ff.— Moreover, forms like oath and especially truth and others in th— Goth -iVA«i may have induced or supported the th \nfaith.
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theory, as long as we do not believe in " Spo- radischen Lautwandel."
GROEBER'S own exposition of the case is, of course, extremely scholarly and instructive, and we should willingly adopt his views, were it not for the unlikelihood that, at an epoch when writing played but a very insignificant part in public life, the pronunciation of a group of words should have been influenced by an occasionally occurring error in spelling. Does it not seem more natural that much the same reasons which, according to GROEBER, troubled the Old French copyists, should have brought more or less confusion into the pro- nunciation itself? The final labials did not disappear in Old French under all circum- stances. They fell only before words begin- ning with consonants and perhaps inpausa; before words beginning with vowels they have been preserved down to the present day. So there was in Old French a "linking" of labials, exactly as, gradually, all final conso- nants became liable to be either mute or linked. The forms coming from B6vEM BRE- VEM, N6vuM, etc. were pronounced either hue, brie, nue or buef(v), brief (v), nuef(v), according to the following word. The same with final dentals originally preceded by consonants (a — at, o — ot, etc.), and hence an uncertainty of the " Sprachgefiihl " and a tendency to pro- nounce a t or f even where there was no etymological warrant for doing so. Examples for such confusion in Modern French are the often quoted c'estpat a moi, c'estpoinz a vous, etc., and aime-t-il. In principle it makes not the slightest difference that the Latin etymon of aime-t-il happens to have a / at the corres- ponding place, the / of aime-t-il being in no causal nexus whatever with the / in AMAT ILLE. In this case the unetymological / became firm under the continued influence of estil, at il, peut il, etc. Our/" may better be compared with d in Oldest French ned, sed, or with r in Modern English idear, cf. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES ii, 227. First it was pro- nounced and written only occasionally, and became usual only in words in which it was favored by some accessory reason (like the t in aime-t-il). Such secondary reasons GROE- BER himself adduces for all the words in question except soif, where he believes in the
sole influence of spelling. Soif, however, very naturally followed the /-forms of boivre, as has been suggested by SCHUCHARDT, Litera- turblatt fur germ. u. rom. Phil., 1887, 22.
Thus the explanation we have proposed might be perfectly satisfactory, if other con- siderations did not suggest or rather require quite an other manner of regarding the case :
ASCOLI, in one of his Lettere glottologiche (Ascoli-Gi'tterbock, 206) treats of our French words in connection with similar phenomena in Ladinian, Provencal and Catalan, and says that forms like moeuf, nifmust not, as GROE- BER would have it, be looked upon as late graphical deviations, but that, similar forms extending over as large a territory as "von den Quellen des Rheins bis zur Miindung des Ebro," they must be the result of some pho- netic development, and that they require in their etyma not the group -du but -ud : niud, moud instead of nidu, modu. Now, such Latin etyma might very happily explain our Romance forms, but the difficulty is that the Latin words are in fact not niud, moud, but nidu, modu, and there is no phonetic law according to which -du should become -ud. ASCOLI calls the supposed transformation a " vocalattraction," and refers to such forms as settle, reule; but seule, reule are to be ex- plained in a different way, and cannot hold good against vieil, ueil, peril, espalle, etc. At all events, "vocalattraction" is a rather vague expression, and sounds very much like a circumlocution to express ' an un- explained fact. It is a pity that our venerated Italian Maestro, like his great Florentine countryman, sometimes uses a certain parlar coperto, or even keeps back entirely 'his last word on the subject he is treating. In our case, however, the dental in the supposed etymon *niud, etc., makes it evident that ASCO- LI either believes in some sort of metathesis, which in fact is not much better a term than "vocalattraction," or that he means a kind of u- or o- Umlaut (d labialized by a following u or o and developing a u before itself), similar perhaps to FOERSTER'S i- Umlaut (Zs. f. r. Ph. iii). This comparison, I think, suggests at once the definite solution of the problem. FOERSTER'S proposed law has been, as I take it, successfully modified by NEUMANN in his
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admirable articles on Satzdonbletten (Zs. viii). May not Ascou's theory call for a similar modification ? Indeed, a type - tin : n would explain the Surselvian etc., as well as Provencal alloc and our French t forms, while the Catalan would remain about as difficult as they are with ASCOLI. — NEU- MANN, in Zs. viii, has not neglected to take into consideration the development of conso- | nant-f» in French, and he has even devoted \ a special essay to this subject in the Caix- Canello Miscellanea, 167-174. It is strange , that in treating of French alou it has escaped j his attention that nij is a form of the same character, and therefore he did not realize that all our French words with -f come under the same category. I think it was because of two j objections which might possibly be made that j NEUMANN declined to identify the two cases. ! The question is (i) whether « would become/ ! and (2) whether consonant-}-" is compatible i with a diphthong in the preceding syllable j (-buef, bief, etc.). As to the first question, a ] " consonnification de Vu " is posited by BON- j WA.RDOT (Romania v, 326-7), but no explanation is given of the development. The « naturally was a v, as soon as the following word began with a vowel, and this v, when generalized, became an/ in pausa. Words which clearly show this are: ANTIQUUM, antikvo, antiv(o) antif; here the z/-form was favored by the feminine antive, but not necessarily produced by it ; — Iudaeum,Judeo+vovie\,judeu,ju(d)ev, juif (the i presents difficulty, but in any case has nothing to do with our theory) ; — VIDUUM, vedito, veuo-\-vowel, veuu, veuv, veuf ; here, I think, the feminine was originally 'veue veve, and eu came from the masculine. We may very well suppose, then, that ««/«-f vowel became nidu, niu, niv, nif ; and so the other forms.
A much more difficult question is that which concerns the diphthongization of the root- vowel before consonant-)-;/.
NEUMANN keeps strictly to the rule that consonant-f« forms position, and indeed the words which he treats agree with such a view. But, in the first place, I do not see why the ie in bief, ue in buef, etc., cannot be understood just like the e in gueu (Zs. viii, 399). The cases are perfectly parallel. I do not insist
however upon this possibility, because I am not at all convinced that consonant-f « always* ( 'instituted position; q could very well, under favorable accentuation, preserve enough of its vowel character to form something like a syllable of its own, and make the radical vowel "libre." (Hence, perhaps, the trisyllabic Provensal vfzova, Ital. vedova.) Cf. further the development of the parallel group conso- nant -\-t\n PODIUM pui, MODIUM mui, CORRIUM cuir, OLEUM huile, IMPERJUM empire, POST- lus puts and especially that of AQUA ewe (be- sides aiwe) EQUA ive, SEQUERE sivre. More- over, the question of "Romance position" is still very much open to doubt ; cf. es (APES), as- sez, tiede, Esfiefne, Jumilges, ierre, nies, Jien- me, vieil, oirre, tonoirre, doivle,foivle,juefne, ues, nueit, etc., as against at, asne, ntalade, anme,jofne, Estefre, settle, reule, dette, erre, tonerre, manege, etc. Although some of these differentiations may be due to some analogy, it would be difficult to show the probability of such or any other secondary influence for all the forms concerned. I feel sure that it depended entirely on the greater or less stress a word happened to have, in fluent speech. Cf. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES i, no ff. All these differences are indeed easily accounted for by an explanation which is of course but an hypothesis, but which has perhaps the advantage of greater likelihood as compared with otfrer ideas of a similar character.
I do not hesitate then, to recognize the result of consonant+« in the/of all the French words mentioned above. Soif, faudestuef, and the doubtful pief (Tobler in the Caix- Canello Miscellanea, 72 ; Groeber in Zs. x, 293) owe their / to analogy, and it has been explained above that wrong linking was much favored by the conditions of final / and / in Old French. Pecchief may have been in-
aCf. G. PARIS, Romania. XIV, 157 ff., and again N»u- MANN, Literaturblatt VI, 305 ff. The mere &ct that of two such scholars as PARIS and NEUMANN, the first believes that cons. +u did not form position, while the latter is convinced of the contrary, seems to show that here, as often, the truth is between the two extremes.
It is true, as NEUMANN says, that rivrt, rtv can no more than lit, etc., be quoted as not forming J^itin petition; but they show the prolonged effect of TEN BRINK'S law and are therefore of importance where Romance or Callo-Latin position is concerned.
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fluenced by mechief ; maugref by gr(i)ef; -buef by bovem, according to Groeber ; and the forms Beuves, Bouvin, Buovo may per- haps be quoted in favor of this analogy. — As to fief-fieffer, it seems to me that we should rather expect the group fief-f(i)ever to be the regular correspondence ; cf. grief -gr(i)ever, chef-achever, etc. I understand the ff of fieffer in another way : the analogy of chauf- fer, calfar — CALEFACERE seems to justify the assumption that the common formula feodum facere grew together to feoffacere, which, by contraction and change of conjugation, became feoffarie). This may then have favored the development and persistence of the labial in the noun. — Soif, as we learned from SCHU- CHARDT, followed the /-forms of boivre : jo boiv car fai SOIF.*
GUSTAF KARSTEN. Indiana University.
Since the above was in type, I find that ASCOLI has published in Archivio Glottologico x, 2, pp. 260 fT., another essay connected with our subject, entitled " II tipo gallo-romano seuv—SEBd etc."
This essay is a reproduction of ASCOLI 's ' Widmungsschreiben an Francesco d'Ovidio, Sprachw. Briefe, i-xvi,' "con qualche omis- sione e alcune aggiunte," repeating, and de- fending against the objections of W. MEYER and GROEBER (Zs. xi, 283-288), the Gallo- Roman "attrazione," which in a sarcastic note (cf. 'Sprachw. Briefe' x) he again ex- plains as anticipation of the final vowel, protesting against labialization of the inter- mediate consonant. He also thinks it neces- sary again to insist that he has "il piu pro- fondo rispetto per la scienza in generale e in especie per la fisiologia e anche per la psicolo- gia."
This certainly nobody would ever venture to doubt, nor should we deny that a man like ASCOLI may claim the right to use such ex- pressions and to use them in such sense as he chooses. We only protest against vague ex- pressions, because others, del minorum gentium, might very soon hide under general
*This article was intended for our March issue but a delay in the mails prevented it from reaching us in time and conse- quently it appears with postscript in the present number.
Eds.
terms a lack of clearness in their own ideas. This must be avoided, and therefore we should have been thankful to ASCOLI if he had vouchsafed to tell us, in simple language, whether his " attrazione " must be considered a merely psychological process, or whether it is due to physiological causes also. If the latter be the case, we must protest against the possibility that any sound can influence an- other element of speech, unless both are in immediate connection with each other, the line being unbroken by any intermediate ele- ment which remains intact. The modern Piemontese-Ligurian boin—BONi cannot prove anything, becuase the n may very well have been palatalized when the /-sound was developing before it ; and the same with the other forms. So I continue to consider any such " attraction " as Umlaut in the above- mentioned sense of the word. The practical question now is, did this "attrazione" or Umlaut take place in French under all circum- stances, as ASCOLI says ? Theoretically there is no objection to such a law, and I am espe- cially glad that ASCOLI, in the course of his investigations, has had occasion to state once more the fact that all unaccented vowels in Latin did not fall at the same time, but that long vowels naturally had more tenacita than short ones. In fact it has always been one of my favorite ideas, that no mechanical law will ever be found covering the disappearance of unaccented syllables, their existence being entirely at the mercy of the momentary con- ditions of speech ; but that, generally speak- ing, long syllables offered the longest resist- ance ; and I have brought this into connection with similar features in TEN BRINK'S law (cf. MOD. LANG. NOTES i, 210-227). Moreover ASCOLI, by making his Gallo-Roman law appear to be the natural consequence of parallel processes in the language of the original Celtic race, opens to our eyes such a wide and dazzling perspective, that at first sight one feels inclined enthusiastically to accept the new discovery of our master ; and I confess that when I first read the 'Widmungs- schreiben' I came very near giving up all my previous notions as regards our case ; but there are reasons which prevent me from adopting ASCOLI'S law :
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i. According to ASCOLI we should have to admit a sound-change niud: nivd\ anting: antivg, etc. I, for one, think it simply im- possible that iu before consonants should be- come iv, the opposite change being the only probable one in French. It is not possible, either, to propose a series niud, niu, niv, because — and this leads us to the
ad objection — final d does not disappear in prehistoric French, and we should expect therefore to find in Oldest French forms like niud etc., which, however, do not occur anywhere in the language.
3. Even if the intermediate type *niud, *antiug may be supposed to have existed in the language without ever occurring in the pre- served documents, — a fact which in itself is not at all impossible, — is it not strange that pho- netic conditions like/«a/0, which occurred so frequently in Latin, should have left so very few traces in the whole French language? The rare occurrence of a certain phonetic development is, of course, the more natural, the more its conditions are restricted, as is the case in our own theory : «»V/«+vowel : nidu : nidv : niv : nif.
One point in my theory I seem not to have treated thoroughly enough, because I really did not think that any difficulty could arise as to the question whether u could become v and/. This has been denied by W. MEYER and GROEBER (Zs. xi, 1. c).
It is true that ASCOLI has already thrown the weight of his authority into the other balance, but, as we have seen under number i, we cannot avail ourselves of his assistance, since his own proposition seems to us al- together impossible. Accordingly, we must answer for ourselves. — MEYER does not be- lieve that «, being bilabial, would become dentilabial v. It might be difficult to hold to this objection in principle, when we think of Germanic bilabial uu becoming bilabial fricative w in South German, dentilabial w in North German, and occasionally/ in North German dialects ; e. g., Goth, weis, S. G. wir, N. G. wir, Soest. fui (cf. HOLTHAUSEN, 'Soester Mundart.') Compare, further, Norwegian / which according to HOFFARY was bilabial in Old Norse. In Gallo-Roman itself Indo-Germ. g as well as g*,g% became
dentilabial v (VASTS, VENIRE). In short, the transition of u to dentilabial v is an entirely common one, and the question can only be, does it agree with French sound-change? GROKBER admits that Cermauic u became v, as is necessary for his etymology fehu : fief. What the difference could have been between Germanic u and Latin n is hard to see ; but, of course, any statement based on personal convictions may be supported, as long as nothing militates against it. So we shall have to look out for instances among French words of Latin origin ; — and I wonder how W. MEYER and GROEBER explain forms like Janvier, veuve, veuf* antif.
G. K.
STRONG VERBS IN AELFRICS SAINTS.— I.
Of the thirty-nine homilies mentioned in the table of contents prefixed to the MS. of the ' Saints ' the first and second parts of SKEAT'S edition contain 1-23. The ' Interrogationes Sigewulfi ' ( I. S.) forming number thirty-seven is edited by McLEAN in Anglia vii, i. These texts form the basis of this study.
The plan of the work is as follows. Adopt- ing the classification of SIEVER'S grammar, there is first given a list of all verbs that occur in each class in the forms which their infini- tives have, or would have according to the analogy of the forms that occur. If the verb is not used without a prefix it is preceded by a hyphen, and the prefixes with which it is used are placed in alphabetical order after each verb.
The citations are arranged below in the order of the ablaut-vowels, so that all forms with like vowels appear together. Where all is regular according to West Saxon standards, I have not thought it necessary to cite every passage, but I have endeavored to give one citation for every form that occurs. Where there is any irregularity, or where two spellings are used for the same form, I have given the citations in full. The references are to the pages of SKEAT and to the lines of the ' In- terrogationes.' All marks of accentor quanti- ty are omitted except in so far as they occur in the MS. Here I have given all cases where
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an accent is used over a short ablaut-vowel, but have given only partial citations where it is used over long ones. I have used ft as medial and final and /> as initial, without regard to the MS. reading except in special cases.
Some notes on the endings may best be placed here.
The ad, 3d sing, of the present indicative is always in the short form, except widstanded, I. S., 229, and has regularly umlaut when possible. An h suppressed in the infinitive reappears regularly (flyhfi, pyhd, si/iff, fehft, etc.) A double consonant is simplified (wind, fyffi), and 3#, ft become / (ft), while dst=tst, or st (fint, bitt, finst, brytst, etc.).
When final, h takes the place of g (stah, etc.), and double consonants are usually simplified (pngan, feol}, but there are many exceptions noted in full below.
In endings a is occasionally used for e, e. g.forleosa, 108, but as these are usually noted in the text by a ' (sic) ' it is not necessary to notice them further here. Cheat confusion exists between en, an, and on, though the infinitive and past participle suffer less than other forms. The following examples will suffice. en for on,forleten 388, ongunnen 12, 32, begea-
ten 92. en for an, gehealden 24, tosceaden 20, unbinden
222. an for en, acoman 252, beswican 10, 72, tocneo-
wan 48. an for on, ongunnan 12, becoman 28. coman 92,
gewytan 96. on for en, beswicon 242, eton 290, wrecon 484,
sprecon 530. on for an, tobrecon 130, beaton 98, winnon I. S.
280.
e sometimes takes the place of ad where the pronoun is suffixed, e. g. sprece we 286, sceole ge, 352, cwetie we 382, and of en, e. g. bruce ge 522. In a similar way an is used in faran us \ (let us go) 500, Icetan hi gelangigan (let them be summoned).
The construction of wesan with the present participle, which is so frequent in two of the Blickling Homilies and is occasionally found throughout that text, occurs here so far as I have observed only in was peonde 194, and in the ' Seven Sleepers ' (which as we shall see in
what follows presents many peculiar forms) four times, wees sprecende 510, 522, wees onsit- tende 516, wees • far end e 531. (')
The lists which follow contain 163 strong verbs. Of these forty are used only without prefixes, sixty-one are used always with pre- fixes, and sixty-two are used both with and without, though in several cases the simple forms are very rare. These are noted as they occur. The division by classes appears in the following table :
Always with L L L L L — L -— 12 6 14 5 5 9 10 61
Always with- out prefixes.
With and with- -9 10 18 3 8 4 10 62
out prefixes. — — — — — — —
TOTAL. 26 26 37 9 16 18 31 163
CLASS i.
Bidan a-, and-, ge-, -bitan a-, drifan ofer-, aweg-,up~, -dwinan for-, Jlitan, -glidan ofer-, gnidan, -gripan ge-, hnigan under-, -lifan be-, ridan, -risan a-, ge-, scinan, scripan ge, sigan on-, slitan to-, -smitan be-,umbe-, spiwan a-, stigan a-,ofer-, swican be,-ge-, -swidan ofer-, peon ge-, ofer-, -witan cet-, ge-, -wreon a-, on-, writan a-, -wriftan ge-.
Swican occurs but once without a prefix, swicafi 352, which may be weak, for it is third person singular, but its meaning is that of the strong verb. Writan occurs but twice, 328, 334 (ivritan, writenne) ; the formb with the prefixes are very common.
The infinitive, imperative, present participle and present tense have the regular i or i. Examples are gebide 84 and bidati 358 ; drifan 278, awegdrifan 166, oferdrifan 36, drifS 530 ; flitan 292, flitende 88 ; belifti 166 ; arisan 234, ar'isan 510, aris\ 158, gerisft 6; scinendan I. S. 143, scind 468, scinaS 22, onsigendan 242, sli- tendan 206, oferstigan 12, stihft 12, astihft 12, beswican I. S. 268, beswicft I. S. 250, oferswi- dan 240, oferswift! 246, oferswide (i) I. S. 272 ;
i I will take this opportunity to call attention also to the use of u for f once in byuigende 206, (bifigende 212); of eo for e in feorde 154, and to tne constructions gange him (let him go) 444, hine gebiddan beo ("continue in prayer") 288, oferswidendum (not to be conquered) 310, for Icetan (to be rejected) 336, to gebiddene (to be adored).
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pihti, geivitan 166 (twice), gewit! 170 (twice) 476, gewit (3) I. S. 202; writan 334, writenne 328, awrltan 510; gewriSan 202, etc.
j* is used tor / in the following cases : scy- nende 420, scynft 258, 436 ; spywfi 272 ; geswycO 272 ; gewytan 20, awrytene 82.
^o occurs regularly in ]>eonde 194, 280, 322, 440, gepeo (subj.) I. S. 491. The preterit and past participle of peon follow the second class.
The preterit singular i, 3, is always a or d. Examples aregebdd 108, abdt 126, oferdrdf2j,2, fordwan 166, oferglad 220, hndh 122, under- hnah 340, beldf 138, 390 ; rdd 62, 162 ; ara^ 150, ar£j 52, sah 436, 502, j^fA 528, 538 ; spaw 264, aspdw 32 ; j/^A 12, aj/rtA no, a.y/<fA 144, <?/V'r- 330; geswac I. S. 19, 22; geswdc 44; 0/>r- 24, (»)
The 2d sing, and plural and the subj. preterit have * in all cases. Abite{$\\\>).} 126, updrifon 490, gegrifon 30, belifon 112, 138, 254, scinon 254, /o sliton 492, gewite (subj.) 224, ouwrige (subj.) 166, owriton 6. So also the past parti- ciples ge serif ene 282, besmiiene 94, unbesmit- enum 94, beswicane 10, beswicen I. S. 32, eetwiten 524, awriten 5, 434 MS. U., I. S. 95, etc.
^ for i occurs in the past participles besnty- tene 46, awrygennysse, awryten 20, 24, awry- tan 434, aivrytene 246.
f for f in stigon 490; ^o for / ?'«, onwreogan (P-P-) 534-
CLASS 2.
Beodan a-, be-, /or-, ge-, brucan, bugan a-, for-, ge-, on-, ceosan ge-, ceowan, creopan, dreogan a-, fleogan, fleon <zt-,for-,freosan-, geotan a- be-, hleotan, -hreosan of, hreowan leogan for-, -leosan for-, -lutan a-, -lucan be-, reocan, sceofan a-, be-, (also scufari), sceotan a- be-, -sleopan to-, spreotan, sucan, supan, teon a-, be-, ford-, ge-, of-, ofer-, ut-, pur h, yd peon (in the preterit and past participle, see i.)
The infinitive, imperative, present participle, the ist sing, and plural of the present indica- tive, and the present subjunctive, have eo or u
* Else always weak, e. g. oferswitide 340, 344, oferswitidod 240, oferswytidon 216; ofer- swided 252, 374 ; oferswyoed 252, 358, 360 ; a/a/ 96, gewdt 32, 66; awrat 122, 232, 1. S. 48, awrdt 58, wrat 232 MS. B., gewrad 252, etc. Scinan has sc fan 102, no, 178. 204, 250, 322, scean 92, scedn 178.
(6). Examples of eo are : bebeode (i) 22, gebeodon (subj.) 6; ceosan 32, geceosan 172, geceos\ 176, geceos 300 W., ceowaO 120; creo- pende 14, adeogan 160, fleogendum 400, cet- fleon 12, fleo \ 300, fleondan 416, fleo (subj.) 214 ; hleotan 370, hleotafi 370, hreowan 492 (twice) ; for lease 2i^,forleosa (2) (subj.) 108; reocendes 170; sceofany.*, besceofan 182, asceofon (inf.) 404, asceofan 404; of teon 202, ateoh\ 212, a/^o^ 22, forftteofi 460, ateo (subj.) 444 (twice), q/teo (subj.) 216 ; ^d is used in oferteon I. S. 354.
Examples of w are: brdce (subj.) 34, btigan 68, abugan 20 I. S. 224, aubugan 368, gebugan I. S. 481, forbugan I. S. 91, £«A ! 272, 380, £?- *«A ! 2$6,fordtige 20 (subj.) ; belucan 70, ^/wr ! 212; bescufan 48 (twice), and 404 MS. Junius (twice).
The 2d, 3d present indicative takes y in onbyhft I. S. 300, cywfi 112, flyhfi 18, 334, 372, forlyst 280, forlysfi 370, jr/ry/ 293 (twice), bescyt I. S. 260.
jV becomes » in */A^ 348, lihst 272, //A^ 268, //AJ 476.
fleoft 250, which is translated as the 3d sing. of fleon, is, I think, the 3d sing. o( flowan.a.n& for flewd, (see 7, c).
The ist, 3d pret. sing, is regularly ea. The examples are: bead 172, I. S. 389, abead 28, forbead 134, breac 172, 62, MS. V, 0^aA 140 190, 322, 384, gebeah 40, geceas 6, ffva^ 448, rfrazA 2i6,fleah 54, 298, /^aA 278, forleah 276, forleas 20, beleac 74, «#a/ 190, jr^a/ 54, MS. V, 404, MS. Jun., asceat 466, 396 MS. Jun., j^a/ 60, MS. V., teah 50, 518, utteah 164, purh- teah I. S. 59, />*-aA 24, 234, (see i).
^ is used for <ra in brae 62, jr<?/ 54. 250,
60.
^ is used for ea in sett 404, ascet 396. ^o is used for ^a before w in hreow 510, ofhreow
300.
The preterit 2d sing., plural, and subjunctive has « always. Examples are : abude 28, bugon (subj.) I. S. 485, gebugon 188, gecure 198, gecuron 42, crupon 174, drugon 196, forfluge 204, flugon 204, 492, /»^-<r 274, forlugan (ind.) 38, scufon 246, bescufon 410, J«f^ (zdind.) 202 ; <i for « \nfl6gon 492.
The participle has 0, twice <*. The examples are : beboden ^t,forboden I. S. 42, 195, gebog- en 188, gebdgenan 30, gecorenan 30,! . S. 393,
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500; begoten 182, begotene 324, agotene 98, 176; ofhrorene 298, (MS. Faustina ofhrdrene};for- loren 18, alotene 14, beloceu 78, 190, I. S. 326; gestoten (? for gescoten) I. S. 325, (other MSS. getogeri) ; toslopene 248, toslopenum 162, £^- /#£•<?« 26, I. S. 325, betogen 458, ydtogenan 506 ; gepogene 280, oferpogen 62.
CLASS 3.
Belgan a-, ge-, beorgan ge-, berstan <zt-, to-, -bindange-, un-, -b finnan a-, una-, bredan a-, at-, for-, ge-, of a-, to-, byrnan for-, ceorfan for,- ofa-, drincan a-,feohtan,findana-,ge-,una-, -frinan be-, -gyldan a-, for-, ofer-, -ginnan a-, be-, on-, umbe, helpan ge-, -hweorfan be-, -lim- pan tzt-,be-,ge-, -me/fan a-, for-, sincan a-, be-, singan ge-, springan a-, slingan, spurnan, stincan ge-, -stingan of-, -swelgan for-, -swel- lan to-, sweltan, swimman, swincan be-, -swingan be-, -pindan to-, -pingan ge-, windan eet-, be-, ofer-, winnan ge-, ofer-, on, wurpan <*-> be-, ge-, of-, to-, wurdan for-, ge-, yrnan be-.
i. The present stem, (a) Before nasals i is regularly used. Examples are: unbindan 498, unbinden (inf.) 222, unablinnendlic 144, drincft 266, 354, adrincaft 134, gefindan 504, afindan 130, onginf 186, 246, 478, aginne (i) 498, onginfi 488, gelimpd 18, belimpo' 20, 330 (thrice) belimpaftl. S. 251, besincan 112, singe (i) 22 (twice), slingft I. S. 259, stincS I. S. 259, swimmao" 14, swincst 88, swincft 380, beswin- gan 238, winnon (inf.) I. S. 280, bewindan 122, oferwinnan 362, omvinnendum 190, win ! 284, win^ 286, 304, I. S. 262, gewind 364, oferwirift 188, winne (subj.) 340.
Before the endings st, S the d in findan, windan is dropped and S becomes /, e. g. gebint 476, finst 82, fint 202-.
y is used for i in ablynti 470, belympti 416, gelympfi 20, gelympe (subj.) 22, wyriS 352.
In befrinan 372, befrinenne 400, the * doubt- less long but is not accented.
(b) Before ht, rg, rf, the regular vowel is eo. Cases of the 2, 3, indie, sing, do not occur. The examples are: gebeorgan I. S. 406, ge- beorge (subj.) 138, ceorfanne 202, ofaceorfan 202,/eokffnd 282. Before rn, y is used: for- byrnan 178, byrnende 48, 140, 208, 490, byrnen- da 204, byrnendan 140, byrnendunt 106, I. S. 453, byrnft 208; yrnan 462, yrnendum 148,
yrna.8 330, 370. In berstan, where the r owes its place to metathesis, no breaking takes place. The umlaut in the third person is y. ^Etberstan 246, 530, I. S. 480, cztbrytst 266. After w we find n, with umlaut in the third singular to y in two cases, while u is retained in two. The forms are : wurpan 404, gewur- pan 436, awurp ! 188, awurpad 118, awurpe (subj. plural) 120, (MS. C. y),forwurpan (subj.) 358; gewurfian 514, gewurfiaft 12, wurft 120, 132, wyrft 120 MS. C., 152. Isolated is geweor- dan 506, in the ' Seven Sleepers ' which contains several other phonetic and syntactic peculiari- ties, (see below).
(c) Before /-{-consonant, e is used except after g, where y is found. The 3d sing, indica- tive has e in gehelpo~ 190, swelt 68, eg in sw< 18, andjy \nformylt 316, swylt 256, 272, 276, as well as in f orgy It 382, compare agyldan 368, ofergyldaft 198. The 2d sing, does not occur. Examples of e are helpe (i) -]2,forswelgan 48, sweltan I. S. 88, 198.
(d) Bregdan(^ drops the ^throughout (ex- cept in MS. U in the past participle abrogden 222, abrdgden 226). The present forms are : cstbredan 116, (ttbrytst 82, abret I. S. 137, <zt- brede (subj.) 426.
2. The preterit ist, 3d singular has a before nasals and rn, ea before I and r+consonant, though eo is regular in heolp, sweolt and ce in bcerst and breed. Before nasals tinb&nd 122, dranc 266, befran 174, 310, 454 I. S. 12, 17, be- frdn 72 (twice) 198, 200, 204, 214, 226, 310, 388 ; began 158, 160, 230, 242, 264, 296, 408, 414, 504 538, ongan 34, 228, 330 (twice) 352, 426, 452, 488, 520, begann, 36, 248, 502, 530, ongann 350, 538, gelamp, I. S. 240, asanc 112, besanc 48, gesang 104, sprang 294, 524, asprang 138, .y/'awf no, swang 494, wand<$. 217, 398, bew&nd 518, cetwand 182, 414, o/a« 170, 246, 282. 340 (twice), 372, onwan 408, onwann 480. Before r« .• £ar« 112 (twice), 2o8,forbarn 208 I. S. 462, ar» 74, 88, 100, 136, 154, 180 (twice), etc., I. S. 217, etc., beam 234. Spearn 174, 208, may be regarded as ed or as anomalous. Before h, /, r-f-consonant ea, in gebealh 64, 202, 394, bearh Si8,feaht 284, forgeald 62, 340, formealt 250, spearn 174, 208 (see above), swealt 428, MS. D.,
ifrignan is treated as a nasal stem, see (a), but the pret. « was certainly long and the u though not accented was probably so.
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awearp 50, ofwearp 382 (twice), towearp I. S. 203, wearfl 14, etc., I. S. 297, etc., gewearO 5, fonvearti 30. For *a we find <s? in ward 20, b<?rstq/8, 316, tobcfrst 48, 112, 248, 298, 312, 372, 404, 460, 466, (see * above), swcelt 16 (twice). For <•« we have <ea in waard 104, probably a blunder, and ^0 in geheolp 212 (with which compare the subjunctive geheoipe 462) sweolt 396, 428. *Bregdan has £?Y?rf 252, eetbrced 282, 424, tobrted 492, and, as if to indicate a lengthening in place of the g, gebr&d 34.
3. The 2d preterit singular, the plural and subjunctive, are always with u except geheoipe 462 (subj.) (see 2). The cases are : abulgon 280, gfburge 480, burston 422, atburste 528, gebun- don 190, brudon 528, abrudon 528, atbrudon 424, (MS. U cetbriidon as complementary lengthening), of abrudon 178, forcurfon 28, druncon 164, drunce 330, fuhton 240, 406, £^- frunon 230, forgulde 136, ongunnan 12, hulpe 452, 492 (cf. geheoipe 462, see 2 above), behwur- fon 236, cstlumpon 492, formulton 208, suncon 598, 316 (twice), sungon 240, stuncon 102, £^- stnnce no, ofstunge 142, swulton 300, 326, £^- swunce 276, (ztwunde (subj.) 494, bewurpon 390, townrpon 46; wurdon 44, etc, I. S. 164, etc., wurde I. S. 403, 459, and once, with a neglect of the change from # to rf, gewurfte (subj.) 534, which like geweordan 506 is from the ' Seven Sleepers ; ' urnon 208, 324, 378, 402.
The past participle has w before nasals and r», elsewhere 0. Before nasals : gebundene 36, unbunden 222, afundan 208, unafunden 78, tinbegunnen 12, gelumpen 524, 530, cethimpene 504, topundenum 64, gepungen I. S. i, gepun- genra 58, gepungenran 362, I. S. 502. Before r»; forburnen no, 318. Before mutes and liquids except r« : gebolgen 38, geborgen 202, forbroden 470 (twice), abroden 222 (U. abrog- deri), 226 (U. abrdgden), corfene 204, amoltenan 130, toswollen 78, aworpene 342, beworpene 390, geworden 422.
BENJ. W. WELLS.
Jena, Germany.
THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION IN THE ROMANIC LANGUAGES,
We now come to the Syntax, which will be treated under two rubrics : ist, The Gerund
without a preposition, and ad, The Gerund
with a preposition.
THE GERUND WITHOUT A PREPOSITION.
The most striking peculiarity of the gerun- dial construction in the early languages, es- pecially those of France, is its infrequency as compared with modern usage. It is more common in verse than in prose, and this is ex- plained by the fact, that when a writer starts a "leash" (laisse) whose assonance or rime requires ant, ent, (ans, ens) terminations, he is often driven to seek the construction and the use of words which will give him his rime or assonance. Could we call up the shades of the old poets and question them on the subject of verse-making, many of them would have to make the same confession in this respect as Baltasar del Alcazar makes of the consonants :
Porque si in verso reficro Mis cosas mas importantes, Me fuerzan los consonantes A decir lo que no quiero.
The freer use of the infinitive during the first stages of the growth of these languages doubt- less exerted a great influence in preventing the rapid development of the gerundial con- struction, which at the present time has as- sumed such extensive proportions owing to the general discarding of the infinitive as a kind of verbal noun.
The following French and Provencal ex- amples, selected as being the most note- worthy in this regard, will make plain the difference as compared with modern usage.
Et Ie fist mult bien & 1'enz metre (modern : en les repoussant) si que grant pris 1'en dona Ton.
Ville-Hardouin.
Si unt le clerc truvd par querre e demander Prechant e batizant, ke f o fu sun mester.
Math. Paris, Vie de S. Auban, 1291.
Mais hardis doit estre en serrir.
Jehan de Condi, B. 396,3. II faisait tel noise au venir (mod. en venant) que il sembloit que ce fust la foudre dou ciel. Joinville, Hist, de S. Louis, ch. XLIII. Et y mist 1'on au paiement faire lesamedi.
Ditto, LXXV.
Car il avail paour que il ne brisast le col au tourner.
Ditto, CI.
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Je li demandai comment ce estait que il ne metoit consoil en li garantir ne par noer.
Ditto, CXXIX. E la amava e deleitava se en parlar de lieis.
Bib. der Troub. XXXV.
L'un an els fundemens lur cura, Li autre en bastir la mura El altre en far lo mortier.
Life of St. Enimia. Aisi se van ferir (might be : feren) cum cascus
venc, No lor valo escut par un besenc.
• G. de Rossilho, 2180.
Car ab cor franc tan m'afranc en amar.
Anonym. Ballad.
Contrast the two following examples, in which infinitive and gerund are equivalents :
Per la vila s'en van cridan.
Die Kindheit Jesu (B's Denknvler, XXXIX). E totz los juzieus van cridar.
Ditto.
That the language has lost much in force and ease of expression by abandoning this free use of the infinitives for other construc- tions cannot be questioned ; as the substitutes, which have been mostly supplied by the ger- , und, are not as flexible for purposes of thought. One can not but feel this to be one of the lost beauties of the language ; and the loss becomes more apparent, when we turn to the Italian, Spanish etc., in which thegerund- ial and infinitive constructions have grown side by side with each other and give to these languages a variety of expression unattainable in French. The Italian : lo scender questa roccia ; al passar questa valle ; gli costa caro questo diffamare altrui : Spanish : un secreto desearos ; el huir la ocasion ; el comunicar los males ; cair me" mal castigado en non temer a Dios : Prov.: al camp levar, etc., had their analogy in : au doner le don, au passer la porte, a un tertre monter, au prendre le conge", en eel tirer — expressions which even Montaigne could imitate (il se penoient du tenir le chastel, and : le paistre 1'erbe est salutaire au jeune cheval), but which have now totally disappeared from the language.
One of the earliest and very common con- structions of the gerund is effected by its con- junction with the verb aller. When so used, alter may perform the part of a simple aux- iliary or copula and either expresses progres-
sive or iterative action, or these ideas may be altogether absent and the action of the princi- pal verb does not seem to be appreciably modified by the addition of aller. In other cases aller retains in part or wholly its motional signification and as so used may be replaced by almost any verb expressing motion. These two categories are not always clearly defined, certain cases being susceptible of either interpretation. As instances of aller as copula only and in which the fundamental meaning is completely subordinated to the principal verb, may be cited :
1. E tei tuz jurs apele, " K'alez vusdemandant."
Vie de Seint Auban, 818.
2. As eschies e as tables se vunt esbaneiant.
Voyage de Charlemagne, 270.
3. Seignurs baruns, n'en alez mespensant, Pur Deu vus pri que ne seiez fuiant.
Ch. de Roland, 1472.
4. Kar chevalchiez. Pur qu'alez arestant ?
Ditto, 1783.
5. De grant dolour se va ly her pasmant.
Roman d'Aquin, 1601.
6. Pour 1'amour D£ nels alez espargnant.
Ditto, 1633.
7. Voire moult plus, ce trovon nous lesant Dedans 1'ystoire qui point ne va mentant.
Ditto, 1666.
8. Quant li rois 1'entendi, de coer va souspirant.
Berte aus Grans Pie's, 2542.
9. La paiz alout cherchant, les querre metre a fin.
Roman de Rou, 1542.
10. Se li reis li alout de nule rien falsant.
Ditto, 2544.
11. Fortment lo vant il acusand, La soa mort mult demandant.
La Passion, B. 16, 6-7.
12. Or pri a tous les vrais amans Ceste chanson voisent chantant.
13. Ainz y mouron que salon recreant, Ne que de riens nous augeon fouyant.
Roman d'Aquin, 1635.
14. Li Tur vindrent assaillir a" sa gent qui tout
de gr*5 s'aloient remanant.
Trans, de Gull, de Tyr, Liv. VII,
15. D'ores en autres va sa colpe rendant A sa main destrealoit son piz batant.
Guil. d'Orange, B. 65, 38.
16. (Ja et la espandu par le chemin et li plus
d'eus aloient dormant.
Tr. de Guil. de Tyr, Liv. XII.
All of these examples either show plainly of themselves, or it may be gathered from the context, that the idea of actual motion in
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alter is totally wanting, as much so as it would be in "go," if we should translate example 10 by the popular construction : if the king should go to deceiving him in any way.
In Nos. i, 3, 4, 6, 10, the simple verbs : demandez, mespensez, arestez, espargnez, falsout, could be substituted without in any way modifying the thought. It is quite evi- dent that alez, in the first line of No. 3, is the exact functional equivalent of seiez in the second line. We learn from the context of No. 2 that Charlemagne found the knights seant\ hence "se vunt esbaneiant " means, they are in the act of enjoying themselves — progressive or continuative action. In 5 and 8 aller gives to the principal verb the notion of incipiency as well as progression ; while " point ne va mentant," in No. 8, may imply that history is not in the habit of lying. In n and 12 it is possibly repetitive. How com- pletely the idea of real motion could be over- looked may be learned from the last three examples (14, 15, 16).
It is interesting to observe that old Johan Fischart uses the German gehen in a similar manner, in his translation of Rabelais, head- ing of chapter 4 :
Wie Gurgelmiltsam, als sie mit dem kind- lein Gurgellantule schwanger gieng, ein grossen wust kutteln frass und davon genas. The famous boast of Juno, in Virgil, offers a like instance of the copulative use of a verb of motion :
Ast ego, quac Divtim incedo, Jovisque Et soror et conjux.
In English it is a common idiom to say : to go mad, blind, etc. ; and we in the Southern States are familiar with the negro lingo : done gone and kilt him=has killed him ; but I was hardly prepared, when some months ago I was speaking of the death of a favorite dog, to have put to me, by a Hoosier acquaintance, the query : when did he go dead? or to find a writer in The Nation of August 4, 1887, (p. 89) speaking of somebody's horse going dead lame.
But returning to aller we see that, used as a simple copula, it may shade off into a number of fine distinctions, in which actual motion is not necessarily implied. At the present day
many of these features of aller are supplied by other constructions. Remnants of some of its functions are seen in :
L'entreprite suffit i prouver que I'ltude du fram,ais va toujoun prenant plu* d'im- portance en Allcrnagnc.
Romania, IX. 166.
Et des touches au loin t 'ouvrent avidement, A ccs atomei fous que la nuil va semant.
Hugo, L'Ane.
Vous n'allez frt'quantant que ipadasiins inftmes.
Ditto, Ruy Bias, I. ».
expressions, in which the combination of the two verbs serves to indicate progression, continuance or habit, but only weakly or not at all that of motion. In translating the first sentence into English we should say : is daily becoming more important ; in rendering the second, to be exact, we should probably have to make va subordinate to semant — sows as it goes ; while the third is : you habitually asso- ciate with, etc.
A rather peculiar combination of venir and aller is found in the Roman d'Alexandre (B. 177.5):
Alexandres commande 1'ost amener avant, Quar el bos as puceles vint aler deduisant.
In the formation of the compound tenses of aller \n the senses above illustrated, avoir is generally, though not always, employed :
Et orent tant alt! sofrant que il virent la Rouse A mains de demie lieue.
Ville-Hardouin, Ch. 94.
Tant est alez Tiebalt son orguil demenant.
Roman de Rou, 4089.
E com lo reis Felips avia anat plaideian sobre la riba de laiga.
Bil.derTroub. XXVI.
When etre is used, the verb more common- ly retains its fundamental meaning of motion :
One ne Tot tel Aiquin ly amirez, Qui par la mer fuyant s'en est alez.
Roman d'Aquin, 9517.
Par toutes terres est alez cunquerant.
Ch. de Roland, 553.
Desus un pin i est alez curant.
Ditto, 9363.
It is to be expected that constructions analo- gous to these of aller should be found with verbs of motion in the other languages.
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Chfe spero e vo sperando Che ancora deggio avere Allegro meo coraggio.
Federigo II, Rei di Sicilia. Cuando dellos se despide, Lagrimas va derramando.
Rom. del Cid, CIX. (Voegelin).
Mirabanle las mozas y andaban con los ojos buscandole el rostro que la mala visera le encubria.
Don Quij. Ch. II. pt. I. For las venas cuitadas La sangre su figura Iba desconociendo y su natura.
Garcilaso de la Vega. N8o soffre muito a gente generosa Andar-lhe os cues os denies mostrando.
Camoens, Os Lus. I. 88. E vereis ir cortando o salso argento Os vossos Argonautas.
Ditto, I. 18.
E non ai ges tel coratge Com li fals drut an, Que van galian.
G Faidit, B. 142, 10.
In most of the sister languages, other verbs of motion besides "go" are made to perform the office of copulas. In the Italian expres- sion : si venne accorgendo, venne is not only a copula but has also the force of an adverb of manner — little by little he perceived.
Mold esempj potrei venir contando.
Vitt. Colonna.
The Spanish and Portuguese use, perhaps/ a greater number of verbs of motion in this way than any of the others. In the former, andar, ir, venir are employed to express du- ration or gradual action, while caminar, con- tinuar, seguir are confined to continued action. So Portuguese grammarians dis- tinguish between andar and ir, the former being frequentative. Accordingly they say : ando estudando as linguas antigas, which means, I am making a continual and frequent study of the ancient languages ; while : vou convalescendo would mean continuation in a progressive sense — I am getting better every day. The context of the two passages above quoted from the Lusiads seems to bear out this distinction.
Many cases arise in which it is not easy to determine whether alter is a copula or whether its action is coordinate with that of the gerund.
Li galte qui estoit sor le tor les vit venir et ol qu'i.l aloient de Nicolete parlant.
Aucasin et Nicolete, B. 283, 36. Mais quant vois aucun mendiant, Qui de viellece va tranlant, II t'apele por sa viellece.
Flore et Blanceflor, 762. Povertade va gridando A gran voce predicando.
Giacopone da Todi.
In the first of these it is said that the guard saw coining the men whom Count Garin had sent to look for Nicolete and heard that they were talking, of were talking as they went along, about Nicolete. The other examples are not clearer, even when studied in con- nexion with the passages in which they occur.
SAMUEL GARNER.
Annapolis, Md.
POSTSCRIPT TO " CL, GL> TL, DL IN ENGLISH PRONUNCIA TJON."
In writing the article on " Cl, gl>tl, dl in English Pronunciation " for the last number of MOD. LANG. NOTES I had at hand only the first edition of Victor's Elemente der Phonetik und Orthoepie. I have since been able to refer to the second edition of that work, and find that Victor has added some valuable material on the subject, found in older Ger- man-English grammars. My supposition that kn was pronounced as in before the first sound of the combination finally disappeared, is clearly proved there. According to Nicolai (1693) k before n in know, etc., sounds "fere ut /." Koenig (1706) states that it is pro- nounced like d, " doch muss das rfganz wenig gehort werden." The articulation of the dental before « is of course very weak, and the following sonant makes it difficult to dis- tinguish between d and L Beuthner (1711) and Thiessen (1712) pronounce it as t; Konig (1715) as d; Arnold " wie ein gelindes weiches d." G before «, finally and in the interior of words, is already silent when initially it is still spoken, as Podensteiner (1685) remarks. None of these grammarians mention the pro- nunciation of gn as dn. In a grammar of the year 1748 k and g before n are given as silent (p. 171).
Cornell University.
H. SCHMIDT.
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CORRESPONDENCE. A PASSAGE OF 'BkOWULF: To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTKS :
SIRS : There is a passage in ' Be"owulf,' the force of one word of which has, it seems to me, been misunderstood by all the translators, English and German. The passage begins at line 2724 of GREIN'S edition :
Biowitlf maftelode, hi ofer benne sprac, wunde walbleate (wisse he gearwe pat he daghwlla gedrogen hcefde eordan wynne ; pd wees call sccacen ddgorgerbnes, deaft ungemete neah}: " Nu ic suna minum syllan wolde guflgewadu," etc.
THORPE, KEMBLE, GARNETT, ARNOLD, WACKERBARTH, GREIN, ETTMULLER, and HEYNE, all make Beowulf speak of his wound, and in the glossary to HARRISON and SHARP'S edition of ' Beowulf,' ofer, in the first line of the passage, is denned 'about, of, concerning:' he ofer benne sfirac, 2725.
But does not the passage really mean that Beowulf did not speak of his wound? He knew that it was fatal, and that his end was near, and he had other things more important to speak about before he passed away.
The force of ' ofer ' has, I think, been mis- understood by all the translators I've named. I would translate " he of er benne sprac," 'he beyond (of other things than) his wound, spake.'
If this is the correct meaning, and I'm quite sure it is, it is far more forcible than the one given by all the translators cited. What inter- venes between " Biowulf mafte/ode," and "Nu ic suna minum," explains why he spake of other things than his wound. It was needless to speak of that — fatal, as it would soon prove — and his mind was intent on the 'war-weeds,' in which he had performed his great deeds. He regrets that he has no son to whom he can bequeath them ; or such regret is implied : " Nu ic suna minum syllan wolde guftgewadu, par me gifefie swd anig yrfeweard after wurde lice gelenge ! ' '
After alluding to his brave, and strong, and not unjust, rule of his people for fifty winters, he tells his beloved Wfglaf to go quickly, the
hoard to view under the hoar stone, to be in haste that he (Iteowulf) may look upon the ancient wealth, the jewel-splendors, he has won,
" pat ic py seft mage after mdfSOumwelan m\n d la tan Hf and leodscipe, pone ic longe htold!"
His speaking not of his wound, suits better the character, too, of the great warrior.
HIRAM CORSON.
Cornell University.
WOODWARD'S ' ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOLS:
In their series of Monographs on Education, already more than once noticed in the NOTES, Messrs. D. C. Heath & Co. have rendered a service which entitles them to the thanks of teachers, the more so as these little books are not likely to "pay " in the direct commercial sense. The last of this admirable series is 4 English in the Schools,' by F. C. WOODWARD, A. M. Professor of English in Wofford College, S. C., which, standing between HUFFCUT'S ' English in the Preparatory Schools ' (noticed in March) and GENUNG'S 'Study of Rhetoric,' completes an excellent trilogy of " English " monographs for school and college. These monographs attest in a gratifying way the increasing interest in English study, which they are sure also to stimulate and promote.
We regret that space does not permit such notice of PROF. WOODWARD'S essay as its interest demands ; yet it is hard to notice briefly a book which, however short (only 23 pages), tempts in almost every paragraph to the quotation of its incisive and striking, some- times brilliant, sentences. PROF. WOODWARD writes clearly and strongly because his ideas are clear, and his convictions strong, upon the theme he discusses. He makes no doubt that the time has come — long since indeed — for a sharper assertion of the claims of English lan- guage and English literature to a fuller and sounder study in 'schools of every grade; for "English is the sole literature of ninty-nine hundredths of our people and the best litera- ture of the other hundredth ; " and " by virtue of its mother-tongue quality it claims the right to coordinate and direct all other studies ; "
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while, for the lower schools generally, "so far as linguistic training is concerned, it is English or nothing." Though himself a classical scholar (and formerly Professor of Latin) PROF. WOODWARD asserts that "English asks no odds of the classics, even on a comparison of respective disciplinary values;" and if he does not prove his proposition to the satisfac- tion of the classicists, he certainly makes his argument very interesting to read and very hard to answer— very healthy reading, we should say at least, in connection with PROF. MORRIS' monograph, in the same series, on 'The Study of Latin.'
The chief topic of the book is an exposition of the logical character of English, and a plea for logical and analytical method in its study —freed from the dead formalism of the old Latin-English grammatical traditions. No- where have we seen the excellence and useful- ness of logical analysis in language-study, or the fitness of English for logical discipline, so clearly enforced ; and the reader, even if not altogether convinced, cannot help feeling the contagion of PROF. WOODWARD'S enthusiasm when he writes: "Grammarians of the old school may weep over our loss of inflections .... but the philosophic scholar hails the un- making of the Old English as the making of a New English, which first began to teach the world to smile and weep when Chaucer turned .... into the fresh fields and pastures new that men have not yet found less fresh or new or sweet;" and .... "the pedagogue shall find in the new speech a stronger and more available training than in the traditional methods and matter of the ancient languages," besides the "overwhelming advantage in the use of the mother-tongue as the training study of English-speaking children."
The Essay concludes with a suggestive chapter on the interest and disciplinary value of English word-analysis, the author contend- ing that English "etymology, as a training study, may be successfully conducted without the intervention of any foreign language- study." This notice does poor justice to this admirable Essay. We commend the reading of it to all teachers, believers or Philistines.
EDWARD S. JOYNES. South Carolina College.
SPANISH IDIOMS.— II.
Spanish Idioms with their English Equiva- lents, embracing nearly ten thousand Phrases, collected by SARAH GARY BECKER and FEDERICO MORA. Boston: Ginn & Co. 1887. lamo. pp. 331.
P. 71. Dejar d uno la espina en el dedo has a far wider and more general sense than ' to leave a malady imperfectly cured.' It means ' to leave a thorn in the flesh,' that is, to leave cause for anger, or a grudge behind in some one. Ya oigo al murmurador, diciendo la mala voz que huvo, rizarse, afeitarse y otras cosas que callo, dinero que bullian, presentes que cruzaban, mujeres que solicitaban, me dejan la espina en el dedo. Guz. de Alf. p. 191. The Portuguese say in a kindred, though not in the same, sense : O diabo Ihe meta rachas de cana nas unhas.
P. 74. Quien destaja, no baraja. That baraja in this proverb means ' to wrangle,' was made clear long ago by the Marquis de Santillana's explanation: "Las cosas con- certadas al principio quitan differencias del fin," and this signification still survives in a number of other phrases, as in the proverb : Cuando uno quiere, dos no barajan (Marquis de Santillana), i. e. 'when one party is willing (to yield) the two do not quarrel, 'or, as it reads more frequently : Cuando uno no quiere, dos no barajan, 'when one party is not willing (to quarrel), the two do not wrangle.' Sbarbi^ Ref. VII, p. 5 ; Don. Habl. p. 559.
P. 96. El infierno estd lleno de buenas palabras. We wish the authors had given us chapter and verse for this reading, which can hardly be considered the current one. St. Francis de Sales writes to Mme. de Chantal (1605): "Do not be troubled by St Bernard's saying that hell is full of good intentions and wills "(see Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, p. 317), and this is the version found in English as well as other languages. Deseaba sustentar este buen deseo, mas como de aquestos estdn los infiernos llenos. . . Guz. de Alf. p. 290. The Italian says: Di buone volonta £ pien 1'inferno. Giusti, Prov. ; L'inferno & selciato di buone intenzioni. Tomm. ; the French : L'enfer est pave" de bonnes intentions, and the English : Hell is paved with good intentions,
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S. Johnson (ed. Roswell, 1776); Hell is full of good meanings and wishings. Herbert's Ja- cula Prudentium (Works, London 1854, p. 307.)
P. 99. No estar muy catdlico. ' Not to be in good health ' is only one meaning of this phrase, which has a far more general appli- cation. It is said with regard to things as well as animate beings, and refers to quality, dispo- sition, character and health, the verb estar or ser being used as the case may demand. Ca- t6fico, in the mind of the devout Spaniard, came to mean ' right,' ' genuine,' ' sound ' in general. Estas visiones que por aquf andan, que no son del todo catdlicas. DQ. I, 47 ; En acaban- do de beber dej6 la cabeza a un lado, y dando un gran suspiro dijo ; \ O hideputa bellaco, y c6mo es cat6lico\ (el vino) DQ. II, 13; Vie"n- dose bueno, entero y cdtdlico de salud. ibid. 55 ; Aporreado el rucio y no muy catdlico Rocinante. ib. 58. Cf. also : jurar como catdli- co cristiano. DQ. II, 27. A Portuguese may be heard to say in regard to another whose displeasure he has incurred : Nao estS muito catholico commigo.
P. 107. Ann hay sol en las bardas, does not mean : ' There is little hope,' but on the con- trary: (i) 'there is still some hope (left),' literal- ly: 'the sun has not set yet.' It is the equivalent of the German : Es ist noch nicht aller tage abend, and the Italian: Non eancofaseraa Prato. Cf. Longfellow's " Behind the clouds is the sun still shining," Animo, animo (me respond!) : ^cuando te suelen a te* arrinconar casos como este, Guzman amigo ? Aun el sol estd en las bardas, el tiempo descubrira vere- das ; quien te sac6 anoche del corral, te sacard hoy del retrete. Guz. de Alf. p. 276; Aun hay sol en las bardas, dijo Don Quijote ; y mie"ntras mas fuere entrando en edad Sancho, con la experiencia que dan los afio estard mas id6neo y mas habil para ser gobernador, que no estd ahora. DQ. II, 3. Cf. also: aun hay sol en los tejados. Haller, Altsp. Sprichw. p. 444. A synonymous phrase is : aun hay sol en Feral. Me dijo que no dijese mal del dia hasta que fuese pasado, porque aun habia sol en Peral. Esteb. Gonz. p. 350. — (2) Accord' ing to Haller, 1. c., this Spanish phrase, again resembling its German equivalent, conveys also some such a threat as this : ' We are not
done with each other yet,' or 'this is not the end of the matter.'
P. 109. Nc hay olla sin tocino. Compare : El tocino hace la olla, y el hombre la plaza, la mujer la casa. Guz. de Alf. p. 323; Ni olla sin tocino, ni boda sin tamborino. Sbarbi, Ref. I, 289. — Mas dias hay que longanizas: 'There is no haste.' This rendering, which corresponds with the explanation given by the Academy's Dictionary, does little justice to the full import of the saying. Its literal meaning of course is: 'there are more days than sausages,' and to this the Spaniard gives two applications : (i) There is still some hope left (cf. Haller, 1. c., p. 444). Con todo, espero en DSos, que tiempo tras tiempo, y agua tras viento ; y que por eso viene un dia tras otro ; que mds dias hay que longanizas. Garay, Cartas (in Sbarbi, Ref. VII, 61).— (2) Time lasts longer than our provisions: 'we must make both ends meet.' En el gasto diario debes guardar tal econotnia, que las pro- visiones te duren todo el afio ; porque : hay mas dias que longanizas ; y : Agosto y ven- dimia no son cada dia. Sbarbi, Ref. V, 6; cf. VII, 20: Son mas los dias que las longanizas.
P. 139. Jugar d cara 6 Us. Another version is : jugar d cara y cruz. Haciendo creer a Napoleon que una nacion donde principes y reyes jugaban la corona d cara y cruz sobre la capa rota del populacho, no podia ser in- expugnable. Gald6s, El 19 de Marzo, p. 127.
P. 158. Mirar por el virote, 'to mind one's own affairs.' A more accurate rendering would probably be : 'to take care of one's self,' 'to be on one's guard.' " y cada uno mire por el virote, aunque lo mas acertado seria dejar dormir su c61era & cada uno, que no sabe nadie el alma de nadie, y tal suele venir por lana que vuelvetrasquilado." DQ. II, 14. Cada uno mire por el virote (dijo el licencia- do), pues ha de ir a todo moler; y no echen de vicio, que podrfa heder el negocio mas ahfna que piensan. Quevedo y Villegas, Cuento de Cuentos (in Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 86. See ibid, the notes on this passage).
P. 195. Quien las sabe, las tane ; ' One should speak only of what one understands.' This is the meaning of the idiom, DQ. II, 59; but it has also another application, namely:
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' He who knows a trade, will follow it.' Ama. Bien se yo que tu sabras hazer una vellaqueria, y esta no es virtud. — A. El saberla hazer no es malo, el usarla si. — Ama. Siempre oy dezir, que quien las sabe, las tane. — A. No, sino que quien ha las hechas, ha las sospechas. Luna, Dial. fam. (in Sbarbi, Ref. I, 212). Desta manera vadeare" mis males, como vieja escar- mentada que arremangada pasa el agua ; por- que el que las sabe, las tane, que ya duecha es la loba de la soga. Garay, Cartas (in Sbarbi, Ref. VII, p. 65); cf. also Celestina, p.
15-
P. 208. Aqui fut Troya, ' Fuit Troja1 (said of a place of which no vestige remains). As is sufficiently shown by the aqui of the Spanish idiom, it is not equivalent to Fuit Troja. Its idea is : ' Here is (was) an event as disastrous or fatal as the destruction of Troy,' as may be seen from the following passages : Si no fuera por los molineros, que se arrojaron al agua, y los sacaron como en peso & entrambos, alii habia sido Troya para los dos. DQ. II, 29 ; cf. 66.
i Ay infelice de mf ! Fingida su ausencia fue : Mas ha sabido que yo. De parte de Dios (aqui es Troya del Diablo) nos di . . . .
Calderon, Dama Duende, II, 19.
Empieza &. miliciar, duda, recela, cuando mira al salir del patio & su antagonista, y i aqui fu£ Troya \ empez6 el dialogo arriba dicho que tuvimos dificultad en interrumpir. Mesonero Romanos, Escenas Matritenses I, 177.
P. 219. Son lobos de la misma camada. Compare : lobos de la misma manada. Gal- d6s, Dona Perfecta, p. 229.
P. 247. Traer al retortero, ' to distress one by overwork.' This fails entirely to render the import of the idiom. Its literal sense is, 'to drag one round in a twirl, from one side to the other.' From this spring the following significations : (i) ' to keep one constantly moving, ' ' to give one no peace, ' ' to harass one.' Esto fud el diablo, que empez6 & decir que no habia de dejar roso ni velloso, ni piante ni mamante, y que los habia de traer al retortero d todos, y saiga si es hombre. Quevedo y Villegas, Cuento de Cuentos (in
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, 47; see also note to the passage). — (2) 'To lead one,' 'to control one completely.'
Cardenas y el Cardenal, Y Chacon y fray Mortero Traen la corte al retortero.
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 48.
(3) to deceive one by false promises or flattery. Diet, of Acad. A synonym of this phrase is traer al estricote: Traele amor al estricote que es de muy mala ralea. DQ. I, 26 ; and andar al estricote :
Amigo, segund creo, por mi habredes conorte, Por mi verna la duenna andar al estricote.
JRoiz, 789, cf. DQ. 11,8;
Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 64.
P. 250. Me viene de molde. The render- ing, 'it fits me like a glove,' would hardly hold good in every case. Venir (estar) de tnolde (como de ntolde) means 'to come just right,' 'to answer the purpose exactly,' and corresponds more to the English ' to suit one to a T ' than to 'to fit one like a glove.' ^No le dije yo? dijo oyendo esto Sancho: s6 que no estaba yo borracho ; mirad si tiene puesto ya en sal mi amo al gigante ; ciertos son los toros, mi condado estd de molde. DQ. I, 35. Suplico & vuesas mercedes que se me de" licencia para contar un cuento breve que sucedi6 en Sevilla, que por venir aqui como de tnolde me da gana de contarle. Ib., II, i ; cf. II, 27, 53, 73.
P. 251. Viene como pedrada en djo de boticario, 'to come inopportunely,' 'to be unwelcome.' This phrase, which occurs as often with the verb pegar ' to fit,' corresponds exactly to the German : passen wie einefaust aufs auge, and means ' to be entirely out of place.' Para celebrar la boda de otra senora igual en edad a mi dona Irene se hizo la siguiente redondilla, que le pega como pedrada en ojo de boticario. Sotomayor, Coleccion de Seguid. (in Sbarbi, Ref. IV, p. 129). Synony- mous expressions are: (i) Cuadrar una cosa con otra como por los cerros de Ubeda. DQ. II, 43, and (2) pegar como un par de pistolas & un Santo Cristo, an expression very character- istic of Spanish phraseology. Es verdad que aqui puede decirse aquello de que pega como un par de pistolas d un Santo Cristo. Fern. Cab., La Gaviota, p. 33 (Brockh. ed.)
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P- 255. Quicn vivet 'Who goes there?' The most important and interesting significa- tion of this phrase- in Spanish is omitted in the 'Spanish Idioms.' It has the force of ' atten- tion,' 'scent,' and despertar un quien vive means: 'to get scent of something,' ' to open one's eyes to something." Ahora, ahora voy cayendo en ciertas cosas .... las entrevistas del Duque con el impresario, la constancia con que esa Norma en ciernes asistia a las representaciones . . . . ya se van despertando mis quien vives. Fern. Cab., La Gaviota, p. 205 (See the explanation of this expression, ibid., p. 206). For eso he tardado este largo tiempo en darte como si dijeYamos el quien vive y exigirte que te casaras. E. Castelar, Santiaguillo, p. 163.
P. 252. Al llamado del que le piensa viene el buey d la melena, ' It is easy to obey those who are kind to us.' This can hardly render the thought of the proverb, since venir d la melena does not mean 'to obey willingly,' but rather 'to be obliged to obey,' ' to submit to one.'
Muchos pueblos estauan por las tierras al .ados, Que nunca de los griegos non serien ensayados ; Mas quando a los Cyros uioron tan domados, Venien a la melena todos cabez colgados. Alex. 1781.
" No me hable con sonsonete,' dijo uno ; ' que, al cabo al cabo ha de venir d la melena.'" Quevedo y Villegas, Cuento de Cuentos (in Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 51 ; see note to the passage). Compare to this the force of melena in other proverbial expressions: (i) asir (to- mar) la ocasion por la melena, ' to take oppor- tunity by the forelock' (DQ. II, 31) ; soltar la ocasion de la melena (Esp. Ger. p. 128) traer a uno a la melena, ' to drag one by the hair,' 'to force one to anything against one's will ' (Guz. de Alf., p. 229). The proverb in question, which, as may be remarked in pass- ing, is omitted in Mailer's collection, has very much the same import as the French : celui louer devons de qui le pain mangeons ; and the German : Wes brot ich schling, des lied ich sing.
P. 254. A I reves me la vesti y dndese asi, ' As I began this way, I may go on so.' This rendering is faithful neither to the letter nor to the spirit of the idiom. The pith of the saying lies in al reves 'the wrong way,' and its literal meaning is : ' I put it (the garment)
on the wrong way, but that may pass.' This phrase, therefore, characterizes the inertia, the laisser-aller of many people, and corre- sponds to the German idiom : umgekehrt ist auch gefahren. No echar la soga tras el jarro, sino consolarse con que al reves me la vesti, y andese asi, que una herrada no es caldera, y la puerta pesada, en el quicio no pesa nada. Sotomayor, Coleccion de Seguid. (in Sbarbi, Ref. IV, 121). A fundarse en ver- dad la inculpation de desidia, que los ex- tranjeros nos hacen, el refran caracterfstico por excelencia entre todos los nuestros debfa ser e"ste : Al reves me la vesti, andese asi. Garcia Gutierrez (in Sbarbi, Ref. VIII, p. 227). P. 266. A brazo partido, 'With bare fists,' 'unarmed.' This expresson, taken from the art of wrestling, means literally: 'With a divided, with a bent arm ; ' and figuratively, 'with all one's strength.' Viendo lo cual, Sancho Panza se puso en pie* ' y arremetiendo a su amo se abrazd con el d brazo partido, y echandole una zancadilla di6 con 61 en el suelo boca arriba.' DQ. II, 60.
Los dos faroles divinos A luz entera luchaban, Ya que no d brato partido. Calderon, La Vida es Suefio, I, 6; cf. Nttg. Prod. Ill, 491.
Gilote, a quien, por lo que se colige, le habia salido a gloria la misteriosa entrevista, cuando d brazo partido Iuch6 con la desconocida dama para impedirle la fuga. Maria, Cantos pop. esp. I, p. 403.
The purpose of collecting the idioms of a language may be either a scientific or a practi- cal one. A scientific treatment might present to us the phraseology of a language or group of kindred tongues, such as the Romance, in so far as it is illustrative of the civilization of one or more nations at a given point. Thus, it would prove both an interesting and instruc- tive study to trace the influence of the religious history of Spain and of the Roman Catholic Church on the phraseology of the Spanish language. Think of the use of cristiano in the phrase hablar cristiano, 'to speak Spanish,' (DQ. II, 37), or in the sense of ' man ' (e. g., S. Mill. 88; Alex. 1653; Rimado, 54); of cristianismo and cristianillo with the same signification (Guz. de Alf. p. 191 ; Proverb ; Puerco fresco, y vino nuevo, Cristianillo al cementerio); of caMKco meaning 'genuine,'
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'sound ' (DQ. I, 147 ; II, 13, 27, 55, 58). Again, the aim of a scientific study of idioms might be to illustrate the syntactical side of the lan- guage (e. g., the use of prepositions as in sonar con una cosa, ' to dream of anything'). A collection of idioms intended solely to serve practical purposes, such as is the case with the work before us, evidently has for its object to help us in finding the English equivalent for a given foreign idiom, and, what is equally important, in ascertaining the foreign idiomatic expression for a given English idea. What- ever be the object in view, there must be method and order in the work if it is to ac- complish its purpose. Now, it is the idea conveyed by an idiom or the syntactical usage contained in it that characterizes it as such ; and it is according to one or the other of these essential features that idioms must be ar- ranged, not by the word with which they be- gin or happen to begin in a certain passage or version ; nor yet by the one or the other more or less important verb which they may contain. Who, for instance, would ever think of looking for the biblical quotation el que ve la mo/a en el ojo ajeno, vea la viga en el suyo, under the impersonal expression es menester with which Cervantes happens to introduce it (DQ. II, 43) ? Yet, under the verb es alone can it be found in the ' Spanish Idioms ' ! By arrang- ing their diligently collected material of " nearly ten thousand phrases " (which, it may be said in passing, are far from exhausting the wealth of Spanish phraseology) according to the ideas which they express, and providing the collection with a Spanish and an English index, the authors, it is believed, would have given their work incomparably more of the really practical value which they assuredly intended it to have,
H. R. LANG. New Bedford, Mass.
A GOTHIC GLOSSARY.
A Comparative Glossary of the Gothic Lan- guage. With especial reference to En- glish and German. By G. H. BALG, PH. D. With a Preface by PROF. FRANCIS A. MARCH, LL. D. Mayville, Wisconsin: Published by the Author. 1887. Part I. 64 pp., 8vo. Aai — Dails.
In this work the author has tried to combine a complete Gothic glossary with an etymolog- ical dictionary of the Germanic languages. As a Gothic glossary the book seems to be a careful compilation from the various older works on the subject, although some of the changes which the author has introduced are hardly improvements. Comp, e. g. are arwjd, where SCHULZE (and similarly STAMM-HEYNE) gives three meanings, each one followed by a reference ; while our author gives first the three meanings in a different order and then the three references to the text, omitting the references to GRIMM'S ' Grammatik ' and GRAFF'S ' Sprachschatz ' found in SCHULZE.
In the etymological part of the work the author has not followed any existing model, and his way of finding occasion in a Gothic glossary to treat of words which have no cognates in Gothic is certainly original. A few examples must suffice. Under alls a whole column is given to a discussion of the second part of the N. H. G. allmahlich and its cognates and compounds ; under ara the O. H. G. *adal-aro is mentioned, followed by the cognates and compounds of*adal, includ- ing Adalheid and Adalberaht, etc. ; under auhns the Mod. E. stove and its genealogy finds a convenient place ; under bairhts we learn that in Bertram "-raw=Goth. *hrabns, O. E. hrcefn, m. Mdl. E. raven, Mdn. E. raven, N. H. G. rabe, m. raven ; " under daurd the Mdl. Lt. bordellum with its deriva- tives is given, and the author tells us that the E. bordel has become obsolete and has been superseded by brothel, the history of which he now proceeds to give at length ; under baurgs even burgomaster is brought in, and we are informed that "it is the 'Du.-burge- mester (mester=Mdn. E. master, Mdl. E. maister, from O. Fr. maisfer, from Vulg. L. majister (w. the accent oh the a) for Lt. ma- g-ister, master, chief, whence alsoO.S. mestar, O. H. G. meistar, M. H. G. meister, a learned poet, ' master-singer,' burgomaster, town- master, N. H. G. meister, m. master)=M. H. G. burge-meister and burgermeister, N. H. G. burgermeister." All this in a comparative glossary of the Gothic language !
For what class of students can such a book be intended ? With all the recent increase of
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interest in Germanic studies it is not likely that the general public will ever buy Gothic glossaries, and as for professional students it can only be hoped that they will keep away from such a />ons asinortim if they ever desire to get beyond the stage of philological dilet- tanteism. At a time when a large number of American colleges desire to become universi- ties and offer, among others, advanced courses in Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, etc., it is of especial importance to bear in mind that a mere juxtaposition of more or less closely re- lated words is not comparative philology and that to tell a student, as our author does, that the Gothic baitrs is the English bitter without giving him the least inkling as to the excep- tional phonetic conditions, amounts to teaching the student the things which he should find out by himself and withholding from him just such information as he might expect to find in his book. Moreover, when the etymol- ogy of a word is unknown, or very doubtful, the author refers us to DIEFENBACH. Now, is it likely that a student who has access to DIEFENBACH will not have access also to KLUGE, SCHADE, SKEAT and other authorities which are at everybody's disposal and upon which the present glossary is so largely based ?
While we are thus compelled to differ with the author as to the usefulness of such a book (a matter which after all concerns the publish- er more than any one else) it must be ac- knowledged that on the whole, the plan, such as it is, has been well carried out and the authorities have been carefully consulted. A few of the most apparent incongruities and inaccuracies might be mentioned.
While the author pays hardly any attention to the phonetic constitution of Gothic words, unless they happen to be mentioned in BRAUNE'S ' Grammatik,' in which case he gives the references, he frequently refers to the most elementary phonetic laws in Anglo- Saxon (rarely also in German), with which every beginner is familiar : e. g., under aihva- tundi: O. E. eoh (eo for e by breaking) ; under arbi : O. E.yr/e (for ier/e, irfe, from earfe, by z-uml., from arfe, by breaking) ; under atvef>i: O. E. eowe, (for euwe, from ewe, the initial e being z-uml. of a), etc. Some of these phonet-
ic " asides " are clothed in strangely obscure and misleading language. Thus under asneit we read: "O.K. earnian (r for j=Germanic z, by rotacism)." If, as we do not wish to doubt, the author had the right idea of the process, it seems very doubtful whether any beginner would correctly understand the words " r for J=Germanic z," if indeed they can be so understood by anybody ; and as to the expression " by rotacism," what else does it mean but that z becomes r because z be- comes r? In regard to the last point, how- ever, it would not be just to blame the author too severely for doing what hosts of philo- logians about him do.
Under aftra : " In Eff. G. the / appears as ch after becoming achter whence &ter in &ter- gescherre, n., breeching (of a harness), dter- ovemgen, day after to-morrow." The change of /into ch, like other changes thus treatedby the author, is not confined to the dialect of EFFEREN (near COLOGNE) but is common throughout the Low German ; instead of " day after to-morrow," we should expect "the second day after to-morrow."
Airzeis. " Cf. O. E. yrre, (for y, from pre- Germanic e)." Why not also Germanics? — Ajukdups. The Gothic suffix-duf> does not correspond to the "Latin -tud in words like longitudo" but to the Lat. -tut- in senectut-, virtut-, etc. Comp. KLUGE, ' Nominate Stammbildungslehre,' § 132. — Ahana. Both ahana and ahs are here referred to an Idg. root ak ; but the Gr. a^yy and cixvpor which the author quotes from KLUGE must, as also stated by the latter, go back to an Idg. root agh.
Considering how far the author often goes out of his way to instruct the reader as to the origin of certain German or English forms, the omission of many cognates and deriva- tives that might legitimately have been quoted, is all the more surprising. Thus under augjan we miss ereignis ; under atjan we find G. titzen, but not its E. derivative etc h ; speaking of the superlative suffix in aftuma, the author mentions the Lat. optimus, while postumus, extremus, and others with direct English de- rivatives are omitted ; under aftumists it would have been proper to mention foremost and the other double superlatives in English, etc.
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The author follows his excellent guide, KLUGE, so closely that he rarely commits a serious error. In several cases he has evident- ly misread his authority, e. g. when he says, under dag's : From stem dago- (kindred with stem of O. E. ddgor, m. n. O. N. ddegr' from ddgoz-, day) which is supposed to be allied to Skr. root dah (for Idg. dhag?), to burn. Comp. KLUGE: " Zur Erklarung des germ. dago- (daneben angls. ddgor, anord. rfo^raus ddgoz-) hat man an die skr. Wz. dah (fur idg. dhag h ?) " brennen " angekniipft," etc. The author (or translator?) should at least do KLUGE the justice of quoting his words or forms correctly. The worst example of such carelessness is to be found under balgs, "prop, skin of an animal for holding liquors," (comp. KLUGE : " eigtl. die zum Aulbewahren von Fliissigkeiten abgestreifte Tierhaut "), where we are told that " pre-Germanic bhelgh answers to Idg. barh from *bharh, to be large, be strong," an absurdity arising from the fact that the author interpreted KLUGE'S Ind. as Indogermanisch instead of Indisch: "Die vorgerman. Form der Stammsilbe ist den Gesetzen der Lautverschiebung gemass bhelgh und diesem entspricht im Ind. barh (mit auf- gegebener Aspiration im Anlaut) "gross, stark sein." It is to be hoped that the future installments of the GLOSSARY will at least be free from such serious mistakes.
HANS C. G. VON JAGEMANN. Indiana University.
Die Formalitdten des Ritterschlags in der altfranzosischen Epik von DR. KARL TREIS. Pp. 124. Leipzig, 1887.
Les ce're'monies accompagnant la promotion au grade de Chevalier nous ont e'te' de"crites et conserve'es dans bon nombre de documents ; Du Cange et de Ste Palaye nous ont laisse", sur ce sujet, d'excellents me'moires et disserta- tions. M. Karl Treis s'est enforce" de nous presenter, dans 1'ouvrage qui nous occupe, un tableau aussi de'taille' et aussi fiddle que pos- sible de ces m£mes ce're'monies, telles que les ont de"crites, £ diffe'rentes pe>iodes, les poetes de nos anciennes chansons de geste. Les nombreuses citations, toutes emprunte'es par
1'auteur & nos plus importants poemes e'piques, tendent a e"tablir les faits suivants.
La classe infe'rieure n'e'tait pas absolument exclue des rangs de la chevalerie. Une action heYoique, un grand service rendu au souverain, un brillant fait d'armes, e"taient autant de droits qui lui donnaient acces £ 1'honneur si envie". Nos poetes ne semblent pas avoir fait d'une obscure naissance un obstacle insur- montable. Tout au contraire, ils prennent les futurs chevaliers dans toutes les conditions de la vie ; et bucherons, bergers, portiers, cuisi- niers, voire me'me batards, recoivent tour a tour les e"perons d'or. Quant a 1'age du candidat, ils ne se sont pas montre's plus scrupuleux que pour sa naissance, et ils en font un chevalier dds 1'age de treize ans. Quant au droit de confe"rer la dignite1 de cheva- lier, nous savons qu' il n'appartenait qu'& celui qui e"tait lui-m£me rev6tu de cette dignite". Le pere ou le grand-pere du candidat e"taient tout naturellement de"signe"s pour remplir cette importante fonction. A leur deTaut, le candi- dat £tait arme" chevalier, soit par le roi, soit par un autre guerrier illustre. Mais, vu I'im- portance du r61e joue" par la femme & cette e"poque, les poetes nous la repre'sentent sou- vent confe'rant le grade de chevalier, a celui qui lui avail voue" un culte special, ou 1'avait proclame'e la dame de ses pense"es. L'appari- tion de la femme ne s'observe pas dans nos chansons de geste de premiere date, et elle semble indiquer un commencement de de"- ge'ne'ration dans la chevalerie.
Le nombre des candidats, rarement restreint chez nos poetes, pouvait s'e"lever jusqu'a cinq cents et plus. Le grade de chevalier se con- feYait e"galement en temps de paix et en temps de guerre, sur le champ de bataille et dans le palais des ance"tres. Une grande yictoire, une fe"te de famille, 1'anniversaire d'une naissance, fournissaient autant d 'occasions. On choisis- sait ge'ne'ralement 1'^poque du printemps, et quand 1'influence de I'^glise devint pre"ponde"- rante les c^rdmonies eurent lieu aux grandes fStes religieuses, telle que Paque, 1'Ascension, la Pentec6te, la Saint-Jean et parfois Noel.
Le bain servait de prelude ne"cessaire aux autres c^r^monies. Le futur chevalier e"tait assist^, dans son bain, par des jeunes filles, ou par des dames de qualite" ; elles pre"sidaient
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aux diffe'rents details de sa toilette. Apres le bain, le candidat se reposait quelque temps, puis ses compagnons le conduisaient a l'£glise on il devait passer la nuit en priere. Le jour suivant, des 1'aube, il se confessait, entemluit la messe, recevait la sainte communion et faisait une offrande a l'£glise. Ensuite, le candidat e"tait rev£tu de ses habits de chevalier et de ses armes. Ici les poetes out donne1 libre cours a leur imagination et nous ont fait de pompeuses descriptions de la beaute1, de la richesse des habits et surtout des armes du nouvel e'lu. Apres avoir rappele" an candidat les devoirs que lui imposait la dignite1 qu'il allait recevoir, le conse"crateur lui assenait de sa main droite un violent coup sur la nuque. La vraie accolade, qui consistait d'un coup le"ger du plat de I'e'pe'e, n'est, ce semble, pas mentionne'e dans les chansons de geste. Ainsi arme", le nouveau chevalier montait de suite sur son coursier et donnait des preuves de sa force, de son courage et de sa dexte'rite' a manier les armes. Le tout se terminait, quand 1'ennemi en laissait le temps, par d'a- bondants festins et de grandes rejouissances.
En somme, la dissertation de Mr. Treis, sans nous apprendre rien d'essentiel concernant la chevalerie, nous offre un tableau consciencieux des ce're'monies que nous trouvons de"crites par nos anciens poetes, qui, a cet effet, s'inspi- raient e'galement de leur puissante imagination et des us et coutumes qui s'observaient encore de leur temps.
J. A. FONTAINE.
University of Nebraska.
Die Journalisten, Lustspiel in Vier Akten. von GUSTAF FREYTAG. Edited with In- troduction and Notes by FRANZ LANGE, Ph. D., Professor, Royal Military Acade- my, Woolwich. New York, Henry Holt & Co., izmo, pp. 178.
The editor of this book had a worthy pur- pose in view. Following the example of his countryman, Dr. Buchheim, who has done so much to elevate the standard of German scholarship in England and America, Dr. Lange has taken this sprightly comedy of Freytag's, one of the masterpieces of the
modern German stage, and endeavored in his notes "to show the same level of scholarship as the standard school editions of the Classics, .... and to bring home to the student the practical result of such excellent books of reference as Skeat's ' Etymological Dictionary of the English Language,' Brachet's ' Diction- naire 6tymologique de la langue francaise,' and Kluge's ' Etymologisches Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache." "
How nearly this ideal has been realized may appear from the following citations from the Notes.
P. 25, 1. 25, "bet ruhiger Pritfung, bei is here used to express a possible ground on the realisation of which the reality of the effect is made dependent." — This is surely taking a long run in order to jump over a straw. The student could not well have missed the mean- ing of the phrase, if there had been no note at all.
P. 27, 1. 6, "gefurcht . . . notice that the termination ' ow ' in English words of Teutonic origin is in German words expressed by ' g ' or ' ch,' as borgen ' to borrow,' Sorge ' sorrow,' falbich(t) 'fallow,' mehlich(t) ' mellow."— This is, in the first place, a piece of hasty generali- zation, whereby an occasional occurrence is made a rule ; but to compare the c h oifalbicht with the ow in fallow is a blunder, and to com- pare mehlicht with mellow is a worse one, for neither of which SKEAT or KLUGE can be held responsible. The German equivalent of mel- low is miirbe, while mehlicht is, of course, mealy.
P- 34» !• 3- " Mondenschicn—Schein der Monden, the en is the old weak genitive (M. H. G. mdne was also used as fem.=English moon) cf. der Sonncnschein." — Right, except that instead of DER Monden, he should have said DES Monden, the latter being the gen. of a weak masc. Opitz, Gellert and writers of their time declined der Mond, des Mondfn(s), etc.
P. 38, 1. 31, " meinetwegen, observe the / for grammatical s of the genitive of these com- pounds."— This mistake is so old that it be- gins to have "an ancient and fishlike smell." Meinet here stands for meinent, the / being parasitic; and this meinen is dative plur. agreeing with wegen ; cf. allenthalben.
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P. 40, 1. 18. " Schatz from schdtzen;" p. 54, 1. i, schdtzen from der Schatz. — The Doctor's "Schatz" seems to be a sort of "boomerang" which comes back to its start- ing place. Even if the editor knows nothing of verb-derivation, a glance at KLUGE would have shown him that Schatz is the root-word.
P. 42, 1. 26. " Ressourcenfest 'Conver- sazione at the Ressource ' (name of a Club)." — This conveys the idea that the name of this particular club was "Ressource" whereas ressource simply means club.
P. 56, 1. 7, " widerwdrtig from prep, wider and warfs (gen. of obsolete wart, related to wert, Eng. worth, from werden," etc. — This wart never had any existence save in the imagination of Mr. LANGE, the oldest form being -wert, and even this is never found except as a suffix. Its connection with werden is, at least, doubtful.
P. 59, 1. 28. " Backenstreich=Streich der Backe(n)." The same error as p. 34, 1. 3. Backenstreich is a compound of masc. Backen and Streich, as KLUGE distinctly says. Dr. L.f however, like the Emperor Sigismund, seems to be "super grammaticam " and has, there- fore, no need of reference to books.
P. 63, 1. 2. " Auf meinen Namen 'to my credit.' " — It should be ' at my expense.'
P. 63, 1. 6. " nac h vorn" is not "coming forward," but "(speaking) towards the front (of the stage)."
P. 64, 1. 14. " Ich hatfs satt; notice the idiomatic expression with the indefinite es." — It would have been in place here to point out that this es is an archaic genitive. Thus, literally, ' I have enough of it.'
P. 64, l,2i, "die Schuld tragen ' run the risk.' " Not so, but, ' bear the blame."
P. 67, 1. 21. " Rechtcs, das ich an ihre Teilnahme habe, — Recht haben governs auf (ace.), Teil haben an (ace.) and since the rela- tive agrees in gender with das Recht the pre- position auf governed by Recht should be ex- pected instead of an." — Apart from the general mistiness of this note, it is unheard-of to say that a preposition is governed by a noun.
P. 82, 1. 29, " es liegt euch an mir; . . . lit. 'you are lying near (on) me," it is an impers. v." — It is certainly a ridiculous literal transla- tion. Better — ' there lies for you (something)
in me,' i.e. 'there is something in me that interests you.'
P. 87, 1. 15, " es schickt sich fiir 'it be- hoves.' Es schickt does not mean 'it be- hooves,' but 'is proper, becoming.'
P, 101, 1. 12, " ich lobe mir1 1 prize, I pre- fer ; ' the reflexive verb sich loben follows the rule of sich denken, sich einbilden, governing the dat. of the pers. pron." — Dr. L. falls into the error of calling lobe, in ich lobe mir (das Land), a reflexive verb : mir is here ethical dative.
P. 126, 1. 25, " das halbe Wesen hat nichts getaugt ' this half estrangement was no good.'" As a specimen of English, this sentence is certainly " no good."
P' 135. 1- 9- " Ohnmacht—ohn\e\ Macht" — This is a piece of Volksetymologie of which a Doctor of Philosophy ought not to be guilty. The old form of this word is a-maht, the « not appearing before 1450. Luther has Ammacht as well as Onmacht. This d- has nothing to do with ohne.
P. 137, 1. 30, " hebe Dich wegvon mir lit. 'lift (heave) yourself away from me.'" — The proper note here would have been merely a reference to Luke iv, 8, whence these words are taken verbatim.
O. B. SUPER.
Dickinson College.
BRIEF MENTION.
The Phonetic Section of the Modern Lan- guage Association of America being now occupied with the arrangement of a Standara System of Sound-notation, the following ques- tions are brought before the Committee and before all those interested in the subject : Ia Should the standard system of sound- notation be a physiological one, the sign for each sound indicating as nearly as possible the position or movement of the organs of speech ?
IIa Or should at least a beginning be made in this direction by introducing some of the simplest and most suggestive physiologi- cal signs ?
III» Can we expect that authors, publishers and readers are prepared to adopt such a system at once ?
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Ib Would you prefer a system on the basis of the conventional alphabets of European languages ?
IIb Should this system be founded on a com- bination of different alphabets or upon a single one with a liberal use of diacritic signs ?
IIIb Should there be a common system for all languages, or a separate one for each of the principal groups ?
IV. Do you favor the adoption of one of the existing systems? if so, which do you pre- fer?
V. Would you adopt this system without change or, if not, with what modifications? VI. Or do you wish an entirely new system to be arranged ?
Please send a statement of your opinion to the Secretary of the Phonetic Section,
GUSTAF KARSTEN,
Bloomington, Indiana .
We would call the special attention of our readers to the set of questions noted above and solicit those who are interested in phonetic work, of whatever kind, to give the committee the benefit of their suggestions on sound- notation. In the mixing of prevailing modes of transcription there must necessarily result more or less embarrassment, if not confusion, which it is hoped in large measure to obviate by a uniform system that shall receive the approval of scholars generally. The want of such consensus for indicating even the more elementary sounds, is daily felt, and must naturally become more marked as studies of . this sort develop. It is believed that the ex- perience of scholars in the practical working of existing systems has been sufficient to enable the majority of those now making use of them to agree upon a complete and consist- ent set of characters that shall be best adapt- ed to actual linguistic needs. The present time would seem to be favorable for a careful consideration of the subject, and we would therefore recommend it to our readers with the hope that united effort in this direction may produce practical results beneficial to all classes of workers in phonetics.
As bearing upon this particular subject,
M, Paul Passy, Ncuilly (Seine), France, has sent to the Secretary of the Phonetic Section of the M. L. A. of A. a manuscript containing a " Plan ov organic alfabet," to be examined and taken into consideration by the Committee on Sound-notation. Paul 1'a^sy is known to the readers of the NOTES as the founder, organizer and for several years president of the Phonetic Teachers' Association ; he has published some excellent books and essays, among which may be mentioned as especially useful and in fact indispensable to every con- scientious teacher of French, • Le Francais Parle" ' (Heilbronn, 1886), and a very able trea- tise on ' Modern French Phonetics ' in Vic- tor's Phonetische Studien I. Passy is also editor of The Phonetic Teacher, the organ of the Phonetic Teachers' Assoc. All this shows how well versed and deeply interested he is in Phonetics, and that the most careful consideration is due to the new alphabet which he offers. His plan is chiefly based on the same principles as Bell's Visible Speech and English Line Writing, and Sweet's Revised Romic. The most impor- tant difference is in the representation of "vowel-like" consonants (w, j), which are made like the corresponding high vowel, but with the voice-stem shortened. For practical reasons it is not possible to give here any specimens of the new alphabet. The manu- script will be sent to the different members of the Committee and, on application, to other members of the Mod. Lang. Association of America who may be interested in Phonetics. Further information may be obtained by writing to the Secretary of the Phonetic Sec- tion, Prof. Gustaf Karsten, Blooming- ton Indiana.
A book likely to be widely welcomed, is ' Fifty Years of English Lang. Selections from the Poets of The Reign of Victoria,' edited by Henry F. Randolph (A. D. F. Randolph & Co., New York). In four, not only beautifully but very carefully printed volumes, the editor has given a well-chosen anthology of English poetry from Southey and Wordsworth to Swinburne, O'Shaughnessy and Philip Bourke Marston. The work is particularly valuable as giving sufficient specimens of the less- known poets, whose scattered writings are
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often very difficult to obtain. Students and teachers who have not access to exceptionally full libraries will find many very special wants supplied in these pages.
Vol. IX, No. 8, of the Louisiana Journal of Education contains a lengthy and interesting article by Professor ALC£E FORTIER (Tulane University, New Orleans) on "The Fifth Convention of the Modern Language Associa- tion." The Dial for March has an apprecia- tive review of SAINTSBURY'S ' Elizabethan Literature ' by Prof. MELVILLE B. ANDERSON (State Univ. of Iowa, Iowa City). The Open Court, for March 15, offers us a scholarly article on "Goethe and the Development Hypothesis " by Prof. CALVIN THOMAS (Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor). The conclusion is to follow in the next number. The Academy (Syracuse) for March has a contribution on "The Worth of the English Tongue " by Principal WILLIAM K. WICKES of the Water- town High School.
An interesting paper has reached us, entitled : ' The Place and Function of the Normal School,' a paper read before the Michigan School-Master's Club, at Ann Arbor, October 22, 1887, by Professor A. Lodeman, of the State Normal School at Ypsilanti. The writer presents here, in a forcible manner, a series of considerations showing "that there is no necessity of limiting Normal Schools in the exercise of their legitimate function of prepar- ing teachers for all the grades of the public schools," and then he goes forward to show, from the writings of educators in this country, the drift of opinion on secondary education, and to adduce serious objections to any limit- ations being placed on the Normal Schools.
The attention of readers who wish to inform themselves concerning the living German authors is called to a biographical work en- titled : Das literarische Deutschland by Adolf Hinrichsen (Berlin and Rostock: C. Historffs Verlag). It is now appearing in a second edition, the first part of which, comprising the letters A — E, we have before us. The intro- duction, by Prof. C. Beyer, is written in an enthusiastic tone and it appears to us that the author's estimation of the present state of German literature is somewhat too optimistic.
There are in the body of the work, of course, many names of which nobody has ever heard ; but the sketches are brief and to the point, and the work will be found useful by those desiring special information of the kind here presented.
Among the many periodicals more or less devoted to German literature there is none so important for our knowledge of contemporary German poetry as the bi-monthly Deutsche Dichtung, published by A. Bonz & Comp. in Stuttgart. Considering the ascendency over the younger generation of immature German poets recently gained by the French realistic school, it is refreshing and elevating to meet again with true poetry in the columns of this journal. Its able editor, Karl Emil Franzos, who is favorably known as one of the best living German novelists, has not only gathered about himself the poets of established fame but also encourages rising talents by bringing them before the cultivated public. In addition to the poetical contributions we also find here short literary essays and sprightly reviews of contemporary poetry by leading scholars and writers. One of the principal features of the latest numbers has been the publication of a number of beautiful and humorous letters of Scheffel's, written at the time he composed his 'Trompeter,' and very valuable for a deeper understanding of this charming poem. The portraits of contemporary German poets which are given in each number form an at- tractive contribution to the value of this really " vornehme Zeitschrift."
Wie Georg Brandes deutsche Litteratur- geschichte schreibt, is the title of a highly inter- esting article in the last number of Herrig's Archiv, written by Dr. Puls of Flensburg. The Danish essayist and critic, who has hither- to in certain circles passed for a great scholar, and who on account of the supposed profun- dity of his knowledge was allowed to express radical opinions and offensive criticism, is now suddenly exposed as a literary plagiarist of the worst sort. He has recently published a second edition of Die Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts in ihren Hauptstromungen, the second volume of which, Die romantische Schule in Deutschland, Dr. Puls subjects to a
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careful scrutiny. The result of the latter develops the fact that Brandes not only did not read the sources necessary for writing an original history of literature, such as he claims his to be, hut that he has copied, in many passages verbatim, from the works of German investigators like Haym, Goedeke, Hitzig, etc. Had Brandes concealed his fraud in the comparative obscurity of the Danish language he might perhaps never have been discovered. But he had his book translated into German, thus giving another illustration of the not un- frequent phenomenon that scientific ignorance and incapacity are coupled with the impudence and sangfroid belonging properly to criminals. .It may not be an agreeable occupation to ex- pose such frauds, but the interests of science and literary morality vigorously demand it. And how many unprinted frauds may there not be in lectures, ' scientific ' papers, and elsewhere, especially in countries where criticism is still developing and where a foreign language affords so excellent a hiding-place for the stolen wares ! The time however will come when there will be an a- wakening to a higher sense of literary honesty, of frankly distinguishing between the meum and the tuum; and not until frauds and im- positions are thoroughly exposed will a healthy development of science become possible. Indeed, the story of Brandes is sadly interest- ing and full of moral lessons.
The teachers of German among our readers will be glad to have their attention called to a periodical devoted exclusively to instruction in German : the Zeitschriftfur den deutschen Unterricht by R. HILDEBRAND and OTTO LYON (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner). Everyone who is acquainted with the literature on this subject knows that there is at present no high- er authority in matters concerning the teach- ing of German than Professor Hildebrand. This famous continuator of Grimm's Worter- buch, and foremost living German philologian, was for many years a practical teacher before becoming professor in Leipzig ; and his little book, Vom deutschen Sprachunterricht, based upon his long experience and upon his deep insight into the nature of the German language, has in many respects revolutionized German instruction. It is sufficient to say
that the present periodical is conducted in the spirit of the above important work by Pro- fessor Hildebrand himself and Dr. I. yon. one of his ablest pupils. Its contents are of a varied and many-sided character: pedagog- ical essays, plans for the laying out of Ger- man courses, interesting interpretations of classic authors, reviews of the current litera- ture on the same subject, and many valua- ble practical hints and suggestions. We are sure that it will become an indispensable com- panion not only for teachers of German but also for those engaged in other branches of modern linguistic instruction.
A welcome text-book is BALZAC'S ' Eugenie Grandet ' with introduction and notes by G. PETILLEAU of the Charterhouse, Godalming (London, Paris : Hachette et Cie ; Boston : Schoenhof). Generally considered as the best product of the French novelist from the literary stand-point, it has the advantage, to English readers, of presenting an extensive and every-day vocabulary and of abounding in household phrases and idioms. A sketch of the author's life is prefixed, which might have been longer with profit to students. The abundant notes show careful editing. It is a book which can be recommended in all respects, not without regret perhaps that M. PETILLEAU " deemed it indispensable to alter certain provincialisms and to either modify or suppress sundry expressions," so that it is not an exact reprint of the original.
The same house publishes ' Re"cits des Temps Me"rovingiens ' of A. THIERRY, edited by H. TESTARD of the Royal Naval College of Greenwich. It is characterized by the same high grade of excellence seen in ' Euge"- nie Grandet.' The first three ' Refits' make up the volume, illustrated by cuts of Merovin- gian antiquities and historical paintings. An appendix brings together longer explana- tions of Mediaeval laws and feudal customs than could conveniently find place in the Notes, which are none the less abundant in material. The usual genealogical table, map of the kingdom, and index biographical and geographical are not omitted. Instructors who have had reason to regret the lack of historical text-books will find here an impor- tant addition to that field in a most attractive and scholarly form.
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Uber Strophen- und Vers-Enjambement im Altfranzosischen, von Dr. Eduard Stram- witz (Leipzig : Gustav Fock, 1887), is a doctor's dissertation which contains a great deal of patient collecting and dividing. The run-on lines in Old French poetry are carefully col- lected according to the parts of the sentence which are allowed to run on into the next line. For some reason the author has overlooked the most violent cases of enjambement mentioned in Tobler's Versbau, p. 23, where a word is cut in two as in Canning's song :
I think of those companions true Who studied with me at the U -niversity of Goettingen.
It cannot be said that any very valuable results are brought out by this investigation.
D. C. Heath & Co. will issue soon Schiller's Ballads, edited, with an Introduction and Notes, by Henry Johnson, Longfellow Pro- fessor of Modern Languages in Bowdoin College. The Introduction deals briefly with the relation of the ballads to Schiller's life and works. It contains also, by way of illus- tration, selections from the best German criticism of the poems. The text is based on that of Goedeke's critical (historischkritische) edition of Schiller's poems, Cotta, Stuttgart, 1871. The notes include an English version of the words of Schiller's authorities, when- ever the poet is known to have been indebted to others for the incidents of a ballad, and give every variant (affecting the sense) ap- pearing in the texts published in Schiller's life-time. They have been written also with the constant purpose of assisting in the study of the poems, considered as literary master- pieces.
'The Genesis of Literature,' is the subject of the Phi Beta Kappa oration delivered last June at Marietta college by Professor J. H. CHAMBERLIN. The beginnings of literary expression are set forth in a pleasant and com- pact way, the relations of poetry and music are discussed, and the influence of rhythmical motion, as in the dance or in the march, on rhythmical utterance is insisted on. Primitive poetry is particularly characterized by the repetition of some more than usually harmon- ious phrase. Its development resulted in the
war-song, in which are contained the germs of both lyric and epic poetry. An agreeable feature of the oration is that ihe illustra- tions are drawn in great part from the songs of the American Indians ; ' Hiawatha ' is put under contribution, and we notice (p. 4) that no allusion is made to the Finnish poem; but rather we are led to infer that Longfellow drew his material from Dakota tradition.
Any one interested — and who is not? — in the reconstruction of the college courses will find profit in reading a paper on ' The Evolu- tion of the College Curriculum ' from the pen of President D. S. Jordan of the University of Indiana, which is now made public in a collection of articles entitled ' Science Sketch- es ' (A. S. McClurg & Co., 1888). This essay is not unfittingly thus associated with the chapters of an eminent specialist in science ; for we may indulge the hope that the time is approaching when the utterances of men who, by undergoing exact training in some branch of knowledge have become the embodiment of their own argument, will with peculiar confidence be heard in matters pertaining to the theory of education in general. There is a certain temerity of judgment which is given to warn against special scholarship as being a more or less abnormal product from which the graces of broad culture are necessarily excluded ; how weak and short-sighted such a view is, will become more generally mani- fest when special scholarship has become among us less of a vision in prejudice and more of a reality.
PERSONAL.
In response to the wishes of a number of the lovers of German literature in Baltimore, DR. JULIUS GOEBEL gave during the months of February and March a course of public lectures on Goethe's 'Faust.'
Professor Henry R. Lang, has taken up the study of the Portuguese dialects spoken in New Bedford (Mass.). He is preparing to spend the summer in the Azores, the original home of a large part of this Portuguese Colony, which bears the name " Fayal." Besides this, there is at New Bedford a second
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group of inhabitants from the Cape Verde Islands, which is likely to prove of great
interest for the linguistic student.
Miss A. L. Morrow, a graduate of the Oswe- go State Normal School (N. Y.), has been appointed Instructor in Spanish at the Uni- versity of Kansas (Lawrence). Miss Morrow was principal, during the last three years, of the Government Normal School at Rosario, Province of Santa Fe" (Argentine Republic) and has been engaged for some time in com- piling text-books for the public schools of that country.
Dr. W. L. Pearson has been appointed to the chair of Modern Languages in Perm Col- lege, at Oskaloosa (Iowa). Professor Pearson is a graduate (1875) of Earlham College (Indi- ana). In 1878 he entered the Princeton Theological Seminary, where he completed the course in 1881, meanwhile having taken the A. M. degree (1880) by doing post-gradu- ate work in the Academic department of the College. At the time of graduation (1881), he also received the Hebrew Fellowship, for which he submitted a thesis on ' The Proper Interpretation of Ezekiel, chaps. XL-XLVIII.' He then went to the University of Berlin, where his Biblical studies were continued ; and finally, in 1885, he took the Doctor's degree at the University of Leipsic. After graduating at Earlham College, Dr. Pearson taught for two years as Principal of Southland College, at Helena (Arkansas). He has written mono- graphs on 'The Prophecy of Joel : its Unity, its Aim, and the Age of its Composition ' and on 'The Genuineness of Genesis XLIX, 10.'
In a local report of the twenty-first annual convention of the California State Teachers' Association recently held in San Francisco, we notice the election of Prof. A. S. Cook to the presidency of that body. This event is of significance as marking the first explicit recognition of the leadership of the University of California in the educational matters of that State ; in this view it is also a fitting event to precede the meeting of the National Edu- cational Association which is to be held in San Francisco next July.
Professor Jesse T. Littleton has been ap-
pointed Assistant Principal in the Danville College for Young I.adit-s, at Danville, Ya., where he has charge of the English, French and German courses. Mr. Littleton was grad- uated at Randolph Macon College, Ya., in 1880, receiving the degree of Master of Arts. During the last three years of his college course, he was engaged in teaching Gi< the College. From 1880-1881, he was Princi- pal of the Kanawha Military Institute, at Charleston (W. Ya.) ; for the following two years he had charge of French and German in a Female College at Murfreesboro (N. C.); from 1883-1886 he occupied the chair of Greek and German in Wofford College (S. C.), and after one year's rest entered upon his present position.
OBITUAR Y.
FERDINAND LOTHEISSEN, Professor of the French Language and Literature in the Uni- versity of Vienna (Austria) died on the i9th of December last in the fifty-fifth year of his age. In 1870 he was called to one of the Ober-Real- sch'ulen of Vienna and shortly afterward, when the Seminary for French was established at the University, he was invited to occupy this position. His chief work, as is well known to our American readers, is his ' Ge- schichte der franzosischen Litteratur im xvii. }hd.' (4vols., 1877-1883), and among his minor contributions to a knowledge of French litera- ture may be noted : ' Litteratur und Gesell- schaft in Frankreich zur Zeit der Revolution ' (1872), ' Zur Kulturgeschichte des xviii. Jahr- hunderts,' ' Moliere ' (1880), ' Konigin Marga- rethe von Navarra, ein Kultur- und Littera- turbild aus der Zeit der franzosischen Re- formation ' (1885), ' Zur Sittengeschichte Frankreichs, Bilder und Historien ' (1885). He left behind an unfinished treatise on the ' Kulturgeschichte Frankreichs im xvii. Jahr- hundert ' which he intended should make three volumes and of which the first is about ready for publication. He was a frequent contributor to the Zeitsc hriftfiir rom. Philo- logie, to the Zeitschriftfur nfrz. Sp*. u. Lift., besides to a number of other journals of Germany and Austria.
We are informed of the death on the igth of February, of Dr. KARL BARTSCH, Geheim Rath, Professor of Romance and of Germanic Philology at the University of Heidelberg. We hope to give in an early number of MOD. LANG. NOTES an extended account of Prof. BARTSCH 's life and extraordinary literary activity, by one of his pupils.
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JOURNAL NOTICES. DEUTSCHE LITTERATURZEITUNG. No. 6.-Hoir.
inanii, 0., Herders Briefwechsel mit Nicolai (C. SchUddekopf).— Warnke, K. und Proescholdt, L., The Birth of Merlin (J. Zupitza).— No. 6.— Burghauser, 6., Indogermanische PrHsensbildung im Germanischen (Fr. Bugr).— Gubernatls, A. de, II Paradise di Dante (F. Zschech).— NO. 7.— Schutze, P., BeitrHge zur Poetik Otfride (R. M. Meyer).— Seifert, A., Glossar zu den Gedichten des Bonvesin da Riva.— No. 8.— Hettema, K.;i5uUfiirust , Bloemlezing uit Oud-, Middel- en Nieuw. friesche Geschriften, II (Franck).— Biedcrmann, W. von, Goethes Briefwechsel mit Friedrich Rochlitz (R. M. Werner) .
ARCHIV FUR DAS STUDIUM DER NEUEREN SPRA-
CHEN : LXXX, HEFT, I, 2,-Puls, Wie Georg Brandes deutsche Litteraturgeschichte schreibt.— Frankel, L., Ludwig TJhland als Romanist.— Horstmann, C., Nach- trage zu den Legenden.— Hellgrewe, W., Syntaktische Studien tiber Scarrons Le Roman Comique.— Oreans, K., Die E-reime im Altprovengalischen.
REVUE CRITIQUE.-NO. 6.— Le Verdler, P., Mystere de 1'Incarnation et Nativite de Notre Sauveur (1474) (A. Delboulle).— NO. 7.— Kigal, E., Esquisse d'une histoire des theatres de Paris (1548-1635) (L. B).
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEUTSCHES ALTERTHUM BD.
XXXII. HEFT. I.— Bolte, Kleine beitrHge zur geschi- chte des dramas. — Brandes, Die litterarische tBtigkeit des verfassers des Reinke. — Schenk zu Schweinsberg. Zur frage nach dem wohnsitze Friedrichs von Hau- sen.— Wernleke, Die Pilgerreise dea letzten grafen von Katzenellenbogen.— Kachmann, BruehstUcke eines frauengebetes.— lingerie, Ein BruchstUek der Kaiserchronik.— Knoll, Ein bruchstllck des Wigalois. Sclionach, Bruchstticke aus dem Alexander des Ulrich von Eschenbach.— Heinemann, Aus zerschnittenen Wolfenbtittler hss.— Bachmnnn, Bruchsttlcke eines mhd. Cliges.— Birlinger, Beitrage zur kunde mittel- alterlicher personennamen aus mittelrheinischen urkunden.— Schroder, Die erste Klirnbergerstrophe. — V nun » n IK Ein wassersegen.— Kriiger, Einige besser- ungen zur Krone.
REVUE CELTIQUE VOL. IX. No. \-Janvier 1888.—
Duvau, L., La Legende de la Conception de Cfichulainn. — Stokes, Wh., The Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla. — Barthelemy, A. de, Legendes des Monnaies gauloises (1887).— IVArbofs. II. de Jubainville, Recherches sur 1'origine de la propri''t5 fonciere et des noms de lieu en France (troisieme article).— Nettlau, M.. Notes on Welsh Consonants. — (at: mil, R., Sur quelqnes inscrip- tions de Saintes contenant des noms gaulois.— Warren, F. E., Un monument in'dit de la liturgie celtique. — Bibllographie.— Nettlau, M., BeitrKge /ur cj'mrischen Grammatik I Einleitung und Vocalismus). — Toubin, ('., Dictionnairc I'tymologique et explicatif de la langue francaise.- Ernault, E., Du parfait en grec et en latin. — Mulr, T. S., Ecclesiological Notes on some of the Islands of Scotland.— Krnault, E., Le Mystere de Sainte Barbe.— Atkinson, P.., The Passions and the Homilies from Leabhar IJreac, text, translation and glossary. —
Meyer, Kuno, Peredur ab Efrawc.— Martin, Wood.
History of Sligo.
LE MOYEN ACE, NO. 2.-Fevrier im rendus.— Langlols, Le regne de Philippe III le Hardi (M. Prou).— Guastl, C., Santa Maria del Fiore— II Per- gamo di Donatello pel Duomo di Prato (C. Frey). — Pearson, Karl, Die Fronica (A. Marignan).— Chronique blbllographlque.— Periodiques. Autrlche, Histoire et Archeologie (W. Englmann).— France, Droit et Econo- mic politique (G. Platon).
GlORNALE STORICO DELLA LETTERATURA iTALh ANA, VOL. X, (FASC. 3). -Bladene, Leandro, I mano- scritti italiani della collezione Hamilton nel R. Museo e nella R. Biblioteca di Berlino (2. IX. '87).— Frail, Ludorico, Notizie biograflche de rimatori italiani die secc. XIII-XIV. Ill, Onesto da Bologna (15. XI. '87).— Niihliadini, Kcmiglo, Sugli studi volgari di Leonardo Giustiniani (3. II. '87).— Lamma, Ernesto, Intorno ad alcune rime di Lionardo Giustiniani.— Costa, Emlllo, Marco Antonio Flaminio e il cardinale Alessandro Farnese (4. XII. '87).— Sforza, Giovanni, Una lettera dantesca di Gio. Jacopo Dionisi.— Passe(/na Bibllogra- fica.— Palmarlnl, I., (Vittorio Rossi) Idrammi pastorali di Antonio Marr-i detto 1'Epicuro Napolitano. I. La Mirzia(25. XI. '87).— Ademollo, A., (Achille Neri) Goril- la Olimpica (5. XII. '87).— Mazzatlntl. ft., (Rodolfo Renier) Manoscritti italiani delle biblioteche di Fran- cia, I e II (26. XI. '87) — tioldmann, A., (Francesco Novati) Drei italienische Handschril'tenkataloge XIII-XIV (16. XII. '87).
LE CANADA-FRANQAIS, VOLUME PREMIER, I ERE
LlVRAISON. — (Janvier, 1888).— Prospectus— Routlilrr, A. B., Le Canada-Franfais— Son but et son programme.
— Vkthot, Mgr. M. E., Le Jubile de sa Saintete Le'on XIII.-Gosselin, L'abbe A. H., Role Politique de Mgr de Laval, Le Conseil Souverain et les Gouverneurs du Camilla.— Marceau, Ernest, Reveil— Hotnmage aux fondateurs du Canada Francis.— de Fovlle, P., ROle de la Facult- des Arts dans I'CJniversite catholique.
— t'hapnls, Thomas, La Bataille de Carillon.— Casgraln, L'abbe' II. K., Coup d'oeil sur 1'Acadie avant la disper- sion de la colonie fran^-ais.— Laflnmrne, L'abbe .1. r. h..
— Metallurgie Klectriijiie.— Legendre, Nap. Le Realisme en Litterature.— Routhler, A. B., Chronique de Paris.
— Chauveau, P. J. 0., Revue Eiiropeenne.— La Canada- Francaiset l'autorit'j ecclesiastique.-i'ocw»i«n/« Iiiiilitu
— T. M'moireau Due de Choiseul, an sujet de lapi\'ten- tion ou sont les Angloisque les Accadiens n'apparti- ennent plus a la France. — TI. Tableau sommaire des missionnaires seculiers qui etaient dans les provinces maritimes vers 1761.— III. Declaration de guerre des Micmacs au gouvernenr d'Halifax, en 1749. (Texte micmac et traduction franyaise.)— I V. Lettres de M. 1'abbe Le Loutre, missionnaire en Acadie, 1738-1748. — V. Estat de 1' Acadie pour le gouvernernent ecclesias- tique, 1731. — VI. Description de 1'Acadie, de la main de 1'abbe Le Loutre, 1746.— VII. Description de 1'Acadie, avec le nom des paroisses et le nonibre des habitants, 1748.— VIII. Memoire de 1'abbe de 1'Isle-Dieu a M. Stanley, 175.-,.
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Baltimore, May, I sss.
MA CAUL AY AND CARLYLE.
PROF. MCELROY'S paper on "Matter and Manner," in MOD. LANG. NOTES for February, is in need of rectification at several points.
So far as the personal element may enter into the following remarks, the reader must suffer me to be as brief as will comport with clearness and explicitness.
1. When PROF. MCELROY asserts, column 57, that "both [PROF. HART and PROF. HUNT] ignored, as it seems to me, this funda- mental principal of the inseparability, except in thought, of matter and form in literary composition, both spoke as if the only merit in composition were its expressing worthy thought," he is in grievous error, so far at least as I am concerned. Neither at Philadelphia nor elsewhere, neither verbally nor in print, have I ever expressed or intimated any other belief than that style and thought are insepara- ble, that poor style proceeds from poor think- ing, that good style consists in the adequate adjustment of thought and expression. For others I do not undertake to speak.
2. The quotation ascribed to me in the same place, viz. : " MACAULAY always seem- ed to write as if some one were looking over his shoulder and saying 'Bravo! LORD MAC- AULAY ; how well you have tiirned out that sentence," is trueasfaras given. But being given only in part, the truth, is only partial ; and sometimes, be the reader admonished, partial truth is partial error. PROF. MCELROY should have remembered the steps that led up to my
. conclusion. But they will be given farther on ; provisionally let me note another passage from PROF. MCELROY, column 59: "But he [the critic] is manifestly unfair when he ... holds the writer up to ridicule as posing be- fore a looking-glass and saying: 'Ah, you handsome dog,' when in fact, though the writer is a bit self-conscious, he really gives us something fine to look at.'" Is writing " as if some one were looking over your shoulder "=" posing before a looking- glass"? Is catching applause from another,
"Bravo, how well you have done that "= saying to oneself What a handsome dog am /"? The reader must decide whether he believes the present writer capable ofthus mis- taking MACAULAY for, let us say, BULWEK.
3. PROF. MCELROY puts the broad ques- tion, column 58: " Is there no merit in a fine style ? Is such a style necessarily bad ? Are we to attend only to the thought of a composi- tion?" The sound critic will unhesitatingly reply : There is every merit in a fine style, only let us first determine what makes style truly fine. PROF. MCELROY has evidently failed to perceive what should be a patent fact, to wit, that while some would-be critics may sneer at MACAULAY for writing too finely, there are other critics who object to him because he does not write finely enough ! The present writer belongs to the latter class, and it will be the aim of the following remarks to justify his position.
i. Wherein consists the essence of style? What gives a writer his individuality? PROF. MCELROY tduches forcibly, columns 61 and 62, upon one of the evils of our time, viz. : the gross neglect of rhetoric and criticism, the thrusting aside of literature in favor of phi- lology. It is only too true, as he intimates, that our college students are left to acquire a good style by " absorption;" that "questions of grammatical purity are treated as of little value, and, with the weightier matters of sentence and paragraph building, unity of composition, clearness, force, and other such topics, are hustled out of court in quiet con- tempt." This is all true, painfully true. Yet it does not go to the root of the evil, nor does the professor, it is to be feared, even see the root of the evil. Else he would not think and write of MACAULAY as he does.
The secret of style lies in the infallible use of wor"ds. Whether a writer be great or only mediocre, will depend first and last upon his choice of words. Grammar, paragraphing, uni- ty of composition, even clearness and force, are things that can be taught. All, except per- haps force, should indeed be disposed of in the grammar school. But precision, proprie- ty, elegance, incisiveness, suggestiveness, in-
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dividuality, how and when are they to be acquired ? How, indeed, if not through the closest study of the greatest writers in their happiest moods ? As regards MACAULAY, his genuine critics maintain that he is not one of the greatest writers of our language, and that he does not repay the closest study, because he is lacking in the curiosa felicitas which betokens consummate literary genius.
Text-books of rhetoric, and with them in- struction in rhetoric, overlook the paramount importance of the word-element in style. They concentrate attention upon more formal matters, sentence-structure, paragraphing, ' invention ' and the like. But words are the life-blood of speech. To disregard them is to misunderstand the very process of thought- communication. Words are not algebraic symbols, having exact and fixed values. We cannot set up our sentences as the mathema- tician sets up his equations. The same word does not always bear the same meaning. Every word has had its own organic growth, carries with it a variable set of associations, may appeal to one ear and fall dead upon another. How, then, are we to learn to use words correctly? As one artist learns from another the art of coloring, by observation and imitation. Imitation, of course, in the higher sense, not aping, which results in mere mannerism. More than a century ago LESSING said, with his usual sagacity, that we might imagine a Raphael without hands, but never a Raphael without eyes. What LESSING meant was that the artist's one essential quality is vision. The artist must see his object, its form, its color, its relations, and he must also see every line and shade that he is to use in its representation, must see them in his mind before attempting to convey them to the canvas. Is it any different in literary style? Must not the writer see his object in all its details, must he not select from the treasury of speech just the word that will reproduce his mental vision ? The worst mistake that he can make is to think that one word will answer as well as another.
2. Here is the explanation of MACAULAY'S failure to achieve mastery in style. He is lack- ing in artistic vision. And where he is weak, CARLYLE is strong. When PROF. MCELROY
speaks, column 58, of MACAULAY'S "power of calling spirits from the vasty deep, his admir- able choice of words," he speaks a language which to me at least is unintelligible. If MACAULAY ever called up spirits from the deep, assuredly they were like Glendower's, they refused to come when he did call them. But it is safer, perhaps more charitable, to believe that MACAULAY never tried to call them. Of all prominent English writers he is the least spiritual, the most given to gliding over the surface of life and character. There is not in his writings a single serious and sustained attempt to penetrate into the depth of being or of a being. And his choice of words is not admirable. The utmost that we can say of it is that it is correct within the limits of mediocre conventionalism. The writer who patterns himself after MACAULAY, will never make any serious blunder in diction, on the other hand he will never surprise from nature one of those winged words that flit from soul to soul.
One example will suffice. In reviewing CROKER'S ' BOSWELL,' MACAULAY puts thus aphoristically his estimate of BOSWELL : " He has no second. He has distanced all his competitors so decidedly that it is not worth while to place them. Eclipse is first, and the rest nowhere." This is a phrase which may tickle the popular ear, 'Eclipse first and the rest nowhere,' but will it not grieve the ju- dicious? There are competitions in real life which resemble a horse-race, and MACAULAY knew them thoroughly. But is the writing of biography one of them ? Is a biographer a jockey lashing his Pegasus to the plaudits of a frantic throng ? If we wish for a true winged word, let us turn to CARLYLE'S judgment upon CROKER'S editorial labors: "tombstone-infor- mation." It is a brief phrase, but the coiner of it must have seen into CROKER, must also have seen into the depths of speech.
3. Whether the reader agree or disagree with the above view of style, in either case he will now understand how I came to describe MACAULAY as writing to captivate some im- aginary bystander looking over his shoulder. Such a conclusion, isolated from what preced- ed it, is somewhat startling ; but it was pre- ceded by a series of propositions which em-
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bodied the Motive. BrieHy stated, these propositions \v
a. A say ing of EMERSON'S, that while there might In- many ways of doing a thing ill, there could be only one way of doing it well.
b. A quotation from MATTHEW ARNOLD, explaining the secret of HOMER'S effectiveness, namely, Id-cause he always composed with his eye solely upon the object.
c. An application to MACAULAY, stating that he composed, not with his eye on the object but rather with his eye upon the reader. Hence he composed not well in the Emerson- ian sense, and his choice of words could not be apt, or truly picturesque, in the Homeric sense.
The reader may accept this sequence of thought in whole or in part, or may reject it altogether, as he shall see fit. But in any event he can scarcely reject it on the ground of incoherence.
MACAULAY'S true position in literature is usually misunderstood. He is placed among the great writers ; whereas he belongs of right among the orators. His true field was not the printed page but the floor of the House of Commons. Here he was without his match. In that noble arena no Tory gladiator ever made him lower his sword's point for an instant. At a time when parliamentary elo- quence was at its height he always carried the House. How could it have been otherwise? He united in himself all the requisites of a successful debater: earnest conviction, im- mense knowledge, ready wit, and an instan- taneous perception of the weakness of his adversary. The last gift outweighs, in my judgment, all the others. I have said that in order to write well one must see clearly. In his rightful sphere, debate, MACAULAY did see clearly. He had the special gift of intu- ition. The promptness with which he detect- ed a sophism and branded it in apt words, the nimbleness with which he met an objection and turned it upon the objector, are to me marvellous. The Tories of those days — there were some great men among them — must have often gnashed their teeth in sheer de- spair.
But it behooves us to remember that parlia- mentary oratory is not literature. It is dis-
course ad hoc ; literature speaks to the endless future. As writer, MACAULAY debates, seeks to capture the reader by a majority vote. His History of England is a long harangue. His
essays an- short harangues. Everywhere somebody, some canst-, is to be attacked or defended. Nowhere is his eye searching below the surface, detecting hidden analogies and discriminating between apparent semblances. We can generally learn from him how men acted outwardly, how things looked on the surface at a given juncture. But if we ask of him why men acted thus, if we call upon him to lay bare the complex motives, pride, greed, prejudice, ambition, that result- ed in an action or a policy, we shall ask in vain. MACAULAY has but the seven primary colors with which to paint character: his palette is without intermediate shades. Vanity is vanity with him, pride is pride, wisdom is wisdom. If this judgment appear too sweep- ing, I can only ask the reader to test it. MAC- AULAY has given his opinion upon many literary Englishmen, upon MILTON, BUNYAN, DRYDEN, SWIFT, GOLDSMITH, JOHNSON, BYRON. Selecting these seven as samples of complexity and diversity, I put the question : Into which of the seven has MACAULAY seen? MILTON is a learned saint, BUNYAN an inspired tinker, DRYDEN a renegade, SWIFT a ribald, GOLDSMITH a lively, chatty fool, JOHNSON a churl, BYRON a sentimental dandy. Some of us, truly, had been able to find out that much for ourselves. But we wish to know more, we wish to know precisely what it was in each one of the seven that made him great, made him a power. And this MACAULAY is unable to tell us, because he himself has not found it out.
4. Passing from MACAULAY to CARLYLE, let us dwell only upon the more obvious features of contrast. And let us begin with a general admission. It is not at all needful to be a blind follower of the sage of Chelsea. It will lighten our hearts to confess, without urg- ing thereto, that CARLYLE'S views are often wrong, outrageously wrong, and when wrong are usually enforced with a brutality that shocks every fibre of one's conscience. One sample will suffice, his estimate of SCOTT, given in his review of LOCKHART'S ' Life.'
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Seldom has literary immorality been more flagitious. We can account for it only as an overflow of personal dislike. CARLYLE is usually taken to be a liberal. At bottom he was only a Scotch Calvinist, the finer part of Calvinism rubbed off and replaced by a thin veneer of German Rationalism. For SCOTT, the genial Jacobite and Royalist, the despiser of 'metapheesical' hair-splitting, CARLYLE had no sympathy, scarcely even understanding.
Yet we can easily afford to be just to CAR- LYLE. He was often, let us say, color-blind. He often saw his object unconsciously in a wrong light, and this defect of vision was organic and incurable. But when he saw his object aright, no man, Englishman or other- wise, ever described it more clearly, more vividly, with greater spiritual intuition. His failures are not due, like MACAULAY'S, to wil- fully diverting his gaze from the object to the reader. Hence it is that the most indignant reader of CARLYLE will sympathize with him, even though it be under protest. At his worst he can always teach us, if nothing else, the warning lesson that if the soul's eye be blind then is the whole body full of darkness. Can we learn a like lesson of humility from MAC- AULAY? We shall rather remember LORD MELBOURNE'S despairing ejaculation: "Would to God I could be as sure of anything as TOM MACAULAY is of everything."
On the other hand, when CARLYLE is right, how very right he is, how wholesome, how exhilarating! How each subtle thought finds its organic expression ! To illustrate this, and at the same time point the comparison, let me place side by side two extracts from MAC- AULAY'S and CARLYLE'S reviews of CROKER'S ' BOSWELL.'
a. MACAULAY. "BOSWELL attained it [literary eminence] by reason of his weakness. If he had not been a great fool, he would never have been a great writer . . . Logic, eloquence, wit, taste, all those things which are generally considered as making a book valu- able, were utterly wanting to him. He had, indeed, a quick observation and a retentive memory. These qualities, if he had been a man of sense and virtue, would scarcely of themselves have sufficed to make him con- spicuous ; but because he was a dunce, a
parasite, and a coxcomb, they have made him immortal."
CARLYLE. "Nay, sometimes a strange enough hypothesis has been started of him (BOSWELL) ; as if it were in virtue even of those same bad qualities that he did his good work ; as if it were the very fact of his being among the worst men in this world that had enabled him to write one of the best books therein. Falser hypothesis, we may venture to say, never rose in human soul. Bad is by its nature negative, and can do nothing; whatso- ever enables us to do anything is by its very nature good. Alas, that there should be teachers in Israel, or even learners, to whom this world-ancient fact is still problematical, or even deniable. BOSWELL wrote a good book because he had a heart and an eye to discern wisdom, and an utterance to render it forth ; because of his free insight, his lively talent, — above all, of his love and childlike open-mindedness. His sneaking sycophan- cies, his greediness and forwardness, whatever was bestial and earthy in him, are so many blemishes in his book, which still disturb us in its clearness ; wholly hindrances, not helps. Towards JOHNSON, however, this feeling was not sycophancy, which is the lowest, but rev- erence,which is the highest of human feelings. . . . For ourselves, let every one of us cling to this last article of faith and know it as the beginning of all knowledge worth the name : that neither JAMES BOSWELL'S good book, nor any other good thing, in any time or in any place, was, is, or can be performed by any man in virtue of his badness, but always and solely in spite thereof."
b. MACAULAY. "The characteristic pecu- liarity of his (JOHNSON'S) intellect was the union of great powers with low prejudices. If we judged of him by the best parts of his mind, we should place him almost as high as he was placed by the idolatry of BOSWELL; if by the worst parts of his mind, we should place him even below BOSWELL himself. Where he was not under the influence of some strange scruple or some domineering passion, which prevented him from boldly and fairly investigating a subject, he was a wary and acute reasoner, a little too much inclined to scepticism, and a little too fond of paradox.
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No man was less likely to be imposed upon by fallurii-s in argument or by exaggerated statements of fact. But if, while he was beat- ing down sophisms and exposing false testi- mony, some childish prejudices, such as would excite laughter in a well-managed nursery, came across him, he was smitten as if by en- chantment. His mind dwindled away under the spell from gigantic elevation to dwarfish littleness. Those who had lately been admir- ing its amplitude and its force were now as much astonished at its strange narrowness and feebleness as the fisherman in the Arabian tale, when he saw the Genie whose stature had overshadowed the whole sea-coast, and whose might seemed equal to a contest with armies, contract himself to the dimensions of his small prison, and lie there the helpless slave of the charm of Solomon."
CARLYLE. "More legibly is this influence of the loving heart to be traced in his (JOHN- SON'S) intellectual character. What, indeed, is the beginning of intellect, the first induce- ment to the exercise thereof, but attraction towards somewhat, affection for it? Thus, too, who ever saw, or will see, any true talent, not to speak of genius, the foundation of which is not goodness, love? From JOHNSON'S strength of affection we deduce many of his intellectual peculiarities ; especially that threatening array of perversions, known under the name of 'Johnson's Prejudices.' Look- ing well into the root from which these sprang, we have long ceased to view them with hostili- ty, can pardon and reverently pity them. Consider with what force early-imbibed opinions must have clung to a soul of this affection. Those evil-famed prejudices of his, that Jacobitism, Church-of-Englandism, hatred of the Scotch, belief in witches, and suchlike, what were they but the ordinary beliefs of well-doing, well-meaning, provincial English- men in that day ? First gathered by his father's hearth ; round the kind ' Country- fires ' of native Staffordshire ; they grew with his growth and strengthened with his strength ; they were hallowed by fondest sacred recol- lections ; to part with them was to part with his heart's blood. If the man who has no strength of affection, strength of belief, have
no strength of prejudice, let him thank heaven for it, but to himself take small thanks.
" Melancholy it was, indeed, that the noble JOHNSON could not work himself loose from these adhesions ; that he could only purify them, and wear them with some nobleness. Yet let us understand how they grew out from the very centre of his being ; nay, moreover, how they came to cohere in him with what formed the business and worth of his life, the sum of his whole spiritual endeavour. For it is on the same ground that he became through- out an edifier and repairer, not, as the others of his make were, a puller-down ; that in an age of universal scepticism, England was still to produce its believer. Mark, too, his candor even here ; while a DR. ADAMS, with placid surprise, asks : ' Have we not evidence of the soul's immortality?' JOHNSON answers: 'I wish for more.' "
The reader will have no difficulty in reading between the lines. As a sample of the heinous- ness of MACAULAY'S exaggeration, let the following phrase suffice: "He (BOSWELL) was ... an unsafe companion who never scrupled to repay the most liberal hospitality by the basest violation of confidence." Aside from the question of fact involved in the asser- tion, as a mere matter of style one may well ask : If BOSWELL. had treacherously stabbed a brother laird in a drunken brawl, or robbed a savings bank, or run off with his neighbor's wife, where would MACAULAY have found words adequate ?
5. PROF. MCELROY, column 59. expresses himself thus: "Suppose, for example, that MACAULAY had thought as CARLYLE thought. Would the brilliancy of his style in that case have offended us? Nay, would not his many charms of manner, unimpaired as they would then have been, only have added to his legiti- mate effect upon us? We were told in the Convention that CARLYLE first wrote as MAC- AULAY did, but afterwards deliberately changed his style. Was it not because he believed that, by intentionally adopting the peculiarities that characterize his later work, he would the more certainly secure an audience? Surely there was never a more conceited, self- conscious great man than CARLYLE."
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a. The supposition involves an impossibili- ty. MACAULAY could never have thought as CARLYLE thought, for the all-sufficient reason that it was not in him to do so.
b. "Brilliancy" of style, the brilliancy which consists in heaping up superlatives, balancing phrases, juggling with the mere order of words, is offensive, whether in MACAULAY, or in CARLYLE, or in BURKE, or even in SHAKE- SPEARE or MILTON. The assertion that CAR- LYLE'S early style resembled MACAULAY'S in rhetoric is true. Here is the warrant for it :
" SCHILLER seems to have the greater genius; ALFIERI the more commanding character. ALFIERI 's greatness rests on the stern concentration of fiery passion under the dominion of an adamantine will . . . SCHIL- LER'S moral force is commensurate with his intellectual gifts and nothing more. The mind of the one is like the ocean, beautiful in its strength, smiling in the radiance of Sum- mer, and washing luxuriant and romantic shores : that of the other is like some black unfathomable lake placed far amid the melan- choly mountains ; bleak, solitary, desolate ; but girdled with grim, sky-piercing cliffs, over- shadowed with storms, and illuminated only by the red glare of the lightning."
This is written with an eye to the reader, and is correspondingly " brilliant." But who- ever tries to understand ALFIERI and SCHIL- LER by such red glare of lightning will get his labor for his pains.
c. There is no warrant for the assumption that CARLYLE "deliberately" changed his style. Style is not a garment to be donned or doffed at will. The change in CARLYLE'S style came gradually and — I suspect — un- consciously. Doubtless it came from a pro- longed and searching study of GOETHE, the least rhetorical of writers. Doubtless it was a sense of the utter inadequacey of such SCHIL- LER-ALFIERI turgidity to render GOETHE'S serene, naive, Olympian straightforwardness, that gave to CARLYLE'S mind its new di- rection. It was GOETHE who taught CARLYLE the supreme value of words, the insignificance of phrase-structure. CARLYLE himself says of his later syntax :
"Of his sentences perhaps not more than nine-tenths stand straight on their legs; the
remainder are in quite angular attitudes, buttressed up by props (of parentheses and dashes), and ever with this or the other tag- rag hanging from them ; a few even sprawl but helplessly on all sides, quite broken-back- ed and dismembered."
We are not to apply self-irony and mock self-depreciation too literally. 'In Memoriam' is the most carefully planned and best sustain- ed didactic poem in our language, yet the author condescendingly speaks of it as " little swallow flights of song." All that CARLYLE meant by his caricature of Teufelsdroeckh was that the reader should not expect of him stilted rhetoric a la Blair.
b. Conceding that CARLYLE is conceited and self-conscious, the sole question that concerns us here is, how far his style may suffer therefrom. Only in so far as prejudice prevented him, as it prevented JOHNSON, from seeing the object aright. Where CARLYLE saw clearly, there he described unerringly, notwithstanding all his self-consciousness. As for his "crudities," his " Babylonian dialect," his " boisterousness and utter want of self- containment," they exist only for the reader who is unfamiliar with the word-wealth of our language. Above all other prose-writers CAR- LYLE has the infallible artist-touch in his use of words. Coming from him, each noun, adjec- tive, verb is instinct with life. He handles them as a florist handles his flowers, knowing- ly, caressingly, lovingly. He does not toss them at us, as the baker tosses his rolls over the counter, a roll for a penny. How can one be boisterous and lacking in self-contain- ment, whose every word pulses with its own organic life, grows into its place?
We may reject as many of his opinions as we see fit, may shrug our shoulders at 'Shooting Niagara' and the reviler of poorCuffee. It is easy work. In no writer "perhaps is it easier to separate the wheat from the chaff". But which of us can truthfully assert that he has mastered CARLYLE'S style, that he knows enough of English literature and language to •make the attempt? Although some of his best sayings have become almost as thread- bare as "To Be or Not To Be," the sympa- thetic reader can not glance furtively at them without renewing his old sense of humiliation
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at his own ignorance. Where did the man get his words, from what slums of trash, what dust-heaps of neglected lore did he evoke such dainty Ariels, such elvish Pucks, such towering invective Lears, serene Prosperos, tenderly-brooding Hermiones ? They humble us, as SHAKESPEARE'S masterful touch humbles us. Yet this is the writer whom some would call Mcgalosaurian ! Rather let us call ALEXANDER EVERETT a megalosaurian, or even the great MACAULAV, in his triple brass of whiggism, conventionalism, omniscience.
J. M. HART.
University of Cincinnati,
DAN TESCA.—OSSER VAZIONl SU
ALCUNI PASS AC G I DELL A
DIVINA COMMEDIA.
Prima di cominciare questo articoletto devo avvertire il lettore, che non ho potuto con- sultare i comentatori antichi, neppure tutti gli autori moderni che nelle loro vite di DANTE o nelle lore edizioni o version! della Divina Commedia potrebbero essersi valuti dell' occasione di parlare dei punti da me trattati. Doveva dunque chiedermi se non sarebbe statomeglio aspettare con questo piccolo sag- giuolo, finche non avessi comparata la lettera- tura suddetta ; ma veduto il monte di scritti danteschi, che si sono accumulati da tutte le parti, par essere cosa impossibile 1'accorgersi dell'apparatoscientifico complete a qualunque uomo lasciato, come mi trovo io, senza i van- taggi d'una biblioteca pubblica : era piuttosto necessario far scelta fra le ottime, ossia le ultime pubblicazioni, essendo permesso di supporre, che nelle ricerche pubblicate nel Dante-Jahrbuch e nelle opere dottissime dei BLANC, WITTE, WEGELE, PHILALETHES, HETTINGER ; GARY, CARLYLE, LONGFELLOW, PLUMPTRE possano trovarsi rappresentate e discusse quasi tutte le teorie degli antichi siccome dei contemporanei. Se dunque non trovava in quegli autori nessuna delle osser- vazioni, che vorrei far io, ci era luogo a cre- dere, che non le trovarono eglino stessi nelle loro fonti, ovvero — che il solo silenzio lor pareva bastante per ribatterle. In ogni caso spero che non si vorranno giudicare inoppor- tune le annotazioni seguenti, sia che io co-
minci qui un filo nuovo, o che riprenda il bandolo pcrduto dagli autori inglesi.
Caccianli i Ciel per non esser men belli, N6 Io profondo inferno gli riceve, Ch£ alcuna gloria i rei avrebber d'elli.
Inf. Ill, 40-43.
L'ultimo verso di questo terzetto 6 state inter- pretato in tre o quattro varj modi secondo che ho trovato.
Gli uni, spiegando alcuna gloria nel senso negative, dicono che non furono ammessi nell'inferno gli spiriti neutri, perch&, secondo DANTE, non furono degni neppure di questo luogo, essendo peggiori anche degli stessi rei.
II Symonds (An introduction to the study of DANTE. London, 1882, p. 144) ha adottato ques- ta interpretazione e sentendo bene 1'ingiustizia della sentenza, ne fa rampogna al poeta. II HETTINGER all' incontro, il quale sembra am- mettere questa traduzione anch' egli, si prova di giustificarne 1'idea, riferendosi al versetto 15-16 dell' apocalissi in. (HETTINGER, Die gottliche Komodie des DANTE Alighieri nach ihrem wesentlichen Inhalt und Character, p. 147).
Secondo altri, e ne prendo come esempio il LONGFELLOW, gli indifferenti non furono ac- cettati dai rei, perch£ non erano riconosciuti uguali dai peccatori attivi, quasiccome nella maestranza dei ladri i birboni inveterati e finiti guardano giu con disprezzo sui giovini novizzi, o mal destri nel loro mestiere. Prende dunque anche il LONGFELLOW alcuna come pronome negative.
II maggior numero dei comentatori intende alcuna nel senso ordinario per a/quanta e crede, che gli indifferenti non potevano essere incorporati nell' inferno per non dare ai rei nessuna cagione di sentire soddisfazione o gioja maligna, vedendo che per non aver fatto alcun male, i neutri avessero da patire la medesima pena ch' eglino stessi. Tale alme- no e 1 'interpretazione data dai GARY e adottata dalP ultimo traduttore inglese, il PLUMPTRE.
(Juan to agli autori tedeschi che ho potuto comparare, mi pare, che capiscano il nostro passaggio nella stessa maniera ; ma C- vero, che le traduzioni : " weil Sunder stolz auf sie doch blicken konnten," (Philal.) e "dass
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nicht mit ihnen die Verdammten prahlen " (STRECKFUSs,GoEBEL,SechsVorlesungenuber DANTE. Bielefeld, Leipzig, 1882), sono espres- sioni alquanto vaghe che potrebbero signifi- care anche, che i rei sarebbero contenti non gia dalla pena ma della compagnia dei neutri.
Ma qualunque sia il senso voluto, credo che nessuna delle traduzioni citate fin qui corris- ponda compitamente al concetto altissimo che I'ALLIGHIERI aveva della giustizia divina. E ben vero che il poeta, carattere energico e passionate egli stesso, ha versato tutto il suo disprezzo su questi miseri pusillanimi ; ma per essere passionato non potrebbe essere ingius- to, n£ farebbe commettere atto d'ingiustizia al giudice supremo. Ecco ci6, che bisogna tenere ben distinto ! Che Vaccidia sia falta gravissima dal punto di vista dogmatico, pu6 essere, ma checchS ne dicano il domma o la Chiesa, & sicuro, siccome 1'hanno provato il WEGELE, il WITTE, lo SCARTAZZINI ed altri, che DANTE non ha seguito esclusivamente il domma, ma che il suo sistema ha subito anche 1'influsso di diversi altri momenti e in especie che dappertutto. risulta d'un senso naturale e correttissimo di giustizia umana ossia cristiana.
II LONGFELLOW crede dovere la sua versione all' espressione : 116 lo profondo inferno gli riceve ; questo RICEVE pertanto certamente non vuol dire che i rei possano scegliere la loro compagnia e che non vogliano quella dei neutri, ma ci £ detto solamente che non gli riceve 1 'inferno, non lor I aperto, natural- mente per ordine di Dio. Siccome fa spesso nelle sue note eccellenti, il LONGFELLOW cerca illustrare la sua versione, citando passag- gi paralleli di altre poesie. Ma questa volta, credo, ha sbagliato. Due dei passaggi citati sono presi da poesie leggieri e frivole, che non possono servire a spiegare il poema dantesco, ed il terzo 6 il versetto biblico, lo stesso che il HETTINGER ha citato in favore dell' opinione, che abbiamo discussa di sopra. Ed affatto, se fosse permesso di tutto il citare questo versetto, dovrebbe essere inteso come 1'ha fatto il HETTINGER, perch£ non vi e il Satanasso che giudica, come pel passaggio dantesco 1'ha voluto il LONGFELLOW, ma: " o 14/UT/r, 6 judprvS 6 m6To$ HO! a'A.^Szj'oS, ?/ dpxr) rr/S-Kr ideas? TOV Qeov." — In ogni caso tutti quelli che traducono alcuna per nessuna,
ammettono 1'idea stranissima, che gli indiffe- renti fossero lasciati fuori dell' inferno — per fare piacere ai rei, come se fosse 1'intenzione divina 1'usar gentilezze ai suoi nemici.
La terza versione colle varieta rappresen- tate dal PLUMPTRE e dagli autori tedeschi i quali ho citati, e grammaticalmente corretta ed a prima vista non sembra fare torto all' alto senso di giustizia che in tutto il suo poema mostra I'ALLIGHIERI, ma pure fasottintendere anche essa, che da diritto i neutri dovrebbero essere nell' inferno e che non si trovino la per una causa che non risulta gia del loro stato morale proprio, ma d'una considerazione prati- ca, esterna, voglio dire della necessita di non lasciare ai rei alcuno conforto. In primo luo- go, non vediamo in nessun altra parte dell' Inferno, che i rei trovino consolazione nell' idea d'essersi almeno dato buon tempo, com- mettendo i delitti, che devono pagare nell' inferno. E vero che 1'aver dei compagni nella pena lor £ un conforto (cf. GIULIANI, Dante-Jahrbuch III, 243), ma 6 sicuro anche, che per tal ragione, voglio dire per torlo via a loro, questo conforto, non deve mai uno spirito mancare al suo posto. Carlino sara il vicino del Camicion de' Pazzi, checch£ questi ed altri ne sentano. Infine, nessuna ragione pud avere alcun effetto sul giudice supremo, che non sia ispirata dalla sola ed unica gius- tizia. Non sono dunque nell' inferno i neutri, perch6 non Vhanno meritato, non sarebbe giusto. Tutte le pene dell' inferno, come si sa, non sono altro, se non la continuazione e con- seguenza diretta dello stato mentale dei pecca- tori innanzi alia morte. Era dunque data in avanzo e fissa pel loro carattere stesso la con- dizione dei neutri, devono venire esattamente la, dove appartengono, e — 1'inferno non sareb- be luogo acconcio a loro. Ecco la ragione, nella costruzione, nel carattere e nello scopo dell' inferno, ragione parallela a quella, perch6 non possono entrare nel cielo :
Caccianli i del per non esser men belli, n6 lo profondo* inferno li riceve, — perch£ il regno dei rei avrebbe subito un cambio in meliorem partem per 1'addizione dei neutri. Quesli
*Forse fe notabile \'a.<\A.pro/ondo. Pensando qui in especie agli angeli neutri, e solamente in secondo luogo agli spiriti accidiosi, il poeta sembra accennare alia settima bolgia. C. XIV. ss.
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spirit! pusillanimi possono ben essere, e certa- mente sono, sdegnevoli ed odiosi a Dio, eppure hanno una certa gloria, un sembiante di merito. La mancanza di peccato 6 natural- mente men degna di castigo che un peccato mortale : il niente 6 come un piu relative in confronto d'un debito itnmenso. Nell' inferno tutto deve essere terribile, colpito dall' ira eterna di Dio, contrasto perfetto dell' alta beatitudine del Paradise, e questo carattere orribilmente brutto non deve essere mitigato pell' addizione d'un elemento non meno sdegnevole, come pare a noi, ma meno a- troce. Dunque :
N£ lo profondo inferno gli riceve — Per non esser men orribile.
Amor che a nullo amato amar perdona,
Mi prese del costui piacer si forte
Che, come vedi, ancor non m'abbandono.
Inf. V, 103-105.
Le parole del costui piacer si trovano spie- gate nel PLUMPTRE come espressione avver- biale, rafforzante in un modo generale la frase principale : amor mi prese :
Love, which does none beloved from loving
spare, Seized me for him with might that such joy
bred, That, as thou seest, it leaves me not e'en
here.
E similmente le traducono altri ; e. g. il Phila- lethes : — Hess mich an ihm so gross Gefallen finden — e il traduttore greco, Dante-Jahrbuch 1,388:
*O epoot Se, oS ovitore ipdovrcci ditaXXarrei Totiovrov itoSov not avtov IvenvEvGE 6vv-
Un' altra versione tutta differente, si legge nel GARY e, come seconda scelta in Nota, nel CARLVLE : — caught me with pleasing him.
Mi pare sicuro, che col GARY ed altri, dob- biamo riguardare del COSTUI piacer come genetivo oggettivo dipendente da amor, ap- punto come nel terzetto precedente della bella Persona :
Amor, che al cor gentil ratto s'apprende, Prese costui della bella persona —
Dice dunque la Franceses: io fui presa d'a- more verso— il costui piacer, e viene poi da chiedere : che cosa vuol dire il costui piacerl Secondo la versione with pleasing him, costui sarebbe il dativo dipendente da piacer, e ci sarebbe da sottintendere il pronome mio (piacer). Questa interpretazione non credo che sia giusta. Non parlando gia della diffi- colt& grammaticale, che sola mi par renderla molto dubbiosa, il pensiero riescerebbe al- quanto sgraziato : amor mi prese del mio piacere a lui.
Costui deve essere il genetivo possessive, e piacer potrebbe stare per piacenza, carattere (o apparenza) piacevole, grazioso (cf. Par. XX, 144), corrispondente quasi al della bella persona (v. 101) auche nel senso.
E poich6 piacevole, grazioso, amabile sono mezzi termini, significanti indistintamente una persona simpatica, o che meriti simpatia, o che la mostri ella stessa, avremo solamente a prendere piacenza nell' ultimo senso per ritrovarvi inchiusa 1'idea, che mette la frase principale in connessione logica colla frase relativa.
Ma pu6 essere anche che piacere abbia ques- to senso attivo* senz' altro, significando semplicemente simpatia, affezione, amore : io fui presa d'amore verso la sua affezione: il suo amore ; mi ferz6 a riamarlo ; perchd amor a nullo amato amar perdona.
E vero che nel terzetto precedente non si trova lo stesso sviluppo logico, o almeno non si trova indicate nella stessa maniera, ma sarebbe andar troppo lontano, sicuramente, il valersi di questo motive per combattere la nostra versione.
II LONGFELLOW, come la nota aggiunta da lui al verso che stiamo considerando, sembra aver con un giusto senso poetico, indovinato nel nostro passaggio quasi la stessa idea, che ne abbiamo cavata per mezzo della grammati- ca ; ma sbagliandosi nel punto grammaticale, 1'illustre traduttore americano non ha voluto seguire la sua ispirazione nel testo, ma ha tradotto :
Love — Seized me with pleasure of this man.
In ogni caso U PLUMPTRE avrebbe fatto meglio citando, se non voleva adottarle, la
•Cf. fartrt con il farert, io soxo di Dartre.
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spiegazione del GARY e la nota del LONGFEL- LOW.
Queste parole da lor ci fur porte, [Inf. V, 108], e la teoria del FEIST.
In GROEBER'S Zs. f. r. Ph. XI, 131-133, A. FEIST ha proposto una teoria interamente nuova intorno al passaggio Inf. V, 88-107. Secondo il suo concetto le parole, che fin allora tutto il mondo aveva creduto che fossero parlate da Francesca sola, dovrebbero divi- dersi in cinque parti : la prima, 88-96, e 1'ultima, 106-107, sarebbero pronunciate dai due amanti insieme ; la seconda, 97-99, e la quarta, 103- 105, da Francesca sola ; e la parte del mezzo, la terza, da Paolo.
Si vede, che la congettura £ delle piu im- portanti, cambiando interamente tutto il carattere del passaggio ed attribuendo quasi a ciascheduna frase un senso tutt" altro che non le fosse dato innanzi. E vero anche che alcu- ni momenti, benissimo esposti dal Feist, parlano fortemente in favore della sua idea, eppure non posso ancora appigliarmici perche ci si oppongono altri momenti non meno gravi, ai quali il FEIST non ha fatto attenzione nel suo trattato.
Cominciando la sua dimostrazione col ver- so : Queste parole da lor ci fur porte, dice che da lor indichi chiaramente, che ambe e due gli spiriti devono aver parlato. Questo non mi par essere assolutamente necessario. In primo luogo arriva spesso ed & tutto naturale, che avendo inteso un uomo parlare come rappresentante d'un gruppo, diciamo dopo : dicevano invece di diceva. Si spiegano i due amanti inseparabili pella bocca di Francesca, come dell' altra parte DANTE solo gli ha chia- mati, a lui solo s' £ indirizzata la risposta, eppure alia fine troviamo : ci fur porte. Le due espressioni da lor e ci sono assolutamente parallele, non significando altro se non : del loro posto — al nostro, di la — ci.
Inoltre porgere, benchd talvolta equivalga a parlare, non e pure precisamente lo stesso, ma significa offrire, dare (la risposta) ; e forse, che nel porte si possa vedere il participio di porgere e nell' istesso tempo quello $\portare. Porto per portato : portare sarebbe come desto : destare, privo : privare, etc.
Sarebbe allora il senso : queste parole ci fur ofFerte, date a risposta, da loro (per la bocca di Francesca), ovvero ci furono tramesse (pell ' acre) dal loro posto, e non e dunque assoluta- mente necessaria la nuova interpretazione, come 1'ha creduto il suo autore. Vediamo adesso, se e probabile.
Quanto al carattere generate del passaggio, che il FEIST pensa essere piu bello secondo la sua accezione, si pu6 essere di opinione difFe- rente, ed io, per uno, preferisco la semplicita del vecchio senso allo stile — non dir6 gi£ lirico o drammatico — ma declamatorio ed artificioso della nuova versione. Ma di ci6 non dir& nulla, perch£ de rebus aestheticis come de gustibus, non disputandum.
Ci sono pertanto altre obbiezioni piu parti- colari da fare :
II parlare insieme dei due spiriti non mi pare dantesco, che .non si trova in nessuna parte un passaggio parallelo ; e poi, i primi terzetti, in especie, non essendo, altro se non una semplice introduzione, non sono punto addattati ad essere pronunciati dai due in- sieme. Pare cosa stranissima, davvero, I'imaginarsele recitate dai due amanti, queste parole quiete e quasi prosaiche.
Delia difficolta grammatical, che offre il tradurre costui per questo (cuore) non bisogna parlare qui, perche il FEIST 1'ha mentovata egli stesso. Ma mentre vuole, che la donna non dovrebbe chiamare bella persona il suo corpo, che/«r non ha piu, il FEIST non esita a fare dire all' uomo
Amor, che al c or gentil ratto s'apprende Prese costui (v. d. il mio, secondo il FEIST).
Senza gusto, quando le pronuncia Paolo, queste parole all' incontro sono bellissime nella bocca della donna che cerca spiegare con esse e giustificare la passione del suo amante.
II verso e il modo ancor m'ojfende e estre- mamente insignificante nel senso che gli da il FEIST, ed il chemifu tolta non sarebbe possi- bile del tutto, se persona sta per donna, perche affatto non sono separati gli amanti. II loro amore e piu forte che 1'inferno stesso e non e la perdita dell' amore, che lamentano, ma la loro eterna dannazione.
Avrei altre obbiezioni a fare, ma credo che
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basteni cid che ho detto e forse sono gia stato troppo lungo.
Tocchiamo solamente in passando un' altra questione independente dalla teoria del FEIST, benche si trovi mentovata nel suo trattato.
Al doloroso passo. Inf. V, 114. Quel giorno piu non vi leggemmo avante.
Inf. V, 138.
II FEIST ed altri dicono, che in questi versi si tratti della morte ; ma i versi : —
A che e come concedette amore
Che conoscesti i dubbiosi desiri, 119, 120,
e forse
Che ricordarsi del tempo felice, 121, siccome
la prima radice
Del nostro amor — — , 124, 125,
indicano che il doloroso passo, etc., non sia la morte ma il primo peccato degli amanti.
Finalmente devo dar conto al lettore che mi ha seguito fin qui, perch6, essendo Tedesco io stesso, e vivendo nel " paese la, dove il yes suona," abbia osato scrivere il mio articoletto in Italiano. L'ho fatto, perche la lingua ita- liana e la sola, che debbano capire tutti quelli che al nostro poeta s'interessano : da questi spero che ho riuscito a farmi comprendere, e per altri ne per altra ragione non ho scritto.
GUSTAF KARSTEN.
Indiana University.
THE PERSONAL PRONOUN IN THE OLD DANISH1TOBIAE CO MED IE:
The text of the ' Tobiae Comedie ' upon which the present paper is based, was edited by S. BIRKET SMITH of Copenhagen, and published in 1887 by the University-Jubilee Danish Union. The editor informs us in the introduction that the original of the play is contained in MS. No. 794, folio, in the Royal Library at Copenhagen. Our comedy is the second of the collection.
"The whole linguistic and dramatic form of the piece," says the editor, " makes it certain
that it cannot be older than the end of the i6th century, and, on the other hand, it was certain- ly written some time before the sth of May, 1607, the date of the production of ' De Mundo et Paupere,' contained in the same collection." For convenience' sake, we may fix its date at about 1700. Concerning the name of its author we have no positive information, but from two references in the text the editor infers that it was written in VIBORG.
The language is very rich in grammatical forms, though we already perceive the con- fusion of the dative and the accusative. In respect to its syntax, we notice many resem- blances to Middle English, and, in fact, we might call the Danish of this time the Middle Danish period. The majority of the changes made in the language since that time are orthographic, by which the varying forms have become merged into one invariable form and the spelling has been normalized.
The forms selected for comment in this paper are the personal pronouns, which may be first given in the following tabular order :
du [4.10], [6.1] as vocat.
Sg. N. ieg [9.10].
G.
D A
ig [38, 22], migh [46.11]. dig [47-"]. •g [47-4]- dig [46.12].
PI. N. wi [6.3], vi [so,.i8] vj [72.10]. i [6.15], V [4S.»o].
G. — eders [17.9], ethers [19-4].
D. oss [5.6]. eder [72.21], ether [17.1].
A. oss [55.8]. eder [20.1], ether [17.12].
Sg. N. hand [6.r4]. hun [8.1].
G. hans [7.15]. hendis [14.8].
D. ham [7.19], {ll [j° hende [23.15].
A. ham [8.4], hannem [22.10]. hende [11.19], bender
NOTE i. In the nom., dat. and ace. of the ist person, the original final k (O. N. ek and O. Norw. mik) has already changed to g. For the change of the voiceless explosives (k, t) after a vowel to the spirants (g and S), see Noreen's Altislandische Gram., p. 73. The same process may be noticed in the dat. and ace. of the 2d person.
NOTE 2. The v of the ist person plural was sounded like English w \ the interchange of i and j is, of course, merely graphic, as is also that of i and.y, in the 2d person plur.
NOTE 3. In the gen., dat. and ace. plur. of the 2d person we find d, in place of the
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Urnordisch ft ; that is, the voiced interdental spirant < voiced dental explosive. In O. N. we find this same change, but only after a long syllable ending in /, n, 6, If, Ig, ng, or, nt, or (after 1300) after a short syllable ending in / or «. In each of the three cases occurring in our text the preceding syllable ends in a vowel. In pronunciation, however, the d between vowels in modern Danish retains its original sound as voiced interdental spirant.
NOTE 4. The gen. sing, and plur. of the ist and the gen. sing, of the 2d person do not occur in the text ; and the dual is wholly lack- ing, as we should naturally expect at so late a period in the language.
NOTE 5. As in O. N., the neuter and the plural of the 3d person are borrowed from the demonstrative.
NOTE 6. The dat. and the ace. have every- where completely merged, the only instances in which a difference exists between them being the migh, the hanoin, and the hender, which are evidently quite accidental.
NOTE 7. The almost total absence of as- similation in the O. Danish pronominal declension also deserves notice. We have hand, hendis, hende, corresponding to O. N. hann, hennar, henne; though here again we find a difference between the Danish of 1700 and that of the present day. We have, however, hannem, hanom, corresponding to O. N. honom, and hdnum.
NOTE 8. The forms migh, hender and hanom occur only once each ; all the other forms occur with greater or less frequency through the play.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
DIEROMANHAFTERICHTUNG DER
ALEXIUSLEGENDE
in altfranzosischen und mittelhochdeutschen
Gedichten. I.
In seinen Briefen aus der Schweiz erzahlt GOTHE, welch' tiefen Eindruck auf ihn die Erzahlung einer Legende machte, welche ihm eine Bauerin des Rhonethals, als er nach einer seiner Fusswanderungen durch das Gebirge in ihrem Hause gastete, in schlichten,
aber riihrenden Worten vortrug. Diese Er- zahlung betraf eine Legende, die dereinst im Mittelalter eine ungeheure Verbreitung gefun- den und sowohl im franzosischen als im deutschen, imenglischen als im italienischen, im spanischen als im russischen zahlreiche Bearbeitung erfahren hatte, die Legende des h. ALEXIUS.
Das einzige Historische in der Geschichte dieses Mannes — selbst der Name ALEXIUS ist erfunden — erfahren wir aus einer syrischen Legende, die nach Augenzeugen das Leben eines Mannes erzahlt, welcher, obgleich reicher und vornehmer Herkunft, seine Familie in Constantinopel verliess, um sich zu den Armen Edessas zu gesellen und ein ascetisches Bettlerleben zu fiihren.* Wunderbares war also urspriinglich nichts vorhanden in dieser Erzahlung, denn solche Beispiele von Entsa- gung waren im Mittelalter an der Tagesord- nung. Aber im Laufeder Zeit wurde aus der einfachen Biographic ein wahrer Roman. Ein Grieche aus Constantinopel war es der die Heirath des ALEXIUS erfand, der ihn seine Frau gleich in der Hochzeitnacht verlassen Hess, der seine Riickkehr nach Constantinopel und Aufnahme im Elternhause, wo er lange Zeit unkenntlich und unbekannt von Almosen lebte, hinzudichtete, und schliesslich das Wunder hinzufugte, das ihn nach seinem Tode den Eltern als Heiligen offenbarte. Dieser Roman hatte im Orient riesigen Er- folg. Dem Occident blieb er aber unbekannt, bis Ende des loten Jahrhunderts ein aus Damaskus vertriebener Erzbischof SERGIUS ihn nach Rom brachte, wo der Heilige bald so heimisch wurde, dass statt Constantinopel, Rom zur Statte seiner Leiden gemacht, der Patriarch des griechischen Textes durch den Papst INNOCENS zur Zeit des HONORIUS und ARCADIUS ersetzt, und nach kurzer Zeit sogar das Haus der Eltern des ALEXIUS in Rom gezeigt wurde. Von Rom verbreitete sich dann die Legende nach alien Landern des Westens und Nordens.
Es kann nicht in unserer Absicht liegen die Entwickelung der Legende durch alle diese Lander zu verfolgen ; wir werden uns im folgenden auf Frankreich und Deutschland
*Cf. Romania VIII (1879), p. 163 ff., G. PARIS : " La vie de ST. A LEX i en vers octosyllabiques."
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beschranken, und dies aus besonderem Grunde. Im Mittelalter hat, wie bekannt, in litterarischer Beziehung, Frankreich auf Deutschland einen ungeheuren Einfiuss ausgeiibt. Wie viele bedeutende deutsche Dichtungen gehen doch auf franzosische Quellen zuriick ! Man denke nur an das ' Ruo- lantesliet ' des PFAFFEN CONRAD, das aus der Venez. Hs. der ' Chanson de Roland ' fusst, an das ' Alexanderlied ' des PFAFFEN LAM- PR KCHT, das auf ALBERICH DE BESANC;ON'S Alexanderdichtung beruht ! Und haben nicht selbst grossere Dichter wie HEINRICH VON VELDEKE seine 'Eneit' von BENO!T DE STE. MAURE, HARTMANN VON AUE seinen ' Erec ' und 'Iwein' aus CHRESTIEN DE TROVES entnommen ! Warum ware dies nicht auch der Fall fiir die uns vorliegenden Legenden ? Lasst uns darauf hin die franzosischen und deutschen Gedichte mit einander vergleichen. Die franzosischen sind : i. Der von GAS- TON PARIS in seiner ' Vie de St. Alexis ' kritisch hergestellte Text cles ST. ALEXIS nach den Hd. von Lambspringen,* von Ash- burnham Place und von Paris, aus dem n- ten Jahrhundert. Wir bezeichnen das Gedicht mit P (G. PARIS).
2. Eine stark interpolirte und beinahe urn das Doppelte vermehrte Bearbeitung des Gedichtes P, in Assonanzen, von G. PARIS mit durch Cursivschrift hervorgehobenen interpolirten Stellen ed. ; aus dem i2ten Jhd. Wir nennen das Gedicht S (ancien Supple1- ment, 623).
3. Eine von S abhangige Bearbeitung desselben Gedichtes in Reimen, von MARI- CHAL ed., M in 1279 v.
4. Eine in 196 vierzeiligen Strophen mit cinem Reime (quatrains monorimes von M abhangige Bearbeitung, von PANNIER ed. Q (Quatrains). Alle diese vier Texte sind ab- gedruckt in G. PARIS : 'La vie de ST. ALEXIS ' P: p. 139-170; S: p. 222-260; M: p. 279-317; A : p. 346-388.
*Wegen dieser in einem deutschen Kloster — Lambspringen liegt bei Hildesheim— aufbewahrten Hs. scheint die Annah- me einer Beeinflussung der deutschen Gedichte durch die fran?8sischen um so naher zu liegen. Dagegen spricht aber die Bemerkurg von G. PARIS p. a : " Cette abbaye, de 1'ordre deST. BENOJT, ^taitpeuple'e par des religieux anglais, venus l;\ & ce que nous apprend MR. HOFFMAN, apres 1643, et qui suivant tome apparence apport rent avec eux le manuscrit en question."
5. Ein von G. PARIS in der Romania VIII (1879), p. 169-180 herausgegebenes Gedicht in 964 achtsilbigen paarweisegereitnten Versen, die Hs. aus dem i3ten Jhd., das Gedicht selbst noch vom izten Jhd. Wir nennen es R (Romania).
6. Ein von JOSEPH HERZ in dem 'Pro- gramm der Real- und Volksschule der isra- elitischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt am Main 1879' herausgegebenes Gedicht in 60 Laissen, von verschiedener LUnge, im Ganzen 1254 Zwolfsilbnern, aus dem i3ten Jhd. Wir nen- nen es Hz. (HERZ).
Die uns uberlieferten deutschen Gedichte sind alle von MASSMANN herausgegeben wor- den in seinem ' Sanct Alexius Leben in acht gereimten mittelhochdeutschen Behandlung- en.' Sie sind :
A aus einer Gratzer und Prager Hs. mit 1155 v. ; B aus Cod. Vindabon. mit 522 v. ; C (Miinchener, Neuburger und Heidelberger Hs.) mit 454 v. ; D von KONRAD VON WURZ- BURG, in einer Strassburger und Innsbrucker Hs. mit 1385 v., auch von HAUPT mit Ver- besserungen Zs. III. ed. ; E (Hamburger Hs.) mit 1046 v. ; F (Hs. der Herren MEYER und MOOYER) mit 1526 v.; Gvom Schweizer JORG ZOBEL (aus St. Gallen) ; H vom Augsburger JORG BREYNING, aus 1488, in des regenbogen langen d6n in 19 Strophen von je 23 versen.
Diese vierzehn Gedichte lassen sich schon nach pberflachlicher Lecture in zwei Classen theilen. Die einen erzahlen die Legende schlicht und einfach, oft etwas trocken und diirr, meist nach dem Beispiele der lateinisch- en Prosabehandlung der Bollandisten, welche MASSMANN in seinem Buche ebenfalls abge- druckt hat. Nach ihnen lautet die Legende ungefahr folgendermassen: EUPHEMIAN und AGLAES, die Eltern des Heiligen, fuhren einen glanzenclen Hofstaat, aber zugleich ein recht frommes Leben. Ihr Gluck ist nur dadurch getriibt, dass ihre Ehe unfruchtbar bleibt. Erst nach langem Beten und vielen frommen Werken, erhalten sie einen Sohn, ALEXIUS, fiir dessen Geburt sie Gott geloben von nun an ihr ganzes Leben keusch bleiben zu wollen. Der Sohn wird in der Schule fromm erzogen, er lernt, dass nur durch Keuschheit das ewige Leben erlangt werden kann, und im Stillen seines Herzens gelobt er
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sich, ewig keusch zu bleiben. Aber sein Vater, der seinem einzigen Sohne sein bedeu- tendes Erbe sichern will, beschliesst ihn zu verheirathen, sucht ihm ein Madchen aus kaiserlichem Geschlechte aus, und obgleich ALEXIUS seine Grundsatze zu heirathen ver- bieten, thut er es doch, um eine andere Siinde, den Ungehorsam gegen die Eltern, zu ver- meiden. Sobald er aber Abends mit seiner Frau allein ist, theilt er ihr seinen Entschluss mit, ewig keusch zu bleiben, ermahnt sie dasselbe zu thun und nachdem er ihr seinen Ring zum Andenken gegeben, verlasst er sie, um im Morgenlande ein ascetischer Leben zu fiihren. Er gelangt zuerst nach Laodicea, dann nach Edessa, wo er seinen Wohnsitz auf den Stufen einer Kirche aufschlagt, in der ein beriihmtes Christusbild verehrt wird. Dort lebt er 17 Jahre lang in Armut unter den Bettlern und gibt sich sogar den Boten seines Vaters nicht zu erkennen, die ihn dort suchen. In Rom herrscht grosse Trauer. Seine Mutter beklagt ihn in Sack und Asche, und seine Braut gelobt sich ihm ewig treu zu bleiben, wie die Turteltaube, die ihren Genossen ver- liert. So verstreichen siebzehn Jahre. Da will Gott dem Volke von Edessa die Heiligkeit des Bettlers verkiinden. Ein Marienbild lasst ihn durch den Messner in die Kirche herein- rufen, und seine Heiligkeit wird bekannt. Aber ALEXIUS, der sich vor menschlichem Ruhme fiirchtet, flieht aus Edessa, besteigt ein Schiff, um sich nach Tarsus zu begeben, doch da verschlagt ihn ein Sturm in seine Heimat nach Rom. Da wendet er sich an seinen Vater, den er auf der Strasse antrifft und bittet ihn, um des Sohnes willen, den er verloren, um Aufnahme in seinem Hause. Ein Strohlager wird ihm unter der Treppe bereitet, und obgleich er nur ein Wort zu sagen hatte, um zum gefeierten Herren des Hauses zu werden, indem er von den Dienern verhohnt und misshandelt wird, bleibt er an seinem Entschluss fest und lebt in frommer Entsa- gung abermals sechzehn Jahre. Wie er fuhlt, dass der Tod ihm naht, schreibt er sein Leben auf, und den Brief in der Hand haltend ver- scheidet er kurz darauf. Zugleich erhebt sich eine Stimme in der Kirche, wo das Volk ver- sammelt ist, und zu drei verschiedenen Malen ermahnt sie die Romer den Heiligen zu su-
chen, der im Hause des EUPHEMIAN liege. Der Papst und die beiden Kaiser HONORIUS und ARCADIUS, von EUPHEMIAN gefuhrt, der selber nicht weiss, wer der angekiindigte Heilige sein konnte, eilen in sein Haus, und von einem Diener auf den eben verstorbenen Pilger aufmerksam gemacht, der stets ein so frommes Leben gefuhrt habe, dass er wohl der gesuchte Heilige sein konnte, finden sie denselben todt unter der Treppe liegend. Und in der That sein Antlitz glanzt wie das eines Engels, und ein siisser Duft geht aus der Leiche hervor. Als EUPHEMIAN und nachher die beiden Kaiser ihm den Brief entnehmen wollen, den er in der Hand halt, weigert sich der Todte ihn herzugeben; nur dem Papste, dem Stellvertreter Gottes, gibt er ihn. Ein Priester liest den Brief, und nun erfahren Eltern und Braut das Ungliick, das sich in ihrem Hause ereignet hat. Ihr Jammer ist unbeschreiblich, und macht sich in furchtba- ren Kl.agereden Luft. Endlich lasst der Papst die Leiche wegtragen. Alle Kranken, die den heiligen Leib beriihren, werden wieder ge- sund, und um selbst geheiligt zu werden, tragen der Papst und die Kaiser selbst die Bahre. Aber das Gedrange des Volkes ist so gross, dass um Raum zu schaffen, die Herrscher Gold ausstreuen lassen, damit das Volk es auflese, und dadurch dem Leichen- zuge Platz mache. Doch die Menge zieht es vor dem Heiligen nachzulaufen. So gelangt man erst unter grosser Miihe zur Kirche des h. Bonifacius, wo der Heilige mit grossem Pomp beigesetzt wird.
Wesentlich in dieser Fassung erzahlt die eine Gruppe der Bearbeitungen unsere Legen- de. Unter den deutschen sind esC, D, E, G ; unter den franzosischen, R und Hz. Natiirlich herrschen unter diesen Gedichten selbst gewisse Abweichungen. Wahrend C und G recht dUrftig, an einigen Stellen ungeniessbar trocken erzahlen, ergehen sich D und E in weitschweifige Schilderungen und Moral- reflexionen. Doch haben alle diese deutschen Bearbeitungen das Gemeinsame, dass sie kein poetisches Talent zeigen, und ohne sie zu beleben, oft sogar indem sie sie durch unver- standiges Kiirzen oder geschmackloses Erwei- tern entstellen, ihre Vorlage wiedergeben. Die franzosischen dagegen, R und Hz., zeigen,
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was ein begabter Dichter auch aus diesem einfachen Stoflfe machcn konnte, wenn er ihn nur anziehend erziihlte. Hier werden die Scenen tnalerisch geschildert, die Handlung- en motivirt, die Gefiihle niiancirt. Aus der todten Legende wird eine lebhafte und riih- rende Erzahlung. Es wiirde uns zu weit fiihren an dieser Stelle den Vergleich der einzelnen Gedichte untereinander und die Untersuchung ihrer Quellen zu unternehmen. Es ist dies eine langwierige und spitzfindige Arbeit, die wir an anderer Stelle unternommen haben, und welche uns das Resultat ergab, dass wohl alle diese Gedichte in letzter In- stanz auf dieselbe Quelle zuriickgehen, aber doch nur durch verschiedene intermediate Bearbeitungen. Jedenfalls sind wir aber bei dieser Untersuchung zur Uberzeugung ge- kommen, dass die Gedichte der Franzosen und der Deutschen von einander vollig un- abhangig sind.
Lohnender und litterarisch weit interessanter ist die kritische Untersuchung und Vergleich- ung der andern Gruppe der Legenden, welche die Erzahlung poetischer entwickelt haben, als die eben besprochene. In dieser Gruppe gehoren unter den franzosischen Gedichten, S, M, Q; unter den deutschen A, F, H. Ueber P werden wir uns naher unten zu er- klaren haben ; iiber B cfr. R, die Anmerkung.* Das Merkmal, welches uns dazu fiilirt alle die- se Gedichte unter einer Gruppe zusammenzu- fassen, ist dasjenige der Hervorhebung der Braut in denselben. Wahrend in den vorher besprochenen Gedichten die Braut nur eine ganz passive und wesentlich untergeordnete Rolle spielte, haben die Dichter dieser Gruppe
*Es scheint als ob dieses Gcdicht B, welches sonst zu den Gedichten der andern Richtung gehBrt, den einen Zug, die Ubergabe des Briefes an die Braut, wie von Htirensagen in seine Bearbeitung aufgenommen habe. Dies ist um so eher anzunchmen, i. Weil der Zug vereinzelt ist ohne die ihn vorbereitenden sonstigen brSutlichen ZUge. 2. Weil die Bearbeituns B tiberhaupt auf mllndliche Quellen zuruckzu- gehen scheint; wegen einiger ganz speciellen ZQge — ich kann hier auf NSheres nicht eingehen, — wegen mehrerer Missver- stiiiiclnisse (7 Jahre statt 17 Jahre, der Kaiser statt die Kais- er) die leicht aus Verhoren entstanden sein kiinnen, wegen der KUrze der Bearbeitung, und des fast giin/lichen Fehlens von Namen, endlich wegen des ersten Verses des Gedichtes "in einem buoche man uns las," wttre es miiglich, dass das Ge- dicht Uberhaupt, nach mUndlichem Vortrag, den der Dichter gehKrt und nicht selbst gelesen, nachtritglich aufgeschrieben worden sei.
viele Momente erfunden, wo sie in die Hand- lung eingreift :
1. Die Brautnacht wird ausfuhrlich erzahlt und je nach den Bearbeitungen geschildert oder dramatisch belebt.
2. Als ALKXIUS in das Haus seiner El tern als Bettler ziiriickkomnit tritt seine Braut in nahere Beziehung zu ihm.
3. Als ALEXIUS stirbt gibt er nicht dem Papste, sondern seiner Braut den Brief, in welchem er sein Leben erzahlt.
4. Als die Braut des ALEXIUS stirbt, wird sie mit ihm begraben, und der Todte riickt zurecht, um seiner Braut neben sich Platz zu machen.
Nicht alle Gedichte dieser Gruppe, die wir nach MASSMANNS . Vorgange die brautliche nennen wollen, haben alle diese Ziige gemein- sam. Einige haben nur einen Theil derselben aufzuweisen. Wie ist dies zu erklaren ? Hat sich etwa die Ummodelung der Legende erst allmalig vollzogen, und auf welche Weise? Haben die einzelnen Gedichte der Gruppe auf einander geiibt, haben hauptsachlich die fran- zosischen mit den deutschen nahere Bezie- hungen, welche wechselseitige Benutzung annehmen liessen ? Diese Fragen zu losen, soil unsere Aufgabe auf den folgenden Seiten bilden.
Vorausschicken miissen wir, dass uns eine lateinische Prosabearbeitung vorliegt, welche MASSMANN p. 157-166 abgedruckt hat — wir nennen sie im Folgenden, L — die gerade diese Momente der brautlichen Legende cm halt. Auf den ersten Blick scheint die Annahme einer Abhiingigkeit der deutschen oder fran- zosischen Gedichte von L sehr wahrschein- lich. Und in der That ist, nach den Unter- suchungen von MASSMANN, L die hauptsach- lichste Quelle von A. Gerade die brautlichen Ziige hat A aus L entnommen. Die Braut- nacht ist in beiden Bearbtitungi-n ebt-nso geschildert. An das brennende LiclU ankniip- fend, das zwischen den Brautleuten steht, erkliirt Ai.K.xirs seiner Braut, class es um die Welt wie um das Licht bestellt sei. Sie sei dem Verfalle anhtimgegeben, von Flammen der Begierde umgeben sterbe sie dahin, und bringe uns in ewige Verclammniss. Unsere Seelen miissten wir von den Flammen der Verderbniss bofreien und keusch bleiben.
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Auch der zweite brautliche Zug, der Besuch der Eltern und der Braut, als ALEXIUS unter der Treppe liegt, ist in L und A gleich ge- schildert. Die Braut erkundigt sich eingehend nach ihrem Brautigam. Der Pilger antwortet, er hatte den ALEXIUS wohl gesehen ; er be- schretbt ihn und erzahlt, was ihm ALEXIUS iiber seine Flucht aus Rom und die Griinde, die ihn dazu getrieben, gesagt hatte. Sich selber gibt er den Namen "got ergeben," eine wortliche Uebersetzung des lateinischen "Deo datus."
Auch die zwei iibrigen brautlichen Ziige sind ebendieselben in A als in L. Aber nicht bloss auf die Gleichheit dieser Ziige sondern auch auf diejenige anderer beruht die Uber- einstimmung beider Bearbeitungen :
1. Die Familienverhaltnisse des EUPHEMI- AN werden moglichst genau angegeben. Er stammt aus dem Geschlechte der Scipionen ; der damalige romische Kaiser THEODOSIUS hat ihn so lieb, dass er ihn und seinen Bruder ARSENIUS bei seinem Sohn HONORIUS zum Gott und Gevatter nahm. Seine Frau AGLAE ist die Tochter eines romischen Satrapen JOHANNES.
2. Der Papst SIRICIUS tauft ALEXIUS.
3. Wie ALEXIUS von der Schule abgeht, nimmt er beim Kaiser ritterliche Dienste an.
4. Die Frau, die fur ALEXIUS ausgesucht wird, heisst ADRIATICA und ist die Tochter des GREGORIUS, welcher aus dem Geschlechte der Fabricii stammt, die gegen Pyrrhus gekampft haben.
5. Die Bearbeitung sagt ausdriicklich, dass ein bestimmter Tag zur Hochzeit ausgesucht wird.
6. Von L hat A auch die Pilgerfahrt des ALEXIUS nach Pisa, Lucca und Jerusalem entnommen.
7. Bemerkenswerth ist, dass in A ebenso- wie in L, als ALEXIUS' Heiligkeit geoffenbart werden soil, die Glocken lauten, ein Zug, der sich in der andern Legendengruppe nicht findet.
Aber wie eng A auch mit L zusammenhangt, so hat MASSMANN doch herausgefunden, dass A neben L noch die Bollandistenbearbeitung als Quelle benutzt hat. Dies erhellt daraus, dass A noch manche jener Legende eigen- thiimliche Ziige entnommen hat. So z. B.
den Zug, dass 3000 in Seide gekleidete Diener an EUPHEMIANS Hofe aufwarten, dass taglich drei Tische fur Wittwen, Waisen und Pilger gedeckt werden, dass die Mutter, als ihr Sohn verloren gegangen, an ihrem Estrich auf einen Sack sich setzt, von dem sie nicht wieder aufstehen will, bis sie etwas von ihrem Sohne wisse. Ebenso den Vergleich der Braut mit der Turteltaube, die ewig trauert, wenn sie einmal ihren Genossen verloren hat. MASS- MANN hat p. 31 eine Vergleichungstabelle der einzelnen ubereinstimmenden Momente aufge- stellt, aus der zweifellos hervorgeht, dass A beide Quellen benutzte. Ein Umstand zeigt es ganz besonders klar und deutlich. Wenn, wie oben schon gesagt, L den ALEXIUS nach Pisa, Jerusalem und Lucca wandern lasst, die Bollandistenlegende dagegen nach Laodicea und Edessa, so verbindet A Beides und sagt, dass ALEXIUS zuerst nach Pisa, dann nach Laodicea und Edessa, endlich Jerusalem und Lucca zog. Der Verfasser von A hat mit wahrhaft dichterischem Takt aus beiden Quellen die hiibschen Ziige entnommen, dafiir aber die Uberbietungen und religiosen Betrachtungen von L fallen lassen. Fiir das Nahere verweise ich auf MASSMANN, p. 29-31.
Von diesem so gliicklich behandelten Ge- dichte ist ein anderes deutsches abhangig, namlich das Gedicht von JORG BREYNING, aus dem Jahre 1488, H, aber, wie MASSMANN nachweist, erst durch die Vermittelung einer deutschen Prosalegende e — MASSMANN druckt sie p. 180 ff. ab — die sich, von geringen Ab- weichungen abgesehn, fast iiberwortlich an A anschliesst. Cf. MASSMANN, der auch hier wieder eine Tabelle gibt.
HEINRICH SCHNEEGANS.
Genoa, Italy,
STRONG VERBS IN AELFRICS
SAINTS. -II.
CLASS 4.
Beran a-, for-, ford-, ge-, un-(tstfcl-t cyne-), cuman a-, be-, ge-, of-, to-, cwelan,-dwelan ge-, -helan for-, niman a-, be-, for-, ge-, -sceran be-, -stelan be-, for-, ge-, -teran to-.
The present stem has e with umlaut to y in 3 singular, i in niman, u in cuman with umlaut
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to y. For e we find a once in forfibceran 162. The forms are : forberan 36, berenne 60, forO- berad I. S. 293, cwelende 264, forhelan 278, gestylfi 18 ; gecuman 220, tocuman 400, f ww / I. S. 391, becume (subj.) 12, cymst 50, becymst 424, 462, rywfl1 200, I. S. 362, 525, becymft 198, 266, 388, 378, ofcyniti 16, 372, 510; niman I. S. 493, beniman 188, «»«# 376, 354, genimd 178, animad 182.
The preterit singular i, 3, has <? (<2), a (<f), o (d). £<2r 88, £?6<£r 38, £«/*?/ 466, foAzr 38, nant 28, 64, «<fw 28, com 16, 66, (twice), etc., I. S. 8 etc., tocom 518, c6m 180, 236, I. S. 273 etc., acdm 170, becdm 96 etc.
The 2 sing., the plural and subjunctive preterit have as (<£) a, 6; totceron 158, namon 66, c6mon I. S. 344. Isolated is forhule (subj.) 446, EARLE'S ' Gloucester Fragments ' have the normal forhc&le.
The past participle o and u. Aboren 524, geboren 14, I. S. 427, unboremtm 512, feSelbor- en 44, cyneboren 44, gedwolena 10, forholen 524, bescoren 162, Jorstolen 524 ; cumen 524, fornumen 164, fornumene I. S. 355, genumen 16.
CLASS 5.
Biddan a-, ge-, -brecan to-, unto-, cwedan be-, ge-, on-, wiS-, etan ge-,fretan-, mod-, gifan a-, for-, -gitan be-, for-, on-, under-, licgan for-, ge-, under-, -metan wiS-, seon(*) be-, for-, ge-, of-, sittan be-, ge-, on-, sprecan for-, ge-, to-, un-, picgan, -wefan a-, wrecan a-, ge-, wesan.
In the present stem, except in the 2, 3 singular, the vowel is e (i in biddan, gifan, git- an, licgan, sittan, picgan ; eo in seon), but ee is also frequent. Forms with e are : tobrecan 406 MS. Junius, gecweftan 448, cwetiende 444 Gloucester Fragments, becwede 408, et! 394, etaS 260, eton (subj.) 290, sprecan I. S. 503, sprecande 78, gesprecan 222 MS. U, 406 MS. Junius, specan 222, B, sprece(i) I. S. 149, sprece we 286, sprecati 12, wrecan 296, wrecon(subj.) 484. Forms with & are : tobr&can 286, 406 ; cwcedende 22, 96, 182, 444, cwceftaft 328, ^•/Vzfl' 358, sprcecan 18, 122, I. S. 503 M, gesprcecan 108, 222, 226, 406, tosprtecende 532, sprcecaft 26, 270, spr&ce (subj.) 390. Forms with *':
*Seon occurs but once without a prefix, I. S. 161, seivene.
gebiddan 194, bide I 80, 400, gebidelfA, 202, (the only strong imperatives in e) bidde we 70, gebide (subj. 2) 470 ; forgifan 234, etc., agifl 82, forgif! 212; begitan 196, forlicgan 36, licgende 32, /*V#wi (subj.) 506, onsittende 516, /nV^r (subj.) 358. For i we have > in gyfende 12, ongytan 508, 530, undergytan \\, under- gyte (subj.) 18, forlycgan 36. .SVo« has geseon 526, geseon I. S. 74, forseon 32, beseoh! 78, 312, geseoh.' 454, $>i,forseo (i) 176 (twice), 198. The 2, 3 singular of the present indicative is regularly t in all verbs, but ^ is common, and et a; also occur. Forms with i are : £*'/.*/ 180, 210, bitt 370, W/ 426, gebit 484. cwiffst 270, forgif fi 260, etc.), forgit 12, /*'# 198, 398, 438, underlie" 20, gesihS 12, 202, 338, 372, 376, 1. S. 300, forsiho" 94, 366 (twice), gesihst 108, 400, 470, forsihst 94, 202 ; jiV 268 ; spricO 520. Forms with jv are : dy/j/ 80, cwyst 126, ryj/ 200, cwydst 128 C., ce«/y^ 372, 504, ;K/ 266, 354, ytt 272, I. S. 251, ytst I. S. 247 ; gesyhst 80, forsyhft 412, sprpcS 214; Forms with ^ are: cweftst 128 V, f/j/ 262, geetst I. S. 198, tosprecd I. S. 310, sprecd 64, 288. Forms with *r are: cwceftst 128, tosprcecd I. S. 310 Mb.
The i, 3 preterit singular is <?, also written *#, and before h and after ^, ^a. The only exceptions are bed 112, gesetiii, breac 62 V., ne s (for «<? «/<?.y) 208. The forms are : gebdd 48, tobrdc 60 tobr&csS, breec 62, cwcefi 30, etc., becwced 428, gecw&o" I. S. 164, <?/ 164, 392 (twice), I. S. 54, /<z^ 146, 154, 156, 162, 180, lc£gf&, gelag y$, sat 284, 314, sett 72, gesert 77, 222 U ; sprezc 10, 160, I. S. 503, gespr&c 26, gewrcec 276, 300, gewr£c 296 Faustina A., w^j 26, etc., zf<#J 28, 32, 44 (twice), 54, 56 (twice), etc. ea occurs in forgeaf 318, I. S. ii, uudergeat I. S. 222, beseah I. S. 73, ofseah 520, geseah 56, geseah 32, etc.
The 2 sing., plural, and subj. preterit have
a (ct) usually, a before w , ea after g, except
! forgefon 134; but the plural of l<?g is logon,
! though the subjunctive is usually l&ge. The
1 forms are : bfedon 5, abeedon 118, gebttdon 496,
! £<?<fe (subj.) 464; oncwade (2) 176, oncw&don
492, 494, ciufede (subj.) I. S. 169, etc., (fton 290,
<?fc(subj.) 126, ge&teM 230; lage (subj.) 234,
508, /^tf 512, l&gon (s«bj.) 92; sefton 502,
I onsctton 504; sprace (subj.) 390, I. S. 219;
i awrtfce (subj.) 40, gewr&ce (subj .) 36. wekron
26, etc., wfsron 28, etc., o/«rr* I. S. 37, etc. a
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occurs in lagon 102, 152, 210, 220, 252, 254, 288, 494, 502, 506, etc. Idgon 494, 513 (thrice), lage (subj.) 234, 234 U (twice), gesawe (2) 122, gesa- won 58, etc. ea occurs \nforgeafon 134 C. V. undergeate I. S. 206.
The past participle has regularly e, for which a is sometimes found, after g it has *, for which y is also used ; brecan has always o, following class 4. (tobrocene 294, untobrocen 132). With e: gecweden 358, I. S. 162, etc., gecwedene I. S. 118, freten 404, nwdfretene 514, widmeten 22, gesewen 92, 160, sewene I. S: 161, beseten 190, gesprecen 498, gesprecan 534, forsprecenan 512, awe/en 172, gewrecen 404. With -^ : gecwceden 18, 24, 236, 360, gecw&dene 18 (twice), ungescewenlie 20. With i \forgif en 218, undergiten I. S. 172. With j/: begyten 524, ongyten 520, 530, forgytene 510, all, as will he seen, in the ' Seven Sleepers ' ; see Class 3, i. b.
CLASS 6.
Dragan, faran for-, ford-, ge-, geond-, in-, mis-, -galan be-, -grafan a-, hcebban a-, hlyh- han, -sacan <zt-, for-, wit!-, -sceat!an a-, to-, -scyppan ge, slean a-, ge-, of-, purh-, -spanan a-, to-, standan a-, (zt-, be-, emb-, under-, wift-, steppan fore-, fort!-, swerian, pwean a-, -wacan a-, wescan, wexan.
The present, except in 2, 3 sing, indicative, is regularly a. The forms are: dragetf 316, misfaran TJ&o,farande ^io,farende 410 Junius, infarendum 220, far/ 226,/arad 12, fare (subj.) y]G,fara (subj.) 138, forfare (subj,) 274, faran us 500, wiftsacan 72, wit! sac! 202, cztsace 528, aspanan 194, understanden 14, wittstandan 294, embstandenum 504, stand! 150. ce occurs in ahczbban 310, ahcebbe 246, forftstceppende 12. e occurs in ofsleh ! 224, forftsteppende 14, wexende 526. ea occurs in tosceaden (for- 8en?) 20, slean 198, ofslea (i) 194, sleati 294. y in gescyppan 18, I. S. 168, etc., scyppend 12, etc. z occurs for jy in gescippene I. S. 155, scippend 20, I. S. 45, scippende I. S. 66.
In 2, 3 pres. irid. sing, the vowel is usually <?. Cases are : fcsrst 346, 462, fcerft 268, 292, 354) 35^ 364, I. S. 250, geondf&rtS 18, ah&fd 446, tosccst 22, understcznt 22, forfist&pt! 498. ^ is the regular vowel in tospend 72, stenst 532, stew/ 88, 190, 442, 450 (Gloucester MS.), 280, 300, I. S. 102, etc., understent 20, 22, etc.,
stend 450, wexfi 16. Wholly isolated and without analogy in any class is witSstandet! I. S. 229. y is found in gescypt! 16, apyht! (from pwean) 272 ; « for jy in gescipd I. S. 99, ofslihtf 278.
The preterit has o or 6. The forms are : drogon 326, ytfr 488 (twice), 498, gefdr 320 (except in these three cases ferde takes the place of for throughout), begol 312, agrofon 508, Ad/" 106, ahof 314, ^A<5/" 488, ahofen (ind.) 207, ahofe 248 (and ahefde 284, thrice), AA5A i?&,fors6c 32, widsoc 174, witfsdc 64, witfsocon 494, wiSsoce (subj.) 174, 5/oA 70, 190, 276 (four times), 284, aj/oA 384, ofslogon 190, .y/o^v? 318, j/t»rf 4, etc., cetstod 264, bestodon 50, astodon 220, stopon 504, forestopon 114, JK/or 314, jwdr 36, apwoh 192, apwdh 124, pwogon 438, apwoge (subj.) 124, apwogon (subj.) 168, aze/ot: 56, azf/<fc 448, 464, awdcon 516, woscean 438 U.
<?e> is used for o in gesceop 6, 12, 14, 130, etc., I. S. 20, etc., gesceop 14, 16, 20, 86, gesceope 206, I. S. 206, etc., tospeon 434, ?^e>;r 40, 434,
476, 322, weoxon 124.
The past participle has regularly a. The forms are: gefaran 156, 488, agrafen 528, agrafene 98, ahafen 56, 340, 384, 400, wiSsacen 72, 194, ofslagen 114 (twice), 138, 218, 278, 302, 318, 350, 408, 422, 426, 468, 482, I. S. 403, ofs- lagan 276, purhslagen 278, geslagen 528, understanden I. S. 173. ea occurs in asceadene 496, gesceapen 14, 380 (twice), 438, etc., I. S. 47, etc., gesceapen I. S. 182 (for gesceapen}. ce occurs in geslcegene 524, ofslcegen 138 C, ofsl&gczn 194. e occurs in ofslegen 66; o. in opwogen 256.
CLASS 7a.
Feallan a-, a?t-, be-, to-, fon be-,ge-, on-, under-, gan a-,6e-, fort!-, in-, of-, ut-, gangan of-, healdan be-,ge, -/ion a- upa-, spannan, -wealdan ge. Present stem, ea is used in fstfeallan 510, feald($) I. S. no (see below), (etfeallaS 266, ge healdan 66, behealde ge ! I. S.
477, wealdend 502, geivealdend 502, ealweal- dend 426, weallendum 314. a is used in gan- gan 490, gangende 206, 302, 396, 408, gangande 224, .g-a;/^-/ 158 (twice), 348, 398, 456, gange (subj.) 444, of gange 394, gangon (subj.) I. S. 140, elsewhere £vf« is always used, 234, etc., I. S. 246, etc., fort!gdn 530, ingan 406, Atgan 512, ofgan 524, ^a^ 14, I. S. 136, begat! 272,
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etc., spannan 216. o is found in gefon 416, on/oh! 152, 324, under/oh! 472, /0# I. S. 145, under/6 (subj.) 62, underfo (subj.) 306, under- fohft (3) I. S. 537 (for the regular -fehtf, see below) ; ahon 48.
The 2, 3 indie, sing, have umlaut of ea to y and of o to £ and A to <?. The cases are : fyttl 12, befylti 376 (twice), underfehti 72, 128, 328, 510 ; gtest 248, 410, geeft 14, etc., I. S. 114, etc., begafi 272, 366, 382, agcefi 372; Ay// 272, 446, A^Ay// 348» H^// 4l6> 478» gewytt 146, 374- Anomalous are : feald, underfohd, mentioned above, and underfoehS 16.
The preterit has eo except in fon and hon where e is regular and a frequent, gangan and gdn have no preterit. The forms are: feol 76, 122, 148, 156, 180, 266, 312, 358, 392, tofeol ^,feoll-j2, 86, 88, 136, 190, 264 (twice), 398, 420, 460, tofeoll 48, cetfeoll 276, 402, befeoll I. S. 63, befeolle (subj.) I. S. 62, A^o/rf 36, heolde (subj.) 92, geweold 68, 150, geweolden (ind.) 218, weollon 102, /<?»£• 140, 390, 398, 400, 412, 516, 534, fengon 524, onfeng 228, U. B., befeng 78, 172, 178, gefeng 220, underfeng 136, 156, 172, 414, 416, I. S. 73, and 50, 62 V ', fengon 70 V, underfengon 264, underfenge (subj.) 84, 220 U,fentg- 500, 508, onfencg 228, befencgifo, underfencg 384, underfencge 220, onfencgon 498, /<z-»£- 32, 44 (twice), 50, 70, underfang 14, underftenge 38, 236, underfencge 264. («• is regular up to page 70, and occurs only twice later); aA^«£- 256, 220 B. U, upahtng 58, ahencg 220, hencg 492, (the only case where Aow is used without a-).
The past participle has ea before / and a before n. The forms are : afeallene 140, behealden 18, gehealden 242, I. S. 69 etc. ; be- fangen 20, underfangen 230, agdne 332, ^vz« I. S. 463-
CLASS 7b.
-blawan to-, upa-, ut-, -cnazvan ge-,on-, to-, -drcedan on-, Icetan a-, for-, to-, -rccdan be-, sawan be., to-, slapan, prawan.
Present and past participle. Before w, a changes to «• in 2, 3 sing. ind. ; otherwise ce is regular before mutes and a before w, though a and e occur anomalously for ff in ondret (3) 12, and s/npan 456, sldpan 512. The other cases are : utblawaft 22, toblawene 178, gecna- wan 516, 526 (twice), 534, dcnaivon 526, oncna-
wan I. S. 321, tocnawan 258 I. S. 195, gecnawe 526, gecnawan (p.p.) 530, sawende 320, sawaS 294, tosawon(p.p.) 510, prawan 202; oncneewst 130, 478, sarwS I. S. 262, bes&wd 362, ondmt 228, 266 (The past participle is always weak, of dreed w, ofdraddey*>, 514), /<z-/a« I. S. 234, ate/aw 394, /<zr// 130, forlatst \T&,forleet (3) 18, bercedan 428 (not in Bosworth as strong or with this meaning), slapende 502, (see above). The preterit has eo before w and e (with an occasional a?) before mutes. The forms are: upableow 208, gecneow 62, 530, oncneow 40, etc., gecneowe 516, 522, 526 (twice), I. S. 276, seow 350 ; ondred ^522, ondredon 504, #/ 70, /or- let I. S. 482, o#/0« 502, /0/*te 504, j/*/ I. S. 214, j/<r/o» 502 (twice), 512, etc., sltyon 516, slepon (subj.) 506, and with a; for ^ ondr&d 520, forte ton I. S. 145, 393.
CLASS 7c.
blowan- ge-, flowan, glowan, growan, ro- wan, spowan, -swogan ge-, wepan- *hrowan- see hreowan 2.
In the present and past participle the follow- ing forms only occur: blowende 514, geblowen (p.p.)462,Jlou>an I. S. $44,flowendan ^,fieod (3) 250, (a) grewG \o4,,geswogen (p.p.) 264, 460, bewepen 108.
The preterit has always eo. fleow 156, 398, 492, gleow 184, hreowan (for rowon) 436, speow 174, 216, speowe 196, ow/ 48, 74, 162, weapon 478, 490.
CLASS 7d.
hatan be-, ge-, swapan. The forms are : heztst 496, behtetst 200, A<?/ 255, swtfpS 492, A^/ 26, *^Af/ I. S. 396, behet 68, A^/o« I. S. 122, gehaten 24, etc., I. S. 2, etc.. gehdten I. S. 6, gehatene 22.
CLASS 76.
beatan of-, -heawan a-, to-, hleapan. The only forms that occur are : beaton 98, beatan 18, 244, ofbeatan 146, beoton 482, 486, tohcowe 46, /^o/ 220 (U. hleop) \ aheawen (p.p.) 438.
BENJ. W. WELLS. Jena, Germany.
* The passage is " are bldd fleoti to urumfot- um adune." Skeat's translation has " our blood fleeth " etc. But the 3 sing, of fleon '^Jtyhft 18, 334, 372 and for the sense as well as the grammar it is better to take Jttod= flewS.
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THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION
IN THE ROMANIC LANGUAGES,
IV.
We next come to a third and very frequent use of aller with the gerund, in which motion is clearly defined. It belongs, in this sense, then, to the general category of verbs of motion, which may be accompanied by a ger- und whose action is subordinate to, or, at most, coordinate with, that of the verb of motion.
Aller.
Sans Pedre sols seguen lo vai, Quar sua fin veder voldrat.
Passion du Christ, B. 9. 14. A foe, a flamma vai ardant Et a gladies persecutan.
Vie de S. Leger, B. 16. 39.
Venir. Done vint edrant dreitmant a la mer.
ViedeS. Alexis, B. 21. 38. Afonter, descendre.
Muntent et descendent chantant e esjol
Li beus angeres du ciel
Vie de Seint Auban, 1093.
Passer.
Passastes par Brettaine d'orient venant.
Ditto, 1127. S'adresser.
L'enfant ne quaisse ne ne blece, Fuiant vers un chemin s'adrece.
Crestien de Troies, B. 145. 15. Reparier.
Et li altre s'en reparierent fuiant arriere en 1'ost.
Ville-Hardouin, ch. XXI. Tourner. Sun petit pas s'en turnet cancelant.
Ch. de Roland, 2227. Quand paiens virent Gormund mort, Fuiant s'en tournent vers le port. Gormund and Isembard, 421 (Rom. St. III. 562). Entrer.
Main a main entrent dedans lor chids saignant.
Amis et Amiles, B. 62. n. Saillir.
E cil de Roem saillent 1'uns 1'altre sumunant.
Roman de Ron, 3236. Issir.
Richart ist de la vile sur son cheval curant.
Ditto, 3246. Accourir.
Kar de Roem acurent burgeis e paisant, Macues e guisarmes e baches aportant.
Ditto, 4093.
E Normant lur estordent " Dieu aie" criant.
Ditto, 3235. Enceilcer.
Vers Saraguce les encalcent ferant, A colps pleniers les en vunt ociant.
Ch. de Roland. Sourdre.
Par la priere Auban est surse du pendant Funtainne freide e clere a grand missel curant. Vie de S. Auban, 1167. Apparaitrt.
Angeres i aparurent a clerc voiz chantant.
Ditto, 1182.
It is useless to add more to this list ; for constructions of this kind are so often met, that I believe it would not be a rash state- ment to say that about four-fifths of all the examples of the gerund without en will be found to be accompanied with a verb of motion. To see how the proportion would stand, I have counted the examples in several characteristic works. It will be observed that some authors are much fonder of this mode of thought-expression than others. The figures indicate the number of times the con- struction occurs with the verbs they follow.
Voyage de Charlemagne (860 lines). Tour- ner, 2; remeindre, i; trouver, 2; aller, 6; voir, i; tenir, i ; venir, i ; absolute(?) 2.
Chanson de Roland (4002 lines). Aller, 28 ; venir, i ; absolute(?), i ; mourir, 2 ; tourner, i; encalcer, i.
Roman d' Aqnin (3087 lines). Tourner, 2 ; aller, 30; voir, i ; gesir, J ; venir, i.
Berte aits Grans Pies (3482 lines). Faire, i; aller, 2; trouver, i ; venir, i.
Flor et Blanceflor (3342 lines). Aller, 8; venir, 2.
H. de Valenciennes (Hist, de 1'Einpereur Henri). Envoyer, i; aller, 7 ; venir, i; che- vaucher, i ; absolute.^?).
Guiot de Provins (La Bible). Aller, 4.
Tradnction de Guil. de Tyr. Courir, i ; mener, i ; chevaucher, i ; prendre, i ; tre- bucher, i; venir, u; faire, 2; suivre, 3; absolute(?), 11; fnir, i; instrumental, 3; trou- ver, i ; retourner, 4; oir, i ; aller, 11 ; chasser, i ; mourir, i.
Vie de Seint Auban (1845 lines). Venir, 2 ; aller, 21 ; gesir, i ; absolute(?), 3 ; remaiudre, i ; resplendir, i; oir, i ; trouver, 3 ; passer, i;
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laisser, i ; voir, i ; surdre, i ; aparaistre, i ; faillir, i.
Ville-Hardouin (La Conqueste de Constan- tinoble). Reparier, i ; aller, 7 ; venir, 3 ; tourner, i ; envoyer, i ; absolute(?), 2.
De Joinville (Hist, de Saint Louis). Venir, 6 ; trouver, 2 ; aller, 2 ; faire, i ; as adverb, i ; sentir, i ; absolute(?), 2.
Aiol et Mirabel (10,985 lines). Aller, 68; venir, 9 ; oir, i ; encaucher, i ; absolute(?), 2 ; tourner, 2 ; fuir, i ; par, i.
It seems almost superfluous to cite examples from the other languages, as this French con- struction is universally current throughout the whole Romanic group. That, however, nothing may be taken on faith, I give a few from hundreds of examples noted, remarking that I have been struck with the more frequent occurrence of the construction in early French and Provencal, especially with aller and venir, than in any of the others.
Provtitfal.
Laisse loill.e per nuilla re No venga ves lui trop corren.
Daude de Pradas, B. 177. 33. Car co es pessamentz confus One ven en cor aissi corren.
Ditto, El Romanz, 1. 49 (Stickney's ed). Un bon juzieu que aquo auzi, Tantost corren d'aqui parti.
B.'s DenkmSler, XXXIX. p. 274. E Peire Vidals s'en isset fugen.
Bib. der Troub. XXII.
Italian . Salian scherzando i pargoletti amori.
Ariosto, sonetto. E quando a morte deseando corro.
Petrarca. Ch'io mi parti'sbigottito fugendo.
Guido Cavalcanti.
Chiara fontana ancor surgea d'un monte Mormorando con aqua dolce e fresca.
Tasso, Gerus. Conquist. XV. 44. E che accorrer potea un giorno Camminando alia bufera.
Giorgi Bertola. Sfatiitk.
Los males vienen corriendo
Jorge Manrique. La olvidada infanta Urraca Vertiendo 1 grimas entra.
Rom. del Cid. p. 96. iVoegelin). De zamora sale Dolfos Corriendo y apresurado.
Ditto, p. 152.
La pied, sacd miel. fu4*« volando.
LuU Martin. Portuftutt.
e a» terras viciosas
De Africa e de Asia andavam derastando.
Camocns, Os Lus. 1. 2. Pizando o crystalline clo formoto
Vcm pela Via Latea
Ditto. I. 90. Mai o animal atroce nesse instant*
Bramando duro corre
Ditto, I. 78. Wallachian.
Cfl Jonanfi a venitu nice mftncftndu nicfib€nd& Math. XI. 18.
Vine alergind pe scena cu un mop de burnene ID mfluu.
V. Alccsandri, Mama Angheluta. Halmana in costum de larna trece tinf-iid o valizi. Ditto. Halmana.
With verbs of motion there may be, in general, two kinds of construction in conjunc- tion with other verbs: namely, that already illustrated, in which the gerund accompanies the finite verb; and a second, in which the infinitive is used with or without a preposition. The latter use of the infinitive is by far the more common. In either case, that is, whether the preposition be used or not, the verb of motion expresses the purpose to be ac- complished by the concomitant infinitive. The distinction in shade of meaning is usually this : when the idea of purpose is strongly implied, the preposition serves to give promi- nence to the purpose ; whereas the preposition is omitted when the purpose is not conspicu- ous. We may illustrate this by the sentences: Je vais au theatre m'amuser tous les soirs, and je vais au theatre tous les soirs non-seuiement pour m'amuser mais aussi pour observer et pour apprendre — a distinction, which we should secure in English by : for the purpose of or by the simple infinitive with to, accord- ing as we did, or did not, desire to emphasize the purpose.
La fame Amile a la clere fason Estoit alee por faire f 'orison.
Amis et Amiles, B. 61. 37.
Abtant se volgran acordar Qual duy pogran anar veser La donzela, e per saber Si sa beutatz era tan grans.
Guillem de la Bara (Meyer, Recueil, p. 128.)
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This reference to the infinitive construction ,with a verb of motion has been made, in order to lead up to the consideration of certain cases in which the infinitive and gerund touch each other so nearly, in point of use and signification, that they become virtual equiva- lents.
t, II se relieve a grant paine Par grant air le va requerre.
Roman de Renart, B. 213. 9.
2. Quant il nous virent, il nous vindrent sus courre.
Joinville, Hist, de S. Louis, ch. XLVI.
3. Aisi se van ferir cum cascus venc No lor valo escut pur un besenc.
G. de Rossilho, 2180.
4. L'effant Jhesus i ameneron, Ad Arian lo prezenteron. Pueis van li dire e pregar, Que 1'eflant volgues essenhar.
B.'s Denkmaler, xxxix. p. 273.
5. Arian vat li demandar: Mon eflfant, ar digas aleph E en apres tu diras beph.
Ditto, p. 273.
6. Grans meravilhas se doneron, Per la vila s'en van cridan.
Ditto, p. 274.
7. E totz los juzieiis van cridar : Ailas caitiu ! e que ferem
Ni qual cosselh penre porem?
Ditto, p. 292.
8. E en apres el manda diire als mainaders
Ez als baros de Fransa ez als sieus logadiers. Chanson de la Croisade des Albigeois, 8,412.
9. E mandet dire a nUgo de la signa que vengues a Usercha en un bore on estava en Gaucelm Faidit.
Bib. der Troub. XL.
10. Volga la vista desiosa e lieta Cercandomi
Petrarca.
11. Mand6 il cavaliero all'albergo della corona, sappiendo (=ad informarsi) se era suo famiglio.
Franco Sachetti.
12. E estandb de fora, enviarao a elle cha- mando-o.
Marcos, III. 31.
13. Os Portuguezes somos do Occidente, Imos buscando as terras do Oriente.
Os Lus. I. 50.
14. Que tempo concertado e ventos tinha Para ir buscando o Indo desejado.
Ditto, I. 95.
15. Si neaflandu-lti, s'ati Intorsti la Jerusa- limu cantandu-ln.
Luca, II. 45.
16. Porque viene mi nifia Cogiendo flores.
Anonymous, isth cent.
The first of the examples is not very decid- ed, for although, as the context shows, Dans Constanz, considering his position, does not have to "go" in order to strike Isengrin, va requerre may express future, rather than pro- gressive, action. Still there can be no doubt but that, in accordance with the freedom, I might almost say, looseness, of the gerundial construction at this time, the author, if push- ed for a rime, would not have scrupled to use, all the circumstances and situations remaining the same, the gerund as an equivalent for the infinitive, without feeling he was guilty of any grammatical negligence. A part of this re- mark might apply to the quotation from Girart de Rossilho ; but the passage shows rather that van ferir means that the knights continue the fight, "cum cascus venc;" i. e. van is subordinate to ferir, in other words, copulative; so that the same nuance of thought might have been rendered by van feren.
In No. 2, it is plain that courant substituted for courre would not vary, in the slightest degree, the thought, which is : they came rushing upon us. The first two lines of No. 4 inform us that the parents of Jesus were already in the presence of Arian. It can not, therefore, be said of them literally van, they go; nor can van dire etc., be explained here as future. Being already before Arian, they speak to him and request him to undertake the instruction of their son ; or they go on telling their story and requesting\\\m, etc.
No. 5 contains a still more decided instance of the copulative use of anar ; as vai li deman- dar means // demands and nothing more. In modern French venir is sometimes used in very nearly the same way : Un sourire livide vient glacer ses traits. (Le Franqais, Boston, vol. i, p. 55).
A comparison of 6 and 7, taken in connex- ion with the passages in which they occur, shows the same approximation in thought- shading, of s'en van cridan and van cridar',
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the difference, if any, is very slight. So manda diire and mandet dire, in the two following examples, are seen to be modes of expression analogous to : tnandet disen, pre- gan in : E tan tost com el fo vengutz el man- det disen al Dalfil et al comte Guion que ill li deguessen aiudar, Bib. der Troub. XIV. ; in: elli mandet pregan qu'el fezes si qu'el fezes mudar los edificis, ditto, B. 241, 15; to: mand6 sappiendo (No. n); and to the Portu- guese : enviarao chamando (No. 12). The Wallachian and Spanish would likewise use the gerund here after the verb to send. And so Henri de Valenciennes, in the work already quoted (ch. IV), uses envoyer: Et envoierent lor archiers huant et glatissant et faisant une noise. Cf. also Romania VIII, 90 : Je me levoyun matin aujort prenant, Entvoy m'en en un giardin la flor culhant. In modern French also the gerund after this same verb, as well as after other verbs of motion, is allow- able to express a purpose, although the in- finitive is more common, in accordance with a general preference which the Frenchman entertains for the infinitive construction, where no ambiguity arises by its use.*
M. de Freycinet a appris qu'une note, e"ma- nant du ministere de 1'inte'rieur, avail die" en- voye" disant que M. de Freycinet avail capitule".
Courrier des Etats Unis.
J'eus peur d'avoir senti la peur une fois, el prenanl mon sabre, cache" sous mon bras, j'entrai le premier brusquemenl donnanl 1'exemple & mes grenadiers.
A. de Vigny.
Ae"tius avail dej^ de'pe'che' ses courriersdans toute la Gaule el chez les peuples allie's, les
invitant & s'unir & lui.
Le Beau.
C'esl le voyageur que nous avons vu toul ft
1'heure errer cherchanl un glle.
V. Hugo.
Il is nol possible lo interpret these gerunds otherwise than as expressing a purpose ; for in some of them Ihe infinilive with pour could be subslituted ; and in Ihe olhers, while in
•II est dans le gdnie de la langue frana9ise de preTeVer 1'in- tinitif & tout autre mode, quand la < l.irto de la phrase n'en est pas alte're'e.— BOKBL.
their present shape this substitution could hardly be made, its exclusion would be more owing to Ihe cacophony lhal would thereby arise lhan lo any forbidding principle of gram- mar. In Ihe case of Ihe first and last sentence, a well-educated Frenchman, if asked why not use pour dire and pour chercher, would likely answer: C'est 1'harmonie de la phrase qui exige le ge"rondif (participe), as rharmonie is the universal relreal behind which French- men lake sheller, when brought face to face wilh a knolly poinl of grammar.
The gerunds in 10, 15, 16 may as legitimate- ly be regarded as expressing a purpose as co- incidenl or progressive aclion, and Ihe thought would nol be malerially changed, if Ihey were convened inlo Ihe infinilive conslruclion. We see this well illustraled in Ihe Iwo remain- ing examples (13 and 14), which do not differ essentially in signification, since the purpose of Ihe going, in bolh cases, is to look for India.
From the foregoing reasoning we gather lhat, after a verb of molion, Ihe infinilive or gerund may lake Ihe place of a final depend- ent clause.
Here belong also certain verbs, which, while they are not verbs of molion, are ac- companied by verbals in -ant which serve to complele, in a manner, Ihe predicalion of Ihe principal verb. They may, in most cases, be resolved into adverbial phrases.
Car mi fii sont ocis et mort saignan. .
Amis et Amiles, B. (a. 37. A peine chaut remeint li quors en piz batant.
Vie de S. Auban, 844. Je li lo bienqu'elle vos maint tandant.
Jeu-parti, B. 341. 16. Murut subitement scant sus une sele.
Kerte aus Grans Pies, 2072. Lo corns G. e ilh sen s'en van dolen, E Ihi baro de K. restan ploran.
G. de Rossilho. 5340.
Annapolis, Md.
SAMUEL GARNER.
THE USE OF THE FEMININE
in the Romance Languages, to express an indefinite neuter.
Among the many interesting linguistic phe- nomena with which the reading of Romance
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texts makes us familiar, may be mentioned the \ise of the feminine form of the pronoun or adjective to give succinct expression to some idea not otherwise clearly indicated. This construction is sometimes, and perhaps not unhappily, described as the "indefinite neuter." We find examples of it scattered through all the Romance languages in their older periods, and some have survived and appear to have become crystallized in modern speech. A satisfactory explanation of the usage has not yet been offered, most of, the authorities contenting themselves with a bare mention of the fact, if indeed they do not pass it over in silence.
DIEZ, ' Grammatik der Romanischen Spra- chen,' vol. iii, p. 48, in calling attention to the fact, cites cases mostly drawn from Tobler (see below).
BLANC, ' Italianische Grammatik,' p. 272, referring to Italian says, "es ist jetzt unend- lich gewohnlich, den Gegenstand wovon die Rede ist, oder das leicht zu supplirende Ob- ject des Satzes, durch ' la ' auszudrucken. Auf diese Weise sind nun eine grosse Menge Redensarten entstanden.'' He of course makes no suggestion explanatory of the usage.
TOBLER, Jahrbuch, viii, 338, gives some interesting examples, and remarks simply that " eine solche Verwendung von 'la ' [the per- sonal pronoun] nicht gegen den Geist der (franzosischen) Sprache ist."
BRUNOT, ' Grammaire Historique de la langue francaise,' p. 231, merely alludes to the frequency of the phenomenon in Old French and mentions cases of the survival of the usage in the modern language. Quoting the example " c'est la voire " and others similar, he adds : " II n'y a point de substan- tif fe"minin sous-entendu ; le fe"minin repre"- sente tout simplement une forme neutre qui manquait."
An explanation frequently offered is that a feminine noun was formerly expressed but, fall- ing itself into desuetude, disappeared, leaving the impress of its gender upon the word which remains behind to represent it. This is, how- ever, far from being a satisfactory, or at least a sufficient explanation, inasmuch as the feminine frequently refers to a wholly indefi-
nite antecedent or circumstance, or to an ante- cedent which embraces a whole set of circum- stances, as may be seen from the examples cited later.
This construction is the more interesting as in the old stages of the languages the regular usage required, theoretically at least, as we should naturally have expected, the neuter, although practically the masculine was used. In the ' Donatz Proensals,' e. g., (v. E. Stengel, ' Die beiden altesten provenzalischen Gram- matiken,' Marburg, 1878, p. 2) we read : " Neu- tris es aquel que no perte al un ni al autre [i. e. masculine or feminine], si cum "gauc. i. gaudium," e " bes. i. bonum." Mas aici no sec lo uulgars la gramatica els neutris sub- stantius, ans se dicen aici com se fossen masculi, si cum aici "grans es los bes que aquest ma fait," e "grans es lo mals que mes uengutz de lui." We are still able to trace cases of this neuter use (which of course became later regularly masculine) ; e. g. in the ' Chanson de Roland ' we have the line: " II est jugiet que nus les ocirum," in which the form "jugiet" is neuter. In view of this regular usage a special explanation would seem to be required for the use of the feminine.
The following examples have been collect- ed, and it is believed that a continued ex- amination would show the phenomenon to be more common than is usually supposed.
French.
"Ne pot estre altre." (Alexis, 156).
" Li a tele donne"e." (Renaus de Montauban, 429. n.)
"Ja altre n'en ferons." (Renaus de Montau- ban, 191. 21.)
" Ceste m'a il bastie." (Renaus de Montau- ban, 365. 19.)
" Enmi le piz li dona tel." (Chevalier au Lyon,4i92.)
" Et il Ten ra une donee tel." (Chevalier au Lyon, 4208.)
" Ceste arons nous tost prouve"."
" Onques mais n'oi tel."
" C'est la voire." (Brunot, 231.)
" II lui en a une porte"e "=il lui a porte" un coup. (Brunot, 231.)
" II 1'eut bonne." (Brunot, 231.)
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" Vous me la baillez bonne." (Brunot, 231.) "Sire, voire : fait li quens." (' Aucassin et
Nicolete, '1062.) " Ja ceste n'avenra." " Ja ceste n'est pense'e." " Sire, dist il, ne peut autre estre." " De moult grande s'est escapes." " Ceste vos iert molt chier vendue."
Compare also, " l'£chapper belle," "la donner belle," "la payer," etc. Further cases might without difficulty be added.
In the Anmerkung to p. 95 " des Provenza- lischen Alexanderliedes" (Germania, 1857), Tobler has collected a number of examples, the majority of which, however, might be as well explained as feminines.
Italian.
The use of " nulla " is of course very com- mon in this sense, and was so already among
the trecentisti; v. Petrarca, Canzoni 9,4; 7,48;
10,75, etc*> etc-
" Poi disse, bene ascolta chi la nota." (Dante, Inferno xv, 99.)
" Cessar le sue opere biece Sotto la mazza d'Ercole, cheforse Gliene did cento, enon sent! le diece." (Dante, Inferno xxv, 33.)
"Di sorta glien'hodata una." (Cesari, Nov. 28.)
" Ella (the matter) non andra cosi." (Boccac- cio, 9. 5.)
' La, non andra cosl."
" Non posso capirla."
" lo per me non la intendo."
" La capite o non capite ? "
" Passarsela bene o male."
" Farla ad uno."
" Accoccarla ad uno."
" Affibbiarla ad uno."
" Menarla buona ad uno." " Pagarla cara, " "Scamparla," " Dirla
schietta," " Romperla con qualcuno," etc.,
etc.
Spanish regularly shows the use of the neuter pronoun ; " lo " being used to repre- sent a phrase or idea to which gender cannot be assigned, whereas we have seen the Italian is very liable to use the feminine " la." Cases of the use of the feminine however occur.
" Ahora lo tendras hecho un almibar, pero luego sera ella." (Knapp, Spanish Read- ings 63.2)
"Hum! ya la tenemos." (Knapp, Spanish Readings 61.8).
Roumanian.— Diez says that "auch der Dacoromane Feminina in neutralem Sinne anwendet;" besides which this language has the further peculiarity that it expresses the Latin neuter of the plural by means of the feminine of the same number. E. g., "toate sunt gata"="omnia sunt parata ; " "vorbi multe"="multa loqui;" whereas the other Romance languages can only do this with the assistance of an added substantive, as in Provencal : "tolas causas"=" omnia."
A phenomenon similar in character to those mentioned is the use of certain feminine sub- stantive-pronouns, relating both to persons and things, as masculines. Diez refers to this. Examples, some of which are exceed- ingly common, are: "personne ne sera assez hardi ; " " rien n'est bon," " on m'a dit quel- qu6 chose qui est tres plaisant ; " Old Italian: " nulla cosa £ tanto gravoso "(see "I poeti del primosecolo" i, 82); Old Portuguese: Algun rem" (v. F. Sant. 545) ; Prov. "ren que bom sia'" (Raynouard, Choix III, 330); "re nascut " (v. GeYard de Roussillon, 4087).
T. McCABE.
Johns Hopkins University.
The Gospel according to Saint Matthew in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions. A new edition, edited for the Syndics of the University Press by REV. WALTER W. SKEAT. Cambridge, 1887.
PROFESSOR SKEAT, in his Preface, describes the difference between the self-imposed duties of an editor now and when KEMBLE and HARDWICK edited this Gospel for the University Press some thirty years ago. He says : " To put it in the most striking manner, we may say that an editor's duty at the present moment is supposed to consist in an endeavour to represent the peculiarities of the MSS. in the most exact and accurate manner ; he is
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expected to assume that the Scribes meant what they wrote, and he must not venture to make any correction without giving due notice. It might be thought that such a proceeding is simple and obvious ; but it is quite certain that such was not what was expected of an editor thirty or forty years ago. On the con- trary, he was then expected to edit his MS. ; and this meant, that he was to modernise the MS. in every conceivable way, by the use of every method which his ingenuity could suggest. He was not to reproduce the MS. as it stood, but only as it might be supposed to stand after being so altered as to make it acceptable to a modern reader. PROFESSOR SKEAT then goes on to note the arbitrariness of KEMBLE and HARDWICK'S procedure, i. in the use of capital letters ; 2. in punctuation ; 3. in the use of v and j\ 4. in ignoring con- tractions ; 5. in the careless reproduction of MS. accents; 6. in the employment of p and #. In all these respects the new edition is in- deed a vast improvement upon the old. How numerous and important are the changes may be gathered from a collation of the first page of the new edition with the corresponding portion of the old. At the beginning of the new occurs this statement : [Leaf i of the Lindisfarne MS. is blank ; on the reverse of the leaf is a geometrical pattern] ; this is omitted in the old. Before Latin title : [Leaf . 2], new ; omitted in old. In Latin title: .X. new ; decem, old. In Northumbrian title : rim, old ; rim, new. Immediately under title : [Epistola beati Hieronymi ad Damasum Pa- pam, in quattuor Evangelistas.] [Beatissimo Papae Damaso, Hieronymus.] ; omitted in new. L, i : writta, old ; wuritta, new. L. 3 : sun- drude, old ; sundrade, new. L. 4 ; Latin text : prcesumtio, old ; prcesumptio, new. Ib. : cczteris, old ; ceteris, new. L. 6 : I twice, omitted in old. L. 7 ; gefulden, old ; gefalden new. L. 8 : Ivcgencz, old ; Ivgcna (altered from Ivcgnce) new. Ib. : I omitted in old. Ib. : me, old ; meh, new. L. 7 ; Latin text : saliva, old ; saliba, new. L. 9 : ? twice omitted in old. L. 10 : I omitted in old. L. n : setnessa old; setness, new. L. 12: Latin text: adhib- ita, old; adhibenda, new. L. 13: Remitted in old. Ib. Latin text : [enim] in old ; omitted in new. To these changes must be added all
those included under the first, second and fourth heads above, and a number of foot- notes indicating expunctions, corrections, and marginal additions in the MS., words there written in red ink, and the point at which the front of leaf 2 is replaced by the back. This is a goodly array of corrections, though it does not include all that PROFESSOR SKEAT might have given, if I may trust my own col- lation, made in 1882.
To exhibit the possible margin of error in the printed text, as compared with the MS., I append a list of the discrepancies between PROFESSOR SKEAT'S readings and my own, covering the various prefaces to the Gospel, pp. 1-23.
I am far from assuming that all these repre- sent errors of PROFESSOR SKEAT'S. Even supposing that half of them do, there is still proof enough that the edition is tolerably correct. I designate his reading by S, and mine by C, and wherever possible give page and line according to the new edition.
Title: regulra, S ; regolra, C. i2 \betwih, S ; bitwih, C. i5 : to onginnvm in red ink, C. i9 : huelc, S ; hwelc, C. i" (margin) : hewere, S ; hewene, C. i'3: final e oitnonige added in red ink, C. 28 : nan, S ; nan, C. 2" : noma, S; noma, C. 21? : criecna, S ; creicna, C. 34 ; gedryhton, S ; gedryhton, C. 39 : giblonden, S : geblonden, C. 43 : csrest, S ; aerest, C. 5": gaast, S ; second a expuncted, C. 7& : netra, S ; netna, C. 7J3 : gearwas, S ; gearrwas, C. 83 : glaesen, S ; glaeren, C. 87 : wees, S ; wees , C. 92 :for, S ; fore, C. 9" : odder, S ; odTer, C. 9l6 : huelcum,S; hwelcum, C. 14?: cnear- esu, S ;. cneuresu, C. Ib. : sice, S ; sie, C. I4M : enne, S ; eenne, C. :68 : faesfern, S ; faesfern, C. i6I4 ; cwodend, S ; cwoftend, C. 173 : geornnisse, S ; geornisse, C. 17^ ; Seem S;ftaem, C. i7l6 : god, S; gode, C. 17^ : ofer, S ; <?/er, C. 18" : h&lendes, S ; haelend- es, C. 19": betuih, S ; bituih, C. 2\3:ge- wurpp, S ; gewarpp, C. 21* : I would read driu, corrected to drig. 21*5 : monigfullice, S ; monigfallice, C. 226: s<zgde, S; saegde, C.
Of these i", hewene; 2*7, creicna; 34, gefiryhton ; 78, netna ; 83 glaeren ; 147 cneu- resu', I414, &nne ; 2i3, gewarpp; 21*5, monig- fallice, are of some importance.
PROFESSOR SKEAT'S statements are now
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and then too sweeping. Thus, he remarks in the preface : " The scribe of the Lindisfarne MS. never employs the letters:/ or/." Be- sides seeming to settle off-hand the question whether a variety of hands were employed on the gloss, thus apparently contradicting his own opinion as expressed in the Preface to John's Gospel, p. viii, he ignores the fact, patent to all, that there is a v on the very first page of his editing, onginnvm, i5, and two more on the second, vurit, 2'5, and vritt,
2l8.
But it would be cavilling to dwell so long upon these matters as to obscure the fact that this is, in general, a good edition, if by that we are to understand the faithful transcript of a text or texts. Upon this, with whatever emendations may finally be necessary in detail, the investigations of scholars may safely be based.
ALBERT S. COOK. University of California.
Florian's Fables : selected and edited for the use of schools by the REV. CHARLES YELD, M. A., Head Master of University School, Nottingham, etc. : [In Macmil- lan's Illustrated Primary Series ; Edited by G. EUGENE-FASNACHT, etc.]
This is a beautiful and thoroughly unique little book. " Infinite riches in a little room " is a not inapt description of it. Within the limits of loo open, clear, and beautifully printed i6mo pages, it contains twenty of FLORIAN'S best Fables, each with an appropriate intro- duction, and with full notes and vocabularies; a series of twenty well-constructed exercises for translation into French, paraphrasing each of the Fables ; twenty dialogues, based on the same ; a full alphabetical list of irregular verbs in their principal parts, and a complete index : to which are to be added a scholarly historical introduction, and ten very amusing pictures — all for forty cents! So much that is good and pretty, for so little money, it would be hard to find in any other book.
Yet when we come to define the little volume more closely we confess to some hesitation and uncertainty. The main title informs us that it is for the use of schools, by a Head Master, with philological and
explanatory notes, etc: yet it belongs to the "Illustrated Primary Series." To satisfy both these views in so brief a space was perhaps impossible ; so there has been a division, with the advantage decidedly against the primary view. The pictures are indeed " primary," and will vastly entertain the little ones — while they are good enough also to amuse bigger children too. But all the rest of the book — except perhaps the text itself— lies outside of what we should call primary work. The notes "philological and explanatory" are on a higher plane of scholarship, and are indeed excellent for even advanced schools. The vocabularies — one for each fable — are etymological throughout, and imply a fair knowledge of Latin. The exercises and dia- logues, and indeed the whole apparatus except the pictures, contradict the presumption that the book is intended by the editor for the use of children in the primary study of French. Hence the little book, small as it is, may have some difficulty in settling down into its proper place : indeed, this writer is quite inclined to give it a trial with a class of collegians who would be deeply insulted at being called "primary." Seriously, we fear that the pic- tures— pretty as they are — and the " Primary " title will cause this excellent little book to be misunderstood and underrated. We commend it, therefore, to the personal inspection of our colleagues, for schools and lower college classes.
But with all its merits, the best thing in it is a passage from the otherwise scholarly intro- duction, on the Relation of French to Latin, which passage we cannot deny ourselves the pleasure of giving, entire, to those unsuspect- ing speakers and writers of " the American dialects " who read the MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES. Many strange things have appeared in the NOTES, but nothing stranger than this !
"One might hint at a parallel which seems to exist in the revolt of the American colonies from the sovereignty of Britain, and the effect of this revolt upon the American dialect : more startling in some respects than the change from classical Latin to Old French. Hundreds of words have been invented and have found a home in America, which are, to say the least, extraordinary. Every one knows the strong preterites in the stanza —
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' As stealthily to steal he stole, His chink he softly chunk ; And many a leary smile he smole, And many a wink he wunk.'
It is to be hoped they may never be used otherwise than by way of joke — to show what Red Republicanism in letters will condescend to : but remembering by what subtle and un- perceived stages of attachment words worm themselves into the diction and grammar of a language, one cannot help wondering what the American dialects will grow to, under the liberty of invention and alteration which every American citizen claims as his heritage in literature as in all else. The " Queen's Eng- lish " may some day become almost as, un- intelligible to our American cousin as the Carlovingian Latin is to the modern Parisian."
South Carolina College.
EDWARD S. JOYNES.
LANGUAGE AND DIALECT IN GERMAN.
Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen nach Zeugnissen alter und neuer Zeit. Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache von A. SOCIN. 544 pages.
This is a very large book, containing almost no new and original investigations. Two- thirds of it is made up of quotations from documental sources, from early grammarians and from many authors whose views are quoted or paraphrased on some of the most knotty and still unsettled questions in the history of the German language, and concern- ing the nature of language in general, of a literary language, and of a dialect. Where SOCIN adduces "Zeugnisse," often new ones found by himself, from original documents, rare tracts and books of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, his compilation is very valuable even to the specialist. But the book runs in a popular vein in part, and is even sensational, e. g. such words as "Spra- chenhass, Verzweiflungskampf " of dialects do not belong to the scientific vocabulary. The author apologizes frankly for any prejudice in favor of his native dialect, the Alemannic.
One is tempted to say of SOCIN'S book what the London Academy said of SKEAT'S ' Princi- ples of English Etymology,' " It is hard to tell for whom the book is intended." Its possible value to the philologist is indicated above. Its chief end, I venture to say. is to furnish
the teachers of German at the ' Gymnasium,' ' Realschule ' and at foreign institutions from the High School to the University, with a history of the German language; but the book can hardly be called ' Contributions ' to such a history. Its main subject is the origin of the written language and its relation to the dia- lects in the different historical periods. It does for the teacher who has not all the ' Hiilfsmittel ' at command in the history of the language and the dialects, what the new editions of HEYSE'S, BECKER'S and BLATZ'S large grammars are intended and able to do for him in the field of grammar. Only the last revisers of HEYSE and BECKER should have left the old rut enough to put the treat- ment of the sounds in a separate chapter called "phonology;" and BLATZ should re- cognize that a, i, u are not the only primitive vowels. SOCIN'S book and the grammars just mentioned, are essentially teachers' aids. I doubt that even an advanced student will come to the surface having once plunged into such a book.
Very interesting reading are the last 200 pages, which treat of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The appendix has a special chapter on JACOB GRIMM and one on the grammatical theories of the author about the relation of written language to dialect (romantic point- of view) ; on those of HUM- BOLDT, HEYSE, BECKER (metaphysical point of view); on those of RAUMER and WACKER- NAGEL (pedagogical and provincial) ; on those of SCHLEICHER, who looks upon language as a living organism ; on those of RUCKERT and SCHERER (aesthetic and political point of view); finally, on those of the "Junggram- matiker," as SOCIN chooses to call a certain number of progressive and energetic investi- gators, who are supposed to be bigotted worshippers of Sound and of the principle of Analogy — "the heavenly maid," as an old believer calls his idol, Parataxis. The re\sum£ of certain chapters of PAUL'S ' Principien der Sprachgeschichte ' given by SOCIN, and SIE- VERS' article in the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica ' under " Philology," will do much to scatter the pernicious germs of modern philology in Germany, England and America.
On the theories as to the origin of written
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languages in general, the nature of dialects, on the Prankish Court language during the Old High German period, on the one literary language of the Middle High German period, SOCIN quotes the various opinions directly from the authors, or presents them in his own words — which is quite impartially done. His position is the comfortable one of MONTAIGNE " Que sais-je ? " A non-believer in the exist- ance of the one Middle High German written language, must be puzzled, yet pleased, by the heading of the second chapter of the first book : " Die mittelhochdeutsche Schrift- sprache," and of the third chapter of the same book : " Das Wiederaufleben der Schrift- clialekte im i4ten Jahrhundert." What a short-lived affair must have been that " allge- meine Hof- und Dichtersprache, die durch ihren Einfluss auf die Prosa zur mittelhoch- deutschen Schriftsprache sich erweitert und als solche in Niederdeutschland, theilweise auch in den Niederlanden, Geltung erlangt " (p. 112). In the thirteenth century it is a great institution, in the fourteenth occurs its com- plete disintegration. In the fifteenth century, the struggle of the dialects and that of the various " Kanzleisprachen " with one another and with the dialects were resumed, struggles that were to last three hundred years.
SOCIN calls Middle High German a literary language, Middle German, a literary dialect (p. 116). Does M. H. G. here include ' Ober- deutsch ' (South German) and Middle German, as it generally does ? If so, it is a misstate- ment, not original with SOCIN. — For a popular book, the author's style is very clumsy.
H. C. G. BRANDT.
Hamilton College.
Von Luther bis Lessing von F. KLIV.K, Strassburg. Triibner. 1888.
This taking title belongs to a collection of philological essays, disconnected, but all deal- ing with certain important points in the New High German period of the language. " Dies Hiichlein will keine cleutsche Sprachgeschi- chte sein ; zur Heruhigung facluvissenschaftli- cher Gemiiter sei es gesagt," says the author in the preface. But 1 venture to say, that if we are to have a history of the German language
we would rather have it from the author of the Etymological Dictionary with its excellent historical introduction than from anybody else.
The essays are written with a view to inter- est a larger public. In the unpretending book is a great deal of research that has yielded new points of view and new facts, hidden under a genial popular treatment. In the chapter on the South and Middle German word-stock, are some interesting and very valuable compara- tive word-lists chosen from various bible texts. They are in fact concordances of the early bible translations. No history of the language has ever so fully and correctly presented the relation of Latin to the literary language and to the dialects as is done in the chapters, "The Language of the church and of the People;" "Latin and Humanism." In the essay " Luther and the German Language," KLUGE cannot be blamed for a little hit at SCHERER'S periods of three hundred years in the history of German literature. The contents of the rest of the book are indicated by the chapter-headings : " MAXIMILIAN and his ' Kanzlei ; ' " "Authors and Printers;" " Literary Language and Dialects in Switzer- land ; " " Low German and High German ; " " South Germany and the Catholics."
H. C. G.B.
ITALIAN LITERATURE IN BAVA- RIA.
The relations of Italian literature to the Ba- varian court are discussed by Dr. K. von Reinhardtstoettner in the first volume of the Jahrbuchfiir Munchener Geschichte. Materi- al for such a study is furnished abundantly by the accumulations of the Royal Library at Munich, in the shape of librettos, festival com- positions, plays, and eulogies of the reigning family written by official court poets, theatri- cal managers and masters of ceremonies ; with occasional sonnets from Italy, celebrating the liberality and enlightenment of the foreign ruk-r.
Thus there is little of literary- value, nor are the poets themselves of wide reputation. The first writer known is Massimo Trojano, a Neapolitan, who describes, in 1568, the festi-
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vals which attended the marriage of William V. with Renata of Lorraine. This description, in the form of a dialog, shows that already Italian customs were in fashion — as in France at the same epoch — and that the court pa- geants were directed by foreigners. Under the rule of William V. and that of his success- ors, Italians occupied the positions of court orators and poets ; from Italy came art and music, and the favors shown their countrymen are reflected in the history of Cesare Campa- na, who devotes especial attention to Bavaria, and in the sonnet of Tasso to Maximilian I. while in Italy in 1593. The first half of the XVII. century offers but one document, a description of the Residenz by Baldossare Pistorini ; but with the marriage of Ferdinand to Adelaide of Savoy in 1652 begins a period of Italian supremacy. The young queen is accompanied to her northern home by all her southern attendants. The court of Munich becomes an Italian colony. In letters, Ade- laide herself set the example by composing madrigals, strambotti and short comedies. To her poets she furnished subjects, inserted in their works portions of her own, collected in Munich much of the Italian literature of the age, and fashioned the court festivals on Italian models. Among those patronized by her may be mentioned her secretary, Dome- nico Gisberti, a Venetian, writer of sonnets and allegorical plays without number. The rise of the musical drama produced under her care many compositions, among which are found some of Francesco Sbarra, court poet at Vienna, and those of Giovanni Battista Maccioni of Orvieto, who had come to Munich with Adelaide and who is her chosen poetical mouth-piece. Of higher birth is count Pietro Paulo Bissari of Vicenza, who had likewise an Italian reputation, best known at Munich in musical dramas and festival scenes. Another noble is the marquis Ranuccio Pal- lavicino, attracted from Parma by the fame of the Bavarian court and who in Munich cele- brates the architecture of the Residenz and the magnificence of Ferdinand.
After the death of Adelaide, in 1676, Ven- tura Terzago, a poet of occasion, writer of musical dramas and festival plays, rivalled Gisberti in the number of his compositions. Later, the wars of Max Emmanuel form the
theme of a poetical album of many authors. A noted librettist is Luigi d'Orlandi from Mantua. Others drew subjects for musical dramas from the works of Corneille and Racine. With the war of the Spanish Succes- sion the glory of the Bavarian court diminish- ed. During the first two decades of the XVIII. century little literary life is found at Munich, but beginning with 1723, whenDomenico Lalli (Bastian Biancardi) became court poet and composed at Munich many sonnets, librettos and festival plays, a short-lived revival of Ita- lian influence occurred. Villati and Perozzi, the latter a close imitator of Petrarch, resisted for a time the tide of French tendencies. The Arcadians also are patronized and imitated, while the operas of Zeno and Metastasio hold sway at the theatre. Yet the times were for national development. The rise of German poetry drove out the artificial Italian lyric, and after the middle of the century few traces of other poets than librettists remain.
A bibliography of the period treated in this first article, down to the time of Napoleon, is appended, and is interesting from the number of Italian works published in Munich which it enumerates.
F. M. WARREN. Johns Hopkins University.
Untersuchungen fiber den Satzbau Luthers von DR. HERMANN WUNDERLICH. I Theil : Die Pronomina. Miinchen, 1887.
Those who have written about LUTHER'S language have been concerned for the most part with etymology and with his service to New High German, and have had but little to do with syntax. WETZEL in ' Die Sprache Luthers ' (Stuttgart, 1859), and LEHMANN in ' Luthers Sprache in seiner Ubersetzung des neuen Testaments ' (Ha-lle, 1873), treated of syntax, however, but not from a historical point of view and without tracing out the details. Moreover, almost all the investiga- tions have been confined to the translation of the Bible, while the free course of the develop- ment of LUTHER'S language is to be sought in his original writings.
For these reasons DR. WUNDERLICH has opened a broader field for his labors, and, beginning with the address to the German nobility of 1520, which represents the first step
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in the development of the Reformations- schriften, he comprehends in his researches all the more important writings down to the year 1545. He follows, as in his ' He it rage zur Syntax Notkers ' (Herlin, 1883), the system of MIKLOSICH in considering syntax not a mass of dead rules but a vigorous organism.
This first part is divided into four heads : The simple verbal form ; — Pronoun under- stood from the context ; — The personal pro- noun ; — The demonstrative and relative pro- noun. The first three subjects are passed over rather hurriedly, though perhaps suffi- cient space is given to them, more than half of the entire book being devoted to the de- monstratives and relatives. In considering the peculiarities of a writer, the simple sentence is of much less importance than the more complex constructions. We are to look for the characteristics of a writer, in his long periods, where there is opportunity for greater variety of expression. Following this line of argument, our investigator has paid particular attention to the relative sentence and to the position and arrangement of subordinate sen- tences in general. No vague generalities are given. All statements are illustrated by copious examples, thus making the book a valuable store-house for convenient reference.
A mild protest against the rather monoto- nous use of abbreviations would, perhaps, not be out of place.
Of course, this book is not ' epoch-making,' but it aims to fill up a gap and, taken, as it does, the language at the period of transition from Middle High German to New High Ger- man will be welcomed by scholars who are interested in the study of historical German grammar. It is opportune, as taken in con- nection with DR. KLUGE'S new work on the influence of LUTHER on the German lan- guage. We hope the other parts will follow iu rapid succession.
CHARLES HUNDY WILSON. Cornell University.
CORRESPONDENCE.
SCANDINA VIAN STUDIES. To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTES : SIRS: — Mr. Egge's article in the March num-
ber of MOD. LANG. NOTES on this subject seems to call for some comment on my part ; and I shall try to answer his objections and criti- cisms as briefly as possible. In the first place, I would beg leave to call Mr. Egge's attention to a sentence in my original article that must bar out most of the omissions mentioned by him. The sentence reads as follows : "Only college instruction will be discussed, the pure- ly literary side of the question being necessari- ly omitted." Now while the University of Minn, must certainly be regarded as a college, one would scarcely include under this head Luther Seminary, Red Wing Sem. and Augs- burg Lutheran Seminary and Institute. The Danish High School at Elk Horn and the other schools of Mr. Egge's list may rank very high as schools, but they are not colleges in the Eastern sense of the word, at least. I had not heard, when the article was written, that a college course had been added to St. Olaf's School. Mr. Egge gives us much valua- ble and interesting information regarding Scandinavian studies in the Western schools, but this can only in part be considered as supplying the omissions of my list.
Again, under the second head, Mr. Egge seems to have misunderstood me. I should not presume to announce that I think that " the study of Icelandic furnishes as good a mental discipline as the study of Greek and Latin," etc. Of course that may be my opinion, but I do not presume to publish it. A reference to my original article will show my statement to be more guarded and conditional ; the omission of the little word "if" makes the difference,
Mr. Egge's last criticism may, perhaps, be a just one. My information was obtained almost entirely from the catalogues of the seminaries themselves, and if the impression derived from them be a false one, I should be only too glad to acknowledge my error and to offer my apologies to all offended Scandinavians. If my remarks could be con- strued as in any way reflecting on the charac- ter of our Scandinavian population, I offer here my sincerest apologies. No unprejudiced person can fail to recognize in them one of the mainstays of the republic, and their absence from the Chicago riot is only one proof out of
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many of their excellent character and sound common sense. I still claim, however, that it is highly desirable that our foreign population should in all cases become Americanized, though not necessarily at the expense of their native language and literature. A knowledge of English does not preclude a familiarity with Danish or Swedish, nor does an adoption of American ideas shut off all sympathy with home traditions and beliefs.
No one can blame Mr. Egge for his criti- cisms, since they are evidently made with perfect sincerity. It is always interesting to get a partisan view of any subject. Mr. Egge's intimate acquaintance with the Scandinavian population of the West gives an authority to his statements, to which, of course, I cannot pretend. A residence in the West would with- out doubt greatly change my views on this subject, but in default of this, I have to rely upon second-hand information, which is apt to be untrustworthy. This letter is not intended at all in an unfriendly spirit, but merely as a justification of my original po- sitions. Mr. Egge's suggestions and his real corrections of my incomplete list are grateful- ly acknowledged.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE. Columbia College.
BRIEF MENTION.
It is gratifying to learn that the Legislature of S. Carolina has doubled the appropriation for South Carolina "College" (now "Uni- versity") and thereby greatly strengthened her teaching staff. This is one of the most welcome movements in the field of Southern education, where the modern languages at present begin to play so important a role. From Oberlin College (Ohio) comes also the cheering news that "the work in the modern language department has increased, necessi- tating another professor of German."
At the banquet given on the occasion of the reception of the French Professors resident in England, by the University of Cambridge, of which an account was given in the February number of MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, Dr. Butler, the Master of Trinity College in that University, delivered an address of hearty
welcome in which he warmly endorsed the objects of the society and their efforts to secure the highest competency in the teacher and the best results in the teaching. His speech, which was exceedingly witty and happy, contained several hints of real im- portance ; among others, the necessity of establishing between the foreign teacher and his pupils a warmer sympathy than usually exists. He humourously suggests that "the entente cordiale between boys and their foreign masters will never be quite complete till some French master has broken at least a collar-bone at foot-ball."
An attempt to facilitate the study of Old French philology among "candidates to the L. L. A. title of St. Andrew's University " and "students working under the Cambridge Uni- versity scheme for a tripos in Modern Lan- guages" is made in 'An Introduction to Old French ' by F. F. Roget, Graduate of Geneva University, Tutor for comparative Philology, and for the Philology of French, St. George's Hall Classes, Edinburgh (London : Williams and Norgate, 1887; i2mo., pp. 387). Adverse criticism is perhaps scarcely warranted in the case of a work the preface of which begins with the frank avowal: " This book contains no independent research, and little scientific method;" and which proceeds to say, after acknowledging indebtedness to Bartsch's ' Chrestomathie ' and Cle'dat's ' Grammaire e'le'mentaire:' "Those books should be resort- ed to by students who may have a taste for the high scholarship which we cannot offer them in this Introduction." Such a commen- dation as this, however, betrays a false concep- tion on the part of the present author, since the elementary works here cited, while un- doubtedly products, can scarcely be regarded as well-springs, of ' high scholarship; ' and in these days no instructor of university candi- dates should be willing to present his students with a text-book so invertebrate as not to be able even to hold up its head in the presence of such authorities. Indeed, the author strikes with accurate iteration the key-note of his work, in speaking yet again of " our fear that we may be found inaccurate by the learn- ed, and yet abstruse by the learners;" though it is reassuring to find him assuming a
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somewhat bolder front in view of the claims of the subject treated, by averring (p. 12) of the earliest monuments, that "they must not be overlooked ; true men of learning view them with respect, and even the amateur philologist [Heaven save the mark !] can ill afford to brush aside such an instructive page of the history of language." — The book consists of three parts, of which the first discusses the .language of the earliest monuments ; the se- cond furnishes a compend of Old French grammar, in which, e. g.( aimeris accounted a strong verb, and Old French is said to have hardly a syntax of its own ; and the third, and most useful, comprises a considerable chrestomathy of prose and verse, with glos- sary. Notwithstanding the evidences of more than the usual share of well-meaning pains bestowed in the preparation of this volume, its method of treatment is diffuse and many of its views and statements are erroneous. With the exception that the work can scarce- ly be considered " abstruse by the learners," the verdict of the " critical public, whose judgment a book on Old French studies can- not escape," must in this case be allowed to coincide with the modest professions and ap- prehensions of its author.
A deprint from the Zeitschrift fitr roma- nische Philologie'\s thearticle "Vom Descort " by Carl Appel. Derived from the Latin se- quences of the Middle Ages, the Descort be- longs almost wholly to the flowering period of Provencal literature. Of the twenty-two ex- amples which Dr. Appel notes, the latest is by Guiraut Riquier, dated 1261, and the earliest, which he publishes for the first time, is assigned to Pons de Capduoill (f 1189-90) and therefore can be placed in the eighth decade of the twelfth century. The inventor of the Descort is not known with certainty ; the biography of Garin d'Apchier asserts that he wrote the first, and cites the opening verses ; but the poem it- self is lost and the date of the troubadour cannot be exactly determined. As to priority of time between the Descort of North France and that of South France, the advantage rests with the latter. The nine French poems found are later than the earliest dated Proven- cal, and differ fro:n the latter mainly in length of verse. They are also, fortunately, accom-
panied by musical notation, which is lacking in the Provencal MSS. The Descort does not appear to have flourished outside of France. In Italy three poems of the Sicilian school are noted, more irregular in form than their origi- nal and differing from it in content. Certain of the North Italians likewise imitated their neighbors in single poems, the most success- ful of which is that ascribed to Dante : ' Ai fals ris.' In Spain and Portugal Dr. Appel finds that the Ensalada has little likeness with the Descort, but resembles rather the Frottola and the Fricassee in its mixture of languages and combinations of individual lines taken from different authors. No new definition of the Descort is attempted by the author. He cites the various remarks of the Provencal treatises on poetry, and concludes, with the 'Leys d' Amors,' that the "essential thing in the Descort is the difference of metrical form in the various strophes." A discussion of the relation of the Descort to the lyric Lai of North France — there are but three Lais in Provencal and these imitated from the French — shows that the rimes of the latter change more readily and that the last strophe is like the first, while in the Descort this last strophe is generally represented by a tornada ; that, in general, the Descort is subject to ' more rigid rules than the Lai, a difference explained by the court origin of the former and by the popular origin of the latter ; and that the sub- ject of the Descort is love, while that of the earlier Lai is religion. We are led here to differ somewhat from the opinion of Dr. Appel, and to suggest that the origin of the Descort and of the lyric Lai are the same, which would account for the religions bearing of the latter and at the same time explain their essential similarity.
THIERRY'S 'Re'cits des Temps MeVovingiens' appear to be in favor as a text-book and is found in the Pitt Press Series, edited by G. Masson and A. R. Ropes (Cambridge Uni- versity Press). The extracts are the same as those of the edition of H. Testard (NOTES III, Col. 218), but the value of the annotations is far below that of the latter. Not only has much less work been expended in prepa- ration— the Appendix, Notes and Indices of the Cambridge edition numbering twenty-nine
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pages against fifty-two for the Testard — but also the difficulties of translation and the ex- planations of customs and laws are passed over superficially. The few attempts at ety- mologies are not all that could be desired : masure "from the L. maneo" (p. 116), nierci "from the L. merx, merces" (p. 124) give little idea as to how the French form was obtained, while the derivation of Marmontier from Ma jus Monasterium (p. 124) reveals a calm ignorance of phonetic changes. A com- parison of the two editions is most useful as illustrative of what editing too often has been, and what, in the hands of a conscientious worker like Testard, it can be made to be. But the same house and the same series offer to themselves a model in an edition of the 'Ecole des Femmes ' by GEORGE SAINTSBURY. This play of Moliere, though one of his best, is rarely edited for class work owing no doubt to its occasional coarse allusions. The work of MR. SAINTSBURY is none the less complete and painstaking. Of unusual excellence from the literary standpoint are his Introductions on the life of Moliere and on the history of the play. The notes are abundant and designed to initiate into the spirit of the piece as much as to explain constructions. For typographi- cal execution and attractiveness of form and page it is far superior to anything produced as a text-book in France, where it seems to be a tradition that good printing should be ex- cluded from the class-room. The University Press could not do better than to maintain the high standard of editing set in this instance.
The indefatigable " Librairie Hachette & Cie.," sends us a number of new books for the elementary, or at least the pedagogical, study of modern languages. Brief mention will be made of a few of these :
1. Charlin's " First Step " is only a collec- tion of phrases, well made but within very narrow range, adapted to the illustration, colloquially, of certain forms and idioms in French.
2. Blotiet's ." Primer of French Composi- tion " by Paul Bloue't, late of St. Pauls, is an excellent example of the care which our most scholarly colleagues in the " old country " are devoting to the preparation of the most ele- mentary class-books. The little book of 67
pages gives 40 short stories, well provided with idiomatic notes and an excellent Vocabu- lary, for translation into French. One of these, with the figures iudicating the charac- ter of the notes, will suffice to give an idea of the plan — and may be, moreover, not an in- appropriate extract for the MODERN LAN- GUAGE NOTES! "Two Good Friends. A journalist one day* wrote to David Roberts, the great painter : ' You have probably* seens the articles which I have written4 on the pic- tures which you have exhibited, but I hope that we shall remain friends.' The painter answered by return of post :s The first time that I meet6 you, I will pull your? ears, but I hope that we shall remain friends."
3. Of like distinguished authorship is " Common French Words, rationally grouped as a stepping stone to Conversation and Com- position," by Dr. Al. Beljame and Dr. A. Bossert, with an Introduction by Henri Sue", who tells us that "a book compiled by two such eminent professors can scarcely have a better introduction than the names of its authors." The book is after the fashion of our well-known "Roget's Thesaurus of Eng- lish Words." Beginning with simple topics, such as "L'homme," "La maison et la Famille," "L'Ecole," etc., and advancing by successive divisions to such as " La Vie Intel- lectuelle et morale," " L'Activite" Sociale " etc., the authors have grouped together the nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc., most appropri- ate for conversation or composition on such themes. So far as may be judged by a curso- ry examination, the work has been done with care and skill. As a book of reference, like Roget's Thesaurus, it will have interest and value, and may also serve for correction or increase of vocabulary. But if the committing of such lists to memory is relied upon as a "'stepping stone to conversation and compo- sition " it will prove, we" fear, like all such devices, to be only a broken reed ; and the prediction "that it will materially help those who use it in an intelligent manner to speak French with a certain degree of fluency in a comparatively short period " may be taken with a free interpretation of the words "ma- terially," " intelligent," " certain," and " com- paratively." The book is beautifully printed.
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4. An edition of Sedaine's " Le Philosophe sans le Savoir," by Victor Oger, Lecturer in University College and Victoria University, is interesting as being the first edition, for English readers, that gives the text of Sedaine's famous plays " as he wrote it and as it is now acted," and also because it gives, as paral- lel readings, the changes enforced by the " Censine," before it was allowed to be acted in 1765. In the In- troduction we have an account of this Censine, and of the subsequent history of the play until it was first acted " integrally " in 1875 — after more than a hundred years of repression. To this is added a brief sketch of Sedaine's literary career, and of his contemporary and subsequent reputation, besides a good summary of the play — the introductory matter being, on the whole, a model of what is good for a short edition. But here our commendation must end. To 58 pages, large type, of text, there are exactly 58 pages, small type, of Notes! The editor himself says he has "aimed at evolving from the text all the information in grammar, syntax, idiom, words, phrases, etc., which it suggest- ed." As the result, there is hardly a line that is free from this process of " evolution," and the changes are rung, with almost endless detail and repetition, upon the most elementary points of grammar and vocabula- ry. The best, then, that can be said for such notes is, they are harmless, for nobody will read them. It is due to the editor to add that he states, by way of ex- planation of this " excess," that his book is intended — in view of certain examinations — "to be read by school boys and girls knowing hardly anything at all of French . . . . , as well as by more advanced students (the Senior Candidates) and by independent readers." It was from the vain effort to produce a book suited at once to_ all these classes of readers, that the notes have grown into this cumbersome and heterogeneous mass ; yet it would be hard to say to which class such an edition is the least adapted.
PERSONAL.
Mr. Greenough White, Professor of Belles- Lettres in the University of the South, at Sewanee (Term.), has resigned his position on account of failing health.
Dr. B. F. O'CONNOR (Columbia College, N. Y.) delivered two lectures last month on the "Cycle of Charlemagne," in the Law Build- ing, at Columbia College. PROF. ALCEE FORTIER (Tulane Univ., New Orleans) has just completed a very successful course of lectures on "Modern French Literature." The authors especially treated were: TH. GAU- TIER, MERIMKE and COPPEE.
MR. C. H. OHLY, an American student who has for many years been pursuing his studies in philology at the Universities of Germany, is about to receive the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Freiburg,
having already gained acceptance for his dis- sertation : " Die wortstellung bei Otfrid ; ein beitrag zur deutschen wortstellungslehre." MR. OHLY has so long, under the guidance of the best European teachers, been a zealous student of Germanic philology, that we take pleasure in announcing his intention to return to America to join in our efforts here to estab- lish and maintain the interests of sound and progressive scholarship in ' Modern Language' studies. It is to be hoped that MR. OHLY may soon find a fitting field for work in one of our best colleges.
OBITUAR Y.
NlSARD (JEAN-MARIE-NAPOLEON)
member of the French Academy, former director of the Iscole Normale and senator of France under the Empire, who died at San Remo on the 25th of March, had long passed away from active participation in literary affairs. He was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine i the 2oth of March 1806, studied at Ste-Barbe, I commenced his career in the Journal des \ Debats in 1826, but under the July monarchy, j went over to the National of Armand Carrel. I He early made himself known by opposing the Romantic school, publishing in 1834 Les Poltes latins de la Decadence, in which he drew a comparison between Lucan and Victor Hugo. Instructor at the Ecole Normale under Gtiizot and, at the same time, attached to the ministry of Public Instruction, first as chief secretary, later as head of the division of sciences and letters, he entered the field of politics and was deputy of the C6te-d'Or 1842- 8. In 1843 he was made professor of Latin Eloquence at the College de France, in 1850 elected to the Academy over Alfred de Mussel and gave his adhesion to the reign of Napo- leon III, who rapidly advanced him. As in- spector general of the higher education he took part in the reorganisation of the Ecole Normale, was appointed to succeed Villemain in the chair of French Eloquence at the Sorbonne, which occasioned a political de- monstration at his lectures and increased his reputation with the Empire. Commander of the Legion of Honor in 1856, director of the Ecole Normale from 1857, senator of France from 1868, the arrival of the Republic drove him into retirement, and of old age into lit- erary inactivity. His most important works, besides that mentioned above, are : Precis de li literature francaise (1840) ; Histoire de la litterctture franfaise (1849, in two volumes, 1861 in four) ; collections of separate articles as Melanges (1838), Etudes snr la Renais- sance (1855), / 'hides de critique litteraire (1858) Nouvelles Etudes d'histoire et de litteratttre (1864). He also directed the publication of the Collection des classiques latins (1839 on, in 27 volumes).
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JOURNAL NOTICES.
LlTERARISCHES CENTRALBLATT.— NO. A., Phonologie des patois du canton de Vaud : Etude sur le verbe dans le patois de Blonay (-ier).— No. 8.— Froltzhelm, Job., Lenz, Goethe und Cleophe Fibich.— Harnack, 0., Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung (1805-1832). (C).
REVUE DE8 DEUX MONDES, lerfevrier.— Brunetl- ere, F., Les M6taphores de Victor Hugo.
REVUE POLITIQUE ET LITTERAIRE.— NO. 6.~ D«r- mesteter, J., Miss Robinson; the Plan of Campaign.— No. 7.— Larroumet, 6., Shakespeare et le theatre fran^ais.— NO. 8.— Berr, H., L'histoire des romans de M. Alphonse Daudet.
REVUE DU MONDE LATIN.— J^'wi«r.— lefebvre- 8t-0gan. La socie'te' italienne de la Renaissance.
NUOVA ANTOLOGIA.-FASC. ll.-D'Ovidio, F., Sulla
canzone " Chiare, fresche e dolci acque."— FA8C. III. Martini, Ferd., Francillon.
FORTNIGNTLY REVIEW.-^a^A.— Dowden, E., The Study of English Literature.— James, H., Guy de Mau- passant.
ANDOVER REVIEW.— March.— Daves, A. L., F. w. H.
Myers, poet and critic.
WESTMINSTER REVIEW.— March.-n»n» Sachs.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DEN DEUTSCHEN UNTER- RICHT, II, 2.— Schoenfeld, P., Accent und Quantitat— Miililluiuscn, Aug., Vom Ubersetzen in der Schule. — Maydorn, B., Zur Aussprache des Deutschen in der Schule.
|L PROPUQNATORE— Novembre-Dlcembre, 1887.— Con- cato, Salvatore,— II sonetto rinterzato " Quando il consiglio degli uccei si tenne " di Dante Alighieri.— Pagano, Vlncenzo, Galeazzo di Tarsia, notizie storiche e letterarie del barone e poeta Galeazzo di Tarsia.— Giovanni Ite dl Sassonia, (Filalete)— Com- mento della Divina Commedia per la prima volta tradotto.— Lamma, Ernesto, Di alcuni Petrarchisti del secolo XV.— Bestorl, Antonio,— Osservazioni sul metro, sulle asaonanze e sul testo del Poema del Cid (con- tinuazione e fine).— Walter, Bibliografle.
REVUE DES PATOIS, NO. 3.— Juillet-OctobrelSffi.— Cle'dat, L., Le patois de Coligny et de Saint-Amour. Grammaire et glossaire.— Combler, Contes en patois de Germolles. Jean de la Jeanne. Le loup et le renard. Le couvent de Cluny. Peton et safemme. Les coups d'yeux.— Pultspelu, Sur une derivation populaire du participe passe.— Sebtllot, P., Contes de la Haute- Bretagne : La bonne f emme aux cent ecus. Peuyot. — Devanne, Conte en patois de Prouvy. Laisse-li ma tete.— Blanchet, Proverbes limousins.— Possoz, Chan- son en patois de S'jez (Savoie). Les trois sortes de garyons. — Depoulllement des p'riodiques franfais con- sacrfis aux traditions populaires.— Notices biblio- graphiques.— Chronlque.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NEUFRANZOSISCHE SPRACHE
UND LlTTERATUR, BAND X., HEFT I.— (Abhandhmg- <»).— Blcken, W., Die Gestaltung des franzosischen Unterrichts in Ubereinstimmung mit den revidierten Lehrplltnen.— Bock, N., Moli^re's Amphitryon iin
VerhHltnis zu seinen Vorgftngern.— Miszellen. Banzer, 1)., Die Frau Patelin und ihre Nachahmungen.— (Sup- plementheft 4).— Holzhausen, P., Die Lustspiele Vol- taires .
ENQLISCHE STUDIEN. VOL. XI. PART 2.— Ka- luza, M., Zum handschriftenverhaltniss und zur text- kritik des Cursor Mundi.— Kllnghardt, H., Australisch- er volkscharacter.— Reviews : Korting, G., Grundriss der geschichte der englischen literatur von ihren anfiingen bis zur gegenwart (E. Kolbing). — homer, K., Einleitung in das studium des AngelsBchs. Erster theil, zweite aufl. bearbeitet von Adolf Socin (E. Nader).— Sweet, H., Second Middle English Primer (J. Koch).— Wright, W. Aldls, The Bible Word-Book (A. L. Mayhew).— Garnett, Kl chard, Works on Carlyle:— Oswald, Eugene, Life of Thomas Carlyle ;— Flugcl, Ewald, Thomas Carlyle. Ein lebensbild und gold- kBrner aus seinen werken ;— Fischer, Th. A., Erin- nerungen an Jane Welsh Carlyle (M. Krummacher). — Mommscn, Tycho, Die Kunst des tlbersetzens fremd- sprachlicher dichtungen ins Deutsche (Max Koch). — Bandisch, Julius, TJeber die charaktere im 'Bruce1 des altschottischen dichters John Barbour (E. K61- bing).— Soffe, Erall, 1st Mucedorus ein schauspiel Shakespeares ? (L. PrUscholdt).— Johann Baudlsch, Schulcommentar zu Milton's Paradise Lost (M. Krum- macher).— A number of English 'Readers' for Ger- man Schools and several school-grammars, are noticed.— Victor, W., Elemente der phonetik, etc., Zweite auiiage (A. Western).— Sweet, H., Elementar- buch des gesprochenen English. Zweite Auflage(H. Klinghardt).— Wagner, Ph., Die sprachlaute des Eng- lischen (Franz Beyer).— Phonetlsche Studlen, Hrsg. v. W. Victor (H. Klinghardt).— Several works on 'Methods' of teaching Modern Languages are re- viewed.— Wendt, G., Der gebrauch des bestimmten artikels im Englischen (E. Nader).— Krummarher, M., Metrische Ubersetzungen (L. PrOscholdt).— Miscellen : Elze, K., Falsche versabtheilung bei Shakespeare. — Lentzner, K., Coco und cocoa ; Alexander Schmidt (necrology by Karl Lentzer).
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ROMANISCHE PHILOLOGIE, XI, 3.— Teza, E., Trifoglio.— Thunieysen, B., Der Weg vom dactylischen Hexameter zum epischen Zehnsilber der Franzosen.— Osterhage, G., AnklHnge an die germa- nische Mythologie in der altfranzOsischen Karlssage. III.— Andrcsen, H., Zu Benoit's Chronique des dues de Normandie.— Grober, G., Zu den Liederbi'.chcrn von Cortona.— Vermischtes— Bcinhardstottner, >., La Vittoria di Christian! des Giovanni Bonasera.— Hor- ning, A., Uber steigende und fallende Dipthonge im Ostfranzosischen.— Dlas, Eplph. tfber die spanischeii Laute 9, z und j.— I'lrleh, J., E1ymok>>risehe8.— Be- ftprechungen.—'lobler, A. : H." Miehelunt, Der Roman von Escanor von Gerard von Amiens.— Tobli r, A., Romania, XVIe annfie, 1887. Janvier.-Stengtl, E., A. Tobler, Berichtigung.
ARCHIVIO GLOTTOLOGICO ITALIANO, X, 2.-
Kl. chia, «., Annotazioni si^te^laticlle alle Antiche rime genovesi ecc.— I'ecl, L., Vocalismp del diatetto d'Alatri.— Tobler, A., 11 Panfllo in antico veneziano, col latino a fronte, edito e illustrato.— Ascoll. G. I., Di -tr-issa che prenda il posto di -tr-lce, i.— II ti]>o gallo-romano ««w«=sebO o i franc, orteil e glaive, dello ptesso.— Gaster, M., II Pkyxiologus rumeno, edito e illustrato.
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Italtimorc, ,Iuii«>, 1HSS.
////•/. S /•..]//. V. I A' Y SYSTEM IN TEACH- ING FOJtEIGX I.I I'l: A'. -ITUKK* It is my purpose to offer a few suggestions on the teaching of a foreign literature in connection with the so-called seminary system, to add a word regarding that system itself, and to inquire to what extent the methods and scope of the instruction at Ger- man universities are available for our own institutions.
As the question has been limited to the teaching of a foreign literature in the seminary or association of advanced students, the consideration of the study of English litera- ture would then be only indirectly included, inasmuch as the methods would need to be somewhat modified in order to conform with the student's greater familiarity with the language. That subject moreover has already received much attention at the various sessions of this Association, and one of our members, PRO- FESSOR T. W. HUNT of Princeton, published in the Andover Review for November, 1885, an article on "Desirable Methods in English Literary Study," which forms a valuable contribution not only with respect to the special topic which lie treats, but also in regard to the general question of the study of literature.
How, then, is a foreign literature best taught to advanced students?
As the instruction given must be adapted to the qualifications of the student, much de- pends upon his proficiency in the special lan- guage under consideration. I will assume, as our average student, one who has enjoyed at the start at least two years of preliminary linguistic training, in the proportion of from three to five exercises a week, and who has also enjoved certain other advantages of study and reading sufficient to have developed in him a fair literary sense, ami to have furnished him with an adequate amount of general literary culture.
*A paper read at the Fifth Annual Convention of the MriDHKN I.AN<;UAC;R Ass<>< IAI ION OK AMKKICA, held in I'hiluilclphi.i, December, 1887.
It does not seem necessary here to go into any detail regarding this preliminary work of tlie first two years. We may suppose that the student has been thoroughly grounded in the grammar of the language, has been initiated into methods of word-formation and word- derivation, has examined the laws describing the relations between the various members of the Indo-European family of languages, has had some practice in rendering from English into the foreign language and in translation at sight, has read a variety of selections from different authors illustrating a wide range of style, and has become familiar with a few masterpieces in poetry and in prose. In other words our average student will be the average Junior, equipped, we trust, with a good knowledge of English and possessing some acquaintance with English literature, in addition to his special acquirements in foreign languages.
That a knowledge of Greek and Latin also would be indispensable, no one perhaps would care to maintain; but it would be folly to assert that without a knowledge of the ancient classics a proper appreciation can be gained of the foundations, the drift, and the inspi- rations of modern literatures.
The objection may be made that too much time is demanded for this preliminary study ; that our ordinary college courses do not admit the opportunity of carrying on the study of the modern languages for three or four con- secutive years. We may be reminded that in some institutions of great dignity and age the modern languages have been optional branches, or have been required for only a limited number of hours at an advanced stage in the curriculum. To these objections tin- answer might be made that a period of two years so employed would seem to be tin- mini- mum of time possible for producing the train- ing necessary, that institutions with an inade- quate provision of time or teaching-force may expect to attain results correspondingly inade- quate, and that the day is fortunately passing by in which the study of the modern laiigua: is made merely auxiliary to the curriculum and treated without proper consideration of
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their natural and just requirements. The spread of the elective system is everywhere a powerful assistance toward this desirable con- summation.
After two years of such preparatory work, then, the student is ready for the advanced or seminary work. This term seminary with us seems to be employed to indicate a variety of methods in teaching, while the word itself is used in German to describe both the place of meeting and the exercise which is generally held there. These exercises abroad appear to range in character from such as resemble quite nearly our ordinary recitation to those embodying the results of some independent investigation ; but the controlling principle is apparently the preparation of the work in con- nection with a special equipment under the leadership or guidance of the instructor in charge. The professor's own study may fre- quently be the scene of action, and the material furnished be largely from his own supplies. There is sometimes a disposition to confine the term seminary-work to the most advanced stages of investigation, whether literary or linguistic. There is no real objection to this limitation, although in the interests of con- venient nomenclature the larger field might be permitted to include the smaller.
With respect to the equipment the student should have easy access to the following materials, and should be encouraged in their familiar and constant use.
A collection of the best critical editions of the standard literary monuments of the lan- guage, beginning with the earliest records. As large a collection as possible of minor literary monuments, pamphlets, journals, cor- respondence, in short, of all original literary matter, however insignicant. A collection of general and special literary histories, including biographies, essays, monographs and miscel- laneous articles. Finally, the principal periodi- cals in the language, both learned and light. Few colleges are able to furnish such an apparatus and the private library of the pro- fessor must frequently assist in filling the gaps. In those institutions, however, in which the library appropriations are distributed among departments, a comparatively small annual amount, judiciously expended, will be sufficient
to provide gradually a respectable outfit.
Beginnings of this kind have already been made. The special-alcove system at Har- vard appears in a modified form at Baltimore, Ann Arbor, Cornell and elsewhere, and we trust that it will not be many years before quarters similar to the admirable language seminary-rooms at Strasburg, or the well- furnished historical department at Johns Hop- kins, may be deemed indispensable for teach- ing properly modern literatures.
A few words may be added regarding the employment of this equipment.
There should be careful study of the works of an author, and careful study of his life and times. The two lines of study are reciprocally illustrative, while the balance should decided- ly incline toward a direct acquaintance with the author's writings. Literary history, how- ever, has also its distinct function and value, affording a clear outline and background for the special study of the author himself.
The work may be performed in two ways : by the ordinary form of class-room instruction with recitation, lecture and comment ; and by subdivision of the work among different mem- bers under the supervision of the instructor, either assigning to the members of such class- es different portions of the same general sub- ject, with references to the proper authorities or sources, or allowing individual members to pursue individual courses of reading or inde- pendent lines of investigation, with frequent reports of progress.
In regard to the question whether a written lecture or an address from notes be preferable in the course of such academic instruction, it has been argued that anything read from a written page may as well be printed and cir- culated for more careful study, and that the dictated phrase is lifeless jn comparison with the spoken word. There is danger too that the lecture, once crystallized into a permanent shape, may not receive from year to year the revision which it needs. On the other hand, it is not always convenient or easy to publish at once the results of study and investigation, (although we have noticed that some Scotch students have recently attempted this for their professor, surreptitiously), while the beneficial and attractive element of stvle and form is
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..it. n absent from the extemporary effort. l'rrli;i|.s the \\iser way would lit- to blend both forms of deliver \ .
\Vitliout attempting hen- to lay down any detailed course of instruction, it may be said in general that the study of an author should not In- divorced from the study of his age, but that the two sides of the examination should be jointly conducted. In like manner the minute study of individual works in respect of style and thought may well be associated with general reviews of groups of works. The function moreover of comparison is important, — the comparison, namely, between different works of the same writer composed at differ- ent periods in his career, or between different writers of the same school, or between differ- ent stages of development of the subject, as the drama, or between different stages of growth of a national literature, or between . the literatures of different nations and their reciprocal influence.
Illustrations will readily occur from our common experiences in teaching.
The old German ' Messiads,' the ' Heliand ' and OTKRID'S 'Krist,' when compared show many interesting points of contrast. One may- note the differing treatment of the Gospel narrative, and the difference in metrical structure, representing on one hand the strong and simple alliterative beat of heathen versifi- cation, and on the other the influence of the gathering force of the Latin strophe of the Christian hymn, concealing within itself the melodious possibilities of assonance and allit- eration with the more perfect melody of finished rime. Looking at the circumstances of the composition of the two poems, in one has been found an eloquent proof of the growth of Christianity among the unlettered peoples of the Saxon North ; in the other, an attempt to resist in the South the influence of a frivolous and pagan literature. The poems of WAI.THKR VON i»KR \'<H;I:I.WKI !>!•:, when studied in con- nection with his age, throw interesting side lights upon the social life of his time, and upon the contentions between Fmperor and 1'ope. MaKTi.N LrniKK's writings are scarce- ly intelligible without an examination of Middle High German, and in turn assist to an accurate analysis of modern German syntax.
To describe the origin of the French or Ger- man drama, one must review ecclesiastical literature, and be familiar with the theatre of thu ancients. The benefit is evident of such courses as I'KOFKSSOR CRANE'S lectures at Cornell on French society in the seventeenth century, based upon the voluminous memoirs, correspondence, and other literary memorials of that period; or the course of PKOKKSSOK ELLIOTT at Johns Hopkins, in which the work of the year may be concentrated upon a limited period in literary history, or upon the study of a small group of related dialects, or of a few important linguistic monuments. What useful material for a knowledge of the current impressions in Paris regarding Euro- pean art and politics is afforded by HMM.'S miscellaneous communications to the Augs- burg Gazette! What a field, too little cultivated, is afforded by the bulky corres- pondence of prominent literary characters! Again, not the least beneficial phase of the minute study of the second part of Faust is afforded by the social and philosophical problems suggested, and by the discussion of the relations between the Classic and Roman- tic movements as depicted in the " Helena." Not less attractive is the effort to fathom the secret of the .many erratic manifestations of genius of which every literature yields attrac- tive and baffling illustrations.
A legitimate feature of such seminary work may be the examination by students of neu and relevant publications, whether edition or commentary or special treatise, and the pres- entation of critical notices of their contents. Others desire to discard all adventitious aids, and, leaving unconsidered whatever incrus- tations have clustered i.pon the shell, to penetrate to the heart, and to devote the energies of their students to the patient study of the bare unvarnished text, the naked thought of the author selected. Such diversi- ties of operations may yet lead to equally profitable results.
As to the relation of the study of literature proper to the study of kindred subjects, one may say that although the teaching of litera- ture be not the teaching of history or of bi- ography, both are essential as a background; and that inasmuch as the province of what is
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called Culturgeschichte, — a sort of litearyr biology, — trenches upon literary history, it is also to be considered a necessary concomitant of literary studies.
Another minor agency may be included, for its value in creating or stimulating the student's interest, namely, the utilization of illustrative material by means of the stereop- ticon — an agency at present gradually coming into more general use. Such material would comprise photographs, engravings, paintings, or similar artistic reproductions of pers.ons, places, or events of literary significance, fac- similes of chirography, of manuscripts, of charters, and of everything connected with the science of diplomatics. Let me instance the reproductions of old French texts by GASTON PARIS ; the heliotype fac-similes of old manuscripts published at Rome ; PROFESSOR ZUPITZA'S recent edition of 'Beowulf,' with the text and transliteration side by side ; the phototypes, — in another field, — of classic manuscripts like the Laurentian Sophocles and the Ravenna Aristophanes ; the autotypes of the Chaucer manuscripts in the British Museum ; the splendid and elaborate publi- cations of the Socie'te' de 1'Ecole des Charles just appearing, which are to afford us in beautiful heliogravures reproductions of the most important documents relative to the national history and literature ; and even the matter of illustration in such works as STACKE'S 'Deutsche Geschichte,' or KON- NECKE'S 'Bilderatlas zur Geschichte der Deutschen Literatur.' Material of this kind, which is often too expensive to be obtained by the separate members of a class, can readily be converted into lantern views and be presented to a class collectively, with appropri- ate comments, in connection with lecture courses or seminary work ; and such an ex- pedient would obviate to a large degree the disadvantages which his remoteness from the great libraries and museums of the world causes the American student to feel. Now for the first time does there seem in this way to be some outlook for more general paleographical studies on this side of the Atlantic.
My remarks have been limited principally to the consideration of foreign literatures, leaving untouched the question of the proper methods for dealing with those fascinating and
exceedingly important adjuncts of language- training comprised under the rubrics of com- parative philology and phonetics, At a meet- ing of the American Philological Association a few years ago, PROFESSOR JEBK, of Glasgow, alluded to the current criticism that the work of American classical scholars concerned itself too much with grammatical and linguistic subjects, and was too often in statistical form. Certainly this is an honorable tendency, whether displayed with reference to ancient or to modern languages, and possibly the only caution needful might be the comment that the study of belles-lettres is equally arduous, equally exacting, demanding peradventure for finished culture in the teacher an even longer period of apprenticeship, and that it is equally fruitful in valuable results.
From this standpoint the position of modern languages in German universities would perhaps not be entirely satisfactory, as the norm for corresponding American institutions, although a tendency appears manifest yonder which promises ultimately a well-rounded curriculum. In respect to German, at least, (and my impression is that the same observa- tion will in some measure hold good with regard to English and French also), an ex- amination of the courses offered will reveal that the literature since LUTHER has been subordinated to a somewhat absorbing study of the earlier dialects. The ordinary pro- fessorships have been almost invariably held by those whose chief interest lies in this earlier field, while the later period has been in the hands of instructors of a lower rank. At Berlin, PROFESSOR SCHERER, literary historian as well as philologist, exhibited a fine type of the many-sided and finished scholar. • Yet a seminary room for Germanic languages was finally ready to be occupied only in the year of his death ; and the library of that seminary, although comprising the valuable private- collection of MiJLLENHOFF, contained, when first made public, almost no literature after the fourteenth or fifteenth century. SCHERER'S successor, ERICH SCHMIDT, enjoys the dis- tinction of holding perhaps the only ordinary professorship in Germany which is occupied by a scholar solely devoted to modern German literature. And even this chair was first offered to one or two men of the other type.
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It is certainly no insignificant fact that this departure takes place at the largest and ]>n.l>ahly the leading university of the land.
At Leipsic the conditions are somewhat similar. Although the instruction under ZAKNCKEand HII.UKHKAND, BIEDERMANN and VON BAHDER and KOGEL, leaves little to be desired, and although some exercises are con- ducted there in connection with private libra- ries, the library of the German seminary is very nearly innocent of New High German monuments. Among the younger generation of scholars, too, in Germany we find that those who are devoted to the older dialects, as BEHAGHEL at Basel, BRAUNE at Giessen, (now at Heidelberg) KLUGE at Jena, PAUL at Freiburg, SIEVERS at Halle, STEINMEYER at Erlangen, are ordinary or full professors, while men like GEIGER at Berlin, HENNING at Stras- burg, MINOR at Vienna, SAUER at Prague, SEUFFERT at Graz, STRAUCH at Tubingen, and others whose interests lie in more recent fields, are of the secondary grade. The older pro- fessors occasionally pay some attention to the later literature, and historians like ONCKEN at Giessen or philosophers like KUNO FISCHER at Heidelberg or HAYM at Halle, divide their efforts at times between their special sphere and subjects in German literature. But it is fair to maintain that the preponderance of interest at German universities, and the field most favored for advancement to the docto- rate, may be found in the more strictly philo- logical studies of the earlier period. I will not presume to debate the wisdom of this tendency yonder, where the language courses in the gymnasiums are also to be reckoned in, nor to claim too much prominence for the counter-movement, which seems nevertheless to bring with it a widening of the outlook and a truer conception of proportion. . But, what- ever be the task of the German university, it cannot be precisely the same task as ours, nor are jts ways, while admirable, necessarily to be our ways. The German university is large- ly a nursery for specialists, an invaluable training-ground for teachers and investigators. Based upon the common schools, and affording the sole supply for the learned professions, it has an intimate and unshaken hold upon the nation. We, too, have an obligation to perform
toward our nation also. The minor part of our own duty may be to train a limited number of bright minds in progressive and independent work ; the major portion of our labors must be consumed in helping large numbers of students to gain such a vantage ground of vision that their sympathies will be permanently enlarged, and their intellectual life possess a generous and catholic range whose influence will touch distant circles which we can never directly reach, but which ought to share whatever di- versities of gifts a university may have at its I command. Is there any better method of ad- vancing this aim than the careful and sympa- thetic study of the noblest expressions of modern literary thought ?
It has been the great privilege of many here present to draw liberally from the fountains of learning which spring so freely from Teutonic sources ; and the severe and successful methods there in vogue are exerting a power- ful and not unfavorable influence upon our own higher education. But may we not retain our gratitude and acknowledge our manifold indebtedness without too general a surrender to foreign precedents? Perhaps I may be permitted, in closing, to strengthen and make clear the position which I am endeavoring to maintain, by quoting some words from a memorable oration delivered by the President of this Association upon a memorable occasion. At the Harvard Celebration last year, MR. LOWELL said :
" It (i. e. the college earlier in the century), set more store by the marrow than by the bone that encased it. It made language as it should be, a ladder to literature, and not literature a ladder to language.
" I think I see a tendency to train young men in the languages as if they were all to be editors (i. e. of manuscripts, texts, etc.) and not lovers of polite literature. Education, we are often told, is a drawing out of the faculties, — may they not be drawn too thin ! I am not undervaluing philology or accuracy of scholar- ship. Both are excellent and admirable in their places. But philology is less beautiful to me than philosophy, as MILTON understood the word, and mere accuracy is to Truth as a plaster cast to the marble statue ; it gives the facts but not their meaning. If I must choose,
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I had rather a young man should be intimate with the genius of the Greek dramatic poets than with the metres of their choruses, though I should be glad to have him on easy terms with both.
"I hope then," MR. LOWELL concludes, " that the day will come when a competent pro- fessor may lecture here also for three years on the first three vowels of the Romance Alpha- bet, and find fit audience though few. I hope the day may never come when the weightier matters of a language, namely, such parts of its literature as have overcome death by reason of their wisdom and of the beauty in which it is incarnated, such parts as are universal by reason of their civilizing properties, their power to elevate and fortify the mind, — I hope the day may never come when these are not predominant in the teaching given here. Let the humanities be maintained undiminished in their ancient right. Leave in their traditional preeminence those arts that were rightly called liberal ; those studies that kindle the imagination, and through it irradiate the reason ; those studies that manumitted the modern mind ; those in which the brains of finest temper have found alike their stimulus and their repose, taught by them that the power of intellect is heightened in proportion as it is made gracious by measure and sympathy. Give us science, too, but give first of all and last of all the science that ennobles life and makes it generous."
HORATIO S. WHITE.
Cornell University.
n*IE ROMANHAFTE RICHTUNG DER
ALEXIUSLEGENDE
in altfranzosischen und mittelhochdeutschen Gedichten. — II. (Schluss).
Vergleichen wir nun sowohl mit L als auch mit A, — H lassen wir ausser Acht, da es viel jiingeren Ursprungs ist, — das franzdsische Ge- dicht S und die von ihm abhangigen M und Q, so fallt uns sofort auf, dass abgesehn von den brautlichen Ziigeu S noch mehrere andere Ziige mit L und A gemein hat. So :
i. Den Dienst des ALEXIUS beim Kaiser, als er die Schule verlassen hat, cf. S v. 75 fF., A v. 77 ff., 85 ff.
2. Die Pilgerfahrt des ALEXIUS nach Jeru- salem, cf. S v. 347 ff., A v. 447 ff., M v. 341- 360, Q str. 49-58.
3. Als ALEXIUS' Heiligkeit geoffenbart werden soil, lauten auch die Glocken (A v. 758-767, S v. 1004, M v. 1047, Q str. 157).
Und zwar ist es auffallend, dass diese mit A und L iibereinstimmenden Ziige sammtlich auf Kosten des Interpolators von S zu setzen sincl, und nicht aus P, der Quelle von S, stam- men. So sieht es also aus, als ob entweder S gerade in diesen neuen Partien von L oder A beeinflusst sei oder vielleicht diese Ziige erfunden und dadurch A beeinflusst habe.
Wir untersuchen zunachst die erste Moglich- keit. Es ware ja denkbar, dass der Interpo- lator von P nach Kenntniss der lateinischen Bearbeitung erst sich veranlasst gefiihlt hatte, seine Vorlage zu andern ; es ware auch mog- lich, — wenn auch weniger wahrscheinlich, da es ja dem Gange der Litteraturgeschichte des Mittelalters nicht entsprache, — dass der In- terpolator das deutsche Gedicht zur Vorlage hatte. Da L und A, wie oben erwiesen, zusam- menhangen, lasst sich eine eventuelle Be- einflussung von S durch sie zugleich unter- suchen fur beide Theile.
Bei naherer Betrachtung fallt uns gleich auf, dass die iibereinstimmenden Ziige doch ziemlich verschieden erzahlt sind. So:
1. Die Uebergabe des Briefes.
In L und A heisst es ungefahrso: Nachdem EUPHEMIAN vergebens versucht hat, den Brief aus der Hand des Todten zu nehmen, clarauf die beiclen Kaiser und selbst der Papst nicht mehr Gliick gehabt haben, denkt die Braut, es mochte vielleicht in dem Briefe etwas von ihrem Brautigam stehen, das ihr allein zu wissen gebiihre. Sie tritt daruni naher zu ihm hin, und erhalt sofort den Brief. Ganz anders bei S (M, Q) : Papst und Kaiser bitten den Heiligen urn den Brief, und sobald der Papst die Hand ausstreckt, gibt ihm der Heilige seiiien Brief (S, 1083 ff.). Da geschieht aber ein Wunder; der Hand des Papstes entfliegt der Brief sofort zur Jungfrau :
"A la pucele s'en ala a la place Ens en son sain, en son bliaut de paile."
2. I m Gesprach der Eltern und der Braut mit ALEXIUS unter der Stiege, hat S nicht alle
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hubschen Ziige von L und A ubernommen, vor alien Dingcn den nicht, dass die Braut selbst den Pilger nach ihrem " friedel " fragt.
3. Endlich hat in der Erzahlung der Braut- nacht S den Zug des Lichtes, an welches sich das Gesprach ankniipft, nicht beibehalten.
Warum hatte S seine Vorlage so sehr geandert, ohne Grund und oft geradezu zu seinem Nachtheil ? Schwerwiegender ist noch der Umstand, dass die Namen von S ganz verschieden sind : Die Frau des EUPHEMIAN heisst bei A, L: AGLAES, Tochter des JO- HANNES; bei S: BONE EUR£E, Tochter FLOU- RENS. Der Kaiser heisst in A, L: THEODOSI- us; bei S : OTEVIANS. Die Braut ist nicht wie bei A, L : ADRIATICA, Tochter des GREGORIUS, sondern LESIGNE, Tochter des SIGNOURES. Die Namen der Vorfahren, welche L und A sehr genau angeben, finden wir bei S nicht. Auch dass Papst SIRICIUS ALEXIUS tauft, wird nicht erwahnt. Endlich sind die Stadte, zu denen ALEXIUS seine Zuflucht nimmt, andere. VVeder Lucca noch Pisa kommen vor, sondern la Lice resp. Lalice (Laodicea) und Ausis (L) oder Alis (M) oder Alphis (Q)— Edessa. Die Stadt Tarsus nennt S Troholt. Endlich erwahnt mit keinem Worte S, dass die Braut zu ALEXIUS ins Grab gelegt wird, und der Todte ihr neben sich Platz macht. Nach alien diesen Abweichungen ist eine Beeinflussung von S durch L oder A nicht anzunehmen. Gegen die lateinische Bearbeitung spricht noch speziell der Umstand, dass S Ziige hat, welche L fehlen, und die A aus seiner andern Quelle, der Bollandistenbearbeitung, entnom- men hat. So den Ziig der Turteltaube und vielleicht des Trauersacks. Ebenso die Ziige gegen Ende, das grosse Gedrange, welches Papst und Kaiser durch Geldausstreuen ver- geblich zu vermindern suchen und das Tragen der Bahre durch Kaiser und Papst selbst.
Viel wahrscheinlicher ist die zweite Mog- lichkeit, die Beeinflussung des deutschen Ge- dichtes durch das franzosische (die lateinische Bearbeitung miissen wir vorlaufig ausser Acht lassen). Schon litterargeschichtlich ist sie amiehmbarer als die erste, da ja im Mittelalter Frankreich Deutschland so oft beeinflusst. Noch manches andere kommt hinzu : So vor alien Dingen der Umstand, dass gerade die Abweichungen von S und A, die wir oben
erwahnt haben, auf diesem Wege leicht erklar- lich sind.
Wir haben oben gesehn, dass S auf das alteste franzosische Gedicht P zuriickgeht, und dass es alle brautlichen Ziige neu einge- fiihrt hat. Betrachten wir gleich den wichtig- sten Zug, den der Uebergabe des Briefes. P hat die gewohnliche Fassung der Uebergabe an den Papst. S lasst dem Papst den Brief zuerst ubergeben und dann durch ein Wunder zur Braut iibergehen, A lasst den Brief direct zur Braut iibergehen. Scheint nicht darin eine gewisse Gradation zu liegen? Der Ver- fasser von S ist, wie wir unten des naheren noch werden beobachten konnen, ein sehr er- finderischer und dichterisch begabter Kopf. Es ware moglich, dass er, um die Braut mehr in den Vordergrund treten zu lassen, seine Vorlage geandert hatte. Doch hatte er nicht den Muth sofort mit der Tradition zu brechen. Es ware ihm einerseits frevelhaft vorgekom- men, einen so frommen Heiligen u'ber den Kopf des h. Vaters hinweg mit seiner Braut verkehren zu lassen, und doch hatte er an- dererseits so viel poetischen Sinn, um den anderen Zug fiir schoner zu halten. So ver- band er denn, "par le plaisir le glorious ce- leste," beide Fassungen mit einander. A hatte nicht mehr dieselben Bedenken, verstand vielleicht gar nicht mehr, weshalb der Papst den Brief zuerst bekommen sollte, wenn ihn doch sofort darauf die Braut erhalten sollte. und strich deshalb den Papst. Dadurch hatte A die Braut ungeheuer gehoben. Es war dies vielleicht auch fiir A die Veranlas- sung den Zug des Beilagers im Tode zu erfin- den. Auch dadurch war dem Verhaltniss der Braut zu ALEXIUS grossere Bedeutung ver- liehen.
Dass A auf diese Weise die von S ange- deutete Richtung weiter verfolgte und dessen Motive ausbeutete, ist ja sehr natiirlich und leicht zu verstehen. Viel weniger natiirlich ware es aber, dass A von S ausgefuhrte Ziige fallen Hesse. Dies ist aber doch ofters der Fall, und so treten mis denn auch hier Schwierigkeiten entgegen.
Beginnen wir mit den Hauptpunkten :
Das Gesprach unter der Treppe zeigt schon bei beiden solche Unterschiede. Bei S ist es um so viel mehr ausgefiihrt, und die Braut
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wird dabei in so viel mehr riihretide Situatio- nen gesetzt, dass es hochst seltsam ware, wenn A diese Motive, obgleich es sie gekannt, nicht benutzt hatte. Man vergleiche :
Ahnlich ist nur der Zug, dass ALEXIUS nach seinem Namen gefragt wird. In S fragt der Vater v. 805 ff. :
Biaus crestiens, ne savons vostre non Faut vous connois de coi aids besoing? "Sire, dist il, CRESTIENS ai a non."
Bei A fragt die Braut v. 621 ff.
Si sprach : " So got berate mich, Tuo dinen namen mir bekannt " Er sprach : " das tuon ich zehant . Gote ergeben ich bin genant. Min name ist dir unerkant.1'
Nach dieser Scene fahrt aber S folgender- massen fort zu erzahlen : Die Mutter steigt mit der Jungfrau die Treppe hinunter, unter der ALEXIUS liegt. Jedesmal wenn Mutter und Braut an ihm vorbeigehen, schwebt ALEXIUS in grosser Angst, man mochte ihn erkennen, und zieht sich scheu zuriick. Die Mutter hat es schon gemerkt, glaubt aber, der Pilger, der schon so lange Jahre in ihrem Hause lebe, habe sie nie gesprochen, well er.sie hasse. Doch ist sie neugierig ; sie mochte gerne erfahren, woher er stamme, sie wolle ihn gleich diesmal fragen, sagt sie zu ihrer Schwiegertochter, sie kame ,ja sonst spater vielleicht nicht mehr so leicht dazu, er sahe so abgescbwacht aus, dass er wohl bald sterben wiirde.
Die beiden Frauen nahern sich ihm. Der Mutter kommt es so vor, als ob er ihrem ver- lorenen Sohne gliche, und als sie ihn ansieht, muss sie weinen: Doch ermannt sie sich und fragt ihn nach seiner Heimat. Aber ALEXIUS weicht der Frage aus, er ware krank, dem Tode nahe, drum wolle er nicht liigen, "car par mencoigne pert on saint paradis." Sie wiirde es doch bald wissen, denn vor seinem Tode wiirde er sein ganzes Leben aufschrei- ben. Und er bittet seine Mutter noch naher an ihn heranzukommen, und wie sie vor ihm steht, kiisst er ihr die Fiisse und bittet sie um Verzeihung.
"Sire " dist ele, " qttel pardon me querns t "
Pour mon malaige quie jou estre encombrt's." "Sire " dist ele " tout vous soit pardonn^." " Vostre grant painne que eu en avds.
Pour amour Diu, si le me pardonnds."
Et la pucele les a bien esgardes
Si li pardonne, ele fait autretel.
Ele s'en tourne, cil est moult lids rente's.
Hochpoetisch wirkt diese Scene, wo der strenge Ascete beim Anblick seiner Mutter ein menschliches Ru'hren fiihlt und sie um Verzeihung bittet. Im deutschen Gedichte lasst sich ALEXIUS nicht riihren. Wie wenn er Eltern und Braut geradezu foppen wollte, erzahlt er aus freien Stiicken (v. 615 ff.) von ALEXIUS, den er wohl gekannt habe ; er geht sogar soweit, eine Beschreibung von ihm zu geben, und stets herzlos, ohne Riihrung. Die Braut dagegen ist in der deutschen Legende recht menschlich geschildert. Wie in hasti- gem Fieber richtet sie ihre Fragen um den Brautigam an den Pilger :
" Hat er iht gedaht widerkomen? Daz ban ich nie von im vernomen. Hat in gerouwen iht diu vart ? Des selben ich nie innen wart, Er jach, er wolde in dem leben Sime libe ein ende geben." So la dim, herre, enpfolhen sin Uf die grozen gnside din."
Schon diese Scenen sind so verschieden ge- schildert, dass eine unmittelbare Beeinflus- sung kaum vorliegen diirfte. Noch deutlich- er wird es aber aus dem folgenden : Wenn der deutsche Dichter an die oben erwahnte Scene nur eine Moralreflexion iiber ALEXIUS' Standhaftigkeit und die Bemerkung hinzufiigt :
" Des morgeno fruo si zus im kam Unt fragten von ir fridel m£r,"
fiigt der Franzose noch eine ganze Episode hinzu, welche die Braut und ALEXIUS noch in nahere Beziehung zu einander bringt.
Wahrend in der ganzen Stadt Rom der Heilige gesucht wird, von dem die geheim- • nissvolle Stimme in der Kirche gesprochen hat, wahrend Papst und Kaiser im Hause des EUPHEMIAN sich dariiber beklagen, dass er nicht gefunden werde, und EUPHEMIAN selbst nicht ahntjwelchen Schatz er in seinem Hause birgt, liegt ALEXIUS unter der Treppe auf seinem Strohlager und ringt mit dem Tode. Da tritt die Jungfrau zu ihm :
" Sire " dist ele " moult vous torble li vis ; " " Bele" dist il "car sui prts de ma fin."
Er werde heute sterben, er fiihle es an der
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.\n-st, die ihi) bei a lie ; si.- nn.^c dm h an s< in- Bestattung in der Kirrhe des h. Bonifarius denken, aucli sit- werde vielleicht spater wun- schen dort l>egraben zu werden. Ach, wenn ilitn iiur fin Zeirhen voiu Mimmel karne, dass er sehe, ob er recht gelebt ! \Venn nur die Glocken fiir ihn liintcn u iirden ! — Kaum hat er das Wort gesprochen. so wird sein Wunsch erfiillt. In der ganzen Stadt Rom lauten die Glocken und ALEXIUS kann nun ruliigsterben. Seine Stunde naht, und im letzten Augen- blicke fliistert er noch seiner Hraut zu, er ware nicht aus fernem Lande ; unter den Verwand- ten, die ihn begraben wiirden, waren auch Vater und Mutter, und seine Frau, die er ver- lassen habe. Da wird der Braut plotzlich Alles klar:
" E Dins," dist ele, "jou quie c'est mes amis." " Sire," dist ele, " sont il bien lone de ci ? Mandas lors tu par mes qui lor desist ? "
Aber ALEXIUS kann nicht mehr antworten. Er ist todt. — Diese Episode, welche am schonsten das Verhaltniss des ALEXIUS zu seiner Braut darstellt, felilt vollstandig bei A. Sollte diesmoglich sein, wenn A, das ja sonst viel poetisches Verstandniss zeigt, S gekannt hatte. Doch wohl kaum. Und noch andere Griinde sprechen dagegen.
Auch die Brautnacht ist in S und A ganz verschieden behandelt. Die Details gebe ich hier nicht an, da ich nochuntendarauf zuriick- kominen werde. Hier moge die Bemerkung geniigen, dass sie im fran/osischen Gedichte ganz realistisch-dramatisch bewegt ist, im deutschen einfach und riihrend sich abspielt.
Doch auch andere sehr poetische Ziige von S hat A nicht aufxiuveisen. So hat folgender Zug von S bei A nicht den geringsten Anklang gefunden : Als ALEXIUS seine Braut verlassen hat, um ins Morgenland zu pilgern, steigt er auf einen Hiigel, um von dort aus vor seiner Abfalirt zum letzten Mai die Stadt seiner Ahneii zu sehn. Und indem er hiniiberblickt zu seiner Yaterstadt, richtet er ein heisses (it bet an den Herren, und bittet ihn, er moge doch die Jungfrau, die er verlusseii, ein solches Leben fiihren lassen, dass ihre Seele ins Him- melreich koninie. Eincn Angenblick iiber- inannt ihn die Riilirung, als er an seine Kltern zuriickclenkt, doch fasst er sich bald wieder, und befliigelten Schrittes eilt er /i;m Meere.
\Virhtig sind auch die Verse 476-500, die wieder den Zweckhaben.die Scelenstarke des AI.KXIUS zu zeigen. Als die Boten, welche \'.\ THKMIAN nach seinem Sohne ausgeschickt hat, ihn in Ausis nicht erkannt haben, da er durch sein ascetisches Leben so abgeharmt ist, folgt ihnen ALEXIUS heimlich bis zu Hirer Herberge nach, und an der Thiire belauscht er ihr Gesprach. Kr hort, wie auf die Frage des Wirthes und der Wirthin, wen sie denn so eifrig suchten, die Boten ihnen das Ver- scliwinden des ALEXIUS aus Rom und die Klagen seiner Eltern erzahlen. Dieser Bericht riihrt den Heiligen bis zu Thranen, aber er bleibt fest und lasst die Boten abziehen, ohne sich zu erkennen zu geben.
Auch die Ankunft des ALEXIUS in Rom ist von S mit mehr Farbe geschildert als von A : Als ALEXIUS das SchifF verlassen, setzt er sich nach langerer Wanderung durch die Strassen unter einen Dornstrauch, um sich auszuruhen. Er ist krank und schwach, und denkt sich, dass er wohl in fremder Herberge werde sterben mussen. Da liest er gerade in seinem Psalter, den er zum Lesen hervorge- holt, es sei die Pflicht jeder Mutter ihr Kind zu pflegen, so lange es klein sei, sieben Jahre lang, doch wenn es schwach und krank ware, sein ganzes iibriges Leben lang. Das halt er fiir ein Zeichen des Himmels und es bringt ihn dazu, bei seinen Eltern um Herberge zu Hehen.
Auch die Begegnung des Sohnes mit seinen Eltern enthalt sehr viele Details, welche bei A absolut nicht wiedergegeben werden. Dieselben mitzutheilen gestattet mir l,eider der Rauni nicht. Doch meine ich, dass die mitgetheilten Abweichungen beider Gedichte schon zur Geniige zeigen, dass eine directe Beeinflussung nicht vorliegen kann. Man denke noch an die obenerwahnte Verschieden- heit der Namen, und man wird zugeben mus- sen, dass beide Gedichte in keinem unmittel- ban-n Yerhiiltniss zu einander stehen.
\\'dlil ist aber mittelbare Uebereinstinimung vorhanden. S und A (resp. L) gehoren der " briiutlichen " Richtung an. Nach meiner Ansicht hat sich diese Richtung erst allmalich entuickelt. Der urspriinglichen Legende lag sie fern. In der Bollandistenbearbeitung und den von ihr abhiingigen Arbeiten ist die Braut
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ganz Nebenfigur. Sie tritt selbst in der Braut- nacht kaum hervor, willfahrt dem ALEXIUS sofort, und trauert dann das ganze Gedicht hindurch, ohne in die Handlung einzugreifen. Die mittelmassigen Kopfe, welche sich an die Bearbeitung der Legende machten, gingen an ihr kalt voriiber. Nur die poetisch begab- ten merkten, dass aus der Rolle dieser armen Verlassenen etwas zu machen war, sobald man sie als menschlich fuhlende Seele auffasste, statt als stummes Opfer eines blinden Ascetis- mus. Und jeder Dichter fuhrte die Rolle in seiner Weise durch : der Deutsche einfach, innig, riihrend — der Franzose realistisch, dramatisch. Aber nicht mit einem Schlage, sondern langsam erfolgte die Ummodelung der Legende. Ein Zug folgte dem andern, und erst mit der Zeit wurde diese Auffassung der Sage beliebter als die friihere. Darum hat MASSMANN nach meiner Ansicht Unrecht, wenn er p. 41 sagt : " Ueberraschend haftet in dem spatercn italienischen Gedichte der Hauptzug, dass der Todte nur der Braut den Brief anvertraut." Im Gegentheil ist es natiirlich, dass mit der Zeit das Romanhafte immermehr gefiel. Aber MASSMANN geht eben von einem Vorurtheile aus, das ihn durch die ganze Untersuchung nicht verlasst. Als die aesthetisch schonste Bearbeitung muss sie nach ihm zugleich auch die alteste sein. Aber dagegen lasst sich Wichtiges einwenden.* Wenn vvir der Sage auf den Grund gehen, so ist der Zug, dass ALEXIUS seiner Braut den Brief gibt, so lieblich er auch ist, fur die Auftassung der Legende doch schief.f Als frommer Heiliger muss ALEXIUS auch im Tode seinen Grundsatzen treu bleib- en und den Stellvertreter Gottes allem andern vorziehen. Wie kommt er dazu, die Braut
*G. PARIS: Romania VIII (1879) P- l65> 'st auc^ derselben Meinung. Leider gibt er aber keine Griinde an. Er sagt: "J'y aurais fait voir (in dem projectirten 2ten Hande der Alexiuslegende, der nicht herauskam), combien MASSMANN s'est trompd en regardant la version latine de notre le'gende oil ALEXIS remet sa fameuse charte A sa femme et non au pape, comme plus, ancienne que 1'autre : elle en est au con- traire un remaniement assez recent et sans doute spe'ciale- ment italien. Pise et Lucques sont substitutes a Laodice'e et a Edesse, etc."
fCf. G. PARIS: 'Vic de St. Alexis/ p. 206, "II est certain cependant que cette insistance sur la situation d'une personne envers qui la conduite du saint homme parait trfes dure n'est pas de nature a scrvir 1'idec mere de la k'gende.
ausztizeichnen, die er stets bei Seite geschoben hat ? Dieser Zug ist keineswegs nai'v, sondern entspringt im Gegentheil einer viel spateren romanhaften Verdrehung des Grundgedank- ens. Und zwar musste, ehe sich dieser Zug einstellen konnte, erst im ganzen iibrigen Ge- dichte die Braut mehr in den Vordergrund getreten sein. Dieser Zug, vvelcher am frap- pantesten die Braut bevorzugt, ist nach meiner Ansicht der letzte Auslaufer der brautlichen Richtung. Und aus diesem Grunde halte ich S, welches noch nicht ganz mit der alteren Richtung, die den Papst der Braut vorzieht, gebrochen hat, und auch das Beilager im Tode nicht erwahnt, fur um eine Stufe alter als L und A. In der gemeinsamen Quelle von L und S, die wir x nennen konnen, waren also noch nicht vorhanden gewesen die Uebergabe des Briefes an die Braut, und nicht das Beilager im Tode (doch dariiber cf. unten), sonst aber die Bevorzugung der Braut im Gesprach unter der Stiege und in der Brautnacht. Die speciellen Ziige dabei hatte S, dessen Verfasser poetisch sehr begabt war, erfunden. x hatte auch sonst noch die Wanderung des ALEXIUS nach Jerusalem gehabt, den Dienst des ALEXI- US u. s. w., alles Ziige, die S und A gemeinsam haben. Diese Quelle x cliirfte wohl lateinisch gewesen sein. So hatten wir denn vorlaufig folgendes Schema :
Zur brautlichen Legende gehort aber, \vie wir schon oben erwahnt, noch eine andere deutsche Bearbeitung F. Sie hat zwar nicht clen Zug der Ubergabe des Briefes an die
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Braut, liat abt-r smist die Braut in der Hoch- /< itsnacht sowohl als im Gesprach uiul ini Beilager im Tode betont. Welche Stellung nimint diese Bearbeitung zu S cin?
Die Brnutnncht hat in ihrer ganzen Durch- fiihrung mehr Ahnlichkeit mit S als mit A. Man vergleiche:
\Vie in S, aber im Gegensatze zu A, wird die Braut ins Belt gelegt. Von dem Schmucke d<-s Brautgemachs, der in L beschrieben wird, hat aber V nichts. 1 )afiir cr/ahlt cs aber, class AI.KXIUS schon vorher sich eine Kutte hatte machen lassen, drin er sich
" Versteln wolde dannen Von friunden, migen, mannen Von guote unt von eren Uur got inz ellende keren."
In L \vird ansfiihrlich berichtet, wie Vnter und Mutter die Brautleute in das fein ge- schmiickte und weihrauchduftende Gemach begleiten. Erst, wie die Braut im Bette liegt, verlassen die Eltern das Zimmer. In F wird freilich auch er/iihlt, dass die Braut ins Bett gelegt wird ; von der Begleitung der Eltern ist aber keine Rede, dafiir lasst ALEXIUS das Gesinde aus dem Zimmer gehen :
" Er hiez das vole gar an der st:it SISfen gar gemeine ..."
In der franzosischen Bearbeitung warden die Reize der Braut noch naher beschrieben. I )ie spjitcren franzdsischen Gedichte thun dies mit besonderem VVohlgefallen, haupt- sachlich O, das an das Schliipfrige streift. Bei F ist keine Rede davon. In S aber, wie in F, betet ALEXIUS, bevor er zu seiner Braut tritt, noch inbriinstig zum Himmel, er m<")chte ihm Standhaftigkeit verleihen, dass er seinen Grundsiitzen treu bleibe. Darauf tritt er vor seine Braut liin, und ermahnt sie zur Keiisch- lu-it : Sie solle Jesus zum Brautigam nelinien, cf. F, v. 527-545; S, v. 144-153. Bei S nimmt er sofort darauf seinen Ring, durchschneidet ihn mit seinem Schwerte, und gibt ilir die eine Hiilfte davon, uahrend er die andere .fur sich beliah als Erkennungszeichen zwischen ihm und seiner Mutter, uenn er je zuriickkame. In I" gibt er ihr erst spater seinen Ring, den er aber nicht zerschneidet, und bloss zum Andenken, nicht zum Erkennungszeichen, cf. v. 404 ff.
Als A i uier Rraut von seinem Vor-
haben spricht, in die Fremde zu geht-n, straubt sie sich dagegen mit aller Kraft, nicht aber gegen den Gedanken keusch bleiben zu miissen. Sie will ihn nur nicht von sich in's Elend gehen lassen. Auch folgender Gedanke der Braut ist derselbe in beiden Gedichten. Sie fiirchtet, dass man sagen konnte, sie ware schuld daran, dass ALEXIUS zoge : In F: "darumbe miiess ich schame r6t vil dicke stan ....," und in S: was konnte sie dem Vater und der Mutter sagen, sie wiirden sie verstossen:
"Tel honte arai jamais n'iere honner^e."
Ebenso M und ahnlich Q.
Aber in beiden Gedichten lasst sich ALEXIUS weder durch Bitten noch Umarmung ein- schiichtern. Wenn auch die Reihenfolge der Gedanken verschieden ist und der Wortlaut abweicht, und bei S mehr detaillirt wird, so sind die Grundgedanken doch dieselben. Er setzt ihr auseinander, wie verganglich das weltliche Leben sei und erklart ihr seinen fasten Entschluss, nur Gott von nun an zu leben. Aber die Braut macht verschiedene Versuche ihn zuriickztihalten. Realistisch und dramatisch ist die Darstellung bei S, dagegen bei F etwas unbeholfen. Man vergleiche die Verse 247 ff. bei S mit 610 ff. bei F.
5 "Sire," dist ele, "com ert del repairier? Di me le terme, eel ferai metre en brief; Mout as dur cuer qui or me veus laiscier, Et pi-re et mtre qui par t'ont si tr{-s cier."
F Si sprach : " o we wie lastu mich Ze grO^em jamer hinder dlr TrQt geselle sage mir, Wan daz iemer mlige geschehen Daz ich dich fn'ilich mlleze sehen T "
Im franz. Gedicht ist ALEXIUS weniger hart als in der deutschen, wo er ihr antwortet : " uf erden niemmer mC." V.r liisst ihr noch einige Hollnung : "del terme ne sai nient." Man \\isse \\ohl, wann man gehe. dm h nicht, wann man zuriickkehre, was er auch thun wiirde, sie ni(")ge sich an Gott halten. Bei I- versucht die Braut nach ALKXIUS' so harten Worten aurh nichts mehr, sie kann nur \\ei- nen. In S dagegen macht sie noch einen let/ten X'erstich und fragt ihn weinend, ob sie ihn clenn nicht begleittn ditrfte als I'ilgerin,
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im harenen Gewande, mit abgeschnittenem Haar und eisenbeschlagenem Stabe, nur damit er nicht ganz verwahrlost sei ; sie ver- spricht ihm auch, ihm stets treu dabei zu bleiben, v. 313 ff. Aber auch dies gestattet der Heilige nicht und verlasst sie.
So sehen wir derm, dass trotz einiger Abweichungen die Grundgedanken uberein- stimmen, ein Umstand, der beide> Gedichte sehr nahe an einander riickt.
Der zweite "brautliche" Zug von F, das Ge- sprach unter der Stiege gleicht .mehr A als S. Wie in A, fragen auch in F; im Gegensatz zii S Verwandte (F) oder Braut. .(A) den Pilger direct nach ALEXIUS. Dagegen hat F nicht den S und A gemeinsamen Zug, dass ALEXIUS nach seinem Namen gefragt wird. Dafiir hat aber F andere spezielle Ziige. Der Pilger sagt der Braiit direct, dass ALEXIUS siebzehn Jahre in Edessa g.ewesen sei; die Knechte des EUPHEMIAN -ihn iiberall gesucht und nicht gefunden hatten. Darauf der Jammer der Eltern und die Ankniipfung von Reflexionen. Man sieht, dass F lange nicht so viel aus dem Gesprach unter der Stiege hat machen kon- nen, als A, geschweige denn S (M, Q). Auch sonst sieht man aus dem Gedichtej dass der Verfasser von F, dessen Hauptstarke in breit- getretenen religiosen Reflexionen zu liegen scheint, kein sehr poetisch begabter Mann ist.
Den dritten " brautlichen " Zug, das Bei- lager im Tode, hat F mit A gemein. Hier treinnen sich also wiederum F und S.
Mit, A und S hat F noch einen vierten Zug gemein, namlich das Glockenlauten beim To'de des ALEXIUS, freilich in etwas anderem Zusammenhange, und mit S allein gemein, das ,-Auftreten von Engeln, welche die Seele des Heiligen in den Himmel tragen. Cf. F. v. 1270.
" Die heiligen engel kamen Sin reine sele namen Unt fuortens froliche Ins ewige riche."
S. v. 1058 ff. .
" Et des sains angles vit la pourcession Qui portent 1'ame cantant nostre signour.''
Die bisher betrachteten Ziige von F, die A und S gemeinsam sind, waren in x, ihrer Quelle, vorhanden. In dioser Quelle war
aber auch, freilich noch nicht ganz durchge- fiihrt, sondern wie bei S, die Uebergabe des Briefes an die Braut. In F" haben wir dagegen noch die Uebergabe an den Papst, ein Um- stand, der auf eine altere Auffassung der Sage in Fhinweist, als dicing vorhandene. Nochi folgendes ist zu beachten. Gemeinsam hat F mit L das Fehlen der Turteltaube und des Trauersackes. A hat diesen Zug aus den Bollandisten entnommen und S aus P, sodass es moglich, sogar wahrscheinlich ist, dass die Quelle von A und S, x, den Zug nicht hatte, also x mit F hier iibereinstimmte. Mit x hat dafu'r F nicht gemein das Dienen des ALEXIUS am Kaiserlichen Hofe ; dieser Zug kann aber durch die grosse Ausdehnung, welche der Schulbesuch des ALEXIUS in F nimmt (v. 92- 246 !) verwischt worden sein.
Nach allem diesem ware es immer noch moglich, dass F ebenso wie L und S von x abhangig ware. Entnommen hatte es aus x, wie L und S :
1. Die grossere Rolle der Braut in der Brautnacht.
2. Das Gesprach unter der Stiege.
3. Das Glockenlauten und die Engel.
4. Das Fehlen des Vergleichs mit der Turteltaube, und des Trauersacks.
5. Das Beilager .im Tode, das auch in x wenigstens angedeutet sein musste. Denn es findet sich in L, und wenn auch nicht in S selbst, so doch in Q, das von S stammt, ange- deutet. Nach dem Hendschriftenschema von G. PARIS sehen wir, dass S sich folgender- massen zu M mid Q verhalt :
S*
M*
M
Q
Es kann also ganz gut in x ein Zug gestan- den haben der in M und Q iiberging, ohne in S zu iibergehen. Wenn nun in x der Umstand trocken berichtet war, dass die Braut mit ALEXIUS begraben wurde, kann dies in Q iitergegangen sein, ohne durch S zu gehen.
* i ist die franz. Quelle von S und M ; S* und M* altere Hs.
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I lurch M winl i-s auch gegangen sein ; es lasst sicli freilich nicht mehr controliren, denn gerade an dieser Stelle ist die Hs. arg cor- rupt.* Gerade nach den Worten :
Vail s'ent li pucles, ec li pi-re et li mfere
Ct li puchiele onkes ne desevrirent
bricht die Hs. ab ; erst x.u Sdiluss kommen noch Gebete; es ist aber anzunehmen, dass M dasselbe gehabt habe, als B, das ihm stets treu folgt, also: " Avecguez son segnieur fu la bele enterre"e." So batten wir denn den Zug durch xt M, Q bewahrt. S hatte ihn ver- wiscbt, nur L hatte ihn ausgebeutet, und wenn F von x abhangt, ebenfalls. Aber ein anderer Umstand lasst uns x nicht fur die Out-lie von F annehmen :
1. Ware es wunderbar, dass F den Zug der Uebergabe des Briefes an die Braut ganz ver- wischt hatte. Freilich liesse sich denken, dass F als kirchlich sehr strenge Bearbeitung die Zuriicksetzung des Papstes als ungehorig empfand.
2. Viel schwerwiegender ist aber, dass F, obgleich sie so kirchlich ist und Bibelsprllche, Citate und Gleichnisse Uberall anwendet, die Pilgerschaft des ALEXIUS nach Jerusalem, welche x und die von x abhangigen Bear- beitungen alle haben, nicht besitzt. Dieser Umstand stosst die Annahme einer Abhangig- keit F's von x geradezu urn. Denn es ist
*Cf. G. PARIS in Anmerkung zu v. 1251 "A partir de ce vcrs le po6me est tronqui- de la fafon la plus violente."
nicht denkbar, dass eine so kirchliche Bear- beitung dies Ubergangen hatte, wenn sie x gekannt hatte.
Es ist vielmehr Folgendes anzunehmen : F gehcirt einer alteren Fassung der Brautlegende an, welche die Braut in der Brautnacht, im Gesprach und im gemeinsamen Begraben hervorhebt, aber noch nicht in der Uebergabe des Briefes, und zugleich weder die Erwah- nung Jerusalems, noch der Turteltaube und des Sackes enthalt. F ist aber wiederum nicht die directe Quelle von x, denn sonst mOsste x das von F ausgefuhrte Beilager im Grabe mil herilbergenommen haben. Quelle von x ist bloss die Quelle von F, die wir f nennen, welche nur die spater in x und Q sich wider findende Andeutung des gemeinsamen Be- grabens hatte. Diesen Zug hat dann F selb- standig weiter ausgefiihrt. Soviel Phantasie kann man F zutrauen. Es ist ganz in dersel- ber holzernen Art geschehn, wie F den Schulbesuch des ALEXIUS schildert. So hiltten wir denn folgendes Schema fur die brSutliche Legende. — Es mag vorlaufig vor f noch eine andere die brautlichen ZUge im Keime enthaltende Bearbeitung o (Original) angenommen werden. Wegen der grossen sonstigen Verschiedenheiten von L und x ware es vielleicht gerathen eine Zwischen- bearbeitung y einzuschieben, die z. B. Pisa and Lucca eingefiihrt hatte. Zwischen x und S, M, Q muss i die franz-Quelle kommen ; x ist lateinisch.
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So batten wir denn die Entwickelung der brautlichen Richtung bis zu einem gewissen Grade zu verfolgen vermocht. Sollte es uns nicht bei grilndlicher Priifung moglich werden, die Keime dieser Richtung noch zu entdecken ? Wir haben schon oben gesehn, dass S auf P zuriickgeht, d. h. z, die frz. Bearbeitung, welche S, M, Q zu Grunde liegt. Konnten nicht in P im Keime die Ziige sich vorfinden, welche spater mehr entwickelt worden ? Lasst uns diese Spur verfolgen.
Wenn P auf den ersten Blick gerade so zu erzahlen scheint, wie die Bollandistenbear- beitung, und weder den Brief an die Braut Ubergehen lasst, noch das Beilager im Tode, noch die Pilgerfahrt nach Jerusalem berichtet, so fallt uns doch auf, dass im Vergleich zu den anderen Gedichten, welche von der Bollandistenbearbeitung abhangen, die Braut- nacht eingehender und zwar in demselben Gedankengange erzahlt wird, wie wir sie bei F finden : Auch hier kommt schon das Bett in Betracht. ALEXIUS betet zu Gott, er mochte ihn standhaft bleiben lassen. Als beide nun allein im Zimmer sind, schildert er seiner Braut die Nichtigkeit des menschlichen Lebens und fordert sie auf, Jesum Christum zum Briiutigam zu nehmen. Derauf gibt er ihr seinen Ring und Giirtel und verlasst sie. — Die Braut spielt hier noch keine thatige Rolle, aber das Auftreten des ALEXIUS ist in seinen Grundziigen dasselbe wie in F. Das Gesprach unter der Treppe ist zwar noch nicht ausgefiihrt, aber, wahrend die Bollan- distenbearbeitung und die von ihr abhangigen Gedichte meist gar nicht die Moglichkeit eines derartigen Verkehrs zwischen ALEXIUS und Braut und Eltern vermuthen und an dieser Stelle schweigen, weist P, zwar noch negativ, aber doch ausdriicklich darauf bin, dass ein solcher Verkehr nicht stattfand. Man vergl. Str. 48, wo P erzahlt : " Oft sahen ihn Vater und Mutter, und seine Braut. Aber nie sprachen sie ihn je an, und er sagte ihnen nicht, und sie fragten ihn nicht, wer er ware und aus welchem Lande er stamme." Gerade die hier als nicht geschehen angefiihrten Momente, sind spater bearbeitet worden, und man kommt auf eine Vermuthung, die nicht allzu unwahrscheinlich sein diirfte. Der Dichter, der diese Zeilen las, musste sicli
denken, dass eine Scene zwischen Eltern, Braut und Pilger viel packender auf seine Zuhorer wirken wlirde, als die blosse Erwiih- nung, dass eine solche nicht stattfand, und so wurde denn die negative Erwahnung von P die Quelle des Gesprachs zwischen Braut und Pilger.
So haben wir denn in P die Keime zweier der wichtigsten Ziige der brautlichen Legende gefunden, die Hervorhebung der Brautnacht und der Hinweis auf ein Verhaltniss der Braut und des ALEXIUS, unter der Treppe des vaterlichen Hauses. Die Schilderung des gemeinsamen Begrabens hat P noch nicht. Ihn wird demnach die Quelle von F eingefiihrt haben.
Noch andere als diese speziell "brautlichen" Ziige hat P mit der "brautlichen" Legende gemein. Wie in alien besprochenen Ge- dichten fehlt auch in P, im Gegensatze zur Bollandistenbearbeitung und den von ihr abhangigen Gedichten, die Erwahnung der 3000 in Seide gekleideten Diener, die an EUPHEMIANS Hofe aufwarten, die Geistlichen, Wittwen und Waisen, die EUPHEMIAN beher- bergt, das Keuschheitsgeliibde der Eltern nach der Geburt des ALEXIUS, und mehrere andere nicht so wichtige Ziige. Vorhanden ist dagegen in der ganzen Reihe von P nach H der Dienst des ALEXIUS beim Kaiser (iiber F siehe oben). Auch hat P mit L, A, S, M, Q den Umstand gemein, dass ALEXIUS seinen Vater auf der Strasse antrifft, wie er gerade von der Kirche, und nicht vom Palaste (wie die anderen Gedichte sagen), zuruckkommt.
Auch der einfache Satz, der bei P vorkommt, als die Heirath des ALEXIUS bestimmt wird :
Noument le terme de lor asemblement,
ist in L beinahe wortlich als " ponitur dies celebritati nuptiarum " wiedergegeben. — Den Vergleich mit der Turteltaube und den Trauersack, den P hat, und S direct aus P entnommen hat, A direct aus der Bollandis- tenbearbeitung, wird die Quelle von F vcr- loren haben, denn es tritt nicht in F auf und ebensowtnig in L.
Nach alle dem diirften wir die Quelle von P, die wir p nennen wollen, als iiber f stehencl annehmen, und erhalten alsostatt o im objgen
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S( -lii-iiia /*, mid davonabhiingig P. /' diirfte iiberhaupt eine der altesten Quellen der Sage sein, und -mil der Bollandistenhearbei-
tung (b) ungefahr auf gleicher Stufe stehc-n. Uemnach hat unser Schema endgiiltig folgende Gestalt :
Wir sehen also, dass von den altesten Zeiten an, vom uten Jahrhundert, wo P entstancl, bis zum Jahre 1488, wo H das Licht der Welt i-rblickte, die "brautliche" Tendenz in der Legende des h. ALEXIUS sich immer \veiter cntwickelte. Aus der urspriiii^lichen schlich- ten Legende suchte man im Laufe der Zeit durch die Hervorhebung der Rolle einer Frau und durch die Hineinflechtung eroti- scher Momente in den legendarischen Stoff einen packenden Roman zu machen. Es darf (lit s nicht Wunder nehmen, denn es ist dies eine Thatsache, die sich in der Geschichte der mittelalterlichen Litteratur tausendfach wiederliolt. Die iiltere Zc-it kennt nur strenge,
schlichte Motive. In den Volksepen spielt die Liebe noch keine Rolle. In den Kunst- epen eines CHRESTIENS VON TROVES bestehen die Ritter zahllose galante Abenteuer. \Vie mit (k-n Kpcn, so ist cs auch mit unserer Legende geworden. Der ascetische Heilige, der urspriinglich nur der gottlichen Inspira- tion folgte, seine Braut nach kurzer und trockener Ermahnung verliess, nie wieder in Beziehung zu ihr trat und der einzigen Auto- ritat, die er anerkannte, der kirchlichen, sein letztes Vermjichtniss anvertraute, wurde in Folge der romanhaften Tendenz spaterer ZritL-n, schon in der Brautnacht in dramatische Situntionen gebracht, lernte wahrend seiner
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Dulderzeit im Hause seines Vaters die ganze Tiefe der Liebe seiner Braut kennen, und noch im Tode musste er als galanter Ritter seiner Dame den Brief iibergeben, in dem er sein gauzes Leben aufgeschrieben, und einige Zeit nachher im Grabe ihr den Platz an seiner Seite einraumen, den er ihr wahrend seines Lebens versagt hatte.
HEINRICH SCHNEEGANS.
Genoa, Italy.
ORIGIN OF THE NAME ' CANADA.'
In that " orgie enfume'e, ripaille bour- geoise," as SAINTE-BEUVE calls the ' Vie de Gargantua et de Pantagruel,'1 every student of Middle French literature will remember a wonderful scene where RABELAIS mounts his hero upon an enormous mare, presented to Grandgousier by Prince Fayoles, fourth king of Numidia. On the journey through the thirty leagues of forest about Orleans, the poor beasts (donkeys, horses, etc.) in the caravan composed of GARGANTUA'S attendants were so harassed and tormented by gad-flies that his jument finally determines to avenge the company : elle desguaine sa queue, et, si bien s'escarmouchant, les esmoucha, qu'elle en abbatit tout le bois, a tords, a travers, de- ca, de la, par cy, par la, de long, de large, dessus, dessoubs abbatoit bois come ung fauscheur faict d'herbes Quoy voyant GAR- GANTUA, y print plaisir bien grand, sans aultrement s'en vanter, et dist a ses gens : Je trouve beau ce. Dont feut depuis appele" ce pays La Beauce.2
A hardly less fanciful origin, though not fraught with any such wholesale destruction of nature, has been assigned to the geographical name Canada, and, strangely enough, cosmo- graphers and geographers up to within a re- cent date have not been unwilling to give a certain credence both to the composite char- acter of the name and to the mode in which it arose. According to a recent lecturer on Geography at the College de France, it was FATHER HENNEPIN and LA POTHERIE that
iSAiNTE-BBUVE, Tableau de la pot'sie franaifse au XVIe sitcle, Tome I, p. 339.
zCKuvres de Rabelais, Edition variorum, par ESMANGART et JOHANNEAU. Paris, 1823. Tome premier, pp. 315-317 (Livre I, Chap. 16).
relate how the Spanish came to Canada about the time it was discovered by CABOT (1497), and finding there nothing but a desert and ice-bound mountains, instead of the gold fields for which they sought, they withdrew crying out meanwhile: Acd Nada! Here nothing! This expression (ce mot, as the writer naively puts it) altered, and repeated later to the French by the natives, was taken for the name of the country itself.3 The only variation of this popular etymology which I have been able to find is that given, "according to most writers," by JOHN BARROWS "When the Portuguese first ascended the river (St. Law- rence) under the idea that it was a strait, through which a passage to the Indies might be discovered — on arriving at the point where they ascertained that it was not a strait, but a river, they, with all the emphasis of disap- pointed hopes, exclaimed repeatedly, Cd, nada !-(Here nothing!) which words caught the attention of the natives and were remem- bered and repeated by them on seeing other Europeans, tinder JACQUES CARTIER, arrive in 1534 — but CARTIER mistakes the object of the Portuguese to have been gold mines .... and, if the Portuguese account be true, he also mistook the exclamation of Ca (sic) nada for the name of the country.
It was evidently from this account that SAL- VERTE5 takes his suggestion, attributing the origin of the word to the Portuguese, since none of the lexicographers of his time men- tion the Portuguese at all in this connection, but to the Spaniards do they assign the honor of having given the occasion for this whimsi- cal appellation. Thus, for example, NOEL et CARPENTIER (1833), 6 the Socie'te" de Savans in their Encyclopedic (1834),? BOUILLET in his
3Choix de Lectures de Geographic par L. LANIEH. AmeYi- que. Paris, Belin et fils, 1883, p. 53.
4A chronological history of Voyages into ihe Arctic Re- gions undertaken chiefly for the purpose of discovering a North-East, North-West or Polar Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific .... by JOHN BAKROW, F. R. S. London, 1818, p. 43.
SEssai historique (1824), Vol. II, p. 295.
6Nouveau dictionnaire des origines, inventions et de'cou- vertes. Par NOF.L et CAKPENTIER; secondc edition par PUISSANT fils. Tome I, p. 205.
7Encyclope'die des gens du Monde. Repertoire tiniversel des sciences, des lettres et des arts. Paris, 1834. Tome quatrieme, p. 593.
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1 >irtionnaire universe! (1^76), who unites tin- two vocables and writes wisely about ce mot ACANADA;8the Paris-Amsterdam Dictionary of a hundred years before (1776), 9 and Vivn:.\ DE SAINT-MARTIN (1879), «° who, however, calls the etymology plus que fantaisiste which assigns the origin of the name to so fortuitous a circumstance as this theory pre-supposes. Outside of this traditional source, with refer- ence to which both Spaniards and Portuguese have been quoted, there exist three distinct theories as to the origin of the word ; namely, i. The river Canada (meaning the St. Law- rence) gave the name to the country, 2. From the small province of Canada, the designation was extended to the whole valley of the St. Lawrence and 3. The term is of Indian origin, meaning in Iroquois "a village." The first evidence, so far as I am aware, of the St. Law- rence having been called "'Canada," is to be found in Lescarbot's history, of 1612:" " Et pour le regard du nom Canada tout celebre" en 1'Europe, c'est proprement 1'appellation de Tune et de 1'autre rive de cette grande riviere, a laquelle on a donne1 le nom de Canada, comme au fleuve de 1'Inde le nom du peuple et de la province qu'il arrose," and this restric- tion of the term to designate the river, I ap- prehend, rests upon a simple misunderstand- ing. JACQUES CARTIER knows nothing of any such name in the ' Recit ' (1545) of his second voyage.12 I have carefully noted every pas- sage in this work where the term is employed and it is evident that he had no idea of at-
SDictionnaire universe! d'histoire et de geographic par M. N. BOITILLBT. Ouvrage revu et continue1 par A. CHASSANG. Nouvelle Edition (vingt-cinquicme) ; Paris, 1876. p. 327.
gNouveau Dictionnaire pour servir de supplement aux Dictionnaires des sciences, des arts et des metiers par M. . . . Paris, Amsterdam, 1776. Folio. Tome II, pp. 165-66.
loNouveau Dictionnaire de Geographic universelle par M. VIVIEN »B SAINT-MARTIN. Paris, 1879. Tome I, pp. 593- 198.
nHistoire de la Nouvelle France par MARC LBSCARBOT. Paris, iftr?. Truss-edition, vol. I, pp. 221-22.
laThe full title runs : I'rief recit, & succinctc narration, de la Nauigation faicte cs yflcs c!e Canada, Hoclielaga & Sague- n.i y it autres, auec particuliers niuurs, langaiKc, & cerimonies ilcs haliitans d'icelles : fort delectable veoir. Avcc priuilegc ( in li-s tiend a Paris au fecond pillicr en la grand falle du Palais, & en la rue neiifiic Nnstrcdame a I'enscigne de Icscu de frAce, par Ponce RorFet diet Faucher, it Anthoine le clcrc frcres, 1345.
tributing this appellation to the body of water now known as the St. Lawrence or to any other stream.
CARTIKR arrived off the island of An- on the loth of August — date of the martyrdom of St. Latin-mills, and on which the Catholic church celebrates the fete of this saint, hence it seemed appropriate to the explorer to give this name, 'St. Lawrence," to the body of water which to-day bears the title : nous nommasmes la dicte baye fainct Laurens (fol. 8 verso). His record of the I2th of August then follows : par le Su d'icelle lie, (Anticosti) estoit le chemin a aller de Hoguedo ou nous les (sauvages) auions pi-ins Ian precedent a Canada: Etque a deux iournees du diet cap & yfle comenceroit le royaulme de Saguenay a la terre deuers le Nort allant vers le diet Canada . . . . le chemin, & comencement du grat Silenne de Hochelaga & chemin de Canada : le quel alloit toujiours en estroiflent iufques a Canada (fol. 9 verso) .... Nous ap- pareillafmes du diet hable le premier iour de feptembre pour aller vers Canada . . . (fol. n) ... la riuiere & chemin du royaulme & terre de Saguenay, ainsi que nous a este diet par noz deux fauvages du pais de Canada. . . . Le lendemain deuxiefme iour du diet feptem- bre, refortismes hors de la dicte riuiere pour faire le chemin vers Canada (fol. n verso) . . . le feptiesme iour dudict moys, iour noftre- dame, . . . , nous partifmes de la dicte yfle pour aller a mont le diet fleuve, ... & vinf- mes a quatorze yfles qui estoiet diftantes de ladicte yfle es Couldres de fept a huict lieues, qui eft le commencement de la terre & prou- ince de Canada (fol. 12 verso). The author then goes on (fol. 32)10 define more exactly where this province of Canada is situated : " laqlle (Saguenay) fort dentre haultes motaig- nes, entre dedas ledict Heuue au par auat q arriue a la puince de Canada, de la bade deuers le Nort .... Apres ladicte riuiere eft la prouince de Canada .... II y a auffi es emiiros atidict Canada dedas le diet lleuue plusietirs yfles tat grades q petites."
DONNOCONA is called le ' feignetir de Cana- da'(fol. 13) and his '(Lmeurance1 U»>1. 14) is at Stadacona ((Jnebec) ; and again (fol. 28) the author speaks of making ready his gallymi, & barques pour retourner a la prouince lie
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Canada au port de faincte Croix (present St. Charles) ; still further (fol. 29), in response to an invitation of the Indian chief to visit his village (Quebec) : ledict cappitaine auec fes gentilz hommes accompaigne de cinquant compaignons . . . alleret veoir ledict DONNA- CONA & fon peuple qui eft diftat dou eftoient lesdictes nauires d'une lieue : & fe nom leur demourace Stadacone.
There cannot be the slightest doubt after these divers statements, intended to represent so varied events, and widely separated, too, in point of time, that the only use to which the name was then applied, was simply to indicate a limited district of country lying along the north bank of the St. Lawrence between the Saguenay and Quebec. Had the river St. Lawrence been so called, there were many occasions in his narrative when the writer would naturally have used it to advan- tage instead of resorting to the clumsy peri- phrasis, le diet fleuve (fol. 32, fol. 12 verso). Not a single example exists in CARTIER'S account where he refers to the word Canada with any signification other than as a province. Among the Indian words given by him (a list of which follows at the end of his narrative), he has correctly put down Kanata "village," but. without the slightest suggestion that the word could be taken as the origin of the name of the province Canada to which he refers so often. The fact, then, I hold as incontestable that CARTIER found the name Canada already in existence as applied to a single province when he arrived at Stadacona (Quebec) in the month of September 1535. Here, then, the question must naturally arise : Was the name original with DONNACONA and his tribe or was it of foreign, that is European, origin ? The improbability of its being indigenous for pho- netical reasons will be shown later in this in- vestigation. But, setting aside the linguistic considerations that will be adduced further on for a European origin of the word, the ques- tion may be fairly asked : Is it a priori proba- ble that in a savage land such as JACQUES CARTIER found the banks of the St. Lawrence to be on his first (1534) and second (1535) visits, a European name could have taken such hold as to be commonly used by the natives in so short a time as we are justified
in accepting for the name Canada? Ts it reasonable to suppose that this part of the country ever had any other designation ? If so, is it likely that all traces of the former native nomenclature should have disappear- ed? To judge by the analogy of other geo- graphical names found along the coast of Newfoundland and around the Gulf of St. Lawrence by the St. Malo navigator, we are obliged to answer the first question in the affirmative. The CABOTAS (JOHN and SEBAS- TIAN) discovered terram primum visam (Prima Vista) on June 24, 1497. Leaving out of ac- count former visits of the Norsemen to these parts, reaching back 500 years before this, we thus have over a generation (37 years) elapsing between CABOT'S discovery and the arrival of the French under CARTIER. Next after the English headed by CABOT, came the Portu- guese and these were followed by the Spanish so that when the French arrived on the eastern coast of America they found a great many places bearing Spanish or Portuguese names. Thus, Newfoundland was Terra Nova do Baccalhao (Codfish Island), Labrador was Terra de Labrador (The Laborer, or Slave Coast), to which may be added Cabo do Gado (Cattle Cape), Rio da Tormenta (Storm River) Bahia das Medas (Rick Bay), Monte de Trigo (Wheat Mountain), etc.J3
That the name (if the limited district, origin- ally called Canada, ever had a special one) should have disappeared entirely is not sur- prising ; this was the general fate of Indian
i3Cf. A chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic Regions... By JOHN BARROW, F. K. s. London, 1818. p. 38 et seq.
An interesting linguistic study might be made of many of these geographical names that have been subjected-, succes- sively, to Spanish, Portuguese, French and English influences, on the coast of Newfoundland. The products resulting from a mixing of so divergent phonetic, tendencies as are found here, are often difficult to trace to their original forms ; a few French vocables, for example, that have passed through , only one of these stages of transformation in their contact with English, will abundantly illustrate the distorted linguis- tic developments which one meets here at every turn : Tasse a l'arpent> TOSTLEJOHN, Beau Bois> BOBOY, Bait: tie Vieux > BAY-THE-VIEW, Lance au Diablc> NANCY JOBBLE, Bate le Diablo JABBOULS, Baie de Li vre> BAY DELIVER, Bate d' Espoir > BAY DESPAIR, Baie des Baules> BAY OF BULLS. For many more of these curious compounds, cf. Text-Book of Newfoundland History, by the REV. M. HARVEY. Boston, 1885, p. 67.
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names of places for which European or non- native designations were substituted ; even much later ones of European fabrication have completely fallen out of the geographical nomenclature of this region : witness the ffaccalaos, or Codlands, by which title alone Newfoundland and the adjacent islands were long known. ROBERT THORNE, of Bristol, writing from Spain in 1527 (seven years before Carder's first voyage), knows Labrador only by the appellation Terre de Labrador '.'4 In the edition of Ptolemy, published at Basel in 1540, little more than one generation (39 years) after Cortereal's expedition, the first map there published is called " TypusorbisUniversalis," on which we note in the extreme North of the new world Terra Nova Sive de Bacalhos.^ On the same map, Labrador is marked " Cor- terati " (name given by CORTEREAL to this part of the country), but even at that time it had been supplanted by the appellation that ex- pressed the adaptability of the natives for labor — Laborador, the " Slave Coast of Ameri- ca." These examples serve to show how names that had for Europeans some personal or historic significance even, would vanish from use and all reminiscence of them disap- pear; the same tendency is well illustrated in the frequent change of topogrophical designa- tions for the newer parts of the United States in our early history. Again : in the earliest collection of voyages to the new world : 'Paesi novamente retrovati et Novb Mondo da Albe- rico Vespucio Florentine,' published at Vicen- za in 1507, no mention is made of native names of countries bordering the Gulf of St. Law- rence.16 Nay, stranger still, only eleven days after Cortereal's arrival at Lisbon (8th October 1501), the Venetian Ambassador at the Portu- guese Court wrote a letter to his brothers in Italy giving them a detailed account of the lands discovered by the navigator, of the in- habitants, some of whom were brought home as slaves, the conditions of life of the country, etc., etc., but he mentions no Indian names of
i4Cf. A memoir of Sebastian Cabot with a Review of the History of Maritime Discovery. Second Edition. London, 1832. p. 57.
islbidem, p. 246.
16 I depend for this statement on the ' Memoir of Sebastian Cabot ' referred to above, where all such cases would natural- ly be noted, did they exist.
places: Adjr. VIII delpresente (October) arivo qui una de le doe Caravelle quale questo serenissimo Re lanno passato mando a disco- prire terra verso tramontana Capitaneo Caspar Corterat : et referissi havere trouato terra ii M. miglia lonzi da qui tra maestro & ponente qual mai per avanti fo cognita ad alcun ; . . . . credono che sia terra firma la qual continue in una altra terra che lano passato, fo discoperta sotto la tramontana.1? It is not strange, after these examples, that the native name of Can- ada, originally so insignificant a province in the complex of the St. Lawrence Communi- ties, should have perished. There was no great staple commodity of commerce, as in Newfoundland even, to keep alive the reminis- cence of it.
If we now turn to the lexicographers of the eighteenth century we find mention of Cana- da from the beginning of the century as a general term applied to a large part of New France. MICHEL-ANTOINE BAUDRAND (1705) calls " Le Canada, Canada, Nova Francia, pays fort £tendu de 1'Ame'rique septentrionale .... On 1'appelle le plus souvent la Nouvelle France, parcequ'il a e^e" de"couvert par les Francois qui le possedent . . . . le Canada propre, Canada Propria, est un pays de 1'Ame'rique septentrionale, assez ressere" dans la Nouvelle France, dont il fait partie, et a laquelle il avoit autrefois donne" le nom.'8
According to this testimony, the more usual name in use at that time for the whole country was New France, and it should be borne in mind that the time of writing is only about three generations from the date when this appellation was first given to the country. But further confirmatory evidence that the term Canada was originally applied to a small part only of the valley of the lower St. Law- rence, may be drawn from the geographical and historical treatise of M. CORNEILLE, mem- ber of the French Academy, who wrote only three years later (1708) than BAUDRAND : " ce pays porte le nom de Nouvelle France parce- que les Francois qui y sont aujourd'hui an nombre de pres de deux cens mille, en occu- pent la plus considerable partie, et on 1'ap-
lyMemoir of Sebastian Cabot, p. 239.
iSUicrionnaire gdographique et historique .... par MICH EL- ANTOINB BAUURANU. Paris, De Hats, 1705. Tome 1 Col. 353.
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pelle aussi Canada, a cause que la petite contre'e de Canada fut apparemment la pre- miere qu'ils de'couvrirent."19 Here, however, the extension of the name to the whole coun- try proceeds also from the river, not alone from the limited territory that bore the ap- pellation in the beginning. In speaking of the St. Lawrence (which he calls also Canada) the author shpws that his ideas are not clear as to the chorographical relations of this French colony ; " Quartier qui la (riviere) de"- couvrit le premier, 1'appela Hochelaga (sic!). D'Autres la nommerent Saint Laurant ; et ceux du Pays luy donnent le nom de Cana- da."20 Then in Tome II, p. 129, he adds: "On le (pays) nomme aussi Canada de la grande riviere de ce nom qui le traverse & on y comprend tout ce qui est aux deux c6tes de cette riviere, depuis les Isles qui sont au devant de son embouchure en la remontant, & depuis les Golfes et Detroits de Davis & de Hudson jusqu'a la Nouvelle Espagne." We have thus already in the beginning of the eighteenth century two distinct lines of tradi- tion crossing each other with reference to the origin of the generic term ' Canada ' as applied to New France. But still a generation later (1740), it is to the territory bordering the Gulf of St. Lawrence that tradition points as the birthplace of our modern geographical desig- nation. BRUNZEN DE LA MARTINIERE, geogra- pher of Philip V, of Spain, after giving a sur- vey of all the early expeditions to New France and after treating its customs, history, language products and Indian tribes much more ex- tensively and.i in certain respects, more ac- curately than any of his predecessors, adds : " On n'a d'abord donne" le nom de Canada qu'aux terres qui bordoient le golfe de St. Laurent et auix deux bords de ce fleuve, jus- ques vers Tadoussac ; & on croit assez com- munement que ce nom venoit de quelqu'une des nations Sauvages des environs. On 1'a depuis dtenddl pen a pen jusqu'au Mississipi qui le borne a Touest ; on y a me*me quelque-
igDictionnaire universe! geographique et historique, etc., par M. COHNEILLE, de I'Acade'mic francoise .... Paris, Coignard, 1708. Folio. Tome I, p. 461.
20 Ibidem, p. 495. It is a well-known fact that Hochelaga was the name of the Indian village situated on the site of the present Montreal, a part of which is. thus named to-daiy.
fois compris la Nouvelle Angleterre & la Nouvelle Belgique, aujourd'hui la Nouvelle York. Mais depuis longtems on ne connoit sous le nom de Canada, que ce qui estpropre- ment la Nouvelle France.21
There are two points worthy of special note in this statement: the interesting fact that here for the first time do we find mention of the possible indigenous origin of the name Canada, and that the territory thus named had even then (1740) been long regarded as co-extensive simply with New France. In a work published about twenty years later (J759)» the learned compiler, Louis MORERI, plagiarizes in an audacious and shameless way the whole of this account by DE LA MARTINIERE." His effrontery in thus pur- loining verbatim from the Royal geographer serves us, however, a good purpose : it shows that the opinion recorded by MORERI'S prede- cessor still continued to be the current view on this subject held by scholars at the middle of the eighteenth century.
The celebrated Dictionnaire de Trevoux, a little more than a decade later (1771), gives a re'sume' of the suggestions made up to that time concerning the origin and spread of the word under discussion : " Le mot Canada est apparemment un mot sauvage, mais dont on ne sait point la signification. On ignore aussi le raison qui le fait clonner a ce pays. Quel- ques-uns croient que ce fut, parceque les sauvages re"pe"toieHt souvent ce mot Canada quand les Francois y aborderent. D'autres, parceque c'e'toit le nom du fleuve de S. Lau- rent qui fut donne1 a tout le pays ; & d'autres parceque le petit pays de Canada fut le pre- mier que Ton trouva. Canada est aussi le nom d'un pays particulier compris da'ns la grande contr^e dont nous venous de parler. C'est celui qui est a la droite du fleuve de S. Laurent, vers son embouchure. II a ce fleuve au nord, au levant le golfe du fleuve S. Lau- rent, la baie de Chaleurs au midi ; au couchant il louche au pays des Etechemins. Cette
21 Le grand Dictionnaire ge"ographique, historique et criti- que par M. BRUNZKN DK LA MARTINIERE, Ge'ographe de Sa Majestd Catholique Philippe V. Roy des Espagnes & des Indes. Paris, Le Mercier, 1740. Folio. Tome II, p. 83.
22Le grand Dictionnaire historique du MOKKKI ^Louis). Paris, 1759. Tome III, p. 118.
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presqu'Ile est le Canada propre, qui, a ce que 1'uii pretend, a donne son nom a tout le pays (|iii est derriere, & an fleuve de S. Laurent. On d-min- encore ce nom a la grande riviere de Canada ; inais il est peu en usage aujourd- hui & 1'oit dit toujoura le fleuve de S. Lau- rent."«3
Three theories, then, were held during the eighteenth century as to the origin of the word Canada: two of them, the Indian and river theories seem not to have had general acceptance, while the third, the extension of the name from a limited district on the lower St. Lawrence to the whole country, was com- monly believed. If we now jump fifty years and come down to the end .of the first quarter of our century, we find, curiously enough, a meaning given to the word that savors of genuine folk-etymology though it is a con- scious product. EUSKBE SALVERTE in his ' Essai historique, etc.,' (1824) accepts the indigenous source : " Dans la langue canadienne, Canada signifiait ' ville, assemblage de maisons ; ' de ce mot, que les indigenes rEpEtaient aux na- vigateurs europe'ens, sans doute a 1 'aspect de chacun de leurs hameaux, nous avons fait le nom d'une vaste contre"e ;"24 and the celebrat- ed historian of Canada, GARNEAU, follows (1845) with the categorical statement: " Le nom de Canada, donne" ici paries Indigenes a une partie du pays a la totalite" duquel il s'etend maintenant, ne permet point d'avoir de doutes [?] sur son Etymologic. L'on doit done rejeter les hypotheses de ceux qui veu- lent lui donner une origine europe'enne. L'on sait du reste que ce mot signifie, en dialecte indien, amas de Cabanes, village. "2S
Linguistic coiMiderations alone are strong enough to justify us in assigning to the proper name Canada a directly southwest Romance origin, had we no confirmatory historic evi- dence to adduce in support of the proposition. The mere fact of the existence of a popular etymology (c£ nada, or aca nada), however,
23Dictionnaire universe! Fram;ois-I.atin vulgairement appeli1 Dictionnaire dc 'i'revoux. Paris, 1771. Folio. Tome II, p. 198.
24Essai historique et philosophique ser les noms d'hommes de peuples et de lieux ]iar KrsuiiK SAI.VKKTK. Paris, 1824. 80, 2 vols. Vol. II, p. 250.
asHistoire du Canada par I.(>AKNRAI'. Qtu!l-ec, Aubin, 1845. Tome I, p. 64.
points a priori to a suppn^-d connection be- tween the designation of this part of the new world and the early southwest European dis- coverers. But leaving out of account this arbitrary and fanciful composition as too triv- ial for serious notice, we have left two hypo- theses that merit a close examination : a, That the name is of Indian origin ; b, That it is a Spanish or Portuguese term, which, in its general signification, was originally applied to a part, and only a very small part, too, of the present Dominion of Canada, or even of La Nouvelle France.
I have purposely stated the Indian theory first, because of the confidence with which the indigenous origin of the word has recently been maintained by scholars of high repute and because it is much easier on linguistic grounds to refute than to establish with cer- tainty to which of the two languages mention- ed above (Spanish or Portuguese) the name belongs ; for, while the phonetic constitution of the word in the former case is sufficient to condemn it, in the latter, the difference of form is so slightly marked that we shall have to appeal to historic evidence to support our position.
The celebrated ARB£ Cuog in his 'Lexique de la Langue iroquoise' sub voce fcanata, 'ville,' ' village,' adds with a conviction strengthened by more than a dozen years since he had first expressed the opinion : " De la le nom de Canada auquel on a voulu, tout re"cemment encore, mais toujours sans fondement solide, assigner une autre Etymologic."26 He here calls attention in a foot-note to the same view expressed by him in a work written several years before against M. RENAN :2? Cette opinion se trouve encore confirme" par le nom de Canadaquois que se donnaient a eux-
me'mes les sauvages de Gaspe" et de la
Baie des Chaleurs, r.on nioins que ceux des deux rives du fleuve Saint Laurent. II ne faut voir en efTet dan: le mot Canadaqnois qu'une simple alteration du locatif iroquois Kanatakon, 'an village,' 'dans le village,"
a6Lexique de la langue irnquoise avec notes et appendices par J. A. CUOQ, Pretre de Saint-Supplice. Montreal, Chaplcau & Fils, 1882. p. 10.
27jugement errontf de M. ERNEST RHNAN sur les langues sauvages d'Anu!rique. Montreal, Dawson Brothers, 1869, p. 103.
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beaucoup plus frequemment employe" que son primitif canafa, 'village.' Ma pense"e est done que Canada vient de Kanata."28
At the end of the ' Lexique ' just mentioned is appended a bibliographical study by the ABB£ NANTEL, in which (p. 232) he adopts the derivation suggested and defended by Cuoq : "Kanata, ' amas de cabanes,' nous a donne" le nom de notre pays, Canada."
The reverend PERE LACOMBE, under the general heading ' Etymology,' of his Cri Dic- tionary,^ observes : " Canada pour Konata, dont les montagnois de Labrador et tous les cris se servent pour dire : sans propos, sans raison, sans dessein, gratis. Note : II est assez probable que les premiers explorateurs du Canada ne pouvant se faire comprendre que par signes, aient pris pour le nom de la Contre"e, ce mot, qu'ils entendaient re'pe'ter si souvent aux sauvages qui s'en servent con- tinuellement ; " and he adds sub voce Cana- da " c'est le mot banale de la langue crise."
The first thing that strikes us in glancing at the word, in the phonetic shape which it pre- sents, is its absolutely non-French character: the existence of the initial velar gutteral c, of the intervocalic d, of the a throughout, but on the other hand, of its entire conformity, pho- netically, to Spanish and Portuguese types ; as, for example, to the Portuguese Barbada (Barbadoes), to the Spanish Florida. These forms will be considered later ; let us first notice the Cri-Iroquois Kanata, with reference to which, if I mistake not, CUOQ'S theory will have to be rejected on his own ground.
In the American Journal of Philology Vol. VIII, pp. 147-48, I have quoted CUOQ as show- ing conclusively that the Indian word for the Supreme Being is Manito, not Maneto or Mon- edo, as SCHOOLCRAFT has maintained, since it is not thus given in any of the native dia- lects. Now, on analogy with this form, pre- cisely the same objection may be raised against Kanata> Kanada (Canada); in fact, aborigi- nal words adopted by the French keep their full form, so that not only the voicing of inter-
28This idea is taken directly from LBSBARBOT, Vol. i, pp. 921-222 : . . . . toutefois les peuples de Gachepd et de la baye de Chaleur, . . se disent Canadocoa (ils prononcent ainsi), c'est u cRre Canadaquois, comme nous disons Souriquois, et Iriquois
2gDictionnaire et grammaire de la langue des Cris par le RBV. PERK ALBERT LACOMIIE, Ptre., Montreal, 1874. p. 706.
vocalic mutes would be anomalous, but also the change even of initial graphic sign K> C would be irregular, according to the learned CUOQ'S transcription. Though only a few vocables of the savage idioms have been per- manently naturalized in the Gallic speech of Canada, 3° yet we can fortunately cite some half a dozen which show beyond question what the usage was with reference to inter- vocalic /. In matachias^ (rassades) we have exactly the same phonetic conditions (a-\-t-\-a) as in the word under discussion, the difference of accent (if there was any) evidently not affecting the final result. Again, in mitasse3* (legging), sagamit£ (bouillie de mais),33 succo- tash (green corn and beans boiled together)34 otoka (canneberge)35 we have the phonetic sur- roundings of this / varied by light and dark vowels (i-a, i-£, o-a, o-o) and yet its quality is in no way influencedjby the changed relations and, so far as we are able to judge, there is not the slightest tendency in these varying 'modal conditions to pass into the voiced state. According to mere form, then, irre- spective of the positive and forcible considera- tions that tend to fix a totally different etymon for the geographical term Canada, we may eliminate the present favorite Indian etymol- ogy from our discussion. We thus have left the probable southwest Romance source of the term, which it is now necessary to examine from a double point of view ; viz., that of the Spanish and that of the Portuguese. So far as I am aware, no other theory as to the origin of the term has been advanced outside of these two : the Indian and Spanish (or Portuguese), and while it is comparatively easy to refute the former (the Indian) and show the name to be without doubt of- south- west Romance origin, yet it becomes difficult to establish with certainty as to which of these two languages, Spanish or Portuguese, it must be assigned. We need only mention the fact that the word is employed as a com- mon noun in both Spanish and Portuguese and that it plays an important rf>le, when used alone'in the singular, in the plural, or when found in composita, for the designation of
3oCf. Article referred to in Am. Journal of Philology, p. H7-
31 Ibidem, p. 148. 32 Ibidem, p. 149. 33 Ibidem, p. 150. 14 Ibidem, p. 338. 35 Ibidem, p. 338.
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topographical sites. This original use of tlu: term to denote :;<!ieial ideas which arc em- bodied in tin- root and which have been after- ward circunisi -rilicd within a limited circle to indicate special qualities, is noted in the Por- tuguese as contrasted with the Spanish. In the latter, the generic substantive Canada must, as a rule, be followed by some restric- ti\e term (Canada la Zarza, Canada Pajares, etc. (while in the former the differentiation of special (proper) and common substantival signification is produced without periphrasis by simple specialization of meaning.
If we consider the termination -ada only we have no means of determining whether the word is Spanish or Portuguese, since the Latin -atnni ending gives us the same phonetic product -ado, for both of these languages. These creations were originally adjectives in participial form denoting possession, and de- veloped out of substantives. 36 The feminine nouns of like formation denote, as DIEZ ob- serves, "eine menge oder fulle," but I would prefer to consider Canada an adjective used as a noun, just as we have it in Florida (terra florida) and B.irbdda. (Ihla barbada). Dis- placement of accent is necessary to adapt the word to the laws of English pronunciation. The origin of the root can is, of course, the Latin canna (a reed), which gives regularly in Spanish Can-ada, the common term for "glade." In modern Portuguese, can-ada denotes i. a measure for liquids, of little more than a liter, 2. a path. Both of these are evi- d'-ntly transferred meanings representing simply the ixlea of fulness as predicated of the primitive canna, used in the same sense as we have just seen it in Latin. For the old language, we find a meaning assigned to it by BARBOSA DB PlNHO LEAL that suits our pre- sent purpose better than the modern significa- tion : " Canada, Portuguese antigo, passagem on caminho por entre paredes on logares ermos e. escusos, isto e", por onde costuma passar potica gente."37 3r)Cf. DIBZ C.rammatikS. p. 664.
37 Portugal Antigo e moderno. Diccionario gcographico, cstiuistico, cronographico, heraldico, archcologico, historico, l>ioi;raphico e etymologico de todas as cidadcs, villas e fre- quenzias de Portugal por Ar<;rsr<> SHAKES n'AxHVitnn BAK- BOSA !>i? PLNHO I,KAI., Lisbon, Moreira & companhia, 1874. Tonic I . p. 162.
Hut it is the application of the word to cer- tain peculiar and < -harac teristic features of landscape as found by I>K. Hi KMKISTER in the Argentine Republic that we would recognise the original meaning; of the term : " Knfm on appele Canadas tons les bas-fonds de grande et.-ndue dans lesquels sont disse'mine's groupes de roseaux. Us peuvent 6tre tra\ 6s par un ruisseau, et constituent dans leur ensemble de bon pAtnrages tr£s-propres a l'e"leve du be'tail.— Ces endroits humides dans la pampa ne forment qu'une tr£s-minime partie de sa surface et n'en modifient le caractere que d'une facon accessoire."38 It will be observed that the word here still be- longs to the wide circle of descriptive techni- cal expression and that it bears in its applica- tion a conscious reflex of its original meaning.
Here furthermore is already a more limited use of the term than that which was found in the broad sense of canada , meaning a " glade " or " dell " in general, as seen above. But between these two words a discrepancy is noted in the graphic signs which we must clear up before going further. Latin gemina- ted « («+«) gives regularly in Spanish the palatalized n+y (n) : afio (annum) cana (can- nam), gafiir (gannire), pano(pannum), canamo (cannabis), etc., and the corresponding forms in Portuguese are : anno, ganir, panno, canna, canamo, that is, hjre the simple dental « rep- resents.the Latin nn without a trace of mouil- lation : the geminated forms kept in the modern idiom are mere graphic variations, since the double « does not affect the pronun- ciation.39
In form, then, canada follows the Portuguese rule ; in signification, the Spanish derivative from Latin canna. To which of these lan- guages, now, are we to assign the root can as
38Description physique dc la Rdpublique Argentine par le I)K. H. RUKMKISTKK, traduitc dc 1 allemand par E. MAITAS. l';iris, Savy, Tome i.p.ioa.
38Choix de Lectures de Geographic par L. LAXIKK. Amtfri- que. Paris, Belin et fils, 1883. p. 53.
3gln a recent monograph entitled : ' liases da Ortograf.a Portugueza por A. R. CloN^ALVKs VIANNA e G. I>K VASCOK- CBLLOS ABRKU' (Lisl>oa, 1885), it is proposed to reform Portu- guese orthography by leaving out"os simbolos graficos sem valor. Silo eles as cnnsoantes dobradas ou grupes de con- soantes nrto profcridas e sem influcncia na modular 1o antccc- dente."
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it exists in our Can-ada ? I have no hesita- tion in pronouncing for the Spanish, though the phonetic constitution of the stem would point rather to a Portuguese source. Preser- vation of the medial intervocalic n is not a general rule in the latter language (cf. pessoa (persona), cadeia (catena), boa (bona)4° though it is natural that the double Latin n reduced to monophthong should stick just as in canamo andganir, cited above; on the other hand, so far as the pronunciation of the palatalized n (n) of the Spanish is concerned, the native dialect might have reproduced it according to CUOQ'S transcription : French crinitre : Krinier.4i But it is probable that we have here a simple non-palatalized product for Latin nn such as belonged to the older period of the Spanish language ; for example, delinar for delinar, cana as differentiated form (Scheideform) for cana, pena as differentiated form for pena, doniinar alongside of dowenar, ordinar alongside of ordenarA* Again : the extensive use in Spain, as opposed to Portugal, of the word Canada or Canada as a geographi- cal designation, would argue in favor of the probable origin of the name on Spanish soil ; and, furthermore, the continuation of the tra- ditional nomenclature in the Argentine Repub- lic, where it is used to mark riparian districts not essentially differing from certain parts of the valley of the St. Lawrence. Not less than fifty names of places, common and specially geographical, bear to-day in Spain this charac- teristically generic designation, either alone, or in combination with some attributive word, or words, that serve to modify its broader mean- ing and cause it to represent distinctive natural features, or to perpetuate some his- toric relation, of a given locality. Among the numerous periphrases of this kind may be cited such creations as the following : Canada de San Pedro, Canada y Pesquera, Canadilla (diminutive) de ortigo, Canada vellida, Can- ada-jungosa, Canada- Vedija, la Canada aldea, Canada Rincon, Canada Pastores, etc. The
4oREiNHARDTSTOETTNKK, Grammatik der Portugiesischen Sprache. pp. 62-63.
4ifitudes philologiques sur quelques langues sauvages. pp. 62-63.
42Cf. Spanische Sprachlehrc von PAUL FOKSTKK, Berlin 1880. p. 127.
greatest number of these periphrastic denomi- nations is naturally found under the heading of Canada or Canada de-\- a word of limitation : La Canada de los Concyos (a village near Seville). But not alone in Spain do we find the word Canada widely used for marking topographical sites. On the map of France, we note seven places of this name scattered throughout as many different De'partements, in all of which the same general characteris- tics exist that we have seen in the Spanish names, save that on Gallic soil it is with one exception the simple word, without any ac- companying attribute, which is employed. In C6tes-du-Nord, Eure and La Manche we have LE Canada ; in Oise, Seine-et-Oise and Gironde simply Canada, while in Saone-et-Loire the striking and characteristic Bas-de- Canada is used. 43 Now, some of these places may possibly have received this appellation since the discovery of that section of the American Continent to which the name Canada was given and it would be a matter of great interest for historical geography to trace the origin of the present designation in order to establish whether or not it was applied to these places before the beginning of the six- teenth century. This side of the investigation I was not able to carry out for lack of time while in Paris, where alone all the necessary local departmental sources maybe consulted. Outside of the places already mentioned bearing the name Canada in France, it is given to the elevated plateau or promontory above Fecamp, in Northern Normandy (Seine- Infe'rieure), where the Camp de Cesar exists to this day, relic of an old Roman fortifica- tion. In glancing through the ordinary his- torians of this historic town, no definite clue can be had as to the date when the name Canada was adopted for this region. One writer44 naively suggests : "on (l')a nomme" le Canada, sans doute a cause du froid rigoreux qui s'y faitsentir en hiver;" another authons),
43Dictionnaire des Postcs et des TdWgraphes, Paris, Dela- grave, 1885. p. 340.
44Esquisses historicities sur Fecamp par CKSAK MAKETTB. Rouen 1839.
45 Histoire de la ville et de 1'abbaye de Fdcamp par LEON FALLUK. Rouen, 1841. p. 24
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34*
in blissful ignorance of phonetic laws, would tain believe tin- name to be a curiosum ]-n> duced by melting together two Latin words : " ce camp curieux, nomine* Canada, peut-etre decastra Danorum, camp desDanois"; a third statement by writers already referred to (col. 328)46 would settle the question at once, could we depend on it: " Audessus de Fe'camp la pointe de coteau est appele*e de temps im- nic'morittl Canada." No authority is cited in support of this extraordinary assertion : it may he the tradition, but it does not help us in settling the very important question as to whether the name Canada was actually known in France before the discovery of the St. Law- rence by the French. Should the local his- tory of any one of the many places now bear- ing this name show it to have existed in F ranee antecedent to this date, it will be conclusive evidence of its European origin, putside of the considerations presented above. Whether such proof can be adduced or not, I hope to be able to state on another occasion.
A. MARSHALL ELLIOTT.
SALLY IN OUR ALLEY AND A GER- MAN STUDENT-SONG.
Some time ago (Moo. LANG. NOTES, vol. II, p. 103 f.) DR. GOKHKI. advanced a theory on the probable source of GOETHE'S ' Gold- schmiedsgesell,' which, though strong enough in itself to win approval, was soon continued by the further discovery of PROF. GKIC.ER (ib.
P. «34).
Upon reading DR. GOKIIKL'S article I at once suspected a resemblance between CARKY'S poem and a song that is sung by < ".' Tinan students, ' Lore am Thore ; ' but not having a COnWMfsbuch at hand, 1 was obliged to defer a comparison of the poems to lest the value of my new impression. I am now. after a close examination of the song, persuaded that it too must be referred to 'Sally in Our Alley' as its source. I shall give the text of the song, so that the three compositions may IK- easily compared.
4<'iKiirlyrop die (Us L;OII^ c!u Monde, vol. V,p. 593.
LORE AM THORE.
Von alien den MMdchen to blink und *o blank Gcfi'llt mir am bestcn die Lore;
.lien den Winkeln und GXitchen der Sttdt
ill mir's im Winkel am Thore. Der Meister der ichmunzelt, aU hab* er Verdacht, AU hab' er Verdacht auf die Lore; Sie ist mein Gedanke bei T»g und be! Nacht Und wohnet im Winkel am Thore.
Und kommt sic getrippelt da» GKuchen hinab.
So wird mir ganz schwlil vor den Augen;
Und hor' ich von Weitem ihr leite* Klipp. Klapp.
Kein Niet' oder Band will mehr taugen.
Die Damen bei Hofe, so *ehr lie iich zier'n,
Sie gleichen doch nicht meiner Lore ;
Sie ist mein Gedanke bei Tag und bei Nacht
Und wohnet im Winkel am Thore.
Und kommet die liebe Weihnacht heran,
Und strotzt mir das Geld in der Westen,
Das Geld, das die Mutter zum Rock mir gesandt,
Ich geb's ihr, bei ihr ist's am best en ;
Und wiirden mir SchHtze vom Teufel gebracht
Ich trUge sie alle zur Lore ;
Sie ist mein Gedanke bei Tag und bei Nacht
Und wohnet im Winkel am Thore.
Und kommet nun endlich auch Pfingsten heran, Nach Handwerksgebrauch mtlsst' ich wandern ; Dann werd' ich jedoch f Ur mein eigenes Geld Hier BUrger und Meister trotz Andern. Dann werde ich Meister in dieser Stadt, Fran Meisterin wird ineine Lore; Dann geht es Juchheissa ! bei Tag urid bet Nacht, Doch nicht mehr im Winkel am Thore.
The meter, form of the strophe, and the refrain are strictly preserved. Some passages are close translations ; in others there is considerable deviation from the original. The adaptation to a student-song has led to the omission of some verses that savor too much of the apprentice, and one verse was afterwards added to give to the ' Gesellenlied ' still more the tone of a ' Burschenlied.' I quote the beginning from memory:
Und hab' ich's Examen bestanden mit Ehr, Darf frci dann wahlen und kUren, Dann neiine sie keiner Studentenbraut mrhr, Sonst soil er die.Klinge vcrspUren.
I have not been able to discover anything relating to the age of the song or to its history at the German universities. I have only heard it sung at Jena, but should not like to lay too much stress on my observation, as it is well known how easily such songs, even those of only local interest, find their way to other universities. It is however no wild hypothesis
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to suppose that CAREY'S ballad was brought to Jena — a University greatly favored by foreigners — by English students or travellers, and that it there found an early translator.
H. SCHMIDT.
Cornell University.
A TRADI TIO NA LLY MISTRANS-
LA TED PASSAGE IN DON
QUIJOTE.
In the third chapter, Part I, of Don Quijote, the inn-keeper explains to his incredulous guest that "todas los cabelleros andantes (de que tantos libros estan llenos y atestados} llevaban bien herradas las bolsas," etc. In endeavoring to make clear to myself the im- port and etymology of the word atestados, as here employed — and it should be remarked that the text of the original passage is well established and unvarying — I find that all the translators on whose works I can lay my hand have either passed the word over in silence or else have rendered it as the past participle of atestar ' to attest,' used as a parti- cipial adjective with active force, in the sense of ' authentic," ' unimpeachable.'
The translations which I have been able to consult are: Motteux's, of which the first edition appeared in 1712; Jarvis's, first edition 1742; Florian's (in French), 1790; Duffield's 1881 ; and Ormsby's, 1885. For the words in parenthesis, Motteux (London 1743, vol. i, p. 20) gives: "of whom fo many Hiftories are full;" Jarvis (London 1801, vol. i, p. 22): "of whose actions there are such authentic histories ; " Florian omits the entire parenthe- sis ; Duffield (vol. i, p. 33) translates: "of whose deeds so many books were filled and bore witness;" and finally, Ormsby (vol. i, p. 126): "about whom there were so many full and unimpeachable books."
The two latest translators, who have worked in the spirit of modern accuracy and scholar- ship, are especially to be deferred to, and in a general way their rendering of the passage is doubtless grammatically not impossible (though conspicuously unwarranted is Orms- by's construing of llenos and atestados attribu- tively rather than predicatively) ; yet it is
evident that atestados is here the passive participle of atestar 'to fill to the brim,' 'to cram ; ' so that to preserve Cervantes' favorite mode of using synonymous adjectives in pairs, without regard to their strict construction, the parenthesis should read: "of whom so many books are full and replete," or, in more idio- matic English, "full to overflowing."
A more interesting inquiry is that concern- the origin of Sp. atestar, used in this sense. The only other Romance language in which the word seems to occur is the Portuguese, and to this closely related idiom we must have recourse for the explanation of it, since the noun testa (from Lat. TESTUM or TESTU ' lid '), to which the verb is to be referred, has not survived in Spanish (though preserved in Fr. tet, It. testo). In Moraes' Portuguese Dictionary, under atestar, is given the defi- nition: "Encher ate" ao testo, at6 acima ; " and the word testo is defined (s. v.) as " tampa de barro da panella que vao ao lume." In Spanish, one of the special meanings, which may nevertheless be regarded as approaching the primary one, happily supports this ety- mology. It is thus given in Bouret's Spanish Dictionary (s. v.) : " Rellenar, rehenchir las cubas de vino, cuando despues de haber cocido y mermado, se les echa otra porcion competente para que este'n llenas."
The occurrence of the term caballero andante in the passage above quoted makes this an appropriate occasion for calling attention to a commonplace of Romance etymology which has escaped the notice of PROFESSOR SKEAT. In his Etymological Dictionary, he connects the word errant, of the phrase knight errant, with the Lat. ERRARE ' to err, wander." The oldest form of the French verb from which comes errant in this combination, is edrer (later errer), and derives from Low Latin ITERARE (from ITER) 'to journey.' This word is connected with Old and Mod. Fr. erre (e. g., marcher sur les erres de quelqu'un), and with Eng. eyre 'circuit' (which, by the way, PROF. SKEAT derives correctly from Lat. ITER) and accordingly is not to be confounded with Fr. errer— Lat. ERRARE. Sp. caballero andante falls into line with this explanation.
H. A. TODD.
J74
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/. M'EI AL TCA TALANISCHE RECHTS- FORMULARE.
I )< r Codex Ottohonianus 3058 in Folio der v.iticanischen Bibliothek t-ntliiilt due Samm- lung fast ausschliesslich lateinischer Gesetze und Verordnungen, die sammtlich fiir Barce- lona giiltig waren. Die Hs. ist nicht von t-ifit-»i Sclirt. iber, vielmehr bildet den altesten Theil die zweite und dritte Lage, die auch lu-sonderspaginirtist, und auf aoBlattern einen am McGinn des i4ten Jahrh. geschriebenen Text des ' Liber usaticorum barchinonensium enthalt. Die iibrigen 17 Lagen sind mit um- fangreichen Documenten mancherlei Art be schrieben. Auf dem letzten Blatte befinden sich die beiden Formulare, die ich hier ab- drucke. Sie sind von der Hand eines alten Bcsitzers der Handschrift, unzweifelhaft eines Juristen, wie u. A. eine Sammlung juristischer Maximen in ihr bezeugt, eingetragen, und zwar Hisst sich obendrein die ungefahre Zeit ilirer Niederschrift angeben. Es befindet sich namlich auf der ersten Lage der Hs. ein Kalender, der auf der dritten Seite (Marz) folgende Eintragung aufweist :
" Depous ora de miganit a tres de marc del an MCCC *| xx tres foset gran terra tremol en la ciutat de barchinona e dura dues ores | e quaech lo cap del cluqer deles esqeles de santa niaria singla ou toqen les esqeles e quech nna gran pedra del arch dela esglea de sent just que es Denant laltar maior de sent just."
Die Schrift dieser datirten Eintragung ist der der beiden unten folgenden Formulare so ahnlich, class wir ohne Schwierigkeit anneh- men konnen, beides sei von demselben Be- sitzer des Codex niedergeschrieben. Hier der Text :
I. — MANAMENT QUE MOSTREN COM HAN LO FEU.
Al honrat naytal de mi naytal saints e honor | Com io per rao de novela senyoria de aytal loch o lochs vulla de vos aver feeltat per rao d>_l feu ou feus que per mi tenits en aytal loch Eu per amor de so a vos die e man que dins X dies apres dela presentatio dela present et contumadament (sic) segues (sic) comparegats denant mi e quern fessats fer per quel manera los dits fcus a vos pertaim-n aparalat de fer fealtat a mi laquel sots tenguts de fer per los clits feus | e de mi rebre investi- dura axi com nessots tenguts et duvets Escrita
en avtall loch aytall dia daytall mes e daytall
an."
II.— FORMA DE EMPAKA.
Al honrat naytal de mi naytal senyor daytal Castell saluts e amor I con novelameut aia entes que en vos et estal alienat lo feu quels hereus den aytal o que naytal teni# en feu per mi | si e y posada la veritat del fet | e vos siats entrat en possecio de aquel feu sens fer- ma et concentiment meu. lo qual feu se tenia este sots senyoria mia alodiall e dreta | prego io ab la present letra partida per letres e sagellada ab mon segell. Contradient ala dita alienacio | vos empar lo dit feu manant vos quels fruyts rendes et esdevenimens meus del dit feu per vos ne per altre no prenats | Escrita en aytal loch aytal dia daytal mes daytal an.
Diese beiden Stiicke bieten weit mehr In- teresse, als die sonst so zahlreich vorhandenen I altcatalanischen Urkunden. Wahrend der Romanist dem Texte von Urkunden gegen- iiber hinsichtlich der Syntax stets mit berech- tigter Skepsis verfahrt, da dem Verfasser | derselben stets das lateinische Formular, wenn nicht vorgelegen, so doch vorgeschwebt hat, wonach er seine Satze formte, so sieht man doch an diesen Formularen, dass man in Catalonien im I4ten Jahrhundert derartige Documente schon direct in der Vulgarsprache entwarf.
Das Wort oder vielmehr die Worte naytal (n=en, ' Herr ; ' vgl. Nanfos=Don Alfonso bei Ramon Muntaner und sonst auch ; -aytal, das dem lat. talis fr. fel, un tel, it. un tale, etc., in diesen Fallen genau entspricht) stehen jedesmal fiir die im speciellen Falle einzu- fiihrenden Namen.
Sachlich bieten die Texle kaum eine Schwierigkeit ; jedem Kenner des mittelalter- lichen Lehenswesens wird die Situatian sofort klar.
Die Worte contumadament und segues in der ersten Formel entziehen sich meinem Verstiindniss.
Bis auf das einmal in dem i. Text sich findende Eu, das sonst fast nur in der Sprache der provenzalisch schreiben wollenden Dichter vorkommt, lasst der Text sprachlich keine Ausstellungen zu.
RICHARD OTTO.
Koine, Italy.
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THE ANGLO-SAXON burh and byrig.
Is there a distinction in meaning between burh and by rig? In SOMNER (1659) we find: " beorg — collis, acervus, cumulus, tumulus, a hillock or little hill, a heap of earth, a tombe, &c. Munimentum, agger, arx, a rampire, a place of defence and succour.
byrig— urbs, civitas, a Citty. Hinc tot a- pud nos Urbium nomina sic terminantia." LYE (1772) gives :
" burg — urbs, civitas, Mat. 10,23 ; J I>2° > villa, Orosius 2,5 ; arx Cob. 10; castrum, municipium, oppidum curia, palatium, domus ; burga — urbes, Luc. 9,6 ; after burgum Boet. pp. 155,- 195; Caedmon 73,17 vide beorg, collis, Luc. 23,20; mons, Orosius 1,1; acervus Ps. 64,13: refugium 58,19; czfter burgum Caedmon 65,- 24; 67,16; munimentum, sepulchrum, Cod. Ex. p. 119. vide beorh — agger, Aelf. gr. 9,18; collis, Luc. 3,5 ; tumulus, R. 97; acervus, Jos. 7,26; mons, Orosius 1,1; beorh upeweard — monticellus, R. 97, dione beorh Caed. 71,4. beorhgas, Guth."
byrig — urbs. Mat. X. 23; oppida, Beda 3,28: collis, tumulus quivis e terra congestus.
KEMBLE in the 'Saxons in England' (Vol. II, appendix C) sums up the distinction in these words :
"The strict meaning of burh, appears to be fortified place or stronghold. It can there- fore be applied to a single house or castle, as well as to a town. There is a softer form byrig, which in the sense of a town can hardly be distinguished from burh, but which, as far as I know, is never used to denote a single house or castle."
In BOSWORTH -TOLLER'S Anglo-Saxon Dictionary we find the same history of burh as KEMBLE gives, and under byrig as follows : " byrig, e; f: ace. s. byrig, byrige, a city, urbs, civitas : Her Gtipa gefeaht wid Bry- twalas cst Biedcan forda, and genam Lygean byrig and sEgles byrig, in this year Cutha fought against the Brito-Welsh at Bedford and took Lenbury and Aylesbury, Chr. 571; Canhvara byrig forbarn tiy gedre, Canter- bury was burnt down in this year Chr. 754. v. burh."
HARRISON and BASKERVILL following GROSCHOPP'S GREIN omit byrig altogether. Grammarians are at present in accord as to
the appearance of byrig as the gen. and dat. sg., and nom. and ace. pi. of burh.
Now the question resolves itself into these two:
(1) Is there a feminine substantive byrig?
(2) Are there any distinctions between byrig as representing the declined forms of burh, and the other forms of burh?
(i) The references for byrig as cited above are Matthew X, 23; Beda III, XXVIII, 32; Chr. 571 ; chr. 754. If these examples be ex- amined, it will be found that Mat. X, 23 is tlie dative case, on pisse byrig (cf. Gospels, edited by SKEAT, 1887); Beda III, XXVIII, 32 is ace. pi. 7 byrig 7 land 7 ceastre 7 tunas 7 hus for godspellicre lare fturhferan (SMITH'S Beda, 1722), so that we have left the two cases in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Comparing THORPE'S edition of the Original Texts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, London 1861, where we have the seven manuscripts published in parallel columns we find for the first case (An. 571, Th. 33,28). (A) CCCC. CXXXIII, Lygean- burg 7 sEgelsbirg, (B) Cott. Tib. A. VI. Liggeanburh 7 sEglesburh, (C) Cott. Tib. B. i, same as B. (E) Bodl. Land 636 Lygeanbyrig 7 sEglesbyrig.
For the second case (An. 754, Th. 81,36), (A) Cantivaraburg, (B) Canhvareburh, (C and D) Cantivaraburh, (E) Cantwarabyrig.
In a word, as yet I have been able to dis- cover only three cases where byrig occurs, and all of these — twice as ace. sg. (Th. 33,28) and once as nom. sg. (Th. 81,36) — are in the Bodl. Land. MS. of the Chronicle. Of course upon this authority we must admit the ex- istence of this feminine substantive, but we should notice at the same time two things : first, that the word occurs in conjunction with a determinative substantive, and secondly, the peculiarities of this MS. E.
It is the MS. which comes down to the latest date, 1131. WULKER says (Grundriss III, §513) : "Da eine Hand vom Anfange bis 1121 geht, so ist die Vermutting, die Handschrift sei geschrieben worden nachdem 1116 die Abtei zu Peterborough durch Feuer vollstandig zerstort worden war, sehr wahrscheinlich."
Our only evidence then for byrig as a femin- ine substantive is in conjunction with other words after 1116. It would be worth the
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trouble ot srholais In null- any oilier < tliat may occur to tlu-tn.
\\' licre byrig occurs as a form of burh, we are not justified in drawing any such distinction as that made by KEMHLE, following others; and in one instance investigated by me I am inclined to translate this form by 'castle,' although admitting that in most cases that h.ive fallen under my eye, the significance has been 'city.' In 'Teutonic Antiquities in Andreas and Elene ' p. 16, speaking of heaven I said, "In a narrower sense it is a city (byrig E. 822). The conception one forms of heaven from the description as a room, where the Judge sits on the throne, E. 746, or the King in the midst of his knights, A. 874, and as a Noble surrounded by his angels, A. 873, would justify the translation 'castle' rather than 'city,' but the word byrig (in contradistinction to burh} dues not seem to possess this primary meaning." To which I added the foot-note, " It must be remarked that byrig is often nothing more than the dative of burh." This it unquestionably is in the case in hand, and hence the objection to the translation ' castle,' urged above, can not be maintained.* Until we find other examples of the fern. subs, byrig, it will be impossible to determine whether it could have the pri- mary significance 'fortified place.'
CHARLES W. KENT. University of Virginia.
CORRECTIONS IN BARTSCH' S
GLOSSARY (La Langue et la Littera-
ture Franfaises : Paris, 1887).
This excellent and useful work is doubtless . in the hands of many of the readers of MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES. The following errors (evidently in great part misprints) have been noted by me while using the Glossary for purposes of reference and comparison : p. 682 read ALL- v. AL-
719 COMANDKMENT for 125,5 read 123,5.
720 CAMPAIGNIE for 50,39 read 50,30.
730 CREATURE Omit 269,18.
751 DRAGON for 426,23 read 426,28. 773 read ESPIRITEL v. ESPERITAL. 781 FENDRE for 161,3 read 161,5.
*Cf. Note on burh in EAKI.B'S ' Two of the Saxon Chroni- cles,' 1865.
792 GKiilK for 140,11 read 141,10. 801 HONIK for 289,1 read 289,9. 807 JKTKR for 203,23 read 203,31. 826 MENTIR for 236,18 read 236,28. 826 MERCIER omit 27,29. 841 OIR for 30,36 read 30,26.
893 SEUR for 56,24 read 56,25.
894 SIECLE for 26,30 read 26,10. 906 TORBE for 24,13 read 24,23.
SUGGESTED EMENDATIONS. I.
In ' Gormund et Isembard ' (BARTSCH p. 31. ss.), SCHELER'S Text reads (v. 29)
Tres li cunsent tin Alcman,
where HEILIGBRODT reads cuncen*/. Surely this should be cunsewt (consivre). So in line 45 (SCHELER) we have cui consiut.
II.
In ' Garin le Loherain ' (BARTSCH in ss.), we hav^ (122,17)
Li troi chael en la perent asseis :
where the MS. A (Paris 1443) has la poicnt. The sense which the Editor would give to this line is not evident : but surely we should read laperent as one word. The added line in D (Paris 1582) puts this beyond all doubt. It reads
Tant que il furent plain, et saol, et res. III.
In Bertran de Born, ' Bern platy car trega ni fis ' (STIMMING, No. 8), there is difficulty in rendering satisfactorily 1. 35:
E qu'en passes dos e dos.
SKIMMING'S explanation is not convincing. It is with some diffidence that I suggest
E qu'en passes dos sedos.
i. e. 'two setons.' The use of the seton was not unknown in Bertran de Born's time. 1 would note that the MSS. J, K read dos cedos. FREDERIC SPENCER.
Cambridge, Eng.
PHONETIC COMPENSA TIONS.
Great as the progress of the scientific study of speech has been, there are still certain
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points on which the different schools of pho- neticians are utterly at variance. Some of this disagreement might perhaps be avoided if all investigators would bear clearly in mind, as some have always done, the immense variety of resources which the speaking man has at his command. If the utterance of the vowel a is described in one way by B, and quite differently by C, need we conclude that either B or C is wrong ? May not each of them be correctly stating his own national or indi- vidual method of forming the vowel? Is it not likely that the human vocal organs, with their wonderful complexity and delicacy, have the means not only of bringing forth countless different sounds, but also, in some cases, of producing the same sound in several ways ? Suppose the vowel o may be obtained by a combination of factors w, x,y : there still re- mains the possibility that another combina- tion, say x, y, z, will give nearly or quite the same result, the addition of a new factor, z, compensating for the loss of w. Once admit- ting that the same sound may be produced (generally with some modifications too slight to affect its essential quality) by several dis- tinct processes, we should be forced to admit that, since different races or persons would naturally adopt different methods, a phonetic system broad enough to reconcile the existing schools, or accurate enough to describe in detail more than one dialect, must take the principle of compensation into account. A study of this principle would, moreover, in all probability prove to be just the sort of in- vestigation necessary to determine the hither- to unknown factors of that most important but seemingly intangible thing known as a "national" or "foreign accent." Let us, then, confining ourselves for the present to the pronunciation of the vowels, consider how far compensation is possible, and see whether any forms of it occur in actual speech.1
DEFINITIONS.
While adopting in general as a basis for our investigations SWEET'S vowel system and
i The name " compensation " is not a new one, it was used by SIEVEKS in his rhonetik 31! ed. p. 80, with reference to a possible increased tongue action making up for diminished lip action. Cf. his Phonetik. 2(1 ed. p. 71, 3d. ed. p. 83, and his Lautphysiologie, p. 45,
nomenclature, we shall find it convenient to define some of his terms anew, without intend- ing to change the signification he attaches to them, unless such change is expressly noted.
1. High, Mid, Low.— High vowels are those pronounced with the articulating part of the tongue raised nearly to the palate. Low vowels are those which have least elevation of any part of the tongue. Mid vowels are half way between high and low. /and « are high vowels, e and o are mid, ^ (as in man) and y (as in not) are low.
2. Front, Mixed, Back. — For front vowels the tongue is massed in the front of the mouth ; for back vowels it is massed in the back ; mixed vowels are those which are neither back nor front.2 /, e, ^ are front vowels ; the Russian j'ery, the vowel in the last syllable of defter, and the vowel in sir are mixed ; u, o, o are back.
3. Wide, Narrow. — Any vowel may be wide or narrow : it is wide when the part of the tongue raised to pronounce it is as flat as possible; it is narrow when the elevated part of the tongue is surmounted by an additional local hump of small height, which somewhat narrows the voice-passage. This is the differ- ence between the vowel in English fin and that in French fine, between e in Eng. ten and e in Fr. the, between ce in Eng. fat and e in Fr. fete; between the vowel in Eng.///// and that in Vr.fotile, etc.
VERTICAL MOVEMENTS OF TONGUE AND JAW.
The following experiment, as well as all others mentioned in this article, should be performed before a glass and in a good light. It is taken for granted that the observer is by birth an English-speaking person. •
Pronounce successively, in a perfectly natural way, a wide / (as in pin), a wide e (as in pen), a wide a: (as in pan), it will be seen that in passing from z to e and from e to re there is a lowering of the front part of the tongue, but not of the very point, which remains about stationary behind the lower front teeth ; this lowering may be made more evident by throwing back the head and letting a strong light shine into the mouth. There
2 This definition of mixed vowels is slightly different from SWKET'S and still more so from HELL'S.
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may also be a slight sinking of the jaw. If tliis he the case, try pronouncing tin- same vowels with the jaw perfectly still : it can be iltnie without the least difficulty, with the jaw in any position, from that of i to one far below that of <t, or even with the jaws firmly closed, provided the lips be widely separated so as to let the sound out. That is, the tongue-move- ment alone is enough to distinguish these vowels. This tongue-movement can be well shown by going through the series with the jaw as low as possible.
Now produce the same sounds, distinguish- ing them by lowering the jaw, without any independent movement of the tongue whatso- ever. This can, after a little practice, be done with ease ; but the jaw-movement, though not necessarily causing a difference of over six or si-ven millimeters between the i and the ce positions, will evidently be greater here than in the natural articulation of the vowels. The e and ce produced in this, way have a some- what more open sound than those formed by tongue-action alone.
Similar experiments can be performed with the narrow front vowels (French /, <?, e), which, it will be noted, become closer in quality the nearer the jaws are brought together; also with the wide back vowels (« in full, o in German Sonne, y in not) and the narrow back vowels (« in German du, o in French sot, y in law).
It is possible also to pronounce the whole vowel system with the jaws shut (if only the lips be kept well apart), the sound then having a closer quality than when uttered with the natural mouth-opening.
The foregoing experiment leads us to the conclusion that high, mid, and low vowels may be distinguished in three different ways : ist, by lowering the tongue ; 2d, by sinking the jaw ; 3(1, by combining these two methods. In ordinary Kng'ish the tongue-lowering is probably accompanied by a slight dropping of the jaw. SWKKT says (' Handbook of Pho- netics,' i 77, p. 12): "The height of the tongue is partly due to the action of the muscles of the tongue itself, but also in a great degree to the movements of the jaw." But if we actually measure this jaw move- ment, we shall find it to be extremely small :
tin- maximum difference, in English as usually spoken, between /and & is probably not over three millimeters. Is this the case in other languages ? MERKEL (' Physiologic der men- schlichen Sprache,' 1866, p. 103) makes the difference between i and/? seven millimeters3 PASSV (' Kurze Darstellung des franzosischen Lautsystems," in Fhonctischc Sludien, I, i, p. 24) gives diagrams which point to about the same amount of jaw-lowering ; WESTERN ('Engilsche Lautlehre,' 1885, pp. 5 and 83) clearly implies that, although i, e, and <?can be distinguished by tongue-action, the only difference between them in point of fact lies in the position of the jaw. All this testimony goes to show that in German, French, and Norwegian the jaw- movement is the main feature. That this is true of at least some other European lan- guages a careful examination of foreigners will prove.
We may sum up our results as follows : ist, the distinction between high, mixed, and low vowels depends on the distance of the highest part of the tongue from the palate; 2d, Eng- lish-speaking people obtain this characteristic difference mainly by tongue-movement ; 3d, Continental Europeans obtain it chiefly by moving the jaw; 4th, this difference of methods accounts for the "close" quality of English pronunciation as compared with Continental European accents.
ROUNDING.
Pronounce y (as in law), o (as in so), u (as in too), o (as in French fieu), ii (as in French /«) : at first sight the most striking feature of these vowels seems to be the rounding or puckering of the lips. This rounding is naturally least for low and greatest for high vowels. It may take various shapes; SIEVERS says ('Grund- ziige der Phonetik,' 1885, p. 93): " Was . . .
3 The various lip-positions are illustrated by TKCHMER (Internationale 7-titschrift, I, i, Tab. Ill) in a scries of drawings which would indicate a far greater degree of jaw. lowering than that noted by MEKKKI. ; these figures can, however, scarcely be supposed to represent the mouth-posi- tions occurring in ordinary speech. TKAVTMANN also I'Die Sprachlaute,' pp. 41-43) attaches the greatest importance to jaw-position.
4 Italians commonly speak of the English accent as ttretto. — C. H. c.
A Frenchman in Merlin used the word //»<-<•' in speaking of my French pronunciation some fourteen years ago. — B. s. s.
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die Formunterschiede in der Rundung betrifft, so unterscheide man im Einzelnen, ob die Rundung bloss durch Verticalbewegung der Lippen gegeneinander erzeugt wird, . . . oder durch Einziehung der Mundwinkel, . . . oder durch beides zugleich . . . ; ferner ob die Lippen ihren natiirlichen Abstand von den Zahnen behalten oder an diese starker angepresst oder aber vorgestiilpt und dadurch von den Zahnen abgehoben werden." If we compare our pronunciation of o and u with that of a Frenchmen or a German, we shall see that our iip^roundlng is generally less energetic, being free from compression as well as from protrusion : this difference in production ac- counts for the difference in effect. If, more- over, we pronounce each of the rounded vowels with the lips in various positions, we shall find that, other things being equal, the round effect always becomes more intense as the size of the lip-aperture is reduced.
Next let us try producing the rounded vowels with the jaws closed and with the corners of the mouth stretched out as far as possible toward the ears : they can all be pronounced perfectly in this way, provided the lips be separated enough to let the air escape between and around the teeth. When, however, the lips are brought closer together, the vowels become more rounded than in actual speech ; y, which has normally but little rounding, sounds particularly unnatural. If the lips be closed entirely, the rounded vowel culminates in the consonant b.
Let us try one more experiment. While pronouncing any unrounded vowel, cover the mouth-aperture with the hand : the sound obtained has the effect of lip-rounding ; the closer the hand is pressed, the more intense the rounding becomes, and when no air is allowed to escape, the sound passes into a b.
We infer, then, that the lip-rounded effect is produced by closure of the mouth-aperture. If the closure be complete, the result is b, which is the limit of all lip-rounded vowels ; the nearer the lip-position is to complete closure, the more intense is the lip-rounded quality. Our conclusion is borne out by the acoustic effect of lip-rounding. If we were to describe this effect, we should probably call it a •" tight " or "shut-up" quality, and should
doubtless compare it to the sound obtained by talking into a tumbler.
Lip-rounding is, however, not the only sort of rounding, nor is it always the more im- portant kind. In English, as we have already seen, the lips are much less used than in some and perhaps in nearly all the languages of Continental Europe : Englishmen and Ameri- cans can, in fact, without much trouble pro- duce a good 3 or o and a fairly good u without any lip-contraction whatsoever. 5 The sounds thus obtained are, to be sure, slightly different from the ordinary rounded vowels, but still they are distinctly round. What gives them this quality? SWEET says ('H. of Ph., pp. 13, 14) : " Rounding is a contraction of the mouth cavity by lateral compression of the cheek passage and narrowing of the lip aperture. . . ... It will be observed that the action of rounding is always concentrated on that part of the mouth where the vowel is formed. In rounding front vowels, such as the high-front- round (y), as in the French lune, the cheek compression is concentrated chiefly on the corners of the mouth and that part of the cheeks immediately behind them, while in back vowels, such as the high-back-round («),- the chief compression is at the back of the cheeks. Lip-narrowing is, therefore, some- thing secondary in back-rounded vowels, as it is possible to form them entirely with cheek- rounding or 'inner-rounding.' " SIEVERS ('G. der Ph.,' 1885, p. 94) comments on this passage as follows : " Es ist richtig, dass bei cler Run- dung durch Anpressung der Lippen an die Zahne auch die Wangen z. Th. eine straffere Spannung annehmen, aber ich vermag niclit dieser eine derartig besondere Bedeutung beizulegen wie BELL und SWEET es 'thun, da doch die Wangen auch in schlaffem Zustande an den Zahnreihen anzuliegen pflegen, und also die Gestalt des Resonanzraumes auf diese Weise nicht wesentlich verandert werden kann." That there is no necessary contraction of the cheeks in pronouncing hack-rounded vowels, either with or without lip-rounding, anybody can convince himself by holding his
5 The natural facility of English-speaking people in pro- nouncing rounded vowels without contracting the mouth- aperture gives them peculiar advantages for studying the tongue-movements accompanying these sounds.
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finger against his cheek while passing from the unrounded // in but to tin- rounded » in note ; for front rounded vowels tin- "cheek compression" is evidently nothing hut tin- tension caused l.y puckering tin- li|>s. EVANS ('Spelling Experimenter,' 1X82) dt-clares it is possible, without using the lips, to form one after another the vowels /, e, a, o, u by draw- ing back the tongue from the front of the mouth ; lip-rounding he regards merely as a substitute for tongue-retraction. Although there is some truth in this, it will be clear to any one who closely watches his tongue while trying to perform the experiment described, that other elements than mere retraction are necessary to distinguish the vowels of the series. Finally VIKTOR (' Elemente der Phonetik,' 1887, p. 17) remarks, after describ- ing the usual rounding by lip-contraction : "Ein ahnlicher Klangeffect kann durch ver- schiedenartige Zungenrundung, die sich auch leicht mit der Lippenrundung verbindet, . . . erzielt werden."
Let us try by a few experiments to ascertain the true nature of this " inner " or, as VIKTOR calls it, "tongue-rounding." Pronounce the back rounded vowels (u, o, y) with the mouth as wide open as possible : y is pronounced easily and nearly perfectly, o undergoes a slight modification in quality, u is more mod- ified and is harder to produce. Practice the o for some time with the mouth wide open, until it sounds as nearly as possible like a natural o. Now pass rapidly, without moving the jaw or lips, from this o to the unrounded vowel in but (which we shall call v), and back again. In changing from v to o the tongue will be seen to draw back and up, and also to undergo a violent lateral contraction just in front of its highest point. This contraction may take either one of two forms : either the whole upper front part of the tongue will be so pinched as to become very thin laterally and correspondingly thick vertically, while a farrow is developed low down on each side; or the shape just described will be modified by a marked deepening of the permanent central groove that divides tin- tongue length- wise. The elfect of this lateral compression is double: it increases the height of the artic- ulating part of the tongue, and it enlarges the
cavity in front of this highest point. In other words, compression supplements the retrac- tion and elevation of the tongue already noted.
The participation of the tongue in the round- ing of the front vowels has been noted and described by VIKTOK (' K. der 1'h..' 1887^.85): " Dass bei meiner Aussprache des geschloss- enen b in Of en und des geschlossenen it in Ubel, welche ich fur die biihnengemasse halte, die Zungenstellung nicht ganz dieselbe ist, wie bei e in ew ig, bezw. * in Igel, davon habe ich mich durch den Augenschein und Ex- perimente iiberzeugt. Die Vorderzunge bil- det bei den gerundeten Vokalen eine ziemlich flache Langsrinne ; das Zungenblatt ist rings etwas gehoben. Ein nach dem Gaumen bin eingefiihrter Federhalter o. dgl. steht an der namlichen Stelle der e-, bezw. /- Artikulation im Wege, wo dies fur o, bezw. u nicht der Fall ist. Offne ich den Mund etwas weiter, als dies fur die Laute normal ist, so zeigt es sich, dass sich die flache Rinne nach oben rechts und links verzweigt und so eine nach drei Seiten hin eingebuchtete Vertiefung bildet."
The essential point is that a hollow is formed i in front of the articulating part of the tongue. i After repeating VIKTOR'S experiments, we i may try producing these vowels with the | mouth wide open, that is, without lip-round- ing: under these circumstances the ii and the j o, though still recognizable, lose much of the quality they have in actual speech. In pass- ing (with open mouth) from / to » or from e to o the tongue is slightly lowered and drawn back, it is, moreover, contracted, and may j take either one of two shapes: the one is an i exaggeration of that described by VIKTOR ; the other, in its extreme form, is nearly that of an egg seen from the small end. SIKVFKS is perhaps thinking of this second variety when he says (' G. der Ph.,' 1885, pp. 93 and 96, ; 97) that German ii has the tongue-position of.r. Whichever position the tongue assumes, there is always a cavity in front of its articulating part. This cavity seems to be a necessary feature of inner rounding, /can be changed to // and c to o merely by the formation of an artificial cavity just outside the lips.
The above facts lead us to the conclusion that the conformation necessary for inner round-
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ing is that of a narrow passage connecting two cavities. Narrowing the passage intensifies the rounding ; enlargement of the front cavity helps the rounding, and, if great enough, changes the nature of the vowel. The a- coustic effect of inner rounding is, as we have seen, analogous to that of lip-rounding, but not identical with it.
Have we, however, discovered all the factors that combine to produce inner rounding ? The following experiment will show that we have not. Lower the jaw so that the two rows of teeth are about -a quarter of an inch apart, press the point of the tongue firmly against the front teeth of both jaws, distend the lips in all directions, and round e by lateral com- pression of the tongue : a tolerably good o will be the result ; but it is also possible, without any visible change in tongue or jaw, to pro- duce a perfectly clear a. What constitutes the difference between these two sounds? If, while uttering these vowels, we direct .our attention not to the mouth, but to the throat, we shall notice a vigorous motion just above the Adam's apple. As we pass from o to a (producing both sounds in the way just de- scribed) the throat sinks in, as we return to o it swells out. If we open the mouth wide while making this change, we shall notice also that the top of the tongue is nearly level for a, whereas for this o the back part is raised nearly to the palate. Next pass from o to v (as in but): the throat-movement, though less marked, is still plainly perceptible. BELL was probably referring to this throat-swelling when he said that "the mechanical cause of round quality commences in the superglottal passage " (quoted by SWEET, 'H. of Ph., 'p. 13). If we now try to localize still further this throat-expansion by applying the fingers to the throat while performing the a-'o experi- ment, we shall find that it consists in the protrusion of the hjyoid bone.6 Grasping this bone as firmly as we can between the thumb and fore-finger, let us next try to discover what positions it occupies when we pronounce unrounded vowels. In ordinary breathing,
6The hyoid bone is shaped like a horseshoe with the round end pointing outward ; it is situated at the base of the tongue, just above the larynx. Its position can be felt by passing from a to the consonant ti and holding, the latter as long as possible. |- i
and also in producing all unrounded back (French & in pate, v in English but, the vowel in Scotch laogh?) and all unrounded low vowels (French d in pdte, and the low-mixed vowel, and English ^ in rat), the bone is retracted nearly as far as possible, and the muscles8 connecting it with the jaw-bone are relaxed ; but when we pass from any of these sounds to e or to the Russian Jery,9 it comes forward, and for i it advances still further,10 the genio-hyoid muscle becoming very tense and very prominent. There is probably a slight protrusion for the mid-mixed vowel also. Now, as the hyoid bone is attached to the base of the tongue, the protrusion of the bone drags the lower back part of the tongue for- ward, away from the epiglottis. We can feel this movement if we insert the finger so far into the mouth that the end of it is between the raised epiglottis and the back of the tongue. This displacement of bulk at the bottom of the tongue inevitably increases the height of some spot on the top ; and in point of fact we find that it is used in the formation of those vowels (high-mixed, high-front, mid-front) whose necessary elevation other means are inadequate to produce. Next let us note the position of the bone while we pass from the various unrounded vowels to their correspond- ing inner-rounded sounds: that is, while passing without lip-action from d \npdte to 3 in Eng- lish not, from v to o, from the vowel of lao^h to u, from ^ to 6 in French peur, from e to o in French pen, from /to u in French pn. In every case, except .that of the low-back, \ve shall see that the rounded vowel is accom- panied by a greater protrusion of the bone than the unrounded. The low-back vowels, both narrow and wide, can be produced with a slight protrusion, but they can also be (and perhaps generally are) pronounced without it. If we go through as many of the above changes as we can with the finger inserted in the mouth as far as the epiglottis, we can feel, as we pronounce the rounded vowels, a vio- lent up-lifting of the articulating part of the tongue ; for instance, as we pass from a mid- back a to an o, the finger is thrown up toward the soit palate.
7 An unrounded vowel formed in the «-position. 8 See TKCHMEK, /. /,., I, i, p. 136. 9 High-mixed. 10 See MEK- KKI., ' 1>. der m. S.,' pp. 37, 103.
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All this goes to confirm our theory that the main feature of inner rounding is a narrow i \\> •<•!! |>;ilat<- and tongue. In the high-mixed position, where we always have a small passage with a cavity on each side, it is impossible- to pronounce a sound that does not strike the ear as rounded. It is also very hard to produce a high-back vowel entirely devoid of rounding. To round the high-front and perhaps the mid-front, where a narrow passage already exists, all that is required is the formation of a front cavity, but this neces- sitates a retraction of the tongue and causes tin- passage to recede ; in fact, if the cavity be formed by lateral compression of the tongue, the narrow passage is, for e, produced far back in the mouth, so that the rounded vowel is rather mixed than front. When we round the" mid-back vowel, we carry the back of the tongue upwards and backwards. The low- back can be rounded by carrying the tongue back toward the lower part of the soft pal- ate. For the low-front and the low-mixed inner rounding seems to be impossible : when we try to round them we lose their characteris- tic positions. The mid-mixed can be rounded only by a decided elevation of the middle or back of the tongue."
The question now presents itself: does inner rounding exist only in the absence of lip-con- traction, or is it a regular element of all rounded vowels ? As far as the front vowels are concerned, this question is answered by VIKTOR in the passage quotod above. A cor- roboration of his statement is found in Romania, 1887, April-October, p. 630, where GASTON PARIS remarks, in reviewing a work by l\ri>oi,F LKNZ: " L' auteur dit quepour arti- culer 1' it la langue prend la meme position que pour articuler 1' /. Je ne puis etre de cetavis. Si on maintient la langue dans la position tie 1' i, on ne pent arriver, avec la position voulue des levres, a e"mettre un it pur." As for the bark vowels, TKCHMKR gives us (/. Z., I, i, Tab. Ill, 4, 5) diagrams showing the difference in tongue-configuration between a and H : in a
nl once thought that inner rounding might be produced by the cavity between the tongue and the epiglottis • sinus glosto- rpiglotticus) itself; 1 convinced myself that this could not be so, by pressing the epiglottis close against the back of the tongue while pronouncing o. I have performed this experi- ment a number of times, and have always found the quality of the o unaltered by the closure of the sinus. — c. H. G.
the upper surface of the tongue as seen from the lips is convex, in u the central groove is strongly developed. If additional proof be • It-sired, round the lips and try to pronounce the unrounded front vowels : unless the round- ing is abnormally great, a pure i and e can be produced. Similarly the unrounded back vowels v (as in but) and French & in Idche can be formed with the lips puckered. All this evidence shows pretty clearly that ordinary lip-rounding is not enough to give a round quality to sounds ; it follows, then, that a cer- tain amount of inner rounding must be a reg- ular feature of rounded vowels. A still more convincing proof is the fact that all the usual rounded vowels, except perhaps y, are accom- panied by protrusion of the hyoid bone. An absence of inner rounding may, however, be compensated for by abnormal protrusion and puckering of the lips. If, on the other hand, inner rounding be used alone, it is, of course, tremendously exaggerated to compensate for the loss of lip cooperation.
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENTS OF TONGUE AND
LIPS.
We have already seen that retraction of the tongue is one of the regular elements of inner rounding. We have also referred to a state- ment of EVANS that the effect of rounding can be produced by tongue retraction alone. Let us try passing from front to mixed and from mixed to back, without rounding of any kind : we find that there is a constant increase in a quality which is akin to rounding, but is not the same thing. We may call it a "hollow" quality, as compared with the "clear " effect of the front vowels. /, e, and re produce the effect of being, as it were, uttered at the lips and transmitted directly to the ear; whereas the back vowels remind one of sounds re- echoing through a large and empty room. The acoustic effect gives us a clue to the char- acteristic difference between these two sets of vowels: hollow sounds are produced with a large cavity in front of the articulating part of the tongue, clear vowels are characterized by the absence of such a cavity. Front or clear vowels have, moreover, a space of considerable si/e behind the articulating part of the tongue ; this empty space, into which the finger (or even two or three fingers) can easily be inserted,
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may be of importance in determining the nature of clear sounds.12
The effect of the front cavity (the distinguish- ing mark of hollow vowels) can be shown in the following way. Place the hands together in the form of a cup, and while pronouncing & hold this cup close in front of the mouth : if the cup be a very shallow one, the result is a lip-rounded low-mixed ; if the cup be bigger we obtain a lip-rounded y. If, now, during the emission of the sounds, we open these cups, so as to let the air escape freely, without destroying the artificial cavity in front of the lips, the shallow one will give us approximate- ly an unrounded low-mixed, the deep one ap- proximal^ly a low-back a. Similar experi- ments can be performed with e and /: here, however, there is always a rounded effect, owing to elevation of the tongue. For the i position, moreover, mere protrusion of the lips gives the same result as the application of the cup : an i pronounced with the lips greatly advanced and puckered sounds like the high- mixed-rounded ; while the latter, produced with the same amount of protrusion, becomes u. These facts prove that for the ear the effect of front, mixed, and back (or of clear and hollow) depends on the position of the articulating part of the tongue with regard to the whole mouth-cavity.
The acoustic effect of hollowing is, as we have seen, very like that of rounding ; and a certain amount of hollowing is a necessary ele- ment of all inner rounding. It may also be said that in most of the languages commonly studied, the extreme hollow quality is general- ly accompanied by rounding of some kind : that is, unrounded back vowels are tolerably scarce, except in English. The English language has at least two of them, a and v. In the English rounded vowels, too, we have seen that retraction and elevation of the tongue (that is, extra hollowing and extra in- ner rounding combined) take, to a certain ex- tent, the place of lip rounding. When, more- over, the Englishman tries to imitate a French or German o, he invariably substitutes hollow- ing for rounding : that is to say, he pronounces the low-mixed instead of the mid-front-round.
12 See the Proceedings of the American Philological Socie- ty for 1884, pp. xxxviii-xl.
If, now, we analyze the sound of the back rounded vowels, we find that in u the round quality is stronger than the hollow, that in English o the round effect and the hollow are about equal, while in y the hollowing is by far the more important element. We can, in fact, pronounce the low-back-wide without any rounding whatsoever,^ and yet the vowel sounds slightly round, as compared with a low- back a. Passing, with the mouth wide open, from low-back a to this unrounded y, we notice that there is a sinking of the whole front part of the tongue, and especially of the part just in front of the y position : in other words the unrounded low-back vowel which sounds rounded requires a larger front cavity than the low-back vowel that has an unrounded effect. This fact leads us to the conclusion that a maximum of hollowing is acoustically equiva- lent to a minimum of rounding : the low-back position is the one where rounding and hollow- ing meet. The clear quality (as represented by a:) is, on the other hand, the opposite of both hollowing and rounding. We might, therefore, if we chose, arrange the vowels in the form of a triangle, at the apex of which ,we should place the vowel which is easiest to round without lip-action and capable of the most intense inner rounding (the high-mixed or the high-back), while ^ and unrounded y would occupy the two lower corners. It is, however, important to remember that in most cases the difference between clear, inner-rounded, and hollow is one of degree rather than of kind : for this reason any such triangular arrange- ment as the one just proposed would probably be unfit for practical use. It will suffice to note, in the case of every vowel, whether its degree of clearness, hollowing, and -inner rounding corresponds to the amount that is normal for its position in the Sweet system. For instance, all back vowels are regularly hollow ; but if the front cavity of an u be diminished by raising or carrying forward the front of the tongue, we should describe the « as "clear;" and, on the other hand, if the
13 In my own natural pronunciation the vowel of not has no trace of rounding of any kind, yet it is quite distinct in sound from any variety of a. I am not sure whether my natural narrow 3 is rounded or not; I can certainly pronounce this vowel without any lip or tongue movement that seems like rounding.— c. u. (;.
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ft position be modified by flattening tlie front elevation of the tongue, we should call the- n-suit a "hollow" low-front vowel. Like- wise an / that is changed by tin- formation of a front cavity would be an "inner-rounded" high-front. Lip-rounding we should have to
note separately.
TllE </-SiU'NDS.
One of tin- points on which there ismostdis- u-n ement among phoneticians is the position of the vowel a. MERKEL, writing in 1866 (P. der ni. S,' |>. 82), says that during the produc- tion of this vowel " die mittlere Partie des
Zungenriickens bewegt sich . . . etvvas
nach oben und hinten Die Spitze der
Zunge steht etwa io//x vonden untern Schnei- de/almen ab." This statement, taken in con- nection with Fig. 17 of Taf. I, shows clearly that MERKEL'S a is a back vowel. BELL and SWEET define a as a mid-back-wide.M and SIEVERS accepts this definition. On the other hand VIETOR, TECHMER, and TRAUTMANN agree substantially with WESTERN, who describes (' E. L.', p. 4) the production of a as an articulation " bei welcher die Zunge ganz platt wie in der Ruhelage im Munde liegt, ohne dass sich irgend ein Teil derselben iiber das Niveau der Zahne erhebt ; auch beriihrt der Zungensaum rings umher leise die untern Zahne." The French distinguish two kinds of a, which seem to be according to PASSY (' K. D. des f. Ls.' in Phonetische Stud., I, i), respectively low-back (as in pdte] and low- mixed (as in patte). The possibility of forming a by various methods has been noted by several of the writers above-mentioned. BELL calls Italian long a a low-back vowel. WESTERN admits (' K. L.', p. 83) that a can be formed in the mid-back and low-back positions, and also that the mid-back a is the ordinary one in Eng- lish ; he maintains, however, that Italian and North German a are pronounced according to his description. SWEET says (' H. of Ph.,' p. 25) : "This vowel is liable to considerable fluc- tuations. It may be lowered nearly to (:i),*s as in Italian and Spanish, where it is difficult to decide between (a)10 and (a). It may also be advanced almost to the (<'h)'7 position, the point of the tongue being kept down, giving
14 An unrounded vowel formed in the position of wide o.
15 Low-l>ack-wide. 16 Mid-hack-wide. 17 Mid-mixcd-widc.
a sound whirh is very like ((f), into whi< h it is easily converted by raising the 'inner* front of the tongue towards the palate. If the point of the tongue is raised, it passes into (^h)." In discussing SWEET'S vowel system STORM expresses the opinion ('Englische Phi- lologie, 1881, pp. 67-69) that the mid-back posi- tion is the usual one for English, North-Ger- man, and Italian a; French & in pdte he con- siders as a low-back vowel ; French a in madanie, Spanish a (as in nada], and the arti- ficially pronounced English a in pa st (half- way between ce and mid-back a) he calls "palatal," by which he apparently means mixed. He also quotes (p. 67, note 3) the following words from a letter written by SWEET : " Note that the different kinds of a are really perfectly distinct sounds (Danish a, for instance, being really more removed from Swedish long a than * from / or u from o, etc.) : their inclusion under one name is simply the result of defec- tive notation." It is assuredly true that the various a-sounds are widely different in their mode of utterance ; it is, however, equally certain that they all produce on the ear the effect of different varieties of one and the same vowel. The cause of this similarity in sound is what we must try to discover.
Let us take up the nine vowel-positions es- tablished by SWEET, and determine in which of them a sound can be produced that strikes the ear as an a.
Mid-Back. — Unround a narrow o : the vowel obtained will be v (as in but). Next unround a wide o : the sound will be an ordinary Eng- lish a.
High-Hack. — If we try to unround a narrow n, we get a sound something like v. A wide « unrounded gives a vowel that may be classed with the a-sounds. Neither of these vowels can, however, be entirely divested of rounding.
Low-Back. — We can pronounce a low-back- narrow a, which is slightly suggestive of v, and also a low-back-wide a, which strikes the ear as being the sound of French it in /ache. PASSY tells us, to be sure, that this French & is narrow ; but as he clearly shows in his de- scription of the tongue-position for & and for the mixed a (' Phonetische Studien,' I, 2, pp. 171, 172) that he uses tlie term "narrow" in an entirely different sense from that given it
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by SWEET, and as his description of d exactly fits what we should call the low-back-vvide, we may safely assume that the French vowel is not narrow.
Mid- Mixed. — The mid-mixed position is that of the second vowel in better (pronounced, as it commonly is in southern England and the eastern United States, without the final r). This vowel is, however, produced by different persons in at least two different ways. Say " better," and on finishing it do not let the organs of speech move at all : if your pronun- ciation is like SWEET'S, you will find that the tongue lies loosely in the middle of the mouth, the central part slightly rounded up, the front edge lightly touching the upper rim of the lower front teeth ; the jaws are nearly closed,' and the lips are passive. Having obtained this position, let us see what changes are necessary to produce an a. A decided lower- ing of the jaw will give the desired result; so will a slight flattening or hollowing of the tongue's surface, or a little depression of the blade of the tongue, provided there be no ele- vation at the back. Persons who, on the other hand, pronounce the second vowel of better as an "inner " mid-mixed (that is to say, with the point of the tongue lowered and withdrawn from the teeth, and with a considerable eleva- tion of a part between the back and the mixed positions), can pass to a by means of a very great jaw-lowering or a decided hollowing of the front part of the tongue.
High-Mixed. — The high-mixed-wide vowel can be obtained by pronouncing wide i as far back as possible. The point of the tongue re- mains behind the lower front teeth, while the centre is lifted up so as almost to touch the middle of the palate. The sound is very like it. To convert this vowel into an a we must resort to a marked retraction of the hyoid bone, combined with a degree of tongue-flat- tening (not to be compensated for by mere lowering of the jaw) that brings it entirely out of the high-mixed position : the tongue rises steeply from the lower front teeth, its highest point being not quite so high as for a?, and then extends horizontally to the very back of the mouth. A more nearly high-mixed a can be obtained by lateral compression of the tongue : of this we shall speak later.
Low-Mixed. — The low-mixed-wide vowel will result from putting the tongue into mid- mixed position and then lowering it. It has a soiiu what hollower sound than the mid-mixed wide. The least lowering of the jaw or flat- tening of the tongue is enough to change this vowel into an a. The a described by WESTERN is doubtless a flattened low-mixed-wide.18 The low-mixed-narrow can be converted into a by a decided lowering of the middle of the tongue (so that the narrow quality is lost) or by * very great lowering of thejaw.
Mid-Front. — In passing from the mid-front, narrow or wide, to an a we find that the eleva- tion in the front of the tongue is so flattened that the ^-position is quite lost, while the cav- ity behind the tongue is filled up by drawing the back part of the tongue upwards and backwards. This latter change can be noted by holding the forefinger close to the back of the tongue while pronouncing the vowels. There is also, as we should expect, a notice- able retraction of the hyoid bone.
High-Front. — Neither wide nor narrow / can be changed to a except by lateral com- pression of the tongue (accompanied by a very marked retraction of the hyoid bone), of which we shall speak later.
Low- Front. — An ff, wide or narrow, passes into a if we bring the back of the tongue up nearly to the level of the middle, and either lower the jaw or flatten the front elevation. This a, which is perhaps the French a in/W/V, does not differ essentially from the one ob- tained by flattening the mid-mixed ; k is, in fact, rather a mixed than a front vowel.
We may sum up the result of our observa- tions by saying that an a can be produced in any part of the mouth below a straight line drawn through the highest point reached by the back of the tongue in pronouncing wide it and a point somewhat below that reached by the front in pronouncing wide <z", provided : ist, that there be no protrusion of the hyoid bone \*9 ad, that there be no considerable cavity in the back of the mouth behind the tongue ;:9 3d, that there be a large cavity in the centre and front of the mouth; 4th, that this cavity be not so great as to form an j.
18 This is my ordinary it. — c. H. c;. But not mine — n. s. s.
19 MEKKEL, 'P. der m. S.', p. 103.
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Tlu- ./-sound dillers from tin- unrounded back \owels in tliat it does not require an elevation of tin- hack of the ton-ur ; it differs from the mixed and front unrounded vowels in that it demands a larger ca\ it y in the centre and front of tlu; mouth, and a stoppage of the cavity be- hind the tongue.
It is also possihle to produce a in two more artificial ways — by lateral compression of the tongue, and by protrusion of the tongue be- yond the lips.
With the jaw at any height, and with the tongue in any unrounded position, narrow or wide, low, mid, or high, front or mixed (but not hack), we can form an a-sound by so com- pressing the tongue that it is thin from side to side and thick from top to bottom, provided the hyoid hone be retracted and the lip-aper- ture he such as to allow the sound to escape freely at the sides. Hy this method an ti can be produced which, as seen from the lips, has the appearance of being high-front or high- mixed ; examination will, however, show that this a is accompanied by no lowering of the i back of the tongue. All the back vowels can, moreover, be formed in this same way : they differ from one-another in the height of the ; back of the tongue ; from a they are dis- tinguished apparently by the fact that they re- quire an upward slope from front to back, whereas for a the top of the tongue is about level.
If the mouth-aperture be tolerably large, and the tongue be kept flat and free from any local elevation, a can he pronounced with the tongue extended far beyond the lips. All the low vowels can be produced with this same tongue-protrusion : the low-back (as in saw) and the low-mixed (as in sir) require, however, an elevation respectively of the back and of the centre of the tongue ; a" demands a lifting in the front of the mouth and a sinking at the hack. E can also be produced in this way, but with less protrusion than tc\ i admits still less than c : for narrow i the tongue can scarcely project beyond the lower lip.
Putting together all the evidence we have gathered, we conclude that a is an unrounded hollow vowel, hollower than the low mixed, and not so hollow as J. When it is pronounced in the mid-back or low-back position, its re-
quisite front cavity is already there; but when it is carried forward, room has to be made for it by lowering the jaw or by flattening, hol- lowing, or compressing the tongue.
Harvard University,
C. H. GRANDGENT, E. S. SHELDON.
EKRATA IN THE SIEVERS-COOK OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
May I request students of the 'Old English Grammar ' to make the following corrections in addition to those noted by DR. BRIGHT in the March number (p. 82) of this journal ?
§ 68. For silver read sliver.
§ 85. For ' an accented ' read 'a stressed.'
§ 207. For ' smooth guttural and the smooth palatal ' read 'surd guttural stop and the surd palatal stop.'
§214 (p. 114, second line). For &w&h (dweh) read awceh (aweK).
§ 214, Note 3. For frunon, gefruncn, bru- don, brode», strodcn read friinon, gefrftncn, brudon, brdden, strdden.
§ 214, Note 4. For merne read merne.
% 227. For ' Germanic S3 ' read ' Germanic ».'
is 271. For cwift read avift.
§ 288, Note i. Supply the missing portion of the parenthesis after scef.
§ 382, Note i. For dcwinan read acwinan.
§ 407, (a). For rdccan read rttcean.
Page 168 (middle). F9r ' 225.2 b ' read ' 225. 2.' For ' 145. and note ' read ' 145.'
Page 262. For ' oSde, conj. 277 ' read ' oSSe, conj. 200.'
Page 263. For plHoic read pleolic.
Page 264. Under sculan, for 243 read 423.
of California.
ALBERT S. COOK.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SUFFIX -re in French ordre, coffre, pantpre, etc.
InLENz's 'Der Handschuhsheimer Dialekt,* I. Teli : Worterverzeichnis.' Konstanz 1887, we read on page 23 : " Beilaufig will ich bemer-
*LKNZ'S treatise on his native dialect is certainly a most valuable addition to our dialect investigations and it promises to be much more so after the publication of the second part.
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ken, dass ich furs afr. eine entwicklung von lateinischem nachtonigen, sonantisch gewor- denen n zu r annehme, also 6rdinem+conson.. anlaut : ordr (geschrieben ordre), ordinem+ vocal. anlaut : orne, s. Diez Wtbch4. 650. Cf. auch franz. dartre, Langres, Havre, diacre, Estevre, dombre." When a phonetic law is formulated with such restrictions as these, the lack of material will often make it very diffi- cult to prove either its entire impossibility or its absolute necessity. In favor of the case discussed here, we might be inclined to quote the analogy of a similar, although not an equivalent sound-change in Spanish ; and the persistence of the consonant before the r shows that we have indeed to deal with an original n and r sonans. Yet, when we ex- amine the question in connection with other facts, we may perhaps come to a different conclusion, and prefer an explanation which I wish here to submit to the consideration of Romance scholars.
We will first add to LENZ'S list : Acre (Ac- CON) coffre (COPHINUM) painpre (PAMPINUM) ; some other words may have escaped our attention. The -re of these words, according to my opinion, is due not to any phonetic law but to an analogical change of suffix, caused by the many nouns in -re, which normally existed in the language : prestre, fenestre, maistre, arbre, etc., etc. It is true, that this -re never became a really " living suffix " in French, but we cannot help admitting its in- fluence in the formation of such words as es- clandre, apotre, titre, chapitre, epitre, martre,
I wish that some thorough specialist in Germanics would make our readers acquainted with the chief results obtained by the author. — Here only a few questions : the first element of Ititiitut seems to be the German Leid ? — May mastung (suffix-««£- instead of -ing) contain or be influenced by Dung'', — Should not mhd. meister meinster have been brought into connection with tneist, meinst, rather than with «/<.•/«? Meinst might have received ll.c nasal from ininst, ininnest. — paste reminds one of ab-bastelu. — :ruln seems to be connect- ed with troddel. — With " as kut esprich" cp. the Swiss " as in": chit" and the Saxon " als G.it tier fferre" (in ' BLIEM- CHEN IN LONDON'). Der /tern' in the Saxon saying is, of course, a transformation of snnie form of reden. Hut the whole expression remains difficult to explain. — If the ex- clamation ma.i \ cou'd be simply undjrstood as the possessive pron. mein sc. Gott. it might be compared with the English •O my ! and dear me \ I think dear me is not, as generally believed=Italian dio mio, but»<j!f«r my Lord, the last word being left out for obvious reasons.
chartre, costre, cordre, and especially Sambrc, celestre, escientre, encre, diantre, gouffre, fi/andre, perhaps goinfre, gouliafre, safre and others of doubtful origin.
On the other hand, some of the nouns with n in their etymon occur also without the r. They have, then, preserved the «, and still the preceding consonant has not disap- peared, which proves that here also n was originally sonans : juefne, Estefne, ordene; we must, of course, not quote asne, chesne, al- mosne in this connection, nor imagene, which is not a popular word but a learned form, as nearly all its sounds show. Have (beside havrc) has entirely lost the suffix, and other double forms of a similiar character are golfe: gouffre, coulte: cotre, marte: martre, (while Montmarthe : Montmartre should probably be understood differently). Consequently there must have been in the language some uncer- tainty as regards the suffix -re, and we have just seen that it must have been added ana- logically in some cases. The question accord- ingly arises, whether we shall simply admit its influence in all the forms concerned, or whether we prefer to lay down phonetic laws, based upon only a few words which can be easily explained otherwise.
GUSTAF KARSTKN.
Indiana University.
DESIRE NISARD AND THE HIS- TOR Y OF LITER A TURE.
A noticeable feature of the reminiscences of DESIRE NISARD in the French periodicals is the absence of views on his influence as a critic. Old pupils of the Ecole Norm ale skc-Lrh his directorship of that institution, his person- al bearing, his attitude towards the Erhpire, comment on the legend of the "Two Morals," but in their mention of his -works cast hardly a glance at his master-piece, nor attempt an estimate of his services as a historian of literature.
Reasons for this neglect are obvious. The •memory of NISARD'S campaign against Ro- manticism, much more his silence in the face of Realism, unite to make all literary critics of the present generation hostile to him. The few adherents of the Classical school have not yet spoken.
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Yet Iln ' History i'l Fn-ix h Literature' is of no small actual impoi lance. However vulgar it may be to estimate literary success from the publisher's point of \ie\v, in the case of a book ofsolid reading, full ofanalyses and arguments, which has no longer tin- attraction of novelty anil which is rather out of fashion than other- wist-, the demand of the public furnishes an indication of its influence. Its prefaces are its milestones. NISAKD signed his first preface in iS.j4, his third in 1863, his seventh and final in 1X79; but he lived to authorize the fourteenth edition. Thus in sixteen years, 1863-1879, four editions appeared: in the following eight, seven were necessary. So increasing a popu- larity cannot be wisely ignored.
NISAKD was a critic of clear-cut theories. He chose his measure and abided by it. There is thus a unity in his work, a close con- nection of its parts, a constantly recurring standard of appreciation, which gives to it unexcelled order and clearness. His purpose, as he states at length in the first chapter, is to write a history of literature and not a literary history in the manner of the Benedictines. It is also not to be a history of language, though his distinction here is less obvious, for further on he states that all French writing previous to the Renaissance belongs to the history of language. Literature, he continues, begins with the appearance of art and ceases with its disappearance. By art in literature, he means the expression of general truths in a perfect language; that is, a language perfectly con- formed to the genius of the country where it is spoken and to the spirit of humanity. It must therefore be a language formed and fixed. Hence the history of literature is the history of that which, in literary productions, has not ceased to be true, living and acting, and, in this instance, the history of that which is essential, constant and unchangeable in the French spirit. Now this spirit, according to NISARD, is preeminently practical, doing away with vain curiosity and idle speculations, in which quality alone it differs from the spirit of antiquity. It favors discipline rather than lib- erty. This difference has its cause in the in- lluence of Christianity, which develops Un- practical side of human nature. That mirror of the l-'rench spirit which reflects its image
most exactly, is naturally to be found in its language. Those writers who most faithfully return the reflection of the French spirit have alone survived in the mind of the nation and are alone to !/<• considered by the historian. It is his duty to compare the original with the portrait and to render reasons for the judg- ment that France has instinctively given.
•How NISAKU in the individual applica- tion of his rule would be a fruitless repetition of former criticisms. In general it is best adapted to prose writing and he does not hesi- tate to treat nearly all the literary prose pro- ductions from the time of VILLEHARDOUN. I He finds in the early chroniclers and in certain j of the early poems, 'Roland,' 'Renart,' the | ' Roman de la Rose ' various traits of the French spirit and much of the language of I durable works. The prose of the sixteenth | century commands his increasing approbation until in DESCAKTKS and PASCAL he finds the models he has sought. Poetry, on the other i hand, is but little suited to the requirements of NISAKD. He has before his eyes the fear of i BOILEAU. No notion of the lyric poetry of : the Middle Ages before CHARLES D' ORLEANS. ! No mention of BAIF, BELLEAU, PASSEKAT, while the pages devoted to RONSARD are but a prose commentary of BOILEAU'S lines. LA FONTAINE he praises, ANDRE CHENIER he calls a true poet.
The chapter on MOLIERE is inferior only to
to those on DESCARTES and PASCAL in analy-
i sis, enthusiastic estimate and style, but
MOLIERE is to him rather the embodiment of
' the French spirit than a writer of either prose
or poetry. So in his condemnation of FENK-
LON and ROUSSEAU he pays his respects rather
: to their " chimerical " spirit of liberty than to
their manner.
The principal defect in the rule of NISARD seems to be the assumption that art exists in a fixed language only, meaning thereby the language of the seventeenth century, the language of RACINE. It may be disputed against him whether each period of linguistic development does not have its artistic lan- guage and whether productions that mir- ror faithfully the spirit of that age may not be considered as literature. The /a is of Marie ile France or of 'Aucassin et Nicolette ' bear in
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their grace and beauty no less trace of artistic effort than does 'Andromaque.' France, at least, no longer refuses to recognize in them its image, and thus exposes the arbitrary limits of NISARD to the danger of seeing succeeding epochs render justice to what had before been unknown or disdained.
Exception might likewise be taken to the statement that the predominant trait of the French mind is the practical. That common sense prevails in French literature is seen in the tendency towards satire. Yet it is a ques- tion whether this arises so much from a prac- tical bent as from aversion to what lacks order, moderation ; or, as NISARD says, from desire for discipline. There is, however, a logical sequence of thought, rigorous in its unfolding, running through French literature, whose result, practical or otherwise, depends entirely on the premises.
From another standpoint NISARD'S defini- tion of art might perhaps be open to objection : as to whether literature must always present general truths. Human nature remains the same in its outlines, but each change of social surroundings brings into prominence different shades of thought and emotion. That all variations of humanity are essentially the same general truths may be philosophically axiomatic, but whether the presentation in literature of these variations is accepted as true in all time may be open to doubt. The novels of the seventeenth century may be con- ceded to represent certain phases of the hu- man mind, but it is evident that NISARD does not consider them to be literature. DAUDET is beyond cavil an artist, but a change of social conditions will render his best works unread- able.
Thus the history of literature has for us a broader meaning than is afforded by the defi- nition of NISARD. It is the history of the human mind expressed in language. The study of human thought in the various periods of its manifestation, which by no means im- plies the study of all linguistic productions but rather of those that are typical, leads to an intelligence of national traits that can be used as a basis of comparison for the striking characteristics of each period. The rule of NISARD embraces but a part of the truth ; it was also not applied impartially or indepen-
dently. Yet with its shortcomings, its one- sidedness, we owe to it many admirable de- lineations of works and authors, among which are the best presentations of some of the greatest writers of France, a valuable defence of classical taste, and a constant incentive to express the true by the beautiful.
F. M. WARREN.
Jo/ins Hopkins University.
OLD ENGLISH LITER A TURE.
English Writers. Ap attempt towards a History of English Literature. By HENRY MORLEV, LL. D., Professor of English Literature at University College, London. Vol. I, Introduction. Origins. Old Celtic Literature. Beowulf. Cassell & Co., 1887. Vol. II. From Caedmon to the Conquest. 1888.
This edition of PROFESSOR MORLEV'S ' English Writers ' is a re-writing of his well- known work first published in 1864-67, two vol- umes in three, and extending to Dunbar, or to the invention of printing. The two smaller volumes now published form the first instal- ment of an intended ' History of English Literature ' in twenty volumes, and two more volumes will complete the period covered by the original work. It was designed that the volumes should be issued half-yearly, but the Preface to the first volume is dated January, 1887, and the " Last Leaves " of the second volume, January 1888, so that at this rate it is to be feared that the work will never be completed by its author, a result much to be re- gretted on many accounts. With great mod- esty PROFESSOR MORLEY remarks in his. Pre- face : "After waiting and working on through yet another twenty years, the laborer has learned that he knows less-and less. Little is much to us when yonng ; time passes and proportions change. But, however small the harvest, it must be garnered," and in his "Last Leaves:" " If the evening of life do not give long enough light for the completion of this book, it will be, at any rate, complete as far as it goes." That this light may be granted will be the earnest desire of every student of English literature.
The instalment now given to the public
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///«,-. MODEKN-I.AXi:t'.M;i \"//v 1888.
6.
forms a complete whole in itself, and consti- tutes .1 history "I LXOtt, or, as I'ko- M.IKI.I \ pi .ill it, First Kng- lisli literature. I ai k Ol t" a copy of
the original work, now out of print, lias pre- vented a comparison tn ;isi ertain tin- "-xact changes and additions tliat ha\e In > n made. Ifmemo: , the Introduction, Compris-
ing a general review of tin- four periods of Fnglish literature,— -namely, the Formation of the Language, Italian Inlliience, French In- thience, and Fnglish Popular Inllncnce, the last dating from Defoe, is reprinted as it originally stood. The principal changes seem to he in taking advantage of the works that have been published in ( iermany, and especial- ly of tlie articles that have appeared in the .•Inglia, discussing Anglo-Saxon literature, although PKC>KI:SSC>K MOKI.KY is very conser- vative and by no means agrees with the iconoclastic views of some German scholars. The first impression made upon the reader is the extent of the work beyond its immediate subject. There is a large amount of valuable information contained in it, especially historical information, but the question naturally arises, what direct connection has this with the his- tory of Anglo-Saxon literature? Some of the chapters can be regarded only as digres- sions, and, while important in themselves, as comparatively irrelevant to the main subject. A history of Keltic literature, and of the liter- ature of other branches of the Teutonic peo- ples, has but a remote bearing upon the First" Knglish literature, and if discussed at all, might have been treated in much less space. This would have left room for a fuller treat- ment of some works that have been passed over rather briefly.
The first four chapters of the first volume treat the Forming of the People, — and hen- such questions as "Were the Gaels Hyper- boreans?" and "Were the Celts Cimmer- ians?" are discussed,— the Old Literature of the (iael and of the Cymry, and the Old Lit- erature of the Teutons, including Tlfilas,' the ' Song of Hildebraml,' and the ' \Veissen- brunner Prayer." The result is that the only works in Anglo-Saxon literature treated in this volume are the 'P.eowulf and the 'Fight at Finneslnirg.' In tlu- scheme, of the iudo-
F.urope.m family M. i v>» the terniinol. in. I- be objected to in respei t to the Teutonic branch, in that "Gothic " is applied to tin- whole branch, Moeso ( iotliic atid tin- S< andi- navinn languages are included under " Low- (ierman." and "Teutonic " is applied only to what are usually known as the Low-(ierman languages, namely, Old Saxon, Frisian, and Platt-Deutsc h, the relation between the first and last of these not being otherwise indicated. This is at least different from the ordinary arrangement and liable to confuse the learner. In the chapters on the literature of the Gael and Cymry, there is much translation from the works discussed, so that the reader is put in possession of much useful information, even if it has a very remote bearing upon Knglish literature. On pages 257-8 and 261 there is a singular lapsus of memory, which causes I'lfilas to be referred to as if he were contem- porary with Odoacer and Clovis. although his correct period has just been given-. This has, however, been observed and corrected in the " Last Leaves " of Vol. II.
The ' Beowulf,' as its importance deserves, is treated at considerable length. Hy means of translation and paraphrase a full account of the poem is given, after which follows a fairly complete summary of critical opinion. Pk<>- SOR MORI.KY follows GKKIN in his inter- pretation, but gives too much space to MR. HATCH'S theory of identification of names of tribes and places mentioned in ' Beowulf with those of Kngland, which theory, as far as I know, has not been adopted by any other scholar. He summarixes also PKOKKSSOK FAKI.K'S recent attempt to vindicate an Kng- lish origin for the poem. GKKIN'S interpreta- tion of the Thrytho episode is given on pp. 336-7, and seems to be favored, but the old error of regarding Hygd as the wife of Of) a is mentioned along with GR KIN'S \iew on p. 300 without condemnation. It appears too in the summary of Mr. HAKIM'S view (p. ] and on p. 322 we have from MR. HAKIM. " I lygd being either another name of Hygelac, or the name of his queen." PKOFI.SSOR MOKI.KY accepts GRI-ND i VKI'S identification of Hygelac with the historical Chocilaicus (circa 520) mentioned by Gregory of Tours, but does not note the bearing of II. 2921-22,
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" As waes d Merewioinga milts ungyfede,"
upon the date of the poem, although he trans- lates (p. 335), "Ever since then we have been denied the friendship of the Merovin- gians."
Though of minor importance, as a matter of interpretation it maybe noted that PROFESSOR MORLEY says (p. 298): "then Grendel's head was borne by the hair into the place where men were drinking, and the head of the woman also;" and again (p. 339): "when Beowulf had returned victorious and presented to Hrothgar the heads of Grendel and Gren- del's mother." The poem does not state that he brought back any head but that of Gren- del, and I presume this opinion of PROFESSOR MORLEY rests upon a misinterpretation of idese in 1650 which refers to Wealhtheow and not to Grendel's mother ; for we are told that he took nothing from the cavern
' ' buton pone hafelan and pahiltsomod ' ' (1615) ;
again in 1636 we have hafelan, singular, as ex- plained by Grendles heafod in 1640 and 1649 ; ides is used of Grendel's mother in 1260 and 1352, but not in 1650, for the men bore into the hall only the head of Grendel. This might not deserve mention but that PROFESSOR MORLEY'S view is adopted in the argument to PROFESSORS HARRISON and SHARP'S edition of 'Beowulf.' MULLENHOFF'S theory of the composition of 'Beowulf is briefly summar- ized at the close of the chapter, and the opin- ion expressed that " Courage is all that is wanted to make any one great as an analyst in the new speculative chemistry applied to books."
The last chapter of Vol. I contains a trans- lation of the ' Fight at Finnesburg ' and of "the corresponding episode in 'Beowulf,' and is followed by a useful bibliography of ' Beo- wulf.'
Vol. II treats the other existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature, beginning with ' Wid- sith,' which is translated. The following chapter on 'The Sc6p ' contains translations of ' The Seafarer ' and ' The Fortunes of Men, ' ' and discusses MOLLER'S view of the original strophic form of 'Widsith,' which PROFES-
SOR MORLEY pronounces "critical sleight-of- hand," and concludes: "Enough has been said to show how largely this method of de- structive criticism rests upon conjecture; and how little the common repetition of such, phrases as ' clearly,' or ' it is certain,' can give certainty to the most ingenious system of three-piled hypotheses. And when all's done, where is our poem?" It must be ac- knowledged that the German "tear-to-pieces" criticism has been "run in the ground," and not sufficient weight has been given to the ob- jections that may reasonably be urged against this method of analysis.
Next comes another interesting digressive chapter on the " First Teachers of Christiani- ty," preliminary to an account of the poems ascribed to Caedmon. BAEDA'S familiar ac- count is repeated, and the ' Genesis ' is treated quite fully, with considerable translation, but the 'Exodus and Daniel,' and the second book, 'Christ and Satan,' are very briefly summarized. A translation of the ' Muspilli ' and an account of the ' Heliand ' follow, with a summary of SIEVERS' pamphlet on 'The Relation of the Heliand to Caedmon's Para- phrase,' but PROFESSOR MORLEY thinks that "Caedmon's poem . . must have been known to the Old Saxons long before the ' Heliand ' was written" (p. 108). PROFESSOR MORLEY endorses the very probable view that MILTON knew of Caedmon's Paraphrase from JUNIUS, its first editor (1655). This chapter closes with a brief summary of opinion on the authorship of Caedmon's poems, and another fling at the analytic criticism applied by way of burlesque to the Introduction to the first volume of this work.
Two chapters follow, chiefly on Bede and Alcuin ; and while containing much of general historical interest, there is. little of special connection with literature in the Anglo-Saxon tongue. This is resumed in brief notices of the Northumbrian fragments, and other works contained in SWEET'S 'Oldest English Texts, ' but PROFESSOR MORLEY does not seem to have known of SWEET'S ' Anglo-Saxon Reader, Part II,' although it was received in this country before the date of the ' Last Leaves,' for in his note to p. 178 on the contents of the 'Oldest English Texts' he ascribes to MR.
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SUM i tlu- opinion that the Vespasian I'saltcr is Kentish, as /.I..IM-U lull], but in his later work MK. Su i i r <!<•< -ides that it is M< n ian. Tliis error is repeated on p. 322, in opposition to Si i \ i NSOM'fl old \ j,-w that it was N'orthum- hrian. 'I'liis < liapter contains a full translation in blank verse of the 'Judith,' that spirited fragment of Anglo-Saxon poetry, the superior excellence of which makes us regret the more that so little of it has been preserved. A de- scription of tin contents of the Vercelli and the Kxeter Hooks follows, and of the ' Menology ' and the 'Salomon and Saturn,' but all very brief; and then \ve have a chapter on Cyne- wulf, a discussion of his name in the Runes, and of his connection with the Riddles, the authorship of which PKOKKSSOR MOKI.I-.V is inclined to deny to him. I cannot enter into the discussion, but I'KOKKSSOR MORI.EY sums up his opinion as follows: "We have, then, no evidence upon which to ground a belief that C'ynewulf wrote any of the First English riddles." SARRAZIN'S odd view that C'yne- wulf wrote the ' Beowulf is then summarized hom~Angliu, Vol. IX, and "the myth of C'ynewulf " is reconstructed after WULKKR in Anglia, Vol. I ; the conclusion is reached that he lived in the eighth century; "His work shows that he was a ' sc6p.' There is no evidence that he was a priest or monk. Here ends our knowledge of the personality of Cynewulf, and even that includes a trace of supposition."
'The Vision of the Cro'ss " is next trans- lated, but the opinion of DIETRICH and TEN BRINK as to its Cynewulfian authorship is dissented from. The inscription on the Ruth- well Cross is described, and the views of CHARITIES and LEFEVRE (Aiiglia, Vols. II and VI) as to the ' Guthlac ' are briefly given, with short notices of the ' Physiologus,' the 'Wanderer,' and the 'Ruin,' or 'Ruins,' as PRMI-KSSOK MORLEY prefers to call it.
Hen- follows another digressive chapter on Dicuil and Krigena, chiefly the latter, after which we have a very full accou-it of king Alfred and his literary labors, but the types make the author ascribe to King Alfred the compilation of the 'Chronicle' in the year 991. PROFESSOR EARI.E'S valuable edition of that work is curiously omitted on p. 294, although
I'Kon.ssok KAKI.I 's nann- appears in another i! th- ' ' hronicle ' on p. 308.
Monasticism in the tenth century is f in connection with Dunstan and Ethelwold, and this is followed by an account of Aelf: works, a blank verse translation of the ' Battle of Brunanburh,' with brief notice of the other pieces of verse in the 'Chronicle,' a prose summary of the ' Battle of Maldon,1 a brief notice of the 1'salter and the Charters, and a further account of MR. COCKAYNE'S ' Leech- doms, Wortcunning, and Star-craft of Early England.' The consideration of the period is closed with an account of Wulfstan's works, bare mention of the ' Apollonius of Tyre ' and a few other prose pieces, a description of the ' Rhyming Poem,' and a summary of the con- tents of 'The Grave,' included, perhaps, because printed in Thorpe's ' Analecta Anglo- saxonica,' but I can see no reason for counting this poem as a specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature, for its language shows that it was manifestly written after the close of the period.
This chapter closes with a too brief reference to the 'Anglo-Saxon Gospels,' which is not brought down to date, for PROFESSOR SKEAT'S noteworthy edition is omitted entirely, THORPE'S being the last one mentioned.
The volume closes with a chapter on the Northmen, in which an account is given of the 'Eddas,' with a full translation of the ' Volus- pa,' of the Northmen in France and England, and of the times of Edward the Confessor to the Norman Conquest. This chapter il- lustrates further what has been said of the tendency of PROFESSOR MORLF.V to digress from his main subject. His account of Ice- landic literature is interesting and useful, but of very remote connection with English litera- ture, and the subsequent historical narrative is readily accessible anywhere, so that some of the space occupied with these subjects might have been devoted to a fuller and more thorough account of some of the Anglo-Saxon poems that have been too briefly passed over. PROFESSOR MORLEY is acquainted with TEN BRINK'S work on ' Early English Literature,' as TKN BRINK'S views are occasionally referred to, but it is nowhere mentioned, nor is PRO- FESSOR 1C A R i. K'S shorter work on 'Anglo-Saxon Literature/ although this book will not super-
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sede them. A useful Bibliography is append- ed, but it is not full enough for the scholar. The last work mentioned in it is WULKER'S ' Grundriss,' which might have been used to advantage in the body of the volumes. PRO- FESSOR MORLEY expresses the hope that when WULKER prepares a new edition, he will arrange for its translation into English. I may be permitted to state that two American scholars, MESSRS. MCCLUMPHA and DEERING, WULKER'S pupils, are now making arrange- ments for the publication of an English trans- lation of this valuable work, indispensable to every Anglo-Saxon scholar, with the full authority of PROFESSOR WULKER and the use of the important material that he has collected for a second edition.
Anglo-Saxon scholars will be thankful to PROFESSOR MORLEY for this new edition of the first volume of his 'English Writers,' which deserved re-writing, but while, from PROFESSOR MORLEY'S point of view, he may defend the inclusion of so much extrinsic matter, I think that the work would have been improved by both omission and inser- tion, so that it might serve as the standard history of Anglo-Saxon literature, an office that, in its present form, it will scarcely fulfill. ' ' The half is sometimes more than the whole. ' '
JAMES M. GARNETT. University of Virginia.
THE STUDY OF ROMANCE PHIL- OLOGY.
Die Romanische Philologie. Ein Grundriss von FR. NEUMANN. Leipzig, Fues's Ver- lag, 1886 ; pp. 96.
Encyclopaedic und Methodologie der roman- ischen Philologie, mit besonderer Beriick- sichtigung des Franzosischen und Italieni- schen von GUSTAV KORTING. Heilbronn, Henninger, i884-'86 ; 3 vols., pp. xvi-224, xi 1-505, xx-837.
Grnndriss der romanischen Philologie, unter mitwirkung von neunundzwanzig Fach- genossen, hera.isgegeben von GUSTAV GROBER. Strassburg, Triibner, i886-'88 ; I. Band, pp. 835. Three publications of a similar character — all
intended to introduce the scholar to a thorough
study of Romance Philology, yet each treating the subject in so distinctive a way that there will be but little competition among them.
We shall not make an effort here to give a full account of the immense amount of schol- arship set down on nearly 2500 pages by men who all rank among our first masters ; but we shall try so to characterize the above works, and to give such information on their contents, that each of our readers may be able to judge which of them will best serve his own purpose, and where, in a given case, he is likely to find just the reference wanted. Only occasionally, when the subject under consideration and the character of our own studies will allow, shall we venture to add some suggestion of our own.
NEUMANN'S ' Die romanische Philologie, ein Grundriss' is a deprintfrom SCHMID'S ' Pseda- gogische Encyclopaedic,' vii. The author addresses himself not so much to experts in our science as to beginners, and to a larger public of non-specialists in general. The sub- ject was therefore to be treated with the most elementary clearness and at the same time with the greatest brevity compatible with scientific, I mean thorough, work. We must say that NEUMANN has succeeded admirably well in this difficult task, and his book can be highly recommended to students who de- sire to receive an insight into the character, aims, history, present state and means of de- velopment of Romance Philology ; it will also prove useful to scholars in other departments, especially in Latin and Teutonic Philology, whenever they wish to cast the necessary side- glance on their neighboring field.
The book is divided into two parts : in the first chapter the author gives an outline of the history of our discipline, culminating, as. was natural, in a sketch of the life and works of our venerated "Altmeister " DIEZ ; the second part contains a — well, we hesitatingly say bib- liography, although it is not a bibliography in the common acceptation of the word, not a mere compilation and juxtaposition of dead titles, appalling to beginners and next to use- less, because of the fact that worthless publi- cations are mentioned in the same breath with important ones, so that the inexperienced stu- dent never knows which to choose first and rarely strikes the right one. NEUMANN'S bib-
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liography is of a v.-ry different character: he .n •( din 1 1. 1 nit •-. ii- .i! l\ - MTV title u ith some snl>- st.iinial remarks on the contents and ; character of the hook in question, and the arrangement is very simple and |>ractical. Yet it is at the same time of scientific int< inasmuch as NKTMANN lias divided his suhje< t mil geographically hut systematically, treating lirst all the Romance: languages in succession, and then their literatures. I le has thus, among the first in our science, put into practice a principle long recognized by our chief author- ities.
As regards the scope of the bibliography, NEUMANN quotes only the best and most use- ful publications on each subject, and works of minor value, dissertations, etc., are mentioned only when there was nothing better published. So, everything was left to the discretion of the author, and while we may perhaps feel in- clined to put an interrogation point here and there, J we must confess that on the whole Ni i MANN'S selection has been a very judicious one, and it is altogether astonishing how much be has been able to give on bis 82 pages. We therefore again recommend the book most heartily, especially to our younger readers.
'Die Encyclopaedie und Metbodologie der romanischen Philologie,'2 by G. KORTING, consists of three volumes, containing together more than 1500 pages. We must not, however, conclude from the size of the work that we are to find in it complete treatises on the different branches of Romance Philology. Such was not the intention of the author, as he himself de- clares in the preface. His purpose was more to give the student a fair start in the whole subject by offering him a solid outline of the mostim- . portant principles and the best-established facts, and by extensive bibliographies at the close of the various chapters to enable him to pursue such special studies as he may be par-
1. For instance H. SWERT'S 'Spoken Portuguese,' SAINTS- iti'Kv's work* on French literature, CRANE'S publications on Folklore would have deserved special mention, while the com- pilations of amateur philolngians like PRINCE L. L. |!C>NA- PAKTE are of doubtful value in the hands of beginners.
2. The American public were first made familiar with this work by KI.LIOTT, Anifrican "Journal of Philology, and by Tom), who translated into English the chapter: "Obscr- Tiiticns on the Academic Study of Romance Philology"' in The MODERN LANGUAGE SERIES III.
ticularly interested in. For obvious reasons, then, the author rarely had an opportunity of committing himself by going into details, and his more or less rudimentary statements may be accepted* 0n the whole, as reliable. This seems to be espec ially the < ;,se in the dep art- mi -nt of literature. We may, occasionally, differ from the author's criticism, when he calls BKANOHS' ' Lit. i. 19 Jh.' B. v. " kein wis- senschaHliches Buch ;" SCARTAZ/INI'S edition and commentary of the 'Divina Commedia ' should not be left out, whatever may be said of the man's scientific and polemical work in general. Hut in spite of a few details of this kind the history of literature is appar- ently KORTING'S strong side. — The student will have to be more cautious in making use of the linguistical part of the work. Here KOKTING'S rich and diffusive style often becomes vague and misleading, nor have recent investigations always been utilized even when they are mentioned and recommended in the bibliography. The whole chapter on French phonetics is in need of many modifications, while those on general phonetics and on sound-change etc. are rather a failure. KOK- -ri NT.'S notions on the most important facts in Comparative Philology are somewhat behind the times, and have been abandoned by every active grammarian since the discovery of the famous " Palatalgesetz " and the Indo-Euro- pean vowel-theory connected with it. Some readers would have willingly dispensed with a good many general remarks for a few more facts instead. — But it would be unfair and ab- surd to insist upon such ami other deficiencies, when the great work as a whole calls forth our sincere recognition, gratitude and admiration. It is at once stimulating and humiliating to find one man speaking with well-founded au- thority on so many branches of our science, or rather on so many sciences, each one of which seems to be too much for an ordinary man's capacities. Every question that could possi- bly ever be brought into connection with Romance Philology, is treated here with equal care if not with equal success; nothing is neglected, nothing thought too small. There is no frivolous haughtiness or contempt of one department in favor of another, on account of some personal predilection. We may, indeed,
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learn from KORTING a noble lesson, which professors and especially beginners — if, in fact, they ever began at all — seem to be liable to neglect : that in the great field of science each part is equally worthy of a thorough treatment, of a scholar's earnest occupation ; that no- body should belittle his colleague's specialty and claim the character of scholarship for his own work alone. Rather let everyone come bravely forward with the result of his studies." Every kind of good work will be welcome, whether it be on pedagogics or phonetics or literature or syntax , whether on English or Rumanian or Volapiik. We hope that a seri- ous perusal of such honest work as KORTING'S, and the combined efforts of men of experience and scientific standing, will successfully check a narrowness of mind which might become dangerous to the best interests of our young students individually, as well as to the sound progress of science itself. Only a loyal co- operation and a readiness to recognize the importance of other branches than our own, can lead to the highest success.
While KORTING'S work is of a more peda- gogical character, pointing out to the student what and how he must study in order to become a Romance scholar, the third pub- lication which we bring to the attention of our readers, represents at first hand the actual re- sults of scientific investigation. In GROBER'S ' Grundriss cler Romanischen Philologie ' we are in the very workshop, the sanctum sanc- torum of European, especially German, Ro- mance Philology, and the reader may be sure that every line here gives the last word on the subject in question. This will be explained by the origin of the work : it is published under the direction of GROBER, not written by him alone ; twenty-nine of our first authorities have combined forces to produce a picture of Ro- mance Philology under the aspect which it wears at the date of publication, each of the authors treating of such part or parts as he has made his most special study. Three in- stalments have appeared thus far, the last, which completes the first volume of the under- taking, having but just issued from the press. Three more instalments are reserved for the second and concluding volume, which will be devoted chiefly to the literature of the Ro- mance peoples, the Work being intended to
cover, when complete, the entire domain of the science. In the first volume we find : — GROBER : " Geschichte der romanischen Phi- lologie," "Aufgabeund Gliederungderroman. Phil.," " Die miindlichen Quellen," " Metho- dik der sprachwissenschaftlichen Forschung," " Einteilung und aussere Geschichte der ro- man. Sprachen ;" SCHUM : " Die schriftlichen Quellen;" TOBLER : " Methodik der philo- logischen Forschung ; WINDISCH : "Keltische Sprache;" W. MEYER: "Die lateinische Sprache in den romanischen Landern, and to- gether with FRANCESCO D'.OVIDIO : Die italic- nische Sprache ;" FR. KLUGE : " Romanenund Germanen in ihren Wechselbeziehungen ;" SEYBOLD : Die arabische Sprache in den ro- manischen Landern ;" GASTER : " Die nicht- lateinischen Elemente im Rumanischen ; TIK- TIN : " Die rumanische Sprache ; " GARTNER : "Die ratoromanischen Mundarten ;" SUCHIER : " Die franzosische und provenzalische Sprache und ihre Mundarten ;'' MOREL-FATIO : "Das Catalanische ;" BAIST : "Die spanische Sprache;" CORNU : "Die portugiesische Sprache;" G.MEYER; " Die lateinschen Kle- mente im Albanesischen." The volume closes with a " Namen, Sach- und Wortverzeichnis," with a general map of the "Ausbreitung der romanischen Sprachen in Europa " and twelve minor maps illustrating the distribution of the leading French and Provencal dialect peculiar- ities. The abundance of information, the ex- actness of the detail work, — at once the out- growth and the source of sound general prin- ciples,— the simple, sober style which charac- terizes this class of workers, the absolute objectivity which makes things speak for them- selves, so that we forget all about the author and ourselves, about "schools" and polemics, under the immediate impression of facts — all this makes GROBER'S 'Grundriss' a real mas- ter work. We have no desire to express any unfavorable criticism as regards the subject- matter itself, but will only give utterance to a wish concerning the arrangement of the materials. GROBER'S essay on the history of Romance Philology gives a mass of titles, ar- ranged half chronologically and half system- atically, and, moreover, alluded to rather than - given in full, so that students who are not yet acquainted with the subject cannot even tell whether the publication mentioned is an article
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or a large work, without constantly consulting other bibliographies. While the advanced student may with some difficulty derive great benefit from the author's sound criticism, it remains a pity that so much useful information is more or less concealed in a labyrinth inac- cessible to beginners. We hope that an ex- haustive index will open up all these treasures to everybody. Most of the special treatises are suggestive of regrets that they are not many times longer, and in one or two cases it may be doubtful whether this feeling arises solely from the superior excellence of the essays, or also from the fact that they are somewhat fragmentary. But in any case we must not forget that, for instance, MEYER'S and K LUGE'S, and in fact most of the essays, are the first comprehensive works ever pub- lished on their respective subjects, and that consequently we should not expect to find our every curiosity satisfied. Perhaps, indeed, the noblest success of a book is to inspire fresh curiosity, and in this respect the effect of our ' Grundriss ' is preeminent. Here, as on an excursion into an unexplored country, we are constantly surprised by new outlooks and at the same time experience an ardent desire to know more and more of what lies beyond ; a thousand side paths and openings invite us, and we would fain stop and examine more closely, were it not that the main road itself is continually presenting so many interesting phenomena. We might, indeed, envy our young students, who are to have the pleasure of traversing these broad domains under the guidance of such distinguished masters ; but let us rather join the party : we are all sure of receiving our share of benefit as well.
GUSTAF KARSTEN.
Indiana University.
THE COL L A R-E YSENB A CH GER- MAN GRAMMAR.
Graded German Lessons, being a Practical German Grammar, by WM. EYSENBACH. Revised and Rewritten, with notes, etc., byWM. C. COLLAR, A. M., Head-Master Roxbury Latin School. Boston, Ginn & Co. It will require considerable evidence a few
generations hence to convince antiquarians
that OLI.ENDORF'S Grammar was ever used as a text-book in sober earnest. Yet it is but a few years since this book — "ignorant of man's nature and of boy's " — was almost the only American publication offered as an aid to the teacher of German. Undoubtedly an inspired teacher can teach with any text-book, however poor, but unfortunately the rank and file can hardly lay claim to this high qualifica- tion, and it becomes of great importance to secure and put before them every most effi- cient aid, while even the best teachers cannot afford to be indifferent toward the associate which they introduce to their pupils.
The past three years have seen the publica- tion of no less than a dozen grammars, all of them with more or less valid claim upon interest and acceptance, and the problem is no longer — Where shall I find a good gram- mar? but — Which is the best? In many cases the answer to this question will depend upon the peculiar circumstances, Students, for instance, who wish only the merest outline to enable them to read scientific prose will find enough in PROF. SHELDON'S Short Grammar, while others who can devote themselves to a thorough study of the grammar from a lin-. guistic stand-point will take WHITNEY'S or BRANDT'S. But as a grammar for the average high-school or college class, there are a great many points in favor of the one which is here under consideration.
Without feeling obliged to define the " Natural Method," it may safely be said that most progressive teachers employ it to a greater or less extent, even though they do not confess their allegiance. This grammar will be found to be on the whole a happy mean between the Natural and the Scientific methods, and especially adapted to the great majority of teachers who do not find it prac- ticable or wise to follow either course ex- clusively. Beyond this, two of the greatest merits of the book, points in which it is superior to many of its competitors, are its arrangement under one series of lessons, and the "sweet reasonableness" of the English exercises. It has been felt by all teachers that a grammar which outlines the subject in one series of lessons, but omits just enough to oblige the pupil, in order to under-
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stand it, to go through a second series, is a mistake. Many students are unable to spend more than a term on the grammar. Such are accordingly compelled to buy a book a con- siderable portion of which they never use, and at the same time fail to get a right view of the subject. Hence one of the essentials of the ideal grammar is a single series of lessons. Together with this should go the greatest brevity consistent with thoroughness and clearness. In this respect the present work leaves something to wish for. The in- troduction of German Extracts for Transla- tion must be regarded as a mistake. It oc- cupies space and serves no good end. As PROF. COLLAR says in his Introduction, the aim should be to get at translation as soon as possible, but the most satisfactory translation for the pupil is in continuous work.
The other strong point of the book is in the character of the sentences used for transla- tion from English into German. In each exercise there is a more or less thorough treat- ment of one phase of expression in sentences grouped about subject, thus giving a very desirable unity to the exercises. In most con- versational grammars there is a large propor- tion of the ' ' sil ver-spoon-of-my-grandmother ' ' element — that element which has brought the study of German grammar into disrepute. With very few exceptions there is a human probability about the sentences in MR. COL- LAR'S book which will be greatly refreshing to the teacher who has missed this quality in his older text-books. To this, paragraph 43 makes a strange exception. Such sentences as : My nephew's monkey is in his [whose?] room ; — What does your nephew buy in that shop? — Where is the ox of your uncle's herdsman ? — I am looking- for my hare ; I have lost it in the garden; — Have you found what you are looking for? — seem to indicate that this lesson escaped the careful revision mani- fest in the others.
The scientific division of nouns into strong and weak declensions, aided by the tables on pages 69 and 40 (the iatter might be simplified) is certainly the clearest way of presenting the subject; but it is confused here by an over- handling which is likely to offset all the bene- fit derived from the plan. Lesson 4 treats the
strong declension; Lesson 5, the weak. Lesson 7 treats the feminine nouns, thus overlapping the twojust mentioned. Lessons 8 and 9 treat masculine and neuter nouns in connection with the declension of adjectives, this also overlapping 4 and 5. Lesson 10 treats feminine nouns again, making the third appearance of this subject. Then comes Lesson ii treating the plural of the weak and strong declensions, followed by Lessons 12 and 13 on the plural of neuter and femi- nine nouns. Here is certainly room for mudi condensation and consequent improvement. In doing this, note should be taken of the following : Paragraph 125,2 might fairly say : One-half of the monosyllabic feminines ; Paragraph 125,3 is wrong, — 'two-thirds' should be two-sevenths (see § 127,2, and § 154). — Para- graph 130 would be clearer: "All feminine polysyllables and one-half the monosyllables." — Paragraph 130,4 should specify "foreign nouns accented on the last syllable but not ending in al, an, ast, etc."
Further points of excellence are : the treat- ment of prepositions, in which notice the single oversight of saying that nach, without distinction of meaning, stands either before or after its object. Only in the meaning 'accord- ing to' may nach stand after its object. The negative use of tin, etzuas, etc., the position of nicht, the distinction between scin and haben as tense auxiliaries, and the distinction between the real and the apparent passive voice, points which are often omitted or poorly handled, are made clear by the author. Only in regard to the last, a matter on which too much light cannot be shed, such an infallible test as that of throwing the doubtful form into the active voice, whereby the falae passive changes its tense, would certainly be helpful.
Especially good are the chapters on the order of the sentence and on the subjunctive. The latter is enforced, as indeed is the case throughout the book, with excellent exam- ples, but would probably be aided by more general statements as to the nature and use of the subjunctive. The suggestion always to learn the article with the noun, is one which long experience has proved valuable.
The pronunciation is treated briefly and well, with the exception of o and ii. For so
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simple a matter it is queer what an ado gram- marians make over these tu<> sounds. MR. COLLAR says o is like the English « in burr, or lik. French en. The first remark is not correct enough to be of any use, and the second, aside from not being strictly accurate, is no help, since French en is one of the most dilticult vowel-sounds in any European lan- guage. It is a simple matter to direct any one how to make these sounds : o is English a, and ii is English ee, both made with the position of the lips commonly taken in pronouncing oo.
Matters of detail which we should hope to see corrected or improved in a second edition are : The insufficient explanation of the meanings of the auxiliaries of mode, especial- ly of wollcn and sollen, and their mutually complementary relation in the sense of inten- tion, one active the other passive. The index on this subject omits the references to pages 101 and 107, while Lesson 16, under the title, omits the intended reference to page 267.
Paragraph 197,1 is not entirely correct. "Comparative and superlative are formed by the addition of -er, and -st, or -estt to the posi- tive." The superlative of predicate adjectives is formed in two ways : with der, die, das, when the comparison is with objects of like kind; with am — sten, when the object is com- pared with itself or with things of another kind.
Lesson 20 should contain a statement of the meanings of the. inseparable prefixes. More- over, paragraph 232 in this lesson is insufficient. Durch, unter, etc., may be recognized as separable, for the most part, by the literal meaning of the compounds, while those com- pounds which have figurative meanings, or are rendered by Latin derivatives, are mostly inseparable. The place of the accent does not help the student, because he does not know it.
Paragraph 336 contains the only general reference to the use of the article in German when omitted in English. It consists of a few inadequate examples. When used in the full extent of their meaning, abstract and mass nouns in the singular, and class nouns in the plural, take the article in German. The same is true of the names of clays of the week and names of months and seasons ; also of Christian nam -s and I'-.iter and .)//<//<•>-, when
ust (1 in the family.— Paragraph 339,3 on « giebt'\s insufficient. In fact no real explan- ation is offered. Es giebt states the facts of nature, and others applying to a large extent of time and space, in distinction from fs ist, which states incidental circumstances and facts existing in limited time or space. II y a does not help in distinguishing, for it covers both. — Paragraph 46,3 is in error regarding the last two cases. Of the strong verbs in o, but one takes o in the second and third singu- lar ; of the six in an, but two change to tiu.
Page 113, Note 6, is not quite accurate. "The when of narration is als\ of interroga- tion is wann ; implying condition is wenn." Als is used for historic tenses, wenn for present and future, both meaning " when." In Lesson 23 and elsewhere, the author makes a mistake, pedagogically at least, in rendering the Con- ditional by English should. This leads inevi- tably to confusion in the pupil's mind. In the same Lesson, page 174, Note 6, occurs the ex- pression " an impossible wish relating to the past," by which is probably meant, a wish contrary to fact. The imperfect subjunctive, moreover, does not express an impossible wish relating to the present ; it carries no im- plication of possibility or the contrary.
The statement of the correspondence of consonants, on page 16, is open to the same objection as is made by DR. HUGO SCHILLING, in MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES for February, to the treatment of this subject in the JOYNES-MEISSNER grammar, namely, that it gives a perverted idea of the relation of the two languages, though MR. COLLAR does not profess that this is a statement of Grimm's Law. Yet the defence which MR. JOYNES sets up is scarcely valid, since the arrange- ment which would really be the helpful one for the student is the reverse of the one given by him as well as by most of the grammars which touch the subject. Instruction should go from the known to the unknown, from the English to the German, and so in the natural direction of consonantal development. A brief statement of the more important limi- tations of Grimm's Law would be very
desirable.
\V. H. CARRL'TH.
<>/" A'tinsus.
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Etymologise ties Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen, von FRIEDR. DIEZ. Fiinfte Aus- gabe. Mit einem Anhang von AUGUST SCHELER. Bonn, Marcus, 1887.
This new edition of DIEZ'S ' Worterbuch ' shows a much enlarged appendix, as was to be expected, and will be very useful. It is per- haps unfair to lay much stress on any lack of completeness, for completeness in such matters is, as we all know, very difficult. But it is sur- prising not to find any mention of THURNEY- SEN'S ' Keltoromanisches ' under andare and in the same place a reference might have been given to the Literaturblatt fur germanische und romanische Philologie, 1884, col. 104 (*indare from inde}. The latter omission is more excusable than the former, and indeed it appears from a hasty search that THURNEY- SEN'S book has entirely escaped SCHELER'S notice, which is indeed surprising. At least I find no mention of it in several places where mention might be expected ; for example, under ambasciata, camicia, drudo, briser, lai, maint, to mention a few examples out of many. CORNU'S etymology of bravo (Romania, 1884, pp. 110-113) is also not mentioned. Under foin II. c, the appendix has the same surpris- ing remark as in the last edition. If Latin praeda is really related to prehendere then a vulgar Latin preda may not seem any stranger \\\&\\ pre- in the Latin verb. Of course French pro'ic cannot have come from praeda.
E. S. SHELDON. Harvard University.
Grundriss zur Geschichte der de.utschen Dich- tnng aus den Qncllen von KARL GOEDKKE. 2. Auflage. Dresden, Ls. Ehlermann. Bel. I-III, pp. viii, 500; iv, 600; viii, 384.
Among the representatives of German phi- lology and literature who have recently died in such rapid succession, PROFESSOR KARL GOKDEKE held one of the foremost positions. Born in 1814 at Celle, he received his academic training at the University of Gottingen, where the influence of the Grimm brothers, Benecke, Gervinus, Otfried Miiller and Dahlmann determined his future career. Even as a student he began making the collections vyhich became the basis of his later famous works.
The time following his studies in Gottingen he devoted mostly to quiet literary activity ; but he also took an active part in the political events which were then agitating Germany. Not until the year 1873 was he appointed Pro- fessor of the History of German Literature at the University of Gottingen, which position he held up to the time of his death, October 27, 1887. GOEDEKE'S scientific activity was many- sided, though mostly directed to literary in- vestigation, the results of which he did not withhold from the general public, being widely and favorably known as the editor of classical writers and the author of ' Goethe's Leben und Schriften.' By his clear and objective presen- tation of facts he marks a wholesome and pleasing contrast to the scientific journalism and subjective mannerism so fashionable of late.
The chief work of GOEDEKE'S life is his celebrated 'Grundriss,' a monitinciitinn acre perennius not only of himself but also of the scholarly industry of Germany. A few years before his death he prepared a second edition of it and succeeded in carrying this as far as the third volume, thus covering the litera- ture to the close of the Seven Years' War. In many respects this second edition must be regarded as an entirely new work. The author has added a stupendous amount of material, thus creating an indispensable store- house for the benefit of all future investigators. But it is not alone a book of reference : it equally excels in subtle observation and objective truthfulness — qualities which charac- terize all of GOEDEKE'S writings. The publisher promises that the continuation of the second edition will cover the period down to the present time; and we hope- that this excellent work will find its way not only into the libraries of our colleges and other public institutions but also into the private collections of many cultivated readers throughout the country.
Jri.ius GOKHEL.
Complete German Manual for Higli Scliools and Colleges by WESLEY G. SAWYER, PH. D., Chicago, i8t'7. The book before us attempts to combine the
"natural method" and the "grammar
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method," and aids i \ e tin- ends of
-i.uiini.it, '''.ink. conversation-book
and rea.K-r. 1'art I, Theory, is devoted to Pronunciation, lutlexion, Syntax, and F.ty- mology; Part II, Pract. insd) K\-
- tor Writing and Oral Practice (21 <".< r- inan Coi -respondent <• < ;,i Continuous Reading and Conversation ('Joseph uiul Benjamin, nach eiix-t Kr/ahlung von BKRTiioi.nArKKH.vii 'i. Then follow Remarks on Punctuation and Orthography, a list of Irregular Verbs, Ger- man-l-'.nglish and F.nglish-German Vocabu- laries, an Index and table of Conjugations and Declensions.
The manual under consideration is an at- tempt to supply tin- demands of the unorgan- i/ed, or at best poorly systemati/.ed, method of teaching German in American Schools, and as such is in many respects an improvement upon not a few of the older manuals. But cer- tain points of theory need comment. The au- thor's theory of declensions, as applied to nouns, is quite out of harmony with the classifi- cation generally recognized in this country and in Germany. Whatever may be said of the terms "strong"and"weak," "old" and "new," as applied to nominal declension, they certain- ly are plain finger-boards to the student enter- ing the historic study of German or Germanic grammar. Tin's classification as applied by WIUTNKV, BRANDT, MKISSNKR and all of the best writers on German grammar is certainly more scientific and more simple than the ar- bitrary arrangement into the three declensions as given by DR. SAYVYKK : I. Containing feminities (both weak and strong); II. Con- taining masculines and neuters, ending in -el, -er, elicit, -It'in ; III. " 'I he third declension includes all nouns not belonging in the first or second declension " (£181). Then follow " classes of masculines " belonging clearly to the weak declension (as the author's words in- dicate), which are not included " under the aoove three declensions . . neither do they constitute a forth declension, but follow the masculine gender of the weak adjective de- clension " (>i9i). It mr.st be apparent to the beginner, as well as to the author himself, that this classification is complicated ;:nd coniusec'.. It the nouns treated in this last-named class had been arranged under the weak declension of nouns, where they belong, it would not have
been necessary tO treftl them as intruders in nominal inflexion. Inasmuch as the author makes use ol the terms "strong"and "weak"of adjective declension, would it not have !>• much more consistent, — especially as it is simpler, — to apply the s.niie terms to nominal d'-i lension, and thus introduce the student at once to the classification and nomenclature which he will meet in all scientific works on ( ict man grammar ?
In Part II, the promiscuous collation of ex- amples from even the earliest period of N. H. G. literature is liable to lead the student to suppose that the speech of LruiKK isas good modern German as that of KKKVTAC or HKYSK. It S'-ems to us that for purposes of style much better results would he reached by putting the student on his guard to detect deviations from the modern idiom. The exercises for transla- tion into German, though well selected, se< m too varied. The great failure of most of the prose exercises in the books, is due to the in- discriminate jumble of incoherent sentences made to fit the rule under consideration. The student should be trained to think consecutive- ly and logically in a foreign language as in his mother-tongue ; a connected description or story can be made to illustrate a rule quite as efficiently as a series of disconnected sen- tences.
The vocabulary might have been rendered more serviceable by giving more of the im- portant meanings of many words and by add- ing the essential forms (nom., gen. sg.; nom. pi.) of strong nouns.
Minor points to be noted are : £142 might be better stated by saying that variatives are formed by adding /</(—' kind ') to the geni- tive (for examples of the older use of this con- struction cf. M. H. G. " ciner leierule," where the forms are printed as separate words); ^153 is not correct, inasmuch as the feminine derivatives in /are both numerous and mono- syllabic. It is nouns formed on a simple af>- laiit stem with HO derivative suffix which are i nerally masculine, while those which add the suflix / to this stem are regularly feminine. Kxampk-s are der /.tiff {<zichcti} but die y.iteht(<Zn!i+l,g> r// before /), der Schlag (<scliia.t?en) but die Sehlicht, (<Schlag+l)\ £155 •:"<'/• A'l'ie/i/Hiti. tier Irrtnni are exceptions ; §159 has received fuller treatment in AHN'S
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'Synopsis of German grammar' §108, BRANDT'S 'German Grammar' §58, WILMANN'S 'Deutsche Grammatik,' ZweiterTeil §88; §178, add der gefalle, der Schade ; §212 cf. WILL- MANN'S ' D. Gram.' ZweiterTeil §90,2; §274, ward=wurde etc. should be mentioned at least in a note ; §365-369 are not explicit and full enough for the average beginner, cf. WIL- MANNS' ' D. Gram.' Zweiter Teil §122-127 for a clearer treatment. The paragraphs on Pre- positions and Word-Order are too scanty to be of much service to the student : BRANDT'S Ger. Gram.' §301-306 is very happy in giving well chosen examples of prepositional con- struction. A judicious use of the chapters in other grammars referred to above would have greatly enhanced the value of DR. SAWYER'S manual. In thus pointing out what seems to us defects in the manual we would not forget to mention some of its excellencies as well. Excepting the paragraphs already commented upon, the general plan of the book is well adapted to college use. The principles are concisely stated, the examples happily chosen and sufficiently diversified to familiarize the student with the essentials of German syntax. The German sentences of Part II are certainly a vast improvement upon the stilted manu- facture of most of the exercise-books. The student is here encouraged to collect gems of literature rather than to build rugged sen- tences out of conventional phrases. The chapter on Correspondence is good as far as it goes, but too short to teach letter-writing. DR. SAWYER evidently intended that his man- ual chould be used as a book for practice and not for scientific theory, and hence omitted many points which the student would like to have explained, as, for example, umlaut and ablaut. But American education is too de- pendent upon the text-book. The success of a text-book depends upon the teacher not less than upon the author of the book. DR. SAW- YER'S manual, in the hands of efficient instruc- tors, can be readily supplemented at these weaker points. It is to be hoped that this work will bring us a step farther toward a more thorough and scientific study of the German language and literature in our higher schools.
M. D. LEARNED.
Johns Hopkins University.
CORRESPONDENCE.
To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTES :
Kindly allow me to explain myself. PROF. COOK, in MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, III, 5, 277, quotes me as saying — "The scribe of the Lindisfarne MS. never employs the letters v or j." He then proceeds to quote the word onginnvm as occurring in a gloss.
What I had in my mind was this. I was thinking of the original scribe of the Lindis- farne MS., who wrote that MS. in Latin; and I do not remember that he anywhere uses either v or j. As to what the glossator wrote, I make no assertion at all. I meant my state- ment to be taken in connection with the con- text. I go on to say that " the former edition has v and j throughout, wherever the u and i of the MS. have consonantal values." This refers only to the Latin text. I admit I was obscure ; but that is all.
WALTER W. SKEAT.
BRIEF MENTION.
In the great mass of mediaeval Provencal lyric are found the names and works of not a few poetesses, who have hitherto been known mainly through their literary relations with contemporary Troubadours. The gallantry of a student of Romance poetry has rescued them from this inferior station and has placed them before the modern public in a compact and convenient form (' Die Provenzalischen Dichterinnen,' O. Schultz : Leipzig 1888,410). In the introduction to their biographies and writings the editor sketches the rise of woman in society and hence in literature. He finds in the other languages of Western Europe but few representatives of the sex before the four- teenth century, and attributes to the peculiar institutions of Provence the prominence which they there attain. Between the years 1160 and 1250 no less than twenty-one lyric poetesses appear, some few of whom are known only by name. The biographies of the greater number, sixteen in all, as given by Dr. Schultz, can be determined only approximately, and mainly by the allusions to them in contempor- ary literature. Their works, amounting to twenty-two poems, with four doubtful, are in this study all edited critically for the first time
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• •\i i-pt the sitAentes of Gormunda given by Levy in liis edition of (iuilU-iu Figi:- The\ are < hielly sin icty-verses — ten/oni, coblas — but tin- didactic and moral element K also represented. Several of tin- writers take part in tlu- same ten/one, others, as Maria de Yentadoru and Axalais de Porcaira- gues. ha\ <• OIK- poi-m each to their credit, while lady Castello/a of .\uvrr-in-, who wrote prob- ably in the lirst part of the thirteenth century, has left three to posterity, and Beatrice, countess of I >ia, heads the list with four. The style of all is simple and free from the com- plicated strophes and difficult rimes of the more practiced Troubadours. Appended to the text are explanatory notes, which complete a useful publication on woman's activity in literature in the Middle Ages.
In the May number of the Deutsche I\und- schau PROFKSSOR HKKMAN GRIMM publishes a very interesting article under the title : "Die deutsche Schulfrage uud unsere Classiker," in which he takes sides in part with the modern language movement. It is gratifying for us to notice that I'KOFI.SI'OK GRIMM'S views regarding the position which Goethe and the moderi\ German classics are to take in the education of our youth coincide essentially with those already expressed in the Transac- tions of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. of Am., Vol. I, pp. 156-169 and MOD. LANG. NOTES, Vol. II, No. i.
Among the latest publications of 'Gebr. Ilenninger, Heilbronn, the . fifth edition of ANDKKSKN'S ' Sprachgebrauch und Sprach- richtigkeit im Deutschen ' and the reprint of HEINE'S ' Buchder Lieder ' deserve (.'special mention. The former of these, though some- times taking a somewhat pedantic standpoint and deciding the question of ' Sprachrichtig- seit ' according to the rules of rigid grammar, is an indispensable guide for teachers and pu- pils, to whom, in its new and enlarged edition, it will b« highly welcome. The reprint of the songs by which 11 KINK gained his world-wide fame is another valuable addition to the ''\eii- drucke." It is not the HKINE of the polished and retouched ' Huch der Lieder ' that we here meet, but the young poet still strongly under the influence of the Romanticists and of 'I >es Knabeu \Vunderhorn.' Krnst Klster, the
editor of the reprint, has pn-fa<.-d it with an ive and profound introduction, in whit h he points out the way to a more tific treatment of the great lyric poet. And such a treatment will surely dispel the preju- :'id piudery in regard to 1 1 MM-, which seem to be in vogue among ourselves as well as in ( iermany.
The literatim: devoted to practical instruction in German has recently been increased by a number of works deserving special mention. Miss CAKI. A \YKNCKEBACH, favorably known as the editor of a charming anthology of German poems, has published a German Reader (Boston : Carl Schoenhof ; New York : I-'. \V. Christern) the multifarious character of which will be best illustrated by giving a synop- sis of its contents. After the pupil has been taught the elements of German pronunciation according to the manner of the primers used in the public schools of Germany, he is next introduced to the principles of Grimm's law ; this is followed by extracts from German prose and poetry ; and finally is given a sketch of the historical development of the German language based upon the works of Scherer, Grimm, Max Mu'ller, Delbriick, Joh. Schmidt, Paul, Kluge, etc. To illustrate the last chap- ter of the Reader, two maps are added repre- senting the status of the German dialects in the year 1300, and the present extension of the Indo-Germanic languages.
The 'Manual of German Prefixes and Suf- fixes' by J. S. BLACKWELL (New York : Hen- ry Holt & Co.) will serve as a valuable help for teachers and pupils. The book does not aim at a scientific explanation of the origin and etymology of the material treated, but rather intends to be a practical guide for those who find the use of these particles one of the greatest difficulties in acquiring command of a foreign language.
Teachers of German who desire to acquaint their pupils with tlu M. H. G. stage of the German language will welcome the 'Middle High German Primer' by JOSIIMI \\'KK;MI (Oxford: Clarendon Press). This primer, con- taining a short grammar based on the works of Paul and \Yeinhold, a suitable selection of texts, and a glossarv, will doubtless increase
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the interest in the older forms of German among students of that language.
One of the best edited texts which have come recently to our notice is the ' Life of Frederick the Great ' by DR. C. A. BUCHHEIM, (Oxford : Clarendon Press). The material, which is intended to give the student a train- ing in reading German historical prose, is ex- tracted from Becker's celebrated 'Weltge- schichte,' and forms an interesting and power- ful sketch of the life of the great Prussian king. • It is hardly necessary to dwell on the excellence of the apparatus furnished by the introduction >and notes. In consequence of Becker's clear and simple style, which does not require extensive grammatical elucidation, the predominant character of the notes is that of historical explanation, giving in concise form an astonishing amount of information valuable to the student. The littte map of the scene of Frederick's campaigns must be considered a valuable addition. DR. BUCH- HEIM, who is known also in America as one of the foremost editors of German school-texts, has by this new work again won the thanks of all who, in the interest of progress in the study of the modern languages, appreciate the value of well-edited books.
Among the practical productions of German literature which seem constantly to invite the skill of translators, Schiller's famous ' Lied von der Glocke ' takes a highly favored posi- tion. We have recently received two transla- tions of it : ' The Song of the Bell ' by Fr. Schiller, translated by N. W. CUTLER (Boston : D. Lothrop Company) ; Schiller's ' Lay of the Bell ' translated by E. J. CROCKETT (Southern Methodist Revieiv, March 1888), both of them showing peculiar merits. While the latter keeps more strictly to the German original, the former may certainly claim a higher poeti- cal character, rising happily, as it does in many passages, to Schiller's power and beauty of thought and diction. Moreover, it is adorned with a number of good reproductions of pic- tures selected from the best German illustra- tors of the poem, This feature of the trans- lation must be highly commended, since it wonderfully aids the reader in penetrating the foreign poet's mode of thinking and feeling. We entertain the hope of again meeting with
Mr. Cutler as the skilled and graceful media- tor between German poetry and English readers.
While we are still waiting for the long- needed comprehensive English-German Dic- tionary, we are offered in the new edition of DR. A. HOPPE'S ' Englisch-Deutsches Supple- ment-Lexicon als Erganzung zu alien bis jetzt erschienenen Worterbiichern' (Berlin: Langen- scheidtsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. i. ab. A — Close), a work which surpasses everything hitherto published in the line of English-Ger- man lexicography. The author, presuppos- ing as known what is contained in Lucas" large dictionary, endeavors to include the whole thesaurus of English words and mean- ings not recorded in the existing dictionaries. The amount of industrious labor bestowed upon this work is simply enormous, and its re- sults were so much appreciated by the editor of Ogilvie's ' Imperial Dictionary ' that he ap- propriated, without acknowledgment, a large part of the contents of the first edition. A most welcome feature of this lexicon is the citation of passages illustrative of the use of the words treated. The literature utilized by DR. HOPPE and his collaborators for this pur- pose comprises nearly all fields of literary production, technical terms and English and American slang and provincialisms receiving especial attention. There are naturally some omissions to be noted. One is rather sur- prised for example not to find the term "blatherskite" a word which DR. HOPPE would doubtless have inserted had he ever witnessed one of our American presidential campaigns. We hope also that in due time the " Mugwump " will not escape his attention. The ' Supplement-Lexicon ' is a worli of which author and publisher may justly be proud, and deserves the widest circulation in America.
A fourth revised edition of KLUGE'S ' Ety- mologisches Worterbuch ' (Strassburg : Triib- ner) is now issuing, of which instalments 1-4 have already appeared. This skilfully com- piled book has from the outset met with so much success that it is unnecessary to speak further in its praise. A similar success seems to be destined for KLUGE'S recent publication, ' Von Luther bis Lessing, (cf. M. L. N. iii, 281) a second edition of which has become neces-
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s.nv within a feu nuniths. We are, however, sorry to notice that in tin- latter case, I'KOK. Ki.i iii-. was not able In-fore going to print to make use of I'KOKISSOR EDWARD Scm • i 'i K'S ( -xcellent and instructive review of Ills first edition in the Goetting. gel. Anzcii\i >/, \o. 7, 1888. In this review it is made evident that for a successful treatment of such prob- lems as are undertaken by KIAH;K a merely linguistic training is not sufficient. Unless an author posesses, as the result of many years' study a wide erudition, a deep insightinto the historical literary development of the lan- guage, he will run the risk of repeating plati- tudes and even making gross mistakes.
The students of Folk Lore are reminded by MR. A K DREW LANG that ' Mother Goose ' has claims on their scientific appreciation (PER- RAULT'S ' Popular Tales ': Macmillan & Co.). MR. LANG has reprinted the French edition of 1697, ' Histoires ou Contes du Temps Passe" avec des Moralite"z,' to which he has added the ' Contes en Vers ' and which he has pre- ceded by a sketch of PKRRAULT, of his tales, with a study of each story. As usual with the works of this writer the studies, which consist of comparative views of similar tales and an attempt to trace their migrations and changes, are made in a scholarly way which the wit- ticisms and local hits here and there impair but little. The greatest amount of material is brought together in the remarks on 'Puss in Boots ' and on 'Cinderella.' In the former PKRRAULT was hard pushed to find his cus- tomary rimed moral yet MR. LANG discovers that versions with a moral exist even in France, in which the tale continues to show how the hero — the man — in his turn renders evil for good. Such a conclusion points to the Buddhistic religion, but in India, where the story substitutes a jackal for the cat, no moral is fojnd, while in Zanxibar, where the animal becomes a gazelle, the moral appears: man's ingratitude contrasted with a beasts' faithful- ness. ' Cinderella ' offers tw.o chief features : the friendly beast, for whom a fairy godmother has been substituted, and the favoritism shown to the youngest child together with the place which it occupies in the ashes of the hearth — Cinderella is a step-daughter, an evident variant. The friendly beast is a common
character in popular stories and seems to be connected with the belief in trans- migration. The simple version occurs among various tribes, as the Kaffirs, where an ox protects the child and supplies him with food and riches from its horns. The complex or perhaps primitive version is found in Russia, among the Celts and elsewhere. Here a, mother is changed into an animal (sheep or cow) by a witch who assumes her form and passes herself off as the wife. At her request the animal is killed but the daughter is warned not to eat the flesh. The bones are buried from which comes a tree, as in an old Egyptian story, or other magic, to aid the daughter in her tasks. In most of these versions the slip- per, or a ring, is prominent. The substitution of a fairy godmother for the beast is due evi- dently to less barbarous society. The second leading element, the favored youngest child whose place is on the hearth, may be explained by an ancient custom common to many tribes whereby the youngest inherited. The growth of primogeniture, while the youngest was still the legal heir, would account for the persecu- tion of the latter. In the same way the young- est inherited the hearth by old customs and is thus, in the stories, placed among the ashes. The slipper is a means of recognition, gener- ally in the case of a false bride. Readers of the old French Epic will recall the plot of ' Berthe aus grans pie's ' where the false bride is exposed by the smallness of her feet and where the true one, to the contrary of Cinder- ella, possesses large feet. The notices of the other stories of PERRAULT contain many useful hints, though shorter than the above. \Ye notice in the Conclusion, which follows the separate analysis, that MR. LANG does not state his own theory with the definiteness shown in his former studies of Folk Lore but contents himself with raising objections to the theories of GRIMM and-BENFKV. An in- teresting comparison of the views of the three schools from the pen of PROF. CRANE — to whom the last volume of PITRK'S 'Sicilian Traditions ' has been dedicated — has already appeared in the NOTES (Vol. II, col. I74ss). Re- views of recent publications of MR. LAM; on the same subject are found in the A7a/wn(iS8Sp.$6). 1 La Syntaxe Pratique de la Langue Fran-
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caise' by B. MKRAS (New York : The Modern Language Publishing Co.) presents the gram- matical rules in the logical way : the examples precede each rule. The obvious result is that the rule is conceived by the scholar before it is formulated and is thus more readily retained. This system is seen to its best advantage in the treatment of the past participle (pp. 89-94) and in the agreement of the verb with its sub- ject. The defects of such a plan consist main- ly in the multiplicity of useless rules and in the tendency to make rules from idioms. Other faults which lie rather with the author than the system are the inadequate treatment of the subjunctive, where Whitney's grammar could have been consulted with profit, and the substitution of rules for tabular statements in regard to the varying gender and plurals of nouns. The Index is valueless for convenient reference and should be enlarged before the work is taken into class use.
The same author is represented in a school edition of ' Notre Dame de Paris ' (London : Williams and Norgate). The editor, M. J. BOIELLE, has arranged, in two neat volumes, suitable portions of the original, keeping as near as possible to the progress of the narra- tive. The notes, which are indicated by fig- ures in the text, are good and abundant. As regards etymologies it is unfortunate that an- notators are not yet acquainted with Scheler in any of the editions of his Etymological Dictionary.
' Einfiirhung in das Studium der Englischen Philologie mit Riicksicht auf die Anforderung- en der Praxis ' (Marburg, N. G. Elwert, 1888), is a brochure in which PROFESSOR WILHELM VIETOR aims to give counsel and direction to students who may desire to fit themselves as teachers of English in the schools of Germany. The scope and character of the examinations to be passed, and the true significance of the teacher's office are carefully examined, and then the practical question is entered upon, how the necessary preparation may be best acquired. This leac's to a detailed considera- tion of the entire course of training which such a teacher should endeavor to secure, embrac- ing advice as to the books to be used, courses of lectures to be attended, etc. These pages must prove a helpful guide to those for whom
they are expressly written, but they have also a value for us. The English and American teacher of English may here gain many a ser- viceable hint from a careful study of the doc- trine and methods of English instruction in foreign schools ; while our teachers of French and German may, by a process of reasoning by analogy, be led, by these earnestly written chapters, to a better understanding of the true import of their own vocation.
MR. ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL, the cele- brated phonetician and author of ' Visible Speech,' has published a pamphlet which may be expected to arrest the eye of the curious, and to excite a feeling akin to suspicion in the breast of the champion of Vola-puk. But these are effects not to be ignored, nor do they lie wholly without the range of the writer's in- tention, if a natural inference may be drawn from the newly coined title, 'World-English, The Universal Language ' (New York : N. D. C. Hodges, 47 Lafayette Place), and the quaint- ly eloquent epilogue in which leave is taken of the reader: "Everyone has heard of the butcher, who, after a long search for his knife, at last found it in his mouth. So, speakers of English have been seeking for a Uni- versal Language, when lo ! it is in their mouths ! The intelligibility of words has been obscured by a dense mist of letters. This is now dispersed in World-English ; and the language stands revealed, — beyond compari- son clear, simple, copious, and cosmopolitan, — the fitting tongue of humanity." But it were quite impossible for MR. BELL to toy with any form of popular sensationalism for its own sake, and one has but to glance over these chastely written and beautifully printed pages to become impressed with the graceful and philanthropic spirit of the profound scholar. For the English-speaking world there are two great questions relating to its language that are of high importance ; they are these : shall our spelling be reformed, and shall any syste- matic effort be made towards the establish- ment of English as the World's medium of universal intercommunication ? The first of these questions may be argued apart from the second; but the second is, by common consent, conditioned by the first. This common con- sent among English scholars (for a matter of
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this kind is in\o|\ed in, and has to encounter national picjndices) is \v<-ll cxpusscd in MR. Hi i i.'s o|n ning uords : " No language could !><• invented lor International UM- that would surpass English, in grammatical simplicity, and in general fitness to become the tonkin- ol tin- World. The only drawback to extension of English has been its <lillicnlt and unsyste- matic spelling." It is then clearly seen that MK. \\v.\.\. opens ami closes with the very deli- nite belief that English is the true l'ola-f>iik, and the object of his pamphlet is not so much to enforce this belief as to offer a theory, and to submit a practical system, carefully elaborated, for the attainment of certain ends. A system of English orthography and typography is here oH'cred which is not to supplant the present form of writing, but which is merely to sup- plement it as an " initiatory " form for begin- ners in the schools (thereby serving an import- ant pedagogical purpose at home) and for "non-scholastic learners, and for foreigners throughout the world." For our schools, it is argued " two forms of the language must thus be equally acknowledged ; one for lower classes of scholars (MR. RKLL'S ' World-Eng- lish ') and one for higher classes (the undis- turbed present literary form)." World-Eng- lish deserves the careful consideration of all serious scholars, to whom MR. BKLI, appeals for criticism and suggestion.
IX C. Heath & Co. have just published the second book in the series of ' Practical Les- sons in the use of English,' by MARY E. Hvni: of the State Normal School, Albany, N. Y. The volume covers such technical grammaras is essential to a correct use of the language, besides giving many selections from the best writers, to form a correct taste for the best literature. It treats of letter-writing and its related subjects ; and contains much matter necessary to be familiarly km mi* in the ordin- ary business of life. The same House lias published ' Exercises in English, a drill book on Accidence, Syntax and Style,' by 11. I. STRANC;, Head Master, C.oderich High School, < >ntario. The book is meant to supply in con- cise form, well classified and carefully studied exercises for criticism and correction. It is the result of much experience in the school-room and is decidely a working hook.
ERCKMANN-CffATKIAN'h amusing comedy of ' I. 'Ami Frit/.' with annotations in English
b\ I'K"I . Al I l'.\ I. Ill NM ..,1 IN, "f tl:-
sity of Michigan, has been added to the series of 'Theatre ( 'oiitemporain ' published by William K. Jenkins, of New York. (121 250.) ' Encouraged by the favor shown to his enterprise in furnishing an attractive reprint in French of VICTOR Hrc.o's ' I.es Mis«'rables,' MK. JKNKINS has determined upon issuing a uniform edition of all the novels of this author, and 'Quatrevingt-trei/e,' printed in one vol- ume, forms the second work in the sen This story is considered one of the fin- nit us of I Iroo's literary genius and style, and will undoubtedly prove of great value to stu- dents as well as of interest to general readers. It is issued in similiar typography and bind- ing to' I. es Misi'rables.' (121110, paper fi.oo, cloth $1.50.) MMI HI-.NRI (iki'vn.i.K's '1 due,' will be the next number of tin- ' Romans Choisis,' issued by the same publisher.
The Louisiana Journal of Education for March contains an article entitled: "Some Suggestions for a Course of Reading in High Schools" by PROK. J. R. FICKI.KN of Tulane University; likewise a review of I'KOK. ("•i M-Mi's ' The Study of Rhectoric ' by PROK. ROHKRT SHARP, of the same institution. — The Dial (Chicago) for May has an interesting characterization Of '.'Arnold and his Work " by I'ROK. MKLVIU.K H. ANDKRSON, of State Uni- versity of Iowa. — '1 \\vltniianu .SVW<-;//(< )rgan of Indiana University) for March, gives us a cred- itable notice of " Moliere " and his works by \Y. EC/HARD (ioi.mw;, a student in the French department of that University. — The Academy (Syracuse), for April, contains a suggesti\e article on "The Phonetic Method," by E. Si'AMiooKi), of St. Paul's School, Concord, N. H.
The first two numbers have reached us of a publication that promises much of interest and importance for the worker in modern lan- guages : !.<• Moycn-Age. Bulletin meiisuel d' 1 iisloiiv et de I'hilologie, iindcrtlu direction of MKSSRS. A. MARICNAN, ('•. PI.AION and M. WII.MOTTK. Price 9 francs. Addi. Monsieur Picard, l.ibraire-Editcur, Si rue Bonaparte, Paris. The list of periodicalsth.it are put under contribution for this new journal. is the most extensive, perhaps, of any publi- cation in existence. All the- periodical htera- ature of note, bearing on I listory and l.ingnis, tics, is to he reported on for Norway, Sweden- iVnmark, Holland, (iermany. Austria, Bel- gium, France, Italy Spain, Portugal and Rou-
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JOURNAL NOTICES.
BEITRAEOE < HRSG. v. PAUL UNO BRAUNE) VOL. XIII, PART III.— Osthoff, II., Ktymologica.— Kauff- niiuin, Fr., Behaghels argumente flir eine mhd. Schriftsprachc.— Bugge, 8., Zur altgermanischen spraehgeschichte.— Pletsch, P., Einige bemerkungen Uber ge- bei verben.— Bremer, 0., Wurstencr wo'rter- verzeichnis.— Hellborn, E., Die «-reime bei- Opitz.— Braune, W., Zu den dcutschen «-lauten; Reinhardt Fuchs ; Nachtrag zu mhd. ein. — Luick, K., Geschlossen- cs e 1'Ur e vor st.— Holthausen, P., Nachtrag.
ANGLIA. VOL. X. PART III.— Honncher, E., Quel- len zu Dean Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels. — (iodwln, Francis, The Voyage of Domingo Gonzales to the World of the Moon.— Honncher, E., Bemerkung- en zu Godwin's Voyage of Domingo Gonzales to the Moon.— Reum, A., De Temporibus ein echtes werk des abtes ^Elt'ric.— Sattler, W., Englische Kollektaneen.— Wllke, W., Anwendung der rhyme-test und double- ending test auf Ben JOHSOII'S dramen.— Koeppel, E., Sidneiana.— Logeman, 8., Forrest's Theophilus.-Nader, E., Tempus und modus im Beowulf.— Hlcketler, K., FUnf rfitsel des Exeterbuches.— Lcntzner. K., Zu Romeo und Julia.— Sub lender, P., Btlcherschau ftir das jahr 1886.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NEUFRANZOSISCHE SPRACHE
UND LlTTERATUR, BAND IX. HEFT Q.—(Referate und Rezensionen) . — ** J.-B. Stiernet, La Litterature franfaise au XVIIe siecle. Essais et Notices, avec une introduction (Moyen-age et XVIe siecle).— Mahrenholtz, K., E. HOnncher, Fahrten nach Mond und Sonne.— Mahrenholtz, K., E. Hertz, Voltaire und die fraiizdsische Strafrechtspflege im XVIII. Jahr- hundert.— Mahrenholtz, K., Lettres inedites de Mme de Lespinasse p. p. Charles Henry. — Scheffler, \V., Guillaume Ulrich, Essai sur la chanson franyaise de notre siecle. — Honncher, E., Jan ten Brink, Litterari- sche Schetsen en Kritieken.— Koschwltz, E., Moliere, L'Avare, crklBrt von H. Fritsche.— Miszellen.— J.-J. (!. L (eyds), Principaux ecrits relatifs a la personne et aux ceuvres, an temps et a 1'intiuence de Diderot. Compilation critique et chronologique. — Meyer, R., Zur Konstruktion von falloir.— Programm der zweiten Hauptversammlung des deutschen Einheitsschul- vereins in Kassel am 4. und 5. April 1888- — Nekrologe. Honncher, E., Bibliographic 1887-88.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ROMANISCHE PHILOLOGIE, XI,
4.— Tobler, A., Vermisehte BeitrHge zur franz. Gram- matik.— Nchwan, Ed., Zu den Hltesten franzosischen DenkmBlern.— Schuchardt, H., ;Romano-baskisehes.— Beyer, A., Die Londoner Psalterhandschrift Arundel. Vermischtes. Appel, 0., Zur Reihenfolge der Trionli Petrarca's.— Meyer, W., Labialisierung von Gutturalen im Nordfranzos.— Horning, A., Die Schicksale von en +Kons. und an+Kong. im Ostfranztisischen. — Srhwan, E., Zur Flexion der Feminina der lat. III. Deklination im AltfranzOsischen.— Wlese, B.,Italienische Etymolo- gien. — I Irich, J., Romanische Etymologien. — Be- gprechungen. Appel, €., W. Bernhard, Die Werke des Trobadors N'At de Mons.— Appel, €„ A. Pakscher, Die Chronologic der Gedichte Petrarcas.— Tobler, A., F. Torraea, La materia dell' Arcadia del Sainm/aro,
studio.— Levy, E. und Tobler, A., Revue des langues romanes. T. XXX juill.-dec. 1886; t. XXXI, Jativ.- juin 1887.— Meyer, W., Studi di fllologia romanza, fasc. 4. 1887.
LE CANADA-FRANCAIS, VOLUME PREMIER, LlVRAISON — AVRIL '|888.— L'Admlnlstration, Mgr Dominique Racine.— Bruche'sl, L'abbe'l'. IN., Los Petites Sceurs des Pauvres a Montreal.— Polsson, Adolphe, Mouvement de la Population Fran<;aise dans Ics i 'mi- tons de 1'Est.— LeMay, Pamphlle, Le Boquet— Po6sie.— Desroslers, Joseph, Le Roman au Foyer Chretien.— Routhlcr, A. B., La Question Romaine.— E. R., Revue des Cours Publics donnas & 1' Univ. -Laval a Quebec (Hiver 1887-88.- DeOelles, A. D., Notre Avenir.— Routh- ler, A, B., Les Fetes Jubiiaires (Lettre de Rouie).— Ohauveau, P. J. 0., Encore Jacques Cartier.— Legend re, Nap., La Legende d'un Peuple. — ValUe, A., Interven- tion Chirurgicale dans les affections du rein. — Lcgen- dre, Nap., Pelerinageau Pays D'Evangeline.-Ohauveau, P.-J. 0., Revue Europeenne.— P. F., N. L., P. J. 0. 0., Bibliographic— Revue des livres.— P. J. 0. l\. M.-E. M., Revue des revues.— Documents Inedits. VIII.-Memoi- re de 1'abbe de I'lsle-Dieu a M. Stanly, 1755, (Suite). IX. — Articles de soumission des Acadiens, 1760. X. — Lottres de M. 1'abbe Maillard, missioiinaire en Acadie, 1735-1738. XI. — Journal historique du voyage de la flotte commandee par M. le Due d'Enville, et partie pour le Canada le 20 juin 1746.
REVUE CRITIQUE, No. 8.— Camus, G., Precetti di rettorica scritti per Enrico III re di Francia (Ch. J.). — Les grands ecrivains fran$aits: Bolisshr, G., Mme de Sevignc;— Sortl, A., Montesquieu ;— hay, L., Turgot; Uaro, E., George Sand;— Simon, J., Victor Cousin (F. I Hemon).— NO. 9.— Gaste, A., Olivier Basselin et Le I Vau de Vire (A. Delboulle).— Von M'cllen, Altx., Der I aegyptische Joseph 1111 Drama des XVI. Jnhrhuuderta (A.O.).— NO. II.— Joiisson, Kiiinur, Edua bnorra Stur- lusonar. 111. ((J.). AJbuni paleograpliiiiue ou recneil de documents iiuportants (A. Molinier). Catalogue des livres oomposant la bibliotluque de feu >l. If baron James ue Rothsehild. Tome second. (T. de L.).— kothler, R., Herders LegenUen (Ch. J.).— No. 12.— Hemon, F., Theatre de P. Corneille (A. Del- Uoulle). Catalogue Rothschild (H. Cordier). — No. 13. Wlez, Kr., Etymologisclies WOrterbucli.— schtKi-, .1., Dictionnaire d'etyniologie t'runeaisu '(A. D.).— Vau- tliUr, U., Essai sur la Vie et les Oeuvres de N IK.HIII- cene Lemercier (A . R belliau). — This, ('., Die deutsch- frttnzOalsehe Spraehgrenxe im Elsas^ (1;.).— No. 14.— €onway, H. 8., Verner's Law in Italy ;— oe«rKe, V»'., Die Itdlisohen Sprauhen (V. Henry).— I'rndel, Ch., Notice sur la vie du poete Kancliiii (l.iKi-1*)!)^) ( T. de I'-)-— No. IS.—karoi-iie, t'., Le Franvais et le.-piit d'analyse (Ch. J.).— Krnault, E., Le mystere de Sainte- Barbe (H. d'Arbois de Jubainville).— No. 17.— t^ode- froy, F., La lettre O du Dictionnaire I.A. J<ic«iues).— Kurschner, J., DeutsclMj National-Litfratur (vols. 81- SW). (A. Chuquet).— NO. 18.— I'anius, G., L'opera Sah'i- nitana "Circa instaus " ed il testo primitiyo del "(irunt herbier en fran^ays" (A. Bo-).— UUHge, H., Courtilz de Sandras una die Anffinge des Men-uiv historique et politique (Ch. J.).— Arnuudlu, F., Conies populairca grand-landais (ti. Oaldoz).— NO. 19.— \iniht, J. B. et C'hubaneaii (.. Deux n;anusi-rits I.K>- \enyaux du XIN'e bit-clo (T. de L.).— lajbcrt, K«rd., De la iMononciation en Franc au XVIe siecle et du livrc de Thurof, intitule De la prononciation franvaisc ( A. D.).— Clan, N,, Un epiaodio-delld storia della censura in Italia nel sec. XVI. L'edizione spurgata del C<)rtc- giano. (P. tie Nolhac).— Le in nil re, J., IinpreabJoos de th atre 1. (K. Hemon).— 8tt cher, J., Histoire dc la • 1 it tc rat ure n^erlandttlse en Belgique (A.
208
MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES.
Italtimorc, November. 1 8HH.
GLISH
/. Rosens ' Orlando Furtoso.'
The Italians have complete Rimari, or Rime Indexes, of their leading poets, such as DANTK, PETRARCH, ARIOSTO and TASSO. These Indexes servr many useful purposes, and take their place with poetical lexicons and concordances. In the early stages of a language, rimes, of whatever kind, either repose upon etymological kinship or inflex- ional similarity, or else are largely fortuitous. A happy union of sense and sound is immedi- ately consecrated to mnemonic and poetic uses, and becomes a recurrent phrase, the type and nucleus of many others.
These are employed at first by popular poets, and then by conscious artists. Mean- while the resources and the flexibility of the language grow. The riming possibilities are largely, though never indefinitely, extended. New words are added, and words dissimilar in sound become assimilated, yet in every direction there are limits, in some cases ampler, in others narrower. Within the ampler limits most of the riming work must be done, and every effort is made to wed the sense of words which at first appear to have nothing in common save their resemblance in sound. The language must needs become plastic in order to endure the strain which is now put upon it. Old words are used in new senses, figurative uses multiply, unsuspected adaptabilities of words to each other are re- vealed, and unsuspected modes of combination are discovered. Where the limits are narrow- er the struggle is still more intense. The lan- guage is ransacked for words as yet unthought of. Dialects are made to yield up their spoils. Words are put upon the rack, and tortured to reveal their secret, and fitted on Procrustean beds, happy if they may retain their original proportion:..
Poets make experiments which their succes- sors find too daring, and their apparent con- quests, held by too slight a tenure, are aban- doned.
If these artist3 find their material too refrac-
tory, they admit false rimes, which the next generation, encountering the same difficulties, d« s|x-r;it( ly sanctions. Thus riming conven- tions arisr. A word like flight suggests heig ht and sight, and the rimes of a triplet are thus pn>\ i<U-d. So knight might suggest fight ?ai& might. Such triplet or quatrain rimes are adopted by other poets, with or without mod- ification. According as there is or is not a disposition to modify and extend, there are two schools of rimers. The coaservative rimer accepts combinations as he finds them, em- ploys the old, recurrent, familiar jingles, and spends his strength upon other portions of his task. The innovator is likely to be a great, fe- cund, untrammeled spirit, throwing ofl" rimes, good and bad, in careless profusion, or else a devotee of art for art's sake, whose whole study is form. Only exceptionally is a riming innovator at once a great and a thoroughly artistic poet. This constant experimenting and fashioning steadily augments the re- sources of the language. Its general plasticity and the actual scope and richness of its rime- system may, as in the case of the English, go hand in hand. A cross-section through the riming product of a given author or century may afford an indication of the poetic fertility and chastened sense of form which are there displayed. An abundance of false and dis- sonant attempts at rime will signify barrenness or undisciplined faculty. Smooth harmonies upon a few chords will point to great dexterity of handling, but not to the presence of ele- mental volcanic forces, struggling for utter- ance at whatever cost. Novel, varied, and entirely satisfying effects imply that the world is enriched by another genius or a very high order of talent.
These considerations have impelled me to record some observations upon the rimes em- ployed by ROSE, the friend of SCOTT and trans- lator of ARIOSTO. Were ROSE'S version bold and commonplace, the selection of it might well be obnoxious to criticism. But it is gen- erally conceded, I believe, that his merits as a translator are very great. Soon after the pub- lication of his first volume, BlackwoocTs Magazine (xv, 418) said : "We believe it will
209
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November. MODERN LANG UA GE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
420
be considered as, on the whole, the best poet- ical translation in our language." And again : ' ' A specimen of the before unsuspected variety and flexibility of our poetical language, inde- pendently of all those monstrous and bar- barous innovations in which too many of our most popular poets have ventured to indulge."
It is this first volume, together with the first twenty-one stanzas of the second, that I have chosen for this examination. The first volume contains six cantos and 479 stanzas. These 500 stanzas in the octave measure will yield looo triplet rimes. To these I have confined myself, neglecting the final couplets. It will readily be seen that the selection of this num- ber facilitates the calculation of percentages, while affording a sufficiently- wide basis for some interesting inductions.
In 500 stanzas, 140 different riming sounds are employed, so that an average of more than seven triplets are constructed on each riming sound,
On eighteen riming sounds more than 500 triplets are framed, and on seven riming sounds more than 250. Double rimes occur in only twenty triplets. The long-vowel sounds are preferred, especially a, e, I, d, do, on, and the first four of these vowels as modified by a following r; 143 triplets are formed on these four vowel sounds as finals, that is, followed by no consonant. Of short vowels, £ seems to be most in request, especially in -est, -ed, and -ent.
No appreciable distinction appears to be made between do and u in riming ; the same triplet will frequently contain both sounds. Only 83.3 per cent (or, if doubtful false rimes are included 84.2 per cent) of the whole are absolutely perfect rimes.
In 5.7 per cent a fully stressed syllable rimes with one or more syllables having a secondary stress, or the riming syllables have all secondary stress ; in other words, monosyl- lables rime with trisyllables (exceptionally tetrasyllables), or trisyllables with each other.
Three and one-tenth per cent of the triplets contain the same syllable repeated, either (a) as a monosyllable of the same form and the same, or different meaning, (b) as a monosyllable of the same sound but of different form and meaning, (r) as the second syllable of a poly-
syllabic word, the original syllable being a monosyllable, (rf)as the second syllable of a dissyllabic word in two instances, or (e) as the second syllable of a word dissyllabic in sound alone.
In 5 per cent of the triplets, a word is mispronounced for the sake of the rime.
In 6.7 per cent the rimes are merely rimes to the eye, or are otherwise inaccurate. In two instances there is, apparently, no pretence at riming, viz.,
mi tied: bestride: find
line : came : dame
and in another (end of Canto VI) a line is wanting, and the triplet therefore stands :
paid: arraid: —
The slight discrepancy between the sum of the percentages and the number TOO is due to the fact that in two instances the same triplet rime is repeated in different categories.
In the General List each word stands as the type of a riming sound ; thus knight is the type of the riming sound -ite ; day the type of -ay, etc. The General List includes all the subsequent categories except that of False Rimes.
Where pronunciations are indicated it is done but roughly, and for purposes of identifi- cation only. Any attempt to be exact would have required an extensive use of diacritical marks.
General List.
1. knight
2. see 3- day 4. fear
5- foil"
6. foe
7. rest
8. sped
9. who
10. side
11. nigh
12. maid
13. bore
14. dame
15. wise
16. grace
17. bent
49- 48. 4i. 36- 32. 3i-
29-
28. 26.
23-
22. 21. 2O. 19-
18. rain
19. speed
20. bound
21. beat
22. glows
23. land
24. skill
25. brought
26. ring
27. sell
28. find
29. date
30. heart
31. lord
32. fire
33. friends
34. gale
18.
16. 14.
12. II. IO.
9-
8.
7- 6.
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Novtmbtr, MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
432
|
GENERAL LIST.— (CONTINUED). |
Principal Stress with Secondary Stress. |
||
|
35. hears |
88. lu-irs |
e are arranged in the order of the |
|
|
36. bend |
f- 89. blamed |
words in the main list. Only one instance of |
|
|
37- zeal |
6. 90. snared |
each set occurs, except where a number is |
|
|
38. tone |
91. calls |
noted, and then the illustration stands for the |
|
|
39- sort |
92. blazed |
type. |
|
|
40. deep |
93. please |
(a), bright, chrysolite, fight. |
|
|
41. heard |
5- 94. s;u ks |
(b). be, see, chivalry, (16). |
|
|
42. bold |
95. France |
he, readily, faculty, (12). |
|
|
43. hour |
96. shape |
enmity, cruelty, jeopardy. (4). |
|
|
44. birth |
97. hands |
(c). crest, manifest, rest. |
|
|
45- root |
98. gained |
(d). descried, signified, spied. |
|
|
46. mood |
99. fact |
(e). try, die, verify, |
|
|
47- r«iRe |
loo. back |
testify, eye, reply. |
|
|
48. gaze |
4 101. charms |
(f). cries, flies, recognize. |
|
|
49. horse |
102. task |
(g). bent, spent, banishment, |
|
|
50. bruise |
103. cost |
innocent, intent, fraudulent. |
|
|
51. wings |
104. done |
(h). strain, vain, Sericane, |
|
|
52. queen |
105. world |
Sericane, domain, pain, |
|
|
53. shield |
106. turn |
reign, pain, Charlemagne, |
|
|
54. shun |
107. trust |
plain, Charlemagne, plain. |
|
|
55. doom |
108. scout |
(i). sfill, will, Logistil. |
|
|
56. brave |
109. chin |
(j). ring, following, bring. (6). |
|
|
57- fling |
no. rides |
(k). bonnibel, sell, rebel, |
|
|
58. press |
ill. theft |
Pinabel, cell, fell. |
|
|
59. met |
112. took |
(1). twine, Ghibelline, sign. |
|
|
60. sure |
113. wrong |
(m). foal, goal, caracole. |
|
|
61. line |
114. bruits |
i. |
(n). Sacripant, Levant, Bradamant, |
|
62. last |
3- 115. time |
Agramant, Agolant, plant. |
|
|
63. call |
116. child |
Riming Syllables Repeated. |
|
|
64. theme |
117. miles |
(a), rest, west, rest, |
|
|
65. make |
118. spouse |
knight, light, light, |
|
|
66. learned |
119. crown |
rose, shows, shows, |
|
|
67. wit |
120. lips |
plain, Charlemagne, plain. |
|
|
68. horn |
121. flock |
(b). way, pray, weigh, |
|
|
69. extended |
122. peace |
high, die, hie, |
|
|
70. inclination . |
123. weeps |
threw, renew, through, |
|
|
71. closed |
124. brink |
grown, bone, groan, |
|
|
72. pole |
125. pearl |
seen, scene, queen, |
|
|
73. pains |
126. road |
sea, fidelity, see. |
|
|
74. man |
127. effect |
(c). tide, divide, eventide, |
|
|
75. storm |
128. narrates |
side, beside, pride, |
|
|
76. den |
129. retorts |
avows, spouse, vows (or f), |
|
|
77. plant |
130. degrees |
depart, heart, part, |
|
|
78. smile |
131. rages |
impart, part, heart, |
|
|
79. bark |
*• 2. 132. sally |
part, impart, heart, |
|
|
80. speech |
133. carry |
impart, part, art, |
|
|
81. beams |
134. sabre |
upturned, burned, turned, |
|
|
82. road |
135. tiding |
steed, deed, misdeed, |
|
|
83. shot |
136. prizes |
boy, enjoy, joy, |
|
|
84. joy |
137. wonder |
impressed, pressed, best. |
|
|
85. affection |
138. petition |
(d). applied, replied, aside, |
|
|
86. pleasure |
139. lamented |
replied, complied, tried, |
|
|
87. first 140. possession |
avail, prevail, mail. |
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November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
424
(e). say, assay, sway, assay, way, say, bright, knight, unite, veil, avail, scale, bruise, eschews, choose, feuds, embrued, brewed, bends, descends, sends.
Mispronunciations. he, company, Circassy, shew, due, view, pressed, Este, best, gain, Castellain, stain, bit, sit, hermaphrodit.
False Rimes. i. Rimes to the eye. uv, uv, ddv, (5).
love, above, remove,
above, prove, love, (2).
move, love, above,
above, move, love. ddv, ddv, uv, (i).
move, prove, love. odd, odd, ud, (2).
stood, wood, blood,
stood, blood, wood. ddd, ddd, odd, (i).
mood, wood, stood.
ud, ud, odd, (i). blood, flood, mood.
ud, ud, ood, (i).
blood, good, flood. ain, ain, en (or ain),
vain, again, plain,
pain, plain, again,
strain, again, reign,
again, rein, vein. aid, aid, ed, (2).
said, aid, blade,
blade, laid, said. ize, Ize, unstressed eeze, (i).
wise, skies, destinies. ite, lie, unstressed it (spelled ite), (i).
right, fight, opposite. own, own, oan, (3).
renown, crown, own,
drown, shown, crown,
alone, gown, town. ar, ar, or, (i).
car, star, war.
i, I, unstressed ee, (9).
prodigy, I, reply,
eye, nigh, sorcery,
i, die, severity,
family, sky, eye,
ply, wrongfully, lie,
symmetry, eye, die,
eye, sky, alchemy,
sky, eye, Camaldoli,
eye, nobility, lie. unstressed ee : unstressed ee, i, (2).
agony, nigh, insanity,
balcony, happily, I.
Unclassified Rimes.
odd, dod, odd, (i).
wooed, rude, could. odd, ddd, ddd, (i).
pursued, good, understood. ddd, ud, odd, (i).
good, blood, pursued. air, air, ur (or air), (5).
share, heir, were,
were, repair, bear,
care, share, were,
were, care, bear,
pair, were, air. ore, ore, oor, (4).
pore, Moor, shore,
bore, sore, Moor,
Moor, lore, before,
bore, Moor, before. oan, oan, on, (i).
grown, gone, own. oan, oan, un, (i).
overblown, done, moan. un, un, oan, (i).
alone, sun, won. oan, un, on, (i).
unknown, done, gone.
un, un, on,- (3).
won, none, upon,
done, upon, sun,
foregone, done, son. d, d, ow, (i).
brow, flow, below,
know, how, bestow. airs, airs, ears, (2).
fares, bears, uprears,
prepares, ears, wears.
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Novftnoer. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
436
ear, ear, air, (i).
deer, tear, fear. tars, fars, airs, (i).
tears, cares, fears. ffd, fed, fd, (i).
need, indeed, stead. air, air, ar, (i).
heir, are, rare. urned, urned, orned, (i).
mourned, returned, discerned. antes, antes, urns, (i).
roams, foams, comes. ung, ung, ong, (i).
sprung, flung, throng. ount, ount, unt, (i).
fount, front, mount. «;•</, urd, ard, (i).
heard, preferred, reward. own, own, unstressed on, (i).
town, crown, gonfalon. ante, dme, bom, (i).
home, foam, gloom. ong, ong, ung, (i).
song, long, among. ord, ord : unstressed ord or ard, (i).
accord, lord, Paris-ward. uzf, uze, ooce, (i).
use, pursues, truce. eeth, eeth, fethf, (i).
sheath, beneath, seethe. ine, me, oin, (i).
join, line, design. ide, Ide, igned, (i).
untied, bestride, find. aim, aim, Ine, (i).
line, cane, dane. aid, aid, , (i).
paid, arraid, .
University of California.
A. S. COOK.
THE GERUNDIAL CONSTRUCTION IN THE ROMANIC LANGUAGES.
V.
The nature of the examples considered up to the present time has been such that the action of the dependent verb (gerund or infini-
tive) was performed by a subject in the nomi- native case. This necessarily followed from the fact that the dependent was joim <I to a finite verb, tin- latt«-r serving sometimes a* a mere copula between the subject and the sue- ceeding verb, the former at other times deter- mining the modality of the action of the latter. Considering the origin of the gerund, this last must have been its earlier function ; since being virtually a noun in an oblique case, it must necessarily at first have expressed adverbial relations. Gradually it rose, so to speak, in dignity and, from the office of a simple modi- fier, it became the principle word in the sentence — the predicate. II s'en vait corant, he goes away running(ly) ; where corant points out the manner of going away ; but il vait me disant, he is in the act of telling me, or simply, he tells me.
The cases now to be considered belong to a different category, in so far that the action of the gerund (or infinitive where it can be used) is performed by an agent in an oblique case, which case is the regime of a verb in a personal mood. Constructions of this kind occur with words signifying lofind, to see, toJiear, lofeel, to perceive, etc., and with/a»>r in the sense of to cause (to do anything), altho' some special remarks will be called for when we come to speak of faire as so used. The Romance languages did not originate this construction for themselves. It was common in the classi- cal languages to construct the present partici- ple and infinitive with words of similar import. It seems to be a principle of syntax applicable to most languagues. The distinction between gerund and infinitive, when so constructed, is in general terms this : the gerund indicates the progress of an action into which that of the finite verb falls and always begins before, and usually continues after, the completion of this verb; while the infinitive, in such cases as it can be employed in, expresses an action, of which the speaker perceives the beginning and the end. Logically this could only hold good of past completed and future time. The use of the infinitive with the present tense is incon- sistent— a contradiction in terms — except to designate habitual action. For instance, we should say in English ; I saw him go into the house ; whereby I should mean : ist, that I saw
213
427
November. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 7.
428
him complete the action ; ad, that I saw him performing an act which he began before I looked and may have continued after I turned away ; but for the present : I see him going in- to the house, only ; since, I see him go into the house, can only be said of a habit or an action indefinitely repeated and would usually be accompanied by an adverb indicating the habit, etc ; as, I see him go into the house every day. However, here, as in other things, what ought to be is at variance with what actually is, and we find a great freedom in the use of the infinitive. Indeed, with the excep- tion of to find (meet, come, upon, etc.), the in- finitive (or some other construction) has gen- erally usurped, in the modern languages, the place of the gerund, and is used to express both completed and continued action, according to the construction of the sentence.
Trouver.
Ses maisuns truva arses e ses viles ardant, E un suen fils truva mort en biere gisant, E sa femme e sa gent merveillus duel faisant.
Roman de Ron, 4104. Vint milie chevaliers i troverent scant, E sunt vestut de palies e de hermines blans.
Voyage de Charlemagne, 267. Les enfans trueve gisanz soz la valee, En scant ierent, s'ont grant joie menee.
Amis et Amiles. Le maillet troverent pendant A la port par de devant.
Le Pelerinage Renart, 93.
E quand venc un dia, Raimons de Castel Rosillon trobet passan Guillem de Cabestaing. Bib. derTroub., IX.
This construction is still preserved, in all its freedom, in the modern language :
Linus venant du ciel sur Pegase, au relai, Trouve votre sorci're enfourchant son balai.
V. Hugo, Religions et Religion, p. 33.
L'abb6 alia rejoindre Jeanne et Gabriel, qu'il trouva se promenant avec tristesse dans le pare du chateau.
Alce'e Fortier, Gabriel d'Ennerich, p. 23.
It is, moreover, common to the whole group of Romance tongues, as may be illustrated by the 46th verse of the 24th chapter of Matthew, which has been rendered by them all in the same manner.
Heureux ce serviteur que son maitre trou- vera faisant ainsi quand il arrivera.
Beato quel servitore, il quale il suo signore, quando egli verra, trover^ facendo cosi.
Bienaventurado aquel siervo, alcual, cuan- do su Senor viniere, le hallare haciendo asi.
Bienaventurado aquelle servo, ao qual, quando seu Senhor vier, o achar fazendo assim.
Fericitti este servulti acela, pre care, venindti dominultt sen, 'Iti va afla facendtt asa.
Luther translated here by the infinitive with- out any apparent reason, as it was departing from the Greek (Sv cASwr « xvptof avruv f.v/j?'/(3£i ovrcrif TToKvrra), and we find him using the participle with finden in Marc XIII, 36 : auf dass er nicht schnell komme und finde euch schlafend. The infinitive is not admissi- ble in the Romanic languages, as far as my observation goes, but is still current in Ger- man, its use depending upon certain condi- tions, the discussion of which would be out of place here.
Ouir (entendre).
The gerund or infinitive is indifferently used without any appreciable distinction. Examples :
Fors fut la no\se etla bataille grans Et li hustins mervillous et pesans, N'i oissiez nes damedeu tonnant.
Ch. de Gibert de Metz (Rom. St. I, 464). Nus tut 90 veimes ke m'o"z recuntant.
Vie d S. Auban, 1184.
Et frainte d'armes i avait par tout, que Ten n'oi'st mie Dieu tonant.
Tr. de Guil. de Tyr, Liv. iv.
Li arcevesque les ot contrarier.
Ch. de Roland, 1737. Illoec m'assis pour escouter Deus dames que j'oi parler.
Flore et Blanceflor, 44.
Car adonc aguera om ausit les sens et campanas sonar al repiquet.
Ch. de la Croisade d'Albigeois. " Summae Deus clementiae," nel seno Del grand' ardore allora-udi" cantanoo.
Dante, Purg. XXV, 122. E degli uccelli le diverse e tante Odo voci cantar dolci e gioconde.
Vitt. Colonna.
Le oigo hablando con un hombre desconocido.
Sauer's Gram, espagnole. AstfeluT aucH pero tehiCra cochetS parisiana cjicencl ca a primiit un puiti de gSina.
V. Alecsandri.
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The Wallachian excepted, the modern lan- guages seem to avoid the gerund with words signifying to hear, and the infinitive or a rela- tive < Inusr is used instead. The two following examples with entendre, which now usually takes the place of the obsolescent ouir, will serve to illustrate the use of the infinitive to express completed or progressive action.
J'ai entendu le rossignolet chanter dans son langage. Romania, IX, 565.
Mais tout »e tail. Je n'entends ricn venir.
V. Hugo, Hernani.
It is not pretended, of course, that entendre is not constructed with the gerund ; yet it does not seem possible to lay down a rule for its use. Judging from this sentence : Enten- dons maintenant Alcuin signalant a Charle- magne les me'mes abus (Haure*au), we might probably apply to entendre what further on is said of voir. Ecouter.
On e*coutait avec plaisir les jongleurs chan- tant les jestes des anciens.
Paulin Paris, Preface to Guil. de Tyr. Voir (with the gerund).
Jeo vi, dist il, une mult bcle Par desus les ewes montant.
Guil. le Clerc de Normandie. Quant le virent en Pair salant.
Bauduin de Sebourc, B. 397, 8.
Quant li sires le vit venant, Si le salua maintenant
Li Contes del Graal, B. 166, 17. Jeu vos vigui entre los layors penden On vos fazian trops grans escarnimens.
Plainte de Notre Dame, 58. E vidi spirti per la fiamina andando.
Dante, Purg. XXV., 124.
Vido al conde paseando
Y estas palabras le ha dicho.
Rom. delCid(Voegelin).
Diego. ; Que viste T Sancho. Al gran Fernando,
Mi vida con mi muerte amenazando. G. de Castro, Moc. del Cid, Pt. seg. I, 4. Como vereis o mar fervendo acceso Co' os incendios dos vossos pelejando.
<)s I .us. II, 54 (also 1 1. 68).
Cine m'ar videa cutrierAnd orasul cu valiza pe spinare, ar cuteza porte a crede cJi slnt vagabond ?
V. Alecsandri, Hatmana. Voir (with the infinitive).
Quant ele venir M le voit. Tanio«i arrlere i'«n retoroc.
Fabliau de» Perdrit, B. »9 j, 14-
donde il mania partilU,
Vedendo di lonuno fumar le vllle.
Giutto d*' Contc Romano. Ver.lt dctpuet Us potencia* If vaJieodo....
Juan Rule. o grfto Thebano
Olliando o ajuntamento Luciuno Ai mouro §er moletto e aborrecido.
O§ Lut. I, 73.
Occasionally both constructions are found in the same sentence :
Mult veiisiez fortnant i»»ir aronez Nortnanz Querre turneiemeni e juste demandanz.
Roman de Row, 3357. Ed al nome dell* alto Maccabeo Vidi rauoveni un altro roteando.
Dante, Pur. XVIII, 41. E quand' eo veggio li altri cavalieri Arme portare e d'amore parlando.
Folcacchiero de' Folcaccbieri.
The infinitive is much the more common, even where the gerund would be more logical. This is especially true of the Old French. It would be but reasonable, for instance, to ex- pect gisant in the quotation from Guillaume d 'Orange (B. 65, 18):
Vivien vit gesir desoz un guet Desoz un abre qu'est foillus et ramez.
For Guillaume did not see Vivien lie down but saw him already in that posture (lying), as any other man would, without doubt, have been who had had his body pierced with fifteen wounds, from any one of which (the old romancer naively adds) an emir would have died.
What was said with reference to the current construction with verbs signifying to hear, holds, with some little modification, of verbs meaning to see.
The Wallachian, which is generally more varied in its syntax than the other members of its group, makes very free use of the gerund. Of thirty odd instances noted in the Bible, the Italian, Spanish and Portuguese translate by the infinitive or a relative clause, while the Wallachian invariably employs the gerund. This is strictly in accordance with the rule laid down by the grammarians — the Italian gerund
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being excluded by the grammatical dictum, that the gerund should always refer to the sub- ject ; while for the Portuguese and Spanish the infinitive is to be preferred (unless the idea of duration is to be made very prominent), and always where the principle verb is in a past tense or the object is a noun. The Wallachian, however, is not trammeled by any such restric- tions, provided the thought is clearly ex- pressed. It is this latter point which deter- mines, to a great extent, the syntax of the ger- und in all these languages. The Italian has probably not gained anything by its rigorous exactness. In such cases as those cited from the Divina Commedia and in the one follow- ing, from Vittoria Colonna, there could be no possible misunderstanding and, consequently, there is no good reason why the construction should have fallen under the ban of the gram- marian.
Ed a mirar i lor piTi cari armenti Pascendo insieme far piacevol guerra.
It must be admitted, however, that the rule often prevents ambiguity in a very neat way. Separated from its context, the following stanza from Metastasio's canzonetta, La Potenza, might present some difficulty, since giungendo could logically be taken either with quanti or with the subject of vedrai. The possible mis- understanding is obviated by applying the rule.
Quanti vedrai giungendo Al nuovo tuo soggiorno, Quanti venirti intorno A offrirti amore e fe.
The same ambiguity is avoided in :
Ch'amor quest' occhi lagrimando chuida.
Petrarca.
The French easily evades the difficulty by the use of en before the gerund : En arrivant a ton nouveau sejour combien de personnes tu verras &c. En with the gerund always express- ing adverbial relations, it can never take the place of an adjective clause and must conse- quently affect the action of the principal verb and not its object.
At the . present day the construction in French with verbs of seeing and synonymous import is dependent upon conditions more easily felt than defined. It would be rash to make the rule a general one ; because this would leave full scope for a promiscuous use
of the gerund, which would not coincide with practice. I believe that a rule formulated somewhat as follows would serve as a pretty safe guide : namely, the gerund occurs more frequentlywith a verb in a past tense and that in any case it should have an object or some phrase to modify its action.
J'ai vu les vents grondant sur les moissons superbes.
Delille.
Les moines et les pre"tendus savants ne virent dans cet obscur Stranger qu'un aventu- rier cherchant fortune de ses chimdres.
Lamartine.
Us en e"taient la quand des paysans les aper- curent marchant c5te a cSte dans 1'enclos.
Saintine.
Je les vois cherchant a deviner des e"nigmes sans mots et je les aide a s'embrouiller.
George Sand.
Je me de"fie de la dialectique, quand je vois 1'esprit humain tournant sur lui-meme.
Nisard.
La famille en palit et vit en fr^missant Dans la poudre du greffe un polte naissant
Boileau.
II contemplait la forme svelte et e"le"gante de la jeune fille traversant la cour au bras du docteur.
X. de Monte"pin.
Je t'ai vu la griffonant sur ton genou et chantant d£s le matin.
Beaumarchais. Sentir.
The construction of this verb, which falls tinder the same rubric as other verbs of per- ception, has been noted in a few instances ; but considered either with reference to modern or early usage, it does not call for any special discussion which has not already been covered by the remarks on other verbs of this class. We need to stop, therefore, to notice only a few examples.
Quant il nous senti venans, il toucha en fuie. Joinville, Hist, de S. Louis, ch. c.
Voltando sentirei le gio.stre grame.
Dante, Purg. XYII, 42. Y que con el deseo agonizando Morir me siento de la misma snerte.
Anonymous, isth Cent.
And in the modern languages :
Mais il la senlit menteuse, incapable de se
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r, se donnant aux amis, aux passants, en bom; ais c-lu-ini
Zola.Nana, p. 474.
I .a |>auvii- femme M si-ntit litteralement inourir.
X. de Monte"pin.
Kpopea nella quale si sente palpitareil cuore di tutto un popolo.
Nuovu Antologia, Sec. Ser. XXIV, 385, Faire.
Our attention will now be claimed by faire, which occurs with verbals in -ant, and which, as already observed, requires special consid- eration. It may be stated at the outset that this construction has been found only in early French and Provencal and is probably pecu- liar to these languages. And again, its total absence from some authors is somewhat re- markable; while others use it only with en- tcndant, which usually, tho' not always, may be translated by the passive voice. This fact, together with the observation that certain combinations of the -ant forms with the pre- positions d, de, par, etc, were also susceptible of a passive rendering, attracted my attention quite early in my researches and led me to conclude that not only the Latin present parti- ciple and gerund, but also the gerundive (par- ticiple in -dus) were, in some instances, hidden under these verbals in -ant; further, that the construction of the gerund with faire, regard- ed from the standpoint of its origin, not being natural, the construction was probably refer- able to the gerundive; and, finally, that the fact of its appearing with an active force and governing a case was effected through analogy and confusion with the gerund and active par- ticiple. That is, if what has been assigned as the probable cause of the inflexion of the Wallachian gerund be true, it is the same pro- cess of passing from a passive to an active meaning. In Merovingian Latin, too, we have instances in which the passivity of the partici- ple in -dus was overlooked and it was allowed to govern a case. In the "Joca monachonnn " we read : quis asinam persiguendtim renuni invenet? i. e. quis asinam persequens regnum invenit? There can be no doubt, I think, that this is the proper interpretation ; and the case is not an isolated one ; for in the same collec- tion is found a similar interchange of functions
"I tin two parts of speech: quis vivindum sec ulum vicit? Now, whether rnimlinn In- here construed with quis or stculutn, it has the same for< e, that tArirens.
Returning now to the |-rench and Proven- ',al, let us illustrate what h.is been said by analyzing a few sentences.
Aim! li foil la vielle enundanl la (avele.
Hcrte au* Grans Vitt, 9079.
Et ces choses vous rementoif-je pour vous faire entendant aucune chose qui offierent a ma matiere.
Joinville, S. Louis, ch. XL. I.i in the first of these examples is a dative, and vous, in the second, may be so taken like- wise ; and they might be turned into Latin, root for root, in this way :
Illi facit vetula intendendam fabulam ; and
vobis facere intendendas aliquas unas
causas etc.
Hut the Latin gerundive comes out much plainer in cases where a preposition is used with the verbal in -ant.
Des qu'a I'eue de Diepe nus irum esluignant, Mais jeo ferrai anceis a cele eue passant.
Roman de Rou, 3806.
That is : ad (ab)ecce-illam aquam passandam.
Sire, on me fait a entendant (ad intendeh- dum) que vous aye's une fille &c.
Henri de Valenciennes, ch. IX. If, in the following example from the Trans- lation of Guillaume de Tyr, le is to be taken for an accusative, as the form usually is, en- tendant is then active.
Mes cil arnons le decent trop malement, qui entendant le fit que il serait patriarches.*
Other similar constructions are not infre-
» The admission of the gerundive in early French offers a satisfactory explanation of the construction in Tartuffe, I, i, now a very common expression and one which, tho1 an erident difficulty in modern syntax, is passed over in silence by the grammars.
Et Ton sait qu'elle est prude a son cor/t drfetufant. By turning this into the Latin : ad suum corpus defenden- dum, we at once see a reason for the construction and the diffi- culty vanishes. The expression, therefore, originally meant, as it still does: en se defendant contre une attaque; the other meanings now attaching to it, such as, a contre-cccur, avec repugnance etc., are derivative. The translator of Guil- laume de Tyr uses an equivalent in Liv. II, ch. a, where in answer to Godefroiz, the king says :
Si y mcismes la main comme cfforcie', sur nous defendant.
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quently met, which are capable of being re- solved into the Latin gerundive, as :
Dont il lessa au roy, par pais faisant (per pa- cem faciendam) la contee de Augo.
Joinville, ch. XVI.
Et bien voierit ke se il par sens ti par engen u par treuage donnant (per tributaticum don- andum) n'entrent en la chite".
Henri de Valenciennes, ch. XVI. And so in Joinville (ch. CX): par grant tre"u rendant (per grande tributum reddendum).
Turning now to this sentence from Guil- laume de Tyr (Liv. XI, ch. 10) :
Et Ceus qui ne s'en voudroient issir fesoient remanoir seurement en leur teneures par ren- dant une resnable somme d'avoir, — we seethe construction has either become active or so ambiguous in point of syntax that it could hardly fail to be taken as such.
If we compare the above phrases with nu- merous infinitive constructions, we shall have an additional proof of a phenomenon already discussed at some length, namely, the con- stant interchange of verbals in -ant with the in- finitives, without any apparent difference in meaning or function. In VILLE-HARDOUIN we have many instances of the construction in question.
Et mistrent grant paine a la ville prendre, (ch. XCI), which is evidently represented by the Latin, ad villam prehendendam. And so in ch. XII : mais nos ne somes mie tant de gent que par nos passage paier poons les lor attendre — a construction, which, in the pas- sages above cited from Joinville and Henri de Valenciennes, we found explicable by a parti- ciple derived from the Latin gerundive or par- ticiple in -dus.
This will suffice, I think, to show that the force of the gerundive construction partially, at least, survived among the early French and Provencal speaking people and brought about the construction above canvassed ; altho' it is more than probable that they were unconscious of this, owing to the identity of form with the gerund and present active participle. And it was likely this identity of form which led to its being merged into the other verbals in -ant and apparently becoming active in force.
A few other examples collected, possibly show this active force a little more clearly
than those already given, and I set them down here as additional proof.
Car por fol sembleir
Me font cil fauls proiant d'ameir.
Guiot de Provins (Wackernagel XV). Renarz mist 1'aive sor le feu Et la fist trestot boillant.
Roman de Renart, B. 209, 9. E vuelh tenir autre viatge On restaure so que m'a fag perden.
Cadenet.
Tant estet enviro lo lor assetjamens Tro grans cocha de fam fetz celz dedins rendens.
Peire de Corbiac, B. 213,23. Olhs de merce, boca de chanzimen, Nulhs horn nous ve que nol fassatz jauzen.
Peire Vidal, Song 44 (B.'s ed. 1857). Not fazas ardit ne prezan Ne ton cor non aviles tan. Daude de Pradas, Four card. Virtues (Stickney's ed.).
With the exception of a son corps defendant, all the constructions noticed under the head- ing of faire have dropt into desuetude or shaded off into other constructions still bear- ing an affinity with the original. A la ville prendre, for instance, would find its modern offspring in : a prendre la ville; par pais fai- sant in : en faisant la paix; and par trevage donnant in : en donnant (Payanf) le tribut*
The direct objects of the verbs avoir, lais-
*It is proper to state that I was anticipated in the above explanation by Mr. N . DE WAILLY in his " Memoire sur la lan- gue de Joinville,'' and that PROF. ADOLF TOBLER (Vermischte Beitrage zur Franzosischen Grammatik), PAUL KLEMENZ (Der syntactische Gebrauch des Participium Praesentis und des Gerundiums im Altfranz "sischen) and others have ex- pressed their belief in the erroneousness of this theory, but not, as it seems to me, on sufficient grounds. PROF. TOBLER bases his objections, in the main, on the fact that 'many cases of this special -ant construction are no more easily explained by assuming them to come from the participle in -dus than from the present activj participle, and further that, where the accompanying noun is feminine, we should expect- -endain, -andain to produce -ande and not -ant, the form al- ways found. As an answer to the latter part of this statement it is relevant to remark that, as -undo, -endo, -untcnt, -entem, all through the law of analogy, wore away into-rt«/, it hardly seems a violation of this law, but rather a natural proceeding, to put -anduin, -andatit, -enduin, -endant, together with their plural forms, all in the same category, especially as they are all, to a certain extent, functional equivalents in syntax. Replying to the first ofToBLER's objections, I will say that I for my part, in arguing for the gerundive, do not pretend that its admission will clear away all the difficulties ; my thesis simply is, that the gerundive, as well as the gerund and present active participle, was operative in producing the-n»/ constructions. As the forms were confused, it is not remark- able that the syntax should have met with a similar fate.
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ser, /,-ttir, xnt-r/>ir and smiu- i>tln rs maybe .11 . itinpanii-tl l>y tin- vi rl) in -ant to express a state or condition existing at the time of the action <it tin principle verb.
Kt le lessierent jjisant sur une table.
Joinville, ch. XXXVIII.
Pur mort le guerpissent en xabelum gisant Charoinne le tenent fans alnic enfreidissant.
Vie dc S. Auban, 845. La dame ot lore le cuer joiant.
Flore et Blanceflor, 1065 . Qu'us fisjois capdel' em nais Quern te jauzent en gran doussor.
Peire Vidal, Song 22 (B.'s ed. 1857.)
The verbal in -ant is also used after interjec- tions.
Es-le-vus relevant
E le (lot tut sechi, dunt cist vunt Deu leant.
Vie de S. Auban, 1157. Ast vus venant de deu fidcil.
Brandan's Voyage, 580 (Rom. St. I. 573). Es vous par le chemin errant Mon seignor Renart le goupil.
B. 266, 12.
But here, as in so many other cases, the in- finitive may likewise be used. The nature of the interjection places it in the same category with verbs of seeing, beholding, etc. and of course the same construction is to be expected in both cases.
Ves les armes reluire : tons li cuers m'en esclaire.
Jehan Bodel, B. 310, 26. Ay filh, tan vos vech malmenar.
Plainte de Notre Dame. 40.
SAMUEL GARNER. Annapolis, Md.
THE VERB to fell.
Whether the economy of our language will for many more generations continue to demand an expenditure of effort — with large classes of persons it is an effort of only partial success, with others the failure is complete — for main- taining in use with proper distinction the couplets to lie, to fay and to sit, to set, is a question upon which some may be disposed to speculate. In the case of to fall, to fell, we have a somewhat different problem, from the circumstance of a natural restriction, more or less complete for common speech, of the use of tofellto regions of particular industries and occupations. I should be pleased if some of the friends of this Journal who may find it con-
venient to make observations in any of the ive lumber districts of the country, would n-purt the woodman's use cA to fall wn&to fell, for I have a suspicion that in some places to fell has entirely disappeared, leaving to the in- transitive form the burden of a double service. This suspicion is based upon my recent obser- vation in a large axe manufacturing establish- ment, where I discovered the trade name for one variety of axes to be the " Falling Pattern (For Pacific Coast Trade)," and of another the " Puget Sound Falling Pattern."
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
THE PRONOUNS IN THE OLD DAN- ISH ' TOBIAE KOMEDIE:
In the MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES for May, the personal pronouns occurring in the 'Tobiae Komedie ' were briefly discussed. In the present paper the rest of the pronouns in that work will be treated in somewhat the same way. Many of the pronouns are represented so incompletely in the text, that it has in some cases been found inexpedient to treat them in paradigms. The personal pronouns are the most complete and satisfactory, and show the most interesting phonetic changes. Many of these might profitably be compared with cor- responding forms in Anglo-Saxon and Early English, but that study must be reserved for later treatment by itself. For a consideration of the earlier forms of hand and hun reference may be made to O. KALKAR'S 'Ordbog,' the .last issue of which almost completes the letter h. In the present paper this valuable diction- ary has occasionally been used to explain the derivation of some of the pronominal forms, especially of the indefinites.
The worker in the Old Danish field constant- ly finds himself hampered by the want of a grammar. The paradigms have never been systematically developed, and the difficulties in the way of any comparative work are in- creased greatly by the lack of a complete dictionary. When KALKAR'S dictionary is finished the task will be very much lightened. The scope of the present paper and of the pre- ceding one is necessarily limited, since only one text is studied, and the results are not to be regarded as explaining thoroughly the
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state of the language at the beginning of the seventeenth century. It is, however, interest- ing to be able to compare, even cursorily, the development of the Danish inflections with those of English, and by so doing we may be led perhaps to a somewhat clearer understand- ing of the way in which our language was affected in its earlier stages by the Scandi- navian. One cannot but be struck by the many curious resemblances between Danish and English, in the development not only of the inflections but also, in no small degree, of the syntax. In the gradual wearing away of the forms and in the order of words in the sentence the two languages are, indeed, close- ly related. It is characteristic, too, that, just as English grammar received but slight acces- sions from the other tongues that at different periods had exercised so strong an influence upon the vocabulary, so Danish grammar was but slightly affected by the German, from which so large a proportion of its word-store is formed. It is with an ulterior purpose, therefore, that this seemingly trivial study of the Old Danish pronominal forms is pursued. Let us now take up in turn the remaining pro- nominal forms, beginning with the possessive. The possessives occurring in our text are : min, my ; din, thy ; sin, his ; vor, ours ; and eder, yours. By comparison with Icelandic, we see that these forms must be derived from the genitives of the corresponding personal pronouns, which do not occur in our text. Min occurs unchanged in the singular, both masculine and feminine, as follows: — mascul., nom. [9. 7], dat. [40. 18], ace. [41. 14] ; femin., nom. [12. i]. — T.he gen., masc. and fern., and the nom. and dat. fern., do not occur. — In the neuter singular the same form occurs under different spellings : nom. init [38. 12], ace. mitt [16. 6] and mytt [u. 12]. In the plural the only form that occurs is mine, once each as nom. [47. 21] and ace. [39. 4.]. Din is declined like min, with the exception of dit [92. 20], which in the MS. appears as did. In the sing, we find the nom. [10. 18], dat. [41.10), and ace. [56. 13], and in the plural the nom. [n. 22]. Of the 3rd person sin we find the singular forms masc. ace. sin [5. 20], dat. siin [5- S]> a"d neuter dat. sit [45. ii]. Vor ap- pears unchanged in all the forms of the masc.
and fern. sing, that occur. Masc. nom. [35. 14], dat. [58. 18] and ace. [29. 12], fem. nom. [35- J9]- I" the plural, vor [70. 5] "occurs as nom., vore [6. 4] as dat., and voris [20. 16] as ace. For the neuter, the only form that oc- curs is vortt [76. 22]. Only two examples occur of eder: masc. ace. eders [78. 8] and fem. ace. eder [34. 13],
Note i. The possessives in this period of Old Danish show remarkably few changes from the older forms. In the ist person plural we may notice the use of 0. which in Icelandic occurs often side by side with a.
Note 2. The distinction between the masc. and the fem., still preserved in the personal pronoun, is now lost, and the common gender of Modern Danish takes its place.
The reflexive of the 3rd person, which should have been included in the preceding article, is sig [5. 14]. It shows the same change of k<g, as the first personal pronoun.
The demonstratives are denne, that ; dissc, this; and saadan [56. 17], such. In the sing. denne occurs unchanged, nom. [40. 20], dat. [40. 23], and ace. [41. i]. In the plural we find dat. dennem [57. 4] and ace. dennem [59. 19]. The nom. dett [78. 22], dat. dette [46. 14], and ace. dette [46. 10], all in the singular, are the only forms of the neuter that occur.
Disse appears unchanged in the ace. sing. [32. 5], and the ace. plural [61. 20].
The demonstrative corresponding to the Old Norse sa appears in only few forms : Sing. nom. neuter dit [87. 12], det [61. 10]. Plur. nom. di [72. 24]
Plur. ace. di [84. 7], denom [86. 6].
Note. The suffixed article, in its origin a demonstrative, is used as in Modern Danish, en for the common gender, et for the neuter.
The relatives are som, undeclined, occurring as nom. sing. [40. 19] and ace. sing. [44. 20] ; huis [85. n], preceded by alt and resembling the English 'all that; '" huilckett [44. 17], der [6 1. 12] and den [61. 17].
Note. Before the sixteenth century Jntis occurs as hues. Huilckett appears in earlier Danish sometimes as huilki, a mere graphic difference ; sometimes, by a very curious as- similation, as huikken and huyken (fifteenth century).
The interrogatives are 1m em [6. 5], who,
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and huad [13. ij, what, llucm appears as MOID, sing., but it n-iniixls OIK- strongly of the Old Norse dative //;•'*•/;//.
Of all the pronominal forms the indefinite * are the most numerous. Beginning with nog- en, some, we find the nom. [22. 17] and ace. [45. 20], and the neuter nogett [75. 12] and noget\&. 1 8].
Int>e>t, no one, nom. [5. 20], ace. [74. 21] and neuter intett[$2. 10], intet [53. n] and inthit [87. 20].
Note. The doubling of the t in these two pronouns is without phonetic significance.
Somme [33. 7], some, appears only as nom. : as also hon som, [38. 9], whoever.
Huer, each, nom. [5. 5] and dat. [72. 14], and the extended form huercken [43. 9].
Note i. Huer is weakened from the earlier form [i393--i49i] hvar, according to Old • Norse hvarr, Old Norwegian, hverr. In Old Danish the distinction between "each of two" and "each of many," so consistently kept up in the Old Norse forms hvarr and hverr re- spectively, does not appear, so far as can be seen. In the two cases cited, reference is made to more than two.
Note 2. Huercken corresponds to Old Norse hverge. This change of the spirant to the voiceless explosive sometimes occurs in Old Norse under special circumstances. In the earliest of the Old Danish remains we find the spirant.
Note 3. Under the head of the second per- sonal pronoun should be inserted the assimi- i lation with the verb skaltu [62. 12]. This is the only case in the play, everywhere else the two words are separate ; as, schalt du [68. 7], skalt du [67. 9], and numerous others.
DANIEL KILHAM DODGE.
Columbia College.
THE PA TO IS OF THE CANTON DE VAUD.
Phonologic des patois du Canton de Vaud. Par A. ODIN, Halle, 1886. VIII, 166 pp.
As the work of a beginner this treatise is promising : the choice of the subject is a good one, the plan has been ably carried out, and the faults are of such a character as may be
excused in the earliest contributions of a scholar.
Since 1874, when ASCOI.I, the great Italian linguist who has done most for promoting the study of the Romance dialects, for the first time treated in his ' Schizzi francoprovenzali ' the French dialects of Switzerland, Savoy, Franche-Comte* and Dauphine" as a group of dialects standing by itself, distinct from the French as well as from the Provencal, the dialects of all the French Cantons of Switzer- land have been made the subject of special in- vestigation by MM. HAEFELIN and AVER (Neu- chatel and Fribourg), RITTER (Geneva), COR- NU and GILLIERON (Valais); with the excep- tion of the most important of them all, the dialect of the Canton de Vaud. I say the most important, because this Canton is the largest and most centrally situated of them all, and has the greatest variety of physical contours. It will therefore yield the largest variety of dialectic shades and supply the intermediate link of the whole series. By taking up this important dialect MR. ODIN has, accordingly, filled up a real gap, and, speaking in general, has done this in a very satisfactory manner. All the more so, as the task was no easy one ; for the author distinguishes not less than eleven groups, one of which he further divides into seven sub-dialects.
It is true, the author might have greatly simplified this task by studying most thorough- ly the dialect of one or two or even three single communes of different parts of the Can- ton, and by presenting a complete view of the facts. He would thus have given an idea of the whole dialect as well, — an idea which, though not complete, would at least have been a consistent one. In this way, I should say, one ought always to proceed in studying for the first time a dialect of great variety. The language of one or two places having been fixed in a manner that can be in every sense relied upon, subsequent investigation will easily supply the peculiarities of the rest.
MR. ODIN, however, having aimed at the higher object of giving a general survey of the dialect of the "pays de Vaud," we have only to accept his work as it stands. He seems, indeed, to have had sufficient information at his command for the purpose intended, and
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has thus made a valuable contribution to Romance language study. I have, however, some criticisms to offer, especially as to the form in which the facts are presented.
1. As regards the transcription of the sounds, it is much to be regretted that this author, like so many others, has adopted a system of his own, using, e. g., f_ for the French "e muet," n to indicate the nasalisa- tion of the preceding vowel, ( for the v.oiceless th and z for the voice'd, hy for the German ch, etc. Is there to be no end of creating new alphabets, or of using old ones in a new way ? That the inventor of new signs is not neces- sarily a sound phonetician, the case of MR. ODIN sufficiently shows. He makes no differ- ence between the voiceless English th and the Spanish c before e or i; identifies even the voiced English th with the voiceless Spanish z (page 19); and when he has to deal with a new sound, treats us to a description of it like the following : "/. est un son unique en son genre. II s'obtient par un tour de langue en sens lateYo-vertical " (pp. 19,100).
2. The facts regarding the accented vowels are presented in the old-fashioned tripartite division of short and long vowel, and vowel " in positioned This arrangement has the great inconvenience of separating facts which belong together, as the long e (numbers 38- 43) and short i (66-70), or long o (77-82) and short u (107-114); and the still greater dis- advantage of confounding in one category resultants which are the outcome of diverse causes. This accounts for the confusion that reigns in the chapters headed : e entrave (50- 59), * entrave (71-78), o entrave (88-100), u entra- ve (115-125), where no distinction is made between the short and the corresponding long vowel.
3. The chapter treating of the unaccented vowels is defective in this and in other respects. Under the " vowels in hiatus," the cases in which one of the two vowels has the accent ought to have been carefully distin- guished from those where two unaccented vowels stand together. And among the for- mer cases further discrimination was necessary between those in which the first vowel is ac- cented, and those in which the second has the accent. The rules are here enunciated with
perplexing uncertainty and even contradictions like the following are met with. On page 66 we read : "/.a voye lie persiste toujours lors- qtfelle est longue ; elle disparait lorsqu'elle est brtve; " but on the very next page we are told that " A long ou href se maintient le phis souvent ." MR. ODIN seems to be ignorant of DAKMESTETER'S important article on this sub- ject published some twelve years ago in the Romatfin,
To these remarks on mistakes of a more general character let us add a few others on special cases. The accented vowel of frd- trem, pdtrem, mdtrem, quddrum, (31) as well as that of cdpram (33) and dquam (34), of cred- ere and petram (51), stands in an open syl- lable ; these examples ought, therefore, not to be found under the head of "a entrave" and "e entrave," nor ought the preposition de (38) and the conjunction et (44) to stand among the examples of the accented vowels ; nor hoc (79) among those of long o. — The explanation of tshaire, tshdre (43), as being the Latin CAD- ERE with the accent on the termination (CADERE), and of kuaire, kudre (222 and 403) as representing COQUKRE, with the same shifting of the accent, is certainly wrong. The two Latin verbs accentuated on the termination of the infinitive would have left no trace of the final -re, for the. infinitive endings -dre, -ere, -ire have become -a, -ai, -i in this patois ; -re is characteristic only for the infinitive of the third conjugation, just as in French, the reason for this being the same in both languages. — The etymon of bussi ' heurter, frapper ' is not PULSARE, since the b- and the -i could hardly be accounted for. I trace it to the Allem. botzen, and therefore to the same root as French bouter, \\.a\.bottare. — Salyaite (65) can- not be a participial form SAL!TAM (salirc) mere- ly with shortened i ; the / of such a form could not have remained. As draite is Latin DIREC- TAM, so salyaite points .to a form SALECTAM, participle formed on the analogy of COLLKCTA, as in Old French, Provencal and some dialects of Raetia and Northern Italy. — In daivo "debeo," ressaivo "recipio" (213), no transpo- sition of the unaccented <? or i of "debeo" " recipio" into the accented syllable has taken place ; since the 2nd and 3rd person have the same ai, owing it to the accented vowels e and
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If in an opn: syllable, it must be accounted for in the s;uiif way in tin- first person, and *i- *RECfPO are to be regarded as tin- Latin forms for daivo, ressaivo. — MR. ODIN is at a loss bow to explain the tsh (=Latin C before A) in tshe, tshera CARTM, CARA, for tin- regular ts which occurs in another form of the feminine, in tsira. The tsh seems to represent the fusion of is with the following i; for tshe, tshera, as well as tsira, pre-suppose the older forms A/V, tsiera. As in Old French and Kaetian dialects, this ie has had at onetime the stress on the i, at another on the e. These different accentuations are represented by tsira and tshera. In tsira the strongly accent- ed i of tx'iera has entirely absorbed the e, while tshera represents tsiera, in which 'the unaccented / "in hiatus " becomes the conso- nant .y and tsy = tsh. Therefore we have in the examples exhibited in number 312 -tsi on the one hand, tshe on the other, as martsi or martsht MERCATUM, setsi or setshl SICCARE, etc. This explanation is confirmed by the fact that Latin c before unaccented A or before accented "a entravt " never turns into tsh, but becomes ts, as in setse SICCA, arise ARCA, fortse FURCA, etc., or tsan CAMPUM and CAN- TUM, tsd CARNEM and CARRUM, etc. (cf. number 312 and page 165). The same explanation holds good for the corresponding voiced sound, as the examples of 313 show ; -dzi or dje in tserdz'i or tserdj& CARRICARE, predzi or predjt PREDICARE, but only dz in mandze MANICA, deniendze DOMINICA, or in dzono GAL- BINUM, dzuye GAUDIA, dzuta GABATA. — The d in pedance (325) does not admit the etymon PICTANTIAM. I take it for the present parti- ciple of petere 'to ask for, to beg.' — There is of course no prosthesis of y \\\yd, ye HERi(4i3), the.)/ is the regular outgrowth of the unaccent- ed i in the former ier.
I close this review by pointing out some of the best chapters of the book. Such are : the accented vowel a in connection with a palatal consonant (pp. 21-25), point which MR. ASCOLI made the main criterium of the whole Franco- Provencal group of dialects ; the suffix -arimn (pp. 30-32); the long e and o in open syllable (pp. 34 and 47-48); the final unaccented vowels (pp. 77-80); the combinations of the consonant / (pp. 101-108); the general re-
marks on the shifting of the accent (pp. 145- 148). All of ihese show the author's ability in tr.icing the history of linguistic phenomena. Two of them deserve special remark. The one treats of a very curious fact of " Sat/pho- netik," as described on page 32, and the oth«-r is i he first attempt at explaining a well known but unaccounted-for irregularity in the past participle of those verbs of the first conjuga- tion which end in -/' or -e (as the case may be) in the Infinitive. The explanation, as given on pp. 23-24, is not quite satisfactory, yet I think the problem is at least halfway solved by MR. ODIN. I accept his manner of explain- ing the feminine of the participle, but not the masculine. The latter seems to have had its own development, although both genders use only one form. I cannot give here the arguments for my opinion, as in fact they need reconsid- eration and, being long, will find better place in a separate note. Hut this I may state, that MR. ODIN was at any rate much mistaken, in writing the note on page 24 : // serait par trap baroque . . . . de supposer que la palatale aurait emp£che' le passage de 1" a a 1* «?." This " par trop baroque " supposition represents a plain fact in certain French and Kaetian Dia- lects, which are in precisely the same case. •
J. STl'RZINGER.
Bryn Mawr College.
A
German Grammar for Schools and Colleges, based on the Public School German Grammar of A. L. MEISSNER, M. A., PH. D., D. LIT., Professor of Modern Languages in Queen's College, Belfast, Mitglied der Gesellschaft fiir das Studium der neueren Sprachen zu Berlin. By ED- WARD S. JOYNKS, M. A., Professor of Modern Languages in South Carolina University. Revised Edition, 1888. D. C. Heath & Co. 394 pp., 8vo.
Kaum ein Jahr nach dem ersten Erscheinen dieses Buches sehen wir es schon in verbesser- ter und vermehrter Gestalt vor uns — ein Beweis dafiir, dass die vorziigliche Methode und die praktische Anlage der neu bearbeite- ten Grammatik von unseren Schulmannern schnell erkannt und gewiirdigt worden sind. Ein Vergleich der zweiten Auflage mil der ersten ergiebt, dass der Bearbeiter sein VVerk
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mit grosser Sorgfalt durchgesehen, Manches ganz iiberarbeitet, Anderes zum Vorteil des Buches neu hinzugefugt hat. In letzterer Hin- sicht besonders bildet die zweite Auflage einen bedeutenden Fortschritt : die friiher feh- lenden, obwohl so begehrten Capitel iiber Sylbenabteilung, Bindestrich und Apostroph finden sich jetzt an geeigneter Stelle und in knapper, doch ausreichender Kiirze einge- schoben; der Anhang iiber die Declination gewisser Hauptworter und den idiomatischen Gebrauch der Prapositionen ist der Vollstan- digkeit wegen erwunscht und zum Nachsdhlag- en bequem ; endlich zeugen zahlreiche neue Anmerkungen, Zusatze und erlauternde Bei- spiele von dem Fleiss und der padagogischen Erfahrung des Bearbeiters. Die mnemoni- schen Formeln am Ende des Buches werden denen willkommen sein, die solcher Hiilfe bediirfen und Vertrauen dazu haben. In der Anordnung des Materials sind einige zweck- massige Anderungen gemacht worden ; so stehen die zwei Seiten deutscher Schrift (friiher pp. 17, 18) jetzt am Ende des Buches vor den zusammenhangenden Schriftproben. Die Pagi- nirung ist dieselbe wie in der ersten Auflage ; die Paragraphen haben sich manchmal infolge von Einfugungen etc. leicht verschob- en. Eine Anzahl vonVersehen, die wirschon in unserer Recension der ersten Auflage (Moo. LANG. NOTES III, pp. 25 and 84 ff.) verzeichnet hatten, ist merkwiirdigerweise der Aufmerk- samkeit PROF. JOYNES' entgangen ; wir ver- weisen auf unsere in obigem Artikel gemacht- en Bemerkungen iiber §§ 101, 105, 313, 357, 358, 396, 401, 414, 417, 428, 434, 450, 474 und ganz be- sonders §£ 329, 384, 452, 485,5. Auch was wir iiber die Ubungsstiicke (p. 302 ff.) und die alphabetische Liste der starken Verba gesagt haben, mochten wir, sofern es nicht schon Verwertung gefunden hat, nochmals betonen. Die Stellen wo wir sonst noch Versehen ge- funden haben oder Anderungen fur angebracht halten, fiihren wir im Folgenden der Reihe nach an :
§ 27. s im Anlaut und zwischen Vocalen ist nur in Norddeutschland tonend, in ganz Mittel- und Siiddeutschland aber tonlos. — §68. Kast- en mit rtindem .? ist unrichtig ; man teilt gewohnlich nach dem st ab. — § 86. Mancher und solcher waren hier anzufiihren, denn in
den Paragraphen, wo sie spater vorkommen (204, 245), wird ihre Declination nicht ausdriick- lich angegeben. — § 96. Die sechs Paradigmen sind doch unnotig und verwirren nur ; zwei geniigen vollstandig. — § 123. Wie schon friiher bemerkt, heisst der Augapf el (eye-apple) selbst- verstandlich 'the eye-ball,' nicht 'the pupil' (die Pupille}. — §371. Das indent in entgegen etc. hat nichts mit ein zu thun ; (ein-) ist also zu streichen. — § 376, 2. Ergehen ist ' to come out, be issued,' impers. ' to fare.' — § 408 ff. Da PROF. JOVNES die Anfiihrung der deutschen Worter vor bezw. nach den entsprechenden englischen Formen zu einer Principienfrage macht (Preface, p. vi), so lasst sich natiirlich nichts mehr dariiber sagen ; aber staunen muss man, wenn man GRIMM'S Lautverschiebungs- gesetz immer noch ebenso auf den Kopf gestellt findet, wie in der ersten Auflage, trotz der in den MOD. LANG. NOTES III, p. 84 von uns erhobenen Einwendungen, von deren Be- rechtigung PROF. JOYNES sich leicht hatte iiberzeugen konnen. Und das ist um so be- fremdlicher, als gleich darauf SKEAT'S mne- monische Formel angefuhrt wird, in welcher dasselbe Gesetz ebenso klar wie kurz darge- stellt ist (H. A. S.=Hard, Aspirate, Soft, etc.). — § 425. Fiige hinzu : das Tuch, die Tucker— 'cloths, kerchiefs,' die Tuche=' kinds of cloth.' — § 455> e- Zu seiner Zeit heisst ' in its (own, proper) time ' ; die Worte " and of doubtful ex- planation" sind also nicht zutreffend. — Zum Appendix : p. 368. lahm auf einem Fusse, nicht an. — p. 374. um ivieviel Uhr, oder um welche Zeit, nicht aber um welche Uhr. — 376. nickte mir zu, nicht zu mir ; zum Schneiden, nicht zum schneiden.
Zu dem Worterbuch, das letztes Jahr ge- trennt von der Grammatik und zu spat fiir un- sere erste Recension an uns gelangte, tragen wir hiermit noch einige Berichtigungen nach :
Ab, an, auf, aus, bei,. durch, hinter, nach, neben, iiber, um, unter, vor, zvider werden als Adverbia angefuhrt, kommen aber, ausser als Prapositionen, nur als adverbielle Verbalpra- fixe vor. Anstatt adv. ist also iiberall zu setzen pref. or adv. prej. Zu als Adv. heisst stets nur 'too,' als Praf. 'to, together.' — Artig— 'well-behaved, polite, 'nicht-— 'kind.' — Bauer= ' peasant ' hat stets « im Plural (die Bauer= 'the cages'). — Bis ist nie Adv. — Darauf dass
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unil daruin dass heissen nicht ' in order that.' — Denn, adv.=' then ' ; conj.=' for.' — Eigen- tum 1st iin IMur. nicht gebrauchlich ; die Eigen- ttimer='the: proprietors.' — Epheu, gen. -s. — Erloschen ist nur intr.; tr. to put 0«/='16sch- en, nusloschen.' — Himmel auch='sky.' — Karlchen, nicht Kdrlchen. — Komnien von, nicht aus, 'to result from.' — Ohne zu (infin.), ohnc dass, ' without ' (pres. part.). — Stmide (distance)=* hour's walk' (3-4 miles). — Treib- cn, intr. 'to drift.' — Acquainted, 'kundig.' — Adapted, 'geeignet.' — Bear's skin, 'das Baren- fell.' — Nach Worten wie bloom und blossom ('bliihen'), result (' herauskommen') u. dergl. sollte angegeben sein, ob die verba oder die Subst. gemeint sind. — Bluish, 'blaulich.' — Childish, 'kindisch.' — Command, (control), 'gebieten uber1 (ace.)- — Comparison, 'der Ver- gleich.'selten 'die-ung.'— Depend, 'abhangen.' —(Difficult), streiche adv. schwerlich (='hard- ly'). — {Distressing, adj.) streiche elend (•= 'wretched'). — Enough, 'genug' (generally fol- lows).— (Favor) 'die Gunst ' ist singulare tan- turn ; (zu) Cunsten ist Sing, und Analogiebil- dung. — Incredible, 'unglaublich.'— Interest, v., ' interessieren ' (angehcn=' concern') (p. 345). — Keep, intr., ' sich halten ' (sich erhalten—1 to be preserved '). — Many a, ' mancher, manch ein.' — (Not) streiche -thing, nichts. — Opportune, ' gelegen' (gelegentlich='occa.s\ona\ '). — Play, 'das Spiel.' — Rank, 'der Rang ' (pi. — e).
Uber Einen Punkt sind wir trotz eifrigen Forschens im Unklaren geblieben : 1st es Zu- fall oder Absicht, dass die deutschen Ubungs- stiicke XIV bis XXXII lateinisch gedruckt sind, wahrend wir sowohl vorher wie nachher durchweg dem deutschen Druck begegnen ? Auch fehlt unter den Ubungsstiicken No. XIII ganzlich.
Die aussere Erscheinung des Ruches ist sich gleich geblieben ; Druck und Papier sind wie bei der ersten Auflage vorziiglich. Nur sehr wenige Druckfehler sind beim Lesen der Cor- recturbogen durchgeschliipft : p. 238, statt Chrcnmann lies Ehrenmann ; p. 347, st. bic Kleidung\\es die — ; p. 349, st. solgen \.folgen ; st. (in fin'., das Essen) \. (das Essen, ;;///;/.); st. frighten, tr., weak, erschrecken, 1. fr. tr., erschrecken, weak; p. 352, st. schlcissen 1. schlicssen ; p. 356, st. order, «., der Beschl, 1. der Bcfehl ; p. 360, st. set across, itbersetzen
I. ttber-setzfn ; p. 364, st. twenty-second, der tinund'-.t'iiHzigste, I. der zweiundzwanzigsU ; p. 365, st. wake (up), auf-wachten, \. auf- wachen; p. 373, st. uber alle Massen 1. v. a. Maszcn.
Die im Obigen erwahnten wenigen Mangel werden hoffentlich in der zu erwartenden dritu-n Auflage fur immer beseitigt werden; inzwischen konnen die vielen vortrefflichen Eigenschaften des Buches nicht verfehlen, demselben in unseren Schulen eine immer wachsende Beliebtheit zu verschaffen.
Wittenberg College.
Hi GO SCHILLING.
Was diinkt euch tint Heine ? Ein Bekenntniss von Xanthippus. Leipzig, WILHELM GRU- NOW. 1888. 104 SS.
Nachdem die Frage des in Diisseldorf fur HKINRICH HEINE zu errichtenden Denkmals in den Tagesblattern viel Staub aufgewirbelt hat, und namentlich von den Glaubens- und Stammesgenossen des grossen Dichters mit vielem Eifer erortert worden ist, kommt der Verf. vorliegender Broschiire noch einmal auf dieselbe zuru'ck, um uber HEINE ein Todten- gericht zu halten, und der Denkmal-Errichtung ein entschiedenes Nein entgegenzustellen. Mit seinen schroff abweisenden Ansichten steht X. iibrigens bei uns nicht allein. Nach- dem schon die unmittelbaren Zeitgenossen und nahen Bekannten des Dichters mancherlei Ungiinstiges uber dessen Character und dichterische Productionsweise mitgetheilt hat- ten, ist jetzt wieder an Stelle der warmen Huldigung eines STRODTMANN, der unbeding- ten Hingebung eines A. MEISSNER und einer C. SELDEN, eine sehr ungiinstige Auffassung HEINES getreten. Schon sein neuster Bio- graph PROLSS ist nicht mehr geneigt dem Dich- ter des ' Buches der Lieder ' die Siinden des Journalisten und die Schwachen des Menschen straflos hingehen zu lassen. Als dann in jiingster Zeit ein Aufruffurdie Beisteuer zum HEiNK-Denkmal von P. HEYSE verfasst wurde, haben /wc-i namhafte Dichter, A. v. SCHACK and M. GREIF, sich gegen die Bezeichnung "der grosste lyrische Dichter nach GOETHE " scharf ausgesprochen, und ihre Unterschriften unter dem Aufrufe zuriickgezogen. Es konnte
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nicht fehlen, dass in die rein asthetische Frage sich auch die nationale einmischte und dass die Verfechter des wiedererstarkten National- gefiihles sich gegen eine Ausgleichung straubten, die man einem Dichter erweisen wollte, der sein Vaterland preisgegeben und den besten Teil seines Lebens in Paris zuge- bracht hatte. Auch die Schmahungen, welche H. damals iiber den " deutschen Michel " er- goss, die unverdiente Verherrlichung, welche er dem franzosischen Geiste im Sinne des derzeitigen Liberalismus widmete, konnen uns jetzt wenig fur ein Denkmal begeistern, das einem abgefallenen Deutschen in einer deutschen Stadt errichtet werden soil. Diese allgemeinen Vorausschickungen sind zu einer unbefangenen Wiirdigung der Broschiire nach Inhalt und Form notwendig, wir brauchen uns aber nicht auf den wiisten Kampfplatz des s. g. Antisemitismus zu begeben, auf dem X. sein kritisches Streitross mit Vorliebe turn- melt.
Mit grosser Scharfe bekampft X. im Anfange die Versuche mancher Literaten, uns HEINE als einen zweiten GOETHE hinzustellen, und neben der jetzt so eifrig gepflegten GOETHE- Philologie eine Art HEiNE-Philologie und HEiNE-Cultus anzubahnen. Zu dem Dichter iibergehend, tadelt er die selbstbewusste Stellung, welche HEINE gegeniiber echt pa- triotischen Dichtern, wie PLATEN und UHLAND, jasogar dem "Altmeister" GOETHE eingenom- men habe. Wir mu'ssen zur Entschuldigung HEINES hier allerdings beriicksichtigen, dass PLATEN von anderen Zeitgenossen nicht minder verkannt worden ist, dass Uhland in HEINES Beurteilung unter dem scharfen Gegensatze der jungdeutschen Schule der dreissiger Jahre zur deutschen Romantik zu leiden hatte, dass GOETHE zwar von H. mit dem einseitigen Massstabe des damals herrschenden Liberalis- mus gemessen, aber doch ebenso, wie UHLAND, in seiner unverganglichen Dichtergrosse er- kannt und gewiirdigt worden ist.
Das ' Buch der Lieder,' auf welches sich die iibertriebene Schatzung HEINES bei uns zumeist griindet, erkennt X. in mancher Hin- sicht als ein poetisches Denkmal von bleiben- dem Werthe an, aber er tadelt andrerseits die Ungleichmassigkeit und Nachlassigkeit mancher Teile, und hebt die Entlehnungen hervor, welche H. an zeitgendssischen Dich-
tern, wie W. MULLER, dem Sanger Neu- Griechenlands, EICHENDORFF und BRENTANO begangen hat. Das Nachspiiren s. g. Plagiate ist namlich eine mit Vorliebe gepflegte Eigen- tiimlichkeit unserer literarischen Kritiker, der auch die grossten unsrer Dichter nicht entgangen sind. Insbesondere aber geisselt X. HEINE als den Vorkampfer des jetzt in der deutschen Aesthetik und Poesie sich ungesttim vordrangenden Realismus und der marktschreierischen Effecthascherei, die uns zuweilen einen guten Teil unsrer Dichtung verleiden kann. Besonders eingehend und scharf kritisiert er dann HEINES "jiidischen Dialect," die Sprachverderberei seines poeti- schen Styles, die Nachlassigkeit seines Reim- baus, mit der auch W. KIRCHBACH, der Redacteur des Magazins far Lift, des In- und Auslandes sich in einem trefflichen Aufsatze beschaftigt hat. So schwer nun auch HEINE sich an der Sprache des deutschen Volkes versiindigt, so muss doch auch X. zugestehen, dass andere Dichter jener Zeit, darunter zu- weilen selbst ein GOETHE, nicht immer dem heute eifrig vorstrebenden " Purismus " ge- huldigt haben, und auch hierin liegt eine gewisse Entschuldigung fur den hart ange- griffenen Dichter.
Fiir die reichen Einzelheiten dieses 46 Sei- ten, also beinahe die Halfte der "Broschiire umfassenden Abschnittes miissen wir auf die Schrift selbst verweisen und bemerken nur, dass manche dort schwer getadelte Sprach- widrigkeit noch jetzt nach dem Grundsatze des "Usus est tyrannus" weder in deutscher Prosa noch in deutscher Poesie immer ver- mieden wird. In einem Schlussworte verwehrt sich X. gegen den Einvvand, als ob er H. aus seiner jiidischen Abstammung einen Vorwurf mache, vielmehr tadelt er den Sprossling einer rheinischen Handelsfamilie grade we- gen seiner Verleugnung und Schmahung der urspriinglichen Confession und Abstammung, und bekampft ihn. als den Propheten eines glaubens- und sittenlosen Semitismus. Wir glauben gern dem, was X. sagt, da sein mannhaftes Eintreten fiir deutsche Art und Sitte uns nur Zutrauen zu seiner Uberzeu- gungstreue erwecken kann, aber ohne den seit mehr als lojahren bei uns ausgefochtenen Kampf des Antisemitismus und Philosemitis- mus ware seine Polemik gegen HEINE kaum
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I .\.\'(. f .!<,
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n-< lit v-isl.indlich. —Man muss diesi- erhitl<-it mid leidcns< halllit li -i-fulut<- !•'« lid.-, an <!i-r ••ii-li liir uil< -r K1'^' " l'as deiitsi In- Jndentum UK- In. M< mul H. VON
TKMIX MM , heteiligt haben, aus del I'n/ahl der Xeilungsartikel und Broschiin-n kenneii, nm hierin X.'s Staiulpunkt mul Kami ol>jecti\ /u beurteileii. Bei uns hat namlich das ludentum, welches an X.alil fast die Hiilfte alU-r iiherhaupt dem jiidischen Glanhen /. horeiiden uiulasst, einen ganz namhaften F.iulluss in dem offentlu IK n l.eben, !•• in Handel, Politik und /eitungswesen sich erworhen, so dass ein natur.nrma-.ser Gegen- satx. des germanischen Wesens, nnd cine nicht immer gerechte Abwehr verstandlich ist. Schwcrlich aber \vird X. uns einreden, dass HKINK kt-in dtnfsc/icr Dirhter ^ewt-scn sei, denn auch in der franznsischen Sprache blieb sein I'"iililen und Deiiken ein deutsches, und si-linsii'-litsvoll scliaute er ofters nach clem verlassenen Vaterlande zuriick. Durum leis- tet ihm ein in Berlin vielgelesenes Fortscbritts- blatt einen sehr zweifelhaften Dienst, wenn es den Geist seiner literarischen Tiitigkeit als oinen " Voltaireschen," also als einen eobt franzosiscben bezeichnet. Mil VOLTAIRK ge- mein hat er nur die grossen Ideen <ler religio- sen Duldsamkeit und der politischen Freibeit, die langst Gemeingut der ICdelsten des deut- schen Volkes geworden siiul, und aucb die Neigung zu Spott und Sarkasmus, die oft nur der Ausdruck eines iiberlegenen Geistes und freien Denkens ist. Sonst darf man ibn dein " 1'liilosophen von P\-rney," der seinen tiefen Hass gegen die alttestamentlicbe Weltanschau- ung aucli xiuveilen auf das moderne Juden- tnm iibertragt, kauni vergleichen, und darf ebensowenig iibersehen, dass \'OLTAIRE in erster Linie ein kritiscli zersetzender, HKINK ein dichterisch empfmdender Geist isl.
DR. R. MAHRKMIOI.T/.. Drcsd<'>i.
ANGLO-SAXON POETR Y.
]\.\-odus and Ihiiiii'/. 1-Mited from Cirein. By TMKODURK \V. HTM, I'M. l> Third edition, Uoston, (iinn & Co., 1888. 146 pp., 8vo.
This contribution to HARRISON'S "Library of Anglo-Saxon Poetry" was lust published
llu- third lies upon n lib- U'ilhout dwelling u; <-i.iiiparisi»!i «.f these lhr«-«- t-dilions of , HUNT ! Daniel.' it is gratifying
at on- that in its , .rm it
es the recognition of labor well perform- ed The < banj." s that ha\i- \><->-\\ mtr< in th«- ;i of the volume,
though briefly : litor's- pref-
atory note, are important enough I. further \vord of special notice. Particular < are lias been In-stowed upon an improvement of the Glossary. This, with the kindly assistance, duly acknowledged, of two students of the Washington and Lee University, has been enlarged, " especially as to definition^ ences to text, and quotations of characteristic passages," while DR. CHARI.KS W. KuNThas contributed help in the matter of accentuation, and I'ROF. GARNETT has been enlisted in the scrutiny of the work in manuscript and in proof. By these means the Glossary has been brought to so high a degree of excellence that the editor must pardon the solicitation that would urge a few additional changes for the .sake of attainable completeness. The most important modification to be desired is one that is suggested by that sense of uniformity of plan and purpose that should be regarded in the preparation of the separate members of any definite series of volumes. In short, the Glossary of HARRISON and SHARP'S edition of the ' Beowulf represents the system accord- ing to which all the Glossaries of the series should be constructed. The references should provide for every occurrence in the text ; in each instance the grammatical function should be indicated, and following the general defini- tion there should be discrimination of the special uses in the text, and of particular values in collocation or in phrase. Such, at least, is the demand that one would naturally wish to urge after seeing the excellent pattern of HKVNK'S Glossary adopted in the initial volume of the scries, and after that a departure from that pattern made in a t ompanion volume, without any easily perceived reason, and, what is quite unpardonable, without a word that might define the supposed advantages of the change. But since PROK. Hrxr i
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this new edition, advanced so far towards satisfying the purposes of a special Glossary, we may be assured that the little that remains to be done for this portion of his work will be carefully supplied hereafter ; present criticism, therefore, — if criticism is to be fault-finding, — is obliged to take refuge in less essential details. Within the range of such details a question arises as to the propriety of speaking of " the three chief parts of each verb." A character- istic feature of the old conjugational system is thus obscured. The principal parts of an Anglo-Saxon strong verb are four in number, not three, and if PROF. HUNT would follow the scientific, as well as most practical method, in giving these four parts, he would lose nothing by cancelling his references to the classifi- cations of MARCH and of SWEET. A very few errors in quantity also remain to be corrected : we must write <zled; bringan, brdhte, gebrdht; cyme (adj.); hrtper, hr'eper-gleaw ; lyt, lytel, lite I \ swipian; twegan; pryp\ w&g (w&g), ' wall ' ; wiga, rand-wigend, -wiggend; wttig, witigddm (cf. text and the previous editions) ; werig should be werig, and is identical with the word which follows it; an-wldh has long since been branded a monstrum (Beitrdge VII, 455 f.), and is to be consigned to the limbo of "ghost-words," the true form being an-walh (on-wealh, etc.). Of misprints that have made their unlawful escape, but are of easy detection, there are such as breman (for breman} ; fyrstmeare (for fyrstmearc) ; gesine (for gesine ; the text retains gesine in memory of the erroneous interpretation of this word in the former editions); nihtscuwa (for nihtscu- wd) ; ofer-medla (for ofer-medld) ; sweot (for sweot] ; win-burg (for win-burg). A discrepan- cy will also be noticed between geng and ofer-, on-ghig. In taking leave of the Glossary with these few observations, it remains to be no- ticed, with approval, that the etymological helps, that formerly were distributed between it and the 'Notes,' have been altogether a- bandoned.
The absence of explanatory Notes is another change in the editor's plan. Although a con- formity to the Beowulf-volume, this can only be regretted. An appendix of "Variants" supplies indeed the most essential material for a critical study of the text, but much more
should be done for a class-room edition of an Anglo-Saxon poem. F.or obscure and difficult passages the editor's assistance should not be withheld. There are many difficulties in this text, where nothing is given to show what dis- position the editor would have us make of them. We are therefore cut off from a discussion, in this review, of such questions as a commentary on the text would be sure to call forth. PROF. HUNT will not, it is hoped, allow another edi- tion to pass through the press without these necessary Notes.
The Text is essentially unchanged. The hyphen has properly been removed from the seam of compounds, and other corrections of various character have been made, but the conditions of a critical text are still not fully satisfied. Many passages requiring emenda- tion are reproduced in their corrupt state, with little or no regard for suggestions that have grown out of the recent work of others. It is not clear to what theory of versification the editor's faith has been pledged, and it is believed that he would find it difficult to an- nounce a system to which many of the verses of the ' Exodus and Daniel ' as here given would not maintain a stubborn contradiction. Almost more than the permissible number of misprints remain to be corrected by means of the Glossary, and the obsolete and mistaken pointing of the instrumental case — an indul- gence also shared by the Glossary — evokes an expression of disappointment.
The editor has modified his Introduction in details which do not call for special remark. A thorough discussion of the age and author- ship of these poems is a difficult and some- what unpromising task, yet any degree of fail- ure may find redemption in the character of the attempt. There are also important questions relating to the structure of the poem which are not satisfied by a mere rubric, and some of which might be expected to make it appear desirable to add to the text the ' Az- arias ' fragment.
PROF. HUNT'S * Exodus and Daniel ' has now come to be a book that could not well be spared ; it is earnestly commended to all students of Anglo-Saxon poetry.
JAMES W. BRIGHT.
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EAST FRENCH DIALE( 'TS. Die Ostfranzbsischcn 6V<r«~</m/,-X-/V Xwischen Mot/, uiul Bellort \.,n Dr. ADOI.K HORN- ING, niit einer Kartr. Hcilhromi, Gebr. Henninger, iSSy. pp. 122, or 429-550 of Franzos. A'/W/, ;/, V. Hand. M.4. 40 IT. To the excellent collection of monographs edited by Professors G. Kiirting and Kos« li- \vit/ tinder the general title Franzosischc Stintien, has recently been added this im- portant work by Dr. Horning, Oberlehrer am Lyceum in Strassburg, well known for his phonetic studies in various branches of the Romance languages. It constitutes Heft 4 (Schluss) of the fifth volume of the series and is another one of those critical contributions on dialectology that have made these Studien of peculiar interest to the investigator in this special province of Romance speech. Vol. III., Heft 2, brought us a suggestive study of ' Die sudwestlichen Dialekte der Langue d'OIl (Poitou, Aunis, Saintonge and Angoumois)' by Ewald GiJrlich ; the closing number of vol. IV. was devoted to an interesting and elabo- rate treatise: ' Geschichtliche Entwicklung der Mundart von Montpellier (Languedoc)' by Wilhelm Mushacke ; vol. Vr., Heft 3, pub- lished in 1886, is a continuation by Dr. Gor- lich of his dialect researches in the North- west French [as a supplement to those in the South-west French, published in 1882] under the title : ' Die nordwestlichen Dialekte der Langue d'O'il (Bretagne, Anjou, Maine, Tou- raine); ' and finally, as the last number of the suite, comes the study, as noted above, con- tributed to the series by Dr. Horning.
This is not the first appearance of the writer in this particular dialect field ; a part of the material incorporated in his 'Grenzdialekte ' was published in 1885 under the title: 'Zur Kunde der romanischen Dialekte der Vogesen und Lothringens,'1 where he selected for treatment a number of examples from a word- supply collected in about fifty villages of the Vosges and Lorraine territory. Most of the explanations given and opinions expressed here with reference to the phonetic character of the vocables examined, are still held in the more recent paper before us. For this, the
i Cf. Zeitschrift fflr roinnnische J'hilolofie, Vol. IX, pp. 497-512.
author makes use of material gathered, be- ••n tin- years 1883-1886, from seventy-six points situated along the border district of speech extending from .Metz to Helfort. No .m.-ni|,t i, made to establish a line of demarca- tion betw.-en the Frem h and (icrnian. though in certain cases when tin- writer is working on thr extrciiK- limits of (iallir spi-e< h (on the line, so to speak, if there be one), it would have been desirable to note the mixing process from this point of view. It is possible that no Hear separation of the speech varieties exists here such as was sometimes found b\ Tourtoulon and Hringuier," and especially striking is the fact noted on page five that the Vosges mountains do not form a separating barrier between the dialects of the east and those of the west,— that the dialect varieties of Alsace-Lorraine are but the continuation in an easterly direction of the characteristics of groups A, B, C, D, etc., that exist on French soil.
As to the territory covered by Dr. H.'s study, it may be represented by a triangle of which a straight line drawn from Metz to Belfort would be the hypothenuse, while lines from Belfort to Mt. Donon and from Mt. Donon to Metz would represent the respective sides of the triangle, thus:
MT. DONON
The investigation, now, lies on these two sides of the triangle: from Belfort to Mt. Do- non, directly along the principal mass of the Vosges mountains, covering a distance, rough- s' i-stimau-d, s«y of about sixty English miles ; ind from Mt. Donon to Metz, about fifty miles, or perhaps even a little more, on account of he zigzag course followed.
a Cf. ' filmic stir la limite gtfographique de la langue d'oc et lc l.i I.IIIRUC d'oll,' p. 6. Paris, Imprimerie Natiooale, 1876.
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The chief political divisions of France, as formerly contained in this linguistic region, would be, beginning on the north and going south : the De"partement de la Meurte, De"pt. des Vosges, and a strip along the west side of the De"pts. du Haut- and Bas-Rhin. Consider- ing the geographical extent of this region, the first thing perhaps that strikes one with refer- ence to a dialect study such as the author has undertaken, is the size of the territory covered by it. For the most part the country is mountainous, and hence the speech variations between any two given sections, or even be- tween any two villages, are likely to be more marked than those differentiating the hamlets which are situated in the plain. A difficulty thus arises at the very threshold of the in- vestigation which it is impossible to set aside and which is greatly increased in proportion as the circle is widened about any given centre. There is constant chance of jumping certain connecting phenomena which overlap one another, in the process of moving through the successively enlarging peripheries of phonetic development or of morphological growth. This lack of gradual, progressive melting of one set of dialect characteristics into another is naturally felt in the treatise before us, though the author has done his best to reduce it to a minimum by giving us only the result of his own personal observa- tion, or, when this was not possible, that of persons for whose linguistic consciousness as to any special phenomenon he can vouch : " meine Nachrichten verdanke ich immer Per- sonen, die aus den betreffenden Ortschaften gebiirtig sind." ,
The special territory bordering on these two lines is divided into seven groups (A, B, C, D, E, F, G), according to the principle of diph- thongisation or non-diphthongisation of tonic e, £ and o libres, after labial ; the individual points in each group are noted by a' a*, b1 b=, etc. In the recognition of this dominant principle, and the classification of these dialects according to it, does one of the chief merits of the work consist; it was not recognised by other workers on the same ground such as Oberlin.a Lahm.4 and Adam.s
jEssai sur le patois lorrain des environs du coime" du Ban de la Roche. Strasbourg, 1775.
4Le Patois de la Baroche (Val. d'Orbey) in Romanischi Studien, Vol. II, pp. 61-98.
jLes Patois lorrains, Paris, i8&i.
If we classify the dialect groups according to this newly-discovered principle, we have the following results :
Diphthongisation throughout A, C, F Monophthongisation throughout E
( B (e, o) ; e diphthongised. Monophthongisation predomi- j nani ] G (e, o) ; e=wa.
Diph thongisation-)- Monophthongi- sation for whole groups of vowels D
Taking up the work in detail, the following points may be noted :— §14. What objection could there be here to supposing a mutation of suffix to explain the monosyllabism of masculine forms in -*'? The Metz characteris- tic -t-forms for Latin tonic £+y (cf. §35) might have been extended so as to cover the -Mum termination and give us prejmi alongside of pri (PRETIUM). Compare §53, where the form s'lo is admitted as possibly coming from sol- uculus.
Whatever opinion may be held with refer- ence to the origin and relative age of this suffix -ejriusf> the fact always remains that its ex- istence is necessary to account for many Romance (French) forms, and nowhere is this necessity more evident than in the dialects. Whether, furthermore, the products mentioned above belong to the original Metz dialect or whether they have come in through French influence affects the question only indirectly. It seems to me that we have so much the more reason for adopting this explanation, in that, for other parts of this dialect territory, there has evidently been a struggle toward uniformity in the resultant development of o+y and tonic a+y for the masculine: pre- moe b4-b7, etc. (cf. Anhang I, §127,2) along- side of the A-form just noted, premij—^. The writer here extends the important East French law that a tonic a in hiatus does not fall, to the north Jura district : rp (RADICEM), tao (*TABONEM), and cites in the following section the variation from French rule, that a after initial c does not give £ : tlavu. (CAPILL- UM), seva and tleva (Fr. chevet). As the presen-
eGRi'BBR, in WOLLFLIN'S Archivf.,r latein. Lexicographie I, 226, maintains that stems in -er (minister) gave this pro- duct just as -ar gives -arius ; THURNBYSEN, on the other hand, ibidem IV, 155 suggests that -(i)arius> -trius ; Mu- SHACKE, op. cit., p. 28, also maintains a similar umlaut pro. cedure with ref. to a while, in opposition to this view, WAI.DNER, ' Die Quellen des parasitischen i im Altfranzo- sischen/ p. 28 shows that -ir is the natural development of e riuiii, regarded as an original suffix.
jC+e following French rule > », through iei > it. cf. ?54-
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taiioii of a fact, these examples are interesting, but of course it was not intended to imply that this phonetic trait is especially characteristic of the set of dialects here examined. The phenomenon exists throughout north and east France, though more common, naturally, in certain districts than in others : cf. Wallonian (Montois) knnin, kevau in certain euphonic conditions, (Lie'geois) chgvlou ; Picard cavieti, civcron ; Norman qn?tiet (Guernsey) canivet. — §31. It is natural that we should have a mixing of monophthongisation and diph- thongisation in I) as it is wedged in between the diphthong territory, C, on the north, and the monophthong territory, E, on the south. Since the open and close vowels stand in the proportion of two to one in this vowel scheme, a careful statistical count of the leading results of the two sets would have to be made before we could predicate anything definite as to the influence of the closed syllable on diphthongi- sation. For £, g, such influence would seem probable, in accordance with the author's state- ment ; but for £, e, the relation is much more difficult to establish (cf. §§47 and 78). The coloring of the diphthong would, of course, hold as to C, as noted in §47.— §66. It is of interest to note : after finding that tonic e en- trave' (§58) has given us the same products a, o, pretonic e, on the contrary, does not yield these results, but | for the most part. — §90. In the development of a, o out of e entrave", the evidence drawn from the Lorraine dialect reverses the generally accepted view that a is the original and o the secondary sound. TEC- TUM >ei>oi and, by reduction of this oi,>g>a, so that the final results are to, (a. Now, WFNDELIN FORSTER, ' Lyoner Yzopet,' p. xxxii, maintains the old theory, and HORN- ING, backed by these newly studied phenom- ena, appropriately asks in opposition to it : K it, if this hypothesis be true, that e entrave" does not regularly become a, since in the scale of sounds (i, e, g, a) the £ stands closer to the a than the e does ? NEGARE gives us to-day noyi where protected f>o, but it gives us nayi where e passes to a ; of these two forms, the writer has no hesitation in pronouncing the first (o) to be the older. And with reference to the ei>oi, the labial is shown to be here the prime potential element: lab.-j-^+voc. gives a
result (foin,-) quite different from that coming from non-lah.-ff -f voc. (filcine). This differ- ence finds a striking illustration in the French forms /oin, tnuins, avoine as contrasted with 1-,-hn-, haleinf, pleine. But what is to be said about roine, ployer and pcser* — §98. It is worth while to note here, with reference to the development of tonic o libre, the same intimate relation to u which is found in the Norman dialect: CALORKM>la/«. Cf. Norman dolur.— §104. A comparison of tonic Q entrav6 with tonic q entrave" gives as result, respectively : o (exceptionally Q), Q(cqt COSTAM,/£ DIURNUM); to these the parallel French products mark a striking contrast: mgrdre, jqr (jour). The development of tonic Latin au (§124), gives too, the same result as this tonic Q entrave" : cyor' CLAUDERE, which again may be con- trasted with the French chose, (CAUSAM), rose (*RAt'SAM).8— gu8. An important law of pho- netics for the Wallonian and Lorraine dialects is here exemplified in the development of Latin atonic u in hiatus-position ; namely, the preservation of the original consonantal u- sound : sw£ SUDARE. While in French proper both tonic and atonic Latin u have become a front (it) vowel, the dialect makes a clear dis- tinction between them in holding the tonic » to front position («), while the atonic still sticks to the back position (//). — §127. It is to be regretted, I think, that some definite sign should not have been used for the intermedi- ate sound between e and £, which the writer here gives "bald mil e, bald mit £." The same remark applies to similar examples cited in Zcitschriftf. r. Phil. IX, 480. In the mixing of forms, too, such as in £49, where examples are presented in which tonic e after non-labial "wird von B-F bald zti a bald zu p," it would be desirable to have not only the prevailing type carefully noted for each given domain, but also the rarer element presented in as numerous cases as possible, so as to enable us to judge of the probable cause of such vaccil- lation.— §130. It is only in F, G, that the writer finds c-\-a (o, «)> original ts, and where this older form is kept the voiced velar (g) gives the corresponding sonant equivalent dz (dzo CALLUS); parts of I), E also have it. On-
8NBUHAUS (CARL) 'Adgars Marienlegenden.' Anmerlc- ungen von W. FI'-HSTBR-, p. 343.
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ly on the north end of the line (A-C) is the voiceless dental fricative s found. — §139. In the combination voc.+c+<? (*'), the palatal c passes to (h (voiced form corresponding to x) or /throughout the whole territory : PLACERE> Py£hi. — §166, II. It might have been appro- priately added here, that this metathesis tor- to (O. Fr. trestuit) takes place also throughout the north French dialects (Wallonian, Picard, Norman).
Perhaps the most important part of this monograph is that marked Anhang III (pp. 81- 84) and entitled " Ueber das Verhaltniss der Laute x (*A) zu $(/)". Here the author at- tempts to overthrow the old doctrine with reference to the relative ages of X and X- The establishment of the historic relation of these two sounds has frequently claimed the atten- tion of scholars, among whom may be men- tioned GASTON PARIS (Romania X, 607), APFELSTEDT (' Lothr. Psalter,' XLIII) and HORNING himself (' Zur Geschichte des lat. C' p. 49) and they have all held that s is the old- er of the two products. As result of the pres- ent investigation, however, DR. HORNING abandons his old position and brings pretty conclusive evidence to show that the preva- lent view on this point of phonetics is erro- neous : The sources of x C^) are i. s+y, ss-\-y, sc U)+0 (e> J) i 2- -H*^ (A c) before o; u ; 3. medial rs, final r\ 4. /-f-cons. ; 5. sporadic cases. The Wallonian is called in to help simplify the problem ; here the j-domain corresponds to the j-domain of the Lorraine ; to the former dialect, sources 2, 3 are unknown while 4 and 5 occur only in sporadic cases, therefore the x & here must have developed out of s-\-y, ss-{-y, sc, %• For the relative ages of the two products the following phenomena must be noted : In a1 every time 1 (f) corres- ponds to x •('%) we have such forms as »«/£ (MANGER), sarsg (CHARACTER) ; outside of this condition, pasye (p£cher), repajye, where there can be no doubt that they has been preserved after S (=x) and j (='h\ whereas it has dis- appeared after the common French palatal s and/. This difference of treatment of the y can- not be explained if we accept J (j)=x ('^) as the original product ; but taking x ('^) as the primitive sound, it follows clearly that y was lost only after palatals, and this, too, at a time
when x had not yet become s. We are thus able to establish more definitely the relative chronological bearings of the two phonetic elements: x could pass to s only after the.y, following the palatal guttural, had fallen. Additional proof that £ was not the original 'product is to be found in the development of the Latin word SCALA which gives us, except in territory a', XQl instead of sy&l, the regular result from an original s. This j-sound, our author thinks, dates back at least to the twelfth century.
From what has been said, something of the importance of this dialect-study will be rec- ognised : in the treatment of the phonetic part, it is a model ; for the morphology and syntax, "nur luckenhafte materialien" are presented, but these are well arranged and the most is made of them. A glossary of twenty pages, giving the more striking dialect forms, closes the interesting monograph.
A. M. E.
SAWYER'S 'COMPLETE G ER MAN MANUAL' .AGAIN.
A text-book review, even if it be the fruit of faithful labor, is almost sure to leave some- thing for the author to say, in order that his theories, or the considerations supporting them, may not be misrepresented. A work of any originality would naturally involve many points to which the author had given far more thought than any one else. His con- clusions may be erroneous, but, if his work is found worthy of notice, his premises deserve consideration.
Stoutly as I must protest against some of my reviewer's statements (of. MODERN LANG. NOTES for June), I wish to say at the outset that I lay no carping to his charge, but regard the spirit of his review as fair and judicial. Two principles would probably accotmt for all the points at issue between us :
1. The undisputed maxims of pedagogy should be rigidly applied in all language text- books.
2. The usual aims of students of German in this country, and the average qualifications of our teachers of this language, are consider- ations which are entitled to modifv what would
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otli<-t u 1st- be tin- Ix-st .-Hid most si ientitir state- niiMit and illustration of its grammatical
principles.
With the author tin -><• have been control- ling laws, which have- dictated both tin- fa< t and the form of the present work. No surh authority seems to hamper and complicate the judgments of my reviewer.
Now in detail : I have taken great pains to observe the teacher's maxim, "Only one difficulty at a time;" and, even with short sentences, I have found it by no means easy to illustrate any principle in the earlier part of the work without involving difficulties not previously explained. But if the aim has been attained, does it not justify every necessary outlay ? Is it not true solely of advanced work beyond the domain of the Grammar as a text- book, that " A connected description or story can be made to illustrate a rule quite as ef- ficiently as a series of disconnected sentences?" My reviewer here loses sight also of the peda- gogical importance of repetition. Efficiency of illustration depends upon its freedom from entanglement with other difficulties prevent- ing the desired concentration of the attention, and upon its repetition before it is forgotten, so that the impression once made may be deepened and made permanent.
The advantages of continuous text over de- tached sentences are so highly appreciated by the author of the ' Manual,' that he has aimed to prepare the shortest possible road to prof- itable continuous reading of the classic texts. To adopt the suggestions of the reviewer would make the way longer. — The substitute suggested for the rule for variatives cannot be accepted. The rule as it stands is clear, simple, correct, and adequate for all text-book requirements. It is in the province of the teacher to add further instruction about the composition of this class of words at his dis- cretion ; but to say much at this early stage about M. H. G. and O. H. G. would seem to me like lecturing about CHAUCER and CAED- MON to a class in the English primer. Neither is this the stage for GRIMM'S Law of ' Lautver- schiebung ' or the ' Ablaut ' or any full de- scription of the ' Umlaut,' for the double reason that the student will appreciate these themes far better later in the course, and that to
thrust th<-rn before him i\ ! delay his
.van! better things, and in some
.vould pre\«-nt his ever arming at the
point u -iiild profit \>\ surh instruction.
Is it not possible that too scholastic a method
in the earlier language work would account
for its failure in some cases to yield any
permanent result— any real scholarship?
My rule for the gender of monosyllabic derived nouns is pronounced "not correct." Except for this verdict of my reviewer, I should not yet know that the rule did not state a literal truth. Great value the rule cannot have in any case; but its formal correctness must be beyond question, and, for this pur- pose, I have now sent to my publishers an un- objectionable rule for insertion in the new edition of the ' Manual ' just going to press. I have also named the exceptions called for under £155, though I still think it wise not to give many exceptions in that connection.
What is there in the topic of " Nouns with Two Plurals" to justify taxing the student with extended lists of words and definitions? Beyond what is really necessary, the diction- ary must not be put into the grammar. It may call attention to peculiar classes of words, so that they may occasion no demoralization when met with, but words should be learned in connection with reading and speaking.
Under §178, we are requested to add Gefalle and Schade; but we must be excused, for neither, word fully conforms to the class. Ward=wurde not only "should be," but is "mentioned in a note," where the student first has use for it, p. 177, besides being duly given in the List of Irregular Verbs.
On the use of the modes, the prepositions and the order of words, too much can be said as easily as what is ill-adapted. That I have avoided both these dangers is much to hope, and that all critics should approve of the same book, even for the same use, is not in human nature.
About the declensions of nouns, there is not much to say till I find time to institute a full and minute comparison of the two classifi- cations which my reviewer pleases to call on the one hand "scientific," and on the other "arbitrary." In this comparison, I shall recog- nize no claims of the possible future student
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of the history of the language to have " finger- boards " set up for him, at any expense to the larger number of students who aim at little more than a practical mastery of the language as it is now. Nor shall I recognize any merit in what is called scientific or scholastic in this noun classification except when it assists the chief purpose in hand, viz., the grouping of the nouns that are declined altogether, or in part, alike, so as most to facilitate the practi- cal command of all their forms. It is idle to claim a profound scientific character for any such classification, which at best is but a mechanical grouping.
The best system can be but one, and its merits are capable of so mathematical a state- ment that it seems not impossible to demon- strate its superiority. Moreover it is very significant that the vocabulary of the ' Manual,' which is quite adequate to its own needs, should require the "adding of essential forms" to adapt it to the student of the 'scientific' classification. Let it not be overlooked that the knowledge of the gender of each noun which my system enforces as a means of classi- fication is no artificial burden, but is essential to the mastery of the language for its uses in speech and writing. The noun system of the 'Manual,' however, is mine only by adoption. I found it in Germany in a school which at- tained the most satisfactory results I have ever seen in teaching German to English young men.
Our linguists take just pride in the " Ameri- can Philological " and "Modern Language" Associations, but is it not possible that the worthy attempt to get papers of profound philological research for conventions and volumes of "Transactions " really diverts the attention of our stronger language teachers from a question far less ambitious but of most vital public interest, viz. — How may these languages under existing conditions be most effectively taught in our schools ?
W. C. SAWYER. San Jose, Cal.
CORRESPONDENCE.
MODERN LANGUAGE PROFESSOR- SHIPS IN GERMANY. To THE EDITORS OF MOD. LANG. NOTES:
SIRS : In the June issue (col. 304) of the present volume of your esteemed journal I have
read the following passages, written by PROF. WHITE:
" From this standpoint the position of mod- ern languages in German universities would perhaps not be entirely satisfactory as the norm for corresponding American institutions, although a tendency appears manifest yonder which promises a well-rounded curriculum..... — "The ordinary professorships have been al- most invariably held by those whose chief interest lies in this earlier field, while the later period has been in the hands of instructors of a lower rank."
Being myself of opinion that the sentence pronounced some time ago by a celebrated conservative member of the German Reichstag in a debate concerning the universities : " Sint ut sunt aut non sint," is totally wrong, I am unable to enter a general protest against a slight stricture like this. Nevertheless, I cannot but draw the attention of the well-informed author to the university of Munich, the only German university in which teachers of mod- ern languages and literature are trained. When, about twelve years ago, a professorship of modern languages and literature in that university was conferred upon DR. BREYMANN, the latter was especially charged with turning out useful teachers. PROF. BREYMANN'S de- partment of the " Neuphilologische Seminar " supplies the Bavarian "Gymnasien" etc. with teachers who are well prepared for their duties. They have come into possession of a method (for teaching pronunciation, grammar and literature) the successfulness of which has been unfailingly recognized.
The lectures on modern and mediaeval litera- ture given by the celebrated M. BERNAYS, and by K. HOFMANN, the eminent disciple of DIEZ and SCHMELLER, have purely theoreti- cal tendencies.
RICHARD OTTO. Rome, Italy.
SPANISH Atestar.
The excellent rendering of atestados (D. Q. I, 3) as " full to overflowing," which DR. TODD offers in the last number of this review instead of the traditional "authentic," "unimpeach- able," is supported by the following translation which the learned LUDWIG BRAUNFELS* gives of the passage in question : " vondenen so viele Bu'cher angefullt und vollgepfropft sind." It
iDer sinnreiche Junker Don Quijote von der Mancha von MIGUEL DE CERVANTES SAAVEDKA, libersetzt, einge- leitet und mil Erlauterungen versehen von LUDWIG BRAUN- FELS. Stuttgart, Verlag von W. Spemann. 1884. 4 bde.
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may not I >r <>ut of place here to call tlie atten- tion of students i.f Ci- KVANTKS' immortal work to HRAI M KI.S' translation, which for accuracy and faithfulness to the spirit of the original is fully equal to that of ORMSBY.
HENRY R. LANG.
New Bedford, Mass.
DERID&S,
In MILTON'S line,
"Sport that wrinkled Care derides,'1 is it not possible that the poet had in mind the French derider, rather than the Latin derideo ? Littre' defines derider, " effacer les rides; 6ter au front toute apparence soucieuse."
The line would then mean, " Recreation, that smooths the wrinkles from the brow of care."
W. H. B. Johns Hopkins University.
SHOULD A POET BE A PHILOLO- GIST?
In a very well edited volume of ' Select Poems of Robert Browning ' issued in the " English Classic " series under the care of MR. ROLFE and Miss HERSEY, occurs on page 195 the following note : " Line 96, cowls andtwats. Twats is in no dictionary. We now have it from the poet (through DR. FURNIVALL) that he got the word from the Royalist rhymes entitled "Vanity of Vanities," on SIR HARRY VANE'S picture. VANE is charged with being a Jesuit.
" Tis said they will give him a cardinal's hat : They sooner will give him an old nun's twat."
"The word struck me," says BROWNING, "as a distinctive part of a nun's attire that might fitly pair off with the cowl appropriated to a monk."
And yet this word is in many a dictionary (notably BAILEY, vol II, ed. 1737 ; WRIGHT, ed. 1857 ; HALLUVKLL, ed. 1881), audits relation to the M. H. G. Zwatzler can be easily set forth.
MONK.
<AS SHE is SPOKE:
No one need deplore the lack of material, who should set himself to make a pathological museum of linguistic malformations. Alienists, they say, come to regard every one as insane.
There is no pleasure or profit in making a col- ion of broken bottles, in fact any one can break as many bottles as he cares to pay for. It is when a man imagines that his particular broken ware is whole, that his case is worth studying; and then there's that "plaguy hundredth chance " that it may turn out to be whole after all. Let us be thankful to the neologists, even if they do not mark all their discoveries with stars.
Somemrr
in the New \ 14,
1887 : " Some of the vessels . . . resisted suc- cessfully one vessel to be taken by another." —Probably few of MR. GEO. E. MCNEILL'S hearers (of the Labor Party) failed to under, stand him when he said, as quoted in the Boston Transcript, July 8, 1887 : " Once we were with- out the benefit of clergy, but now we have the sympathy and help both of Protestant Ministers and Catholic Priests."— Perhaps some diction- ary may contain the definition of the last word of the sentence which was uttered by a maker of nautical instruments: "Though he was in the merchant service, yet he was a fine luna. rian." — Some colored people in New Bedford talk about the " Lion gale," as the equinox draws near. Our janitor explains : "They are that ignorant, you know, they think it's called so because it is so boisterous." — Portitre does not fit some Yankee lips as well as " Portera." — A business man of my acquaintance insisted that it was " insomania " that afflicted MR. JAY GOULD ; for he read it in a newspaper.
ANDREW INGRAHAM.
New Bedford, Mass.
BRIEF MENTION.
The summer months have ushered into ex- istence a new periodical, to which we now, at our earliest opportunity, extend a hearty wel- come. With some fitness of phrase it may be said that the American Notes and Queries was for a short time, at the beginning of its career, an emblem of the months that witness- ed its inception and early life. Born in the not too serious though promising month of May, it soon fulfilled one and another pledge of pleasant fruits, and then on sturdy stalk yielded the golden corn of solid worth. This weekly visitor with its treasures new and old
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should not willingly be turned from any door. It gathers from wide and varied domains — from Language, Literature, History, Manners and Customs, and what not ! — and there are wise heads behind quick eyes to reject the worth- less and to honor the good of what is taken with so large a net.
A more formal and stately, yet no less cordial greeting, as becomes the few and far- between visits of an octavo quarterly, is gladly accorded to the new Journal of American Folk-lore, published for the American Folk- lore Society by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York and Boston. The Society is to be con" gratulated upon the substantial and diversified contents and attractive appearance of the two numbers which have already appeared. It is understood that the American Society's mem- bership has already outstripped that of its much elder English sister.
MR. A. J. GEORGE, Acting Professor of English Literature in Boston University, has published an edition, annotated for school- room use, of WORDSWORTH'S 'Prelude or Growth of a Poet's Mind ; An Autobiographi- cal Poem' (D. C. Heath & Co., Boston). Every reader of the "Excursion" is not, necessarily, equally familiar with "The Pre- lude," and many general readers may be unaware of the organic relation of the one to the other. "The Prelude" has had a curious history ; though completed as early as the year 1805, its first publication was subsequent to the poet's death, and it has remained for MR. GEORGE to prepare the first separate edition that has ever seen the light. In the performance of this important service MR. GEORGE has proceeded in an intelligent and a broadly sympathetic manner. The Preface gives a well constructed outline of the poetic genius of WORDSWORTH, and breathes the spirit of an earnest conviction that the study of his work is especially adapted to supply im- portant benefits to modern society. There are prevalent moods and tendencies of thought in this utilitarian age, that there find their true valuation for all time. The relation of poetry to science, for example, has the freshness to- day of a new problem, and yet neither poet nor scientist has better grasped its inherent truth, nor given it more effective expression.
WORDSWORTH indeed belongs to the great teachers of humanity that "Help life onward in its noblest aim." The editor's chiefbusi- ness has been to supply a body of " Notes " for the elucidation and explanation of the text. This he has well done, attaining to unusual excellence in the important feature of a minute and accurate study of the local history and geography of the poem. MR. GEORGE'S volume is an important contribution to Wordsworthian studies.
'The Phonological Investigation of Old Eng- lish, Illustrated by a series of Fifty Problems ' (Ginn & Co., Boston), is a novel pamphlet of 26 pages by PROF. A. S. COOK. The object in view is to show what factors are involved in a systematic account of Old English words and speech-sounds. It is argued that the method of investigation is necessarily comparative, in- volving "a consideration of related words and speech-sounds in the kindred Germanic ton- gues." Tables of vowel and consonant corre- spondences are given to aid in a summary view of such comparison, and a list of import- ant works, to which more or less constant reference must be had, accompanies a few brief definitions of the details of the method. The author then fancies himself in a class- room ; he is teaching beginners in the more advanced forms of English philology ; the text-book is SWEET'S 'Anglo-Saxon Reader.' ', The book is opened at page 36, and the entry of the Chronicle under the year 894 is subjected to special scrutiny. Fifty of the nouns and verbs found in this paragraph are, at apparent random, taken up and made the subjects of fifty separate and consecutively numbered ex- positions. The construction of these "prob- lems " is highly synoptical, so that a specimen may easily be given. One of the selected words is hdm (home). The rubric reads : "OHG. heim; OS. hem; ON.Aeimr; Goth. haims," and then follows the discussion : "A and m are constant. Goth. ^ here represents z (Braune1 74. c). OHG. «=Germ. at (Brau- nea 15. b), as does ON. ei (Noreen 156). This Germ. az=OE. a (Gr. 62). Hence Germ. haimoz (usually o-stem)." This pamphlet will be welcome to many doubtful minds for show- ing to what uses the appalling first half of SIEVERS' Grammar may be put, as well as for
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• •cilic ln-lp it will afford to such as are strug^liiiK under less favorable conditions with initial modes of stiuly in the broad domain of English philology.
Teachers whose approval has been won by Miss DORIOT'S engaging hook for Beginners in French let. MUDKKN LANGUAC.I. NOTO, Vol. I, p. 126) will be pleased to learn that Miss DORIOT has now in press a companion volume- for Heginners in German (Ginn & Co.). This new volume is constructed upon the same novel plan that has won for the first so unique a place in the list of text-books, but it will also be found to be better than the first. Both author and artist have been wise enough to profit by experience, and their second task has accordingly been performed with the touch of assurance that is the reward of patiently wrought-out maturity. The artist's German descent is a factor that has not had an un- favorable effect upon this new volume. It will be found that the playful illustrations which give glimpses of German life and customs are delightfully true and effective ; in their quaint attractiveness there are new pleasures in store for those who have hitherto only known the consolation (often prematurely) of Ich Hebe, Du liebst, Er liebt.
M. CLEDAT, avec le concours de M. M. LUMIERE, de Lyon, entreprend la publication d'une ' Collection de reproductions photolitho- graphiques integrates de Manuscrits latins, francais et provencaux.' Chaque volume sera pr^ce'de' d'une introduction qui sera confine an savant le plus competent. Les personnes qui de'sireraient recevoir re'gulierement les pro- spectus de cette publication, afin de pouvoir souscrire en temps utile aux volumes qui leur conviendraient, sont prices de se faire connai- tre a M. CLKDAT, professeur a la faculte" des Lettres de Lyon.
A few months ago one of curable and most active professors of English literature, MEL- VILLE B. ANDERSON (University of Iowa) gave us an admirable translation into English of VICTOR HUGO'S model work of philosophic criticism, aesthetic appreciation and clean-cut exposition of literary canons, as laid down in his 'Shakspere.' This is a valuable addition in the domain of belles-lettres for the exclu-
sively English reader ; but another translation
of an extensive work has just reached us, which shows continued activity in this direction of turning French into English, ' History of the People of Israel till the time of King David.' l>\ FRNKST KENAN (Boston: Roberts Brothers. Price $2,50). This is a portly octavo work, 362 pages, and is the first of a series of three vol- ume-, \\hii h, the author tells us, he formed a plan forty years ago to write on the ' History of the Origin of Christianity ; ' and though here "the great religious movement of Israel which swept the world along with it, has scarcely begun (p. xiii)," yet the fertile thinker knows how to fascinate the reader with his artistic presentation of the subject, some of the spirit and life of which the translator (whose name is not given) seems to have caught in its transfer to the Anglo-Saxon idiom.
The Verhandlungen des zweiten allgemein- en deutschen Neuphilologentages (held at Frankfort in the Easter holidays of last year) ought to be specially attractive to all workers in modern languages on this side of the Atlan. tic. This little octavo volume, covering eighty pages, gives one an idea of the extraordinarily rapid development in Germany of that unity of feeling which is so necessary to promote the interests of a new department of learning ; for example, in the year 1887, the Association had the phenomenal increase from 306 to 700, and at present numbers not less than 800 members. DR. KORTEGARN (Frankfort) in his remarks preliminary to the report of the proceedings of this Convention, voices the sentiments of his colleagues in expressing the wish that the third meeting may bring together a stately number of members " zur Pflege der neuern Philologie, der germanischen wie der romanischen, und insbesondere zur Forderung einer lebhaften Wechselwirkung zwischen Universitat und Schule, zwischen Wissenschaft und Praxis." This purpose, thus formulated, constitutes the fundamental doctrine of the organisation, and it is natural, therefore, that a majority of the topics which occupied the conference should have been particularly on the side of pedagogics. Papers were presented on the following subjects : Stellung und Ziele des Vereins fur deutsche Lehrer in Ixmdon, von HERRN BAUMANN(Presidentof the German
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Lehrerverein in London) ; Plan und Textprobe eines neuen Werkes, Alt-England, von PROF. DR. BRENNECKE (Elberfeld) ;Die Pertes'sche Methode in ihrer Anwendung auf die neueren Sprachen, von Herrn Gymnasiallehrer HAU- SCHILD (Frankfort); Die freien schriftlichen Ar- beiter im Franzosischen und Englischen, von Herrn Realgymnasial Oberlehrer DR. AHN (Bad Lauterberg); Der Anfangsunterricht im Franzosischen, von Herrn Realschullehrer DR. QUIEHL (Cassel); Uber den Wert des Uberset- zens in die fremde Sprache, von Herr Real- gymnasiallehrer DR. KUHN (Wiesbaden); Uber franzosische Lexicographic, von Herrn Profes- sor DR. SACHS (Brandenburg a. d. H.). Re- ports of the interesting discussions on these papers are given, and a full account of the social features of the occasion, to all of which is appended a complete list of the members of the Association, with their addresses. The third Convention of which we hope to present an account in our next issue, was held at Dres- den on September 29 and 30, 1888.
MESSRS. McCLURG & Co., of Chicago, have announced a translation of the important French work, " Les grands Ecrivains fran?ais," the publications of which was begun in Paris last year. The series will contain : ' Madame de SdvigneY by G ASTON BOSSIER ; ' George j Sand,' by E. CARO; ' Montesquieu,' by ALBERT j SOREL; 'Voltaire,' by FERDINAND BRUNE- TIERE ; ' Racine," by ANATOLE FRANCE ; •Rousseau, by M. CHERBULIEZ; 'Victor Cousin,' by JULES SIMON; 'Lamartine,' by M. DE POMAIROLS : ' Balzac,' by PAUL BOUR- GET ; ' Musset,' by JULES LEMA!TRE ; ' Sainte- Beuve,' by H.TAINE; 'Guizot,' bvG. MONOD.
The Publishing House, FORZANI & Co., of Rome, Italy, announce a Nuova Pubblicazione, by subscription, of deep interest : ' Poesie di Setticento Autori intorno a Dante Allighieri.' These compositions will be arranged chrono- logically, and published in octavo volumes of 500 pages each ; the edition will consist of 500 numbered copies, of which the last will contain a list of the subscribers. Price per volume, 8 lire. Address : Via Dogana Vecchia 26, Roma.
PERSONAL. The Trustees of Ripon College (Ripon, Wis-
consin) have generously granted to PROFESSOR A. H. TOLMAN the privilege of pursuing his English studies in Europe during the present academic year.
FRANCIS H. STODDARD, Instructor in the English Language and Literature at the Uni- versity of California (cf. MOD. LANG. NOTES, vol. I, col. 307), has been called to the chair of English in the University of the City of New York, with the title of Professor of the Eng- lish Language and Literature. It is gratify- ing to learn that this professorship, newly created and endowed by an alumnus of the University, is intended to provide for gradu- ate instruction and to supplement the already existing undergraduate courses.
PROFESSOR W. H. CARRUTH has been ap- pointed to a Morgan Fellowship for the coming year at Harvard University. MR. CARRUTH was graduated at the Kansas State University (Lawrence) in 1880 and immediately thereafter was made Assistant in his Alma Mater for German and French ; in 1882 he was promoted to the professorship of German and French, which position he still holds. The year 1885- 86 was spent, on leave of absence, at the uni- versities of Berlin and Munich, where PRO- FESSOR CARRUTH continued his studies in the Germanic department. He is now engaged in investigating the "Superlative in Modern German " and " Herder's Style."
FRANK G. HUBBARD, who received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Johns Hopkins University a year ago, and has since January last given courses in English at Smith College (Northampton, Mass.), has gone to Oxford, England, there to pursue special work in English philology and literature.
CHARLES F. .McCi-UMPHA, who was graduated at Princeton College in 1885 and received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from the University of Leipsic in March, 1888, has been called to Bryn Mawr College as Associate Instructor in the department of English. MR. MCCLUMPHA studied under Professors WULKER and ZARNCKE, and offered for his doctorate a thesis upon " The Alliter- ation of Chaucer." •
W. C. TODD, who has recently returned from Paris, where he spent the past year in
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spi-ri.il sillily, lias been appointed Professor of l-'iciich at Haverford Collier, I'a. Alter taking liis degree at Brown University in 1881, MK. 'I'oiiD taught Latin for our year in I )«• \'aux College, and later had chaise of the classical department of the Friends School at l'ro\ ideiice, R. I., a position which he held tor three vears.
JOHN LKSI.IE HAUL, formerly Fellow in English at the Johns Hopkins University, has been appointed to the chair of Knglish at the College of William and Mary (Williamsburg, Va.). MR. HALL entered Randolph-Macon College in 1871, and continued there for two \ ears. He then engaged in business for a time, alter which he devoted several years to teaching. In 1885 he entered Johns Hopkins University and for three years pursued advan- ced courses there in English, German and History, holding a fellowship in Knglish for the year 1886-87, and being designated a Fel- low by Courtesy during the following year.
WILLIAM B. PRICE has been elected to the chair of French and German at Trinity College, North Carolina. MR. PRICE was graduated at Yale College in 1883, taking special honors in French. In the autumn of the same year he went to Paris, where he spent about eighteen months, attending meanwhile the lectures of MM. GASTON BOISSIER, GASTON PARIS, CARO, PETIT DE JVLLKVILLE, GUILLAU- MK GUIZOT and others, but devoting himself especially to modern French. Later he went to Gottingen, where he worked in German for some months. On his return to America, he was appointed Tutor in French at Yale Uni- versity, both in the Sheffield Scientific School and in the college proper. Here he remained until called to his present position at the beginning of the current academ.ic year. PROFESSOR PRICE is editor of two issues in the series : "Select French Texts " (published by CHARLES H. KILBORN, 5 Somerset St., Boston), of which the first number: ' Choix de Contes de Daudet,' by PROF. PRICE, has just appeared.
DR. CHARLES W. KENT has been called to the University of Tennessee (KnoxVille) as Professor of Modern Languages and Knglish. DR. KENT graduated with the degree of M. A.
at the University of Virginia in 1882, after which he taught for a period of two years in the schools ol Charleston, S. ('.; H. th. n u • nt to Germany, and as a student of Teutonic philology spent three years at the universities of dottingen, Berlin and I.eipsir, winning the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1887 at Leipsic, on the presentation of a dissertation entitled "Teu- tonic Antiquities in Andreas and Klene." DR. KI:.\I spent the past academic year as 'Li- centiate ' at the University of Virginia, and in the preparation of an edition of Zupitza's 'Klene,' which, under the joint editorship of himself and Prof Henry Johnson, is to be1 published by Messrs. Ginn & Co. It may be added here that PROF. ZLTITZA writes to us to say that he is seeing through the press the third edition of his ' Klene,' which will differ from the preceding two editions chiefly in supplying a text of the Latin version of the legend.
DR. JAMES W. BRK;HT (of this Journal) has in preparation an edition of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels. To meet the wants of the general literary public, as well as of the class-rooms of the schools, it will be an inexpensive edition, and of convenient size. The following prelimi- nary epitome of the principles adopted for the preparation of the volume is here offered, in the hope that scholars interested in the matter may communicate to the editor any comments pointing to changes or modifications of the plan. The text will be based on the Corpus MS.; and the important variants of the Bodl., Cotton and Cambridge MSS. will be given at the foot of the page. There will also be, at the foot of the page, " notes " on passages partic- ularly obscure or faulty in construction, and on such as for anv other special reason may require remark. Rejecting the accent-marks of the MS., the text will be accented through- out to show the theoretic quantity of the vowels ; e and g, o and g, according to SWEET'S system, will also be distinguished. All contractions of the MS. will be expanded, without the aid of any special typographical device. The punc- tuation of the MS. will be put aside for the modern system. The use of capitals will con- form to present usage in scriptural texts. The MS. usage of ft and /> will not be disturbed. There will be no normalization of spelling except in extreme cases, when the MS. form will .always be retained in the variants. The rubrics and all other incidental ecclesiastical matter will be omitted, and the division into chapters and verses will follow the familiar distribution of the Authori/cd Version. There will be a Preface and a Prolegomenon but no Glossary; if it appear desirable, a Glossary will be prepared for a subsequent edition.
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JOURNAL NOTICES.
BEITRAEQE (HRSQ. v. PAUL UNO BRAUNE) VOL. XIV, PART I.— Falk, ll., Dienoraina agentis der alt- nordischen sprache.— Rock, A., Der i-umlaut und der gemeinnordische verlust der endvocale; Zur urger- manischen betonungslehre.— Mogk, E., Bragi; Das angebliche Sifbild im tempel zu OuSsbrandsdalir ; Eine H$vam$lvisa in der Niala. — Kogel, K., Zur orts- namenkunde.— Eullng, K., BruchstUcke einer mittel- deutschen bearbeitung des Esdras und des Jesaias. — Lutck, K., Zur geschichte der deutschen e- und o- laute.— Leltzmann, A., Der Winsbeke und Wolfram.— Hettema, F. 15., Altfriesische worterklHrungen.— Jellinek, M. H., Miscellen.— Sehaubach, E., Zu Wolf- rams Parzival.— Kauffmann, P., Notitzen.
ENGLISCHE STUDIEN, VOL. XII, PART i.— wnien- berg, (if., Die Quellen von Osbern Bokenham's Legend- en.— Krummacher, M., Sprache und stil in Carlyle's ' Friedrich II.'— Jameson, J. F., Historical writing in the United States.— REVIEWS: Breul, K., Sir Gowther (Max Kaluza).— Schlelch, G,, Ywain and Gawain (Max Kaluza).— Stelnbach, Paul, Ueber den einfluss des Crestien de Troies auf die altenglische litteratur (Max Kaluza).— Sweet, H., A Second Anglo-Saxon Reader (A. Schro'er).— Dowden, E., The Life of Shelley (Richard Ackerman).— Thummel, Julius, Shakespeare- charaktere (Max Koch).— Faust, E. K. K., Richard Brome (Max Koch).— f iirck, H., Das wesen des genies (Felix Bobertag).— Crelzenach, W., Der Hlteste Faust- prolog (Felix Bobertag).— Various text-books for German schools.— Miscellen : Konrath, M., Zu Exodus 361 b— 353 a.— Schlelch, G., Collationen zu me. dichtung- en.— Lentzner, K., Zum Gedachtniss Ingleby's.— Wurtzner, A., Der unterricht im Franzb'sischen und Englischen an den hdheren schulen Oesterreichs.
REVUE CRITIQUE, No. 20.— Sorting, G., Ency- clopaedie (A. D.), Heulhard, A., Rabelais legiste; Ziesing, Th., Erasme ou Salignac ? (P. de Nolhac). — No. 21.— Regnler, H., Contes de la Fontaine.— Havet, E., Les Provinciates de Pascal.— No. 23.— Wahlund, I'., et Fellltzen, H. von, Les Enfances Vivien (E. Muret).— NO. 24.— Zloleckl, B., Alixandre dou Font's Roman de Mahomet (E. Muret).— Morel-Fatlo, A., Etudes sur 1'Espagne (A. C.).— No. 25.— Holland, W. L., Zu Ludwig Uhlands Gedachtniss (A. Chuquet).— No. 26.— Joret, 0., Le livre des simples inedit de Modene et son auteur (L.).— Brobvrg, 8., Hester Frants Rabelais; Frants Villon (E. Beauvois).— Mon- let, E., La Noble Le?on (A. R.).— Fischer, H., Ludwig Uhland (A. C.).— No. 27.— Antona.— Traversl, C., Lettere inedite diL uigia Stolberg a Ugo Foscolo (Ch. J-)-— NO. 29.— Altfranzb'sische Bibliothek VII-XI, (Ant. Thomas).— No. 31.— Sourlau.M., La Versification de Moliere (A. Delboulle).— NO8. 34-35.— Levertln, 0., Studier oefver fars och farsoerer i Frankrike mellan Renaissancen och Moliere (E. Beauvois).— Uoncleux, G., Un jesuite homme de lettres au XVIIe siecle, Le P. Bonhours (F. Hemon).— NOS. 36-37. — Thomas, Ant., Poesies completes de Bertran de Born (L. Cledat).— Franck, F., et thenevlcrc, A., Lexique de la langue de Bonaventure Des P£riers (T. de L.).
REVUE DES PATOIS 2« Annee. Nos. 1 et 2. Janvier- Juillet, 1888.— Ole'dat, L., Les patois de la region lyonnaise (suite).— Phlllipon, E;, Le patois de Saint-Genis-les- Ollieres et le dialecte lyonnais (suited— Hlngre: Com. plainte en vieux patois de la Bresse (Vosges), (suite). —Joret, Ch., et Morlce: Etude sur le patois du Bocage Virois septentrional.— Fleury, J., Le patois normand de la Hague et lieux circonvoisins. — Simonneau, A,, Glossaire du patois de 1'lle d'Elle (Vendee).— Thomas, A;, Co interrogatif dans le patois de la Creuse. — Pults- pelu, Contes en patois de Mornant (RhOne).— Comptet- Jiendus: Horning, A., Die ostfranzOsischen Grenzdia- lekte zwischen Metz und Belfort (Ferdinand Brunot). —This, 0., Die Mundart der f ranzo'sischen Ortschaften des Kantons Falkenberg (F. B.). — Notices biblio- graphiques. — Chronique.
ROMANIA, TOME XVI, Nos. 62-64, AVRIL-OC- TOBRE, 1887.— Bonnardot, Fr., Fragments d'une traduction de la Bible en vers.— Meyer, P., Notice du ms. 1137 de Grenoble, renfermant divers poemes sur saint Fanuel, sainte Anne, Marie et Jesus.— Meyer, P., Notice sur un manuscrit interpole de la Conception de Wace.— Meyer, P., Fragments d'une ancienne his- toire de Marie et de Jesus en laisses monorimes. — Phlllpon, E., L'a accentue precede' d'une palatale en lyonnais.— Morf, H., Manducatum=Manducatam en valaisan et en vaudois. — Muret, E., Eilhart d'Oberg et sa source f ra^aise.— Morel-Fatlo, A., Textes castillans incdits du XHIe siecle.— Paris, G;, Un poeme inedit de Martin Le Franc.— Plcot, E., Le Monologue dramati- que (3e article).— Andrews, J.-B., Phonttique mento- naise (suite en fin).— Melanges.— tornu, J., Andare, an- dar, annar, aller. — Paris, G., Choisel. — Le conte des Trois Perroquets.— Thomas, A., Ugonenc.— Thomas, A., Henri VII et Francesco da Bar berino.— Paris, G., Une question biographique sur Villon. — L'omptes-Eendug. — Bectz, Das c und ch vor a in alfranz. Texten. — Buchner, Das altfranz. Lothringer-Epos.— Merlin, p. p. G. Paris et J. Ulrich ; Demanda do santo Graal, hgg. von Uein- hardstoettner. — Johansson, Spraklig Undersokning af Le Lapidaire de Cambridge. — Le Roman de Mahomet, hgg. von Ziolecki. — Camus, Circa instuns ; Saint-Lager, Recherches sur les anciens Herbaria. — Alphita. edited by Mowat.— TOME XVII, NO. 65, JANVIER, 1888.— Sudre, L., Sur une branche du Roman de Re- nart.— Bedler, J., La composition de Fierabras.— Paro- til, E.-G., Saggio di etimologie catalane e spagnuole. Thomas, A., Les papiers de Rochegude.^^l/eto/^^. — Brekke, It., L' e^Z, I latin en fran^ais tt en mayorquin. Thomas, A., Anceis.— Paris, G., Empieu.— lulboulle, A., Peantre. — 1'nrls, G., Un ancien catalogue de manu- scrits fr&wpiis.— Corrections.— Paris, G., Un tet-ond manuscrit de la redaction rimee (M) de la Vie de saint Alexis.— Comptes-Rendm.— \\vytr. P., Berger, la Bible fran?aise au Aloyen Age ; Bonnard, les Traductions de le Bible en vers t'ran<;ais an Moyen Age. — No. 66, AVRIL.— Kajna, P., Contributi alia storia dell' epopeu e del romaiizo medievale, V. Gli eroi brettoni nell' onomastica italiana del secolo XIT.— Pages, A., Docu- ments infidits sur Auzias March.— Phot, E., Le Mono- logue dramatique en France (suite et Jin).—Mtlanges. — Paris, G., La chanson de la Vengeance de Rioul.— Thomas, A., Sur la date de Gui de Bourgogne. — Mtyer, P., Note sur Robert de Blois.— Van Iliuir I, A., Le poeme latin de Matheolus. — Delboulle, A., Brandelle, brande.— du Puitspelii, N., Vadou en lyonnais.— Comp- tes-Eendus.— Mackcl, Die germanischen Elements in der t'ranzBsischen und prOvenzallschen Sprache. — Martin, E., Le Roman de Renart— Wulff, Kr., Le lai dn Cor. restitution critique par.— De Lollls, H Canzoniere provcnzale cod. Vaticano 3^03.— Observations sur le compte-rendu de l'6dition du Poeme moral.
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I'.altiM.oie, »e,,-ml,, i. 1 HHH.
/•///-:
ANNUAL A7.YYY///.0- LOGSffTAG. Th« third meeting of the "NYuphiloioKen" in
Germany \v;is lu-ld at Dresden, Sept. .-Stli Oct. ist. About 130 members were present, while tin- whole association now consists of nearly 850. The reason why comparatively so few attended tin- meeting, must chiefly be looked for in tin- unfavorable season; it uas therefore suggested that in the future the con- ventions should take place in the spring. This and other business questions having been settled in the Friday evening session, the next day, Sept. agth, was devoted to literary exercises and to the reading of technical papers.
After a short, substantial address delivered by the President, PROFESSOR SCHEFFLER, the State and town authorities, who favored the convention with their presence, not only ex- tended to the members the usual official wel- come, but also gave utterance to certain wishes and hopes which we are glad to en- dorse and to record. STAATSMINISTER VON GERBER expressed himself to the effect that our department of learning is especially entitled to the interest of the people, since modern language men have before them the attractive task of studying and setting forth those features of language and literature which all civilized nations possess in common, and their work is consequently of peculiar import- ance just at the present time, inasmuch as it may serve to counteract that unfortunate keenness of national and race feeling which is now developing and spreading over all Europe. STADTRAT DR. NAKE then emphasized the importance of a close cooperation between university and school. Experience shows that wherever the influence of the university spirit is lacking, schoolteaching very soon falls in every respect behind the times. On the other hand, every science ought to serve the interests of the whole nation and have an immediate bearing upon practical life, and here again modern language men are particularly favored, since they hold the key to the civilization of
oth.-r nations, and s>re in the be«t
position to spread know ledge and general cul- ture more ami more uidely among all classes of the people.
The in -,t te< lmi< al paper was read by BARON
LOCKLI.A ot I (resile i • I i.nite in Germany."
Nodisi ussion followed this paper, it being con- sidered primarily as an homage paid by the Italian I >ANTF.-scholar to his adopted country, especially to the city of "PniLALF.ii! and at the same time as the inauguration of a suggestive DANTK-exhibition which had been arranged by LOCKLLA himself. 1 ( ommedia,' standing like a powerful Gothic monument between the Middle Ages and mod- ern times, has been from an early period the object of eager study on the part of German scholars of every name. Theologians of diverse denominations have sought in it proofs of their religious views ; philologists have studied DANTE as the father of the Italian literature and language -Jurists admire in his work the high sense of justice and the elaborate system of retribution ; and even scientists feel interest- ed in his ideas on natural history, because this universal spirit represents the whole cycle of the human knowledge of his time.
The first allusion to DANTE'S work in Ger- many is to be found in the book on the ' Seven Degrees ' by the Heilbronner Monch (first half of the fourteenth century), while his name first occurs in MATTHIAS FLACIUS lLLYRicus(i556), a Lutheran theologian who quotes DANTE as a defender of evangelical truth and an oppo- nent of papal errors. HANS SACHS was men- tioned as being the next to speak of the "Poet von Florenz." The first complete translation of the ' Divina Commedia ' in prose, was made by BACH ENSCHWANZ (1767); JAGEMANN first rendered a part of it, the " Inferno," into German iambics. Since then, the ' Commedia ' has never ceased to occupy most intensely a great number of scholars,
SUCh as SCHLEGEL, STRECKFl SS, KANNE-
GIESSER, the eminent pair of Dantologists at Halle — WITTE and BLANC, — BARTSCH, and "PHILALETHKS," King of Saxony.poet-transla- tor of DANTE'S work and generous patron of the German DANTE Society. All these men (and
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484
we may add the latest translator, GILDEMEIS- TER) have cooperated to make of the ' Corn- media ' a German poem, almost as much as SHAKESPEARE has been made at home in Germany by the TIECK-SCHLEGEL translation.
PROFESSOR STENGEL then reported on the success, or rather lack of success, of a peti- tion addressed to the various German gov- ernments recommending them to send stu- dents in modern philology abroad, in order to learn practically the languages with which they become acquainted theoretically at home. Baden alone, so far, had answered the peti- tion in the affirmative and made an allowance of a certain annual sum for the purpose.
PROF. KORTING spoke on the present objects and aims of Romance Philology. Of course this vast subject could not be treated in detail, but KORTING drew in general outline a pic- ture of what Romance Philology ought to be. He insisted upon the necessity of studying the whole group of Romance languages and litera- tures, and represented himself as understand- ing the word Philology in its very widest sense, comprising the study of the national and social development, of antiquities, art and literature ; and of language in all its dialects. Latin, especially mediaeval Latin, forms of course a part of the science of Romance Philology, and KORTING expressed the hope that WOLFFLIN'S 'Thesaurus,' together with the prolegomena to this work laid down in the Archiv, might prove useful to our study of Latin and Ro- mance Philology. Considering the fact that the audience consisted to a large extent of college professors, we must say that KORT- ING'S remarks, being largely of a methodologi- cal character, were adequate and very well adapted to the situation. A short discussion took place between KOLBING, STENGEL, and 1 KORTING ; KOLBING laying special stress on the study of Old French literature as being j the key to a right understanding of the other j mediaeval literatures, while KORTING was j inclined to look upon it more as BARTSCH used j to do,, viz., as "Teutonic spirit in Romance form."
The third paper was read by MAHRENHOLTZ on " Melchior Grimm." The readers of MOD. LANG. NOTES will remember that Dr. M. had already published a review of SCHERER'S
'Melchior Grimm' in this Journal (vol. ii, p. 192 ff.). After giving an outline of the life of MELCHIOR GRIMM, especially of his studies at Leipsic and the development of his literary taste, MAHRENHOLTZ proceeded to character- ize GRIMM'S efforts to make the French public acquainted with German literature. Although an enthusiastic admirer of GOTT- SCHED and consequently disposed to praise GESSNER, DALLER, RAMLER far beyond their merits, GRIMM was not unable to appreciate LESSING'S influence, and was perhaps especi- ally fitted to understand the latter's tenden- cies, inasmuch as he was himself thoroughly acquainted with the ancients, while most of the other French and German authors knew little Latin and even less Greek.
The afternoon session brought out a paper by RECTOR DORR-SOLINGEN on "Reform in Modern Language Teaching." The extreme interest which the great majority evidently took in this paper, the lively discussion that followed it, and the drift of the private con- versation during the whole convention, clearly showed that there is a very strong reform movement in Europe as well as in this country, and that a great number of our transatlantic colleagues, excellent scholars and experienced teachers, are devoting to it a careful study. A great deal certainly can and must be done to improve the old system, and everybody should be glad that teachers in both countries are spending their time and energy in honest endeavors to make their work more and more successful, instead of giving simply the re- quired number of hours without further thought for the benefit of their students. While for various reasons most teachers are entirely cut off from the possibility of doing any original work in historical philology, every teacher has at hand the materials and daily in- spiration for gathering pedagogical knowledge and experience, and it may well be thought that he could not spend his time more appro- priately than on the subject to which his offi- cial duties naturally lead him.
DORR'S views were already known in part from his review of SCHROER'S ' Wissenschaft und Schule ' in Phonet. Studien, Bd. i. His principles are based upon a more than nine years' experience, and he well said that there
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(86
is need, on the part of the teacher, not only of a thorough knowledge of the language In- has to tracli, hut also of a good pedagogical train- ing and teachers thus prepared should he allowed in these days to do away with their old text-hooks and grammars, and to try and find out such methods of their own as will best suit the circumstances under which they are teaching. DORR expressed himself strong- ly against any translation into the foreign lan- guage, it being a ridiculous attempt to do the most difficult work with beginners. Discon- nected, insipid phrases, a real bore to pupils and teachers, should be replaced by continu- ous reading on subjects within easy grasp of tin child's mental capacities and having ref- erence as much as possible to some other part of the school work. DORR himself begins with the numerals and a few particles, so as to enable the children at once to produce all kinds of variations by addition, multiplication, etc. Then follow short rimes and songs and pretty little stories, while grammatical rules are gradually but not too early derived from the materials so taught. A lively discussion arose on DORR'S paper, but no fundamental difference of opinion was manifested. The various teachers differed only on matters of detail, as they naturally always will do, accord- ing to incidentally divergent experience. Well- intended warnings against too rapid changes were also given to the most zealous adherents of the new method. Finally the following reso- lution of PROFESSOR STENGEL was passed : —
" Der dritte deutsche Neuphilologentag erklart es fur wu'nschenswert, dass weitere, moglichst zahlreiche Versuche mit der Lehr- weise gemacht werden, die auf lautlicher Grundlage beruht, und den Zusammenhang- enden Lesestoff zum Mittelpunkte des Un- terrichts macht."
The chief reason of RECTOR DORR'S suc- cess and, as I think, his unquestionable super- iority over many other new-method men, seems to lie in the fact that he has been paying due attention to the individual character and in- clinations of his pupils. We cannot possibly expect average boys and girls to grow en- thusiastic over a paradigm, as a specialist in phonetics may do when he discovers a new phonetic law, or a student in literature when
he strikes the in old ' rpopee.' Real
interest will only follow a certain degree of knowledge; what precedes this must be, at tin- best, a naive curiosity. Thin natural curi- osity should !•( availed of by teachers, and children should begin by teaming such things as they really like to know. ' Now it is ex- tremely dull to rattle ofT a paradigm : le plre, du pere, an pere, le ptre, with an unnatural stress laid on the If, du, au, le, or to translate phrases like "the old mother of this young boy is my dear aunt." The pupil will forget such insipid things as soon as possible, so that the next day they are lost and you can no longer refer to them in order to help your pupils to remember a rule. On the other hand, it is just delightful to know a little song, to hum it in the school-yard, or occasionally ask your friend : Comment fa va-t-il, mon cherf or Gehen Sie in die Stadt, mein Herrf And let students smile or laugh at the queer sounds of French 0, <?, o, etc., or at the German arA-Laut. Learning and teaching, like every other work, in order to be really successful ought to be a pleasure. So let the pupils laugh and look amused ; it matters not, provided they are anxious to practice and learn. Of course the method of one teacher cannot be exactly adopted or closely imitated by another; "it would become a dead formalism at once. But there is no question, either, that the leading principles of the more natural method can be successfully adapted even to our highest insti- tutions, our State universities, where we have men speaking to men and women. I myself am now perfectly satisfied that this can and consequently should be done, since I have seen the excellent results obtained in the German department by my colleague VON J AC i- MAN N at Indiana University.
Saturday evening was devoted to the thea- tre—" King Lear" or "The Magic Flute"— and to a Kommers presided over by PROFES- SOR WULKER with that imperturbable equa- nimity which all the students of the Leipsic professor so well remember. October 3oth was spent at Meissen. The ladies were pres- ent, and a banquet was given with all the appropriate toasts and with semi-phonetic and other poems composed by the Dresden trouba- dours, DR. ZSCHALIG and DR. THIERGEN ;
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December. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 8.
later, there was a promenade up to the old Albrechtsburg, and at night a ball. This was naturally more than one day could hold, so that a considerable part of the.night had to be added.
On Monday morning earnest work was again taken up. First some business questions were settled. It was resolved that the next meet- ing should take place at Stuttgart in the spring of 1890. PROFESSOR KORTING, PROFESSOR ROLLER (Stuttgart) and OBERSCHULRAT VON SALLWURK were elected members of the ex- ecutive council. It was also ordered that the association should no longer recognize the Neuphilologisches Cetitralblatt, or any other periodical, as its official organ.
Your correspondent then presented to the Association greetings from the Indiana Univer- sity, and to'ok occasion to call attention to the circular on an international system of sound- notation (cf. MOD. LANG. NOTES iii, pp. 106-7 and Phonetisc he Studien, Bd. i). I am glad to say that since my return home I have already received from old and new friends a number of answers and treatises on the subject.
For lack of time PROFESSOR STENGEL did not read his paper on the history of French grammar, but he indicated the line which he had chosen and the steps that remained to be taken in order to finish his work. He re- quested all his colleagues to send him the title and description of every grammar up to the end of last century which they might know of or find in their local libraries. A committee will then register all these materials and after- wards publish a list of desiderata for further research.
As we have seen, the comparatively few papers represented very diverse branches of Philology. Besides historical treatises on literature and language, the educational side of our department was not neglected ; and moreover the taste for objective methods, so to call them, showed itself in a series of liter- ary exhibitions, which formed a special and very interesting feature of this meeting. Here were represented the chief English, French and Italian poets — SHAKESPEARE, BYRON, SHEL- LEY, BURNS, SCOTT; MOLIERE, AUGIER, SAN- DEAU ; DANTE. Their busts and portraits, editions and translations of their works, liter-
ary treatises and engravings connected in some way with the poets, all these had been collected from various libraries and museums and were exhibited so as to give a good idea of the men and their times. The MOLIERE and DANTE exhibitions, arranged by PKOFES- SOR SCHEFFLER and by BARON LOCELLA re- spectively, were by far the most important,* showing the result of faithful study combined with a delicate artistic taste. There was also a curious exhibition of newspapers in most of the European and several American lan- guages, and a somewhat rich collection of " Geschenklitteratur " sent by authors and publishers for examination by the members of the association.
Finally, it is only fitting to say that PROFES- SOR SCHEFFLER, the president and chief organizer of the whole affair, and with him PROFESSORS KORTING and STENGEL, who afforded most efficient assistance, deserve the full gratitude of all those who, like myself, had the privilege of attending the Convention.
Vivat seqiiens at Cincinnati !
GUSTAF KARSTEN.
Indiana University.
THE OLD FRENCH MANUSCRIPTS OF YORK MINSTER LIBRARY.
By the kindness of the Librarian, the REV. CANON RAINE, I have recently had the oppor- tunity of examining the French Manuscripts of the York Minster Library. My attention was chiefly directed to an Anglo-Norman ver- sion of the Legend of St. Margaret, the text of which I hope shortly to publish in this Jour- nal, and whose existence, as far as I can ascertain, has only been briefly indicated by SUCHIER in his notes to " Deu Omnipotent " (Bibl. Normann.). It is my intention in this paper to give a brief description of the remain- ing texts, no collective account of which has yet been published, although the importance of certain single texts has long since been signalized. To those interested in the devel- opment of the Norman Dialect on English soil, the York collection is of no small value.
*The chief groups of the DANTE exhibition have been photographed and will soon be published with accompanying explanations by BARON LOCKLLA.
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The volumes an- ii\e in numbi r, I. mi of tlu-ni dating from tin- ihirtei-nlh < nitury, win tin- MS. XVI. K. 13, though hearing on the fly-leaf the inscription 'lair thirteenth cen-
tuiv ' evidently belongs to the fourteenth.
Tlu- (Juarto MS. XVI. N. 3, contains 234 leaves, having for tin- most part one column of thirty-six lines on a pa^e, and written in a care- ful and distinct hand. The first four leaves are occupied by a Calendar in Latin, containing the months March to October inclusive, one month on each recto and verso. The remain- ing two leaves of the Calendar have disap- peared. Leaves 5 (recto) to 222 (recto) contain a copy of the
LUMIERE AS LAIS
by Peter of Peckam, a translation of the 1 Elucidarium ' of Honorius of Autun. Of this translation there exist several manuscripts, for an enumeration of which, as well as for other information as to the versions, it is suffi- cient to refer to an article by M. PAUL MEYER, Romania viii, 325.
Between the table of contents and the text itself, and occupying fol. 10 (verso), is a Latin hymn to the Virgin, written in a later hand, and set to music.
fol. ii. f. Verrey deu omnipotent,
Ke estes fyn e comencement
De tute les choses ke en siecle sunt,
E ke avaunt furent e apres serrunt,
Ke cryastes al comencement
Ciel e tere e aungles de nient,
Avaunt ke tens fust u muvement
Del solail u du firmament,
Ke al premier jour lumyniere feystes
Et la nuyt del jour departystes,
Le firmament feystes le jour secund
Entre les ewes ke sunt el mund :
Le tierz jour le ewe departistes
De la tere ke descoveristes
Del ewe ke avaunt fu tute coverte,
Issi ke ele apparust tute aperte ....
fol. 18. v. Ky veut enquere de mun nun Un clerc suy de petit renun, De poy de value verraiment 19. r. En drelt del cors e de entendement ; Mes pur ceo ke priere me peut valer De bone gent, si me voil nomcr, Dunt jeo pri pur amur Jhesu Crist Pur Piere prier ke cest livre fist . .
fol. 221. v. Mes ore vus pri a chyef de tur Ke vus pur amur nostre seygnur Ke cest romaunz oy averez,
Pur /Vsrsk'cn Ml trairaillr/ 1'rec/ ke deu putt Wen ttrvlr Uii ke a M joie pu»t venir :
• n ke orruni votuaticn ec*l roauuni, Vicu» e jueffaes. (emmet e enbni, Amen die devutemenl. E a ceo cheicuu « ceo ke »pent {Sift C'e*t Pater Nailer e Are Mmrle A U dame ke pur nu* pric 922. r. K'y»»i »cyt »un fit Jhesu Critt. Amen, Amen, i«*i fini«t.
The date of this copy of the ' Lumierc as Lais ' is put beyond all doubt by the subjoined statement in the hand of the scribe himself: —
" Les quatre livres de cest romaunz furent fet/ a novel lyn (?) en Surie. K les deus dreyns a Oxneford. Si fu comence" a la pasche al novel lyn, e terminee" a la chaundelure apres a Oxeneford, le an nostre seygnur Mil e deus cenz e seisannte setytne."
Folio 222 recto is occupied by some Latin Verses in the later hand, and the reverse of the leaf contains a Latin hymn to the Virgin with musical notation ; as, on fol. 10 (verso).
LES DICTES DE CATON (ff. 223. r.-234. r.) There exist several old French versions of
this work, that of Adam de Suel being the
most common. The present version is that of the monk
Everard cf. Romania vi, 20).
223. r. (C)atun esteit paen, E ne saveit rien,
De crcsiicne ley ;
E ne pur quant ne dist
Encontre nostre fey. Mcyns en sun escrit
Par tut se cuncorde
A seinte escripture; En rien ne se descorde
Mettre y ta cure :
La grace en ly esteit,
Amender em purat
Celui ke vodrat Issi cum jo quit
Del seynt espyrit
Kar sen e saver
Ke de (deu) ne Mil. Nul nen est pur ( vcir)
Par le enseygnemcnt
A sun fyz aprendre Ke dan Catun despent
Me semblc ke il aprent
Si volum entendre.
Mey e tute gent
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December. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 8.
492
Si oer le volez,
Amiablement. Vers mey escutez
Ore priez sanz ensoygne
Ke cest overayne aprent Pur Evera(r}dlc nioigne.
fol. 234. r. Tuz ces ke le orrunt,
Le sen quant averunt oi E en ceo le mettrunt
Od deu aient part ;
Eit Dampnedeu mercy. E. de peccheur Everard
The Octavo MS. XVI. K. 7 (also of the thir- teenth Century) consists of seventy leaves, written in two columns of forty-six lines, and contains
LE MANUEL DE PECH£S,
by William, of Waddington. This work is specially interesting as being the original of Robert of Brunne's ' Handlyng Synne.' For general information' about the work and the various versions see a paper by M. PAUL MEYER in Romania, viii, 332. The present version begins :
fol. i . r. La vertu del seint espirit
Nus seit aidaunt en cest escrit
A vus tels choses mustrer
Dunt home se deit confesser,
E ausi en quele manere
Que ne fet mie bon a tere
Kar ceo est la vertu del sacrement
Direle peche e comept.
Tuz pechez ne poiim cunter,
Mes par taunt se peot remembrer
E ses pechez ben amender
Ke cest eserit vout regarder
and terminates abruptly (fol. 65. v.) thus
E vus chaitif plain d'ordure,
Ki tant avez la teste dure
The remaining leaves (66 recto — 70 verso) are occupied by a fragment of Grosseteste's 'Chastel d'Amur,' a version of which was published by COOKE for the Caxton Society. In the York manuscript the beginning and the end are wanting.
fol. 66. r. Ly solayl fii en eel tens
Set fet plus cler ky n'est ores,
E la lune estayt lors
Cum ly solayl ke luyst
Luysaunt adunkes estoyt de nuyst ....
fol. 70. v. Ceo est le chastel de delyt, De solaz et de respyt, De esperaunce et de amur, De refu et de dusur C'est le corps de la pucele : Unkes autres n'y out fors cele .
The Octavo MS. XVI. K. 14. (3) (thirteenth century) consists of six leaves of parchment bound up with fourteen leaves of blank paper. It contains a fragment of Robert of Gretham's ' Evangiles des Dimanches,' of which there is a complete copy in the Cambridge MS. Gg. I, i (University Libr.). See for this work Romania xv, 296.
The first and last lines of the present frag- ment are subjoined.
Cels curtillers prudume esteit Ke deu amout et deu cremeit .... fol. 6. v. L'alme descend! sur le prestre Et si li art 1'espaule destre. L'arsun a feit mal li feseit, Ceo li est vis murir deveit, Que d'arsun que d'espuntaille La quida remeindre sanz faille.
The Octavo MS. XVI. K. 12. i (thirteenth century) consists of thirty-six leaves in two columns of thirty-four lines each, and contains two important texts :
I. FABLES DE MARIE DE FRANCE.
The present version contains seventy-eight Fables. Of this work there exist well known versions in the British Museum, and in the Cambridge MS. Ee. VI. n. A critical edition of the Fables has long been promised by the German scholar MALL.
The York version begins thus :
fol. i. r. Cil ki sevent de lecture
Si deivent bien mettre lur cure Es bons livres et escritz E as essamples e es ditz * Que li philosophe troverent E escristrent e remenbrerent. Pur moralite escriveient Les proverbes qu 'il oeient, Ke cil amender peussent Ki lur entente i.meissent. Ceo furent li ancien pere : Romulus ki fud emperere A sun fiz escrist e manda E par essampl* a li mustra Cum il se dust centre guaitier Que 1'em nel peust rien enginner ....
246
493
Decrmbtr, MODERN LAJNGi /<./
; .;
ien veer del fcllin
II meismes i est rn.vnnl.n-/ La u li .ilin I-M dclivrcz.
As an example of ilic tyle of tin- F.iMes I ha\e Iraiiscriln-d oiic commencing on folio 12
(verso).
I >'un mire cunte qui seinna I'n rirlie horn iju'il guariht Kn line grant enfcrmeit',
1'uis avcit U- sanu • uinaiicli'- .
A sa fille qu'ele Ic guardast
Que mile rien ne la desast.
Par le sang, ceo dist, conuistreit
Quel enfermt£ sis peres aveit.
La meschine porta le sang
En la chambrc de suz un bang ;
Mcs mult li est mesavcnu,
Kar tut le sang ad espandu.
Nel osa dire nc mustrer
N'altre conseil ne set trover,
Mcs sei inemes fist seinner,
Icel sang lessa refreider.
Tant que li mires I'ot veil
Par le sang ad aparcell
Que cil ert preinzqui I'ot lesse*.
Le riche home ad si esmaie*
Qu'il quidot bien aver enfant.
Sa fille fist venir avant ;
Tant par dcstreit, tant par amur,
Li fist conuistre la verrur.
Del sang dit qu'ele 1'espandi
E que li altre esteit de li.
Altresi vait de tricheurs,
Des larnins e des boiseurs
En qui la felunie maint ;
Par cus maimes sunt ateint :
Quant meins se guardent de estre pris
Si sunt encumbn? e ocis.
II. VIE DE ST. BRENDAN. This well known legend occcupies ff. 23 (recto) — 36 (recto), and begins thus: —
Dame Aeliz la reine • Par qui valdrat lei devine, Par qui crestrat lei de tere, E remaindrat tante guerre, Par les armes Henri le Rei, Par le cunseil ki est de tei, Saluet tei mil et mil feiz L'apostoile danz Beneiz. Ke comandas co ad enpris, Sulunc sun sens en lettrc mis, • En lettre mis et en romanz, E issi cum fut li tucns comanz De seint Brendan le bon abcz Mun escicnt dirra vcrtez. Qui dit ke seit e fait que puet Itcl sergant blasmcr n'estuet, Mais qui bien set ct ncl vult dire Jhesu 1'cn portet mult grant ire.
• m» hum* fat M* <i« rate
fol. 36. r. LI pliuur* lie c«U en teotirem Par la vertuz qu'il x Tant cum Brendan »l tiecte fui Ad mult valuz par Deu »• • vim al jur i|U'il final,
li <l«r.tinai.
Al renne Dcu u abt il Par lul vunt plutun mil. Amen.
The OcUvo MS. XVI. K. 13. (fourteenth
ci-!itur» is \vritt«-n in om- column oft eight liiK-s and contains 128 l.-a\(s, flf. I recto— 103 v. is,, .,r. occupii-d by another copy (a fragment) of tli.- ' Manuel de Inches ' of William of Waddington, containing about half as much as the M.S. XVI. K. 7.
Fol. i. recto.
/•:» I'ohnttr (sic) de la Trinitc seit cest livre commence : —
La vertu del seint esperit Nus seit eydant a cet escrit Por deus choscs a vus mustrer Dunt home se deit confcsscr ; Surketut en que(le) tnanere, Kar ce n'est mic bon a tere. C'est la vertu ke 1'entent Dire quels sunt pcchcz e coment. Mes tuz pechez ne poum center ; Por ce ferum remenbrer Ses pechez e amender ....
fol. 103. v. Ki cy mcterc n'ad nettement
Doter se put que il eit trespass^ Nomement s'il est dcdyc Seur put cstre k'il ad pcchi?.
Next follows : —
LA VIE SEINT EUSTACE
fol. 104. r. Un riches hum esteit en Rome jadis, Ben del emperor e de mult grant pris. Prcuz esteit e sages e Placidus apelez, Entre les romainz ot mult grant sigoetez Li mal esperit regnout en iccl tens. Tut li secies esteit repleins de pacns. Trojanus Cesar regnout idonc a Rome, Et d« tot 1'cmpire portoit la corone . . .
fol. 119. v. Deu gart la sue alme, e defende de mal,
E nus tuz cnsement de pcch«< criminal. Amen.
Fols. 1 19 verso — 128 recto are occupied by the
VIK SEINTE MARGARETE,
which is followed by a fragment (forty-two lines) of the
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VIE SEINTE MARIE MAGDALENE commencing (128 recto): —
(S)eignurs ke Deu ainez en lui aiez fiance, Si jeo parol a vus, ne vus seit en pesance. Verite vus en dirai par grant signefiance. Ki bien creit en cleu garis est sanz dotance, Li plusurs sunt salve par veroy creance . . .
fol. 128 v. De ceste chere dame dunt jeo fas ceste treitd Ke fu nee en Magdala de riche parent^, Si parent furent riche e de grant largetfi, Terres urent asez, chastel, burcs a plentd. Apres lur mort recut la dame 1'erit^, De ceo fist ke fole, ke pur mil home nd Ne lessa ele a fere ren de sa volent^ . . .
I have not had the opportunity of ascertain- ing whether the York versions of the Legends of St. Eustace and St. Mary Magdalen are identical with other known versions. The York ' Saint Margaret ' appears to be unique, but the number of versions of the same legend is immense. Indeed no legend seems to have enjoyed greater popularity in the middle ages, and the York MS. shows evident signs of constant perusal.
In conclusion I must express my heartiest thanks to the REV?. CANON RAINE for the ex- treme courtesy and kindness with which he afforded me all possible facilities for investi- gation. To the professional courtesy which is common to so many of his colleagues he joined an element of personal kindness which must make the remembrance of my brief visit to York the most pleasant of many similar mem- ories.
FREDERIC SPENCER. Cambridge, England,
DAS VERHAL TNISS DER FRANZO- * SIS CHEN VON HERZ HERAUS- gegebenen Alexiuslegende zu ihren lateinischen Quellen.
Wenn wir im Mai- und Junihefte der MOD. LANG. NOTES die litterarisch interessante Aufgabe uns stellten, die Entwickelung einer Legende unter dem Einfluss der galanten Rit- terpoesie zu verfolgen, so. sei es uns heute gestattet, eine reinkritische Frage zu erledigen, namlich diejenige des Verhaltnisses einer der franzosischen Bearbeitungen der Alexius- legende zu ihren lateinischen Vorlagen. Unter den franzosischen Gedichten u'ber den h.
Alexius nimmt die von JOSEPH HERZ im Pro- gramm der Real- und Volksschule der isra- elitischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt am Main, 1879, herausgegebene Legende aus dem i3ten Jhdt. (wir nennen sie Hz.) einen hervorra- genden Platz insofern ein, als sie unter den Gedichten, die nicht zur " brautlichen "* Richtung gehoren, am anziehendsten und talentvollsten erzahlt. HERZ behauptet nun, dass dieses Gedicht direct auf die lateinische Bollandistenbearbeitung, die wir Bo. nennen wollen und welche MASSMANN herausgegeben hat, zuriickgehe, und fu'hrt p. iii und iv in Anm. die u'bereinstimmenden Puncte an. Auf die Abweichungen von Bo. geht aber HERZ nicht ein. Es sind deren aber doch einige, welche nicht iibersehn werden diirfen : —
1. In Hz. fehlen die drei Tische fiir Waisen und Wittwen, und der Umstand, dass Eu- phemian nachher mit Geistlichen isst.
2. Es fehlt das Keuschheitsgeliibde der Eltern nach Alexius' Geburt ; freilich kommt dasselbe an anderer Stelle vor. Nachdem Alexius vergeblich gesucht worden ist und die Eltern sich beklagen, heisst es 3 v. 458 ff. : —
puis si ont establit
Que jamais en leur vie ne giront en un lit, Ne n' averont ensamble aucun carnel delit.
3. Der Vergleich mit der Turteltaube steht auch an anderer Stelle als bei Bo. Er kommt bei den Klagen der Braut iiber den todten Alexius vor. Uber den Sack, cf. unten.
Viel wichtiger ist aber das, was Hz. im Gegensatze zu Bo. hinzufiigt. Der Bearbeiter war offenbar poetisch begabt ; er wusste die Situation interessant zu machen und verlieh der Legende Farbe und Leben. Seine poetische Kraft hat auch er, wie die, meisten anderen franzosischen Bearbeiter, besonders in der Behandlung der Brautnacht gezeigt, welche ganz interessante spezielle Zu'ge aufweist. Wenn schon nebensachliche Zu'ge, wie diejenigen, dass Alexius, wahrend er seine Ermahnungen an seine Braut richtet, auf einem silbernen Sessel sitzt, und dass er den Ring zerschneidet, den er seiner Frau gibt, von Bo. abweichen, so ist der Bearbeitung Hz. ganz eigenthiimlich und fiir die verschiedene Auf- fassung der Legende bei Bo. und Hz. hochst
* Dariiber sowie tiber die Einzelheiten der ErzShlung der Legende, cfr. meinen Artikel im Maihefte der MOD. LANG. NOTES, pp. 247-256 und im Junihefte, 307-327.
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brili-nti-nd, (lass Alexius seiner Brant das \'cis|)ic( lu-:i abnimint, srlbst auch ilir ^an/i-s I. flu 11 lant; ki nscli /.\\ bli-ibi-u. Er will also nicht bloss selber durcli seim- K« usclilu-it ilas 1 linunelreich erlangi-n, smidern durcli st-iiir Hi-irath i-im- andcre Seeli- /n drmsrlln-n Kntsi lilnsse.briugen und also von der Yc-r- ilaiinnniss i-rlosi-n. Dies ist die cthisch IK'H hsir Antlassunj; der Legende, und class ^i-radi H/. sii- aufweist, ist ein Beweis fiir die grossi-re geistige Bedeutung des Verfasst-rs ik-rselben.
Ausserdem flicht Hz. abweichend von Bo., srlir haufig Reflexionen ein, sucht zu moti- vieren, ergeht sich gern in Schilderungen : (So wird das Hochzeitsfest eingehend be- schrieben, dem Empfang des Kaisers und Papstes bei Euphemian vverden mehrere Verse gegonnt (v. 809 ff.), die Riickkebr der Boten wird breit erziih.lt (v. 660 ff.), die Klagereden sind ausfiihrlich. Allein diese, wenn auch speciellen Ziige. konnte auch Hz. selbst erfun- den haben, wenn es von Bo. direct abhinge. Und es ware verwegen aus diesen verhaltnis- massig geringen Abweichungen zu schliessen, dass Bo. nicht die Quelle von Hz. ware, zumal da sonst Hz. mit beinahe riihrender Treue Ziige von Bo. aufweist, welche andere, auf Bo. sicher zuriickgehende Gedichte, trotzdem aus- gelassen haben. So hat Hz. im Gegensatze zu dem von G. PARIS in der Romania, viii, pp. 169-180 herausgegebenen Gedichte, die Erwahnung der Stadt Laodicea, zu der Alex- ius flieht, die Giirtelschnalle, welche Alexius seiner Braut als Andenken gibt, die Kronung der Brautleute bei der Hochzeit. die Reden der Kaiser vor dem todten Heiligen, sogar den siissen Duft, der aus der Leiche geht, treu bewahrt.
Auffallend dagegen ist es, dass neben dieser Treue zu Bo., Hz. doch einige merkwiirdige und spezielle Ziige aufweist, welche wir in einer andern lateinischen Prosalegende finden, die MASSMANN unter dem Namen C (E) in seinem Buche veroffentlicht hat. Die Uber- einstimmung von Hz. und C ist in diesen Puncten«so gross, dass man mit Recht an eine Beeinflussung von Hz. durch C denken darf. Diese Zuge sind folgende : —
1. Die Hervorhebung derTaufe des Alexius v. 80.
2. Folgende Episode : Als Alexius heran-
gi-wai hs.-ii ist. will ihm Kuplx-mian eine Frau fii. In H<>. ist dirsi-s I .11 tnin ganz trocken in dt n Worten mitgf tliciit : —
"Cum ante-in ad d-mptis adolesti nti.t ace* • < inn miptialihns infulis aptum
judicassi-nt, rlegerunt ei ptiellam ex gci. Imperial!."
In H/.. da^c},'( n h«.-isst «-s fol^-iidcTinaasen, na« lull-in t-r/iihlt wordi-n ist, dass der Vater sich die Hi-irath seiiu-s Sohm-s liinger iiberlejft hat :—
v. 134. Quant cn»i ot li per« aficiet ton penscr, Aglael *a mollicr I'a pri* a raconter : " D'Alcxis, nostrc fit, que mout poont amer, A lui pens des or mail ; i a biel baceler, Querre li vuel mollicr et ma terre doner. La mere quant 1'entent, ju* *e laitce avaler, As piei li vait de joie, si commenche a plorer. " Sire," che dist la dame, " Dieus t'en puist conforter, Que la nostre lignie puist par lui raviver."
Eine ganz entsprechende Stelle findet sich nun in C, und die Obereinstimmung beider springt in die Augen. Man vergleiche : —
"Verum cum adolevisset, matrimonio, in- quit Euphemianus ad conjugem suam, con- jungamus carissimum filium nostrum, at ilia procidit ad pedes ejus, ' confirmet deus, inquit, deus id, quod dixisti, nuptias celebra dulcis- simi filii nostri, ut videam ex eo prolem et laetetur animus meus, et adhuc egenis et pau- peribus auxiliabar.' "
3. Es diirfte wohl auch der Satz bei C : " Qui in thalamum ingressus earn in sello sedentem invenit," den Umstand bei Hz. beeinflusst haben, dass die Brautleute vor dem Bettesitzen v. 257. Auch v. 217 heisst es dass Alexius. . . . s'assit sor un siege d'argent. In Bo. findet sich nichts davon.
4. Sehr wichtig ist der Umstand, dass in C und Hz. allein sich der Name des Gebers des Christusbildes Abagarus findet. C sagt : "ubi domini Jesu imago servatur non manu facta, quam ipse dedit Abagaro in vita sua pervenit."
In Hz. v. 332:
" Es vos dant Alexis dedens Rohais entret. La trova une image de grant autoritet Dou fil dieu Jesu Christ que siet en maiestet. Si con li anchessor li vous ont racontet, Ainc ne fu faite d'ome carnelment engenret. Li fius Dieu le iraraist un roi de la chitet, Abgarut ot a non de si grant dignitet Con li escris raconte u nos 1'avons trovet."
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In Bo. steht dagegen ganz kurz : — " Ubi sine humano opere imago domini nostri Jesu Christi in sindone habebatur."
5. Nur in C wird von der Asche gesprochen, welche die Mutter als Zeichen von Trauer auf den Boden streut : —
"saccumque stravit ac cinerem." Daher in Hz. v. 443: Mais en sac et en
chendre plorrai ma destine'e : v. 458 : Partot
geterent cendre.
In Bo. dagegen heisst es bloss : "Sternens-
que saccum in pavimento cubiculi sui sedens-
que super illud." Von der Asche wird nicht gesprochen.
6. In C findet sich der Gedanke, dass Eu- phemian den Bettler unter der Treppe ofters sehen will.
"Ut quotiescunque ingrediar et egrediar, ilium videatn." In Hz. v. 673 :" —
" Veoir le veut sovent, comment il soil gardt's, De quel part que il vegne, qu'il li soil presentes."
In C gleich darauf : " Nulla eum re mensae meae defraudate," und bei Hz. v. 677 :
Ne li soil li mangiers de sa table ve&>."
In Bo. findet sich nichts davon.
7. In Hz. findet sich der Vergleich mit der Turteltaube an derselben Stelle wie bei C, bei den Klagen iiber den todten Alexius.
C : et hodie vidua relinquor nee habeo amplius quam morer, quam exspectem.
Hz. v. mi : "Ja d'autre companie se moi doinst Dieus valor Tos jors serai mais veve n'ai soing d'autre signer."
So ist denn eine Benutzung von C durch Hz. nicht zuleugnen, aber C ist nicht allein benutzt worden ; vielmehr hat Hz. auch Bo. benutzt. Denn C und Hz. differieren in einigen Punct- en, wo Hz. mit Bo. ubereinstimmt. So wird z. B. in C nicht erzahlt, dass der Kaiser und der Papst die Bahre des Alexius tragen, weil sie sehen, dass der Heilige Wunder thut. Wohl aber ist dies in Hz. v. 1147 und in Bo. der Fall. In C wird fortwahrend nur von einem Kaiser gesprochen, im Singular (abgesehn von der Stelle ganz am Ende, wo sich findet "Ar- chadio et Honorioimperatoribus "), dagegen in Bo. und Hz. von den beiden Kaisern.
In C findet der Kiister in Edessa den Alexius sofort, in Bo. und Hz. erst nach zwei- maliger Aufforderung. So sehen wir schon
aus diesen Puncten, dass Hz. nicht auf C allein, sondern auch auf Bo. zuriickgeht. Lagen nun die beiden Quellen selbst dem Dichter vor ?
Ich glaube es nicht, denn ich konnte mir sonst nicht erklaren, weshalb Hz. einige gliickliche Ziige der beiden Quellen, oder der einen oder der andern bei Seite gelassen hatte. Warum die dreitausend Diener aus- lassen? Warum den Vergleich mit der Turtel- taube an der Stelle, wo Bo. ihn hat und wo er wirksamer ist als spater, iibergehen ? Warum den hiibschen Zug von C verwerfen, dass der Diener des Alexius der Braut den Tod des Alexius mittheilt und nicht dem Euphemian?
Warum schliesslich folgende sehr gliickliche Ziige von C nicht annehmen ?
Um Euphemians Frommigkeit anschaulich darzustellen, erzahlt C einfachen, aber riih- renden Tones : —
" Si quando minus in pauperes benignus et misericors exstitisset, prostratus in faciem suam dicebat non sum dignus, qui ambulem in terra dei mei."
An einer andern Stelle treffen wir den malerischen Zug von Alexius in Edessa : —
"Cum faciem quidem in medio bracchii demissam teneret, cor ejus deo vacabat."
Der Dichter von Hz., der sonst gerade der- artige Episoden so treffend auszubeuten ver- steht, hatte sich niemals derartige Ziige entgehen lassen, wenn er sie gekannt hatte.
Alle diese Ervvagungen fiihren mich dazu, eine Zwischenquelle anzunehmen, die aus Bo. und C ohne besondere Sorgfalt compiliert dem hochbegabten Dichter von Hz. den Stoff geliefert habe. So hatten wir das Schema :
Hz.
Dass die Legende so vielfach in lateinischer Sprache bearbeitet war, darf nicht wundern. Es ist ja bekannt, dass sie eine der beliebtesten des ganzen Mittelalters war.
HEINRICH SCHNEEGANS. Strassburg.
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Tin: EVOLUTION (>/•' /••/<;//
.S7V/-.V //.
This subject is !>est approach. <l through the word 'idt-.t,' which comes from a dreek wonl meaning to see. An idea is, however, not what we have seen, but the picture of what ur have seen. Tlu- words 'thought' and ' idea ' art- often used to nu-an the saint- tiling ; but thought really means the abstract product of the thinking process, while idea means the pictured product. Every mind pictures its thoughts, especially when they are to be com- municated to another mind. This accounts for our saying 'you see ' (through the mind's
. meaning 'you understand.' The picturing of the thoughts is called idea- tion, which is the last step in the mental process of furnishing the mind with thoughts. In the chronological order the first step is sensation, the second is intuition, and the third is infer- ence. Suppose one hears a noise in an adjoin- ing room, the sensation comes through hearing, the intuitional element assures him of the necessity of a cause for the noise, then there is inference as to the particular cause, and last, ideation, or picturing how the thing must look which made the noise heard. When a sensation comes through one of the senses, it is, at the last, imaged as it appears to the other senses ; that is ideation. For another illustration, suppose one grasps, in the dark, something round ; he cannot see it, and does not taste it, nor hear it ; yet upon the inference from touch he imagines how it appears to sight, how it tastes, and pictures accordingly an orange, an apple, or a rubber ball.
This pictured product is named, as the word ' idea ' indicates, from perception through sight, and aptly so, because through the eye the facts of Form and Color, which are the fundamentals of picturing, come to cognition.
Words are used to construct ideas, but words stand primarily for things seen ; they them- selves are neither the things, nor the pictures of them, but associated with the pictures as names. When the unseen and intangible were first to be expressed, there were no terms, so the names of the tangible were made to do this additional duty. The unseen had to be told in terms of the seen.
The relativity of things brings the consequent
P -lativity of nani'-s. u hith hinds us to telling thing in U-rms of others. Also, to be un- !, the words must stand for things within tin- auditor's ken.
With so much as preliminary and basal, we • •an venture to assert that figures of speech ' ''me out of the effort to communicate thoughts, mid. •rstanding that the it/fa in the vehicle to carry a meaning, which is the thought. If a man hand you a piece of paper with a pencil sketch on it, it is a picture that means s« : thing to yon, it can be made to carry . thought. This recalls the old time picture- writing method, which our modern newspapers are reviving, that our fast age may read as it runs. We do not call the picture made with lines and shadows an idea, though it carry a thought, but the picture made with the names, so to speak, of lines and shadows. This is the most wonderful thing that man can do, and is that which makes every man an artist.
If we qualify the expression 'communicate thoughts' with the word ' individual ;' as, 'com- municate individual thoughts,' we empha a very significant feature of the proposition, for every thought has much that is common to thoughts in general, just as every man has much that is common to all men ; but the In- dividuality of a thought consists in its difference from other thoughts, just as the individuality of a man is his difference from other men. The specific force of anything lies in its in- dividuality. The force of individuality is everywhere recognized, for it singles the thing out from the common mass and interests us in it. The effort in written and spoken language is to communicate this specific force of the individual thought.
We cannot choose what thoughts we will think, for the choice would imply the possession of the thoughts already. We may choose what we will think about ; but we are passive, or receptive, to the chance conditions and occa- sions which suggest any thought. On the part of the one who communicates a thought, that is to say, ideates it for another mind, there is the largest freedom of choice in the wide range of things. With an almost unlimited store of material at hand a man can play the artist in individualizing thoughts. Clearness of apprehension has reference to
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distinguishing one thing, or thought, from an- other. To illustrate, suppose one sees, in the dusk, a number of objects out before him, he sees clearly if he can tell the horse from the cow, and that the hog is not a stump, or that the man is not the post. On the other hand simplicity — from simplex — as the word shows, refers to the thing, or thought, by itself, and not as enfolded or mixed up with anything else. It is rather the apprehension of the individual in its parts.
Clearness and Simplicity are qualities of Style to acquire which some books say, use figures. But are we clear and simple because we use figures, or do we not rather use them because we are clear and simple in our appre- hension? The cart has been put before the horse; we ought not to teach that figures should be used to gain clearness, it is clearness and simplicity that take care of the figures. The clearest and simplest communication of thoughts is found in our children's books, wherein we find, too, most figures.
We can now determine our proposition more narrowly by saying that figures come from the effort to communicate individual thoughts in their clearness and simplicity.
When one has something to communicate which is wholly unknown to you, one begins by saying it is like something you have seen ; he thus begins building the idea for you ; he does not omit to say it is unlike things which you have seen. Likeness and unlikeness stand to each other as the poles of a magnet, or as sub- stance to shadow. Unlikeness serves to throw out and define the features furnished in the likeness. The figures founded on likeness and unlikeness are as closely connected as these elements themselves, but they do not make the same kind of association with the things to which the likeness or unlikeness is ex- pressed, as contiguity does. The former two contribute feature and color, while contiguity adds dimension or size by regarding the indi- vidual alongside of others. Contiguity takes care of the relativity, and furnishes proportion.
Expressed resemblance and contrast, being in the polar sense one, give us the figures Simile and Antithesis. The contiguity which expresses the <?;r/rrt-relativity gives Metonymy. These are the first figures in the series, with their names.
It is evident that Simile and Antithesis are based upon the intuitions of objects. Metony- my is based upon the intuitions of necessary relation ; for the relation of cause and effect is immediately apprehended, so is that of the sign and thing signified, and of the container and thing contained. These first figures are founded expressly and directly.upon intuitions. Other figures are founded impliedly upon in- tuitions.
They are used in addressing the cognitive part of the mind, commonly called the under- standing. They belong to the first division of the mental phenomena, the order of which is: Cognition, Feeling, and Conation. We must know before we can feel, and feel before there is any endeavor. A man may cognize the idea of a thought and yet the thought may need to be 'impressed,' as we often say. That there can be cognition without much feeling is abun- dantly evident. We can be as little interested in an idea as in a picture ; we must study the picture, or it must be forced upon us, to beget feeling.
This point is gained through realization, which means making r^a/the pictured thought. It is, so to speak, the breathing a soul into the idea bodied forth to the understanding. Not until the reality of a thing appears does feeling in regard to it define itself as desire. The power to feel is lodged with the soul, and a defined feeling comes just before endeavor.
But, realization is reached through charac- terization, that is, the marking out the individ- ual traits. Hence, we do not say, at this point, "the man is like a lion," but we say " he is a lion," thus endowing him with character- istic life. Characterization on the ground of resemblance is done impliedly and not ex- pressly, and so we get the Metaphor. The progress towards the individual is strikingly seen in the way Contiguity, under the forms of Synecdoche, expresses characterization. Syn- ecdoche deals with the ?«/ra-relativity : the relation of the whole and its parts. The in- dividual is so far finished as to be characterized by a part of itself.
The Metaphor goes on and flowers in Per- sonification. It gives the finishing touch in characterization, for in adding the element of personality a call is made upon the sympa- thetic impulses. Personification humanizes the
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picture and tluis demands a responsive I. c ling. Tluis ends the speaker's attitude <>! talking face to lace with his auditor; the individuality. is now complete, and lie takes the responsive attitude along with his hearer and responds for him.
The expression of the responsive feelings falls within the last class of mental phenomena. The feelings provoked by the individual are always peculiar and defined, and determine the form of the expression. These expressions are nothing more than comments on the in- dividual, and herein is the explanation of the other figures, sometimes called " the bolder figures." They are used by the speaker in the responsive attitude, and are made up of the elemental figures already named. They are not figures of speech in the same sense as the simile, the metaphor, or synecdoche, but rather figures of Thought, or figures of Conclusion. Irony is an expression of feeling relative to an individual ; Innuendo is a different kind of ex- pression ; Hyperbole exaggerates ; Apostrophe addresses as present ; Vision beholds, and so on through the list.
The elemental figures of speech are Simile, Antithesis, Metaphor, Personification, Meto- nymy in its forms, Synecdoche in its forms ; the other rhetorical figures are compounded of these. The elemental steps are often sup- plied by the occasion and various circum- stances ; but this discussion has kept in view a recipient mind unprepared by anything to anticipate what was being communicated.
JOHN PHELPS FRUIT. Bethel College, Russelhille, Ky.
Einfiihrung in das Stadium der Englischen Philologie mit Riicksicht auf die Anfor- derungen der Praxis von DR. WILHELM VIKTOR. Marburg, 1888.
In the pamphlet of sixty-odd pages now laid before us, the author of the well-known ' Ele- mente der Phonetik,' and of that practical little work on ' German Pronunciation, Prac- tice and Theory,' presents the leading points of lectures delivered in the winter of 1886-87. The work is pedagogical in character, designed
for tin- ii k'undidatfti M!I<>
iTC preparing t<> niter the department of English us instructors in the schools and universities of Germany. As in the works alluded to. \ 'n I..K lias here given some very practical and suggestive hints to those for whom the essay is intended.
A preliminary chapter is devoted to a justifi- cation of the author's theory, that in prej lion for the work of this department a thorough acquaintance with the spoken language of to-day i- na| a qualification as is an
understanding of the subject on its historical, its evolutionary side ; and, furthermore, that it is with the former that we ought really to begin. In other words, English, or English philology, is scientifically studied only when
; approached as a spoken language, that is, through its phonetics.
" If our present wretched system of study- ing modern languages is ever to be reformed,
, it must be on the basis of a preliminary train- ing in phonetics, which would at the same time lay the foundation for a thorough practi-
j cal study of the pronunciation and elocution of our own language — subjects which are totally ignored in our present scheme of edu- cation." So said HENRY SWEET in the pre- face to his ' Hand-book of Phonetics,' in 1877 ; and this confession of faith served VIETOR as a
i motto in the ' EJemente der Phonetik,' in 1884. The view here advocated is the view adopted
i by philologists the world over ; it now remains to be seen whether or not, with a persistency that sometimes seems like obstinacy, our lead- ing philologists are to be tempted into the asserting of over-fine distinctions and the as- sumption of a pronunciation not so typical as its adherents claim, thus making the study of practical phonetics a cause of confusion and misleading, with more of theory than of fact to support its arguments. Such a charge cannot, however, be brought against the writer of the pamphlet, although his interest in this depart- ment is everywhere apparent.
The pronunciation of English is the subject which naturally calls for treatment in the second chapter of VIKTOR'S work; and the question, what is standard English, is there quite reasonably discussed. German philolo- gists generally have adopted the pronuncia-
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508
tion of the capital as their type ; not altogether because London possesses the authority in this respect which every metropolis has a right to claim, but especially for the reason that ELLIS and SWEET have taken the pronuncia- tion of educated London as a standard in their familiar works on English sounds. But Lon- don speaks more or less a dialect. VIETOR cites, indeed, TITO PAGLIARDINI ('Varieties of Pronunciation,' London : Pitman, 1882), who distinguishes six dialects at least : ranging from that of Belgravia, the Exquisite, to the vernacular of Billingsgate itself. Moreover, while he approves most heartily of SWEET'S little text-book (' Elementarbuch des gesproch- enen Englisch von HENRY SWEET, Oxford and Leipzig, 1885), VIETOR does not hesitate to recognize the fact that SWEET is occasion- ally weak in the matter of pronunciation ; and he therefore urges the simultaneous use of BELL'S work ( ' The Elocutionary Manual ' by ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL, 4th ed., Salem, Mass. : James P. Burbank, 1878,)* which, based as it is upon a pronunciation more character- istic of the north, is calculated to assist in the detecting and discarding of the distinctive Londonisms which here and there detract from the authority of the standard advocated by SWEET.
The third chapter treats of acquaintance with and mastery of the language in its details. Evidences of the practical nature of the work appear abundantly here — its practical sugges- tiveness to German students, let it be remem- bered. As for instance, when the writer says (P- 33) : "Sehr wahrscheinlich wird er beim Schreiben zum Worterbuch, wenn nicht gar zur Grammatik greifen. Dann frage er sich ernstlich, ob er nicht, statt ' aus dem Englisch- en heraus ' 'ins Englische hinein ' schreibt, d. h., ob er nicht deutsch denkt und ins Englische iibersetzt. 1st dies der Fall, so gebe er sich damit zufrieden, dass er mit der praktischen Spracherlernung so ziemlich von vorn anfang- en muss. Das Worterbuch wird ihn fiinf unter zehnmal doch in die Irre fiihren. Denn wie will er wissen, ob er das passende Wort triff't ? " The author quotes one or two examples to illustrate: "clean and unclean rhymes;"
•The publisher's address at present is at 183 High Street, Boston, Mass.
"the regular quadruped iambus;" and, vice versa, " in der UHR des Bedurfnisses" , The chapter contains a useful bibliography of the leading text-books, and of standard literary works adapted to the student's pur- pose ; and closes with a list of the principal English periodicals together with an indica- tion of the characteristic peculiarities of each.
Chapter IV is devoted to a discussion of the methods to be followed and the helps accessi- ble in the historical study of the language and the literature. The student is advised to adopt in connection with his Hauptfach Eng- lish, German and French as his most natural, and even necessary, Nebenfacher. It would indeed be well if American philologists would take this advice to themselves, for the absence of a knowledge of Old French has too fre- quently proved a very serious defect in the equipment of those devoted to departmental work in English.
In the closing chapter VIETOR concludes his work with a few thoughtful words upon the pedagogical requirements of the teacher's calling, and directs attention to the dignity and scope of the profession. He admits, re- gretfully, that the dreaded Staatsexamen, rather than the inspiring vision of a congenial field of future usefulness, will exercise the strongest influence on the work of preparation, and that haste and superficial study will in many cases reveal themselves in the results.
As will be readily seen, this little book of VIKTOR'S is nothing more nor less than a brief pedagogical essay on the study of English as a specialty. To a hasty reader it may appear both finical and unnecessary ; but one who is familiar with the conditions and the methods of preparing for such work abroad, will appre- ciate the utility and appropriateness of the unpretending pamphlet just examined. It will be useful to the specialist forks bibliography, which is voluminous though somewhat scat- tered ; it may be of interest to the general reader also, by reason of its constant refer- ence to the governmental requirements made of every candidate who aspires to an instruc- torship in this special branch. The book is indexed.
W. E. SIMONDS.
Cornell University.
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510
\',<;v Dtcctonariu <t<t lingua purtiii-jieztt e <///<•;//<}, rmi<|iir( itlc. ( DIM .is ti-rnins t«-< hni- (l» rommerrio e da indtistria, das M iriidas e das artes e da linguagem fami- liar. Tor II. MiriiAKi is. Km duas paries. I 'art i' prinu-ira : Portion--/ Allemao. I,eip/ig: F. A. Brockhatis. 1887. 8vo, pp. viii, 737.
H. MICHAKI.IS, whose excellent ' Vollstan- diges VV6rterl)iich cler itnlienisclien und deut- schen Sprache,' published in 1879, is justoiit in its fourth edition, presents us here with a dictionary of the Portuguese language for which every student of Portuguese has cause to be thankful. Based, as this work is, on tin- best Portuguese dictionaries such as VIKRA'S (Porto, 1871-4) and AULKTE'S (Lisboa, 1881), but especially on the independent results of a ten years' careful reading of current Portu- guese literature in every branch of knowledge, it may confidently challenge comparison with its predecessors both as regards accuracy and completeness. Besides this, however, it offers several practical features which greatly in- crease its utility. The accent is carefully marked unless it be on the penultimate. Chrysalida and ingretne are doubtless mis- prints for chrysdlida and Ingreme, while the representation of the preposition para as par- oxytone instead of oxytone para (pgra, prcf) may be due to a regard for theory rather than for actual practice. Again, the learner finds a few valuable hints on pronunciation, which it would have been well to continue throughout the work. We fully concur with H. MICHAELIS when she says (Pref. pp. vii-viii) : "A fixacao da pronuncia . . . nao se p6de apresentar ao estran- geiro com toda a clareza, a menos que elle nao haja visitado o paiz, demorando-se n'elle, . e conheca bem as delicadas e subtis inflexoes do vocalismo portuguez." But as the editor has, and this with good reason, deemed it advisable to mark atonic o as u, c as silent before -to (acto is represented as atu, but no indication is given that while the c is heard in facto, it is silent in factor, factura, facturar), f and cf as ss(li(ao, acfao=liss&ong, assaong), do, lies, oes as dong, dengs, dengs (which latter notations are more misleading than useful ; because, not to speak of other reasons, they entirely fail to indicate that both elements of
tin -st- diphthongs are nasal), it would have cost little more labor to distinguish open e and o from their dose sounds by a grave accent, and I-, mark at'.nir ,-. when initial or accompanied by the palatals x, j, nh and Ih (except before r and /) as i, as in fdadt, tsquffer, privilcgia- do (cf. R. (i. YIANNA, Romania xii, pp. 32, 44). The notation of the palatal fri<ativ<- .r as German sch (e. g. ra/><r=rkaischa) is likeh give a wrong idea of the Portuguese sound, which is entirely free from lip-rounding (cf. K.
G. VlANNA, 1. C. p. 46).
tnnther commendable feature of Mi- CHAELIS' work may be mentioned the care bestowed on the syntactical uses of prepo- sitions, a matter which is sorely neglected in most of our dictionaries. We should have liked, however, to find under para the hin- that ir para casa implies ' to go home ' with the intention of staying, the idea of return being implied by the preposition a (cf. R. G. VIANNA, 1. c. pp. 59-60). Last, not least, the phraseology of the Portuguese language is represented in a fulness which one would hardly look for in a book of so small a compass as the one before us, and a goodly number of proverbs have been admitted. Desiring to con- tribute to the usefulness of the book in a new edition, which will doubtless be required before long, we shall supplement our remarks on it with a small number of additions drawn both from written and oral sources. Of idio- matic and proverbial expressions only those will be given whose meaning is not obvious ; and, the dictionary being intended for Ger- mans, it has been thought preferable to use German for the translation.
ABOVILLA, f. : Art Wollenstoff(in Abbeville in Frankreich verfertigt), A. HHRCUI.ANO, •O. Mon.' II, 216 (Brockh. ed.).
ABRIGOSO, A. adj. : schiitzend. A sombra de sua mac 6 abrigosa e creadora. G. TORRE- ZAO, ' Rosas Pallidas,' p. 21.
ADEJAR : schweben. Nos labios adejava- Ihe vago sorriso. 'O. Mon.' II, p. an. Pelas frontes de ambos adejava a sombra de una tristeza intima. ' Rosas P.' p. 160.
ADEUS, fam. : Adeus cfstos, que sao as vindi- inas /ft/as, etwa : ietzt ist die ganze herr- lichkeit vorbei. Int. ora adfus, warum nichtgar! J. DINIZ, 'As Pupillas,' p. 138 (Brockh. ed.).
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AFRETAR : ein schiff mieten. ' O. Mon.' I. pp. 193, 244.
ALHO, fam. : Tomar alhos por bugalhos, die dinge mit einander verwechseln. ' O. Mon.' II, 154.
AMPHiGURf, m. : Unverstandliches gerede. 'As Pup.' p. 106.
ANDAR, prov. : Por onde vds assim como vires assim fards, man muss mit den wolfen heulen.
APORFIA, f. : Wettgesang (beim Cliama-Rita Tanz).
ASNO, prov. : Qtier queira, quer nao queira, o asno ha de irdfeira. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 151.
ATRELAR, fig. : binden, ketten an etwas. O pae e os irmaos, atrellados a lida diaria, nao davam pela mudanca de Lucia. ' Rosas Pall.' p. 59.
AVABEBA, f. (mus.) : Maurisches instrument. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 235.
AZULEJAR, v. n. : blau sein. Fomos a S. Lazaro : o ce"o azulejava resplandecendo jubilos e confortos. ' Rosas Pall.' p. 137.
BEBER, prov., Onde entra o beber, sae o saber: ist der trunk im manne, so ist der verstand in der kanne. 'O. Mon.' II, p. 151.
BEICO, fam., Ter beifo doce : einen leckerzahn haben ; ficar de bei$o cahido : mit langer nase abziehen.
BE-MOLE, fam., Polo (peld) be-mole: in sanfter weise. C. MICHAELIS (Herrig's Archiv, vol. Ixv, p. 39).
BETESGA, fam., E metier o ro do pela betesga : das ist ein ding der unmoglichkeit.
BOLHA, bolha de sabao: seifenblase ; fig., leer- heit, nichtigkeit. O devorarem-se acerca dos graves interesses, das profundas ques- toes das bolhas de sabao politicas. A. HERCULANO (in : ' Cantos de A. GONCAL- VES DIAS,' p. x. Brockh. ed.).
BOM-SERAS, m. : gute, gute seele, einfaltspin- sel. ' El-Rei Dinheiro' pp. 30, 31.
BORE, m. (mus.) : Brasilianisches kriegsinstru- ment. A. GONCALVES DIAS, ' Cantos ' I, P- 5-
BOTA-ABAIXO, m. : Neuerer, zerstorer (des alten, herkommlichen). ' O. Mon.' I. p. 185.
CABANAL, m. : Scheune. ' As Pup.' pp. 2, 252.
CAIREL: Rand (im allgemeinen). No cairel da rocha debrucou-se encarando o abys- mo. ' Rosas Pall.' p. 67.
CAMBALHOTA, DE CAMBALHOTA: Zusammen, ohne ausnahme. 'As Pup.' p. 225.
CAO, fam., Fazer andar tudo em passo de cao : alle hebel in bewegung setzen, alles auf- bieten ; prov. preso por ier cao, preso pelo nao ter: auf alle falle die schuld tragen. 'El-Rei Dinheiro,' p. 309.
CARA, fam., cara de caso : eine wichtige miene. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 103; cara de funeral: eine armesiindermiene. 'As Pupillas,' p. 117; cara de castelhano : buses, feindliches gesicht. ' O. Mon.' I, p. 200.
CARTAPACIO, fam., cartapacios velhos: alte schmoker. C. MICHAELIS, ib. p. 40.
CATH6LICO, fam., Nao ser muilo catholico: nicht recht, nicht geheuer sein ; nao esld muilo catholico commigo : er ist mir nicht gewogen ; nao estar muilo catholico : nicht sehr gesund sein.
CEO, prov., Contra o ceo sd Deus: gegen des himmels gewalt reicht nur gottes macht.
CHEIRAR, fam., Cheirar o loucinho: den braten riechen.
CHORINCO, m.—choro : Weinen ; fam., o brin- co acabou em chorinco : der scherz endete mit thranen. ' Rosas Pall.' p. 60.
CHYLO, fig. : Der zustand geistiger und kor- perlicher ruhe nach dem essen. O abbade f6ra subitamente despertado da deliciosa somnolencia do chylo pela chegada de Fr. Juliao. 'O. Mon.' II, p. 205. Depois do comer fazia o chylo, e depots do chylo comecava a digerir. 'El-Rei Dinheiro,' p. 251. This use of chylo, familiar to the Italian in the phrase fare il chilo, does not seem to be popular in Portuguese.
CILICIO, fig., os cilicios : die busse ; der stach- el. N'essas horas difificeis o coracao suc- cumbe quasi sempre pungido/<?/0.y cilicios do verdadeiro e do justo. 'Rosas Pall.' p. 312 : cf. ib. pp. 320, 339.
COALHO, levar de coalho : mit der wurzel aus- reissen.
COBRIR, prov., Quern te cobre, te descobre, wer dich deckt, deckt dich auf (kann dich verraten).
CONTEMPLAR : einen bedenken mit etwas, begiinstigen. Revista Lusit. 1887, p. 86.
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, in. : Art mantel (im fiinf/ehn.jahrh. . I'l'lih ! — assoprou a beata de , (Icitandu para traz O coroinctn. 1 O.4 Mon.' II, p. 145. The corometn is still worn on sonic of the Azores.
DESCOZKR, fam., Descozer a meada : sein herz ausschiitten.
DESFEITA, fam., Fazer uma desfeita a alg. : einem ein schnippchen schlagen. '(). Mon.' I, p. 187.
DEUS, fam., Ver a Deus por nm pe: mil knap- per not davon kommen.
ESFOLHADA : Volkstumliche unterhaltifng beim entblattern des mais. 'As Pup.' pp. 28,147.
ESPADELLADA, f., Volkstiimliche unterhaltung beim ausklopfen des flachses. Ibid.
FAINA : Arbeit im allgemeinen. Os trabalha- dores occupados na faina da vindima re- colhiam com os cestos ... ' Rosas Pall.' p. 140.
FARROMA, f. : Prahlerei. Revista lusit., 1887, p. 47; fam., fazer farroma: prahlen, grossprechen.
FERIR, Ferir de ponta e de talho: auf stoss und hieb losgehen.
FIADA, f. : Das spinnen mit dem rocken ; volks- tumliche unterhaltung dabei. 'As Pup.' p. 28.
FICAR, Ficar de pe: aufbleiben. Fernando? Talvez fosse ao theatro ; em to- do o caso fico eu de pe a espera d'elle. ' Rosas Pall.' p. 210.
FoLKL6Rico, a. adj. : die volksdichtung, folk- lore betreffend. Revista lusit. 1887.
FOLKLORISTA, m. : Folklorist, Sammler der volksdichtung. Revista lusit. 1887.
FORMOSO, prov., Nao h* formosa sem sen&o : nichts ist vollkommen.
GANCHO, gancho de cabello : haarnadel. ' As Pup.' p. 226.
GARRAFAL : schwiilstig (vom styl, von der sprache). ' O. Mon.' I, p. 192.
GATO, fam., Tirar a sardinha com a mao do gato : sich die kastanien aus dem feuer holen lassen.
GOLE, adv. gole a gole=aos goles : schluck- weise, nach und nach. ' O. Mon.' I, p. 219.
KALEMXJSI oi-u, m.. is wanting- Kaleido- scopic is referred to letter c, but not given there.
LACKE, prov., Fazer-se vermelho como un lacre : purpurrot werden. ' As Pup.' p. 7.
MAo, adv. mao por mao : vertraulich. Todos conyersamos mao por mao com elles (os marinheiros). ' Rosas Pall.' p. 56.
MARMELO, fig. : Taugenichts, schwindler (= tratante, mariola). ' El-Rei Dinheiro,' p. 33-
MEDO: Gespenst. 'O. Mon.' II, 121, 185; adv. a medo: scheu, furchtsam, schucn- tern. ' Rosas Pall.' pp. 196, 245.
MELAR, fam., Me me/em oder melado seta eu, etwa : ich will verwunscht sein. Me me- lem se entendo o doutor! ' O. Mon.' II, p. 224.
MESTRA : Schule. Os modelos calligraphicos que escrevera na mcstra. 'As Pap.' p.
114.
MOINANTAR, v. n. : miissig gehen. ' El-Rei Dinheiro,' p. 303.
MULETA, P6r de muletas : lahm legen, zu schanden machen. Quanto pensas que gastei para-/^r de moletas a justica, quan- do teu marido te perseguiu. ' El-Rei Dinheiro,' p. 256.
NESGA, adv. de nesga: Scharf, stechend. Deitou-lhe a surrelfa um olhar de nesga, a soslayo dos. oculos. ' El-Rei Dinheiro.' p. 133 ; cf. 121.
NIAGARA, n. pr., fig., em niagaras: in stro- men, ineiner flut. Brotou em niagaras Ac. ternura. ' Rosas Pall.' p. 324.
OLHO, fam., Nao ha olhos para que se nao enfeite: sie verliebt sich in aen ersten besten. 'As Pup.' p. 130; vulg., ha olhos inclinados a remelas : der geschmack ist verschieden ; n'um relancear d'olhox: im nu ; ter os olhos abotoados : verblendet sein, sich eine falsche vorstellung von etwas machen ; a olho n6 (desarmado) : mit blossem, unbewaffnetem auge.
OPERCULO (phqnol.) : Verschluss. O ponto do 6rgao passive que com aquele (o 6rgao ajjente) forma o contacto ou o operculo. Rev. lusit. 1887, p. 78.
Osso, fam., Sao ossos do ojficio: das sind die beschwerden eines standes, atntes. ' As Pup.' p. 86. — The phrase trinta c&es a um osso is unnecessarily given twice in the same article.
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OvEN£AL, m. : (des.) Haushofmeister ; gerichts- diener. ' O. Mon.' II, pp. 239, 241, 256.
PACIENCIA, int.: Geduld ! Mronisch). Nao quereis abencoar minha filha ? Paciencia \ O meu capellao o fara. ' O. Mon.' I, p. 203.
PAPA, fam., Estar feito em papas: arg zer- schlagen, zugerichtet sein.
PAPAR, fam., papa-santos : heuchler.
PEIXE, prov., Pela lingua morre o peixe\ durch die zunge verrat man sich. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 291.
PESTANEJAR, Sem pestanejar: mit unver- wandter aufmerksamkeit ; unverwandten blicks.
PHONEMA, m. : Laut, lautgebilde. Revista lusit. 1887, p. 77, et passim.
PHONETICISTA, m. : Phonetiker. Revista Insit. 1887, p. 77 et passim.
PHRASICO, adj.: syntaktisch. Uma unidade frdsica. Revista lusit. 1887, p. 84 ; cf. ib. p. 219 : Seica provdm de sei cd, ou talvez antes, de sei que, reunidos em um s6 yo- cabulo pe'lo movimento do acentofrdsico, o cual, recalndo sempre no verbo princi- pal da oracao, acabou por fazer a locucao proclitica.
PONTAPE, fam., Pontape de ventura : uner- warteter gliickszufall : (—venturao, lance de fortund).
PORQUINHO, prov., Quando te derem o por- quinho, acode-lhe com o baracinho : Gibt man dir die kuh, so lauf mit dem strick dazu.
PREENCHER : ausfullen. O autor . . . poderia preencher as lacunas com sons peregrinos. Revista lusit. 1887, p. 78. Morreu, na edade de 33 annos, deixando de lucto as letras portuguezas e vago um lugar que difficilmente se preencherd. 'As Pup.' p. vii.
QUATRO, adv., a quatro e quatro: in schnelle, in rascher folge. As lagrimas escorrega- vam-lhe pelas laces a quatro e quatro. 'O. Mon.' II, p. 288.
QUINHOAR, v. a.—aguin/war. 'O. Mon.' II, p. 280.
RATO, prov., Depressa <:e toma o rato que s6 sabe um buraco : es ist eine schlechte maus die nur ein loch weiss. ' O. Mon.' II, p.
RILHAFOLLES, ii. pr. : Name der irrenanstalt zu Lissabon. Fam. Rilhafolles com elle: er ist verruckt. ' El-Rei Dinheiro,' p. 192. Cf. the Spanish El Nuncio. Lope, 'Melin- dres' (Riv. 24, 3353).
RIPADA, f. (von ripar, flachs reffen) : Volks- tiimliche unterhaltung beim flachsreffen. 'As Pup.,' p. 28.
Riso, prov., Muito riso, pouco siso: viel ge- lachter, wenig verstand. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 142.
RODIZIO : Kanone ; boiler. ' El-Rei Dinheiro,' PP- 3T9> 323- Cf. Joao de Deus, ' Dice. Pros.' s. v.
SARDINHA, fam., Netn sempre ha rabo de sar- dinha : es ist nicht alle tag sonntag.
SEITA, fig.: Grille; steckenpferd. 'O. Mon.' II, p. 109.
SE.R, Por um es nao es: um ein kleines, bei- nahe. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 47.
SOLINHAR, fig. : verletzen ; untergraben. Deixar de comer por causa de paixoes humanas, embora legitimas, era uma cou- sa que solinhava pelos fundamentos as austeras tradicdes de Cist^r. ' O. Mon.' II, p. 221.
TAMBORETE : Lehrstuhl ; sitz in einem amte ( = cadeira). 'O. Mon.' II, p. 223.
TEMPO, fam., Tempos que jd Id vao: schone schon vergangene zeiten. ' O. Mon.' I, p. .195-
TINTA, fam., Estd na tinta : das ist noch nicht ausgemacht ; das wird sich erst noch zei- gen. 'El-Rei Dinheiro.' pp. 301, 302.
TOBAJARAS, m. pi. : Name der indianischen ureinwohner Brasiliens. A. Gonz. Dias, ' Cantos," I, p. 169.
TRA^A. fam., tra$a de bibliotheca: biicher- wurm.
TRANSVASAR, v. a. : Von einern gefass ins an-
dre iibergiessen ; se : sich zerschlagen,
zerfallen ( = entornarse}. — Under trans- vasar the reader is referred to trasvasar, and there again to transvasar, without any meaning being given in either place.
TRES, prov., As tres o diabo os fez, etwa : aller bosen dinge sind drei. 'O. Mon.' II, p. 82.
VEZ, prov., Ld vem uma vez que e devez: der krug geht so lange zum brunnen bis er bricht. ' As Pup.' p. 29.
VIR, fam., Voce para cd vird, voce para cd vird : du wirst schon noch daran glauben mu'ssen. 'As Pup.' p. 68.
HENRY R. LANG.
New Bedford, Mass.
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THE'TRISTK.\\* ()/•* '/•//<>. J/.-/S.
Un nuovo fd an rtcchio frammento del Tris- tran cii ToMMASO. F. NOVATI. [Stinij di Filologia Komanza, Fuse. 6]. The obscurity attending the origins and development of the Hreton cycle in French literature and the great success of the mediae- val imitations and translations in England, Germany and the Northern countries, have always made it a favorite field of inves- tigation by scholars, whose love for scientific research has been quickened by their unfailing interest in the marvellous stories of Tristran, of Arthur, and of the Holy Grail. Especially fruitful in results have been the labors of the past two years. The discoveries attending the publication by the Sbciftt des anciens textes franfais of the prose ' Merlin ' (cf. MOD. LANG. NOTES iii, cols. 154-158), and the appearance of the thirtieth volume of the ' Histoire litteraire, ' which opens with a long review of the romances of the Round Table, have been supplemented by a critical study ofthe poems relating to Tristran, carried on by members of ihe.JEco/e des hautes tttides (Ko mania, xv, pp. 481 ss. ; xvi, pp. 288 ss.), and, more recently, by the unexpected recovery of a hitherto lost fragment of the work of THOMAS.
The MS. containing this text is the property of a private citizen of Turin, by whose permis- sion it was copied by NOVATI. It was pre- served as the two last guards of a book, one loose, the other glued to the cover. In the former, which furnishes the new verses, the writing is almost intact ; in the latter, which gives a variant to certain lines of the Douce MS., there are, naturally, gaps and abrasions. Each leaf contains 256 verses. From a study of the phonetics and writing of the MS., NOVATI concludes that it is a French copy of an Anglo-Norman original and was made in the early part of the thirteenth century.
The subject of the newly-found lines is not however unknown, having already been con- jectured from a comparison of the English and Norse translations of the poem of THOMAS. They join on to the episode com- monly called the " Halle aux Images," the hall which Tristran had added to the wonder-
ful grotto of the gi.tnt Moldagog, to contain tin- statii' s «.f Vsolt and Brengain. The con- < hiding lines of the episode form the first fifty verses of the new fragment. From allusions in them to the"biau Cariados," which reveal the jealousy of Tristran, tin- editor assumes that Cariados was well known to the auditors of the poet and had probably l>- mi-
nent actor in episodes now lost. The second division of the fragment made by NOVATI (vv. 50-183), contains a philosophical digression by the poet on the unhappiness of the four lovers, Marc, Ysolt, Ysolt of the White Hands and Tristran, somewhat prolix, but character- istic of the contemplative tendency of THOMAS, and which, being distasteful to the ruder minds ofthe North, is not found in either ofthe trans- lations. The third duisionof the recovered text (vv. 184-255), relating to the episode of the "Slough,'1 gives the original of what has been reproduced in a somewhat different setting in 'Sir Tristrem,' but has been followed quite faithfully in the version of the monk ROBERT.
Having thus analysed the text, NOVATI pro- ceeds to discuss the bearings which it may have on the legends referring to Tristran, and is thus led to a dissertation on the style of THOMAS and on his relation to the literary history of the time. The well-known prolixity of the poet, his delight in psychological re- flections, as seen in the fragment by the digres- sion on the lovers, distinguish him clearly from his contemporaries. His predecessor, B&ROUL, author of the ' Tristran ' which was the main source for the poem of EILHART VON OBERG, differs from THOMAS in composition, style and spirit. The various lays that tell the love and trials of Tristran and Ysolt are, in B£ROUL, loosely joined together, forming out of rough elements a passable biography, which shows by the local coloring and traditions that his sources, if not Celtic, were directly deduced from Celtic originals, perhaps by means of English translations. This latter supposition is rendered the more probable by the English words found in the body of the poem. The style of BEROUL is likewise concise, without artifice, without digressions. The love which Tristran and Ysolt here bear to. each other is savage, primitive, without a notion of the
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chivalric element that, later, was the peculiar feature of the stories of the Breton cycle. THOMAS, on the other hand, forms from the Celtic legend a logical narrative. From among the songs of the minstrels he chooses with independence and discretion, rejecting what he does not wish to use, transforming that which he selects, condensing and adapt- ing, until under his hands the plot assumes a sufficient unity of action. Unlike BEROUL he does not lose himself in the narration of his lovers' misfortunes but rather aims at em- bellishing his material to please the taste of the society of the time, such as might have been found at the court of Henry II. Quite possible is it also that this society may have furnished him the incentive to his story : —
Pur essample, issi ai fait, Pur 1'estorie embelir, Queas amanz deive plaisir * * Aveir em poissent grant confort Encuntre change, encuntre tort, Encuntre paine, encuntre dolur, Encuntre tuiz engins d'amur !
In carrying out this purpose THOMAS found it necessary to alter the current of the story by giving it a contemplative bent, and by inser- ting frequent philosophical digressions, in which he allowed his own talent the greater play. Thus his verse, poor in the narrative portions, becomes graceful and easy when he reflects on the troubles of his characters. To enlarge this element he was forced to suppress many incidents, to leave out subordinate personages, or to refer to them merely in passing. Fur- thermore, he thought a change of style neces- sary to the new theme, and becomes artifi- cial, prolix, abounds in plays on words, and too often breaks his tale by reflections and j monologs.
Up to this point NOVATI agrees in the main with the critics who have preceded him, though his proofs rest on a deeper study of the subject. Not content, however, with these already foreseen results, he advances further and reaches somewhat new conclusions. The central point of the legend is love, represented in BEROUL, we have seen, as a rude, savage passion. It has hitherto been assumed that the same essential mark had been retained in the version of THOMAS also. The introduc- tion into French literature of chivalric love
had been referred by M. G ASTON PARIS (Ro- mania xii, pp. 516 ss.) to the ' Lancelot ' of CHRETIEN DE TROIES, and his views had been accepted by subsequent investigators with perhaps too little questioning on their part. But NOVATI, assuming that the love pictured by THOMAS differs from that found in the poem of BKROUL, or at least that there was a definite purpose on the part of THOMAS to make it different, proceeds to test the argu- ments of M. PARIS by a comparison of the poems of THOMAS and CHRETIEN. Both Tristran and Lancelot were ever faithful to their mistresses, notwithstanding the marriage of the former to Ysolt of the White Hands; and Tristran even names himself "Tristran le Amerus." Both undergo, in their fidelity, re- proach and contumely. Lancelot mounts on a cart, Tristran disguises himself as a leper. Ysolt, like Guinevere, is always constant, the model of friends — " veire amie . . plus leale ne fud one vue." Like Guinevere she longs to die with her lover, as indeed she does. Thus on both sides are found certain elements of the courtesy in wooing which distinguishes the tales of Arthur's knights. Certain other elements however are lacking, and NOVATI is thus forced to stop short of a complete par- allelism, admitting that while the effort of THOMAS is plainly towards a refined passion, the rough Celtic original is seen in many a place beneath the artistic veil.*
Apart from likeness in subject to CHRETIEN the description given by THOMAS of the "Halle aux Images " suggests a comparison with another poet of the time, BENO!T DE STE-MORE. In the ' Roman de Troie ' of the latter there is a constant tendency towards luxuriant coloring, wherever the matter lends itself to such treatment. In the ' Chambre d'Aubastrie ' (' Troie ' vv. 14 583 ss.), as in the hall of Tristran, appear floors of gold and silver, walls hung with paintings and adorned with carvings, and rooms filled with beautiful
* This incomplete resemblance between the two poems could easily be accounted for by the influence exerted by Provencal poetry on CHRETIEN, an influence which seems to be entirely lacking in the poem of THOMAS. The latter's conception of chivalric love shows no other notion than what might be deduced from that establishment of social intercourse under the patronage of the royal power which took place in the twelfth century in the North.
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st. in:, s. This common detire on th« part of
I. otli ports t-> e\< -itt- tlu-ir lirarns with visions of Oriental splendor is entirely absent in ISiKtu i, ami shows incidentally that the latter could not have stood as a model in this respect to GOTTFRIED VON STRASSHURG — but rather THOMAS. Following out this trace, NOVATI compares critically this par- ticular episode ("la Kossure a la gent aniant ") in the poem of GOTTFRIED and in the Norse translation of the lost portion of THOMAS'S work which gives the account of the building of the grotto. GOTTFRIED states that the grotto was built by giants, who in idolatrous times ruled over Cornwall, and adds an account of the historical events which took place in that part of England up to the reign of Marc. With this account the Saga coincides in the main, presenting a resem- blance which would indicate a common source, viz., the 'Tristran ' of THOMAS. By a further comparison of this narrative with that of GEOF- FREY OF MONMOUTH, NOVATI is led to con- clude that THOMAS followed, at least in part, GEOFFREY'S account, taken either directly from him or indirectly through the unknown BRER i whom THOMAS claims to have been his guide.
The remainder of the study concerns the second leaf of the fragment, which is a variant of a portion of the Douce MS., and which NOVATI determines to belong to a different family and to present a better reading. A conjecture of the number of lines which must have connected the two leaves causes the editor to conclude that THOMAS had greatly condensed the narrative of the various jour- neys of Tristran from Brittany to Cornwall, and had omitted many details which he could not use.
A diplomatic reproduction of the two parts is appended. The discovery of so important a MS. leads to the hope that still others may come to light with equal benefit to the literary history of the Middle Ages.
F. M. WARREN.
Johns Hopkins University.
Na turf or s chung und Schule von W. PREY- ER. Dritte Auflage. Stuttgart, W. Spemann, 1887. 48 pp.
This essay was first read by PROFESSOR PREYER at the sixtieth meeting of the Asso- ciation of German Scientists and Physicians.
The iiui -sti^itions of modern scientists have I"!' SOUP exerted an e\er growing
influence in nearly all phases of life— except in the schools. These, although surrounded on all sides l>y the venial green of the present, have not shed the withered leaves of the past. And yet, who is letter fitted than the biologist to furnish the educator with an understanding of the conditions and laws of physical and intellectual development ? He has even now accomplished much in this respect (pp. 4-8). But nearly all the higher schools for boys and girls, and especially the gymnasia, violate the well-established laws of education and there- fore fail to attain their avowed aim, that is, a healthy and harmonious development of the pupils.
After all that has in late years been said on the subject, the author's exhibition of the effects of secondary education in Germany upon the physical condition of the young men is simply startling (pp. 8-18). The single sub- ject of eye-sight may serve as an illustration : While in the lower classes of the village schools hardly one child out of a hundred is near-sighted, and in those of the city schools 2-3$, myopy in the gymnasia ranges from 4% in sexto, to 50$ \npritna.
In reading the severe strictures upon the matter and manner of instruction in the gym- nasia, we must bear in mind that they come from one who not only has passed through the whole process which he condemns, but, after winning the doctorate in two faculties and gaining experience as a practising physician, has now for more than twenty years been a university professor, and as such has had ample opportunity of forming a judgment of the material which the gymnasia furnish to the universities ; while his researches in mental physiology lend additional weight to his opinion.
Those who have read the publications of W. P. ATKINSON, CHAS. F. ADAMS, DR. HOFF- MANN, CHAS. W. ELIOT, and other recent writers on kindred subjects, will find in this brochure much that is not entirely new to them, but also several topics that have not hitherto been brought into the discussion of one of the most important and interesting of educational problems. DR. PREYER'S argu- ment, well supported by statistics, in favor of the abolishment of the "gymnasia! monopoly" is certainly strong and, it would seem, convinc-
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ing. His estimate of what, on this question, the vote of the German university facul- ties, as at present constituted, would be, in comparison with that of the faculties of the Prussian universities in 1869, is not fanciful. The German gymnasium, in \te present form, continues to exist only through artificial help ; it is an instance of the principle of protection applied to institutions of learning, the privilege of admission to the public service taking the place of tariff or bounty. " Ich ver- lange einstweilen im Namen Tausender nichts anderes, als einzig die Abschaffung der humanistischen Gymnasialreife als allein- igen -Passe-partout zu den Universitaten und Staatspriifungen, nur diesen einen Federstrich! Alle Schulen konnen von Staats wegen zu- nachst genau so bleiben wie sie sind. Man gebe nur Freiheit der Wahl. Das Ubrige bricht sich dann von selbst Balm" (p. 38). In the remaining ten pages the author suggests what this "Ubrige" will be.
A. LODEMAN. Ypsilanti, Mich.
BRIEF MENTION.
The Sixth Annual Convention of the MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA will be held at the Law School of the Universi- ty of Cincinnati (Ohio), on December 26, 27 and 28, 1888. Papers will be presented by PROFESSOR WALTER and DR. McCABE (Univ. of Michigan), PROFS. VON JAGEMANN (Indiana University), SCHILLING (Wittenberg College), GERBER (Earlham College), PAGE (Univ. of the South), ZDANOWICZ (Vanderbilt), CORN (Harvard), TODD (Johns Hopkins), PRIMER and SHEPHERD (College of Charleston), GAR- NETT (Univ. of Virginia), and by a number of others. A circular will be issued shortly, giving particulars as to hours of meeting, general rendez-vous for members, social features, railroad rates, etc., etc. All those intending to be present and desiring special information as to the arrangements made for the accommodation and entertainment of guests, should send in their names as early as possible to PROFESSOR J. M. HART, Univ. of Cincinnati, marking the envelope: For the Local Committee of the M. L. A. All inquiries concerning the presentation of papers should
be addressed to the Secretary, I'KOK. A. M. ELLIOTT, Johns Hopkins University, Haiti- more, Md., who will refer the subject to the proper committee.
Under the heading of" Select French Texts >: we have a ' Choix de Contes de Daudet,' edited, with notes, by PROF, W. PRICE (Boston : Charles H. Kilborn). They are four of the brightest stories of the author, chosen from among his 'Contes du Lundi,' pleasantly annotated and in convenient shape. We notice in press two other pamphlets belonging to the series : 'Choix d'Extraits de Daudet,' by the same editor, and SOUVESTKK'S ' Con- fessions d'un Ouvrier,' prepared by PROF. SUPER.
DR. VON REINHARDSTOTTNER contributes to the Jahrbuch fur Mtinchener Geschichte an interesting notice of the first German translation of CASTIGLIONE'S ' Cortegiano,' published at Burghausen in 1565. The trans- lator, LAURENZ KRATZER, " Mautzahler," holds faithfully to the original text and con- trols the vernacular with considerable skill. A comparison of the language of his translation with that of a translation made in 1593 reveals the progress of the German language in the last half of the sixteenth century. Late in the seventeenth century, 1694, a third rendering of the Italian classic appeared at Frankfort-on- the-Main.
The last session of the Amherst Summer School of Languages was an interesting one in several respects. The introduction of the study of phonetics along with the other higher work in early English and French was an im- portant feature, and had a marked effect upon the teachers in attendance. Through them it will doubtless contribute its share towards raising the standard of Modern Language work throughout the country. The critical study of ' Faust ' and ' Nathan der Weise ' was another valuable feature. The fact that there are so many "native " teachers at this summer school shows the stress which is there laid upon living language ; but it is equally gratifying to ob- serve that the higher linguistic and literary phases of the study are not neglected.
The patrons of MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES will find many hints and useful suggestions
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relative to literary work in a bright pt-iiodi< .d. The Writer, a monthly magazine designed to interest and help all literary workers, edited by William H. Hills and Robert Lure. Price, $1.00. Address : The Writer^ Boston, Mass. The editors have labored thus far (vol. ii) in accordance with their judicious maxim : "Articles must be plain, practical and helpful," and have achieved thereby a well deserved success. All who are connected with publica- tions of any kind must be thankful for the good this little journal is doing in lessening the labor of the type-setter and proof-reader, and increas- ing the comfort of the writer and general reader.
Another cheering sign of development in the study of modern languages comes to us from North Carolina. In connection with the Teachers' Association of that State, a Modern Language Association has been formed whose object is to discuss and improve methods of studying and teaching English, French and German, etc. The officers elected were: President, PROF. THOMAS HUME (University of North Carolina); Vice-President, PROF. W. S. CURRELL (Davidson College); Secretary and Treasurer, W. A. BLAIR (Winston); Execu- tive Committee, in addition to the above named, DR. R. H. LEWIS (Kinetors) and P. P. CLAXTON (Asheville). Goethe's Faust, one of the Old English Poems, and Methods of Teaching English, are the subjects to be studied and reported on at the session of 1889. We greet with special pleasure this new organ- ization and augur for it great success in awak- ening an interest for modern language work throughout the Old North State.
A deprint from the Romania (vol. xvii) by Pio RAJNA treats of Italian proper names which were derived from heroes of the Arthurian legends during the twelfth century. In a Latin document of 1122 appears an Artusius of Rovero, a form which must have been borrowed from the French minstrels, since NENNIUS gives only Arturus. Many other Arthurs are found in later writings to attest the popularity of the chief of the Round Table. Of the knights, Gawain (Galvanus) appears earliest in Italian charters, though he is soon followed by others, until in the thirteenth cen- tury there is hardly a noble family of Italy but
dr.iun .1 i..v.iritc name from the talc* of Celtic Britain. Hence PKOP. RAJNA concludes that there was an earlier introduction of the Breton cycle into Italy than ha* generally been supposed. As is usual with this distinguished Romance scholar, the notes which accompany the text of his remarks furnish abundant and valuable material for the social and literary history of the times.— In the number 67 of the Rumania, PROF. RAJNA avails himself of new material, finding the name Artusius in a charter of the year 1114 and H'a/waaus in a document of the year 1 136.
By arrangement with the house of Hachette the English translation of ' Les Grands Ecri- vains Francais ' (Moo. LANG. NOTKS iii, cols. 46 and 475) is undertaken by PROF. M. B. ANDERSON, already known in this field as the translator of HUGO'S 'Shakespeare' (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.). Three volumes of the American edition have already appeared : BOISSIER'S 'Mme de Se" vigne", ' SOREL'S ' Mon- tesquieu ' and CARO'S 'George Sand.' It is no easy task to render in a foreign tongue the sentences of such masters of the French acad- emic style, a style pregnant in its conciseness and thoroughly traditional ; yet the translator has overcome many of the obstacles which con- fronted him. It is always a question whether, in translations, fidelity to the text should or should not interfere with idiomatic freedom of ex- pression. PROF. ANDERSON has ventured to take but little liberty with the great names that have signed these essays and in consequence the English reader is ever conscious of the French original. In but few cases how- ever does this likeness amount to an absolute Gallicism. A great improvement over the French edition is the detailed table of contents prefixed to each monograph, and in the volume on MONTESQUIEU a full index, which facilitates greatly its use by students of history and politics. Needless to say that, in common with all the publications of this house, the series is attractive in print and binding, supe- rior in these respects to the Hachette edition, which it also exceeds in size by from thirty to fifty pages a volume.
As a popular introduction to the attractive study of the etymological meaning of words, Archbishop TRENCH'S lectures ' On the Study
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of Words' have never been surpassed; they have indeed never been equalled. This little book has removed the scales from many eyes, and to many minds imparted that new sense for the perception of the " fossil poetry, ethics and history " imbedded in words which before were regarded merely as "counters." The inherent interest of the subject has nowhere as here been adorned with graces of style that impart an almost idyllic character to the treat- ment. The writer's geniality of mind and heart pervades every page and steals into the very being of the reader, opening up new avenues of sympathy, new vistas of moral beauty ; it also quickens admiration for the patient toil of research, and reveals a high standard for the application of the results of minute knowledge to the generous uses of all mankind. It would be of interest to know how many special students of language could trace to the influence of these pages some of those first impulses that help to determine the career of one's life. We are glad, therefore, to announce that the future usefulness of this well-known book is not to be hindered by reason of a lack of such corrections as the lapse of time has made necessary, for the Clarendon Press has just issued a corrected edition prepared by MR. A. L. MAYHEW. The reviser, at the cost of considerable labor, has removed erroneous etymologies, and in foot- notes judiciously discussed difficult points and supplied references to recent authorities.
Under the general title of " Le'gendes Fran- caises," The Modern Language Publishing Company is bringing out in cheap form a series ot French texts for school use, of which the following have already appeared : ' Robert le Diable,' ' Le bon roi Dagobert,' and ' Merlin 1' Enchanteur,' all edited by B. MERAS. The distinctive feature of these texts is that two forms of a large number of the construc- tions, one correct, the other incorrect, are inserted in parentheses, the student being required to choose between the two. In every case he is aided by an appropriate reference to the editor's ' Syntaxe pratique de la langue francaise.' An appendix contains the forms of all the irregular verbs occurring in the text.
To their numerous other collections of French Plays Messrs. Henry Holt & Co. have
undertaken to add a new series entitled "French Plays for Girls," the first number of which is made up of 'Trois Comedies pour jeunes filles," par Lemercier de Neuville. These plays are intended to be acted by the pupils, and are accompanied by full directions for their stage setting and other management. For such guidance, "on n'a pas toujours un com^dien sous la main, et on h^site a 1' intro- duire dans les pensions ou dans les couvents."
Messrs. Allyn & Bacon of Boston republish in larger type and every way attractive form Chardenal's excellent and well-known ' First French Course.' In addition to extreme clear- ness in the statement of rules and explanations, the superiority of Chardenal consisted in a genius for the accumulation of easy, fresh, abundant and sensible material for practice. A comparison of the new edition with the old reveals a few slight changes. A chapter on pronunciation has been prefixed, and a new series of extracts for translation introduced.
To the worker in no other department of language investigation are the results of re- search in Comparative Grammar of more service than to the advanced scholar in the modern European idioms ; here he must con- stantly recognize the fact that he is keeping guard over only one end of a line of linguistic phenomena that often have their origin in the very beginnings of Indo-European speech. To trace the delicate threads of phonetic and morphological connection that bind existing products to the formative period of language, he has need at every step of his progress to avail himself of the labors of the comparative philologian, and it is with special pleasure, therefore, that we would call the attention of our readers to a translation into English of one of the most important works that have appear- ed on the subject of general grammar : ' Ele- ments of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages ' by KARL BRUG- MANN. Vol. I, Introduction and Phonology. Translated from the German by JOSEPH WRIGHT, PH. D. (B. Westermann & Co., 838 Broadway, N. Y. Price, $5.00). Many of our modern language professors are of course familiar with this treatise in the original, but in its present dress it is made easy of access for a larger number of persons, and it is to be
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hoped ili.it <-.mi.-st M hoi. us on tin- speci.dh linguistic side ol the modern languages will not tail to liroaili-n tln-ir views l.y a can- fill • ling of those parts of it that hear ti|.on their work. These- are pai ticularly the (ireek, Italic and < lemianic divisions. K\ei y investi- gator of the (onus and sounds of the modern idioms should keep it at his el how as a con- stant companion lor reference- and consultation.
One of the most interesting development-, connected with research in phonetics is the result that has followed in the application of phonetic principles to the elementary study of language. The legitimate outgrowth of scien- tific method lias here been illustrated in its fullest sense by the establishment of a novel and ellicacious factor in the practical acqui- sition of language. For the use of the phonetic method in learning elementary French, the late lamented FELIX FKANKK, in his ' Phrases de tons les jours,' opened up a new vista through the puzzling pedagogical material belonging to this subject; PAUL PASSY follow- ed with ' Le francais parley in which the variety of topics was increased, clearness and exactness of the transcription improved, a methodical gradation of exercises presented with an insight which characterizes the labor of an experienced philosophical teacher. To these valuable helps, the instructor must now add ' Neufranzosische Formenlehre nach ihrem Lautstande dargestellt ' von E. KOSCH- \VITZ (Oppeln, Eugen Franck's Buchhancllung), a small octavo brochure of thirty-four pages. This is a skeleton of French grammar built up according to a rigid system of phonetic tran- scription and admirably adapted, as a begin- in r's hand-book, for acquiring the fundamental principles of the grammar. The author modestly calls it a Vcrsuch which has been made in response to the sentiment, " dass der fremdsprachliche Unterricht auf phonetischer Grundlage aufzubauen sei und erst von der Erkenntnis der gesprochenen Sprache zur Erlerming der geschriebenen Sprache und ihrer Ortographie fortzuschreiten habe." It contains simply the grammar forms with illustrations, but without extended exercises.
History is one of the most valuable aids to the study of the literature of a people ; every great writer is in a measure the reflex of the
< ivih/ation ,>f Ins (ountry. and factors Ol civili/ation must lie sought for in the gradual
illlelle. tu. '.I development of hU r.tce. It IS of
interest to the student of French literature especially, that 1'koi R. H. DAHM v, of Indi- ana University, has given us a small octavo volume ol 297 pages on 'The Causes of the Freii< h Revolution.' which presents in a clear and foicible manner the trend of events, from the middle ages, that culminated in this, the most extraordinary moral upheaval in the an- nals of the Christian era. The author, after referring to the brilliant services of BLANC, MK,M-. i , MiniKi.KT, CAKLVI .md
TAINK, shows that these writers have omitted certain " points of the gravest importance " in connection with this subject, and to supply this deficiency is the < >bje< t of the present work. It is based on a series of lectures deli, ed, in 1886, before the faculty and students of Washington and Lee University (Lexington, Va.). To the early worker, particularly, in the fundamental activities of French literary pro- duction of the eighteenth century, this careful, comprehensive treatment of the French K> lution cannot fail to be valuable.
Evidence of the enterprise and intensive spirit of modern scholarship cannot be more clearly shown than in the numerous university publications that are springing up in our lead- ing institutions. For all departments of lan- guage, the manifestation of this new life is particularly gratifying and deserves the recog- nition and support of every earnest worker. In one of these new Series, Studies in Classi- cal Philology, published by Cornell University, we would call attention to No. II, 'Analogy, and the Scope of its Application in Language,' by BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER. The author has here classified in a lucid and succinct manner the typical phenomena of this powerful princi- ple in human speech, and has given us a sum- mary of results in the application of it to the "method of the modern science of language" which ought to be in the hands of every young student of linguistics. The experienced philo- logian will find in it nothing that is new, but an admirable presentation of the subject drawn from a mass of material that is not within reach of everyone. The special merit of the brochure consists in the emphasis given to the psycho-
265
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December. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 8.
532
logical factor- in classifications; contrary to Paul's "stoffiiche und formale Gruppen " (Prin- cipien,' p. 85) which concern alone the results of analogy, the author insists on the proposi- tion that "The only satisfactory basis of classification will be that which arranges the resultant forms according to the psychological activities which produce them " (p. 7). To this excellent monograph of forty-three octavo pages, is added a useful selected bibliography, arranged chronologically, containing short characterizations of most of the works cited. Price, 30 cents.
The Clarendon Press has published 'A Con- cise Dictionary of Middle English from A. D. 1150 to 1580,' by A. L. MAYHEW and WALTER W. SKEAT. It might be supposed, from the title, that the unfinished dictionary by MATZ- NER and the deficient one by STRATMANN have now been superseded by a work that, though "concise" in its arrangement, is yet within reasonable limits a complete record of the vocabulary of Middle English literature. A moment's attention, however, to the editor- ial Preface is sufficient to make perfectly clear the scope and character of this new volume. It will be found that the editors have been content to combine into one whole the sep- arate glossaries to eleven publications in the Clarendon Press Series ; the glossaries, name- ly, of the three volumes of ' Specimens of Early English,' of three books of extracts from Chaucer, of two containing parts of Wyclifs Bible, of one containing part of Piers the Plow- man, of Hampole's Psalter, and of The Tale ofGamelyn. This material, which represents the bulk of the volume, is further supplemented by forms and illustrations drawn from various other texts, dictionaries and glossaries. No claim is therefore put forth for completeness, but the adoption of certain principles of con- densation has enabled the editors to bring within the compass of a handy volume a large and useful list of defined Middle English words. No student of Middle English will want to be without it, though it will occasion some vexation to find a considerable number of Chaucerian words omitted, even such as are recorded and defined in MATZNER— an
unwilling charge against editors that have adopted their " Main Words " from "the most typical forms and spellings of the period of Chaucer and Piers Plowman." It is of suffi- cient interest and importance to add, upon the authority of PROF. SKEAT'S foot-note to the Preface, that MR. HENRY BRADLEY is prepar- ing for the Clarendon Press "a new and thoroughly revised edition of Stratmann's Dictionary."
PERSONAL.
W. E. SIMONDS has been appointed Instruc- tor in English at Cornell University. MR. SIMONDS graduated at Brown University in 1883. After teaching for two years in the Prov- idence High School, he went to Germany in 1885 to pursue advanced work in English and related subjects. A semester at Berlin under SCHERER aud ZUPITZA was followed by a two years' course at Strasburg in the departments of TEN BRINK, MARTIN and GROBER. In the spring of the present year MR. SIMONDS pre- sented to the Faculty at Strasburg a disserta- tion on " Sir Thomas Wyatt and his Poems," which won for him the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This dissertation is soon to appear in printed form.
GEORGE A. HENCH, Fellow in German at the Johns Hopkins University, is preparing a critical edition of the Old High German " Monsee Fragments." During the past sum- mer MR. HENCH visited Vienna and Hanover, where the manuscript fragments are kept, and secured his own copy of the transmitted text. His edition will also comprise a grammatical treatise on the phonology, inflection and syn- tax of the text, and an exhaustive glossary.
A. W. LONG is now the Professor of English at Wofford College, Spartanburg, S. C. MR. LONG was graduated at the University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill) in 1885, per- forming during a part of his senior year the duties of Instructor in English. For the next two years he held the chair of History and English Literature at Trinity College, N. C., and then resigned the office, and spent a year in pursuing advanced courses in English at the John Hopkins University.
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I >, < ember. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES. 1888. No. 8.
534
JAMKS CTMMINC.S l>«-gan tin- aradi-mic year ;ts 1'rofVssnr at tin- Sutitli ('aniliu.i Milil.n\ Academy (Charleston); In- uas rl<-<tr<| t.i tliis position last July. MR. CUMMINCS graduated with the first honors of his (lass at the Univer- sity of 'Tennessee in 1880, and was promoted to the Master's degree by the same Institu- tion in 1884. For the space of four years after graduation MR. CTMMINGS was a member of the Academic Board of the Kentucky Military Institute, having charge of the classes in Eng- lish ; and during the next three years pursued advanced courses in Literature and Philology (English, German and Romance) at the Johns Hopkins University. MR. CUMMINGS has been commissioned to write a ' History of Higher Education in Tennessee* for a series of Histories of State Education to be published by the U. S. Bureau of Education, and has the work already fairly begun.
DR. B. L. BOWEN was called at the begin- ning of the present academic year to the chair of French in Bowdoin College, Bruns- wick, Maine. Mr. BOWEN is a graduate (1881) of the University of Rochester, where he held a Postgraduate Scholarship for the year fol- lowing his graduation. In 1882-83, he taught modern languages in New Windsor College (Md.), after which he entered the department of Romance Languages in the Johns Hopkins University. Here he continued for three years, being employed a part of this time by the university to give instruction in French. In 1886 he went to Europe, where he remained more than a year attending lectures at the College de France and the University of Bonn and studying in Italy, Spain and Portugal. He afterwards (1887) returned to the Johns Hopkins, where he was employed as Assistant in French, and took the doctor's degree last June, having submitted a thesis entitled: "Contributions to Periphrasis in the Romance Languages."
DR. THOMAS McCABE has been appointed Instructor in French at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor). After receiving his preliminary training in London, MR. McCABE attended lectures for several years at the Col- lege de France, and the Universities of Rome and Berlin. In 1884 he came to Amer-
ica and < nt< r< (I tlx- department of Romance Languages in the Johns Hopkins. University uii.M-ln- < ontiniH-d an uninterrupted course leading to his <lo< tor's <l« ^n «.- in June last. His thesis was on "The Morphology in l-r.m- cesco iVtrarra's Canzoniere. accompanied by a general intiodiu tioii and a critical glossary." During his course at the Johns Hopkins MR. McCABE held a University Scholarship and afterward a Fellowship. The summer of 1887 was spent by him in Romance study at the University of Berlin, and a part of the summer of 1888, in connection with one of his former instructors, DR. TODD, at work in the manu- script department of the national Library at Paris.
FELIX E. ScHELLiNofortwo years Instruct- or in English at the University of Pennsylvania, (cf. MOD. LANG. NOTES, vol. i, col. 257), has been elected Assistant Professor of Eng- lish at the same Institution. PROFESSORS MCELROY and SCHELLING have, planned a three years' course in English, which begins with the Sophomore class and in which the Seminary method is to be introduced.
OBITUARY.
CHARLES POMEROY OTIS, Professor of Mod- ern Languages in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, died in Boston on November i7th, in the 48th year of his age. PROFKSS«»R OTIS was fitted for college at Phillips Exeter Academy and was graduated at Yale Uni- versity in 1861 . For several years he held there the position of Tutor, after which he went abroad and studied in Paris and Berlin for three years. On his return to America he received the degree of Ph. D. from his Alma Mater, and in 1873 was appointed to the pro- fessorship, made vacant by his untimely death. PROFESSOR OTIS was a hard and conscientious worker in the Germanic literature and lan- guage, the department of his special prefer- ence. He translated into English the Voyages of SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN (published by the Prince Society), prepared a text-book of Elementary German, and in addition to other literary labors edited SCHILLER'S " Lied von der Glocke " and GRIMM'S ' Marchen,' which are extensively used in our schools and col- leges. He printed, moreover, an "Outline of Middle High-German Grammar." PROFESSOR OTIS was a member of the MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, and a zealous, en- thusiastic promoter of all modern language interests.
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December. MODERN LANGUAGE NOTES, 1888. No. 8.
536
JOURNAL NOTICES.
ANQLIA. VOL. XI. PARTS I AND II (combined).- Napier, A., Altenglisehe Kleinigkeiten.— Koeppel, K., Die englisehen Tasso-Ubersetzungen des 16. jahr- hunderts. I. Aininta.— Wichmann, JM KOnig Aelfred's angelsHchsische tlbertragung der psalmen.— Loge- mann, H., Anglo-Saxonica Minors.— Hupe, H., Zum handschriften-verhaltniss und zur textkritik des Cursor Mundi.— diode. 0., Cynewulf ' s Juliana und ihrc quolle.— Dieter, F., Die Walderefragmente und die ursprtkngliche gestalt der Waltersage.— Holthaustn, P., A nKlo-Saxonica.— Fischer. K., Zur sprache und autorschaft der mittelenglischen legenden St. Editha und Etheldrede.— Hohlfeld, A., Die altenglisehen Kollectivmisterien, unter besonderer bertleksichti- gung des verhaltnisses der York- und Towneley- spiele.— BUcheranzeigen.
ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ROMANISCHE PHILOLOGIE, 1887, XI. BAND. 4. HEFT-Tobler, A., Vermischte Beitrage zur franz. Grammatik.— Schwan, Ed., Zu den altesten franzBsischen DenkmHlern.— Schuchardt, H., Romano-baskisches.— Beyer, A., Die Londoner Psalterhandschrift Arundel.— VermiscMes.— Appel, 0., Zur Iteihenfolge des Trionfl Petrarca's.— Meyer, W., Labialisierung von Gutturalen im Nordfranzos.— Horning, A., Die Sehicksale von en+Kons. und an+ Kons. im OstfranzSsischen.— Schwan, K., Zur Flexion der Feminina der lat. III. Deklination im Altf ranzBsi- sehen.— Wlese, II., Italienische Etymologien.— Vlrlch, J., Romanische Etymologien.— Besprechungen.— Appel, C., W. Bernhard, Die Werke des Trobadors N'At de Mons.— Appel, C., A. Pakscher, Die Chronologic der Gedichte Petrarcas.— Tobler, A., F. Torraca, La materia dell' Arcadia del Sannazaro, studio.— Levy, E. und Tobler, A., Revue des langues romanes. T. XXX juill.-d6c. 1886; t. XXXI. janv.-juin 1887.— Meyer, W., Studi di ftlologia rOmanza. fasc. 4. 1887.
PHONETISCHE STUDIEN.— n, in.— victor, w., in
Marburg, BeitrBge zur statistik der aussprache des schriftdeutschen.— Passy, Paul, in Neuilly-sur-Seine, Kurze darstellung des franzOsischen lautsystems. (II, Das sprachgefttge).— Walter. Max, in Wiesbaden, Der anfangsunterricht im englischen auf lautlicher grundlage. (2. artikel: schluss).— Victor, W., in Mar- burg, Beitrage zur statistik der schrit'tdeutschen II. —Primer, Sylvester, in Charleston, S. C., U. 8. A., Charleston provincialisms.— Passy, Paul, in Neuilly- sur-Seine, Kurze darstellung des franzosischen laut- systems. (III. Proben: schluss).— Miszellen.— Traut- mann, M., Kleine wissenschaftliche beitrftge. I. Zur geschichte des zttpfchen-r im deutschen. II. Stimm- haftwerden stimmloser konsonanten im deutschen. Engel, E. und Lohmeyer, E., Zur aussprache des griechi- schen.— Leveque, Oh., Des enclitiques en francais.— Logeman, Willem 8. und Passy, Paul, Remarks on Paul Passy's French Phonetics.— Engel, Eduard, Erwid- erung an herrn Eduard Lohmeyer.— Kewltsch, Zum anfangsunterricht im lesen und schreiben.- Vletor.W., Aus Hellwags nachlass.L— Leveque, Ch.,Des enclitiques en fran9ais. (Schluss).— Peyerabcnd, K;, Altgriechi- sches und neuhochdeutsches.— liezensionen.— Kiihn, K.,
P. Passy, Lc phonetisme au congres philologique de Stockholm en 188fl.— Lohmeyer, K., K. Engel, Die aus- sprache desgriechischen.— Muncli, W., Purow, W., Der vortragvon gedichten -LJungjrren.Kvald, R. Lenz, Zur physiologic und geschichte der palutalen.— Knlgge, F., L. Morsbach, Dber den urspriing der nduenglitobOB schrit'tsprache.— Kewltsch, W. MUnch, Die pllege drr deutschen aussprache und der deklamafion an den hftheren schulen.— Passy, P., C. Eidiim, Phonetik in der schuleV — Dorr, F., A. Schrtier, Wissenschat't und schule in ihrem verhHltnisse zur praktischen sprach- erlernung.
LlTERATURBLATT FUR GERMANI8CHE UND RO- MANISCHE PHILOLOGIE, IX. JAHRG. NR.4, APRIL, !888.— Bartsch, Die altdeutschcn Handschriften der
UniversitBtsbibliothek in Heidelberg (Behaghel).— Snorrn, Edda, Sturlusonar III2 (Mogk).— Kauffmann. Der Vokalismus des Schwabischen in der Mundart von Horb (Fischer).— Stehle, Orts-, Flur- und Wald- numen des Kreises Thann (Seller).— Keck, Klassische deutsche Dichtungen' VI. (Muncker).— Helntmann, Shylock und Nathan (Muncker).— Bitter, Mendelssohn und Lessing (Muncker).— Koertlng, Grundriss der Geschichte der engl. Literatur (PrOscholdt).— Brunot, Grammaire historique de la langue fran^aise (Neu- mann).— UschakofT, De t'ranska konsonanterna (Vi- sing).—Behrens, BeitrHge zur Geschichte der franz. Sprache in England (Suchier).— Frltsche, Moliere- Studien 2. Aufl. (Neumann).— Foth, Der franz. Unter- richt auf dem Gymnasium (v. Sallwtlrk).— Baphael, Die Sprache der proverbia quae dicuntur super natura feminarum (Meyer).— Morf, Drei bergellische Volkslieder (Gartner).— Bibliographic.— Literarische Mittheilungen, Personalnachrichten, etc.— Verzeich- niss der germ., engl. und rom. Vorlesungen an deut- schen Hochschulen Sommer, 1888. 1.— NR. 5, MAI.— Oxforder Bcnedlctlnerregel, hrsg. von Sievers (Be- haghel).—Pfaff, Johann von Soest (Suchier).— Vetter, Der Spectator als Quelle der " Diskurse derMaler" (Weissenfels). — Lttzmann, Schroeder und Gotter (Koch).— Meyer, Helnr., Kleine Schriften zur Kunst, hrsg. von WeizsHcker (Muncker).— Kern, Zustand und Gegenstand (v. SallwUrk).— Victor, Einfuhrung in das Studium der engl. Philologie (Schroer).— Stein- bach, Der Einfluss des Chrestien de Troies auf die altengl. Literatur (Brand).— Dlez, Etym. WOrterbuch der roman. Sprachen 5. Ausg. (F. Neumann).— Scheler, Dictionnaire d'ctymologie francaise, 3e 6d, (F. Neu- mann).—This, Die deutsch-franz. Sprachgrenze in Lothringen ; Ders., Die deutsch-franz. Sprachgrenze im Elsass (L. Neumann).— Soucherle, Le roman de Galerent par le trouvere Renaut (Mussafla).— Buchncr, Das afrz. Lothringer-Epos (Schwan).— Schneegans, Lautentwicklung des sicilianischen Dialekts (Meyer). Gerland, Die Basken und die Iberer (Schuchardt).— Bibliographie.— Literarische Mittheilungen, Personal- nachrichten, etc.— Verzeichniss der germ., engl. und rom. Vorlesungen an deutschen Hochschulen Som- mer, 1888. II.— Foth, Berichtigung.
268
INDEX TO VOLUME IIL, i
Adams, II. H., Seminary Libraries and University
!•. \It-nsi on
Aclfric's, Strong Verbs in — Judith
— Strong Verbs in — S.iinls I
Alexitislro'iuli-, I )ie Rninanhaftc Rii:liinn< tier — in
iu:n uml Mitidhochdeutschen
hlcn I
— Das Verb "hniss der Franz sischen von Herz
hanuitatgebraea /u ihren lateinischen Quel- Icn. (See Schneegans.)
Aliot, Mme. L., Contes et Nouvelles, Suivis dc Conversations ; d'exercices de grammaire ; de Notes facilitant la traduction
Altcatalanische, Zwei — Rechtsformulare
Altfran/ sischen, Die Romanhafte Richtung der Alexiuslcgende in — urnl Mittclhochdcutschen Gedicluen I
American Notes and Queries
Amherst, Summer School of Languages
Amherst, summer school m Language*..
Anderson, M. B., Victor Hugo's 'Shaks
pere.
81
7-8
89-93
128-131
124-128
248-250
23
'75
124-128
154-164
235-236
262
237 263
Andre^cn : Sprachgebrauch und Sprachrichtigkeit
im Deutschen 203
Anglo-Saxon Grammar 81-82
— cuinbol 6-7
— mtttan, milling 7
— basnitin and wrttsen 37
— burh, byrig 176-177
— Gospels 239
Appel, Carl, Vom Descort. (See Warren) 145
Armstrong, Joseph L. , Personal 83
Arthurian legends, Italian proper names in 263
Atest.ir, Spanish -234
Bftlgt G. H., A Comparative Glossary of the Gothic
Language. (See von Jagemann) 102-104
Balzac: Eug nie Grandet. (See Warren) 109
Bartsch's, Corrections — Glossary. (La Langue et la
I. literature Franjaises : Paris, 1887.) 177
Bartsch, Dr. Karl, Obituary in
BAsnian, The Anglo-Saxon— and wrftsen 37
Becker, Sarah Cary, and Federico Mora, Spanish Idioms with their English Equivalents, em- bracing nearly ten thousand Phrases (See
Lang)f 72-75
— " " II 98-1
Behrens, Dr. D., Grammatikalische und lexikali-
sche arbeiter Uber die lebenden Mundarten
der langue d'Oc und der langue d'Oll 81
Bell, A. M., World-English 206-207
' B'. owulf,' A Passage of 97
Berjihardt, W., Die Werke des Troubadours N' At
de Mons. ^ee Warren) 54
Bief. 85-89
Bielshowsky, Albert, Die Urbilder zu Hermann
und Dorothea 23
Blackwell, J. S., Manual of German Prefixes and
Suffixes 203
Bladt1, M.J. F.. Contes populaires de la Gascogne.
(Sec Warren I 25
Blou"t, Paul, Prh.'.erof French Composition 146
Bowen, B. L., Corrections to Whitney's French
Vocabularies 4I-42
— Personal 267
Brandt, H. C. G., A. Socin : Schriftsprache und
Dialektc in Deutschen nach Zeugnissen alter
mul neuer Zeit 140-141
Brandt, H. C. G., F. Kluge: Von Luther bit
ing
Breddin, Gustav, BcitpicUammlung zur KinfUh-
rung in dan Studium dc* neufranjihischen. .
Bright, J. W., Sfiitt'n Marmion
<.k 1 and II
— A.H.Welsh: English Master-piece Course....
— The Anglo-Saxon t.iiitian and wr,.itM
— Thraf-Caik
— Max MUller : Biographies of Word*
— Sievers-Cook : Anglo-Saxon Grammar
— Huffcut; English in the Preparatory Schools...
— Jordan : Science Sketches
— Victor; Einf hrungindas Studium der F.nglisch-
en Philologie mit RUcksicht auf die Anfor- derungen uer Praxis
— Bell : World-English
— The Verb to fell
— Hunt: Caedmon's Exodus and Daniel
— ' American Notes and Queries.'
— George : Wordsworth's ' Prelude or Growth of
a Poet's Mind.'
— Cook: The Phonological Investigation of Old
English, etc
— Doriot: Beginners in German
• Personal .
— Trench : on the Study of Words
— Mayhew and Skeat : Concise Dictionary of
Middle English from A. D. 115010 1580
ten Brink, Prof., Personal
Brinton, D. G., A Review of the Data for the Study
of the Prehistoric Chronology of America... Browne, Wm. H., Grammars and Vocabularies of
VolapUk
— Randolph ; Fifty Years of English Song
— Correspondence : Derides
Brunot, M., Grammaire historique de la langue
franchise. (See Warren)
Buchheim, C. A., Life of Frederick the Great
Burh, Byrig (Anglo-Saxon)
Ca'drnon's Exodus and Daniel
Canada, Origin of the Name. (Sec Elliott)
Carlyle
Carpenter, Wm. H., A Fragment of Old Icelandic. Carruth, W. H., Collar-Eysenbach ; Graded Ger- man Lessons
— Personal
Castiglione's ' Cortegiano."
Chabaneau, C., Origine et Etablissement de 1'Acad-
e'mie des Teux Floraux de Toulouse; Biogra- phic des Troubadours ; Sur la Langue romane ou le proven9al. (See Warren)
— Vie de Saint George, poLme provenc^il. (See
Warren)
Chamberlin, J. H., The Genesis of Literature. (See
Warren)
Charlin's ' First Step.'
Chauveau, Pierre, Fr.'d^ric Ozanam, Sa Vie et Ses
Oeuvres. (See Grandgent)
Chronology, A Review of the Data for the Study of
the Prehistoric — of America
Cl, GI > Tl, Dl in English Pronunciation. (See
Schmidt)
Cli'dat, L., La Chanson de Roland. (See Fontaine).
— Collections de reproductions photolithographi- ques integrates de manuscrits latins, fran^ais et provencaux
Coffre
206 206-207
219
227-228 235-436
236
236-437
»37
239
263-464
266 27
75-77 107-108
=35
204 176-177
227-228
164-173
113-119
59-^2
197-199
238
262
no
146
63-65 96
337 187-188
INDEX TO VOLUME IIL, ' iSSS.
Colbeck, C., The Teaching of Modern Languages
in Theory and Practice. (See Joynes) 9-11
Collar, Wm. C., Graded German Lessons. (See
Carruth) 197-199
Contes et Nouvelles 23
Convention, Sixth Annual of the Mod. Lang.
Association 262
Cook, A. S., Notes on Old English Words. ( Cum-
bol, Mittcin, Mitting) 6-7
— Personals 27,111
— Skeat, Rev. Walter W., The Gospel according
to Saint Matthew in Anglo-Saxon, North- umbrian, and Old Mercian Versions I37~I39
— Errata in the Sievers-Cook Old English Gram-
mar 187
— Sievers — Anglo-Saxon Grammar 81-82
— English Rimes 209-213
— The Phonological Investigation of Old English,
Illustrated by a Series of Fifty Problems .... 236-237
Correspondence 42, 68, 69, 97, 143-144, 202, 234-235
Corson, Hiram, Correspondence. A Passage of
' Bdowulf." 97
Cosquin, M. E., Contes populaires de la Lorraine.
(See Warren) 25
Crockett, E. J., Lay of the Bell 204
Cumbol 6-7
Cummings, James, Personal 267
Curme, G. O., Amherst Summer School of Lan- guages 262
— Lamartine's Meditations 22
Cutler, N. W., The Sorrg of the Bell 204
Daniel, Csedmon's Exodus and — 227-228
Danish, Old, The Study of 57-58
— The Personal Pronoun in the — ' Tobiae Komedie.' 123-124
— Pronouns in the Old — ' Tobiae Komedie.' 219-221
Dante, Life of , 26
— Rossetti's ' — and His Circle.' 26-27
— Society 82
Dantesca, Osservazioni su alcuni pasaggi della
Divina Commedia 119-123
Davidson, Thomas, Correspondence 69
Dawson, A. C., Personal 27
Decurtins, Dr. C., Riitoromanische Chrestomathie. 23
Derides 235
Descort, Vom 145
Deutsche Dichtung 108
Deutsche Rundschau 203
Deutschen, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im — nach
Zeugnissen alter und neuer Zeit ' 140-141
Deutschen, Sprachgebrauch und Sprachrichtigkeit
im 203
Deutschen, Zeitschrift fur den — Unterricht 109
Deutschland, Das Litterarische 108
Dial, March, 1888 108
Dialects, East French 229-232
Dictionary, English-German 204
Dictionary, Etymological 204-205
Diez, Friedr., Etymologisches Worterbuch der Ro-
manischen Sprachen. (See Sheldon) 200
Divina Commedia, Osservazioni su alcuni pasaggi
della 119-123
Dodge, Daniel Kilham, On a Verse in the Old
Norse " Hofudlausn.'1 8-9
— The Study of Old Danish 57-58
— The Personal Pronoun in the Old Danish
'Tobiae Komedie.' 123-124
— Correspondence 143-144
— The Pronouns in the Old Danish ' Tobiae
Komedie.' 219-221
Doriot, S., Beginners in German 237
Du Four, A., Alci e Fortier : Quatre Grands poetes
du ige Siecle 47-48
Egg£, Albert E., Scandinavian Studies in the
United States 66-68
Elliott, A. Marshall, Origin of the Name 'Canada.' 164-173
— Phonetic Section of Mod. Lang. Association. . . 107
— Curme: Lamartine's 'Meditations.' 22
— Fontaine, C.: ' Historiettcs Modernes.' 22
— Brinton : A Review of the Data for the Study of
the Prehistoric Chronology of America 22
— Romans Choisis 22-23,83
— Bielshowsky : Die Urbilder zu Hermann und
Dorothea 23
Elliott, A. Marshall, Decurtins: R"toromanische Chrestomathie
— "Science," Dec. 1887
— Phonetic Section of M. L. Association.'.
— Adams; Seminary Libraries and University Ex-
tension
— Behrens ; Grammatikalische und lexikalische
Arbeiten iiber die lebenden Mundarjen der langue d'Oc und der langue d'Oil
— Dante So
— Fritsche : Molierestudien
— Louisiana Journal of Education, Vol. IX, No. 8.
— Dial, March, 1888
— Open Court, March 15, 1888
— Lodeman ; Place and Function of the Normal
School
— Johnson : Schiller's Ballads
— South Carolina University
— Horning: Die altfranzf sischen Grendzdialekte
zwischen Metz und Belfort
— Anderson : Victor Hugo's ' Shakespere."
— Renan : History of the People of Israel till the
time of King David
— " Les Grands l-.cri vains fran ais "
— Poesie di Setticento Autori intorno a Dante
Allighieri :
— German Mod. Lang. Association.'.
— The Writer
— Mod. Lang. Association of North Carolina....
— Sixth Annual Convention of the Mod. Lang.
Association of America
— Wheeler, B. J. : Analoery and the Scope of its
application in language
— Otis's Obituary
— Dabney : Causes of the French Revolution
— Application of Phonetic Principles to the elemen-
tary study language
— Brugmann : Comparative Grammar
English, The Phonological Investigation of Old —
Illustrated by a Series of Fifty Problems....
— Master-Piece Course.
— Practical Lessons in the use of.
— In the Preparatory Schools....
— Fifty Years of— Song
— World . . .
— Concise Dictionary of Middle English from A.
D. 1150 to 1580
— Language, The Origins of the
— Writers (See Garnett)
— Rimes
Englischen, Einf hrung in das Studium der — Phil- ologie mit Ri'.cksicht auf die anforderungen der Praxis
Exodus, Caedmon's and Daniel
Eysenbach, Wm., Graded German Lessons. (See Carruth)
Faust
Fell (To) The Verb
Folk-Lore, American — Society
— Journal of American
Fontaine, C., Historiettes Modernes
Fontaine, J. A.. Cl dat, L.: La Chanson de Roland.
— Treis, Dr. Karl: Die Formalit ten des Ritter-
schlags
Fortier, Alcee, Quatre grands po'tes du ige Siecle.
(See Du Four) . . . .,
Fran ais, Les Grand= Ecrivains
— La Syntaxe Pratique de la langue
— Grammaire historique de la tangue
Frankfurter Neuphilologischen BeitrSge
Frederick the Great, Life of
French, The F in — Soif, Bief, Moetif. etc
— Origin of the suffix -re in — Ordre, Coffre,
Pampre, etc
— Whitney's Practical
— Composition, Primer of
— First Step
— Etymology
— Professors, Convention of
— Old.The — Manuscripts of York Minster Library
(See Spencer)
Fritsche, F., Hermann : MolUrestudien : Ein Namenbuch zu Moli're's Werken
53 54-55
82
- 82 108- 1 08 1 08
ic8
no
144
229-232
237.
238
237-238
262-263 263
262 265-266
267.
265 265
264-265
236-237 24-25
207
83
107-108 206-207
266 70-72
190-194 209-213
206
253-254
227-228
197-199 26
219
55 237
104-105
47-48
23-24
205-206
25
52-53
204
85-'89
187-188
IN/ a V TO VOLUMI ///., ,
Fruit, J. I'., 'I In- l-'.vnliui I nf Speech..
liUril* r, Samuel, Tin- ( '.erumlial Construction In the Kolil.inir l.an;:ua.L;es I I 1
IV. V.
Garnett, James M., Henry Murlcy : EoglUh Writers
Ciascogne, Contes populaires de la
, Saint, V ie de— ; l'i> me proienral .
Gerber, Adolph, Muilcrn Languages in the Univer- sity ol Fram e I
- " " " II
( 'icrman, < 1 railed — Lessons
— Complete— Graininar for High Schools and
Colleges
— Grammar
— Complete — Grammar
— Prefixes and Suffixes, Manual of
— Middle High — I'riincr
— Reader
— "Sally in our alley " and a — Student Song (See
Schmidt- Wartenberg)
— Beginners in
Cildersleeve, B. L., Note on "Phosphorus Hol- lander."
Goebel, Julius, Ferdinand Wrede : Ueber die Sprache der \\ andalen
— Personal
— Karl Goedeke : Grundriss zur Geschichte der
deutschen Dichtung aus den Quellen
— Zeitschrift fur Vergleichcnde i.itteraturgeschich-
te mid Renaissance Litteratur
— Puls : Wie Georg Brandes deutsche Litteraturge-
schichte schreibt
— Deutsche Dichtung
— Hinrichsen: Das literarische Dculschland
— Hildebrand-Lyon : Zeitschrift I Or den deutschen
Unterriclit
— Grimm: Deutsche Rundschau
— Andresen: Sprachgebrauch und Sprachrichtig-
keit ini Deutschen
— Wenckebach : German Reader
— Blackwell : Manual of German Prefixes and Suf-
fixes
— Wright: Middle H. G. Primer
— Bucliheim : Life of Frederick the Great
— Cutter : The Song of the Hell
— Crockett : Lay of the Bell
— Hoppe : Enghsch-Deutsches Supplement-Lexi-
con als Lrganzung zu alien bis jetzt erschien- enen W, rterbllchern
— Kluge : Etymologisches W. rterbuch
Goedeke, Karl: Grundriss zur Geschichte Manual
der deutschen Dichtung aus den Quellen.
(See Goebel ) . .'
George, A. J., Wordsworth's ' Prelude or Growth
of a Poet's Mind.'
Goethe Gesellschait
Gothic, A Comparative Glossary of the — Language. Graal, Santo, A Historia dos Cavalleiros da Mesa
Rcdonda e da Demanda do
Grandet, Eugenie
Grandgent, Chas. H., Pierre Chauveau : Frdde'ric
Uzanam, Sa Vie et Ses Oeuvres
— Sheldon, Phonetic Compensations
Graziella, Lamartine's
Griffin, J. S., Personal
Grimm, Herman, Deutsche Rundschau.
Grunow,Wilhelm,Was diinkt euch um Heine? (See
Mahrenholtz)
Gummere, Francis B., Personal
Hall, J. L., Personal
Hart, J. M., Macaulay and Carlyle
Heine's Buch 'ler Lieder.
— Was diinkt euch um
Hench, G. A., Personal
Hermann und Dorothea, Die Urbilder zu
Hildebrand, R. und Otto Lyon, Zeitschrift fur den
deutschen Unterricht
Hinrichsen, Adolf, Das Litterarische Deutschland.
Historiettes Modernes
" HiifiKllausn."
Hoppe, Dr. A., English-German Dictionary
93-96 '3»-'35 213-219
190-194 25 54
I-S
33-37 197-199
aoO-202
333-335
233-234
203
203-304 303
173-174 337
50-51 no
200
25
108-109 108 108
109 303
203 303
203
203-204 304 204 204
204 204-205
236
26
102-104
25 109
20 21
177-187
83
83
203
225-227 27
= 38
203
225-227 266
23
109
'
• ifranroc.!-. dialekte zv. und Hclfort
HowclK, \\ . !>,, M.x.cin luliaii Poeu. (See
Hubhu:
. Krncsi U ., Ki.Juh in the Preparatory ok
lln^'o, Vii tor, SliaUpcr. .
Hum. 'Hi. \\.. IVrs..,,:,!.
— Cxdmon'i Kxoilus and Daniel. (See Bright;...
Hyde, > .1 LeMom in the use of
i-.llgllsll
Irr lundlr, A Fragment of ( )1<1
Ingraham, A., Correspondence : ' A* She is Spoke.' Italia, 1.'.
Italian Gniimn ir, A Manual of — With Comparative Tablet and Historical Remarks .............
Italian, Modern — Poets ...........................
unn, H.C. «... Jean Roemer : The Origins of the English Language ...................
— G. H. .Balg: A Comparative Glossary of the
i '.othic Language ...........................
Jeux Floraux de Toulouse, Origine et Etablisse- ment de 1'Academic des — ; Biographic dot Troubadours; Sur la langue roniane ou le pro ven al .................................
Johnson, Henry, Schiller's Ballads ................
Jordan, D. S., Science Sketches ..................
Joynes, Edw. S., Colbeck, C.: The Teaching of Modern Languages in Theory and Practice..
— N 01 h Einmal Meissner, I ......................
— Audi Alteram Partem ..........................
— Woodward, F. W.: English in the Schools ......
— Reply to Dr. Schilling (Audi Alteram Partem)..
— Yeld, Rev. Charles: Florian's Fables. .........
— Beljame and Bossert : ' Common French ' Words.
— ( )^er : ' Le Philosophe sans le savoir.' ..........
— Cliarlin's ' First Step.' .........................
— Blou t's ' Primer of French Composition.' ......
— German Grammar for Schools and Colleges,
based on the Public School German Grammar of A. L. Meissner. (See Schilling) .........
Journal of Education, Louisiana, Vol. IX, No. 8..
Journal Notices ..... 55-56, 110-112, 167-168, 223-224, 415-416, 535-536.
Judith, Strong Verbs in Aclfric's .................
kursttn, Gustaf, The F in French Soif, Bief, moeuf, etc .................................
— Dantesca. Osservazioni su Alcuni pasaggi delta
1 >i vina Commedia ..........................
— The Origin of the suffix -re in French, Ordre,
Coffre, Pampre. etc .......................
— The Study of Romance Philology ..............
— Phonetic Section of Mod. I^ing. Association...
— The Third Annual Neuphilologentag ..........
Kent, Charles W., The Anglo-Saxon bttrh,byrig..
— Personal .......................................
Kluge, F., Von Luther bis Lessing. (See Brandt).
kl.
— Etymologisches W* rterbuch
K rting, Gustav, Neuphilologische Essays. (See
Schmidt-Wartenberg)
Lnmartlne'8 Graziella. (Sec Warren)
— Meditations
Lang, Andrew, Histoires ou Contes du Temps Passd
avec des Moral it z. (See Warren)
Lang, H. R., Becker-Mora: Spanish Idioms with their English Equivalents, embracing nearly
ten thousand Phrases, I
II
— Personal. . .
— Correspondence : Spanish atestar
— Michaelis, H. : Novo Diccionario da lingua
Portugucza-allem;l
Lange, Fran/, Frcytag's Die Journalisten, Lust- spiel in vier Aktcn. (See Super)
Learned, M. D.,\V. C. Sawyer : Complete German Manual for High Schools and Colleges
Lessing, Von Luther bis
Lieder, Buch der
.., .
»3
*37
277-438 907
59-** »35
70-7* 102-104
*5 no no
9-11
13-14
42-44
45-47
97-08
45-47
139-140
146
'47 146 146
223-3*5
108
295-296,
7-8
85-89 119-123
187-188
194-197
106-107
341-244
176-177
338
'4»
27
204-305
16-20 83
305
73-75 98-102 iio-in
105-106
200-202 141
INDEX TO VOLUME I IT., iSSS.
Literary Composition, Matter and Manner in 29-33
Litteralur, Zeilschrift fur Vergleichende Liltera-
lurgeschichle und Renaissance 25
— Wie Georg Brandes deutsche Litteraturge-
schichte schreibt 108-109
Literature, The Genesis of no
— A History of Elizabethan 141-142
— The Seminary System in teaching Foreign — .. . 149-154
— Italian — in Bavaria 141-152
— Littlelon, Jesse T., Personal in
Lodeman, A., Schroer, M. M. Arnold. Wissen-
schafl und Schule im ihrem Verh.illnisse zur
praktischen Spracherlernung 21
— Place and Function of the Normal School 108
Preyer: Naturforschung und Schule 261-262
Long, A. W., Personal 266
Lorraine, Contes populaires de la 25
Lorentz, Alfred, Die erste Person Pluralis des
Verbums im Altfranzosischen. (See Schmidt-
Wartenberg) 51-52
Lotheissen, Ferdinand, Obituary in
Lumure, M., Collections de reproductions photo^ lithographique integrates de Manuscrits l
latins, fran aise et provencaux 237
Lulher, Von — bis Lessing 141
— Unlersuchungen uber den Salzbau 142-143
Lyon, Otto, R. Hildebrand and — . Zeitschrifl flir
den deutschen Unterricht 109
McCabe, T., Modern Languages at Cambridge
University, England 37-38
— The Use of the Feminine in the Romance Lan-
guages to express an indefinite neuter I35-I37
— French Professors, Convention of 144
— Personal 267
McClumpha, C. F., Personal 238
McElroy, Jno. G. R., Matter and Manner in Lit- erary Composition 29-33
Mahrenholtz, Dr. R., Xanthippus : Was diinkt
euch urn Heine ? 225-227
Marcou, P. B., A. Tobler: Die Berliner Hand-
schrifl des Decameron 80
— Ueber Strophen, und Vers Enjambement im
altfranzi sischen no
Marmion, Scoll's 24
Massie, Rodes, Personal 27
Mayhew, A. L.,.and Walter Skeat, Concise Dic- tionary of Middle English from A. D. nso
to 1580 ' 266
' M.'ditalions,' Lamartine's 22
Meissner — Joynes, Noch Einmal, I I3~I4
II 42-44
— German Grammar for Schools and Colleges,
based on the Public School German Grammar
of A. L 223-225
Macaulay 113-119
Meras, B., La Syntaxe Pratique de la langue fran-
laise. (See Warren) 205-206
— Notre Dame de Paris. (See Warren) 206
MeVovingiens, Re'cits des Temps 109; 145-146
Michaelis, H., Novo Diccionario da lingua portu-
gueza e allemft. (See Lang) 255-258
Mittan 6-7
Mitlelhochdeuischen, Die Romanhalfle Richtung der Alexiuslegende in altfranzosischen und — Gedichlen, I 124-128
— " " II 154-164
Milling 6-7
Modern Languages at Cambridge University,
England 37~38
— Professorships in Germany 234
— In the University of France, I 1-5
— " " II 33-37
— Colbeck, C., The Teaching of— in Theory and
Practice 9-11
Modern Language, The Fifth Annual Convention of the — Association of America
— Association, Sixth Annual Convenlion of
— Associalion of Norlh Carolina
— Convention of the — Associalion of Onlario
Moeuf. 85-89
Moli'restudien 82
Monk, Should a Poel be a Philologisl ? 235
Montague, W. L., A Manual of Italian Grammar, with Comparative Tables and Historical
Remarks 53
Mons, N'At de. Die Werke des Troubadours 54
Morrow, Miss A. L., Personal lit
Morley, Henry, English Writers. (Set Garnetl). . 190-194 Mora, Federico, S. C. Becker and — Spanish Idioms wilh iheir English Equivalents, embracing
nearly ten thousand Phrases. (See Lang) 1. 72-75
" II. 98-102 Mors. Apropos of Les Trois — et Trois Vis. (See
Todd) 58-59
Miiller, Max, Biographies of Words 80-81
Mundarten, Grammatikalische und lexikali^ehe Arbeiten liber die lebenden — der langue d Oc
und der langue d'Ofl 81
.NaturforsfhHnsf und Schule 261-262
Neuphilologentag, The Third Annual 241-244
Nisard, D sire\ Obituary 147
— And the History oi Literature 188-190
Normal School, Place and Funclion of 108
Norse, Old, On a Verse in the — " H fudlausn.". . . 8-9 Novati, F., un Nuovo ed un Vecchio Frammento
del Tristran di Tommaso. (See Warren)... . 259-261
OM'onror, Bernard F., Personal 147
Odin, A., Phonologic des patois du Canton de
Vaud. (See St .rzinge.r) 221-223
Oger, Victor, Sedaine's " Le Philosophe sans le
Savoir." 147
Ohly, C. H., Personal 147
Old French, An Introduction to 144-145
Open Court, March 15 io3
Ordre 187-188
Otis, C. P., Obiluary 267
Otto, Richard, Zwei altcatalanische Rechlsfor-
mulare 175
— Correspondence: Mod. Lang. Professorships in
Germany 234
Paget, F. V., Personal 83
Pampre ; 187-188
Paradise Losl 24
Paris, Gaston, Ulrich, Jacob : Merlin, roman en
prose du XHIe Siecle. (See Warren) 77~79
Paris, Notre Dame de 206
Payne, William Morton, Correspondence 42
Pearson, Dr. W. L., Personal in
Penn, H. C., Personal 27
Pelilleau, G., Balzac : Euge'nie Grandel. (See
Warren) 109
Philosophe, Le, sans le Savoir 147
Phonetic Compensations 177-187
Phonetic Section of Mod. Lang. Association.. 54-55, 106-107
Phosphorus Hollunder, Nole on 22
Portugueza, Novo Diccionario da lingua allemit — 255-258 Preyer, W. B., Naturforschung und Schule. (See
Lodeman) ; . . . 261-262
Price, W. B., ' Choix de Contes de Daudet.' 262
— Personal 238
Proven al, Vie de Sainl George, po me 54
Provenzalischen, Die-Dichterinnen 202-204
Puls, Dr., Wie Georg Brandes deutsche Lilteralur-
geschichte schreibt 108
QuIjOte, Don, A traditionally mistranslated
passage in. (See Todd).... 174
Kiljna. Pio, Osservazioni Sull' alba del Cod.
Regina 1462 ' 15-16
— Un' Iscrizione Nepesina, del 1131. (See Warren). 15-16
— Pio, Italian proper names in Arthurianlegends , 263 Randolph, Henry F., 'Fifty Years of English Song. 107-108
RStoromanische Chrestomathie 23
Redonda, Mesa, A Historia drs Cavalleiros da — e
da Demanda do Santo Graal 25
v. Reinhardstoettner, C., A Historia dos Cavnlleiros da Mesa Redonda e da Demanda do Santo
Graai. (See Warren) 25
— Italian Literature in Bavaria.- (See Warren). .. 141-142 Renan, Ernest, History of the People of Israel till
the time of King David 237
Ripley, A. L., Goethe Gesellschaft 26
INDEX TO VOLUM1 III., 1888.
Roemer, Jean. The Origins of the English Lan- guage. (See von Jagemann) 7°-7»
Roget, F. F., An Introduction to Old French «44-»45
Roland, La Chanson de .................
Romance Languages, The use of the heminlne in
the— to express an indefinite neuter «35-»37
Romance The Gerundial Construction in the Ro- manic Languages, III, IV, V.. 93-96. 139-135. 2i3-»»9
— The Study of-Philology «94"«97
Romans Choisis • • • • •;••.• a*~a£_»3
Rosctti, Dante, " Dante and His Circle
Halntsbury, George, A History of Elizabethan Literature. (See Shepherd).
48-50
»73-«74 25
> and Colleges. (See Learned).
— Complete German Grammar •.•••••
Scandinavian Studies in the United States
Schele de Vere, M., Correspondence .. .
Schelling, Felix E., The Fifth Annual Convention of
the Modern Language Association of America Schiller's Lied von der Glocke
— Ballads •••„••. : ; •
Schilling, Hugo%Noch Einmal Meissner-Joynes I..
— Meissner-Joynes : A German Grammar for
and Schools Colleges .....; ........
Schmidt— Wartenberg, H., Gustav KUrting : Neu- philologische Kssays
— Alfred Lorentz : Die erste Person plurahs des
Verbums im altfranz sischen
pi Gl >Tl Dl in English Pronunciation
— Po'stcripttoCl,Gl,>Tl, Dl in English Pronun-
68
3»-4'
904
no
i3-'4
42-44
993-995 16-90 51-52
96
J73->74
littelhochdeutschen Gedichten, I
— Das VerhHltniss der Franz"sischen von Herz
herausgegebenen Alexiuslegende zu ihren lateinischen Quellen • •
Schroer. M. M. Arnold. Wissenschaft und Schule in ihrem Verhttltnisse zur praktischen Spracherlernung. (See Lodeman) .
Schultz, O., Die Provenzalischen Dichtennnen. (See Warren)
Science Sketches
• Science.1 Dec., 1888
Scott's Marmion ........
Sedaine's Philosophe sans le Savoir
Seieliere, Mile, de la •.•••••••:•;••:•••••,
Seret W. A., Grammar and Vocabularies of 'Volapllk. (See Browne)
^hpldon Edw S. and Grandgent, C. H., Phonetic Compensations • • • • • .....•••••••
— Friedr. Diez: Etymologisches Wbrterbuch der
Romanischen Sprachen...
Shepherd, H. E., George Samtsbury : A History of
Elizabethan Literature
Sievers-Cook, Errata in the— Old English Grammar.
— Anglo-Saxon Grammar
'"dfum der 'Englischen Philologie mit Rlick- sicht auf die Anforderungen der Praxis
t^Rev Waiter W.', The Gospel according to 'Saint Matthew in Anglo-Saxon, North- umorian and Old Mercian Versions. (See
- A L° Mayhew and-^-Concise Dictionary of ' Middle English from A. D. 1150 to 1580
— Correspondence •• • y •••••• :• •• ••• ' "
Socin, Ai, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deut-
schen nach Zeugnissen alter und neuer Zeit.
(See Brandt)
Soif.
194-198 154-164
948-950
102-203 no 53 »4 147 25
75-77 237
177-187 200
48-5°
187
81-82
62-63
137-139 266
202
85-89
South Carolina University. ........... v . •
Souvestre's ' Confessions d'un Ouvner. .^.
•77 «44-*4»
75-77
Spanish Idiom* with their English Equivalent*, embracing nearly tea tnoutand PhraM*. I ...
— Atestar »34-*I7
ipeech. The Evolution of Figure* of~(See Fruit), »$»-»$j ipencer, Frederic : Correction* im Bansch's Glo»-
s»ry (La Langue et la Litteraiure Fra»- VaiMa: ParU, 18871
— The Old French Manuscript* of York Miwter
Sprague. Chas. E., Hand-Book of VoUpOk. (See
Browne)
Stager, L. A., Personal
Stoddard. K. H., Personal
SturzinKcr, J.. Odin: Phonologic de* patois du
• ii de Vaud
Super, C). H.. Franz I-ange : Freytag's Die Jounul-
ikten, Lustspiel in vier Akten
— Souvestre'i 'Confessions d'un Ouvrier.'
TesUN, H.. A Thierry : Reciu de* Temps MeVo-
vingiens. (SeeWarren)
Thierry, A., Recits de* Temp* Mrrovingieas.
(See Warren) 109;
Tobiae Komedie.' The Personal Pronoun in the Old I)ani«h
— Pronouns in the O. D
Toblcr, Adolf, Die Berliner Handschrift de* De- cameron. (See Marcou)
Todd, Henry A., Apropos of Les Trois More et Trois Vi*
— A traditionally mistranslated passage in DOB
Ouijot — Breddin :
Beispielsammlung zur Einfuhrung in das Studium des Neufranzosischen ..........
— Whitney's Practical French ...... ............
-L'ltalia ........................................
— Aliot : Contes et Nouvelles, suivis de conversa-
tions ; d'exercices de grammairc ; de Note* faciiitant la traduction ......................
— " Frankfurter Neuphilologischen P^itrtge." ----
— Montague : A Manual of Italian Grammar, with
Comparative Tables and Historical Remarks.
— American Folk-Lore Society ...................
— Roget, An Introduction to Old French
. • ! /
*6j
109
145-146
123-1x4
219-111
lo 5»-S9
'74
— Journal of American Folk-Lore.
— French Plays for girls
— Mlras (Editor): 'Robert le Diable; ' Le bon
roi Dagobert* and 'Merlin I* Enchanteur.'
— Chardenal : First French Course
Todd, W. C.. Personal
Tolman, A. H., Personal
Tommaso, Un Nuovo ed un Vecchio Frammento
del Tristran di—
Traif-caik. (See Bright)
Treis, Dr. Karl, Die FormalitJ'ten des Ritter-
schlags. (See Fontaine)
Trench, Archbishop, on the Study of Words
Tristran, Un Nuovo ed un Vecchio Frammento del
— di Tommaso
Troubadours, Biographic des
I'lrlrh, Jacob. Paris. G.: Merlin, romam en prose
duXIIIeSiccle. (See Warren)
University Extension, Seminary Libraries and....
Vaud, Phonologic des patois du Canton de
Vers, Altfranzl'sischer ,
Victor, Wilhelm, EinfUhrung in das Studium der Englischen Philologie mit RUcksicht auf die Anforderungen der Praxis .
— " •' (See Simonds)
Vis, Apropos of Les Trois Morset le* Trois. (See
5»-53
S3
55
I44-M5
264
259-961 69-70
104-105 963-264
959-961 25
propos Todd)
Volapllk, Grammar and Vocabularies oC — Hand-Book of
•06 «S3-«S4
s*-»
75-77 75-77
Walter, K. L., Ward: LifeofDante
— Dante Rossetti's ' Dante and His Circle.'
Ward, Miss, Life of Dante
Warren, F. M., Pio Rajna : Osservazioni Suit* alba
bilingue del Cod. Regina 1462
— Pio Raina: Un 'Iscrizione Nepesina, del nji..
— Paris-Ulrich : Merlin, roman en prose du XI lie
Siecle
15-16 15-16
77-79
INDEX TO VOLUME III., 1888.
Warren, F. M., C. v. Reinhardstoettner: Italian
Literature in Bavaria 141-142
— A Historia dos Cavalleiros da Mesa Redonda e
da Demanda do Santo Graal 25
— D.sir • Nisard and the History of Literature 188-190
" " Obituary 147
— ' Les Grands Kcrivains Franc ais.' 23-24
— W. D. Howells : Modern Italian Poets 24
— C. Chabaneau : Origine et Etablissement de
1'Academie des Jeux Floraux de Toulouse; Biographic des Troubadours ; Sur la langue roman ou le proven<,al 25
— J. Sandeau : Mile, de la Seigliire 25
— Prizes offered at Annual Session of the French
Academy 25
— "W. Bernhardt : Die Werke des Troubadours
N'At de Mons 54
— Chabaneau : Vie de Saint George, poeme provencal 54
— Larnartine's ' Graziella.1 83
— Balzac : Eugdnie Grandet, with Introduction and
Notes by G. Petilleau 109
— A- Thierry: Rdcits des Temps MeVovingiens,
edited by H. Testard 109; 145-146
— J. H. Chamberlin : The Genesis of Literature... no
— Carl Appel : Vom Descort 145
— O Schultz: Die Provenzalischen Dichtennnen.. 202-203
— Andrew Lang: Histoires ou Contes du Temps
passe avec des Moralitdz 205
— B. Mdras : La Syntaxe Pratique de la langue
francaise 205-206
— Notre Dame de Paris 206
— Novati : Un Nuovo ed un Vecchio Frammento
del Tristran di Tommaso 259-261
— Rajna : Italian Proper names in Arthurian
legends 263
— Anderson : Hugo's Shakespeare 265
— F. M., Reinhardstoettner : Castiglione's 'Cor-
tegiano.' 262
Warren, F. M., Price : Choix de Contes de Daudet 161
— Super : Souvestre's ' Confessions d' un Ouvrier.' 262
Welch, A. H., English Master-Piece Course 24-25
Wells, Benj. W., Strong Verbs in Aelfric's Judith. 7-8
— Personal 27
— Sigfried-Arminius 62-63
— Strong Verbs in Aelfric's Saints, 1 80-93
II 128-131
Wenckebach, Carla, German Reader. . ; 203
Weymouth, Dr. R. F . , Personal 27
White, Greenpugh, Personal 147
White, Horatio S., The Seminary System in Teach- ing Foreign Literature 149-154
Whitney's, Corrections to — French Vocabularies .. 41-42
— Practical French 22
Wightman, Jno. R., Convention of the Modern
Language Association of Ontario
Wilson, Charles Bundy, Dr. Hermann Wunderlich :
Untersuchungen liber den Satzbau Luthers.. Woodward, F. W., English in the Schools. (See
Joynes) 97-98
Words, Biographies of So-8i
— on the Study of. 263-264
Wordsworth : Prelude or Growth of a Poet's mind :
an Autobiographical Poem
Wrasen, The Anglo-Saxon basnian and — .(See
Bright)
Wrede, Ferdinand, Ueber die Sprache der Wan-
delen. (See Goebel) 50-51
Wright, Joseph, Middle High German Primer 203-204
Writer, The 265-263
Wunderlich, Dr. Hermann, Untersuchungen iiber
den Satzbau Luthers. (See Wilson) 142-143
Yeld, Rev. Charles, Florian's Fables. (See Joynes). 139-140 York, The Old French Manuscripts in the — Minster
Library. (See Spencer.) 244-248
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PB 1
M6 v.3
Modern language notes
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