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4

MODERN SILAGE METHODS

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.

An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction
and the process of filling, to which is added complete and
reliable information regarding Silage and its compo-
sition; feeding, and a treatise on rations, being
a FEEDERS’ AND DAIRYMENS’ GUIDE.

PUBLISHED

AND COPYRIGHTED BY
of
¥

THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO.
| SALEM, OHIO,
SO a

19038.

Tv)

Copyrighted 1903, by The Silver Mfg. Co.

THE LIBRARY OF
CONGRESS,

Two Copies Received

APR 13 1903
Cgpynght Entry
(ifer 13.1903

CLASS Q XxXc. No,
ay os 2
COPY B.

SALEM, OHIO:

THE A. K, TATEM LABEL CO.

1903.

MODERN SILAGE METHODS.

PREPACE,

This book has been written and published for the pur-
pose of furnishing our patrons and others with accurate and
full information on the subject of silo construction and the
making of silage. It has been the aim of the authors to
present the subject ina clear matter-of-fact manner, with-
out flourish of rhetoric or flights of imagination, believing
that the truth concerning the advantages of the siloing sys-
tem is good enough. The testimony presented, which is pur-
posely kept close to the experiences of authorities on feeding
subjects in and outside of experiment stations, will abund-
antly prove, we believe, that the equipment of an American
dairy or stock farm is no longer complete without one or
more silos on it.

In order that a work of this kind be accurate and
reliable, and bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use
of a number of scientific terms and phrases is rendered
necessary, and in order that these may be more ready com-
prehended by Agriculturists, a comprehensive glossary or
dictionary of such terms is included, following the last
chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or can
be studied previous to reading the book.

In the compilation of certain parts of the book we have
had the valuable assistance of Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin
Experiment Station, author of ‘‘A Book on Silage’’ and “‘A
Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen’’. Free use of the
former book has been made in the preparation of this vol-
ume, as well as of experiment station publications treating
the subject of silage.

« «..,Hoping that ‘‘Modern Silage Methods’’ will prove help-

‘,: £‘ful to<our patrons, and incidentally suggest to them that the

« . 6° Ohio Silage Cutters and Blower Elevators are manufactured
by us, we are

Sglet Rant, 05> 50 6%, GUL eke on VEL CUly,

Sete fist tae ot THE SILVER MFG. CO.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
ETI £62 ASCARIS Sak Ry PRR SREP aC LT
PME GOING i RN, et ey hes ge ese he ea 9

Che Like.

Advantages of the Silo— Preservation of a larger quar-
tity of original food value enabled by the use of the
Silo than any method known—Losses of nutritive

_value in dry curing—Small losses in the Siloing pro-
cess—The Silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality—
Economy of making— EHconomy of Storage—No
danger of rain—No danger of latesummer droughts
—Food from thistles—Value in intensive farming.

CHAP YT ER y GE.
How. 10 BUILD A. SILG:

Silos—General requirements for silo structures—On
the size of silo required—On the form of silos—
Relation of horizontal feeding—Area and number

of cows kept— Location of the silo—Different types
of silo structures—Round wooden silos—The silo
roof—Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo—Plaster-

ed round wooden Silos—Brick-lined Silos — Stave
Silos—Cheap Stave Silos—A modification of a Stave
Silo—Connecting round silos with the barn—Other
forms of round silos—Brick and Stone Silos—Silos
in the barn—A small $30 Silo—Octagonal Silos—
Cost and estimates for different kinds of Si os.

Criar CMR) Lit.

Silage Crops—Indian Corn—Soils best adapted to corn
culture and preparation of land—Varieties of corn

for the silo—Time of cutting corn for the silo—
Methods of planting corn—Other silage crops.

CHAPTER IV.

Filling the Silo—Indian Corn—Siloing corn ‘‘ears and
all’’—The filling process—The proper distribution
of cut material in the silo—Size of cutter and power
required—Length of chain elevator required— Direc-
tions for operating ‘‘Ohio’’ Blower Cutters—Danger
from carbonic-acid poisoning in silos—Covering the
siloed fodder—Use of water in filling silos—Clover
for summer silage—Freezing of silage.

CRAPEBRE «WV.

How to feed silage—Silage for milch cows—Silage in
the production of certified milk—Silage for beef
cattle—for Horses— for Sheep—for Swine— Silage
for poultry—Additional testimony as to the advant-
age of silage-—-Corn silage as compared with root
crops-— Corn silage as compared with hay—Corn
silage compared with fodder corn.

CHAP PER Vi

A feeder’s guide--Composition of the animal body—
Composition of feeding stuffs—-Digestibility of foods
—Relative value of feeding stuffs-—-Feeding stand-
ards—-How to figure out rations— Grain mixtures
for dairy cows—Average composition of Silage crops
of different kinds, in per cent—Analysis of Feeding
stuffs—Ready reference tables.

CONCLUSION.

c¢

Modern Silage Methods.

INTRODUCTION.

Twenty years ago few farmers knew what a silo
was, and fewer still,had ever seen a silo or fed silage
to their stock. ‘Today silos are as common as barn
buildings in many farming districts in this country,
and thousands of farmers would want to quit farming
if they could not have silage to feed to their stock dur-
ing the larger portion of the year. Twenty years ago
it would have been necessary to begin a book describ-
ing the siloing system with definitions, what is meant
by silos and silage: now all farmers who read agricul-
tural papers or attend agricultural or dairy conventions
are at least familiar with these words, evenif they had
not had a chance to become familiar with the appear-
ance and properties of silage. They know that a
SILO is an air-tight structure used for the preserva-
tion of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition,
and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo.

We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage
making, but want to state here at the outset that In-
dian corn is pre-eminently the American crop suited to
be preserved in silos, and that this crop is siloed far
more than all other kinds of crops put together. When
the word silage is mentioned we, therefore, instinct-
ively think of corn silage. We shall also follow this
plan in the discussions in this book ; when only silage
is spoken of we mean silage made from the corn plant ;
if made from other crops the name of the crop is al-
ways given, as clover silage, peavine silage, etc.

FTistory of the silo. While the silo in one form or
another dates back to antiquity, it was not until the

IO INTRODUCTION.

latter part of the seventies that the building of silos
intended for manufacture of silage began in this coun-
try. In 1882 the United States Department of Agri-
culture could find only ninety-one farmers in this
country who used silos. During thelast twenty years,
however, silos have gradually become general in all
sections of the country where dairying and stock-rais-
ing are important industries ; it is likely, if a census
were taken of the number of silos in this county to-
day, that we would find between a third and a half
million of them. The silo is today considered a neces-
sity on thousands of dairy farms, and we find most of
them in the states that rank first as dairy states, viz:
New York, Iowa, Illinois, Wiscons.n, Pennsylvania,
etc. The farmers that have had most experience with
silage are the most enthusiastic advocates of the silo-
ing system, and the testimony of intelligent dairymen
all over the country is strongly in favor of the silo.
Said a New York farmer recently in one of our main
agricultural papers: ‘‘I would as soon try to farm
without a barn as without a silo,’’ and another wrote
‘*T wouldn’t take a thousand dollars for my siloif I
could not replace it.’? The well-known agricultural
writer, Joseph EK. Wing, says, ‘No stock feeder who
grows corn can afford to ignore the silo.’’ ‘‘ Buff Jer-
sey,” an Illinois dairy farmer and writer on agricult-
ural topics, declares his faith in silage as follows: ‘‘I
am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed, and a
cheaper one, than our pastures.’’ Another writer
says: ‘‘ The silo to my mind presents so many ad-
vantages over the system of soiling that it is bound
to eventually do away with the use of soiling crops.’’
According to the Cornell Experiment Station, ‘‘ the
silo, especially to the dairy farmer, has become an al-
most necessary adjunct to the equipment of the farm.’’
Our first effort in writing this book will be to pre-
sent facts that will back up these statements, and
how the reader the many advantages of the silo over
S

INTRODUCTION. EI

other systems of growing and curing crops for the
feeding of farm animals. We shall show that up-to-
date dairy or stock farming is well nigh impossible
without the aid of a silo. The silo enables us to feed
live stock succulent feeds the year around, and pre-
serves the fodder in a better condition and with less
waste than any other system can. Weshall see the
why and wherefore of this in the following pages, and
shall deal with the best way of making and feeding
silage to farm animals. We wish to state at the out-
set that we do not propose to indulge in unwarranted
statements or claims that will not stand the closest in-
vestigation. In the early days of the history of the
silo movement it was thought necessary to make exag-
gerated claims, but this is no longer the case. Naked
facts are sufficient to secure for the silo a permanent
place among the necessary equipment of a modern
dairy or stock farm. Im discussing the silo we shall
keep close to what has been found out at our expert-
ment stations, and, we believe, shall be able to prove
to any fair-minded reader that the silo is the greatest
boon that has come to modern agriculture since the
first reaper was manufactured, and that with competi-
tion and resulting low prices, it will be likely to be-
come more of a necessity to our farmers in the future
than it has been in the past. We aim to convince our
readers that the most sensible thing they can do is to
plan to build a silo at onceif they do not now have one.
It is unnecessary to argue with those who are already
the happy possessors of a silo, for it is a general expe-
rience where a farmer has only provided for immediate
wants in building his silo that he will build another as
soon as he has had some experience with silage and
finds out how his stock likes it, and how well they do
on it.

Modern practice has proved that no man need say
‘*T cannot afford a silo,’’ because any farmer who is
at all handy with hammer and saw can provide a silo

I2 INTRODUCTION.

large enough for a medium-sized dairy with very little
actual outlay of money. And this same built-at-home
silo will earn for its owner money to build another, and
enlarge his herd.

We shall give directions for building several kinds
of such silos on the following pages. While they will
not be apt to last as long, and therefore are not per-
haps as economical in the long run as more substan-
tially-built silos, still they do excellent service until
some experience with making and feeding silage has
been obtained, or until the farmer can afford to put up
a more substantial structure.

We mention this fact here to show tonite who may
be considering the matter of building a silo, or who
may be inclined to think that the silo is an expensive
luxury, only for rich farmers, that the cost of a silo
need not debar them from the advantages of having
one on their farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent
feed for their stock through the whole winter. Farm-
ers who have not as yet informed themselves in regard
to the value of the silo and silage on dairy or stock
farms, are respectfully asked to read carefully the fol-
lowing statements of the advantages of the silo system
over other methods of preserving green forage for
winter or summer feeding.

It has been said ‘‘ Whoever makes two blades of
grass grow where but one grew before is a benefactor
to mankind.’’ A silo makes it possible to keep two
cows where but one was kept before, and who would
not gladly double his income? Does not this interest
you?

EAE HR! Ff.
ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

1. The stlo enables us to preserve a larger quantity
of the food materials of the original fodder for the feea-
ing of farm animals than ts possible by any other system
of preservation now known. Pasture grass is the ideal
feed for live stock, but it is not available more than
a few months in the year. The same holds true with
all soiling crops or tame grasses as well. When made
into hay the grasses and other green crops lose some
of the food material contained therein, both on account
of unavoidable losses of leaves and other tender parts,
and on account of fermentations which take place
while the plants are drying out or being cured.

In case of Indian corn the losses from the latter
source are considerable, owing the coarse stalks of the
plant and the large number of air-cells in the pith of
these. Under the best of conditions cured fodder corn
will lose at least ten per cent. of its food value when
cured in shocks ; such a low loss can only be obtained
when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in
the field under ideal weather conditions. In ordinary
farm practice the loss in nutritive value will approach
twenty-five per cent., and will even exceed this figure
unless special precautions are taken in handling the
fodder, and it is not left exposed to all kinds of weath-
er in shocks in the field through the whole winter.
These figures may seem surprisingly large to many
farmers who have left fodder out all winter long, and
find the corn in the inside of the shock bright and
green, almost as it was when put up. But appear-
ances are deceitful; if the shocks had been weighed
as they were put up. and again in the late winter,
another story would be told, and it would be found

14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

that the shocks only weighed anywhere from a third
to a half as much as when they were cured and ready
to be put in the barn late in the fall ; if chemical anal-
yses of the corn in the shocks were made in the fall,
and when taken down, it would be found that the de-
crease in weight was not caused by evaporation of wa-
ter from the fodder, but by waste of food materials
contained therein from fermentations, or the action of
enzymes. (See Glossary. )

The correctness of the figures given above has been
abundantly proved by careful experiments conducted
ata number of different experiment stations, notably
the Wisconsin, New Jersey, Vermont, Pennsylvania,
and Colorado experiment stations. A summary of the
main work in this line is given in Prof. Woll’s Book
on Silage. In the Wisconsin experiments there was
an average loss of 23.8 percent. in the dry matter
(see Glossary), and 24.3 per cent. of protein, during
four different years, when over 36 tons of green fodder
had been put up in shocks and carefully weighed and
sampled at the beginning and end of the experiment.
These shocks had been left out for different lengths of
time, under varying conditions of weather, and made
from different kinds of corn, so as to present a variety
of conditions. The Colorado experiments are perhaps
the most convincing as tothe losses which unavoidably
take place in the curing of Indian cornin shocks. The
following account is taken from Prof. Cook’s report
of the experiments. As the conditions described in
the investigation will apply to most places on our con-
tinent where Indian corn is cured for fodder, it will be
well for farmers to carefully look into the results of
the experiment.

‘‘Tt is believed by most farmers that, in the dry cli-
mate of Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked
in good shape, cures without loss of feeding value, and
that the loss of weight that occurs is merely due to the
drying out of the water. A test of this question was

LOSSES IN DRY CURING. 15
| ans 3 )

made in the fall of 1893, and the results obtained
seemed to indicate that fully a third of the feeding
value was lost in the curing. This result was so sur-
prising that the figures were not published, fearing
that some error had crept in, though we could not
see where there was the possibility of a mistake.

‘‘In the fall of 1894 the test was repeated on a lar-
ger scale. A lot of corn was carefully weighed and
sampled. It was then divided into three portions:
one was spread on the ground in a thin layer, the sec-
ond part was set up in large shocks, containing about
five hundred pounds of green fodder in each, while the
rest was shocked tn small bundles. After remaining
thus for some months, until thoroughly cured, the por-
tions were weighed, sampled, and analyzed separately.
The table gives the losses that occurred in the curing.

——~=<

Large Shocks.|Small Shocks: |On te Ground

otal) Wayay ee otal Dry | Total Dry
Weight|Matter.| Weight|Matter-| Weight| Matter.

Lbs. bs: Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

When Shocked...... O52 14 217. | e294 iy 186 | 42
velh i Gl neh 6 pha 258 | 150 64) 44 oll hte
Loss in Weight ....| 694 67 e230" 8 Sa 153") 28
Per Cent: of (Loss. ) 73 31 78 | 43 82) jc55

‘* So far as could be told by the eye, there had been
no loss. The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the
stalks on the inside of the bundles retained their green
color, with no sign of molding or heating. And yet
the large shocks had lost 31 percent. of their dry
matter, or feeding value; the small shocks 43 per cent.
and the corn spread on the ground 55 per cent.

‘“‘On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses
were explained. The juice was acid, and there was a
very strong acid odor, showing that an active fermen-
tation was taking place in this seemingly dry fodder.

16 ' ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

We had noticed this strong odor the fall before and all
through the winter. When the fodder corn for the
steers is put through the feed cutter that same strong
smell is present.

‘“TIt can be said, then, that the dryness of the clim-
ate in Colorado does not prevent fodder corn from los-
ing a large part of its feeding value through fermenta-
tion. Indeed, the loss from this source is fully as
great as in the damp climate of New England.

‘“As compared with the losses by fermentation in
the silo, the cured fodder shows considerably the
higher loss.’’

In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven
shocks cured under cover in the barn lost on an aver-
age over 8 per cent. of dry matter and toward 14 per
cent. of protein. In an experiment at the Maine Sta-
tion over 14 per cent. of dry matter was lost in the
process of slow drying of a large sample of fodder
corn under the most favorable circumstances. ‘‘It is
interesting to note that this loss falls almost entirely
on the nitrogen-free extract, or carbohydrates (see
Glossary), more than two-thirds of it being actually
accounted for by the diminished percentage of sugars.”’

Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under
cover with all possible care, it is evident that the aver-
age losses of dry matter in field-curing fodder corn,
given in the preceding, by no means can be considered
exaggerated. Exposure to rain and storm, abrasion
of dry leaves and thin stalks, and other factors tend
to diminish the nutritive value of the fodder, aside
from the losses from fermentations, so that very often
only one-half of the food materials originally present
in the fodder is left by the time it is fed out. The re-
maining portion of the fodder has, furthermore, a
lower digestibility and a lower feeding value than the
fodder corn when put up, for the reason that the fer-
mentations occurring during the curing process de-
stroy the most valuable and easily digestible part, 7. e.,

THE SILOING PROCESS. 17

the sugar and starch of the nitrogen-free extract,
which are soluble, or readily rendered soluble, in the
process of digestion.

2. Lossesin the Siloing Process. As compared with the
large losses in food materials in field-curing of Indian
corn there are but comparatively small losses in the
silo, caused by fermentation processes, or decomposi-
tion of the living plant cells as they are dying off.
The losses in this case have been repeatedly deter-
mined by experiment stations, and, among others, by
those mentioned in the preceding. The average losses
of dry matter in the fodder corn during the siloing
period of four seasons (1887-’91) as determined by
Prof. Woll at the Wisconsin Experiment Station was
about 16 per cent. The silos used in these trials, as
in case of nearly all the early experiments on this
point, were small and shallow, however, only 14 feet
deep, were rectangular in form, and not always _ per-
fectly air-tight, a most important point in silo construc-
tion, as we shall see, and a portion of the silage there-
fore came out spoilt, thus increasing the losses of food
materials in the siloing process. The losses reported
were, therefore, too great, and there is now an abund-
ance of evidence at hand showing that the figures
given are higher than those found in actual practice,
and the necessary loss in the silo comes considerably
below that found in the early experiments on this
point. There are plenty of cases on record showing
that ten per cent. represents the maximum loss of dry
matter in modern deep, well-built silos. The losses
found in siloing corn at a number of experiment sta-
tions during the last ten years have come at or below
this figure. It is possible to reduce this loss still far-
ther by avoiding any spoilt silage on the surface, by
beginning to feed immediately after the filling of the
silo, and ‘by feeding the silage out rather rapidly. Hx-
periments conducted ona small scale by Prof. King
in 1894 gave losses of only 2 and 3 percent. of dry

18 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

‘matter, on the strength of which results, amongst
others, he believes that the necessary loss of dry mat-"
ter in the silo eed not exceed 5 per cent. :

Summarizing our considerations concerning the rel-'
ative losses of ‘food materials in the field-curing and
siloing of Indian corn, we may, therefore, say that far’
from being less economical than the former, the silo is
more so, under favorable conditions for both systems.
and that therefore a larger quantity of food materials:
is obtained by filling the corn crop into a silo than by
any other method of preserving it known at the pres-
ent time. 1

What has been said in the foregoing in regard to’
fodder corn applies equally well to other crops put!
into the silo. A few words will suffice in regard to
two of these, clover and alfalfa. Only a few accurate
siloing experiments have been conducted with cover,
but enough has been done to show that the necessary’
losses in siloing this crop do not much, if any, exceed,
those of Indian corn. Lawes and Gilbert, of the
Rothamsted Experiment Station, England, placed
264,318 pounds of first- and second-crop clover into
one of their stone silos, and took out 194,470 pounds
of good clover silage. Loss in weight, 24.9 per cent.
This loss fell, however, largely on the water in
the clover. The loss of dry matter amounted
to only 5.1 per cent., very nearly the same amount of
loss as that which the same experimenter found had
taken place in a large rick of about forty tons of hay,
after standing for two years. The loss of protein in
the silo amounted to 8.2 per cent. In another silo
184,959 pounds of second-crop grass and second-crop
clover were put in, and 170,941 pounds were taken
out. Loss in gross weight, 7.6 per cent.; loss of dry
matter 9.7 per cent.; of crude protein 7.8 per cent.

In a siloing experiment with clover, conducted at
the Wisconsin Station, on a smaller scale, Mr. F. G.
Short obtained the following results: Clover put into

THE SILOING PROCESS. 19

ene. silo; 227279 pounds; | silagée= taken; -out)9)283
pounds ; loss, 24.4 per cent.; loss of dry matter, 15.4
perm cent. ; of prorcim 72/7 per cent:

There is nothing in any of these figures to argue
against the siloing of green clover as an economical
practice. On the other hand, we conclude that this
method of preserving the clover crop is highly valu-
able, and, in most cases, to be preferred to making hay
of the crop.

No extended investigation has been made as to the
osses sustained in the siloing of alfalfa, but there can
be little doubt but that they are considerably smaller
than in making alfalfa hay, if proper precautions
guarding against unnecessary losses in the silo are ta-
ken. According to the testimony of Professor Headden
of the Colorado Experiment Station, the minimum
loss from the falling off of leaves and stems in success-
ful alfalfa hay making amounts to from 15 to 20 per
cent., and in cases where the conditions have been un-
favorable, to as much as 60 and even 66 per cent. of
the hay crop. Aside from the losses sustained through
abrasion, rain storms, when these occur, may reduce
the value of the hay one-half. ‘The losses from either
of these sources are avoided in preserving the crop in
the silo, and in their place a small loss through fer-
mentation occurs, under ordinary favorable conditions,
amounting to about 10 per cent or less.

There is this further advatitage to be considered
when the question of relative losses in the silo and in
hay-making or field-curing green forage, that hay or
corn fodder, whether in shocks in the field or stored
under shelter, gets poorer and poorer the longer it is
kept, as the processes of decomposition are going on
all the time; in the silo, on the other hand, the loss
in food substances is not appreciably larger six months
after the silo was filled than it is one month after, be-
cause the air is shut out, so that the farmer who puts
up a lot of fodder corn for silage in the fall can have

20- ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

as much and as valuable feed for his stock in the
spring, or in fact, the following summer or fall, as he
would have if he proceeded to feed out all the silage at
once.

‘“ Generally speaking, 3 tons of silage are equal in
feeding value to 1 ton of hay. On this basis a much
larger amount of digestible food can be secured from
an acre of silage corn than from an acre of hay. The
food equivalent of 4 tons of hay per acre can .easily
be produced on an acre of land planted to corn.’’
(Plumb).

3. Succulence. Succulent food ts Nature's food. We
all know the difference between a juicy, ripe apple and
the dried fruit. In the drying of fruit as well as of
green fodders water is the main component taken
away; with it, however, go certain flavoring matters
that do not weigh much in the chemist’s balance, but
are of the greatest importance in rendering the food
materials palatable. It is these same flavoring sub-
stances which are washed out of hay with heavy
rains, and renders such hay of inferior value, often
no better than so much straw, not because it does not
contain nearly as much food substances, like protein,
fat, starch, sugar, etc. (see Glossary), but because of
the substances that render hay palatable having been
largely removed by the rain.

The influence of well-preserved silage on the diges-
tion and general health of animals is very beneficial,
according to the unanimous testimony of good author-
ities. It is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very
similarly to green fodders. The good accounts re-
ported of the prevention of milk fever by the feeding
of silage are explained by the laxative influence of the
feed.

4. Uniformity. The silo furnishes a feed of uniform
guality, and always near at hand, available at any time
during the whole year or winter. No need of fighting
the elements, or wading through snow or mud to haul

ECONOMY OF SILAGE. Posi

it from the field; once in the silo the hard work is
over, and the farmer can’ rest easy as to the supply of
succulent roughage for his stock during the winter.
An ample supply of succulent feed is of advantage to
all classes of animals, but perhaps particularly so in
case of dairy cows and sheep, since these animals are
especially sensitive to sudden changes in the feed.
Also, stock raisers value silage highly on this account,
however, for silage is of special value for feeding pre-
paratory to turning cattle on to the watery pasture
grass in the spring. The loss in the weight of cattle
on being let out on pasture in spring, is often so great
that it takes them a couple of weeks to get back where
they were when turned out. When let out in the
spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter
whether silage or dry feed has been fed, unless they
are fed some grain during the first week or two after
they are turned out.

5. Lconomy of Storage. Wess room is required for
the storage in a siloof the product from an acre of
land than,in cured condition ina barn. A ton of hay
stored in the mow will fill a space of at least 400 cubic
feet; a ton of silage, aspace of about 50 cubic feet.
Considering the dry matter contained in both feeds, we
have that 8,oo0 pounds of silage contains about as
much dry matter as 2,323 pounds of hay, or 160 against
465 cubic feet; that is,it takes nearly three times as
much room to store the same quantity of food materials
in hay asin silage. Incase of field-cured fodder corn,
the comparison comes out still more in favor of the silo,
on account of the greater difficulty in preserving the
thick cornstalks from heating when placed under shel-
ter. According to Professor Alvord, an acre of corn,
field-cured,stored in the most compact manner possible,
will occupy a space ten times as great as in the form
of silage. While hay will contain about 86 per cent.
of dry matter, cured fodder corn often does not con-
tain more than 60 and sometimes only 50 per cent. of

22 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

dry matter ; the quantities of food material in fodder
corn that can be stored in a given space are, therefore,
greatly smaller than in case of hay, and, consequently,
still smaller than in case of silage.

Since smaller barns may be built when silage is fed,
there is less danger of fire, thus decreasing the cost of
insurance. |

6. No Danger of Rain. Rainy weather is a dis-
advantage in filling silos as in most other farm opera-
tions, but when the silo is once filled, the fodder is
safe, and the farmer is independent of the weather
throughout the season.

If the corn has suffered from drought and heat dur-
ing the fall months, it is quite essential to wet the corn
either as it goes into the silo, or when this has been all
filled, in order to secure a good quality of silage; and
unless the corn is very green when it goes into the
silo, the addition of water, or water on the corn from
rain or dew, will dono harm. If the corn is too dry
when put into the silo, the result will be dry mold,
which is prevented by the addition of the water,
which replaces that which has dried out previous to
filling if this has been delayed.

A common practice among successful siloists is to
fill the silo when the lower leaves of the standing corn
have dried up about half way to the ears. Generally,
the corn will be in about the proper condition at that
time, and there will still be moisture enough left in
the plants so that the silage will come out in first-class
condition.

There must be moisture enough in the corn at time
of filling the silo, so that the heating processes, which
take place soon after, and which expel a considerable
portion of moisture, can take place, and still leave the
corn moist after cooling, when the silage will remain
in practically a uniform condition for several years if
left undisturbed. But if, on account of over-ripeness,
frosts, or excessive drought, the corn is drier than

ECONOMY OF SILAGE. 23

stated, it should be made quite wet as stated above,
and there is little danger of getting it too wet. The
writer has filled a silo with husked corn fodder about
Christmas, and as the fodder was thoroughly dried, a
34-inch pipe was connected with an overhead tank in
the barn and arranged to discharge into the carrier of
the cutter as the cutting took place, a No. 18 Ohio
cutter being used for that purpose. Although the full
stream was discharged, and with considerable force,
on account of the elevation of the tank, and the cut
fodder in the silo still further wet on top with a long
hose attached to a wind force pump, it was found, on
opening the silo a month later, that none too much
water had been used; ‘the fodder silage came out
in good condition, was eaten greedily by the milch
cows, and was much more valuable than if it had been
fed dry from the field.

Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the
case with second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account
of rainy weather late in the season, the silo will fur-
thermore preserve the crop, so that the farmer may
derive full benefit from it in feeding it to his stock.
Frosted corn can also be preserved in the silo, and will
come out a very fair quality of silage if well watered
as referred to above.

7. LVo Danger of Late-Summer Droughts. By
filling the silo with clover or other green sum-
mer crops early in the season, a valuable succulent
feed will be at hand at a time when pastures in most
regions are apt to give out; then again, the silo may
be filled with corn when this is in the roasting-ear
stage, and the land thus entirely cleared earlier than
when the corn is left to mature and the corn fodder
shocked on the land, making it possible to finish the
fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass
or to winter grain.

8. Food from Thistles. Crops unfit for haymaking
may be preserved in the silo and changed into a pal-

24 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO.

atable food. This is not of the importance in this
land of plenty of ours that it is, or occasionally has
been, elsewhere. Under silage crops are included a
number of crops which could not be used as cattle
food in any other form than this, as ferns, thistles,
all kinds of weeds, etc. Incase of fodder famine the
silo may thus help the farmer to carry his cattle
through the winter.

9. Valuein Intensive Farming. More cattle can
be kept on a certain area of land when silage is fed
than is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect
furnishes a similar advantage over field-curing fodders
as does the soiling system over that of pasturing cattle;
in both the siloing and the soiling system there is no
waste of feed, all food grown on the land being utilized
for the feeding of farm animals, except a small una-
voidable loss in case of the siloing system incurred by
the fermentation processes taking place in the silo.

Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding,
as far as the use of the land goes, and can only be
practiced to advantage where this is cheap. As the
land increases in value, more stock must be kept on
the same area in order to correspondingly increase the
profits from the land. The silo here comes in asa
material aid, and by its adoption, either alone or in
connection with the soiling system, it will be possible
to keep at least twice the number of animals on the
land that can be done under the more primitive sys-
tem of pasturing and feeding dry feeds during winter.
The experience of Goffart, ‘‘the Father of Modern
Silage,’’ on this point is characteristic. On his farm
of less than eighty-six acres at Burtin, France, he
kept a herd of sixty cattle, besides fattening a number
of steers during the winter, and eye-witnesses assure
us that he had ample feed on hand to keep one hun-
dred of cattle the year round.

We might go on and enumerate many other points
in which the siloing process has decidedly the advant-

VALUE OF THE SILO. 25

age over the method of field-curing fodder or hay-
making; but it is hardly necessary. The points given
in the preceding will convince any person open to con-
viction, of the superiority of the silo on stock or dairy
farms. As we proceed with our discussion we shall
have occasion to refer to several points in favor of
silage as compared with dry feed, which have not al-
ready been touched upon. We shall now, first of all,
however, proceed to explain the methods of building
silos, and then discuss the subjects of making and
feeding silage.

CHAPTER TT:

HOW’ TO BUILD A SILO.

Before taking up for consideration the more import-
ant types of silo construction, it will be well to explain
briefly a few fundamental principles in regard to the
building of silos which are common to all types of silo
structures. When the farmer understands these prin-
ciples thoroughly, he will be able to avoid serious
mistakes in building his silo and will be less bound by
specific directions, that may not always exactly suit
his conditions, than would otherwise be the case.
What is stated in the following in a few words is in
many cases the result of dearly-bought experiences of
pioneers in siloing ; many points may seem self-evident
now, which were not understood or appreciated until
mistakes had been made and a full knowledge had
been accumulated as to the conditions under which
perfect silage can be secured.

General Requirements for Silo Structures.

° 1. The silo must be air-tight. We have seen that
the process of silage making is largely a series of fer-
mentation processes. Bacteria (small plants or germs,
which are found practically everywhere) pass into the
silo with the corn or the siloed fodder, and, after a
short time, begin to grow and multiply in it, favored
by the presence of air and an abundance of feed mate-
rials in the fodder. ‘The activity of the bacteria is
soon discernible through the heating of the mass and
the formation of acid in the fodder. The more air at
the disposal of the bacteria, the further the fermenta-
tion processes will progress. If a supply of air is
admitted to the silo from the outside, the bacteria will
have a chance to continue to grow, and more fodder

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. 27

will therefore be wasted. If a large amount of air be
admitted, as is usually the case with the top layer of
silage, the fermentation processes will be more far-
reaching than is usually the case in the lower layers
of the silo. Putrefactive bacteria will then continue
the work of the acid-bacteria, and the result will be
rotten silage. If no further supply of air is at hand,
except what remains in the interstices between the
.siloed fodder, the bacteria will gradually die out, or
only such forms will survive as are able to grow in the
absence of air.

Another view of the cause of the changes occurring
in siloed fodder has been put forward lately, viz., that
these are due not to bacteria, but to ‘‘intramolecular
respiration’’ in the plant tissue; that is, to a natural
dying-off of the life substance of the plant cells. From
a practical point of view it does not make any differ-
ence whether the one or the other explanation is
correct. The facts are with us, that if much air is
admitted into the silo, through cracks in the wall or
through loose packing of the siloed mass, considerable
losses of food substances will take place, first, because
the processes of decomposition are then allowed to go
on beyond the point necessary to bring about the
changes by which the silage differs from green fodder,
and second, because the decomposition will cause more.
or less of the fodder to spoil and mold.

2. The silo must be deep. Depth is essential in
building a silo, so as to have the siloed fodder under
considerable pressure, which will cause it to pack well
and leave as little air as possible in the interstices be-
tween the cut fodder, thus reducing the losses of food
materials toa minimum. ‘The early silos built in this
country or abroad were at fault in this respect; they
were shallow structures, not over 12-15 ft. perhaps,
and were longer than they were deep. Experience
showed that it was necessary to weight heavily the
siloed fodder placed in these silos, in order to avoid

28 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

getting a large amount of moldy silage. In our mod-
ern silos no weighting is necessary, since the material
placed in the silo is sufficiently heavy from the great
depth of it to largely exclude the air in the siloed fod-
der and thus secure a good quality of silage. In case
of deep silos the loss from spoiled silage on the top is
smaller in proportion to the whole amount of silage
stored; there is also less surface in proportion to the
silage stored, hence a smaller loss occurs while the
silage is being fed out, and since the silage is more
closely packed, less air is admitted from the top. As
the silage packs better in a deep silo than in a shallow
one, the former kind of silos will hold more silage per
cubic foot than the latter; this is plainly seen from the
figures given in the table on p. 31. Silos built during
late years have generally been over thirty feet deep,
and many are forty feet deep, or more.

3. The silo must have smooth, perpendicular walls,
which will allow the mass to settle without forming
cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will
settle several feet during the first few days after filling.
Any unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from
settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus
formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil.

4. The walls of the silo must be rigid and very strong,
so as not to spring when the siloed fodder settles.
The lateral (outward ) pressure of cut fodder corn when
settling at the time of filling is considerable, and in-
creases with the depth of the silage at the rate of
about eleven pounds per square foot of depth. Ata
depth of 20 feet there is, therefore, an outward press-
sure of about 220 pounds per square foot; at 30 feet
a pressure of 330 pounds, etc. In case of a 16-foot
square silo where the sill is 30 feet below the top of
the silage the side pressure on the lower foot of the
wall would be about 16x330, or 5280 pounds.

It is because of this great pressure that it is so diffi-
cult to make large rectangular silos deep enough to be

SIZE OF THE SILO. 29

economical, and it is because the walls of rectangular
silos always spring more or less under the pressure of
the silage that this seldom keeps as well in them as it
does in those whose walls cannot spring.

As the silage in the lower part of the silo continues
to settle, the stronger outward pressure there spreads
the walls more than higher up and the result is the
wall may be actually forced away from the silage, so
that air may enter from above; and even if this does
not occur the pressure against the sides will be so
much lessened above by the greater spreading below
that if the walls are at all open, air will more readily
enter through them.

In the round wooden silos every board acts as a hoop
and as the wood stetches but little lengthwise there
can be but little spreading of such walls, and in the
case of stave silos the iron hoops prevent any spread-
ing, and it is on account of these facts that the round
silo is rapidly replacing every other form.

After the silage has once settled, there is no lateral
pressure in the silo; cases are on record where a filled
silo has burned down to the ground with the silage re-
maining practically intact as a tall stack.

Other points of importance in silo building which
do not apply to all kinds of silos, will be considered
when we come to describe different kinds of silo
structures. Several questions present themselves at
this point for consideration, viz., how large a silo shall
be built, where it is to be located, and what form of
silo is preferable under different conditions ?

On the Size of Silo Required.

In planning a silo the first point to be decided is
how large it shall be made. We will suppose that a
farmer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he
wishes to feed silage during the winter season, say for
180 days. We note at this point that silage will not
be likely to give best results with milch cows, or with

30 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

any other class of farm animals, when it furnishes the
entire portion of the dry matter of the feed ration.
As a rule, it will not be well to feed over forty pounds
of silage daily per head. If this quantity be fed
daily, on an average for a season of 180 days, we
have for the twenty-five cows 180,000 pounds, or nine-
ty tons. On account of the fermentation processes
taking place in the silo, we have seen that there is an
unavoidable loss of food materials during the siloing
period, amounting to, perhaps, 10 per cent. ; we must,
therefore, put more than the quantity given into the
silo. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one
hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the
silo; we figure, therefore, that we shall need about 4
tons of silage per head for the winter, but, perhaps,
5 tons per head would be a safer calculation, and pro-
vide for some increase in the size of the herd.

Corn silage will weigh from thirty pounds, or less,
to toward fifty pounds per cubic foot, according to
the depth in the silo from which it is taken, and the
amount of moisture which it contains. We may take
forty pounds as an average weight of a cubic foot of
corn silage. One ton of silage will, accordingly, take
up fifty cubic feet ; and 100 tons, 5000 cubic feet. If
a rectangular one-hundrd-ton silo is to be built, say
12x14 feet, it must then have a height of 30 feet. If
a square silo is wanted, it might be given dimensions
I2x12x35 feet, or 13x13x30 feet; if a circular silo
the following dimensions will be about right ; diameter
16 feet, height of silo 26 feet, etc. In the same way,
a silo holding 200 tons of corn or clover silage may be
built of the dimensions 16x24x26 feet, 20x20x25 feet,
or, if round, diameter, 20 feet, height 32 feet. ete.

Since the capacity of round silos is not as readily
computed as in case of rectangular silos, we give be-
low a table which shows at a glance the approximate
number of tons of silage that a round silo, of a diam-

CAPACITY OF, ROUND SILOS. oii

eter from 10 to 26 feet, and 20 to 32 feet deep, will
hold.

APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOS, FOR WELL-
MATURED CoRN SILAGE, IN TONS.

DEPTH INSIDE DIAMETER OF SILO, FEET.

OF

SILO 7
ee a0 1 1S ee A pt | 48 20") vat | 22! 23° |), aaePegs | Be

| | = | = —|———-_~ ——-]- |

20 a6.\ 38 | 51) 59) 67) 85 | 105. (115 | 127 1.438 | 151") 163 | aa
21 28 | 40°) 55) 63 }:172:) OF | 112 | 123'] 135 |) 148 |\d6r-| 175 | 189
a. 30). 435] 59°) G74) 77 | 97-| 120} 432.1 145.1. 158 | 172.1 187 | 202
Ve AS 32 | 46} 62| 72| 82 | 103 | 128 | 141 | 154 || 169 | 184 | 199 | 216
2 34|:49 | 66] 76] 87 | 110 | 135 | 149 | 164 | 179 | 195 | 212 | 229
se ces. S61 524 7 81 | 90 | 116 | 143 | 158 | 173 | 190 | 206 | 224 | 242
Cte eee 38 | 551° 74| 85] 97 | 123 | 152 ; 168 | 184 || 201 | 219.| 237 | 257
2.7 40 | 58 | 781 90 | 103 } 130 | 160 | 177 | 194 || 212 | 231 | 251 | 271
ee 42 | 61 | 831! 95 | 108 | 137 | 169 | 186 | 204 || 223 | 243 | 264 | 285
BOP io alt 45 | 64 | 881 100 | 114 | 144] 178 | 196 | 215 || 235 | 265 | 278 | 300
2) eee 47 | 68 | 93] 105 | 119 | 151 | 187 | 206 | 226 | 247 | 269 | 292 | 315
ce 49 | 70 | 96 | 110 | 125 | 158 | 195 | 215 | 236 || 258 | 282 | 305 | 330
cy ae ae 51 | 73 | 101 | 115 | 131 | 166 | 205.| 226 | 248 || 271 | 295 | 320 | 346

The following table which has been reproduced from
a trade publication shows at a glance how much silage
is required to keep eight to forty-five cows for six
months, feeding them 4o lbs. a day, and the dimensions
of circular silos as well as the area of land required to
furnish the different amounts of feed given, computed
at 15 tons per acre. The amounts of silage given in
the table refer to the number of tons in the silo after
all shrinkage has occurred; as the condition of the
corn as placed in the silo differs considerably, these
figures may vary in different years, or with different
crops of corn, and should not be interpreted too strictly;
the manner of filling the silo will also determine how
much corn the silo will hold: if the silo is filled with
well-matured corn, and after this has settled for a
couple of days, filled up again, it will hold at least ten
per cent more silage than when it is filled rapidly and
not refilled after settling. To the person about to fill
a silo for the first time, it is suggested that it requires

32 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

a ‘‘good crop’’ to yield 15 tons per acre, and as a “‘lit-
tle too much is about right,’’ be sure to plant enough
to fill the silo full, being guided by the condition of
soil, etc., under his control.

Cows it will kee
| Dimensions. | Capacity Tons. | ate to a 15) 6 months. 40 Ibs.
| | ons to Acre. feed per day.

IO X 20 | 28 2 8
I2 x 30 | 40 3 II
eo aed | SH 49 eo 13
f I2 x 28 60 4 15
1A xi 22 61 4 I-2 17
14 x 24 | 67 4 2-3 19
| 14 x 28 83 5 2-3 22
| I4 x 30 | 93 6 23
16 x 24 87 | 6 2-5 24
| 16 x 26 97 | 7 26
16x: 30 | 11g | 8 29
18 x 30 | I5I 10 1-5 37
| 18 x 36 180 12 I-3 45

On the Form of Silos.

The first kind of silos built, in this country or
abroad,were simply holes or pits in the ground, into
which the fodder was dumped, and the pit was then
covered with a layer of dirt and, sometimes at least,
weighted with planks and stones. . Then, when it was
found that a large proportion of the feed would spoil
by this crude method, separate silo structures were
built, first of stone, and later on, of wood, brick or
cement. As previously stated, the first separate silos
built were rectangular, shallow structures, with a door
opening at one end. The silos of the French pioneer
Siloist, Auguste Goffart, were about 16 feet high and
40x 16 feet at the bottom. Another French silo built
about fifty years ago, was 206x 21% feet, and 15 feet
deep, holding nearly 1500 tons of silage. Silos of a
similar type, but of smaller dimensions, were built in
this country in the early stages of silo building. Ex-
perience had taught siloists that it was necessary to

ON THE FORM OF SILOS. 33

weight the fodder heavily in these silos, in order to
avoid the spoiling of large quantities of silage. In
Goffart’s silos, boards were thus placed on top of the
siloed fodder, and the mass was weighted at the rate
of one hundred pounds per square foot.

It was found, however, after some time, that this
heavy weighting could be dispensed with by making
the silos deep, and gradually the deep silos came more
and more into use. ‘These silos were first built in this
country in the latter part of the eighties; at the pres-
ent time none but silos at least twenty to twenty-four
feet deep are built, no matter of what form or material
they are made, and most silos built are at least twenty-
four to thirty feet deep, or more.

Since 1892 the cylindrical form of silos has become
more and more general. ‘These silos have the advan-
tage over all other kinds in point of cost and coven-
ience, as well as quality of the silage obtained. We
shall, later on, have an occasion to refer to the relative
cost of the various forms of silos, and shall here only
mention a few points in favor of the round silos.

1. Round silos can be built cheaper than square
ones, because it takes less lumber per cubic foot capac-
ity, and because lighter material may be used in their
construction. ‘The sills and studding here do no work
except to support the roof, since the lining acts asa
hoop to prevent spreading of the wall.

2. One of the essentials in silo building is that.
there shall be a minimum of surface and wall exposure
of the silage, as both the cost and the danger from
losses through spoiling are thereby reduced. The
round silos are superior to all other forms in regard to
this point, as will be readily seen from an example: A
rectangular silo, 16x32x24 feet, has the same number
of square feet of wall surface as a square silo, 24x24
feet, and of the same depth, or as a circular silo 30
feet in diameter and of the same depth; but these silos
will hold about the following quantities of silage:

34 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Rectangular silo, 246 tons; square silo, 276 tons;
circular silo, 338 tons. Less lumber will, therefore, be
needed to hold a certain quantity of silage in case of
square silos than in case of rectangular ones, and less
for cylindrical silos than for square ones, the cylindri-
cal form being, therefore, the most economical of the
three types.

3. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil
after a few days, if left exposed to the air; hence the
necessity of considering the extent of surface exposure
of silage in the silo while it is being fed out. Ina
deep silo there is less silage exposed in the surface
layer in proportion to the contents than in shallow
silos. Experience has taught us that if the silage is
fed down at a rate slower than 1.2 inches daily, mold-
ing is hable to set in. About two inches of the top
layer of the silage should be fed out daily during cold
weather in order to prevent the silage from spoiling;
in warm weather about three inches must be taken off
daily; if a deeper layer of silage can be fed off daily,
there will be less waste of food materials; some
farmers thus plan to feed off 5 or 6 inches of silage
daily. The form of the silo must therefore be planned,
according to the size of the herd, with special refer-
ence to this point. Professor King estimates that
there should be a feeding surface in the silo of about
five square feet per cow in the herd; a herd of thirty
cows will then require 150 square feet of feeding sur-
face, or the inside diameter of the silo should be 14
feet; for a herd of forty cows a silo with a diameter
of 16 feet will be required ; for fifty cows, a diameter
of 18 feet ; for one hundred cows, a diameter of 254%
Feek, (etc:

He gives the following table showing the number
of cows required to eat 1.2 to 2 inches of silage daily
in silos 24 and 30 feet deep, assuming that they are
fed 4o lbs. of silage daily for 180 or 240 days:

DIAMETER AND DEPTH OF THE SILO. 35

Relation of Horizontal Feeding Area and Number of Cows
Kept, for Silos 24 and 30 Feet Deep.

FEED FOR 240 DAYS. FEED FOR 180 DAYS.
Silo Silo Silo Szlo
No. |74 Jeet deep.|| 30 feetdeep. || 24 feet deep.|| 30 feet deep.
OF 1 TP a er FG ark
Cows. Rate Rate Rate Rate 4
1.2 in daily. ||1.5 in. daily. || 1.6 in. daily. || 2 in. daily.
Tons. | diam || Toms. | Gam, || Tom | diam. || TOMS: | diam.
Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
Tot... 48 12 48 IO. | SO ae) 36 9
fs ee z 15 72 12 54 a 54 ba
OO... 96 17 96 14 72 1 a eo 12
25 sx, |¢¢ T20 19 120 16 go 16 go 14
Bea | lAg at 144 18 108 18 108 15
Bia! LOO dee 168 | 19 126") t9 126 16
mer ts S192 24 192 20 || 144 ry 144 18
BSD) 206, "| 26 Boy |.) 72a 162) (| 1122 162 Igte
BO y. i240. 1°27 240 23 180.) \,23,0%,|| #180 20
Geo. | 285. | 29 288 | 25 216) |) 2s 216, |) ¢ 25
BO. scl 330 ao 336 oly (ee eae 2 WN ae 23
OO Bom a4. 384 29 288 29 288 25
GOLD HNN I452 36 432 30 324 31 324 26
DOOY «):4) ASO ty BBiy Nel ABO 115.32 fry 360) 33 hi maGor |, (28

In choosing diameters and depths for silos for par-
ticular: herds, individual needs and conditions must
decide which is best. It may be said, in general, that
for the smaller sizes of silos the more shallow ones
will be somewhat cheaper in construction and be more
easily filled with small powers. For large herds the
deeper types are best and cheapest.

One of the most common mistakes made in silo con-
struction is that of making it too large in diameter for
the amount of stock to be fed silage. Wherever silage
heats and molds badly on or below the feeding surface

36 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

heavy loss in feeding value is being sustained, and in
such cases the herd should be increased so that the
losses may be prevented by more rapid feeding. (King.)

Location of the Silo.

The location of the silo is a matter of great import-
ance, which has to be decided upon at the start. The
feeding of the silage is an every-day job during the
whole winter and spring, and twice a day at that.
Other things being equal, the nearest available place
is therefore the best. The silo should be as handy to
get at from the barn as possible. The condition of
the ground must be considered. If the ground is dry
outside the barn, the best plan to follow is to build the
silo there, in connection with the barn, going four to
six feet below the surface, and providing for doors
opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the
silo should be on or below the level where the cattle
stand, and, if practicable, the silage should be moved
out and placed before the cows at a single handling.
While it is important to have the silo near at hand, it
should be so located, in case the silage is used for milk
production, that silage odors do not penetrate the
whole stable, at milking or at other times. Milk is
very sensitive to odors, and unless care is taken to
feed silage after milking, and to have pure air, free
from silage odor, in the stable, at the time of milking,
there will be a silage flavor to the milk. This will not
be sufficiently pronounced to be noticed by most peo-
ple, and some people cannot notice it at all; but when
a person is suspicious, he can generally discover it.
So far as is known this odor is not discernible in either
butter or cheese made from silage-flavored milk, nor
does it seem to affect the keeping qualities of the milk
in any way.

Different Types of Silo Structures.
Silos may be built of wood, stone, brick or cement,

THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SILOS. 37

or partly of one and partly of another of these materi-
als. Wooden silos may be built of several layers of
thin boards nailed to uprights, or of single planks
(staves), or may be plastered inside. The material
used will largely be determined by local conditions ;
where lumber is cheap, and stone high, wooden silos
will generally be built ; where the opposite is true,
stone or brick silos will have the advantage in point
of cheapness, while concrete silos are likely to be pre-
ferred where cobble-stones are at hand in abundance,
and lumber or stone are hard to get at a reasonable
cost. So far as the quality of the silage made in any
of these kinds of silos is concerned, there is no differ-
ence when the silos are properly built. The longevity
of stone and concrete silos is usually greater than that
of wooden silos, since the latter are more easily at-
tacked by the silage juices and are apt to decay in
places after a number of years, unless special precau-
tions are taken to preserve them. A well-built and
well-cared-for wooden silo should, however, last almost
indefinitely.

As regards the form of the silo, it may be built in
rectangular form, square, octagon or round. We
have already seen that the most economical of these is
ordinarily the round form, both because in such silos
there is less wall space per cubic unit of capacity, and
in case of wooden round silos, lighter material can be
used in their construction. The only place where silos
of square or rectangular form are built now is inside
of barns, where they fit in better than a round struct-
ure. Weshall later on give directions for building
silos inside of a barn, but shall now go over to a dis-
cussion of the various forms of round silos that are apt
to be met with. More round wooden silos have been
built during late years in this country than of all other
kinds of silos combined, and this type of silos, either
built of uprights lined inside and outside with two
layers of half-inch boards, or of one thickness of

38 “HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

staves, will doubtless be the main silo type of the
future; hence we shall give full information as to
their building, and shall then briefly speak of the
other forms mentioned which may be considered pref-
erable in exceptional cases.

Round Wooden Silos.

Round wooden silos were first described, and their
use advocated, in Bulletin No. 28, issued by the Wis-
consin Station in July, 1891, and hence have come to
be known as ‘‘Wisconsin Silos.’’ The first detailed and
illustrated description of this type of silos was pub-
lished in this bulletin ; since that time it has been de-
scribed in several bulletins and reports issued by the
station mentioned, and in numerous publications from
other experiment stations. All writers who have dis-
cussed the question of silo construction agree that this
form of silos is admirable, and the best that can be put
up where a durable, first-class silo of a moderate cost
is wanted. This type, and the one to be described in
the following, the stave silo, are practically the only
kinds of wooden silos that have been built in this
country during late years, except where unusual con-
ditions have prevailed, that would make some other
kind of silo structure preferable.

The following description of the Wisconsin silo is
from the pen of Prof. King, the originator of this
type of silos, as published in bulletin No. 83 of the
Wisconsin Station (dated May, 1900):

The Foundation.—There should be a good, substan-
tial masonry foundation for all forms of wood silos,
and the woodwork should everywhere be at least 12
inches above the earth, to prevent decay from damp-
ness. ‘There are few conditions where it will not be
desirable to have the bottom of the silo 3 feet or more
below the feeding floor of the stable, and this will re-
quire not less than 4 to 6 feet of stone, brick, or con-
crete wall. Fora silo 30 feet deep the foundation wall

ILLUSTRATION . 39

Fig. 1. Showing method of placing all wood Silos on stone
Joundation, with pit dug out to increase depth.

4o HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

of stone should be 1.5 to 2 feet thick.

The inside of the foundation wall may be made

flush with the woodwork above, or nearly so, as repre-
sented in Fig. 1, or the building may stand in the or-
dinary way, flush with the outside of the stone wall,
as represented in Fig. 2. In both cases the wall
should be finished sloping as shown in the drawings.
. So far as the keeping of the silage is concerned it
makes little difference which of these types of con-
struction is adopted. The outward pressure on the
silo wall is greater where the wall juts into the silo,
but the wall is better protected against the weather.
Where the projecting wall is outside, the silo hasa
greater capacity, but there is a strong tendency for
the wall to crack and allow rain to penetrate it. Where
this plan is followed it is important to finish the slop-
ing surface with cement, or to shingle it, to keep out
the water.

Bottom of the Silo.—After the silo has been com-
pleted the ground forming the bottom should be thor-
oughly tamped so as to be solid, and then covered
with two or three inches of good concrete made of 1
of cement to 3 or 4 of sand and gravel. The amount
of silage which will spoil on a hard clay floor will not
be large, but enough to pay a good interest on the
money invested in the cement floor. If the bottom of
the silo is in dry sand or gravel the cement bottom is
imperative to shut out the soil air.

Lying the Top of the Stone Wall.—In case the wood
portion of the silo rises 24 or more feet above the
stone work, and the diameter is more than 18 feet, it
will be prudent to stay the top of the wall in some
way.

If the woodwork rises from the outer edge of the
wall, then building the wall up with cement so as to
-cover the sill and lining as represented in Figs. 3 and
4 will give the needed strength, because the woodwork
will act as a hoop; but if the silo stands at the inner

ILLUSTRATION. 4l

Fig. 2. Showing an all-wood round silo on stone foundation.
H represents a method of sawing boards for the conical roof.

42 HOW TO BVIED A SILO.

ISSSSASSN
OO LI ML Ts

Fig. 3. Showing method of construction for ventilating the
spaces between the studding in all-wood and lathed and
plastered silos.

THE STONE FOUNDATION. 43

face of the wall, it will be best to lay pieces of iron
rod in the wall near the top to act as a hoop.

Where the stone portion of the silo is high enough
to need a door, it is best to leave enough wall between
the top and the sill to allow a tie rod of iron to be
bedded in this portion. So, too, the lower door in the

CC ——
ee ZE_=

K
\

a)

\\\W
\ <A
\
\

N

ai Why
Y) J GES
Y . A= =
Lie
J We ae
y ME
MW Pace
y Wz fan
ANN We
Y WA OS
A \ WA Ae
A WN Ee
y WN
A Ai \ WAN AZ
IW: ass

Fig. 4. Showing construction of all-wood silo, and connec-
tion with wall, flush with outside.

44 HOW , TO - BUILD: A,-SILO,

woodwork of the silo should have a full foot in width
below it of lining and siding uncut to act as a hoop,
where the pressure is strongest.

forming the Sill.—The sill in the all-wood silo may
be made of a single 2x4 cut in 2-foot lengths, with
the ends beveled so that they may be toenailed togeth-
er to form circle (Fig. 5).

Setting the Studding,—’The studding of the all-
wood round silo need not be larger than 2x4 unless
the diameter is to exceed 30 feet, but they should be
set as close together as one foot from center to center,
as represented in Fig.6. ‘This number of studs is not

Fig. 5. Showing method of making the sill of round wood
Silos. ae

THE ‘‘ WISCONSIN’’ SILO. 45

required for strength but they are needed in order to
bring the two layers of lining very close together, so
as to press the paper closely and prevent air from en-
tering where the paper laps.

Where studding longer than 20 feet are needed,
short lengths may be lapped one foot and simply
spiked together before they are set in place on the wall.
This will be cheaper than to pay the higher price for
long lengths. All studding should be given the exact
length desired before putting them in place.

To stay the studding a post should be set in the

Fig.6 Showing the plan of studding for the all-wood, brick-
lined or lathed and plastered silo.

46 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

ground in the center of the silo long enough to reach
about 5 feet above the sill, and to this stays may be
nailed to hold in place the alternate studs until the
lower 5 feet of outside sheeting has been put on. The
studs should be set first at the angles formed in the

- ELL ALLL IV LLL LIV LPL LFA

) .—_—_—_—_—4

Fig. 7. Showing the construction of the door for the all-wood
silo.

>>

THE “‘ WISCONSIN ’’ SILO. 47
sill and carefully stayed and plumbed on the side to-
ward the center. When a number of these have been
set they should be tied together by bending a strip of
half-inch sheeting around the outside as high up asa
man can reach, taking care to plumb each stud on the
side before nailing. When the alternate studs have
been set in this way the balance may be placed and
toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the rib, first plumb-
ing them sideways and toward the center.

Setting Studding for Doors.—On the side of the silo
where the doors are to be placed the studding should
be set double and the’ distance apart to give the de-
sired width. A stud should be set between the two
door studs as though no door were to be there, and
the doors cut out at the places desired afterwards.
The construction of the door is represented in Fig. 7.

Silo Sheeting and Siding.—The character of the
siding and sheeting will vary considerably according
to conditions, and the size of the silo.

Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet
‘inside and not much attention need be paid to frost, a
single layer of beveled siding, rabbetted on the inside
of the thick edge deep enough to receive the thin edge
of the board below, will be all that is absolutely nec-
essary on the outside for strength and _ protection
against weather. This statement is made on the sup-
position that the lining is made of two layers of fenc-
ing split in two, the three layers constituting the
hoops.

If the silo is larger than 18 feet inside diameter,
there should be a layer of haif-inch sheeting outside,
under the siding.

If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken
to paint it at once, otherwise it will warp badly if it
gets wet before painting.

In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, car-
rying the work upward until staging is needed, fol-
lowing this at once with the siding. Two 8-penny

48 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. |

nails should be used in each board in every stud, and
to prevent the walls from getting ‘‘out of round”’
the succeeding courses of boards should begin on
the next stud, thus making the ends of the boards
break joints.

When the stagings are put up, new stays should be
tacked to the studs above, taking care to plumb each
one from side to side; the siding itself will bring them
into place and keep them plumb the other way, if care
is taken to start new courses as described above.

Forming the Plate.-—When the last staging is up

Fis. 8. Showinz construction of conical roof of round silo,
where rafters are not used. The outer cirele ts the lower
edge of the roof.

THE ‘‘ WISCONSIN’’ SILO. 49

the plate should be formed by spiking 2x4’s cut in °
two-foot lengths, in the manner of sill, and as repre-
sented in Fig. 8, down upon the tops of the studs,
using two courses, making the second break joints
with the first.

The Lining of the Wooden Silo.— There are several
ways of making a good lining for the all-wood round -
silo, but whichever method is adopted it must be kept
in mind that there are two very important ends to be
secured with a certainty. These are (1) a lining .
which shall be and remain: strictly, air-tight, (2) a
lining which will be reasonably permanent.

All Wood Lining of 4-inch Flooring.—lIf{ one is wil-
ling to permit a loss of 10 to 12 per cent. of the silage
by heating, then a lining of tongued and grooved or-
dinary 4-inch white pine flooring may be made in the
manner represented in Fig. 9, where the flooring runs
up and down. When this lumber is put on in the
seasoned condition a single layer would make tighter
walls than can be secured with the stave silo where the
staves are neither beveled nor tongued and grooved.

In the silos smaller than 18 feet inside diameter the
two layers of boards outside will give the needed
strength, but when the silo is larger than this and
deep, there would be needed a layer of the split fenc-
ing on the inside for strength;-and if in addition to
this there is added a layer of 3-ply Giant P. and B.
paper a lining of very superior quality would be thus
secured.

Lining of Half-inch Boards and Paper —Where
paper is used to make the joints between boards air-
tight, as represented in Fig. 4, it is extremely import-
ant that a quality which will not decay, and which is
both acid- and water-proof be used. A paper which
is not acid- and water-proof will disintegrate at the
joints in a very short time, and thus leave the lining
very defective.

The best paper for silo purposes with which we are

50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

acquainted is a 3-ply Giant P. and B. brand manufac-
tured by the Standard Paint Co., of Chicago and New
York. It is thick, strong, and acid- and water-proof.
A silo lining with two thicknesses of good fencing

See
s tat)
(are Vann

‘
@ :

ete SES,

ye 73.

e .
, TV
\ Ds

LO
ig ES

&

22

2

Bee iad
, etd Hain

‘ i ees

5 F
fe: 7

Fig. 9. Showing the construction of the all-wood round silo
where the lining is made of ordinary four-inch flooring
running up and down, and nailed to girts cut in between
the studding every four feet.

THE ‘‘ WISCONSIN ’’ SILO. 51

having only small knots, and these thoroughly sound
and not black, will make an excellent lining. Great
care should be taken to have the two layers of boards
break joints at their centers, and the paper should lap
not less than 8 to 12 inches.

The great danger with this type of lining will be
that the boards may not press the two layers of paper
together close enough but that some air may rise
between the two sheets where they overlap, and thus
gain access to the silage. It would be an excellent
precaution to take to tack down closely with small
carpet tacks the edges of the paper where they over-
lap, and if this is done a lap of 4 inches will be suffi-
cient. .

The first layer of lining should be put on with
8-penny nails, two in each board and stud, and the
second or inner layer with 1o-penny nails, the funda-
mental object being to draw the two layers of boards
as closely together as possible.

Such a lining as this will be very durable because
the paper will keep all the lumber dry except the inner
layer of half-inch boards, and this will be kept wet by
the paper and silage until empty, and then the small
thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rot-
ting to set in.

A still more substantial lining of the same type
may be secured by using two layers of paper between
three layers of boards, as represented in Fig. 4, and
if the climate is not extremely severe, or if the silo is
only to be fed from in the summer; it would be better
to do away with the layer of sheeting and paper out-
side, putting on the inside, thus securing two layers
of paper and three layers of boards for the lining with
the equivalent of only 2 inches of lumber.

The Silo Roof.

The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several
ways, but the simplest type of construction and the

52 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

one requiring the least amount of material is that rep-
resented in Figs. 7 and 8, and which is the cone.

If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter
no rafters need be used, and only a single circle like
that in the center of Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch
stuff cut in sections in the form of a circle and two
layers spiked together, breaking joints.

The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the
inner circle and to the plate, as shown in the drawing,
the boards having been sawed diagonally as represent-
ed at H, Fig. 2, making the wide and narrow ends the
same relative widths as the circumferences of the out-
er edge of the roof and of the inner circle.

If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet
it will be necessary to use two or three hoops accord-
ing to diameter. When the diameter is greater than
25 feet it will usually be best to use rafters and head-
ers cut in for circles 4 feet apart to nail the roof boards
to, which are cut as represented at H, Fig. 2.

The conical roof may be covered with ordinary
shingles, splitting those wider than 8 inches. By lay-
ing the butts of the shingles ¥% to 4 of an inch apart
it is not necessary to taper any of the shingles except
a few courses near the peak of the roof.

In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the
right exposure to the weather, a good method is to
use a strip of wood as a radius which works on a cen-
ter set at the peak of the roof and provided with a
nail or pencil to make a mark on the shingle where
the butts of the next course are to come. The radius
may be bored with a series of holes the right distance
apart to slip over the center pivot, or the nail may be
drawn and reset as desired. Some carpenters file a
notch in the shingling hatchet, and use this to bring
the shingle to place.

Ventilation of the Silo.

Kvery silo which has a roof should be provided with

VENTILATION OF THE SILO. 53

ample ventilation to keep the under side of the roof
dry, and in the case of wood silos, to prevent the walls
and lining from rotting. One of the most serious mis-
takes in the early construction of wood silos was the
making of the walls with dead-air spaces, which, on
account of dampness from the silage, lead to rapid
“dry rot’’ of the lining.

In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is im-
portant to provide ample ventilation for the spaces
between the studs, as well as for the roof and the in-
side of the silo, and a good method of doing this is
represented in Fig. 3, where the lower portion repre-
sents the sill and the upper the plate of the silo.
Between each pair of studs where needed a 1%-inch
auger hole to admit air is bored through the siding
and sheeting and covered witha piece of wire netting
to keep out mice and rats. At the top of the silo on
the inside the lining is only covered to within two
inches of the plate and this space is covered with wire
netting to prevent silage from being thrown over when
filling. This arrangement permits dry air from out-
side to enter at the bottom between each pair of studs
and to pass up and into the silo, thus keeping the
lining and studding dry and at the same time drying
the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining
as fast as exposed. In those cases where the sill is
made of 2x4’s cut in 2-foot lengths there will be space
enough left between the curved edge of the siding and
sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that no holes
need be bored as described above and represented in
Fig. 3. The openings at the plate should always be
provided and the silo should have some sort of venti-
lator in the roof. This ventilator may take the form
of a cupola to serve for an ornament as well, or it may
be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24 inches in
diameter, rising a foot or two through the peak of the
roof, —

54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.
Painting the Silo Lining.

It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will
not become wholly or partly saturated with the silage
juices. This being true, when the lining is again ex-
posed when feeding the silage out, the paint greatly
retards the drying of the wood work and the result is
decay sets in, favored by the prolonged dampness.
For this reason it is best to leave a wood lining naked
or to use some antiseptic which does not form a water-
proof coat.

The cost of such a silo as that described in the fore-
going pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12.75
cents per square foot of outside surface, when the lin-
ing consists of two layers of half-inch split fencing,
with a 3-ply Giant P. & B. paper between, and with
one layer of split fencing outside, covered with rab-
beted house siding. If built inside of the barn, with-
out a roof and not painted, the cost would be reduced
3 cents per square foot, or more. Silos of this type,
30 feet deep, built outside, provided with a roof and
including 6 feet of foundation, are stated to cost as
follows: 13 feet inside diameter (80 tons capacity),
$183.00; 15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00;
21 feet diameter (206 tons capacity), $298.00; and 25
feet diameter (300 tons capacity), $358.00.

Complete specifications and building plans for a 300-
ton silo, of the kind described in the preceding pages,
are given in Prof. Woll’s Book on Silage (Rand, Mc-
Nally & Co., Chicago, publishers). The dimensions
of this silo are: Diameter 26 feet, height 30 feet.

According to our present knowledge this form of
silo is most likely the best that can be built; it isa
somewhat complicated structure, calls for more time
and skill for its construction, and costs more than
other kinds of wooden circular silos, especially more
than the stave silo ‘soon to be described; but once
built, it needs but little attention, and it is durable

23

THE MODIFIED ‘‘ WISCONSIN’’ SILO. 55
and econoniical ; being practically air-tight, the losses
of food materials in the siloed fodder are reduced toa
minimum.

Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo.

Several modifications of the Wisconsin silo have
been proposed and have given good satisfaction ; one
is described by Prof. Plumb in Purdue Experiment
Station Bulletin No. 91, as follows:

The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half
way up there are three layers of sheeting against the
studs with tarred paper between. The upper. half of
the studs has but two layers of sheeting. The sheet-
ing was made by taking 2x6-inch white pine planks
and sawing to make four boards. ‘The silo rests on a
stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. It is
30 feet high, 18 feet 4 inches inside diameter, and
holds about 150 tons. An inexpensive but durable
roof was placed upon it. The cost of this structure is
as follows: As the work was all done by the regular
farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given at
estimated cost: Studding, $13.03; sheeting, $63.00 ;
5 rolls paper, $6.25; nails, $2.40; cement for wall,
$2.40; labor, $20.00; total, $107.08. The owner of
the silo was so pleased with the service this one had
rendered since its construction, that he built another
like it during the summer of 1902. ‘This silo is con-
nected by a covered passage and chute with the feed-
ing floor of the cattle barn. .

The construction of this type of silo calls for as
much care in putting on sheeting, making doors and
keeping out the air at these places and at the founda-
tion, as is required with the more expensive form pre-
viously described. The need for outer siding will
depend in a large measure on circumstances. The
farmer building the silo (living in Central Indiana )
bas had no trouble with his silage freezing. In
Northern Indiana the siding would naturally be more

56 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

necessary than in the southern part of this state, but
generally speaking, siding is not necessary, although
it does materially ‘add to the attractiveness of the silo,

Plastered Round Wooden Silos.

Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor
among farmers who have tried them, and are preferred
by many for either the original or the modified Wis-
consin. silo, on account of their ease of construction
and their durability. In the experience of H. B.
Gurler, a well known Illinois dairyman, who has built
several silos on his farm in the course of the last dozen
years, the walls of plastered silos keep perfectly and

Ta

TONNE

|

MULES.
ee. HTT
_ TTT
oe TTLATAN == TARA

| PA

|

Hi

flevelion Ie"e/ 10°. (SECTION ree

Fig. 9%. Elevation and section of plastered round wooden silo,

PLASTERED ROUND WOODEN SILO. 57

there is no waste from moldy silage along the wall ;
neither is there any difficulty about cracking of the
plaster, if this is put on properly and a good quality
of cement is used. Gurler described the construction
of his plastered silo in a recent number of Breeder’s
Gazette, accompanying his description with building
plans of his silo. We have reproduced the latter,
changed and improved in some points of minor impor-
tance, and give below a brief description of the method
of building silos of this type. (See Figs. 9% and to. )

The foundation may be made of stone, brick or
cement, and is carried to the proper distance above
ground. Sills composed of pieces of 2x4, two feet
long, beveled at the ends so as to be toe-nailed togeth-

leboe! Hoopes Fy jor lax 6~ a aapeta ee Py Thier
244 she's 12" centers.
Ja Aside hang 6 wide.

ae

vIn
Hots oth 8 phsler Le” thicx
Frsde ep A feancttion

Ya shee

Plan

Seole fa'=1-0"

Pole bedelad SK
| Picci * Die, belt 2° 0"canlers

Nola
The ors Gre To be rae ovr Up ht
The ae mote Ieo Jhanness 4 SY.
Ste fo 56 mee in two seciions The lower section Io be
eAeraaiing 124 to’ baplis ond upper sction Mlernding 16'¢ 14°

Fig. ro. Foundation plan and section of plastered round
wooden silo,

558 ; HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

er to form a circle of the same diameter as the interior
diameter of the silo, are placed on the foundation
bedded in asphalt or cement mortar, and on this the
studding is erected, using two by fours, placed 15 or
16 inches apart. Inside sheeting was secured by
having 6 inch fencing re-sawed, making the material
alittle less than % inch thick. On this was nailed
laths made from the same material, the laths being
made with beveled edges so that when nailed onto the
sheeting horizontally, the same way as the sheeting is
put on, there are dove-tailed joints between the laths,
to receive the cement, preventing its loosening until it
is broken. The patent grooved laths might be used,
but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle.
Better than either kind of wooden laths, however, is
wire netting or metal lath of one form or another,
such as is now generally used in outside plastering of
houses, nailed on strips of 1x2’s which are placed 15
inches apart, and nailed onto the studding through
the sheeting. Metal lath will not take up moisture
from the silage juices, and thus expand and possibly
cause the plaster to crack, as would be likely to occur
in case of wooden laths. For outside sheeting similar
material as that used for inside sheeting may be used.
If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no
outside sheeting would be required, although it would
add greatly to the looks of the silo. Not being cer-
tain that the inside sheeting, laths and cement offered
sufficient resistance to the outward pressure tn the
silo, Mr. Gurler put on wooden hoops outside of the
studding, of the same material as for the inside sheet-
ing, putting it on double thickness and breaking joints.
The silo described, which would hold 250-300 tons,
cost $300,. without a roof. Mr. Gurler considers this
silo the best that can be built, and estimates that it
will last for at least fifty years, if given a wash of
cement every three years and if any cracks that may
start be filled before the silo is filled again.

&
Fig. 11. Dairy Barn, Wisconsin Experiment Station. Brick lined silo in foreground.

60 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Brick-Lined Silos.

As an illustration of silos of this type we give be-
low a description of the silo built in connection with
the Dairy Barn of the Wisconsin Experiment Station:
the accompanying figures, 11 and 12, will show the
exterior appearance of the barn and silo, and a plan
of the eastern half of the first floor of this barn.

The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter
and 33 feet deep. It is a frame structure lined inside
and outside with brick. On 2x6 inch uprights, two
wrappings of 3g inch stuff, 6 inches wide, are put,
breaking joints, with no paper between. Brick is laid
tight against this lining, and on the brick surface is a
heavy coating of Portland cement (1 part cement,
I part sand). On the outside brick is laid up against
the lining with a small open space between (about %
inch). The silo is filled from the third floor of the
barn, the loads of corn being hauled directly on to
this floor over the trestle shown fo the right in Fig.
11, and there run through the feed cutter. When
the silage is taken out for feeding, it falls through a
box chute to the main floor where it is received into a
truck (Fig. 30) in which it is conveyed to the man-
gers of the animals.

An illustration and description of the original
round silo, with a capacity of 90 tons, built at the
same Station in 1891 are given in Prof. Woll’s Book
on Silage, where descriptions and illustrations of a
number of other first-class round wooden silos will
also be found, like those constructed at the Experi-
ment Stations in New Jersey, Missouri, and South
Dakota.

Stave Silos.

The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo
buildings, and partly for this reason, partly on account
of its cheapness of construction, more silos of this

STA. DAIRY BARN. 61

PLAN OF WIS.

oO OF f §
F=4 orice |
Sepesote — |
= :
= _f : BED
A ; ; ROOM
z ay 4 ae

i
;
t

First floor of barn showing stables, and Silo, etc., Wisconsin Experiment Station.

62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

kind have been built during the past few years than
any other silo type. ~

Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been
favorably mentioned by most writers on agricultural
topics, as well as by experiment station men. Ina
recent bulletin from Cornell Experiment Station, we
find the stave silo spoken of as ‘‘the most practical
and successful silo which can be constructed’’; and
the Ottawa Experiment Station is on record for the
following statement in regard to the stave silo: ‘‘From
extensive observation and study of silos and silo con-
struction, and from experience here with a number of
different silos, it would appear that the stave silo is
the form of cheap silos that for various reasons is most
worthy of recommendation. It combines simplicity
and cheapness of construction with the requisite con-
ditions to preserve the silage in the very best condition
for feeding.”’

Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large
railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfac-
tory silos should be built as well as a No. 1 water
tank. The first stave’ silos were built in this country
in the beginning of the nineties; they soon found
some enthusiastic friends, while most people, includ-
ing nearly all writers and lecturers on silo construc-
tion, were inclined to be skeptical as to their practica-
bility. It was objected that the staves would expand
so as to burst the hoops when the silo was filled with
green fodder; that they would shrink after having
been left empty during the summer months, so that
the silo would fall to pieces, or at least so that it could
not again be made air-tight; and finally, that the
silage would freeze in such silos, and its feeding value
thereby greatly lowered. In addition to this, it was
claimed that a substantial stave silo would cost as
much as a first-class ordinary all-wood silo of the same
capacity, which would not have the objectionable
features of the former.

THE STAVE SILO 63

In spite of these objections the stave silo has, how-
ever, gradually gained ground, until of late years it
has quite generally been adopted in preference to other
kinds of silos, particularly in the Eastern and Central
states. This being a fact, it follows that the objec-
tions previously made to the stave silos, can not be
valid, that the staves do not swell so as to burst the
hoops, or shrink so as to cause the silo to fall to pieces,
or become leaky. As regards the danger from freez-
ing of the silage, the criticisms of the stave silo are
in order, as silage in outdoor stave silos will be likely
to freeze in cold weather, in any of the Northern
states or Canada; but, according to the testimony of
farmers who have had experience with frozen silage,
this is more an inconvenience than a loss. The freez-
ing does not injure the feeding value of the silage, or
its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it is
as good as ever, and eaten by cattle with a relish.

Why Stave Silos have Become Numerous.

The main reasons why stave silos have been pre-
ferred by a majority of farmers during late years are
that they can be put up easily, quickly, and cheaply,
and the expense for a small silo of this kind is com-
paratively small. Many a farmer has built a stave
silo who could not afford to build a high-priced silo,
and others have preferred to build two small silos for
one large one, or asmall one in addition to an old,
larger one that they may already have. Manufactur-
ing firms have, furthermore, made a specialty of stave-
silo construction, and pushed the sale of such silos
through advertisements and neat circulars. Having
made a special business of the building of stave silos,
and having had several years’ experience as to the re-
quirements and precautions to be observed in building
such silos, these firms furnish silos complete with all
necessary fixtures, that are greatly superior to any

64 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

which a farmer would be apt to build according to
more or less incomplete directions.

It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufact-
uring firms will generally be more expensive than
such as a farmer can build himself, because they are
built better. It does not pay to build a poor silo,
however, except to bridge over an emergency. Poor,
cheap silos are a constant source of annoyance, expense
and trouble, whether built square, rectangular or
round. The cheap silos described in other places of
this book have not been given for the purpose of en-
couraging the building of such silos, but rather to
show that if a farmer cannot afford to build a perma-
nent, good silo, he.is not necessarily barred from the
advantage of having silage for his stock, since a tem-
porary silo may be built at a small cash outlay.

We can therefore consistently recommend that par-
ties intending to build stave silos patronize the manu-
facturers who have made silo construction a special
business. These firms furnish all necessary silo
fittings, with complete directions for putting up the
silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend
their building. Perhaps a large majority of the farm-
ers of the country cannot, fiowever, patronize manu-
facturers of stave silos because the expense of shipping
the lumber and fixtures would be prohibitory. For
the convenience of such parties and others who may
prefer to build their owm stave silos, directions for
their construction are given in the following. The
specifications for a 1oo-ton stave silo, printed below,
which are taken from Woll’s Book on Silage, were
furnished by Claude & Starck, Architects, Madison,
Wisconsin :

Specifications for a 1oo0-ton Stave Silo.
MASONRY.

Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo
to a depth of six inches ; excavate for foundation wall

DOOR OF STAVE SILO. 65

to a depth of 16 inches; in this trench build wall 18
inches wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in
rich lime mortar. Level off top and plaster inside,
outside and on top with cement mortar, 1 part cement
to 1 part sand. Fill inside area with four inches of
good gravel, thoroughly tamped down; after the wood
work is in place coat this with one inch of cement
mortar, I part cement to1 part clean sand. Cement
shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the center

AY)
Soret

Fig. 13. Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed
out, and side view in place. The opening ts largest on the
inside of silo. ( Clinton.)

66 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

and brought up at least 2 inches all around inside and
outside walls.

CARPENTRY.

All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces,
breaking joints, and made from clear, straight-grained
cypress 2x6 inches, beveled on edges to an outside
radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the exact dimensions and
dressed on all sides. There shall be three doors in
the fifth, eighth and tenth spaces between hoops, made
by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut toa 45
degree bevel sloping to the inside. (See Fig. 13.)
The staves shall then be fastened together with two
2x4-inch battens cut on inside to an 8-foot radius and
bolted to each stave with two %-inch diameter car-
riage bolts with round head sunk on inside and nut on
outside. The staves between the doors shall be fast-
ened together, top and bottom, with 34-inch diameter
hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of staves
shall be squared and toe-nailed together.

Bottom Plates.—Bottom plates shall be made of 2x4
inch pieces about 2 feet long, cut to acurve of 7 feet
10 inches radius outside. They shall be bedded in
cement mortar and the staves shall then be set on the
foundation and well spiked to these plates.

Floops.—Hoops shall be made from two pieces of
5g-inch diameter round iron with upset ends, threaded
8 inches, with nut and washer at each end; as asup-
port for the hoops a piece of 4x6-inch shall be substi-
tuted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in
it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes
and tightened against the sides of the 4x6-inch. The
hoops shall be twelve in number starting at the bottom
6 inches apart and increasing in distance 6 inches
between each hoop until a space of 3 feet 6 inches is
reached ; from this point up this distance shall be
preserved as near as possible to the top.

Roof.—Roof shall be made toa half-pitch of 6-inch

ROOF FOR STAVE SILO. 67

clear siding lapping joint, nailed to 2x4-inch rafters,
2-feet centers, 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4-inch
plates. These plates to be supported on two 4x4-inch
pieces resting on top of hoops. Three 1x4-inch collar
beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters to tie

Fig 14, A cheap roof of stave silo. ( Clinton.)

side of roof together. (See Fig. 11.) Fig. 14 shows
another simple construction of roof on a stave silo.

PAINTING

The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall
be painted two coats of good mineral paint; the entire
inside surface of staves and doors shall be thoroughly
coated with hot coal tar.

Note. — Before filling silo, tar paper should be tacked
tightly over doors and the entire inside of silo exam-
ined and all cracks tightly caulked.

The method of construction specified in the preced-

68 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

ing may of course be modified in many particulars,
according to the conditions present in each case, cost
of different kinds of lumber, maximum amount of
money to be expended on silo, etc.

The following directions for the construction of
stave silos are taken from two bulletins on this sub-
ject, published by the Cornell and Ottawa Experiment
Stations. For a silo 20 feet in diameter, a circular
trench 18 inches to two feet wide and with an outer
diameter of 22 feet is dug about 2 feet deep, or below
the frost line. The surface soil over the whole in-
cluded area, and for 2 feet outside, is removed toa
depth of ro or 12 inchesatthesametime. ‘The trench
is then filled to the level of the interior with stone,
well pounded down, the surface stone being broken
quite small, and thin cement (1 part of cement to 4 of
sand thoroughly mixed) poured over, well worked in
and left for afew days. This is followed by a coat of
good cement (1 part cement to 3 sand), care being
taken when finished to have the surface level and
smooth.

The silo is set up as shown in Fig. 15, which shows
a cross-section of one method of construction.

The posts (a, a, a, a) should be of 6x6 material and
run the entire length of the silo. These should be
first set up vertically and stayed securely in place.

The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up
2 by 4 scantling in the positions shown in Fig. 15, as
b, 6, 6, 6. Boards nailed from these 2 by 4 scantling
and to the 6 by 6 posts will form a rigid framework,
across which the planks for the scaffold platform may
be laid. Before the scaffolding is all in place the
staves should be stood up within the inclosure ; other-
wise difficulty will be experienced in getting them into
position.

It is probable that no better material can be obtain-
ed for the staves than Southern cypress. This, how-
ever, is so expensive in the North, as to preclude its

MATERIAL FOR THE SILO. 69

Fig. 15. Cross section of stave silo. The dotted lines show
how scaffolding may be put up.

use in most cases. Of the cheaper materials hemlock,
white pine, and yellow pine, are usually the most
available. At the present time hemlock is one of the
cheapest satisfactory materials which can be purchas-
ed, and it is probably as good as any of the cheaper
materials. It should be sound and free from loose
knots.

If the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less,
the staves should be made of either 2 by 4 material,
unbeveled on the edges and neither tongued nor
grooved, or of 2 by 6 material beveled slightly on the

7O HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

edges to make the staves conform to the circular shape
of the silo. If the silo is to have a diameter of more
than 12 feet, the staves should be of 2 by 6 material,
and neither beveled nor tongued and grooved on the
edges. The staves should be surfaced on the inside
so that a smooth face may by presented which will
facilitate the settling of the silage. The first stave set
up should be made plumb, and should be toe-nailed at
the top to one of the posts originally set. Immediate-
ly a stave is set in place it should be toe-nailed at the
top to the preceding stave set. It has been found that
the work of setting up and preserving the circular
outline may be materially aided by the use old barrel
staves (see Fig. 16). For asilo 12 feet in diameter
the curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best
adapted ; for a 16-foot silo the flour barrel stave is
best, and for a silo 20 feet or more in diameter the
stave of the cement barrel is best. If when the silo
staves are put in place they are toe-nailed securely to
the ones previously set ; if they are fastened firmly to
the permanent upright posts (Fig. 15, a, a, a, a); if
the barrel staves are used as directed above, the silo
will have sufficient rigidity to stand until the hoops
are put in place. However, if it becomes necessary
for any reason to delay for any considerable time the
putting on of the hoops, boards should be nailed
across the top of the silo.

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the
full length desired, a joint or splice must be made.

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may
be used. A part of these should be used their full
length and part should be sawed through the middle,
thus making staves of 20 and Io feet length. In set-
ting them up the ends which meet at the splice should
be squared and toe-nailed securely together. They
should alternate so that first a long stave is at the bot-
tom then a short one, thus breaking joints at 1o feet
and 20 feet from the base.

IRON HOOPS FOR SILOS. ru

Ving ft
iV H ' jhe

vf

a

il i ilath cael ‘i nek RN | i tah
\ Mt Ne \ NY i | i fe
NG Tm m EN a : ——
iW) Nie yf : yi i AMARA

Fig, 16. Shows how barrel staves may be used in setting up
a silo, they should be removed before the silo is filled.

il wil

For the hoops, 54-inch round iron or steel rods are
recommended, although cheaper substitutes have been
found satisfactory. Each hoop should be in three
sections for a silo 12 feet in diameter, in four sections
for a silo 16 feet in diameter. If the method of con-
struction shown in Fig. 15 is followed, the hoops will
need to be in four sections each, the ends being passed
through the upright 6x6 posts, and secured by heavy
washers and nuts. The bottom hoop should be about
six inches from the base of the silo; the second hoop
should be not more than two feet from the first; the
the third hoop two and one-half feet from the second,
the distance between hoops being increased by one-
half foot until they are three and one-half feet apart,
which distance should be maintained except for the

72 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

hoops at the top of the silo which may be four feet
apart. The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before
the silo is filled, but not perfectly tight. They must
be tight enough to close up the space between the
staves, thus preventing any foreign matter from get-
ting into the cracks which would prevent the staves
from closing up as they swell, and allowing air to en-
ter. To hold hoops and. staves in place during the
summer when the silo is empty, staples should be
driven over the hoops into the staves. If a sufficient
number of staples are used they will prevent the sag-
ging or dropping down of the hoops, and they will
hold the staves securely in place.

The hoops should be watched very closely for a few
days after the silo is filled. If the strain becomes
quite intense the nuts should be slightly loosened. If
during the summer when the silo is empty and the
staves thoroughly dry the hoops are tightened so that
the staves are drawn closely together, when the silo is
filled and the wood absorbs moisture and begins to
swell, the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow for
the expansion.

The doors,:2 feet wide by 2% feet high, should be
located where convenience in feeding dictates. The
lower door should be between the second and third
hoops at the bottom, and other doors will usually be
needed in every second space between there and the
top, except that no door will be needed in the top
space, as the silage when settled will be sufficiently
low to enable it to be taken out at the door in the
space below. Plans should be made for the doors at
the time the staves are set. When the place is reach-
ed where it is desired to have the doors, a saw should
be started in the edge of the stave at the points where
the top and bottom of the doors are to come. The
saw should be inserted so that the door can be sawed
out on a bevel, making the opening larger on the z7-
side of the silo. (See Fig. 13.) This will enable

A DOOR FOR STAVE SILOS. 73

the door to be removed and put in place only from the
inside, and when set in place and pressed down with
silage the harder the pressure the tighter will the

door fit. After the silo is set up and the hoops have
been put on and tightened the cutting out of the doors
may be completed. Before doing this, cleats 2 inch-
es by 3 inches and in length equal to the width of
the door, should be made which will conform to the
circular shape of the silo. One of these cleats should
be securely bolted to the top and one to the bottom of
wuere the door istobe cut. (See Fig.13.).; After
the bolting, the door may be sawed out, and it is then
ready for use. Whenset in place at time of filling the
silo a piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and
bottom will fill the opening made by the saw and pre-
vent the entrance of any air around the door.

Another Door for Stave Silo.

Silage being heavy to handle, and pitch up, has
made continuous doors a popular feature of a few
factory-built silos, as it is much easier to get the silage
out of the silo for feeding. The illustration, Fig. 17,
shows a method of making a door in home-made silos
which is continuous with the exception of a narrow
brace piece extending across the opening, under each
hoop, to give rigidity to the structure. These pieces
should be securely toe-nailed at each end to the staves.
The jamb pieces, e, ¢, should be 2 inches thick, bev-
eled off on the side away from the door, securely
spiked to the inside of the stave, as shown, so as to
leave a rabbet 2x2 inches. Great care should be taken
to have these pieces exactly the same distance apart
throughout their entire length, so that the door boards,
being sawed the exact length, will fit alike and prop-
erly all the way up, and if care be taken in this regard
it will not be necessary to replace them in the sane
order at each successive filling of the silo. The door
boards should be matched, two inches thick the same

74 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Fig.17. «a, a, Staves. 6,6. Door Boards. c, Brace 2% by
6, setin. a, ad, Hoops. e,e, Jamb pieces.

A CHEAP ROOF’ FOR STAVE’ SILOS. 75

as the staves, and if surfaced and well seasoned there
need be no fear of the silage spoiling around such a
door. A strip of acid- and water-proof paper may be
placed in the rabbet, between the ends of the door
boards and the stave, as an extra precaution, but if
the carpenter work is well done it is not absolutely
necessary.

Such a door can be adapted to any form of stave
silo, and, if not made more than two feet wide, the
fact that the door section is straight instead of curved
will make no difference.

If the silo is built outside of the barn some sort of
a roof is desirable. This should be sufficiently wide
to protect the walls of the silo as thoroughly as possi-

SS

———_ le NS,
oe

vail. Seay
ae th w=
rsh ie i fi IM yw

Fig. 18. A cheap roof for stave silos.

76 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

ble. A very satisfactory roof is shown in Fig. 14,
Two other constructions of a cheap roof for a stave
silo are shown in Figs. 18 and 19. The latter was
built at the Indiana Experiment Station at a total cost
of $10.50, viz., lumber $4.00, tin put on and painted
$6.00 and hardware 50 cents. Two 2x6 pieces (A,A)

Fig. 19. A CHEAP KOOP OF STAVE SILO:

A, B, and E, 2x6 in.; C‘ 2x4 in.; D, C, Enlarged Outside

End; F, Hinges; G, H, I, Sections of Roof; J, K, 2x2 in.

(Van Norman.)
were placed on edge and toe-nailed to the top of the
staves they rested on; the projection is for supporting
the carrier at filling time. They are tied together by
the short pieces EK. ‘The roof is in three sections, G,
H, andI. Gand H are hinged to the frame A, A,

CHEAP STAVE. SILOS. 77

and may be tipped up when the silo is nearly full, to
allow filling to the top. The narrow middle section
is light enough to lift off on either side, and leaves
the opening for the carrier to deliver into.

On the framework B, B, and C, C. cheap sheeting
boards are nailed. ‘This is then covered with tin, sol-
dered joints and painted. ‘The sections should be fas-
tened down by means of staples and hooks, or other
device; the hooks are used on this one. On the inner
edge of G and H, 2x2-inch strips, K, are nailed. Close
to these are placed similar strips, J, to which the cross-
boards are nailed, forming the section I of the roof.
The tin on the section I should come over the edge on
to J. On the other sections it should run up on the
side of K, making a water-tight joint.

The sections G and H have slope of nearly 3 inches,
being the difference in height of A and C. C is
notched one inch at the outer end. (Van Norman.)

Cheap Stave Silos.

A foundation-, bottom-, and roofless stave silo was
described recently in Hoard’s Dairyman, which may
prove of interest and value to some readers. It was
put up on a leased farm, with the expectation of re-
moving it on the termination of the lease. It has the
sky for a roof, the ground for a bottom, and no foun-
dation but a 2x6 spruce scantling to secure a level base
for the wall, while protecting them from rotting on
the ground. ‘The silo has a diameter of 24 feet, and is
as high as could be built from 2x4 scantling without
splicing them. ‘The 2x4 spruce scantlings were set
18 inches apart from center to center, upon a 2x6 sill,
directly upon the ground, It was sheeted on the in-
side with two thicknesses of 14x6 spruce, with tar
paper between. On the outside, at the bottom, half
way up, and at the top, were two, three, and two
bands of 1x6 common fencing, respectively, and no
other boarding. ‘The silo has a capacity of 250 tons,

78 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

and was built at a cost of $174.21. ‘‘ We never had
better silage than we are now feeding out of this silo,
though we did have to shovel nearly a foot off of it
a few days ago, when the silo was opened.

Another very simple, home-made stave silo was
built by the Virginia Experiment Station on a trial.
The following is a brief description of this silo. It
will be noted that neither doors nor roof were provided
for in the silo:

A circle 16 feet in diameter is marked on the ground
and covered with short pieces of plank. Four pieces
of plank 16 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 2 inches
thick are then set on end on the circle at equal inter-
vals. These are held in an upright position by braces
in various directions. An iron band is placed about 1
foot from the bottom of the silo, and held in position
by nails driven into the plank and bent up and over

the band. A second band is placed about 1 foot from
the top. The rest of the staves are then set in place,
a nail being driven into each to support the bands. The
latter are then tightened somewhat and 3 more put
on, the distance between the bands being about 4 feet.
Instead of hoops of round iron ordinarily used, bands
made as follows are recommended :

Procure (as can usually be done) partially worn tire
iron from heavy wagons. Get a smith to rivet, not
weld, these together so that two bands will go around
the silo. Rivet to the ends of these bands short pieces
of iron one-half inch thick by 2 inches wide. Turn
up 3 inches of this thick iron and punch three-fourth
holes in the turned-up portion. For each band pro-
cure 2 bolts a foot long and three-fourth inch in diam-
eter. Have threads cut on bolts nearly the entire
length, and place these bolts through the holes in up-
turned ends; put on nuts and tighten the silo. These
are stronger, cheaper, and easier to work than the
round bands, and considered a great improvement over
the latter. Objections have, however, been raised to

MODIFICATION OF THE STAVE SILO. 79

flat iron hoops, that the woodwork under them is apt
to rot, and round hoops are generally recommended
for this reason.

A Modification of the Stave Silo.

Stave silos are admittedly cheap and readily put up,
but unless hoops are tightened as they dry out, they
may be easily blown into a shapeless mass in case of a
heavy gale. The modification of the stave silo de-
scribed in the following has the advantage of being
more rigid and substantial; it has been put up ina
number of places in the east, and has apparently given
good satisfaction for several years, at least. In build-
ing this silo some good, tough, oak planks two inches
thick and of any convenient length are procured.
Rock elm will do, although not as good as oak. The
planks are sawed into strips half an inch thick. ‘The
foundation of the silo is made of concrete, and a little
larger than the outside diameter of the silo. A stake
is set in the center and on this a piece is nailed, just
long enough to act as a guide in setting scantling
when erecting sides. For sides 14%x4 inch hemlock
of any desired length is used. "These are set up on
the circumference of the silo, perpendicular to the
bottom. 3 feet and 7 feet up nail on the outside one
of the half-inch strips mentioned before, being sure to
keep the circle regular. This will keep upright pieces
in place until the circle is completed. On each hoop so
started other half-inch pieces are nailed, lapping them
in different places until each hoop is three inches thick.
Other hoops are now put on in the same manner, plac-
ing them one foot apart at bottom, up to the three-
foot hoop 16 inches apart from three to the 7-foot hoop,
then increasing the distance between each hoop two in-
ches, until they are 30 inches apart, at which distance
they should be kept. If staves are to be spliced it should
be done on the hoop. When this is done, a silo will

80 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

be made of 1%x4 inch, thoroughly hooped with
wooden hoops 2x3 inches.

The inside may be covered with the best quality of
felt, well tacked to the staves, on which a thick coat.
of thick coal tar is spread; over this another thick-
ness of felt is put while the tar coating is still green.
The silo is lined with 34-inch Georgia pine ceiling,
nailing thoroughly, and the lining coated with two
coats of coal tar, putting on the first one quite thin,
but using all the wood will take in, and for a second
coat tar as thick as it can be spread. Give plenty of
‘ time to dry before filling.

The outside of the silo may be boarded up with
vertical boarding, or it may have strips nailed on
hoops and be boarded with novelty siding. The latter
method will make a stronger and better looking silo.
If the hoops are well nailed ,to the staves when being
made, we shall have a silo in which it is impossible
for the staves to shrink or get loose. (Woodward. )

Peer, in his book ‘‘ Soiling, Soiling crops and Ensi-
lage,’’ reports that a New-York canning factory who
has for years siloed their pea vines, corn husks and
cobs, and wintered sheep thereon, put the refuse
through a cutting box into a rough plank silo about
thirty feet in diameter. ‘‘ The planks were rough,
just as they came from the saw mill, set on end, and
hooped with half-inch round iron. No roof was put
on, and when the silage settled the staves were taken
down, the silage stood, and the whole mass kept in
perfect form. The following year the staves (2x6 inch
planks) are set up again. As to the silage spoiling,
there is six or eight inches on the sides that rots, and
is thrown into the manure heap. As tofreezing, they
experience no inconvenience from that. If the top
freezes a little, it is mixed with the unfrozen, fermen-
tation sets up, and the frozen part is thawed out by its
own combustion.”’

Protection against freezing. It the silo is built out-

TABLE OF AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES. Sr

doors in any of the Northern states, it is necessary to
provide some special means to keep the silage from
freezing in case this is considered a very objectionable
feature. The silo may be enclosed by a wide jacket of
rough boards nailed to four uprights, leaving the sec-
tion of the silo where the doors are easy of access; the
space between the silo and outside jacket is filled with
straw in the fall; this may be taken out and used for
bedding in the spring, thus allowing the staves to be
thoroughly dried out during the summer, and prevent-
ing the silo from rotting.

Number of staves required for stave silos.—The fol-
lowing table will be found useful in calculating the
number of staves required for silos of different diame-
ters, and the feeding areas which these will give:

CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES.

: ween |) Cinetini= Area, : Circum- Area,
ee = | ference, Sanare a Seek ference, Square
ok | Feet. Feet. 3 Feet. | Feet.
8 Ne ayes a 50.3 21 66.0 346.4
Ome a 28.3 63.6 22 69.1 380.1
10 31.4 78.5 28 72.3 415.5
1i | 34.6 95.0 24 65.4 452.4
12 Sheil na etea | 25 78.5 490.9
13 | 40.8 132.7 26 81.7 530.9
14 44.0 153.9 Bi 84.8 51226
15 47.1 wiOT 28 88.0 615.8
16 | 50.3 20a 29 91.1 660.5
Le 53.4 | 227.0 30 94.2 706.9
18 |. 6 BOS 254.5 3) | 97.4 7154.8
19 59.7 283.5 32 | * 100.5 804.2
20 62.8 314.2
}

To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the
diameter by 3.1416.

To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of
the diameter by 0.7854.

To find the cubical contents of a cylinder, multiply
the area of the base (floor) by the height.

Example.—A silo 16 feet in diameter and 26 feet
high is wanted ; how many staves 2x6: inches will be

$2 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

needed, and what will be the feeding area in the silo,
and its capacity ? ,

The circumference of a circle 16 feet diameter
50.3 feet ; there will therefore be required 50.3+% s
IOI staves, 2x6 inches, 26 feet high, or if staves of
this height cannot be obtained, 135 staves 20 feet long,
or 50 each of 12 and 14 feet long staves. The feeding
area will be 16X160.7854=201.1 square feet, and
the cubical content of the silo, 201.1 26=5228.6 cu-
bic feet. Estimating the weight of a cubic foot of
corn silage at 4o pounds, 5228.6 cubic feet silage
would weigh 209,164 pounds, or about 100 tons, which
is the approximate capacity of a round silo of the di- -
mensions given.

Connecting Round Silos with Barn.—The location
of the silo with reference to other farm buildings has
already been discussed. The silo must be easy to get
at from the stable, and the silage, if possible, handled
only once in being placed before the stock. A round
silo is most conveniently built just outside of the barn
and connected with this by means of a covered pass-
age way. The method of joining silos to barns is il-
lustrated in numerous pictures of silos given in this
book.». See Fig. 20.

Other forms of Round Silos.

The various types of round, wooden silos have been
described at some length in the preceding, because
perhaps ninety per cent. of farmérs who expect to
build a silo will build one of this kind, either one of
the more substantial and expensive original or modi-
fied Wisconsin silos, or a stave silo. In some cases
it seems more desirable to build a round silo of other
material than wood, viz., of either stone or brick.
The general principles that must be observed in con-
structing silos of these materials are similar to those
underlying the proper construction of wooden silos.
In order to strengthen the wall of the silo, it is re-

ILLUSTRATION.

Fig

20.

eee

SSSSSSsssss=

fer

Two methods of roofing round wooden silos

the barn so as to provide a feeding chute.

)

and the

=|

iD
2

Sa) N ime
eR

Oe:

——

manner of connecting them with

84 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

commended to bed in the wall between the doors 5%
inch iron rods, bent to the curve of the silo circle, and
about 12 feet long. The two ends should be turned
short at right angles, so as to anchor better in the
mortar. In deep stone silos, which rise more than 18
feet above the surface of the ground, it will be safest
to strengthen the wall between the two lower doors
with iron tie rods, and, if such a silo is built of bould-
ers, it will be well to use rods enough to make a com-
plete line or hoop around the silo about two feet above
the ground, as represented in Fig. 21.

Fig. 21. Showing method of bedding iron rods in stone,
brick, or concrete walls to increase the strength.

Too great care cannot be taken in making the part
of the wall below and near the ground solid, and es-

BRICK SILOS. 85

pecially its outer face, so that it will be strong where
the greatest strain willcome. It is best also to dig
the pit for the silo large enough so as to have plenty
of room outside of the finished wall to permit the
earth filled in behind to be very thoroughly tamped,
so as to act as a strong backing for the wall. This is
urged because a large per cent. of the stone founda-
tions of wood silos have cracked more or less from one
cause or another, and these cracks lead to the spoiling
of silage.

Flat quarry rock, like limestone, will make the
strongest silo wall, because they bond much better
than boulders do, and when built of limestone they
will not need to be reinforced much with iron rods.
It will be best even in this case, however, to use the
iron tie rods between the lower two doors. (King. )

Brick Silos.—In constructing a brick silo it will be
well to guard the following points: Make the foun-
dation of stone if practicable, and let the first course —
of brick come flush on the inside with the stone work.
Bed a five-eighths inch iron hoop in the stone work
in the upper part before laying the brick, in order to
keep the pressure of brick from spreading the wall
before the mortar becomes set and hard. Make a two-
inch air space in the walls up to within one-third of
the top. This will make a 14 inch wall of three
courses of brick. If, however, the silo is to be over
24 feet inside diameter, then a four-brick wall is really
necessary one-third the way up, then the next third
of three bricks and the last third of two bricks. The
air space should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron
tie rods should also be laid around in the wall between
the doors, as recommended in the stone work. It is
also important that the brick should be wet when laid,
otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be
dried out too rapidly. The walls should be plastered
over very smoothly with a coat of rich cement, one-
fourth to one-half inch thick, and then every two or

86 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

three years this should be well whitewashed with thin
cement, to keep the wall protected from the effects of
acid in the silage. King recommends that the floor
jambs be made of 3x6’s or 3x8's, rabbetted two in-
ches deep to receive the door on the inside. The cen-
ter of the jambs outside should be grooved anda
tongue inserted projecting three-fourths of an inch
outward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure
a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb.
The doors may be made of two layers of matched
flooring with tarred paper between, and lag screw
bolted to the jamb, so as to give a perfectly smooth
face next to the silage.

Stone Silos.—The stone silo should have a wall about
two feet thick below the surface of the ground, and
this may be laid in the cheaper grades of cement.
Above the surface a good grade of Portland cement
should be used. A thickness of wall of 18 inches at
the surface of the ground is desirable, but this may
be gradually reduced to 12 inches at the top, keeping
the inner surface of the silo perpendicular. It is im-
portant to have five-eighths inch iron rods, with an-
gles on the ends, laid in the wall at intervals between
each door, to keep the walls from cracking or spread-
ing before the mortar or cement is thoroughly set.
These rods may be of several lengths, laid to the
curve of the wall. and the angled ends should lap by
each other for three or four inches.

It will be well to place silos a distance below the
surface. This should not be deep enough on level
land, however, to require great exertion to get out
the silage. Under such circustances four feet is deep
enough. (Plumb. )

Details concerning the construction of stone, brick,
and cement silos are given in Prof. Woll’s Book on
Silage, and in Bulletin No, 83 of Wisconsin Experi-
ment Station, by Prof. King, as well as in numerous
other silo pamphlets, and we shall not take up fur-

SILOS IN THE BARN. 87

ther space here with the discussion thereof. The
same holds true with all other forms of silo construc-
tion than those already explained, except the one
kind, where silos are built in a bay of the barn. In
order to use the space economically, these silos are
built in a rectangular form.

Silos in the Barn.

A large number of silos have been built in the barn,
especially in the early days of silo construction.
Where the necessary depth can be obtained and where
the room can be spared, such silos can be built very
easily and at a less cost than a separate structure,
since lighter materials in construction may be used in
this case, and no roof will be required for the silo.
Silos built in this manner have generally the advant-
age of being near at hand. Since feeding time comes
twice a day, at least, throughout the winter and
spring, a few steps saved in hauling the silage mean
a good deal in the aggregate. Many farmers first
made silos of this kind, and, later on, when familiar
with the silage and siloing process, built additional
separate structures.

A very cheap rectangular silo may be constructed
by erecting strong 3x10 studding around a bay or part
of a bay, and lining with one-ply good matched lum-
ber one inch thick. Such a silo has been in useat the
Ottawa Station for eight years, and has given good
results. The following detailed directions for chang-
ing bays in a barn into silos were originally published
by the N. H. Experiment Station.

Remove floors, and if there isa barn cellar place
sills on the bottom of this, and set 2x8 scantling ver-
tically, bringing up the inside edges even with the sills
of the barn. ‘The bottom may or may not be cement-
ed, according as the ground is wet or dry, If it be
cemented, three casks of cement and an equal amount
of sharp sand or gravel will cover a bottom 16x16 and

88 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

turn up on the sides two feet, which will give a tight
silo. Common spruce or hemlock boards, square-
edged and planed on one side, are best for boarding the
inside of the silo; these are to be put on in two
courses, breaking joints, and, if thoroughly nailed,
will give a tight silo. No tongueing or matching is
needed. ‘Tarred paper may be put between the board-
ing, if desired, but I doubt if it is of great utility.
At some point most easily accessible, an opening ex-
tending nearly the height of the silo must be made,
to put in the corn and take out the silage. The
courses of boards should be cut shorter than the open-
ing, to allow loose boards to be set in, lapping on the
door studding and making an air-tight joint. For all
this work medium lumber is good enough, and a very
limited amount of mechanical skill and a few tools,
which all farms should have, will enable most farmers
to build their own silo. A few iron rods, one-half
inch in diameter, may be necessary to prevent spread-
ing by side pressure, but this will depend upon the
strength of the original frame of the barn. Narrow
boards, from five to eight inches wide, are better than
wide ones, as they are not likely to swell and split.
Hight-penny nails for the first boarding and twelve-
penny nails for the second course will hold the boards
in place.

A silo constructed as above outlined will cost from
50 cents to $1.00 for each ton of ‘its capacity, accord-
ing as all materfals, including lumber and stone, are
charged, or only labor and nails, rods, and cement.

A Small $30 Silo.—The illustration herewith given,
Fig. 22, shows a small, square silo, built inside a
Michigan barn; dimensions 8 feet square and 22 feet
deep. The capacity of the silo is about 28tons. It
is built of 2x8 horizontal studding, placed lapped at
the corners, and held together with 5 twenty-penny
nails, wire spikes, in each corner. The space be-

A THIRTY-DOLLAR SILO. 89

yy thy i

' ‘ 4 i i

Fig. 22. View of a silo 8 feet square; 22 feet deep, built
inside of barn. ( Smith.)

tween these frames, from the bottom to the top, are
2%, 2% 3, 4,5, and 5 feet. The siding consists of
one thickness of matched white-pine flooring, six
inches wide; it is nailed on vertically and painted on
both sides with Venetian red and oil. No paper is
used. The corners’ are filled out by 2x6 scantling
properly beveled and nailed in vertically. Each door
is 2 feet wide, and made of sufficient length to lap an
inch when placed between a certain pair of horizontal
ribs; toward the bottom of the silo the doors are,
therefore, 2% feet high, while toward the top they
are 5 feet high. Battens of 1x4 pine are placed over
the cracks on the sides of the doors and nailed to the
wall of the silo. No hinges are used, the pressure of
the silage keeping the doors in place.

The bottom frame, formed by the 2x8 studdings,

go HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

rests on the clay bottom of the barn cellar. The silo
has no foundation, but the hard clay bottom is cement-
ed with Buffalo cement, one inch thick, to keep out
rats. Cost of materials, $30.00.

The main objection to rectangular or square silos is
that it is very difficult to make the corners perfectly
tight, so that air will not enter at these points and
cause more or less of the silage to spoil here. Even
if carefully built, the lateral pressure in a silo filled
with green fodder is often great enough to cause the
boards to spring and thus let air in, unless special pre-
cautions have been taken to prevent it. One way of
avoiding this difficulty is to partially round off the
corners, by placing a square timber, split diagonally,
in each of the corners. Another plan is to bevel the
edge of a ten-inch plank and nail it in the corners,
filling in behind with dry dirt or sand. Sawdust has
been recommended, but should not be used, as it will
draw moisture and cause the plank and silo lining to
decay. The space back of the plank may also be left
empty.

The arrangement for making the corners of a square
or rectangular silo air-tight shown in Fig. 23 was pub-
lished by the Geneva Experiment Station. The cor-

tim i

\ \’
S
- ee

Fig. 23. Corner of Rectangular Silo. Wheeler.

OCTAGONAL, SILOS. gI

ners are boarded up, as shown in the figure, a sheeting
of paper going between the two courses of boards.
The partitions at the corners can be put across after
the first course of boards, instead of after the lining
is in place, as shown in the illustration.

The silos of the form mentioned may be strengthen-
ed at the corners by the arrangement recommended by
Prof. Spillman and shown in Fig. 24. Half-inch

N
WN)
SS
SS ,

Fig. 24. Cross-section of the studding at the corner of a
rectangular silo. Spillman.

bolts are used to hold the 2x4 and 2x6 together. ‘The
bolts are not more than eighteen inches apart from the
bottom up to about the middle of the studding.
Above the middle they may be two feet apart ; they
may be reinforced by 30d. nails.

Octagonal Silos.

A number of octagonal silos have built in recent
years, and find favor with their owners in most in-
stances. If properly put up and care taken to fasten
the girts securely at the corners with plenty of spikes,
the octagonal silo is greatly superior to the square

g2 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

type and has nearly every advantage of the round si-
lo, and can readily be constructed by anyone handy
with tools with the assistance of the ordinary farm
help.

The foundation should be of stone or brick as de-
scribed for various other forms of silos, and should be
laid out with proper dimensions for the size decided
upon. Brief details are here given for an octagonal
silo of about the same capacity as a round silo, 20 feet
in diameter and of equal height.

If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are
in the circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the
horizontal girts will be about 8 feet long, and will be
much stronger and better able to withstand the lateral
pressure than the sides of a square silo of equal capac-

q i
i]

|

Sy

Fig. 25. Perspective showing construction of Frame, and
double lining with paper between. The door ts made of
two thicknesses with paper between, as shown.

OCTAGONAL SILOS. 93

ity. Details of construction are shown in the drawings,
Figs. 25and 26. The girtsshould be 3x8 in. and spiked
at the corners with 6 inch spikes, upto nearly one-half
of the height of the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of the
way, fastened with 20 penny spikes. The girts should
be 16 inches apart at the bottom for one-third the
height of the silo. They may be 18 inches apart the
second third of the distance, and above that the dis-
tance between them can be increased till they are 2
feet or more at the very top. A double row may be
used fora plate. Sound timber only should be used.
Care should be taken to have the girts securely spiked
at the corners, so that the joints will not give. The
horizontal girt sections take the place of hoops in the
round siloand must be strong. JVot less than six or
eight spikes should be used at each splice. One of
the causes of failure in home-made silos of every kind
is that the ordinary carpenter, who has probably never
built a silo before, has but a limited idea of the pres-
sure on the sides of asilo 30 or more feet deep, and
does not realize the disappointment and loss occasioned
by a poorly built silo.

A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular
is to first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the
wall securely, by means of bolts set in the wall, and
then erect at each corner and on the inside a temporary
post or scantling to serve as a guide, braced in position
so that it is perpendicular both ways, and the girts
then laid and spiked in position, one above the other.

The lining is, of course, put on up and down and
should be matched and of good thickness, say 114 or
1% if but one layer is used. If two layers, it need
not be so thick, 7-inch flooring, and the outer layer
not necessarily matched. Thecorners should be fitted
as nicely as possible, and it is a good plan to block
out the corners, as shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that
the tongues and grooves can be properly adjusted to
each other.

94 HOW \TO BUILD.,.A.. SILO.

John Gould, a prominent dairy writer and lecturer,
recommends, where one thickness of matched lumber

Fig. 26. Showing method of laying sill, and bolting same
to foundation for an octagonal silo.

is used in the above manner, that the lining be thor-
oughly coated on the outside with heavy application
of coal tar, or other similar substance, so as to prevent
the air penetrating the pores of the lumber, and
causing the silage to dry on to the inner surface.

Any style of door can be used, but an effective con-
tinuous door isshown in the illustration. Ifany of the
girts be cut out to make the door spaces larger, the
remaining ones should be correspondingly reinforced.

The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple
matter, and a dormer window will assist in filling, al-
though a trap door may be used in case the filling be
done with a blower. Any style of siding may be used.

Such a silo if well built will be durable, satisfactory,
have nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in

COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 95

addition will be a much more stable structure, requir-
ing no tightening of the hoops from time to time.

Bill of materials for a silo built to 21-foot circle and
30 feet high are given below. The cost will, of course,
vary with the locality.

Bill of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x30 feet out-
side measurement :

Pomidatiom/ se. NN MII a IC. ORG menehee:
ite se.) EON THT goose’ 3x8 1738 Ob-16 HOOT
900 ‘* 2x8 j§ lengths.

eerere te PMT 10 FU oe Geet! 2x4 14 eet
Siding . a Ee Yi) 6 RRA aatia NN RGenteat
Lining. . .... 2800 feet, 1% inch thick, matched
Dormer Window

Pee price ee LEE PAU, OTA LION Fao ts
eR ny ne ETT CPTI, PUN BRT A TITRE ae
PEG ney PC gM) aE Ee OY OG Se oes

Cost of Different Kinds of Silos.

The cost of a silo will depend on local conditions as
to price of labor and materials ; how much labor has
to be paid for; the size of the silo, etc. The compar-
ative data for the cost of two round silos, 13 and 25
feet in diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given by Prof.
King, as shown in the following table :

13 FEET INSIDE 25 FEET INSIDE
DIAMETER. DIAMETER.
KINDS OF SILo.

Without With Without! With

roof. roof. roof. roof.

Scie SSO coin). ite se den oremaes $151 $175 $264 $328
GUC LAS UO Ke te Gos coe cca tite ai sre 243 273 437 494
Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches thick .. 142 230 310 442
Brick lined, 2 inches thick ....... 131 190 239 369
Lathed and plastered Silo........ 133 185 244 363
Wood Silo with galvanized iron.. 168 185 308 432
Wood Silo with paper ............ 128 222 235 358
SATS ASS Goma ata Dinos sa ae oem 127 183 136 289
Cheapest wood, ‘Silo.s. ict... 5... 101 144 | 195 240

96 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

During the spring of 1895 Prof. Woll made inqui-
ries in regard to the cost of silos of different kinds
(not only circular ones), built by farmers in different
states in the Union. The results of this inquiry are
summarized briefly below.

The cheapest silos are those built in bays of barns,
as would be expected, since roof and outside lining are
nere already at hand. Number of silos included,
fourteen ; average capacity, 140 tons; average cost of
silos, $92, or 65 cents per ton capacity.

Next come the square or rectangular wooden silos.
Number of silos included, twenty-five; average capa-
city, 194 tons; average cost of silos, $285, or $1.46
per ton capacity.

The round silos follow closely the square wooden
ones in point of cost. Only seven silos were included,
all but one of which were made of wood. Average
capacity, 237 tons; average cost $368, or $1.54 per
ton capacity. The data for the six round wooden
silos are as follows ; Average capacity, 228 tons; aver-
age cost, $346, or $1.52 per ton capacity. ‘The one
round cement silo cost $500, and had a capacity of
300 tons (dimensions: diameter, 30 feet ; depth 21
feet); cost per ton capacity, $1.67.

The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in
first cost, as is shown by the data obtained. Number
of silos included, nine; average capacity, 288 tons;
average cost, $577, or $1.93 per ton capacity.

The great difference in the cost of different silos of
the same kind is apparent without much reflection.
The range in cost per ton capacity in the 25 square
wooden silos included in the preceding summary was
from 70 cents to $3.60. The former figure was ob-
tained with a 144-ton silo, 20x18x2o0 feet; and the
latter with a 140-ton silo, built as follows: Dimen-
sions, 14x28x18 feet; 2x12x18 feet studdings, set 12
inches apart ; two thicknesses of dimension boards in-
side, with paper between, sheeting outside with paper

COMPARATIVE COST OF SILOS. Q7

nailed on studding ; cement floor. Particulars are
lacking as regards the construction of the first silo,
beyond its dimensions.

It may be in order to state, in comparing the aver-
age data for the cost of the different silo types, that
the round silos were uniformly built better than the
rectangular wooden silos included, and according to
modern requirements, while many of the latter were
old and of comparatively cheap construction, so that
the figures cannot be taken to represent the relative
value of rectangular and round silos built equally
well.

A good many figures entering into the preceding
summaries are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor
put on the silo is to be paid for, for in some cases the
cost of work done by the farmers themselves was not
figured in with other expenses. As most farmers
would do some of the work themselves, the figures giv-
en may, however, be taken to represent the cash outlay
in building silos. Ina general way, it may be said
that a silo can be built in the bay of a barn for less
than 75 cents per ton capacity; a round or a good
square or rectangular wooden silo for about $1.50, artd
a stone or cement silo for about $2 per ton capacity,
all figures being subject to variations according to lo-
cal prices of labor and materials.

Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following com-
parative figures as to cost of silos; Round stave silos,
75 cents per ton capacity ; round wooden silos, $1.25
and cement silos, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton capacity.

The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the
kind of lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses,
as in case of other types of silos. It is evident that
stave silos can asa rule be built cheaper than other
kinds of silos, both from the fact that less material is
used in their construction, and because the labor bill
is smaller. One of the first stave silos described, built
in Ontario, Canada, cost $75.00; capacity, 140 tons.

98 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Other and better built stave silos have been put up for
$100 for a 100-ton silo, and this may be considered an
average price for such a silo, made of white pine,
hemlock or any lumber that is cheapest in the particu-
lar locality where the silo is to be built. If built of
Southern cypress, and complete with conical roof and
doors, the price of stave silos will inthe North come
to about $1.50 per ton capacity, small silos being a
little dearer, and larger ones a little cheaper than this
average figure.

Estimating Materials and Cost of Silos.

Several writers on silo construction have published
bills of materials used in the construction of silos of
moderate sizes of the following three types: Wiscon-
sin Improved Silo, Modified Wisconsin Silo, and Stave
Silo. Farmers contemplating building a silo, can use
these estimates for figuring out the approximate cost
of silos of the three kinds under his conditions as to
cost of materials and labor. ‘The estimates are made
for silos built in the open, on level land. On hillsides
deeper walls may be made to advantage, and where
the silo.is located within a building no roof will be
needed. . Consequently various factors may alter the
application of these estimates, which are only offered
as suggestive, with the hope they may prove helpful.
The first three estimates of materials are published by
Prof. Plumb, while the others have been furnished by
Professors King and Withycombe.

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Silos.

Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons.

Brick—3375 for foundation, I foot thick, 3 feet deep.

Studs—5S0 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long.

Studs—5S0 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long.

Flooring for doors—32 feet, 4 matched. ‘

Sheeting— 3000 feet. % inch, resawed from 2x6—16 foot
plank sawed 3 times, dressed one side to uniform thickness,
for inside lining of two layers.

ESTIMATE OF MATERIALS. 99

Lining—1500 feet of same for outside.

Tar building paper—200 yards, water- and acid proof.

Nails—200 lbs. 8-penny; 200 1bs. 10-penny.

Spikes—20 lbs.

Rafters—22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof.

Sheeting for roof-—35U feet of 16 foot boards.

Shingles—3000.

Shingle nails—12 lbs.

Dormer window for filling through. Paint—7 gallons,
providing two coats.

Cement— barrels, for cementing bottom.

Estimate of Material for a Modified Wisconsin Silo.

Same capacity as preceding.

Brick-350 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick.

Studs-50 pieces 2x4, 16 ft. long.

Studs-50 pieces 2x4, 14 ft. long.

Sheeting-3000 ft. % in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank
sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for inside
lining of two layers.

Tar building paper 200 yards water-and acid proof.

Nails-150 lbs. 8 penny.

Spikes-12 lbs.

No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or pro-
vided for in this construction.

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo.

Size 12x28 ft. capacity, 60 tons.

Brick-1800 for foundation, 1 foot thick, 2 ft. deep.

Staves-77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides.

Staves-77 2x6, 12 ft. dressed 4 sides.

Rods-10, 19% ft. long % in iron, with % threaded ends
and nuts.

Staples-2 gross 4x2 in.

Iron tighteners-20 holding ends of hoops.

Rafters-2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center.

Rafters-2 2x6 pieces 13 ft. long for roof, next center.

Side rafters-48 ft, 2x4 pieces.

Roof sheeting-170 ft. common.

Tin sheeting-196 ft.

Cement for floor-2 bbls.

L. of C.

100 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Szlo.

Size, 30 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity,
200 tons.

Stone foundation, 7.5 perch.

Studs, 2x4, 14 and 16 feet, 1,491 feet.

Rafters, 2x4, 12 feet, 208 feet.

Roof boards, fencing, 500 feet.

Shingles, 6 M.

Siding, rabbeted, 2,660 feet.

Lining, fencing, ripped, 2,800 feet.

Tarred paper, 740 lbs.

Coal tar, 1 barrel.

Hardware, $6.00.

Painting (60 cents per sqaure) $13.20.

Cementing bottom, $5.00.

Carpenter labor (at $3 per M. and board ) $33.17.

The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.39; it is
an outside, wholly independent structure, except con-
nected with the barn in the manner shown in fig. 20,
with entrance and feeding chute toward the barn.

Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo.

12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity, 49 tons.

1 2-3 yards of rock or gravel.

4 barrels of sand.

1 barrel of cement.

2260 ft. tongued and grooyed staves.

72 ft. 3x6, 24 ft. door frames.

358 ft. % in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weight, 465

Preservative ($1.50).

If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof
and painting are to be added to the preceding list.

Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave
silos do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the
latest practices indicate that, if properly done, it is a

PRESERVATION OF SILOS. IOI

decided advantage to have the staves matched, also
slightly beveled. The silo made in this manner will
not be so liable to go to pieceswhen empty. This is
the chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous
cases are on record where stave silos standing in ex-
posed places have blown over when empty. It is
recommended, therefore, that stave silos be attached,
to the barn by means of a feeding chute, andin the
case of high or exposed silos it is well to make use of
guy rods or wires in addition. Indeed, some manu-
facturers of stave silos now recommend these on some
of their silos, and make provision for them.

Preservation of Silos.

A silo building will not remain sound for many
years unless special precautions are taken to preserve
it. This holds good of all kinds of silos, but more es-
pecially of wooden ones, since a cement coating in a
stone silo, even if only fairly well made, will better
resist the action of the silage juices than the wood-
work will be ableto keep sound in the presence of
moisture, high temperature, and an abundance of
bacterial life.

In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some
material which will render the wood impervious to
water, and preserve it from decay. A great variety of
preparation have been recommended and used for this
purpose. Coal tar has been applied by a large number
of farmers, and has been found effective and durable.
It may be put on either hot, alone or mixed with
resin, or dissolved in gasoline. If it is to be applied
hot, some of the oil contained in the tar must pre-
viously be burnt off. The tar is pouredinto an iron
kettle, a handful of strawis ignited and thrown into
the kettle, which will cause the oil to flash and burn
off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when it will string
out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, from a
stick which has been thrust into the blazing kettle and

102 HOW TO BUILD A SILO.

afterward plunged into cold water. The fire is then
put out by placing a tight cover over the kettle. The
kettle must be kept over the fire until the silo lining
has been gone over. A mopora small whisk broom
cut short, so it is stiff, may serve for putting on the
tar.

Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many
with good success. About halfa gallon of coal tar
and two-thirds of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a
time, stirring it while it is being put on. Since
gasoline is highly inflammable, care must be taken not
to have any fire around when this mixture is applied.
Asbestos paint has also been recommended for the
preservation of silo walls, and would seem to be well
adapted for this purpose.

Many silos are preserved by application of a mix-
ture of equal parts of boiled linseed o11 and black oil,
or one part of the former to two of the latter. This
mixture, applied every other year, before filling time,
seems to preserve the lining perfectly. In building
round silos, it is recommended to paint the boards with
hot coal tar, and placing the painted sides face to face.

Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up
special prepartions for preserving the silos, which
_ they send out with the staves. These are generally
simply compounds similar to those given in the pre-
ceding, and are sold to customers at practically cost
price.

Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by
one or the other of these methods will only keep
sound and free from decay if the silos are built so as
to insure good ventilation. Preservatives will not
save a non-ventilated silo structure from decay.

Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have
seen by applying a whitewash of pure cement as often
as found necessary, which may be every two or three
years. Thesame applies to stone and cement silos.
The degree of moisture and acidity in the silage corn

’

PRESERVATION OF SILOS. 103

will doubtless determine how often the silo walls have
» to be gone over with a cement wash; avery acid silage,
made from immature corn will be likely to soften the
cement coating sooner than so-called sweet silage
made from nearly mature corn.

A considerable number of wood siles are in use that
were not treated on the inside with any preservative
or paint and have stood very well. Indeed, some
writers maintain that ifthe silo is well protected on
the outside that a stave silo receives little if any
benefit from inside coatings.

CHAPTER III.
SILAGE CROPS.

Indian Corn.—Indian corn is, as has already been
stated, the main silage crop in this country, and is
likely to always remain so. Before explaining the
filling of the silo and the making of silage, it will be
well, therefore, to state briefly the main conditions
which govern the production of a large crop of corn
for the silo, and to examine which varieties of corn
are best adapted for silage making.

Sotls best adapted to corn culture and preparation ot
land. ‘The soils best adapted to theculture of Indian
corn are well-drained medium soils, loams, or sandy
loams, in a good state of fertility. Corn will give
best results coming after clover. The preparation of
the land for growing corn is the same whether ear
corn or forage is the object. Fall plowing is practiced
by many successful corn growers. The seed is plant-
ed on carefully prepared ground at such a time as con-
venient and advisable. Other things being equal, the
earlier the planting the better, after the danger of
frost is ordinarily over. ‘‘’The early crop may fail,
but the late crop is almost sure to fail.’’ After plant-
ing, the soil should be kept pulverized and thoroughly
cultivated. Shallow cultivation will ordinarily give
better results than deep cultivation, as the former
method suffices to destroy the weeds and to preserve
the soil moisture, which are the essential points sought
in cultivating crops. The cultivation should be no
more frequent than is necessary for the complete erad-
ication of weeds. It has been found that the yield
of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as well as
by insufficient cultivation. The general rule may be

VARIETIES OF CORN FOR SILAGE. 105

given to cultivate as often, but no oftener, than is
necessary to kill the weeds, or to keep the soil pulver-
ized.

The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon
as the young plants break through the surface, and
the soil kept stirred and weeds detroyed, until culti-
vation is no longer practicable. 529

Varieties of corn for the stlo.—The best corn for the
silo, in any locality, is that variety which will be
reasonably sure to mature before frost, and which
produces a large amount of foliage and ears. The
best varieties for the New England States, are the
Leaming, Sanford, and Flint corn; for the Middle
States, Leaming, White and Yellow Dent; in the
Central and Western States, the Leaming, Sanford,
Flint and White Dent will be apt to give the best re-
sults, while in the South, the Southern Horse’Tooth,
Mosby Prolific, and other large dent corns are pre-
ferred.

For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best
adapted tor the silo; for Northern Ontario, North
Dakota and Compton’s Early Flint; for Central On-
tario, larger and heavier-yielding varieties may be
grown, viz., Mammoth Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest
White Dent. It is useless to grow a variety for silage
which will not be in a firm, dough state by the time
the first frosts are likely to appear.

In the early stages of siloing corn in this country,
the effort was to obtain an immense yield of fodder
per acre, no matter whether the corn ripened or not.
Large yields were, doubtless, often obtained with these
big varieties, although it is uncertain that the actual
yields ever came up to the claims made. Bailey’s
Mammoth Ensilage Corn, ‘‘if planted upon good corn
land, in good condition, well matured, with proper
cultivation,’’ was guaranteed to produce from forty to
to seventy-five tons of green fodder to the acre, ‘‘ just
right for ensilage.’’ We now know that the immense

106 SILAGE CROPS.

Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an imma-
ture stage, as must necessarily be the case in Northern
States, may contain less than ten per cent. of dry
matter, the rest (more than nine-tenths of the total
weight) being made up of water. This is certainly a
remarkable fact, when we remember that skim-miulk,
even when obtained by the separator process, will con-
tain nearly ten per cent. of solid matter.

In speaking of corn intended to.be cut for forage at
an immature stage, Professor Robertson, of Canada,
said at a Wisconsin Farmers’ Institute, ‘‘ Fodder corn
sowed broadcast does not meet the needs of milking
cows. Such a fodder is mainly a device of a thought-
less farmer to fool his cows into believing that they
have been fed, when they have only been filled up.’’
The same applies with equal strength to the use of
large, fmmature Southern varieties for fodder, or for
the silo, in Northern States.

In comparative variety tests with corn in the North,
Southern varieties have usually been found to furnish
larger quantities per acre of both green fodder and to-
tal dry matter in the fodder, than the smaller North-
ern varieties. As an average of seven culture trials,
Professor Jordan thus obtained the following results
at the Maine Station.

COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SOUTHERN CORN AND MAINE
FIELD CORN GROWN IN MAINE, 1888-1893.

SOUTHERN CORN. MAINE FIELD CORN.
Dry Digestible Dry iDigestible
Green) Snpstance.| Matter. |Green| supstance.} Matter.
Fod- | ————__|———_—__| Fod- | ——————_—:
der. | Per Per der. | Per ‘Per
Cent.| 4S- | ct.| Lds- Cent. ihe ct.| Lbs.

Maximum. ..| 46,340 | 16.58 | 6,237 | 69 | 3,923 | 29,400] 25.43 | 7.064} 78 | 4,945
Minimum....| 26,295| 12,30 | 3,234 | 61 | 2,102 | 14,212) 13,55 | 2,415: 70 | 1,715
Average.....| 34,761! 14.50 | 5,036 | 65 | 3,251 | 22,269] 18,75 | 4,224 | 72 | 3,076

TIME OF CUTTING CORN FOR SILAGE. IO7

The average percentage digestibility of the dry sub-
stance iS 65 per cent for the Southern corn, and 72 per
cent for the Maine field corn, all the results obtained
for the former varieties being lower than those ob-
tained for the latter. While the general result for the
five years, so far as the yield of digestible matter is
concerned, is slightly in favor of the Southern varie-
ties, the fact should not be lost sight of that an aver-
age of 64 tons more of material has annually to be
handled over several times, in case of these varieties
of corn, in order to gain 175 pounds more of digestible
matter per acre; we, therefore, conclude that the
smaller, less watery, variety of corn really proved the
'more profitable. .

At other Northern stations similar results, or results
more favorable to the Northern varieties, have been
obtained, showing that the modern practice of growing
only such corn for the silo as will mature in the par-
ticular locality of each farmer, is borne out by the
results of careful culture tests.

Time of cutting corn for the silo. In order to deter-
mine at what stage of growth corn had better be cut
when intended for the silo, it is necessary to ascertain
the amounts of food materials which the corn plant
contains at the different stages, and the proportion. of
different ingredients at each stage. From careful and
exhaustive studies of the changes occurring in the
composition of the corn plant, which have been con-
ducted both in this country and abroad, we know that
as the corn approaches maturity the nitrogenous or
flesh-forming substances decrease zz proportion to the
other components, while the non-nitrogenous compon-
ents, especially starch (see Glossary), increase very
markedly; this increase continues until the crop is
nearly mature, so long as the leaves are still green.
Several experiment stations have made investigations
in regard to this point. As an illustration we give
below data obtained by Prof. Ladd, in an investiga-

108 SILAGE CROPS.

tion in which fodder corn was cut and analyzed at
five different stages of growth, from full tasseling to

maturity.

CHEMICAL CHANGES IN

THE CORN CROP.

Tas-

Milk, |Glazed

ilked ipe
YIELD PER ACRE. Gals Ane. 9.|Aug. 21/Sept. 7\Seoe 33
Pounds}Pounds| Pounds}Pounds| Pounds
Gross Weight............. 18045 |25745 |32600 |32295 |28460
Water in the Crop..... .116426 |22666 |27957 |25093 |20542
te Mat hero ae 1619 | 3078 | 4643 | 7202 | 7918
8) Ee me TR agate EL ae 138.9) 201 .3)|.232:2| 302.5) 364.2
Crude PF ireiase ey oe es 239.8] 436 8| 478.7) 643.9) 677 8
Crade Piper re Oo. soe. ss 514.2} 872.9)1262.0)2755.9|1734 O ©
Nitrogen-free Extract
(starch, sugar, etc)....} 653.9/1399 3/2441 3/4239. 8/4827.6
Creme eo tea oh. oleae = i232) Aree

| 228.9 260.0) 314.3

The data given above show how rapidly the yield of
food materials increases with the advancing age of the
corn, and also that the increase during the later stages
of growth comes largely on the nitrogen-free extract
(starch, sugar, etc.).

The results as to this point obtained at several ex-
periment stations have been summarized and are given
in the following table, showing the increase in food
ingredients during the stages previous to maturity.

We thus find that the largest amount of food ma-
terials in the corn cropis not obtained until the corn
is well ripened. Whenacorn plant has reached its
total growth in height it has, as shown by the results
given in the last table. attained only one-third to one-
half of the weight of dry matterit will gain if left to
maturity; hence we see the wisdom of postponing cut-
ting the corn for the silo, as in general for forage pur-
poses, until rather late in the season, when it can be
done without danger of frost.

- The table given in the preceding, and our discussion

ll

FOOD INGREDIENTS AT VARIOUS STAGES. 109

INCREASE IN Foop INGREDIENTS FROM TASSELING TO
MATURITY.

Gain in per cent
Stage of Maturity. |between first and

EXPERIMENT ] , last cutting.
STATION ey ieee! ki
- First Last mS oe Se(ss
Cutting. | Cutting |43 [ES Bees,

|

Cornell, N. Y. |Pride of the
North....}| Bloom |Mature 150| 90/129) 169

bir Pride of the Nearly
INortir! . .” os mature|!5,7/134/374| 300

Geneva, N. Y. |King Philip|Tasseled|/Mature 399|183/335| 462
New Hamp. Av.of4Var. as Glazed |442| 50} 84| 130

Pennsylvania |Av.of10Var he Mature |455
Vermont. Av. of 2 Var eh Glazed |429| 50

66 66 Bloom 6é 204 81
Averages ;of;s jalleteialsy) | yah ete h 193| 981230 265

so far, have taken into account only the total, and not
the digestible components of the corn.

It has been found through careful digestion trials
that older plants are somewhat less digestible than
young plants. There is, however, no such difference
in the digestibility of the total dry matter or its com-
ponents as is found in the total quantities obtained
from plants at the different stages of growth, and the
total yields of digestible matter in the corn will there-
fore be greater at maturity, or directly before this
time, than at any earlier stage of growth. Hence we
find that the general practice of cutting corn for the®

silo at the time when the corn is in the roasting-ear

stage, when the kernels have become rather firm, and
are dented or beginning to glaze, is good science and
in accord with our best knowledge on the subject.
Other reasons why cutting at a late period of
growth is preferable in siloing corn are found in the
fact that the quality of the silage made from such

- corn is greatly better than that obtained from green

TIO SILAGE CROPS.

immature corn, and in the fact that the sugar is most
abundant in the corn plantin the early stages of ear
development, but the loss of non-nitrogenous com-
ponents in the silo falls first of all on the sugar; hence
it is the best policy to postpone cutting until the grain
is full-size and the sugar has largely been changed to
starch.

It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity
in the first chapter to delay the cutting so long that
the corn plant becomes too dry, for the reasons stated.
Silage does not spoil when too wet, but will mold
iftoodry. Experience will be the best guide, but the
foregoing pages should enable the reader to form the
right idea as to time for filling, which to secure the
best results, is nearly as important as to have ma-
terial with which to fill the silo.

Methods of Planting Corn. When the corn crop is
intended for the silo, it should be planted somewhat
closer than is ordinarily the case when the production
of alarge crop of ear corn is the primary object
sought. Thin seeding favors the development of well-
developed, strong plants, but not the production of a
large amount of green forage. ‘The number of plants
which can be brought to perfect development on a cer-
tain piece of land depends upon the state of fertility
of the land, the character of the season, especially
whether it isa wet ora dry season, as well ason other
factors, hence no absolute rule can be given as to the
best thickness of planting corn for the silo. Numerous

“experiments conducted in different parts of the
country have shown, however, that the largest quan-
tities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob-
tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two
feet apart, or in drills three or four feet apart, with
plants six or eight inches apart in the row.

It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield
obtained is concerned, whether the corn be planted in
hills or in drills, when the land is kept free from weeds

METHODS OF PLANTING CORN. Fit

in both cases, but it facilitates the cutting considerably
to plant the corn in drills if this isdone by means of a
oorn harvester or sled cutter; asis now generally the
case. The yield seems more dependent on the num-
ber of plants growing on a certain area of land than
on the arrangements of planting the corn. Hills four
feet each way, with four stalks tothe hill, with thus
usually give about the same yields as hills two feet
apart, with twostalks in the hill, or drills four feet
apart, with stalks one foot apart inthe row, etc. The
question of planting corn in hills or in drills is there-
fore largely one of greater or less labor in keeping the
land free from weeds by the two methods. This will
depend on the character of the land; where the land
is uneven, and check-rowing of the corn difficult, or
when the land is free from weeds, drill planting is
preferable, while, conversely, on fields where this can
be done, the corn may more easily and cheaply be kept
free from weeds if plantedin hills and check-rowed.
Since one of the advantages of the silo is the economi-
cal production and preservation of a good quality of
feed, the economy and certainty in caring for the
growing crop is of considerable importance, and gen-
erally, planting in hills not too far apart will be found
to facilitate this, especially during wet seasons.

Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broad-
east, whether intended for the silo, or for production
of ear corn; when sown broadcast, the corn cannot be
kept free from weeds, except by hand labor. More
seed is moreover required, the plants shade each
other and will therefore not reach full development,
from lack of sufficient sunshine and moisture, and a
less amount of available food constituents per acre will
be produced.

~~ OTHER SILAGE CROPS.

Clover. . Clover is second to Indian corn in im-
portance asa silage crop. We are but beginning to

Liz SILAGE CROPS.

appreciate the value of clover in modern agriculture.
It has been shown that the legumes, the family to
whichclover belongs, are the only common forage
plants able to convert the free nitrogen of the air into
compounds that may be utilized for the nutrition of
animals. Clover and other legumes, therefore, draw
largely on the air for the most expensive and valuable
fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and for this reason,
as well as on account of their deep roots, which bring
fertilizing elements up near the surface, they enrich
the land upon which they grow. Being amore z7ztro-
genous fecd than corn or the grasses, clover supplies
a good deal of the protein compounds required by farm
animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for
the production of milk, wool, or meat. By feeding
clover, a smaller purchase of high- priced concentrated
feed stuffs, like flour-mill or oil-mill refuse products,

is therefore rendered necessary than when corn is fed;

on account of its high fertilizing value it furthermore
enables the farmer feeding it to maintain the fertility
of his land.

When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed
for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher
protein content it has an advantage over corn silage
in point of lower cost of production. A Wisconsin
dairy farmer who hassiloed large quantities of clover es-
timates the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents
to $1, against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His
average “yields per acre of green clover are about
twelve tons.

Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of
its succulence and greater palatability, as well as its
higher feeding value. The last-mentioned point is
mainly due to the fact that all the parts of the clover
. plant are preserved in the silo, with a small unavoid-
able loss in fermentation, while in hay-making, leaves
and tender parts, which contain about two-thirds of

CLOVER. 10Z

the protein compounds, are often largely lost by
abrasion. )

Clover may easily and cheaply be placed in a modern
silo and preserved in a perfect condition. The
failures reported in the early stages of silo filling were
largely due toa faulty construction of the silo. Clover
does not pack as well as the heavy green corn, and
therefore requires to be cut and weighted, or calls for
greater depth in thesilo, in order that the air may be
sufficiently excluded.

When to Cut Clover for the Silo. The yield of food
materialsobtained from clover at different stages of
growth has been studied by a number of scientists.
The following table giving the results of an investi-
gation conducted by Professor Atwater will show
the total quantities of food materials secured at
four different stages of growth of red clover.

YIELD PER ACRE OF RED CLOVER—IN POUNDS.

STAGE OF Green Dry | Crude | Crude | N-free |Crude| Ash
CUTTING. Weight.|} Matter./Protein| Fiber. |Extract| Fat.

Just before
bloom..... 3,570''| 1,385 198 384 664 24 115
Full bloom.. | 2,650 | 1,401 189 390 682 33 107
Nearly out of
bioom.-':. . 4,960 '|*1,750 230) 523. |* 837 Sr 129
Nearly ripe. .| 3,910 | 1,523 158 484 746 36 99

Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of hay per
acre from clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds
when three-fourths of the heads were dead. ‘The
yields of dry matter: in the two cases were 2,526
pounds, and 2,427 pounds respectively. All compo-
nents, except crude fibre (see Glossary), yielded less
per acre in the second cutting. Jordan found the
same result, comparing the yields and composition of
clover cut when in bloom, some heads dead, and heads
all dead, .the earliest cutting giving the maximum

114 SILAGE CROPS.

yield of dry matter, and of all components except
crude fibre.

The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for
the silo when in full bloom, or when the first single
heads are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for
hay making, and we notice that the teachings of the
investtgations. made are in conformity with this prac-'
tice.

Alfalfa (lucern) is the great, coarse forage plant of
the West, and during late years, it is being grown con-
siderably in the Northern and Central States. In irri-
gated districts it will yield more food materials per acre
of land than perhaps any other crop. Four to five
cuttings, each yielding a ton toa ton and a half of
hay, are common in these regions, and the yields ob-
tained are often much higher. In humid regions
three cuttings may ordinarily be obtained, each of one
to one and a half tons of hay.

While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay,
alfalfa is also of considerable importance as a silage
crop in dairy sections of the Western States. As
with red clover, reports of failure in siloing alfalfa are
on record, but first-class alfalfa silage can be readily
made in deep, modern silos, when the crop is cut when
in full bloom, and the plants are not allowed to wilt
much before being run through a cutter and siloed.
In the opinion of dairymen who have had large expe-
rience in siloing alfalfa, sweet alfalfa silage is more
easily made than good alfalfa hay.

What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover
refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares fa-
vorably with clover silage, both in chemical composi-
tion and in feeding value. It is richer in flesh-form-
ing substances (protein) than clover silage, or any
other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed
for farm animals, especially young stock and dairy
COWS. :
Cow peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the —

COW PEAS ENS

West, and when properly handled makes excellent and
most valuable silage. The cow peas are sown early in
the season, either broadcast, about 1% bushels to the
acre and turned under with a one-horse turning plow,
or drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut
with a mower when one-half or more of the peas on
the vines are fully ripe, and are immediately raked in
winrows and hauled to the silo, where they are run
through a feed cutter and cut into inch lengths.

Cow-pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals
after they once become accustomed to its peculiar
flavor; farmers who have had considerable practical
experience in feeding this silage are of the opinion
that cow-pea silage has no equal for cows and sheep.
It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is
considered greatly superior to pea-vine hay. In feed-
ing experiments at a Delaware experiment station six
pounds of pea-vine silage fully took the place of one
pound of wheat bran, and the product of one acre
was found equivalent to two tons of bran.

Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate
loads of cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into
the silo, which will make a very satisfactory mixed
silage. A modification of this practice is known as
Getty’s method, in which corn and cow peas are grown
in alternate rows, and harvested together with a corn
harvester. Corn for this combination crop is prefer-
ably a large Southern variety, drilled in rows 4% feet
apart, with stalks g to 16 inches apart in the row.
Whippoorwill peas are planted in drills close to the
rows of corn when this is about six inches high, and
has been cultivated once. The crop is cut when the
corn is beginning to glaze, and when three- fourths of
the pea pods are ripe.

The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these
run through the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas
are carefully levelled off and trampled down in the
silo, and about a foot cover of green corn, straw or

116 SILAGE CROPS.

cotton-seed hulls placed on top of the siloed mass. As
in case of all legumes, it is safest to wet the cover
thoroughly with at least two gallons of water per
square foot of surface. This will seal the siloed mass
thoroughly and will prevent the air from working in
from the surface and spoiling considerable of the silage
on top.

A similar effort of combining several feeds for the
silo is found in the so-called Robertson Ensilage Mix-
ture for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in
Canada; this is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower
seed heads, and horse beans in the proportion of 1
acre corn, % acre horse beans, and ¥4 acre sunflowers.
The principle back of the practice is to furnish a feed
richer in protein substances than corn, and thus avoid
the purchase of large quantities of expensive pro-
tein foods like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experi-
mentsconducted with the Robertson Silage Mixture
for cows at several experiment stations have given
very satisfactory results, and have shown that this
silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain
ration of milch cows without causing loss of flesh or
lessening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen
pounds of this silage may be considered equivalent to
three or four pounds of grain feeds. ‘The practice has
not, however, been adopted to any great extent, so
far as is known, owing to the difficulty of securing a
‘good quality of silage from the mixture and of grow-
ing the horsebeans successfully.

Soja beans (soy beans) are another valuable silage
‘crop. According to the U. S. Department of Agricul-
‘ture the soy beanis highly nutritive, gives a heavy
yield, and is easily cultivated. The vigorous late
‘varieties are well adapted for silage. The crop is fre-
quently siloed with corn (2 parts of the latter to 1 of
tthe former), and like other legumes it improves the
silage by tending to counteract the acid reaction of
corn silage. Of other Southern crops that are used

MISCELLANEOUS SILAGE CROPS. 117

for silage crops may be mentioned Kaffir corn, chicken
corn and teosinte.

Sorgum is sometimes siloed in the Western and
Middle States. It is sown in drills, 3% inches apart,
with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and is
cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or be-
fore. According to Shelton, the medium-growing
saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are all ex-
cellent for silage. The sorghums are less liable to
damage by insects than corn, and they remain green
far into the fall, sothat the work of filling the silo
may be carried on long after the corn is ripe and the
stalks all dried up. The yield per acre of green
sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one-half as much
again as a good crop of corn. ‘These considerations
lead Professor Shelton to pronounce sorghum greatly
superior to corn as silage materials, in Kansas, and
generally throughout the Central Western States.
The Ottawa (Can. ) states that sorghum, where it can
be grown makes an excellent crop for silage. It needs
to be cut, the best length, as in the case of corn be-
ing three-quarters or an inch long, or less.

Miscellaneous Silage Crops. In Northern Europe,
especially in England, and in the Scandinavian
countries, meadow grass and after-math. (vowen) are
usually siloed; in England, at the present time, large-
ly in stacks.

In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar-
beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a
low cost, stock feeders and dairymen have a most
valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As
the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about
90 per cent of water; it packs well in the silo, being
heavy, finely divided and homogeneous, and a more
shallow silo can therefore be safely used in making’
pulp silage than is required in siloing corn, and es-
pecially clover and other crops of similar character.
If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is pre-

418 SILAGE CROPS.

ferably placed uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet
tops and pulp are often siloed in alternate layers in
pits 3 to 4 feet deep, and covered with boards and a
layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully
placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed
in such silos as there will then be much smaller losses
of food materials than in case of shallow silos or
trenches in the field.

Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low
in ash and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see
Glossary). Its feeding value is equal to about half
that of corn silage.

Occasional mention has furthermore been made in
the agricultural literature of the siloing of a large
number of plants, or products, like vetches, small
grains (cut green), cabbage leaves, sugar beets,
potatoes, potato leaves, turnips, brewers’ grains,
apple pomace, refuse from corn and pea canning
factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines; even fern
(brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been made
into silage, and used with more or less success as
foods for farm animals.

At a recent convention of the Cal. Dairy Association,
the president, Mr. A. P. Martin, stated that the best
silage he ever made, besides corn, was made of weeds.
A piece of wheat which was sowed early, was
drowned out, and the field came up with tar weed and
sorrel. This was made into silage, and when fed to
milch cows, produced most satisfactory results.

Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and
profitable thing to have on a farm even if silage crops
are not regularly raised to fill it. There are always
waste products, greenor half-dry, with coarse ma-
terials like swale hay, that are generally used for
compost or bedding, which may be made into pala-
table silage. A mixture, in equal parts, of rag-weed,
swamp grass or swale hay, old corn stalks or straw,
and second-crop green clover, nearly three-fourths of

MISCELLANEOUS SILAGE CROPS. 11g

which would otherwise be almost useless, will make a
superior silage, surprising to those who have never
tried it.

The following description of the contents filled into
a New York silo, which was used asa sort of catch-
all, is given by the same writer: 1, 18 in. deep of
green oats; 2, 6 in. of redclover; 3, 6 in. of Canada
field peas; 4, 2 in. of brewers’ grains; 5, 2 feet of
whole corn plants, sowed broadcast, and more rag-
weed than corn; 6, 5 in. of second-crop grass; 7, 12 in.
ofsorghum: 8, a lot immature corn cut in short
lengths. The silage came out pretty acid, but
made good forage, and was all eaten up clean.
Damaged crops like frosted beets, potatoes,
cabbages, etc.; rutabages which showed signs of de-
cay, and clover that could not be made into hay be-
cause of rain, may all be placedin a silo and thus
made to contribute to the food supply on the farm.

A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California,
viz., for rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in
feeding cattle. The foxtail which almost takes the
first crop of alfalfa in many parts of California, isa
nutritious grass, but on account of its beards, is dan-
gerous to feed. By siloing the crop the grass is said
to be rendered perfectly harmless; the alfalfa-foxtail
silage thus obtained is eaten by stock with great relish
and without any injurious effects ( Wall).

CHAPTER IV.

HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.
Filling the Silo.

A. INDIAN Corn. Aspreviously stated, corn should
be left in the field before cutting until it has passed
through the dough stage i. e., when the kernels are
well dented, or glazed, in case of flint varieties.
Where very large silos are filled, and in cases of ex-
treme dry weather when the corn is fast drying up, it
will be well to begin filling the silo a little before it
has reached this stage, as the greater portion of the
corn would otherwise be aptto be too dry. There is,
however, less danger in this respect now than former-
ly, on account of our modern deep silos, and because
we have found that water applied directly to the
fodder in the silo acts in the same way as water in the
fodder, and keeps the fermentations in the silo in
check and in the right track.

Cutting the Corn in the Field. The cutting of corn
for the silo is usually on small farms done by hand by
means of acorn knife. Many farmers have been using
self-raking and binding corn harvesters for this pur-
pose, while others report good success with a sled or
platform cutter. Ifthe corn stands up well, and is
not of avery large variety, the end sought may be
reached in a satisfactory manner by either of these
methods. If, on the other hand, much of the corn is
down, hand cutting is to be preferred. A number of
different makes of corn harvesters and corn cutters are
now on the market; and, it is very likely that hand-
cutting of fodder corn will be largely done away with
in years to come, at least on large farms, indeed, it
looks as if the day of the corn knife was passing away,

CUTTING THE CORN. I21

and as if this implement will soon be relegated to ob-
scurity with the sickle of our fathers’ time.

If acorn harvester is used, it will be found to bea
great advantage to have the bundles made what seems
rather small. It will take alittle more twine, but the
loaders, the haulers, the unloaders, and even the
Silage Cutter itself will handle much more corn in a
day if the bundles are small and light, and it will be
found to be economy to see that this is done.

A platform cutter, which was used with great suc-
cess, is described by a veteran Wisconsin dairyman,
the late Mr. Charles R. Beach.

‘“‘We use two wagons, with platforms built upon
two timbers, eighteen feet long, suspended beneath
the axles. These platforms are about eighteen inches
from the ground and are seven feet wide. The cutting-
knife is fastened upon a small removable platform,
two feet by about three and one-half feet, which is at-
tached to the side of the large platform, and is about
six or eight inches lower. One row is cut at a time,
the knife striking the corn at an angle of about forty-
five degrees. One man kneels on the small platform
and takes the corn with his arm; two or three men
stand upon the wagon, and as soon as he has gotten
an armful, the men, each in turn, take it from him
and pile it on the wagon. If the rows are long
enough a load of one and one-half to two tons can be
cut and loaded on in about eight to ten minntes. The
small platform is detached from the wagon, the load
driven to the silo, the platform attached to the other
wagon, and another load iscut and loaded. None of
the corn reaches the ground; no bending down to pick
up. One team will draw men, cutter, and load, and I
do not now well see how the method could be im-
proved. With a steam engine, a large cutter, two
teams and wagons, and ten men, we filled our silo
22x24x18 feet (190 tons), fast, in less than two days.”’

Professor Georgeson, Gas described a one-horse

uh
E22 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

sledge-cutter which has given better satisfaction than
any fodder-cutter tried at the Kansas Experiment
Station. It is provided with two knives, which are
hinged to the body of the sled, and can be folded in
on the sled when not in use. It has been improved
and made easier to pull by providing it with four low
and broad cast-iron wheels. It is pulled by a single
horse and cutstwo rows at a time. Two men stand
upon the cutter, each facing a row; as the corn is cut
they gather it into armfuls, which they drop into
heapsonthe ground. A wagon with a low, broad
rack follows, on which the corn is loaded and hauled
to the silo.

Similar corn cutters have been made by various
manufacturers of late years and have proved quite sat-
isfactory, although they require more hand labor than
the corn harvesters and do not leave the corn tied up
and in as convenient shape for loading on the wagons
as these do. It is also necessary to use care with the
sledge type of corn cutter, as numerous cases are on
record where both men and horses have been injured
by getting in front of the knives, which project from
the sides.

Fig. 27. Low-down Rack for hauling fodder corn.

A low-down rack for hauling the corn from the
field is shown in the accompanying illustration (Fig.
27). It has been used for some years past at the Wis-
consin Station, and is a great convenience in handling
corn, saving both labor an@ time. These racks not

SILOING CORN ‘‘ EARS AND ALL.’’ 123

only dispense with a man upon the wagon when.load-
ing, but they materially lessen the labor of the man
who takes the corn from the ground, for it is only the
top of the load which needs to be raised shoulder-high;
again, when it comes to unloading, the man can stand
on the floor or ground and simply draw the corn
toward him and lay it upon the table of the cutter,
without stooping over and without raising the corn up
to again throwitdown. A plank that can easily be
hitched on behind the truck will prove convenient for
loading, so that the loader can pick up his armful and,
walking up the plank, can drop it without much ex-
ertion.

If wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be
shocked in the field to protect it as much as possible
' from rain before hauling it to the cutter.

SILOING CORN, ‘EARS AND ALL.’’

The best practice in putting corn into the silo, is to
silo the corn plant ‘‘ ears and all,’’ without previously
husking it. If the ear corn is not needed for hogs
and horses, or for seed purposes, this practice is in
the line of economy, as it saves the expense of husk-
ing, cribbing, shelling, and grinding the ear corn.
The possible loss of food materials sustained in siloing
the ear corn speaks against the practice, but this is
very small, and more than couterbalanced by the ad-
vantages gained by this method of procedure. In
proof of this statement we will refer to an extended
feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Professor
Woll at the Wisconsin Station in 1891.

Corresponding rows of a large corn field were siloed,
‘‘ears and all,’’ and without ears, the ears belonging
to the latter lot being carefully saved and air-dried.
The total yield of silage with ears in it (whole-corn
silage) was 56,459 pounds; of silage without ears
(stover silage) 34,496 pounds and of ear corn, 10,511
pounds. The dry matter content of the lots obtained

124 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

by the two methods of treatment was, in whole-corn
silage, 19,950 pounds; in stover silage 9,484 pounds,
and in ear corn, 9,122 pounds, or 18,606 pounds of
dry matter in the stover silage and ear corn combined.
This shows a loss of 1,344 pounds of dry matter, or
nearly 7 per cent, sustained by handling the fodder
and ear corn separately instead of siloing the corn

“ears and all.’’

In feeding the two kinds of silage against each
other, adding the dry ear corn to the stover silage, it
was found that seventeen tons of whole-corn silage
fed to sixteen cows produced somewhat better results
than fourteen tons of stover silage, and more than
two tons of dry ear corn, both kinds of silage ‘having
been supplemented by the same quantities of hay and
grain feed. The yield of milk from the cows was 4
per cent higher on the whole corn silage ration than
on the stover silage ration, and the yield of fat was
6.9 per cent higher on the same ration. It would
seem then that the cheapest and best way of preserv-
ing the corn crop for feeding purposes, at least in case
of milch cows, is to fill it directly into the silo; the
greater portion of the corn may be cut and siloed
when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, and the
corn plat which is to furnish ear corn may be left in
the field until the corn is fully matured, when it may
be husked, and the stalks and leaves may be filled into
the silo on top of the corn siloed ‘‘ears and all.’’
This will then need some heavy weighting or one or
two applications of water on top of the corn, to in-
sure a good quality of silage from the rather dry
stalks. (See page 133.)

'An experiment similar to the preceding one, con-
ducted at the Vermont Station, in which the product
from six acres of land was fed to dairy cows, gave
similar results. We are justified in concluding, there-
fore, that husking, shelling, and grinding the corn
(processes that may cost more than a quarter of the

FILLING THE SILO. 125

market value of the meal) are labor and expense more
than wasted, since the cows do better on the corn si-
loed ‘‘ears and all’’ than on that siloed after the ears
were picked off and fed ground with it.

THE FILLING .PROCESS.

The corn, having been hauled from the field to the
silo, has still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous
mass, convenient for feeding and economical as far as
utilization of the silage for feed.

In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ears and
all, may be run through an ‘‘Ohio’’ Ensilage Cutter.

The corn is unloaded on the table of the cutter and
run through the cutter, after which the carrier or
blower elevates it to the silo window and delivers it
into the silo. The length of cutting practiced differs.
somewhat with different farmers, and with the variety
of corn to be siloed. The general practice is to cut
the corn in one-half to one inch lengths. The corn
will pack better in the silo the finer it is cut, and cat-
tle will eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and
the majority of farmers filling silos practice cutting
corn rather fine for the silo.

“The carriers should deliver the corn as nearly in the
middle of the silo as possible; by means of a chute
attached to the carrier, the cut corn may be delivered
to any part of the silo desired, and the labor of dis-
tributing and leveling the corn thus facilitated. A
simple method of distribution is to attach to the blow-
er a tube made of a number of sacks sewed together
with bottoms out, through which the silage will then
descend. Such a device does not last very long, how-
ever, as the cut corn soon wears holes through the
sacks.

If the corn is siloed ‘‘ears and all,’’ it is necessary
to keep a man or a boy in the silo while it is being fill-
ed, to level the surface and tramp down the sides and
corners; if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will

126 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

be thrown farthest away and the light leaves and tops
will all come nearest the discharge; asa result the
corn will not settle evenly, and the different layers of
silage will have a different feeding value. To assist
in the distribution of the corn, a pyramidal box may
be hung in front and below the top of the carrier ;
this may be made about three feet square at the base
and tapering to a point, at which a rope is attached
for hanging to rafters. The falling mass of cut corn
will strike the top of the box and be divided so as to
distribute to all parts of the silo. Another simple de-
vice is to place a board vertically, or nearly so, in
front of the top of the carrier, against which the cut
corn will strike. These devices must be nicely ad-
justed as to position, however, or they will not be of
much advantage.

The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material tn the Silo.

The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has
been elevated or blown into the silo is a matter which
should have proper attention at the time of filling.
If the cut material is allowed to drop allin one place
and then have no further attention the constant fall-
ing of the material in one place will tend to make that
portion solid while the outside will not beso, and_be-
sides the pieces of ears and heavier portions will con-
tinually roll to the outside. As a result the silage
cannot settle evenly, and good results will not follow.
As the filling progresses, the cut material should be
leveled off and the common and most successful
practice is to keep the material higher at the sides than
at the centre and do a// the tramping at and dose to
the sides, where the friction of the walls tends to pre-
vent as rapid settling as takes place at the centre. For
this reason, no tramping, or at least, as little as
possible, should be done, except close to the walls. In
the modern deep silos, the weight of the silage ac-

SIZE OF CUTTER REQUIRED. 127

complishes more than would any amount of tramping,
and all that is necessary, is to see that the cut ma-
terial is rather evenly distributed, for better results in
feeding, and toassist the settling by some tramping at
the sides.

Size of Cutter and Power Required.

The ‘‘Ohio’’ Cutters are made ina variety of sizes,
suited to all requirements.

The cutter used in filling the silo should have
ample capacity to give satisfaction and do the work
rapidly; arather large cutter is therefore better than a
cutter that is barely large enough. The size required
depends on the rapidity with which it is desired to
fill the silo and on the power at hand. Where a steam
engine is available it is the cheapest power for filling
a large silo, asthe work can then be finished in a few
days. For small farms and silos, where an engine is
not to be had, a two or three-horse tread-power may
be used, but it will be found that the work of filling
will progress much more slowly than when steam
power, such asis suitable for threshing, isused. The
filling may be done as rapidly as possible, or may be
done slowly, and no harm will result if, for any
reason, the work be interrupted for some time. More
silage can be put into asilo with slow, than with rapid
filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can, of
course, fill his silo, and then refill after the silage has
settled, so that the silo will be nearly full after all
settling has takén place.

If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an
outfit, he will wish to do the filling as rapidly as
possible, asa matter of economy. It is, therefore,
desirable for the farmer to own his own machine, and
that being the case, a smaller machine will suffice;
wherein if the machine be hired the largest possible
capacity will be desired.

This has created a demand for various sizes of

128 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

cutters, and to meet this demand, the ‘‘Ohio’’ En-
silage Cutters are made in six sizes, with knives
eleven to twenty four inches long, and with Metal
Bucket Elevators, or Blower Elevators, as desired,
adaptable to any height of silo. The traveling feed
table, as supplied on the ‘‘Ohio’’ Cutters is a valuable
feature, and practically does away with the labor of
feeding the heavy green corn into the feed rolls, be-
sides increasing the capacity of the machines about
one-third, on account of its being so much easier to
keep the feed rolls supplied.

The Metal Bucket Elevator, which delivers the cut
silage corn into the silo through a window or opening
at the top, must be longer than the silo is high as it is
necessary to run the carrier at somewhat of an angle,
(see illustration, Fig. 28). The length of the carrier
required may beobtained by adding about 40 percent.
to the perpendicular height from the ground to the
window; thus, for a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is re-
quired, and for a 30 ft. silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will
be necessary.

The Metal Bucket Elevators for the ‘‘ Ohio’* Cut-
ters are made both straight away and with swivel base,
which enables the operator to set the cutter in the de-
sired position, and as the swivel base gives the carrier
a range of adjustment extending over nearly a half cir-
cle, the carrier can be run directly to the window, or
in the case of two silos setting side by side, both can
be filled with one setting of the cutter.

The No. 13 ‘‘Ohio’’ Silage Cutter, the number of
the machine indicates the length of knives and width
of throat), has a capacity of 8 to 12 tons of green corn ,
per hour, and requires 4 to 6 horse-power to run it to
full capacity, although it can be operated successfully
with less power, by feeding in proportion to the power
at hand. The 16 and 18 inch and larger sizes of ‘‘Ohio’’
Cutters have correspondingly larger capacities, and in
the case of the larger sizes the amount that can be cut

ILLUSTRATION. 129

Fig. 28. Jliustration showing a new stave silo in connection
with an old barn on the Bossert Farm, east of Salem,
Ohio. The ‘‘Ohio’” Self-Feed Cutter and Metal Bucket
Elevator are in operation, the engine not being shown in
the photograph.

130 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

is only limited by the amount that can be convenient-
ly gotten tothem. The largest sizes can be run by an
ordinary threshing engine. These machines have been
on the market for upwards of twenty-five years, and
have been brought to a wonderful state of perfection.
For durability, ease and reliability of operation,
capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the
most practical means of filling the silo.

The Nos. 16, 18, and. 19 ‘‘Ohio’’ Cutters are the
sizes mostly in use by farmers and dairymen, and the
travelling feed table, which is long enough to receive
a bundle of corn, is a most valuable feature, and has

Fig. 29. Jilustration showing ‘Ohio’? No. 19 Blower in
operation at the New Jersey State Experiment Station,
New Brunswick, N. J., filling the silos there in the fall
of 1902.

BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC ELEVATORS. t31

become almost universal on the ‘‘Ohio’’ machines
used for silo filling. It decreases the labor of feeding
and makes any size of machine about equal in capa-
city to the next size larger without it.

A new method of elevating the fodder in filling si-
los, has been introduced by the use of a blower-eleva-
tor, which blows the cut fodder into the silo through
a continuous pipe. ‘This device, therefore, takes the
place of the carrier elevator described above. Blower
elevators (see illustration of ‘‘Ohio’’ Cutter with
Blower Elevator, Fig. 29) have been in use to a con-
siderable extent for two or three years past, and in the
opinion of a good many persons the Blower or Exhaust
Elevator is likely to come into general use in the fu-
ture, and where sufficient power is available there is no
difficulty in elevating the cut fodder into the highest
silos.

Although the Blower Machines require somewhat
more power than the older style carrier, there are
numerous advantages over the metal bucket elevator,
so that the ‘‘Ohio’’ Blowers are more in demand
each year, and their popularity is now an assured fact;
we mention below some of the features that have serv-
ed to bring this style of the ‘‘ Ohio’’ Cutters to the
notice and favor of farmers and dairymen so rapidly.

The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down
or moved, as all that is necessary is to remove the
pipe, which is in sections of various lengths (from
four to ten feet as desired), which requires but a few
moments. ‘This operation requires but little time as
compared with that occupied in setting up or taking
apart the chain elevator.

The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing
all of the corn in the silo and there is no litter around
the machine when the filling is finished.

The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn is
made much finer, and it therefore packs closer in the
silo, thus enabling more fodder to be stored in the

132 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

silo; the corn is a!l knocked off of the pieces of cobs
and distributed through the cut fodder better, and the
pieces of the heavy butts and joints are also split and
knocked to pieces, all of which reduces the silage toa
fine condition so that it is eaten up cleaner by the
stock. |

The fan or blower device is also likely to be more
durable than the chain elevator.

Being somewhat of a new type of machine, the
‘Ohio ’’ Blower is perhaps not as well known as the
‘‘Qhio’’ with Chain Elevator, thousands of which
are in use the world over, to the entire satisfaction of
their owners. The filling of silos by means of a wind
blast, doing it as rapidly as the ‘‘Ohio’’ machines cut
the fodder, is entirely feasible and a successful propo-
sition, however, and there need be no fear on this
point if the following points be kept in mind.

The machines must be run at the proper speed as
recommended by the manufacturers. A fan can only
create a sufficient blast by running fast enough to force
the air through the pipe at the rate of nine to ten
thousand feet per minute. Green corn is heavy stuff,
and requires a strong current of air to carry it through
30 or 40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 20 tons per
hour. It will be seen, therefore, that unless proper
speed be maintained there will be no elevation of the
material whatever. Thus, it will be seen that if the
power at hand is not sufficient to maintain full speed
when the cutters are fed to full capacity all that is:
necessary is to feed the machines accordingly, as is
necessary with other kinds of machinery, such as
threshing machines, grinding mills etc.

In setting a Blower Machine it is necessary to have
the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that
the current of air within the pipe will lift the material.
This is especially true where the pipe is long, say 20
feet or more, because the green fodder being heavy
will settle down on to the lower side of the pipe, if

é

CARBONIC ACID GAS IN SILOS 133

this has much slant, and the wind blast will pass over
the fodder, thus allowing it to lodge, whereas if the
pipe be perpendicular, or nearly so, no stoppage will
occur. It is also necessary to see that full speed is
attained before beginning to feed the machine, and
also to stop the feeding while the machine is in full
motion so that the Blower will have an opportunity to
clear itself before shutting off the power.

There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent
back pressure, as the tremendous volume of air forced
into the silo with the cut fodder must have some means
of escape.

If these few points be kept in mind there can be no
possible doubt as to the successful operation of the
blower elevator, and as previously stated, the increas-
ed demand for the ‘‘Ohio’’ machines is ample evidence
on this point, and, as stated elsewhere in this volume,
in the opinion of some of the most prominent dairy-
men and experiment station officials, blast elevators
are likely to supersede the chain elevator within a few
years.

(N. B. At the end of this volume will be found
illustrations and descriptions of several sizes and styles
of ‘‘Ohio’”’ cutters, which the reader can refer to, in
addition to the illustrations given here. )

Danger from Carbonic-Acid Poisoning in Silos.—As
soon as thecorn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic-
acid gas is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight the
gas will gradually accumulate directly above the fod-
der, since it is heavier than air and does not mix with
it under the conditions given. If a man or an animal
goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger
of asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions
in a deep cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this
cause have occurred in filling silos where the filling
has been interrupted for one or more days, and men
have then gone into the silo to tramp down the cut
corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left open

134 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus ventilat-
ed, carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since
the gas will then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic
acid being without odor or color, to all appearances
like ordinary air, it cannot be directly observed, but
may be readily detected by means of a lighted lantern
orcandle. If the light goes out when lowered into
the silo there is an accumulation of carbonic acid in
it, and a person should open feed doors and fan the air
in the silo before going down into it.

After the silage is made and the temperature in the
silo has gone down considerably, there is no further
evolution of carbonic acid, and therefore no danger in
entering the silo even if this has been shut up tight.
The maximum evolution of carbonic acid, and conse-
quently the danger of carbonic-acid poisoning comes
during or directly after the filling of the silo.

Covering the Siloed Fodder.

Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have
been recommended and tried, with varying success.
The original method was to put boards on top of the
fodder, and to weight them heavily by means of a foot
layer of dirt or sand, or with stone. The weighting
having later on been done away with, lighter material,
as straw, hay, sawdust, etc., was substituted for the
stone orsand. Building paper was often placed over
the fodder, and boards on top of the paper. ‘There is
no special advantage derived from the use of building-
paper, and it is now never used. Many farmers run
some corn stalks, or green hnsked fodder, through the
cutter after the fodder isallin. In the South, cotton-
seed hulls are easily obtained, and form a fost effi-
cient and cheap cover.

None of these materials or any other recommended
for the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost °
layer of silage, some four to six inches of the top lay-
er being usually spoilt. Occasionally this spoilt silage

USE OF WATER IN FILLING SILOS. 135

may not be so bad but that cattle or hogs will eat it
up nearly clean, but it is at best very poor food, and
should not be used by any farmer who cares for the
quality of his products. The wet or green materials
are better for cover than dry substances, since they
prevent evaporation of water from the top layer ; when
this is dry, air will be admitted to the fodder below,
thus making it possible for putrefactive bacteria and
molds to continue the destructive work begun by the
fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the silage
to spoils.)

Use of Water in Filling Silos.—During late years
the practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo
has been followed in a large number of cases. The
surface is tramped thoroughly and a considerable
amount of water added. In applying the method at
the Wisconsin Station, Prof. King, a few days after the
completion of the filling of the silo, added water to
the fodder corn at the rate of about ten pounds per
square foot of surface, repeating the same process
about ten days afterwards. By this method a sticky,
almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple of
inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent
evaporation of water from the corn below, and will
preserve all but a few inches of the top. The method
can be recommended in cases where the corn or clover
goes into the silo in a rather dry condition, on account
of drought or extreme hot weather, so as not to pack
sufficiently by its own weight. While weighting of
the siloed fodder has long since been done away with,
it may still prove advantageous to resort to it where
very dry fodder is siloed, or in case of shallow silos.
Under ordinary conditions neither weighting nor ap-
plications of water should be necessary.

There is only one way in which all of the silage can
be preserved intact, viz., by beginning to feed the
silage within a few days after the silo has been filled.
This method is now practiced by many farmers, espe-

136 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

cially dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant
fall pastures.

By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the silo-
ing system is brought to perfection, provided the silo
structure is air-tight, and constructed so as to admit of
no unnecessary losses of nutrients. Under these con-
ditions there is a very considerable saving of food ma-
terials over silage made in poorly-constructed silos, or
over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have al-
ready seen.

CLOVER SILAGE.

Green clover may be siloed whole or cut, but the
latter method is to be recommended. ‘The clover
should not be left to wilt between cutting and siloing,
and the silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no
unnecessary losses by fermentations.

The different species of clover will prove satisfactory
silo crops; ordinary red or medium clover is most used
in Northwestern States, along with mammoth clover ;
the latter matures later than medium or red clover, and
may therefore be siloed later than these. Alfalfa, or
lucern, is, as previously stated, often siloed in the
West. Under the conditions present there it will gen-
erally produce much larger yields than corn, and, pre-
served ina silo, will furnish a large supply of most
valuable feed. Prof. Neale and others recommend the
use of scarlet clover for summer silage, for Delaware
and States under similar climatic conditions.

Says a Canadian dairy farmer: ‘‘If we were asked
for our opinion as to what will most help the average
dairy farmer, I think we should reply: Knowledge of
a balanced ration, the Babcock test, and a summer
silo; then varying the feed of individual animals ac-
cording to capacity, as shown by scales and close ob-
servation.’’

CLOVER FOR. SUMMER SILAGE.
By filling clover into the silo at midsummer, or be-

CLOVER FOR SUMMER SILAGE. 137

fore, space is utilized that would otherwise be empty ;
the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding
in the latter part of the summer and during the fall,
when the pastures are apt to run short. This makes
it possible to keep a larger number of stock on the
farm than can be the case if pastures alone are to be
relied upon, and thus greatly facilitates intensive far-
ming. Now that stave silos of any size may be easily
and cheaply put up, it will be found very convenient,
at least on dairy farms, to keep a small separate silo
for making clover silage that may be fed out during
the summer, or at any time simultaneously with the
feeding of the corn silage. This extra silo may also
- be used for the siloing of odd lots of forage that may
happen to be available (see page 60). It is a good
plan in siloing clover or other comparatively light
crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn on
top that will weight down the mass below, and secure
amore thorough packing and thereby also a better
quality of silage.

In several instances where there has still been a sup-
ply of clover silage in the silo, green corn has been
filled in on top of the clover, and the latter has been
sealed and thus preserved for anumber of years. Corn
silage once settled and ‘‘sealed,’’ will also keep per-
haps indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo,
without deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or
palatability.

Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says:
‘*Silage will keep as long as the silo is not opened,
and has been kept in good condition for seven years.
This is a special advantage to Kansas dairymen, as in
vears of heavy crops the surplus can be stored in silos
for years of drought, making all years good crop
years for silo dairymen.’’

FREEZING OF SILAGE.
Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of

138 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE.

annoyance and loss to farmers in Northern States, and
in the future, with the progress of the stave silo, we
shall most likely hear more about frozen silage than
we have in the past. As stated in the discussion of
the stave silo, however, the freezing of silage must be
considered an inconvenience rather than a positive
detriment ; when the silage is thawed out it is eaten
with the same relish by stock as is silage that has never
been frozen, and apparently with equally good results.
If frozen silage is not fed out directly after thawed it
will spoil and soon become unfit to be used for cattle
food ; thawed silage will spoil much sooner than ordi-
nary silage that has not been frozen and thawed out.
There is no evidence that silage which has been frozen °
and slowly thawed out, is less palatable or nutritious
than silage of the same kind which had been kept free
from frost.

The difficulty of the freezing of silage may be
avoided by checking the ventilation in the silo and by
leaving the door tothe silo carefully closed in severe
weather. If the top layer of silage freezes some of
the warm silage may be mixed with the frozen silage
an hour or two before feeding time, and all the silage
will then be found in good condition when fed out.
A layer of straw may be kept as a cover over the si-
lage; this will prevent it from freezing, and is easily
cleared off when silage is to be taken out.

UBAPLER .V.

HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

Silage is eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm
animals, dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep,
goats, swine, and even poultry. It should never be
fed as sole roughage to any of these classes of stock,
however, but always in connection with some dry
roughage. ‘The nearer maturity the corn is when cut
for the silo, the more silage may safely be fed at a
time, but it is always well to avoid feeding it excess-
ively.

The silo should always be emptied from the top in
horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to
expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It
should be fed out sufficiently rapidly to avoid spoiling
of the silage; in ordinary Northern winter weather a
layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily.

Fig. 30. Silage Truck.

SILAGE FOR MILCH COWS.
Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. Woll

140 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

in his Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the
silo in this country, the dairymen, more than any
other class of farmers, have been among the most en-
thusiastic siloists, and up to the present time a larger
number of silos are found in dairy districts than in
any other regions where animal husbandry is a promi-
nent industry. As with other farm animals, cows fed
silage should receive other roughage in the shape of
corn stalks, hay, etc. The quantities of silage fed
should not exceed forty, or at the outside, fifty pounds
per day per head. It is possible that a maximum al-
lowance of only 25 or 30 pounds per head daily is to
be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is .
an important consideration, especially if the silage was
made from somewhat immature corn. The silage may
be given in one or two feeds daily, and, in case of cows
in milk, always after milking, and not before or dur-
ing same, as the peculiar silage odor may, in the latter
case, 1m our experience reappear in the milk. (See
below. ) .
Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secre-
tion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced,
cows will usually drop considerably in milk towards
spring, if fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk .
through the whole remaining portion of the lactation
period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked
decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass,
and the cows will be able to keep up well in milk un-
til late in summer, or early in the fall, when they are
dried up prior to calving. Silage has a similar effect
on the milk secretion as green fodder or pasture, and
if made from well-matured corn, is more like these
feeds than any other feed the farmer can produce.
The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes
been objected to when the milk was intended for the
manufacture of certain kinds of cheese, or of condens-
ed milk, and there are instances where such factories
have enjoined their patrons from feeding silage to

SILAGE FOR ‘‘CERTIFIED MILK.”’ IAI

their cows. When the silage is properly prepared and
properly fed, there can be no foundation whatever for
this injunction ; it has been repeatedly demonstrated
that Swiss cheese of superior quality can be made
from the milk of silage-fed cows, and condensing fac-
tories among whose patrons silage is fed have been
able to manufacture a superior product. The qualily
of the silage made during the first dozen years of silo
experience in this country was very poor, being sour
and often spoilt in large quantities, and, what may
have been still more important, it was sometimes fed
in an injudicious manner, cows being made to subsist
on this feed as sole roughage. Under these conditions
it is only natural that the quality of the milk should
be impaired, and that manufacturers preferred to en-
tirely prohibit the use of it rather than to teach their
patrons to follow proper methods in the making and
feeding of silage. There is an abundance of evidence
at hand showing that good silage fed in moderate
quantities will produce an excellent quality of both
butter and cheese. According to the testimony of
butter experts, silage not only does not injure the
flavor of butter, but better-flavored butter is produced
by judicious silage feeding than can be made from dry
feed.

Silage in the production of ‘‘certified mtlk.’’—In an-
swer to a question raised whether there is any objec-
tion made to the milk when the cows are fed silage,
Mr. H. B. Gurler, the well-known Illinois dairyman,
whose certified milk sent to the Paris Exposition in
1900, kept sweet for one month without having any
preservatives added to it, and was awarded a gold
medal, gave the following information: ‘‘ No, there
isnot. I have had persons who knew I was feeding
silage imagine they could taste it. I caught one of the
leading Chicago doctors a while ago. He imagined
that he could taste silage in the milk, and I was not
feeding it at all. When f first went into the business

142 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

I did not feed any silage to the cows from which the
certified milk was produced. I knew it was all right
for butter making, as I had made butter from the
milk of cows fed with silage, and sent it to New York
in competition with butter made from dry food, and it
proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first
winter I had samples sent down to my family in De
Kalb from the stable where we fed silage and from the
stable where we were making the certified milk for
Chicago, and in which we fed no silage. I presume I
made one hundred comparative tests that winter of the
milk from these two stables. My wife and daughter
could not tell the difference between the two samples.
In the large majority of cases they would select the
milk from the cows fed silage as the sweeter milk.’’

It will serve as an illustration of the general use of
silage among progressive dairymen in our country, to
state that of one hundred farmers furnishing the feed
rations fed to their dairy cows, in an investigation of
this subject conducted by Prof. Woll in 1894, sixty-
four were feeding silage to their stock, this feed being
used a larger number of times than any other single
cattle food, wheat bran only excepted.

The combinations in which corn silage will be used
in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local
conditions; it may be said in general that it should be
supplemented by a fair proportion of nitrogenous feeds
like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal,
gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may be of
some help to our readers a number of balanced rations
or such as are near enough balanced to produce good
results at the pail, are presented below.

Silage Rations for Milch Cows.

No. 1. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 8 lbs.; wheat
bran, 4 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 2 lbs.
No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs. ;

No.

No.

SILAGE RATIONS. 143

corn meal, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt
sprouts, 3 lbs. ; oil meal, 1 lb.

3. Corn’ silage, go lbs.; clover and timothy
mixed, to lbs. ; wheat shorts, 3 lbs. ; gluten feed,
3 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 3 lbs.

. 4. Corn silage, 201lbs.; corn stalks, 10 lbs. ; hay

4 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 3 Ibs. ;
ground oats, 3 lbs.

. 5. Corn silage; 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs.; oat

feed, 4 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs.; gluten feed, 3 lbs.

. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; corn stalks, 5 lbs. ; oat

straw, 5 lbs.; dried brewers’ grains, 4 lbs. ; wheat
shorts, 4 lbs.

. 7. Corn silage, 35. lbs.; hay, 10 lbs. ; corn meal,

2 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; oats, 3 lbs.

18!) Corn «silage!/:qgo«lbs.; cornsstover; 8 dbsi:;

wheat bran, 4 lbs.; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; oil meal,
2 lbs.

.g. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay,

15 lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs.; ground oats, 3 lbs. ;
oil meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton seed meal, 1 lb.

. Io. Clover silage, 25 lbs.; corn stover, to lbs. ;

hay, 5 lbs.; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. ; oat feed, 4 lbs.;
corn neal, 2 lbs.

. Ir. Clover silage, 30 Ibs: ; dry fodder corn, fo

lbs. ; oat straw, 4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs.; malt
sprouts, 2 lbs. ; oil meal 2 lbs. |

12. Clover silage, 40 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; roots,
20 lbs. ; corn meal, 4 lbs. ; ground oats, 4 lbs.

The preceding rations are only intended as approxi-
mate guides in feeding dairy cows. Every dairy far-
mer knows that there are hardly two cows that will
act in exactly the same manner and will need exactly
the same amount of feed. It is then important to
adapt the quantities and kinds of feed given to the
special needs of the different cows; one cow will fat-
ten on corn meal, where another will be able to eat

144 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

and make good use of two or three quarts of it. In
the same way some cows will eat more roughage than
others and do equally well on it as those that get more
of the food in the form of more concentrated and
highly digestible feeding stuffs. The only safe rule
to go by is to feed according to the different needs of
the cows ; to study each cow and find out how much
food she can take care of without laying on flesh, and
how she responds to the feeding of foods of different
character, like wheat, bran, and corn meal, for in-
stance. ‘The specimen rations given in the preceding
can, therefore, only be used to show the average
amounts of common feeds which a good dairy cow
can take in and give proper returns for.

The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy
cattle has increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb.
Few owners of stock of thisclass, who have properly-
built silos, and well-preserved silage, would discard
silage as an adjunct to feeding. Silage certainly pro-
motes milk flow. One great argument in favor of its
use lies in the cheapness of production per ton, and
the ability to store and secure a palatable, nutritious
food in weather conditions that would seriously injure
hay or dry fodder.

There is one important point that owners of milk
cattle should bear in mind, and that is when the silo
is first opened only a small feed should be given. In
changing from grass or dry feed to silage, if a regular
full ration is given, the silage will perhaps slightly af-
fect the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if
the change is from dry feed it may cause too great
activity of the bowels.

SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE.

Silage may be fed with advantage to beef cattle, in
moderate quantities, up to about forty pounds a day.
The health of the animals and the quality of the beef
produced on moderate silage feeding, leave nothing to

SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. 145

be wished for. If the silage is made from immature
corn care must be taken not to feed too large quanti-
ties at the start, and to feed carefully, so as not to
make the animals scour. Prof. Henry says in regard
to the value of silage for fattening steers: ‘‘ As with
roots, silage makes the carcass watery and soft to the
touch. Some have considered this a disadvantage,
but is it not a desirable condition in the fattening
steer? Corn and roughage produce a hard dry car-
cass, and corn burns out the digestive tract in the
shortest possible time. With silage and roots, diges-
tion certainly must be more nearly normal, and its
profitable action longer continued. The tissues of the
body are juicy, and the whole system must be in just
that condition which permits rapid fattening. While
believing in a large use of silage in the preliminary
stages, and its continuance during most of the fatten-
ing period, I would recommend that gradually more
dry food be substituted as the period advances, in order
that the flesh may become more solid. Used in this
way, I believe silage will become an important aid in
steer feeding in many sections of the country. Results
from Canada, Wisconsin, and Texas experiment sta-
tions show the broad adaptation of this food for stock
feeding purposes.”’

Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full
grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions.
as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas.
Station suggests that corn silage is not a fit food for
breeding bulls, unless fed a few pounds only as a rel-
ish ; fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to lose virility
and become slow and uncertain breeders.

SILAGE FOR HORSES.

When fed in small quantities, not to exceed fifteen
pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It
should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at
first and gradually increased as the animals become

146 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed
with cut straw, two-thirds of straw, and one-third of
silage, and feed all horses will eat of this mixed feed.
Some horses object to silage at first on account of its
peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on
top of the silage and feeding only very small amounts
to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it.
Other horses take it willingly from the beginning.
Horses not working may be fed larger quantities than
work horses, but in neither case should the silage form
more than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the
horses. Silage-fed horses will look well and come out
in the spring in better condition than when fed almost
any other food.

Professor Cook says in regard to silage as a horse
food: ‘‘ It has been suggested by even men of high
scientific attainments that silage is pre-eminently the
food for cattle and not for other farm stock. ‘This is
certainly a mistake. If we raise fall colts, which I find
very profitable, then silage is just what we need, and
will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though
dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares
in first-class trim for the hard summer’s work. I find
silage just as good for young colts and other horses.’’

An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder,
gives his experience in regard to silage for horses as
follows: ‘‘ Last winter we had nearly two hundred
horses, including Clydesdales, standard-bred trotters,
and Shetland ponies. They were wintered entirely
upon straw and corn silage, and this in face of the fact
that I had read along article in a prominent horse
journal cautioning farmers from the use of silage, and
citing instances where many animals had died, and
brood mares had aborted from the liberal use of corn
silage.

‘“Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent,
our stallions and brood mares, as well as all the young
stock, were fed two full rations of silage daily, and

SILAGE FOR HORSES. 147

one liberal ration of wheat or oat straw. The result
with our brood mares was most phenomenal, for we
now have to represent every mare that was then in foal
on the farm, a weanling, strong and vigorous, and ap-
parently right in every way, with only one exception,
where the colt was lost by accident. Of course there
may have been something in the season more favorable
than usual, but this was the first year in my experi-
ence when every colt dropped on the farm was saved.’’

The following experience as to the value of silage
as a food for horse and other farm animalscomes from
the Ohio Station: ‘‘Our silo was planned and filled
with special reference to our dairy stock, but after
opening thesilo we decided to try feeding the silage
to our horses, calves, and hogs. The result was
eminently satisfactory. We did not find a cow, calf,
horse, colt, or hog that refused to eat, or that did not
eatit with apparent relish, not only for a few days,
but for full two months. The horses were given one
feed of twenty pounds each per day in place of the
usual amount of hay, for the period above named, and
it was certainly a benefit. Their appetites were
sharpened, and the healthfulness of the food was
further manifest in the new coat of hair which came
with the usual spring shedding. The coat was glossy,
the skin loose. and the general appearance was that
of horses running upon pasture.’’

Doctor Bailey states that silage has as good an effect
on work and driving horses as an occasional feed of
carrots or other roots, and Rew informs us that there
is a demand for silage in London and other English
cities, especially for omnibus, cab, and tram _ horses.
According to the testimony of Mr. H. J. Elwes, the
cart horses fed silage ‘‘looked in better condition and
brighter in their coats than usual at this time of the
year.”’

From experiments conducted at Virginia Station,
Prof: Nourse concluded that ‘‘it would appear that

148 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

silage would makea good roughage for horses, when
used in connection with hay or stover or grain,
but that these animals should become accustomed to
the food by degrees, and that this is as important as
when changing from old to new corn, or from hay to
grass.”’

What has been said about silage as a food for horses
will most likely apply equally well to mules, although
only very limited experience has so far been gained
with silage for this class of farm animals.

Silage for Sheep.

Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep
men, says Prof. Wollin his book on Silage; sheep do
well on it, and silage-fed ewes drop their lambs in the
spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and
vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not
well adapted for breeding stock, as itis too fattening;
for fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in
the silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple
of pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six
pounds per head. Professor Cook reports as follows
in regard to the value of silage for sheep: ‘‘I have
fed ensilage liberally to sheep for three winters and
am remarkably pleased with the results. I make
ensilage half the daily ration, the other half being
corn stalks, or timothy hay, with bran or oats. The
sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly I was much
troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of
late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I
hardly losta lamb. While ensilage may not be the
entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main
cause. It is positively proved that ensilage is a most
valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our
‘domestic animals.’’

Mr. J. S. Woodward, a well-known New York
farmer and Farmers’ Institue worker, who has made
a specialty of early-lamb raising, says, in an address

SILAGE FOR SHEEP. 149

before the New York Agricultural Society, regarding
silage as feed forlambs: ‘‘In order to be successful
in raising fine lambs it is imperative that the ewes and
lambs both should have plenty of succulent food.
Nothing can supply the deficiency. For this purpose
roots of almost any kind are good. Turnips, rutabagas,
mangolds are all good. Corn silage is excellent.
Could I have my choice I would prefer both silage
and roots. If I were depending on silage alone for
succulent food I would give four pounds per hundred
pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, at the
forenoon feed; but when feeding both silage and roots
I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the
afternoon.’’

Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning
silage for sheep: ‘‘Of late years we have annually
put up 3,200 tons of corn ensilage, and this has been
the principal ration of all the live stock at Springdale
Farm, our Shropshire sheep having been maintained
on aration of ensilage night and morning, coupled
with a small ration of clover hay in the iddie of
the day. This we found to fully meet the require-
ments of our flock until after lambing, from which
time forward we of course added liberal rations of
wheat bran, oats, and old-process linseed meal to the
ewes, with a view of increasing their flow of milk and
bringing forward the lambs in the most vigorous
possible condition. Our flock-master was somewhat
anxious until after the lambs dropped, but now
that he saved 196 lambsfrom 122 ewes, his face is
wreathed in smiles, and he gives the ensilage system
the strongest endorsement.’’ Mr. Turner states that,
after becoming accustomed to the silage, his horses,
cattle, and sheep would all push their noses down
through the hay, if there was silage at the bottom of
the manger, and little or no hay would be eaten until
the silage was first taken. |
'. The following interesting experience illustrating

150 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

the value of silage for sheep feeding is given by Mr.
William Woods, a celebrated English breeder of
Hampshire-Downs: ‘‘Last year, in August, I found
myself witha flock of some 1,200 Hampshire-Down
ewes, and about twelve or fourteen acres of swedes,
on a farm of 4,000 acres, and these were all the roots
there were to feed them and their jambs during the
winter. Knowing how we should suffer from want of
milk after lambing in January and February, I thought
I would try (which no doubt has often been tried else-
where, though notin this district) the effect of en-
silage on ewes after lambing, having learned by hear-
say that it increased the milk of cows nearly 30 per
cent. I at once setto work to irrigate what water
meadows I could spare, and in the month of October
had acrop of grass that, had it been possible to make
it into hay, would have made a ton of hay to the acre.
I bought from the Aylesbury Dairy Company one of
their Johnson’s ensilage rick presses, and put some
seventy to eighty tons of cut meadow grass under
pressure. It must, however, be borne in mind that
second cut water meadow grass is some of the poorest
stuff that is consumed, either green or in hay, and,
therefore, my ensilage was not as good, and con-
sequently not as favorable a trial, as if it had been
made of better material.

“In January, when well into lambing, I opened the
stack, and began to feed it to the ewes that had
lambed. At first they hardly cared to eat it, but by
degrees they seemed to like it more. They had a
night and morning mealof best sainfoin hay, and a
small lot of ensilage with the cake given at midday.
After three weeks’ trial, what the shepherd observed
was this: That when best sainfoin hay worth 44a
ton, was put in the cages, and ensilage in the troughs
at the same time, half the sheep would go to the hay
and half to the ensilage, although there was sufficient
accommodation for the whole flock at either sort, and

SILAGE FOR SWINE. 151

we now observe that with the ewes that are most con-
stant to the ensilage, their lambs are nourished better
than the others. We have not lost a single lamb from
scours, and have some 470 lambs from 380 ewes lambed
as yet, which I think proves the value of the experi-
ment. Assoon asthe stuff arrives in carts the ewes
are crazy for it, and almost come over the hurdles, so
eager are they to get at this new sort of feed, which,
as I have stated, is only water meadow grass en-
silaged.’’

Silage for Swine.

The testimony concerning the value of silage as a
food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and un-
favorable reports being at hand. Many farmers have
tried feeding it totheir hogs, but without success. On
the other hand, a number of hog-raisers have had
good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their
swine. It is possible that the differences in the
quality of the silage and of the methods of feeding
practiced explain the diversity of opinions formed
concerning silage as hog food. According to Professor
Cook, Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great American
authority on the swine industry, states that silage is
valuable to add to the winter rations of our swine.
Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage
for hogs: ‘‘We have fed our sows, about twenty-five
_in number, for four winters, equal parts of ensilage
and corn meal put into acooker, and brought uptoa
steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial
tothem. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows
that are nursing the young, equal to when they
are running on clover. We find, too, when the pigs
are farrowed, they become more robust, and take to
nursing much sooner and better than they did in
winters when fed on an exclusively dry diet. We al-
so feed it tooursheep. To sixty head we put out
about six bushels of ensilage.’’ Dr. Bailey, the author

152 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

of ‘‘The Book on Ensilage,’’ fed large hogs ten
pounds of silage, and one pound of wheat bran, with
good results; the cost of the ration did not exceed 2
cents per day. Hestates that clover silage would be
excellent, and would require no additional grain.
Young pigs are exceedingly fond of the silage. Feed-
ing experiments conducted at Virginia Experiment
Station show that silage is an economical maintenance
feed for hogs, when fed in connection with corn, but
not when fed alone.

In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to
feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mix-
ing it with corn meal, shorts, or other. concentrated
feeds. ‘The diet of the hog should be largely made
up of easily digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds
like silage can only be fed to advantage in small
quantities, not to exceed three or four pounds per
head, per day. Asin case of breeding ewes, silage
will give good results when fed with care to brood
sows, keeping the system in order, and producing a
good flow of milk.

Silage for Poultry.

But little experience is at hand as to the use of
silage as a poultry food; some farmers however, are
feeding a little silage to their poultry with good suc-
cess. Only small quantities should of course be fed,
and it is beneficialas a stimulant and a regulator, as
much asa food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in
Orange Judd Farmer, concerning his experience in
making and feeding silage to fowls. Devices similar
to that here described have repeatedly been explained
in the agricultural press. ‘‘Clover and corn silage
is one of the best winter foods for poulty raisers. Let
me tell you how to build four silos for $1. Buy four
coal-oil barrels at the drug store, burn them out on
the inside, and take the heads out. Goto the clover
field when the second crop of the small June clover, is

CORN SILAGE VS. ROOT CROPS. 153

in the bloom, and cut one-half ton three-eights of an
inch in length, also one-half ton of sweet corn, and
run this through the feed cutter. Putinto the barrel
a layer of clover, then a layerof corn. Having done
this, take a common building jack-screw and press the
silage down as firmly as possible. Then put on this
a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and
keep on putting in cloverand corn until you get the
barrel as full as will admit of the cover being put back.
After your four barrel silos are filled, roll them out
beside the barn, and coverthem with horse manure,
allowing them to remain there thirty days. Then put
them away, covering with cut straw or hay. When
the cold, chilling winds of December come, open one of
these ‘poultrymen’s silos,’ take about twenty pounds
for one hundred hens, add equal parts of potatoes,
ground oats, and winter rye, place same in a kettle
and bring to a boiling state. Feed warmin the morn-
ing, and the result will be that you will be enabled to
market seven or eight dozen eggs per day from one
hundred hens through the winter, when eggs bring
good returns.’’

ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY AS TO THE VALUE OF SILAGE.

Corn Silage compared with root crops.—Root crops
are not grown to any large extent in this country, but
occasionally an old-country farmer is met with who
grows roots for his stock, because his father did so,
and his grandfather and great-grandfather before him.
This is what a well-known English writer, R. Henry
Rew, says as to the comparative value of roots and
silage, from the standpoint of an English farmer :

‘“The root crop has, for about a century anda half,
formed the keystone of arable farming; yet it is the
root crop whose position is most boldly challenged by
silage. No doubt roots are expensive—say £10 per
acre as the cost of producing an ordinary crop of tur-
nips—and precarious, as the experience of the winter

154 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

of 1887-8 has once more notably exemplified in many
parts of the country. In a suggestive article in the
Farming World Almanac for 1888 Mr. Primrose
McConnell discusses the question: ‘ Are Turnips a
Necessary Crop?’ and sums up his answer in the fol-
lowing definite conclusion :

‘‘* Rverything, in short, is against the use of roots,
either as a cheap and desirable food for any kind of
live stock, as a crop suited for the fallow break, which
cleans the land at little outlay, or as one which pre-
serves or increases the fertility of the soil.’

‘‘If the growth of turnips is abandoned or restrict-
ed ensilage comes in usually to assist the farmer in
supplying their place. . . Whenonecomes to com-
pare the cultivation of silage crops with that of roots,
there are two essential points in favor of the former.
One is their smaller expense, and the other is their
practical certainty. The farmer who makes silage can
make certain of his winter store of food, whereas he
who has only his root crop may find himself left in the
lurch at a time when there is little chance of making
other provision.’’

We have accurate information as to the yields and
cost of production of roots and corn silage in this
country from a number of American Experiment Sta-
tions. This shows that the tonnage of green or suc-
culent feed per acre is not materially different in case
of the two crops, generally speaking. But when the
quantities of dry matter harvested in the crop are con-
sidered, the corn has been found to yield about twice
as much as the ordinary root crops. According to
data published by the Pennsylvania Station, the cost
of an acre of beets in the pit amounts to about $56,
and of an acre of corn in the silo about $21, only half
the quantities of food materials obtained, and at more
than double cost.

When the feeding of these two crops has been de-
termined, as has been the case in numerous trials at

CORN SILAGE COMPARED WITH HAY. BRS

experiment stations, it has been found that the dry
matter of beets certainly has no higher, and in many
cases has been found to have a lower value than that
of corn silage; the general conclusion to be drawn,
therefore, is that ‘‘ beets cost more to grow, harvest
and store, yield less per acre, and produce at best no
more and no better milk or other farm products than
corn silage.’’

Corn silage compared with hay. A ton and a half of
hay per acre is generally considered a good average
cropin humid regious. Since hay contains sbout 86
per cent. dry matter, a cropof 1% tons means 2,580
pounds of dry matter. Against this yield we have
yields of 5,000 to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice
to three and a half times as much, in case of fodder
corn. Anaverage crop of green fodder will weigh
twelve tons, of Northern varieties, and eighteen tons,
of Southern varieties. Estimating the percentage of
dry matter in the former at 30 per cent, and inthe
latter at 20 per cent, we shall have in either case a
yield of 7,200 pounds of dry matter. If we allow for
Io per cent. of loss of dry matter in the silo there is
still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be credited to the
corn. The expense of growing the corn cropis, of
course, higher than that of growing hay, but by no
means sufficiently so to offset the larger yields. It is
a fact generally conceded by all who have given the
subject any study, that the hay cropis the most ex-
pensive crop used for the feeding of our farm animals.

The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Ex-
periment Station (England) said, respecting the
relative value of hay and (grass) silage: ‘‘It is
probable that when both (i. e., hay and silage) are of
the very best quality that can be made, if part of the
grass is cut and placedina silo, and another part is
secured in the stack without rain, one might prove as
good food as the other. But it must be borne in mind
that while the production of good hay is a matter of

156 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

uncertainty—from the elements of success being be-
yond the control of thefarmer—good silage, by taking
proper precautions, can be made witha certainty.’”’

A few feeding experiments withcorn silage vs. hay
will be mentioned in the following.

In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the
New Hampshire Station, the silage ration, containing
16.45 pounds of digestible matter, produced 21.0
pounds of milk, and the hay ration, containing 16.83
pounds digestible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk;
calculating the quantitiesof milk produced by too
pounds of digestible matter in either case, we find on
the silage ration 127.7 pounds of milk, on the hay
ration, 109.3 pounds, or 17 per cent. in favor of the
silage ration.

In a feeding experiment with milch cows at the
Maine Station, in which silage likewise was compared
with hay, the addition of silage to the ration resulted
in a somewhat increased production of milk solids,
which was not caused by an increase in the digestible
food materials eaten, but which must have been due
either to the superior value of the nutriments of the
silage over those of the hay or to the general
physiological effect of feeding a greater variety of
foods. 8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat
superior to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy),
the quantity of digestible material being the same in
the two cases.

In another experiment, conducted at the same:
station, where silage was compared with hay for steers,
a pound of digestible matter from the corn silage pro-
duced somewhat more growth than a pound of
digestible matter from timothy hay. The difference
was small, however, amounting in the case of the last
two periods, where the more accurate comparison is
possible, to an increased growth of only 15 pounds of
live weight for each ton of silage fed.

Corn Silage compared with fodder corn. ‘The cost of

CORN SILAGE AND FODDER CORN. T57

production is the same for the green fodder up to the
time of siloing, incase of both systems; as against the
expense of siloing the crop comes that of shocking,
and later on, placing the fodder under shelter in the
field-curing process; further husking, cribbing, and
grinding the corn, and cutting the corn stalks, since
this is the most economical way of handling the crop,
and the only way in which it can be fully utilized so
as to be of as great value as possible for dry fodder.
Professor King, found the cost of placing corn in the
silo to be 58.6 cents per ton, on the average for five
Wisconsin farms, or, adding to this amount, interest
and taxes on silo investment, and insurance and
maintenance of silo per ton, 73.2 cents. The expense
of shocking and sheltering the cured fodder and, later
cutting the same, will greatly exceed that of siloing
the crop; to obtain the full value in feeding the ear
corn, it must, furthermore, in most cases, be ground,
costing 10 centsor more a bushel of 70 lbs. The ad-
vantage is, therefore, decidedly with the siloed fodder
in economy of handling, as well as in the cost of pro-
duction. ,

-The comparative feeding value of corn silage and
fodder corn has been determined in a large number of
trials at different experiment stations. The earlier
ones of these experiments were made with only a
couple of animals each, and no reliance can, therefore,
be placed on the results obtained in any single ex-
periment. Inthe laterexperiments a larger number
of cows have been included, and these have been con-
tinued for sufficiently long time to show what the
animals could do on each feed.

A few experiments illustrating the value of silage
as a stock food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two
lots of steers on a silage experiment. One lot of four
steers was fed corn silage exclusively, and another
similar lot corn silage with shelled corn. The former
lot gained 222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the latter

158 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

lot 535 pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per day per
head for the silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day
for the silage and shelled-corn fed steers. Prof. Emery
fed corn silage and cotton-seed meal, in the proportion
of eight to one, to two three-year-old steers, at the
North Carolina Experiment Station. The gain made
during thirty-two days was, for one steer 78 pounds,
and for the other 85.5 pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head
per day.

The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon.
Hiram Smith, in 1888 gave the following testimony
concerning the value of silage for milch cows: ‘‘My
silo was opened December 1st, and thirty pounds of
ensilage was fed to each of the ninety cows for the
night’s feed, or 2,700 pounds per day, until March 10,
one hundred days, or a total of 135 tons, leaving suf-
ficient ensilage to last until May roth. The thirty
pounds took and well filled the place of ten pounds of
good hay. Had hay been fed for the night’s feed in
place of the ensilage, it would have required 900
pounds per day for the ninety cows, or a total for the
one hundred days of forty-five tons.

‘It would have required, in the year 1887, forty-
five acres of meadow to have produced the hay, which,
if bought or sold, would have amounted to $14.00 per
acre. The 135 tons of ensilage were produced on 8%
acres of land, and had a feeding value, as compared
with hay, of $74.11 per acre.’’ As the conclusion of
the whole matter, Mr. Smith stated that ‘‘ three cows
can be wintered seven months on one acre producing
16 tons of ensilage, while it required ‘wo acres of mead-
ow in the same year of 1887, to winter oze cow, with
the same amount of ground feed in both cases.’’

Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural
College, gives a powerful plea for silage in the follow-
ing simple statement: ‘‘ The single fact that the pro-
duct of about two acres of ground kept our herd of
fifty head of cattle five weeks with no other feed of the

CONCLUDING TESTIMONY. 159

fodder kind, except asmall ration of corn fodder given
at noon, speaks whole cyclopedias for the possibilities
of Kansas fields when the silo is called in as an ad-
junct.’’

[In conclusion. We will bring our discussions of the
silo and its importance in American agriculture, toa
close by quoting the opinicns of a few recognized lead-
ers on agricultural matters as the value of silo —

silage :
Says £x-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard’s wees
man, and a noted dairy lecturer: ‘‘ For dairying all

the year around the silo is almost indispensable.’’

Prof. Hills, the director of Vermont Experiment
Station: ‘‘It was long ago clearly shown that the
most economical farm-grown carbohydrates raised in
New England are derived from the corn plant, and
that they are more economically preserved for cattle
feeding in the silo than in any other way.’’

FT. C. Wallace, editor Creamery Gazette: ‘‘ While
not an absolute necessity, the silo is a great conve-
nience in the winter, and in times of protracted dry-
ness almost a necessity in summer.”’

Prof. Carlyle, of Wisconsin Agricultural College:
“A silo is a great labor-saving device for preserving
the cheapest green fodder in the best form.’

Gis oa Goodrich, conductor of Farmers’ Institutes in
Wisconsin, and a well-known lecturer and authority
on dairy topics: ‘‘ A farmer can keep cows profitably
without a silo, but he can make more profit with one,
because he can keep his cows with less expense and
they will produce more.’’

Prof. Dean, of Ontario Agricultural College: ‘‘ The
silo is becoming a greater necessity every year in On-
rario.”’

Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world
wherever the silo is in. use, the evidence points in favor
of silage, there no longer being an argument against

160 HOW TO FEED SILAGE.

it, in connection with the dairy, and especially in lati-
tudes where corn can be grown.

Economy in production of feed materials means in-
creased profits. Competition establishes the price at
which the farmer and dairyman must market his prod-
ucts, but by the study of approved and modern meth-
ods the farmer can regulate his profits.

CHAP LER... V1.

A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

It has been thought best, in order to increase the
usefulness of this little book to practical farmers, to
add to the specific information given in the preceding
as tothe making and feeding of silage, a brief general
outline of the main principles that should govern the
feeding of farm animals. This will include a state-
ment of the character of the various components of
the feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of farm stock,
with tables of composition, and a glossary of scientific
agricultural terms often met with in agricultural pa-
pers, experiment station reports, and similar publica-
tions. Many of these terms are used constantly in
discussion of agricultural topics, and unless the farmer
has a fairly clear idea of their meaning the discussions
will often be of no value to him. The information
given in the following is put in as plain and simple
language as possible, and only such facts are given as
are considered of fundamental importance to the feed-
er of farm stock.

COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY.

The most important components of the animal body
are: water, ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly
describe these components.

Water is found in larger quantities in the animal
body than any other substance. It makes up for about
a third to nearly two-thirds of the live weight of farm
animals. ‘The fatter the animal is the less water is
found in its body. We may, consider 50 percent of
the body weight a general average for the water con-
tent of the body of farm animals. When it comes to

162 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

animal products used for food purposes, there are wide
variations in the water content; from between 80 and
go per cent in case of milk, to between 40 and 60 per
cent in meat of various kinds, about 12 per cent in
butter, and less than Io per cent in fat salt pork.

Ash or mineral matter is that portion of the animal
body which remains behind when the body is burned.
The bones of animals contain large quantities of mln-
eral matter while the muscles and other parts of the
body contain only small amounts ; it mnst not be con-
cluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor
importance for this reason; both the young and full
grown animal require a constant supply of ash mate-
rials in their food; if the food should not contain a
certain minimum amount of ash materials, and of vari-
ous compounds contained therein which are essential
to life, the animal will turn sick very soon, and if the
deficiency is not made up will die, no matter how
much of other food components is supplied. As both
ash and water are either present in sufficient quantities
in feeding stuffs, or can be easily supplied, the feeder
does not ordinarily need to give much thought to these
components in the selection of foods for his stock.

Protein is not the name of any single substance, but
for a large group of very complex substances that have
certain characteristics in common, the more important
of which is that they all contain the element zztvogen.
Hence these substances are also known as zztrogenous
components. ‘The most important protein substances
found in the animal body are: lean meat, fibrin, all
kinds of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in
fact the entire working machinery of the animal body.
The casein of milk and the white of the egg are, fur-
thermore, protein substances. It is evident from the
enumeration made that protein is to the animal body
what the word implies, the most important, the first.

fat is a familiar component of the animal body ; it
is distributed throughout the body in ordinary cases,

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 163

but is found deposited on certain organs, or under the
skin, in thick layers, in the case of very fat animals.

The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air ;
it must-manufacture its body substances and products
from the food it eats, hence the next subject for con-
sideration should be:

Composition of Feeding Stuffs.

The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our
farm animals are composed of similar compounds as
those which are found in the body of the animal itself,
although the components in the two cases are rarely
identical, but can be distinguished from each other in
most cases by certain chemical reactions. The animal
body through its vital functions has the faculty of
changing the various food substances which it finds in
the food in such a way that they are in many instances
different from any substances found in the vegetable
world.

The components of feeding stuffs which are generally
enumerated and taken into account in ordinary
chemical fodder analysis, or in discussions of feeding
problems are: Water (or Moisture, asit isoften called),
ash materials, fat (or ether-extract), protein, crude
Siber, and nitrogen-free extract; the two components
last given are sometimes grouped together under the
name Carbhydrates. These components are in nearly
all cases mixtures of substances that possess: certain
properties in common; and as the mixtures are often
made up of different components, or of the same comi-
ponents in varying proportions, it follows that even if
a substance is given in a table of composition of feed-
ing stuffs, in the same quantities in case of two differ-
ent feeds, these feeds do not necessarily have the same
food value as far as this component alone is concerned.

Water or motsture is found in all feeding stuffs,
whether succulent or apparently dry. Green fodders
contain from 60 to 90 per cent of water, according to

164 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

the stage of maturity of the fodder; root crops con-
tain between 80 and go per cent, while hay of different
kinds, straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have
water contents ranging between 15 and 8 per cent.

Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues
and feeding stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants,
or in refuse feeds made up from the outer covering of
grains or other seeds, viz., from 4 to 8 per cent; less in
the cereals and green fodder, and least of all in roots.
A fair amount of ash materials isa necessity in feeding
young stock and pregnant animals, and on!y limited
amounts of foods low in ash should be fed to such
animals; refuse feed from starch and glucose factories
which have been treated with large quantities of water
should, therefore, be fed with care in such cases.

fat or ether extract is the portion of the feeding
stuff which is dissolved by ether or benzine. It is
found in large quantities in the oil-bearing seeds, more
than one-third of these being composed of oil or fat ;
the oil-mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially
cotton seed meal and old-process linseed meal; other
feeds rich in fat are gluten meal and feed, grano-glu-
ten and rice meal. The ether extract of the coarse
fodders contains considerable wax, resins, and other
substances which have a low feeding value, while that
of the seeds and by-products from these are essentially
pure fat or oil.

Protein or flesh forming substances are considered
of the highest importance in feeding animals, because
they supply the material required for building up the
tissues of the body, and for maintaining these under
the wear caused by the vital functions. Ordinarily
the feed rations of most farmers are deficient in protein
since most of the farm-grown foods (not including
clover, alfalfa, peas and similar crops) contain only
small amounts of these substances. The feeding stuffs
richest in protein are, among the coarse foods: those
already mentioned ; among the concentrated foods:

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 165

cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten
feed, grano-gluten, buckwheat middlings, and the
flour-mill, brewery, and distillery refuse feeds. The
protein substances are also called nztrogenous bodies,
for the reason given above, and the other organic
(combustible) components in the feeding stuffs are
spoken of as zon-nitrogenous substances. ‘The non ni-
trogenous components of feeding stuffs, therefore, in-
clude fat and the two following groups, crude fiber and
nitrogen-free extract.

Crude fiber is the framework of the plants, forming
the walls of the cells. Itis usually the least digestible
portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger
proportion present thereof the less valuable the food
is. We find, accordingly, that the fodders containing
most crude fiber are the cheapest foods and least prized
among feeders, as, e. g., straw of the various cereal
and seed-producing crops, corncobs, oat and rice hulls,
cotton-seed hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like.
These feeding stuffs, in so far as they can be consid-
ered as such, contain as a rule between 35 and 50 per
cent of crude fiber. Concentrated feeding stuffs, on
the other hand, often contain less than 5 per cent of
crude fiber, and in the cereals only a couple of per
cent of crude fiber are found.

Nitrogen-free extract is a general name for all that
is left of the organic matter of plants and fodders af-
ter deducting the preceding groups of compounds. It
includes some of the most valuable constituents of
feeding stuffs, which make up the largest bulk of the
food materials ; first in importance among these con-
stituents are starch and sugar, and, in addition, a
number of less well-known substances of similar com-
positions, like pentosans, gums, organic acids, etc.
Together with crude fiber the nitrogen-free extract
forms the group of substances known as carbohydrates.
A general name for carbohydrates is heat-producing
substances, since this is one important function which

166 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

they fill; they are not as valuable for this purpose,
pound for pound, as fat, which also is often used for
the purpose by the animal organism, but on account
-of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates are
found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of food
materials second to none in importance. Since it has
been found that fat will produce about 2% times as
much heat as carbohydrates on combustion, the two
‘components are often considered together in tables of
composition of feeding stuffs and in discussions of the
feeding value of different foods, the per cent of fat
being multiplied by 24% in such cases, and added to
the per cent of carbohydrates (i. e., crude fiber plus
nitrogen-free extract) in the foods. As this renders
comparisons much easier, and simplifies discussions
for the beginner, we shall adopt this plan in the tables
and discussions given in this Guide.

Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being
oxidized or burned in the body, but also furnish ma-
terials for energy used in muscular action, whether
this be voluntary or involuntary. ‘They also in all
probability are largely used for the purpose of storing
fatty tissue in the body of fattening animals, or of
other animals that are fed an excess of nutrients above
what is required for the production of the necessary
body heat and muscular force.

To summarize briefly the uses of the various food
elements: Protein is required for building up muscu-
lar tissue, and to supply the breaking down and waste
of nitrogenous components constantly taking place in
the living body. If fed in excess of this requirement
itis used for production of heat and energy. The
non-nitrogenous organic components, i. e., carbohy-
drates and fat, furnish material for supply of heat and
muscular exertion, as well as for the production of fat
in the body or in the milk, in case of milch cows giv-
ing milk.

Digestibility of foods. Only a certain portion of a

COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 167

feeding stuff is of actual value t@the animal, viz., the
portion which the digestive juices of the animal can
render soluble, and thus bring into a condition in
which the system can make the uses of it called for ;
this digestible portion ranges from half or less to more
than 96 per cent in case of highly digestible foods.
The rest is simply ballast, and the more ballast, i. e.,
the less of digestible matter a food contains, the more
the value of the digestible portion is reduced. , Straw,
e. g., is found, by means of digestion experiments, to
contain between 30 and 4o per cent of digestible mat-
ter in all, but it is very doubtful whether an animal
can be kept alive for any length of time when fed
straw alone. It very likely costs him more effort to
extract the digestible matter therefrom than the ener-
gy this can supply. An animal lives on and produces
not from what he eats but from what he digests.

Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the price of
different feeding stuffs varies greatly with the locality
and season, it is impossible to give definite statements
as to the relative economy which will hold good al-
ways. It may be said, in general, that the feeding
stuffs richest in protein are our most costly and at the
same time our most valuable foods. Experience has
shown toa certainty that a liberal supply of protein is
an advantage in feeding most classes of farm animals,
so that if such feeding stuffs can be obtained at fair
prices, it will pay to feed them quite extensively, and
they must enter into all food rations in fair quantities
in order that the animals may produce as much milk,
meat, or other farm products, as is necessary to render
them profitable to their owner. The following state-
ment shows a classification of feeding stuffs which
may prove helpful in deciding upon kinds and amounts
of feeds to be purchased or fed.

168 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

CLASSIFICABMION OF CATTLE FOODS.

COARSE FEEDS.

1 ,3 | 3
Low in protein. Medium in pro- | Low in protein.
Highincarbohy- | _ tein. _ High in carbo-
drates. Medium in carbo- | hydrates,
50 to 65 per cent hydrates. 85 to 95 per cent
digestible. 55 to65 percent | digestible.
digestible. |
= ee
Hays, straws, Clovers, Carrots, pota-
corn fodder, pasture grass, toes, sugar
corn stover, vetches, pea beets, man-
silage, cereal _ and bean fod- golds, turnips,
fodders. lamer. :
Very high in Highin Fairly high in| Low in pro-
protein (above protein protein tein ( below

40 per cent.) | (25-40 per ct.) | (12-25 per ct.) | 12 per cent)

|

Dried blood. | Gluten meal. | Malt sprouts. | Wheat.
Meat scraps. | Atlas meal. Dried brew- | Barley.
Cotton-seed Linseed meal. ers’ grains. | Oats.
meal Buckwheat Gluten feed. | Rye.
middlings. | Cow pea. | Corn.
Buckwheat Pea meal. | Rice polish.
shorts Wheat shorts. Rice.
Soja-bean. Rye shorts. Hominy
Grano-gluten.| Oats shorts. | chops.
Wheat mid- Germ meal.
dlings. | Oat feeds.
Wheat bran. ©
Low-grade |
flour. |

FEEDING STANDARDS.

Investigations by scientists have brought to light
the fact that the different classes of farm animals re-

FEEDING STANDARDS. 169

quire certain amounts of food materials for keeping:
the body functions in regular healthy activity ; this is
known as the maintenance ration of the animal, an
allowance of feed which will cause him to maintain
his live weight without either gaining or losing, or
producing animal products like milk, wool, meat, eggs,
etc. If the animal is expected to manufacture these
products in addition, it is necessary to supply enough
extra food to furnish materials for this manufacture.
The food requirements for different purposes have been
carefully studied, and we know now with a fair amount
of accuracy how much food it takes in the different
cases to reach the objects sought. Since there is a
great variety of different foods, and almost infinite
possible combinations of these, it would not do to ex-
press these requirements in so and so many pounds of
corn or oats, or wheat bran, but they are in all cases
expressed in amounts of digestible protein, carbohy-
drates and fat. This enables the feeder to supply
these food materials in such feeding stuffs as he has on
hand or can procure. The feeding standards common-
ly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are
those of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann.
Those standards give, then, the approximate amount
of dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and
fat which the different classes of farm animals should
receive in their daily food in order to produce maxi-
mum returns. We have seen that a fair amount of
digestible protein in the food is essential in order to
obtain good results. The proportion of digestible ni-
trogenous to digestible non-nitrogenous food sub-
stances therefore becomes important. This proportion
is technically known as Wutritive Ratio, and we speak
of wzde nutritive ratio, when there are six or more
times as much digestible carbohydrates and fat in
aration as there is digestible protein, and a narrow
ratio, when the proportion of the two kinds of food
materials is as 1 to 6, or less.

170 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.
FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS
(WoLFF-LEHMANN.)
(Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight.
o| Nutritive Pr
2 | (Digestible} 2
«= |Substances.| 4 &
B pS | 2
a : 3 eis) be
xo) 2 g Fs $s —&
a Ss 8 | ee gy
Q 4 = tage es
= |oFl]oblug] a =
Ss jo |,O9] 0 8 u
Ss =) = ie! re) 3
ee] o Bed
BH lo jo la |H Z
Ibs.!1bs.|lbs.|1bs.| Ibs.

1. Steers at rest in stall.................+.. 18 |0.7| 8.0/0.1] 8.9 | 1:11.8
Steers slightly worked.................. 22 | 1.4/10.0| 0.3 | 12.1 | 1: 7.7
Steers moderately worked.............-. 25 | 3.0 111.5051 14.7 |) ieee
Steers heavily worked..............----- 28 | 2.8 113.0] 0.8 | 17.7 | 1: 5.3

| |

2. Fattening steers, Ist period.............. 30 | 2.5 15.0! 0.5 | 18.7 | Tes

“ ore ad SN | otaval ceo Naini be teil 30 | 3.0 14.5] 0.7} 19.2 | 1: 5:4

', Bi oy Sy Oh poi ens era 26 | 2.7 ae 0.7 | 19.4 | 1: 6.2

3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 1bs.../ 25 | 1.6 10.0) 0.3 | 12.3 | 1: 6.7
3 eee em a 16.5“ ...] 27 | 2.0 {11.0} 0.4 | 14.0 | 1: 6.0

$ it = s 2% MN +++] 29 | 2.5 13.0) 0.5] 16.7 | 125.7

- - c y “41,6 “..-} 32,1 3.3 113.0] 0.8 | 18.2 | 12 as

4, .Wool sheep, coarser breeds............-- 20 | 1.2 110.5] 0.2} 12.2 | 1: 9.1
=e “s finter breeds: .. 2:2. 6: eee 3 11.5 112.51 0.3! 14.2 | 1: 8.5

5. Breeding ewes, with lambs.............. 25 | 2.9 /15.0] 0,5 | 19.1 | 1: 5.6
6. Fattening sheep, Ist period.............. 30 | 3.0 |18.0] 0.5 | 19.2 | 1: 5.4
os ine 2d = Wueaeobianspoede 26 | 3.5 |14.0} 0.6 | 19.4 | 1: 4.5

7. Horses lightly worked..............2./--.- 20 }1.5.| 9.5] 0.4] 12.0 | 1: 7.0
Horses moderately worked.............. 24 12.0 |11.0] 0.6} 14.5 | 1: 6.2
Horses heavily worked...............++. 26-1 2.5143-3| 0:87 17.7.4| 1: 610

8. Brood sows, with pigs............--+++:+- 22 | 2.5 115.5] 0.4] 19.0 |] 1: 6.6

9, Fattening swine, 1st period.............. 36 | 4.5 |25.0] 0.7 | 31.2 | 1: 5.9

ee a 2d Sratate ie iseystiade Ss.- 32 | 4.0 |24.0) 0.5 | 29.2 | 1: 6.3
3 Re Ys Mai ine SIN Ah! Ss AS a 25 | 2.7 18.0) 0.4 | 22.0 | 1: 7.0
10. Growing cattle:
Dairy Breeds.
Aver. Live Weight
Age, Months. per head.
2-3 154 TDS sens: 23 | 4.0 }13.0} 2.0 | 21.8 | 1: 4.5
3-6 S09 Eee es 24 | 3.0 12.8] 1.0] 18.2 | 1: 5.1
6-12 BOT ee ahaa 27, | 2.0 |12.5| 0.5} 15.7) | 6.8
12-18 105° SMSAA. tee 26\).1.8 |12.5]-0.4 | 15.3°) a5
18.24 S82 Ereane aa: 26 | 1.5 }12.0! 0.3 }' 14.2.] 1: 8.5

cae nS

FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS.—ConrTiInveEp.

1

te

12.

iS:

14.

ley

Growing cattle:
Beef Breeds.
Aver. Live Weight

Age, Months. per head.
2-3 NGS WDSe2 o5.5.4 4:
3-6 ie) les ee Senne
6-12 SCT oer
12-18 GOUT ae Pere
18-24 OBhiy “eerste ¥en
Growing sheep:
Wool Breeds.
4-6 G0) lise
6-8 (oy
8-11 bey, Diane! tS cer
11-15 OF reeks reistarere
15-20 Oe Born oas

Growing sheep:

Mutton Breeds.

4-6 6G IDSt a acre
6-8 Santer d hehe
8-11 QM FS pgs craters a
11-15 TZN ark operate
15-20 TE A eee Sonya

Growing swine:

Breeding Animals.

2-3 AD iDSyasee tte
3-5 QO SOM oe a4 Jers
5-6 TD ey Sn a ee
6-8 ior ae... does 6
8-12 DHS A ede

Growing fat pigs:

2-3 44 DSeo satis cs
3-5 [Ml i ot
5-6 AC ie aha setae
6-8 1 oF Sat a PE
8-12 DRIP Ses LAR es

Seoorn
RUINS

S2So2°
WROD

Soo
Bint ~10

So SS
NwWADS

SS oe
WER AOO

soa pat ek et pe pe aa

pat bah peek pk pe

pt pe et

Ove SRSA es SNOOP
Mw 0S ASORO NwONN

aT ON Uus
nNooosd

SVN out
ROUNDS

i A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

The feeding standards given in the preceding tables
may serve as a fairly accurate guide in determining
the food requirements of farm animals; and it will be
noticed that the amounts are per 1000 pounds live
weight, and not per head, except as noted in the case
of growing animals. ‘They should not be looked upon
as infallible guides, which they are not, for the simple
reason that different animals differ greatly both in the
amounts of food that they consume and in the uses
which they are able to make of the food they eat.
The feeding standard for milch cows has probably
been subjected to the closest study by American ex-
periment station workers, and it has been found in
general that the Wolff-Lehmann standard calls for
more digestible protein (i. e., a narrower nutritive
ratio) than can be fed with economy in most of the
dairy sections of our country, at least in the central
and northwestern states. On basis of investigations
conducted in the early part of the nineties, along this
line, Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin, proposed a so-called
American practical feeding ration, which calls for the
following amounts of digestible food materials in the
daily ration of a dairy cow of an average weight of
1000 pounds.

Digestible protem, 7° |. ~2-2.1bs.
- carbohydrates, 13.3 ‘‘ ) carbohydrates- fat
ms PAG SSE ak os ry ah PO ar ee ee
Total digestible matter, . 17.1 ‘‘ protein+carbohy-
drates+ fat x2¥.
Nutritive ratio, . . 1:6.9.

HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS.

We shall use the practical American feeding ration
asa basis for figuring out the food materials which
should be supplied a dairy cow weighing 1000 pounds,
in order to insure a maximum and economical produc-
tion of milk and butter fat from her. We will sup-
pose that a farmer has the following foods at his dis-

HOW TO FIGURE OUT RATIONS. 173

posal: corn silage, mixed timothy and clover hay,
and wheat bran; and that he has to feed about forty
pounds of silage per head daily, in order to have it
last through the winter and spring. We will suppose
that he gives his cows in addition five pounds of hay
and about six pounds of bran. If we now look up in
the tables given on pages 185 to 189, the amounts of
digestible food components contained in the quantities
given of these feeds, we shall have:
Total Digestible Total Nut.

dry mtr. Pro. Carb.@fat. dig. mtr. ratio.

40 lbs. corn silage, 10.51bs. .481bs. 7.1 1bs. 7.58

5 lbs. mixed hay, 4.2 «22 2.2 2.42
61bs. wheat bran, 5.3 f2 2.8 3.52
20.0 1.42 12.1 13-52" 15'3.5

We notice that the ration as now given contains too
little total digestible matter, there being a deficit of
both digestible protein, carbodydrates and fat, it will
evidently be necessary to supply at least a couple of
pounds more of some concentrated feed, and preferably
of a feed rich in protein, since the deficit of this com-
ponent is proportionally greater than that of the other
components. In selecting a certain food to be added
and deciding the quantities to be fed the cost of differ-
ent available foods must be considered. We will sup-
pose that linseed meal can be bought at a reasonable
price in this case, and will add two pounds thereof to
the ration. We then have the following amounts of

digestible matter in the ration :
Total Digestible Total Nutritive
; Dry Mtr. Pro. Carb. fat. dig. mts. Ratio.
Ration as above, 20.0 lbs. 1.421bs. 12.1 1bs. 13.52 1.8.5

21bs. oil meal (O.P.) 1.8 .62 1.0 1.62
Total, 21.8 2.04 13:1 16.14 1:6.4
Amer. prac. feed‘g ration, 2,2 14.9 iv.d \ 1:6,9

Wolff-Lehmann
standard, 29,0 235 14,1 16.6°0/12527

174 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

The new ration is still rather light, both in total and
digestible food materials; for many cows it might
prove effective as it is, while for others it would doubt-
less be improved by a further addition of some con-
centrated food medium rich in protein, or if grain feeds
are high, of more hay or silage. The feeding rations
are not intended to be used as infallible standards that
must be followed blindly, nor could they be used as
such. They areonly meant to be approximate gauges
by which the farmer may know whether the ration
which he is feeding is of about such a composition and
furnishes such amounts of important food materials
as are most likely to produce best results, cost ef feed
and returns in products as well as condition of animals
being all considered.

In constructing rations according to the above feed-
ing standards, several points must be considered be-
sides the chemical composition and the digestibili-
ty of the feeding stuffs; the standards cannot be
followed directly without regard to bulk and other
properties of the fodder; the ration must not be too
bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of
roughage to keep up the rumination of the animals,
in case of cows and sheep, and to secure a healthy
condition of the animals generally. The local market
prices of cattle foods are of the greatest importance in
determining which foods to buy; the conditions in the
different sections of our great continent differ so great-
ly in this respect that no generalizations can be made.
Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds
are the cheapest feeds in the south and in the east,
and flour mill, brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds
the cheapest in the northwest.

The tables given on pages 185 to 189 will be found
of great assistance in figuring out the nutrients in feed
rations; the tables have been reproduced from a bul-
letin published by the Vermont Experiment Station,
and are based upon the latest compilations of analyses

GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. PS

of feeding stuffs.. A few rations are given in the fol-
lowing as samples of combinations of different kinds
of feed with corn silage that will produce good results
with dairy cows. The rations given on page 142 may
also be studied to advantage in making up feed rations
with silage for dairy cows. The Experiment Stations
or other authorities publishing the rations are given in
all cases.

GRAIN MIXTURE FoR DAIRY Cows.

Mixtures to be fed with one bushel of silage and hay, or
with corn stover or hay.

Massachusetts Experiment Station.

ie 2:
100 lbs. bran. 100 lbs. bran or mixed feed.
100 lbs. flour middlings. 150 lbs. gluten feed.
150 lbs. gluten feed. Mix and feed 9 quarts daily.
Mix and feed 7 quarts daily.
By 4.
100 lbs. bran. 200 Ibs. malt sprouts.
100 lbs. flour middlings. 100 lbs. bran.
100 1bs. gluten or cottonseed meal. 100 lbs. gluten feed.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily. Mix and feed 10 to 12 quarts daily.
By 6.
100 lbs. cottonseed or gluten meal. | 125 Ibs. gluten feed.
150 lbs. corn and cob meal. 100 lbs. corn and cob meal.
|
100 lbs. bran. | Mix and feed 5 to 6 quarts daily.

Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily. |

New Jersey Experiment Station: 40 lbs. corn si-
lage, 5 lbs. gluten feed, 5 lbs. dried brewers’ grains,
2 lbs. wheat bran.

(2) ) 35. 1bs...corn silage, 5:lbs..mixed hay;. Selbs:
wheat bran, 2 lbs. each of oil meal, gluten meal and
hominy meal.

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs.
wheat bran, 2 lbs. malt sprouts, 1 lb. each of cotton-
seed meal and hominy meal.

176 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. dried brewers’ grains,
4 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. oil meal.

Maryland Experiment Station: 40 lbs. silage, 5
lbs. clover hay, 9 lbs. wheat middlings, and 1 lb. glu-
ten meal.

(2) 30 lbs. silage, 8 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. cow pea
hay, 3 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal.

Michigan Experiment Station: (1) 4olbs. silage,
8 lbs. mixed hay, 8 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal.

(2) 30 lbs silage, 5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. corn
meal, 4 lbs- bran, 2 lbs cottonseed meal, 2 lbs. oil
meal.

(3) 30lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. bran,
4 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. oil meal,

(4) 30 lbs. silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 1o lbs. bran.

Kansas Experiment Station: (1) ~Corn silage 4o
Ibs., 10 lbs. prairie hay or millet, 4% lbs. bran, 3 lbs.
cottonseed meal.

(2) 40 1bs. corn silage, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 4 lbs.
bran, 2lbs. Chicago gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed
meal.

(3) 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sorghum hay, 3 lbs.
corn, 1% lbs. bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cotton
seed meal.

(4) 30 1bs. corn silage, to lbs. millet, 4 lbs. corn,
1 lb. gluten meal, 3 Ibs. cottonseed meal.

(5) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2% lbs.
bran, 3 lbs. gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. fodder corn, 2%
lbs. bran, 3 lbs gluten meal, 1% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oats straw, 2 lbs.
oats, 4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed
meal.

(7) 20 1bs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn.

(8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. Kafir
corn.

(9) 20 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn,
3 Ibs. bran.

GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. 177

(10) 40 1bs. corn silage, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn,
3 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, 1 lb. cottonseed
meal. ,

Tennessee Experiment Station: 30 lbs. silage, 10
Ibs. clover or cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs.
of corn, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal.

North Carolina Experiment Station: (1) 40 lbs.
corn silage, ro lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 lbs. cottonseed
meal.

(2) s5olbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. orchard grass hay,
4% lbs. cottonseed meal.

(3) 30 lbs. corn silage, to lbs. alfalfa, 6 lbs. wheat
bran, 5 lbs. cottonseed hulls.

(4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay.

(5) 4o0lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 lbs.
field peas ground.

(6) 4o01bs.corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3
lbs. ground corn, 4 lbs bran, 1 lb. cottonseed meal (ra-
tion fed at Biltmore Estate to dairy cows. Silage is
fed to steers and cows, and corn, peas, teosinte, cow-
peas, millet and crimson clover are used as silage
crops. These crops ate put into the silo in alternate
layers. ‘‘ Will never stop using the silo and silage’’).

SoutheCarolina :. 20/ lbs. corn silage, 6 Tbs. bran,.”3
Ibs. cottonseed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls.

Georgia Experiment Station: 40 lbs. corn silage,
15 lbs. cow-pea hay, 5 lbs. bran.

Ontario Agr. College: 45 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs.
clover hay, 8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley.

Nappan Experiment Station (Canada): 3o0l1bs.corn
silage, 20 lbs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal.

The criticism may properly be made with a large
number of the rations given in the preceding, that it
is only in case of low prices of grain or concentrated
feeds in general, and with good dairy cows, that it is
possible to feed such large quantities of grain profit-
ably as those often given. In the central and north-
western states it will not pay to feed grain heavily

178 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

with corn at fifty cents a bushel, and oats at thirty
cents a bushel or more. In times of high prices of
feeds, it is only in exceptional cases that more than
six to eight pounds of concentrated feeds can be fed
with economy per head daily. Some few cows can
give proper returns for more than this quantity of
grain even when this is high, but more cows will not
do so. ‘The farmer shonld aim to grow protein foods
like clover, alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as
practicable, and thus reduce his feed bills.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF SILAGE CROPS OF DIF-
FERENT KINDS, IN PER CENT.

Crude ; Crude |Nitrogen| Ether
| Water Ash | protein | fiber free ex- | extract
tract
Corn silage
mature corn (aa 4) (Eb 2:2 6:5» [desk 9
immature corn fg: ie WP ee We 1.7 6:0; |, 11.0 8
ears removed Ber of eles 1.8 a0 9:5 .6
Clover silage 72:9 1 “220 4.2 O48 tee eee
Soja bean silage 74.2 | 2.8 4.1 9.7 6:9: ||, cee
Cow-pea vine silage| 79.3 | 2.9 20. 6.0 7:6 laa
Field-pea vine silage| 50.0 | 3.6 5.9. | 130) 26.0.) oae6
Corn cannery refuse-
husks 83.8 .6 1.4 5.2 CO eee
Corn cannery refuse-
cobs | 74.1 ee 15 F92| Lede ey
Pea cannery refuse | 768] 1.3 | ,2.8 6.5..\1 tad, Weeiiaes
Sorghum silage EL) 00 A ae nae a Bit Sa 3
Corn-soja beansilage| 700 | 2.4 “ees Laer eee 8
Millet-soja bean silage} 79.0 | 2.8 | 2.8 | 7.2 7:2. | Ae
Rye silage 80.8 1.6 2.4 58 9.2 i
Apple pomace silage) 85.0 | .6 12 ee 8.8 1A
Cow-pea and soja
bean mixed 69 8 45 3.8 STS. 7 hha 1.3
‘Corn-kernels 41.3 1.0 6.0 1.5 | 46.67) (Se
Mixed. grasses
(rowen) 18,44). ah 10.1 , | :22.8.1.36.0 eee
Brewers’ grain
silage 69.8 |. 1.2 6.6 4.7°°| “15:6 | ae

The above table gives actual chemical analyses of

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 179

the products mentioned and includes the entire 100
per cent. of the contents and weight. The following
table, compiled by the Editors of Hoard’s Dairymen,
Fort Atkinson, Wis., shows the average amounts of
digestible nutrients in the more common American
fodders, grains and by-products, and is the table that
should be used in formulating rations. The tables give
the amounts of digestible nutrients contained in 100
lbs. in pounds, and the figures can, therefore, be taken
as per cents in figuring out the amount of digestible
nutrients in any given amount of food material, and it
is by such methods that the tables given on pages 185
to 189 are obtained.

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS.

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF DIGESTIBLE
NUTRIENTS IN THE MORE COMMON AMERICAN
FODDERS, GRAINS AND By-PRODUCTSs.

Complied by the Editors of Hoard’s Dairvman, Fort
Atkinson, Wis.

Digestible Nutrtents

in

| 3 iz 100 Pounds.
NAME OF FEED. Ss 2 =e eye
a). 2 Se | 253"
iS] a | §* | gas
GREEN FODDERS. Lbs, * Tbs; ) 1ibs:..1gba:
Pasture Grasses mixed. 3...) 2... 1 20.0 Paes 10.2 0.5,
Pao She, olor | adh a ede a 20.7 1.0 11.6 0.4
CSL 2g EL oe OI oo cca eat 8) a a 20.6 0.6 12,2 0.4.
PeeumolomeGct tae oie soe fla oe 202 2.9 14.8 0.7
7 TET 3 laa nd cea di Pe ener vt Sol J Ae BOS ae, 3.9 1237, 0.5.
Reser a et Phe ce Me nick oe aN 16.4 1.8 8.7 One
Get eat 4 Se eee cle hha Wd. AD Sisal: 24.9 3.2 11.0 0.5
SEC Gre tC) cy aioe Comics, inl nIP © soni ant cra 37.8 2.6 18.9 1.0
Rye| Odter... 5.0... OTe ge 23.4 2.1 14.1 0.4
Ree OE, SR 140) Ba), 402
Peas amemOatsy Wee ks 16.0 1.8 7.1 0.2
eet rilp, Py Ae is ac. s. 10.2 0.6 Cpe)

>

180 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

NAME OF FEED.

Dry Matter in
roo Pounds

SILAGE. Lbs.

Digestible Nutrients
tn 100 Pounds.

Protein.

oy 9 ee ne ca Galt ath aa le 20.9
Corn, Wisconsin analyses.......... 26.4
Syonporbapnita Ss 38 ites IS AND sty ak 23.9
Bed, MAGICK 4 pact teed es Ete has cee - 28.0
OSG EU ee Rot st rae Serena 21.5
COW deel. tcc oi Peta ese he Pete ere, aie 20.7
Soja Cas 5: gee ed eee cee cad 25°8
DRY FODDER AND HAY.
Corn Fodder .. ay ets ae 57.8
Corn Fodder, Wis. analyses ....... 71.0
ROMP EONEL cs cite. a oe ek Wee ace 39.5
mone mim Hodmers. 20204 ieee see Sov
Meee CAV CR or ees 3h dal eee Beem 84.7
20 | TENE: ft esi oa and aarp: Sonshine eee cs Be 91.6
BE eee 15h) oe et Ae ee 85.2
Bite Wetass se se eae ne Gy re Re 78.8
Op gl Sy 7 RAN ee Whey ee ee eae et ee 89.3
ETI Sn as ae eR 3 ee 82.4
Jonson Grass... eo. eee see Gee 87.7
Mia Gel MeeetGS 2 oe see a aie tao oy 88.4
Niattet 2. - Phy Met eeie e ete thar 92.3
(ary ceo Ley Vc dees eet eure ) Olt
Dat arid Pea. Haye. ae eee 85.4
rohard grasses 4 2... 3 ab ere 90.1
RCatrie GAS on ous cata ee ce eee 87.5
Ree “Pans... te wince eeRce ae) eee 91.1
Te PRTUOU MEM gi 0.5 ae ek a a iene os ee a 86.8
Timothy. ame. (lowety: yeu 2s se Os 85.3
Veh aay. xs aginte cet aes ae eda een 88.7
White daisy ai hove aes fe ati 85.0
STRAW
Barley fly oe Se oes eae ns 85.8
so a Se S-iip) M ) etims hae Rap 90.8
ee YA gS a ee Se aoe ate elena 92.9

Carbohy-|

drates.

re rs ee te et eS co ee
NARAROCHREANUWONTRHOUNNTANNN

ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 181

Ss Digestible Nutrients
2 | zz 100 Pounds.
NAME OF FEED. Se| 5 | 2g Wa ad
a8, (2) o Balas
a ae emcee
ROOTS AND TUBERS. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

aE AC TGS ME is BE Ri erals Soe wie 20.0 2.0 16.8 0.2

Bects Commons PP ee Fe eS 13.0 £2 8.8 0.1

1 TUBS! Or git AN) mn a a tl 10.2 0.1

“OST Regt ase e SWC hd | Ae? 2a 11.4 0.8 7.8 0.2

i SES 2) S) CARE 3 Ma 4 Sale a 9:1 14 5.4 0.1

Raper PAR SRE eva Peis 5 ice aoe a ein ds Rea ys a 1.6 11.2 0.2

ESA 2 hi Decay: AS rides se cd DS a Oke Apt 0.9 16.3 0.1

PES AS ht OS oi tie ee es ge 11.4 1.0 8.1 0.2

Reh NO) AOU ccs rece 8s su poeince 9.5 1.0 (ie? 0.2

Pemece Ota toes oo) Fee eck UL 29.0 0.9 22:2 0.3

GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS.

1 20S By aca Ae aN ae al pai acre elie, ee 89.1 8.7 65.6 1.6
Brewers, Grams, dry. eot avo. OLS) a1a7 36.3 31
Brewers’ Grains, wet ............ 24.3 3.9 o:3 1.4
Riaitioprouts. 2) ahs Wes aes 89.8 18.6 37.1 17

Pete a tno oss cee eres hee ee 87.4 rie 49.2 1.8
Buckwheat ‘Brant. asl 89.5 7.4 30.4 1.9
Backwheat Middlings |... .:<..2.. 87.3, 22.0 33.4 5.4

“Dore CG, SNS ie en aS a 89.1 7.9 66.7 4.3
Soram.ane Cob. Meal.) wince ob4<8 5 89.0 6.4 63.0 3.5
Seria ek cade pas oe 89.3 0.4 52:5 0.3
CORD in 25°35 7 Ean A gC ae RD 90.9 7.4 59.8 4.6
Ares kaiten Weal: : .iw<). 5. ot 92.0 24.6 SB Sy, less
Gluten Meal.......... ee ee 838.0 32.1 41.2 de
Germ Oil Meal........ see NR gel ie 90.0 20.2 44.5 8.8
CCIE Vo a ee 8 90.0 23.3 50.7 ae!
Bama y CHOp. 5. dag et iret tS 88.9 22 55.2 6.8
rae MUM COG WEE oan cons. y's 34.6 5:5 PA ie La

rt CEE 6 oe al Gerace ats gs oe 89.7) 125 30:0 - 17,3
Colton Seed Weal 22)! 0.6.5...) O18.) “Sie 16.9 8.4
Cotton Seed EUs sox os wes is ow dc os 88.9 0.3 33.1 eh

Sr ee Vai k ah a, 89.7 15:6 38.3 10.5

ale a ky: aig og ae APS aps eres dws acd 85:2. 1834 54.2 5 i |

ries PSP BEL. Gee Sue ee Ge ea... 90.8 20.6 17.1. 29.0
Oil, Meal, old process............ 90.8 29.3 32.7 7.0

Oil Meal, new process........... 89.9 28.2 40.1 2.8

182 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

‘| Digestible Nutrients
a “in 100 Pounds.
NAME OF FEED. $3 : bg | ee
x8 2 se (3 33
: i ale. | 8° (Bas
Cleveland-O1) Meal. ger" 3:1. 89.6 ~-> 3250 25.4 2.6
Maaic, Corner otto eee eee 84.8 7.8 Sia Zan
Mallet 30:82. 9) PEt 2 eRe: PORT A ges 648) 8.9 45.0 3.2
Gans. 7 We Ree 89.0 9,2 47.3 4.2
@at heed ort Shortest... 22 92.3.. 125 46.9 2.8
Dat. Wyist* se. Ain A aR! hc 8.9 38.4 ST
Reus phase) URW Rew 2 oo, th 369.) Tos 51.8 0.7
Quaker Dairy Heed.) t):. ORR Pais 2 05: 9.4 50.1 3.0
Rye. ; AES fa} Aa ak cate 88.4 9.9 67.6 1.1
Rye Bran DEES) (eee tt eee wee eee 88.4 11.5 50.3 2.0
Mbt t Yon le eee AES. es he SS 89.5 10.2 69.2 i
Alea. Goats be eke 88.1 12.6 38.6 3.0
NATAL EIA tS ek sleet bs 9 3c 87.9 12s 53.0 3.4
Wheat Shorts cha als te oe OP ke S8:2 Ia8 50.0 3.8
WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS.
Kind of Feed. One Quart One Pound
Equals Equals
Cottonseed’ Meal... 5... 1.4 pounds 0.71 quarts
Linseed Meal, old process bt 0.90
tated Weal): sce i) Soa. i We oN a 0.5507 =
Ciitemot C6O oo. s se pee a A eo Ose) Bo
Gorn Ol Meal wei. © prose. ge a a Ore se
Brewers; Grains... 2... +: OG * Oe Loe 3:
Matt Spe@ats 0 y5<3 vee Oo! 4" gO a ° dai
Withies te ais. hones haemo O5r4%° 2a
Wheat Middlings standard ass Lao ee
Wheat Middlings flour.... ee wre 0.8345
Cor Kergels. aes ae ae ase 0.60".
Cant Meal o..bu wie seen i 2 ec 070s,"
Corncand, Cob Dikal.:: -..\..- Te sk O.Gr v
Conn “Fiat cl soc eee 35 aa 2.00 ore
@at Kernels: 4325) ee sas 1, ion oo
Sats: ( POE Ie al alegre ec ee fo ce 140
Momeat Motriels. nas: eee i oS ae S50
MD Dairy Peed eo vee eli b BE. <p ee
Quaker, Dairy Weed. 320). TO: + TO os
Viotor Corn and Oat Feed Oe or 14S"

183

TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING CROPS.

(Phelps. )

SOILING CROPS ADAPTED TO NORTHERN NEW
ENGLAND STATES. (Lindsey)
(For 10 cows’ entire soiling.)
Kind Seeds per Acre Time of Area | Time of Cutting
Seeding
15 yes 3 Ae cae 2 bu Sept. 10-15 |% acre| May 20—May 30
Wwiheat oF oe. 3: Peds igid Sisters oreiate tf og June 1—June 15
Red iclover....|20° Tbs... 4.5... July 15-Aug. 1 ae June (5—June 25
Grass and % bu. redtop..
clover 1 pk. timothy Sept. % .acre| June 15—June 30
10lbs. red clover
Vetch :
ae and oe 50 1bs. vetch t April 20 % acre| June 25—July 10
é ‘ 56 bu. c Seale sor 30) cc July 10—July 20
eas and oats u. Canada ¢ ‘
6 { [tie bu. oats ( 20) . June 25—July 10
Ye Pe ces er co. 30 gs July 10—July 20
Barnyard millet 1 peck Meonchsed May 10 Boia ied July 25—Aug. 10
reach eeate lanes rs ae Aug. 10--Aug. 20
A bean (me-
ee (
ts cea Brea 18 quarts... - 4 a te Aug. 25—Sept. 15
CSN 5 CE © “30 piensa Sept a)
Mgacarian ...:\1 bits de. 0's... 0: July 15 ) eben i eepe. 20
Barley and peas 1% bu. peas...|/ Aes “2 acre | Sept. 20—Sept. 30
(11% bu. barley. \ 8. 1 acre! Oct. 1—Oct. 20

Amount of Approxi-

Kind of Fodder. Seed mate Time
per Acre. ie Seeding.
Meee VICTOR GET ryan eile ciers syom eos 2% to3 pie lsene 1
Bu NVideat LOUGET: > v...1.)\ae osc 2% to3 bu.|/Sept. 5-10
SB) COVER oie Petsson beyonce «= 20 lbs. Taly 20-30
4. Grass (from "grass-lands).
52 Oatsratid: Peas. vassw asm... 2 bu. each April 10
61 Oatsiand Pease 9. ne. 45 5): a 20
a. Oatsiand| peasy. jui) yess. is ss 5.30
tial S Gey seamen oils Sala am cairn Sua Cee ing bushels|June 1
9. Clover rowen (from 3).....
10. Soja beans (from 3)........ 1 bushel May 25
IU COW=PCAaS) Jace. seaeh tae LS et" June 5-10
12. Rowen grass (from grass-
PAIS) e-alerts sos
[gs Barley and | peasinss .nic-s. 2 bu. each |Aug. 5-10

Approximate
Time of Feeding.

May 10-20
May 20, June 5
June 5-15
June 15-25
June 25, July 10
July 10-20
S20) 120 Antio. 1
Aug. 1-10
** 10-20
20s Sene. 5

Sept. 5-20
fe 20-80)
Oct. 1-30

The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions

under approximately similar conditions.

184 A FEEDERS’ GUIDE.

Cost oF A POUND OF DIGESTIBLE Dry MATTER IN
DIFFERENT FEEDING STUFFS.

2 2
a 5 E- J 5
Whee’ 8 ect 2 2F
Sgn 88 ee
° 2 a) 5 wee 2s
o o Ou SoS wu fa)
Ta) SEED ance ~ SB ue
es) oy Snes Saeee
S vam ios g a
Ss ss S) 6) 6)
Feeds $. Ibs. -cts. Feeds $ lbs. cts.
Corn meal... -: 0.80 79.5 1.01 Mixed (wheat) feed0.90 64.8 1.39
Cob meal. ....0.78 71.3 1.09 |Cottonseed meal 1.20 80.3 1.50
GE eS Bing seer 0.90 67.0 1.34 |Linseed meal O.P.1.30 77.1 1.69
Provender...: . | 0.85 72.3 1.18 i ‘¢ N.P.1.30 74.5874
Quaker dairy feed0.85 60.9 1.40|Flax meal...... 1:30"7 55°92
Chicago gluten
moe daary feed1.00 63:7 2.57) ameal 2.72 aE 1.20 78.9 ¥.52
Cream gluten
Corn and oat feed0.85 70.4 1.21 seal 2 7o 0 1.20 81.1 1.48
Hominy chop.. .0.90 88.8 1.01 |King gluten meal1.20 86.7 1.38
Buffalo gluten
Wheat Bran....0.85 57.9 1.47| feed : Or, 50080 25
Diamond gluten
Wheat Middlings0.95 70.6 1.35} feed .......... 1.00 82.3 1-22

READY REFERENCE TABLE OF CONTENTS 185

IN VARYING WEIGHTS OF FEED, IN POUNDS.

NotE.—These tables save calculations of percentages, since, the weights and
contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to find the kind and desired
amount of acertain feed, and the table gives the exact food contents in pounds. as in
the first table. 15 lbs. of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 Ibs. of dry matter, 0.35 lbs. of
protein and 3.1 lbs’ carbohydrates.

vile Bay) gee ‘s c(t ae le.

Pounds of ie S 3 39 ae 3 ee ee g ise
fodder | S| 6, (tEs]) S8| © (SEs) Ba] & RRS
a Ay ove ai. A OMe g Ay jv ©

Grasses Pasture Grass 1:4.8 Timothy Grass, 1:14.3 || Ey. Blue Grass, 1:9.2
a 02571006), 023 1.0 | 0.04; 0.5 || 0.9 | 0.05! 0.5
OL Se 12071 .02 22) 0.6 1.9 | 0.08) 1.1 1.8 | 0.10} 0.9
PO hed Ae th 2.0 | 0323) 221 ea hal a Oe eo) UU 3u5.) O20) 18
ph te San SAS 3304) OfS50 17 Be: A28ic 3.2511. 9522 1 O. 30). Bev
a 1 tok A203 OG 2 2 0F-71.0.30) 4.3 [17730 | 0:40) 32%
Sei AN 3 5.0 | 0.58) 2.8 || 9.6 | 0.38] 5.4 || 8.7 | 0.50). 4.7
30 6.0 | 0.69) 3.0 EL.5 4.0.45) 6.4 )10.5 |-0.60) 5:5
At dee oO |) 0.88 3.9 VPSs4 053) 7.5: 1/1252 | 0.70), 6:4
=) ae aa pete 8.0 | 0.92) 4.4 ||15.4 | 0.60)14.0 ||14.0 | 0.80) 7.3
Green Fodders GreenFodderCorn 1 :11.7 Green Oat Fodder, 1:8.7||Gr’n Rye Fodder,1:7.2
Be eat... 0.5 {| 0.03} 0.3 || 0.9 | 0.06] 0.5 || 0.6 | 0.05) 0.4
iy ae hs E20 ef 00615 0-5 19h O. dk O 12) OukLy. OLF
WOE 1S 3.3))'5. | 2a OM ALS 3.8 | 0.24 2.1 283-1 O: 24/155
Pt. Sek. Bed | OLR PO A587. 1+ OL 363.1 S490 O.32|- 2es
Ses One A \0222) 2:6 7.6 | 0.48) 4.2 4.7 | 0.42) 3.0
<5 2a ee SEAL EN Ppa) Ws pA 9.5 | 0.60) 5.2 529 | O:52), 3:3
SU Re ae GI2AILOs 3S 3.9 US TO. 72) 622 7.0. | 0:63) 4.5
ogee Aral 7.2 | 0.39). 4.5 /13.2 | 0.84) 7.3 B22) O:741 053
40 8.3 | 0.44! -5.2 [115.1 | 0.96] 8.3 9.4 | 0.84) 6.0
Green Fodders Oats and Peas, 1:4.2 || Barley and Peas, 1:3.2 ||Red Clover(grecn)1:5.7
23 aS eas 025 10.07(-0.3710.5. 1, O07 0.247 1. O07) O24
eM settee. Ad }-0.14)-0.5 1.0 | 0.14) 0.4 1.54) 0.15'-6.8
DU USAR aS A A 8 Pees a le ee | Zee". 0,28)0.9 2.9 0.29)" ALG
5 = Bee Mie OA Bo a OeAd 7 Syken| OL Aad. 4 4.4 | 0.44) 2.5
1 Ae ees 4.3 | 0.54] 2.3 4.1 | 0.56} 1.8 So nO. 58) Sea
Bey Ak AE. Y 534), 0.66) 2.0: 1 5.2 4-0. 70) 2.3 73 \ O.73\. 4.2
i GS NS oe Bed 1.88 o:4 ie Gre |) O84) 2.7 8.8 | 0.87| 4.9
6a ool ee fom 0.95) 4.0 72 W096 8.2 00: 20), 202) 7
BL maser tas! Seed OS M4ee. i S:2 | IF253.6c/(11.7 | bale. 6:6
Green Fodders | Corn Silage, 1:14.8 | |QornStoverSilage,1:16.6)| Clover Silage, ee
1 Ss Oe 0.7 | 0.03] 0.4 || 0.5 | 0°02] 0.3 || 0.7 | 0.07; 0.3
2) SES os Cleo 1.3 | 0.06) 0.8 270%) -0503)-O.5 1.4 | 0.14; 0.6
i Se ee 256 OL22) tS 1291-0, 66) 120 110238: } Ghar aes
PES ss eee 3:97) MO. 18i2.7 2.9 | 0.09) 1.5 4.2 | 0.41) 1.9
Pee ef ss 5:3 1 @. 243.6 3.9: | 0:22) 2.0) ie 5264. O2541 236
kt 6.6 | 0.30 4.5 48° \.0215)42.5 7.0 | 0.68) 3.2
US TR at ee 7.9 | 0 36) 5.3 || 5.8 | 0.18) 3.0 || 8.4 | 0.81) 3.9
34 ap ie 9.2 | 0.42) 6.2 || 6.8 | 0.21} 3.5 |} 9.8 | 0.95) 4.5
1) Sea 10.5 | 0.48) 7.1 7 Fe | 0.24 40 ie! 208). 5.1

186

READY REFERENGE TABLES—COonrTINUED.

‘
a3 ANO+tATA+TO

ATDANMANr~ WH

AMMOOMOOrH

SScePeeTS | ed ekem rans stele aMctee ee ei) | Sev oat ce: be. wee ee a) af 8] | Shs we” Sey er ee a ee soe ae sates a a eee
tee ISIS SHH ANNI GIEISSSHHHANG|(SSSSHHAAN Eland OY HON A
Ayoqie) | BS
TIO OM OMNSMOIAIMMNONOIGDOMNO(N|IAMODAANDHTDAHODROCONTA
Bier |g SINS Te QOR MANA TS SOSH AMA NMS aay THEN
Bloooocos SSIBICSCSSSOSSSSIEISSO SSS SSSSEISSSSSOSSSS
5 | 5 |) ee ao
& 5B 5B
soem |Slegin rOMATCOPIAIMETATAMHPlAMonaMadwlslanetanonn
AIP THIOL! ISSoHnnNANS ST DOH HRHANMNM SOSSHAAAA EIA MUON AOD
saree (2/2 2A ARN Qt [|AtQAMNAGS+|L\AMGSMOANIO[ZiNMMHONAMIALS
-kyoqien |R|OSMAANANMN OS IDISOSOSOHANAM EH OOS RNAAAAN TIAN TNO OA
eee Saeeree re re _| = = [Pm
stOQorA Ot!) IMNONONHSMNS| \SCADRONTNALP OTH DNAROGS
- Fe HSSSAS SSH BISOCRHANGHH FIA AMMHNAWMM/BOANNO + TOR
Pd BISSSSSSSSSMSSSSSSSSHIAlSSSSSSnnAASSdSSSSSSS
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OHV |e rn tON TAN + BINA O OATOO/B AM ONOMOMS/|PIAQHNACATH
AIP TROT S SHANE HTM! |SCOnRNNAM++S S St rt hd ca0 FeO OO S 1G a
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Ber cseuria el fee SP CO SOS SS et rah ee HN Neg |S SO eh es ON re ah Oe st
| So m oo oe
| ee — 1 ten pee |e tee ee
Ana ARAOSIDORRADMATINNRHATDMERAOMMAANTNOLDS
mororg [EIS SO eld 8 8 S/S SAMS SAAT BN GSR SAAR WON wm
; TBISSSSSSSSSBiS SSS SSS SSR SS SSSS SHA IoSSSSSooH
—EE>EE——E————E—E == Fs] |— = =
re ~ —_ a
soyeu [Spo AAAI t+ BAtATOON AGH ANATATONN|AAAtMWONAAA
AIp [eIOL, CHAGFUOND/BISSCSH AANA 09 Peodanties i Peees tesa
| a i) .
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| 1 \ | INMOWONSMNS| |INNONSNHSW anrodunnr son
NCB RA SOS! ORAS FS Seas Sen AN

I~
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4

READY REFERENCE TABLES—ConrTINUED.

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Je}eu

AIp [e}O],

‘do
‘soleip
-AYOQIeD) <

ula}oO1dg

Jo}eu
Aip [BO],

Pounds of
fodder

HUI ODAIAIC
ed FI COA

ee ee eae
AU OAPTONAND

SSsonnnninn

AON O DANO
ral FICO Ae

Sao SoS
ANATODONTON

SSSoSHnnnnN

Om OOMM Orn wo

AtTOAnRDNWON
wee OI

Corn stover, 1:23 6 |Wheat straw, ~o5-0

AMINA HS Oo oe)
SAND AHWHSH

Ct) iS oie et
SSSHAANOWS

+e ni tonMow
OOnnAMAAA ©

Seooce soos S

mMaAMmMoOoTA STOO
S'S Ss at St

Seoeeeoseoo

NMOMoWONnSCS

ADNDFOKRASANW
vet vot it

= & cob meal, ‘ 118.9

Ss PAE i ne ale
SSOSHAN+TOH

MODNFTMONAB

AFTSARAODSCON
mann nN

Red clover hay, 1:5.9|Alsike clover hay, 1:5.5| Oat straw, 1:38.3

Hays etc.

cere CENT ee oe
HAM THOMAS

See aie ee

reOmrMr~oOooNntrer
ooodonxndnr

HAN TmM Oo MOAN

ATSHSOANTOHn
Veni ah on ih oon I ON

Corn fodder, 114.3

Dry fodder

HDOMOWM AAI OY
SHNGOYHON OD

ONAMADTOO
rl CORSE SD

Seoceocoeoce

CSE SS Sh rt ON 0) <hr
SCOOnTnNN OL
ANOMAWAWN|
SOSH HAMTYO
Sseeoocecu

SOC OO" Drs orn

Hatisn dont
Veal Sal \ cal

Grains

Corn oe 1G) 8 ac}

ATFTArODTOAWM
SOO Wa ) +O oO

SR Wo

ANM TOM

188

READY REFERENCE TABLES—ConrINUED.

eye)
‘so}e1p
-Aqoqieg

ula}0O1g

19}, ew
AIP [k}OT,

ANNMOTDM+TO

we 28, Se eee .f eo SG, ve" ~~

ao

e

HIDON+TODOSSO

SIOOMNAMTODN

PN a On 16S Se Oy 8 ow . .
2
»

oooooco°o
s

SOOnNMN+TO oO

a
EINTAWDOMN +00

AMNMONKRMA+ 0

HNHWDOMNnAATSD
OCOnMMnN~OMh

OU eee Oe Os BOO BY Ae)

f=}

ee emt Trey ime en mi ey eam Se [eC

SIA NTFTONOCOCOSO

NA+tOMKAAN

NOY oannt
NMONDNOEOTAN

SIO OOHRANTOD

seed meal, np.1:1.3

TOAOMOMNKNDA

in
0

‘7.7
5.2
.6/L

‘39
‘so}e1p
-Ayoqied

Ul9}01g
Jo} eu
AIp [v0],

‘O90

‘so}eIp
-Aqoqied

W19}01g

19}; eu
AIp [R10],

Pounds of
feed

ae ee ie en 6) ei oer ue

COSTANMMN LO

Arar Or MM”
oOoonnt M+ OO

Cee Seer aoe Jen lee ae en Yee a

SOO OnNMNAO

NON +AHONMAD

SOCOCOnWNANNMMO

ATDM~OMWAtwOLY
SCOOCOnNMNTO oO

(Mee Oa Ue ae te See) eee |

OOCOOnNM +O

Bent . So

AAO AtTMOMY

y products

wesANO tlk

BIFAANONOMN DHA! INMOMANHOM(HAHNHOTO MHO
ae hanes ma ee ae peach acess pea S oc eee | See leg Ne eee Wee a
BOC SOMRANNM w\CSOTANM TO MOSS nnAHANM ST
ao ce bl
HIND SOSDAATO/*MHONNR AAA &
BISSHANMANS] ToSaarstoad| sSaHSRagsgs
BIS SSS SSSSOl BSS SSSSSSH4)| BiSSSSSHHdes
n @

Bb <
BINTADNM+OHO/MiINt+rnaonM+00!] Slannnnoawo
E|\SS SHANG +6 00 SOSAADTOO) BOSSHAGT SS
o
5 aaa Era Da Ni al os Ease 5s oA ai of Fer oo ee Le ee
AISOSOON HANAN TWH SOSTANMMN OO! LIlOOS OH R HANS
n un
a0 a a

MOmMmMmM OOM th At or. as
BISSANMMHOAA/E|ISSOSNASSSA| B
mISSSSOSSSSH|elSSSSSddssslF
FI a a
BIVtDAOOM+FOCH! INtAONMN+0H0] BINtTQAOROWMKRO
EIS SSHANFOD! [SSOSHANGHSH] BidSscdddY Sa
s = ee
8 3 Fees
ire] <c ce] Comer
oO °o o
tad tad em . .
| a ey ow Payot cee Sc eee Rail) es .
Bie: oo Ppt er lid] <<") {meee eat ' = ect) oe as Aa

se)
apes Mol] PENX Pa ied No
Yr

eNO +O NR

ret NO) sb uD

READY REFERENCE TABLES—COonrTINUED.

oe = ous
Poundsof |= Sees
feed Se | 2 jedg

ee ete

By Products Flax meal, 1:1,4
La eae 0.2 | 0.08{ o.1
AS eS 0.4 | 0.16] 0.2
A aed G29, | 0.3210. 4
BRAS hee 1.9 | 0.64) 0.9
1s SY es 2:71 (/O696| Is3
ees Ges: 350, (A.20)) le
a Ae ee A. 5. |) 1.00|202
pucks Cae G7 | 240) ae
Ee FIAT Sig }/S.'21)| 4.3
By Products Gluten feed, Buffalo, 1:2.4
Be ak ent G22 |°O.0b|):0; 1
eS eiens | 0.4 | 0.12) 0.3
oe ieee 0.9 | 0.23) 0.6
Tge| °O.A7 |e. E
Bhevrpt seat bes 7 ay Man 3 Pay 8)
RONDA renee 3.0.) 20.03)" 2.'3
a tne cone oc 7 il as ee ae
"is Wee CS 1274/4534
i, begeaniaied ep a 9.0 | 2.33] 5.9
By Products Atlas gluten meal, 1:2.6
a ae 6.2.'| 0.06) 0.2
TESA: 0.5: | ‘0. 12} 0:3
Let AEST SS 0.9 | 0.25] 0.6
she bc H-8 "| 0240} ) 153
A ace: Bee Opal Dik)
Rigger eam Aap | @.90\ 2.0
Spears g ee ee AVG TT 23) °2.9
i 6.9 | 1.85] 4.9
ey AE. 9.2 |) 2246) 6.5

189

‘ene eee | >of Bh a) lipa
Se 1s. (ooo @ Ulew.s
ee > eee d hve eas
Baliye eae Selim |e
Giluten meal( Chi. )1:1.5 |/Gluten meal, Cream, 1:1.7
G52) |.,.0.08( OcL 1} 20,2) (Oso ZV O-1
OA Or) 6.2: |. O.4.\|) O15) O22
©.9 |, 0.32)-0.5 || 0.9 | 0.30), O25
7291026409) 1:8" 1". 50) “1.6
2365 \f0.96\004 (1227.4 DiBo| Ts
Bahia Leal Al, Ol) 304) ule FOS.
Aan | GOW 238: 1) AS) lo Te 4O1 2.6
GG. | 2401 3.5 0.7.) .2.23)) 3.9
8.08 oan HF i O20 | 2.97)" Suk
Hominy chop, 1:9.2 ||Dried brewers grain 1:5.0
0.2. ||/0.62)) 0,241). 0.2-| @.04|. 0.1
0.5 | 0.04] 0.4 || 0.5 | 0.08] 0.3
0. | 0.09} 0.3 1) Gr" +0. 76) O25
Ei) | Get Z 20-6 |p P0400. 30) 0.9
2.8) |: 0.26|\\2.4 | 2S OAT Tid
3372 O.35) 2.20" 2.7" 10; 68h BiG
436} O-4A AO) 4.610. 79) 2.4
6.9 | 0.65} 6.0 |} 6.9 | 1.18] 3.5
GP 1G. SFIGS.ONl O21 aie 7 | RAST
Malt sprouts, 1:2.2 Pea meal, 1:5.2
6:2 |-0.65| O.1 j|- 6.2, | 0.04) ‘O21
0.4 | 0.09} 0.2 || 0.4 | 0.08] 0.3
0.9 | 0.19] 0.4 |} 0.9 | 0.17] 0.5
1597 }.'0.3917 0.85 ||, 1447) (ay43 tok
2.9 1Ov5O) 1, 2.1\ 2.47 1G. 5Oly Esa
2.0)| 0-74). 1-0 | 32051" OB 7 Zak
A.5) O: 931° 2-0 |i fro \ Oro4 2.
6.7 =| #40) 320 6.7) | 1.26) 430
g.0 | 1.86} 4.0 |] 9.0 | 1.68] 5.3

CONCLUSION.

In conclusion we desire to state that the object of
this book is to place before the farmer and dairyman
such information as will be valuable and practical, in
as concise and plain a manner as possible, and to make
a plea in behalf of the silo as an improver of the finan-
cial condition of the farmer. ‘That the silo is a prime
factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of
doubt. ‘The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as
an adjunct, and, in the case of dairying, a mecessary
adjunct to successful and profitable methods, its value
is difficult to overestimate.

One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an
innovation it becomes a stepping-stone to better meth-
ods in general; it stimulates its owner and spurs him
on to see just how good and far reaching results he
can obtain from his revised system of management.
It invites a little honest effort, and coupled with this
it never fails. It enables its owner not only to do
what he has been unable to do before, but things he
has done without its help the silo enables him to do at
less cost than before. The solution of the problem of
cost of manufacture is necessary to every successful
producer, and as the proposition is constantly chang-
ing, the solutions of our forefathers, or even of a gen-
eration ago, no longer avail. The silo is not an entic-
ing speculation by means of which something can be
gotten out of nothing, but a sound business proposi-
tion, and has come to stay. ‘The voices of thousands
of our best farmers and dairymen sing its praises, be-
cause it has brought dollars into their pockets, and
increased enjoyment to them in their occupations and
their homes.

CONCLUSION. IQ!

Have you cows? Do you feed stock? Do you not
need a silo? Is it not worthy of your best thought
and consideration? You owe it to yourself to make
the most you can out of the opportunities before you.
Do IT Now !

GLOSSARY.

Ad libitum. At pleasure;in case of feeding farm
animals, all they will eat of a particular feeding stuff.

Albuminotds. A group of substances of the highest
importance in feeding farm animals, as they furnish
the material from which flesh, blood, skin, wool, ca-
sein of milk, and other animal products are manu-
factured. Another name for albuminoids is flesh-
forming substances or protein.

Ash. ‘The portion of a feeding stuff which remains
when it is burned, the incombustible part of foods.
The ash of feeding stuffs goes to make the skeleton of
young animals, and in case of milch cows a portion
thereof goes into the milk as milk ash.

Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms, usually
in the form of a jointed rod-like filament, and found
in putrefying organic infusions. They are widely
diffused in nature, and multiply with marvelous
rapidity. Certain species are active agents in fermen-
tation, while others appear to be the cause of certain
infectious diseases.

Balanced ration. A combination of feeding stuffs
containing the various nutrients in such proportions
and amounts as will nurture the animals for twenty-
four hours. with the least ‘waste of nutrients.

By-Products. A secondary product of an industry ;
cottonseed meal isa by-product of the cotton oil in-
dustry; skim milk and butter milk are by-products of
butter making.

Carbhydrates. Agroupof nutrients rich in carbon
and containing oxygen.and hydrogen in the propor-
tion in which they form water. The most important
carbhydrates found in feeding stuffs are starch, gums
and crude fiber (celulose.:)

GLOSSARY. 193

Carbon. A chemical element, which with the ele-
ments of water makes up the larger part of the dry
matter of plants and animals.

Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the
combustion of coal or wood. It is formed in all kinds
of fermentations and therefore occurs in the siloing of
fodders.

Cellulose. See Crude fiber.

Crude fiber. ‘The frame work forming the walls of
cells of plants. Itis composed of cellulose and lignin,
the latter being the woody portion of plants and
wholly indigestible.

Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs
which is digested by animals, i. e., brought into solu-
tion or semi-solution by the digestive fluids, so that it
may serve as nourishment for the animal and furnish
material for the production of meat, milk, wool, eggs,
Ere:

Dry matter. ‘The portion of a feeding stuff remain-
ing after the water contained therein has been re-
moved.

Ensilage. An obsolete word for Silage. Used as
verb, likewise obsolete, for Zo sz/o; to ensile also some-
times incorrectly used for the process of placing green
fodders into a silo.

Enzemes. An unorganized or chemical compound
of vegetable or animal origin, that causes fermenta-
tion, aS, pepsin, or rennet.

Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dis-
solved by ether ; mainly fat or oil in case of concen-
trated feeding stuffs; in coarse fodders, fat mixed
with a number of substances of uncertain feeding
value, like wax, chlorophyll (the green coloring matter
of plants), etc.

Fai: “See Ether extract:

Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the
amounts of the various digestible subtances in a com-
bination of feeding stuffs best adapted to give good

194 GLOSSARY.

results as regards production of animal products, like
beef, pork, milk, etc.

Indian corn. Zea Mays, the great American cereal
and fodder-producing plant.

Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined
with oxygen it forms water, with oxgen. and carbon it
forms carbhydrates and fat; with oxygen, carbon and
nitrogen (with small amounts of sulphur and phos-
phorus) it forms the complex organic nitrogenous sub-
stances known as protein albuminord substances.

Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and capable
of fixing the gaseous nitrogen of the air, so that it be-
comes of value to the farmer and will supply nitro-
genous food substances to farm animals. Examples,
the different kinds of clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc.
Of the highest importance agriculturally, as soil re-
novators, and in supplying farm-grown protein foods.

Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four-
fifths of the air. The central element of protein. See
under Hydrogen.

Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff
remaining when water, fat, protein, crude fiber, and
ash are deducted. It includes starch, sugar, pentosans,
and other substances. It is so called because it does
not contain any nitrogen.

Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing
nitrogen (which see).

Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food con-
stituents capable of nourishing animals.

Nutritive ratio. ‘The proportion of digestible pro-
tein to the sum of digestible carbhydrates and fat ina
ration, the per cent of fat being multiplied by 24%, and
added to the per cent of carbhydrates (crude fiber
plus nitrogen-free extract).

Organic matter. The portion of the dry matter
which is destroyed on combustion (dry matter minus
ash).

Oxygen. A chemical element found ina free state

GLOSSARY. 195

in the air, of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in
combination with hydrogen in water; oxygen is also a
rarely-lacking component of organic substances. See
Carbhydrates and hydrogen.

Protein. A general name for complex organic com-
pounds mainly made up from the elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Crude protein in-
cludes all organic nitrogen compounds, while true pro-
tein or albuminoids (which see) only includes such
nitrogenous substances in feeding stuffs as are capable
of forming muscle and other tisgsuesin the animal
body.

Ration. The amount of food that an animal eats
during twenty-four hours.

Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, includ-
ing such feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn
fodder, roots, etc. Concentrated feeding stuffs are
sometimes called gvazn-feeds or concentrates, in con-
tradistinction to roughage.

Szlage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo.
Formerly called exszlage.

Szlo. An air-tight structure used for the preserva-
tion of green, cvarse fodders in a succulent condition.
As verb, to place green fodders in a silo.

Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals ina
barn or enclosure with fresh grass or green fodders, as
rye, corn, oats, Hungarian grass, etc.

Starch. One of the most common carbhydrates in
feeding stuffs insoluble in water, but readily digested
and changed into sugar in the process of digestion.

Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing consider-
able water, like green fodders, silage, roots and
pasture.

Summer silage. Silage intended to be fed out dur-
ing the summer and early fall to help out short
pastures.

Summer silo. A Silo used for the making of sum-
mer silage. |

INDEX.

Adyantages of the silojy.:%) p22 5-.. 6: ‘Sane
pS Ve eco Rg ge ee eS pas
Amina. body, compostaen eg: the ~~. os oS
Avialyses of feeding atiiiar si. .b.. 2. Te
PE AS Bs piers. 43
Average composition of silage ‘erops 4 dEeE ete

Beet-pulp silage ..... NL ER ea a ana aie

Beets, cost of, per eee oe eee
Beef cattle, silage’ for’... .'.2 PEASE 1 '- = BES) epee
Blower elevators ..... ni Foe
Brick. piltes: |)s scl Ped etd olasnthst bi
Capacity of round Sc RR IO
Carbonic-acid poisorfing i in 1 silos, danger from
Certified milk, silage in production of Sythe
Chemical com position Or silaress fea! Chey
Chute for a round wooden silo: .¢ 2). 2) 524.

© 0 8) 0) 0) 6M oes

Circles, circumferences and areas of..........

Clever silage... ....':.

Clover silage, cost of. . eg Ale oer Pee aay

Clover, time of cutting for thesilo ....... ...
Clawecs wield: per acre, Obs: puget. Soka:
Comijcutting of,in the held? css... sls
Conn tanh, Drensraion OLY ss oo aac e ee; deo cies
Corn, methodsor planting") .o) so." os oF

Comm-silage ys: fodder’? corm: )) 1540-27 2S,

Corn silage vs. hay........ TA raat tie
Corn silage vs. roots _ . Bh EE RL) fen
Corn, siloing of, ‘‘ears and all’’
Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn.

Corners of square silos methods of excluding air from.

Cost of beets: per; acte & 4: ay. 4.228 111 sie va:

Cost of a pound of digestible dry matter in different

feeding stuffs... RS 2 Tybee Mae
Conclusion arate iden tel oagih 2 21) Ve. Lege
Cost of corn silage ; oe MO Aa Rio tas sO) ARS:
Cost. af sithes: fis. 3.5 1527 se uel, at pages
Covering Stlae ao \04), 4. Fh ahaa TE ad. co hiatine: &
COW-pem Stine. jee c4- SP ea as:
Comparative losses in dry ireisageeee.9 to. ss dk
Corn time of cutting forisile’) 70). . 3 aes
Composition of the animal body....... ......
Composition of the silage crops....
Composition of feeding stuffs ER eS Se.
Crude fiber. JE TN ae eee i agate
Cutter and power, dine oF) Lae aoe. t tap ah
Dennitions of terms ised eee»

INDEX. 197

Description of round wooden silos ......... Sera ere
Sescription of “*Onie” silage cutters! os 128, 131
Digestibility of Foods ... Peet Hh ate Wik 2 aR Saal ah
Meors for silos. ........ Ani: * eee ee SAE, ing f
iar) ath all, siloime OF eatin... Pe ew ees 123
Economy of storage ....... 57 Rho ae oa oe eee 21
RMPE ALO, Pesta Ao ws ss jc wt ores AER IR Fe
Finsilage, see Szlage.
Matimating Of materials fot silos... .. 2... 04. ..25+. see 98
Meedets’s pide, Cte. 2740) ox... - Sel eet Goa bee pee eee 161
Feeding stuffs, composition of ..... aI A i vet 6, eal UOT a
PSECGINS StaAMGAaLGS, |. ..,0cs Gute e) vss) ns, aon. be LOO, 210, wee
Feeding of silage Soph eh ed setetna iD: 139
Field-curing of fodder corn, losses | 1h 2 A OR Mae ai » 130° 16
Falling ofsile. ..... 5s MANS yee ED hs Demat ck 120,°125
Freezing of silage. ATT le aie Cort ie <a 137
Psettetaltegiirements 1Or StlOS 2 ee se ,. 26
Seusid) (aiseites« 10t Gairy Cows ooo. ake ae ees W5
ee ae PeCOEES:, Soe lou a Mba fo ees cota oma Hee eyes 161
Manliug corn from field, tack or sled. for .i9 05.1... . 122
Halls of drills; planting "Gf Cora oy... ee kw pe 110
ea METER Ch NCy AARNE 2 ue eee te reo ei he he ete ae cl aie 9
Horizontal girts, silos ith resth er oe pt
PRSE TSU COE. eC Nec ete 4 Sitse nua ald 5g ae en aE ba 145
Peewee eCCUr sia pe: rc face ees x se eur se Wane es 139
How tofigure outrations ......... : Bar ars Naar a ote 172
Indian corn, soil adapted for........ err ile a ere ceo rae 104
Indian corn, methods of planting _... rat PUY ios bt, 110
Indian corn = =. Pear OVE TBI 8 fy 2 104
Indian corn, chemical changes i Bs eee 1s aig ee eee 108
Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from ‘tasseling
BeBe C Sea ity eM AY oh Oe GSMA CIC) jee ke ee 109
Indian corn, varieties of,'to he planted forthe silo...” 105
Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn,
PMC PUNTA Mee Ee cc 04 8 Sane” Ee the Sees kaso Binge eo 9
intne for silos v.... 0 2... Db sang cha och Pea ao pa
Losses in dry curing he 8 oie, eee ee ee ed 13, 6
Losses in the siloing process ppl acest » 5 Ng ees eae 17
Losses in siloing Alfalfa ha POE SUIS U0 oR. 19
Low wagon for hauling corn MYR Sh oh Pag 2
Lucern, See A/falja,
Materials for the silo...... pines aus Cals pia Sm
Metal bucket chain elevators. PETE PROP tA Gi bl: Wie &
Milch cows, silage rations for ... eet Cota | PNT Ba 142
Milch cows, silage for ... aie ae ee bad eee 139
DW ERYSy oor) RCE Se 2) eee) a eR OYE 162, 164

Modifications of ‘‘Wisconsin”’ Sil" 2 cs ee ee, Eee . 55

198 INDEX.

New Jersey Wxperient Starmom- silo... oo. ny pontes) os eee 130
Witte Ome Tee CRELACE! Cee, ik ane ey eee ee 2 4 ee
Number of staves required forstave silos | ........ 8i
PUMA REAL VE RC OLO "Lh AE tenes 2s eg oa acetal Peep ae 16%
SichAi@eital | SUIOS. ics. cee aeet en os scar oecnewe sore sh esate nee 91
sano” silage: cutters, description ‘OF -.c ces sseecae 128, yee
Paintin thie milo (eee ire cc. tocces o2es sco mes aesseteeteeenagseee 54
Plastered@ round WOOUEM SOS 2... i065. <oscecessreennase doguee serene 56
Miantine Cora, ait Gorn i GrilIs.....0 0... .n2+<sgeneeeeneeeeeeae 110
PAA TE COs Mee MOUS te. | chs s. cites canenceesoeess rat ecoreeneee 110
Plait CGt, TIC KIESS OE. co cccns<. dectisecs ocdencne ons ccteereemeee 110
PP iit ele "CNC Wal etE ooo. noe 2 ona 22-0. sou dene eeagdias ess a3 131
Sk ARE PAID TIS AB EENS oo e h es vn s.ss gos sot abapaneecenp to's Vos aap tee 153
LEC BETH FI 2 dg 05 cy api De RG re ea mg pm fT 152
PAt Prat et OT Pe COE EN PANG Sars noche kess sw cccoc et case ct Gna eps acenemene 110
ESPEN EIOED SE SINOR OIE, seo 5025. aia ondcioins deiheno nee eee eaing eee 101
EE SE ic roe chs Oe one wae Ona a eee ee. s outeelins Hrgeneatnaeereenne 162, 164
esticus, HOw €0 Ture: GUE). 200-5005. ees Paap eon nen eee 172
Rack, low-down, for bawling: Cott... .....-.--i20-.-0--<.>eaeeennee 122
ations, silage; for dairy COWS. :.<520¢. n=. ons «2s nn oes een ene 142
Keiitive value of feeding Stills... :.....02c..-....ssusnestusaswaneee 167
Heady reference tawles.... 20... .0s<.qpdee~ cerevnr > maegeae cea eee 185
read Ot LRG (SUIOE Bok, Ase As cons sawn ero cas Ssanst eee ol, “67, oy &
RGN NStLOS oak ans ooee both te ccnc wes once deveoenesnn onas ceeaw een «awe

Reand sil6s eapacity Olio ..i 5.0.) .: lop ks moins theater acre 33
SHOE DP, Silage POP. ors. tee see oc sions ta gecey Se nee's sree Sener seen 148
Pail OC alba het Seon) oa) Len mae tise ar inaseren apnet cass eaea tos elavemeeaeee 114
Spier OEE, See abaya is latins tay van eo ane veeasoe saeeere aces eee eee 139
Salare, Chemical Composition GT... 2... -<. cs crceseerannne Beene 178
SOTTO CLO a icse er a don tate unseen vs cr ap era tnu gee: sre Senn eaneee 111
BARS, (COS MEE pete ene shen genive fa tte haves de seaansne ee Peer ee A, 112
Sulaee? CLOPSss...asen-an:-- Ue aie ee ek ae Neo ersincemeseinle pee oe es _« 104
Silage, feeding of........... s Reb ewinee at scp tian tases seat e Gere see eee 139
Silaige-for MOrses....c:-----.5 ses ss. riled deme toteatncassn ney eas te tence 145
Silage for mileh: Cows...) /sc.-de. seventer ss <b are est ost i eee 139, 142
Silage for pole yp... 2.2... 2 casaeendsneckeasersnenenDrmcer os seeaanetae 152
Sila Pe Oe: SUES Po. es tes ceeccewe dees avech on nbs omer ne agian eneotn Seen 148
Silage for beef cattle. ..ccci 7. ien esos sccesetnsss no0s-sneunnnpeneaneee 144
Sila we fOr SWINE, .<. sos. 0s5ccceycdbacencsowrnosssecansonessnannr este aeee 151
Silage; freezing Obs. Aegon < voss «cons vanone dt seer 137
Silage, quantities of, required for different herds......... 32
Silage rations for milch COWS...............ccsssscecsecesnscecesees 142
Silage, how to ‘He@Gds.5 yitrecseteeeee kes ee vocnesterncsaraaereneee enone 139
Silos, acreawe tO Gllipasaaee arenes osee+e 0+ >= ence egenyenee eee 32
Balos, how to bwild....cpekasccesessccsevgee sins ce ssscnesencens seaman 26
Silos, general requirements fOF..............5s.ceesereceeeeeeneees 26

Silos, on the forwmwok Asal t aes caeeesaecessncs enh senna naar eee 32, 37

INDEX.
Peels ene TUS TOG Ose ila dood) oP chs sea ame heck san favs
Petes, CPTVE OF MATE taawnee sears oo: os x o2 2 cosa coe se eowon anya teens
BAIS, EMOL TOL ss c.nec esse RA, Gee bSeas Rope Coan Ad Lhe, AO Ra AM
Silos, round all-stone....... BN Ke 4 waco ete vice etiote Bi tcce eie sit,
Pas BOUNG WOO ET carte ee eee aeons bos sa Saws uy Wo esiuhaaw ice sient.
Silos, round wooden, capacity of................. He Sy: aes ae
Prilos., Gharte Tor stays eae elt ak 6 644500 ncacer eet less enc aw tds
BlOS. ‘COSt Ofv 1.34 wciiecge. Heeger Pes cate cke . 4st 35558; "6, 90,
Silos, location Ere be ae ae ee
Silos, specifications FOr oa. “38, Deer 56, 64,
Silos, square, methods of excluding a air r from corners of
MD UNOS, 3S Peat raretae peas an an pdereninins ee sc MOK Seopa d ainaen eu anieas a5 s'e0

Silos, valucin imtensive farming... 2.2.26. .cssteescee

Silos, ventilation © ANE ORT Ne Sane
MMOS EYRE TOTUAOIN tell BET shel i css ccc tee say sssveus swespact ounaucho! won dudcsse
=ilos,. foundation of '.::.:.. ee , DOweaey als 43, 64,

PRIZE WE BIO » PEQUUTE US -ccrees ates ieee cars eon ck cote ec soncnnan one

silos;) brick, lived: ys 04:: Meo ahand ae teks: Re. ee

Silose allt bricie 0. 24.1 san See ee eee a sie
stlospinsthe bari, sae:
Silos, Octagonal .

Size of cutter and power required ee erg

Sorohium silage 9 24.04:

Southern and ‘Northern varieties of, corn, comparative

yields of . Were cap Ree Sh ee oe
Soiling crops, table of .. NEM Te
Soiling crops, time of planting and feeding ales 3
Soja, DeROS | ee
Specifications fora round wooden silo, ° ‘Wisconsin”’
Specifications for a stave silo

Stave silos Dat ws 60, ge

Stave silos, calculation of staves required for...
rave SiOs, “Maoh Od =i hth ie te ee yer at
Stave silos, Specineationa For aco leoe eka
Staves, calculation of number required ...

SECC SG. ete RO ety ay Mure ye | UAMUENS Atl 5s BSS Reo
Stone silos _. A its, OAs aden hae SORA ENG tn ie

Succulence RYE AR SRN Pe ait PEP PON oe ad MB nah

Swine, silage for... RGRANE Aaah ROEM wade cae te Wane Doe ee

Thickness of Welcaaberaee ee 2 ON oe see
Lime of iiiiney Gaeweven, 6 ve sls eis de oe ee

imme-of cutting Gonivur tne SiO. of jp. oe bad eyes &
Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo ba
Water, ise ol” 1a mee BNOS ows epee

Weight of Comsemeracca Feeds 2... lo eee

Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, descriptions of 59,

Peres as Glover per acne. /) 2). gewoon

‘Speoujey 103 pue BUeAIASUUIY 24} YIM SUOI}IQUU0 YOJIMS

*PoMPILJNUeW We S419}4NQ sbeyisuy pue PId4 ,.O1YQ,, JIYM SYIOM MON JO MOIA

“Ohio” Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter

Showing New Metal Bucket Carrier, Set for Right-Angle Delivery.

No. 11
No. 11

Fig. 784, No. JJ.

SIZES AND PRICES.

With two knives, 11 inches long, 4 lengths cut $40.00
With four knives, 11 inches long, 4 lengths cut.. 45.00

Extira gears to cut 4 inches long £0 woe 3.00
Reversible carrier, angle or straight delivery,
12 feet long or less. ..... SOs. eis EOS
Straight-delivery carrier, without reversible at-
tachinentes.© 7.0... Lies, ag, 2D eee a 30.25
Additional length over 12 feet, extra per foot... 1.@0

Write for Discounts.

202

Smallest Size Ensilage Cutter.

The illustration is a good representation of the
smallest size ensilage cutter and it shows also the new
metal bucket carrier set for right-angle delivery. This
is the style carrier manufactured for this machine and
it can be set at right or left angle, or straightaway.

Carrier Any Length.

Has best tool steel knives, readily adjusted to cut-
ter bar. Strong, simple gearing ; safety fly wheel,
safety throw-out feed lever, four lengths of cut.

Has Capacity to Fill 50-Ton Silos

_ The cutter is substantial. has large capacity, and is
adapted to cut all kinds of dry feed as well as ensilage.
It has capacity to fill 50-ton silos, and even larger ones,
but as this work necessitates a force of men and teams,
and taking also into account the liability of frost, own-
ers of silos usually give preference to a larger machine,
so that the cutting may be done more quickly.

Ensilage Maintains More Cows,
Produces More Milk.
Use of an Elevator.

The first and principal use of elevators of this kind
is to convey cut ensilage into the silo. Other uses are
to deliver dry cut feed, of whatever kind, into bays,
bins, lofts and other places away from the machine,
which saves the expense of a man.

Capacity, Speed, Power, Size of Pulley.

Dry feed, 2500 to 3000 pounds; ensilage, 3 to 4 tons
per hour. Speed, 450 to 600 revolutions per minute. r
Power, 2 horse-power. Can also be run by one or two
horse tread power. Pulleys, size sent, 12 x 4-inch face;
diameters 6, 8, 10 and 15 inches can be furnished.

Weight.

No. 11 Cutter, 420 pounds. Reversible carrier, 12
feet long, 200 pounds. Extension, per foot, 8 pounds.

203

“Ohio” Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter

And New Straightaway Metal Bucket Carrier
Connected Up Ready for Use.

Fig. 784, Nos. 13, 16 and 38.

SIZES AND PRICES.

No. 13 With 2 knives, 13 inches long, 4 lengths of cut $60.00
No. 13 With 4 knives, 13 inches long, 4 lengths of cut . 65.00
No. 16 With 4 knives, 16 inches long, 4 lengths of cut.. 90.00
No. 18 With 4 knives, 18 inches long. 4 lengths of cut . 120.00
Extra gears to cut 4 inches long, with 2 knives.. 4.00
Straight delivery carrier for either size, 12 ft. long 33.50
Swivel carrier for either size, 12 ft. long or under 45.00
Carrier, additional length over 12 ft. long, per foot 1.70
Wood cover, to fasten with hooks and eyes, per foot 25

204

Brief Comment on General Construction.

The frame or stand is heavy and substantial, which makes it stiff and
enduring. ‘The feed box is wide and roomy, and reinforced at the top by
a screw through the iron work and at the rear by angle irons. It also has
an extension at the bottom to receive a platform, which is sometimes
needed in feeding. The iron work is of sufficient weight to give strength,
and the bearings are heavy and close upto machine. The shaft, knives
and knife heads are of the best and every part is properly put together.
It has the 1900 extended front and hood, the safety fly wheel, guards over
gears, metal delivery chute, and every point throughout of the latest and
best.

Feeding Device Clearly Outlined in Cut.

The chain of feed gear pinious which operate the upper feed roller, the
backwardly-inclined curved slot that the upper roller moves in, the adjust-
able feed lever and the springs underneath, are all nicely defined here.
Thuis chain of gears vibrate as: the feed roller raises and lowers, yet their
movable bearings maintain their, respective distances to each other and
keep the gears properly in mesh without binding or friction, which gives
a uniform motion tothe roller. These features make the machinea strong
feeder. This feeding device is made under U. S. patents,

The feed lever is adjustable and its first use is to disconnect the chain
of gears to change the lengthof cut. The length of cut is readily changed
by either reversing the gear pinion on lower roller shaft or substituting a
ditferent pinion. Another use ef this lever is to start and stop the feed. It
the power runs down, or the machine clogs forany reason whatever, or an
accident occurs, the feed can be stopped instantly by grasping this lever.
New Straight Metal Bucket Carrier.

The cut shows, first, the new straightaway metal bucket carrier and
how to attach it to the machine; second, the front to the cutter and how
it gives room for the cut feed to get away from the cylinder and how it
will conduct the ensilage into the carrier. ct

The illustration is made froma photograph of the “Ohio” Standard
Cutter No. 16 and a new straightaway bucket carrier. This is the present
style straight carrier and it is made for sizes Nos. 13, 16,18 and 19. It is
applicable to cutters with extended tables and traveling feed aprons, as
well as those like the illustration, and is recommended wherever a straight
carrier can be used. It is easier to set up and move than the reversibie
carrier.

Metal buckets upwards of two inches high are now used, instead of
low wood slats. and the sides oj the carrier are more than one inch Higher.
This gives the carrier ample capacity to take away the;cnut feed as fast as
it comes from the cutter, and 1t lessens the necessity for a Cover, except
when there is a high wind or very steep elevation.

Carriers 50, 60 and 70 Fevt Loug.

At this time the average lengths of carriers are 34 to 42 feet; they have
been supplied as long as 50,60 and 70 feet, and work perfectly, driven in
the regular way from the bottom.

Adjustment Provided to Take Up Wear.

There is adjustment provided at the top. to take up wear in the chain
or make any necessary adjustment. The oil cups in top irons are filled
with waste, which holds the oil. Keepall bearings well oiled with good
qnality machine oil.

Capaci:y, Power Speed and Weight.

Capacity, cutting ensilage, No. 13,4 to6 tons: No. 16,4 to 10 tons; No.
18, 8 to12 tons per hour. Power, No. 13,2 to 4; No. 16,2 to8; No. 18,4to8
actual horse-power each. Speed, either size, 450 to 600 revolutions per
minute. Size of pulleys furnisaed with machines, 12 x 6-inch face. Di-
aimeters 6, 8, 10 and 14 inches when wanted.

Cutters: No. 13, 560 pounds; No. 16,620 pounds; No, 18, 700 pounds.
Carrier: 12-foot straightaway complete, 240 pounds; 12-foot swivel com-
plete, 315 pounds. Extra length per foot, either style, 10 pounds.

The special features described under the different machines are dis-
tinctive “Ohio” features,and are on all ‘“*Ohio”? machines. ‘The safety
feed levers, patent adjustable gears, safety fly wheel, full. width throat,
etc., are on all “Ohio” machines alike,and are some of the points that
have made these machines so universally successful and satisfactory.

“Ohio” Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter
And New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier.

Fig. 785, Nos. 13, 16 and $8.

SIZES AND: PRICES:

No. 13. With four 13-inch knives, cuts 14,.%, 34. and 1 inch...........-$ 95.00
No. 16 With four 16-inch knives, cuts 14, 16, 44 and l inch............ 120.00
No. 18 With four 18-inch knives, cuts 14, 46, 34 and 1 inch.......-.... 155.00
Extra gears to cut four inches long,for Nos. 13, 16 or 18...... 4.00
Swivel carrier 12 feet long, for No. 13 Gutter. ..............,% 45.00
Swivel carrier 12 feet long, for No. 16 Cutter................. 45:00
Swivel carrier 12 feet long, for No. 18 Gutter..............-.. 45.00
Extra length, per foot, for Nos. 13, 16 or 18 Cutters.......... 1.70

Wood cover, with hooks and eyes to fasten, for Nos, 13, 16 or
US IGUEETSe DEL LOOb es ails te. ia'stey wien a[e lAinlela ola) y (az koyelata vataroel sheers 95

Write for Discounts.

Z06

The Illustra tion.

It correctly represents the new ‘‘Ohio” Self-Feed
Ensilage Cutter and the present pattern metal bucket
swivel carrier, and shows how the two are connected
up ready for use and how the carrier is driven from
the cutter.

The traveling feed table, long enough to receive a
bundle of corn is also shown, and is a valuable feature.

Self-feed means that it is only necessary to deliver
the corn into the feed box. It goes through itself,
which point alone saves the user one of the hard jobs
en the farm. It increases capacity 33% per cent. and
more. It saves 75 per cent. of labor feeding and two
men constantly pushing to get the feed through the
rolls are no longer needed. Customers frequently
write: ‘‘We have to hustle to keep the machine sup-
plied with corn.’’ ‘‘Machine has done more than you
recommended,’’ etc. The corn can be fed in armfuls
or in bundles from the harvester, the feed box being
ample for either.

The swivel carrier, also shown in the cut, enables
the user to set the machine in any desired position.
The base and wearing parts are self-contained, free
from dirt and rigid and durable.

Power, Capacity, Speed and Pulley.

No. 13 requires 4 to 6 horse-power and its capacity
is 8 to 12 tons of ensilage corn per hour. No. 16
requires 6 to 8 horse-power and its capacity is 12 to 15
tons ensilage corn per hour. No. 18 requires 6 to 10
horse-power and its capacity is 14 to 20 tons ensilage
corn per hour. The pulley is 12x 6-inch face, and
sizes 6, 8, lo and 15 inches diameter, when wanted.
The proper speed is 450 to 600 revolutions per minute.

207

“Ohio” Monarch Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter
And New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier.

(ine

/ |
NC

fl

: t

- Fig. 794.

ay

) No. 19 Cutter with four 19-inch knives, cuts 16, 4 and | inch...-...- -» $200.00

5 Extra gears which cut 4 inches long with two knives..--..------- 5.50

fe mtcresea ea GiGi to op Gace ass Sows enlabye ad elas ase aang nage 40.00
=F GEES UII i Geaitaie Yaoi ote cieiicites ose 's/S ©) cralnysis’n Cun abeye sy ab eveinin sieepalaroyiarsiaye 55.00

i, Additional length, per foot.-.....--.0 cee cece e eee e et cent ce enes 9.95

t Wood cover, with hooks and eyes to fasten, per foot. ------.».--> ion

j e

208

A new machine, heavy and powerful, to meet the
demand for a heavy unbreakable machine for larger
users and transient work. It has heavy, strong frame
and gears; self-feed, two safety levers; steel knife
shaft 176 inches in diameter; strong knife heads, four
bolts in each knife: simple adjustment arrangement for
knives; enormous capacitv; great durability, and is
guaranteed in every retpect, as are all Ohio machines.
It cannot fail to please.

Capacity.

17 to 25 tons of ensilage per hour.

Size of Pulley, Power, Speed and Weight.

The pulley is 14x8-inch face and is leather covered.
Necessary power, 8 to 12 horse-power. Speed, 600
revolutions per minute. Weight of cutter, I100
pounds; straight carrier 12 feet long, 355 pounds; swiv-
el carrier same length, 480 pounds. Extra length per
foot, 14 pounds.

‘‘Ohio’’ Ensilage Cutters are also made with 20 and
24 inch knives, these sizes being heavy and pro-
portioned correspondingly. They are not illustrated
here, but are shown and described in the regular
catalogue describing ‘‘Ohio’’ Ensilage Cutters.

‘“OHIO’”’ STANDS FOR BEST.

No.

No

209

“Ohio”? Self-Feed Ensilage Cutter

With Direct-Blast Blower Elevator.

Fig. 793.

SIZES AND PRICES.

. 13 Gutter, with four 13-inch knives, cuts 14, 3% and 1 inch..--.--..
16 Cutter, with four 16-inch knives, cuts 4, %4 and 1 inch..-..:..--
. 18 Gutter, with four 18-inch knives, cuts 4, 54 and 1 inch.....-.-.
Extra gears which will cut 4 inches long with two knives...--.-

. 19 Gutter, with four 19-inch knives, cuts 4, 34 and 1 inch....-----
Extra gears to cut 4 inches long with two knives----.-----------
Blower comp ete with 2-foot hood for top of pipe----------------
8-inch galvanized pipe in 4, 6 and 10-foot lengths for No. 13,
WOGTLO OE sn ye. a) vaitetiayalay= airererete) afni’a) ata « oo: salu. © ciGl= 2) tmhal epee = erate sterner

10-inch galvanized pipe in 4, 6, 8 and 10-foot lengths for No.

16; No. 18! or ‘No; 19: per foot. .2-2.<22 «0-25 anes Se oe eel ows

Liberal Discounts given.

210

A Successful Blower Elevator for the
“‘Ohio”’ Cutters.

The picture on the opposite page clearly outlines a new
blower or wind elevator in connection with the ‘‘Ohio’’ Self-
Feed Ensilage Cutter, and one that is adapted for use with
the four sizes, Nos. 13, 16,18 and 19. The blower is wide
and stands 5% feet in diameter, which gives ample capacity
to carry away and elevate the cut ensilage as fast as it
comes from these large capacity cutters.

The Blower Elevatorand What It Will Do.

The Blower Elevator is a new method for elevating cut
silage into the silo. The one shown here will do this work
perfectly, the only point being to maintain proper speed,
and to set the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possibie.
Running under these conditions, the blower will elevate the
cut corn as fast as the machines cut it.

How Constructed.

The fan case being made of heavy sheet steel and painted
with an iron-clad paint, insures strength and durability.
The fan wings are made of \-inch steel, riveted to heavy
bar iron arms which are bolted to rim of solid center wheel,
then the ends hooked and let into the wheel, making the
fan absolutely safe. The fan wheel is mounted on the oppo-
site end of pulley shaft, which makes the drive direct.

Inlet in Fan Case.

The inlet is just below the center, a little forward under
the knife cylinder, where the exhaust catches the cut corn
and by aid of the agitator draws it into the fan.

The Pipe and Pipe Connection.

The pipe is 10 inches in diameter and made of heavy galvan-
ized steel with seams on outside, and is very rigid. It is made
in 4,6, 8 and 10-foot lengths, with 10-inch slip joints anda
elamping band at each joint. The upper end of pipe is a curved
elbow, which conducts the corn into the silo. The pipe con-
nection to fan case isa ball-and-socket joint, which allows the
pipe to oscillate to the right or left and straightaway.

How the Pipe Must be Set.

The pipe must be set as nearly perpendicular as possible.
Experience has proven this to be the case. If lateral deliv-
ery is desired it should be accomplished by means of a long,
easy elbow at the top, and not by giving a low slant to the
entire length of pipe.

2ii,

“‘Ohio”’’ Self-Feed Cutter Well Known.

Upwards of one-half of the trade for ensilage cutters spec-
ifies the self-feed machine. ‘They have been used success-
fully in every part of the country and hundreds of letters
have been written commenting upon their merits. The new
blower or wind elevator increases their efficiency in this
point. The blower is made fast to the machine and the pipe
can be erected and taken down in abeut one-tenth the time
required to set up and move a chain elevator.

Self-Feed Saves Labor and Dollars.

Self-feed saves more laber and earns more dollars than any
other point about an ensilage cutter. It saves three-fourths
of the labor feeding ensilage and the cutting capacity is in-
creased 33% per cent.

Capaeity and Length of Pipe. |

No. 13, 8 to 12 tons; No. 16, 12 to 15 tons; and No. 18, 14 to
20 tons of ensilage per hour; No. 19, 17 to 25 tons of ensilage
per hour. Feed the cutter regularly and keep speed up, and
the blower will elevate the ensilage as stated and to the
satisfaction of the user. "These four machines will cut all
kinds of dry feed, and with blower elevator and pipe it can
be conveyed to any part of the barn. The perpendicular

-height from ground to center of opening in silo is ample
length of pipe for cutter.

Size of Pulley, Power, Speed and Weight.

The pulley is 14x6-inch face and is leather covered. The
necessary power to drive these machines up to capacity and
properly elevate the ensilage is as follows: No. 13, 8 to 10
horse-power; No. 16, 10to 12 horse-power; No. 18, 12 to 16
horse-power; No. 19, 16 horse-power. Speed, 650 revolutions
per minute. Weight of No. 13, 850 pouuds; No. 16, 925
pounds; No. 18, 965 pounds; No. 19, 1145, pounds; blower and
fan wings, 450 pound; pipe, 4 pounds per foot.

Will Do Successful Work With Less Power Than Indicated

Under ordinary conditions either size will cut and elevate
green corn at the rate: fone ton of ensilage, for each horse-
power applied, per hour, The power indicated is necessary to
run the machines to full capacity, and it is ample. Some may
not have that much power and might not want to providea
sufficient force of men and teams tod liver corn to keep the
cutters supplied. The machines are light running, and know-
ing the power necessary to cut and elevate green corn, parties
with less power than indicated can run these machines success-
fully, and will know how to feed them and what capacity to ex-
pect. The only point is to keep the speed up and the machine
will do its work.

Zo Weis

GUARANTEE.

The ‘‘Ohio’’ machines are warrapvted to be well
made of good materials. They will do what is
elaimed for them if operated according ro instructions,
and they are so guaranteed to every purchaser.
THE SILVER MFG. CO.,
SALEM, OHIO,
U.S...
Established 1854.

Catalogues, descriptive matter, testimonials and
‘photographs will be cheerfully furnished on request
to the manufacturers.

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