fi : # g i) i + & ) BH PUBLISHERS’ STATEMENT We DO NOT manufacture or handle silos, and are not interested in silos in any way except from an educational standpoint. This attitude enables us to discuss the various types of silos in an entirely impartial manner. We have been publishing educational literature on silos and silage for over thirty years, fully two decades before the farm papers of the country began to boost the subject. This pioneer work explains why “Modern Silage Methods” has become the standard text book now used in so many State Agricultural Colleges for class-room use. We do however manufacture the famous line of Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers and Feed Cutters as illustrated and de- scribed in the back part of this volume, and if the reader will kindly investigate and consider the merits of this line of Silo Fillers when in the market, we will feel amply paid for the trouble and expense of publishing this valuable book. _ Respectfully, THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. Salem, Ohio, Nov. 2, 1914. ————— MODERN SILAGE, METHODS LATEST REVISED EDITION WITH ILLUSTRATIONS An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction and the process of filling, to which is added complete and reliable information regarding Silage and its composition; feeding, and a treatise on rations, being a FEEDERS’ AND DAIRYMEN’S GUIDE PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED BY THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. SALEM, OHIO, U.S. A. Revised and Brought, Up-to-Date by WILLIAM L. WRIGHT, Advertising Manager Copyrighted November 1914, by =e THE SILVER MANUFACTURING Co, ie NOV 19 1914 iS A “ PRINTING COMPANY * MEW AUEE ' e"° wa > o @ noe ad tod a ©class7585 samen Ao; | PREFACE. This book has been written and published for the purpose of fur- nishing our patrons and others with accurate and full information on the subject of silo construction and the making of silage. It has been our aim to present the subject in a clear, matter-of-fact manner, without flourish or rhetoric, believing that the truth con- cerning the advantages of the siloing system is good enough. The testimony presented, which is purposely kept close to the exper- ience of authorities on feeding subjects in and outside of experi- ment stations, will abundantly prove, we believe, that the equip- ment of a dairy or stock farm in almost any part of the world is no longer complete without one or more silos on it. The new chapter on “Silage Crops for the Semi-Arid Regions and for the South” will be of widespread interest to thousands in the Great Southwest, and the chapters on “The Summer Silo,” and “The Use of Silage in Beef Production,” will be found espe- cially timely. Chapter III. covers a great variety of silos made of material other than wood. In all other respects the book has been revised and brought up to date. In order that a work of this kind be accurate and reliable, and bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use of a number of scientific terms and phrases is rendered necessary, and in order that these may be more readily comprehended by agriculturists, a comprehensive glossary of such terms is included, following the last chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or can be studied previous to reading the book. In the compilation of certain parts of the book and in the revision of the “Feeder’s Guide” we have had the valuable assist- ance of Prof Woll, of California Experiment Station, formerly of Wisconsin, author of “A Book on Silage” and “A Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen.” Free use of the former book has been made in the preparation of this volume, as well as of experiment station publications treating the subject of silage. Hoping that this latest revision of “Modern Silage Methods” will prove helpful to our patrons, and incidentally suggest to them that the “OHIO” Silage Cutters and Blower Elevators are manu- factured by us, we are, Very truly, THE SILVER MFG. CO. Ww TABLE OF CONTENTS. PREACH irs iit slatdete tte le silaele teehee eels \6le) ald al le idih sie ter enna 3 INDRODU CLO RWarts 44. ee oad ete maton ly e703 2a" a2! “| 67 | ban sa BAG 18 BROOM it? BHO [pS }or4es | ¢ Bboy 68 Jpowed 2 SE? 20 | 2,100 | 1,050 | 191 | 175 | 105 | 84 | 53 | 700 *If the silo is to be used for winter feeding only, it will require only one-half as many of each kind of stock to keep the silage in good condition as where it is used for summer feeding. The Nebraska Station also gives the following daily ration of silage for various kinds and weights of stock. It should be re- membered, however, that these amounts are only approximate and vary considerably in different sections or under special tests. At the end of a 90-day test at the Brookings, S. D., station in 1912, yearling steers were consuming 70 pounds of silage per head daily. (See page 124.) Table V.—Approximate Daily Ration of Silage. Kind of Stock Weight Fed per day Horses— Pounds Pounds (CIRIVPSI Se oo ges n Ao eo Reletete E IpE REI 500 - WiOGla PHOLSES: ffecs scales cicayeune © 1,200 ples SUNG TOE SES) cietarstc ci cicnsie «se 1,300 10 Cattle— Gailwestie ose eo He wart: 500 12 SECM CALELOLIAS Hteleraveutlaleid ie sscr 1,000 20 EP SEAIC OF WiSiea a susiicl® sad Bin Gt Seaeusieus 1,500 ~ 50 Dairy COWS......---+-+eeees 1,000 40 Fattening cattle.........++-- | 1,200 95 Sheep— SOG SSIES D vias ian ve Welolaley: ayer eueie | Pore e 5 Fattening sheep......---+++- Syogede 3 30 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Location of the Silo. The location of the silo is a matter of great importance, which has to be decided upon at the start. The feeding of the silage is an every-day job during the whole winter and spring, and twice a day at that. Other things being equal, the nearest available place is therefore the best. The silo should be as handy to get at from the barn as possible. The condition of the ground must be considered. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best plan to follow is to build the silo there, in connection with the barn, going four feet to six feet below the surface, and providing for door opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the silo should be on or below the level where the cattle stand, and, if practicable, the silage should be moved out and placed before the cows at a single handling. While it is important to have the silo near at hand, it should be so located, in case the silage is used for milk production, that silage odors to not penetrate the whole stable, at milking or other times. Milk is very sensitive to odors, and unless care is taken to feed silage after milking, and to have pure air, free from silage odor, in the stables at the time of milking, there will be a silage flavor to the milk. This will not be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed by most people, and some people cannot notice it at all; but when a person is sus- picious, he can generally discover it. So far as is known this odor is not discernible in either butter or cheese made from silage-flavored milk, nor does it seem to affect the keeping qualities of the milk in any way. Different Types of Silo Structures. Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick, cement, tile or metal, or partly of one and partly of another of these materials. Wooden silos may be built of several layers of thin boards nailed to up- rights, or of single planks (staves), or may be plastered inside. The material used will largely be determined by local conditions; where lumber is cheap, and stone high, wooden silos will generally be built;' where the opposite is true, stone or brick silos will have the advantage in point of cheapness, while concrete and clay block silos are likely to be preferred where great permanency is desired or where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance, and lumber or stone are hard to get at a reasonable cost. So far as the quality of the silage made in any of these kinds of silos is con- DIFFERENT TYPES OF SILO STRUCTURES. 31 cerned, there is no difference when the silos are properly built. The longevity of concrete and tile silos is usually greater than that of wooden silos, since the latter are more easily attacked by the silage juices and are apt to decay in places after a number of years, unless special precautions are taken to preserve them. A well-built and well-cared-for wooden silo should, however, last almost indefinitely. As regards the form of the silo, it may be built in rectangular form, square, octagon or round. We have already seen that the most economical of these is ordinarily the round form, both be- cause in such silos there is less wall space per cubic unit of capacity, and in case of wooden round silos, lighter material can be used in their construction. The only place where silos of square or rectangular form are built now is inside of barns, where they fit in better than a round structure. We shall later on give directions for building silos inside of a barn, but shall now go over to a discussion of the various forms of round silos that are apt to be met with. More round wooden silos have been built during late years in this country than of all other kinds of silos combined, and this type of silo, either built of uprights lined in- side and outside with two layers of half-inch boards, or of one thickness of staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the future; hence we shall give full information as to their building, and shall then briefly speak of the other forms mentioned which may be considered preferable in exceptional cases. Round Wooden Silos. Round wooden silos were first described, and their use advo- eated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wisconsin Station in July, 1891, at a time when lumber of a good quality could be se- cured at much less cost than at present. This type has come to be known as the Wisconsin or King silo, named after the late Prof. King, the originator. The first detailed and illustrated de- scription was published in the above bulletin; since that time it has been described in several bulletins and reports issued by the Station mentioned and in numerous publications from other Experiment Stations. This type, and the one to be described in the following, the stave silo, are practically the only kind of wooden silos that have been built in this country during late years except where unusual conditions have prevailed that would make some other kind of silo construction preferable. 32 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. The Kind of Woods for Silos——Conclusions drawn from Bulletin No. 100, Iowa State College, place the merits of woods for silo use as follows: 1, Redwood; 2, Cypress; 3, Oregon Fir; 4, Tam- arack; 5, White Pine; 6, Long-leaf Yellow Pine. The following description of the King silo is taken from Bul- letins Nos. 85 and 125 of the Wisconsin Station: The Foundation.—There should be a good, substantial cement foundation for all forms of wood silos, and the woodwork should everywhere be at least 12 inches above the earth, to prevent decay from dampness. There are few conditions where it will not be desirable to have the bottom of the silo 5 feet or more below the feeding floor of the stable, and this will require not less than 4 to 6 feet of stone, brick, or concrete wall. For a silo 50 feet deep the foundation wall of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet thick. Bottom of the Silo.—After the silo has been completed the sround forming the bottom should be thoroughly tamped so as to be solid, and then covered with two or three inches of good con- crete made of 1 of cement to 3 or 4 of sand or gravel. The amount of silage which will spoil on a hard clay floor will not be large, but enough to pay a good interest on the money invested in the cement floor. If the bottom of the silo is in dry sand or gravel the cement bottom is imperative to shut out the soil air. The Superstructure.—The wood superstructure of the King silo has a wall 5 or 6 inches thick, whereas the foundation wall is 18 to 24 inches thick; it is evident, therefore, that there must be a shoulder of the wall 12 to 19 inches wide that must project either into the silo pit or outward beyond the sill. How to Place the Frame on the Foundation.—Figure 1 illus- trates two methods of placing the frame on the foundation. A is the right way. B is the wrong way. In B Fig. 1 the shoulder of the foundation wall projects into the silo pit. This method is permissible when the silo floor is not more than 1 foot below the top of the wall. If the floor of the silo is three feet or more below the top of the wall as in B Fig. 1, then this shoulder interferes with the proper settling of the silage and the silage moulds or rots just above the shoulder next to the silo and usually below the shoulder also. This rotting is commonly ascribed to the loosen- ing of the sill or the foundation allowing air to enter. In most cases, however, it is plainly not due to this cause, but is due to the projecting shoulder which interferes with the settling of the ROUND WOODEN SILOS. 33 Fig. 1—Showing two methods of placing the wood, brick lined or lathed and plastered silo on a stone foundation. A shows the silo set with upper portion flush with the inside of the stone wall, and B shows the upper portion flush with the outside of the stone wall. A is the right way; B is the wrong way. silage. Many silos have been abandoned on this account, so serious has been the loss from rotting. This shoulder should never project into the silo pit. Forming the Sill.—The sill may be made of a single 2x4 cut into two foot lengths with the ends beveled so that they may be toe-nailed together to form a circle. Two other methods are also illustrated in Fig. 2, one being a double thickness with broken joints and the other using pieces cut to the curvature of the silo. It will be noted that the latter construction eliminates the air- spaces between the silo and the outer sheeting which are evident in the first two mentioned. These spaces admit air so that the space between the studding is not a dead air space. Setting the Studding.—The studding of the all-wood round silo need not be greater than 2x4, but they should be set as close together as one foot from center to center, as represented in Fig. 6. This number of studs is not required for strength but they are needed in order to bring the two layers of lining very 34 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Fig. 2.—Showing three methods of making a sill or plate for Gurler or King Silo. A shows sill made of a single thickness of 2x4’s cut in two-foot lengths; B shows sill made of two thicknesses of 2x4’s laid to break joints; C shows 2x4 sawed out of 2x6 plank. C is the best method, since the sheeting then fits the sill making a tight joint, whereas in A and B a tight joint between sheeting and sill or plate cannot be secured. Ob- serve that the sill is placed near the inner edge of the founda- tion. THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. ° 35 close together, so as to press the paper closely and prevent air from entering where the paper laps. Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed, short lengths may be lapped one foot and simply spiked together before they are set in place on the wall. This will be cheaper than to pay the higher price for long lengths. All studding should be given the exact length desired before putting them in place. WES . EE tro agg a CAR SSS “ Ss SSS BSS K we SSANXt( ys DOPPLER IIOBBISNIOS is LLLC LA LY Cea SSS Fig. 3.—Detail of construction of wall of King silo. Three thick- nesses of %” sheeting inside with 2 thicknesses of acid-proof paper, and on the outside one thickness of sheeting, 1 of tar felt, and 1 of clap boards. Observe that the shoulder of the foundation is outside. 36 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO. To stay the studding a post should be set in the ground in the center of the silo long enough to reach about five feet above the sill, and to this stays may be nailed to hold in place the alternate studs until the lower five feet of outside sheeting has been put on. The studs should be set first at the angles formed in the sill and carefully stayed and plumbed on the side toward the center. When a number of these have been set they should be tied together by bending a strip of half-inch sheeting around the outside as high up as a man can reach, taking care to plumb each stud on the side before nailing. When the alternate studs have bcen set in this way the balance may be placed and toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the rib, first plumbing them sideways and toward the center. Setting Studding for Doors.—On the side of the silo where the doors are to be placed the studding should be set double and the Fig. 6.—Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick-lined or lathed-and-plastered silo. THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 37 distance apart to give the desired width. A stud should be set between the two door studs as though no door were to be there, and the doors cut out at the places desired afterwards. The con- struction of the door is represented in Fig. 7. The doors are usually made about 2 feet wide and from 2% to 5 feet high, and placed one above the other at suitable dis- tances apart. It has been suggested that to insure security a strip of tar paper should be placed the entire length of the silo on the inside over the doors. LE LL ALLL LV LL IV LL VV LLL LEAL Fig. 7.—Showing the construction of the door for the all-wood silo. 38 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Silo Sheeting and Siding—The character of the siding and sheeting will vary considerably according to conditions and the size of the silo. Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet inside and not much attention need be paid to frost, a single layer of beveled siding, rabbetted on the inside of the thick edge, deep enough to receive the thin edge of the board below, will be all that is absolutely necessary on the outside for strength and protection against weather. If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken to paint it at once, otherwise it will warp badly if it gets wet before painting. In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, carrying the work upward until staging is needed, following this at once with the siding. Two 8-penny nails should be used in each board in every stud, and to prevent the walls from getting “out of round” the succeeding course of boards should begin on the next stud, thus making the ends of the boards break joints. ; When the stagings are put up, new stays should be tacked to the studs above, taking care to plumb each one from side to side; the siding itself will bring them into place and keep them plumb the other way, if care is taken to start new courses as described above. Forming the Plate.—When the last staging is up the plate should be formed by spiking 2x4’s cut in two-foot lengths, in the manner of the sill, and as represented in Fig. 8, down upon the tops of the studs, using two courses, making the second break joints with the first. A still better method is to use 2x6 plank, cut to the circle as shown in C, Fig. 2. The Lining of the Wooden Silo.—There are several ways of making a good lining for the all-wood round silo, but whichever method is adupted it must be kept in mind that there are two very important ends to be secured with a certainty. These are (1) a lining which shall be and remain strictly air-tight, (2) a lining which will be reasonably permanent. Lining of Half-inch Boards and Papers—Where paper is used to make the joints between boards air-tight, as represented in Fig. 5, it is extremely important that a quality which will not decay, and which is both acid and water-proof be used. A paper THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 39 which is not. acid and water-proof will disintegrate at the joints in a very short time, and thus leave the lining very defective. The best paper for silo purposes with which we are acquainted is a 3-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufactured by the Standard Paint Co., of Chicago and New York. It is thick, strong, and acid and water-proof. A silo lining with two thicknesses of good fencing having only smal!l knots, and these thoroughly sound and not black, will make an excellent lining. Great care should be taken to have the two layers of boards break joints at their centers, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 inches. The great danwer with this type of lining will be that the boards may not press the two layers of paper together close Fig. 8—Showing construction of conical roof of round silo, where rafters are not used. The outer circle is the lower edge of the roof, the second is the plate, the third and fourth circles are hoops to which the roof boards are nailed. The view is a plan looking up from the under side. 40 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. enough but that some air may arise between the two sheets where they overlap, and thus gain access to the silage. It would be an excellent precaution to take to tack down closely with small carpet tacks the edges of the paper where they overlap, and if this is done a lap of 4 inches will be sufficient. The first layer of lining should be put on with 8-penny nails, two in each board and stud, and the second or inner layer with 10-penny nails, the fundamental object being to draw the two layers of boards as closely together as possible. Such a lining as this will be very durable because the paper will keep all the lumber dry except the inner layer of half-inch boards, and this will be kept wet by the paper and silage until empty, and then the small thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rotting to set in. A. still mere substantial lining of the same type may be se- cured by using two layers of paper between three layers of boards, as representcd in Fig. 3, and if the climate is not extremely severe, or,;if the silo is only to be fed from in the summer, it would be hetter to do away with the layer of sheeting and paper outside, ‘putting on the inside, thus securing two layers of paper and three layers of boards for the lining with the equivalent of only 2 inches of lumber. The Silo Roof.—Roofs on silos make big savings in keeping the silage from drying out and blowing around. They keep OOF SIDE VIEW. 2x” RALTER USHER TING MOTCH FOR SALTER y aeid TER OF BORRD. fi : RALACS - TH Fig. 9.—Showing construction and details of one style of roof. (From Nebr. Bul. No. 138.) THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 41 the wind out and make the silo warm in winter, free from snow and freezing, and the silage in good shape for feeding. The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several ways, but the simplest type of construction and the one requiring the least amount of material is that represented in Fig. 8, which is the cone. If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter no rafters need be used, and only a single circle like that in the center of Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch stuff cut in sections in the form of a circle and two layers spiked together, breaking joints. The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the inner circle and to the plate, as shown in the drawing, the boards having been sawed diagonally, making the wide and narrow ends the same relative widths as the circumference of the outer edge of the roof and of the inner circle. Thus a 10-foot board 8 inches wide would be sawed so as to make two 10-foot lengths, each being 6% inches wide at one end and 1% inches wide at the other. If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet it will be necessary to use two or three hoops according to diameter. The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingles, split- ting those wider than 8 inches. By laying the butts of the shingles %to % of an inch apart it is not necessary to taper any of the shingles except a few courses near the peak of the roof. The prepared roofings, such as “Ruberoid” or “Paroid” or pre- pared gravel roofing are preferred to shingles for a silo roof, since they make a tighter roof which retains the heat in winter. In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the right exposure to the weather, a good method is to use a strip of wood as a radius which works on a center set at the peak of the roof and provided with a nail or pencil to make a mark on the shingle where the butts of the next course are to come. The radius may be bored with a series of holes the right distance apart to slip over the center pivot, or the nail may be drawn and reset as desired. Some carpenters file a notch in the shingling hatchet, and use this to bring the shingle to place. Ventilation of the Silo. Every silo which has a roof should be provided with ample ventilation to keep the under side of the roof dry, and in the case of wood silos, to prevent the walls and lining from rotting. One 42 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. of the most serious mistakes in the early construction of wood silos was the making of the walls with dead-air spaces, which, on account of dampness from the silage, led to rapid “dry-rot” of the lining. In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is important to provide ample ventilation for the spaces between the studs, as well as for the roof and the inside of the silo, and a good method of doing this is represented in Fig. 4, where the lower portion represents the sil! and the upper the plate of the silo. Between each pair of studs where needed a 14-inch auger hole to admit air is bored through the siding and sheeting and covered with a piece of wire netting to keep out mice and rats. At the top of the silo on the inside, the lining is only covered to within two inches of the plate and this space is covered with wire n_tting to prevent silage from being thrown over when filling. This arrangement permits dry air from outside to enter at the bottom between each pair of studs and to pass up and into the silo, thus keeping the lining and studding dry and at the same time drying the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast as exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2x4’s cut in 2-foot lengths there will be space enough left between the curved edge of the siding and sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that no holes need be bored as describ.d above and represented in Fig. 4. The openings at the plate should always be provided and the silo should have some sort of ventilator in the roof. This ventilator may take the form of a cupola to serve for an orna- ment as well, or it may be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24 inches in diameter, rising a foot or two through the peak of the roof. A word of caution is sounded in the Wisconsin Bulletin No. 125 regarding the above method of ventilation: ‘Tt will be readily understood that if these ventilators betwecn the studs are left open in winter they will act as chimneys; they will maintain a constant draft between the studding, which will cool off and freeze the silage more severely than it would if there were no sheeting at all outside the studding. If the silage is for winter feeding, and 99 per cent of the silage is so fed, then more care should be exercised than at present in Wisconsin to prevent this severe freezing. In order to do this, provision must be made for closing these ventilators both at the top and at the bottom, THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 43 Fig. 4.—Showing the method of ventilating between studding. An auger hole is bored through the outer siding just above sill, between each pair of studding as at X, and a screen nailed over hole inside to keep out mice. A similar hole is bored through the inner sheeting between each pair of studs at the top of the silo just under the plates, as at W. Auger holes are used at X and W, so that the holes may be closed in cold weather with corks. 44 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. so as to convert the hollow wall into a real dead-air space. There is no need of building the wall air-tight outside, as shown in Fig. 3, with two thickness of sheeting with paper between, unless there is provision for closing the ventilators in winter. “The writer has seen a number of these silos in which the silage froze severely. In most instances no attempt was made to close the ventilators, and the few instances when it was at- tempted only the lower ventilators on the outside were closed. This is not enough for if the upper ventilators at W, Fig. 4, are left open the hollow wall will cool off rapidly and the air space serve no purpose as protection against frost. “The invention of the King silo came in response to an urgent demand for a type of construction that would avoid the corners and other serious and aggravating defects of silos, as previously constructed. It marked an epoch in silo building. Hundreds of silos of this type have been constructed. They have not been confined to Wisconsin, but have been widely distributed. They have been in use the past ten years, and have demonstrated their success. They are no longer an experiment. However, the very wide and general use of this type of silo under a great variety of conditions of climate and local environment has brought out some of the demerits of this type of construction which at the outset could not have been foreseen. For instance, the wood lining has been found less satisfactory than cement, and hence it is recommended that these silos be cement lined. Many of the King silos are lathed and plastered and have proven very satis- factory, having done service for ten years. “Clap beards have been found unsatisfactory for the outer siding and it is recommended that steel siding or some of the roofing paper, ruberoid, or lath and plaster be used in their stead as will be described later.” Painting the Silo Lining. It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will not become wholly or partly saturated with the silage juices. This being true. when the lining is again exposed when feeding the silage out. the paint greatly retards the drying of the wood work and the result is decay sets in, favored by prolonged dampness. For this reason it is best to leave a wood lining naked or to use some anti- septic which does not form a water-proof coat. THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 45 The cost of such a silo as that described in the foregoing pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12 cents per square foot of outside surface, when the lining consists of two layers of half-inch split fencing, with a 3-ply Giant P. and B. paper beo- tween, and with one layer of split fencing outside, covered with rabbetted house siding. If built inside of the barn, without a roof and not painted, the cost would be reduced 3 cents per square foot, or more. Silos of this type, 50 feet deep, built outside, provided with a roof and including 6 feet of foundations are stated to cost as follows: 15 feet inside diameter (80 tons capacity), $183.00; 15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00; 21 feet diameter (206 tons eapacity), $298.00; and 25 feet diameter (500 tons capacity), $358.00. Complete specifications and building plans for a 300-ton silo, of the kind described in the preceding pages, are given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage. The dimensions of this silo are: Diameter, 26 feet; height, 30 feet. According to our present knowledge this form of silo is most likely the best that can be built; it is a somewhat complicated structure, calls for more time and skill for its construction, and costs more than other kinds of wooden circular silos, especially more than the stave silo soon to be described; but once built needs but little attention and it is durable and economical; being practically air-tight, the losses of food materials in the siloed fodder are reduced to a minimum. Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo. Several modifications of the Wisconsin Silo have been proposed and have given good satisfaction; one is described by ~ Prof. Plumb in Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin No. 91, as follows: The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way up there are three layers of sheeting against the studs with tarred paper between. The upper half of the studs has but two layers of sheeting. The sheeting was made by taking 2x6-inch white pine planks and sawing to -make four boards. The silo rests on a stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. It is 30 feet high, 18 feet 4 inches inside diameter, and holds-about 150 tons. An inexpensive but durable roof was placed upon it. The cost of this structure is as follows: As the work was all done by the 46 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. regular farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given at estimated cost: Studding, $13.03; sheeting, $63.00; 5 rolls of paper, $6.25; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, $2.40; labor, $20.00; total, $107.08. The owner of the silo was so pleased with the service this one had rendered since its construction, that he built another like it during the summer of 1902. This silo is connected by a covered passage and chute with the feeding floor of the cattle barn. The construction of this type of silo calls for as much Care in putting on sheeting, making doors and Keeping out the air at these places and at the foundation, as is required with the more expensive forms previously described. The need for outer siding will depend in a large measure on circumstances. The farmer building the silo (living in Central Indiana) has had no trouble with his silage freezing. In Northern Indiana the siding would naturally be more necessary than in the southern part of this state, but generally speaking, siding is not necessary, although it does materially add to the attractiveness of the silo. Plastered Round Wooden Silos. Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor among farmers who have tried them, and are preferred by many for either the original or the modified Wisconsin silo, on account of their ease of construction and their durability. In the experience of H. B. Gurler, a well known Illinois dairyman, who has built several silos on his farm in the course of the last dozen years, the walls of plastered silos keep perfectly and there is no waste from moldy silage along the wall; neither is there any difficulty about cracking of the plaster, if this is put on properly and a good quality of cement is used. Gurler described the construc- tion of his plastered silo in Breeder’s Gazette, accompanying his description with building plans of his silo. We have reproduced the latter changed and improved in some points of minor im- portance, and give below a brief description of the method of building silos of this type. (See Figs. 10 and 11.) The foundation may be made of stone, brick or cement, and is carried to the proper distance above ground. Sills composed of pieces of 2x4, two feet long, beveled at the ends so as to be toe-nailed together to form a circle of the same diameter as the THE “WISCONSIN” SILO. 47 interior diameter of the silo, are placed on the foundation bedded in asphalt or cemented mortar, and on this the studding is erected, using two by fours, placed 15 or 16 inches apart. Inside sheeting was secured by having 6-inch fencing re-sawed, making the material a little less than %-inch thick. On this was nailed laths made from the same material, the laths being made with beveled edges so that when nailed onto the sheeting horizontally, the same way as the sheeting is put on, there are dove-tailed joints between the laths to receive the cement, preventing its loosening until it is broken. The patent grooved lath might be used, but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. Better than either kind of wooden laths, however, is wire netting or metal lath of one form or another, such as is now generally used in outside plastering of houscs, nailed on strips of 1x2’s which are placed 15 inches apart, and nailed onto the studding through the sheeting. Metal lath will not take up moisture from the silage juices, and thus expand and possibly cause the plaster to crack, WCET TT TTT MATHS UT CO = ee ES fkevalion b heel te". Seciion Fig. 10.—Elevation and section of plastered round wooden silo. 48 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. as would be likely to occur in case of wooden laths. For outside sheeting similar material to that used for inside sheeting may be used. If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no out- side sheeting would be required, although it would add greatly to the looks of the silo. Not being certain that the inside sheeting, laths and cement offered sufficient resistance to the outward pressure in the silo, Mr. Gurler put on wooden hoops outside of the studding, of the same material as for the inside she ting, putting it on double thickness and breaking joints. The silo de- scribed, which would hold 250-300 tons, cost $500, without a roof. Mr. Gurler considers this silo the best that can be built, and estimates that it will last for at least fifty years, if given a wash of cement every three years and if any cracks that may start be filled before the silo is filled again. The Gurler silo uses much less lumber than the Wisconsin or King silo, one thickness of sheeting instead of four or five thick- nesses being sufficient. The Gurler must be cement lined, how- Qnevet Foundation lebooe! Hoges Yor fan's 6 = 4:0'spart Kew pl Bon 24'skeo's 12°” confers. Fig. 11.—Foundation plan and section of plastered round wooden Silo. 49 SILO. THE “WISCONSIN” ‘punoASeLOJ UL O[IS poUl] Hog ‘UOTWeIG JUSWUITIOdX@ UISUODSIM ‘UIeg Arleq—g| ‘Big 50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. ever, but it is cheaper as to first cost and is the more durable. It was designed primarily for use inside some other building, whereas the Wisconsin silo is intended to stand outside. Brick Lined Silos. As an illustration of silos of this type we give below a de- scription of the silo built in connection with the Dairy Barn of the Wisconsin Experimental Station; the accompanying figures, 12 and 13, will show the exterior.appearance of the barn and silo, and a plan of the eastern half of the first floor of this barn. The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter and 33 feet deep. It is a framed structure lined inside and outside with brick. On 2x6-inch uprights, two wrappings of %-inch stuff, 6 inches wide, are put, breaking joints, with no paper between. Brick is laid tight against this lining, ‘and on the brick surface is a heavy coating of Portland cement (1 part cement, 1 part sand). On the outside brick is laid up against the lining with a small open space between (about % inch). The silo is-filled from the third floor of the barn, the loads of corn being hauled directly onto this floor over the trestle shown to the right in Fig. 12, and there run through the feed cutter. When the silage is taken out for feeding, it falls through a box chute to the main floor where it is received into a truck (Fig. 54) in which it is conveyed to the mangers of the animals. An illustration and description of the original round silo, with a capacity of 90 tons, built at the same Station in 1891, are given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage, where descriptions and illustra- tions of a number of other first-class round wooden silos will also be found, like those constructed at the Experiment Stations in New Jersey, Missouri, and South Dakota. Stave Silos. The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo buildings. and partly for this reason, partly on account of its cheapness of construction, more silos of this kind have been built during the past few years than any other silo type. Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been favorably mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics, as well as by experiment station men. In the recent bulletin from Cornell Ex- 51 BRICK LINED SILOS. ‘UOT}RIS JUSWL1wdxXW UISUODSIM “d}9 ‘OTIS pue S8IqQeIS SuLMoYUsS ‘UIvqd JO LOOY 4silq—e, "B14 a) oD) Sis Wel | | | | GROCRONEED | | | | eS Sare Nw aA HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 52 ‘SIM ‘UOSUIN}V ‘J “OD “SJIN Seulee ASoJINO0D—'d}e ‘BuUIpesey 0} SOTIS Jo UOT}E[II SUIMOYS ‘Spunody IBA 9}¥1gG UISUODSIAA ‘UIeq Jepou Jo uY[d 1004 WIly—"py “B14 or -989 21 61 ——p— 0 6), ——te —_ 0 #) herd ~- 4-48 4- - n ie > | TEE ‘ —" ! ees we > e (syns n Gees evan aa9y a 7tin5 << Peer ied (armmres +f ——+—— 0 #1 ———# 0 #/ ——+e— 8 9 +———._ 8§ 6. /) ——-+4— 0 & —— 9 - 6 or-9e ——__— = THE STAVE SILO. 53 periment Station, we find the stave silo spoken of as ‘tthe most practical and successful silo which can be constructed,’ and the Ottawa Experiment Station is on record for the following state- ment in regard to the stave silo: “From extensive observation and study of silos and silo construction, and from experience here with a number of different silos, it would appear that the stave silo is the form of cheap silos that for various reasons is most worthy of recommendation. It combines simplicity and cheapness of construction with the requisite conditions to preserve the silage in the very best condition for feeding.” Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory silos should be built as well as a No. 1 water tank. The first stave silos were built in this country in the beginning of the nineties; they soon found some enthusiastic friends, while most people, including nearly all writers and lecturers on silo construction, were in- clined to be skeptical as to their practicability. It was objected that the staves would expand so as to burst the hoops when the silo was filled with green fodder; that they would shrink after having been left empty during the summer months, so that the silo would fall to pieces, or at least so that it could not again be made air-tight; and finally, that the silage would freeze in such silos, and its feeding value thereby be greatly lowered. In addition to this, it was claimed that a substantial stave silo would cost as much as a first class ordinary all-wood silo of the same capacity, which would not have the objectionable features of the former. In spite of these objections the stave silo has, however, grad- ually gained ground, until of late years it has quite generally been adopted in preference to other kinds of silos, particularly in the Eastern and Central states. This being a fact, it follows that the objections previously made to the stave silos cannot be valid, that the staves do not swell so as to burst the hoops, or shrink so as to cause the silo to fall to pieces, or become leaky. As re- gards the danger from freezing of the silage, the criticisms of the stave silo are in order, as silage in outdoor stave silos will be likely to freeze in cold weather, in any of the northern states or Canada; but, according to the testimony of farmers who have had experience with frozen silage, this is more an inconvenience than a loss. The freezing does not injure the feeding value of 54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. the silage, or its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it is as good as ever, and eaten by cattle with a relish. Why Stave Silos Have Become Numerous. The main reason why stave silos have been preferred by the majority of farmers during late years are that they can be put up easily, quickly and cheaply, and the expense for a small silo of this kind is cumparatively small. Many a farmer has built a stave silo who could not afford to build a high-priced silo, and others have preferred to build two small silos for one large one, or a small one in addition to an old, larger one that they may already have. Manufacturing firms have, furthermore, made a specialty of stave silo construction, and pushed the sale of such silos through advertisements and neat circulars. Having made a special business of the building of stave silos, and having had several years’ experience as to the requirements and precautions to be observed in building such silos, these firms furnish silos complete with all necessary fixtures, that are greatly superior to any which a farmer would be apt to build according to more or less incomplete directions. It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufacturing firms will generally be more expensive than such a farmer can build himself, because they are built better. It does not pay to build a poor silo, however, except to bridge over an emergency. Poor, cheap silos are a constant source of annoyance, expense and trouble, whether built square, rectangular or round. The cheap silos described in other places of this book have not been given for the purpose of encouraging the building of such silos, but rather to show that if a farmer cannot afford to build a perma- nent good silo, he is not necessarily barred from the advantages of having silage for his stock, since a temporary silo may be built at a small cash outlay. We can therefore consistently recommend that parties intend- ing to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers who have made silo construction a special business. These firms furnish all necessary silo fittings, with complete directions for putting up the silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend their building. Perhaps a large majority of the farmers of the country cannot, however, patronize manufacturers of stave silos because the expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be pro- THE STAVE SILO. 55 hibitory. For the convenience of such parties and others who may prefer to build their own stave silos, directions for their construction are given in the following: The specifications for a 100-ton stave silo, printed below, which are taken from Woll’s Book on Silage, were furnished by Claude & Starck, Architects, Madison, Wisconsin. Specifications for 100-ton Stave Silo. MASONRY. Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to a depth of 6 inches; excavate for foundation wall to a depth of 16 inches; in this trench build a wall 18 inches wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in rich lime mortar. Level off top and plaster in- side, outside and on top with cement mertar, 1 part cement to 1 part sand. Fill inside area with four inches of good gravel, thor- oughly tamped down; after the wood work is in place coat this with one inch of cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part clean sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the center and brought up at least 2 inches all around inside and outside walls. CARPENTRY. All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking joints, and made from clear, straight-grained cypress, 2x6 inches, bev- eled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the exact dimensions and dressed on all sides. There shall be three doors in the fifth, eighth and tenth spaces between the hoops, made by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut to a 45-degree bevel sloping to the inside. (See Fig. 15.) The staves shall then be fastened together with two 2x4 inch battens cut on inside to an 8-ft. radius and bolted to each stave with two 4-inch diameter earriage bolts with round head sunk on inside and nut on outside. The staves bctween the doors shall be fastened together top and bottom, with %-inch diameter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of staves shall be squared and toe-nailed together. Bottom Plates.—Bottom plates shall be made of 2x4-inch Pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 inches radius outside. They shall be bedded in cement mortar and the staves shall then be set on the foundation and well spiked to these plates. rte 56 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Hoops.—Hoops shall be made from two pieces of %-inch diam- eter round iron with upset ends, threaded 8 inches, with nut and washer at each end; as a support for the hoops a piece of 4x6 shall be substituted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes and tight- ened against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The hoops shall be twelve in number starting at the bottom 6 inches apart and increasing in distance 6 inches between each hoop until a space of 3 feet 6 inches is reached; from this point up this distance shall be preserved as near as possible to the top. WP im Fig. 15.—Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed out, and side view in place. The opening is largest on the inside of silo. (Clinton.) THE STAVE SILO. 57 Roof.—Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6-inch clear siding lapping joints, nailed to 2x4-inch rafters, 2-feet centers 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-inch plates. These plates to be supported on two 4x4-inch pieces resting on top of hoops. Three Fig. 16.—A cheap roof of a stave silo. (Clinton.) 1x4-ineh Collar beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters to tie side of roof together. (See Fig. 12.) Fig. 16 shows an- other simple construction of roof on a stave silo. PAINTING. The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be painted two coats of good mineral paint; the entire inside surface of the staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated with ‘hot coal tar. Note.—Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked tightly over doors and the entire inside of silo examined and cracks tightly caulked. The method of construction specified in the preceding may of course be modified in many particulars, according to the condi- tions present in each case, cost of different kinds of lumber, max- imum amount of money to be expended on silo, ete. The following directions for the construction of stave silos 58 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. are taken from two bulletins on this subject, published by the Cornell and Ottawa Experiment Stations. For a silo 20 feet in diameter, a circular trench 18 inches to two feet wide and with an outer diameter of 22 feet is dug about 2 feet deep, or below the frost line. The surface soil over the whole included area, and for 2 feet outside, is removed to a depth of 10 or 12 inches at the same time. The trench is then filled to the level of the interior with stone, well pounded down, the surfaCe stone being broken quite small, and thin cement (1 part of cement to 4 of sand thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in and left for a few days. This is followed by a coat of good cement (1 part cement to 3 sand), care being taken when finished to have the surface level and smooth. The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 17, which shews a cross- section of one method of construction. aN oN, 2 » geo. ae “y ess : pokes oe Re eae eee . ' o _! De et ee xwoeocc Kanes eal Zs ‘ ’ er 2 ( ! 1! ' | 1 ; ' i ' irate y ' ' ‘ \ { ' ' 1 vw“ ' iS a” | es “7 \ if {Ss ” ! 5k ee Ass ' ' 1 f, Sy ’ & | ! 1 3 vs, { 1g | a Ny ‘ ' | “ bd Sell | ' ] a Si : y Lee ~S ' | b’ petra | ' aes atic ; t ° ' 1 : ‘ ‘ ! : : i] ies stot ‘ ' ' 1 ' ‘ 1 ; ! ! rtie-J-- --- ~ Sie Se =e a fe ae ee I ! ' \ ’ OS a 2 eee) 1 J Ne 4 i H -/. Na 37 ue.- Papas \e,7” Y a Fig. 17.—Cross section of stave silo. The dotted lines show how scaffolding may be put up. MATERIAL FOR THE SILO. 59 The posts (a, a, a, a) Should be of 6x6 material and run the entire length of the silo. These should be first set up vertically and stayed securely in place. The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 2x4 scantling in the positions shown in Fig. 17, as b, b, b, b. Boards nailed from these 2x4 scantling and to the 6x6 posts will form a rigid framework, across which the planks for the scaffold platform may be laid. Before the scaffolding is all in place the staves should be stood up within the inclosure; otherwise difficulty will be ex- perienced in getting them into position. It is probable that no better material can be obtained for the staves than Southern cypress. This, however, is so expensive in the North, as to preclude its use in most cases. Of the cheaper materials hemlock, white pine, and yellow pine, are usually the most available. At the present time hemlock is one of the cheap- est satisfactory materials which can be purchased, and it is probably as good as any of the cheaper ‘materials. It should be sound and free from loose knots. If the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less, the staves should be made of either 2x4 material, unbeveled on the edges and neither tongued nor grooved, or of 2x6 material beveled slightly on the edges to make the staves conform to the circular shape of the silo. If the silo is to have a diameter of more than 12 feet, the staves should be of 2x6 material, and neither beveled nor tongued and grooved on the edges. The staves should be surfaced on the inside so that a smooth face may be presented which will facilitate the settling of the silage. The first stave set up should be made plumb, and should be toe-nailed at the top to one of the posts originally set. Immediately a stave is set in place it should be toe-nailed at the top to the preceding stave set. It has been found that the work of setting up and preserving the circular outline may be materially aided by the use of old barrel staves (see Fig. 18). For a silo 12 feet in diameter the curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best adapted; for a 16-foot silo the flour barrel stave is best, and for a silo 20 feet or more in diameter the stave of the cement barrel is best. If when the silo staves are put in place they are toe-nailed securely to the ones previously set if they are fastened firmly to the permanent ‘up- right post (Fig. 17, a, a, a, a); if the barrel staves are used as directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand until 60 ‘HOW TO BUILD A SILO. the hoops are put in place. However, if it becomes necessary for any reason to delay for any considerable time the putting on of the hoops, boards should be nailed across the top of the silo. When it is found impossible to secure staves of the full length desired, a joint or splice must be made. For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may be used. A part of these should be used their full length and part should be sawed through the middle, thus making staves of 20 and 10 feet length. In setting them up the ends which meet at the splice should be squared and toe-nailed securely together. They should alternate so that first a long stave is at the bottom then a short one, thus breaking joints at 10 feet and 20 feet from the base. For the hoops, %-inch round iron or steel rods are recom- mended, although cheaper substitutes have been found satisfac- tory. Each hoop should be in three sections for a silo 12 feet in diameter, in four sections for a silo 16 feet in diameter. If the method of construction shown in Fig. 17 is followed, the hoops — : | = esas yi) id A N Ai Fig. 18.—Shows how barrel staves may be used in setting up a silo. They should be removed before the silo is filled. IRON HOOPS FOR SILOS. 61 will need to be in four sections each, the ends being passed through the upright 6x6 posts, and secured by heavy washers and nuts. The bottom hoop should be about six inches from the base of the silo; the second hoop should be not more than two feet from the first; the third hoop two and one-half feet from the second, the distance between hoops being increased by one-half foot until they are three and one-half feet apart, which distance should be maintained except for the hoops at the top of the silo which may be four feet apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before the silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must be tight enough to close up the space between the staves, thus preventing any foreign matter from getting into the cracks which would prevent the staves from closing up as they swell, and allow air to enter. To hold hoops and staves in place during the sum- mer when the silo is empty, staples should be ‘driven over the hoops into the staves. If a sufficient number of staples are used they will prevent the sagging or dropping down of the hoops, and they will hold the staves securely in place. The hoops should be watched very closely for a few days after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes quite intense the nuts should be slightly loosened. If during the summer when the silo is empty and the staves thoroughly dry the hoops are tightened so that the staves are drawn closely together when the silo is filled and the wood absorbs moisture and begins to swell, the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow for the ex- pansion. The doors, 2, feet wide by 2% feet high, should be located where convenience in feeding dictates. The lower door should be between the second and third hoops at the bottom, and other doors will usually be needed in every second space be- tween there and the top, except that no door will be needed in the top space, as the silage when settled will be sufficiently low to enable it to be taken out at the door in the space below. Plans should be made for the doors at the time the staves are set. When the place is reached wh-re it is desired to have the doors, a saw should be started in the edge of the stave at the points where the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The saw should be inserted so that the door can be sawed out on a bevel, making the opening larger on the inside of the silo. (See Fig. 15.) This will enable the door to be removed and put in 62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. place only from the inside, and when set in place and pressed down with silage the harder the pressure the tighter will the door fit. After the silo is set up and the hoops have been put on and tightened the cutting out of the doors may be completed. Before doing this, cleats 2 inches by 3 inches and in length equal to the width of the door, should be made which will conform to the circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of where the door is to be cut. (See Fig. 15.) After the bolting, the door may be sawed out, and it is then ready for use. When set in place at time of filling the silo a piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and bottom will fill the opening made by the saw and prevent the entrance of any air around the door. Another Door for Stave Silo. Silage being heavy to handle and pitch up, has made contin- uous doors a popular feature of a few factory-built silos, as it is nuch easier to get the silage out of the silo for feeding. The illustration, Fig. 19, shows a method of making a door in home- made silos which is continuous with the exception of a narrow brace piece extending across the opening, under each hoop, to give rigidity to the structure. These pieces should be securely toe-nailed at each end to the staves. The jamb piec-s, e, e, should be 2 inches thick, beveled off on the side away from the door, securely spiked to the inside of the stave, as shown, so as to leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should be taken to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart throughout their entire length, so that the door boards, being sawed the exact length, will fit alike and properly all the way up, and if care be taken in this regard it will not be necessary to replace them in the same order at each successive filling of the silo. The door boards should be matched, two inches thick the same as the staves, and if surfaced and well seasoned there need be no fear of the silage spoiling around such a door. A strip of acid and water-proof paper may be placed in the rabbet, between the ends of the door boards and the stave, as an extra precaution, but if the carpenter work is well done it is not absolutely necessary. Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave silo, and, if not more than two feet wide, the fact that the door section is straight instead of curved will make no difference. SECTION OF SILO DOOR. r 63 Fig. 19.—a, a, Staves. b, b, Door Boards. c, Brace 2% by 6, set in. d, d, Hoops. e, e, Jamb Pieces. 64 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. If the silo is built cutlside of the barn some sort of a roof is desirable. This should be sufficicntly wide to protect the walls of the silo as thoroughly as possible. A very satisfactory roof is shown in Fig. 16. Two other constructions of a cheap roof for a.stave silo are shown in Figs. 20 and 21. The latter was built at the Indiana Experiment Station at a total cost of $10.50, viz., lumber, $4.00; tin put on and painted, $6.00, and hardware, 50 cents. Two 2x6 pieccs (AA) were placed on edge and toe-nailed to the top of the staves they rested on; the projection is for supporting the carrier at filling time. They are tied togethcr by the short pieces E. The roof is in three sections, G, H, and I. G and H are hinged to the frame A, A, and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full, to allow filling to the top. The narrow middle section is light enough to lift off on either side, and leaves the opening for the carrier to deliver into. : Hr yy * iT xh G7, hy/ Yd 1 MS HANNS Fig. 20.—A cheap roof for stave silos. CHEAP ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 65 On the framework B, B, and C, C, cheap sheeting boards are nailed. This is then covered with tin, soldered ioints and painted. The sections should be fastened down by means of staples and hooks, or other device; the hooks are used on this one. On the inner edge of G and H, 2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed. Close to these are placed similar strips, J, to which the cross- boards are nailed, forming the section I of the roof. The tin Fig. 21.—A CHEAP ROOF OF STAVE SILO. A, B, and BE, 2x6 in.; C, 2x4 in.; D, EH. Enlarged Outside End; F, Hinges; G, H, I, Sections of Roof; J, K, 2x2 in. (Van Norman.) on the section I should come over to the side of J. On the other sections it should run up on the side of K, making a water-tight joint. The sections G and H have slope of nearly 5 inches, being the difference in height of A and C. C is notched one inch at the outer end. (Van Norman.) 66 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. A Modification of the Stave Silo. Stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up, but unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they may be easily’ blown into a shapeless mags in case of a heavy gale. The modification of the stave silo described in the following has the advantage of being more rigid and substantial; it has been put up in a number of places in the East, and has apparently given good satisfaction for several years at least. In building this silo some good tough oak plank two inches thick and of any convenient length are procured. Rock elm will do, although not as good as oak. The planks are sawed into strips half an inch thick. The foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and a little larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just long enough to act as a guide in setting scantling when erecting sides. For sides 14%4x4-inch hemlock of any desired length is used. These are set up on the circumference of the silo, perpendicular to the bottom, 3 feet and 7 feet up nail on the outside one of the half- inch strips mentioned before, being sure to keep the circle regular. This will keep upright pieces in place until the circle is completed. On each hoop so started other half-inch pieces are nailed, lapping them in different places until each hoop is three inches thick. Other hoops are now put on in the same manner, placing them one foot apart.at bottom up to the three-foot hoop, 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot hoop, then increasing the distance between each hoop two inches, until they are 50 inches apart, at which distance they should be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should be done on the hoop. When this is done, a silo will be made of 114%4x4-inch, thoroughly hooped with wooden hoops 2x3 inches. The inside may be covered with the best quality of felt, wcll tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat of thick coal tar is spread; over this another thickness of felt is put while the tar coating is still green. The silo is lined with %-inch Georgia pine ceiling, nailing thoroughly and the lining coated with two coats of coal tar, putting on the first one quite thin, but using all the wood will take in, and for a second coat tar as thick as can be spread. Give plenty of time to dry before filling. The outside of the silo may be boarded up with vertical MODIFICATION OF STAVE SILO. 67 boarding, or it may have strips nailed on hoops and be boarded with novelty siding. The latter method will make a stronger and better looking silo. If the hoops are well nailed to the staves when being made, we shall have a silo in which it is impossible for the staves to shrink or get loose. (Woodward.) Protection against freezing.—If the silo is built out-doors in any of the Northern states, it is necessary to provide some special means to keep the silage from freezing in case this is considered a very objectionable feature. The silo may be in- closed by a wide jacket of rough boards nailed to four uprights, leaving the section of the silo where the doors are easy of access; the space between the silo and outside jacket is filled with straw in the fall; this may be taken out and us d for bedding in the spring, thus allowing the staves to be thoroughly dried out during the summer, and preventing the silo from rotting. Number of staves required for stave silos——The following table (Table VI) will be found useful in calculating the number of staves required for silos of different diameters, and feeding areas which these will give: Table VI.—Circumferences and Areas of Circles. : Circumfer- Area, 4 Cirecumfer- Area, “es eon ie cs | nee) eee Whee 8 BEAM) BOOS altho 21 he"), ensBew 346.4 9 RaW | 165.6 22 | 69.1 380.1 10 idea G85. || Dee lie om Bae 415.5 Hee) stG) *)': 95.0 22° 0 S95 PE Page A Day h § BIT. i eae] 25 78.5 | 490.9 1 yoke 408 | PQ ho, 26.) wis Sime Lit Gro sOns Py We 44 Oo). 155,9. «|| 27 84.8 572.6 15 471 | 179.7 ag TY gg te G15 8 16 50.3 | 201.1 | 29 91.1 660.5 AGEs! ls “GheA I< 227.0 30 942 | -706.9 18 56.5%.| 254.5 | 51 O74 ren TAS 19 59-7, «| 283.5 52 100.5 804.2 20 62.8 | 514.2 | To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3.1416. 68 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the diameter by 0.7854. To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply the area of the base (floor) by the height. Example—aA silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet high is wanted; how many staves 2x6 inches will be needed, and what will be the feeding area in the silo and its capacity The circumference of a circle 16 feet in diameter is 50.5 feet; there will therefore be required 50.5+%4=101 staves, 2x6 inches, 26 feet high, or if staves of this height cannot be obtained, 135 staves 20 feet long, or 50 each of 12 and 14 feet long staves. The feeding area will be 16X16 X0.7854=201.1 square feet, and the cubical content of the silo, 201.1 26—5228.6 cubic feet. EHs- timating the weight of a cubic foot of corn silage at 40 pounds, 5228.6 cubic feet of silage would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about Fig. 23.—Showing method of bedding iron rods in stone, brick, or con€rete walls, to increase the strength. The ends of rods should be firmly linked together as shown. OTHER FORMS OF ROUND SILOS. 6¢ t 100 tons, which is the approximate capacity of a round silo of the dimensions given. Connecting Round Silos with Barn.—The location of the silo with reference to other farm buildings has already been dis- cussed. The silo must be easy to get at from the stable, and the silage, if possible, handled only once in being placed before the stock. A round silo is most conveniently built just outside of the barn and connected with this by means of covered pas- Sageway. The method of joining silos to barns is illustrated in numerous pictures of silos given in this book. Details concerning the construction of stone, brick, and ce- ment silos are given in Prof. Woll’s “Book on Silage,’ and in Bulletin No. 85 of Wisconsin Experiment Station by Prof. King, as well as in numerous other pamphlets, and we shall not take up further space here with the discussion thereof. The same holds true with all other forms of silo construction than those already explained. We wish to briefly mention, however, the octagonal type of silo. Octagonal Silos. A number of octagonal silos have been built in recent y ars, and find favor with their owners in most instances. If properly put up and care taken to fasten the girts securely at the corners with plenty of spikes, the octagonal silo is greatly superior to the square type, and has nearly every advantage of the round silo, and can readily be constructed by anyone handy with tools with the assistance of the ordinary farm help. The foundation should be of stone or brick as described for various other forms of silos, and should be laid out with proper dimensions for the size decided upon. Brief details are here given for an octagonal silo of about the same capacity as a round silo, 20 feet in diameter and of equal height. If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are in the circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the horizontal girts will be about 8 feet long, and will be much stronger and better able to withstand the lateral pressure than the sides of a square silo of equal capacity. Details of construction are shown in the drawings, Figs. 25 and 26. The girts should be 5x8 inches and spiked at the corners with 6-inech spikes, up to 70 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. nearly one-half of the height of the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of the way, fastened with 20 penny spikes. The girts should be 16 inches apart at the bottom for one-third of the height of the silo. They may be 18 inches apart the second third of the dis- tance, and above that the distance between them can be in- creased till they are 2 feet or more at the very top. A double row may be used for a plate. Sound timber only should be used. Care should be taken to have the girts securely spiked at the corners, so that the joints will not give. The horizontal girt sections take the place of hoops in the round silo and must be strong. Not less than six or eight spikes should be used at each splice. One of the causes of failure in home-made silos of every kind is that the ordinary carpenter, who has probably never built a silo before, has but a limited idea of the pressure on the sides of a silo 50 or more feet deep, and does not realize the disappointment and loss occasioned by a poorly built silo. A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular is to first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the wall securely, Fig. 25.— Perspective, showing construction of frame, and double lining with paper between. The door is made of two thick- nesses with paper between, as shown. OCTAGONAL SILO. 7 by means of bolts set in the wall, and then erect at each corner and on the inside a temporary post or scantling to serve as a guide, braced in position so that it is perpendicular both ways, and the girts then laid and spiked in position, one above the other. The lining is, of course, put on up and down and should be matched and of good thickness, say 14% or 1% if but one layer is used. If two layers, it need not be so thick, %-inch flooring, and the outer layer not necessarily matched. The corners should be fitted as nicely as possible, and it is a good plan to block out the corners, as shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that the tongues and grooves can be properly adjusted to each other. John Gould, a prominent dairy writer and lecturer, recom- mends, where one thickness of matched lumber is used in the above manner, that the lining be thoroughly coated on the out- side with heavy application of coal tar, or other similar sub- stance, so as to prevent the air penetrating the pores of the lumber, and causing the silage to dry onto the inner surface. Any style of door can be used, but an effective continuous door is shown in the illustration. If any of the girts be cut Fig. 26—Showing method of laying sill and bolting same to foun- dation for an octagonal silo. 72 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO. out to make the door space larger, the remaining ones should be correspondingly reinforced. The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple matter, and a dormer window will assist in filling, although a trap door may be used in case the filling be done with a blower. Any style of siding may be used. Such a silo if well built. will be durable, satisfactory. have nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in addition will be a much more stable structure, requiring no tightening of the hoops from time to time. Bills of material for a silo built to 21-foot circle and 50 feet high are given below. The cost will, of course, vary with the locality. Bills of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x50 feet cutside meas- urement: RODIN CLD Isl OLMev TRAE Pes Bu tn o..as inc Sei arse asa ocenea cr, oekgn ieee cut 10 perches (CUS panes Se SES eae 110 feet 5x8 )8 or 16 foot 900 feet 2x8 J lengths. TER ELOS TRS! "hs 3's 01 GAB ESR AE ROS aa aaa Pr 250 feet 2x4x14 feet SCHU TEER CCRC sacs Coc apace ORME RE tg oN kak ee eT ek 2500 feet RUT Tie dees tenet > irae {hon ae 2800 feet 114%, inch thick, matched Dormer Window INAS AUT lS UGS appar e acta ose aeie WM oo toeasc Shes, Sucre e 300 Ibs. SIME GO. 2. LB. 3 ae ieee Aa lle CR ea ES Foie See IELARI ANE coo'5 te RDNCY WO Sig ge RR RC ene ae ee i 6 gallons The “Ballard” silo is a lumber silo of the octagonal type, de- signed to be built of material that can be found in any retail lumber yard. It is one of the contributions of the Plan Book Department of the Western Retail Lumbermen’s Association, of Spokane, Washington, for the benefit of the customers of its members; and its success has brought about its introduction into a very extended territory. Its features are its low cost, both in inaterial and labor; its strength and rigidity: and the simple method of adapting its construction to meet the varying climatic conditions of widely separated localities. No skilled labor is required, no patented materials are used, and the shape and details of construction COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. (3 4! Ons SY AIR SPACE Cf) wy Ee B 2x8" UPRIGHT : %3K 18" BETWEEN SILLS ANCHOR BOLTS ee eREAAED Se SHIP LAP-sIKA sh ONCRETE WALL OUTSIDE i o TO SECURE 1 * 4+ FLOORING INSIDE R 5 Zz 5 Z) fy 2 ne aibarinle © : pO CAST CONCRETE WALL+ FOOTINGS 9° Fig. 5.—Showing foundation plan; also method of placing sill, ete. are especially adapted for the “battery” system in which several small silos are built in succession as the demand for silage in- creases. There is a desirable saving of cost and an increase in solidity and rigidity in the “battery” system that is of in- terest. It is the “sectional book case” idea applied to the farm. The illustrations shown by Figures 5, 22, 24 and 52 were pre- pared from blue prints furnished by the above commpany and apply to the 10x30 foot size holding 45 tons. The anchor bolts shown in Fig. 5 are for attaching 4x$ bracing. Similar bolts are placed in the concrete wall to which sill is firmly bolted. In Fig. 22, ribs No. 1 to © are spaced 12 inches apart. Ribs No. 6 to 12 are 18 inches apart; No. 12 to 74 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. 1_ fo saa S 6 ve “a ---5------ 5 oS, i] 1 44, -N Fig. 22.—Skeleton showing method of framing. 16, 24 inches apart, and No. 16 to 19, 52 inches apart. Fig. 24 shows the method of jointing and spiking the ends of chords, also the 2x8-inch up- right support between the ribs. The shiplap outside and the 1x4-inch floor- ing inside are also shown. ZA LEE SN The regular chord in ribs No. 2 to No. 18 and part of rib No. 19 is shown in the larger drawing, Fig. 32. The smaller drawing represents the chord for ribs No. 1 and No. 19. The Fig) 24 2enowine wlan %-inch bolt holes shown are for bolt- of joints. ing sill or rib No. 1 to the foundation. LKR Another type of octagonal silo that has found favor in some sections of the corn belt because of the fact that the material COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 75 is easily obtainable from any lumber yard, is built by simply placing one 2x4 on top of an- other interlocking the corners and nailing together. The 2x4’s are sawed at the proper angle to fit silos from 10 to 20 feet in diam- eter. The lining consists merely in placing prepared roofing on the inside to make it air-tight. It is said that this silo may be built with but 15 to 20 tons capacity and at any later time may be increased in capacity by building it higher. Fig. 32.— Pattern for chords or ribs. The small size is used only The cost of a silo will depend on local for silland plate conditions as to price of labor and mater- ribs. ials; how much labor has to be paid for; the size of the silo, etc. The comparative data for the cost of two round silos, 13 and 25 feet in diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given by Prof. King, as shown in the following table: Cost of Different Kinds of Silos. Table VII. 13 Feet Inside Diameter | 25 Feet Inside Diameter Kinds of Silo Without With Without With Roof Roof Roof Roof | SETI SILO! RL RS eo $151 $175 $264 $328 Pee eae SAO by dsc Lies, «i= Apspexer? aye 245 | 275 437 . 494 Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches iiaU REL ete oh eee hang a iho 142 250 310 442 Brick-lined, 2 inches thick. Mo 190 239 569 Lathed and plastered Silo 135 185 244 565 Wood Silo with galvanized DE eS. eas op « 168 185 308 432 Wood Silo with paper..... 128 222 Zoo Mt 558 BEAVC ED ILOMee ere. ene Fake 127 | 183 136 | 289 Cheapest wood Silo....... 101 144 195 240 76 . HOW TO BUILD A SILO. During the spring of 1895 Prof. Woll made inquiries in regard to the cost of silos of different kinds (not only circular ones) built by farmers in different states in the Union. The results of this inquiry are summarized briefly below. The cheapest silos were those built in bays of barns, as would be expected, since roof and outside lining are here already at hand. Number of silos included, fourteen; average capacity, 140 tons; average cost of silos, $92, or 65 cents per ton capacity. Next comes the square or rectangular wooden silos. Number of silos included, twenty-five; average capacity, 194 tons; av- erage cost of silos, $285, or $1.46 per ton capacity. The round silos follow closely the square wooden ones in point of cost. Only seven silos were included, all but one of which were made of wood. Average capacity, 257 tons; average cost, $568, or $1.54 per ton capacity. The data for the six round wooden silos are as follows: Average capacity, 228 tons; aver- age cost, $340, or $1.52 per ton capacity. The one round cement silo cost $500, and had a capacity of 300 tons (dimensions: diam- eter, 50 feet; depth, 21 feet); cost, per ton capacity, $1.67. The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in first cost, as is. shown by the data obtained. Number of silos included, nine; average capacity, 288 tons; average cost, $577, or $1.93 per ton capacity. The great difference in the cost of different silos of the same kind is apparent without much reflection. The range in cost per ton capacity in the 25 square wooden silos included in the pre- ceding summary was from 70 cents to $3.60. The former figures were obtained with a 144-ton silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the latter with a 140-ton silo, built as follows: Dimensions, 14x28x18 feet; 2x12x18 feet studdings, set 12 inches apart; two thicknesses of dimension boards inside, with paper between, sheeting outside with paper nailed on studding; cement floor. Particulars are lacking as regards the construction of the first silo beyond its dimensions. It may be in order to state, in comparing the average data . for the cost of the different silo types, that the round silos were uniformly built better than the rectangular wooden silos included, and according to modern requirements, while many of the latter were old and of comparatively cheap construction, so that the COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. M6 figures cannot be taken to represent the relative value of rec- tangular and round silos built equally well. A good many figures entering into the preceding summaries are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor put on the silo is to be paid for, for in some cases the cost of work done by the farmers themselves was not figured in with other expenses. As most farmers would do some of the work themselves, the figures given may, however, be taken to represent the cash outlay in building silos. In a general. way, it may be said that a silo can be built in the bay of a barn for less than 75 cents per ton capacity; a round or a good square or rectangular wooden silo for about $1.50, and a stone or cement silo for about $2 per ton capacity, all figures being subject to variations according to local prices for labor and materials. Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following comparative figures as to cost of silos: Round stave silos, 75 cents per ton capacity; round wooden silos, $1.25, and cement silos, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton capacity. The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the kind of lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses, as in case of other types of silos. It is evident that stave silos can as a rule be built cheaper than other kinds of silos, both from the fact that less material is used in their construction, and because the labor bill is smaller. One of the first stave silos described, built in Ontario, Canada, cost $75.00; capacity, 140 tons. Other and better built stave silos have been put up for $100 for a 100-ton silo, and this may be considered an average price for such a silo, made of white pine, hemlock or any lumber that is cheapest in the particular locality where the silo is to be built. If built of Southern cypress, and complete with conical roof and doors, the price of stave silos will in the North come to about $1.50 per ton capacity, small silos being a little dearer, and larger ones a little cheaper than this average figure. Estimating Material and Cost of Silos. Several writers on silo construction have published bills of ma- terials used in the construction of silos of moderate sizes of the following three types: Wisconsin Improved Silo, Modified Wisconsin Silo, and Stave Silo. Farmers contemplating building 78 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. a silo, can use these estimates for figuring out the approximate cost of silos of the three kinds under his conditions as to cost of materials and labor. The estimates are made for silos built in the open, on level land. On hillsides deeper walls may be made to advantage, and where the silo is located within a build- ing no roof will he needed. Consequently various factors may alter the applications of these estimates, which are only offered as suggestive with the hope they may prove helpful. The first three estimates of materials are published by Prof. Plumb, while the others have heen furnished by Professors King and Withy- combe. Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Silos. Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons. Brick—5375 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 3 feet deep. Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long. Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long. Flooring for doors—52 feet, 4 matched. si Sheeting—35000 feet, % inch, resawed from 2x6—16 foot plank sawed three times, dressed one side to uniform thickness for inside lining of two layers. Lining—1500 feet of same for outside. Tar building paper—200 yards, water and acid-proof. Nails—200 Ibs. 8-penny; 200 Ibs, 10-penny. Spikes—20 Ibs. Rafters—22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof. Sheeting for roof—350 feet of 16 foot boards. Shingles—3000. i Shingle nails—12 Ibs. Dormer window for filling through. Paint—7 gallons, providing two coats. Cement—2 barrels, for cementing bottom. Estimate of Materials for a Modified Wisconsin Silo. Same’ capacity as preceding. Brick—550 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick. Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long. Studs—50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long. Sheeting—6000 ft. % in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for inside lining of two layers. Tar building paper—200 yards water and acid-proof. Nails—150 lbs. 8-penny. Spikes—12 lbs. No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or provided for in this construction. ; ESTIMATES OF MATERIALS. 19 Estimate of Materials for a Stave Silo. Size 12x28 ft. capacity 60 tons. Bricks—1800 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 2 ft. deep. Staves—77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides. Staves—77 2x6, 12 ft. dressed 4 sides. Rods—10, 19% ft. long % in. iron, with % threaded ends and nuts. Staples—2 gross, 4%4x2 in. Iron tighteners—20 holding ends of hoops. Rafters—2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof eccnter. Rafters—2 2x6 pieces, 13 ft. long, for roof next center. Side rafters—48 ft. 2x4 pieces. Roof sheeting—170 ft. common. Tin sheeting—196 ft. Cement for floor—2 bbls. Estimate of Materials for a Wisconsin Improved Silo. Size 50 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity 200 tons. Stone foundation—7.5 perch. Studs—2x4, 14 and 16 ft., 1491 ft. Rafters—2x4,. 12 ft., 208 ft. Roof boards—Fencing, 500 feet. Shingles—6 M. Siding—Rabbeted, 2660 ft. Lining—Fencing, ripped, 2800 ft. Tarred paper—740 lbs. Coal tar—1 bbl. Hardware—$6.00. Painting (60 cents per square)—$13.20. Cementing bottom—$5.00. Carpenter labor (at $3 per M and board)—$33. 17. The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.59; it is an out- side, wholly independent structure, except connected with the barn in the manner shown in Fig. 20, with entrance and feeding chute toward the barn. Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo. 12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity 49 tons. 1 2-3 yards of rock gravel. 4 barrels of sand. 1 barrel of cement. 2260 ft. tongued and grooved staves. 72 ft. 5x6, 24 ft. door frames. 358 ft. 5% in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weight 465 lbs. 9 lugs. 54 nuts. Preservative ($1.50). 80 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof and painting are to be added to the preceding list. Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave silos do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the latest practice indicates that, if properly done, it is a decided advantage to have the staves matched, also slightly beveled. The silo made in this manner will not be so liable to go to pieces when empty. This is the chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous cases are on record where stave silos standing in exposed places have blown over when empty. It is recommended, therefore, that stave silos be attached to the barn by means of a feeding chute, and in the case of high or exposed silos it is well to make use of guy rods or wires in addition. Indeed, some manufacturers of stave silos now recommend these on some of their silos, and make provisions for them. Preservation of Silo. A silo building will not remain sound for many ‘years unless special precautions are taken to preserve it. This holds good of all kinds of silos, but more especially of wooden ones, since cement coating in a stone silo, even if only fairly well made, will better resist the action of the silage juices than the wood-work will be able to keep sound in the presence of moisture, high temperature, and an abundance of bacterial life. In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some ma- terial which will render the wood impervious to water, and pre- serve it trom decay. A great variety of preparations have been recommended and used for this purpose. Coal tar has been ap- plied by a large number of farmers, and has been found effective and durable. It may be put on either hot, alone or mixed with resin, or dissolved in gasoline. If it is to be applied hot, some of the oil contained in the tar must previously be burnt off. The tar is poured into an iron kettle, a handful of straw is ignited and then thrown into the kettle, which will cause the oil to flash and burn off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when it will string out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, from a stick which has .been thrust into the blazing kettle, and afterward plunged into cold water. The fire is then put out by plac- ing a tight cover over the kettle. The kettle must be kept over the fire until the silo lining has been gone over. made of very wet concrete and trow- eled, a much better block for silo construction can be made. It is 94 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. preferable that the face of the block be both richer and wetter than the body of the block; also, if the face of the block be trow- eled it makes a block which will not absorb moisture. Whenever it is not possible to make or obtain blocks of this nature the in- side of the silo should be plastered after the walls are laid. If the expense of plastering is too great, the walls can be washed or painted with a mixture of one part cement and one part fine screened sand. This will take the place of plastering as far as sealing the-pores in the blocks is concerned, but does not leave the wall as smooth as plaster. “The solid block, such as is shown by ‘a,’ Figure 55, is ad- visable only when a machine has to be made and one cannot be constructed which will make the hollow blocks. This solid block is more quickly made than the others, but requires more material, is heavier and harder to handle, and conducts heat and cold more reaGaily.” The two-piece blocks such as shown by “b,” Figure 35, are made to lay up in the silo wall so that the leg of one in the inside wall will overlap the leg of one in the outside wall but in the Fig. 36.—Showing how the two-piece cement block is laid in the wall and the door frame. course above it. Figure 56 shows that these blocks make nearly a perfect dead-air space so that the silage is less apt to freeze, as heat will not be transferred back and forth through the walls as readily. Blocks made in the above manner can have a wetter and richer mixture in the face than in the back and the face can also be troweled. j CEMENT BLOCK SILOS. 95 Fig. 37.—Illustrates a type of concrete block used in silo construction. H H are holes left in ‘blocks. T and M are dove-tailed tenon and mortise so made that blocks interlock when laid on the wall. G is a groove made in block to imbed iron rod for reinforcing the wall. —Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station. The Nebraska Station has designed a special machine for making these two-piece blocks and also a machine which will make the single piece hollow block as shown in “ec,” Figure 35. This block cannot be made as fast as the two-piece block but is much easier to lay. It gives the troweled surface inside but not outside nor does it give as perfect a dead-air space. Fig. 38.—This form of block requires less material and does not freeze so readily as the solid block. Note manner of reinforcing by %-in. iron binders. Commercial blocks like ‘‘d’’ Figure 35 are very common. They may be either straight or curved to fit the curvature of the silo. Being generally very porous they should be plastered on the inside after being put into the wall. Curved blocks require less plaster but plaster must be used anyway and a straight block not exceeding 16 inches in length will make a good silo. The usual dimensions of curved blocks are 8x8x16 or 24 inches. Cement blocks’ are usually made of finer materials than are the solid monolithic walls. The blocks are made of sand and cement; or if any gravel is used it is very fine gravel whereas, in the continuous wall monolithic construction, coarser gravel or 96 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. erushed stone is more commonly used. This is one of the reasons why the monolithic wall is stronger than the block wall. Good block silos can be put up with home-made blocks and by home labor, but an experienced contractor is recommended, if convenient. No blocks that are cracked, broken or crumbly, should be used, and all blocks should have good water-resisting qualities. A small amount vf water placed on the surface, if readily absorbed, indicates a poor block for silo purposes. The Iowa Bulletin No. 141 says that “the practice of using wooden studs for the door frame'in mortar at the ends of the blocks and at each side of the doorway and bolted to the steel frame cannot be criticised too severely. This stud is placed under conditions best adapted to cause rapid decay. Often it is so constructed that it cannot be replaced without much diffi- culty and thus the durability of the entire structure is impaired by the use of a single part.” Fig. 39 illustrates a poured con- crete door frame that avoids this difficulty. Ends of rods bent. Sewn when lapping Fig. 39.—Continuous door opening for concrete block silo. View shows the manner of fastening reinforcing rods to the door frames, also of anchoring rods around a block instead of lapping. —Courtesy Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago. FOUNDATION AND ROOF TYPES. 97 Foundations. — Concrete block silos require heavier foundation footings than do clay block or wooden silos. They should not be _ less than 28 inches wide at the bottom and 2 feet deep. A mixture of one part ce- ment, three parts sand, and six parts broken stone or course gravel will make a cemenr pLasre® mixture for the footings and foundation walls. Fig. 40.—Two types of foun- dation for cement block silos.— Courtesy Nebraska Station. The Roof.—Figure 41 illustrates the cornice work and forms for a concrete roof to correspond in per- Fig. 41.—Illustrating how manence and fire-proof qualities to build cornice for con- paliMihelremainder of, ite silo1> Ad moncuek eee block silo.—Courtesy Ne- one-third pitch is recommended. braska Station. Patented Reinforcements.—The weak point in any sectional block construction is in the joints between the blocks and the attempts to overcome this are demonstrated in many forms of patented reinforced cement blocks now being used for silo building. "Where the blocks are made of a poured or gravity mixture, using the best quality of cement, sand and gravel ob- tainable, they are extremely dense and strong. One of these, known as the Hurst System. uses blocks 24x12x4 inches thick. Running laterally through each block are two % inch round 98 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. steel rods, the ends of which are turned up two inches in small recesses in each end of the block. When the blocks are laid Sri ee ae f into the silo wall, > ae ; cas ie these turned ends and recesses match corresponding ones in the _ adjoining block, as shown in Fig. 42. A % inch round steel link is Fig. 42.—Showing one method of sec- tional block reinforcement.—Cour- tesy Hurst Silo Co., Chicago. then slipped over the two turned ends which are afterwards bent back and drawn tight and the recess filled in with cement. This method of construction is said to be very powerful and to give excellent results. Another method similar to the above, known as the Harvey system, uses reinforcing rods which are turned at right angles, one turned vertically hooking over the other turned laterally. Upright.rods are imbedded in each block and fit between blocks of the course above. This permits the building of a double wall if desired, the two walls being tied together with steel strips running diagonally between the upright rods. é Cement Stave Silo. The cement stave silo is built of concrete slabs or staves 50 inches long, about 10 inches wide and 2% inches thick. They have a curved interlocking edge and are built into a wall, forming a wall of thickness of the block and bound together with hoops on the outside. With good quality blocks, properly treated with a water-proof wash so as to be impervious, this type of silo is a success. It is claimed for them that all danger of cracking due to contraction and expansion is eliminated. For this reason although the steel hoops are not protected they need no adjustment when once set. VITRIFIED TILE SILOS. 99 Vitrified Tile Silos. Vitrified clay blocks have during the past few years com- manded considerable attention for building purposes. The dura- bility of this material is indicated in a quotation from Sir Charles Lyell’s Antiquity of Man. “Granite disintegrates and crumbles into particles of mica, quartz, and feldspar; inarble soon moulders into dust or car- bonate of lime, but hard, well burnt clay endures forever in the ancient landmarks of mankind.” It is not surprising therefore that vitrified tile or blocks are being used extensively for silo building. They have a hard, glass-like crockery surface, impervious alike to gas, moisture, acid or air; they withstand temperature fluctuations without contraction or expansion; they give the advantages of a double or triple wall with dead-air spaces; they are easily handled; and when properly reinforced against the bursting pressure of the silage they have no superior on the market. Iowa Bulletin No. 141 states that “in clay blocks there are many grades of quality ranging from almost worthlessness to one of the highest quality of building material known. These variations in quality are due mainly to three causes, quality of raw material, method of burning, and defects in forming. “Brick clays are made up principally of two classes of ma- terial, one that melts at temperatures usually secured in the hottest portions of the brick kilns, and one that remains firm at these same temperatures. Proper portions of each of these classes of material are essential. The former, called the fluxing material melts and binds together particles of the latter, while the latter preserves the desired form of the brick or block throughout the burning process. It will be readily seen that as the fluxing material fuses it will fill all of the space between the other particles, and upon extreme heating it flows out over the surface giving it a glassy appearance. This process is known as vitrification. “In all kilns the blocks nearest the fire become burned harder than the other blocks and in any kiln only a portion of the blocks will be fit for silo construction. For this reason silo builders should not expect to secure such blocks at less than standard prices plus a reasonable price for sorting.” A variety of patented clay blocks and different methods of reinforcement are now in use. Many of these have special merits in the details. In general, the same methods of wire or steel bands are used as with cement block silos. A _ study of some of the patented blocks illustrated in Fig. 45 will bring 100 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. out many of the details of construction. A represents a block with curved recess at top and bottom for reinforcing rods and N a flange on each side of the block so that the bulk of the mortar is confined in the wide groove and only a very narrow strip exposed. B calls attention to the mitred groove at top and bottom for reinforcing rods to form a lock joint. The narrow apertures on each side of block form a tongue-and-groove mor- tar joint when laid in the wall. C and D illustrate the door jamb and regular blocks of another type. It will be noticed that D gives plenty of room on top — for mortar and _ reinforcement. Still another type of silo is indi- cated by the blocks BH, F, G, H and I. E and F are door jamb blocks. G is a glazed floor or paving block. H and I show two views of the regular wall block. J illustrates the cast iron door sill and K indicates the Fig. 43—Group of Patented Clay Blocks of various manu- facturers. FOUNDATIONS FOR BLOCK SILOS. 101 reinforcement across door opening. L, M, N and O, P, Q show two types of door jambs and regular blocks put out by another manufacturer. N indicates the vertical reinforcement next to the door around which the wall reinforcing steel is placed. The galvanized iron tie R for the door opening is shown in position on top of the block O. Porous —Backfilling Tile below ground line to be set on end and. filled with concrete in, if necessary Fig. 44.—Showing two methods of preparing the founda- tion for clay block silos. (Courtesy Iowa Experiment Station.) . The lowa silo is a hollow clay tile silo that was designed by the Agricultural Engineering section of the Iowa Station. It is very popular as it does not require special blocks. The Iowa Silo is simple in construc- tion, durable, efficient and reasonably cheap where the tile can be obtained. It is built of regular clay hollow building blocks’ similar to those shown in the illustra- tion of Figure 47. The tile are laid in cement mortar which contains just enough SEUR Te fark lime to make the mortar stick “~~ ie! well (one part cement, one- MENT PLASTER. en CT EUEL OR SAND. tee Star os Fig. 46.—Clay block silo third part lime, two to three foundation. — (Nebraska parts sand). Number three Bulletin No. 138.) 102 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. wire is laid in for reinforcement, the amount of wire used being adjusted to meet the demands of the lateral pressure. The inside of the tile may be plastered or simply washed with a cement wash. Fig. 47.—Five types of clay blocks Fig. 48.— Silo which can be used for silo con- cornice for StEUCHONWetLAC» ISD) xO Kae: “BY clay block iS oe x16 8 SO” is’ 47x80 xe": silo. Seems. pox b xo: and “ay7. vs 4’’x5”x16”. (Cuts from Nebraska Bulletin No. 138.) Figures 44, 46 and 48 illustrate methods of constructing the foundation and cornice for clay block silos. Brick Silos. In constructing a brick silo it will be well to guard the fol- lowing points: Make the foundation of concrete and let the first course of brick come flush on the inside with the cement work. Bed a five-eighths inch iron hoop in the cement wall in the upper part before laying the brick, in order to keep the pressure of brick from spreading the wall before it becomes set and hard. Make a two-inch air space in the walls up to within one-third of the top. This will make a 14-inch wall of three courses of brick. The air space should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron tie rods should also be laid around in the wall between the doors, as recommended in the foundation. It is also important that the brick should be wet when laid, otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be dried out too rapidly. The walls should be plastered over very smoothly with a coat of rich cement, one-fourth to one-half inch thick, and then every two or three years this should be well white- washed with thin cement, to keep the wall protected from the effects of acid in the silos. King recommends that the door BRICK AND ALL-METAL SILOS. 108 jambs be made of 5x6’s or 5x8’s, rabbetted two inches deep to receive the door on the inside. The center of the jambs outside should be grooved and a tongue inserted projecting three-fourths of an inch outward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The doors may be made of two layers of matched flooring with tarred paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb, so as to give a perfect smooth face next to the silage. Single Wall Brick Silo.—A 100 ton reinforced brick silo was built in 1909 by the West Virginia Experiment Station at Mor- gantown, and described in their Bulletin 129. The wall was laid up the width of a brick or 4 inches thick with 20d annealed wire nails imbedded in the cement mortar so that the ends projected from the wall about 2 inches into the silo. When the cement mortar had hardened, woven wire fencing was cut into pieces of proper length and fastened close to the inside of brick wall with the clinched nails. Two thicknesses of wire were used for lower half of silo and one thickness for upper half. Each strip lapped 2 inches over the one beneath. This wire was thor- oughly covered with cement mortar of one part cement and three parts sand. Prof. Atwood writes (Aug., 1914) that the silo has given excellent satisfaction. He recommends, however, that the wire fencing should have perfectly straight horizontal wires, no coils, as the coils stand out from the brick work and necessitate more plastering. Many silos of this type have been constructed during the past two years, especially in the South. All-Metal Silos. The canned fruits and vegetables for our tables remain good indefinitely so long as air is absolutely excluded. The admission of air, in however slight degree, produces mold and rot, and destroys a very considerable part of the food value. Where tests have been made, silos made of metal or lined with metal, have been found to most nearly approach the air-tight containers in which we buy our canned vegetables, and if these metal cans are good for our dainty table delicacies why are they not good for our “canned corn” known as silage? The fact that over 2,000 metal silos are now in use in this 104 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. ‘ country and that their sales are rapidly- increasing, is the best evidence of the entire satisfaction they have given. Metal silos are not new. They have been in use in Australia for nearly 20 years. It is claimed for them that they are “wind- proof, fire-proof, crack-proof, shrinkage-proof, vermin-proof, ex- pansion and contraction-proof, collapse-proof, repair-proof; there are no hoops to tighten, no anchors or guy wires to install; they are highly rust-resistant; they are absolutely non-porous, hence are moisture-tight and above all positively air-tight.” Fig. 45.—Two large Metal Silos and Ohio Cutter at Wagner Bros., Groom, Texas.—Courtesy Perfection Metal Silo Co., Topeka, Kansas. , The first commercial metal silo, erected in Iowa in 1907, is still giving very satisfactory service. “It was built of interchangeable sections, which were bolted together by means of flanges extend- ing outwardly all around each section. This method of con- ALL-METAL SILOS. 105 struction forms a rigid reinforcement of the silo wall, and pro- vides an easy and practical means of increasing the capacity of the silo at any time, by bolting on additional sections to the top. It also makes it practical to move the silo by taking the sections apart and re-erecting them in another location.” Mr. Charles P. Buck, writing for the Kansas State Board of Agriculture in 1914, says: “The metal silos are made air- tight by sealing the joints between the sections with a cement of an elastic nature, unaffected by moisture, cold or heat. The silo also is provided with a means by which the doors, through which the ensilage is thrown down into the feed boxes, are sealed absolutely air-tight, thus avoiding one serious cause of spoilage and loss. “The two questions which usually arise regarding silos con- structed of metal are regarding the action of the silage juices on the metal and the radiation of the heat of fermentation through the metal wall. “Silage juice, after the fermentation, is slightly acid, con- taining minute quantities of acetic and lactic acids. It is cus- tomary to protect metal silos against the mild acids of this ‘juice by painting the interior with an asphaltum paint, which forms a cheap, durable and reliable protection. “The question of the effect of radiated heat loss during fer- mentation is best answered by the results obtained in the 2,000 or more metal silos now in use. In these it has been found that the silage next to the wall is as thoroughly fermented and as well preserved and palatable as that in the center of the silo. There probably is some heat lost by radiation, but there is apparently sufficient heat produced during the fermentation to supply all that is necessary despite the radiated loss. “Practical use in the field has demonstrated that the metal silo has every good quality which has been desired in a silo. Once erected it is permanently air-tight and moisture-proof. The form of construction so reinforces it that it is secure against high winds, it requires practically no care or expense to main- tain, and produces ensilage without mold or rot and consequent loss. “Properly constructed metal silos need no guy wires, cables nor anchors. They are secured in a foundation of concrete in much the same way as are modern structural steel smokestacks of immense height. “The leading manufacturers, have by careful experiments 106 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. found that it is possible to produce a metal that is fully re- sistent to the chemical action of the silage juices, which thus obviates the probability of any rust or corrosion of any kind. “Properly constructed metal silos are so strong and rigid+as to be readily insured against cyclones and wind storms. One leading manufacturer, in fact, provides purchasers with such insurance without cost. Metal silos are fireproof and are proof against lightning without the necessity of lightning rods. “The original manufacturer has silos in use in nine different states, from Mexico to Minnesota, in all extremes of climatic conditions, and over a considerable period of years. As a result of the satisfactory experience, a great many types of metal silos have been devised, from those riveted up like a railroad water tank, various types of partly riveted and partly bolted sections, to those of interchangeable sections with various types of flanges. The type apparently most in favor, however, is that first brought out. Numbers of metal silos are in use as irri- gation water tanks during the sumnier when empty of silage. “Any question of the durability of metal silos has long since been completely answered by their continued use without appar- ent defects, rust or corrosion of any kind. Their use is rapidly growing in all sections of the country, Hast and Wiest, and results are everywhere perfectly satisfactory.” Manufacturers furnish metal silos in uniform sized sheets or sections, finished complete ready to bolt into the silo. The sheets are interchangeably matching and are about two feet wide by 7% feet long. Different gauges of metal are used, some having a strength of 45,000 pounds to the square inch. Lighter material is used toward the top in proportion to the diminishing pressure exerted by the silage. Appurtenances such as doors, roofing sections, bar-iron, bolts, joint-cement, paint, ete, are usually boxed or crated. Painting.—Metal silos should be painted once a year, long enough before filling to set well. The reason for this is given by one manufacturer as follows:: “In the production of silage certain mild acids are formed by fermentation, which, if no protection was offered would have a tendency to cause the metal to corrode. To provide against this, it is advisable to keep the inside of the silo painted with some elastic, acid-resisting paint. Such paints are put up by practically all of the best paint manufacturers. Any good paint, with an asphaltum or gilsonite base, that is prepared so that it will not dry too quickly, can be depended upon. We suggest asphaltum or gilsonite, because such paints are thoroughly satis- factory, and the cost is considerably less than that of some other kinds.” ROOF AND FOUNDATION. 107 The Metal Silo Roof.—The roof adds greatly to the appear- ance of the metal silo and protects it against undue wind strain or vibration. In northern climates it acts as a protection against snow and freezing, and in warmer zones against the extreme heat of the sun which would cause considerable loss between feedings. It is an added expense, of course, and as rain is not injurious to silage the roof is considered superfluous in some sections of the Southwest. The permanent roof also prevents — tramping or filling to the top of the silo, causing both spoilage and loss of capacity. Despite these objections, however, the - majority of purchasers seem to prefer the roof. Foundation.—Too much care cannot be taken in building the foundation of a metal silo. Solid ground is the first essential be- cause the silo with its contents is very heavy. The foundation wall and floor should be of concrete of ordinary 1:2:4 propor- tions. The wall should be at least 12 inches thick and extend 6 inches below freezing point or about 5 feet in the ground—deep enough to prevent the frost from heaving the silo out of level and to prevent rats from digging under. The first row of metal sheets should be imbedded in the center of the wall at least 12 inches deep. Freezing in Metal Silos.—In extremely cold climates silage Fig. 49.—Large Metal Silo on Sunny Slope Farm, Emporia. Kas., being filled with Silver’s Ohio No. 22 Cutter. 108 SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. will sometimes freeze in any kind of silo, but it must be very severe and protracted cold weather to freeze silage very deeply because of its own generated heat. Metal silo manufacturers contend that while the so-called double—or hollow—wall silos are slower to freeze than some other types, they are also much slower to thaw; that unlike other silos, freezing and thawing has no injurious effects on the metal silo, or on its contents; that silage freezing to the sides of ordinary silos requires to be chipped away with danger of injury to the walls; whereas the sun beating against the metal walls for a few hours on the cold- est winter day melts the silage loose; and that metal silos are giving satisfaction in northern territories where the thermometer hovers around 20 degrees below zero for weeks at a time. Detailed directions regarding the building of foundations and the erecting of metal silos will be found in the catalogs of metal silo manufacturers, which should be secured by anyone interested in this type of silo. Pit or Underground Silos. Pit or underground silos date back to antiquity. For over fifty years they have been demonstrating their value in Europe, not only in preserving silage but in economy of construction. The pit method of storing green feeds had been followed for many years before the advent of the modern silo or silo filler. The fact that the above-ground silo ever since its introduction has made such rapid strides in comparison, would indicate that this type is far more satisfactory in actual use. In the United States the underground silo is distinctly a West- ern type, having its highest degree of adaptability in those sec- tions visited by sparse rain fall and where the water table is not near the earth’s surface. These silos are therefore numerous in Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado and the Western parts of Kansas and Nebraska. Norton County alone in Kansas has cver 100 pit silos. Some are in use in the semi-arid parts of South Dakota as well as in Illinois, Michigan and other states. They are NOT adapted to humid sections or to localities subject to regular and heavy rain fall. The underground silo is generally considered a temporary ex- pedient cr makeshift and it seems to show up to best advantage PIT OR UNDERGROUND SILOS. 109 where but very few cattle are fed. That it isa makeshift, however, should not deter farmers from building such silos in case they can not see their way clear to erect a better silo. Even a cheap silo properly built serves a good purpose in demonstrating the value of the silo and in helping its owner to come into possession of better equipment and a silo more to his liking. Analysis of comments in the farm press for the past two years reveals a number of advantages claimed for this type of silo. Among these advantages may be mentioned the following: 1. Little cash expenditure is required. Labor is the chief item. Where labor is exchanged there remains only the cdst of cement and sand for plastering the walls and making the concrete collar around top. 2. It is easily constructed, requiring very little skilled or outside help. 3. The silage keeps perfectly if well packed. The temperature remains even winter and summer—no freezing or thawing. 4. It will resist tornado and fire. It cannot blow over or rot down. 5. Because inexpensive, two small deep silos may be built, keeping one for summer feeding or for use should crops fail entirely. 6. No expensive forms are required for building. 7. No trouble with ill-fitting doors, or with loose hoops, or cracks. 8. Anyone can make it who can dig a cistern. 9s A more inexpensive silage cutting equipment may be used, enabling each farmer to own his own machine so that it can stay on the job and refill as silage settles, thus securing utmost capacity at minimum cost. 10. The top surface is handy, where it can be tramped regularly the first few days. 11. When built in the right soil it will last just in proportion to how well it is con- structed and cared for, bearing in mind the necessity of guarding against caving in, seepage, etc. The most common objection to the pit silo is the inconvenience in getting the silage out of the hole, which would have to be deep enough to secure pressure for proper packing and keeping quali- ties, and should therefore be at least twice as deep as the diameter of the silo. Some kind of hoisting apparatus would be necessary. This would be too laborious and inconvenient unless operated by a gasoline engine or other power which would, of course, increase the expense. The claim has been made that the extra cost of getting the silage out of an underground silo would be more than’ offset by the 110 - SILOS OTHER THAN WOOD. saving effected in filling, but this hardly holds true, as with modern machinery it is little more expensive to fill a silo above ground than one below the surface. The failure of the silage to thoroughly pack by its own weight is one of the principle draw-backs to the pit silo. This is on ac- count of the lack of depth so much in evidence in structures of this kind. é Another objection to the silo is that poisonous gases are likely to accumulate in the bottom and render the silo dangerous to en- ter. Lowering a light would soon discover the presence of such carbon dioxide gas which if present would immediately put the light out. These gases are heavier than air and the air would have to be agitated to dispel them since there is no air drainage in an underground silo. Again, unless the soil is dry and very hard or has excellent drainage there would be the danger of water seeping into the hole and thus spoiling the silage. The likelihood of caving in either while building or after the first silage crop was taken out would also have to be overcome. Some of the essentials in building underground silos aside from firm dry soil are that they should have a curb or collar ex- tending from below frost line to a few inches above ground; that they should be plastered from % to 2 or 3 inches thick and washed with a cement coat to make them water- and air-tight, the walls being sprinkled lightly before plastering, if dry; that the walls should be smooth and ‘perpendicular for even, solid settling; that a cover should be provided as a protection against children, ani- mals or foreign matter and to insure free air circulation. CHAPTER IV. THE SUMMER SILO. The summer silo is fast becoming popular and even necessary because of its splendid aid in supplementing summer pastures and tiding the herd over the period of drouth, heat and flies. Experi- ment stations that have studied the subject, strongly advocate its use and some of the leading agricultural papers have been speak- ing in no uncertain voice as to its advantages. “The summer silo is as certain to assert its value as American agriculture is certain to go forward rather than backward,” says Breeder’s Gazette of Chicago. ‘Pasture as at present used—or abused—is a broken reed. An over-grazed acre is the costliest acre that the farmer supports. Even in normal seasons grass rests in the summer time, and unless a fall and winter pasture is laid by, little good is derived from grass lands after the flush of spring. The silo supplements pastures, and carries the burden of the winter’s feeding.” Among dairymen who have used summer silage for many years, permanent pastures have been greatly reduced or even entirely dispensed with. A prominent Indiana dairyman recently re- marked, “My dairy last year returned me approximately $5,000 and yet I would go out of business if I had to give up the silo. I would have to reduce the herd 50 per cent. if the summer silo was not used.” That statement is merely based on the fact that enough silage to keep a cow or steer during its pasture season can be grown on from one-fourth to one-third the area required to keep the same animal on pasture. Beef cattlemen are rapidly finding out about this “greater efficiency per acre of corn silage as com- pared with grass, and the similarity of the two feeds in their effect on cattle,” and it leaves little room for doubt that “the silo will greatly reduce the pasture acreage required and will have a marked effect on beef production on high-priced land.” Following the same line of thought Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin No. 13 says: Too much dependence is usually placed upon pasture for sum- mer feeding. Pasturing high-priced land is unprofitable in these times. Few stop to consider the destructive effects of trampling, 111 112 SUMMER SILO. that, while a cow is taking one bite of grass, she is perhaps soiling or trampling the life out of four others. If sufficient silage is put up each year part can well be used for summer feeding, which will be found less laborious than the daily hauling of green crops for the herd. The herd must not be allowed to shrink in flow unduly, as it is practically imp6ssible to bring them back during the same lactation. The young stock, destined for future pro- ducers, must not be neglected on short pasture, for the labor and expense of supplying their needs as above indicated for the herd, is insignificant compared with the importance of their unimpaired growth.” The Indiana Station states that “The most rapid and most econ- omical gains ever made by two-year-old cattle fed experimentally at this station were made by a load of 800-pound cattle fed from March 17 to July 15, 1910, on a ration of shelled corn, cottonseed meal, corn silage and clover hay. During this period the cattle ate an average daily feed of 14.61 pounds of corn, 2.24 pounds of cottonseed meal, 35.81 pounds of silage and 2.58 pounds of clover hay. They relished.the silage as well in summer as in winter.” There are many intelligent farmers who are providing a suc- cession of fresh soiling crops and using them to great advantage in helping out short pastures. “But,” says Professor Frazer of the Illinois Station, ‘‘there is necessarily much labor attached to pre- pairing the ground, planting, raising, and harvesting the common crops used for this purpose. There is usually much loss in being obliged to feed these-crops before they are mature and after they are overripe. And for the farmer who can make the larger in- vestment, the most practical way of all to provide green feed for summer drouth is to fill a small silo with corn silage. It not only saves the labor and inconvenience in the putting in and cultivation of small patches of different kinds of crops, but also in harvesting from day to day in a busy season of the year. ‘ “These soiling crops can be dispensed with and all the feed raised from one planting in one field in the shape of corn. The whole field of corn for the silo may be cut at just the right stage of maturity when the most nutriment can be secured in the best possible condition of feeding. It also avoids the possibility of the soiling crops failing to ripen at the exact period when the drouth happens to strike the pasture. For the silo may be opened when- ever the pasture fails, regardless of the date, and the silage will remain in the best condition as long as needed. When the pasture supplies enough feed again, what is left in the silo may be covered SUMMER FEEDING. 13 over and thus preserved without waste, and added to when refilling the silo for winter use.” Oregon Bulletin No. 136 says that “the summer silo is growing in favor, and in many ways has advantages over the soiling sys- tem. As soiling is now practiced, a carefully planned rotation is necessary in order to have green feed always on hand. The acre- age of each crop must necessarily be small, and frequent planting at intervals of from ten days to two weeks must be made. If a large field were planted and soiling started at the proper time to get the maximum yield of food constituents and the greatest palat- ability, the greater part of the crop would soon be beyond this stage, as only a small part would be cut each day. By putting the crop into the silo all could be cut at the proper stage of maturity, and all at the same time. This would do away with the daily chore of cutting small amounts.” The dry pastures and burned-up hillsides following the drouth of 1910 made a very strong impression as to the importance of having good summer feeding. It was an eloquent though severe plea for the summer silo and led to some splendid testimony in its favor. The drouth “cut down the milk fiow in most of the herds nearly 50 per cent. Not one farmer in a hundred had provided for this emergency by a good supply of succulent food that would make milk. It is the same old story over again. It seems to take a tremendous lot of pounding on the part of Providence, to get it into farmers’ heads that a summer silo is a grand thing,” says Hoard’s Dairyman. “Our herd of cows had 50 tons or more of nice corn silage to turn to when feed grew short and they have rolled out the milk nicely right along. Besides, they will keep at it. There is nothing like a supply of silage for summer use. It is close by and handy to the stable for use when you want it. And furthermore it will produce more milk than any other kind of soil- ing feed.” This is the experience of Wisconsin investigators, who find that silage holds milk-flow during drouth even better than soiling. It is rational that it should. During the summers of 1910, 1911 and 1912 the comparative value of soiling crops and silage were thoroughly tested out at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. In these tests corn silage com- peted with such soiling crops as green corn, peas, oats and red 114 SUMMER SILO. clover. The two systems were practically on an equal footing so far as influence on milk production was concerned, but the cost of producing and feeding soiling crops was higher than that for silage, due to the cost of seed and the great amount of labor in- volved. The silage yielded more and better food from the same area, was more uniformly palatable and there was less waste due to uncontrollable weather conditions. The experiment indicated that in case of scant pastures, dairymen would find it a matter of great convenience, saving and profit to feed corn silage in prefer- ence to soiling crops. The results of the above experiments were published in Wisconsin Bulletin No. 255. The summer drouth is with us to stay, and we might as well prepare to meet the situation most intelligently. As a matter of fact, we have never known a single season in our practical experi- ence to go through from end to end without a drouth, and even that in the best of what we might term our normal seasons. Major EB. E. Critchfield, of Chicago, an agricultural expert, says that a good deal of effort has been made in various localities to carry over this particular season by soiling, but, he adds, we must remember that the man who does this is not in any sense prepared for soil- ing practice and it comes at a period when he is almost inordinate- ly busy with other things and is, therefore, likely to fail of best results. If, however, he has a summer silo, or a good “heel” left in his winter silo, he has in it a place of greatest convenience for feeding and it is most likely to produce the best possible results. Night pasturing has been found to be a very valuable practice in connection with the summer silo. By running the cows into pasture at night they are absolutely undisturbed by flies and other insects, and by keeping them in a darkened yet well ventilated barn during the day and feeding them from the silo, every adyvan- tage of the pasture and absolute freedom from its annoyances is secured. Another very valuable attribute of the summer silo is that it permits of saving crops in years of great plenty for other seasons of less plenitude. The desirability of this practice becomes evident when we recall how our mothers in years when fruit was very plentiful and cheap, used to put up a sufficient quantity to last for several years and we can hark back in our memories and tes- BLUEGRASS PASTURES OF SOUTH. 115 tify as to the quality of the fruit and, therefore, the success of the practice. Now, since the siloing of green stock food is nothing more or less than a process of canning, it may be carried over several years without any deterring influences. The renovation of the bluegrass pastures of Middle Tennessee and other Southern bluegrass communities is another wide field of usefulness to which the summer silo in the South may profitably be put. That the native bluegrass areas of this section have been abused is plainly evident, says a bulletin recently issued by the N. C. & St. Louis Railway. “Much of the pasture lands of Middle Tennessee which once lay in vast stretches of perfect bluegrass sod has been brought by continuous grazing to a comparatively low state of yielding capacity. Like all other plants, and animals, bluegrass has the disposition to lose vitality in the process of re- production, and if grazed, even lightly, during the period of propa- gation, serious injury is the result. Instead of reproducing itself through the agency of its own seed, as is popularly supposed, blue- grass propagates its kind chiefly at the root. With the appear- ance of the first warm sun rays of early spring, long lateral joint- ed rootlets are sent out from the parent root, from which spring little shoots which appear on the surface of the soil as new grass. If grazed during this process, the act of reproduction is arrested and the old plant itself permanently injured. In order to renew and maintain a perfect sod on the bluegrass lands of the South, the process of reproduction must be allowed to operate undis- turbed by removing all stock from the pastures for six weeks or two months early in the spring. This period of rest should extend from February 1 to 15 to April 1. One ton of silage per head of either dairy or beef stock reserved from the winter supply, or a small silo filled and retained for that purpose, would enable the Southern bluegrass pasture owner to transform his meager pro- ducing lands into a perfect sod with but little extra expense.” The substance of a strong editorial in Wallace’s Farmer, while referring particularly to the lesson of the 1910 drouth, applies with equal force wherever pasture is used or cattle are fed. It is worth quoting here: “The question we are constantly asked is: ‘Will silage keep through the summer?’ We are glad to be able to give a direct answer to this, not theoretically, but from personal experience. We built a silo on one of the Wallace farms and filled it in 1908, 116 SUMMER SILO. and made the mistake of building it too large. During the winter of 1908-9 the silage was not all used. Last fall we put in new silage on top of the old, and during the winter used out of the new silage, leaving the unused remainder in the bottom. We are now feeding that silage, and the man in charge, an experienced dairy- man, tells us that after the waste on top was removed, this two- year-old silage is as good as any he ever used; that the cattle eat it as readily as anything and eat more of it than they did during the winter. “This is in entire harmony with every farmer we ever heard of who uses summer silage. If silage will keep two years without any waste except on the exposed portion of the surface, then it will certainly keep one. “Some people say: ‘We may not have another summer like this.’ To this we reply that a period of short pastures during July and August is the rule in all the corn belt states, and lush grass at this season of the year is a rare exception. Remember that seasons come in cycles of unknown duration, and the time of their coming is uncertain; that it always has been so, and it is safe to assume that they always will until the Creator sees fit to change his method of watering the earth. Therefore, well-made silage in a good silo is just as staple as old wheat in the mill. There will be a waste of several inches on the surface, just as there is waste of several inches on the surface of the hay stack or shock of corn fodder; but a man can afford that waste, if he has the assurance that his cows will not fail in their milk or his cattle lose flesh, even if there should be little or no rain for thirty or sixty days. When you put up a silo for summer use, you are going into a perfectly safe proposition, provided, of course, you build it right, and fill it properly.” This editorial isin line with further evidence which comes from the Purdue Station. Prof. Skinner writes: “Many successful farmers with limited areas of pasture make a practice of filling a small silo for summer use. It has been well established that silage properly stored in a good silo when the corn or other crop is in the most desirable condition, will keep in good condition for several years. Many foresighted men-taking advantage of this fact plan to have silage on hand the year round. They are thus prepared for any unusual conditions such as drouth, scant pasture, excessively long winters, and it is altogether prac- tical and profitable. It is desirable to have a silo of relatively small diameter for summer feeding as it is necessary to feed con- siderable amount from off the top of the silage each day in order to keep it from moulding during the hot, damp weather. r “There are three silos on the university farm and it is our aim to avoid having all these empty at the same time. A limited farm, greatly overstocked, makes it necessary to supplement the pas- tures every year, and while soiling crops are grown in abundance they cannot be relied upon because of the gravelly nature of the SUMMER FEEDING. pip Uy sub-soil underlying the farm, which means longer or shorter periods of drouth annually. “It would be absolutely impossible to maintain the number of animals on the college farm that we are successfully carrying without the silage to supplement our pastures and soiling crops. Many Indiana men have come to look on the silo as quite as im- portant in supplementing the pastures as it is in furnishing suc- culence during the winter season.” It is well to remember that less silage will naturally be fed in summer than in winter and that on the exposed surface molding is liable to set in more quickly. In order to keep the surface in fairly good condition, at least three inches of silage should be taken off daily, where two inches suffice in the winter. Where the size of herd permits, some farmers plan to feed off as much as five or six inches daily in summer. Feeding at the rate of 30 pounds per head daily and removing silage to a depth of two inches from the surface means only about four square feet of surface needed for each head per day. A silo for 20 cows should therefore not exceed ten feet in diameter. It will be found advisable in building the summer silo to keep the diameter as small as is practicable. The higher the silo the more firmly the corn is packed and the better it will keep. Silage soon dries out or spoils in hot weather when exposed, but not so soon where it is finely cut and well packed, because this more nearly excludes the air, thus reducing the amount necessary to be removed daily. By having the cutting knives sharp and set to cut 14-inch lengths the exclusion of air is so nearly complete that very little more silage needs to be removed in summer than in winter. If possible silage in summer should be fed in the shade because the hot sun acts very quickly and dries out and sometimes spoils the silage before the cattle eat it. CHAPTER V. THE USE OF SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. The day has passed to question the usefulness of the silo to the cattle feeder. Further experiments will simply emphasize its necessity. Millions of dollars could be added to the profits of the land-owners and beef-raisers of this country by heeding the teach- ings of the numerous experiments already made. Experiments at several stations during the past four or five years have proved beyond question the value and economy of corn silage in the ration for fattening steers. Silage-fed steers have re- peatedly made the heaviest and cheapest gains, have attained the highest finish during the feeding period, and have brought more money on the market. Numerous extensive trials have shown that the very best and cheapest dry rations have failed to equal a good silage ration, properly balanced, either in amount or cheapness of gains. Until recent years the dairy industry apparently held the mo- nopoly on the profitable use of this succulent feed. It is refreshing to note the awakening among cattle feeders to its wonderful ad- vantages in beef production. The “discovery” of the use and value of silage for beef making is, however, not new as many suppose. It was tested out by Prof. Thomas Shaw at the Ontario Agricul- tural College fully 25 years ago and the experience of many Cana- dian beef growers has for 20 years backed up the facts that good beef could be made from corn silage alone and meal, that it could be made more cheaply than on other feeds, and that corn stover was intended to be first a food and then a fertilizer, rather than merely a fertilizer. The beef producing area of the United States will be vastly increased by the use of the silo. Now that the Kansas Agricul- tural College has shown that kafir and sorghum are fully equal to corn for silage, even the dry land sections of the southwest are put on a beef-fattening basis. This means that over one hundred and fifty million acres are added to the area that can profitably produce finished beef cattle. This is a significant fact when it is considered that the growing scarcity and the consequent high prices of beef in late years has been such as to admit of foreign 118 SILAGE AND THE BEEF SUPPLY. 119 competition. “There was a time,” says Breeder’s Gazette, “when meats were produced as cheaply in the United States as any- where. That condition no longer exists. To produce meats in the United States costs more money now than to produce them in South America, New Zealand, or Australia. Probably meat pro- duction even in Great Britain is less costly than with us.” The situation is clearly stated by H. M. Cottrell, Agricultural Commissioner of the Rock Island Lines, as follows: “An adequate supply of beef for the United States can be secured only by the stockmen throughout the country adopting silage as the basis of their feed rations both while growing cattle and while fattening them. The cost of making beef with grain and dry forage is greater than the majority of the consumers can pay for it and farmers find it more profitable to sell grain than to feed it. A careful feeding test showed that taking a steer from birth to three years of age when he was marketed fat, it required 58 pounds of feed for each pound of gain. An average of a large number of feeding tests in many states showed that with dry feeds 10 pounds of grain and 5 pounds of hay were required for each pound of gain made while fattening beef animals. Grain is worth at least one cent a pound and hay is worth half a cent. Fig- ure for yourself the cost of making beef with dry feeds. “Silage saves a large proportion of grain needed in fattening animals. It saves the need for any grain while cattle are growing. Silage fed cattle gain faster than those on dry feed. They finish quicker and the meat is better marbled. Cattle fed silage while fattening require 50 per cent less grain to make each 100 pounds of increase in weight than do cattle fed under the best methods of ary feeding. Silage makes 50 per cent saving of grain over ordi- nary methods of feeding. On high priced land, silage is of special advantage, as it nearly doubles the carrying capacity of the land. “Forty per cent of the feed value of a corn plant is in the stalk and 60 per cent in the ear. The stalks that grow on nearly ninety- five million acres of land are wasted annually in this country and the feed value of the stalks on nearly eight million acres are but partially utilized each year. This annual waste amounts to prac- tically a billion dollars, the greatest economic waste in any one line of business in the world. Silos could convert all this wasted material into one of the best beef producing feeds. “Under the ordinary way of roughing beef cattle through the winter a herd averages 200 pounds less in weight per head in the spring than it did in the fall. It costs considerable even with these methods to carry stock cattle through the winter and every one loses in value. Stock cattle fed silage and a little dry forage will gain 100 pounds a head through the winter and increase in value. There are about 37,000,000 beef cattle in the United States. More 120 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. than half of them are roughed through. Silage-feeding would make a difference of 500 pounds of edible beef every winter on each of these.” Men at the various stock yards are now strong boosters for the silo and claim that it is a big factor in replenishing the cattle supply. During the past two or three years, the use of silage has become general throughout almost the entire Southwest. The re- sults have been that the cattle now go through the winter in ex- cellent condition and develop good flesh with a limited supply of grain, cotton seed meal and cake. Cattlemen of the Southwest say that the silo has solved the problem of winter feed and put the old range country in a position to get both the breeders’ and the feeders’ profit from cattle. During the past few years silage- fed cattle have topped the market repeatedly with record prices and it is no longer necessary to conceal their identity at the mar- ket to evade discrimination. Indeed the discrimination, if any, now leans the other way. This weighty kind of ‘“fact-evidence” which affects the pocket-book, has served as a strong weapon to dispel the prejudice that formerly existed against silage in feed- ing circles. Before proceeding to mention a number of important feeding trials that have helped to bring about this condition, we wish to quote a short article from Farmers’ Bulletin 556 of the United States Department ‘of Agriculture as follows: “Silage stands first in rank of all the roughages for finishing cattle. Formerly, during the era of cheap corn and other econcen- trates little attention was given to the roughage, as it was usually considered merely a ‘filler’ and of very little economic value in feeding. No especial care was taken in selecting any particular kind, nor was the quality of it seriously considered. As the prices of the concentrated feedstuffs advanced, the feeder looked about for methods of cheapening the cost of producing beef and soon found this could be accomplished by using judgment in selecting his roughage with respect to the grain fed. This has continued until at the present time the roughage receives as much attention as the concentrated feed, and has been made to take the place of a large amount of the latter. The feeding of silage came into gen- eral use with the advent of expensive grain and is becoming more popular each year. With the present prices of feedstuffs there is hardly a ration used for feeding cattle which cannot be cheapened by the use of this succulent feed. By combining it with other feeds the efficiency of the ration is increased to such an extent that the amount of the daily gains is invariably greater and the EXPERIMENT STATION RESULTS. 121 cost of producing a pound of gain is lessened. The heaviest daily gains are usually made during the first stage of the feeding period, and silage can then be used to advantage in large quantities with a small amount of grain, but as the feeding progresses the amount of silage should be lessened and the grain increased. In some places the price of hay and stover is so high that the greater the proportion of silage used in the ration the more profitable is the feeding. “Silage is a quick finishing roughage in that it produces large daily gains and produces a glossy coat and a soft, pliable skin. Moreover, it can be used to advantage at times for carrying cattle for a longer time so as to pass over a period of depression in the market, or to carry the cattle along in thrifty condition so they can be finished at a later period.” When we consider the varied conditions under which the ex- periments of the Agricultural Stations and others have been made, it is surprising to find the results so similar and all pointing to the one conclusion. The Nebraska Station finds in Bulletin 152 that corn silage made larger and more profitable gains with steers than did corn stover, used one-third less grain, and produced better finished steers, which were worth more per hundred. A summary of results at the Pennsylvania Station—Bulletin 124—-shows that net profits during the 1912-15 cattle feeding tests, not including pork, ranged from $11.22 per head for steers fed silage and hay, to $14.09 per head for steers fed corn silage as a sole roughage. Corn silage at $3.50 a ton proved much cheaper as a sole roughage than when fed with hay valued at $12.00 a ton. This Station realized a value of $6.20 a ton for silage when used for steer feeding. The Missouri Station found in a steer feeding experiment, where corn silage was compared with hay that they could make a saving of $1.07 per hundred pounds of beef by using silage. Bulletin 169 of the South Carolina Experiment Station gives results that are of much value to cattle feeders, not only in the South, but in practically all parts of the country. In this test com- paring silage, corn stover and cotton seed hulls, the corn silage gave by far the best returns, not only in feeding profits, but in the quality of the beef and the shape in which it reached the mar- ket. The silage fed group produced gains even on a poor market that would warrant an earning on the silage of $6.86 per ton. 122 -SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. Results at the North Carolina Station given in Bulletin 222 show that “Beef cattle fed on corn silage as the roughage portion of the feed in conjunction with cotton seed meal will not only use the meal more economically during a continuous feeding period, but they will finish in better condition and command a higher price than cattle fed on dry roughage. In all of the lots where corn silage was fed as a whole or a part of the roughage, the daily gains were more uniform throughout the feeding period than the gains made by the lot fed cotton-seed hulls.” Prof. H. P. Rusk of the Illinois Experiment Station, says that “one of the most common mistakes in the use of silage is attempt- ing to make it take the place of part or all of the concentrates in the ration. “Corn silage is a roughage and not a concentrate. Its profit- able utilization in the finishing ration depends not so much upon its nutritive value as on its cheapness, its palatability and succu- lent nature, the steer’s ability to consume large quantities of it, and the possibility of utilizing the entire corn plant, a large por- tion of which would otherwise be wasted. “Used in its proper combination with other feeds, corn silage is one of the most economical roughages available in the corn belt. However, it should be remembered that corn silage, like corn it- self, is low in protein and must be fed in combination with some highly nitrogenous feed in order to offset this deficiency. This fact was demonstrated in the early studies made on silage at the Purdue experiment station when a ration of shelled corn, clover hay and corn silage was fed in comparison with a similar ration to which cotton seed meal was added in sufficient quantities to balance the nutrients. The lot receiving cotton-seed meal made an average daily gain of 2.7 pounds during the 150-day feeding period while the lot that did not receive cottonseed meal made an average daily gain of only 1.8 pounds. The cost of gains was $9.11 per cwt., where cottonseed meal was fed as compared to $11.07 per cwt. in the lot to which it was not fed. A noteworthy fact shown in the results of this experiment is that the addition of 2.6 pounds of cottonseed meal to the daily ration did not decrease the steer’s capacity for other feeds. In fact, the steers receiving the balanced ration consumed a little over four pounds of feed more per head daily than those not receiving cottonseed meal. This effect is one that is commonly noted when rations lacking in protein are bal- anced with some highly nitrogenous concentrate, or even when the common non-leguminous roughages in such rations are re- placed by clover or alfalfa hay. “Where liberal allowances of corn silage are used, a leguminous roughage such as clover hay or alfalfa hay cannot be relied upon to furnish sufficient protein. The only way to properly balance such a ration is to add some nitrogenous concentrate such as cot- INDIANA STATION RESULTS. 123 tonseed meal or linseed oil meal. This fact is demonstrated by the results of a feeding trial conducted at the Illinois experiment sta- tion during the winter of 1910-1911. In this experiment each of three lots of two-year-old steers received a full feed of broken ear corn and corn silage; in addition one lot was fed all the alfalfa hay it would clean up, another lot clover hay, and third lot was fed enough cottonseed meal to balance the ration. The lot re- ceiving corn, alfalfa hay and silage made an average daily gain of 2.35 pounds; the lot fed corn, clover hay and silage made an average daily gain of 2.09 pounds; while the lot receiving cotton- seed meal in the place of a leguminous roughage made a gain of 2.59 pounds per head daily and returned a larger profit than either of the other lots. “Aside from failure to properly balance the ration, probably the most common mistake in feeding silage to fattening cattle is the practice of beginning with a small amount of silage and gradually increasing as the feeding period advances. This is just the reverse of the method that should be followed.” At the Indiana Station, the 175 day feeding trials conducted from Nov. 20, 1913 to May 14, 1914, rendered strong evidence in favor of feeding corn silage and cheap roughage. Seven lots of 10 grade Shorthorns each, were fed various combinations of shelled corn, soybean meal, cottonseed meal, oat straw, clover and alfalfa hay—with and without silage. The test showed little dif- ference in the feeding value of soybean meal and cottonseed meal, either in finish or profits. The most profitable lot of steers received shelled corn, cotton- seed meal, silage and oat straw. Including pork, the profit per steer was $12.94; without pork, $4.94. This lot not only made the most profit, but also made the fastest gains, the average daily gain per steer being 2.54 pounds for the six months. Excluding pork, three lots lost money. Two of these, Lots 2 and 3, did not receive silage. The other lot received silage, but the cost of gains was greatly increased by the consumption of about $54.00 worth of alfalfa hay. This experiment confirmed previous findings at both the In- diana and Illinois Stations regarding the economy of silage, and the profitable use of oat straw or other cheap roughage, when fed in connection with corn, cottonseed meal and silage, instead of such costly roughages as alfalfa or clover hay. The oat straw was found to give as good results as clover hay. For several years the silage-fed cattle at the Indiana Station 124 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. have finished out better than those not receiving silage. This again held true in this test. The only difference in the rations of Lots 2 and 4 was the addition of silage to the latter. Lot 4 not only finished better and sold for 10 cents per cwt. more, but in- cluding pork, made $4.22 more profit per head than the steers that had no silage. Not including pork, the profit per head was $7.58 in favor of silage. Two experiments in feeding corn silage to steers were con- ducted at the South Dakota Experiment Station at Brookings in 1912, running three and four months respectively. The results showed that neither corn fodder from the field, nor fodder silage, nor a one-half ration of silage and hay proved as valuable for wintering steers as first class corn silage (fodders cut from same field, at same time as corn for silage), as it required more pounds of dry matter for a pound of gain with these than with silage lot. Hay with silage proved to be better than hay or silage alone as a roughage. No bad results were received by feeding steers all the corn silage they would eat without other grain or rough- age. At the end of the experiment they were consuming an aver- age of 70 pounds per head daily. Further tests were conducted at the same station for 146 days in 1912-13 to determine the relative feeding value of oil meal, cot- tonseed meal and dried distilled grains when fed with corn silage as the sole roughage. The largest and most uniform gains were made with oil meal and silage. The cost of producing 100 pounds of gain in these tests was as follows: With corn silage and oil meal, $5.86; with corn silage and cottonseed meal, $6.64; with corn silage and dried distilled grains, $5.50; with corn silage and oats, $6.68; with corn silage and shelled corn, $8.22. It will be seen that the distilled grains ration made a cheaper gain than the oil meal ration, but the cheap gain is not always the best gain as the steers receiving oil meal were in better condition than the other lot. The average gains per head daily for the 146 days were 2.45 for oil meal and 2.17 for distilled grains. Silage was valued at $4.00 a ton; oil meal and cottonseed meal at $32.00 a ton, dried distilled grains at $24.00 a ton, oats and shelled corn at 1 cent a pound. Prof. Wilson, who conducted the test, says that the ex- periment calls attention ‘“‘to the value of corn silage when prop- erly supplemented with high protein feed. I believe when we feed our corn crop in the form of silage, we will be able to make beef at a profit under almost any conditions likely to present them- selves. The old custom of stocking cattle through the winter will soon be a practice of the past.” Supt. T. J. Harrison, of the Experimental Farm, Indian Head, Saskatchewan, writes: ‘Last season (1913) we conducted feed- ing experiments in which ensilage was fed in comparison with KANSAS STATION RESULTS. 125 mixed hay. The steers fed on the ensilage made a gain of 2.5 pounds a day, while the lot fed mixed hay gained about 1.9. The silage-fed steers when sold also brought about 15 cents per cwt. more than the hay-fed steers, because of the fact that they were better finished.” The Kansas Experiment Station in May, 1913, concluded the most important feeding demonstrations that have been made for some years, in order to determine the comparative feeding value of silage made from corn, kafir and cane or sweet sorghum. The trials were made with both beef and dairy cattle and showed with both that, pound for pound, the silage from all three crops had practically the same feeding value. These demonstrations not only benefit Kansas, but indicate that feeders may make kafir and _ cane silage the foundation feeds for fattening beef cattle through- out the entire Southwest. The test with beef cattle was made with Hereford calves, ten in each lot. Below is the record: Corn Kafir Sorghum Silage. Silage. Silage. Ration— et Lot 2 Lot 3 Omicini ValWiGtec acess sess OSE $ 7.80 $ 7.80 Walueror theslot kis oii ois. 525.40 921.65 590.90 Originally Weishtas,. ks. cose 4,172 lbs. 4,124 lbs. 4,281 lbs. Feed Consumed: Warm SUAS isles sles’ ore 5 DOL Se ta era eks eel ae Soe rene Serie Gee feos ave we ce chy cynics #5, sip 50: S65 lbs. vetepuate cutee SCCORSORSMUMUGSUAL Cs o.oo ete cie cee See ccayssle ee 50,£55 lbs. Cottonseed meal.......... 927 lbs. 927 lbs. 927 lbs. Details: TEM ia GU Nh sh = 0 re 5,700 lbs. 5,751 lbs. 5,865 lbs. TIS Le UT cus eivie ssp sjo1¢ 016 0,5» 1,528 lbs. 1,627 lbs. 1,584 Ibs. Average daily gain....... 1% lbs. 1.62 Ibs. 1.58 Ibs. @ostitot Weed a.tt). . espe sisie. $ 55.05 $ 54.96 $ 54.94 Daily cost by head...... 0.055 0.0549 0.0549 Cost rot Sains. 4... stitetsis teste 5.60 S101 5.46 Value, hundredweight.... 7.50 7.60 7.50 Final value by lot....... 427.50 437.07 439.87 Profit by the lot....... -. 47.05 60.46 51.03 _ It will be seen that kafir silage made 28 per cent more profit than corn silage, and sweet sorghum silage made 8 per cent more than corn silage. Corn silage has usually produced better gains than either kafir or sorghum silage, due to the acidity and lack of 126 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. feeding value heretofore connected with the latter. The Kansas tests showed plainly that these drawbacks have been due to the cutting of the kafir and sorghum when too immature. These crops for the above feeding tests were cut three weeks later than corn. The seeds were practically mature, but the stalks were green and filled with sap. Professors Reed and Fitch report that at all times during the test, the silage from cane contained less acid than the silage from corn. In the dairy test, which also covered two years, it was found that corn silage as a milk producer was only slightly superior to kafir silage with cane silage a close third. Cows gave daily per head one-sixth of a pound more milk on corn silage than on kafir silage and gained slightly more in weight on the kafir silage. Corn silage produced an average daily yield of one-half pound per ~ cow more than cane silage. These differences are so small that they show the feeds to be practically equal. The choice of crop to plant depends upon the probable yield per acre. Kafir and cane being drouth-resistant crops can be grown over a wider territory than corn and they produce from one-third to one-half more ton- nage to the acre, so that each acre of kafir or cane would yield considerably more milk than an acre of corn silage. The cane silage was found superior to either kafir or corn silage for gain in live weight, due to more carbo-hydrates and sugar, or fattening nutrients. All the silage was of good quality and the cows ate it with relish. The cane silage seemed most palatable. Cement and stave silos were used with no difference in results as to quality. Prof. O. E. Reed, who made the dairy tests, says that “the time of cutting cane and kafir for silage is all-important in making good silage from these crops. The crops should be prac- tically mature; that is the seed should be mature. At this time the stalk is still filled with sap and will make good silage. If put up too green, it will make sour silage. The crops should be put up before frost if possible, but it is better to let the crop stand until after frost than to put it up too green. After a heavy frost, the crop should be cut and siloed immediately. If it dries out too much, sufficient water should be added to cause it to pack well.” The lowa Experiment Station in Circular No. 6 gives the fol- lowing results of feeding corn silage for fattening cattle. The experiments were in charge of Prof. Evvard. “Corn silage should be put into the feeding program of every Iowa beef producer if he wants to fatten cattle economically and efficiently. That corn silage is our most profitable cattle roughage IOWA STATION RESULTS. 127 has been clearly demonstrated at the Experiment Station as well as upon hundreds of Iowa farms. The addition of corn silage to the ration not only decreases very materially the cost of gains, but usually makes them more rapidly. The steers are finished more quickly and ordinarily sell for a higher price than where clover is used as the roughage. Fattening cattle of all ages utilize silage as their roughage ration. It is as good for the calf and yearling as for the two and three year old. All profit from its use. Silage is practically one-third to two-fifths as valuable as clover hay for beef production. Silage at $3.20 a ton and clover hay at $7.66 a ton were equally efficient in fattening two-year-old steers in 1911-12 in our station tests. Ordinarily when clover is selling from $10 to $15 per ton, silage is worth from $35.50 to $6.00. That the corn grain which is put into the silo is not wasted our feeding records clearly show. Cattle receiving silage do not eat as much grain as hay fed cattle, the decrease being approxi- mately equal to the amount of corn found in the silage. For a short feed, silage is pre-eminently our most abundant and efficient roughage. The gains are not only more rapid than where clover or alfalfa is fed, but are made more cheaply. Fur- thermore, the selling price is markedly enhanced. Actual experi- ment has shown that as compared to clover in a ninety-day feed, silage cattle, rightly fed, will sell from ten to seventy-five cents higher per hundred weight. For a long feed silage is quite efficient, producing, as compared to clover, both cheaper gains and a higher quality of finish. Protein supplements must be fed with silage in order to make it an efficient fattening food. Cattle cannot be fattened econom- ically on corn and corn silage. It is imperative and absolutely essential that protein concentrates such as cottonseed meal, cold pressed cottonseed cake, linseed oil meal or similar feeds be fed. The average daily silage, hay and grain consumption of a two- year-old steer weighing 1,000 pounds at the start, during a five- month full feeding period will approximate: Shelled corn, 15 to 16 pounds; Cottonseed meal or linseed meal, 2.7 to 5.6 pounds; Clover or alfalfa hay, 5 to 5 pounds; Corn silage, 22 to 35 pounds. With silage as lone roughage the consumption will be about 28 to 35 pounds. It requires practically one and three-quarters to two and three quarters tons of corn silage for a five months’ feed for a two year old. In the absence of any dry roughage such as clover, alfalfa or oat straw, corn silage may be used as the lone roughage. Some dry corn stover should be utilized if possible. In case of lone silage feeding, however, one had best increase the protein concen- trates slightly. 128 SILAGE IN BEEF PRODUCTION. In what quantities throughout the feeding period shall we feed silage? Our experience clearly shows that silage should be fed very heavily in the early part of the feeding period to insure most efficient results. The grain at this time may be somewhat lim- ited. We put our steers upon a full feed of good quality silage the very first day and have never had any difficulty. Silage is a roughage and may be so handled without danger. To insure quick and economical finishing, the silage is best decreased some- what at the close of the feeding period and the grain increased accordingly. Cattle, when nearly finished, tend to eat too much of the bulky, watery, palatable silage, thus leaving too little room for concentrated grains, a consumption of which is highly im- perative at this time. The shrinkage of silage fed cattle is not heavy as is ordinarily supposed. Silage fed cattle do not shrink any more than dry hay fed ones. Our results clearly indicate that cattle receiving both silage and dry roughage during the feeding period, shrink less than those fed on either dry feed or silage alone.” The Texas Station has conducted two experiments recently in which the value of cotton seed meal and silage was tested for fattening cattle. The results of these experiments, and those ob- tained by other Stations and commercial feeders along the same lines, indicate this combination to be one of the most profitable rations that can be used for feeding cattle in Texas. The first experiment covered a period of 119 days during the winter of 1911-12. 40 head of range-bred three- and four-year old, grade Shorthorn and Hereford steers were used. The silage fed was about 75 per cent. Milo Maize, 15 per cent. Indian corn, and 10 per cent. sorghum. During the last 20 days of the test the percentage of Indian corn was increased. The test showed that a ration of cotton seed meal and silage may be used far more profitably than a ration of cotton seed meal and cotton seed hulls for fattening cattle. Silage was a much cheaper feed than cotton seed hulls and yielded slightly larger gains. The silage fed steers showed considerably better finish and brought 20c a hundred- weight more on the market than the hulls-fed steers. The net profit on the silage-fed steers was $10.40 a head and the net profit on the hulls-fed steers was 67c a head. The second experiment, during the winter of 1912-13 lasted 139 days. 28 head of well graded steers were used, divided into four lots. A summary of results showed that the ration of cotton seed meal and silage was considerably more profitable than either the ration of cotton seed meal and hulls or the one of cotton seed meal, hulls and silage. It was found that 1 2-3 tons of silage was equivalent to one ton of cotton seed hulls in feeding value. Silage realized a value of $8.16 a ton. Cotton seed meal at $27.00 per ton was more profitable than cotton seed at $17.00 a ton in supple- menting the silage to form a fattening ration. The shrinkage in shipment to market was much greater in the hulls-fed lots than in the lots fed silage as roughage. During the first 107 days of RESULTS IN THE SOUTH. 129 the test the silage was about 90 per cent. sorghum and 10 per cent. cow-peas. During the remaining 32 days, it was composed of Indian corn. This test was based on the following values per ton: Cotton seed meal, $27.00; cotton seed hulls, $7.00; cotton seed, $17.00; silage, $2.50. At the Amarillo Sub-Station in Texas a test was made to com- pare cotton seed meal and grass with cotton seed meal and silage. The silage steers made 400% better gains. Mr. Henry H. Johnson uses 15 silos of 200 to 250 tons each for fattening annually about 4,000 steers on his 25,000 acre ranch in Oklahoma. Mr. Johnson says, “No farmer, large or small, can afford to be without a silo. It is the only way to feed cattle at a minimum cost. Any other way will cost a man from eight to ten dollars a head more. Silage increases the flow of milk at least half and young cattle will make faster growth on silage than on any other kind of feed.” A battery of four monolithic silos—the largest in the West— was built in 1912, on the 14,000 acre beef ranch of Horace Adams, Maple Hill, Kan. Each was 20x60 feet. They hold 500 tons each and cost $3,500, and are to store feed for producing fine beef cattle. The South abounds in just the protein feeds that are needed to properly supplement silage. Cowpeas, soybeans, peas, vetch, red clover, lespedeza, oil meal, cotton seed meal, gluten feed, clover, alfalfa, wheat, bran or oats are all good. The South has splendid natural conditions for stock raising. Regarding the value of silage, Prof. Andrew M. Soule of the Georgia Agricul- tural College says: “For more than fifteen years I have either conducted person- ally or supervised experiments on the wintering of beef cattle with silage as the principal form of roughness. In that time it has proved to be cheapest and most efficient coarse feed avail- able for use in the south. Cattle fed on silage for a period of 134 days made an average gain in the stable of 1.06 pounds, those fed hay and grain a gain of .27 pounds, those fed stover and grain .08 pounds, those fed silage and grain made a gain of 1.22 pounds. These cattle were allowed to run on grass for 81 days. The aver- age daily gain for the silage and grain cattle for both the stable and the grass period was 1.56 pounds, the stover and grain cattle 1.19 pounds, the hay and grain cattle 1.15 pounds. The most economic gains from stable feeding were made by the silage and grain fed cattle. Under good management a grain ration as low as 2 pounds per day will make substantial gains in the winter and maintain good gains on grass. Three pounds of grain combined in the propor- tion of two pounds of corn and one of cottonseed meal will make an excellent grain ration.” CHAPTER VI. THE SILAGE SYSTEM HELPS MAINTAIN SOIL FERTILITY. When the cattle feeders of this country once thoroughly realize that they can profitably feed and raise stock by means of the silage system the great problem of maintaining and increasing soil fertility will very largely solve itself and exhausted soils will recuperate of their own accord. This statement is based on certain fundamental facts, which Farmer’s Bulletin No. 180 covers briefly as follows: “When subjected to proper chemical tests or processes every substance found on our globe no matter whether it belongs to the mineral, vegetable or animal kingdom may be reduced to single elements, of which we now know over seventy. Many of these elements occur but rarely, and others are present everywhere in abundance. United mostly in comparatively simple combinations of less than half a dozen each, these elements make up rocks, soils, crops, animals, the atmosphere, water, etc. The crops in their growth take some of the elements from the soil in which they grow and others from the air. Many elements are of no value to crops; a few, viz., 13 or 14, are, on the other hand, abso- lutely necessary to the growth of plants; if one or more of these essential elements are lacking or present in insufficient quantities in the soil, the plant cannot make a normal growth, no matter in what quantities the others may occur, and the yields obtained will be decreased as a result.” _ The problem of the conservation of soil fertility is therefore largely one of maintaining a readily available supply of the essen- tial plant elements in the soil. Most of these elements occur in abundance in all soils, and there are really only about three of them that the farmer need seriously consider—nitrogen, phos- phoriec acid and potash. Of these, the latter two are mineral com- pounds which are very often lacking in the soil in sufficient quantity to give profitable crops and they must therefore be sup- plied in the form of manures or fertilizers. The nitrogen is partly obtained from the air by leguminous crops, but the supply from this source is limited and the proper enrichment of the soil often demands the addition of this compound. 130 VALUABLE FERTILIZING ELEMENTS. je | Every time that a crop is grown it robs the soil of a valuable portion of these fertilizing elements. A ton of clover hay, for in- stance, contains 41.4 pounds of nitrogen, 7.6 pounds of phosphorus and 44 pounds of potash. These elements form the basis of the market value of commercial fertilizers and because of the enor- mous quantity of fertilizer now used they each have a definite and fairly stable market value. For our purposes in this discussion we place these values as follows: 18 cents a pound for nitrogen, 5 cents a pound for phosphoric acid and 5 cents a pound for potash. It should be remembered that these values are likely to differ to some extent in various localities according as they are affected by the item of transportation. At the present time, be- cause of the European War, it is hard to estimate the value that should be placed on these elements, as the sources of most of our nitrogen and potash are very largely controlled by the warring nations, and for this reason our values will be found very con- servative and even very low. But taking one year with another and reaching over a period of years it is fair to assume that the prices of 18, 5 and 5 cents a pound respectively will be found ap- proximately correct. Now, figured on this basis, it will be found that each ton of clover hay takes from the soil $10.23 worth of fertility. A 100-bushel corn crop contains 148 pounds of nitrogen, 23 pounds of phosphoric acid and 71 pounds of potash valued at $51.54. In other words, that much fertility is removed from the soil with every 100-bushel corn crop. In the same manner, the fertility in a ton of wheat has a value of $9.79; a ton of wheat bran, $14.06; a ton of alfalfa hay, $10.07; a ton of timothy $5.97 and a ton of oats, $8.85. Other crops vary in proportion. The above figures may be startling to some who have been growing and selling these crops. The question may come up, do these figures actually mean that we can get returns of $14.06 by the application of one ton of wheat bran to our land as a fertilizer? Such is not their meaning, however. They do mean that if a farmer seeks to restore to the soil the same amount of fertility as was extracted by his 100-bushel corn crop, such fertilizer would cost him on the market not less than the amount stated above, viz.: $31.54. The same relative values obtain with the other crops mentioned. It is clear, therefore, that unless these elements are. put back into the soil in some way, it will produce steadily declining crops 132 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. and eventually will become exhausted or mined out. How to put them back at the least expense is the problem confronting many sections of this country today, and it is not alone for the benefit of future generations; it has a vital bearing on our own crop yields. The soil is the farmer’s bank and the fertility of that soil is his capital. Many a farmer finding it impossible to “break na- @TOCK, DAIRY AND MIXED FARMING (160 ACRES) GRAIN AND HAY FARMING (160 ACRES) PRODUCED ON FARM RETURNED TO LAND PRODUCED ON FARM RETURNED TO LAND Manure Manuro Milk and Cheese ] PLANT FOOD — N-NITROGEN -PA=PHOSPHORIC ACID-P-=POTASH PRODUCED RETURNED PRODUCED RETURNED Nothing Clover Alfalfa NOTHING TOTAL -13,5001bs Fig. 50.—Comparison of years’ results of grain and hay farming vs. stock, dairy and mixed farming.—Courtesy Family Herald and Weekly Star, Montreal. ture’s bank” has practiced farming methods that have meant a continual draining, year after year, of his capital—fertility— failing the while to understand the constantly smaller yields of the particular crops grown. This is the usual result of exclu- sive grain and hay farming and is graphically shown in the ac- companying chart, Fig. 50. The chart also illustrates the results of stock, dairy and mixed farming, where most of the crops are grown for stock and manufactured into finished priiucts such as milk, cheese and beef, and where the fertility is returned to the EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS. CRCPPING. 133 land by means of manure and the legumes. It will be observed that where this latter system is practiced the nitrogen in the soil is actually increased, whereas the phosphoric acid and potash are reduced to a very small extent. The startling effect of continuous crop farming is shown by an experiment covering 30 years at the Illinois Experiment Sta- tion: “At this station the yield on a typical prairie soil has de- ereased under continuous corn raising from 70 bushels to the acre to 27 bushels to the acre during this period, while under a system of crop-rotation and proper fertilization the yield on a portion of the same field has been increased during the same period to 96 bushels per acre. These yields are not of a certain year, but averages of three-year periods. The 96 bushels was obtained in a three-year rotation in which corn was followed by oats in which clover was sown. The next year clover alone, followed by corn again. Stable manure with commercial fertil- izers was applied to the clover ground to be plowed under for corn. The difference in the yields obtained between the rotation system where fertility was applied and the straight corn cropping without fertility was 69 bushels per acre, or over two-and-a-half times that of the system of continuous corn raising. A large proportion of this difference in yield is clear profit, as the actual expense of producing the 96 bushels to the acre was but little more than in growing the 27. If the results of these two yields were figured down to a nicety, and the value of the land de- termined by the net income, it would be found that the well farmed acres would be worth an enormous price as compared with a gift of the land that produced the smaller yield.” Henry says that “with sharp competition confronting every one who cultivates the soil, the careful saving of farm manures and their judicious application are vital factors in farming oper- ations, and as essential to continued success as plowing the land or planting the crop. * * * When one must choose between com- mercial fertilizers and barn-yard manures, it is reasonable to estimate that the latter have a value of at least two-thirds the former, based on their nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash con- tents.” These manures benefit the soil because the vegetable matter they contain acts as a mulch and forms humus, but so far 134 SILAGE SYSTEM MAINTAINS FERTILITY. as feeding the plants is concerned their worth rests upon the elements of fertility they contain. It will, therefore, be seen that barn-yard manure has a high value as a fertilizer. It is perhaps the most important for soil improvement. The reason for this is that it supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potash and the decaying organic matter needed. In feeding oats, corn, wheat or other crops to animals, it is well to know that about three-quarters of the phosphorus and nitrogen and practically all of the potash go through the body and are re- turned in the solid and liquid manure. It is evident that the value of richness of the manure depends largely on the crops or part of the crops fed to the animals. That which originates from the use of concentrated feeding stuffs usually has a high value. That which comes from the use of straw or other coarse forage has a lower value. Leguminous crops are rich in nitrogen and phos- phorus. Three tons of white clover will contain 8 pounds more phosphoric acid and 17 pounds more nitrogen than a 100 bushel corn crop, i. e., 51 pounds phosphoric acid and 165 pounds nitro- gen. Any system of farming where grain is sold and only stalks and straw retained for feed produces manure weak in both nitro- gen and phosphorus. These elements are divided in the corn plant on the 100-bushel basis, about as follows: 100 lbs. nitrogen in grain and 48 lbs. in the stalk. 17 lbs. phosphorus in grain and 6 lbs. in the stalk. 19 Ibs. potassium in grain and 52 lbs..in the stalk. erease in food ingredients SAME SIZE TASSELED OUT AS WHEN RIPE during the stages previous to asseceon @u7 KERNELS GLAZED KERNEL IN MILK STAGE SILKED OQuT BUT NOTE DIFFERENCE IN FOOD YALUE Paime re. N Dak Agr Coileye maturity. Progra. Table XI.—Increase in Food Ingredients from Tasseling to P Maturity. Gain in per cent. Stage of Maturity between first and last cutting EXPERIMENT . STATION va, ee) a First Cutting Last Cutting |, = se 3.\20 62\5é\5E|82 Cornell, N. Y....|} Pride of the North} Bloom ....... Mature.......| 150} 90) 129) 169 Cornell, N. Y....| Pride of the North] Bloom....... Nearly mature! 217} 134) 374; 300 Geneva, N. Y....| King Philip....... Tasseled..... Mature. cones 389) 183) 335) 462 New Hampshire.| Av. of 4 varieties.| Tasseled..... Glazed........ 112) 50) 84} 130 Pennsylvania....} Av. of 10 varieties.| Tasseled..... Mature....... TO [tee Rare icles: 0 Vermont......... Av. of 2 varieties.| Tasseled..... Glazed). d2.535 122} 50). Vermont......... Av. of 2 varieties.| Bloom....... Glazed.,....,0-. 204; 81}. POUCH ASE UL TLLALS! Serastje cleat easeriee este siecle tr efascis is/aefeig a hiameisesanrils 193} 98] 230) 265 We thus find that the largest amount of food materials in the corn crop is not obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total growth in height it has, as shown by results given in the last table, attained only one-third to one- half of the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to maturity; hence we see the wisdom of postponing cutting the corn for the silo, as in general for forage purposes until rather late in the season, when it can be done without danger of frost. 144 SILAGE CROPS. The table given in the preceding, and our discussion so far, have taken into account only the total, and not the digestible components of the corn. It has been found through careful digestion trials that older plants are somewhat less digestible than young plants. There is, however, no such difference in the digestibility of the total dry matter or its components as is found in the total quantities ob- tained from plants at the different stages of growth, and the total yields of digestible matter in the corn will therefore be greater at maturity, or directly before this time, than at any earlier stage of growth. Hence we find that the general practice of cutting corn for the silo at the time when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, when the kernels have become rather firm, and are dented or be- ginning to glaze, is good science and in accord with our best knowledge on the subject. Other reasons why cutting at a late period of growth is prefer- able in siloing corn are found in the fact that the quality of the silage made from such corn is much better than that obtained from green immature corn, and in the fact that the sugar is most abundant in the corn plant in the early stages of ear development, but the loss of non-nitrogenous components in the silo falls first of all on the sugar, hence it is the best policy to postpone cutting until the grain is full-sized and the sugar has largely been changed to starch. It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity in the first chapter to delay the cutting so long that the corn plant be- comes too dry, for the reason stated. .Silage does not spoil when too wet, but will mold if too dry. Experience will be the best guide, but the foregoing pages should enable the reader to form the right idea as to time for filling, which to secure the best results is nearly as important as to have material with which to fill the silo. Methods of Planting Corn.—When the corn crop is intended for the silo, it should be planted somewhat closer than is ordinarily the case when the production of a large crop of ear corn is the primary object sought. Thin seeding favors the development of well-developed, strong plants, but not the production of a large amount of green forage. The number of plants which can be brought to perfect development on a certain piece of land depends * METHOD OF PLANTING CORN. 145 upon the state of fertility of the land, the character of the season, especially whether it is a wet or dry season, as well as other fac- tors, hence no absolute rule can be given as to the best thickness of planting corn for the silo. Numerous experiments conducted in different parts of the country have shown, however, that the largest quantities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob- tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two feet apart, or in drills three or four feet apart, with plants six or eight inches apart in the row. It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield obtained is concerned, whether the corn is planted in hills or in drills, when the land is kept free from weeds in both cases, but it facilitates the cutting considerably to plant the corn in drills if this is done by means of a corn harvester or sled cutter, as is now generally the case. The yield seems more dependent on the number of plants grown on a certain area of land than on the arrangement of plant- ing the corn. Hills four feet each way, with four stalks to the hill, will thus usually give about the same yield as hills two feet apart, with stalks two stalks to the hill or drills four feet apart with stalks one foot apart in the row, ete. The question of plant- ° ing corn in hills or in drills is therefore largely one of greater or less labor in keeping the land free from weeds by the two methods. This will depend on the character of the land; where the land is uneven, and check-rowing of the corn difficult, or when the land is free from weeds, drill planting is preferable, while, conversely, on fields where this can be done, the corn may more easily and cheaply be kept free from weeds if planted in hills and check- rowed. Since one of the advantages of the silo is economical pro- duction and preservation of a good quality of feed, the economy and certainty in caring for the growing crop is of considerable importance, and generally planting in hills not too far apart will be found to facilitate this, especially during wet season. Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broadcast, whether intended for the silo, or for production of ear corn; when sown broadeast, the corn cannot be kept free from weeds, except by hand labor. More seed is moreover required, the plants shade each other and will therefore not reach full development, from lack of sufficient sunshine and moisture, and a less amount of available food constituents per acre will be produced. 146 SILAGE CROPS. Other Silage Crops. Clover. We are but beginning to appreciate the value of clover in modern agriculture. It has been shown that the legumes, the family to which clover belongs, are the only common forage plants able to convert the free nitrogen of the air into compounds that may be utilized for the nutrition of animals. Clover and other legumes, therefore, draw largely on the air for the most expensive and valuable fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and for this reason, as well as on account of their deep roots, which bring fertilizing ele- ments up near the surface, they enrich the land upon which they grow. Being a more nitrogenous food than corn or the grasses, clover supplies a good deal of the protein compounds required by farm animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for the pro- duction of milk, wool or meat. By feeding clover, a smaller pur- chase of high-priced concentrated feed stuffs, like flour-mill or oil- mill refuse products, is therefore rendered necessary than when corn is fed; on account of its high fertilizing value it furthermore enables the farmer feeding it to maintain the fertility of his land. When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher protein contents it has an advantage over corn silage in point of lower cost of production. A Wisconsin dairy farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover estimates the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to $1, against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His average yield per acre. of green clover is about twelve tons. Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of its succu- . lence and greater palatability, as well as its higher feeding value. The last-mentioned point is mainly due to the fact that all the parts of the clover plant are preserved in the silo, with a small unavoidable loss in fermentation, while in hay-making, leaves and tender parts, which contain about two-thirds of the protein com- pounds, are often largely lost by abrasion. Contrasting results in the use of clover for silage seem to in- dicate that it keeps better in a cool climate than under warm or temperate conditions. At the Agassiz Experiment Station in Brit- ish Columbia three cuttings of red clover yielded 32 tons of green forage to the acre and made cheaper silage than the corn plant. In practically every instance in this region where clover has been used in the silo the results have been satisfactory. Prof. Harry CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILOS. 147 Hayward of the Pennsylvania Experiment Station states that as a result of experiments carried on there he believes a small amount of clover will go much farther in the silo than it will if pastured. Attempts at the Wisconsin Experiment Station to make silage out of the whole clover plant without chopping were not satisfactory. By running the green clover through cutter, however, and tramp- ing it thoroughly, fairly good results were obtained. The latest experiments on the question of using clover as silage have been conducted at the Montana Experiment Station by Prof. R. W. Clark. His results showed that second crop clover made into silage during September and October after being frozen, kept well until May and June the following year. After the weather became warm, however, it grew dark in color, strong in odor and was not relished by the cows. During the winter months the cat- tle uniformly had a keen appetite for it. In milk production 2.35 pounds of clover silage was required to equal one pound of good clover hay, this difference being due largely to the difference in moisture content. In calculating the results, timothy hay was placed at a value of $10 a ton, clover hay at $6, clover silage at $2.50 a ton, and grain at $20 a ton. An average of the three experiments, which were conducted with precautions to make up for the varying individually of the cows, showed the cost of producing 100 pounds milk was 73.9 cents on clover hay and 735.4 cents on clover silage. The cost of a pound of fat on the hay was 17.9 cents, while on the silage it was 17.8. The daily production of milk on clover hay was 22.8 pounds and 0.93 pound of fat, compared to 24.8 pounds and 0.97 pound of fat on the clover silage. The general indications seem to be that clover silage has a value of about $2.55 a ton under Montana conditions and when it is necessary to save the crop in this way or else have it lose value on account of weather conditions, it may very well be preserved in the silo. Under corn belt conditions where corn has already become established as the favorite silage crop, probably little clover will be used. Very frequently, however, the clover crop is threatened with damage by rain or too intense sunshine, and it may be easily and cheaply placed in a silo regardless of the weather and pre- served in a perfect condition. The failures reported in the early 148 SILAGE CROPS. stages of silo filling were largely due to the faulty construction of the silo. Clover does not pack as well as the heavy green corn, and, therefore, requires to be cut and weighted, or calls for greater depth in the silo, in order that the air may be sufficiently excluded. The clover should not be left to wilt between cutting and silo- ing, and the silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no unneces-~ sary losses by fermentation. The different species of clover will prove satisfactory silo crops; ordinary red or medium clover is most used in Northwestern States, along with mammoth clover; the latter matures later than medium or red clover, and may therefore be siloed later than these. When to Cut Clover for the Silo.—The yield of food materials obtained from clover at different stages of growth has been studied by a number of scientists. The following table giving the results of an investigation conducted by Professor Atwater will show the total quantities of food materials secured at four different stages of growth of red clover: Table XIl.—Yield Per Acre of Red Clover—in Pounds. Crude Fat Crude N-free Fibre 7 tract Just before bloom..,.| 3,570 | 1,385 | 198 | 384 | 664 | 24 | 115 Paliecplogim'.. eee | 2,650 | 1,401 | 189 | 390 | 682 | 33° | 107 Nearly out of bloom..| 4,960 | 1,750 | 250 | 523 | 837 | 31. | 129 Nearly iPiDe,. a «dneu sh ahapeeeuacnieeueiereas 4.0 3.5—6.0 Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds— Gmesirerapliiaitiaye Sk is tee ties s Rete Sth AEA ane toe centers Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, RAMONE Vee VO LUGS Clare) exaitel onsite: 1s) © stan SGA Aloensese nel scales PAW et Ea) SUTRAS Sie us ferefents retells Ls) 2 ie bile spb oe le B ebale ofS yet ete ee Gormusiiase PEA: VINESIARES... oi 0). ete cyriimiehe aleve ayelae MVGtbrPewers- Srainsis! aloe. te. Beg! eas. Potatoes). skim mills, utter wail. ssc ass « enepapeietey. ENTE E Sencha tae velar cid are to aylate. ehedevanckenlet diewehake) cwseatel slauetio. 4 AUG OPSES. LRUASIIEE dela’ os = = cPalaps Maleeeave Biba lss adel te ehs ove FEU AS: ahs a at wlataly s SN SWemehenl Gs shana: ojeter eps) Sgeteltch a lorchs PROVASHECES VET CCTL, TAPCO. cieeui sie lees! oleic slele Sleds ese Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey.............. SO | Wicyerdn Seine Turnips, mangels; fresh beet pulp...:....5...5. 12.5 |10.0—15.0 eer ee mens ae s)im)\s)\m 6) aie (ofa) e eae eS ves! SSoscoSoSo0 SC H Pasture, 8 to 12 units per day, on the average varying with kind and condition. 220 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE. bran, or 2.5 pounds of hay of average quality, can be substituted to a limited extent for a pound of grain in ordinary dairy rations, without changing appreciably the yield or the composition of the milk produced by the cows, or influencing their live weights or general condition. These quantities of the different feeds are, therefore, considered of similar value and equivalent to one feed unit. If a cow ate 750 pounds of hay, 150 pounds of bran, and 90 pounds of ground corn during a certain month, she received 750 divided by 2.5, or 500 feed units, in the hay eaten, 150 divided by 1.1 or 136 in the bran, and 90 in the ground corn, making a total of 526 feed units eaten. If she yielded one pound ‘of butter-fat a day in her milk on this feed, or 30 pounds for the month, she produced 50 divided by 5.26, or 5.70 pounds of butter-fat per 100 feed units consumed in her feed. There are great differences among cows in the returns made per unit of feed, and data obtained as given above show in a striking manner whether a cow is an economical pro- ducer or whether she required an excessive amount of feed to make her production. Through this information, along with that as to the capacity of the cow for dairy production furnished by a milk scale and a Babcock tester, a farmer can find out definitely the rank of the different cows in the herd as dairy producers and may thus know which ones, if any, are not profitable animals and should be sent to the butcher. Feeding Standards. Investigations by scientists have brought to light the fact that the different classes of farm animals require certain amounts of food materials for keeping the body functions in a regular healthy activity; this is known as the maintenance ration of the animal, an allowance of feed which will cause him to maintain his live weight without either gaining or losing, or producing animal products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, ete. If the animal is expected to manufacture these products in addition, it is necessary to supply enough extra food to furnish materials for this manufacture. The food requirements for different purposes have been carefully studied, and we know now with a fair amount of accuracy how much food it takes in the different cases to reach the objects A PRACTICAL FEEDING RATION. 221 sought. Since there is a great variety of different foods, and almost infinite possible combinations of these, it would not do to express these requirements in so and so many pounds of corn, or oats, or wheat bran, but they are in all cases expressed in amounts of digestible protein, carbohydrates and fat. This en- ables the feeder to supply these food materials in such feeding stuffs as he has on hand or can procure. The feeding standards commonly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are those of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann. Those standards give, then, the approximate amount of dry matter, digestible pro- tein, carbohydrates, and fat, which the different classes of farm animals should receive in their daily food in order to produce maximum returns. We have seen that a fair amount of digestible protein in the food is essential in order to obtain good results. The proportion of digestible nitrogenous to digestible non-nitro- genous food substances therefore becomes important. This pro- portion is technically known as nutritive ratio, and we speak of wide nutritive ratio, when there are six or more times as much digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration as there is digestible protein, and of a narrow ratio, when the proportion of the two kinds of food materials is as 1 to 6, or less. The feeding standards given in the following tables may serve as a fairly accurate guide in determining the food requirements of farm animals; and it will be noticed that the amounts are per 1,000 pounds live weight, and not per head, except as noted in the case of growing animals. The standards should not be looked upon as infallible guides, which they are not, for the simple rea- son that different animals differ greatly both in the amounts of food that they consume and in the uses which they are able to make of the food they eat. The feeding standard for milch cows has probably been subjected to the closest study by American experiment station workers, and it has been found, in general, that the Wolff-Lehmann standard calls for more digestible protein (i. e., a narrower nutritive ratio) than can be fed with economy in most of the dairy sections of our country, at least in the central and northwestern states. On basis of investigations along this line conducted in the early part of the nineties, Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called American practical feeding ration, which calls for the following amount of digestible food 222 . A FEEDERS’ GUIDE. materials in the daily ration of a dairy cow of an average of 1,000 pounds. i iT taf Disestiblepproteine: :V.s.. tis ki te Sloe shy feet nuk eee ae Digestible carbohydrates ......... afi ahewe lt tag see ae ae Disestibleveait ct .# clas Sian. cee ee SPAR RRR orice SAO S / Totaly digestiiile “matter «sua. Subs «ce TGs, tet hee ae (protein + carbohydrates +fatx2%) INUEBICIVIG SLEILIO!. <2). qratae cs ree nies Sets ces oo wate a ata Otello ental FEEDING STANDARDS. 223 Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. (W olff-Lehmann.) Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight. Nutritive o (Digestible) n 2 Substances 3 zlel2|2|e8| 2 S| Sulegiaped (Neen Pp g Bb 3 2 en jee 4 = Zz Ss S)| Se) Bee irae eee | 2, | Osi SS lee lies Zz | | lbs. |lbs.| Ibs. |Ibs.| Ibs SPeSccens: 2b PESt imi stall.c 1. .s.sreces 18 | 0.7 8.0 | 0.1 8.9 j1:11.8 id sShisbtly+woOrkked: -\ Yer es net a. 22) DAP VOLON KOSS aml aed le Tee: 4 moderately worked......... 25 2/0 | 115 ROSb ead us G55 : MC AV ALY) WOTKE Gis, 6.8 as = 3d SECO ok 25 | 2.7 128.0) 0.4) 22.0:/1: 7.0 10. Growing cattle: Dairy Breeds. Av. Live Weight Age, Months. Per Head. 2- 3 LSE eS. tele = 2a 4.0 ise O) |} 2a0Mee 8) lis <4cb 3- 6 DOD) ie Aoyersuee ri PANS L012. Si Ae On eS 2 bse bed: 6-12 EON EER ian Neen oe ccs om, |2e0! | L2.o Osontinlioat: es (G58 12-18 OD: tases ra temaie Oi || Leon|lecotl Ol4a tal aeee er Tab 18-24 Bio Dh 9, tes ohatienierers Zo feb Wt 260) Oso eae ie 8.5 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE. 224 Feeding Standards for Farm Animals—Continued. O1PBY SATPTAPUN ape Lm wala wmonminn MOANA AMNown ) Otto monde nmAsooO soounysqns Be a ae te eee sees Mme SE es sn er s xo} Otte SOs HOD NOOO1D Sa1214170N 18900 | Added Add AAQnHH . wv omTis ~co10 00 OMi9is Sn POUL SUAS TTL || ra ansoss Ssosoos oscsoo ote > ~ i Oo aoe ae SANDRO =H oO 1 00 INnSMOS ia a3 soyerpéy-oqieg | oO Onis Ranks Kos} use nHS 1d 16 HOT £45 tal mornin dane modded ~~ —. Pi] ae MrONORRAnTe ene Asin Sco Hori 0018 HL ONO rer OTd SP Mt), Q HOON A MAN Hoa Loma! ance n oo Hid sH HK 1D 10 eo I Coton eouvysqngs Sq TStOT eS ANAA ANAANA ANNA a Nat aa See ee me gf} epee ee hi oe ae» Ol ae ee oe | Canes se ee aw Ww re ten 6 OR Oe Ss far Se, 46 on Ae Ope a © rst sey eee FAP ae oe ONS Lee aes Pci s Spies. eee Mee | Soe ebhcenele FTC Pa SAR aon hn pee) Gd SOY Se eS e oe n n aes Ossss essss o) S 1g e HOF CmHOoOD ota ‘a OwOcMIAINEs Cr-OAD 2 CHOOMID Haren ‘i m nnd an D | go S o < s Sere 2 ih & fi 3 = Ge i = 5 5 BE) (3) : o 8 oO w a) ae ms a + o a n & n 8 on NCO H wonmnHiInS Se worHInS tel} = mon on mn on al mn ¢ So oe DD ato — se foie sith! fer 1S N69, N00 dc! soto SHO CO 1 os =| rio. - mo § do ° © ° ° re op a u 60) (eb A Soy bean silage.......... oe | TAZ 2S | a ONT al NG Los eae Cow pea vine silage........ | 9.3" |2:9'5|\ 2.70 Gt eA eGente es Field-pea vine silage....... | 50:0 |, 3:6.) 5.9. | 13:0" | S260 5 ales Corn cannery refuse husks.| 83.8 | .6 | 1.4 | 5.2 (EA eed Corn cannery refuse cobs..| 74.1 Pie | ee = 3) ba cig: | melita Ln i Pea cannery refuse........ | 26:8.) 13.) 22-8) ]° 6) oe sid Soreitum!) silage. .sseseer \ 7G) | S28: [6.41 secon eames Keri COVMESIae ei. 2 ase ante OT.2) | 2S QAEA| APE | Sealey eels IMAG SSAC casas cpamieu ome 74.6 | Je8 i 2.2. | 79) eo eel Corn-soy bean silage....... GOA oetocr2e by | Coe |e deleien | ammmee Millet-soy bean silage...... TOW 2s We 2. || hoes TZ EO Ryersilaze: AGG: .\ReL ee. S018 [AG s| 22401: “5s 9.2 Aa @atesilaigeyicaccetisk Heats a | oTL.4y | e208]: 2-31) W6ds lps algletak Apple pomace silage....... 85:00) Gels 2 ole cot 8.8. |. tal Cow-pea and soy bean mixed] 69.8 | 4.5] 38] 95] 111] 1.3 Brewers’ grain silage...... ("G98") 1224.0 Gle 4 a eee Beet Pulp silage .......... |M90I92 | 4.30 S ae aes 3.8 | 4 | | | The table shown above gives actual chemical analysis of the products mentioned and includes the entire contents of the various feeds. The following table, showing the average amount ANALYSIS OF FEEDING STUFFS. 231 of digestible nutrients in the more common American fodders, grains and by-products, is the table that should be used in formu- lating rations. The table gives the number of pounds of digestible nutrients contained in 100 lbs. of the feeds, and these figures can, therefore, be used in figuring out the amount of digestible nutrients in any given amount of a food material; it is by such methods that the tables given on pages 236 to 240 are obtained. Analysis of Feeding Stuffs. Table Showing Average Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in the More Common American Fodders, Grains and By-products. (Compiled by the Editors of Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis). is Digestible Nutrients in 10) Pounds NAME OF FEED 23 | | Eth ME O =a) ' 1 ee | Sther ae Protein | ivavetas | aniieunee | | | Green Fodders. |. Lbs. | - Lbs. | Lbs: Lbs. Pasture Grasses, mixed...... !. 20.0 DAS) | 10.2 0.5 Modder. ‘Gorn -2).,.'... cesecs ss os 20.7 1.0 11.6 0.4 SOME TMIATII, cere Peta eles ctetctercva afers.s 20.6 0.6 122, 0.4 MMONGVICT” hfiete:. ct. «fete ca cere: 29.2 2.9 14.8 0.7 JAIGT SINE. ot 5 BNO Rhoae Seaton ao eee 2852 3.9 pare 0.5 COuY IEESY, Aa re gree SIS ERE ee | 16.4 1.8 8.7 0.2 SSOVMPISCHMIY Fors fal 3 ce ncteee ons sec | 24.9 3.2 11.0 0.5 Orie eWOdGer Peas ol. crete sc we 37.8 2.6 18.9 1.0 PES VEEEEO CLOGS crete oe 6 jstzverereis\cks'e.6 | 2b s fee Del 14.1 0.4 IRAE. 42-3 Oh ca aa eee [PAO = «Dee | ee Se 0.2 IREAST ANGE OAS os cles cea sles ae 16.0 1.8 | foal | 0.2 [eck 2 I f0.2 » |) 2086 TS 3 fe le Silage | WHR gs eats Peli crdadosles 3 20:9 --|-- O98) - TDS bea Ose Corn, Wisconsin analysis.....| 26.4 | 1.3 | 14.0 | 0.7 SHE ict Gat, one OO oie 23:9 - |< O16 14.9 0.2 ede Clover) sei 60... nites sw leis 28-0. {» -~2.0:~ tes des, “| Ge J NTEE KE ORS ee One Ee ete «sl 3.05 «i+ <8. = | 1.9 GO Wane CaN. Atenss bslctida wstals BON oi. leone | eeS:G | 0.9 SOVSISCAM sashes ok oles eile 25.8: | PT : 8.7 : 1.3 232 A FEEDER’S GUIDE. Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Bin ie! NAME OF FEED B5 ae Ether ze Protein | i varaten aa BS | Dry Fodders and Hay. | Lbs. | Lbs Lbs. | Lbs. Gorn) MoG@der rac ce-sibtoretese 57.8 Dep 34.6 gE Corn Fodder, Wis. anal...... 71.0 out 40.4 12 Gorn esto very «comics cus eisisioteule Cae 59.5 abi 32.4 0.7 Sorghum Fodder ..........-. 59.7 ia 3St.a 0.4 Red MOlovens.. 1. 6 coett oe ction ets | 84.7 6.8 35.8 Lag WAUenlicameeressie cis (eevee cis eteietens 91.6 11.0 39.6 1 Bae Wren tee nara: crete Fesoheliaroveitetannyeas 85.2 6.2 46.6 15 lek ra SS a cnicsa Deine or 78.8 4.8 Bilao 2.0 (GOW a, cues coos ciniwlence asian 89.3 10.8 38.6 ial Grab AGiraSSinvescrae sts @ brekegsta terrors 82.4 5.7 39.7 1.4 HohmsonWGrass! ae ceseeias eles 87.7 2.4. 47.8 0.7 Marshes Grass oc. see ces cael © 88.4 2.4 29.9 0.9 IWEGTIRETE Steer or, Net ere Cre ae eae 92.3 4.5 Ey re 1.3 Qentee ETO aie canis oie bine! bie eon eke ere 91.1 4.3 46.4 es @atrancdmBean lary stciis ss Lee Oar ee Sweets Potatoes if asen cee 29:0 le 0:9) 22:2) [1s AGS | | | | ANALYSIS OF FEEDING STUFFS. 233 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds Ba EE | NAME OF FEED $3 4 Ether BE | Protein aydeaten | Extract - | Grain and By-Products. Lbs. | Lbs | Lbs. Lbs. ISAieleay | ho Ago ie oC aeEae $9.1 8.7 | 65.6 1.6 Brewers’ Grains, dry....... 91.8 15.7 36.3 5.1 Brewers’ Grains, wet....... 24.3 3.9 9.3 1.4 NMallth SpTOUWUS es scene cou © a 89.8 18.6 Sel: eG Buck wHedtrr. ps sy 2ile diets site 023.5 87.4 Cate 49.2 | 1.8 Buckwheat Bran .......... 89.5 7.4 30.4 1.9 Buckwheat Middlings ..... 87.3 22.0 30.4 5.4 (Gioinc hs Abiandhy Oita eee eee 89.1 7.9 | 66.7 | 4.3 Corn and Cob Meal........ 89.0 6.4 63.0 3.9 WOT CODLET Siok isco. ttels oes | 89.3 04 | 525 | 038 Corns EraMie s.. ik cisieretwns «So 90.9 7.4 59.8 4.6 Atlas Gluten Meal......... 92.0 24.6 38.8 11.5 Glintieme Wheel”. 2 hrasre. sateen hs | 88.0 32.1 | 41.2 2.5 peGenin Ole Weak... dens sives a 90.0 20.2 44.5 8.8 Guimben. ped. . ip ij. oe Sees & | 90.0 23.3 50.7 2.7 ELOmMany, CROP, ot... .srercieeys or06-< | 88.9 lee 55.2 6.8 Starch Feed, wet .......... 34.6 5.5 21.7 2.3 loinkosel SOU EPG cnc oo bon ocor 0 shea slney bese 30.0 | 17.3 Cotton Seed Meal ......... S18 a St oe, | lOO he eee Cotton Seed Hulls......... Stes) S| eS: BAM slip glad. @Wocoamant Meal ...5 060i coe a 89.7 TDG oS.on ee Op WOW CAS Uamiccareke eis cles se orale S52 faa sl GAZ re ae lame HS eed. 2A vere ec ca ek 90.8 20.6 icles |e 2220 Oil Meal, old process....... COS 2es- [--s2te | 1 Oil Meal,.new process...... ly S999 lm 28.2% 3]? 40 tee 28 Cleveland Oil Meal ........ | 89.6 32.1 25a | P 2t6 GHG OUN S502 555k bse sk ee 5 3 SAS eres ore PL INTGTIGS: os 5s EOL eee 86.0 8.9 45.0 a Cane? . 52a RRA ee cee eee lp 89:0. |Easo:2 AT." || 9 ABD Oat Feed or Shorts........ 92.3 12:5 46:9°- |, 2.8 OMI S tars at ,. «ac cee a byes Ly O85 We Tete ly 4 Bok TRESS) 25 Je tae eee ee eee 89.5 TGS ee lessen OG Quaker Dairy Feed.......... 925) | | 9455 |) =~ SON |e 5.0 TESA) --n! (babes eee eee 88.4 | 9.9 | 67.6. | fal FEV MMESTIA Maes) rowel ecis os. 2 tie Geos o cam (oo. Uae lee lalthass Ss. 0 rae eae) NVILLCHEMMR Atel oT 6 «sedan he Soe) aOR GOL |e leg Wemicat Oran ies st. [SS 6 -12:6- |" 38.6" [s 63.0 Wheat Middlings .......... S257 (co Yel | emer Ets pes lien 4-953 14 0 he) manent WYMEAtESHOEES: Joes. cline ap Neremtage 88:27: el22n Blee 5030 3.8 | | 234 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE. Average Weight of Concentrated Feeds. KIND OF FEED One Quart Equals One Pound Equals | | BaiGlOvaw Lele ae. Srctearivecerererereraret 1.1 pounds. | 0.9 quarts. Beet El py eGricGeer oc lec. ietec's 0.6 Me Lar * Brewers’ Grains, dried....... 0.6 BE | Hea S Corn, andt@ob Meal. . 5.1 sev | 1.4 0.7 *¢ Gorm rams eee is cakia lees | 0.5 ge 2.0 v Wri eNO eee et cates tierclets aka) 3 0.7 tS CORI WOLS ce Bet ore bins co Pteses Belov ean Fs 0.6 = Cotton Seed Meal ........... Une! 0.7 cS Distillers’ Grains, dried...... | 0.6 < | ilar se Gernite Ome Nien ss .)tttcn eels 1.4 a 0.7 a FENN Hera el EN SY os [Maas RIE soe eae 1.3 0.7 Pe Gilvnsine EN tae aa peesoro op ||bae J's ‘ Orso 2 VOTE y EGG "a's. ive are enctveroia cee Lat Z: 0.9 ea HO VDairy WEE wi. ocacients os 0.7 ‘ 1.4 ‘§ Linseed Meal, old process.... ale | - 0.9 : NATE SOT OWLS asics econ ietcleets ciecote 0.6 eee 5 Wat PCC ON Zoe et cbab eter shies 0.8 - lees es MAESRST OMIT ee) «'2.-.c Beate rain 0.7 sf 1.4 bi @atSrew hole ween. bck alae ite « 0.9 ee Quaker Dairy Weed 02) 0. sce ale) ‘e 1.0 re Victor Corn and Oat Feed.... 0.7 1.4 35 IWWilveartets Paras cs. oh ocho odeiaeion P05 fe 2.0 ne Wheat Middlings, standard... 0.8 “ flee Fe Wheat Middlings, flour...... | 12 rf 0.8 os WieaIt P SWOLES a'eiacitietertcrdiiese 1.9 zu | SOEs 3 23 SOILING CROPS. +) Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States. (Lindsey.) (For 10 cows’ entire soiling.) - Seeds Time of Time of Kind. per Acre. | Seeding. Area, Cuttine. TFUViC van arate erstapenere 2 tUIE Cats and peas..... 2 bu. each. "a 20 |July 10-20 ae He 30 July 20-Aug. 1 Se UMN ATIAN 6. 2. aicregs ee |vou DU, June 1 Aug. 1-10 9. Clover rowen : | GRY TOES) Par seca cuciachey | utuenatN >: (ph. =Veveheal WAY suegseeene sass: « Aug. 10-20 10. Soy beans (from 3)..|1 bushel. May 25 Aug. 20-Sept. 5 HGR OW, SOCAS —-,,).0).- 0,» ore.0 1 . June 5-10 Sept. 5-20 12. Rowen grass (from SIE WER eas Bo ea nillin done SGC Re Rose aioe Ger eee Sept. 20-30 13. Barley and peas..... 2 bu. each. |Aug. 5-10 Oct. 1-30 The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions under approximately similar conditions. ‘ In Varying Weights of Feed, in Pounds. These tables save calculations of percentages, since the READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. weights and contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to Note. of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs. of dry matter, 0.36 lbs. of gives the exact food contents in pounds, as in the first table, 15 lbs. protein and 3.1 lbs. of carbohydrates. find the kind and desired amount of a certain feed, and the table 236 ‘oy9 ‘sozeap | & Los G0 Ee b= Eso siae Re eee ee ut? MHoowminmriomo! J [IO AoA ainr ae | SSonNGdHsOrE| OF |\SCSoHnNMOHINw! BW ISSoHnAStHinw| & SOMHN OD 6d HO yoqie) Pa wee o & fn f Pr : = a at aes a NV liwcoocooso . LOA HOGI CTO HH Sw leinatomraco! Wh [etre dtorice ula}01d OG \SHANMMHOSEKS| ge |Onnatincro OF SHAD aor ae SANHINOCDRO I a= Sodosscossso AI SSsssosss| 1g josssosssnn) gm SsssodceddcH er ee 2a = 2 a = . 13132 mR DOMAINS és WNC RON zh ln AMutaAMocr| © iH HoOMooWcOd * wp. arn sat ieeR eR eet et) (Nee ena! Telus aie e fagh yee elt eb ke So Wed: jem ce 6 Oe eh a Pamela BS ta Heisrasoast SHaistisKrad SHNdidt aod SHANK OOH Aiq [8}0OL Mi = dod Fa — Sen ral ees S50 0850-0 ‘oJ9 ‘Sa}BI Bis icges eS pe, Stee Lac? psi pips Bi gt ha ba (AE, i cpm ech Ae i Ps SH tisSNst| Hy | SAMA isos) SY |SSSrridcicsed| GS |SOOTHHANMOOS -AYOqiey S = a He Bes > ——_—_—————— ‘Ce = eS aes a" Gite | are eee a ie : Nelark—) ONHOWDoONAHES retHONDOdHoON| * AID OD ADO rH ‘ujaloid pst So Nao wine| Fe |OnNa tol On gr SHAM ARAAr| Me |COSoHHIAN : Be SSdccdddco os SSSSSSSSS| BF [SSSossdor Bi soscososososco eH es See jee eae alee ae a o & < SF jcamaorcints &s AAOM OID oh WOTAHAAAN! Set [eS c coco r- cae PWN |B [ariedidttetriesid| ~ hy | Srieidererrictis Sridcswidnies| Mi lorieiaies aisear Id e don ba ha a ‘oo ‘sayeap | Ho laerimwmast| be aeanenainn| # jmaritaatoo| . |teenranien Pipdreeh x SOonNnNNoes +H mice SSHHAM TIO) § SSOHAANA HH § SSHN eed Hid - HK Co es iS ot ae | lon woana! Cy |monr noma lee HOO rin 00] Mme [DO MODMRON ol Tonle) hel | bo Aloo Hid co OO OD nl re) nO ‘ulelo1d at |CHNaATMOnR oe | eR STUER SE at iee fiers to eee 8 Sac | Mains Set ates one ea I he |\SSccdsdsd) gg SoSodsdsdsd) fa |\SoSdcdsoH| gi Sooscsooss]e se Mee 5 oh |——————__| he a : BS SESS SSS ai SO rir TRIG? | el PAREN Dace Sia te > Paes ee eee . 193181 a Saeco eiod che SHA Hide rod | é SHNwdtisnsKa| O SHAH IS SK AS Id 18301) @ | 5 7 argh. Se Ve Rae path CORBET aCR CRITE Aan E | Mtitadgeiteee Tet olgcristy MARE, 1\legieaton:<, ote 4s ce] |oge a ae hn ctteenia tea aes PA ‘Sie paren JO) 6: 0 ou . . Oe Oe ee. OM pt Oh 01) Pe Re. ol! ee ie) Sele Pe Ce, fat aes) ie) seule’ etl. ARd Miele! eAte abies oe ie o!|\ att ER Bates a hes eve & Gr? || te) wer certs: ep ee erye!|) Dl le tem eave: sre tom om wera 'e'| ePi@jeil |) ata emp ols ia fa On i L—| Bo ‘onte <6:. 0; “a Sega! [PS . lt Gales ©: 60 on ay ee, 6) eee Pa oe Pebeas a) oe) Jae oe 3 Fenty [inst ose vein. lobral| gir) piso ax soa saw aw os) neiiea| Neees Jon ekie Weare mel 3 BP ihance wom sooth amelie, rs. a se Moma |) ieee Meee Kes Re +e een oe ney 3h oo Regia [i] dt aa bsg air a tari Po OP 9 tle EER scaeR ep. ae NE Ra gn aid Go 5 faye) i ai Wee nates Neve a e.th Mae OAM oll ete One ir sec meme ay «(heel en ceetaglien cok “eve e Ae (4 ip ey as te (8 Ce View thee. O16 Ohne ES. ak oni jae )) 2a bell 8) ue = ee © meee fai ~| mip Ya uw ce: 6 Ne) ol Tae ew fone, ALR phe neece 1e whe Meigs ak ol ee eis ore tie sean 50 b Bde eal Fey bs cc, A ies (RaDL”, toate ame cemeteries eaes be Helo 6 SORE ORE Gas od Magn ese eo Otero 5 coke oAcltoel Mel eipaeeees oct 3525s Ay & x x x AWOSwWowMmowoo NwWSowMwcimone NANwWowonwnco MOAN oDoD MHAN oe FANN FS 237 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued. AWS HH HH HCO AHO HAO ooooooooo Momo nwnomwowori Coooconnnnn AMOMANOrM tH ooocconnnaAn AION © HAIG G2 ILO oooonnnan AMO OMO MAN LO SSOOnnNnHANGA! COMOMr OI Hoa MMM Aro oooooconnr AIOMOwWoM& COnnANG OO st SoSoonnnnAN TOD tHoOmr~ no SOnNwtMrwDOor ee A11D DHA HOA SOSAAAMAAIN TAI OD 69 HID COL Do CO 19 HOD Sn) Hid cok oO ooooocococofc AMr-oOmtaAnrcowm1 TH OD LO P= Od 41 OD SH OO Boh oo Dh oe De AIM LA CO COMMA By Ae, aie) 2 ie Be aE rN HINO Saal rPInDUINDOOS SOnAAA CO HH b SSsssoscoso AMIB- AONE AHOWDOMINEH MAI SO cor OO rt mn TAN 69 HLS co b= 00 © MAN Hid wo DE oOr | SSSossccson PIN HIN Oroan nnnnN POPOL SOME AD! [es kee| aS er oN SoS elt | SaeMl eee ase meee Ss te -AYoqiIeyD SOMHAANNMOD| | SOSCHHHNNM g is ls se miaeomonmono mi MINSOINSINOMS| g “Ul9a} OL Pies SSH Ass cost) ARs Sr psn Os perl | Be | oSsosssso 5x SSSscsoscsa 2 waren |o | earienawoe| FB | cuqonanarcae s SOonnnnANnA oo ia 210 SCOonnNANNSD Ht d 1830. = ae im = | |-oqe ‘soyeap | go | Baers ee ee ay oo se ele || -syoqaeo < | pe bale Soka} SSSHHANCI CD | re | ome awa 7. Te 0... _——___—_ M2 somnnowmot|! @B@ | mincomomomo LS pt}o9 Otel Ieper pata ar li so pea a tas APE i oe ail) &- essococsor! $ — _ _— | wane |e | ehtohsnes| | wenenasoe! & f£1q Tei.) 2 | SSHNN GS HIS Scnnaadat+| A ‘oJa ‘sa} Bap wera) S| rreqincoriteoan -AYOqiey * SOMA CA OD HIG BS SSSeonnAnnN r) nD al S09 a se ior AIA HOMMr~ AC! ED 09 CO PH N00 69 Op tH Et . ‘UpOlds jest |-So Sie S| age ertercuereaa sy |) a 3 ¢4 coocooscsosoa ss SSSsdscso| FS ee ee AE ee St |! | mayen | | srtrineacseotst) R | camcocmace| i AIqQ [e810 SAN CO HLH CO b= 00 2 SSsonnnnan er ities telah oth Fs af int Tew 2 Senha On ah den any eur a bor ot 8) ah oe all aD Sar ra aed Seca Gates ne a in ee ey MBA a) on ames es Ae a Ba g Pe ayn ols eae Eu aaw i eiee Bho) 1) Bel oS Sas Sel meds Gass les see Ok 5 ee OE | el rae rgetar cerca ar a S oA N N PSO Mans B85 ew Se ees) Sa sl Le oT a! Pal Het Hot Met Gel fe! hs i Kad dot Gel er Ne! o)is a) peel ema) aélian! (6? hs wee) Geil ee tore eh is ST ett eh eters eh ts PY Ka? Sa) Se! Get Ceist ALO Mh OAD O10 rN HLL O mn ninNN ri 239 READY RETERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued. a ‘O79 ‘Soywip | ¥ IAMS © SRB Ea SS. 5 TGP ERG ES Co eet Oe mS Ne OSS Toh ace aie oeaas -£yoqdeD 5 SSSCHHHNG| Q SSOOHHNAIS se SSSSnnNGH Bes SSssoonnams SER Ss Ee on Ee [oor a) or) * be Sa a eee SS | Tes Sd ee a ee old Se ee aS SS OUT . MOAHODOSOO : HOD 00 65 OD HI OD HCO m coocoococeo re Cm anok oD ‘ujsjorg «| wi | SSnamtean) we | SConmakenr) Fo. | ANTANSSss) JF) | cuasanova ie SSsscoocescson gn SSSSSSoonn £5 SSSSHnNGH| OE) SSSSSHHAS ee SS — 7 —| #9 |— —_—_——_| 2" |——___—______ ‘ronen | 5 pC? 2 Sens a Oa res agnarocnn| GB | aigawarean Bg) anracnoona kiql. vejoy,| F SSSHaics His 0d 2 SSSHAGHOS SSSHNMHSS| 5 SSSHN Oxo Nes 1 1 ae ee (aT ae Pewee 2 oe : ae: ae || “079 ‘SsozeaIp | g Oe ee eee Sal el ORAS ea cel Oso Seep elials Gell || TES ee Sone Sop ee -£YOqreg dso CSAS Sal ao Go Vey | SoSririniciedis) © SOSA ES Sis SsSonnnawd a | eS mn & en S| atoronmmo! Pa] a hp _{ : WOOAMA WO MON MAINED = COlD HAIN on tH 1-100 ule}O1d Mi | Scosnamton!| | CONAN ag Solo oe sea 3 ° OreAOH ooo at ssooocsoscso Ey SSSSSSSSS] ge | SSSSSSSSH| Gg | SSSSSHriains Oe eciae are ae REL Sg sony. tack gamer cal it CON meee: teeta t- PR ee gerne ac “rae | BA | AS owewe so) Be] Aw cme o00) cH) Custer mim epee AS | tint comma ae kid. [e1OL Py Soonanmtow 2 SSOOCHNM HOO SSOSHNM HO] SSSOHAGHSOD ‘oJ9 ‘soy BIp CSIC ab Ra MESO Ee San Sea aoa Oe ee eo eee Teak Da ooo ars -£yoqaeg SSSCHNANGISS ze SSonnANNIS SSSHnNAMINS 3 SSSonnnNG a bP = —— OF?) atornwomtior| Se | ccomnwoatin| D2) atoaonr mi < * Ccor-o! ule}O1g ED | coSriacs coo . | SSHAMBOAA! Pls | Coonamanodw, A om ss oss gn Sccdccsce eZ SscsccdcdceH}/ #E |) Séécdcdccc| =a Soe ees 191 BI Se ee eae ag SS BAIRD) LEED IH CO 19 HEO 80 on AtHROKCIOR ae aq. eqOL SSSMIN cto! SSSHNG HS 00]. SSOHMNG HO SSSOHnNG WSO MAW Gla ates piekia. @ ee ee oes eee pon ee tae Tau viet aa) onc amea means Sons aGiet AkGmARS eat ear erect || AM TR ber Ciacci ibe earch acte Ale ne I Ce er i aS 3 fy ° . . orn Die a See re Ay e . = O20) Ol ge Sets eer eee . we: ip. is) (eee. were 2 O- pC giemO eR ar Es if ReDim oamORaGm Ror ONC s 55 S Hi 5 aa ones On ) Saami ViEG ewe 5 ney Tea TR 3) spre Segt hs €F Cains os amie Ss atta so on ate =} . . Shs J84. 8) 2 ee 8 5 . . . 5 O28 58 2) Og 8 eR ees BS Baas Mea 6) om a) Fey lie ae Be ee steeherecar ors 8| SASS Peete Soe stot Ae cley | nett as ee By | Gireg cere ont ie le checker eerie) mere On WN) iia renen, es Cogs ec ae ° silacereuas ae) Saran Gi 8 We (ace er ce ees ied Se ae re cee Dag UE Ne Hes eae Page se Be ii ES eae (eo) Que sloe cer eit nee ee fd aeN ha ae barn a ee eae Penee vm Ses ssa: Se) te ts are Soe Py See Ges. oe ote ae 63 rics lea! Soe a behead perce ee noel aman Wey aie gis ape ae 5 S se Batis Soi tio | | am AR ie a a a SY os oR ash Pavel i Seuato\wieh 0) aah) aNr'e GR a | as’) ats Stecl, BS | Sites ale A a S08 * HA) HO © ANH HLOL © MAI tH LOE © MANO HOD © vol bo ri bo READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS. 240 Varying Weights of Feed in Pounds.—Continued. ‘O49 ‘SOVBIP | ak | ANHOWNOOH ae HOOD HD HL HOM HOHE OM -AYOqIeD fel SSOCHHNANMID ge SSSOHHNGH —? SSOnRHAN ID ce i ae Rene ee en oe F a | EIR OARMARAAME gi) Hom moor af HOD oa Or ww “Ule}OIdg cea Sra Sete ee mz = Oba CB Le 8 Ste Rae Se SSSSSHHnAN e sssoosonn on sossssonn ——| 8 OO |. — “1B a5 AHROr-oor~sS | OK MUARACOroeAcd | AHAOrwOIOr~O £iq [e10L C= SSSHAMHORH Mg Sscondanton SSSonAMtOS ‘079 ‘Se}yeIp = HAN MHtHOOLOe J AKHOHTAISSS nD AANMHONDSOOCS -AYoqiey gt SSSSnNnNG i SSSHNM HOO = SSSSHHNGH x ma oO pe oes An WONHOOOOH Nl atoarcmsior a IDA MAM owt ow “UyoOIg Bes Pesca ner cn ee se be SS Sr ee ce ns eae eS Scape nAEE] SSSoSoonnN Er ecssoscsscs = Ssssossonn a = EEE ——— ————_— ~ —_— Or Or IBVeW ES CUHK O00 619 *H O.00 I ILD COCO COA = AHROM~oIMrS Aiq [e101 GL Soonantoo = SSSCHAMHOR | SSOSCHAMHOD ‘079 ‘SoyeAIp TAN HD od = COD OD Se THO 60 ri = 09 00 6 | AID WO ODRH ONO -Ayoqreg I SoSoonnnndt os SSCONRNAN IG oe SSSHHNG ES cy ta eo - ———_—_—_—| 5% fee st CO”NHOOOOH Fa ONO M™ Ho om OMNID MH HHO OD 1D CO ‘ule}01g = SHAMOANDHA aS SHANTE AHO | CHAE ANOS 4 va SSSSSHHNG 2's ne SSssososonnn | Be 89 ——_——____—_— ayeW | & AKRAr-OOrA | as Be | Niemanoroadn Aiq [810% om < SSSonAMHSOS a & a ga a SE ESEE a ch Or o ev tS) A) les ee es ae faites That a eed ne 5 i & heya periaete a8 Aa e e BT Cees aj ented eis ZO i fe Lal ris twa ehesteesU 5o fy fy feat sl ee seth Rates aectess wag Se ia] be iad CTEM ARATE m ald be s- x TAN SH LO P= © rt MAI Hint oO rm GLOSSARY. Ad \ibitum. At pleasure; in case of feeding farm animals all they will eat of a particular feeding stuff. Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest importance in feeding farm animals, as they furnish the material from which flesh, blood, skin, wool, casein of milk, and other animal products are manufactured. Another name for albuminoids is flesh-forming substances or protein. , Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains when it is burned, the incombustible part of feeds. The ash of feeding stuffs goes to make the skeleton of animals, and in the case of milch cows a portion thereof goes into the milk as milk ash. The Babcock test. This test, by which the per cent. of butter fat in milk and other dairy products can be accurately and quickly determined, was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. Babcock of Wiscon- sin Agricultural College. Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms. They are widely diffused in nature, and multiply with marvelous rapidity. Certain species are active agents in fermentation, while others appear to be the cause of certain infectious diseases. Balanced ration. A combination of feeding stuffs, containing the various nutrients in such proportions and amounts as will nourish the animals for twenty-four hours, with the least waste of nutrients. By-products. A secondary product of an industry; cottonseed meal is a by-product of the cotton oil industry; skim milk and butter milk are by-products of butter making. Carbohydrates (or carbhydrates). A group of nutrients rich in earbon and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in which they form water. The most important carbohydrates found in feeding stuffs are starch, sugar, gums and fiber (cellulose.) Carbon. A chemical element, which with the elements of water, makes up the larger part of the dry matter of plants and animals. 241 242 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the combustion of coal or wood. It is formed in all kinds of fermentations and therefore occurs in deep silos in the siloing of fodders. Casein. The protein substance of milk which is coagulated by rennet or acids. Cellulese. See fiber. Concentrates. The more nutritious portion of the rations of farm animals embracing such feeding stuffs as wheat bran, corn, oil meal, ete.; synonymous with grain feeds, or concentrated feeds. Corn fodder or fodder corn. Stalks of corn which are grown for forage and from which the ears or nubbins have not been re- moved. Corn stover or stalks. The dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been removed. Crude fiber. See Fiber. Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs which is di- gested by animals, i. e., brought in solution or semi-solution by the digestive fluids, so that it may serve as nourishment for the animal and furnish material for the production of meat, milk, wool, eggs, etc. Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining after the water contained therein has been removed. Ensilage. An obsolete word for silage. Used as a verb, like- wise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also sometimes incorrectly used for the practice of placing green fodders into a silo. Enzyme. An unorganized or chemical compound of vegetable or animal origin, that causes fermentation, as, pepsin or rennet. Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dissolved by ether; mainly fat or oil in case of concentrated feeding stuffs; in coarse fodders, fat, mixed with a number of substances of uncer- tain feeding value, like wax, chlorophyll (the green coloring matter of plants), ete. Fat. See ether extract. Feed unit. A quantity of different feeding stuffs that has been found to produce similar results in feeding farm animals as one DEFINITIONS OF TERMS US&ZD. 243 pound of grain (corn, barley, wheat or rye). For list of feed units, see page 219. Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the amount of various digestible substances in a combination of feeding stuffs best adapted to give good results as regards production of animal products, like beef, pork, milk, ete. Fiber. The frame work forming the walls of cells of plants. It is composed of cellulose and lignin, the latter being the woody portion of plants and wholly indigestible. Glucose or fruit sugar. The form of sugar. found in fruits, honey, ete., also in the alimentary canal. Indian corn. Zea mays, the great American cereal and fodder- producing plant. Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined with oxygen it forms water, with oxygen and carbon it forms carbohydrates and fat; with oxygen, carbon and nitrogen (with small amounts of sulphur and phosphorus) it forms the complex organic nitro- genous substances known as protein or albuminoid substances. Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and indirectly capable of fixing the free nitrogen of the air, so that it becomes of value to the farmer and will supply nitrogenous food substances to farm animals. Examples, the different kinds of clover, alfalfa, peas, beans, vetches, ete. Of the highest importance agriculturally as soil renovators, and in supplying farm-grown protein foods. Maintenance ration. An allowance of feed sufficient to main- tain a resting animal in body weight so that it will neither gain nor lose weight. Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four-fifths of the air. The central element of protein. See under hydrogen. Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remain- ing when water, fat, protein, fiber, and ash are deducted. It in- cludes starch, sugar, pentosans, and other substances. It is so called because it does not contain any nitrogen. Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing nitrogen (which see). Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food constituents capable of nourishing animals. 244 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. Net nutrients. The portion of the digested part of the food that remains after the amounts required for mastication, digestion and assimilation have been used up. It is this portion only that is of real value to animals and furnish material for building up of tissue or elaboration of animal ,products. Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible protein to the sum of digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration, the per cent. of fat being multiplied by 2%, and added to the per cent. of carbohydrates (fiber plus nitrogen-free extract). Organic matter. The portion of the dry matter which is de- stroyed on combustion (dry matter minus ash). Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state in the air, of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in combination of hydro- gen in water; oxygen is also a rarely-lacking component of or- ganic substances. See carbohydrates and hydrogen. Protein. A general name for complex organic compounds mainly made up from the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Crude protein includes all organic nitrogen compounds, while true protein or albumenoids (which see) only includes such nitrogenous substances in feeding stuffs as are capable of forming muscle and other tissue in the animal body. Ration. The amount of feed that an animal eats during twen- ty-four hours. Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, including -such feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn fodder, roots, ete. Con- centrated feeding stuffs are sometimes called grain-feeds or con- centrates, in contradistinction to roughage. Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. Formerly called ensilage. Silo. An airtight structure used for the preservation of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition. As a verb, to place green fodders in a silo. Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a stable or enclosure, with fresh grass or green fodders, as corn, oats, rye, Hungarian grass, ete. Starch. One of the most common carbohydrates in feeding DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED. 245 stuffs, insoluble in water, but readily digested and changed to sugar in the process of digestion. Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing considerable water, like green fodder, silage, roots and pasture. : Summer silage. Silage intended to be fed out during the sum- mer and early fall to help out short pastures. Summer silo. A silo used for the making of summer silage. CONCLUSION. In conclusion we desire to state that the object of this book is to place before the farmer, dairyman and stockman such informa- tion as will be valuable and practical, in as concise and plain a manner as possible, and to make a plea in behalf of the silo as an improver of the financial condition of the farmer. That the silo is a prime factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as an adjunct, and, in the case of dairying, a necessary adjunct to successful and profitable methods, its value is difficult to overestimate. One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an innovation it becomes a stepping-stone to better methods in general; it stim- ulates its owner and spurs him on to see just how good and far- reaching results he can obtain from his revised system of manage- ment. It invites a little honest effort, and coupled with this it never fails. It enables its owner not only to do what he has been unable to do before, but things he has done without its help the silo enables him to do at less cost than before. The solution of the problem of cost of manufacture is necessary to every success- ful producer, and asthe proposition is constantly changing, the solutions of our forefathers, or even of a generation ago, no longer avail. The silo is not an enticing speculation by means of which something can be gotten out of nothing, but a sound business proposition, and has come to stay. The voices of thousands of our best farmers and dairymen sing its praises, because it has brought dollars into their pockets, and increased enjoyment to them in their occupations and their homes. Have you cows? Do you feed stock? Do you not need a silo? Is it not worthy of your best thought and consideration? You owe it to yourself to make the most you can out of the opportunities before you. DO IT NOW! 246 INDEX PAGE ar etxe ere reamtore till iis SILOS: 2 «he eee ay Composition of the animal DOGy-.. here seis sical aie ele deters eee 212 Gomposition of ‘silage Crops «oc. Ao.) ae sites oes oneal one renee neta 230 Composition Of feeding Stutisiy.s./.\)ctetetetete’ otetele etetetetel netenctenenn arenes 214 (Lo) 01s) hots) (0) «anew A LMR RE hc Cie uot yi iG Mio. cidethc Gyuroua. geo fy cx 0 246 Conerete monolithic Silos....%. +. «ae oc cole ee eee 82-89 Conerete 'Silos wie 5 oe cbc a = oe ane t's oe hee Det eee een ee 82-89 Gonerete silos; forms used for making. .-... .20 14-1 epleee er 87-89 Gonneeting round silos: with barn... -<\-.\--\. see slebeite- eae 69 Conserving soil fertility with silage system................ 130-138 Gorn, cutting of,/in the=flelds < <,.,<..,00,+,-,«,2.«,< «tala ete ee ee 173 Corn. Jand; preparation Of |... ...0c«-,ssesesesten Hoan ee ee eae Gorn, methods of plamtimge........ ..s,-..\c.6 0,c.s.c.lereese 21+ eke te ee ed 144 Corn, silage vs. fodder Corn. ... .,<.« sissies selel< cele ete ae eee 207 Gorn silage VS. 0 Way «ad « ere) openereucien tesco shores . «, «css. ccd hrarhisl ele vie ope-v w 4508.0 © oe 78-80 Bee US area G) Com Ok Ciers tate cy tere rose rotor niael aisweucvale uncero esos e(aNe ols bm aon! ds 212 [SSRI ES LAI ITIG eres ee Ramen ak ee 8 Se ee ee tee ee ere 190 files CONDE MES UTA REO SY Weta cea, cit Prat ne eret rer ore: ears, stercts ASI cuciusy ccd 220-222 Means Stiits. CON’DPOSIEI ONS Ohwmmtiaiaticaieihn is /a)tie c t.c.2 6 sole wlstereps 213 Heeqine Value Of COLn, Kafiry ANG CAME. cbc so cx fopectrene tee, o$0) sy0 IO entye 125 MMe ako LOL. Silat acc, cca 5s pnore te eee ie TA Dae Sake Ne se 158 ameretenl iis Van baile tr onc ict rieNe evs ale eas “asain Seen eee cael ence earn eich can ene Sane & 132 Bratuiiieyetra) 1 OO lb SesObr DCCL ac «0 teas cinch cieedee eects ee cone nae 136 EHO G In OTEATON, Ofa WUE LOR eco a apelsdeyaidte + See oacancpeneyshopehers lay sgane ose 136 Samar NEN ATEN LETS SSOULIN sate, tte sc) c-e w tretetare bat hed Sheraconesl Seis bs oe ena eee Oe s ea ae LOTR SILA Cora le acaek eet foe be es eee tas pe be aa ones 154 Breld-curing of fodder corn, losses: in... ssf ees ye pe 12-15 IPSULES OE SIGE S AS. 5 ee eh eee mcr ace Tah NAC ecey Se ROP EOHE 173 Miooraplan Of silos and) model barn’ o.. 19-5 ee ee peels = oes te 51 RMEPATA MENTIONS GELISTAGS. ctcvovcl taveke’ 6 olictal. ot raiel ot at teve with eben Gaal east eas 19, 158 aoeminer COLeNUS: AMCRECASGMIM <.c,s cass + «vam 2s oe eiela. ec v legend) am a) eus 143 IRMA AEE Luts ss + isis 5:0, are tesleyttere oie 24 ow nie, Sco eeci erscn eta. yegs oan ehaney = 58 PaemaTF UNM MEOW 9, Fin eiccorehatehs, Steere +. cts 6 eos wiser eee eacdepele bacpauaes) = 30 TPIS TADS, Gea vee] oy Ms bh a heear8 Kote ce elo J. ceca ea ine RRR chee har aT RACER RAR 89 RACTIVE AOL OT) SLOSS «sco erecta rs at ooss eu eve nebo) = ep sve suave: sealer shoe yen «caaenotn Ne 32 PET TEOT SILAS Ge 5,2. .51c, aspsaeyccelsvoreucasysearsce. sie R Las See seen. seats 155 ERECTA ES VOLUSIA OT serra ep tleynastied =) 52.5) 91 a) eVSh oy su 51 ec SERED Skate Bes 67, 107, 188 250 INDEX. PAGE. Georgia Station results... 2.50565 cle ou oe oe yin a=) eee 129 Grain mixtures for dairy COWS.......-...s-+seseee eee erences 225 Guide, a feeders’... . ow. .8isneenw sas canes ¢ sees see 212 GHITIer, SilOpys eve ers, «ie, «15)s. 2) 0, ahr, mention peeve hepetesele a do. Bee 46-48 Harvey system of reinforcement.............-..+++esseeeeeas 98 Hauling corn from field, rack or sled for..........+++++++++00: 174 Elis or drills, planting Of COUN) Wy opie ciiel sted seis ee 144 History. Of the Silos. o.<. ccc cece sls » elm ele/ainelnmisus @]~! ilar omen eee ake Home-made silos, Ballard... <5... -mepis csteie els se eee ee he Horizontal @irts, Silos with e.s ose © a6 eee «b= cinielstel to sie) 73 Horizontal reinforcement for concrete silOS...........-...-+-+- 86 Horses, daily silage ration £OR.. 2. «ecm: «rere ile 29 Torses, Silage LOL. «spices ste veletresieie cleo. He gem piste tees 196 How to build a& SilOs occ... css sels os sole oe 6 5 otra sue tugnel sree Ree 21 Flow. to- feed Silage s,s < cic «s,0 «0's «57010 yore ole ebay a caiomas eee tenn en 190 How to figure out rations..... EPO ood ot robe rei cai d 225 How to place frame on the foundation... 2. o-oo o2 Euurst system of reinforcement. .. 0. 4.6 +6 si = ale)s mieteisgys) oie hae 97 Hy-Rib and Metal-Lath reinforced silos.............-..--.-- 90 Miimois*Station=resullitis: soe ee cks 2 eee ace eevee Miele aftertaste t22 Therease*in number ‘of silos so) £05 he Io Seisie cle eae ee 8 finidian ‘corn! <. \ ss. Pade AO ada Meridor As 139 Indian corn, chemical changes ims cree 2e Se ee eee Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tasseling to PIPENOSS! oc Are ee as air ee ee MAS Indian corn, methods of plantine ya... - oc creer ne reer 144 Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn. Indian: corn; ‘Soilsadapted forme. ciaeses vel oes ot Cele arene eeneters 139 Indian corn, varieties of, to be planted for the silo............ 140 Indianav Station resulesis seeild fae cme coos cert ccleaner LLPAS) Imbtroduction to... sctaSatiee tie olole s ic ea ee ee ee een it Towasilo™ thes seis. . toes eins Die bide italic ate 101 lowavStation results...) sece dele et arente © sls eiktelabslnte ste sees tee tee 126 Japanese icane Lor ‘SUA! cc iere-cyersy- ns w><'o aloes leat a Se ee 169 ToOhnSon SASS LOL SUAS say arauvi(ciavantrans| ccuel Tete! «) cre velaneteloye onenepatentilere< renee Number of staves required for stave SilOS...........+eeseeeee 67 PAIN VC CEULTO! «sue. bo cva's ov erexteesenereire ies B clens sa. 1Ses ssp PicteeVe atoms eee) ors 218 MD PSeANG NCASMLON SILAS eras sce ajo an’ < exeuwisy sfoe> ceenrh-syegs ae oda Ld Oagee wieait nO ely CeLOry SUWAE C . srerettelaiens gel an crepe ar¥ anata Shenoy 4: ++ Ghee 181 “Poultrymen’s: SilOS” J.4......20 22. -o2 See 137 Robertson's ‘silage mixtures. .ih3. 2 sehen Geka eee 152 Renovation of Tennessee blue grass pastures................- 115 ROOL Lor tHeLSilO ws tee ertee cnleie rns Sone a eee eee 39, 40, 57, 64, 97, 107 Round: SiMOSe cc sass bie oe ooteake soles eos eee on OR ae re eee 51-69 Russian thistles: for silage: too. 2... eee ee eee 158--166 Rye, wheat*"and oats\for ‘silage’.(sis.\-02 oe. Dee eee ee ee 157 INDEX. 253 PAGE SS aL Gite Welle UAIELOMENESUIES!: <5 5.6 2/5... 5, 0 occ oa speleystele © Sneed o Pelee 124 ELE eT OUTROS COOLS. 5c. c ois ofs.o1s ose oc sc ci sialehia Porsqtee « 193 Silage—Robertson’s Silage Mixture...........---+sseseeeeee 152 Silage, sorghum, milo and Kafir.........0. 2 -siisewsieee- sci 155, 160 Silage spoils quickly in summer.........---+ee-seeeee ee eeees 117 REM CMETUIGK:, -iiisa hop rio eee ir ovine ep op wins egal gee atelete g 191 Silage, use of, in beef production.........--..s+eeeeeeeees 118, 194 Stace steamed ©. .2s2---wleaw nae sos nla are bieialese alates Gl se lewis). . 188 Silo helps reclaim blue grass Pastures........-.2+e+eeee sence mba 3) 254 INDEX PAGE, Silo:must. bevair-tight Accent. icles + orm esi ee oh eee roe ne PA Silo “must? be wdeeps ek ti eee eee a ee cies crerereteue e ercree cre = nema 22 Silo must have smooth perpendicular walls................-. 22; Silo... stieeting: ‘amd. Sidimes 17. sie ictelate atetere crete sere! eset ol = cette terete 58 Silo. walls Imust-be -rieid and «sStrongens ob oaicc enicle o+. teeereee De Silo; SUMIMOF. © ods.c.54 He es Sie eee ele ee ee eleva eee ae eee eee a la ka Silo; Surplus Crops Stored: Me). <1 cielo ole o eles aterette iets omeener manent 114 Silo; tthe Ballard octagonal: si see ee ELL anh 108-110 : PINGeLSrouMd ‘SIUWOS) 2% 101015 c.5 wie eosieee tele nNes 5y aie eee ee eee RN Wniform quality of feed.--.e. ..-- Uavle la se s)0 0 wha os) auaipasia oe eh fa Use of silage in beef production.......... ERASE PRS PER TS ee Value in intensive farming............. POOOE I ne orptp ota [Sins Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo Ventilation of the silo.......... se shlaps agent Sears Vertical reinforcement for concrete sSilOs........,..... We ois iene ys VetChes fOr sSilaeey csc isa ic. wesc ereee sae eee ole wwckehe wes a > aber pone Mitriieditile Silos alts tox ae aida ceetaerenee ante ec ni wees ee (QD Waste: products: for silage. scy.. icc. 1) eee 6 Gein eee Water, use of, in filling silos...... ol wrt ie Prarie r scent de OC See Wieedsstonesilaseuecysodetise G0 ee Mn Tres Glee ts ‘it eR Weight of concentrated feeds ....,...0dh:ss ¢ ach co a 2 Wheat, ryciand oats for (silage .j..2/2., aves « dcueberseeee golt Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, description ofta: acne Wields of clover Pex AChE si iicrccereranctetere een wee Ieee F F Pe . ry ~ ha > . - te - = 3 a” = i, - eon: weed x : ie a - Pa J « . < . a : © aS ry! oo wis 3 a Silver’s Pony Blower Silo Filler Operates with six horse gasoline engine. Capacity three to five tons silage an hour. Self Feed with new Friction Reverse Cylinder Cutting Mechanism with direct 5 PATENTED suction to blower. eerks 10D dao GoM. \ SVERS PONY BLOWER i ae Silver’s Pony Blower is an inexpen- sive Silo Filler for the individual use of the farmer who de- sires a light power Blower without any of the disadvantages common to the fly wheel type of Cutter. The size and design of this Cutter makes it especially adapted for general farm use in cutting all kinds of crops. It is very compact and light; at the same time it is of ample strength and capacity for filling silos and will satisfactorily operate with a six or eight horse gasoline engine. Direct Suction Into Blower—The construction of this machine is a departure from former types of Blower Silo Fillers. The material is drawn airectly from the knives into the fan case by suction without the use of any conveying mechanism whatever. This feature has been thoroughly tested out through two silage. cutting seasons to the complete satisfaction of users. Capacity is ample for silos up to fifty and seventy-five tons. It will cut and elevate three to five tons silage an hour. Where speed, or liability of frosts, or a large force of men and teams are factors: in the case, we recommend a larger machine. Feeding Mechanism with Friction Reverse—The machine is equipped wit. the well-known “Ohio” Self Feed Apron and bull- dog grip feed rollers all controlled by a single lever which stops, starts or reverses the feed rolls and table at a touch. The reverse consists of a wood friction mechanism and operates without the slightest strain. The Drive Pulley, Cutting Cylinder, Fly Wheel and Blower Fan are all on the 1 9/16 in. main shaft, utilizing every ounce of power applied. Knives have cutting edges of high carbon tool steel, care- fully tempered. Suitable guards cover the knives and other moving parts. Fan Case is heavy sheet steel, electrically welded. 7 in. galvanized pipe is used. The machine has two knives ana four lengths of cut. ‘“‘Ohio” Shredder blades for dry fodder are interchangeable with knives. The machine can be furnished with or without special truck for mounting. Send for printed matter on Silver’s Pony Blower. See Silver’s “OHIO” Silo Fillers. Pages 260 to 264. 257 No. 770 Clover Cutter. No. 778 Lever, 11” No. 783 Cuts % to Cuts ¥%” Iengths, for Knife. Wt. 50 Ibs. 2”. Hand or Power. Poultry. Send for SPECIAL Printec LINE of SILVER’S “OHIO’ In addition to Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers, as described in the following pages, we manufacture a complete line of Feed Cutters and Fodder Shredders in various sizes and styles. A few representative machines are shown on this page. - Whether you cut 40 tons of silage each a age season or 4,000 tons you can make a selection 0. 83 oot and Bay ; “ e593 48 . Weretalile Cutter: from Silver’s famous “Ohio” line that will Cuts and Slits. just suit your requirements, Metal Bueket Carrier for No. 11 Cutter. De- livers to Right, Left or Silver’s Round Ineclosed Steel Carrier Front, Straight Delivery for No, 11 Ohio Cutter. 258 . No. 8% and 10%. No. 9S Cuts 4 to No. 1188S with Self Feed For Hand or 2”. 1to2H. P. Table. Cuts 4 to 2”. Power. 4 lengths Gasoline. Wt. 410 3 to 4 Tons Silage an Cut. Strong and Ibs, Hour. 2 to 3 H. P. Gas, Durabte. With or without Carrier. Matter on the FAMOUS CUTTERS and SHREDDERS Whether you feed one animal or 1,500 you will find that the “Ohio” offers just the size and style that will fit your needs and your purse. “Quality First” is the motto that has made these machines popular the world over. If you are interested in fodder cutting or shredding machinery, do not fail to secure our special printed matter on “The Famous OHIO No. 832 Root Cut- ter and Pulper. ‘Cutters and Shredders.” Slits and Pulps. “Ohio” Shredder Blades Replace Knives on Metal Bucket Carrier, Straight or Swivel Cutters trom No. 9 Up. Delivery, for “Ohio” Monarch _ Silo We also make other Fillers Nos. 12, 15 and 17. styles of Shredders. 259 *J9INJOejnuep] 19}}nD pee. 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WO |[[B BIB UBy JomMmolq pues JIpUpsAD Suypjjno ‘Aazpnd sayap aqy, ‘“A®vmMeddng ,,O7GO,, JO TOP [NJAIPUOM BV Wo9q SEY XAPIG FIIIIG FGL ‘posn air ‘% SSaaruy 780.14) JO YPIM [[NJ ‘Ino q~—SeaAlay JO Jaquiny ‘poJUBM UsyYM (YOUI-9gT 10 ‘pet2A00 194} Be ‘OINUIW Jed SUOT}N[OASI 00) 0} 0¢9—peeds ‘yBO1Y} YOUI-ZZ PUB GT ‘LT ‘GT ‘ZT UM—sezTS OATy “SNOLLVOIMID0dS 261 Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers Points of Merit in a Nut Shell Strength and Durability — Solid hardwood frames, “mortised, tenoned, double pinned, with iron rod and nut re- inforcement. They cannot warp. All castings and steel on machine are very heavy. “Ohio” Cutters made twenty years ago are still in regular service. The solid foundation upon which “Qhio” superstructures are reared. “Ohio” Capacities—Have no equal on the market. They are all based on half-inch cut. The throat opening is very large and high. The fan surface is two to four times as great as on other machines. “Ohio” capacity ratings are based on work by the day or season— not by ten-minute tests. Self-Feed—The “bull-dog grip” of upper and lower rollers has made “Ohio” capacity and easy feeding qualities famous. A stationary comb prevents the material from winding around the lower roller. The traveling table was first adopted by the “Ohio” and has since been copied by all others. Its entire surface is The sure, positive “bull-dog grip” of “Ohio” Feed Rollers is famous. The Single lever gives absolute eontrol of rolls and table, stopping, starting or reversing the feed at a touch, 262 movable, avoiding all friction due to dragging the fodder by means of hooks, ete. Direct Drive — With drive pulley, Knife cylin- der and blower fan all on one shaft. One com- pact set of gears does the work. The direct -drive avoids trouble and Dies repair bills). "The powerful lift of fan is done at low speed—no danger of blow-ups or explosions — no make- Auger side of machine with fan case removed. The auger prevents feed from shitt | tran sm isisiiomn entering blower in bulky, irregular mechanism. quantities. Cutting Cylinder—The solid wall of corn steadily forced against the cutting knives cannot spring them away from Cutter Bar on the “Ohio,” because of bearings at each end of knives. This is im- possible on the fly wheel type where springing results in uneven eutting, with long pieces of leaves to form air pockets in the silo. Investigate the new bearings and ring oiling-device, exact adjust- ments, etc. Simplicity and Protection—Only six gears and six sprockets on the entire machine—the gears are perfectly housed—iron or steel guards cover all moving machinery—there is a uniform movement of feed table and rolls on any length of cut. One Lever Controls All—A single lever, almost human, controls the entire feeding mech- anism—stopping, starting or reversing at will. It is easily accessible. A _ six- year-old boy can operate it. Reverses by Friction— No strain—no breakages —it took three years to perfect, but it is worth it. Our new special wood friction clutch device in- stantly reverses without the slightest strain—not The friction gear wheel and outsidea sear tooth chang2s guards are nenieved re Se ee: mesh. Friction is coin- ioe teas fall cared" atiena! to reverse Posed of ee can oi not a gear tooth changes mesh. The wood segments easily re peer of all reverses on the market, placed by the user. 263 Simplicity of Fam Case Side—The auger carries feed evenly to blower instead of in bulky irregular quantities. The main shaft bearings are conveniently adjusted. All drive chain on the machine is No. 72%, and is inter- changeable, Safety—The “Ohio” never explodes—it has an _ enor- mous powerful blast at low speed—650 to 700 R. P. M. Guards for Protection of Operator cover all Moving parts. Other Features—Blows to highest silos. Cuts all crops. Is very easy running. Makes highest quality of silage. Is ready to move anywhere by taking down pipe. Suit- able for pit silos by simply removing the blower. Made in five popular sizes. ©Oua-ity class of users everywhere. Converted into first class Shredder by replacing knives with “Ohio” shredder blades. New “Ohio” Elbow—This large circle curved elbow is furnished free with each “Ohio”? Monarch Blower Machine. It is seven feet long, of steel, and open on under side to prevent back pressure, The Silo Tube delivers the leaves, mois- ture and heavier parts at any desired point in silo, uniformly mixed as cut and with a strong, self-packing force. The tube is of a heavy galvanized steel. The three-foot sections telescope together, and have chain connections, readily detachable. This view shows the Blower side of “Ohio” Monarch Silo Fillers; also the special steel truck on which they are mounted. It will be noted that the opening in fan case now has a sliding guard. 264 View of Head Office and Works of The Silver Manufacturing Co. Located in Salem, Ohio, U Pennsylvania and Erie Railroads. This is the home of Silver’s “Ohio” Silo Fillers and Feed Cutters. The plant is new and modern in every particular, having been thorou past year. The machine shop and erecting room alone have ghly remodeled and greatly enlarged during the a ground floor space of approximately one and one-half acres. Modern Dilage Methods LIBRARY OF CONGRES mI iil