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LIBRARY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DAVIS

MONEY IN GRASSES

THE EXPERIENCE OF OTHER NATIONS FROM

WHICH THE FARMER, AND ESPECIALLY THE AMERICAN

FARMER MAY PROFIT.

WITH A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE CITY

OF ARNHEM THE CENTRE OF THE GRASS-SEED

INDUSTRY IN EUROPE.

BY
JOSEPH THEODORE BARENBRUG

PUBLISHED BY:

BARENBRUG, BURGERS & Co.,
Grass-seed specialists,

ARNHEM (HOLLAND).
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

LIBRARY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DAVIS

GRASS IS inAORTAL!

Lying in the sunshine among the buttercups and the dandelions
of May, scarcely higher in intelligence than the minute tenants
of that mimic wilderness, our earliest recollections are of grass;
and when the fitful fever is ended, and the foolish wrangle of the
market and forum is closed, grass heals over the scar which our
descent into the bosom of the earth has made, and the carpet of
the infant becomes the blanket of the dead. Grass is the forgive-
ness of nature — her constant benediction. Fields trampled with
battle, saturated with blood, torn with the ruts of cannon, grow
green again with grass, and carnage is forgotten. Streets abandoned
by traffic become grass-grown like rural lanes and are obliterated.
Forests decay, harvests perish, flowers vanish, but grass is immortal.
Beleagured by the sullen hosts of winter, it withdraws into the
impregnable fortress of its subterranean vitality, and emerges upon
the first solicitation of spring. Sown by the winds, by the wander-
ing birds, propagated by the subtle horticulture of the elements
which are its ministers and servants, it softens the rude outline
of the world. Its tenacious fibers hold the earth in its place, and
prevent its soluble components from washing into the wasting sea.
It invades the solitude of deserts, climbs the inaccessible slopes
and forbidding pinnacles of mountains, modifies climates and deter-
mines the history, character and destiny of nations. Unobtrusive
and patient, it has immortal vigor and aggression. Banished from
the thoroughfares and the field, it abides its time to return, and
when vigilance is relaxed, or the dynasty has perished, it silently
resumes the throne from which it has been expelled, but which
it never abdicates. It bears no blazonry of bloom to charm the
sn>.s« with JT^grajieeJ or splendor, but its homely hue is more
enchanting* tKan the "Hi'y or the rose. It yields no fruit in earth or
.aiiy aadryet sjjcmld; it§ Rafcvest fail for a single year, famine would
depopulate 'the? woricf.'"« •««"

(From a copy-righted article by the late Senator Jno James
Ing alls, of Kansas, by special permission of Mrs In galls.)

Introductory to American edition.

(By George C. Watson, of Philadelphia, Pennsyl-
vania; resident American agent of the company, and for 37 years
actively engaged in the grass-seed trade in Europe and America.)

While the American people have learned much on agricultural
subjects in the past two hundred years they have by no means
kept pace with the world's progress in some lines, and this is the
case conspicuously in their ignorance of the uses of the higher
types of Natural Grasses. Intensive culture in the older countries
of Europe, notably in the Netherlands, Great-Britain,
France and Germany, has given a closer knowledge of the
higher types of the cultivated grasses and clovers, enabling the
farmers to draw larger returns from the soil with a smaller expen-
diture of expense and energy. This does not imply that the Ame-
rican is any less intelligent than his European confrere; but only
that the matter has not been brought forcibly to his attention.

Before coming to America at the age of twenty-two, the writer
of these lines had been brought up at the plough-tail, and subse-
quently served an apprenticeship of nine years in the seed-busi-
ness, five of which were devoted almost exclusively to grasses,
enabling him to have an exceptionally good grasp of that line with
its sources of supply in all parts of the world, supplemented by
careful study of the leading authorities, test-work on the sample-
grounds, and diligent following up of the experimental stationwork
then lately established by the government. After a residence of
twenty-three years in America, and an active participation in the
grass-seed business during all of that period, he is more than ever
of the opinion that the European farmer is ahead of the American
in his appreciation of the values of the various species and types
of Natural-Grasses and their allies.

With a sincere desire to remedy this defect in American practice,
negotiations were opened with Joseph Theodore Baren-
b r u g —of Barenbrug, Burgers & Co., Arnhem, the
recognized European specialists in this line— to write a treatise
on the subject. After much persuasion this labor was finally under-
taken, and the following pages are the result.

This treatise is not to be taken in the deeply scientific light of
the Hortus Gramineus Hoburnensis— the foundation of our subse-

6

quent knowledge — nor even in the same class as that of the later
investigations of Lawson, Flint, Faunce de Laune, and
many other scientific authorities. It is rather a sizing-up of the
world's practical experience brought down to date, sifted, winnowed
and freed of all extraneous matter, and put into such short and
compact shape as can be readily assimilated in a short time by
the farmer and seedsman — the always busy! It is a thoughtful
resume of the subject; the ripe fruit of the brain of a practical
seedsman and farmer; trained by many years of experience and
study, verified by travel and observation in foreign countries, and
an intimate knowledge of the subject in every direction. It is full
of "meat", and worthy of the most respectful attention.

What V i 1 m o r i n 's book stands for in the vegetable-world,
Barenbrug's treatise on the grasses although of smaller bulk
takes equal rank as to quality and importance. The men of to-day
may be no better physically, mentally, morally, than the higher
types of the ancient civilizations; but they have one great advan-
tage: they can stand on the mountain-tops and look back on the
achievements of their forefathers, adding the result of past expe-
rience to their own and thereby doing their little share for the
advancement of the human race and helping: "to rise on stepping-
stones of their dead-selves to higher things."

Some naive and quaint expressions in the treatise caused by the
author having written same in a foreign language while doing his
thinking in his own, might easily have been reduced to English
and American crispness; but such trimming and polishing would
undoubtedly have spoiled the piquance and native simplicity and
sincerity of the text which, in its original form, appeals to the
reader with more force than if amended.

As already stated the writer of this introductory, while wishing
to be within the bounds of good taste, can honestly aver that he
is no novice in this particular field. Yet he has found much in the
treatise in thought and practice, that is new even to him, and he
has therefore all the more confidence in commending the work
not only to the novice, but in many cases to the most advanced
farmer and seedsman. And it is surely voicing a general sentiment
to exclaim :— "hats off to Joseph Theodore Barenbrug!"
for he has certainly put the agricultural interests and the world
generally under a debt of gratitude for a good work, well done.

GEORGE COOPER WATSON.

PHILADELPHIA, Pa, U.S.A. February 1908.

Arnhem And Its Connection With The Natural
Grass-Seed Export Trade.

Of the cities in Holland which for scenery, public hygienic
arrangements, cleanliness and wellfare are most noted, Arnhem
ranks decidedly amongst the foremost.

A foreigner, who might be inclined, as most foreigners are, to
picture to his mind Arnhem as a Dutch city, cut up by a great
many canals, spanned by numerous bridges and with a great
number of mills in the distance will, on paying a visit to this
city, be greatly struck by the fact, that his imagination of a Dutch
city has, at any rate in this instance, led him astray and to find
himself face to face with quite a modern city of about the same
style and stamp as those of the greater part of the West-
European continent; a city, therefore, of which it may be truly
said, that it has nothing about it, that can be called characteristic-
ally Dutch.

Quite different from what it is in the provinces of North-
and S o u t h-H olland, Zealand and Utrecht, all of which
are situated below the level of the North- or German Sea,
and which for irrigation and drainage purposes are in various
directions cut up by canals which not only serve as waterways
for home-navigation, but likewise are the means to carry off to
the sea the superfluous waters pumped out of the agricultural,
arable lands by means of the manyfold steam- and wind-mills
built broadcast throughout these provinces, Arnhem and the
greater portion of the province of G u e 1 d r e, of which it is the
capital is situated above the Amsterdam- or se a-level, which
fact causes it to lack all that, which is characteristic to most of
the Dutch cities, towns and villages as these are generally seen
on pictures, exhibited in show-windows of art- and picture-dealers
in countries outside Holland.

Arnhem, a city of about 62.000 inhabitants may be best
described as a luxury town; a place of comfort, to which a great

number of the wealthier classes have during the last fifty years
resorted, to spend an easy and agreable life. Especially in the
years from 1870 to 1890, Arnhem has been the place of attract-
ion "par excellence" for such people, amongst whom were counted
a great number of "East-Indian Guests", i. e. Dutch people who
had made their fortunes in the Dutch East Indies on the
sugar-, tobacco-, coffee- and other plantations, and of which plant-
ations they were the proprietors still. Needless to say, the mag-
nificent environs; the numerous estates a little outside the city
which, with rare exceptions, are all open to visitors; its situation
in one of the highest parts of Holland, with extensive Fir-and
other woods, which make it one of the healthiest spots in Hol-
land, greatly account for this influx and increase of population
since the middle of the last century. For, since 1848 when its
population numbered about 17.000, Arnhem increased its inha-
bitants according to the last census to over 62.000. And this is not
due to the fact, that some new industry has been started somewhere
about Arnhem, which naturally would have attracted a good many
outsiders, directly or indirectly interested in such an industry; but
it is to be considered as a regular and sound increase both by
births and influx. Arnhem (Aernheim = Eagles' Home), situated
on the north bank of the Rhine, was first spoken of in history
in the 11th century as a mere borough founded by Count
Gerard II. In 1233 it was raised to the rank of a town with
town-rights by Otto III (with the horsefoot), Count of Guelre
and Z u t f e n, after which rise, its position as well as that of
its inhabitants soon altered for the better. As customary in
those times, Arnhem had been fortified by means of walls,
ponds and forts, as may be seen from a bird's eye-view of it taken
early in the 17th century, at which time everything in that respect
was looked upon as being complete. It had its 4 gates: V e 1 p e r-
poort (V e 1 p = neighbouring village) ; St. J a n's p o o r t (St.
John's gate), Sabel's poort (Savel = Sand gate) and R ij n
p o o r t (River Rhine gate), all of which were built in the town's
walls of fortification.

It was during the latter half of last century, that Arnhem
underwent quite a metamorphosis, when all the walls, ponds and
gates, which encircled it and made it a fortified city, were pulled
down and done away with. This done, there was sufficient room
for its extension and embellishment. The place where in former
times were found both walls and ponds, and which the one after

10

GREAT CHURCH (REFORMED DUTCH) WITH NORTH ENTRANCE AND MARKET-PLACE.

11

the other were pulled down and drained, produced a splendid op-
portunity to lay out the town with large magnificent squares and
avenues, on both sides of which beautiful mansions have been
erected.

In ancient public buildings or monuments Arnhem is rather
poor. As such St. Walburgis Church (Roman Catholic) takes,
as the most ancient of all, the first place. It was built end of the
14th century in the gothic style; has known its ups and downs
during hard times of the reformation and other, untill in the year
1807 it was restored to the R. C. community, since when it has
during various periods been greatly restored, embellished and
improved, with one interval, however, when about the middle of
last century, one of its two spires, which form the frontispice,
came down and destroyed in its fall part of the nave. Since then
re-built and splendidly re-furnished, it ranks now amongst the
finest buildings of public-worship, both inside and out.

St. Eusebius Church (Reformed Dutch) the highest and largest
of churches in the town, likewise gothic, originally devoted to the
patron-saint of the city, and built about the middle of the 15th
century, was formerly a Roman Catholic place of worship. Possession
of it was taken by the Protestant body at the Reformation. Its
spire measures 96 Metres = about 105 Yards. This beautiful piece
of architecture suffered much from all the ravages of the time etc.,
especially once through a fire in the year 1633, when great damage
was done to the structure, impaired still by the less artful restoration
of it. It is only since some 15 years, that earnest steps have been
taken and that works are in process, to bring the building back to
its pure and magnificent style.

The Town hall (Devil's House) originally built as a private
mansion byMaarten van Rossem, a field-marshal and wealthy
citizen of Arnhem about the end of the 15th century. It was
erected in the early-Dutch Renaissance-style. History has it, that
Maarten van Rossem to show his riches, desired to cover
and have laid in the steps, that lead to the main-entrance with
"Rij ksdaalders", a Dutch silver coin of the value of a dollar.
Of course, the authorities could not allow him such extravagance,
for fear of inciting to theft people, imbued with less honest
inclinations. To show his spite and anger over this refusal,
Maarten van Rossem had several ugly-looking images, devils
with horse-feet, hewn out in the stone walls of the building, which
after his death was turned into a townhall. In the course of time

ST. WALBURG-STREET WITH NEW EXTENSION OF TOWNHALL BUILDINGS.

13

the structure had by less artful hands been greatly spoiled from
an architectural point of view. It is only since the last decade,
that the building has been restored and brought into proper form
and style again, and enlarged to accommodate the larger staff of
officials required nowadays for the largely extended city.

Amongst the modern structures which, from an architectural
point of view, are worth mentioning, may be stated the General
Post-Office and St. Elizabeth's Hospital (/?. C.), the
latter commanding a nice view of the Rhine and country south
of this river called "Betuwe" (bet-uwe = best old soil).

And amongst the various estates in the environs of the city,
open free to the public and which are fully worth a visit, we might
cite "Sonsbeek" (property of the city of Arnhem now),
"Rozendaal" (dual = vale), " Marien daal", "Oorsprong",
"Westerbouwing". "Hemelschen Berg", "Duno",
"Doorwerth", "Biljoen".

At a distance of about 8 miles in the north-eastern direction,
passing through the village de Steeg, we enter on the magnificent
"Middachter A 1 1 e e ", a splendid avenue with beautiful beech-
trees on both sides of the road, unique throughout Holland
and in summer a great place of attraction for foreigners and those
fellow-countrymen, residing in the low-lying, flat and watery parts
of Holland, devoid of woods or any such tall trees and a
similar dry and healthy atmosphere.

On Industry And Business Matters.

Would any-one wonder at such a town as described above to
become a place of attraction and resort for those, who in business
have born the heat of the day, either in H o 1 1 an d -itself or in
its colonies in the tropics? And would any-one wonder furthermore,
that in the absence in the direct neighborhood of any raw materials
or mines, a city of this description does not lend itself to any
industry of a certain importance ?

For what does it mean to a city of over 62.000 inhabitants, if it
can point in that respect to a ship-building yard where a little
over a couple of hundred hands are employed; or to a tobacco-
factory, although with magnificent connections and a fairly large

14

TOWNHALL BUILDINGS (DEVIL'S HOUSE).

15

turn-over, where some 40 people are engaged ; or, finally, to a
weaving-factory (tapes, cord, etc.) with some 250 hands at work?

How, then, is it, that the Natural Grass-seed business has made
roots, and deep roots indeed, in this city so devoid of any com-
mercial enterprise?

The reply can be a short-one, viz the fact of its being so well,
so centrally situated for that particular trade!

For, whereas the place has north of it in its direct vicinity a
lighter, sandy soil with various woods, yielding the varieties that
are being either grown on these lighter soils or collected in those
woods, such as Festuca duriuscula, ovina and o v i n a
angustifolia (Hard-, Sheep's and Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue),
Aira flexuosa ( Wavy Mountain Hair-grass), Poa nemoralis
(Wood Meadow-grass) etc., it has south, west and east of it the
more fertile, heavy clay soil, which for centuries has been per-
manent pasture-land, where most of the more valuable meadow-
grasses have from times immemorial been collected or, as has
been the case for the last three or four decades, have been more
systematically grown as crops. Amongst these grasses we mention
in the first place varieties like Agrostis stolon if era
(Creeping Bent-grass), Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow
Foxtail-grass), Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet-scented
Vernal-grass, true), Avena flavescens ( Yellow Oat-grass,
true), Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass), Cynosurus cristatus
(Crested Dogstail-grass), Dactylis glomerata (Cocksfoot or
Orchard-grass), Festuca elatior and pratensis (Tall
Meadow and ordinary Meadow-Fescue) and Poa pratensis
and t r i v i a 1 i s (Smooth- and Rough-stalked Meadow-grass) the
former generally known in A m e r i c a as Kentucky Blue-grass.

Nor is this all in the way of advantages A r n h e m has over
various competitors. But the fact that the River Rhine with
its tributary the River Waal, both of which farther westward
have again connection with the several canals that cut up the
more distant parts of Holland, run like serpentines through
these two sorts of districts, gives magnificent and cheap accom-
modation for the conveyance of the various grasses from the
different and most remote points, not only for the partly dressed
stuff, but also for the original seed-material in its green state,
which for the reason that it requires a more intense drying and
thrashing, is all conveyed to Am hem to undergo those more
thorough operations.

16

17

It is impossible to give an historical account of the origin of
the Natural Grass-seed trade in Holland; or to establish in what
time that trade was started. The fact being, that up till some
forty or fifty years ago no concentrated trade was being done in
Holland-itself.

This only can be stated as a fact, that for several generations
and long before a more systematic growing of Natural Grass-seeds
was either started or even thought of, it was the habit of the
poorer classes, to go out in summer and collect wherever such
was permitted, either in meadows or in woods or fields, and in
accordance with the successive terms at which the various kinds
do come to maturity, the different grass-seeds, the agricultural or
other value of which was either known or intimated to them
through the various agents whose hands these seeds had to pass
through before they reached the foreign wholesale-dealer and
cleaner.

And as practically all the agents who were at the time the
buyers, first-hand, of these grasses in their rough or partly dressed
state, had their social seats as well as their warehouses in Ger-
many, just a little beyond the Dutch border, very little was
either seen, known or heard by the collectors of either the dress-
ing and use of the seeds or of the countries whither they were
sold and shipped when cleaned.

There is still an other reason why, whilst this seed-collecting
had been going on for years and years, never in Holland-itself a
firm sprang up sooner to establish a sound export-trade; combine
the produce of the districts and put up warehouses with a satis-
factory plant of machinery: the fact, namely, that the use of the
Natural Grass-seeds, though these were fairly well known and appre-
ciated by a few of the enlightened seedsmen and farmers, was
far from being a universal-one then. The majority of both the
trade and farmers followed carefully the steps of their predecessors
and the system then prevailing, which prescribed for laying down
pasture-land, either permanent or for 2, 3 years' lay, the use of
Ryegrasses and Clovers. It was not until men like Peter
L a w s o n and others who stood in the foremost ranks where it
served to instruct farmers as well as the seed-trade, had pointed
to the far greater value of the Natural Grasses for the purpose
of laying down permanent pasture, as compared with the system
then universally followed, namely the use Ryegrasses and Clovers,
that these Natural Grasses by their persistent endeavors, got more and

2

18

19

more introduced to and known by the average seedsman and farmer.
Well, then, if we mention here as a fact, that it was not until
the fifties or sixties of last century, that the ideas of the trade
and farming underwent this metamorphosis and that it is only
from that time that the Natural Grasses got gradually introduced
to and found appreciation by the trade at large, it must be clear
to anybody, that very little trade had been done in these grasses
before then; and that there had consequently been very little

ARNHEM. — GENERAL POST-OFFICE.

inducement for any-one in Holland, interested in the seed-business,
to take earnestly in hand a branch of that trade, which up till
then was far from being a lively or a remunerative-one; at least
for those not understanding that branch.

Here, like in every other branch of commerce we have the three
stadia to go through: the first, that of an article being scarcely
known; the second, that of the public's attention being drawn by
some-one or several as the case may be, to the value and merits of
that particular article; and finally the third, that of it being tested
and, the results being satisfactory, its finding a regular and increas-
ing sale with a gradually extending production dependent thereon.

20

It was mainly due to the clear foresight of Mr. Arnold Burgers,
oldest member of the present firm ofBarenbrug, Burgers&Co.,
of A r n h e m , who till then had been acting for one of the foreign
houses as one of the several agents in Holland, to buy the rough
material from the various collectors, and who, some forty years
ago, took the initiative to concentrate the whole, or nearly the
whole of the production of Holland into one hand; put up ware-
houses and mechanical installations for the thrashing and cleaning
of the rough material and find a direct sale to the several seed-

ARNHEM. — DAM AND ST. WALBURGIS' CHURCH.

firms scattered all over the world, that the Natural Grass-seed
export-trade was established in Holland-itself, and that, by doing
so, this trade was placed on a sounder basis, namely that of
bringing the consumer nearer to the producer and having the
seat of business established in the centre of production, with a
saving of expenses dependent on this more rational method of
business.

That this was not so easy a task to be performed need scarcely
be said. Circumstances, however, helped a great deal to lighten
the work. First of all this, that the demand was only then beginning
to become a more lively-one year after year, so that the production,

21

22

MR. ABNOLD BURGERS.

MR. BERNARD BURGERS.

MR. JOSEPH THEODORE BARENBRUG.

23

and everything in connection therewith, could keep pace with tha
increasing demand; that warehouse-room and machinery could be
improved upon and gradually enlarged. Secondly, that the demands
put in regard to the qualities of the various seeds were not so
stringent then as they are nowadays, but extended themselves in
time and in accordance with the deeper and sounder knowledge
that was being acquired by practice.

Needless also to say, that Mr. Arnold Burgers found
great assistance since some 25 to 30 years in the co-operation of
his son, Mr. Bernard Burgers and of the author of this
book, Mr. Joseph Theodore Barenbrug, two other
junior members of the firm of Barenbrug, Burgers & Co.,
who, whilst the originator planned and traced out the course to
be followed, were, each in his way, the men to carry out those
plans and improve on them, wherever practice indicated improve-
ments to be possible, or showed, that in one way or other for
practical reasons, the original way adopted was less adviseable to
be followed, had to be deviated from, and that it was necessary
to march in an other direction.

The various factors, however, once having been set in working-
order, and the individuals having been put in the right places, the
trade made regular and even rapid progress. And it may be stated
without any exaggeration in the least, that now the Natural Grass-
seed trade in Holland, with Arnhem as its centre, is at-present
one of the most important in the world.

And that this export-trade is an exceedingly lively-one, will be
clear to anybody, if we mention here as a fact, that it is practi-
cally expanded all over the civilized world now, Europe, as
being the cradle taking, of course, the foremost place.

It was in Great Britain since the middle of last century,
that both the trade and farmers, first of all, got gradually fully
alive to the importance of the Natural Grasses for the purpose
of laying down permanent pasture. And it may be said without
any exaggeration, that all over the British Islands, the
Natural Grasses are now being used for permanent pasture-land,
and that in the number of importing countries it stands foremost.

Next to this country it was France, Belgium, Germany
(we don't speak here of the exporting-ftrms, but of the seed-dealers
and farmers for the consumption at home) Austria, Denmark,
etc., which got gradually alive to the importance and the indis-
pensibleness of them.

24

Finally, there is the United States and Canada which
followed and especially in recent years made great strides in that
direction.

Up till some 20 or 25 years ago, there were but a few isolated
firms there, knowing the Natural Grasses and their use sufficiently

CASTLE "BILJOBN".

well, and importing them regularly every year. But it is from then
on, that the number of firms, to whom the knowledge of the Natural
Grasses and their use penetrated, gradually and rather progress-
ively widened, and that the use of them and along therewith, the
imports rapidly increased. And it may be truly said now, that
amongst the more practical and up-to-date seedsmen of the United
States and Canada, there is actually not one sufficiently important
firm left, which is not fully aware of the importance of the Natural
Grasses, and of the necessity to have them added to the agricul-
tural department of the business with, what is nowadays where
producer and consumer are being closely brought together, a

25

necessity, a direct import of them from the centre of production,
without the intermedium of the several middle-men or importing
wholesale-dealers.

The Use And Value Of The Natural Grasses In
.General, And Of Each Variety In Particular.

In this chapter we mean to deal on the use and value of the
Natural Grasses, and as we are writing for both those who are
more or less acquainted therewith and those who are not, it can 't
fail that on more than one occasion, we shall repeat to certain
of our readers points familiar to them and dealt on more exten-

W

CASTLE "BILJOEN". — THE POND.

sively in works written by authors who had set it their task to
deal on same more minutely, but which points we consider essential
for the majority of readers, who sofar have had neither the op-
portunity nor the inclination to study such copious, deep-going

26

works which, as a rule, are at the same time of a tiring nature.

But as it is our intention to consider the various grasses and
furthermore some of the luguminous plants more from a practical
point of view, we venture that even such readers as alluded to
above will find some useful knowledge in these lines either new
to them or lost sight of in the study of the more theoritical side
of the matter.

And then, in regard to the value of the various species of
Natural Grasses, we must say, that it is the general opinion now
of the most competent and experienced men, that these merits
which cannot be estimated too highly, have been but too long
neglected, seeing what benefits are to be derived from their use
for various purposes, of which that of laying down permanent
pasture-land, for alternate grazing and hay-making purposes, is
decidedly the most important-one.

If in former times the Ryegrasses (perennial and Italian)
and Clovers were chiefly the ingredients for laying down pasture-
and grazing-lands, we would say, that these answered the purpose
fairly well, if the farmer had in view a pasture or meadow for say
2 or 3 years' lay, as such a mixture would produce the maximum
of good fodder in a minimum of time. But even to reach that
aim we know a little better now. We know at least this, that for
that purpose we can use to great advantage in connection with
the Ryegrasses and Clovers, certain Natural Grasses, the nutritive
value of which surpasses that of the Ryegrasses and which, though
more slowly than these, do as yet develop fastly enough to render
good service in pastures and meadows of so short a duration.

For, although everybody knows, that it is the Ryegrasses, "'par
excellence", which come to the front in a very short time once
they have been sown, and yield a good crop of hay the first year,
yet practice and experiments during the last few decades have
taught likewise, that amongst the Natural Grasses also, there are
a few species which, though they don't produce the first year so
large a quantity of hay as the Ryegrasses do, display the second
year all their luxury and the full abundance of quantity. Nor is
this all. For, amongst the Natural Grasses, there are even a few
which, though developping not quite so luxuriously as the Rye-
grasses, yet just like these do actually produce also a fairly good
crop the first year and, therefore, though it would be unwise to
sow them alone, may be used with great advantage in connection
with the Ryegrasses and Clovers and help these to increase not

27

only the yield, but to improve also the value of the hay, giving
same likewise all the advantages which mixed hay has over the
crop of only one variety.

*

*llt

MlDDACHTER AVENUE.

Amongst these quickly developping Natural Grasses we cite
Avena elatior (Tall Oatgrass) as the most important and
quickest-one.

But the main thing is, and the greatest advantages to be derived
from the Natural Grasses are the use of them for permanent
pasture-land and meadows.

28

It is here the place to draw likewise the attention of the reader
to the use of certain varieties of Natural Grasses for another
useful, though not quite so important a purpose as the laying-
down of pasture-lands. We mean that of making fine lawns,
recreation-grounds, bowling-greens, etc. And this
will be clear to everybody, who so far has been in the habit of
using Ryegrasses only, be it that he took to the short-seeded
perennial or paceys, in order to get a finer-leaved grass than that
of the ordinary perennial, if we tell him, that there is one
characteristic attached to the Ryegrasses which, apart from the
fact, that they are prone to disappear after a couple of years or to
leave at least bare spots, if a severe winter with alternate wet and
sharp-frosty weather has to be gone through, makes it unadvisable
to sow them alone: this characteristic, namely, that the Ryegrasses
grow in rather elevated tufts, in opposition to certain of the
Natural Grasses which spread in a creeping, a more even turf
making way; and that they have the bad habit of shooting forth
part of their roots above or at least quite near the surface of the
soil. The result of this is, that unless a lawn has been sown very
thickly indeed; unless these tufts join one another closely, with
practically no space between, the turf won't be an even-one, but
will show near each tuft a smaller or larger bare spot; something
of a "sinking", which is being made worse by the fact, that the
lower part of the stem of the Perennial Ryegrass is of a rather
reddish shade, which is being seen the sooner in such a case where
the turf is not a thick-one.

Now, this is surely neither good nor recommendable for a fine
lawn; [and it is to provide for this deficiency, that some of the
Natural Grasses which produce a fine, narrow and deep-green leaf
and which do not possess to such an extend that tuft forming
habit, should be used to fill up those gaps and smoothen away the
uneveness of the tuft forming Ryegrasses. It is, moreover, these
Natural Grasses which, if and wherever the Ryegrasses are wearing
out, should by their sub-terranean propagation cover again the
bare spots left by the Ryegrasses.

The main object in using a mixture of short-seeded or paceys
Perennial Ryegrass and fine-leaved Natural Grasses can therefore
be described in brief as this, that the Ryegrass has to promote
the quick creation '.of a "'green turf, whereas it is] the Natural
Grasses which [have to do the completing work of the first year,
i. e. to make the lawn a fine and even-one for the following years

29

by taking the place of the Ryegrass where this is worn out.
What we have said here of the usefulness of certain Natural
Grasses, which are non-tuft forming varieties, but spread them-
selves by their capacity of shooting forth subterraneously their
roots, thus creating merely for beauty's sake that even turf, applies,
though for an other reason, with the same vigour to their use for
pasture-lands and meadows.

CASTLE "ROSENDAEL".

For, if the great aim to be reached for the former is to have a
fine, even plot of grass, that in view for the latter is to derive the
greatest possible production of the very best quality of nutritive
grasses. And whilst the nutritive value of nearly all the Natural
Grasses surpasses that of the Ryegrasses, sometimes even very
much indeed, they tend at the same time to cover the soil far
more thickly than the latter are capable of doing. Now, it need
scarcely be said here, that the more thickly the land is covered
by grass-plants of whatever variety these are, the greater will be
the quantity of either grass or hay yielded.

30

Every little spot of the land should produce its share of the
crop; not the smallest portion should lie waste. That is the great
aim a farmer and dairyman should have constantly before him.
And as it is the seedsman to whom the farmer looks as a rule
for his advice and counsel, it is he, therefore, who cannot be too
careful in composing his grass-seed mixtures.

Now, the main thing a seedsman should have in view when
doing so, is first to look for those grasses which answer the
purpose best. If for pastures, to use those varieties which with
the greatest possible production give a quality of hay of the greatest
nutritive value. If for lawns, to make his choice amongst those
varieties which with a deep-green shade produce the finest possible
leaves. The next thing, which applies to both purposes is to see
such varieties put in, which fill up one another in their deficiency,
where it concerns to see every little space of the soil covered.

As explained above, it is the capacity of certain grasses, and
we state as a fact, that they form by far the majority amongst
them, good and inferior kinds, to grow in "tufts" which capacity
often prevents a meadow or lawn from being so thickly covered
as it both could and should be. It is on the other hand the minority
of the various grasses, which propagate by their roots creeping in
all directions and shooting forth new plants.

The seedsman should therefore carefully see, that a good pro-
portion of varieties is being put in of the "creeping" -grasses. And
finally, and this again concerns the meadows and pasture-lands
alone, a wise and experienced judgement should guide him, where
it refers to putting into the mixtures a sufficient proportion of
both upper- (high-growing) and bottom- (short-growing) grasses.
We scarcely think, that the advantages of the latter advice require
any elucidiation to our readers.

It is the place here to come back to a point referred to already
in this book, which is of great interest to the seedsman com-
posing his mixtures, and which may save him a good deal of
money, without at the same time reducing much the value of his
mixtures, at least of such of the average or cheaper kind: we
mean the place where we dwelt on the methods by which the
grass-seeds are harvested; the original way: by collection in fields
and meadows and the more modern way: that of growing the
various grass-seeds on purpose and separately as a crop.

It must be clear to anybody, that the modern system, though
being a far more costly-one, carries with it the acquisition of fully-

31

matured, heavy seed, almost entirely pure in its variety. There is
the buying of the purest possible stock-seed; the careful labouring
of the land to make it clean from obnoxious weeds, thus giving a
good opportunity to the seed sown to develop most freely, not
being kept down by overruling weeds and other stronger varieties;
and furthermore the constant labour on the land in cultivation to
keep same clean. All this tends to secure the purest, heaviest
seed-crop. But at the same time it tends likewise, in connection
with the risk of having either a short, or practically no crop at-all

ROSENDAEL. — BEDRIEGERTJES ("THE DECEIVERS").

(for grass-seed growing |is an exceedingly risky-one in regard to
yield), to make the cost-price oft times a very high-one.

On the other hand, there is the old system of seed-collecting,
which is still being carried on largely. And we need hardly say,
that here there can scarcely be a question of getting seed in
quite as pure a state as is the case with the produce of the
modern system ; for with the old system we have before us a field
covered with all sorts of grasses, all of which are to be cut in
succession as they come to maturity. Now, however carefully
this collection is being done, the number of pounds a seed-collector
brings together daily and by which his earnings of that day are
being fixed, tends to hasten him to bring together the number of

32

pounds which he has set before himself as his task, much to the
detriment of the quality of his produce from a purity point of
view. This is worse even there, where it concerns varieties of
about equal heights or of those which come to maturity almost
simultaneously as for instance Dactylis glomerata (Cocks-
foot or Orchard-grass) and Festuca pratensis (Meadow
Fescue), which citations could be easily increased by several others.

In regard to the germinative capacities of both the collected
seeds and those grown as a crop, experience has taught most
decisively, that whilst for certain varieties the percentages found
for seeds of the old system are in no way inferior to those obtained
from the produce of the modern system, there are a few other
species which, in that respect, speak decidedly in favour of the
seed purposely grown as a crop. This is mainly due to the fact,
that crops of separate varieties grown for seed-saving are treated
all over the fields more equally; that the plants ripen more
simultaneously; and, finally, that if a farmer thinks the crop not
sufficiently ripe and believes it to be in his interest to let it stand
over a few days longer, he can do so and defer the cutting of the
field as long as he likes.

On the other hand in regard to the seeds saved by collection,
it is a fact, that if a seed-collector is not just then engaged in
collecting a variety which is fully matured for reason he is through
with his work on that kind, he is prone to commence with the
following-one though it would have been far better if that following
variety had been left uncut a few days yet.

Of course the cleaning-up of these collected seeds; the winnowing
out of same of the light material, will do a great deal to provide
for this deficiency; in several cases even carry up the germinative-
powers to the same high standard as that of the seeds grown as a crop.

And as regards the exact purity in the sense of absence of
obnoxious weeds, though the produce of the modern system is
originally more free from same, the cleaning both by machinery
and hand-sifting, is capable of carrying same for the one as well
as for the other up to an equally high standard.

And, finally, as regards the capacity of each to maintain their
force and permanency in the newly sown meadows and pasture-
lands, the ideas which originally placed both produces on a par,
have at least in a couple of cases been departed from in favour of
the wildly-growing, collected seeds, since in recent years varieties
like Avena elatior (Tall Oatgrass) and Festuca pratensis

33

1. CASTLE ROSENDAEL. 2. HOTEL BEEKHUIZEN. 3. CHAIN-BRIDGE ROSENDAEL.

3

34

(Meadow Fescue), experience has proved, that the latter not only
do produce a greater quantity of grass, but also are by far stronger
in maintaining their presence in the field, not being so easily
crowded out by other varieties or damaged by severe winter-weather.

The main thing that can be said against the collected produce
is this, that certain varieties do often contain a greater or smaller
proportion of species, though equally valuable, of an other deno-
mination and in certain cases of lighter or immature seeds.

As regards the former we would say, that as long as the foreign
seeds are good varieties, there is nothing against their presence
in the bulk. It is simply the business of the seedsman here to
take this involuntary admixture into account when composing his
mixtures. And so far as the lighter seeds are concerned, it is our
opinion, that the quantity of grass-seed sown per acre by the
average farmer, is as a rule quite large enough to allow for a
certain percentage of lighter, or immature seeds in the bulk not
to produce plants, without doing any harm to the thickness of
the turf.

If, therefore, there are certain advantages attached to the seeds
grown as a crop, advantages especially of "quality", there is on
the other hand much to be said in favour of the collected seeds,
the main thing of which is, that they can be procured at a far
cheaper price, the cost of production being much lower. Here no
landrent to be paid for the purpose of the seed-saving; here no
buying of dear genuine, pure stock-seed; here no intense and
costly labour for making the land in proper condition and keeping
the field clean when in spring te grasses are about to develop;
here, finally, no risk of seeing all this output in money and labour
done in vain by a failure, wholly or in part, of the crop. But here
a seed-crop will be saved, if at the time of harvest, it is proved
that in fact there is a seed-crop present on the field. If not, whatever
is actually on the land in question can be used for hay-making
or grazing purposes.

All this will make it clear to the reader, that and why collected
seeds can very often be sold at a price half or even less than
that quoted for th:; other. And where it is a fact, that in certain
regions farmers are very little inclined to pay a good, satisfactory
price for agricultural seeds, especially in the case where it con-
cerns to create "grass-land only", these cheaper qualities come in
most handy to the seedsman to compose that mixture which the
farmer wants to order at the price he is inclined to pay.

35

ffl

•P*

OOSTERBEEK. — CASTLE MARIENDAAL.

36

It may be here the place to disperse a wrong conception held
by certain seedsmen with insufficient knowledge of the case, or
misguided by others who may know a good deal more of grass-
seeds, but who seem, notwithstanding, to have acquired a wrong
conception of it, and who, no doubt quite involuntarily taking their
opinion for a truth, base their reasoning thereon, piling up argu-
ments against what is according to their views a bad thing to be
wiped out, and who make others think like they do. We mean
the so-called adulteration of grass-seeds.

It is far from us to pretend, that there is no room for adulter-
ation of seeds to the advantage of the seedsman, desirous to
derive unrighteous profits from his trade. But where the seed-
trade in general is a trade of confidence in the first place, it is
his own interests which will guide every sensible seedsman who
has at heart his concern and means to maintain the position he
takes up in the trade, not to do willfully anything that may be
detrimental to his repute and to the confidence placed in him by
his customers.

This said, it is not difficult to us to make clear to the reader,
that in most of the cases where, at first sight, one might feel
inclined to think of adulteration, we have simply to do with the
result of natural causes, at least in such cases where collected
seeds are the object of the denunciation.

If the reader remembers what we said before of the hasty
manner in which the majority of the collectors bring their seeds
together, to get in a minimum of time the maximum of weight;
if he knows, furthermore, that various kinds of plants of the same
height are standing next to one another, and if he finally knows,
that the difference in time they come to maturity is for a few
varieties that of a few days only, he will readily understand, that
collected seeds of such varieties are bound to turn out, when
thrashed and cleaned, as more or less mixed lots, according to the
greater or lesser care and time a collector has bestowed on bringing
together his pioduce.

Such will be even more clear to the reader when we tell him,
that in the case of Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass)
and Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue), the maturity of
which falls but a few days later (in certain years of excessive heat
and drought even simultaneously for both kinds), it is a system
in certain of the growing-districts to cut these two varieties together,
and as the weight op the Orchard-seed is far lighter and the plants

37

more numerous than those of the Meadow Fescue, the result is,
that in such a produce the former's seeds are by far in the majority,
which naturally leads both collector and wholesale-dealer, to sell
such seed under he name of Orchard-grass.

To speak or even think here of adulteration is (to deal with it
gently) a misuse of words. This weighs the more, if we express as
our opinion, that we scarcely know to which of these two varieties
we should give the preference in regard to their agricultural value

38

in a meadow. It is true, that Orchard-grass gives a greater bulk;
but it is equally true, that Meadow Fescue is a far softer and
tenderer plant, less coarse and hard than the former and therefore
preferred by the cattle. And as regards the market-value of both
varieties, it must be stated that, though Orchard-grass sells as a
rule dearer than Meadow Fescue, we have known the time more
than once, that the reverse happened to be the case and that
Meadow Fescue was selling a good deal, 50 % even, dearer than
Orchard-grass.

Under such circumstances there would even be no sense in
committing willful adulteration!

Here is another instance. Take Festuca ovina angus-
tifolia (Fine-leaved Fescue). Experience has taught that, if
three or four years seed has been collected from one and the
same tract of land, the plants and the seeds likewise acquire quite
a different character, deviating greatly from the original, true
variety and taking more or less the aspect of the ordinary
Festuca ovina (Sheep's Fescue), not quite so large-seeded,
however, and giving more the idea of a "cross" between the one
and the other. This seed is regularly being sold as the fine-leaved
variety, as it actually emanates from that variety's fields, and it
would, consequently be likewise a wrong conception of the case
to speak here of adulteration.

Poa nemoralis (Wood Meadow-grass), an other instance, is
even as a fancy quality never to be got entirely pure and free
from Poa pratensis (Smooth-stalked Meadow- or Kentucky
Bluegrass), of which variety it contains always a larger or smaller
percentage according to the grade under which it is being classified.
And the grains present in a sample are, therefore, never being
deducted from the exact percentage of purity when a sample of
nemoralis is being analysed.

One more example. Take Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass).
This seed, likewise, is seldom even as a fancy grade got purer
than say 85 to 90 % on an average. It is always found to contain
a certain percentage of Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass),
Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue) and some other kinds,
mainly B r o m u s-varieties. If such a fancy quality is being ana-
lysed, it is generally understood that, if say 90 % is given as its
purity, these 90 % are composed of "good seeds" of different
denomination, of which the Tall Oat-grass forms, of course, the
bulk, whereas some 10 °/0 or more, very often as high as 15 to

39

20 % are composed of Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass),
Festuca pratensis (Meadow-Fescue)) Avena flavescens
( Yellow Oat-grass), Lolium perenne and 1 1 a 1 i c u m (Peren-
nial and Italian Ryegrass), besides a couple of species of the
B r o m u s-varieties, etc.

If this is true of the superior grades of this variety, it goes
without saying, that the lower, cheaper grades contain even a far
larger proportion of these other varieties, and though amongst the
more experienced grass-seed dealers these grades go under the

OOSTERBEEK. — ESTATE HEMELSCHE BERG ("CELESTIAL MOUNT").

name of "Fenasse", yet they are being handled likewise under
that of Tall Oat-grass. It is not at-all an exception to meet samples,
containing say 50°/0 "good" seeds, of which there are 2/3 of the
true variety only.

Nobody, knowing the grass-seed trade thoroughly, would think
here for a moment shouting of "adulteration", if a sample like
the one described here were being sold as "Tall Oat-grass". Such
lots are the natural outcome of the collector's work, and where

40

the varieties which with the Tall Oat-grass compose the percentage
of "'good" seeds, are indeed kinds of as great or even greater a
value than the Tall Oat-grass-itself, there is indeed nothing against
such lots of seed being sold under the name of that variety which
in appearance is by far the predominant-one, as has been the
habit from the very existance of the grass-seed trade.

Therefore, to speak here as well as in the precedent cases of
"adulteration", which could easily be increased by many other
instances of equal force is, to deal with it gently, a misuse of
words !

The Agricultural Value Of The Leading Natural
Grasses And How To Use Same In Mixtures.

In dealing on the agricultural value of the various Natural
Grasses and their use in mixtures for permanent pastures and
lawns, we must say, that they should be divided in varieties of
the greatest possible value, which should always be used in a
fair quantity in mixtures, larger or smaller according to their
greater or lesser value and soil, climate, etc., they are destined
for and in those of less agricultural value, the use of which may
be adviseable under certain circumstances and conditions only.

We mean to review furthermore certain other agricultural plants,
non-graminece, which, for laying down permanent pastures and
other fields, form oft times the necessary complements of grass-
seed mixtures.

To deal therefore in the first place and alphabetically on the
Natural Grasses, we have to speak first of:

Agrostis stolonifera (Florin or Creeping Bent-grass}. The
principal of the Agrostis-varieties. This is a bottom-grass growing
from 20 to 25, in certain favorable soils even as high as 30 inches;
it is one of the fewer non-tuft forming varieties, shooting forth in
a creeping way its roots not only subterraneously, but also, though
in a smaller degree on the surface of the soil. This habit makes
this variety especially valuable in mixtures, where seeds of the
tuft-forming kind form the majority, as is practically always the
case; it fills up then the bare spots which are being naturally
created by the latter, thus making an even, thickly covered turf.
Though it prefers a moist, even marshy soil, yet it is found
likewise in dry, even in sandy soils, but does not thrive there
quite so well. Therefore, although it prefers moisture, it can at
the same time stand the drought very well indeed. It is a very
good feeding-grass with abundant fine-leaved foliage, well-liked by
all sorts of stock and suitable not only for grazing, but also for

42

hay-making purposes as, in the latter case, it gives a good deal
of bottom-forage, increasing consequently greatly the bulk. It
being, moreover, one of the later varieties, it has the advantage
of producing a fresh, young grass at the time when the early
varieties have ceased to thrive so well as they did in the earlier
period of their vegetation. Though, on account of its fine-seeded
grain in not top great a proportion, it should never be left out of
a mixture for permanent pasture.

It is furthermore a very useful grass for fine lawns and pleasure-
grounds, on account of its short growth, deep-green and fine-leaved
foliage, so that it is highly recommendable for that purpose and
is always being used in a fair proportion in lawn-mixtures. In
America this is considered one of the most valuable of all the
lawn grasses — its stoloniferous roots forming a close turf and its
fine texture and deep-green colour being greatly appreciated. It
seems to bear constant walking over in the most remarkable way
and is therefore indispensable for golf-course, croquet- and cricket-
field mixtures, as well as general lawn formulas.
•

Agrostis emmimm ^Rhode-Island Bent-grass}. Except that this
variety is of a more tuft-forming habit, much of the foregoing
may be said of it, although it is by a long way not so productive
of either fertile stems or foliage; our experience is, that though
it does not require quite so good a soil and may just as well be
sown on a lighter ditto, it cannot equal either in quantity or in
quality the Agrostis stolonifera^ which is a softer, tenderer plant,
whereas the Agrostis canina tends to go hard and strawy and,
therefore, when it has reached that stage is not so well-liked by
the cattle.

It is, however, a useful grass for lawns. Many seedsmen use it
just as freely for that purpose as the Agrostis stolonifera.

The common name : Rhode Island Bent indicates American origin,
although the variety is really a native of Europe. In America it
is nowadays very difficult to find true canina, the vulgaris or
ordinary Red-top being generally mistaken for it. Experienced
seedsmen, therefore, prefer to import their Rhode-Island Bent
direct from Europe where stocks are more dependable, or to use
and recommend where circumstances permit the superior variety
stolonifera. Agrostis canina is decidedly the inferior of the two
for lawn-purposes, in this respect, that its foliage is by a long way
of not so deep-green a shade as that of the first-described species,

43

which, therefore, gives a far nicer aspect to the lawn and makes
this latter more rccommendable for that purpose.

Alra rac*i»itoKH (Tuftt\i ILiir -grass). A tall meadow-grass,
growing from 40 to 50 inches, forming wide tufts and found on
marshy, boggy soils. It is of no agricultural value and must, there-
fore, be considered more like a weed-grass, as it has the bad habit
of spreading in soils described above very rashly indeed, pushing
a\\av and taking the place of the more valuable varieties, which
are not such vigorous growers. It should, therefore, never be used
in pasture-mixtures.

It is being used as a component in cheap lawn-mixtures to which
not too great exigencies are being put. However, even there, it
should not be used. The fact, that it is too high-growing a variety
with far from narrow leaves, makes it less suitable for that pur-
pose. Only the fact of its being a cheap grass, could therefore be
an argument for its use. But even this cannot be called a sound
argument, since there are other varieties answering the purpose
better which are not dearer.

Airai UOXIIONU lU'iirv Mountain Hair-grass). Another variety
of no agricultural value, occurring in woods, especially fir-woods,
and producing plants of from 20 to 25 inches in height. It is of
a tuft-forming character, not rich in foliage, but as its blades are
rather narrow, it comes in handy for cheap lawn-mixtures. It
should, however, not be used in too large a proportion and by
preference under trees only. The stems tend to go yellowish very
soon after they have reached their full height, and the grass should
therefore be kept short to see the green shade maintained.

in us pruteusis (Meadow Foxtail-grass). One of the
most valuable varieties for permanent pasture. It is an even tuft-
forming upper-grass, growing from 35 to 45 inches, of great
nutritive value and well-liked by all sorts of stock. It requires a
soil, b\ preference heavy clay; is seen most of all on the
slopes of ditches and prefers such tracts of land, bordering on
rivers, which, during winter-time overflow their banks, inundate
the neighboring fields and leave there their fertile deposits.

it is one of the earliest varieties, producing abundant foliage,
and as it develops very quickly indeed, it produces a good quantity
of grass at a time when the majority of the other grasses are

44

only just giving a sign of vegetation, therefore at a time when
practically nothing in the pasture-lands is there as yet for the
cattle to graze on. Apart from the fact, that all sorts of stock are
very fond of it, it is also for that reason one of the most useful
and valuable varieties and should, therefore, be used in a fair
proportion in mixtures for permanent pasture, where the soil is
fit for it.

It does not thrive so well on lighter soils, though we have
witnessed several such lands, where the plants once being there,
maintained their presence very well indeed. We ascribe this mainly
to the combined causes of a moist atmosphere with frequent rain-
falls, the system of strongly manuring the pasture and of only
using it for grazing, not for hay-making purposes. Treated that
way, such lands receive sufficient assistence, to enable the Foxtail-
plants to thrive on them and maintain their presence there.

Aiumophila arnndinacea (Sea-reed grass). A tuft-forming
grass growing from 40 tot 50 inches, with a rather hard stem and
a great many broad bottom-leaves. Scarcely of any agricultural or
nutritive value, it is found on sandy sea-shores and dunes only.
It is being used for sowing sandy regions and sandy hills near
the sea-side and similar tracts of land, with no other purpose than
to bind the soil together to prevent same from sliding away, its
chief characteristic being that of making exceptionally deep roots,
very often as deep as 4 yards, thus being a good means for bin-
ding such loose soils together and giving some firmness to them.

\nHio\aiilliiiiii otloratiim (Sweet-scented Vernal, true peren-
nial variety). The most early grass in the pasture-lands. It grows
from 20 to 25 inches in rather even tufts, and as it has the habit
even there where it predominates to make a thickly-covered turf,
shooting forth an abundance of stems, it gives a fair quantity of
bottom to the hay, if the field is destined for the purpose of hay-
making.

It is indispensible in meadows for grazing purposes, as at the
moment when first the cattle are brought on the fields early in
spring when, generally speaking, there is a shortness of grass,
the later varieties not yet having started to develop, this variety
is there and provides the first young fodder for the cattle. It
thrives both on heavy and lighter, even on sandy soils and, if the
latter be well-manured, even luxuriantly there.

45

As the name indicates, it is noted for its nice smell which, if
the variety is in bloom and occurs in the field in a somewhat
large proportion, is scented to a considerable distance. It is also
this variety, which more than any other gives that nice smell to
the newly made hay, if the hay-crop has been saved in good
condition. It produces a fair quantity of foliage, the blades, given
the shortness of the stems, being rather broad-shaped.

As for the agricultural value, the opinions on it are more or
less divided. It is given out that, though its nutritive value cannot
be doubted, it is not much cared for by the cattle on account of
its somewhat bitter taste. Our own experience of several years,
however, tells us quite a different tale. If we say, that the hay
mowed from fields, composed of practically nothing but Sweet-
Vernal, after the seeds have been saved from same, therefore at
a time when the plants have become rather hard indeed and when
the best part of the nutritive value is out of them, is taken up
by the cattle with no sign of dislike, it stands to reason, that there
can be no question of aversion, if the cattle can graze on it when
the grass is in its most suitable feeding-state, i. e. either before
or during the flowering-time and in connection with other grasses;
or, when speaking of the hay, if such has been mown in good
time and also in connection with other grasses, which as a rule
form the bulk in the fields.

In our opinion, therefore, it should not be left out of the mix-
tures for permanent pastures; but a fair, not too large a propor-
tion, should always be put in.

A ill ho van I hum odoratum. Puelli (Sweet-Vernal, Puelli).
Though the seed of this plant has a striking resemblance to that
of the true Sweet-Vernal, yet they are two entirely distinct
species. The Puelli is of not the least agricultural value. It is an
annual, short-growing and poorly-leaved plant; it occurs as a weed-
grass only in rye-fields on sandy soils. It is never being grown as
a crop, but the seed together with the chaff and foreign matter,
is being sifted out of the rye-crops. It should not be used in
mixtures for permanent pasture, but might find at best a use for
cheap lawn-mixtures and then only along with perennial varieties,
as it is bound to disappear, if (as is generally the case with lawns)
it is regularly being mown and has consequently no opportunity
of sowing itself again by the ripened seeds falling off on the soil.

46

ATeiia elatior (Tall Oat-grass). A valuable grass, growing from
40 to 50 inches high with abundant broad leaves, liked by all sorts
of stock when the plants are young. It grows on both heavy and
lighter not, however, on marshy soil ; it is a middle-early grass
and a quick grower. If sown early in spring, it produces very often
spikes the same year and is therefore strongly to be recommended
for such pastures that are destined for a short lay only. As,
however, after a few years it looses its force and is being crowded
out by some of the other, stronger varieties, a small proportion
only should be put in mixtures for permanent pasture. In the
southern latitudes in Europe as well as in America it is, however,
used much for grazing and hay and is considered there one of the
most valuable of all the Natural Grasses. The fact, that it likes a
warm, dry climate is doubtless the reason why it seems to be
better in its place there than in the northern latitudes.

Like several . of the tall-growing grasses, it has a tendency of
going rather hard and strawy towards maturity. As soon as this
stage is reached, it is no longer cared for, but left alone by the
cattle and has lost a great deal of its nutritive value. If, therefore,
it is to serve for hay-making, a farmer should cut his fields, where
this variety happens to be predominant, when the plants are in
bloom. He won't loose much in bulk by doing so, but he will
preserve at any rate the nutritive value of it.

A vena flavcsceiiN (Yellow Oat-grass, true). A very valuable
bottom-grass of great nutritive value, growing in even tufts, 20 to
25 inches high, useful both for grazing and mowing-purposes and
very much liked by all sorts of stock. It grows, with exception of
the extreme wet and sandy districts, on all sorts of soil, is a
middle-timed under-grass, and as it produces an abundance of
both stems and foliage, it is one of those bottom-grasses, which
largely increase the bulk and value of the hay.

If sown in the most suitable sorts of soil, it thrives and spreads
very freely indeed, so tiiat a small proportion only is required
in a mixture for permanent pasture.

Hi OIIUIN arvensis (Field Bromegrass). A tuft-forming, 25 to
35 inches high growing mid-season upper-grass, producing a fair
quantity of fodder both, for grazing and hay-making purposes of,
however, like all the Bromus-varieties, no great nutritive value and
not so well-liked by cattle; horses only do not so much object to

47

It thrives both on heavy and poorer soils and has, also like all
the family, the bad habit of forming great clusters of roots moving
in every direction and producing there new shoots everywhere,
thus easily pushing away all other varieties. As long as the varieties,
thus subdued and wiped out, are of inferior agricultural and nutritive
value, it won't do much harm. However, where it destroys the better,
far more valuable varieties, it might be a point of consideration,
whether at-all it should be put in mixtures for permanent pasture.
Our advice would be to use it only in such mixtures that are
destined to create permanent pasture on lighter, poorer soils, where
the other better grasses stand a poor chance only to thrive.

Bromiis erectus or pratensis (Meadow Bromegrass). A tall
35 to 40 inches high growing grass, forming even tufts, and produc-
ing an average quantity of foliage and stems of no great nutritive
value. It thrives on light soils, especially on those poor in chalk,
where other grasses would not do. It tends to go rather hard if,
in the case of hay-making, it is not being cut in due time, i.e.
either before or when the plants are flowering early in June.

On account of its rather limited value, it should be used on
lighter, sandy soils only with the aim of getting the largest
possible yield of an average fodder there where nothing better can
be obtained.

As practically all sorts of stock are not fond of it, this seed
should not be used in mixtures destined for good soils, as there
it would, on account of its tendency to spread and crowd out
everything else, soon push away the far better, more valuable
grasses.

It ro in us inermis (Awnless Bromegrass or Hungarian Fodder]
A tall 30 to 40 inches high growing and subterraneously creeping
grass. It flowers about middle of June and produces an abundance
of stalks and foliage. The former, however, tend to go hard very
soon indeed and the plants are, therefore, not so well-liked by cattle.
It is horses only, that care for it and eat it eagerly. If destined
for hay-making, it should be cut before flowering-time as, otherwise,
it goes too hard.

It does not require a heavy, good soil, but thrives there where
the better, more valuable varieties would not do well. The nutri-
tive value is rather under average and, though we consider it the
best of the Bromws-varieties, it belongs therefore to the second

48

grade grasses only. It should consequently be used only in mix-
tures for poorer land and not be put in there where the purpose
in view is, to create permanent pasture-land on good, heavy soil.
Seedsmen and farmers should even be warned from putting this
variety in such mixtures as, owing to its capacity of strongly
shooting forth its roots in all directions and to long distances, it
has the bad tendency of pushing away every variety, good or bad,
but most of all the good-ones, which come in its way, so that
where it is itself a strong variety of, however, inferior value, it
would soon reduce the field which, without it, would surely show
a magnificent and valuable pasture-land.

Bromus mollis (Soft Brome- or Goose-grass). A partly tuft-
forming and partly creeping grass, growing from 25 to 40 inches
high with a rather woolen-like stem and similar broad leaves,
yielding a large bulk of either grass or hay. It is a grass of very
little value, which should only be sown in very poor soils where
the better, more valuable varieties won't thrive, just to get at least
something from that land.

It should never be put in mixtures destined for laying down
permanent pasture on good soil, as it would work there as a mere
weed. It thrives very rapidly indeed and pushes easily away every
good variety that comes in its way, so that it reduces in a very
short time the value of an originally good field, once it gets a
footing there.

The cattle won't touch it as long as they can find only a small
bit of an other, better grass. Similar to Bromus pratensis and
inermis, it is horses only that do not so much object to it, although
these also do look for better and leave it alone, if they can find
something suiting their tastes better.

Bromus Schraderi (Prairie-grass). A tall-growing, broad-leaved
grass, rather hard, making deep roots and not a useful species for
permanent pasture. As the name indicates already, it is a prairie-
grass and finds its use, therefore, mainly in rather rough-lying
districts of not exactly arable land, to make the best of it and
have at least something there in the shape of green fodder, where
for various reasons one could not think of laying down a regular
permanent pasture. Though of no great merit, it has at any rate
a certain nutritive value and is a fairly good grazing fodder for
horses; but it is rather too hard for cattle. Sown in rougher districts

49

it has, moreover, the advantage of giving same a less barren, more
homely aspect.

Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail). One of the most
useful under-grasses for permanent pasture, not so much on
account of a great productivity, but especially for its exceptionally
great nutritive value. It is a tuft-forming grass growing 20 to 25
inches high with rather narrow blades; it prefers a heavy moist
soil, and though the cattle only eat the stems when young and
leave the fullgrown-ones which tend to go wiry untouched, they
graze off the blades with eagerness.

It is one of the later varieties, and if it has its right weather,
it may been seen profusely in all the better meadows of Holland
and other European countries, which meadows derive their greater
value in the first place from the multituduous presence of its
plants. It does not like the lighter soils so well, but is even seen
there in abundance in wet seasons with heavy rainfalls and alter-
nate sunshine. It should therefore be used without fail in every
mixture for permanent pasture on heavy and middling, but not
too light or dry a soil, as it materially improves the crops, both
for haymaking and grazing purposes.

But not only for pastures is it a useful grass, it is likewise the
most splendid plant for fine lawns and pleasure-grounds^ so much
so even, that wherever a seedsman can get his customers to pay
for it the price which the article usually commands, there would
be nothing against its being used either entirely or in majority in
a mixture for that purpose. Its deep-green, very narrow blades
and its dwarf growth render it the most appropriate grass for
lawns.

American authorities while endorsing these views of C y n o-
surus cristatus go further in recommanding it for hilly
situations as its roots penetrate deeply and the plant, therefore,
stands severe droughts very well. Another great advantage in
American practice is the colour which is the same as that of
Poa pratensis, the latter grass being used in America where
the British would use Lolium perenne and in similar impor-
tant proportion as the admixture to Cynosurus cristatus,
which latter is rarely, if ever, used entirely alone there, but mostly
in mixtures with other grasses for lawns and permanent pastures.

Dactylis glomerata (Rough Cocksfoot or Orchard-grass). A

4

50

tall 35 to 45 inches high growing, large tufts and deep roots forming
grass with an abundance of rather broad leaves and of great agricul-
tural and nutritive value. Of the 5 most valuable upper-grasses for
permanent pasture, viz Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow
Foxtail), Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass), Festuca elatior
(Tall Fescue^, Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue) and
Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass), the latter is considered
by the majority of the experienced seedsmen and farmers to deserve
the first place, so that in composing their mixtures, it carries the
greatest proportion of these upper-grasses in such mixtures.

It certainly deserves a foremost place there on account not only
of its great productivity and great agricultural and nutritive value,
but also for this reason, that of the 5 varieties named above, it
is the one which better than any of them thrives well in nearly
all sorts of climates and soils. In that respect it leaves far behind
it every-one of them. Place it in a heavy-clay, or in a light-sandy;
in a moist or in a dry soil, or even on the slopes of railway- or
other embankments, it will thrive in either of them. It dislikes
marshy tracts of land only. Yet, we think, it should be treated a
bit circumspectly!

As said before, it is a grass of great nutritive value and of great
productiviness, but its stalk has a tendency of going rather hard
at maturity. For that reason, meadows which contain a large pro-
portion of it should be stocked well, if they serve for grazing-
purposes; or they should be mown early, not later than when the
plants are flowering, if destined for hay-making. In the first case,
the greater number of stock will keep the grass short and be
compelled to eat the stalks when these are young and tender, thus
preventing same from shooting forth too robustly and going hard;
and in the second place the early cutting, although producing less
in quantity, will have the effect of turning into hay the grass,
which till then has all the softness and tenderness that can rea-
sonably be desired. Moreover, although the bulk may be somewhat
less then, the greater nutritive value the hay contains when mown
early, will easily make up for the smaller quantity. It is this habit
of rather rough-growing and becoming too hard, which keeps many
farmers and seedsmen from composing their mixtures of it in too
great a proportion, and makes them feel more for Festuca
pratensis (Meadow Fescue) and Festuca elatior (Tall
Fescue), which varieties are not so much subject to that habit.
This is, of course, a question of personal appreciation. But this

51

drawback, which such farmers and seedsmen dwell on so much, can
be greatly reduced or taken away by following the hints given above.

It is also a useful grass for 2 or 3 years' lay in connection with
Ryegrasses, Timothy and Clovers. Except a very few spikes, which
may occasionally be seen, it does not produce many stalks the
first year. But it does give at any rate a fair quantity of foliage.
It is the Ryegrasses, Timothy and Clovers which
predominate then. The second year, however, it gets its full force,
and the plants may then be seen in profusion in the field, where
the Ryegrasses have been greatly reduced and the Clovers are
likewise fewer then.

For such a short duration it, however, causes this inconvenience
to the farmer who, after the second or third year desires to plough
the field up again, that it will cost him a good deal of labour to
turn the same into good condition again, the plants having by
then made very strong, deep-going clusters of roots, which require
some intense labour to be cut to pieces and destroyed.

This grass is a great favorite in the United States both for hay
and pasture. It has been found quite hardy and does well every-
where. It flowers with Red clover and is generally used in that
conjunction. As said before, much care is necessary to cut just
before maturity to get the best of the sweetness of the plant either
dry or cured. It has been found to stand constant cropping better
than any other of the recognized pasture-grasses. Farmers and
seedsmen have to thank Henderson and Crozier to a great extent
for enlightening them on the merits of this grass during the past
twenty years.

It is entirely unsuited for lawns, however, on account of its
broad leaves and its coarse, tufty habit.

Festuca duri uscula (Hard Fescue). A sub-variety of F e s t u c a
o v i n a (Sheep's Fescue) and a 20 to 25 inches high growing, small
even tuft-forming grass with narrow blades and still finer bottom-
leaves of a deep-green colour. It is being chiefly used as a lawn-
grass and forms, on account of its cheapness, as a rule, the bulk
in mixtures for that purpose. It thrives on both middling and
lighter soils and is, as will be clear from the foregoing, a very
useful grass for lawns, especially on such soils where the more
valuable varieties, like Cynosurus cristatus (Creded Dogstail)
would do well only with a satisfactory rainfall, a thing of which
one is seldom sure.

52

In fact, we know of lawns on such sorts of soil, which consist
almost entirely of Hard Fescue and have been lying for several
years, that rank even now amongst the finest we ever saw. This
does not imply, of course, that the plant would do so well on
every such soil and under every condition and that it would be
adviseable to sow this variety by itself or nearly so. But there is
nothing against its being used very freely in lawn-mixtures destined
for lighter or sandy soils.

Festnca elatior (Tall Fescue). A tall 35 to 45 inches high
growing large tuft-forming grass, producing an abundance of broad
leaves and a plant of great agricultural and nutritive value. It
thrives on rich, especially on such heavy clay soils that border
on rivers which during winter-time leave their fertile deposits on
such lands. It produces there exceptionally big crops of splendid
fodder, relished by all sorts of stock. There are many such mea-
dows in Holland where the Tall Fescue forms by far the
majority of the grass-plants present, and they are none the less
valuable for it; for, experience has taught, that there we have one
of the heaviest fattest sorts of cattle and the best dairy* cows that
give, together with the largest quantity, the best finest-flavored
milk, richest in cream.

Also for hay-making it is one of the most valuable grasses,
both for bulk and nutritive value. It should, however, be borne in
mind, that like every tall-growing grass, it tends to go hard towards
maturity, and that it should therefore be cut in due time to
preserve its softness and tenderness. It ressembles much the
Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass) in that respect, except
that it grows a bit taller, and goes a little less hard than that
variety. If, however, the Orchard-grass is being mown in due time,
it cannot fail, that the Tall Fescue has its right time also, as it
comes to maturity about a week later even.

It is, therefore, to be considered one of the very best grasses
which should be used in a fair proportion in pasture mixtures for
good heavy and moist, though not marshy soils.

Festuca heterophylla (Various-leaved Fescue). An even
tuft-forming, 25 to 30 inches high growing under-grass with very
narrow blades and even finer brush-like bottom-leaves. It thrives
on lighter soils, especially in a wild state; prefers the open spots
in woods and the outskirts of these and likes the warmer regions.

53

It remains both, as regards yield and nutritive value, below average
and is therefore from an agricultural point of view a grass of
secondary importance only, which may profitably be used in pasture-
mixtures destined for light warm soils, especially there where the
better, heavy soil requiring under-grasses either would not thrive
or stand a poor chance only.

It is on the other hand a very good grass for lawns, for which
its fine, brush-like bottom-leaves make it exceedingly fit. For that
purpose it is even superior to the Festuca duriuscula
(Hard Fescue), but comes as a rule a good deal dearer than that
variety.

Festiica oviiia (Sheep's Fescue). A 20 to 25 inches high grow-
ing, even tuft-forming grass with both very few small bottom-
and stalk-foliage. It grows on both middling and light sandy soils,
though the latter are its places "par excellence". It is middle-
timt;d as far as maturity is concerned, and is both in regard to
yield and nutritive value, a secondary grass only. As the name
indicates, it is the grass for sheep-pastures, that is to say, on
light sandy soils there, where the better, more valuable grasses
have either little or no chance to thrive. The reason why it is
both named and considered the "Sheep's" grass is based on the
fact, that in such regions as are either for lightness of soil or
lack of sufficient rainfall, or for both, not so well adapted for
permanent pasture and unsuitable for cattle to graze on, this
grass will do very well indeed when sown in connection with
Anthyllis Vulneraria (Kidney Vetch), to send sheep
on which, as is generally known, can feed sufficiently and fatten
even there, where cattle would almost be starving.

It should be borne in mind, that more than any other short-
growing grass, Sheep's Fescue tends to go hard and strawy
very soon and that, if a field of Sheep's Fescue alone, or
of Sheep's Fescue and Kidney Vetch combined, were
destined for hay-making, it should be mown either before or at
least not later than when the plants are in bloom.

A certain percentage of Sheep's Fescue is very often being
put also in mixtures for permanent pasture on good heavy soil.
There is, however, very little sense in doing so, as there are
several other more valuable and heavier yielding varieties that
can be used to far greater advantage on such soil. We ascribe the
use of it in such mixtures more to the desire of the composer

54

to reduce the cost-price of same, the Sheep's Fescue being,
as a rule, one of the cheapest varieties of the Natural Grasses.

Festuca oviiia aiigustifolia or tenuifolia (Fine-leaved
Sheep's Fescue). A short 15 to 20 inches high growing, small
tuft-forming grass with very few stem-leaves but a larger number
of brush-like bottom-foliage. It is found especially in fir-woods
and alongside the roads bordering on such woods; furthermore,
on tracts of land, formerly fir-woods, the trees of which have come
down a short while before and the soil of which has been ploughed
up. It has no agricultural value, except that the sheep, which
happen to pass through such woods or along such roads, are
inclined to graze on it whilst moving onward.

It is, however, being used in a fair proportion as a lawn-grass
in mixtures for fine lawns. In such a case, owing to the fact, that
it is far cheaper, as a rule, than Crested Dogstail it is very often
used in equal proportions, sometimes even, especially in years
when the latter is high in price and the soil to be sown is a
lighter sandy-one, in a greater proportion than the Crested Dogstail.
Its fine, deep-green and hair-like leaves make it well-adapted for
that purpose.

Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue). One of the best upper-
grasses for permanent pasture. It grows in even tufts of from 35
to 40 inches, matures second part of July and yields an abundance
of fodder of great nutritive value, much liked by all sorts of
stock. It likes both heavy and middling well-manured, though not
marshy soils. It does not thrive so well on lighter situations. It
answers both purposes, that of grazing and that of haymaking very
well indeed and is the equal of Orchard-grass with which it
forms the bulk in mixtures destined for permanent pasture, the
inferior of which it is only in regard to yield, but the superior of
which, in our opinion, it is in regard to quality of both grass and
hay. Its superiority, in our opinion at least, is mainly this, that it
is by a long way not so coarse a grass and that it keeps its
softness and tenderness of plant far better than Orchard-grass;
that the cattle continue grazing on it much longer than on the
last named variety. It develops somewhat more slowly in the field,
and if a pasture of say 2 years' lay only were to be laid down, it
would not be so well in its place there, as it would only just have
reached its full force, when the time would have arrived for its

55

being ploughed under again. It will do better in permanent pasture
or in a temporary pasture of no shorter duration than say 3 years,
by which time it will have acquired its full development. But it is
surely needless to say, that for permanent pasture it answers the
purpose best of all.

It is here the place to draw the attention of both seedsman and
farmer to the fact, that it makes an enormous difference of which
origin the Meadow Fescue-seed is he uses for his mixtures-
American seed may be a clean heavy seed of high growth, yet as
regards produce it is by far the inferior of the European (Rhenish)-
grown seed. Not only that the former does not produce so great
a quantity of hay as the latter (in many cases not one half of it),
but both stalks and leaves, produced by American-grown seed, have
the bad tendency to go rusty and hard very soon. In that state
the plants are seldom touched by the cattle. Both seedsman and
farmer should therefore see, they get Rhenish-grown seed, if it is
possible to procure same, even if they cannot get so high a purity
and growth as the American-grown seed usually possesses, and
even if they have to pay a good deal more for it.

Festuca rubra (Red- or Creeping Fescue). A partly creeping partly
tuft-forming, about 25 to 30 inches high growing bottom-grass with
narrow and not too many blades, useful for both grazing- and hay-
making purposes; it does not give a big crop of either grass or
hay, but has this advantage that, wherever once settled down, it
remains there easily, as it does not put great demands to either
soil, manure or circumstances of the weather. It thrives on all
sorts of soil, even on dry sandy bottoms and forms a rather
thickly-covered turf, leaving very little room for weeds to come
through. It does, however, not belong to the varieties of the greatest
agricultural and nutritive value and remains in that respect under
average. But it is at any rate very useful from this point of view,
that it gives a good deal of bottom and that it covers thickly the
place where it occurs, filling up splendidly the little spots left
bare by the large tuft-forming varieties. It is, moreover, one of
the earliest grasses, so that it comes to the front at a time, when
the young fodder is most looked for. It should be used in a small
proportion in mixtures for permanent pastures on heavy soils,
which proportion might be increased to double its quantity on
lighter dittos.

It is also being used in mixtures for fine lawns; its deep-green,

56

very narrow blades making it a very useful grass for that purpose ;
and as it is usually being quoted at a reasonable price, it comes
in very handy for that purpose. It is also valuable for shady places
in lawns and has been found to do well under the shade of pine-
trees. The Agricultural Department at Washington recommends it
especially in the latter connection.

Holcus lanatus (Woolen Soft-grass). A big tuft-forming 25 to
30 inches high growing grass with rather broad and abundant
foliage. Though the bulk be a voluminous-one, there is, however,
very little weight in it. Both as grass and hay there is little agri-
cultural value in this variety, which is not at-all liked by cattle.
This, it is assumed, is not only due to its being so little nutritious,
but also to the fact, that both stalk and blades being rather hairy,
which gives to the plant an appearance and feeling of a velvet-like
nature, does not suit so well the taste of the cattle, so that wher-
ever it occurs in meadows, where other valuable grasses are found
in sufficient quantity, its large tufts may be seen, both stalks and
abundance of foliage, untouched by the cattle.

It may in good meadows on heavy soils even be considered a
"wmf'-grass. For not only is it being rejected there by all sorts
of stock, but owing to its bad habit of spreading exceptionally fast
in all directions, it pushes away in a very short time every other
good grass which comes in its way, so that once it has set foot
in such a meadow, it will soon have superseded all the other good
grasses and form the majority of plants in that meadow, much to
the detriment of its agricultural value.

It is for that reason, that the better class of both seedsmen and
farmers never put the variety in their mixtures and that they go
so far as to reject even samples of other varieties, if they find
such samples to contain a few odd grains of Holcus lanatus
harvested with same and not taken out, as they won't suffer this
plant to come into their grounds.

Holcus lanatus may be used for pastures only, either
permanent or temporary, on light-sandy or marshy soils, where
scarcely any of the more valuable varieties will thrive.

It is also much objected to in lawns on account of its broad,
pale-colored leaves and its high-tuft-forming- habit, both of which
characteristics make a lawn look far from nice.

Phalaris arimdinacea (Reed Canary-grass). A tall as high

57

as 80 inches growing water-grass, thriving in brooks, ditches, ponds
and marshy tracts of land. A permanent pasture might easily do
without it, and yet its presence in the ditches surrounding a pasture
gives some aspect of completeness to it. Moreover, it is a grass
of good nutritive value. When mown and cut to short pieces, it
is in its green state when mixed with say oats a magnificent
fodder for horses which eat it with eagerness.

Phleiim pratense (Timothy or Cat's-tail). One of the most
universally known and cultivated grasses, growing from 25 to 40
inches and found on nearly all sorts of soil. It is more than any
other a magnicifent grass in cold moist soils, where other grasses
that require a warmer ditto would either not, or at any rate, only
poorly thrive. It is, moreover, on account of the cheapness of its
seed, a splendid grass for poor regions where farmers cannot or
are not inclined to have a great outlay of money tot create a
permanent pasture composed of the dearer, more valuable grasses,
which perhaps might even not succeed on their lands to make
good their costs.

It grows in even tufts and produces a fair quantity of both
stalks and foliage of average nutritive value.

We would, however, recommend it to be used especially as
fodder in its green state, as it tends to go hard, even if cut
before it is in bloom. More than of any other of the tall-growing
grasses, this is a drawback of Timothy if it goes for hay-making.

It is for that reason, that we would not advise it to be used in
permanent pasture mixtures. It is better in its place place there,
where it is being used in connection with clovers. Timothy, namely,
being a rather late variety will, of course, be young and tender
yet, when the first cut of the clovers is being taken, and it does
not push again so quickly as to be liable to become hard at the
second cut.

As, furthermore, it is a quickly developping plant and, if sown
in spring, produces spikes already that same year, it answers the
purpose of sowing in connection with clovers very well indeed.

It might be sown also separately and in this case, where a
farmer has a better view of it than if sown in connection with
other grasses or clovers, he will sooner come to mowing it early,
if he discerns, that his field is shooting up too rashly and too
high, and if he knows, that such is detrimental to the quality of
the hay.

58

And in case it might, against his intentions, have advanced too
far already before he perceives such, he might use it yet as fodder
for his horses, which do not object so much to that sort of hay
as cattle do.

Poa aiiniia (Annual Meadow-grass). A very short, fine tuft-
forming 5 to 10 inches high growing grass, springing up wild on
tracts of land which are a while out of cultivation. It might be a useful
grass for lawns if it were a perennial and had not the bad habit
of turning yellow already a short while after it has made its
appearance. There is, therefore, no practical use for it, and the
seed of it is scarcely ever handled.

Poa aquatica (Water Meadow-grass). A tall 80 inches high
growing water-grass, thriving exactly and in the same places as
Phalaris arundinacea, and all we said about the habits and
merits of the latter, applies to this variety likewise.

Poa or Festuca fliiitans (Floating Fescue or Fowl Meadow-
grass). A grass serving for much the same purpose as the prece-
dent variety, except that it reaches a size of from 40 to 60 inches
only, and that instead of having it stems turned upwards as all
other grasses, it has same, through its weakness, heaviness
and long size of seed-head bent and floating on the surface of
the water in the ditches at the immediate side of which only this
plant will thrive. It is not at-all strange to see such ditches covered
all over with both stalks and foliage of this plant.

It is has a good agricultural value and is eagerly eaten by both
horses and cattle. But it stands to reason that, on account of the
way it grows, it contains a great percentage of water, reducing
the nutritive value of a certain quantity of hay in the same pro-
portion when saved.

Poa nemoralis (Wood Meadow-grass). A tuft-forming 15 to 20
inches high growing grass of a deep-green colour and with thin
stalks and fine narrow blades. It grows in woods only and by
preference under beech-trees, as it likes the shadowy places. It
is of no agricultural value, except that it helps to nourish the
game (hares and deer). Its great merits are those of serving as a
magnificent lawn-grass in shadowy places and under high-growing
trees rich in foliage, the fact being, that it is the only grass which

59

can stand the heavy drops that after a severe shower fall from
such trees. These big drops have quite weight and force enough
to kill every other variety of grass by laying bare the roots, thus
taking away from the plants the chance of living and thriving.
Hence the bare spots under trees, witnessed in nine cases out of
ten where Poa nemoralis does not occur, and which give an
aspect far from nice to the lawn. It is this variety only, which in
the struggle with these heavy drops has proved to be the stronger
of the two, and, if we repeat here what we said already, that it
has with this good characteristic at the same time a nice deep-
green shade and an exceptionally fine leaf and stalk, nobody will
wonder at being told, that there is a strong and increasing demand
for the seed of so valuable and for the creation of fine lawns so
indispensible a grass.

Poa prateiisis (Smooth-stalked Meadow- or Kentucky Blue-
grass}. A valuable under-grass for permanent pasture. It is a
creeping 25 to 30 inches high growing grass with a tender stalk
and producing a fair quantity of foliage of good agricultural and
average nutritive value. It is both good for grazing and hay-making
purposes, though for the latter with the alternate aim of grazing
the field, after mowing, off by cattle it does not answer that pur-
pose so well, the fact being, that after that cut has been taken,
it does not grow up quickly again that same season. It gives, there-
fore, almost its entire yield at mowing-time, and as it is one of
the earlier grasses, its thriving capacity is practically over early
in July. However, it gives a fair quantity of bottom-grass at the
first cut, and as a grazing-grass it is well-liked by all sorts of
stock. It grows on fairly good and lighter warm soils and can
stand drought very well indeed. It does not thrive so well on heavy,
moist soils; only in very dry summers it may be seen in profusion
there, if once it has its root-system there and the other, in average
years with alternate sunshine and rain predominating varieties
have no opportunity to show their usual luxury.

It should, therefore, be used in a fair proportion in mixtures for
permanent pasture on average and lighter soils. But it is not
adviseable to use it for pastures destined for 2 or 3 years' lay, as
it takes a few years before it is sufficiently developped.

It is also being used as a lawn-grass on lighter soils, for which
its creeping, spreading and thickly covered turf-forming capacity
makes it well adapted. And as it has a fine leaf, there is nothing

60

to be said against the use of it for that purpose, the less so, as
it is as a rule not too dear a seed.

Poa trivial!* (Rough-stalked Meadow-grass). Decidedly one of
the very best bottom-grasses in a meadow. It grows in rather even
tufts 25 to 35 inches high with narrow leaves and a tender stalk.
Though it does not produce a large bulk, it is none the less valuable
for it, as its great nutritive value makes easily up for what it
yields less in bulk than might be expected of it.

There is no doubt about it, that more than any other variety
it is well-liked by all sorts of stock; that it is most suitable for
dairy purposes, and that more than any other variety its presence
in the pasture, even in a limited quantity, tends to increase the
quantity and enrich the quality of the milk. In meadows forming
part of a dairy-farm, it is therefore a grass, the merits of which
cannot be too highly estimated.

It requires a heavy or average kind of soil, does not thrive on
lighter or sandy loams, except where these have been strongly
manured and in seasons with heavy rainfalls.

Also as bottom in hay it keeps up its good qualities very well
indeed and is in that state being fondly eaten by all sorts of stock,
especially by dairy cows.

We cannot, therefore, recommend highly enough the use of this
valuable grass in mixtures for permanent pasture on suitable soils.
On rich h ?avy soils it is by far the superior of its cousin Poa
pratensis, and the higher price it usually commands should
make no seedsman or farmer ever shrink back from using it
liberally in their permanent pasture mixtures.

l.olimii perenne, Lolium perenne, Paceys and L,olium
If alicuiii (Large- and Short-seeded Perennial and Italian Rye-
grasses). We consider these varieties, their use and value, both
agricultural and nutritive sufficiently known by the average seeds-
man and farmer so as not to require to be spoken of here lengthily
in so far as their characteristics and merits are concerned. We
wish, however, to repeat here what we said already, that both
Perennial and Italian Ryegrasses have hitherto been used too
much for purposes they are not fit for, i. e. for permanent pasture.

They may be used for a green-field of say one or two years'
lay, but they should not be looked upon as being the grasses for
permanent pasture. For one year's lay they answer the purpose

61

fully as they thrive very quickly and, if sown early in spring, can
easily be mown twice that same year; and if cut in due time,
they do produce a good fodder indeed.

If we were to make a choice between the two, both in regard
to produce and quality of either grass or hay, we would not hesitate
for a moment to give the preference to the Italian Ryegrass,
except in such a case, where the farmer is sure to let the field
stand over a second year. In that case we would let our choice
fall on the Perennial Ryegrass, as the former is not so strong as
to do the second year so well as the latter.

But for one year's lay only, we would decidedly prefer the
Italian Ryegrass, as we consider it less hard and wiry, and as we
got larger yields of it than of the other variety.

The Short-seeded Perennial, we think, every seedsman knows
well enough, finds its use for lawns only as the cheaper admixture
in compositions for that purpose and to promote an early green
turf. But if there is no great hurry with a lawn, and if the seedsman's
customer is inclined to pay a satisfactory price for it, we would
advise him to abstain from it as much as possible for this reason,
that the bottom-part of the stalks are rather reddish-colored. Now,
it is scarcely necessary to say, that lawns should be kept short,
if at-all they are to deserve the name of lawn. And it will certainly
be clear to anybody, that in such a case it is exactly that reddish-
colored part near the surface, which catches the eye and spoils
the look of the lawn, for which it is a condition, that it should
command a deep-green view.

We might also point to the fact, that it is not one of the finest-
leaved varieties, which fact also makes it a less desirable grass
for lawns, at least for fine lawns.

How To Lay Down Permanent Pastures.

If after all we have said in the foregoing part about the values
and merits of the various grasses, we are to make a brief resumption
of, and classify same as grasses of the greatest value and
importance, the use of which is to be highly recommended for
laying down permanent pastures with the intent of deriving the
very best results from a field; and of those of secondary import-

62

ance and value only, the use of which may be adviseable there
and in such cases where the purpose in view cannot reasonably be
expected to be reached with the more valuable varieties for various
reasons of soil, climate, etc.; and, finally, of those destined for lawns
and pleasure-grounds, we would make this classification as follows:

I. Very best grasses Tor permanent pasture on heavy
and good average soils:

Agrostis stolonifera (Creeping Bent-grass).

„ c a n i n a (Rhode-Island Bent-grass).

Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow Foxtail-grass).
Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass).

„ flavescens (Yellow Oat-grass, true).
Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true).
Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail-grass).
Dactylis glomerata (Cocksfoot or Orchard-grass).
Festuca elatior (Tall Meadow Fescue).

„ heterophylla (Various-leaved Fescue).

„ o v i n a (Sheep's Fescue).

„ pratensis (Meadow Fescue).

„ r u b r a (Red or Creeping Fescue).

Phleum pratense (Timothy or Cafs-tail-grass).
Poa pratensis (Smooth-stalked Meadow- or Kentucky Blue-
grass).
„ t r i v i a 1 i s (Rough-stalked Meadow-grass).

II. Varieties of secondary importance, i. e. grasses of
rather little agricultural value, and grasses of sufficient
such value, but which are useful only for certain limited
purposes :

Aira caespitosa (Tufted Hair-grass).
Ammophylla arundinacea (Sea-Reed).
Bromus arvensis (Field Brome-grass).

„ erectus or pratensis (Meadow Brome-grass).

„ i n e r m i s (Awnless Brome-grass).

„ m o 1 1 i s (Soft Brome-grass).

Holcus lanatus (Woolen Soft-grass).
Lolium Italicum (Italian Ryegrass).

„ perenne (Perennial Ryegrass).

Phalaris arundinacea (Reed Canary-grass).

63

Poa aquatica (Water Meadow-grass).
„ f 1 u i t a n s (Fowl Meadow-grass).

III. Grasses for fine I anas and pleasure-grounds:

Agrostis stolonifera (Creeping Bent-grass).
Anthoxairtum odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true) For
early growth.

Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail-grass).
Fes-tuca duriuscula (Hard Fescue).

„ heterophylla( Various-leaved Fescue).

„ ovina angustifolia (Fine-leaved Fescue).

„ r u b r a (Red or Creeping Fescue).

Poa nemoralis (Wood Meadow-grass). For under trees.

„ pratensis (Smooth-stalk Meadow-grass).
Lolium perenne, Paceys (Perennial Ryegrass, Paceys).
For quick effect.

IV. Grasses for lawns and pleasure-grounds of second-
ary value to be used for cheaper compositions as an
admixture to those varieties mentioned sub III:

Agrostis canina (Rhode-Island Bent-grass).
Aira flexuosa (Wavy Mountain Hair-grass).
Anthoxanthum odoratum, Puelli (Sweet- Vernal, Puelli}.

How to compose a mixture, i. e. in what proportions is not only
a question of both soil and climate, but also one of personal
appreciation, and to give a firm prescription for it is a difficult
task. However, from the foregoing, where we dealt on the value
and merits of each variety, we gave some useful hints in that
direction as to the importance and the greater or smaller proportion
in which they should be used in mixtures either for pasture or
lawn and for various soils.

An other question is how to sow them to derive the greatest
possible benefits and best results. And then we would say, that if
for pasture, the land should be well, intensely labored, so as to
make it as free as possible from weeds and fine and mouldy.

Next as regards the grass-seed mixture, it is adviseable to mix
the seeds thoroughly, so that each variety occurs in every part of
the mixture in equal proportion.

64

If a mixture of grasses and clovers is to be sown it is, moreover,
to be recommended to make two mixtures of it: one of the
grasses and another of the clovers and have them sown separately.
In this case Timothy (if at-all it is to occur in the mixture) might
be mixed with the clovers.

Making only one mixture of grasses and clovers combined, would
result in the heavier clover-seeds sinking to the bottom of the
sack, causing same to be sown too thickly in one place and not
sufficiently in another.

Then, as for sowing-time, spring (end of March or beginning of
April) is decidedly the best time. Sowing in autumn (August or
September) may under certain circumstances and conditions of
soil, climate and weather yield good results, the chance of success
is by a long way not so good as when sowing takes place in
spring. As a rule the weather in spring is, on account of its more
numerous and heavier rainfalls than in August or September more
favorable to the germination of the seeds and the development of
the young plants, and the latter will be far more advanced and
stronger to stand better the severity of early frosts when winter
comes on, than if sown in autumn.

Next, it is highly recommendable to sow the grass-seed mixture
not by itself, but along with another crop : Oats, Barley
Summer- and Winter- Rye etc., such in accordance with
the season when the sowing takes place.

Our own experience has taught us, that a crop of oats suits
the purpose best; the oats should, however, not be sown too
thickly, but only just thick enough, not to cause the young grass-
plants to suffer or even die away for lack of either light, air or
feeding, which might easily happen, if the oats have gone up too
luxuriantly.

Not only that by following this method the farmer will have
the first year a paying crop, but he will, furthermore, find a great
assistance in this crop to keep the weeds down, which in the
absence of an oats- crop, and in view of the fact that nearly all
grasses are rather slow in germinating and developping, will spring
up rapidly and cover the soil in a very short time, even preventing
the grasses from doing their work.

It is the quickly developping plants of the first crop like oats,
etc. which, though they cannot take away that evil entirely, will
nevertheless reduce it to a minimum.

65

On Some Other Useful Agricultural Plants

Other Than Grasses, But Often Sown In

Connection With These.

We mean to deal in this chapter on such agricultural plants
which have some affinity in purpose with the grasses and which
are being either separately grown and given as fodder to the cattle,
or cultivated in connection with grasses and served as a mixed fodder.

We consider most of the varieties we are to review, together
with their respective agricultural and nutritive values sufficiently
known to the average seedsman and farmer. It is, therefore, more
our intention, to give some useful hints as to their use in con-
nection with grasses, as it cannot fail, that a deeper knowledge
of that connection, based in the first place on practice, may assist
them to make a good choice amongst them, where it concerns to
make a mixture of the one and the other.

And then it is, of course, of great avail to know, which varieties
of agricultural plants and natural grasses go together well from this
treble point of view: 1) Similarity of growth, sowing-time and time of
maturity; 2) Affinity in regard to nutritive value and of the soil they
require; 3) Duration of each of them so as to coincide together.

There is f. i.

Achillea millefblium (Yarrow) which, when young, is a
splendid fodder, the merits of which are being recognised more
and more by those who have made experiments with it for a
successive number of years. It grows on nearly all sorts of soil,
except on too wet and marshy lands. It is, however, the lighter
sandy and dry clay-soils where it thrives best of all. Though it
requires moist weather when it starts to develop, it stands after
that a lasting drought fairly well and is not subject to suffer from
severe winter-weather. It develops rather early, flowers end of July
when it commences to become somewhat hard and is being left
alone by the cattle, except that they eat off as yet the fine not
too numerous foliage. Apart from the fact that it is of very good
nutritive value, there is something in it acting as a purifier and
working as a kind of medicine in the cattle's stomachs and as an
appetizer. In view of this as well as of the fact, that it is a good
fodder when young, it is a good thing to use it in a very small
proportion, say of not greater than 1 or 2% in mixtures for per-

5

66

manent pastures. It is not advisable to use more, firstly as it is
a very fine-grained seed producing numerous plants, and secondly
because, if in suitable, especially lighter drier soils, it tends to
spread fairly fast its subterraneously creeping roots, moving in
every direction and shooting forth upwards several new stalks,,
covering very soon a larger portion of the meadow than might be
considered advisable.

If in the field in a good proportion and if this field should be
destined for hay-making, the farmer should see it mown rather
early to prevent the stalks from becoming too hard. It may,
however, be stated here, that there is no great fear for that, the
Yarrow being a plant flowering an exceedingly long time and
maturing rather late indeed, so that in most cases a farmer will,
even without this hint before him, have mown his field before the
time when this plant is about to loose its tenderness.

Anthyllis vulneraria (Kidney Vetch). A good fodder for poor
sandy soils there where either Red- or White Clover won't
do. It is since the last century only, that greater attention has
been paid to this variety, and though no experienced farmer would
use it on good soil where the better varieties of clover do thrive, it
is an excellent plant for the poorer regions. As it is a biennial
the plant will die out after a couple of years, except in such cases
where it ripens and drops some of its seeds. Though like every
plant it is grateful for a certain quantity of manure, yet it does
not require much that way; for as it makes rather deep roots, it
extracts the necessary nutrition from the depths. It can stand both
a long period of drought and cold sharp winters very well indeed.
It is a middle-timed plant, supplying a good nutritive fodder between
the first and second cut of Red- and Alfalfa Clover. It
gives, as a rule, one cut only after which it thrives again, but not
to such an extent as to allow a second cut to be taken. Only if
mown quite early, the plants will shoot forth sufficiently high
again for such a purpose. But it is more advisable to mow it
somewhat later and have one cut only taken, and have whatever
springs up again grazed off by either sheep or cattle, or let it
grow up and have it ploughed under as green manure, if the field
is to lie no longer as such. It is an excellent thing for the latter
purpose, as more than any other plant the Kidney Vetch
leaves a large quantity of roots, etc in the soil which, when rotted,
are a splendid manure.

67

It may be used both as green fodder and as hay and is well-liked
by all sorts of stock, horses excepted, which don't seem so fond of
it. If destined for hay-making, it is advisable to handle the green
produce somewhat gently to avoid the loss of foliage which, as
the leaves are the longest size of all sorts of clover, would mean
the loss of a great portion of the very best part of the hay.

The best time and way to sow is early in spring and in connection
with either summer-rye or oats. The quantity of clover present on the
field after the rye or oats are off, is not exactly a large-one, and our
experience has taught us, that it is not advisable to have this mown
off, even, if it has had time to develop further, as the next year's
yield is sure to suffer from doing so and to give far less in bulk.

Better than having a field of Kidney Vetch single, is to
sow a mixture of it with grasses, in which case varieties like
Festuca ovina (Sheep's Fescue), Phleum pratense
(Timotly) and Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass) are the best
suited for the purpose.

Hecly&arum onobrycliis and foifera (Sainfoin double and
single). One of those agricultural plants which, whilst putting the
lowest demands to either kind of soil or manure, gives in exchange
the very best results, both in regard to yield and quality of produce.

It does not put a great demand to the soil. In fact, it grows on
the lightest soils holding a certain percentage of lime only, thriving
the better the greater that percentage is.

However, once the plants have got a sound footing in such
lighter soils, there is no fear they won't thrive well. In fact,
Sainfoin produces then and there a spledid crop of very good
fodder, and as it makes exceptionally deep roots, there is amongst
the clovers no variety which stands a lasting drought so well as
this plant. All sorts of stock like it both in the green state and as
hay. As hay it has this advantage over the various clovers, that it
is soon dry during the process of hay-making and does, therefore,
not loose so easily its manifold leaves; and where, as is the case
with all sorts of clovers, 100 Lbs of foliage do possess as great a
nutritive value as 200 Lbs of the remainder of the plant, very
often even more than that, it stands to reason, that it keeps up its
value in hay better than any other sort of clover, especially if these
are not being carefully handled during the process of hay-making.

As green fodder it can, however, not render such great services
as in the shape of hay. Not that it is not valuable enough in that

68

state: it is a very good fodder then also, especially for horses
which like it very much indeed. But it cannot render there such
good services for the reason, that it flowers too short a time,
about a week only, and becomes hard after this, so that a farmer
can cut it for green fodder during about a week only, from doing
which he is kept back very often if, in a busy time, his attention
is being attracted by some other, more important work, which
ought to be done.

Though the duration of a field of Sainfoin is considered to
be 3, 4 or 5 years; yet, if well-manured and helped that way, it
may under certain circumstances and conditions of both soil and
climate, easily reach 8 or 10 years. And here it must be stated,
that the Hedysarum bifera (single Sainfoin), though pro-
ducing less in quantity the first couple of years and though it
does not flower again the same season, whereas the Hedysa-
rum onobrychis (double S a i n f a i n) does, and consequently pro-
duces less in bulk after the first cut is off than the latter, it is
stronger in its capacity of maintaining itself than the double variety.

There is one thing more that requires attention in regard to
the cutting, viz this, that it is not advisable to mow1 the field
during a lasting wet period, the fact being, that with that sort of
weather the stubbles on the field tend to fill themselves easily
with water. In that state the plants are very much liable to rot
away and along with them the roots, thus causing larger or small-
er bare spots to present themselves.

As will be clear from the foregoing, it is the double Sainfoin
only which after the first cut has been taken, produces anything like
a second ditto. But the first cut of both varieties yields a fair bulk.

If grasses are to be sown along with Sainfoin we would, as
answering the purpose best, recommend Perennial and Italian
Ryegrasses, Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass), Dactylis glo-
m e r a t a (Orchard-grass) and Timothy.

Lotus corniculatus (Coarse-grained Bird's-foot Trefoil). An
excellent fodder for nearly all sorts of soil, except the very moist-
est and driest sand soils. Not only is it useful from a nutritive
point of view, but also from the fact, that of all the clovers it is
the one which lasts the longest. It is no exception to find it back
in fields 20 or 30 years after it has been sown, especially in good
soils which are being regularly and well-manured. It does not
produce that quantity which either Red- or Lucerne clover

69

will yield, but it can nevertheless be mown easily twice; on good
heavy well-manured land even three times, thus yielding after all
a fairly large bulk. It is a splendid fodder both in the green state
and as hay, and as it dries up rather rashly after it has been mown,
it is soon ready for the latter purpose. Great care must, however,
be bestowed on preparing the hay, as the plants easily drop their
leaves if handled roughly. All sorts of stock like it very much indeed.
It may be sown as a separate crop and then, doing so, in spring
with either Oats or Summer-rye. The plants will then be
there in a fair quantity already after the fore-crop will be off; some
of them will even flower that same autumn. But it will bring in its
first crop the next year; or, under certain less favorable circum-
stances and conditions of both soil and climate, the third year only.

It is a strong hardy plant, resisting easily the coldest winters
and the most unfavorable circumstances of the weather.

Whereas it may be grown as a separate crop, yet it is of greater
value if sown with either Red-, Lucerne- or Sand Lucerne-
clover as a mixed clover-field; or along with grasses either as
a temporary or a permanent pasture.

If for a temporary pasture, the best grasses for the purpose are
Perennial and Italian Ryegrasses, Avena elatior (Tall
Oat-grass), Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass), F e s t u c a
pratensis (Meadow Fescue), Phleum pratense (Timothy},
to which, if for moist soils, Festuca elatior (Tall Fescue)
may be added with great advantage.

If for permanent pasture, varieties like Anthoxanthum
odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true], Avena flavescens
( Yellow Oat-grass, true) , Cynosurus cristatus (Crested
Dogstail), Festuca ovina (Sheep's Fescue), Poa pratensis
and t r i v i a 1 i s (Smooth- and Rough-stalked Meadow-grass) should
again be joined to the former varieties of grasses.

Lotus \ illosis (Small-grained Bird's-foot Trefoil). Nearly all that
has been said of the former species applies to this variety. It is
just as hardy a plant and valuable a fodder growing in much
the same way, except that it requires a moist marshy soil. There
it thrives well and brings in a fair quantity of fodder. Both stalk
and leaves are somewhat more robust and larger, though the
latter are less numerous, but somewhat thicker than those of the
Lotus corniculatus, and the plant is in all its parts some-
what soft and woolly to the touch. It comes in a little later than

70

its cousin, and whereas the latter sometimes gives 3 cuts, Lotus
v i 1 1 o s i s never yields more than 2, so that in regard to product-
ivity, it is the inferior of the two. Cattle are very fond of it;
more so than horses or sheep.

Spring is the best sowing-time, and though it may be sown by
itself and as a separate crop, yet it is to be recommended to do
so with Oats or Summer-rye as a fore-crop, as it is not
until the second year it comes to its full development when it gives
a sufficient crop of its own. As, moreover, it has the habit of exten-
ding its roots in a creeping way and in every direction and turns
up its stalks at short distances, it stands to reason, that it spreads
easily and tends to increase the bulk soon after it starts to thrive.

Like the coarse-grained variety, however, Lotus villosis
finds its greatest use in connection with grasses for either temp-
orary or permanent pastures. In this case, attention should be
paid to the fact that, whereas Lotus villosis requires a soil
widely different from L. corniculatus, viz a marshy moist
soil instead of a lighter or heavier drier ditto, the accompanying
grasses should be such varieties as equally prefer a moist soil.
Next to the Ryegrasses, Perennial and Italian, we would
therefore recommend in a fair proportion Alopecurus pra-
te n s i s (Meadow Foxtail], Festuca elatior (Tall Fescue}.
and next Avena flavescens (Yellow Oat-grass, true),
Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true),
Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail), Festuca pra-
te n s i s (Meadow Fescue) and Poa trivialis (Rough-stalked
Meadow-grass).

Lupimis luteus (Yellow Lupin). This plant as well as the
blue-flowering variety has practically no other purpose except that
of either saving a seed-crop of it or, when the plants commence
to flower in June or July, having the field ploughed under as green
manure to serve for some autumn-sowing. In that case it is a
very good precedent to such an autumn-sowing of a field destined
for creating a pasture-land. It is, however, a plant for the lightier
sandy soils, where it thrives very well indeed and where it produces
an exceedingly large yield both for seed-saving and manuring. It
is sometimes, but very rarily, used as a green fodder for horses,
never for cattle, as these do not like it on account of its bitter
taste. Even horses are far from fond of it. Sown in spring the
Lupins shoot forth very rapidly and cover the field soon rather

71

thickly with high-going, broadly-extending plants making a good dis-
play so far as quantity is concerned. If destined for manuring, the
seed is as a rule sown somewhat later than for saving a seed-crop.

The difference between the Yellow and the Blue Lupins is
mainly this that, whereas the blue-flowering species grows some-
what taller, the yellow-flowering variety usually covers the field
more thickly, producing a more broadly-extending plant of not
quite so high a growth.

It is mainly the Yellow Lupins that are being used and
preferred on account of the larger quantity of green produce they
yield and the larger amount of manure dependent thereon that
will consequently be ploughed under. They should not be sown
on better heavy land ; first, as they would not answer the purpose
so well there; and next as there are several other more valuable
and suitable agricultural plants for such soils.

The Lupins are neither sown in connection with grasses or
clovers, nor with oats as a foregoing crop, but always form a crop
for themselves.

Medicago Itipulina (Yellow Trefoil). A good fodder on middl-
ing soils. Though it thrives well on heavy land, yet it has its place
especially on lighter sandy soils, where more valuable plants
would not bring in that bulk which might reasonably be expected
of them if sown on rich land. It is of fairly good nutritive value,
but as it is only an annual or biennial plant and does not
bring in a large bulk, it is not a variety that can be considered
as one to be used for a purpose involving a lengthy lay, or in such
cases where expectations for a large yield are being entertained.

On the other hand it is being very much used on account of the
cheapness of its seed and where a short lay is intended. It will
then bring in a sufficient yield and, when ploughed under, bring
into the soil some very good green manure for the next crop.

As Yellow Trefoil tends to grow in a creeping more than
in an erect way, there is a certain advantage in sowing it with
either some other kind of clover, Red or Lucerne on heavy, Sand
Lucerne, White- and Alsike clover on lighter soils, or with grasses
for either temporary or permanent pasture.

Growing side by side with either of these, it won't lie down so easily,
but be kept erect and increase and improve its yield and quality.

Trefoil can stand winter-frosts very well indeed and won't
easily suffer or die away from such a cause. It likes a warm

72

moist climate, but stands, nevertheless, a lasting drought fairly
well. As said before, it grows both on heavy and lighter soils,
even in marshy situations if not of the coldest kind. It does not
make deep roots, but extracts its nutrition from the surface which,
though it is not necessary that this be of the best, yet requires
to be sufficiently manured to get a satisfactory crop.

Sown in connection with grasses either for a short lay or for
permanent pasture, it is a very good plant indeed. For the latter
purpose, the Trefoil will disappear after a couple of years when
the pasture will be sufficiently covered by the grasses.

If for short lay, it is the Ryegrasses, perennial and Italian,
Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass), Dactylis glomerata
(Orchard-grass), Phleum pratense (Timothy) that should be
used. If for permanent pasture, Alopecurus pratensis
(Meadow Foxtail), Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet-scented
Vernal, true), Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail),
Festuca elatior and pratensis (Tall and Meadow Fescue),
Poa pratensis and t r i v i a 1 i s (Smooth- and Rough-stalked
Meadow-grass) that should be added to the former grasses.

The nutritive value of Trefoil surpasses that of any other
medium kind of clover, though, on the other hand it can be used
only for a short lay.

Mcdicago media (Sand Lucerne). A good fodder for lighter
sandy soils. In regard to nutritive value in no way the inferior of
the Medicago sativa (Ordinary Lucerne or Alfalfa). It is its
inferior only in regard to yield ; for it can scarcely be cut twice
the same season, whereas the ordinary Lucerne may be mown
three or four times. Neither is it so early as the ordinary Lucerne
which thrives and brings in a fair quantity very early in spring, whe-
reas the Sand-Lucerne gives its first cut second part of June only,
the second cut being, moreover, but a small-one. Though not growing
quite so high, it spreads out more broadly and makes consequently
a more thickly covered field than the ordinary Lucerne.

It has this advantage over its cousin, that it is stronger in
maintaining itself a lengthier time and is also less liable to either
suffer or die away through severe winters and sharp spring-frosts.

If no practical farmer would sow it where the ordinary Lucerne
has its right place and thrives well, i. e. on heavy rich soil, the
Sand-Lucerne is highly recommendable on lighter, not marshy
soils; on sand even, where the ordinary Lucerne would not thrive,

73

but die away soon; and he will use it there with great advantage
and success.

It is more useful for hay-making than the ordinary Lucerne as
it is far sooner dried and looses therefore less in weight and in
its best part: the foliage.

Sand-Lucerne may be sown either by itself, or in connection
with grasses. In both cases the best way is to have it sown in
spring with either oats or summer-rye as the first year's crop.
After the oats or summer-rye are off, there will be that same
season very little Sand-Lucerne on the field, not sufficient at any
rate to allow of its being grazed off or of getting anything in the
shape of a crop worth mentioning.

If grasses are to be sown along with the Sand-Lucerne, it is
Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass), Dactylis glomerata
(Orchard-grass), the Rye-grasses, perennial and Italian,
Festuca ovina (Sheep's Fescue), Festuca pratensis
(Meadow Fescue) and Phleum pratense (Timothy) that should
be used for that purpose.

Hcclicago saliva (Lucerne or Alfalfa^. If Red clover is the
most universal, widespread and important of all clovers, it may
be said without any exaggeration, that Lucerne or Alfalfa comes
next to it from an agricultural point of view. It is in no way
inferior to the Red clover in regard to nutritive value for which
it ranks amongst the foremost. It is the inferior of Red clover
only in yield at each mowing, but as it shoots forth after cutting
very rapidly again, it can easily be mown 3 or 4 times in a
favorable season and make good by its manifold mowings what it
gives less at each cutting.

Though cattle, if they have the choice of it, prefer Red clover
to Lucerne, it is on the other hand horses that give the preference
to Lucerne. But all of them eat it with eagerness. For dairy-
cattle, however, it is advisable, not to feed them on Lucerne alone,
but to give them some other fodder besides, as the feeding of
Lucerne ,,pure and simple" has a less favorable effect on both the
quality and flavour op the butter.

Lucerne has, furthermore, in its favour over Red clover its
longer duration. For, although it does not last as a rule so long
as is supposed to be the case : a duration of seven years, yet, on
suitable soil it shows a fairly covered field easily 5 or 6 years.

Lucerne requires a good heavy but not too moist a soil and

74

thrives best on land holding a fair percentage of lime. It does
not require much in the shape of stable-manure which, if over-
done, is even detrimental to its growth; but it is grateful for a
manuring with potash and phosphoric-acid.

As it makes exceptionally deep roots, sometimes as deep as 6
to 15 feet, it extracts both its nutrition and moisture from long
distances. It does not require, therefore, the surface of the land
to be of the best as long as it finds a good fertile soil below.
And it is for the same reason that, whilst it does not like too
much moisture, it can stand a lasting drought very well indeed.
The plants won't wither soon during a dry period; they may not
show signs of thriving then, but they won't die off, and whenever
there is a change of weather with some rainfall, the plants will
start up again at-once and display themselves luxuriantly.

Lucerne is better adapted for fodder in its green state than
as hay, as it drops more than any other variety its leaves during
the process of hay-making, thus causing the loss of the very best
part of the plant.

Now it makes a great difference what stock-seed is being used.
First of all, there is an enormous difference between ttfe produce
of American- and European-grown seed, so much so even, that
throughout our own country— Holland — it is being considered
quite a falsification if American-grown seed is sold for European-
grown, or if mixtures of the two are handled as genuine European-
grown seed. There is simply no comparing the one plant with
the other. Not only that the American plant's duration does not
surpass 2 or 3 years at best, so that it does not answer the pur-
pose of having a longer lay than a field of Red-clover, and
that consequently it is by far the inferior of the 5 or 6 years
lying plant of European origin. But the plant-itself is a rather
poor-one compared to that of European descent! Even the first
cut does not yield more than half the quantily yielded by the
latter, whereas the second cut is even less in that respect. Crops
produced by American seed in ^4/nm'ca-itself may be better, they
are worth practically nothing in Europe.

Amongst the European-grown seeds of Lucerne, viz: Pro-
vence, Middle- and North of France, Italian, Hungarian and
Russian, we consider the Provence and Italian seeds to be the
best; next we would prefer the North- and Middle of France and
Hungarian seeds, whilst the Russian seed is in our opinion, in
no way superior to the American.

75

Where all these seeds are being offered at almost equal prices,
or with a slight difference only, we would advise every seedsman
and farmer to procure the best seed he can get as intimated above.

As a rule Lucerne is grown with or without a fore-crop as
a separate field, which is usually sufficiently covered by these
plants alone, not to require any admixture. Yet it may just
as well and to advantage be sown in connection with grasses.
In this case we would advise, if for short lay, Ryegrasses,
perennial and Italian, Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-grass),
Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass) and Timothy, if for permanent
pasture, Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow Foxtail), Festuca
elatior (Tall Fescue), Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue),
Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail), Anthoxanthum
odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true), Avena flavescens
( Yellow Oat-grass, true) and Poa pratensis and t r i v i a 1 i s
(Smooth- and Rough-stalked Meadow-grass) might furthermore be
added to the previously mentioned varieties.

The five varieties named first might likewise be applied in cases
where after 2 or 3 years' lay a field of Lucerne should for reasons
not known show too many bare spots to have same eliminated.

Oriiithopus sativiis (Serradella). The main object of this plant
is decidedly that of serving as a green manure to be ploughed
under. It thrives on lighter sandy soils, and though it does not
shoot up high, it covers the field very thickly indeed. If sown by
itself without an upper crop the first cut might be used as green
fodder which, though it is no plant of great nutritive value, is
eaten with no objection by either cattle or horses. Or that first
cut might be dried to hay which is a fairly good fodder too. After
that and when the plants have grown up sufficiently again the
field might be ploughed under.

If sown in an Oats- or Summer-rye crop, the field might be grazed
after the Oats or Rye are off, or ploughed under after a while.

It is not a plant destined for a good heavy class of soil, where
several others would decidedly do better and yield greater benefits.

Serradella is never sown with grasses; its only connection
with these being that of serving as a green manure precedent to
the laying down of a pasture-land.

Spergiila arvensis and maxima (Ordinary and Giant-Spur ry).
Two capital things as green fodder, especially for dairy cattle at
a time when young green fodder is becoming somewhat scarce,

76

namely between the first and second cuts of the various clovers
and when the freshness of the first young grass is a bit worn off.
In most cases where a farmer has sufficient pasture-land for his
stock, he will divide same in several enclosures, in order to have
these not only grazed off clearly by his stock placed thereon; but
also to send them on another fresh enclosure which had not yet
been stocked. Doing so, the flock will find from time to time
entirely fresh young fodder, and the section grazed off will have
time and rest to be recovered with new grass and be fresh and
nice again when it is to be re-stocked.

Now, in such cases where a farmer has no superfluous pasture-
land giving him an opportunity of sending his stock from one
enclosure to another and is desirous of giving his pasture a
certain rest, s p u r r y comes in very handy indeed for dairy
cattle in regions consisting of lighter soils, where Red- and Lucerne
clovers won't do; the more so as it is a fodder of great nutritive
value and very much liked by all sorts of cattle which eat it with
eagerness in its green state. Especially for dairy cattle it is a
magnificent thing, as it is not only conducive to a large increase
of the quantity, but in a larger degree even to the improvement
of the milk, which is greatly enriched by it and obtains thereby
a very fine taste.

The butter also made of spurry-cream is noted for its nice
flavour, and certain farmers in Holland make it a specialty to feed
at the right time their cattle on spurry only and sell their butter
as spurry-butter, thus fetching a higher price for their produce
for the time being.

Sown in spring it makes its appearance very soon indeed and gives,
as said before, its yield between the first and second cuts of clover.

We would scarcely know which of the two varieties : S p e r g u 1 a
a r v e n s i s (Ordinary Spurry) orSpergula maxima (Giant-
Spurry) to recommend as the better of the two. It is true that
the G/a/rt-Spurry produces a far larger crop; but the greater nutri-
tive value of the Ordinary Spurry fully weighs out its deficiency
in bulk. And it is furthermore generally admitted, that the cattle
themselves do like the ordinary variety better than the taller-
growing species.

Spurry has no other connection with grasses except that it
serves as fodder in their place during periods where for reasons
explained above, the cattle cannot well feed on grasses. They are
never sown together.

77

Trifolium hybridum (Alsike Clover}. A splended plant and a
useful fodder, inferior to Red-clover only in this respect, that it
does not yield so large a bulk and that, if served separately, it is
on account of its somewhat bitter taste not eaten by cattle with
that greed as is the case with Red clover. It is superior to Red
clover in this respect, that it lasts 3 or 4 years or longer even;
that it does not put such a stringent demand to the kind or quality
of the soil; that, whereas Red clover does neither thrive on super-
fluous wet nor dry soils and is rather sensitive for alternate wet
and frosty weather as well as for keen night frosts in early spring,
Alsike stands all that far better; can be grown again with a
rather short interval even on the same tract of land that was in
cultivation with it before, a thing which Red clover tiring out
sooner would not easily stand, and will do even in a wet marshy
soil, where the other would soon die away. Owing to its habit of
growing in a rather creeping way before turning up its stalks, it
has a tendency of lying down on the earth, especially there where
it has a heavy well-manured soil when and where it grows up
somewhat luxuriantly and the bulk becomes a heavy-one. Result
of this may be, that in such a state it is liable to rot on the field
if the farmer cannot get it mown and saved for hay in time. It is
therefore advisable to sow Alsike in connection with something else;
we would even say that such is, in our opinion, the right way
only as it does away with the two drawbacks alluded to, viz: that
of the plants creeping too much along the surface by being kept
erect through the medium of the accompanying varieties; and that
of diminishing the bitter taste of the Alsike to which cattle do
more or less object.

Under such circumstances it is in the first place the grasses
that are being thought of as an admixture ; and the question a
seedsman and a farmer has to put before him is : which varieties
come in most useful to be sown with Alsike.

If for a short duration only, say of 3 or 4 years, we would
recommend the Ryegrasses, perennial and Italian, A v e n a
e 1 a t i o r (Tall Oat-grass), Dactylis glomerata (Orchard-
grass) Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue) and Timothy.

If for turning such a field into a permanent pasture later-on,
Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow Foxtail], Anthoxanthum
odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true], Avena flavescens
( Yellow Oat-grass, true), Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail}.,
Festuca elatior (Tall Fescue), Festuca rubra (Red Fescue),

78

and Poa pratensis and t r i v i a 1 i s (Smooth- and Rough-
stalked Meadow-grass) might be joined to the above named varieties.
As regards the yields of various origins of the seeds of A 1 s i k e,
we never found a great difference whether the stock-seed used
were United States-, Canadian- or European-grown. In that respect
we would therefore look in the first place for the purest possible
and biggest grain, and our choice would fall first on Canadian;
next on United States'; and finally on European-grown seed. There
are, as a rule, every year several lots of European seed which
excell in quality those exported by Canada. Yet, where many of them
do contain C u s c u t a (Dodder), we consider it safer to buy either
Canadian or States' seed, which never contain this obnoxious weed.

Trifoliuin incarnatum (Crimson clover). Once, some 30 years
ago, extensively used in Holland as well as the neighboring
districts just beyond the border. It has gradually lost ground there
and very few fields grown with this plant are noticed now, the value
of which is a good-one from a nutritive point of view, but the
purpose of which is rather limited. Sown in August on a middling
or lighter kind of soil, seldom used on heavy good rich land, it
springs up very soon indeed and makes good-sized plants the
same autumn; and though it gives one cut only in spring, it has
this advantage, that it is one of the earliest kinds of fodder then ;
that it can be cut quite a fortnight earlier than Red clover and
comes in, therefore, very handy indeed at a time when young green
fodder is very much wanted, especially in a spring which through
lasting cold weather is somewhat backward with the general vege-
tation. As all stock like it, there is also for that reason nothing
against sowing it for feeding every variety of them.

The field having been cut, all that has been left there of the
plants may be ploughed under, thus giving a fair quantity of green
manure to the soil for some autumn sowing.

Crzmso/i-clover being a plant of a short duration only, it is
seldom used in connection with grasses, but nearly always sown
as a separate crop. If at-all grasses are to be used along with it,
it is the Ryegrasses, perennial and Italian that answer the
purpose best and are to be recommended.

1 riloliiiiu pratense (Red clover). Decidedly the most import-
ant of all feeding plants and so universally known and expanded,
that it would almost sound temerarious, if one were to pretend
that he was going to tell something new on it.

79

Now we surely don't mean to do this. And yet there are many
things and facts known to one class of agricultural people, unknown
to another; whereas this latter class may know other things and
facts unknown to the former. If, therefore, we write here a few
lines on this article, giving facts based for the greater part on
our own experience, the intent is mainly this, that every-one of
our readers may gather from them that which is new to him and
use it to his advantage.

And then, we think, it does not require any explanation as to
how Red-clover should be sown in regard to time, or how
and when it should be cut. Only this we wish to say in regard to
the latter and repeat here what has been said on several occasions
and in different ways by others, that if destined for hay-making,
a farmer can't be too careful during the process of hay-making in
handling gently his Red-clover in order to avoid as much as pos-
sible the loss of the plants' foliage, i. e. of the very best nutritive
part of the plant.

But we mean to point out in the first place what seed should
be used, and next what connection the article has with the various
Natural Grasses, the main object of this treatise.

Now our experience has taught us, that next to getting the
cleanest possible seed, free from obnoxious weeds, amongst which
C u s c u t a (Dodder) in its different varieties is the worst of all,
there is one thing more that speaks a great word and to which,
in our opinion, far too little attention is being paid. We mean the
origin of the seed that is being used. For here comes in the
question of both yield and quality of the produce and hardiness
of the plants to maintain themselves in the fields under both
favorable and unfavorable circumstances of soil and climate.

Our experience has taught us, that the seeds grown in the
northern and more temperately situated districts of Europe
are far superior to those of the southern regions; not only for
the fact that they do contain a smaller percentage of weeds and
of their being as a rule free from Dodder, but also owing to their
far greater yields at the various successive cuts; the quality of
their produce and their maintenance in the field where they are
by a long way not so liable to dying away during severe winters
and keen spring-weather as the produce of southerly-grown seed.
And, if in this place and in this respect we have to deal on
both United States' and Canadian seed, we must pronounce as
our opinion based on our own experience acquired during several

80

years, that we do not exactly think favorably on them. At any
rate no more favorably on them than on the South-European
grown seeds!

The American and Canadian seeds may do well in their own
countries and yield good crops of good quality there, they cannot
by a long way replace the seeds grown in our northern- and
central-European districts.

Our objection to these two origins are:

Istiy. that they produce a plant far shorter and thinner and
yield as a result thereof a smaller bulk than what we are used
to of North-European seed.

2ndiy. that the second cut of these two origins gives in our
region at least very little bulk indeed.

3rd'y- that their plants come very badly through winter; leave
at any rate with severe winter-weather large bare spots in the
fields, whilst the plants that actually come through are as a rule
of a poor weak character, so that for a two years' lay, as is usually
the case with us, the American and Canadian seeds scarcely ans-
wer the purpose in view. And

4thiy. the fact that the plants, produce of these two "origins are
covered all over from bottom to top, stalk and leaves, with rather
prominent hairs to which both cattle and horses, but especially
cattle have a great dislike. It is surmised that, though the first
Red clover introduced in America during the 17th century was
of European origin, therefore originally free from it, the plant
has acquired in the course of time that hairy character as some
kind of degeneration, due perhaps to the hotter and drier atmos-
phere prevailing on the American continent, and which might
have been avoided if, instead of regularly using their own : Ame-
rican farmers had from time to time imported new genuine Euro-
pean stock-seed.

The fact that the American crops of Red clover have been
almost an entire failure in the years 1905 and 1906, compelling
the American seedsmen and farmers to look for stock-seed else-
where, and causing the trade in America to import large quantities
from Europe, has given the American farmer an unexpected oppor-
tunity to make a comparison between the crops yielded by Euro-
pean and American stock-seed.

So far we have heard nothing about the results obtained. But
we venture to say that, if the European seed has under the altered
conditions of soil and climate had a good start in its early devel-

81

opment, a marked difference very much in favour of the European
seed will have been noted.

Still, as said before, there is even amongst the various European
origins an enormous difference.

One of the very best kinds of stock-seed is decidedly the so-
called Lowland Dutch. It is noted for its beautiful, tall-growing
tender plant and its exceptionally large yield. Unlike most of the
high going plants it keeps its tenderness very well indeed without
showing a sign of turning hard. It is a big-grain and has as a rule
(not always, however!) a palish colour with a few seeds in tending
towards a brownish shade as though they had suffered from rain,
a characteristic which must be mainly attributed to the moist
atmosphere of this country.

It is, therefore, not a seed which for colour takes the eye; but
its great merits for quantity and quality of yield are doubted by
nobody this side of the Atlantic.

And the fact that before the time arrived when in other sections
of Europe the cultivation on a large scale of Red clover-seed was
started, it was the Lowland Dutch Red that was being looked for
and bought everywhere, gives ample proof of how since centuries
that seed was kept in high esteem.

This may be a guidance to American seedsmen who, after the
experience that is now being made with European-grown, imported
seed and who, after making a comparison between the produce
thereof and that of their own home-grown seed used before, and
finding themselves likewise some marked difference in favour
of the former should henceforth have an intention to import
European-grown Red clover-seed, to know which of the European
origins ranks amongst the foremost.

The connection between Red clover and the Natural Grasses is
easily seen, and the knowledge of where they can help one an-
other to derive the best possible results and the greatest possible
yields of good nutritive fodder, is acquired very soon indeed.

The fact that Red clover fields serve as a rule for a two years'
lay indicates at-once those varieties of grasses to be used in
connection with this seed if a mixed field of both Red clover
and grasses is to be created ; or in case too large bare spots
present themselves in a newly sown Red clover-field, in order to
see such grasses rather quickly developped and derive the desired
for benefits of the land within the shortest possible space of time.

Next to the Ryegrasses, Italian and perennial which of all

6

82

the grasses are the first to thrive, it is Dactylis glomerata
(Orchard-grass), Avena elatior (Tall Oat-grass) and P h 1 e u m
pratense (Timothy) that are to be used as producing a crop
soonest of all. We would not recommend any further varieties for
that purpose and such a short lay, as these are quite sufficient to
give both bulk and quality, and as they are the only-ones that are
sure to develop in time. Using any other Natural Grasses for so
short a duration would simply mean a waste, as they would bring-
in their share only at the moment when the field in question had
finished to serve the aim it had been laid down for.

If, however, the purpose in view is to have a Red-clover field
go over into permanent pasture, the following varieties should
likewise be added, viz: Agrostis stolonifera (Creeping
Bent-grass), Alopecurus pratensis (Meadow Foxtail), A n-
thoxantum odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal, true}, Avena
flavescens ( Yellow Oat-grass, true], Cynosurus cristatus
(Crested Dogstail), Festuca elatior, pratensis and r u b r a
(Tall-, Meadow- and Red Fescue) and Poa pratensis and
t r i v i a 1 i s (Smooth- and Rough-stalked Meadow-grass).

There is one more purpose the Red clover is being used for in
Holland, largely even in the very best agricultural districts
and which, though it may seem a pity to many a farmer to have a
field of it used for that purpose, pays our farmers very well
indeed. We mean the use of Red clover as a green manure. It is
a common way in one of the best provinces of Holland to sow
amongst wheat-, barly- or other crops Red clover seed;
let the Red clover shoot up after the "fore" crop is off, as high
as it will go up that same summer and autumn and then plough
the land up and have it resown with some other winter crop. Or
to have the land ploughed up the next spring and put on some
summer crop. Or again to have the first cut taken that same spring
and have the land turned up after the plants have gone up fairly
high again, to serve for some autumn sowing. This is a system
which has been going on there for years and years, and though
some other plants are being used for the same purpose, it is the
Red clover which is mainly being used for it.

In that case, it is the biggest plant producing seed that is being
looked for, and such farmers will then take the so-called Rozen-
daal-R e d , a sub-variety of the Lowland Dutch.

Needless to say, that it is the heaviest richest soils only where
this course is being followed.

83

Trifolium pratense perenne (Cowgrass or Perennial Red
clover}. On account of its longer duration: 4, 5 years or longer
even, and of its great agricultural and nutritive value, a splendid
plant. It does not grow up high and is for that reason unfit for
the same purpose the ordinary Red clover is being used for,
which apart from the aim of having a good fodder (in which
respect the perennial Red clover is in no way inferior to it!) is
to get bulk as well. To reach, therefore, the latter aim it cannot
be recommended, on account of the shortness of its plant and the
smaller quantity it consequently yields.

Its great value, therefore, comes in there where it is being used
as an admixture to the permanent grasses. There it can be used
with great advantage, though not in too great a proportion, as
otherwise it tends to cover the land too thickly and prevents the
grasses from coming through.

All sorts of stock are exceedingly fond of it and eat it with
eagerness.

Ti iioliiim repens (White clover}. Except for seed-saving this
is not a variety to be sown separately, the main purpose being to
use it in a small proportion as an admixture to the Natural Grasses
for permanent pasture-land. Its dwarf growth does not make it so
well adapted for a separate clover-field, as it would not bring in
that bulk which the other clovers and Lucerne yield. We would
not say anything against its nutritive value, which is in no way
inferior to the other varieties, except that both cattle and horses
often leave the flowers, which have a more or less bitter taste,
alone. But they do eat with eagerness its foliage. It prefers a
heavy soil, but may be seen just as well and in great abundance
on lighter ditto, provided this be a well-manured tract of land.

As said before, its right place is in a permanent pasture, where
it fills up many a bare spot with a useful feeding plant and gives,
if for grazing purposes, a good change for the cattle, be it that it
does not bring in bulk.

Yet one of the White clover's characteristics, namely its tendency
to spread, should make a farmer be somewhat cautious in using
it too freely in a grass-seed mixture. For, with quality it is at
the same time bulk he demands of his land. And now, if certain
circumstances and conditions of soil and weather work together,
it often happens, that the White clover-plants develop too luxuri-
antly, creeping subteraneously in various directions and covering

84

in a very short time a rather big spot with a thick turf, preventing
the grasses, the main thing in the meadow to come through. There
is no exaggeration in our assertion if we say, that the presence
of a single plant is, soil and weather permitting, capable of covering
in one season a plot of land a couple of square yards in size.

The only remedy here would be to have the pasture thoroughly
manured with stable-manure or have it grazed off for a few suc-
cessive years. Doing so, the grasses will find more assistance than
the clovers to make headway and to overrule in the long run
the latter.

As for the stock-seed to be used, here like in every such case
we would say, that next to the cleanliness of a sample, it is the
size of the seed which should decide, as producing the biggest
plant. Amongst the European-grown origins, it is the seeds grown
either in Holland or in Great-Britain which are considered the
largest grain and which, moreover, may be taken as free from
dodder deserving, therefore, to be classified first.

saliva (Spring Vetch). If on one hand the Winter Vetch
or Tare is found in Holland only as a rare exception, there is
on the other hand a good deal of attention paid here to the
spring Vetch. It may be that the greater portion of the soil here,
being heavy rich land, is not so well suited for the one, but
excellent for the other which accounts for that. It may be also
that the excellent quality of the H o 1 1 a n d-grown spring Vetch,
which is far superior to its foreign opponents, enables the farmer
here to obtain results which pay him well, whereas his colleagues
on the lighter soil have never been so well off with the winter
variety or have taken more to growing other agricultural plants
that have some similarity in purpose with the Winter Vetch.

Now to deal first on the spring Vetch, this is decidedly a
magnificent plant, useful for many a purpose. Sow it in spring as
a separate crop, it will shoot up very rashly indeed and give an
excellent fodder after the first and before the second cut of Red
clover and Alfalfa. Or, if not cut at that time, let it stand over till
it bears fruit and ripens, have it then mown and give it then,
plant and seed to the cattle, it will again be a magnificent fodder.
Or, have the seed thrashed out, feed te cattle on the hay and
have the seed sold, or feed the latter unground to horses, or
ground and in connection with other meal to cattle, it is an
excellent fodder again. Let the plant after this shoot up again

85

as far as that goes, and have the field ploughed up, and there will
be a splendid green manure to have some winter-crop sown on.

Next: sow it in spring in connection with Oats or Summer-rye.
In the first case there is when ripe, a splendid fodder of mixed
oats and vetches for horses ; in the second case when ripe, there
is good material to have mixed cattle-meal ground of the grain.
And in both cases, there is the straw to be likewise used as
fodder in a chopped state. Furthermore, there is in the unripened
state of that mixture of plants also a very good green fodder for
both cattle and horses.

And as for the quality of the fodder, it is a very good fodder
indeed. In the green state, though it is not eaten with that eager-
ness by both horses and cattle as is the case with Red clover
and Lucerne, yet both do like it well enough, and it is most
surely of great nutritive value. The same applies to the Vetches
in the shape of grain for horses and of meal for cattle.

In regard to the meal as fodder for catte, it is a splendid thing
even and is for dairy-cows very conducive to an increase of milk,
tending to enrich greatly the cream. The somewhat bitter taste of
the Vetch-meal does not seem to be much of an objection on the
part of the cattle. If at-all there should be any sign in that respect,
the addition of a certain percentage of say r y e-meal will soon
alter this.

Finally, there is the use of spring Vetches for green manure on
heavy rich soil. And for that purpose there is of recent years
in Holland a large increase in the use and cultivation of them,
the fact being that spring Vetches do lend themselves very well
indeed for sowing throughout spring, summer and early part of
autumn; that they thrive very rapidly, and that they produce
consequently a splendid green manure for the next crop, be it
that either a summer or autumn sowing is to follow.

And here it may be the place to draw special attention to the
Holland (Gueldre)-gro\vn spring Vetches. It is true, that they
are being sold at a higher price than those of other origin usually
command, but they are fully worth the higher price.

Take the seed. It is a far bigger grain and, if sown for seed-
saving, yields a far larger quantity, so that the additional money
laid out for stock-seed, easily comes back in the shape of the
larger yield; far more than that even.

Take the plant destined to be ploughed under for green manure.
Here, again, the larger bulk of green material to be ploughed

86

under is adequate to a larger amount of money put into the soil
in the shape of manure for the next crop. And it is a fact beyond
the slightest doubt, that these Vetches do not only produce a far
larger bulk, but that, what is a great thing also, they thrive and
shoot forth far more rapidly than any other spring Vetches. This
is a thing of great importance in a case where f. i. they are to
precede some autumn-sowing, after one summer-crop or other has
been saved on that particular tract of land. In case such a summer
crop through reason of a late season or unfavorable weather
during harvest has been brought in rather late, the lapse of
time between that harvest and the autumn-sowing will be the
shorter for it, and a quick-thriving, high-growing Vetch will soon
make good the disavantage of the season.

The Spring Vetches have no connection with the grasses, except
this that as green fodder they help in times, where there is a
shortness of grass in the pastures, to provide for a change and
a complement to the cattle's and horses' feeding; and that as
green manure they are an excellent foregoing crop to the laying

down of permanent pasture-land.

*

Vicia villosu (Sand- or Hairy Vetch or Winter-tare). In connect-
ion with winter-rye a useful plant on lighter soil, both as fodder
in the green state, or when ripened and chopped or thrashed
out as corn for horses, or finally in the latter state ground to
meal for cattle; and as green manure to be ploughed under in
about the same manner as the spring Vetch.

Whatever the spring Vetch may be for the heavier richer soil,
the Sand-Vetch will do for the lighter sandy ditto. Sown in
autumn with winter-rye and destined for green fodder, it comes
in rather early in spring and is therefore a most welcome feeding-
stuff, especially if the grass in the meadows is on account of
lasting winter-weather somewhat late and not plentiful.

In Holland with its majority of rich heavy soil, there is
very little done in the way of Sand Vetches. But in countries like
Germany with its lighter soil, France, Great-Britain
and Ireland, as well as in the United States with their
partly middling soils, great attention is being paid to the growing
of the Sand or Hairy Vetch for both feeding- and manuring
purposes.

SOAE OP THE LEADING
VARIETIES OP

NATURAL GRASSES.

A

89

Agrostis stolonifera.

(Marsh- or Creeping Bent-p-rass.)

90

Alopecurus pratensis.

(Meadow Foxtail-grass.)

Anthoxanthum odoratum.

(Sweet-scented Vernal-erass. true.)

Avena elatior.

(Tall Oat-grass.)

93

Avena flavescens.

(Yellow Oat-grasSy true.)

94

Cynosurus cristatus.
(Crested Dogstail-grass.)

95

Dactylis glomerata.

(Cocksfoot- or Orchard-grass.)

96

Festuca elatior.

(Tall Fescue.)

97

Festuca ovina.

(Sheep's Fescue.)

98

Festuca ovina angustifolia or tenuifolia.
(Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue.)

99

Festuca pratensis.
(Meadow Fescue.)

100

Festuca rubra.

(Red or Creeping Fescue.)

101

Poa nemoralis.

(Wood Meadow-grass.)

102

Poa pratensis.

(Smooth-stalked Meadow or Kentucky- Bluegrass.)

103

Poa trivial is.

(Rough-stalked Meadow-grass.)