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TRAVELS IN EASTERN HIGH ASIA

VOL. II.

LONDON : PRINTED BV

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NE\V-STREp:T SQUARE

AND PARLIAMICNT STREET

М о N G о L I

■s

^^\~ '

THE TANGUT COUNTRY,

AND THE

SOLITUDES OF NORTHERN TIBET:

BEING A

^arratibe of Щхп gears' frabcl in eastern pig^ ^sia.

BY r^ \

PTa-nevr»,Uv4v"

LIEUT.-COLONEL N. PREJEVALSKY,

OF THE RUSSIAN STAFF CORPS : MEM. OF THE IMP. RUSS. GEOG. SOC.

TRANSLATED BY

E. DELMAR MORGAN, F.R.G.S.

WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES BY

COLONEL HENRY YULE, C.B.

LATE OF THE ROYAI. ENGINEERS (bENGAL).

/X TIVO VOLUMES— VOL. //.
Ш\\\1 Paps aub Illustrations.

LONDON:
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,

CROWN BUILDING.S, i88 FLEET STREET.
1876

All lii-ltts reserved.

■уоз

CONTENTS

OF

THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER I.

RETURN TO KALGAN.

PAGE

Departure from Din-yuan-ing — Illness of Pyltseff — Salt lake-bed
of Djaratai-dabas — Mode of obtaining salt — Kara-narin-ula
mountains — Route through the Urute country — -Ascent of
plateau — Excessive cold ; snow-storm— Sufferings of animals^
Descent to the Hoang-ho — Incursions of Dungans — Hostility
of Chinese officials — Chinese soldiers — Old river bed —
Wintering birds ; pheasants — Tea-drinking — Border range —
Rejoin outward track — Buying argols — Temperature inside
tent — Shireti-tsu — Loss of all our camels — Awkward predica-
ment— Buy fresh camels — Trading caravans — Epidemic among
dzerens — Argali — Arrival at Kalgan i

CHAPTER П.

RETURN TO ALA-SHAN.

Start for Peking — Packing collections — New outfit ; rifles ; re-
volvers— Merchandise — Fresh Cossacks — Trial of guns— Effect
on the inhabitants — Mongol dog ' Karza ' — Water barrels — De-
parture from Kalgan — Late spring — Migration of birds — To the
Munni-ula — Spring vegetation — Leave for the Hoang-ho — Rice
fields — Shooting carp — Unattractive valley — Sandy borders of
Ala-shan and its vegetation — Inanimate nature — Envoys from
the prince — Arrival at Din-yuan-ing — The Czar's officer —

4

^<J>(j e'i

COXTENTS OF

Trafficking — Favourable opportunity to proceed — Prince
opposes our departure — Intrigues of Sordji — Want of funds —
Sale of guns and merchandise — Fortune befriends us — Prepara-
tions for a start — Departure of caravan — Detention — Siya's pro-
mise— Disappointment — Anxiety — Siya again — Good news —
We join caravan — Our travelling companions — Lama-warriors
— Randzemba — His passion for the chase — With the caravan —
Poisoned wells — Great fatigue — Inquisitive visitors — Pursuit of
science under difficulties — Tingeri sands — Mountains of Kan-su
— Snowy peaks — Cultivation — Great Wall of China — Town of
Ta-jing — Watch towers — White bread — Choice of routes .

CHAPTER III.

THE PROVINCE OF KAN-SU.

First sight of Kan-su — Marginal range — Ta-yi-gu — Sung-shan —
Abundance of water — Ruined villages — A false alarm — Harsh
treatment of prisoner — Gold washings — Profusion of vegetation
— Another adventure — Randzemba and the breech-loaders —
Mystery explained — Temple of Chertinton ; its superior or
abbot — We leave our camels and horses — The Rangtu-gol—
Cultivated and thickly-populated plain — The Taldi — The temple
of Chobsen ; its images and idols ; its militia garrison — Arrival
at Chobsen — Drying the collections — Stagnation of trade — Start
for the mountains — Description of the mountains of Kan-su —
Northern and Southern chains — Snowy peaks — '■ Amnch'' the
sacred mountains — Geology — Minerals — Climate — Flora: trees,
bushes, &c. — The Rhubarb plant {Rheum palmahim) — Method
of obtaining and preserving it — Artificial cultivation — Rhodo-
dendrons— Characteristic plants of Kan-su — Luxuriant meadow-
land — Fauna of Kan-su — Mammals — Birds ; their classification
— Birds of alpine zone — Absence of water-fowl — Excessive
humidity — Thunderstorms — Sodi-Soruksum ; splendid view —
Mount Gadjur ; its sacred lake — Terror of natives — Guides
refuse to proceed — Autumn — Camels suffer — Chobsen besieged
— Perilous situation — Prepare for defence — Night-watch — Hire
guides to Koko-nor — Consult auguries — Halt — Supplies — De-
parture— A critical moment — Appearance of Dungans — Mur-
zasak — Tatung-gol — Koko-nor at last 59

THE SECOND VOLUME. vii

CHAPTER IV.

THE TANGUTANS AND DUNCANS.

PAGE

Tangutan territory — The people — Characteristic traits — Stature ; -^

appearance; mode of wearing hair — Kara Tangutans — Lan-
guage ; dress ; habitations — Black tents and wooden huts —
Occupations — The domesticated Yak — Its different uses —
Nomadising habits — Contrast between Mongols and Tangutans
— Industry ; food ; dirt — Tonkir, a trade centre— Avarice —
Polite customs — Monogamy — Religion — Government — Dun-
gans or Mahommedan rebels — Their temporary success —
Chinese towns fall into their hands — Revolt becomes brigandage
— Opportunities neglected^Causes of non-success — Cowardice
of rebels and of Chinese — Inefficient weapons — Siege of
Chobsen — Commercial relations between belligerents — Mea-
sures of Chinese Government — Chinese soldiers — Bad arms —
Want of discipline — Opium smoking — Looting — Government
defrauded — Desertion — Punishment — Low morals — Mode of
fighting — State of Affairs in Kan-su — Chinese take the offensive
—Advance on Si-ning — Assault of this town — Marriage of
Emperor of China — Siege operations suspended — Cowardice of
besieged — Capture of Si-ning and advance westwards —
Tangutan Vocabulary . . . . . . . .109

CHAPTER V.

KOKO-NOR AND TSAIDAM.

The lake — Colour of its waters — Island and temple — Fish —
Legendary origin of lake — Its shores — Birds — Animals — The
Kulan or wild ass — Eleuth Mongols — Low standard of civilisa-
tion— Kara-Tangutans — Their predatory habits — Mongol tradi-
tion concerning them— Administrative divisions of Koko-nor —
We buy fresh camels — ^Tibetan envoy— Favourable opportunity
of reaching Lhassa lost — We determine to advance^Guides —
Temple of Kumbum and its sacred tree — Tibetan medicine —
Route along shore' of lake — Pouhain-gol — Hue's account of
river inaccurate — Southern Koko-nor range — Djaratai-dabas
salt basin — Princess of Koko-nor — The Tsing-hai-wang — Our
reception — My reputation as saint, prophet, and physician —
Bauvtstcitismus, a universal panacea — Mongol ailments — Plain
of Tsaidam — The Baian-gol — Saline vegetation — Karmyk
berries — Scarcity of animal life — Inhabitants — Lake Lob —
Wild camels and wild horses — Autumn on Koko-nor — Clear
atmosphere — Cultivated land — Crossing the marshes — Tsung-
zasak — Mongol guide 'Chutun dzamba' ..... 139

viii CONTENTS OF

CHAPTER VI.

NORTHERN TIBET,

PAGE

The Burkhan Buddha mountains ; the effects of a rarefied atmo-
sphere— M. Hue's ' vapours of carbonic acid gas ' — The Nomo-
khun stream — The Shuga mountain range and river — Tibetan
frontier— The Urundushi mountains — Sources of the Hoang-ho,
and pilgrimage thereto — The Baian-kara-ula range — Character
of the desert plateaux of Tibet — Extraordinary exhaustion pro-
duced by exertion at high altitudes — Caravans to Lhassa —
Time occupied on the journey — Dangers and hardships of the
road — Abundance of animal life— Mammals — The wild yak ;
its habits ; its physical defects and low intelligence ; disease to
which it is subject — Wild yak shooting — The animal hard to
kill — Grandeur of the sport — Mode of stalking — They rarely
charge — Examples of yak-shooting — The yak-meat — The white-
breasted Argali — The Orongo {Antilope Hodgsoni) — Large
herds of these antelope — Their unwary habits — Held sacred by
Mongols — Unicorns — The ata-dzeren, or little antelope — Its
amazing swiftness — The Tibetan wolf {Lupus Chancd) — The
fox {Canis Corsac) — Birds of Northern Tibet — Progress of
journey — Travelling yurta — Intense cold — Tattered garments —
Rarefied atmosphere — The halt — Preparing dinner — Long
nights — Sport on the plateau — Climate — Dust storms — Chu-
tundzamba — Arrival at the Murui-ussu — Limit of the expedition
— Necessity for return .174

CHAPTER VII.

SPRING ON LAKE KOKO-NOR AND AMONG THE KAN-SU
MOUNTAINS.

Return to Tsaidam — Influence of its warmer climate — Spring in
Tsaidam — Migratory birds — Spring in Koko-nor — Mirages —
Shooting excursions — Fishing — Thaw on lake — Scarcity of
birds — Departure from Chobsen — Equipment of caravan — Sale
of rev'olvers — Humidity of Kan-su — Slippery mountain paths —
Fording the Tatung-gol — Encounter with ' Kotens ' — First
signs of spring — Night frosts — Gales — Atmospheric phenomena
— Tardy vegetation — The great rock-partridge {liailik) — The
snow-vulture ; how to shoot it — Heavy snowfall — May in Kan-
su — The long-eared pheasant {Crossoptiloji auritum) — The
marmot {Arctotnys robusins) — The bear {kung-guressii) — Extra-
ordinary reports concerning it — We see one — It escapes —
Straitened finances — Last weeks in Kan-su- Its variable cli-
mate— Departure 224

THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER VIII.

RETURN TO ALA-SHAN. ROUTE TO URGA BY THE CENTRAL

GOBI.

PAGE

Departure from Ala-shan — Nearly lost in the desert — A dilemma
— We follow the wrong road — A night of suspense — Looking
for landmarks — The ' Obo ' — Water at last ! — Meeting with
pilgrims — Din-yuan-ing — Letters from home — Excursion to
Ala-shan mountains — Their changed appearance — Their flora
and fauna — Sudden flood — Collections endangered — Caravan
re-organised — Start for Urga — Terrible heat — Guide at fault —
— Death of ' Faust ' — Desperate situation — Saved — Grief at the
loss of our dog — Route across the Gobi — Urute country — The
Galpin Gobi — Wells choked by rain — Similarity between Gobi
and Sahara — The Hurku range — Mountain goat {Capra
Sibiricd) — Trade routes — The desert north of the Hurku —
Shortlived oases — Large and flourishing herds — Polluted water
■ — The mirage — Migration of birds — More trade routes — Altered
aspect of country — Rich pasturage — Abundance of animal life
— Climate — Impatience to reach Urga — Arrival there — End of
the expedition 254

TABLE OF NOTES TO VOLUME II.

NOTES BY MR. MORGAN.
Urumchi 285

The Rhubarb Plant

291

The Manul ........... 298

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES BY COL. YULE.

The Taldi 299

Siling and Tonkir 300

The Kyang and Kulan 301

The Tangutans . ib.

The Dungans ■ 304

X CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

pa(;e

Red and Yellow Lamas 305

Difficulty as to Fires at Great Altitudes . . . . . . ib.

The Murui-ussu, the Tibetan Source of the Yang-tse-kiang . 306

Table of Colonel Prejevalsky's Observations 307

Index 3^9

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

TO

THE SECOND VOLUME.

1. The Gobi Plateau (borrowed from the Tour cht

Mondt') to /ace page 6

2. Kutukhtu-Lama of High Rank (from a Photo-

graph lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken, Hon.

Corr. Mem. R.G..S.) page ф

3. Lama in Officiating Dress (from a Photograph lent

by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken) .... ,,72

4. A Flowering Plant of the Medicinal Rhubarb (from

a Sketch by Professor Maximovitch, of the Im-
perial Botanical Gardens, St. Petersburg, en-
graved in ' Regel's Garten Flora') . . . to face page 82

5. The Yak (traced by Col. Yule from a Drawing by

J. E. Winterbottom, Esq., in the possession of

Dr. Hooker) page 116

6. Tibetan Lama- Physician (from a Photograph lent

by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken). .... ;, J 57

7. Mongol Princess in Gala Robe covered with Pearls

and Precious Stones ; back view of same (from

Photographs lent by liaron Fr. Osten Sacken) . „ 161

8. The Wild Yak, Potphagus gruunieiis, Pall, (after

an Engraving from a Specimen in Col. Preje-
valsky's collection, now in the Museum of the
Academy of St. Petersburg) .... ,,188

9. Head of Ovis Poll (after an Engraving in Severt-

soff's Tnrkcstanskiya yh'Otm'ya) . . . „201

xii ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE SECOND VOLUME.

10. Village on the Shore of Lake Baikal (Eastern

Siberia), destroyed by an Earthquake (borrowed

ixoxvWh^ Tour (in Monde) to face page г\\

11. Horns of the Orongo-Antelope (from an Engraving

of a Specimen in Col. Prejevalsky's collection) . Page 223

12. The Snow- Vulture (after an Engraving in Severt-

sofPs Ttirkestanskiya Jivotniya) . . . „238

13. Mongols Worshipping ' Obo ' (borrowed from the

Tour (in Monde) iofaee page 2^7

14. The Russian Force at Urga in the Summer of

1871 (from a Photograph lent by Baron Fr.

Osten Sacken) „ ?> 283

TRAVELS IN MONGOLIA.

CHAPTER I.

RETURN TO KALGAN.

Departure from Din-yuan-ing — Illness of Pyltseff — Salt lake-bed of
Djaratai-dabas — Mode of obtaining salt — Kara-narin-ula moun-
tains— Route through the Urute country — Ascent of plateau —
Excessive cold; snow-storm — Sufferings of animals — Descent to
the Hoang-ho — Incursions of Dungans — Hostility of Chinese
officials — Chinese soldiers — Old river bed — Wintering birds ;
pheasants — Tea-drinking — Border range — Rejoin outward track —
Buying argols — Temperature inside tent — Shireti-tsu — Loss of all
our camels — Awkward predicament^ — Buy fresh camels — Trading
caravans — Epidemic among dzerens — Argali — Arrival at Kalgan.

On the morning of October 27th we left the town
of Din-yuan-ing (Wei-tching-pu) on our return
journey to Kalgan. The eve of our departure we
passed with our friends, the Gigen and Siya, who
took leave of us with unfeigned sorrow, and invited
us to return as soon as possible. We gave them
our photographs, and assured them that we луоик!
never forget the kindness we had received in Ala-
shan. Just as we луеге on the point of starting the
Lama Sordji and another official made their appear-
ance, to bid us a last good-bye from the sons of the
prince, and to escort us out of the town.

VOL. П. • в

/

2 ILLNESS OF PYLTSEFF. LAKE-BED. ]

We had now a long' and difficult journey before
us, the distance from Din-yuan-ing to Kalgan
(through Mongolia) being reckoned about 800 miles,
which we had to perform without a break. Mean-
while the approach of winter was heralded by sharp
frosts and winds, prevalent in Mongolia at this
season of the year. To make matters worse my
travelling companion, Michail Alexandrovitch Pylt- j
seff, fell ill with typhoid fever soon after we left
Din-yuan-ing, a circumstance which detained us nine
days, near the spring of Kara-moriteh in the north- ,
ern part of Ala-shan. 1

The state of my companion's health was rendered
more critical owing to the want of medical assistance, I
for although we had a few drugs with us I had not
sufficient confidence in my skill as a practitioner to
administer them. Happily his youth pulled him
through, and Michail Alexandrovitch, in spite of
continued weakness, was able to sit on a horse,
although he fell off more than once in a fainting fit.
However, we hurried on, marching from sunrise to
sunset every day.

Desirous of becoming acquainted with the
country on the left bank of the Yellow River, and
the mountains which border this part of the valley,
I determined on crossing the country of the Urutes,
луЬ1сЬ is conterminous with Ala-shan. In the north-
ern part of the latter region, 63 miles from Din-yuan-
ing, we came to an immense lake-bed of sedimentary
salt, called by the Mongols Djaratai-dabas. This
lake-bed occupies the lowest part of the whole of

MODE OF OBTAINING SALT. 3

Ala-shan, and is 3,100 feet above the sea ; it is about
33 miles in circumference, and encrusted with a layer
of pure salt 2 to 6 feet thick. It is remarkable that
this natural production should be so little utilised ;
only a few dozen Mongols being engaged in the
industry of digging the salt out and carrying it on
camels to the Chinese towns of Ning-hia-fu and
Bautu.^

The salt is obtained in the following way : first a
thin covering of dust is removed from the surface,
the salt is then dug out with iron spades and washed
in the water which collects in the excavated holes.
It is then poured into bags, and laden on camels,
each camel carrying a load of about 3^ cwt. A
payment of 50 chokhs,^ or about 2d., is levied on the
spot on each camel load, and the same amount is
charged for the labour of getting it. A Mongol
officer lives at Djaratai-dabas, to inspect the salt
industry and receive the income arising from it,
which is paid into the treasury of the prince. The
latter also earns large sums by his camels, which are
hired for the transport of the salt ; nine-tenths of
the profits realised are given up to him, leaving
only one-tenth to the carrier. The Mongols said

1 Hue gives a vivid description of a lake-bed of the same kind in
the Ordos country, under the name of Dabsoiai-A'iir, or Salt Lake (i.
329-331)-— Y.

^ Chokh or chek, said by Timkovvski to be a corruption of a Mongol
term/fli-, is the name which the Russians give to what we call Chinese
cash, properly fsien, those copper coins with a hole in the middle
which are strung on strings. The old normal equation was one string
or 1,000 fsien = I Hang (Ian of the text) or ounce of silver, but now
the number varies and is always much more than 1,000. The calcula-
tions in the text seem to reckon 1,500 cash to the Hang. — Y.

в 2

4 KHAN-ULA MOUNTAINS.

that a camel load of salt fetches i^ to 2 lans, 7^. bd.
to loi-., at Bautu.

The environs of this lake are almost devoid of
vegetation, and present a desolate aspect, particu-
larly in summer, when the heat is so intense as to
put a stop for a time to the salt industry.

The sparkling surface of Djaratai-dabas appears
like water in the distance, and resembles ice when
you are near it. So deceptive is its appearance that
a flock of swans, apparently attracted by the sight of
water in the desert, descended before our very eyes
almost to the surface of the false lake, but discover-
ing their mistake rose again in the air with affrighted
cry, and continued their flight.

In the north of Ala-shan, not far from the well
of Moriteh, where we halted in consequence of the
illness of M. Pyltseff, there rises from the plain a
comparatively small but rugged group of mountains,
the Khan-ula or Haldzyn-burgontu, forming the last
elbow of the border range on the left bank of the
Hoang-ho. This range, known to the Mongols as
the Kara-narin-ula ^ (black pointed mountains), be-
gins at the Haliutai River, and continuino; in a
south-westerly direction for about 200 miles as far
as the northern boundary of Ala-shan, terminates
in some low rocky hills rising from the sandy plain ;
its southern branches, which attain a considerable
height at Khan-ula, but soon diminish in size, alone
extending a short distance beyond Djaratai-dabas,

1 These mountains are not generally known by this name, which
we only heard applied to them by some lamas.

KARA-NARIN-ULA RANGE. 5

Towards the east the Kara-narin-ula is connected
by low and perhaps interrupted ridges of hills with
the Sheiten-ula and therefore with the In-shan ; on
the south it is separated from the Ala-shan moun-
tains by sandy wastes upwards of 60 miles in extent.

Like the mountains near Kalgan, the Kara-narin-
ula serves as a border rang^e, i.e. it forms the eirdlinof
rampart of the elevated Gobi, separating it from
the lower valley of the Hoang-ho ; the difference be-
tween the level of the country lying east and west
of it amounting to 2,400 feet. From the valley of
the river it presents the appearance of a steep
wall, intersected by occasional narrow defiles. Its
greatest height is in the middle ; but along its whole
extent it is wild and barren. Enormous crag-s of
granite, hornblende, gneiss, felspathic porphyry,
syenite, felspar, limestone, and clayey schist furrow
the sides of these mountains and сголуп many of
their peaks, whilst great blocks of the minerals
become detached from the rocks by a natural pro-
cess of disintegration, and roll down to the bottom
of the ravines. Here and there a shrub of the wild
peach, or a scanty elm, clings to the mountain side,
but otherwise there is very little vegetation of any
kind. Nevertheless, animals abound here ; numbers
of kuku-yamans haunt the rocks, and the argali in-
habits the western slopes where the outline of the
hills is softer. The peculiarity of this range is the
abundance of its springs and watercourses, notwith-
standing the entire absence of trees.

From Khan-ula we had the choice of two routes

6 ASCENT OF GOBI PLATEAU.

^one by the valley of the Hoang-ho along the foot
of' the range which borders it, and the other by the
western side of the same mountains, i.e. over the
highlands of the country of the Urutes. I chose
the latter road in order to acquaint myself with the
character of this part of the Gobi plateau.

We ascended gradually some of the lov/ out-
lying hills of the chain which, as we have remarked,
are much lower than the rest. The appearance of
the plateau at first, with its sterility and naked sands,
reminded us of the desert of Ala-shan. Vegetation
is very scanty ; the wild wormwood and prickly con-
volvulus being the chief kinds. But as we advanced
to the north-west the soil improved, and at length,
80 miles beyond the boundary of Ala-shan, it be-
came clayey or clay mixed with shingle, and was
covered with short steppe grass. Here we at once
found those denizens of the Mongol steppes — the
dzerens, which are not met with in the whole of
Ala-shan.

On ascending the plateau the climate rapidly
chanofed. The autumn weather durino- the whole of
October in the plains of Ala-shan was delightful,
and the temperature so warm that even in the
second half of this month at mid-day the ther-
mometer marked i2'5° Cent. (54° Fahr.) in the
shade, and on the 6th of November the surface of
the sand was heated to 43 "5° Cent. (109° Fahr.) ;
the night frosts were never severe, and the ther-
mometer did not fall below — 7*5° Cent. (20° Fahr.)
at sunrise.

t:ai:'

SEVERE WEATHER; SNOW-STORM. 7

But no sooner had we crossed the Kara-narin-
ula mountains than excessive cold weather set in ;
and on the 15th November we experienced a storm
which reminded us of the climate of Siberia a
month later. With a violent gale from the NW.
and a temperature of — 9*0° Cent. (17° Fahr.), the
sleet continued the whole day ; the snow flakes,
driven by the force of the wind into the finest
particles, were mingled with clouds of sand which
completely enveloped us. Large objects, ten paces
off, were invisible ; and we could neither open our
eyes nor breathe freely when facing the wind. It
was useless attempting to pursue our journey under
these circumstances, and we remained in our tent,
occasionally issuing forth to clear away the snow and
sand- drifts which blocked up the entrance to our
humble abode. Towards evening the violence of
the snow-storm increased so much that we were
obliged to leave our camels out all night, only
securing them the following day.

The snow lay on the ground several inches deep,
forming great drifts in places, and hard frosts con-
tinued every day. This unfavourable weather added
greatly to the difficulties of our journey, and ag-
gravated the sufferings of my sick companion. The
beasts also suffered a good deal from want of food.
Two of our camels and one horse soon refused to
move, and had to be abandoned, their places being
taken by the spare camels which Ave had got in
Ala-shan.

In this way we advanced for 100 miles aloivT

8 VALLEY OF YELLOW RIVER.

the western side of the Kara-narin-ula. At length,
after satisfying ourselves that this range does not
throw out lateral spurs into the centre of the plateau,
which it borders, we crossed to the other side by
the defile of the river Ugyn-gol, and on November
nth descended into the valley of the Yellow River.
Here we passed suddenly from winter into mild
autumnal weather, such as we had left behind us in
Ala-shan. Not a particle of snow lay on the ground,
and the thermometer, which on the uplands stood
below zero at noon, now often rose above the freez-
ing point. This change in the temperature occurred
in an extent of only thirteen miles of country covered
by the border range.

Winter, however, soon began to make itself felt
also in the valley of the Hoang-ho. The w^ater was
covered with ice, and the morning frosts rapidly
increased in intensity. The mercury fell to —26'd'^
Cent. ( — 14° Fahr.) at sunrise, but during the day
it was warm, especially in calm weather ; the sky
was almost always clear.

We saw no inhabitants on the western side of
the Kara-narin-ula. All the Mongols had fled to
the valley of the Hoang-ho, alarmed at the appear-
ance of a small band of brigands who came from the
environs of Lake Koko-nor. Such incursions were
not unfrequent in those parts of Mongolia which lay
on the borders of the districts disturbed by the
Dungan rebellion. The bands of robbers which con-
tinually made their appearance in these districts were
composfid of all kinds of vagabonds armed with

PANIC CAUSED BY DUNCANS. 9

pikes or swords, and in a few instances with match-
locks. Yet, notwithstanding their inferior weapons,
they produced a panic among the Mongols and
Chinese, who took to their heels and ran as fast
as ever they could at the mere name of a Dungan.
While we w^ere at Din-yuan-ing, the Prince of Ala-
shan, who was preparing to despatch an armed force
against the marauders, sent an official to ask us for
the loan of our military caps to frighten the enemy.
' The brigands are well aware,' said the official,
' that you are here, and if they see your caps, which
we will put on, they will imagine that you are with
us, and will run away directly.' This incident serves
to show what dread is inspired by even the name of
Europeans, and how the people of Asia instinctively
acknowledge our moral superiority over their de-
ofenerate character.

In Chapter IV. of this volume I will describe
more fully the military operations of the Mahomme-
dan insurgents and Chinese forces ; suffice it for the
present to remark, that the Dungans are not a whit
braver than their opponents, and are terrible only to
Chinese and Mongols. Strange as it may sound, it
is none the less a fact that, in the districts which were
liable to these robber raids, we travelled Avith more
ease and security than anywhere else ; and that for
the simple reason that they had no population ! We
were convinced (and the belief was confirmed by all
the experience of our later wanderings) that these
cowardly marauders, even if several hundred strong,
would never dare to attack four Europeans armed to

I о ADVANTAGE OF BEING ARMED.

the teeth ; and if in a moment of unusual audacity
they had ventured on so rash a proceeding, our guns
and revolvers would have taught them a good
lesson. On the other hand, when travelling through
populous districts, we were constantly exposed to all
kinds of insults, against which there was no possible
defence. Although our Peking Foreign Office pass-
port set forth that in case of need help should be
given us, this was a mere formula, and was of no
practical advantage ; we really experienced nothing
but hostility from the Chinese, and their local au-
thorities were always delighted at any inconvenience
and annoyance that befell us. Our visits to the
towns of Bautu and Ding-hu were marked by such
scenes as could never have occurred had the Chi-
nese functionaries been better disposed towards us.
In proof of this assertion I will presently relate an
accident which befell us in the earlier part of De-
cember. But now let us return to our narrative.

The valley of the left bank of the Hoang-ho at
its northern bend presents a grassy aspect like that
of the right bank. The clayey soil is covered with
thick clumps of the high dirisun grass ; beside the
river there is a growth of bushes ; whilst nearer the
mountains the surface of the plain becomes shingly.
The absolute height of this country, like Ordos, does
not exceed 3,500 feet. The Chinese population is
dense, particularly nearer the river, while at the foot
of the mountains are the habitations of Mongols who
have fled hither from the uplands and from Ordos.
Chinese soldiery are quartered in the villages as a

к

ENCOUNTERS WITH CHINESE SOLDIERS. ii

protection against Dungans. In the district between
the towns of Ning-hia-fu and Bautu the number
of these troops is estimated at seventy thousand,
although numerous desertions are said to have dimi-
nished this army to one-half of its nominal strength.
The soldiers are so demoralised that they do nothing
but plunder the inhabitants, who look upon them as
terrible scourges. The Mongols often told us that
they had more cause to dread the presence of their
defenders, the Chinese soldiers, than that of the
Dungans, because the latter * robbed them once for
all, and had done with it, but the soldiery kept con-
tinually looting.'

Even we had some disagreeable encounters with
the Chinese soldiers. Once they tried to take
possession of our camels ; on another occasion two
soldiers ordered us to draw water out of a well for
their horses. But the rascals were punished as they
deserved, and left us somewhat crestfallen.

Near the mountains we saw the old channel of
the Hoang-ho (Ulan-khatun), which is 1,190 feet
wide, and very distinctly discernible, although com-
pletely dry and grass-grown. The Mongols told us
that this desiccated river-bed separated from the
present Hoang-ho at the point Avhere the sand-drifts
of Ordos crossed into Ala-shan ; the old channel
passes close to the mountains for a considerable dis-
tance, then taking a sharp turn it unites with the
present river near the western extremity of the
Munni-ula.

There are two lesser arms between the former

12 CAME. INORDINATE TEA-

and present channels of the Hoang-ho which dry up
during the hot weather, but are full of water at flood-
time. Besides the main river and its channels, there
is no water in the valley, except in wells, which
are invariably very deep. The streams which
rise in the border range disappear immediately in
the soil, not one of them flowing as far as the
Hoang-ho.

We found several wintering^ kinds of birds in the
valley, viz. Falco tinniinculus^ Circus sp. ? Plectro-
phanes lapponica, Otis tarda, Cotiirnix imtta, Anas
7'utila, and innumerable pheasants {Pkasianus torqua-
ttts). The latter haunt the long grass called diristin,
and owinof to the absence of water come to drink at
the wells, where they may be shot in any numbers
from a place of ambush. I preferred, however,
shooting them with my setter, Faust, and the first
day bagged twenty-five, besides losing some wounded
birds, which were difficult to find owing to the
length of the grass, and the pace at which they run.

When the nature of the valley of the Hoang-ho
became steppe-like, kara-sultas and dzerens ap-
peared in numbers, and every day's sport included
some of these animals, which replenished our sup-
plies of provisions. However, the favourite delicacy
of the Mongol whom we hired at Ala-shan, as well
as of our Cossacks, was brick tea, which they con-
sumed in inordinate quantities, especially when milk
was procurable, which, to use an expression of the
Cossacks, ' whitened ' the tea and gave it a dainty
relish. A bucketful of this nectar was the usual

DRINKING. OROGRAPHY. 13

allowance. This tea-drinking was a great nuisance
to us, particularly when we were in a hurry to
proceed on our journey ; but nothing would induce
either Mongol or Cossacks to stir till they had
boiled their tea and refreshed themselves with long
draughts of this beverage. Finding that the spirits
of the party often depended on the consumption of
tea, particularly of the whitened kind, I made up my
mind to submit to it.

Our route in the valley of the Hoang-ho skirted
the border range which extended as an uninterrupted
wall as far as the river Haliutai. Here the moun-
tains suddenly become much lower, in fact are no
higher than hillocks, and retreat to one side of the
abrupt cliff which continues to define the valley of
the river. These hillocks serve as connecting links
between the mountains on the border and the
Sheiten-ula chain, which extends eastwards as far as
the river Kunduling-gol. The latter is a low but
rocky and treeless range, as far as we could see very
deficient in water.

Almost on the meridian of the western termina-
tion of the Sheiten-ula rise the westernmost spurs
of the Munni-ula. Between these two chains of
mountains lies the broad valley of the Hoang-ho,
thickly populated by Chinese. A belt of sand-drifts
here prepares the traveller coming from the east for
the frightful deserts of Ordos and Ala-shan.

At the Kunduling-gol we rejoined the track of
our outward journey, so that from this point forward
we had the benefit of a map and travelled no longer

14 FROST, WIND, AND SLEET.

\

at haphazard. Moreover, no further surveys were
necessary, and the labours of the expedition were
consequently lightened. This relieved us of very
troublesome work ; and indeed surve^nng in winter
is so arduous that I got two fingers on each of my
hands frostbitten whilst working with the compass.

Early in December Ave left the valley of the
Yellow River, and ascended by the Shohoin-daban
to the more elevated border of the plateau, where we
again experienced severe cold. The thermometer
at sunrise descended to —327° Cent. ( — 26° Fahr.) ;
and the frost was often accompanied by strong
winds and sleet. All this happened in the very
place where in summer we had 37° Cent. (98°
Fahr.) of heat. Thus the traveller in Central Asia
must endure scorching heat and Siberian cold, and
should be prepared for sudden changes from one
extreme to the other.

My companion, still weak and shaken in health,
was obliged to sit on horseback day after day, wrapt
in a sheepskin cloak. We, who usually Avent on
foot, did not feel the cold so much whilst on the
march ; but in camp the severity of the winter \vas
felt by us all with a vengeance. How well I re-
member the purple glow of the setting sun in the
west, and the cold blue shades of night stealing over
the eastern sky. We луоиЫ then unload our camels
and pitch our tent, after first clearing away the snow,
which was certainly not deep although dry and fine
as dust. Then came the very important question of
fuel, and one of the Cossacks usually rode forward to

INCONVENIENCES ARISING FROM COLD. 15

the nearest Mong-ol yurta to buy argols if we had
not already laid in a supply. We paid a high price
for the argols, but this was a lesser ill ; how much
worse was it when they refused to sell them to us, as
the Chinese often did ! Once, at our wits' end for
fuel, we were obliged to cut up a saddle in order to
boil a little tea, and had to content ourselves with
this frugal supper after a march of 23 miles in severe
cold and snow-storm !

When a fire was lighted inside our tent the
warmth was sufficient at all events for that part of
the body which was immediately turned towards the
hearth ; but the smoke irritated the eyes, and when
aggravated by dust became almost unbearable. In
winter the steam from the open soup-kettle com-
pletely filled our tent, reminding us of a Russian
bath, only that of course the temperature was very
different. Boiled meat became quite cold before we
had time to eat it, and the hands and mouth were
covered with a layer of grease which had to be
scraped off with a knife. And in the stearine candle
that lighted us at supper-time, the part close to the
wick would burn down so low, that we had from
time to time to break off the outer shell, which
remained unaffected by the flame.

For the night we piled round the tent all the
packs and closed the entrance as tightly as possible,
but notwithstanding all these precautions the temper-
ature inside our dwelling was very little Avarmer
than out of doors, as we kept up no fire after
supper-time until morning. We all slept under fur

i6 DISTURBED REST. SHIRETI-TSU.

cloaks or sheepskin coverings, generally undressing
to sleep more comfortably. While asleep we were
warm enough, because our whole bodies, head and
all, were under the coverings, and we sometimes
added felts over all. My companion slept with
Faust, and was very glad of such a bedfellow.
Hardly a night passed quietly. Prowling wolves
often frightened our camels and horses, and the
Mongol or Chinese dogs would occasionally enter
the tent to steal meat, generally paying the penalty
of their lives for such unceremonious behaviour.
After such an episode, how long it was before
he whose turn it had been to quiet the startled
camels, or to shoot the wolf or thieving dog, could
get his blood a little warm again !

In the morning we all rose together, and shiver-
ing with cold, made haste to boil some brick tea ;
then we folded the tent, loaded the camels, and at
sunrise continued our journey in the sharp frosty air.

One would have expected that in returning by
the same road we had come we should have avoided
many accidents, and might have reckoned before-
hand the length of our marches, but in this we were
deceived ; one more misadventure had yet to be
encountered. This occurred in the following way :
Late in the evening of the 1 2th December, we halted
for the night at the temple of Shireti-tsu, 53 miles
to the north of Kuku-khoto, on the high road
from that town to Uliassutai. The following morn-
ing all our camels, seven in number exclusive of a
sick one, were allowed to graze near the tent not far

CAMELS LOST; LAMAS REFUSE HELP. 17

from some camels belonging to other caravans which
were on their way from Kuku-khoto. Just at this
place the steppe grass was entirely trodden down ;
our beasts therefore crossed a little hill a short dis-
tance off to find some better food and seek shelter
from the wind, which had been blowing in gusts for
five days without intermission. After a little while
a Cossack and our Mongol started to drive back to
the tent the strayed camels, but they had dis-
appeared from the hillock, and their tracks, partly
obliterated by the wind, were undistinguishable from
those of other camels. As soon as I heard of their
disappearance, I despatched the same men in search
of them ; they were absent the whole day inspecting
the camels of all the caravans in the neighbourhood,
but not a vestige could be seen or heard of the
animals, which were as completely lost as though
they had been swallowed up by the earth. Early
the following morning I sent my Cossack interpreter
to the monastery of Shireti-tsu, on the land of which
we had sustained the loss, to give notice of the theft
and ask assistance in finding the missing camels.
Our messenger was very reluctantly admitted into
the monastery, where the lamas, after examining our
Peking passport in which it is mentioned that assist-
ance is to be given when needed, coolly remarked,
* We are not the guardians of your camels ; seek
them yourselves as best you can.' A similar reply
was given by the Mongol official, to whom we like-
wise applied for aid. Meanwhile the Chinese refused
to sell us straw to feed our only remaining sick
VOL. II. с

1 8 UNSUCCESSFUL SEARCH; DESPERATE POSITION.

camel and two horses, whilst the steppe grass was
so trodden under foot by the camels belonging to
passing caravans as to afford no fodder whatever.
Our poor beasts were dying of starvation, and one
of the horses was frozen to death at night ; the sick
camel expired two days afterwards, and lay directly
in front of the entrance of our tent, completing the
picture of our misery. We were now left with only
one horse, which could hardly move its legs. This
beast was only saved from starvation owing to the
fancy the Chinese took for satisfying their dainty
appetites with our dead camel, which was tolerably
fat, and which we exchanged for twenty-five trusses
of good hay.

The Mongol and Cossack were sent off a second
time in search of the missing animals, but returned
after a few days, and declared that they had ridden
a great distance and made many enquiries, but could
learn nothing of the lost camels. Of course it was
impossible to find them without the assistance of the
local officials. I therefore decided on hiring some of
the neighbouring Chinese to convey us to Kuku-
khoto, whence we hoped to find means of convey-
ance to Kalgan. The Chinese however, notwith-
standing their mercenary natures, were not tempted
by the offer of a large sum of money, and would not
agree to be our carriers at any price, fearing, of
course, the responsibility which they might incur
towards their authorities.

Our position now seemed a desperate one. For-
tunately at this time wc had two hundred lans in

IV£ BUY INFERIOR CAMELS. 19

cash (50/.), left over from the amount reahsed by the
sale of our merchandise and guns at Ala-shan. I
therefore resolved to send the Cossack with the
Mongol to Kuku-khoto to buy fresh camels. But
the question was, how were they to go, as we had
only one horse left, and even that was unfit for use ?
First then I started with the Cossack interpreter to
try and buy a horse at some Mongol quarter. After
walking the whole day, we succeeded in purchasing
one, and the following morning the Cossack and
Mongol started for Kuku-khoto. There they bought
new, but very inferior, camels, and these at last
enabled us to continue our journey, after a detention
of seventeen days at Shireti-tsu. Thus, besides the
loss of time, we sustained a very considerable loss
in money also. Several of our animals had perished
before this, owing to want of food and water, heat,
frost — in fact from the difficulties of the route. In
the first year of the expedition we lost, altogether,
twelve camels and eleven horses ; most of the latter
however were exchano^ed with the Mongols for better
animals, of course with considerable additional pay-
ment.

During this long detention, caused by the loss of
our camels, we had hardly any occupation, and there
were no birds of any kind except larks and sand-
grouse. Writing was also out of the question, be-
cause, in the first place, there was nothing to record,
and secondly, because it is no such easy matter to
write in winter out of doors ; you must first thaw
the frozen ink, and hold your pen frequently to the

с 2

20 TRADE CARAVANS. DZERENS.

fire while writing to prevent the ink in it from con-
geahng. And I always preferred writing my journal
in ink, only using a pencil in extreme cases — the
latter rubs out so easily and becomes illegible.

Every day caravans passed us on their way from
Inner Mongolia, Uliassutai, and Kobdo to Koko-
nor. They carried leather and wool to barter with
the Chinese for millet, tea, tobacco, flour, cotton
yarn, and other articles of domestic use. With
the exception of tea, all the other articles might
be supplied by the Russians if our commercial rela-
tions with Mongolia were more extensive. Kobdo,
Uliassutai and Urga, the chief places in the north
and the richest part of the country, are almost
adjacent to our Siberian frontier, and yet all the
imports to these towns are derived from China, and
it is to China that the inhabitants go to make their
purchases, travelling thousands of miles across the
desert and passing months on the way.

On fine calm days I went after dzerens, which
were plentiful at a distance of three miles from
camp. At that time the dzerens were attacked by
an epidemic producing great weakness, soon followed
by death. Numbers of their dead bodies strewed
the steppe, where they were devoured by crows and
wolves, and were also collected for food by the
Chinese, who came from Kuku-khoto for this
purpose.

Although we were not on the best of terms with
the inhabitants, whose character we thoroughly un-
derstood by this time, Mongol visitors would often

PETTY THEFTS. FORCED MARCH. 21

drop in. On one of these occasions our guests stole
our last axe and hammer, trifling but indispensable
articles for our journey. No others could be ob-
tained, and it was useless attempting to recover the
stolen ones. We therefore substituted a hand-saw
for the axe, and in the place of a hammer we made
use of a big stone, which we carried with us and
used every day to drive the iron tent pegs into the
frozen ground.

As soon as we had obtained new camels, we
hurried to Kalgan by forced marches, only stopping
for two days in the Suma-hada mountains to hunt the
argali ; this time I succeeded in bagging two old
rams. Another accident happened to us on the road.
My friend's horse took fright, shied, and ran away.
Michail Alexandrovitch was too weak to keep his
seat on horseback, and fell head foremost on the
frozen ground, so heavily that we picked him up
insensible. However, he soon came to himself,
only suffering a slight contusion.

The influence of the warmth of China on this
border land of Mongolia was very remarkable ; on
calm days or with gentle south-westerly winds it was
quite warm during the day. On the loth Decem-
ber the thermometer marked 2*5° Cent. (35° Fahr.)
in the shade. But no sooner did a westerly or
north-westerly Avind spring up than it became cold.
The night frosts were generally moderate ; the
thermometer at sunrise did not descend below — 297°
Cent. ( — 20° Fahr.), but after a cloudy night it only
registered —6-5° Cent. {20° Fahr.). The weather

22 NEW YEAR'S EVE 1872.

was generally clear. Snow only fell three times
during the whole of December, covering the ground
in places several inches thick, although many parts
remained quite bare of snow.

The icy winds of Siberia, the almost constantly
unclouded sky, the bare saline soil, and its great
altitude above the sea, combine to make the Gobi or
desert of Mongolia one of the coldest countries in
the whole of Asia. But though even here, on the
/Tongolian border adjoining China, the great eleva-
ion of the plateau of course affects the temperature,
the climate is far less severe than in remoter parts
of the Gobi, and only on rare occasions are the
extreme rigours of its winter experienced.

Every day's journey diminished the distance
which separated us from Kalgan, and increased our
impatience to gain that town. At last the long-
wished-for moment arrived, and at a late hour
on New Year's Eve (12th January) 1872, we ap-
peared before our Kalgan fellow-countrymen, who
received us as hospitably as before.

The first act of the expedition was ended. The
results of our journey, which had been so gradually
collected, now became plainer. We could say with
clear consciences that so far w(; had fulfilled our
task ; and this amount of success only whetted our
passionate desire to plunge once again into the heart
of Asia, and strive to reach the distant shores of
Lake Koko-nor,

PREPARING FOR NEW JOURNEY. 23

CHAPTER II.

RETURN TO ALA-SHAN.

Start for Peking— Packing collections — New outfit ; rifles ; revolvers —
Merchandise — Fresh Cossacks — Trial of guns — Effect on the in-
habitants— Mongol dog ' Karza' — Water barrels — Departure from
Kalgan — Late spring — Migration of birds — To the Munni-ula —
Spring vegetation — Leave for the Hoang-ho — Rice fields — Shoot-
ing carp — Unattractive valley — Sandy borders of Ala-shan and its
vegetation — Inanimate nature — Envoys from the prince — Arrival
at Din-yuan-ing — The Czar's officer — Trafficking — Favourable op-
portunity to proceed — Prince opposes our departure — Intrigues of
Sordji — Want of funds — Sale of guns and merchandise— Fortune
befriends us — Preparations for a start — Departure of caravan —
Detention — Siya's promise — Disappointment — Anxiety — Siya
again — Good news — We join caravan — Our travelling companions
— Lama-warriors — Randzemba — His passion for the chase — With
the caravan — Poisoned wells — Great fatigue — Inquisitive visitors
— Pursuit of science under difficulties — Tingeri sands — Mountains
of Kan-su — Snowy peaks — Cultivation — Great Wall of China —
Town of Ta-jing — Watch towers — White bread — Choice of routes.

A FEW days after my return to Kalgan I started for
Peking, to obtain fresh supplies of money and make
preparations for a new journey. My companion
remained at Kalgan with the Cossacks to lay in a
store of different small articles required for the
expedition and buy camels, those we had obtained
at Kuku-khoto having turned out worthless.

Two months, January and February, quickly
glided past in the bustle of preparation, packing and
despatching our collections to Kiakhta, and writing

24 PASSPORTj GUNS,

reports of our last year's explorations. We were as
straitened as ever in our finances, the sum assigned
for the use of the expedition in 1872 not having
been received in full at Peking. But this difficulty
was happily arranged, thanks to the renewed kind-
ness of General Vlangali, who again lent me the
necessary moneys, amounting to even more than
the anticipated receipts of the current year. The
General also procured from the Chinese Government
a passport to enable us to travel in Kan-su, Koko-
nor, and Tibet. The Government, however, offici-
ally notified that, owing to the disturbed state of
these countries, travelling in them was attended by
considerable danger, and they would in no case be
responsible for our safety.

To provide for any emergency which might
arise, I determined to Increase the number of our
guns, which, as we have already seen, are the best
defence a European can have in travelling through
those parts of Asia which are inhabited by a treach-
erous and cowardly set of thieves.

At Peking and at Tien-tsin I soon obtained
several breech-loaders and revolvers. The best of
my new guns was a rifle by Berdan, carrying a bullet
at point-blank range upwards of 400 paces, a quality
of the greatest importance in firing at unmeasured
distances. This gun I reserved for my own use.
My companion and one of the Cossacks each took a
Snider, and the other Cossack a Martini-Henry with
a seventeen-barrelled revolving chamber ; lastly, a
fifth Spicer rifle was taken in reserve. We supplied

i

AMMUNITION, AND MERCHANDISE. 25

ourselves with 4,000 prepared cartridges for these
guns ; besides which we had 1 3 revolvers, 2 Rem-
ington pistols, a double-barrelled Lancaster rifle, and
four shot-guns, for which we carried 2^ cwt. of shot
and 4 cwt. of gunpowder.

These constituted our fighting and sporting
equipment. In every other respect we were obliged
to stint ourselves as far as possible, owing to our
limited means. To cover some of the expenses of
outfit and provide for the continuation of our journey,
I travelled to Tien-tsin,^ where I bought sundry
small merchandise to the amount of 80/., which I
hoped to sell at a good profit at Ala-shan. After
all these purchases had been completed, we had only
87 lans (about 22/.) left in our pockets at the time
of our departure from Kalgan.

The personnel of our expedition was now re-
organised. The two Cossacks who had accompanied
us during the first year proved to be untrustworthy,
and suffered so dreadfully from home-sickness that
I determined to dismiss them and procure others
instead. My two new travelling companions were
selected from the detachment stationed at Urga, and,
fortunately for us, proved most devoted, efficient,
and zealous coadj'utors during the whole of our long
journey. One was a Russian youth, aged 19,
named Pamphile Chebayeff, the other a Buriat,
Dondok Irinchinoff We soon struck up a close
friendship with these good men, which eminently

* Tien-tsin is a little over 66 miles in an easterly direction from
Peking ; and is situated near the mouth of the Peiho, by which ri\cr
seagoing steamers of a moderate size ascend as far as that town.

2б TRIAL OF GUNS. MONGOL DOG.

conduced to the success of the expedition. Sepa-
rated as we were from our own country, in the
midst of foreigners, we Hved Hke brothers, sharing
аНке hardships and dangers, joys and sorrows. Can
I ever forget the companions whose fearless courage
and devotion to the cause contributed so powerfully
to ensure our ultimate success ? . . .

As soon as the new Cossacks arrived at Kalgan,
I divided between them the rifles and revolvers, and
daily practised them in their use. Before starting
on our journey we went through the manoeuvres for
repelling a false attack ; for this purpose we fixed a
target at a distance of 300 paces, and all fired as
rapidly as possible. The results were brilliant : it
was struck all over with our shot ; and on another
nearer mark the small bullets from the revolvers
rained like a shower of peas. The Chinese col-
lected In crowds to witness the sight, never before
having seen breech-loaders, and only shook their
heads as they looked on at the tricks of the ' foreign
devils,' while some applauded vehemently, declaring
that if they had but a thousand such soldiers, they
would soon crush the Dungan insurrection.

Besides our trusty Faust, we now took a large
and very savage Mongol dog, called ' Karza,' to
serve as a watch-dog. This animal followed us
through the whole of our second expedition, and
was of great service. He soon forgot his former
Mongol masters, and was a most inveterate enemy
of all Chinese, frequently ridding us of intrusive
visitors. On first acquaintance, Faust took a dis-

WATER SUPPLY. 27

like to Karza, and the two were bitter enemies to
the last. It is remarkable how seldom European
dogs fraternise with their Chinese or Mongol
brethren, however long they may live in company
with them.

Among other articles of outfit, we supplied our-
selves with four flat water-barrels, ^ each holding
about eight gallons. We had suffered terribly from
the want of water during the hot weather in the first
summer of our travels, and profiting by our past
experiences we took a supply this time. Altogether,
our equipment was more complete than last year.
But the baggage for our second expedition weighed
27 cwt., making in all nine camel-loads. Every day
we helped the Cossacks to pack the loads on the
camels, having been unable to find a Mongol to
replace the one who had accompanied us from
Ala-shan to Kalgan, and who had refused to return
to his home with us.

Before starting on our journey I sent a report
to the Geographical Society, giving an account of
our first year's travels, concluding in these words :
' Thanks to the cordial assistance rendered by our
ambassador at Peking, I am now supplied with a
passport from the Chinese Government to enable
me to enter Koko-nor and Tibet. I have also two
new Cossacks who appear to be trustworthy ; and if
we are all able to do our best, M. Pyltseff and I
hope, notwithstanding all the difficulties which must

' When the Mongols cross the Gobi in summer they always carry
some of these Hat water-casks, which they call Khubina; two of them
filled with water make a load for one camel.

28 DEPARTURE. LINGERING WINTER.

beset the path of the traveller in countries so remote
and amidst so unfriendly a people, to succeed In our
enterprise.' These expectations were fully realised,
and good fortune never deserted us.

On the morning of March 1 7th we left Kalgan,
taking the same route by which we had returned
the year before from Ala-shan. The first evening
we again felt the severity of the climate of Mon-
golia ; spring had not commenced here, although at
the end of February the weather at Kalgan was
tolerably warm. Waterfowl had appeared In large
numbers, and Insects were numerous. On the
plateau, however, all this was changed. The snow
had certainly all melted, but thick blocks of last
winter's ice still encumbered the streams ; the ther-
mometer marked several degrees of frost, cold winds
prevailed, and birds of passage had not yet ap-
peared ; In fact, the steppes of Mongolia bore a
wintry aspect.

Like the spring of last year, the frost, wind, and
snow, varied by an occasional warm day, continued
throughout March and even the whole of April. The
atmospheric changes, especially from heat to cold,
were very sudden. Thus at i г.м. on March 25th,
the thermometer marked 22° Cent, of heat (72°
Fahr.), and the following day 5° Cent, of frost (23°
Fahr.). Again, In the beginning of April, after some
warm days, accompanied by thunderstorms, on the
night of the 12th two feet of snow fell, and the
mercury receded 19° Fahrenheit, after which frost
and snow continued till the end of April, when

DRYNESS OF THE AIR. BIRDS. 29

summer weather suddenly set in, in the valley of the
Hoang-ho. •

The early spring this year differed from the last
in the greater frequency of snow-storms and com-
paratively rare occurrence of NW. winds, although
it blew hard for several days in succession. The
dryness of the air was as remarkable as ever, a fact
we were reminded of not only by the psychrometer,
but also by the extraordinary dryness of our lips and
hands, the skin of which cracked and had a polished
appearance.

The flight of birds even in March was very
small ; during the whole of that month we only
remarked 26 kinds,^ in small numbers, sometimes
only one or two of a species. Geese and cranes
appeared in large flocks, but they flew high, hardly
ever alighting to rest. Even in the wooded moun-
tains of Munni-ula, where we passed the latter end
of April, birds of passage, including small birds,
were very scarce. In all probability, these winged
wanderers, in their flight to the North, keep as long
as they can within the limits of China Proper, shel-
terinor themselves behind the orreat border ranees of
the plateau, only ascending the latter when driven
to their last extremity and compelled to turn their

' They appeared in the following order : — Anser segetum. Anas
rutila,Cygnusmusicus, Milvus govindus, Larus occidentalis (?), Vanellus
cristatus, Saxicola leucomela, Saxicola Isabellina, Motacilla paradoxa,
Ruticilla erythrogastra, Upupa Epops, Ardea cinerea, Anthus pra-
tensis, Anser grandis, Larus ridibundus, Anas tadorna, Anas crecca,
Anas acuta, Recurvirostra Avocetta, Aegialites cantianus, Grus
Virgo, Cygnus olor, Anser cinereus, Lanius major, Grus cinerea,
Totanus calidris.

Зо CHEERLESS SPRING. MUNNI-ULA.

backs on the warm plains of China, and face cold
and hunger on the barren deserts before they can
reach their favourite northern haunts. Yes ! even
Siberia, awful as the name may sound to many,
is a paradise compared to these deserts ; its spring
is real spring, not the crippled substitute which
greets you in Mongolia. Here, even in April,
nothing reminds you that Nature has awakened from
her winter's sleep — everything is yet dead and inani-
mate. The yellow grey steppe appears as uninviting
as ever ; the carol of the lark or the song of the
linnet are rare sounds, and no other songsters visit
these plains. The streams are still waterless ; the
salt lakes drier than in summer, when rains supply
the evaporation, and the icy cold blasts of winter
heighten the dreariness of the landscape.

For a little more than a month we journeyed
from Kalgan to the Munni-ula range, where we
determined to make some halt in order to observe
the flights of small birds and collect the spring flora
of these mountains. We had first intended return-
ing to the Hoang-ho in the beginning of March,
crossing that river over the ice into Ordos, and there
watching the migration of birds of passage ; but we
were disappointed in our expectations, only arriving
at the Munni-ula mountains on April 22nd, by which
time most of the birds were gone. We had there-
fore to give up our second visit to Ordos, and con-
tent ourselves with the Munni-ula.

Here, towards the end of April, vegetation made
rapid progress, especially in the lower and middle

DEARTH OF BIRDS. 31

belts on the southern slopes of the mountains. The
wild peach-trees and bushes were in full blossom,
relieving the sombre tints of the hill-sides, which
were not yet green. The ravines, particularly where
the sun's rays found entrance, were covered with
young grass and here and there little flowers such
as the anemone {A. Pulsatilla and A. barbiclata),
milk vetch [Astragalus sp.) and Gagea sp. peeped
forth. The poplar, aspen-tree, and willow were in
leaf, and the buds of the white and black birch
bursting. On the higher alpine meadows vegeta-
tion had not yet felt the warmth of spring, but the
snow had thawed even on the highest summits of
the mountains.

Judging from the situation of the Munni-ula, in
the midst of bare steppes half way between north
and south, one would have expected that numbers
of small birds would have been attracted hither ;
but this is not the case. During the eleven days
we spent here we found only four more kinds of
birds ^ than we had observed in July of the previous
year ; and even these were solitary specimens which
had apparently found their way hither by stealth or
by accident.

Disappointed in our anticipated ornithological
harvest, we left the Munni-ula on May 4th, and
started for Ala-shan, ascending the left bank of the
Hoang-ho, i.e. by the same route as we had taken
in winter when returning to Kalgan. The only

^ Turdus ruficollis, Emberiza pithyornus, E. pusilla, Scolopax rus-
tirola.

32 RICE-FIELDS. FISHING.

difference we made this time was in not crossing the
Kara-narin-ula, but keeping the whole way at the
foot of these mountains. After entering the valley
of the river, we passed three days at a place called
by the Mongols Kolo-sun-nur, where rice-fields are
cultivated by Chinese, who irrigate them by means
of artificial canals leading from the Yellow River.
On this flooded land we counted about 30 kinds of
birds, chiefly belonging to the orders Grallatores and
Natatores, of which we had seen none on the dry
steppes of Mongolia. ^ Even here these birds were
not numerous ; the best time for their migration had
passed by, and only a few lingered behind the rest.
Our ornithological studies this spring were so far
unsuccessful, and the only observation, and that of a
negative kind, which we were enabled to make was
that birds of passage shun the waterless deserts of
Mongolia.

Our occupations were now varied with a little
fishing. The carp {Cyp74ims carpio) spawn early
in May, and every morning and evening large num-
bers might be seen disporting themselves in the
shallowest parts of the flooded fields. Here was an
opportunity not to be lost for satisfying our craving
for a fish diet. We first pulled off our boots, and,

^ Anser cygnoides. Anas poecilorhyncha, Anas falcata. Anas quer-
quedula, Fuligula cristata, Fuligula ferina, Phalacrocorax Carbo,
Pelicanus crispus, (?) Podiceps sp., Sterna leucoptera, Totamis ochro-
pus, Tringa subminuta, Scolopax gallinago, Actitis liypoleucus, Aegi-
alites minor, Platalea leucorodia, Ardca alba, Liniosa melanuroides,
Hybsibatcs himantopus, Botaurus stcUaris, Glareola pratincola, Ha-
liactos Macei, Pandion sp., Motacilla citreola, Motacilla flava, Anthus
Richardii, Hirundo rufa.

ASPECT OF VALLEY. 33

taking our guns, waded towards the spot where we
could see the carp jumping. So intent were they
with their games as not to notice us, and we gene-
rally approached to within a few paces of them ;
then, watching our opportunity, we shot them as they
rose to the surface, and in this way secured some
fine fish every day.

In the beginning of May the heat in the valley
was intense ; the mercury rose to 31° Cent. (88° Fahr.)
in the shade, whilst the water was heated only to 21°
Cent. (70° Fahr.), rendering bathing a pleasant relief.
Hardly any rain fell, and vegetation was checked
by the excessive heat as much as it had been by the
preceding cold season. The yellowish grey tint of
the valley at this time was particularly unattractive ;
only a few tufts of green grass h^d sprung up, in the
midst of which solitary '^o\^QX4>{TIiermopsis lanccolata,
Astragalus sp., Hyperoiim sp., Potentilla sp.. Iris sp.)
raised their heads timidly in the midst of sur-
rounding desolation. Wherever a white layer of
salt covered the soil, it had the appearance of driven
snow, even when you were close to it ; in such spots
not a blade of green could be seen — nothing but
withered clumps of dirisun. The whirlwinds fre-
quently raised columns of saline dust, which blinded
us and aggravated our sufferings. Only those parts
of the valley were a little more cheerful where last
year's vegetation had been completely burnt up by
the early spring heats, and where towards the
middle of May some green grass had appeared.

In the border range vegetation was equally
VOL. ri. D

34 PLANTS AND

scanty. The high rocks and ddbi'is on the hill-sides
appeared the same as in winter ; even the ravines
in the mountains were very little better. Naked
sand, boulders and crumbling rock, a few crooked
dwarf elms, wild peach, or clumps of acacia, were
the ever-recurring objects which met the travellers'
eyes. Even on the banks of some tiny rivulet,
which, after flowing a very short distance above
ground would quickly hide itself beneath the soil
as though it feared to encounter the terrors of the
wilderness, the narrow fringe of verdure was mostly
devoured by the Mongol goats.

The boundary of Ala-shan is marked by a line
of drift sands, which, as we know, cover the whole
of Trans-Ordos. The scantiness of the vegetation,
notwithstanding the advanced season (end of May),
was even more remarkable here than in the country
through which we had passed. Indeed, the aspect
of nature hardly differed from that which we had
observed late in the previous autumn : here were
the same cheerless yellow sands, the same patches
of zak, the same clayey hillocks with clumps of
stunted karniyk. If perchance some stray flowering
grass {SopJiora fiavescens, Ttirnefortia Arguzia,
Convolviiltis Ammani, Pegami^n sp., Carduus sp.)
appeared, it was only as a stranger or foster-child
of so unprolific a parent. Two or three kinds of
bushes [Convohitlus tragacanthoides, Nitraj'ia Scho-
beri, Calligommi Mongolicum ?) were in flower, but
they only grew in clayey spots so far apart as not to
brighten the prevailing gloom of the landscape.

BIRDS OP ALA-^HAN. 35

Still less can be said of animal life in these
regions. The flooded fields in the valley of the
river were the resort of water-fowl, and in the tall
tufts of dirisun could be heard the call of many a
pheasant ; small birds were also now and then seen,
but on entering Ala-shan all was changed, and
scarcely a note broke the stillness of the desert.

The same death-like silence reigned in the moun-
tains bordering the left valley of the Hoang-ho.
When I passed the night near the summit of Mount
Koir-Bogdo, while on a hunting excursion, the even-
ing and early morning were as still and voiceless
as in winter ; the only sounds were the noise of
the buzzard, and the hideous cry of a kite or vulture.

The climate of these reofions harmonizes with
their whole nature. After sultry heat in the begin-
ning of May, it suddenly froze on the 1 7th of that
month, the thermometer marking 2° Cent. (29°
Fahr.) at sunrise ; to this succeeded hot weather,
followed by a short interval of moderate tempera-
ture, after which the heat again became intense, the
thermometer in the middle of June registering 40°
Cent. (104° Fahr.) in the shade.

In April and May violent winds sometimes
occurred, but less frequently than at the same season
in the previous year. While these lasted, the air
was so thick with dust as almost to prevent respira-
tion ; the sun was darkened and everything covered
with a thick layer of dust, which entered eyes, nose,
and mouth. The direction of the wind was vari-
able : during April it generally blew from the NW.

Зб PARCHING AIR. ENVOYS.

and SW., or cold quarters ; in May from the SE.,
or warm quarter.

Rain fell more frequently in the latter month
than in the former, and was sometimes accompanied
by thunderstorms ; but it only lasted a short time,
and the atmosphere became terribly dry. All our
things suffered ; we were obliged to moisten our
collection of plants, otherwise they became so brittle
as to break into little bits. I could hardly write my
journal, for the ink dried in the pen as rapidly as it
froze in winter, thus affording a curious instance of
similar effects being produced by two opposite causes
— heat and cold.^

Towards the end of May we entered Ala-shan,
and soon afterwards met two officials sent from
Din-yuan-ing by the prince to welcome us and con-
duct us through the desert. The real motive of
their politeness was impatience on the part of the
prince and his sons to receive our presents, of which
they had heard through Baldin Sordji. We met
this lama in April, near the Munni-ula, on his way
home from Peking, whither he had been sent by his
master on business. We presented him with aj
token of our gratitude for his past services, andj
showed him the handsome presents which we were'
bearing to the princes. With these gifts we hoped^
to win over to our interests the lords of Ala-shan,^
upon whose good-will our future journey to Lake
Koko-nor entirely depended.

i ' The parching air

Burns frore and cold performs the effect of fire.'

Гакл]Л8к Lost.— Y.

THE CZAR'S OFFICER. 37

The officials who met us at once began asking
about the presents ; they told us how desirous the
princes were to receive them, and entreated me to
send them in advance ; to this I consented, and for-
warded to their sovereign a large two-coloured plaid
and a revolver, to his eldest son a plaid and a
microscope, and to each of the younger a Reming-
ton pistol, with 1,000 prepared cartridges. On re-
ceiving the presents, although the hour was late, one
of the officials immediately took his departure, the
other remaining with us.

On June 7 we arrived at Din-yuan-ing, and esta-
blished ourselves In a house prepared for our recep-
tion. The inquisitiveness of the people as usual
gave us no peace, until we tied our fierce Karza to
the gate of our house, where he kept the rascals at a
respectable distance.

The evening of our arrival we were visited by
our friends, the Gigen and Siya. My uniform as an
officer of the staff, which I had purposely brought
with me from Peking, produced a great impression
upon the young princes, who examined it attentively.
They were now more than ever convinced that I was
a high functionary, perhaps the trusted agent of the
Emperor himself They had often questioned me
last year about this ; but when they saw me appear
in a brilliant uniform, their suppositions were entirely
confirmed. Henceforward I received the title of
ihe Czars officer, by which I was called during the
remainder of our journey. I did not attempt to re-
move this opinion of my importance, which suited

4^5078

38 TRAFFICKING.

me, inasmuch as it explained the object of our
journey. In future the people always said of me
that the Tsagan-khan (i.e. White Khan) had sent
his officer into their country to see them and their
land with his own eyes, that he might return home
and tell him everything.

Early the next morning Sordji and others called
on us on behalf of the prince and his sons to examine
and buy our merchandise, requesting us in their
names to sell to none but themselves. Now began
our troubles. One lama took a microscope, another
a stereoscope, a third soap and needles, a fourth
cloth, &c. ; all these articles kept continually chang-
ing hands as first one, then another examined them.
The princes were not nearly so eager to buy this
year as they were last, although we fixed much
lower prices. The old prince, however, was delighted
with the stereoscopes and slides, and at once bought
our whole stock.

In the meanwhile an excellent opportunity pre-
sented itself of getting to Lake Koko-nor. At Din-
yuan-ing we overtook a caravan of twenty-seven Tan-
gutans ^ and Mongols, who had lately arrived from
Peking, and were about to pursue their journey to
the temple of Chobsen, in the province of Kan-su,
forty miles to the NNE. of Si-ning, and five days'
journey from Lake Koko-nor. The Tangutans were
overjoyed at our proposal to join their party, count-
ing on our protection in case of an attack by Dun-

* The Taiv^iitans are allied uith the Tibetans. Л description of
Jiem will be found in Chapter J\'. of this xnlunie.

THE TAN GUT AN CARAVAN. 39

gans. The further to impress them with the
efficiency of our arms, we went through some firing
exercise with rifles and revolvers. Numbers of
spectators were present, and great was their astonish-
ment at the rapidity and accuracy of our fire. The
Tangutans almost danced with delight at their
good luck in having secured such travelling com-
panions.

The opportunity which thus presented itself of
reaching Chobsen was a real piece of good fortune.
Without it we could not have expected to procure a
guide even across Southern Ala-shan. We were still
more pleased when we heard from the Tangutans
that their temple was situated in the midst of lofty
mountains covered with forests, abounding in birds
and wild animals. In fact, nothing could have been
more opportune. We had only to obtain the consent
of the Prince of Ala-shan to our departure with the
Tangutans, who could not otherwise take us with
them.

He, however, tried by every means in his power
to deter us from proceeding to Koko-nor. What his
motives may have been I cannot say ; most probably
he obeyed instructions from Peking, and had perhaps
received a rebuke from head-quarters for his civility
to the Russians last year.

However that may have been, Baldin Sordji now
took an active part in forwarding his master's in-
trigues ; at first he suggested our consulting the
lamas as to whether the ausfuries were in favour of
our journey. Of course they would have opposed

40 OPPOSITION.

our departure, and prophesied all sorts of misfortunes
if we went. The same ruse was tried last year with
the view of discovering who we really were, and
they threatened, if we persisted in our refusal to
enlighten them, to find out through the Gigens ; but
all these artifices signally failed, owing to our deter-
mination not to submit to anything of the sort. We
were then told that the Tangutans would travel very
rapidly — thirty miles a day, or even more, and that
Ave could not endure the fatigue of such long marches,
especially as we should have to travel a good deal
by night. To this we begged Sordji to mind his
own business, and not trouble himself about our com-
forts on the road, of which we were the best judges.
Finding that our resolution was still unshaken, he
drew an alarming picture of the difficulties of the
road, of the lofty mountains which we must cross on
the way to Chobsen, and which were almost if not
quite impassable for camels. ' We had better wait a
month,' he added, ' and then the Amban (governor)
would give us guides to Koko-nor.' But having
been assured a few days before by the same indivi-
dual that no guides for Koko-nor could be procured
at any price in the whole of Ala-shan, and that not
even the threat of capital punishment in case of
refusal would induce them to go, so afraid were they
of the Dungans, we put no faith in his promises.
To make this bait more tempting, a Mongol officer
called on us, of course at the bidding of Sordji, and
related as a profound secret how the prince had that
day given orders in the.yamen (i.e. public office) for

FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES. 41

two gfuides to be in readiness to escort us to Koko-
nor, or even to Tibet if we wished to visit that
country.

In the meanwhile our interview with the prince
was put off from day to day under the pretext of his
indisposition ; the real cause of the delay being his
fear lest I should insist on being allowed to depart
with the caravan of Tangutans. Nor did we see the
eldest son ; the Gigen and Siya came frequently to
visit us, without, however, inviting us to their house
as formerly. In fact, our reception was far less
cordial than last year.

On the other hand, our finances were in a worse
plight than before. Of 87 lans (22/.) which we had
when we started, only 50 (12/. iO-s\) remained, and
we had to buy six new camels and two horses to
continue our journey. Three of the eleven camels
with which we had left Kalgan, and both our horses,
had died on the road. The only way of raising
money was by the sale of our merchandise. Had
the prince only known of our circumstances, he could
have detained us without the slightest difficulty by
refusing to buy our goods and forbidding any of his
subjects from purchasing of us. If луе let slip this
opportunity, and the caravan were to leave Din-
yuan-ing without us, we must for ever despair of
reaching Koko-nor even with money. Here was a
nice state of affairs caused by a beggarly want of
funds.

Good luck again came to our rescue in the most
extraordinary way. The Gigen agreed to give us

42 SORDyi T£J/J'UA'/S£S.

six camels and loo lans (25/.) in money for a
Spencer breech-loading rifle. He certainly valued
the camels at 50 lans (12/. 10^.) a piece ; on the other
hand, the price I had asked for the gun was eleven
times more than I gave for it, so that the thing was as
broad as it was long. After receiving about 1 20 larts
(30/.) more for some of our other merchandise, we
were sufficiently independent to act with decision. I
told Sordji that I would certainly accompany the
Tangutans, and demanded a return of the things
taken, or payment for them in money.

On the evening of June 13, the day before that
fixed for the departure of the caravan, Sordj'i came
to inform me that the prince had ordered the Tan-
gutans to remain two days longer in town. All this
time the lama never ceased urging us to remain,
assuring us of the prince's grief at our speedy depar-
ture, of his fondness for Russians, and of his liking
for their goods, especially stereoscopes, guns, cloth,
soap, candles, &c. counting them off on his fingers as
he repeated the words. He entreated us to give a
gun to the prince, and another to his eldest son, or
some other good article, even if it were Russian
clothes. In fact, nothing could exceed the shameless
behaviour of the prince and his sons in asking us to
make them presents. They were so importunate
at last that we were obliged to conceal some of our
things whenever we expected visitors.

After persisting in my demands, I received 258
lans (62/. los.) from the prince for the articles he
had taken, which, added to the sum we already pos-

FORTUNE BEFRIENDS US. 43

sessed, amounted to 500 lans {125/.) and fourteen
camels.

We were certainly very fortunate. The depar-
ture of the Tangutan caravan was positively fixed
for the morrow; and although we had received no
intimation from the prince of his consent to our
journey, we were no longer told that we must stay,
and his family seemed to be aware of our plans, the
Gigen having sent us a pair of horses as a present.

It would be difficult to express our satisfaction as
we worked till late at night making preparations for
a start the next day. Before sunrise the following
morning all our party were astir loading the camels.
Half of them were ready when a Tangutan suddenly
appeared with the news that the caravan would not
leave that day, a band of Dungans having been
reported to have been seen in the vicinity of Din-
yuan-ing. Unwilling to believe the Tangutans, I sent
M. Pyltseff and a Cossack to enquire if the report
were true ; they soon returned and told us that the
caravan was quite ready to march.

Sordji now apjDeared with his version of the
story, which he reiterated at length : my patience was
completely exhausted, and I abused him in round
language. He then explained that the Tangutans did
not wish us to accompany their caravan, and that they
were bad people, although hitherto he had always
praised them.

At this moment I heard that the caravan was leav-
ing the town. Accordingly, we finished loading the
camels, and, escorted b)- the mob, marched out of the

44 S/VA'S PROMISE.

. I

courtyard of the house with the intention of follow- ^
ing. Before we had proceeded a hundred paces,
Siya rode up and assured me that the Dungans had
been again heard of, and that, although it had started,
the caravan would be turned back ; the young prince
ended by entreating us to remain till the whole affair
was satisfactorily explained. Siya's companion, the
lama chief of the Tangutans, who had been so
anxious hitherto that we should travel together, now
repeated the words of the prince, and urged us to
defer our departure.

His appearance and his sudden change of manner
had more weight with us than all the warnings of
the prince. We could no longer count on him as a
friend, but must regard our future travelling com-
panion as an enemy ; how, then, could we place con-
fidence in him ? As a last resource, but one which
I knew could not lead to much, I asked Siya if he
would give me his word of honour that we should
not be cheated, and that the caravan would not
leave without us ? * I give it willingly ! I answer
for it,' he joyfully exclaimed, caring very little how
he attained his object of detaining us. The lama
chief also assured me that they would not start with-
out us. Accordingly, we turned into the prince's
suburban garden and pitched our tent, awaiting
further events.

How can I describe our disappointnient, particu-
larly at first ? It was certainly too bad. The long-
cherished object of our desires, to gain which we
had suffered so much, the prize which we had seemed

DISAPPOINTMENT. 45

on the point of winning, was suddenly snatched from
our grasp. We knew not for how long. Had we
been told on our first arrival at Din-yuan-ing that
we must not proceed with the Tangutans, the disap-
pointment, although great, would not have been half
Avhat we now experienced. We had never ventured
to hope for such a favourable opportunity, and now
it was doubly hard to bear when success appeared
so certain. We passed all that day on the tip-toe
of expectation. Sordji and the other lamas never
once came near us ; only Siya arrived towards even-
ing, and him I frightened by threatening to complain
on my arrival at Peking of the way we had been
treated by the authorities of Ala-shan. The young
prince, evidently ashamed at the part he had taken
in all these intrigues, entreated us to wait a little
while longer, assuring me that the Tangutans would
on no account leave without us. After my past
experiences I could put little faith in these as.su-
rances, and was turning over in my mind what part
of Mongolia I should next explore, when suddenly,
towards evening the following day (June 17), Siya
again appeared, bearing the welcome tidings that the
Tangutan caravan was at a short distance from the
town, and we might join it the next day. The scouts
who had been sent to reconnoitre reported that
nothing could be seen of the Dungans, and that the
alarm was a false one. Of course this was merely
to blind us ; no Dungans had passed anywhere near,
but most probably the Prince of Ala-shan wished to
gain time to send to Ning-hia-fu, and ask for instruc-

4б

ALL ENDS WEL^L.

tions from the governor of that town how to aci
under the circumstances. The secrecy observed
with reo-ard to all travellers in China is so trreat that
I could not discover, either then or afterwards, why
we were detained at the moment of departure, and pre-
vented for two days from proceeding on our journey.
However, we had no more time to think of it, and
we were overjoyed at the favourable turn of events.

Kutukhtu-Lama of high rank.

(Froin a Photo;^rapli lent by P.aron Osten Sacken.)

The prospect of fulfilling our great enterprise gave
us no rest the remainder of that day and night.
The caravan with which we were now associated was
equljjped at Peking by one of the most important of

THE LAMA-CARAVAN. 47

the Kutukhtus of Mongolia — the Gigen Djandji,
owner of a great many churches at Peking and in
MongoHa, including the renowned monastery of
Utai, not far from Kuku-khoto. The saint himself
was born at the temple of Chobsen, in the province
of Kan-su, whither our future companions were now
travelling. They were a motley assemblage. Ex--
elusive of our four selves, the caravan numbered 37
men, ten of whom were lama-warriors, sent as an
escort by the Gigen of Ala-shan ; the others were
mostly Tangutans, natives of Chobsen ; there were
also a few Mongol pilgrims on their way to pray at
Lhassa. For the conveyance of all their luggage,
72 camels and 40 horses, including our own, were
required. The chiefs of the caravan were Donir-
Lamas (treasurers of Lamasiries), Tangutans by
birth, and excellent obliging men. To cement our
friendship with them, I gave to each one a small plaid.

All the members of the caravan were armed with
matchlocks, lances, or swords. They had the repu-
tation of being brave, almost foolhardy men, to
venture at such a time into a country infested with
bands of maraudinof Dung^ans. The couragre of our
companions, however, as we shall presently see, was
not great even when the danger was only of an
imaginary kind.

The lama- warriors carried English smooth-bores,
bought by the Chinese Government, and sent from
Peking to Ala-shan. Their guns, however, were of
an inferior kind, and were rendered still more unser-
viceable by careless treatment. But the appearance

48 RANDZEMBA :

of the escort in their red blouses and forage caps,
mounted on camels, was very striking and pictu-
resque ; as for their fighting capacities, they were no
better than their fellows. But the most remarkable
personage of the party was a Tangutan named Rand-
zemba, on his way from Peking to Tibet. He was
a man of about forty, frank in manner and good-
natured, very talkative, willing to assist everyone,
and have a finger in everybody's pie. The loquacity
of our new friend, accompanied with his emphatic
gestures, suggested our bestowing upon him the sobri-
quet of the ' many-worded, Avvakum^ which very
soon passed through the caravan, and became
thenceforward the usual appellation of Randzemba.
His ruling passions were the chase and target firing ;
the latter amusement was indeed frequently indulged
in by the whole party. Almost every day, as soon as
we had arrived in camp, some would begin shooting
at a mark ; others would soon gather round, first as
mere spectators, then, desirous of trying their skill,
they would bring their guns, and in this way the
firing became general. Randzemba was the leading
spirit of all these parties. It was enough for him if
he heard the report of fire-arms ; no matter what he
might be doing at the time, even though asleep or
resting after a long march, the indefatigable Avva-
kum would rouse himself at once and proceed bare-
footed to the scene of action. Here he \vould
frequently advise how the target should be placed,
upon the size of the charge, how a broken gun might
be repaired, &c. Although he had the reputation of

HIS PASSION FOR THE CHASE. 49

being a good sportsman, he certainly did not distin-
guish himself as a marksman, and invariably used
such heavy charges that his shoulder was constantly
swelled from the recoil.

Our friend always rode on horseback, leaving
the laden camels to tv/o of his companions. He was
ever on the alert for game ; no sooner had his quick
eye detected antelope than he galloped up to offer
us the option of shooting it, or sometimes stalked
them himself, having rirst lighted the slow match of
his gun. His companions, upon whom devolved the
whole care of the pack animals, were evidently not
very well pleased with their friend's turn for sport-
ing. On one occasion they punished him by obliging
him to lead the pack animals, when, to our surprise
we saw Randzemba no longer mounted on his horse,
but leading his camels by the halter. He did not,
however, endure this restraint on his liberty for
long. As ill-luck would have it, antelope were
plentiful that day, and Randzemba, perched upon the
back of a camel, could see a long way. In whatever
direction he chanced to look, his eyes were sure to
rest upon some of these animals ; this was too much
for his forbearance, and after watching us start off in
pursuit of one of the kara-sultas (black-tailed ante-
lope), his excitement knew no bounds, and, oblivious
of all else save the one absorbing passion of the
chase, he led his pack animals into a ravine, Avhere
they were found by his countrymen, Avho, seeing how
impossible It was to put any trust In so restless a

VOL. II. E

so CARAP'AN STARTS.

mortal, relieved him from his duties, and allowed him
once more to mount his steed and enjoy his favourite
pursuit.

The day after we joined the Tangutans the cara-
van started. We brought up the rear with our camels,
in order not to detain the others by any stoppage
arising from the refastening of a pack or any accident
of that kind. Althouo-h the sale of our merchandise

о

at Din-yuan-Ing had considerably diminished the bulk
of our baggage, the necessity for laying in a stock
of provisions (rice and millet), which we had heard
were unobtainable in Kan-su, besides other minor
purchases, such as spare ropes, felting, &c., increased
our effects so materially that we had still nine good
camel-loads. It was now more difficult for our
party of four to manage this train, being no longer
independent as to our movements, but obliged to
keep pace with the caravan. I tried In vain to hire
a Mongol assistant, but no one w^uld come even
for a good sum of money. It was with the greatest
difficulty that I succeeded in persuading some of the
Tangutans to allow our camels to pasture with their
own at night on payment of a rouble (2^-. 6d) a day
to the watcher. As for the other work, we had to
do It all ourselves, and could find no spare time
even to think of science on the road.

We generally rose about midnight, in order to
avoid the heat of the day, and marched from twenty
to twenty-five miles, or even more sometimes, to the
halting-place, which was usually near a well ; but if
there were; none near, we would dig a hole in the

POISONED IV ELLS. 51

ground, in which the salt water would collect. Some
of our companions had often made the journey be-
fore, and knew the way perfectly across these deserts.
They could tell directly which were the most likely
places for \vater : in some places the precious fluid
was not more than three feet below the surface ; in
most of the road-side wells it was generally very
bad, and, to make it worse, the Dungans often threw
into them the bodies of dead Mongols. I cannot
help shuddering now when I remember how one
day, after having drunk tea, we proceeded to give
some drink to the camels, and discovered the putrid
carcass of a man lying at the bottom of the well
from which we had drawn w^ater for our own use !

We could not sleep at the halting-places because
of the great heat of the soil and the stifling atmo-
sphere. Notwithstanding which, we had to remove
the pack-saddles of the camels to prevent their backs
from becoming sore, as they infallibly would in the
hot weather if we neglected this precaution. It took
us an hour to water our animals — a tedious process
which had to be performed every day in hot weather,
each camel consuming on an average six gallons at a
time. Even at night our rest was disturbed owing
to excessive exhaustion.

For the first few days our tent was beset by
inquisitive visitors. They would know everything.
Our guns — every article we possessed, no matter
how insignificant, was an object of interest to them.
They would take it up, examine it closely, smell it,
and ask numberless questions, which we had to

52 SUSPICIOUS COMPANIONS.

answer again and again, as the curiosity of every
new-comer had to be satisfied. This Avas very tire-
some, but could not be avoided if we wished to keep
on good terms with our fellow-travellers, upon whom
the success of our journey so greatly depended.

A good deal of curiosity, almost amounting to
suspicion, was excited by our habit of collecting
plants, recording meteorological observations, and
writing a journal. I tried to avoid suspicion by ex-
plaining that I made notes of all I saw to refresh
my memory when I returned home, and had to give
in my report ; as to my plants, they were for medi-
cinal purposes, and the stuffed birds and animals for
exhibition ; the object of my meteorological observa-
tions was to know beforehand what the weather
would be. Of the truth of the last statement they
were quite satisfied, after a fall of rain which I had
foretold by means of the aneroid. The title of * the
Czars officer' which had followed me from Din-
yuan-ing, served to dispel the doubts and distrust
of our companions. However, I could not make
many observations which I should otherwise have
done for fear of causing great suspicion, and deferred
doing this till my return journey, contenting myself
for the present with a route survey, which was very
imperfect, owing to the want of a pocket compass,^
and the intrusiveness of our companions. Some-
times it was absolutely necessary to make an entry
in my pocket-book ; for this purpose I intentionally

• I was obliged to give both my small compasses to the princes of
Ala-shan.

SOUTHERN ALA-SHAN. 53

loitered behind the caravan, and, sitting down on my
heels, made notes of the surrounding objects. Even
then I had to exercise the greatest caution, because,
if once found out, I could never have removed the
suspicions which would have arisen as to the objects
of our journey.

The difficulties of collecting plants were also
very great. No sooner did we gather some herb
than a number of the Tangutans would surround us,
exclaiming, ' Yamur yem ? ' (What medicine is it }) or,
* Tsisik sehken fiihna ? ' (Isit a good flower ?) When
any of our party shot a bird, they would ride up and
enquire what bird we had killed ? was it good to
eat ? how had we shot it ? &c. These annoyances,
however disagreeable, had to be endured with the
best possible grace.

The road from Din-yuan-ing led at first south,
and afterwards almost due west, to the town of Ta-
jing, v/hich is situated Avithin the limits of the pro-
vince of Kan-su.

The south of Ala-shan differs but little from the
northern and central parts of that country : like them,
it is a wilderness in the full meaning of the word ; its
sands are even more extensive, and have well earned
their Mongol appellation of Tingeri, i.e. sky. These
drift-sands form the southern border of Ala-shan,
from the Hoang-ho on the east to the river Etsina
on the west, as we were told by the Mongols.
Havingr crossed the Tinoferi for ten miles in their

О о

narrowest eastern part, w^e became well acquainted
with them.

54 SAND-DRIFTS.

The Tingeri have the appearance of innumerable
hillocks, lying- close together, without any regularity.
They are from fifty to sixty feet, rarely one hundred
feet high, composed of fine yellow sand on a hard
clay subsoil, with occasional bare patches of clay.
A few rare tufts of mat grass {Psamnia villosd) and
field mugwort are here and there scattered over
these clayey areas, now and then protruding through
the sand ; or more rarely some shrub of the legumin-
ous order makes its appearance. But such scanty
vegetation makes no impression on the death-like
character of these deserts, the only living creatures
in which are the kites and small black 'marmot. The
loose sand, heated by a burning sun, is constantly
carried by the wind from one hillock to another,
lying in ridges or furrows between the mounds.
These greatly impede the progress of the caravan,
especially of the pack-animals, which have to climb
from one hillock to another, sinking deep at every
step in the loose soil. There is no track here of
any kind ; nothing but dried camels' dung, and an
occasional skeleton of one of these beasts serve to
show you the direction you must take. You gene-
rally steer by the sun. It is terrible to be caught in
such places in a whirlwind. The summits of the
sandy hillocks at first appear as though enveloped in
smoke ; the air becomes darkened with clouds of sand,
which obscure the sun. The best time for crossing
these hillocks is after a rain-fall, when the hardened
soil supports the weight of the camels and the air
remains clear.

KULIANG AND LIANG-CHU. 55

On the clay flats, which alternate with the bare
sand, the most common plants in Southern as in
Northern Ala-shan, are the budarhana and karmyk,
occasionally the field mugwort, and a low stunted
shrub, the Sarcosygiiim xanthoxylon ; the zak, or
saxaicl, is never found here. The country is undu-
lating, and a few small hills now and then vary the
monotony, sometimes prolonged into chains. These
hills, never rising more than a few hundred feet
above the surrounding plain, are generally entirely
devoid of vegetation ; such as there is, it does not
differ from that of the adjacent desert. During our
march with the Tangutan caravan we saw no inhabi-
tants. Everything was destroyed and pillaged by
the Dungans, Avho sometimes made their appearance
in bands in Southern Ala-shan in quest of more
plunder. We saw by the roadside several human
skeletons, two ruined temples, and whole heaps of
putrefying corpses, half devoured by wolves.

After crossing the Tingeri, we directed our march
along their southern border, over barren clay with
only two kinds of saline plants, and soon the mag-
nificent mountains of Kan-su rose in front of us,
towering above the adjacent plains like a huge
rampart ; while in the far distance the snowy peaks
of Kuliang and Liang-chu might be discerned. One
more march, and this grand range stood before us in
all the majesty of its matchless beauty. The desert
as suddenly terminated. Hardly more than a mile
from the sands, which extend far to the westward,
cultivated fields, flowery meadows, and Chinese

5б THE GREAT WALL.

farmhouses gladden the sight. Culture and desert,
life and death, are placed in such close juxtaposi-
tion that the astonished traveller may well doubt his
own eyes.

This contrast in the nature of the country which
still forms the boundary between that of roving
nomads and that of settled cultivators is defined by
the same Great Wall which we had seen at Kalgan
and Ku-peh-kau. Hence it continues westwards
over the mountains bordering the plateau, passing
round the south of Ordos, and abutting on the Ala-
shan mountains, which form a natural barrier to the
desert. From the southern end of the last-named
range, the Great Wall continues along the northern
border of the province of Kan-su, past the towns of
Lang-chau, Kan-chau, and Suh-chau to the fortress
of Kia-yui-kwan. The Great Wall (if we can call it
by such a name here) bears no resemblance to the
gigantic edifice near Peking. Instead of an immense
stone building, all we saw on the border of Kan-su
was a mud wall, greatly dilapidated by time. A
short distance to the north of it, about three miles
and a half apart, stand clay-built watch-towers
twenty-one feet high, by about as much square
at the base, now entirely deserted, but formerly
garrisoned by ten men, whose duty was to signal
the approach of the invader. The line of Avatch-
towcrs is said to have extended from the province
of Hi to Peking itself, and news was conveyed by
it with marvellous rapidity. The signal was smoke
which rose from the summit of the tower, a fire

TA-JING. 57

having been lighted inside. The Mongols gravely
assured me that the fuel used on these occasions
was a mixture of wolves' and sheep's dung, and that
the sm.oke rose perpendicularly in the air, no matter
how strong a wind blew.

Rather over a mile beyond the Great Wall
lies the small town of Ta-jing, which escaped the
Duncrans. At the time of our march it луаз Q-ar-
risoned by i,ooo Chinese troops, Solones ^ from
Manchuria, near the banks of the Amur. They all
understood Russian, and some could even speak it,
saluting us Avith a ' How do you do } I hope you are
well.'

Oar caravan did not enter the town, but halted
immediately outside its mud wall, where we hoped
to obtain some respite from unwelcome visitors.
But vain were such hopes. In a moment the news
of our arrival had passed through the town, and we
were invaded by crowds of sightseers. Not content
with looking from a distance, the Chinese actually
forced their way into our tent, and gave us not a
moment's peace. It was no use driving them out,
or setting the dog at them, because no sooner had
one lot disappeared than another made its appear-
ance. Officers rode up to our tent, and asked us to
show them our guns and make them some present.
On our refusal, they demanded to see our passports,
and threatened to prevent us from proceeding on
our journey. This continued for two days, i.e. as
long as we were at Ta-jing. Here we found a very

' See Supplementary Note.

5 8 LEAVENED BREAD.

rare thing — some excellent leavened bread, baked
with yeast.^ This was the first of the kind we had
seen, and we never afterwards saw any more of it.
Of course луе took a good supply for the road.
Whence this mode of bakincr bread was introduced

О

I cannot say, although the Solones told us that some
years ago they taught the art to the local bakers,
having learnt it from the Russians on the Amur.

The best road from Ala-shan to the temple
of Chobsen, and also to Si-ning and Lake Koko-nor,
passes through the towns of Sa-yang-chen and
Dj"ung-ling ; but we took a more westerly course
through Ta-jing, in order to avoid the Chinese
towns and population, which is thickly scattered
along the more easterly and better road. Our
fellow-travellers were so well aware of the difficulties
to which they would have to submit at the hands of
the Chinese authorities and soldiers, if they marched
through the populous region, that they preferred
following the mountain paths leading from Ta-jing
to Chobsen through districts thinly inhabited and
depopulated by the Dungans.

^ In China only unleavened bread is used, and that always newly
baked. The Abbe Hue, however, in the description of his journey
through Tartary, mentions some excellent leavened loaves which he
found in Kan-su, near the town of Sa-yang-chen, therefore not far
from Ta-jing. — Hue, ' Souvenirs d'un Voyage en Tartarie/ &c., t. ii.

1

THE HIGHLANDS. 59

CHAPTER III.

THE PROVINCE OF KAN-SU.^

First sight of Kan-su — Marginal range — Ta-yi-gu — Sung-shan —
Abundance of water — Ruined villages — A false alarm — Harsh
treatment of prisoner — Gold washings — Profusion of vegetation —
Another adventure — Randzemba and the breech-loaders — Mystery
explained — Temple of Chertinton ; its superior or abbot — We
leave our camels and horses — The Rangtu-gol — Cultivated and
thickly-populated plain — The Taldi — The temple of Chobsen ;
its images and idols ; its militia garrison — Arrival at Chobsen —
Drying the collections — Stagnation of trade — Start for the moun-
tains— Description of the mountains of Kan-su — Northern and
Southern chains — Snowy peaks — ' Aiimch ' the sacred mountains —
Geology — Minerals — Climate — Flora: trees, bushes, &.c. — The
Rhubarb plant {Rliciim pabuatum) — Method of obtaining and pre-
serving it — Artificial cultivation — Rhododendrons — Characteristic
plants of Kan-su — Luxuriant meadow-land — Fauna of Kan-su —
Mammals — Birds ; their classification — Birds of alpine zone —
Absence of water-fowl — Excessive humidity — Thunderstorms —
Sodi-Soruksum ; splendid view — Mount Gadjur ; its sacred lake
— Terror of natives — Guides refuse to proceed — Autumn — Camels
suffer — Chobsen besieged — Perilous situation — Prepare for de-
fence— Night-watch — Hire guides to Koko-nor — Consult auguries
— Halt — Supplies — Departure — A critical moment — ^Appearance
of Dungans — Mur-zasak — Tatung-gol — Koko-nor at last.

We left Ta-jing on the morning of June 20, and the
same day ascended the mountains of Kan-su, where
we suddenly found ourselves in a new climate sur-
rounded by a new nature. On first entering this
region we were impressed with its lofty elevation
and the grand mountains rising to the limits of

' The name of Kan-su is derived from two of its towns — Kan-chau
and Suh-chau. Yule's ' Marco Polo,' new ed. vol. i. p. 222. — M.

6o ROAD OVER THE MOUNTAINS.

perpetual snow. Although only twenty-seven miles
distant from the desert of Ala-shan, the soil was
remarkably fertile, and the humidity of the climate
ensured abundance of water. The flora and fauna
also marvellously changed ; a profusion of rich
grass clothed the plains and valleys ; dense forests
darkened the steep slopes, and animal life appeared
in great variety. But to return to our narrative.

As is the case with other mountain-chains of
the Mongolian plateau, this marginal range in Kan-su
shows its full development only on the side of the
Ala-shan plain ; whilst on the other face the declivity
is short and easy. Even the snow-capped peaks
of Ku-liang and Liang-chu, about thirty miles to
the right of our road, apparently do not rise much
above the plateau, and their southern slopes are
only marked with occasional patches of snow. The
ascent is by a ravine hemmed in by precipitous rocks
of schistous clay ; the road is tolerably good, and
even practicable for wheeled conveyances. On
either side are lofty rugged mountains, abounding in
excellent pasturage for cattle ; forests grow near the
axis of the range, but at some distance from the road.

After crossing the pass (nineteen miles from the
entrance to the mountains), луе came to the small
Chinese town of Ta-yi-gu, destroyed by the Dun-
gans, but at this time garrisoned by i,ooo Chinese
soldiers. Its height is 8,600 feet, while Ta-jing is
only 5,900 feet above sea-level.^

^ On entering Kan-su, our aneroid got out of order; all further hy-
psometrical observations were, therefore, made with boiling-water.

A FALSE ALARM. 6i

Leaving the little town of Sung-shan (also de-
stroyed by Dungans) on our left, we directed our
march across an uneven steppe which lay imme-
diately beyond the border range, between it and
other mountains that rose in front of us.

We had no further cause for trouble about pastu-
rage or water. Water poured from every cleft in
the rocks, and the profusion of rich grass reminded
us of our meadows at home. Here we saw dzerens
(steppe antelopes), and a small herd of horses run
wild, which had been let loose at the time of the in-
surrection. They were so shy that we tried in vain
to capture one.

Traces of the ravages committed by the insur-
gents now met us at every step. The numerous
villages were all in ruins, human skulls littered the
ground, and not a soul was to be seen. Our
companions showed symptoms of the greatest
cowardice ; they refused to make a fire at night,
lighted their matchlocks, and begged us to go in
front : all their fears, however, were dissipated in the
most ludicrous way.

In the valley of the Chagrin-gol, the lamas espied
some men running away ; taking them for Dungans,
and overjoyed at the small number of the enemy,
they opened fire, although the fugitives were a long
way off. My companion and I hastened to the scene
of action, imagining that an attack had actually been
made, but when we saw how matters stood we re-
mained as spectators. The lamas continued firing
although the enemy were by this time out of sight.

б2 TREATMENT OF PRISONER.

After discharging his piece every man shouted at
the top of his voice before reloading. This is the
usual style of warfare, alternately firing and uttering
terrible cries to frighten the enemy.

At length our brave warriors started in pursuit
and caught one man who turned out to be a Chinese.
He may possibly have been a Dungan for the
Mahommedan Chinese do not differ in appearance
from their Confucian brethren. It was resolved to
put the prisoner to death as soon as the caravan
arrived at the next halting-place ; in the meantime
he was compelled to walk beside his captors. He
was caught trying to get off by hiding in the long
grass at the road side, so he was tied by his queue
to the tail of one of the mounted camels.

On arrival at camp the prisoner was fastened to
one of the packs, while the lamas sharpened a sword
intended to cut off his head. But now a dispute
arose as to whether he should be put to death,
some of them wishing to spare his life. Under-
standing perfectly their conversation, which was in
Mongol, the Chinaman never lost his composure.
When tea was ready he was invited to join in the
meal, receiving as much attention as an invited
guest. Greatly to our astonishment he drank it as
though nothing out of the common way had hap-
pened, the lamas filling his cup while they discussed
his execution. Finding this extremely disgusting,
we started off on an excursion into the mountains.
On our return towards evening we learned that,
thanks to the mediation of the leaders of the caravan,

UPPER WATERS OF HOANG-HO. 63

the man's life had been spared, and that he would be
set at liberty in the morning.

After crossing the Chagrin-gol, a good-sized
stream flowing in a south-westerly direction to the
town of Djung-ling/ we again entered mountains,
which now form no part of the border range, but
are piled up on the lofty plateau of Kan-su. This
chain runs parallel with the largest of the tributaries
of the upper Hoang-ho, viz. the Tetung-gol or
Tatung-ho, flowing from the north ; another equally
gigantic range rises on its southern bank. I Avill
presently describe the orography of this region, but
now continue the narrative of our journey to the
temple of Chobsen.

From the Chagrin-gol we ascended the valley of
the Yarlin-gol ^ by a road practicable for wheeled
carriages, although it has been much neglected since
the Dungan insurrection. No inhabitants were to
be seen. We passed several abandoned gold-wash-
ings ; all the streams in these mountains are said to
abound in the precious ore. Water is everywhere
plentiful, and the character of the scenery thoroughly
alpine. Like the Munni-ula, the Ala-shan range,
and most of the mountains of Mongolia, the outer
slopes are the wildest ; towards the passes the scenery
becomes tamer. Some towering peaks, however, are
visible even here, as for instance, Mount Gadjur, Avhich

' This town is situated on the Chagrin-gol, twenty-three miles
below the spot where we crossed this stream, which is apparently a
branch of the Tatung.

'^ This stream flows into the Chagrin-gol : we saw in its valley an
image of Maidari, fourteen feet high, cut out of the rock.

б4 MOIST CLIMATE.

we could see on our right ; but none of them attain
the limit of perpetual snow.

We now passed through a belt of underwood,
soon afterwards succeeded by forests which grow
chiefly on the southern slopes ; the upper zone was
thickly covered with grass. New kinds of plants
met our eyes at every step ; almost every shot we
fired added some fresh specimen to our bird collec-
tion ; but we had no time to linger over these
pleasures, so eager were our companions to reach
their destination, and so fearful of Dungans. We
could only make the best use of our opportunities as
they presented themselves. To add to our difficul-
ties the rain fell incessantly, and the atmosphere was
saturated with moisture, rendering it impossible to
dry our collections, which were consequently ruined
by the damp ; and even our guns were rusted by it.

After crossing the pass, the ascent of which is
gradual and the descent only a little steeper, we
encamped for the night in the mountains. Here
another adventure befell us. Our Cossacks, who had
gone to fetch wood, observed a fire burning in an
adjoining ravine, and some men near it. On hearing
this report everyone in camp was on the alert,
imagining that they were robbers preparing to attack
us by night. We determined to reconnoitre before
it became quite dark, and accompanied by eight of
the caravan, our friend Randzemba among the num-
ber, we cautiously approached the fire ; but we were
soon observed, and the enemy fled. The lamas at
once pursued, yelling at the top of their voices, but

A FALSE ALARM. 63

owing" to the thick underwood, and approaching'
twihght, could not overtake the fugitives. We all
assembled round the deserted camp fire, on which
stood an iron bowl containing food, with a bag of pro-
visions lying near it. Judging from the small size
of the cooking vessel that the party could not be
numerous, and that after all they might not be
robbers, our companions began holloaing in Mongo-
lian, Tangutan, and Chinese to invite the strangers to
return. The only response vouchsafed was a shot,
fired from a clump of bushes on the brow of the hill,
which whistled close by us. In return we fired
about fifteen times in the direction of the smoke, the
lamas joining in, and Randzemba of course taking a
leading part. For a long while afterwards he could
talk of nothing else but the breechloaders, and on re-
turning to camp in answer to all questions put to him
by his companions, he would exclaim, ' Ay lama, lama,
lama ! ' vehemently shaking his head and wringing
his hands to express his unutterable astonishment.

We determined to mount guard that night, and
lay down to rest with our guns under our heads as
usual. Hardly had I fallen asleep when I was
roused by the report of a shot close to our tent,
followed by a loud cry. Seizing our guns and
revolvers, we ran to the door, and found that the
sentry had fired into the air. * Why did you do
that ? ' I asked him. ' To let them know wq are
watching,' was the answer. The Chinese soldiers
frequently did this, at least the militia assembled for

VOL. II. F

66 MYSTERY EXPLAINED. TANGUTANS.

the defence of Chobsen constantly wasted their am-
munition in this way. The following day the whole
mystery was explained. At dawn two Tangutan
sportsmen appeared, asserting that they and their two
companions had run away from us, that one of their
party had fired supposing us to be Dungans, but
that nothing had been heard of him since. They
beofored us to restore the bagf of clothingr which the
lamas had appropriated as their legitimate spoil.
These, however, not only refused to surrender, but
thrashed the strangers soundly into the bargain, for
their companion's impudence in having fired upon
us !

On resuming our march, we fell in with an en-
campment of Tangutans, with their black tents and
herds of long-haired yaks, called sarloks by the
Mongols. After crossing some more spurs of the
great range, we reached the bank of the Tatung-gol,
and encamped for the night near the temple of Cher-
tinton. The impregnable position of this temple
saved it from falling into the hands of the rebels,
and made it a secure place of refuge for the neigh-
bouring Tangutan population. In the next chapter I
will describe this people more fully ; suffice it for the
present to remark, that at first sight we were struck
with their resemblance to gipsies.

The Tatung-gol, where we now approached it,
about half way from its source, is a rapid stream 140
feet wide, fiowing in a stony channel, in some places
between precipitous walls of rock, but occasionally
forming picturesque valleys, in one of which, shel-

TEMPLE OF CHERTINTON. 67

tered by enormous cliffs, stands the temple of Cher-
tinton.

The superior of the temple, a Gigen (i.e. living
Buddha) is a very remarkable man. On learning of
our arrival he invited us to his house to drink tea
and make his acquaintance. We gave him a stereo-
scope, with which he was delighted, and we soon
became good friends. Unfortunately he was a native
Tangutan, and could not speak Mongol ; our con-
versation was, therefore, carried on through the
medium of two interpreters, the Buriat-Cossack and
a Tangutan. Our host was an artist and made a
sketch of our first meeting with him.

The valley of the Tatung-gol is so deeply cut
into the mountains that the elevation of the temple
is only 7,200 feet, the lowest spot we visited in the
district, although to the eastward, i.e. towards the
Hoang-ho, the valley of its tributary is of course
lower.

The fords of this river are only practicable at
low water, and even then are very difficult : a bridge
has, therefore, been thrown across it, two miles
above the temple ; but the gates at either end are
too narrow to allow of the passage of loaded camels.
We had, therefore, to unload our beasts, and hire
Chinese to carry our things across. Here we pitched
our tent, and remained five days, in consequence of
the illness of the Cossack Chebayeff. Our com-
panions could not wait so long, and left us to con-
tinue their journey to the temple of Chobsen, only
forty-seven miles distant. Our compulsory five days'

68 VALLEY OF RANGTA-GOL.

halt was very agreeable, enabling us to make ex-
cursions into the mountains, and to study their flora
and fauna. The profusion of both one and the other
made me decide on returning to this spot, and de-
voting the whole summer to the special study of the
mountains round Chertinton.

We were told positively that our baggage ani-
mals could not pass the range on the right (southern)
bank of the Tatung ;^ accordingly we left camels and
horses, and hired Chinese to carry the baggage on
mules and asses to Chobsen.

On July I, we ascended one of the tributaries of
the Tatung, the Rangta-gol, by a narrow path leading
through a defile in which we saw the black tents and
wooden huts of the Tangutans. The hills are well
wooded up to their higher zones, which are covered
with underwood. Enormous rocks rise on all sides
and shut in the lateral defiles. The ascent was very
steep, almost precipitous, and the beasts could hardly
keep their footing. The view from the summit,
however, is splendid, overlooking a wide uneven
plain, which presented a remarkable appearance as
we saw it, swathed in fleecy clouds with a bright sun
and clear sky overhead.

The descent on the opposite side is short but
abrupt,^ leading to an extensive hilly region, on
the outskirts of which is the town of Si-ning, at the
foot of lofty snow-clad mountains. This is a well-

* This information afterwards proved incorrect ; pack-camels may
cross the mountains, although with considerable difficulty.

- The ascent from the Tatung by the valley of the Rangta is
twenty-three miles long, the descent on the south only six miles.

THE TALDI. 69

cultivated and populous country, comprising the
towns of Nim-pi and Ou-yam-pu, and further to the
west, Si-ning, Tonkir, and Seng-kwan.

The inhabitants of this part uf the province of
Kan-su ^ are Chinese, Tangutans,^ and Taldi, to the
latter of whom I will for the present confine my
remarks.

This tribe inhabits a comparatively limited dis-
trict near the towns of Nim-pi, Ou-yam-pu, and
Si-ning, and the temple of Chobsen, where they
form half the numerical strength of the population.
Externally they are more like Mongols than Chinese,
although a settled agricultural people. Their faces
are round, with flattened features, cheekbones promi-
nent, eyes and hair black, mouth rather large, and
figure thickset. The men shave beard and hair,
leaving a pig-tail.^ The girls plait all their hair
into a long tress behind, and wear a tall square
head-dress made of daba (cotton cloth), but the old
women put nothing on the head, dividing the hair in
front and braiding it behind. The dress of men and
women is very like that of the Chinese, with Avhom,
as well as with the settled Tangutans, they inter-
marry. They are Buddhists by religion.*

> Kan-su is bounded on the north by Mongoha, on the east by
Shen-si, on the south by Sze-chuan, while on the west, before the Dun-
gan insurrection, it extended as far as Barkul and Urumchi in Eastern
Turkestan.

* A description of the Tangutans will be found in Chapter W . of
this volume ; the Chinese in Kan-su are the same as in other parts of the
Empire ; the Mongols only inhabit those districts lying near the sources
of the Tatung, forming part of the Koko-nor administrative district.

^ Unlike Mongols and Chinese, the Taldi can apparently grow
beards.

' The following cxtrac t translated from Palladius' letter to Gen.

70 TEMPLE OE С HOBS EN :

These are all the observations I could make of
this people, of whom we saw little. The Mongols
spoke in a disparaging way of their physical and
moral qualities, and described their language to be a
mixture of Mongol, Chinese, and words of their own.

The temple of Chobsen, which was the starting
point of all our subsequent excursions, stands on the
northern border of the hilly region which we have
mentioned. It is forty miles NNE. of Si-ning, in
37° 3' north latitude, and тоо° 58' east longitude
from Greenwich, fixing the latter approximately by
existing maps. Its elevation is 8,900 feet above
the sea. The temple comprises a principal shrine,
surrounded by a mud wall, and a number (perhaps
100) of smaller buildings, which were all destroyed
by the Dungans three years before our arrival, the
shrine alone, protected by its wall, escaping.

The temple is of brick, in the usual quadrangular

Vlangali, dated Peking, August 13, 1873, supplies further particulars
about the Taldi : ' It is certain that in the last century a colony of
Mahommedans, " turban wearers " from the western countries, settled
near Si-ning ; probably in the course of time they became like the
common Dungans, judgmg from those of the Si-ning Mahommedans
who brought rhubarb, to Kiakhta. As to the name of Taldi^ I suspect
that it refers to the general appellation of the emigrants from Taltu,
or Tartu (the Chinese reading is uncertain), in the sixteenth century,
and originated in the following way : when the inhabitants of Hami
were hard pressed by the sultans of Turfan, the Ming Government
built them a separate city 400 li from Suh-chau ; this city is mentioned
in Chinese history under the name of Kuyui-chcn (its extensive ruins
and aqueducts are still visible), but the settlers themselves called
it Taltii, in what language I know not ; a short time afterwards the
Turfanis advanced to Kuyui or Taltu and obliged its inhabitants to
remove to Kan-su, where they simply called themselves " people of
Taltu," without any other name to indicate the origin of their tribe. I
offer this explanation merely as a suggestion founded on actual fact.'
— M.

/TS LARES AND PENATES. 71

shape common to all Buddhist places of worship,
the sides facing- the four cardinal points ; the entrance
is by a triple gate on the south, opposite to which is
a stone platform ascended by a flight of steps. The
sloping roof is covered with sheets of copper gilt,
adorned with dragons at the corners.

A copper-gilt statue (fourteen feet high) of Sakya-
muni, i.e. Buddha, occupies a conspicuous place in the
interior. The god is represented seated ; before him
a lamp is always burning, and pinchbeck vessels
containing water, rice, and barley-meal stand near.

Aloncj three sides are rano^ed on shelves a thou-

о о

sand lesser deities from one to two feet high, the
attitudes of some of which are peculiarly grotesque.

All these idols were made at Dolon-nor by order
of the Abbot Djandj'i, and brought to Ala-shan,
whence they were conveyed to Chobsen at the cost
of the prince.

A gallery runs round the four sides of the court-
yard, 100 paces each way, covered with rude paint-
ings illustrating the exploits of gods and heroes, a
strange medley of serpents, devils, and monsters ;
here too, at intervals of seven feet along the balus-
trade, are placed small iron urns, to contain the
prayers, written on slips of paper, of the devout
suppliants who daily attend the sacred edifice.

At the time of our visit 150 lamas and one
Gigen resided at Chobsen. The cost of maintenance
is defrayed by the abbot and by the voluntary
contributions of pilgrims who are entertained on
festivals with tea, milk, and roasted barley or dzamba.

72 GARRISON OF CHOBSEN.

The latter Is the universal food of all Tangiitans and
Mongols in Kan-su and Koko-nor. It is prepared
in the simplest way : the grain is first roasted over
the fire, then pounded in a mortar, and the meal
thus prepared is boiled in tea and eaten instead of
bread.

In addition to the lamas, a force of i,ooo militia

Lama in Officiating Dress.

(Mongols, Chinese, Tangutans, and Taldi), were
assembled for the defence of Chobsen against the
Dungans, whose territory was only ten miles off, and
who were continually harassing the neighbourhood.

OUR ARRIVAL THERE. 73

riding up to the very Avails of the temple in defiance
of its badly-armed garrison. Four miles and a half
to the east of Chobsen, another mud wall similar to
the one on the borders of Kan-su, but even more
dilapidated by time, extends, as Ave were assured,
from Si-ning through Tatung to Kan-chau.

On our arrival at Chobsen the late companions
of our journey welcomed us, and placed at our dis-
posal a large empty house, formerly used as a store
for idols. Here we spread out and dried our col-
lections, which had seriously suffered from damp.
But our occupations were constantly interrupted by
sightseers, whose curiosity was excited by our herbs,
&c., and it required all my prestige as a physician
to allay their suspicions.

We stayed a week here preparing for an expedi-
tion to the mountains, where we intended passing
the summer. Our purchases included four mules
(for which we paid no lans), and a few small
articles, which we had great difficulty in obtaining,
owing to the stagnation of trade consequent on the
unsettled state of the country. The currency too
was very puzzling. Here a Ian (tael) of silver was
worth 6,500 cash ; there were two unit weights — one
being equal to sixteen lans, and another equal to
twenty-four ; in addition to the tu, the usual measure
of solids, a new one called the shiiig,'^ containing five
hings of dzamba or barley-meal, was introduced.

At length everything was satisfactorily arranged,

' The s/iiiig, one-tenth of a iit, is in general use in China, Ijut we
tirst saw it at Chobsen. [The tit is equal to 12 lbs. — M.]

74 HIGHLANDS OF KAN-SU.

and leavino- the bulk of our ba^'Sfao'e at Chobsen, on
July 2 2, we started with four mules and two horses
for the Tatung- valley near Chertinton,

I must now make a short digression, in order to
give a general sketch of the mountains in that part of
Kan-su which we visited, viz. north and north-west
of Lake Koko-nor.

The confined basin of this alpine lake is sur-
rounded on all sides by mountains, forming a conti-
nuation of the ranges covering North-eastern Tibet,
and the basin of the upper Hoang-ho. From this
point, i.e. from the sources of the river, the system
bifurcates, passing north and south of Lake Koko-
nor, and continuing a long way to the west ^ forming
a peninsula of high land defined on the south by the
salt marshes of Tsaidam, and on the north by the
vast plains of the Gobi. Towards the latter, as we
have seen, the mountains form a rampart supporting
the plateau, on which lie Koko-nor and Tsaidam,
and separated from the still more elevated uplands
of Tibet by the range of Burkhan Buddha.

Turning to Kan-su Proper, or rather to that part
which we explored, we find it to consist of three
parallel chains of mountains : one bordering the
plateau on the side of Ala-shan, the other two
piled upon the table-land, and following the course
of the most important of its rivers, the Tatung-gol.
On the east, as we approach the Hoang-ho, the
mountains diminish in size, while on the west their

' We were told by the natives that this range continued for up-
wards of 300 miles to the west of Lake Koko-nor.

^ NORTHERN' AND ^ SOUTHERN' RANGES. 75

elevation increases till they attain the limits of per-
petual snow at the sources of the Etsina-gol ^ and
Tolai-gol. Here all these ranges may possibly unite
or throw out new branches, but in any case further
to the west they again diminish and soon terminate,
perhaps merging in the general upheaval of the
Gobi.

The whole of this mountainous system is known
to the Chinese under the name of Siue-shan or Nan-
shan ; but the several ranges have no special names,
and, therefore, for the sake of distinctness I will use
the terms ' northern ' and ' sotctkern ' for the ranges
on either bank of the Tatung, while that dividing
Ala-shan from Kan-su shall be called the ' border
range,' without, however, the least intention of
applying these names in the future.

The northern and southern chains bear a close
resemblance to each other, and are equally wild and
alpine ; they abound in deep narrow gorges, huge
cliffs, and precipices. About the middle of the
Tatung-gol a few solitary peaks rise to a height of
14,000 feet,^ but without attaining the perpetual
snow-line. The snowy mountains are, as we have
mentioned, further to the west, near the towns of
Lang-chau and Kan-chau, and at the sources of the
Tatung and Etsina. One snowy peak, however,
rises behind Si-ning.

Although the pass over the northern chain is

'^ The R. Etsina, with its left tributary the Tolai, flows due north,
watering the cultivated land in the vicinity of Kan-chau and Suh-chau,
beyond which they enter the desert and discharge into Lake Sogo-nor.

■^ Mount Gadjur is in the northern range.

7б ^aaineh; the sacred peaks.

less steep and rugged than that over the southern,
the peaks on this side are the loftiest, including
Mount Konkir/ which is covered with snow the
whole year round. The highest mountains in either
ranges are held sacred by the Tangutans under the
name oi Amneh, i.e. ' ancestors.' They are thirteen
in number, situated about the middle and upper
course of the Tatung, but the southern chain has
only three, viz. Ckaied, Bsiagar, and Kiimbmn-
damar. The sacred mountains of the northern range,
taking them in the order in which they come, are
Mela, Konkir, Nam^'ki, Ckiskar, RargtU, Rtashtai,
Shorim-tsun, Marnhc, Djagiri, and Sienbit?

The geological formations are chiefly schistous
clay, chlorite, limestone, felspar, gneiss, and diorite.
The mineral wealth of this region consists in its coal-
fields and gold, which, according to the natives, is
found in almost every mountain stream ; the coal-
beds near Chertinton are worked by the Chinese.

According to the natives, shocks of earthquake
are frequent and violent, but we only felt one slight
shock.

The climate is exceedingly damp, especially in
summer, part of autumn and spring ; in winter, the
people told us, that it was generally clear, cold
winds alternating with calm warm weather. It
rained constantly during the summer. We registered

^ This mountain is situated at the sources of the Tatung, near
Yunan-chen.

- I could not discover why Mounts (iadjur in the northern, and
Sodi-Soruksum in the southern range, are not included in the number'
of the sacred mountains.

CLIMATE AAD FLORA OF KAN-SU. 77

twenty-two rainy days in July, twenty-seven in
August, and twenty-three in September ; of the
latter number twelve were snowy ; from September
28, it snowed frequently. Owing to the heavy
rainfall the soil is very moist, nearly every ravine
having its stream. The temperature in summer is
low, if it be remembered that this region lies in the
thirty-eighth parallel. Even in July the greater
heiohts were covered with hoarfrost ; in Au<just thick
flakes of snow fell, thawino^, however, duringf the
daytime, and after the beginning of September the
snow remained on the grround.

The heat in summer was never oppressive, the
highest temperature registered in July being 88°
Fahr. in the shade. Light winds prevailed from
the SE., and thunderstorms were most frequent in
July and September, in the latter month accom-
panied by snow and hail.

The flora is rich and varied, as one would have
expected from the moisture and richness of the soil,
and the other favourable conditions for its develop-
ment. Forests, however, in our sense of the word,
only grow on the northern slopes of the southern
range : a circumstance deserving of notice, because
in these mountains arboreal vegetation has not to
contend with the disadvantages of an arid climate as
in the mountains of Mongolia. Even in this moist
atmosphere trees apparently avoid the sun, which
certainly does not make its presence often felt
during the summer. As usual, the lower zones are
the most thickly wooded, from the bottom of the

78 TREES.

valleys up to 9,500 or 10,000 feet above sea-level.
Here vegetation was most abundant. Fine tall
trees, dense underwood, and a variety of flowers
reminded us of the forests in the Amur country,
and were rendered doubly grateful by contrast with
the preceding aridity of the desert of Ala-shan.

On our first entrance into the forests we recog-
nised many a flower and plant familiar to us at
home, and descried also many new kinds never
before seen. Among these the red-barked birch
{Betula Bhojpattra ?) was most conspicuous, attain-
ing a height of y::) to 40 feet, with a thickness of i
to i.^ foot in the stem. The trunk is very like that
of the common birch, excepting in its bark, which
peels off and hangs from it in long festoons. The
Tangutans use this, instead of packing paper. Close
by grows our old friend the white birch {Bettila
alba), also conspicuous in the lower forests.

The aspen {Populus trenmla) next attracts our
attention, standing both solitary and in masses ; the
pine^ {Pinus Massoniana ?), and spruce fir {Adies
obovata), occasionally covering the hill-side ; the
spreading poplar [Populus sp.), and willow {Salix
sp.), only growing in the valleys. The red mountain-
ash {Sorbus AiiciLparia), side by side with another
kind {Soj^bus sp.) with fruit of an alabaster white,
looked very pretty, growing to a height of 14 feet.
The arboreous Juniper [yuniperus sp.), 20 feet high,
unlike other trees, is more often met with on the

• It is not probable that this is P. Massoniana, which is я Japanese
plant of lower elevation. — J. D. H.

BUSHES. 79

southern, i.e. sunny slopes, and at an elevation of
nearly 1 2,000 feet among the Alpine shrubs. This
tree is held sacred by the Mongols and Tangutans,
who burn the branches for incense during prayer
time.

The bushes are of course most abundant on the
banks of the streams. Here we saw syringa {P/nla-
dclphus coronarius) in full bloom in June; two kinds
of wild rose [Rosa sp.), one with white, the other
red flowers; two kinds of barberry [Berberis sp.),
one covered with thorns an inch and a half long ;
the Chinese elder {SambiiciLS CJiineusis) ; gooseberry
(Rides sp.) in large bushes 10 feet high, with big
yellowish bitter berries ; a raspberry {Riidics ptnigcns),
with delicious fruit of a pale red colour ; another
raspberry {Rubtis Idcctis ?) similar to the European
species, but only two feet high, growing on the
exposed hill side in the zone of the alpine shrubs ;
and seven or eight kinds of honeysuckle [Loniccra),
one yielding a long blue fruit, which is edible.^

Among the other bushes we may mention the
Spiraea, black currant (Rides), cherry (Prunus),
spindle tree (Ezionymns), wild pepper (Daphne
Altaica ?), Cotoueasler, Hydrangea pubesce7is, and
the Eleutherococcns seniicosns found on the Amur.
The Lespcdeza, however, a native of the same
country, is not found further than the Munni-ula,
not being met with either in the Ala-shan or

• Professor Maximovitch, of the Botanical Gardens, St. Petersburg,
informs me that this species of honeysuckle nearly resembles the
Lonicaa an-ulca of Siberia, which is also edible. —M.

8o HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

Kan-su ranges ; the absence of the hazel is equally
notable.

The streams are frequentl)^ fringed with willow
[Salix sp.), and tall buckthorn {Hippophae rham-
noides) fifteen feet high ; on the open mountain side
are the hawthorn {Cratcegus sp.), yellow camel-
thorn {Caragana sp.), and white Kiirile tea ^ {Poten-
tilla glabra).

Herbaceous plants are even more numerous. The
wild strawberry {Fragaria sp.) is plentiful on the
moist loamy soil ; patches of moss are sometimes
covered with pink flowers of a pretty PediculaHs ;
in the woodland glades many a bright peony may
be seen, with a groundsel [Ligitlaria sp.), valerian
{Valeriana sp.), meadow rue {Thalictrum sp.), ge-
ranium {Geranium sp.), columbine {Aquilegia sp.),
winter-green {Pyrola rohtndifolia), garlic {Allinm
Vtclorialis), great burnet {Sanginsorba officinalis),
Rubia yavanica ? Prenanthes sp., Pleurospeinmim sp.,
the clematis twining round the bushes, and the
rosebay willow-herb {Epilobium angustifolinni)
adorning the grassy slopes with its rose-coloured
flowers. Later in the season, towards the end of
July, we found in the same localities the great yellow
and twining wolf's-bane {Aconittmi lycoctontcm, and
the A. volubile), larkspur {Dclphinimn sp.), tansy (ТТг-
nacehini sp.), the upright bitter-vetch {Orobus Lathy-
roides), feverfew {PyrctJirnm Sinense), the creeping

'^ The Potcntilla frtiticosa and P. glabra are known in Siberia under
the name of Kurilc tea ; a name given to this plant owing to the cir-
cumstance of the inhabitants of Kamchatka and the Sea of Okhotsk
infusing a beverage from its leaves. — M.

FLOWERING PLANTS. 81 '

rooted elecampane {I mi la Brita7inica\ and the
stinking bugvvort i^Cimicifiiga foctidd). Ferns [Poly-
podiicm vidgare, Adiantum pedatitm, Asplenmm sp.)
also abound in these forests.

On the open hill-sides in the tree-belt grow
varieties of saxifrage, red lily [Lilinvi tcnuifoliiuii),
hyssop-leaved dragon's-head {pi^acoccphahtvi Ruys-
ckiaua), Senccio pratensis, ScJmltiza sp., Allium sp.,
Gentiana sp., AJtiga sp.

In the open valleys in spring we saw numbers of
flowering Iris ; and in summer : aster [Aslcr artati-
cus), common sorrel [Rttmex Acctosd), Persicaria
{Polyg07i7im polymoip/mm), primroses i^Primiila
Sibiricd), forget-me-nots {Myosotis sp.), hare's-ear
{^Buplearitni sp.), Gaitiana sp., Anemone sp., Arie-
misia sp., Melica sp., Elymiis sp., Spodiopogon sp.,
Lolium sp. ; Ramtnc2ilus, Oxytropis, and Potentilla.

One kind of the last-named flowers familiar to
us under the name of \vild tansy {Potentilla ansc-
rina), is called here djiima, and supplies an edible
root, large quantities of which are dug up by the
Chinese and Tangutans in autumn or spring. The
roots are washed, dried, and then boiled in water,
and eaten with butter or rice ; they taste something
like beans. A poisonous kind of grass {Lolium sp.)
grows here and in the Ala shan mountains ; it is
called KJioro nbusu by the Mongols, and is very
injurious to cattle, especially camels, the native herds
carefully avoiding it.

But the most remarkable plant of the tree-belt is
the medicinal rhubarb {Rheum palmatuni), known

VOL. II. G

82 THE RHUBARB PLANT.

to the Mongols as the S/iara-moto,^ and to the
Tangutans as Djtimtsa. As it has not yet been
studied by European naturahsts in its native coun-
try, I will describe it at some length. ^

It has three or four large dark green leaves ^ near
the root, from the centre of which springs the flower-
stalk to a height of seven to ten feet, with a thick-
ness of one-and-a-half inch near the ground."^ Old
plants have ten or more leaves, but the flower-stalks
are in such case more numerous, the proportion of
leaves being invariably three or four to each. The
section of leaf-stalk is oval, about the thickness of a
finger ; the length of the leaf being twenty-six inches,
colour underneath green, above reddish, covered
with fine reddish hairs one-fifth of an inch long.
The flower-stalk throws out a few small leaves at its
joints, and the small white flowers are set on a
second stalk branching from the main stem two-
thirds of its heiofht from the orround.

о о

The root is cylindrical with a number of slender
offsets, ^ the length and number of which depend on
the age of the plant. When full grown the root is

^ I.e. yellow tree.

'^ Compare this and the following paragraphs with Marco Polo,
speaking of the same region : ' Over all the mountains of this province
rhubarb is found in great abundance, and thither merchants come to
buy it, and carry it thence all over the world. Travellers, however,
dare not visit these mountains with any cattle but those of the country,
for a certain plant {crba) grows there, which is so poisonous that cattle
which eat it lose their hoofs ' (2d. ed., i. 219). — Y.

3 The largest leaf we measured was two feet long by three broad.

•• These are the dimensions of a full-grown plant.

* Old roots have as many as twenty-five offsets, the largest being
\\ in. in diameter, with a length of 21 inches.

A FI,OWERI\-G PLANT OF THE MEDICINAL КНГР.АКГ.
Kheum /lalmaiion '.

(я) Small lateral panicle, with ripe fruit.

(/') A flower from which anthers have fallen oft.

RHUBARB TRADE. 83

about a foot lone: and the same in thickness ; ^ its
exterior covering is a brown, rough rind, which is cut
off when dry. The flowering time is the end of
June or beginning of July; the seeds ripen towards
the end of August.

The natives asserted that the root is fittest for
medicinal purposes in spring and autumn, and that
when the plant is flowering it becomes porous ; but
we did not find this to be the case in the speci-
mens we obtained in midsummer. The Tangutans
and Chinese dig it up in September and October ;
but the disturbed state of the country has almost
put a stop to this industry, which at one time was so
actively pursued that nothing but the inaccessibility
of some of the forests could have preserved it from
extinction. In the environs of Chertinton it is rare,
but it is said to abound near the sources of the
Tatung and Etsina further to the west, whence
the largest quantities were formerly obtained, and
transported to Si-ning, the chief central depot for
the rhubarb trade. During our stay in these parts
the price averaged a Ian (tael) of silver per ten hings
(i.e. about b\d. per hing).^

It is transported by land in winter, and by boats
in summer down the Hoang-ho to Peking, Tien-tsin,
and other ports, where the Europeans buy it, paying
six or ten times more than its value at Si-ning. A
large quantity used formerly to be sent to Kiakhta,
but of late years the supply has ceased. The trade

* Some few, however, are even larger.
' A hing is about \ lb. — M.
G 2

84 PREPARING THE RHUBARB.

might be reopened by a well-equipped caravan pro-
vided with an escort of ten well-armed men.

The first process in preparing the rhubarb is to
cut off the lateral offshoots, removinof the outer rind
with a knife, and cutting the root into pieces, which
are threaded on strings and suspended in the shade
to dry, generally under the roof of a house, where
the air circulates freely : if dried in the sun it is
spoiled.

The plant grows at an elevation of ic,ooo feet
above the level of the sea, very rarely above that
limit, and mostly preferring the ravines, with a rich
loamy soil and northern aspect. It seldom grows
on the southern slopes or on the bare mountain.

The Tangutans sometimes sow it in the gardens
adjoining their dwellings, propagating it by means
of seeds and young plants. It may be sown in
autumn or early spring, but the soil must be fine,
carefully sifted black mould. The third year after
sowing the root is about the thickness of a man's
fist, and in about eight or ten years it attains matu-
rity. It is sown by the natives in small quantities
as a medicine for themselves and their cattle. It is
not cultivated largely, probably owing to the abund-
ance of the wild plant. I feel certain that it might be
successfully cultivated in many parts of Russia, as
for instance on the Amur, the Baikal, the Oural, and
the Caucasus ; and experiments will probably be
made with the seeds I brought home and sent to the
Botanical Gardens.

It also (jfows in the mountains south of Lake

RHEUM SPICIFORME. 85

Koko-nor, in the snowy range south of Si-ning, and
in the Yegrai-ula, near the sources of the Yellow
River. We could not ascertain positively if it grows
in the neighbouring province of Sze-chuan, but it
is not found in Northern Tibet. Thus from all the
information we could gather, it is limited to the
alpine country of Lake Koko-nor and the sources
of the Yellow River.^

Another kind {Rheum spicifoi'mc) ^ is also found
in the Kan-su mountains, where it only grows in the
alpine region. This plant has a thin branched
root about four fee*" long, but is unfit for medicinal
purposes. It grows in the Himalayas and Thian
Shan, and we often saw its withered leaves in winter
in Northern Tibet.

We have already said that the forests grow
10,000 feet above sea-level ; higher than this they
are replaced by alpine bushes and by meadows ; the
rhododendra, of which we found four kinds — all
pronounced to be new by the botanist Maximovitch

^ The above described plant is not the same as that which has
lately been introduced into European gardens as the true rhubarb of
commerce, namely R. officinale, Baillon (see Fliickiger & Hanbury,
' Pharmacographie,' p. 442), The latter plant is a native of Mongolia,
and is described by Bell, of Antermony, in his travels (vol. i. p. 384-
387). Several species are cultivated in Europe, and their roots are exten-
sively used as substitutes for the Chinese plant, especially the R. Rha-
ponticum, in England, and Л'. palinatiim itself, \vhich has been grown
on a large scale in Russia and elsewhere on the Continent, where,
however, its central root proves liable to decay. It was long ago as-
certained by the French pharmacologist, M. Guibourt, that the root of
the cultivated R. palmatiivi approached most nearly to that of the
imported plant.— J. D. H. [See Supplementary Note.]

^ The Tangutans call this kind zarchium, and the Mongols Kur-
meh-shara-moto.

86 FLORA OF KAN-SU.

— луеге most conspicuous. One variety, twelve feet
high, and not deciduous in winter, with tough leaves
and sweet-scented white blossoms, was particularly
fine, and might also be seen in the forests below the
alpine belt.

The other characteristic plants of this region are
the Caragana jubata (the same species as in the
Ala-shan mountains), the yellow kurile tea {Potc7i-
tilla temn/olia), spiraea {Sp. Altaica), and willow
(Salix sp.), growing in thick moss (Hypjumi sp.)
chiefly on the northern slopes. It would be impos-
sible in this brief sketch to do justice to the profu-
sion and variety of the flowering herbs, which now
grew in patches among the bushes now covered
whole sides of the higher mountains. Amongst the
plants we noticed a great many entirely new kinds.
The most conspicuous were several kinds of poppy
{Papaver), louse-wort [Pedictilaris], larkspur [Del-
phiuuim), saxifrage {Saxifragd), gentians [Gentiana),
Ranunculi, Potentillcs, g^.rWc (у^//гш;г), Siberian aster
{Aslcr Sibiricus), E^'igcron sp., Saussurca grami-
nifolia, Lcontopodium alpimim, Antennaria sp.,
Androsace sp. In the interstices of the rocks
grew different varieties of primroses [Pj-imuld),
whitlow grass [Drabd), fumaria {Coiydalis), golden
saxifrage (Ckrysosplcnium sp.), stonecrop {Sedum
sp.), Isopyrum sp., Arenaria sp. ; and among the
loose detritus, лvolf's-bane i^Aconitum sp.), Ligulai'ia
sp., Saussurca obvallata, Slc. All these herbs and
shrubs blossom in the end of June, when the moun-
tains are ablaze with the yellow kurile tea, red,

ALPINE ZONES. 87

white, and lilac rhododendra and Caragana j2idahi,
widi an occasional patch of bright red flowers. But
this does not last long. In July the rhododendra
and Caragana jubata cease blooming, and early in
August the morning frosts nip many of the herbs.

The luxuriance of the alpine meadows is limited
to an elevation of 12,000 feet. The temperature
above this is too cold, and winds and storms of too
frequent occurrence, to allow of the development of
vegetation, which becomes more stunted the higher
we ascend, until it disappears altogether, and nothing
is left but bare rocks, with an occasional patch of
moss and lichen. Here the scientific observer may
find an admirable illustration of the wasting, irresis-
tible power of time, as it gradually wears down
the hardest rocks and reduces to insignificance the
loftiest cliffs.

Here, too, amid the loose dcbj'is, springs take
their rise, at first trickling in feeble runnels, half
hidden beneath the stones, soon to unite with other
streams and descend in torrents down the rocky
valleys.

As reo-ards fauna that of the Kan-su mountains

о

is richest in birds ; of mammals we only found
eighteen kinds, and fish and reptiles were very
scarce. The small number of insects and almost
entire absence of reptiles is due to the unfavourable
climate.

The mammals belong exclusively to three orders,
carnivora, rodents, and ruminants. We did not see
a single specimen of the Insectivora or Cheiroptera.

88 • FAUNA AND

Large animals are few by reason of their falling a
prey to the hunter, and the large population. How-
ever the musk-deer [Mosc/i7(s vioscJiiferiis ?), wild
sheep {Ovis pseudo-Na/ioo?^), deer [Cerviis sp.), and
pygargs {Cerviis pygargus), are plentiful. The last-
mentioned, although found in the Munnl-ula, does
not inhabit the Ala-shan mountains.

Among the rodents the most remarkable are
the marmot {Arctomys robiistits), abounding In these
mountains at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet,
a small kind of lagomys [Lagojuys Thibetanus), very
plentiful in exposed places, and another species only
found among the rocks and detritus In the upper
alpine zone. Blind rats [Siphnais sp.) are also
plentiful on the lower ground. Here, too, may be
seen the little field-mouse {Arvicola sp.), hares (Z^-
piis sp.), and an occasional flying-squirrel [Pteroinys
sp.) in the forests, distinct from the Siberian species.

We have enumerated all the ruminants and ro-
dents ; It only remains to describe the carnivora.
The only representative of the feline order Is the
wild cat {Fclis sp.) ; there are neither tigers nor pan-
thers. A small species of bear, a polecat [Mustela sp.),
a badger {Meles sp.), a fox {Canis vtilpcs), and two
kinds of wolves, the common one {Canis lupus), and
another of a reddish colour, are found In these
forests.

Birds are far more numerous than mammals — we
counted 106 settled or nesting kinds and eighteen
migratory. The former number Is certainly large
if we consider that it includes only five orders, Rap-

A VI-FA UNA.

89

tores, Scansoi'es, Osci?ies, Columbce, and Gallinacecc ;
of the Gi'allato7'es and Natatores only one species
breeds here. The proportions of the representatives
in each class are, however, very unequal, the v/arblers
{Oscines) being far the most numerous ; next in order
come the Raptores, then Gallinacecs, then climbers
{Scansoi'es), and ColumbcE last of all.

The followino: table will at once show the distri-
bution of the birds of Kan-su : —

Settled and
nesting

Migratory

Total

1. Birds of prey (7?лг//<?;г^) . .

2. Climbers (Scaiisores) . . .

3. Warblers {Oscuies)

12

7

74

3

9

I
0

106

2
0

5
0
0
7
4

18

14

7

79
3
9
8

4
124

4. Pigeons {Cohn/iba) ....

5. Gallinaceous (GallinacccE).

6. Waders {Grallatores) . . .

7. Webfooted {Nataiorcs) . .

On comparing the birds of Kan-su with those of
Mongolia, we find as striking a difference between
them as between their florae — a fact accounted for
by the contrast between the physical conditions of
the two countries. Forty-three of these birds were
foreign to Mongolia, and even more if we were to
include the birds of the Munni-ula and Ala-shan
ranges. The ornithology of Kan-su comprises Si-
berian, Chinese, Himalayan, and Thian-Shan birds.

Beginning with the Raptores, we first notice three
kinds of vultures, the Snow-Vulture (Gyps nivicola),^
the Black Vulture ( Vultur vioiiachus), and the 1am-

' Gyps Iliinalaycnsis, Hume's 'Rough Notes,' p. 15.

90 BIRDS OF THE UPPER ZONES.

mergeler [Gypactos darbaizts), the latter an inhabitant
of Europe, the two former exclusively belonging to
Asia. The Snow-Vulture is an immense tawny-
coloured bird, measuring ten feet between the tips
of the wings. These are the chief representatives
of the birds of prey.

Among the Scansores (climbers) no very remark-
able kinds can be mentioned. Swifts {Cypselus
leucopyga) build their nests in the rocks below ;
cuckoos {CnciLlus sp.) and Avoodpeckers {Picus sp.
Picus Martins) are heard in the woods ; but the
Japanese goatsucker (Caprimulgus yotacd), so com-
mon in Eastern Asia, is not met with west of the
Munni-ula.

We now come to the most numerous class, viz.
the Warblers, comprising the large white-headed
redstart [Phcsnicm'a leu со сер halo), only seen on the
banks of streams in company with the active dip-
per {Cinclics Kashmirensis), the Kamchatka ruby-
throat {Calliope Kanitschatkensis)^ the small yellow-
breasted bullfinch {Pyj'rlLula sp.), scarlet bullfinch
{PyrrJmla erythi'ina), the rose-finch {Carpodacus s^g.),
the tiny wren [Troglodytes Nipalensis\ several kinds
of Phyllop7ieuste, and the blue magpie {Pica cyana).
The Pterorhinus Davidii and Trochalopteron sp.,
nearly allied to the thrush family, sing very sweetly
on the banks of the streams.

Three kinds of thrush (two I believe to be new
species) inhabit the tall forests, all excellent songsters ;
here, too, we saw four kinds of titmouse {Parus sp.)
hedge-sparrow {Accentor 7iiultistriatiis\ and great

BIRDS OF THE UPPER ZONES. 91

grosbeak {HespejHpJiona speniligcra ^), the latter pre-
ferring the juniper bushes, the berries of which are
its favourite food.

In the alpine region we found the red-winged
wall-creeper {TicJwdroma miu^arid), for ever climb-
ing up the rocks ; a large species of Carpodacus with
a gay note, two alpine choughs [Fregilus alpinus,
Fregihis gracuhis), the martin {Chelidon sp.), the
velvety blue stonethrush {Grandala ccbHcoIo), the
mountain pipit [Ant/iics rosaceiis) and two kinds
of hedge-sparrows {^Accentor Nipalensis, A. rubecu-
loidcs), the former of Avhich is a great songster. A
little lower down, among the bushes Avere the beauti-
ful lesser titmouse {Lcptopoecile Sophue) of a metallic
violet hue, the deep pink Carpodacus riibicilla, Cal-
liope pectoj^alis, the reed- warbler {Sckcsnicola sp.), with
long pink tail feathers ; and in the open valleys the
linnet [Linota brezdrostris), Montifringilla Adamsi,
and Montifrilla sp.

Among the ColumbcE and GallinacecB in the alpine
region we noticed the rock-dove {Columba rupcs-
trii) ; another kind of mountain-pigeon, the wary
Columba leuconota, among the wildest and most in-
accessible cliffs of the upper zone ; the great snow-
partridge [Megalopcrdix Tkibelamcs), called Ktuwio
by the Tangutans, and Hailik by the Mongols. Not
far off, in the clumps of rhododendron and caragana,
the dusky Impeyan grouse {Tetraophasis obsciirus)
and partridge {Perdix sp.), distinct from the Mongol
species. In the lower tree-belt the gallinaceous

* //. catneipcs, Hodgs.

92 PHEASANTS. DAMP CLIMATE.

order was represented by a new kind of tree-part-
ridge [Bonasia sp.) larger than ours with darker
plumage ; the rare Itaginis Gcoffroyi, the pheasant
{Phasianiis nov. sp.), and the tufted species [Cros-
soptiloii au7'itiim), a splendid bird, with plumage of
a leaden colour, which had attracted our attention in
the Ala-shan mountains.

None of the waterfowl breed in the mountainous
region of Kan-su, and birds of passage are rare ; we
only found one kind of wader {Ibidorhynchus Stru-
thersii) in the pebbly beds of watercourses.

On re-entering the mountains near Chertinton,
we moved from place to place, always selecting the
most favourable ground for encamping, and stayed as
long as was necessary in one spot. The daily rains
and excessive humidity greatly interfered with our
pursuits, increasing the difficulty of drying our plants
and skins, and obliging us to seize every opportunity
afforded by the short intervals of fine weather for the
preservation of our collection.

The constant rains in the alpine zone wel'e often
accompanied by snow and frosts at night ; the birds,
too, were all moulting at this season, and hardly ten
per cent, of those we shot were fit for preserving.
But the plants, at all events in July, were in full flower,
and we secured 324 varieties out of 3,000 speci-
mens ; whereas we obtained only 200 birds. Insects
were very scarce, not only in the alpine region, but
even in the lower ground. This was certainly a
drawback to our entomological collection ; on the
other hand, we felt grateful for being spared the plague

THUNDERSTORMS. MOUNT SODI-SORUKSUM. 93

of mosquitoes and flies, from which I had experi-
enced such tortures during my wanderings in the
forests of the Amur.^ We could not spare time to hunt
large game, which is scarce ; and during the whole
of our stay here I only shot two wild sheep, which,
with two small yaks bought of the Tangutans, sup-
plied us with provisions.

Rainy weather continuing incessantly for days
tos^ether caused us (jreat discomfort, oblioj-ino- us to
sit idle in our tent without even a sight of the moun-
tains, which were thickly shrouded in mist. Now
and then we marched into the midst of a thunder-
cloud, and the lightning played all round us. The
moisture inside our tent was also very troublesome ;
although our guns were wiped every day, half the
Snider cartridges missed fire owing to the damp,''^
The weather only became clearer on the lower
ground, and in the valley of the Tatung.

Here we really felt the heat, although the water
in all the streams was too cold for bathing.

We passed several days on the southern border
of the southern range, before crossing to the other
side, where we encamped near Mount Sodi-Soruk-
sum, considered to be the highest of these mountains.
Taking advantage of some clear weather, I made the
ascent, wishing to ascertain its height by boiling
water. After climbing 3,000 feet above our camp, I

' Lieut.-Col. Prejcvalsky travelled in the Amur and Ussuri country
between the years 1 867-1 869, and he has published an interesting
narrative of his experiences in those regions. — M.

^ It was so damp that we could not make the fire burn without
using a hand-bellows, which are in general use among the inhabitants.

94 J7EJV FROM SUMMIT.

gained the summit, whence I had a magnificent view.
The valley of the Tatung, with its tributary streams
hurrying to join it on all sides, the northern range
and the snowy peaks far to the westward, combined
to produce an effect indescribably beautiful. I had
never been so high before ; at my feet were great
mountains covered with wild crags and clothed with
fore^^ts, throuofh which wound rivers like silver threads.
For a long while I could not tear myself away from
the spot, but remained as one entranced, and shall
remember that day as one of the happiest of my
life.

In the hurry of starting I had left the matches^
behind, and could not strike a light by the flash of
my gun. I had, therefore, to defer taking the alti-
tude for two days, when I again ascended the Sodi-
Soruksum with the boiling- water apparatus complete,
determined this time to discover the secret ; a few
minutes after lighting the spirit lamp I found it to
be 13,600 feet above the sea. This is below the
limit of perpetual snow, only a few patches being
visible under the rocks, where the sun's rays did not
penetrate.

After passing July in the mountains on the
southern side of Tatung-gol, we crossed in the
early part of August to the northern range and
pitched our tent at an elevation of 12,000 feet, at
the foot of the gigantic peak of Gadjur. Here we
remained about a fortnight, rain falling incessantly,

' These matches, of \'iennese manufacture, are sold by the Chinese
.all o\er the Empire.

MOUNT GADJUR; ITS SACRED LAKE. 95

and on the 7th and 9th of August snow fell in such
quantities as to lie on the ground and form con-
siderable drifts. Under these circumstances scientific
investigations could not be successfully prosecuted ;
the flowering season was nearly over, and only forty
of the plants collected by us during the summer
were gathered in August.

The summit of Gadjur is crowned by some huge
cliffs, in whose bosom reposes the small lake of
Demchuk.^ This lakelet is 700 feet long and 240
wide ; the access is by a narrow chasm like a
gateway. The lake itself is held sacred by the
Tangutans, and prayers are offered up here by the
common people as well as by the lamas of Chertinton.
Their superior, our friend the Gigen, lived for seven
years in a cave on the lake, and told us that he once
saw a large blue cow rise from it, swim on its surface
for some time and again disappear in its depths.
Ever since then it has been held in high repute.

The absolute elevation of Demchuk is 13,100
feet, and the situation is very striking. The narrow-
ness of the gorge, the tranquil gleaming waters, the
gigantic rocks towering up all round, only admitting
one small streak of sky, and lastly, the solemn silence
almost unbroken save by an occasional falling stone,
move the inmost soul of man. As for myself, I
remained more than an hour on its shore absorbed
in reverie ; and when I left I felt how naturally the
untutored mind might invest with mysterious sanctity

' There are actually two little lakes, but one is much smaller than
Demchuk, and lies below it.

9б LEGENDS.

SO quiet a spot. I visited another small lake, called
Kosin, near the summit of Sodi-Soruksum, also
formed by springs ; but its situation is more ex-
posed, and it is not surrounded by the same mystery
as Gadjur. Kosin, however, is also held sacred
ever since the spirit (good or evil, I know not) drove
from the spot a Tangutan hunter, attacking him
under the form of a grey 3'ak ; ^ since which time
sport is strictly prohibited on this and the other
sacred mountains (Amneh).

According to another tradition, Mount Gadjur
was sent hither by some Dalai-Lama to impress the
minds of the people with the wonders of the holy
country (i.e. Tibet).

Its precipitous cliffs, composed of felspar, lime-
stone, and schistous clay, rise to about 1,000 feet
above Lake Demchuk ; it is, therefore, higher than
Sodi-Soruksum. However, I only saw a few patches
of melted snow in sheltered spots on the northern
side.

On the south of the Tatung the Tangutan ^ popu-
lation is very thick in certain districts less exposed
to the marauding Dungans, as for instance, round
the temple of Chertinton, but in the northern range
towards Mount Gadjur not a human being could be
seen. Pillaging parties frequently passed here on

* It is curious tliat in tlic popular legends of this people 'grey'
cows, yaks, &c. take as prominent a part as they do in the popular
legends of Russia.

'^ Eight miles below Chertinton some agricultural Chinese have
settled in the valley of the Tatung ; this colony escaped the Dungan

GUIDES. OUR FAME AS MARKSMEN. 97

their way from the town of Tatung ^ to phinder in
Eastern Kan-su ; and so great was the terror they
produced that nothing would induce the Mongol
whom we hired at Chobsen to accompany us to
Gadjur, until we took another Tangutan guide well
acquainted with the country, when the two, after
holding some parley together in their own language,
consented to proceed. I think they mutually agreed
to desert in case we were attacked ; but as we never
trusted to the assistance of our guides in case of
danger, this would not have made the slightest
difference to us. Our fame as marksmen, and the
reports of our wonderful guns, which had spread far
and wide, were of much greater importance. I was
regarded as a magician, whom no bullet could harm,
and I, of course, took care not to undeceive them.
We луеге always on the alert, however, and kept
watch in dangerous places. We never held inter-
course with the natives after dark for fear of admit-
ting an enemy unawares. But we were not molested,
although bands of robbers frequently passed our
camp, and must have known of our whereabouts.
After the middle of Auo-ust animal and vegfetable

о о

life rapidly declined, and by the end of the month
autumn had set in. The leaves were yellow, and
the fruit of the mountain-ash and barberry adorned
the ravines. The grass had withered, and only a
few solitary flowers were left. One after the other
the gay birds disappeared in search of a warmer

' This town stands on the Tatung-gol, sixty-seven miles above the
temple of Cheiiinton.

VOL. II. H

98 RETURN TO CHOBSEN.

climate and more abundant food in the lower
valleys.

The scientific harvest was all gathered, and we
determined to retrace our steps to Chobsen, and
attempt to proceed thence to Lake Koko-nor. On
our way back we caught our camels, which had been
allowed to pasture near the temple of Chertinton,
and were in miserable condition, owing to the unac-
customed food upon which they had fed all summer.
They all had bad coughs, brought on by the damp
climate, and their bodies were covered with sores ;
in fact they were hardly fit for even a short journey.

On September i, we arrived at Chobsen, where
we found that during our absence the Dungans had
increased their marauding to an alarming extent.
The badly-armed militia, numbering 2,000 men,
could do nothing against the mounted robbers, who
rode up to the very walls of the temple and taunted
its defenders : ' Where are your Russian friends now
Avith their good guns ? ' they would exclaim ; ' we
have come to fight them.' The militia sometimes
returned a volley, but the bullets from their match-
locks fell short of the enemy. Our friends, the
leaders of the caravan, were the chief organisers of
the defence. They had sent several messengers
into the hills imploring us to return, and were
anxiously awaiting our arrival. Now, we thought,
at all events we shall have a brush with the brigands ;
as for their leader, who was described by the gallant
defenders of Chobsen to be a terrible warrior, who
rode a piebald horse and bore a charmed life, we

PERrLOUS SITUATION. 99

determined to try the effect of a Snider or Berdan
bullet on him.

Our situation, however, was one of great danger.
The temple, already inconveniently crowded, could
not accommodate us and our camels. We, therefore,
луеге obliged to encamp about half a mile off in an
open grass plain. Here we took every precaution
ao^ainst attack. All the boxes containinof our col-
lections, the bags with supplies and provisions, and
the pack-saddles were formed into a hollow square,
within which we could retreat. Here stood our
rifles with bayonets fixed, and near them piles of
cartridores and ten revolvers. Before nio-ht all the

о о

camels were made to lie down and tethered round
our improvised fortification, their ungainly bodies
forming an additional protection against a mounted
enemy. Lastly, to prevent waste of ammunition, we
measured the distances on all sides, marking them
with piles of stones.

The first night all the natives retreated within
the temple, and we remained quite alone face to face
Avith the robbers, who might appear at any moment
in hundreds, or even thousands, and overpower us
with their superior numbers. The weather was fine,
and we sat for a lono^ while in the moonlig"ht talking^
over old times, our country, and friends whom we
had not seen for so long. About midnight three of
us lay down to rest, of course without undressing,
leaving one to keep watch till morning. The follow-
ing day passed as quietly as the first. The robbers
had vanished, and even the miraculous warrior did

loo ROAD TO KOKO-NOR.

not appear. The third day was a repetition of the
two preceding, and the inhabitants of Chobsen,
taking courage, drove their cattle out of the enclo-
sure of the temple, and allowed them to graze near
our camp.

Such is the moral superiority of the European
over the degraded inhabitants of Asia ; such the
impression produced by the resolution, energy, and
unwavering courage of a superior race.

We remained at Chobsen for six days exposed
to unavoidable danger, which in the end opened to
us a way to Lake Koko-nor.

The direct road to the lake passes through the
towns of Seng-kwan ^ and Tonkir, by which it takes
five days to reach its shores ; but, owing to the occu-
pation of Seng-kwan by Dungans, we had to abandon
this route for some other more practicable. We
fortunately succeeded in finding one.

On the third day of our halt three Mongols
arrived at Chobsen from the banner of Mur-zasak,
near the sources of the Tatung, having driven a
flock of sheep, under cover of the night, over the
mountains for sale. These men were obliged to
return home soon and might serve as excellent
guides for us, if we could induce them to accept our
offers. With this view I addressed myself to our
friend the treasurer of the temple, giving him a
handsome present. Moved by this bribe, the lama
persuaded the newly-arrived Mongols to act as our

' The local Mongol name of this town is Mu-paishinta.

l(^£ HIRE GUIDES. loi

guides to their country, i.e. to Mur-zasak, receiving-
thirty lans (about 7/.) in payment for a distance of
not more than eighty-eight miles.

The principal objection which presented itself to
their dull brains was the impossibility of travelling
by night with pack-camels over the mountains ; and
if we attempted moving by day the probability of
encountering Dungans, who pass continually between
Seng-kwan and Tatung. Our perilous encampment
near Chobsen was now of service to us. ' Fear not
the robbers with these people/ said our friend the
treasurer to the Mongols ; ' look at us with 2,000
men shut up in our temple, and they only four in
number in the open plain, yet no one dares to touch
them. Think you that ordinary folk could have
done that ? No ! the Russians know everything
beforehand, and their captain is a great magician, or
a great saint' This argument, backed up by so
tempting a bribe as thirty lans of silver, finally over-
came their scruples, and they declared their readiness
to show us the way, begging us first to consult the
auguries in their presence as to the most favourable
day for setting out on the journey.

Having made some observations for ascertaining
the sun's altitude, in order to fix the latitude of
Chobsen, and the magnetic declination, I announced
that it was necessary to postpone our departure for
a few days. This delay was indispensable, to enable
us to store all our collections in a place of safety at
Chertinton, because Chobsen might be taken in our
absence by the Dungans. The Mongols, who con-

I02 PREPARE FOR DEPARTURE.

suited their auguries with a similar result, were well
content to delay the start, and expected that in a
few days the marshes would be frozen over. We
held a council and fixed our departure for October 5,
till which day we determined to keep our plans secret.
The guides received ten lans as earnest-money,
and retired to Chobsen, while we returned into the
mountains, and encamped on the southern edge of
the southern chain, whence my companion rode to
the temple of Chertinton and delivered the boxes
containing our collections into the charge of the
gigen of that place.

Our twelve days' halt on the southern chain of
the mountains was almost unproductive of scientific
results ; for no forests grow on the southern slopes
of these mountains, and the alpine zone is almost
without a flora ; besides which many of the moun-
tains were in their higher parts covered with snow
and rain, and hail-storms occurred daily. The chief
flight of birds took place in the first half of Sep-
tember, and on the i6th of that month large flocks
of cranes, passing at such a height as hardly to be
visible, directed their flight southwards.

Meanwhile the Chinese troops had begun opera-
tions against the Dungans at Si-ning, having marched
into Kan-su 25,000 strong in July that year, and esta-
blished themselves at Nim-pi and Ou-yam-pu. In the
next chapter I will describe their operations before Si-
ning; suffice it for the present to remark, that in con-
sequence of orders which had been issued, prohibiting
the sale of provisions to anyone except the troops, we

SUPPLIES. LETTERS HOME. 103

had great difficulty, even with the assistance of our
friends, in procuring supphes. And of these we re-
quired enough to last us the whole winter, for it was
generally reported that no provisions could be ob-
tained at К око- nor. ^ Our supplies, however, were
at all times limited by our slender resources, and
the only provisions procurable were dzamba (barley-
meal) and coarse wheaten flour. We bought about
seven cwt. of each, and we had also about i .^ cwt. of
rice and millet left over from our Ala-shan stores,
making four camels' loads in all.

A few days before our departure for К око- nor,
the caravan of Tangutans with which we had travelled
to Chobsen returned to Peking, and we availed
ourselves of this opportunity to send letters and
official reports. In them I announced my intention
of starting for Koko-nor, which I hoped to reach ;
but I added that we could not proceed thence to
Lhassa in Tibet owing to the want of funds.

At last the wished-for day drew near, and in the
afternoon of October 5 we left Chobsen. As I have
stated, our road lay over the mountains between the
Dungan towns of Seng-kwan and Tatung, by foot-
paths almost impracticable for our enfeebled and
suffering camels. We therefore divided the baggage
among all the pack animals, taking in addition one of
the mules which we had used for the summer excur-
sion.

The first short march was satisfactorily accom-

' This proved to be a false report, as we had no difficulty in buy-
ing barley-meal at the encampment of the Wang (prince) of Koko-nor.

104 ADVENTURE WITH SOLDIERS.

plished, but the following morning, not far from the
temple of Altin, an adventure befell us. Our guides
had warned us that this was a dangerous place,
owing to the patrols of Chinese soldiers, who plun-
dered friends or foes indiscriminately. We replied
that it was quite the same to us, and that our bullets
would serve for Chinese as well as Dungans. Their
information proved correct. No sooner were we in
sight of the temple than thirty mounted soldiers
suddenly appeared, and after firing a few shots into
the air charged our caravan with fearful cries. When
they were within 500 paces I told our guides to
motion to them and warn them that we were not
Dungans but Russians, and that we would fire if
they attacked us. Probably misunderstanding these
explanations, the Chinese continued to advance at a
gallop to within 200 paces of us, and we were on the
point of firing. Fortunately, the affair passed off
peaceably. Observing that our guns were at the
ready, and that we were not in the least alarmed by
their cries, they halted, dismounted, and came to-
wards us, declaring that they had made a mistake,
and had taken us for Duncrans. This was of course

О

a mere excuse, as the brigands never ride camels ;
and if we had shown fear and run away we should
doubtless have been plundered. A few miles further
the same adventure was repeated with some more
Chinese, who retired empty-handed.

Our third day's march was the most dangerous,
for we had to cross two high roads leading between
Seng-kwan and Tatung. We passed the first sue-

ENCOUNTER WITH DUNCANS. 105

cessfully, but from the summit of the pass leading
to the second we could see, at a distance of upwards
of a mile, about a hundred mounted Dungans es-
corting a flock of sheep. On observing us they fired
a few shots and closed the defile through which we
were marchinof. The effect of this manoeuvre on our
guides was astonishing. Paralysed with fear, they
muttered their prayers in a trembling tone of voice,
imploring us to return ; but we knew very well that
retreat would give courage to the enemy, who could
easily have overtaken us on their horses ; and we
therefore determined to force a passage. We were
four well-armed and resolute men : as we marched
ahead of our caravan, the guides followed with the
camels, and were only prevented from deserting by
our threat of shooting the first who turned back.
The danger was great, but there was no help for it,
and we had full confidence in the excellence of our
arms and the well-known cowardice of the Duno-ans.

о

Our calculations proved correct. On observinQf
our forward movement, the Dungans fired a few
more shots, and before we had approached within
range fled to either side of the high road at right
angles with our advance. Leaving the defile, we
crossed the road and began the ascent of a very
steep high pass. To add to our difliculties night
came on and a violent snow-storm overtook us,
rendering it extremely difficult for the camels to
keep their footing. The descent was even worse ;
we had to feel our way down in the dark, stumbling
and falling at every step. After an hour's advance,

I об MUR-ZASAK.

we halted in a narrow defile covered with brush-
wood, where we had the utmost difficulty in pitching
our tent and lighting a fire to warm our benumbed
and bruised limbs.

The following five days' journey passed without
any adventure, and we reached INIur-zasak in safety.
This station is on the bank of the Tatung, only eight
miles from the Dungan town of Yunan chen ; but,
notwithstanding the evil repute of his rebel neigh-
bours, the Mongol commander lived on the best
terms with them, selling them cattle and taking their
merchandise in exchange. Thanks to the letter of
the treasurer of Chobsen, describing me as a per-
sonage of exalted rank nearly related to the Em-
peror, we obtained two guides to the next Tangutan
station ; of course not without presents to the com-
mander and handsome pay to the guides.

The road now ascended the left bank of the
Tatune, and was much better than the one we had
come, the only obstacle to our progress being the
daily fall of snow, which made it very muddy and
slippery for our exhausted camels. The Tangutan
officer at the station (twenty-seven miles from Mur-
zasak) was an excellent fellow ; on receiving five
yards of plush and i ,000 needles, he sent us a sheep
and ten pounds of yak butter. We stayed a day
with him, and, having obtained new guides, left the
valley of the Tatung on our way southwards towards
Lake К око- nor.

The basin of the Upper Tatung is very moun-
tainous and wild, the two chains of mountains

THE UPPER TATUNC. КО КО- NOR. 107

continuing to be distinctly defined on either bank,
while some lateral spurs of the southern range form
the watershed between some tributaries of the
Tatung and the streams flowing into the Siling-gol
and Koko-nor ; the largest we crossed was the
Buguk-gol, a tributary of the Siling, flowing through
a beautiful valley. ^ The northern range makes a
sudden bend to the north, near the town of Yunan-
chen, towards the sources of the river Etsina,
where the mountains are higher and more rocky,
culminating in the snowy peak of Konkir, one of the
sacred mountains of the Tangutans.

The southern range between Chobsen and Mur-
zasak is covered with dense underwood on its north-
ern slopes, Avith an occasional spruce fir in the
valley of the Buguk-gol ; the southern slopes abound
in rich pasture land. Beyond Mur-zasak, in the
direction of the sources of the Tatuno; and after
crossing the watershed between the basin of this
river and Koko-nor, the character of the scenery
changes ; the mountains are lower (excepting those
in the main range) less steep and rocky, and the
valleys marshy. The only shrub is the yellow kurile
tea, in some places covering large areas. In fact,
everything betokens the approach to the steppes
of Koko-nor, which we entered on the 24th of Oct.,
and the following day we pitched our tent on the
shore of the lake.

The dream of my life was accomplished, and the

' It is of interest to see this name Hiling applied appareml) to the
river running by Sining-fu. See Supplementary Note. — V.

io8 TRIUMPH!

object of the Expedition gained ! It is true that this
success had been purchased at the cost of many
hardships and sufferings ; but all past trials were
forgotten, as we stood in triumph on the shore of the
great lake, and gazed with admiration on its beautiful
dark blue waves.

TANGUTANS, OR SI-FAN; 109

CHAPTER IV.

THE TANGUTANS AND DUNCANS.

Tangutan territory — The people — Characteristic traits — Stature ; ap-
pearance ; mode of wearing hair — Kara Tangutans — Language ;
dress ; habitations — Black tents and wooden huts — Occupations — ■
The domesticated Yak — Its different uses — Nomadising habits —
Contrast between Mongols and Tangutans — Industry ; food ; dirt —
Tonkir, a trade centre — Avarice — Polite customs — Monogamy —
Religion — Government — Dungans or Mahommedan rebels — Their
temporary success — Chinese towns fall into their hands — Revolt
becomes brigandage — Opportunities neglected — Causes of non-
success — Cowardice of rebels and of Chinese — Inefficient weapons
— Siege of Chobsen — Commercial relations between belligerents —
Measures of Chinese Government — Chinese soldiers — Bad arms —
Want of discipline — Opium smoking — Looting — Government de-
frauded— Desertion — Punishment — Low morals — Mode of fighting
— State of Affairs in Kan-su — Chinese take the offensive — Advance
on Si-ning — Assault of this town — Marriage of Emperor of China
— Siege operations suspended — Cowardice of besieged — Capture
of Si-ning and advance westwards — Tangutan vocabulary.

The Tangutans, or the Si-fan a-s the Chinese call
them, are of the same race as the Tibetans.^ They
inhabit the hilly region of Kan-su, Koko-nor, Eastern
Tsaidam, and the basin of the Upper Hoang-ho, and
are met with as far as the Murui-ussu,'"^ and perhaps
beyond it. They regard these countries, to which
they apply the name of Amdo, as their own peculiar

* The ancestors of the present Tibetans were Tangutans who re-
moved to Tibet from Koko-nor in the fourth century B.C. See Father
Hyacinthe's 'Statistical Description of China,' Part II. p. 145.

' I.e. the Tibetan course of the Kin-sha Kiang, which eventually
becomes the Great Yangtse-Kiang. — Y.

iio EXTERNAL APPEARANCE.

territory, although they are here mingled with Chin-
ese and Mongols,

Externally they present a marked contrast to the
two last-named races, and, as we have already said,
somewhat resemble gipsies. In height they are
above the a^^erage, with thickset figures and broad
shoulders ; their hair, whiskers, and beard invariably
black ; the eyes dark and rather large, never narrow
like those of the Mongols ; the nose in general
straight, although sometimes aquiline, and also
sometimes turned up ; the lips thick and protruding ;
the cheekbones not so prominent as in the Mongol
type ; the face long, never flat ; the skull round ; the
teeth white and regular ; the skin tawny coloured ;
the women smaller and darker in complexion than
the men.

Unlike Mongols or Chinese, the Tangutans have
a strong growth of beard and whiskers, which they
always shave as they do the head, leaving a pigtail ;
the lamas, however, like the Mongols, shave the
head clean.

The women wear long hair, parted in the middle,
and divided into a number of small plaits on either
side, adorned with different articles of finery, such as
beads, ribbons, &c. They tinge their cheeks with
Chinese dyes, and in summer with the juice of the
wild strawberry, which abounds in the forests. This
custom only prevails in Kan-su, not in Koko-nor or
Tsaidam, probably on account of the difficulty of
obtaining the necessary colouring matter. ^

' It prevails among the proper Tibetans, both at Lhassa and in

к A RA - ТА NG UTA NS. LANGUAGE. 1 1 1

Such is the outward appearance of the Tangutans
of Kan-su. Those of another branch known as
Kara- (or black) Tangutans, inhabiting the basin of
Koko-nor, Eastern Tsaidam, and the sources of the
Yellow River, are distinguished by a greater stature,
darker complexion, and especially by their predatory
habits ; these again wear no pigtails, shaving the
head clean.

Our studies in the language were pursued under
extraordinary difficulties, owing to the want of an
interpreter, and the suspicious character of the
people. If we had written down a word while
conversing with one of them we should never have
learned anything again ; the report of our hav-
ing done it would soon have been circulated in the
neighbourhood and would have excited endless sus-
picions. My Cossack interpreter, at the best a very
indifferent dragoman, did not know a syllable of
Tangutan, being able only to hold a conversation with
such natives as understood Mongol, and these are
met with rarely.^ There was more chance of finding
a Mongol who spoke Tangutan, and such a one we
succeeded in obtaining for our summer trip to the
mountains. But to carry on conversation through
the medium of two interpreters is a tedious and
irksome business. I usually spoke in Russian to
the Cossack, who interpreted into Mongol, the Mon-
gol in his turn rendering the meaning into Tangutan.

Ladakh ; at least if the custom here referred to is the same which
Hue describes (ii. 254) at Lhassa, where he says the women rub their
faces with ' a sort of black sticky varnish much like grape jam.' — Y.
^ Nearly all Tangutans in Kan-su speak Chinese.

112 PECULIARITIES OF LANGUAGE.

Allowing for the limited intelligence of the Cossack,
the stupidity of the Mongol, and the suspicion of the
Tangutan, some idea may be formed of our difficul-
ties in studying the language. Now and then, while
speaking with a native, an opportunity would present
itself of jotting down a few words unobserved ; but
progress under these circumstances, in a language so
entirely strange to Europeans, was almost hopeless.

The Tangutans have a way of pronouncing their
words very rapidly, and their language is character-
ised by the following particulars : —

A large number of monosyllabic \vords pronounced
abruptly : e.g. tok (lightning), ksih (water), rtsa
(grass), ksia (hair).

The union of several consonants : e.g. 7ndzugeheh
(fingers), nd7nrtsah (year), rdzcwah (month), Idmrton-
lamd (paradise).

Vowels at the end of words are often lengthened
out : pchi-i (mule), sha-a (meat), tzia-a (tea), veh-6-ё
(husband), siya-a (hat) ; or in the middle of words :
sdazyiiyit (earth), ddoa (tobacco.) ^

The final n is often drawn out and pronounced
through the nose : lii'i{g) (wind), shan[g) (forest),
su1bcken[g) (brook) ; words ending in m have an
abrupt sound, as in laui (road), oiidm (thunder).
The letter g at the beginning of a word is pro-
nounced like the Latin /i : Jioma (milk) ; k is some-
tinics aspirated and pronounced as kJi : khi'ka (range),
diudkJmk (tobacco-pouch) ; c/i like tscJi : tscho (dog) ;

' Is this not the Hindi dluai, smoke, showing whence tobacco was
introduced into Tibet ? — Y.

DRESS OF TANdUTANS. U3

r at th(^ bcL^inning of words when joined to one or
more vowels is almost inaudible : rgdamit (wife),
rmiikha-a (cloud).

The dress of the Tangutans is of cloth or sheep-
skins, suitable to the climate, which is very damp in
summer and cold in winter. The summer costume
worn by men and women consists of a grey cloth
coat, or long tunic, reaching down to the knees, Chi-
nese or home-made boots, and a low-crowned broad-
brimmed felt hat. Shirts and trowsers are never
worn, and in winter the sheepskin cloak is put on
next to the skin ; the upper part of the legs is usuall)'
bare. The richer persons wear robes made c>f Chi-
nese daba (cotton cloth), but this is considered a
luxury ; the lamas have the usual red or, more
rarely, yellow dresses. Their clothes are far inferior
in texture to those of the Mongols, and the silken
robe, so frequently seen among the Khalkas, is quite
the exception here. But whatever the garment or
the season of the year, the Tangutan always lets the
right sleeve hang down empty, leaving the arm and
part of the breast on that side exposed ; a habit
maintained even on a journey, weather permitting.

The smartest among them trim their coats with
fur of the Tibetan panther, and wear a large silver
earring set with a sapphire in the left ear ; a tinder-
box and knife stuck into the belt behind, and a
tobacco-pouch and pipe on the left side, are wc^ni
by all. The inhabitants of Koko-nor and Tsaidam
carry long Tib(,'tan swords, made of ver)" interior
vol.. II. 1

114 BLACK TENTS AND WOODEN HUTS.

metal, although very expensive ; the price of the
cheapest being three or four lans (15^". to 21^.), and
the best costing as much as 15 lans (about 4/.).

The dress of the women is precisely the same as
that of the men, with the sole difference that on
holidays they wear wide handkerchiefs thrown over
their shoulders, studded with shells, and those who
can afford it are particularly fond of red beads.

The characteristic habitation of the Tangutan
is his black tent, made of coarse woollen cloth,^ sup-
ported at the corners on four poles, and fastened to
the ground at the sides with loops. In the middle
of the roof, which is nearly flat, there is an oblong
slit about a foot wide to allow of the escape of
smoke, closed during rain and for the night. In
the centre of the tent is placed an earthen hearth;
opposite the entrance are ranged the Lares and
Penates, and on either side the implements and
various domestic utensils of its inmates.

In the richly- wooded districts of Kan-su, where
the Tangutans live with the Chinese and cultivate
the soil, the tents are replaced by wooden huts,
which are very similar, although even inferior, to
those of White Russia,-' having no wooden floors,
and having the interior walls of the rough round
timbers, the interstices being filled with clay ; the
roofs are flat, made of branches covered with earth,

' The clotli is woven from y;ik-\vool.

- I"'or those readers to whom the term ' White Russia ' may not be
familiar I may explain that at the present day it applies chiefly to the
two Governments of Vitebsk and Mohilev, lying to the south-west of
the Russian empire. — M.

CATTLE REARISG. 115

with a hole left in the middle to answer the double
purpose of chimney and window.

But this wretched abode is luxurious compared
with the black tent. The former, at all events, is
weather-proof, while to the latter summer rains and
winter frosts have easy access. There is no exag-
geration in saying that the marmot in his burrow is
far more comfortable than his neighbour — man. The
animal has at least a soft couch to lie upon, but the
bed of the Tangutan is a heap of dirt, or sodden
pieces of felt, thrown on the damp ground.

The chief occupation of the Tangutans is rearing
cattle, which supply all the wants of their simple
lives. Their domestic animals are yaks and sheep
(not the fat-tailed kind), with horses and cows in
smaller numbers ; their wealth in flocks and herds is
very considerable, owing to the abundance of rich pas-
turage in Kan-su and Koko-nor, where we often saw
several hundred yaks and thousands of sheep belong-
ing to one owner, whose abode was in no degree
better than that of the poorest of his brethren. It is
a rare sight to see a rich Tangutan wearing a cotton
robe instead of the common cloth dress, or indulging
in an extra piece of meat at his meals ; his mode
of life is, in all respects, the same as that of his
servants. He is as dirty as they are; he never
washes, and his garments swarm with insects, which
he kills without the slightest regard to propriety.

The characteristic animal of the country, and
the inseparable companion of the Tangutan, is the
long-haired )ak, also bred in the mountains of Ala-

1 2

ll6

THE YAK

shan, and kept in large numbers by the Mongols in
Northern Khalkas, a hilly, well-watered, and grassy
country — indispensable conditions for the well-being
of this animal which only thrives at a certain level
above the sea. Yaks cannot exist without plenty of

The Yak (after a Drawing by J. E. Winterbottom, Esq.. lent by Dr. Hooker).

water ; they are fond of bathing, and are excellent
swimmers ; we saw them more than once swim across
the rapid Tatung-gol, although carrying packs. The
domestic yak is of the same size as our cattle ; the
hair is black or black-and-white ; they are very
seldom entirely white. Notwithstanding their- long
dom.estication, they still retain a good deal of their
wild nature ; their movements are quick and agile,
and when (;nrag(;d tlicy are very dangerous. •^

'- For an account of llic domestic yak, sec 'The Abode of Snow,' by
A. Wilson, chap. xiii. Hooker's ' Himahiyan Journals,' i. 212 scqq.,
and ' Marco Polo,' 2nd ed., i. 268 scqq.—Vi.

ITS USES. 117

The yak not only supplies fine wool, milk, and
butter, but is a most useful beast of burden. It
certainly requires skill and some patience to fasten
the load on his back ; but when this difficulty is
overcome, he will carry at least two cwt. over lofty
precipitous mountains, by the most dangerous paths,
climbing ledges of rock where a goat or wild sheep
would hardly keep its footing. In the country of
the Tangutans, where camels are scarce, the yak is
almost the only substitute, and large caravans of
these animals are annually sent from Koko-nor to
Lhassa.

In Kan-su herds of yaks roam almost at liberty
over the pastures, being driven in at night to the
tents of their owners. Yak milk is delicious, and as
rich as cream ; the butter made from it is yellow and
far superior to that made from cows' milk. In fact
the yak is a most valuable beast, and should be en-
couraged in Siberia and in those parts of European
Russia suitable to its habits, the Ural mountains for
instance, or the Caucasus, where it could be acclima-
tized Avithout great difficulty. Any number of yaks
may be purchased at Urga at 5/. a head; and they
could be driven to Russia at a small expense.

The Tangutans ride the yak, guiding it by means
of a rope attached to a brge wooden ring inserted in
its nostrils. The cross-breed of the yak bull and do-
mestic cow,^ called by the natives khainik, is stronger,
more hardy, and therefore more valuable.

• This valuable cross is also mentioned by Marco Polo, in his
account of Tangul (2d. cd. 1. 266). It is in use also on the Indian side
of Tibet.— Y.

Il8 NOMAD lIABirS; INDUSTRY.

We saw some Tangutans near Chobsen, living
with Chinese, engaged in agriculture ; but a settled
life does not harmonise with their restless natures.
They pine after the careless pastoral existence best
suited to their indolent character.

Their encampments always consist of a few
yurtas standing together, very rarely of single tents as
is the case so frequently with the Mongols. Indeed,
the habits and manners of the two races are quite
distinct. The one loves his dry, barren desert, and
fears damp more than any hardship ; the other, in-
habiting a country lying so near, but at the same
time physically so different, is quite another stamp
of man. He prefers the moist climate and rich soil
of his native valleys ; he hates and fears the desert.
The same remarks apply to their respective ani-
mals. The camel of the Mongol is a four-footed
counterpart of its master, while the yak typifies the
chief peculiarities of the Tangutan.

In the wooded parts of Kan-su, a few Tangutans
turn with the lathe different utensils, such as wooden
bowls for eating out of, or for keeping butter in ; the
latter purpose being in general served by yaks or
sheep's bladders.

The most common, indeed the only, industry of the
Tangutans is preparing yak (or more rarely sheep's)
wool for cloth, out of which all their clothes are
made. They spin the wool on a long stick with a
crook at the end for holding the spindle. The yarn
is wf)ven into cloth, not by themselves, but by the
Chinese. We may mention that the only measure

OCCUPATION; FOOD AND BEVERAGES. 119

known to the Tangiitans in Kan-su is the span of
their arms ; so that the measurement of the piece,
and therefore the price to be paid for it, depends on
the stature of the buyer !

The sole occupation of the Tangutan is tending
cattle ; this is some break to the absolute idleness
to which he gives up his whole life. For hours
together grown-up men and women and children sit
round the hearth doing literally nothing but drink
tea, which is as indispensable to them as it is to
the Mongols. In the Tangut country, where, in
consequence of the Dungan disturbances, the price
of brick tea has considerably risen, dried yellow
onion heads are used as a substitute, after under-
going a process somewhat similar to the preparation
of tobacco. This ' tea ' is chiefly manufactured at
Tonkir,^ and gets its name from that place. The
natives drink large quantities of this nasty decoction,
mixed with milk. A tea-kettle is simmering all day
long on the hearth, and tea-drinking goes on at least
ten times a day, guests being always invited to join.

Dzamba (barley- meal) is invariably mixed in the
tea ; a small quantity being put into a cup half filled
with tea, and stirred with the finger, till it thickens
into the consistency of paste. To this mess curds are
sometimes added by way of a relish, but only by
the rich ; the poor have to content themselves with
tea and dzamba. This diso'ustine mess is their

* This town is thirteen miles WNW. of Si-nin;;. [It is evidently
the Tang-kcu-eul of Pere Hue, which no doubt is the pronunciation of
the Chinese characters representing the name. — Y.]

I20 STINGINESS ; UNCLEANLINESS ; TRADE;

chief food, but little meat being eaten. Even the
rich Tangutan, owner of several thousand head of
cattle, will not kill a sheep or yak for his own use,
and is so mean and stingy that he \\\\\ deny himself
a piece of meat if by so doing he can save a Ian of
silver, Tangutans, like Mongols, will eat carrion,
and with a relish too. Next to tea and dzamba,
their favourite food is tarik, i.e. boiled sour skimmed
milk, which is to be found in every tent ; the wealthier
classes also make a kind of cheese of curds and
butter, which is considered a great delicacy.

The Tangutans are disgustingly dirty, and never
wash the bowls out of which they eat ; the cups out
•of which they drink are merely rinsed out after use,
and replaced in the bosom where vermin swarm ;
lliev never wash the cow-teats before milkinof, and
they pour the milk into the filthiest of utensils ; their
churn is a piece of raw sheepskin fastened to the end
of a stick, with wool and dirt adhering.

With few exceptions they are no agriculturists,
obtaining their supplies of dzamba from Tonkir, a
trade centre of some importance. Hither they drive
their cattle and carry their skins and wool to barter
in exchange for dzamba, tobacco, daba (cotton cloth),
Chinese boots, &c., the price of every article being
fixed according to the number of sheep it would
fetch.

They are as distinct from the Mongols in charac-
ter as they are in a])pearance. They are superior
to tlie latter in com-age, tMiergy, and intelligence,
especial])' to tlie Mongols oi Koko-norand Tsaidam.

AND PECULTARITIES OF TANGUTANS. 121

But they are not so hospitable as the thoroughbred
Mongols, and they are very cunning and mercenar)%
particularly those who mix with the Chinese.

A Tangutan will never do anyone a service for
nothing, but will alwa)s tr}- to get as much as he
can for it, even though it were from his own
brother.

Their usual salutation is extending both hands
horizontally, with the words Aka teimt, i.e. ' How
do you do ?' Aka, like the Mongol nokhor, signify-
ing Jllaster, or Monsieur, frequently used in con-
versation. On making a new acquaintance, and in
general on visiting anyone, particularly if he be a
person of distinction, a silk scarfs is invariably pre-
sented, the quality of which depends on the mutual
good feeling subsisting between guest and host.

The Tangutans do not admit plurality of wives,
but keep concubines. All the domestic work is
done by the women, whose rights in the household
are, as far as I could judge, equal to those of the
men. They have a curious custom of stealing their
neighbours' Avives, of course not without their secret
assent. In such case the stolen wife belongs to her
ravisher, who pays the husband a good sum as com-
pensation. They all count their age, not from the
day of their birth, but from that of their conception,
adding one to the years of their life for that passed
in the mother's луотЬ.

They arc as zealous Buddhists as the Mongols,

' This etiquette of the Khata, or ceremonial scarf of silk, is ex-
pounded at large b\ Hue (ii. 86), and is mentioned also by Turner.— Y.

122 RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT. THE DUNGAN^ ;

and are dreadfully superstitious. Charlatanism and
soothsaying are with them mixed up with the doc-
trines of their faith. The more devout make annual
pilgrimages to Lhassa. Lamas are highly venerated,
and exercise boundless influence over the people ;
but temples are not numerous here as in Mongolia,
and the Gigens often live in black tents along with
ordinary mortals. Their bodies are not buried in the
ground after death, but are exposed in the forest, or
on the steppe, to be devoured by vultures and wolves.
The Tangutans are governed by their own
officers, who are under the control of the Chinese
governor of Kan-su. The latter usually resides at
Si-ning, but on the occupation of that town by the
rebels, he transferred his seat of government to
Dj'ung-ling. On the recapture of Si-ning by the
Chinese troops in the autumn of 1872, he returned
to his former residence.

The Mahommedan insurrection, which, about ten
years ago, spread over all the western dominions of
China, and at first appeared to have eveiy chance
of success in its struggle with the Manchu govern-
ment, is now completely on the wane. The insur-
gents or Dungaris^ as we call them, known to the
Chinese under the name of Hwei-Hwei, on the first
outbreak of the rebellion, succeeded in attaining

' This name is quite unknown to the Mahommcdans or Chinese in
those districts we visited. The Chinese call all Mahommcdans in
China by the general name of TIwci-Hwei. They are all Snimis,
but divided into several sects. [It would appear that Dungans, as used
here, is 5imi)ly the equiv.ilcnl of Chincbc Mahommcdans.] — -Y.

PROGRESS OF THEIR INSURRECTION; 123

liberation from the Chinese yoke, which was their
main object, over a vast extent of territory situated
to the west of the Great Wall and near the sources
of the Yellow River ; but they soon gave up acting
on the offensive, and confined themselves to bri-
gandage in the neighbouring districts of China and
Mongolia. Their last sio^nal successes were the
devastation of Ordos and Ala-shan on the east ;
Uliassutai, Kobdo, and Bulun-tokhoi on the west ;
soon afterwards they were defeated by the Chinese,
and were finally obliged to defend themselves
against the decisive measures taken by their oppo-
nents to the east of the Upper Hoang-ho. Here we
were witnesses of some encraijements between the
insurgents and Chinese troops. The following nar
rative will, therefore, refer only to the action of both
parties in the province of Kan-su.

The Mahommedan insurrection broke out in this
province in 1862, and some important successes were
at first gained by the insurgents. Three large towns,
Si-ning, Tatung, and Suh-chau, fell into their hands ;
the Chinese garrisons were either put to the sw^rd,
or compelled to adopt the Mahommedan religion and
enter the ranks of the rebels. Chinese garrisons,
however, still held out in some towns situated near
those which had freed themselves, and Dj'ung-ling,
Sa-yan-chen,^ Tajing, Lang-chau, and Kan-chau

' Sa-yan-chen is not to be found in Prejevalsky's Map, but we find
in Kiepert's ' Asia' (1863), Sanyantsing, very near the position of Pre-
jevalsky's Yunan-chen. It is probable, however, that this position is
only Kiepert's interpretation of Hue's vague indications, for San-ycn-

124 BKIGAiXDAGE; CHANCES OF SUCCESS ;

remained in their power, so that Kan-su was not
entirely lost to China. The territories held by
the respective combatants were not only in contact,
but sometimes actually overlapped each other, neither
side takino- decisive measures to drive the other out.

In this position of affairs petty pillaging and
brigandage became the primary object of the revolted
Mussulmans. And in the absence of nobler motives,
these practices speedily led to the decline of their
cause, ere it had time to acquire a sound political
basis. Instead of advancing in a compact body
beyond the Yellow River direct on Peking, and
settling beneath its very walls the question of the
existence of an independent Mahommedan state in
the east of Asia, they dissipated their forces in the
movements of small independent bands, chiefly bent
on plunder.

Had they acted in a resolute way they might
have had a good chance of success. To say nothing
of the cowardice and demoralisation of the Chinese
forces, the Hwei-Hwei or Mussulmans would have
found a powerful support among their co-religionists,
who are animated by the bitterest hatred to the
Manchu, and would gladly have joined their ranks.
If it be remembered that I slam ism numbers from 3^
to 4 millions ^ of adherents in China Proper, superior
in energy and religious organisation, it can scarcely

isin is one of his halting-places (ii. 32), and if so the true place is very
doubtful.— Y.

' According to an approximate calculation by the Archimandrite
Talladius, a distinguished sinologue. See 'Labours of the Peking
Mission,' 1866, vol. iv. p. 450.

NEGLECTED OPPORrUNFflES. 125

be doubted that a bold advance of the Dungaiis
might have threatened the tranquilhty, nay, perhaps
the existence, of the Celestial Empire, and certainly
that of the reigning Manchu dynasty. Moreover,
provinces of China further south were at the same time
disturbed by the revolts of the Taepings and of the
Yunnan Mahommedans, though these had no con-
nection with the north-western movement, of which
we are speaking. Thus the Peking government was
threatened by great calamities both from the south
and from the west ; but none of her enemies knew
how to avail themselves ot their first successes, and
thus China had time to recover herself, and after-
wards, in her turn, to assume the offensive.

Another important element of success was en-
tirely disregarded by the insurgents, and that Avas to
gain the good will of the Mongols, who so bitterly
detest the Chinese.

The two races, alien as they are from each other
in character and religion, would have found a bond of
union in their common struggle for freedom ; but
from the very first the Dungans ill-used the Mon-
gols, and treated them exactly as they did the
Chinese, so that these desirable allies were effectually
estranged.

But victory could never have declared for the
rebels unless they had acted under one leader.
Here they entirely failed. Every large town or
district carried on an independent system of warfare
under its own chief, whether Akhun or Hadji.' The

^ Thus, in Kan-su, the towns of Si-ning, Tatiing and Suh-chau.
u ith their districts, were entirely independent of one another.

12б THEIR COWARDICE AND CRUELTY.

case with which they phindered Ordos and Ala-shan*
in 1869, despite the presence of a force of 70,000
Chinese troops on the middle course of the Hoang-ho,
is a convincing proof of the success which might
have attended their arms in a serious struggle witli
China. The following year they sacked Uliassutai,
and the year after that Kobdo, the chief places in
Western Momrolia.' Both these towns were oarri-
soned by Chinese soldiers, who hid themselves at
the first appearance of the Dungans, without offering
the sliorhtest resistance.

О

We must not, however, draw conclusions from these
facts favourable to the valour of the Mahonimedans.-
They are in fact as arrant cowards as the Chinese,
and only put on a bold demeanour when they are
certain of encountering no resistance. All their
plundering forays and skirmishes with the Chinese
simply amounted to this ; — one set of cowards tries
to outwit another ; as soon as either side has suc-
ceeded, VcB victis ! woe to the fallen enemy. We
were told by eyewitnesses that not satisfied with
slaughtering the women, the Mahommedans threw
hundreds of little children into deep wells, and then
stood gloating over the agonies of their unfortunate
victims. The Chinese retaliated in like manner.
Whenever victory declared for either side it was

' Bulun-tokhoi was destroyed in 1S73. The aspect of Kobdo shortly
after its capture by the Mahommedans has been described by an eye-
witness, Mr. Ney Elias, who visited it in November, 1872. (Sec Jour-
nal of the Royal Geogr. Soc, vol. xliii., p. 134). — M.

'^ I am only alluding to the Mahommedans in Kan-su ; those of
Chinese Turkestan and the Thian-Shan may be different.

SIEGE OF CHOBSEN. 127

immediately followed by a wholesale butchery of the
vanquished ; no prisoners were made, no quarter
given. ^

The bands of Dungans who made plundering in-
cursions into Kan-su and on the borders of Mongolia,
were composed of every kind of vagabonds, half of
whom were often unarmed ; the remainder carried
spears or swords, and a few matchlocks. Old men
and women followed to collect booty, and bring it
home under cover of their companions' escort.

To give a correct idea of the absurd nature of
the military operations of the Dungans, I will de-
scribe the siege of the temple of Chobsen, which
happened three years before our arrival in Kan-su,
as it was related to us by some of its defenders.

The temple is surrounded by a mud wall, 20
feet high and 280 feet square. In the centre of
each face and at the four corners stand small towers,
each capable of containing fifteen or twenty men.
The wall has a wooden roof, sloping on either side,
and at a short distance from it, about 100 houses are
scattered about, each standing in its own enclosure.
There is no well inside the temple, and water is ob-
tained from a spring in the immediate vicinity.

In the summer of 1868 several thousand Dun-

* In every place where the Mahommedans revolted, the Manchu
officials and Chinese soldiers were in general exterminated to a man ;
occasionally soldiers were spared on condition of their embracing
Mahommedanism. Of the peaceable Chinese population living in Dun-
gan territory, those who became Mahommedans had equal rights \vith
the concjuerors ; the others were made slaves. Women were not re-
quired to change their religion.

128 SIEGE OPERATIONS.

gans made their appearance at Chobsen, with the
object of taking and destroying- the temple. Its
defenders, numbering 1,000 men, Chinese, Mongols,
and Tangutans, retreated within the principal enclo-
sure, leaving the enemy to take possession of the
outer houses, which of course they had no difficulty in
doing, but the main wall was strong enough to resist
all their efforts, and the first assault was unsuccess-
ful. The hour of taking tea now drew near, and as
the observance of this custom is not neglected even
during actual warfare, the besiegers withdrew to their
camp, about two-thirds of a mile from the temple.
Taking advantage of such a favourable opportunity,
the besieged sallied out of their fortress in full view
of the enemy, proceeded to the stream to obtain a
supply of water, and in their turn set to work tea-
drinking. The next day beheld a repetition of the
same process ; the Dungans invested till mid-day,
when they retired to drink tea ; in this way the siege
lasted six clays, at the expiration of which, finding
they could not take the place, the Dungans returned
to their homes.

This anecdote would have been almost incredi-
ble, had we not convinced ourselves of the rotten
state of China and her tributaries. They are all
alike, and nothing but ignorance on the part of Eu-
ropeans could invest them with any of tht; attributes
of power or majesty.

Notwithstanding the rancorous hatred between
Mussulmans and Chinese, they are not unwilling to
have commercial transactions with оп(; another. \\\

ANOMALOUS POSITION OF AFFAIRS. 129

Kan-su, where the Dungans are in such close proxi-
mity with the Chinese, we repeatedly heard it stated
that the Mussulmans at such and such a place were
on good terms with some temple or village in their
neighbourhood with which they traded. Thus the
Dungans at Tatung were at enmity with the temple
of Chobsen and the surrounding district, while at
Simni, on the Tatung-gol, forty miles to the north of
Chobsen, they were friendly with the Gigen of its
temple, trading peacefully and molesting no one. In
the same way the commander of Mur-zasak, one of
the banners of Koko-nor, as we have already men-
tioned, was on excellent terms with the Dungans at
Yunan-chen, whom he supplied with cattle.

Such an anomalous position of affairs could only
exist in a country like China. Let us now see what
measures were taken by the Chinese to quell the
insurrection in Kan-su.

After the loss in a few years of the whole of
Eastern Turkestan, the countries lying at the foot of
the Thian-Shan, and a large part of Kan-su, the
Chinese Government began to realise the great dan-
ger of their position, and determined to employ every
means in their power to prevent the insurrection
from spreading to the northern provinces of China
Proper. With this view a line of defence was drawn
along the upper and middle course of the Hoang-
ho. Here 70,000 troops were disposed, partly gar-
risoning the towns of Kuku-khoto, Bautu, Ding-hu,
Ning-hia, Lang-chau, &c., and partly quartered by
small detachments in the intermediate villages. The

VOL. II. к

I30 CHINESE SOLDIERS AND THEIR ARMS.

garrisons of those towns of Kan-su which still re-
mained in the power of China were strengthened.
Nothing more was done in the first instance. The
Dungans, gratified Avith their success in freeing them-
selves from Chinese rule, discontinued aggressive
measures, and gave themselves up to looting, while
the Chinese garrisons immured within mud walls re-
mained tranquil spectators of the complete devasta-
tion of the country.

The Chinese troops in Kan-su and on the Hoang-
ho were brought from the southern provinces of the
empire, and were called by the inhabitants Khotens ;
they also included a few Solones from Manchuria.
Their arms consisted of swords, matchlocks, a few
smooth-bore English muskets and double-barrelled
pistols, some of English and others of Tula manu-
facture, the latter probably obtained on the Amur.
The cavalry and some of the infantry were armed
with long bamboo lances, decorated with red flags
and effigies of the dragon.

The moral qualities of Chinese soldiers are so
peculiar that a European would find difficulty in
believing it possible for an army composed of such
elements to exist, particularly when brought into
the field. In the first place all of them, officers and
men, are addicted to opium-smoking, and cannot
exist without it for a single day. This vile habit is
not only practised in barracks, but even on a cam-
paign, in the face of an enemy, they will smoke
themselves into a state of torpor. The result is
moral and physical debility, and complete unfitness

CAMPAIGNING. 131

for the hardships and privations of warfare. Their
discipline is so bad that they are incapable of keeping
on the alert even for a few days, and they would fall
an easy prey to an active energetic enemy. They
post no picquets ; they make no reconnaissances.
Any information of the enemy's movements is re-
ported by spies ; so unfitted are they for physical
exertion that nothing but the threat of instant execu-
tion will compel them to leave the shelter of their
house or tent in bad weather, or at night. On the
march the infantry either ride or travel in carts ;
nothing will induce them to go on foot, even for a few
marches. Finding their arms inconvenient to carry,
they frequently lay them on the cart or camel in
order to feel quite at their ease, as if they were on a
pleasure excursion.

On arriving at the night halting place they loot
and rob the inhabitants of everything they possess.
One carries off a hen, another a sucking-pig, a third
a bag of flour, a fourth forage for his horse ; in fact,
their system of foraging reminds one of an enemy's
town given up to pillage. Officers take an active
part, only that, instead of robbing on their own
account, they take the plunder from the men ; no com-
plaints are heard or even made, and the inhabitants
are only too glad if they can keep a whole skin. So
customary is this style of thing that the Mongols,
directly they hear of the approach of the Chinese
troops, remove their encampments to great distances
from the road, or hide in the mountain defiles with

K. 2

133 MILITARY DELINQUENCIES.

their herds ;^ and caravans take circuitous routes in
order to avoid meeting the soldiers.

Garrison troops also commit the same depreda-
tions. After first pillaging the country in the imme-
diate vicinity of the town in which they are quartered,
they proceed in small detachments on more distant
forays which sometimes last for several days. The
commander receives his share of the booty, and every-
thing is arranged satisfactorily. Officers of all ranks,
from the highest to the lowest, rob the government
as much as they can. The chief source of their
illicit earnings is derived from the pay of soldiers
who have died or deserted, which they continue to
receive long after it has ceased to be due. Desertion
is so common that many of the battalions are reduced
from i,ooo to lOO men, and it has been confidently
asserted that the 70,000 troops on the Hoang-ho
actually do not number more than 30,000. All these
facts are of course concealed from the government
at Peking.

The severest penalties will not check these of-
fences, or restore the morale of the army. The
ordinary punishment for light offences is the basti-
nado, applied on the soles of the feet with bamboo
sticks, but desertion, insubordination, and in some

' So says Marco Polo, of the people near the western parts of the
Gobi : ' When an army passes through the land, the people escape, with
their wives, children, and cattle, a distance of two or three days' jour-
ney into the sandy waste ; and knowing the spots where water is to be
had they are able to live there, and to keep their cattle alive, whilst it
is impossible to discover them ; for the wind immediately blows the
sand over their track.' — Book I. ch. 38. — Y.

COWARDICE. 133

cases plundering, are punishable • by death. But
Avhere crime is so widespread, it seems rather to be
aggravated than diminished by severity, and year by
year the Chinese soldiers become more demoralised.
But the picture we have drawn of the defenders of
the Celestial Empire is still incomplete. The most
striking trait in their character is cowardice, innate
in all Chinese, and not considered a disgrace ; far
from this, the discretion of the soldier who runs
away is sometimes highly praised.•^ The tactics of
warfare consist in frightening the enemy, never in
hazarding a resolute attack. The order of battle is
a semicircle threatening the front and flanks simul-
taneously ; the troops open fire at a distance ten
times further than the range of their guns, utter
fearful cries after every round, and altogether behave
in a childish way, which of course would produce no
effect on superior troops. A bold well-armed enemy
might march into any part of the Middle Kingdom
with perfect confidence of the result. He need not
trouble himself about the number of his opponents ;
one wolf will put to flight a thousand sheep, and
every European soldier Is a wolf In com.parIson with
Chinese soldiers.

This was the state of affairs in Kan-su for ten
years. The Chinese garrisoned those towns which re-
mained faithful to them, while the insurgents ravaged
the country, neither of the belligerents taking more

* It is hardly necessary to comment on this wild kind of talk. The
army of Colonel Gordon showed of what Chinese soldiers are capable
when rationally disciplined and boldly led. — Y.

134 ADVANCE OF CHINESE.

decided measures. The governor of Kan-su resided
at Djung-ling, while a Dungan akhun ruled at
Si-ning.^

At length the authorities at Peking determined
to resort to more energetic measures, and accordingly
despatched a new army of 25,000 men to the scene
of action. Their chief object was to capture Si-ning,
an important commercial city with a large popula-
tion. Advancing in echelons, the Chinese troops only
arrived in Kan-su by the month of June 1872, and
quartered themselves in the towns of Nim-pi and
Ou-yam-pu, about thirty miles from Si-ning. Here
they passed two months in complete idleness, merely
pillaging the neighbouring country, and giving the
Mahommedans time to assemble 70,000 men in
Si-ning. Not till September did they advance against
this town, and take up their position beneath its
walls, within Avhich the defenders had as usual re-
tired. Four European field-pieces, brought from
Peking, struck terror into the insurgents. Each of
these guns was drawn by six mules caparisoned in
silk, and none durst approach them under fear of
immediate death. They were furnished with grape
shot and small shells, which were of the greatest
service to the Chinese.

At the assault of the town, some of these shells
burst in the streets, and created a panic among the
defenders. To make matters worse, one of them
which had not exploded on falling suddenly burst

' It is said that the loss of Si-ning was net reported at Peking until
three years afterwards.

DILATORY SIEGE OPERATIONS. 135

among the crowd, killing and wounding several, and
putting the rest to flight. The fight, however, con-
tinued for a few days after this occurrence, until the
Chinese captured a part of the wall, and obliged the
defenders to retreat to another part of the fortifi-
cations.

At this juncture, news was received of the mar-
riage of the Emperor of China. Siege operations
were immediately suspended, and a theatre was
built by the soldiers to celebrate the auspicious
event. The rejoicings, fireworks, and theatrical
representations were continued for a week, during
which time most of the officers and soldiers were
drunk, or insensible from opium-smoking ; and this
went on close to a still unconquered enemy. If the
Dungans had only had 100 men of any pluck
among them, they could, in one night attack, have
slain 1,000 Chinese soldiers, and dispersed the
remainder. But not even a handful of brave men
were to be found among the cowardly defenders of
Si-ning. They knew very well that as soon as the
Chinese had once taken possession of the town, they
would receive no grace, but yet they could not
muster up courage enough to profit by a singularly
favourable opportunity which thus presented itself.

This is an instance of the moral degradation of
the East, where a man cannot overcome his animal
instinct of self-preservation, and invariably shows
sio^ns of cowardice when left to himself; but when
once the coward is in a position out of which he
cannot extricate himself, he becomes completely

13б CAPTURE OF SI-NING.

indifferent to death, and walks to the scaffold like an
animal without reason.

Having celebrated the marriage of the Emperor,
the Chinese troops recommenced military operations
and soon took Si-ninof. Then commenced a whole-
sale butchery of the vanquished. We were told by
eye-witnesses that the Chinese soldiers, wearied with
slaying the people with cold steel, collected them
into bands, without distinction of age or sex, and
drove them to the mountains, where they pitched
them down precipices; in this way 10,000 were put
to death.

After the capture of Si-ning, its Chinese governor
was reinstated, and in the course of the winter three
more towns were re-captured : Seng-kwan, Yunan-
chen, and Tatung. Here they only spared those of
the rebels who would abjure Mahommedanism and
embrace Buddhism. Numbers of Duncjans fled to
join their co-religionists in the west.

After receiving further reinforcements from
Peking, the Chinese continued their advance west-
wards, and in the summer of 1873 captured the
important rebel position of Suh-chau.^ No authentic
news of the recent operations of the Chinese has
been received. They have now, at all events, a more
difficult task before them, in their struercfle with
Yakub Beg of Kashgar.

Here is the list of Tangut Avords which I made :

Mountain . . Ri-i^ i River .... Chsiuchen(g)

Range . . . Khika | Rivulet . . . Siubchen(g)

' It is reported that all the inhabitants of Suh-chau were massacred.
' Prolonged vowels are denoted by doul^ling them.

TANGUTAN VOCABULARY.

Lake . .

. Tso-o

Wild-boar .

. La-a

Water. . .

• Chsiu ^
. Rtsa :■
. Shan(g)

Chamois . .

. Kashd,

Grass . . .
Forest . .

Deerf^^'^k
Ldoe .

. Sha-a ?
. Imu

Tree . . .

. Shan(g)-Kireh

Argali. . .

. Rkhian'g)

Firewood

. Mi-i-shan(g)

Kuku-yaman

. Rna-a

Fire . . .

. Mi-i

Camel . .

. Namun(g)

Cloud . . .

. Rmukha-a

Felt . . .

. Dziugon

Rain . . .

. Tsiar

Fur cloak .

. Rtsdkha

Snow . . .

. . Kin

Hat . . .

. Sia-ia

Thunder . .

. Ondm

Saddle . .

. Rtdrga

Lightning .

. Ток

Dressing-gown Lo-o

Frost . .

. Khabsa

Boots . . .

. Kham

Heat . . .

. Tsatchigeh

Shirt . . .

. Tselin(g)

Wind . . .

• V Lun(g)

Pipe . . .

. Tetkhu-u

Road . . .

. Lam

Tinder . .

. Mitsia

Tea . . .

. Tsia-a

Tobacco . .

. Do-oa

Yurta (tent)

. Kirr

Horse-shoe .

. Rnikhtsiak

Hearth .

. Khtsiaktdb

Tobacco-pou

ch Diudkhuk

Tent . .

. Riukdrr

Man . . .

. Kcheibsa

Milk . .

. , G(h)6ma

Woman . .

. Yerkmdt

Butter ,

. Marr

Child . . .

. Sidzi

Meat . .

. Sha-a

Husband

. Veh-eh

Sheep . .

. Link

Wife . .

. Rganmu

Goat . .

. Rama

Man in the

Cow . .

. Sok

sense of

hu-

Bull . .'

. Olunmu

man being

. Mni

rmale
Y^'^i femal

. . Yak

Head . ,

. Mni-gou

t . Ndjeh

Eye . .

. Nik

Dog . .

. Tscho

Nose . .

. Khna-a

Horse. .

. . Rta-a j'

Forehead .

. Tomba

Ass . .

. Onleh-e^

Ears . .

. Rna

Mule . .

. Pchi-i'

Eyebrows

. Dzuma "\

Bear . .

. . Bsiugdjet

Mouth .

. Ka

Beaver .

. . Chiukram

Lips . .

. Chehh

Wolf . .

. . Kdadam

Cheeks .

. Dziamba

Fox . .

. . Gaa

Face . .

. No-o

Steppe fox

. . Beh-eh

Hair . . .

. Khtsia

Hedge -hog

. . Rgan

Moustachios

. Kdbsi

Bat . .

. . Pdna-a

Whiskers

. Dziara

Jerboa .

. . Rkhtilu

Beard . .

. . Dzidmki

Hare . .

. . Rugun

Teeth . .

. So-o

Lagomys

. . Bchjaa-Djdkzium

Tongue .

. Khtseh

Mouse .

. . Kharda

Heart . .

. Rkhin(g)

Marmot .

. . Sho-o

Blood . .

. . Chak

Dzeren (a

ntc-

Neck . .

. . Khnia

lope) .

. . Go-o

Intestmes

. . Dziundk

137

138

TANGUTAN VOCABULARY.

Breast . .

. Pchan

No. . . .

. Mit.

Hands

. Ldkhva

Fingers . .

. Mdzugeheh

I

. Khtsik

Nails . . .

. Tsinmu

2

. Ni

Back . . .

. Tsanra

3

. Sum

Stomach . .

. Chombu

4

. Bjeh

Feet . . .

Kuna-a

5

. Rna

Footstep . .

. Kanti

6

. Chok

Knee . .

. Ormu

7

. Diun

Hungry .

. Khtsinar

8

. Dziat

God . .

. Skha-a

9

• Rgiu

Angel . .

. Tunba

lO

. Tsiu-tambd

Devil . .

. Djeh-eh

II

. Tsiu-khtsik

Paradise . .

. Ldmrton-lamd,

12

. Tsiu-ni

Hell . .

. Ouardu

20

. Ni-chi-tambd

Sky . .

. Nam

30

. Sum-chi-tambd

Sun . .

. N ima

40

Bjeh-chi-tambd

Stars . .

. Karama

60

. Chok-chi-tamba

Moon . .

. Ddva

70

. Diiin-chi-tambd

Earth . .

. Sdazyu-u

80

. Dzidt-chi-tamba

Year . .

. Ndmrtsa-a

90

. Rgiup-chi-tambd

Week . .

. NimaP-abdun

100

. Rdzid-tamba

Day . .

. Nima ?

lOI

, Rdzid-ta-khtsik

Night. .

. Namgum

102

. Rdzia-ta-ni

To walk .

. Djeyo

200

. Ni-rdzia

To stand.

. Lani6t

300

. Sum-rdzia

To eat .

. Tdsa

400

. Bjeh-rdzia

To drink.

. Tun

500

. Rnd-rdzia

To sleep .

. . Rnit

600

. Chok-rdzia

To lie . .

. Niaya

700

. Diun-rdzia

To sit . .

. . Dok

800

, . Dzidt-rdzia

To cry .

. Kiupset

900

. . Rgiu-rdzia

To speak

. . Shoda

1,000

. . Rtiin-tik-khtsik

To pray .

. . Shdgamtsa

2,000

. . Rtun-tik-ni

To see .

. . Khtsirkta

10,000

. . Chi-tsok-khtsik

To bring .

. Tsehrashok

20,000

. Chi-tsok-ni

To go . .

. . Ddndjeh

100,000

. . В lima

To run .

. . Dardjuk

200,000

. . Buma-ni

He. . .

. . Kan

300,000

. . Buma-sum

Is . . .

. . Yut

1 ,000,000

. . Siva

Yes . .

. . Rit

10,000,000

. . Dunkhir.i

^ Some remarks on this ' Tangutan
the Introduction. — Y.

vocabulary will be found in

ко ко- АО R. 139

CHAPTER V.

KOKO-NOR AND TSAIDAM.

The lake — Colour of its waters — Island and temple — Fish — Legendary
origin of lake — Its shores — Birds — Animals — The Kulan or wild
ass — Eleuth Mongols — Low standard of civilisation — Kara-Tan-
gutans — Their predatory habits — Mongol tradition concerning
them — Administrative divisions of Koko-nor — We buy fresh camels
— Tibetan envoy — Favourable opportunity of reaching Lhassa lost
— We determine to advance — Guides — Temple of Kumbum and
its sacred tree — Tibetan medicine — Route along shore of lake —
Ponhain-gol — Hue's account of river inaccurate — Southern Koko-
nor range — Djaratai-dabas salt basin — Princess of Koko-nor —
The Tsing-hai-wang — Our reception — My reputation as saint,
prophet, and physician — Baiimsteitismus, a universal panacea —
Mongol ailments — Plain of Tsaidam — The Baian-gol — Saline
vegetation — Karmyk berries — Scarcity of animal life — Inhabitants
— Lake Lob — Wild camels and wild horses — Autumn on Koko-nor
— Clear atmosphere — Cultivated land — Crossing the marshes —
Tsung-zasak— Mongol guide ' Chutun dzamba.'

Lake Koko-nor, called Tsok-gumbum by the Tan-
gutans, and Tsing-hai ^ by the Chinese, lies to the
west of Si-ning, at a height of 10,500 feet above the
level of the sea. In shape it is an ellipse with its
longer axis running from east to west. It is from

1 The Mongolian name signifies 'light blue'— the Chinese ' dark
blue.' We could not ascertain the exact meaning of the Tangutan
name. The inhabitants of the region, and in general the Southern
Mongols, call it Khoko-nor, i.e. softening the к into kh.

[The Tangutan, i.e. the Tibetan name of the lake is properly Tso-
ngonbo, as written by Delia Penna, or Tsoi-Ngon-po, as written by
Hue, meaning just the same as the Mongol and Chinese, viz., ' Blue
Lake.'— Y.]

140 BEAUTY OF THE LAKE.

200 to 230 miles in circumference ; we could not, in-
deed, ascertain its exact size, but the natives told us
that it took a fortnight to go round it on foot, and
seven or eight days on horseback. Its shores are
very flat and shelving ; its water salt and undrinkable.
But this saltness imparts an exquisite dark blue colour
to the surface, which excites even the admiration of
the Mongols, who have compared it not inaptly to
blue silk. It is certainly very beautiful, especially as
we first saw it, late in autumn, when the snowclad
mountains formed a white frame for the velvety blue
waters which passed out of sight on the eastern
horizon.

Many streams flow into Koko-nor, the more con-
siderable being eight in number, of which the Pou-
hain-gol, joining its south-western corner, is the
principal.

As on other great lakes even a light breeze will
often raise its waves, ^ and it is rarely and only for
short intervals calm. Strong winds prevail about
the middle of November, when the lake freezes and
remains ice-bound till the end of March, i.e. for 4I
months.

In the western part of the lake, some fourteen
miles from the southern shore, there is a rocky island ^

^ Hue asserts that there is a perceptible ebb and flow in this lake.
1 purposely stuck poles into it and convinced myself that there was no
regular rise and fall of the water. The descriptions of Hue, from
Lake Koko-nor forwards, are in general curiously inaccurate, as we
shall have more than once to remark. See Souvenirs iVttn Voyage, &c.,
vol. ii. p. 185.

- The inhabitants of the shores of Koko-nor say there is only one
island.

TEMPLE ON ISLAND. LEGEND. 141

about six or seven miles in compass, on which stands
a small temple inhabited by ten lamas, who have no
means of communication with the main land during
summer, for there is no boat on the lake, and none of
the inhabitants understand the use of one. In winter
pilgrims cross over the ice, and bring presents of
butter and barley-meal to the hermits, who at this
season come out of their cells to collect alms.

Koko-nor abounds- in fish, but you find only a
score or two of Mongol fishermen on its shores, and
these send all that they catch to the town of Tonkin
Their nets are small, and the fishing is chiefly car-
ried on at the mouths of the streams which flow into
the lake. The only kind of fish that we saw was
the Schizopygopsis nov. sp., Avhich we captured
ourselves ; we heard that though there were many
other species, owing to the badness of the nets they
were rarely caught.

The local tradition ^ of the orio-in of Koko-nor

о

represents it to have once been an underground lake
in Tibet, in the place where Lhassa now stands, and
to have been transferred to its present site before
the memory of man. The story runs thus : —

In olden days, before the present residence of
the Dalai-Lama was built, one of the sovereigns of
Tibet bethought him of erecting a splendid shrine in
honour of Buddha, and so having selected a site he
begfan to build. Thousands of workmen were em-

о

' This legend is related by Hue {Soitvoiirs d^un Voyage, &.C., vol. ii.
p. 189-194). The only new point that I have been able to add is the
story of the origin of the island.

142 LEGEND OF THE LAKE.

ployed for a whole year, but no sooner was the edi-
fice completed than the whole suddenly tumbled to
pieces. Again the work was begun, and again, from
some unknown cause, it fell to ruins. It was rebuilt
a third time, but the result was just the same. The
king, startled and alarmed, applied to one of the
gigens to explain this phenomenon. Though the
prophet could give no satisfactory answer, he was
able to inform his master that in the far East there
lived a saint who alone of mortals possessed the
secret, and that if the king could extort it from him
the building might be completed. On receiving this
answer, the monarch chose a trusty lama and sent
him in search of the saint.

In the course of some years the envoy travelled
through nearly all the Buddhist countries, visiting the
most famous shrines and conversing with the differ-
ent gigens without finding anybody answering to the
prophet's description. At length, disgusted with the
ill-success of his mission, he determined to return
home by those great steppes which stretch on the
borders of China and Tibet. One day as he
was riding over the plain, the buckle of his saddle-
girth broke, and seeing a solitary little yurta (tent)
not far off, he went towards it for help. On entering
he found a blind old man engaged in prayer, who wel-
comed his guest, and gave him a buckle from his own
saddle. He then invited the traveller to sit down
and drink tea, and enquired of him whence he had
come and whither he was going. Unwilling to dis-
close the object of his journey, the envoy replied

MONGOL WORD ^ KILEH.' 143

that he was a native of the West, and had come on
a pilgrimage to pray at all the famous temples of the
East. ' Ah ! ' said the old man, 'we are fortunate in-
deed in possessing so many beautiful shrines. They
are trying in vain to build one in Tibet, but their
work will never be completed, because in the very
place which they have chosen for it, there is a subter-
ranean lake which loosens the foundations as fast as
they are laid. But, prithee, keep this secret, for if
the Tibetan lamas hear of it, the waters of the lake
will pass hitherwards and swallow us up.'

Hardly had he done speaking when his guest
started from his seat, and announcing that he was a
lama from Tibet whose object was to discover this
very secret, jumped on his horse and galloped away.
Despair and fear took possession of the old man.
He began calling loudly for help, and as soon as one
of his sons, who was tending the cattle hard by, came
in, the father bade him quickly saddle a horse.
' Haste thee, haste thee after that lama, and wrest
his tongue from him.' Of course the old man was

О

thinking of his secret, and meant that the son should
put the stranger past blabbing. But the word 4cileh'
means in Mongol either the tongue of a man or
animal, or the buckle of a saddle-girth. Hence,
when the messenger overtook the lama he told him
that his father wanted him to return his 4cileh'
whereupon the latter unfastened the borrowed buckle
and gave it to the son, who returned with it to his
father. The latter on finding that his son had only
brought back the buckle, and had suffered the lama

144 SEQUEL OF STORY. ANIMALS.

to continue his journey, exclaimed, ' God's will be
done ! All is over ! We are lost ! ' Sure enough
that night a fearful subterranean noise was heard ;
the earth opened ; and streams of water pouring
forth from below soon flooded the wide plain. Much
cattle and many souls perished, the old man among
the rest. At length God took pity on sinful mortals
and sent a wonderful bird, which flew away with a
huge rock from the Nan-shan mountains, and depo-
sited it in the fissure whence the waters were pouring
forth. The flood was now stopped ; but the plain
had been already converted into a lake, and the
safety-bringing rock became the island which you
see to this day.

The lake is closely hemmed in by mountains on
its northern and southern shores, while on the east
and west the mountains are at some distance. The
narrow strip of level ground between the lake and
the mountains is excellent steppe-land, resembling
the best parts of the Gobi, only more plentifully
watered. The contrast between the climate, flora,
and fauna here and those of Kan-su is very re-
markable. Instead of the unceasing rain, snow, and
moisture which we had lately experienced, we now
had fine autumnal weather which continued every
day. But instead of alpine meadows, forests, and a
damp loamy soil, we were now in the midst of plains
of saline clay, covered with steppe-grass and tall
dirisun, where those ever-recurring denizens of the
steppe, the dzeren and ogotono (alpine hare), larks,
and sand-grouse were to be seen. Here too were

BIRDS. ALPINE HARES. 145

new kinds of birds and mammalia, peculiar to the
deserts of Tibet.

The most remarkable of the birds was a species
of lark {Melanocorypha maxima) larger than a star-
ling ; inhabiting the tufted marshy grass, an exquisite
songster. Two kinds of Montifringilla {M. ritficollis
and another) and a Podoces humilis were occupying
the burrows of the alpine hare. The Mongol sand-
grouse {Syrrkaptes paradoxus) is a rarer bird in these
steppes than its allied Tibetan species {Syrrkaptes
Tibetanus), which is larger and has a different note.
The waders ( Grallatorcs) had left before our arrival,
and of the web-footed tribe only a few geese {Auser
cinereus\ ducks {Anas dose has, A. rutila, A. ereeca,
Ftiligula eristata), cormorants {Phalaerocorax car bo),
and gulls {Larus lektkycsttis, L. ^ndibtmdtis) re-
mained. We thought that the autumnal migration
must have passed, but our observations in the follow-
ing spring proved that Lake Koko-nor did not
abound in waterfowl or wading birds. Among birds
of prey, vultures and lammergeiers daily visit its
shores in search of food, and numerous buzzards,
hawks, and eagles appear to winter here for the sake
of feeding on the alpine hares that are found so
abundantly.

The last-named animal, differing very slightly in
appearance, size, and voice from its Mongol con-
gener, inhabits in extraordinary numbers the pasture
land at the foot of the mountains ; honeycombing
the ground for miles, so that it is dangerous to ride
VOL. 11, L

14б 4<:ULAN' OK WILD ASS.

over it at a trot. Hundreds and thousands may be
seen on a fine day disporting themselves in the open,
or basking in the sun near their holes ; and although
destroyed by eagles, buzzards, and hawks, wolves,
foxes, and steppe-foxes, they multiply so quickly as
to make up for all losses.

The most remarkable animal of the steppes of
Koko-nor is the wild ass or kulan,^ called djang hy
the Tangutans {Equus Kiang), in size and external
appearance closely resembling the mule ; the colour
of the hair on the upper part of the body is light
chestnut, and white underneath. We saw them first
on the upper Tatung-gol, where the Kan-su moun-
tains are unwooded, and the pasturage is good.
The kulan ranges over Koko-nor, Tsaidam, and
Northern Tibet, but it is found in the greatest num-
bers in the first-named country.

The steppes, however, are not its exclusive
habitat ; it is also found in the mountains wherever
grass and water are abundant. We occasionally saw
it on the lofty mountains of Northern Tibet, grazing
with the kuku-yamans. The kulans mostly keep
in troops of ten to fifty ; larger herds of several hun-
dred being only met with in the vicinity of Koko-nor ;
and it is not probable that they often congregate in
such large numbers, for when seen by us they invari-

^ A woodcut of this animal, after Wolf, will be found in Yule's
' Marco Polo,' 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 227. It was described by Pallas
and Moorcroft. See also Hooker's ' Himalayan Journals,' vol. ii.
p. 172. — M. Some naturalists have distinguished the Kiang, Pallas's
DsJiiggetai, from the Kulan of Western Turkestan, the Ghorkhar of
Persia. The late Mr. Blyth (jfour. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xxviii.) says
they differ only in shades of colour and unimportant markings. — Y.

HABITS OF THE KULAN. 147

ably broke up into smaller troops, gnd dispersed in
different directions.

Each lot of mares is led by a stallion, the size of
whose family depends on his age, strength, and
courage ; his individual qualities keeping his harem
together. Old and experienced stallions have as
many as fifty wives, whilst the younger are obliged
to content themselves with five or ten. Young
or unfortunate bachelors roam about alone, casting
envious glances from a distance at their older or
happier rivals, by whom again they are always re-
garded with suspicion, and never allowed to approach
the harems. Should one of these stallions notice
another approaching too near his troop, he rushes to
the encounter and tries in every way by kicking and
biting to drive him off Fights frequently occur
during the rutting season, which we were told by the
Mongols is the month of September. The males
are very jealous and combative at this season, and
sometimes go out of their way to seek an antagonist.
The young are born in May ; but often die before
attaining maturity ; and in the largest herds we saw
but a few foals, which never seemed to leave their
mother's side.

The kulan's sight and hearing are excellent. It
is difficult to kill him on level ground. The best
way is to walk boldly up to the troop, which you
may do to within 500, or sometimes, though rarely,
400 paces, but even at this distance you cannot be
certain of your aim, and should you not hit him in a
vital part he will not fall. It is useless attempting

L 2

148 HUNTING THE KULAN.

to Stalk them on level ground as it makes them
more wary and shy. You may perhaps succeed in
getting within 200 paces of a herd, but you must
still be careful to aim at the head, or behind the
shoulder ; a kulan with a broken leg will run for
some distance before he lies down in a hollow or
ravine. The best time to stalk them is when they
are drinking; this is the plan usually adopted by
the natives, who kill them for the sake of their meat,
which is esteemed a great delicacy, especially in
autumn, when they are very fat.^

When alarmed a kulan runs down wind with his
great ugly head and scanty tail stretched out. In
their flight they always follow their leader, generally
in single file. After running a few hundred yards,
they will stop, huddle together and confront the
object of their fears for a few minutes ; the stallion
will then advance and try to reconnoitre the source of
danger. If the hunter still continue to approach
them, they will again take to flight, but this time
they will run a good deal farther. The animal is
not nearly so wary as you would at first sight sup-
pose it to be. I only heard its voice twice — the
first time when the stallion was driving back to his
troop some strayed mares, and the second when
two males were fighting. The noise they made was
a loud harsh neigh, repeated at short intervals, and
combined with a bray.

The inhabitants of Koko-nor and the conterminous

* The ghorkhar, or wild ass of the Persian Desert, is also highly
prized for his flesh. — Y.

MONGOLS. KARA-TANGUTANS. 149

country of Tsaidam are Mongols and Kara-Tangu-
tans. The Mongols are chiefly Oliuths (Eleuths), with
some Turguts, Khalkas, and Koites. Exposed to
the implacable hatred of the Tangutans, the Mongols
of Koko-nor are the worst of their race. In face they
are not unlike the Tangutans, but their expression is
stupid, their eyes dull and heavy, and their disposition
morose and melancholy. They show no energy, no
strong desire for anything, but a sort of brute apathy
as to everything in the world except food. The prince
{Wang) of Koko-nor, a man of some intelligence,
spoke of his subjects to us as only externally resem-
bling human beings ; as in all other respects absolutely
beasts. ' Knock out a few of their upper front teeth,
set them on four legs, and you have regular cows,
added he. The Mongols of Koko-nor have adopted
even the mode of life of the Tangutans, and live in
black tents ; towards Tsaidam, however, further from
Koko-nor, the felt ytirta re-appears. The Kara-
Tangutans outnumber the Mongols in Koko-nor,
but their chief habitations are near the sources of
the Yellow River where they are called Salirs ; ^
they profess the Mahommedan religion, and have

* Salirs or Salars. The archimandrite Palladius observes that
they are so named after their place of habitation. They are also
called the ' black-yurta Fans,' ' dog-Fans,' and ' Mahommedan Tangu-
tans.' Suen-hwa quotes a legend in which this people are described as
a colony of Uigurs. They are noted for their fanaticism, and appear
to be the backbone of the Dungan insurrection. They inhabit the
department of Ho-chau, near the borders of the Koko-nor district.
' Trans, of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society,' vol. ix. 305. —
M. [According to a Russian work quoted in ' Marco Polo,' 2nd ed.
ii. 23, Salar is the name by which Ho-chau is known to the Ma-
hommedans of Central Asia. See 2nd ed. ii.^Y.]

ISO TANGUTAN MARAUDERS.

rebelled against China. The Kara-Tangutans are
only nominally subject to the Chinese governor of
Kan-su ; they regard the Dalai-Lama of Tibet as
their lawful sovereign, and are under their own
officers, refusing to submit to the chiefs of the
Mongol banners in whose districts they are living.

The Kara-Tangutans of Koko-nor live by rapine
and plunder, and the Mongols of the province are
their habitual prey. Not only are the cattle driven
off, but the people are mercilessly put to death or
carried off into captivity. The Mongols, besides
being arrant cowards, are powerless to defend them-
selves against their better-armed enemies, and if by
chance in self-defence a Mongol happen to kill a
Tangutan robber, he must pay the family of the
slain man a heavy fine or, in the event of his being
too poor to pay, the whole koshung or banner to
which he belongs is mulcted on his account. If pay-
ment be refused, the Tangutans assemble a force of
several hundred men and make war. As their ma-
rauding expeditions are unpunished, the numbers of
the Mongols diminish year by year, and, unless the
Chinese Government take decisive measures to pro-
tect them, they will be exterminated before long.
Not content with plundering the immediate neigh-
bourhood, the Tangutans extend their raids to some
distance, as, for instance, to Western Tsaidam. For
these expeditions they organise small bands of ten
men, each of whom leads a spare horse or two in
case the one he is riding should die on the road.'

' To lead spare horses with them on their expeditions of plunder

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN. ' VEGC/RS.' 151

Provisions for two or three months are taken on
pack-camels. Returning home laden with spoil, the
first act of the robbers is to implore God's forgive-
ness, and the more easily to obtain it they ride off to
the lake, where they buy, or perhaps appropriate
without payment, a quantity of newly-caught fish,
and throw these back into the waters.

According to the Mongols the Kara-Tangutans
began to plunder this country and Tsaidam about
eighty years ago, and since that time have continued
uninterruptedly this mode of gaining a livelihood.
The Chinese governors of Kan-su are bribed by
the robbers to grive a certain deg-ree of counte-
nance to their proceedings, so that the complaints of
the Mongols are never listened to. A local Mongol
tradition on the origin of the Kara-Tangutans and
Mongol-Oliuths of Koko-nor runs as follows : —

Several hundred years ago a people of Tangu-
tan race lived on the shores of Koko-nor, called
Yegurs,^ who professed Buddhism, and belonged to
the red-capped sect.'"^ These Yegurs were continually
plundering the caravans of pilgrims on their way

and invasion was a regular practice of the mediaeval Tartars. See
' Marco Polo,' 2nd ed. i. 256. — Y.

1 These might be the Uigurs, were not they of Tangutan, not Mon-
golian race. [1 do not clearly understand this note. The Uigurs are
generally understood to be typical Turks, and in great measure the
progenitors of the present people of the Kashgar basin. But it is pos-
sible that the existence of these Yegurs \n Tangut may have to do with
the thesis so obstinately maintained by I. J. Schmidt that the Uigurs
were Tibetans. — Y.]

"- Buddhists in Tibet are divided into two sects, the red-capped
and yellow-capped. The radical difference between them is that
while the former allow their lamas to marry, the latter oblige them to
live single. [This definition is not to be relied on. — Y.]

152 DESTRUCTION OF THE YEGURS.

from Mongolia to Tibet, until the Oliuth prince
Giishi-Khan, who ruled in North-western Mongolia,
marched an army to Koko-nor to subdue them. The
Yegurs were partly exterminated, but some of them
escaped to North-western Kan-su, where they mixed
with the other inhabitants.

After the subjection of the Yegurs, some of the
Oliuth (Eleuth) troops returned to the north, but
others settled in Koko-nor ; their descendants are
the Mongol inhabitants of the present day. Some
hundreds of them emigrated to Tibet, where their
posterity has multiplied and now numbers 800 yurtas
divided into eight koshungs (banners). They live
six days' journey to the south-west of the village of
Napchu,^ where they cultivate the soil and bear the
name of Damsuk-Mongols, after the little river on
whose banks they are settled.

The tradition further says that when the Yegurs
were destroyed by the Mongols, one old woman,
with three daughters all in the family way, escaped
to the right bank of the Hoang-ho. Here the
daughters gave birth to three sons, from whom are
descended the Kara-Tangutans, or, as they call them-
selves, the Banik-Koksum. During the course of
many years they increased in numbers and returned
to Koko-nor, where they were at first obliged to de-
fend themselves against the Mongols, but as they

' The village of Napchu is near the southern foot of the Tang-la,
twelve days' march from Lhassa, on the high road taken by pilgrims
from the north. [Hue mentions this village and its Mongol inhabit-
ants, II. 238.— M.]

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS. 153

became more powerful, in their turn took to plun-
dering.

* Had we but slain those three accursed girls,'
remarked the Mongols, ' there would be no Kara-
Tangutans now, and we should live in peace.' Ac-
cording to their reckoning eight generations have
elapsed since the Oliuths came to this country.

For administrative purposes the district of Koko-
nor includes a vast region besides the basin of the
lake : viz. the upper Tatung-gol on the north, and
the whole country to the borders of Tibet on the
south ; or in other words, the region comprising the
sources and head waters of the Hoang-ho and
Tsaidam, extending a long way to the north-west.
The whole of this is divided into twenty-nine ko-
shungs (banners), five of which lie on the right, i.e.
western bank of the Upper Hoang-ho, five in Tsai-
dam, whilst the remaining nineteen are situated in
the basin of the lake and on the upper Tatung-gol.
With the exception of the five koshungs on the
right bank of the Upper Hoang-ho, under the imme-
diate control of the amban (governor) of Si-ning,^
all the administrative divisions are under two Tsiun-
wangs, Tsing-hai-wang and Mur-wang, each having
twelve koshungs under his supervision ; the former
governing the western or larger, the latter the east-
ern part of the country.

Our camels were quite done up and unfit for
further use when we left Kan-su. Fortunately camels

' According to the Mongols the inhabitants of these koshungs are
almost exclusively Tangutans.

154 TIBETAN ENVOY.

were plentiful here, and we had no difficulty in ex-
changing our tired-out beasts for fresh ones, by
making an additional payment of ten to twelve lans
a-piece (2/. 15^. to 3/. 6^-.). We had now again eleven
camels, but our money was reduced to 100 lans
(27/. lOJ'.). How could we expect with such a pittance
as that to get to Lhassa, however great our good
luck otherwise ? Shortly after our arrival at Koko-nor
a Tibetan envoy paid us a visit ; he had been sent
in 1862 by the Dalai-Lama with presents for the Em-
peror, but arriving here at the time of the outbreak
of the Dungan insurrection in Kan-su and the occu-
pation of Si-ning by the rebels, he was detained, and
ever since then had lived here or at Tonkir without
being able to continue his journey to Peking, whilst
he did not dare to venture back to Lhassa. Hearing
that four Russians had passed through the very
country which he was afraid of entering when backed
by an escort of several hundred men, he came to
see what manner of men we could be.

This envoy, whose name was Kambi-nansu, was
a most obliging, amiable man, and offered us his
services at Lhassa. He told us that the Dalai-Lama
would be very glad to receive Russians, and that we
would be well received. We listened to this with
heavy hearts, for we saw clearly that now nothing but
want of money prevented us from penetrating to the
very heart of Tibet ! When will any future traveller
have so good a chance as we were thus compelled to
forego ? How much will have to be spent another
time to attain an object which a small expenditure

GUIDES. TEMPLE OF KUMBUM. 155

would now have placed within our grasp ? A sum
of 1,000 lans (275/.) would have sufficed to take us
from Koko-nor to Lhassa and thence to Lob-nor, or
whither we would.

Although thus obliged to give up all hopes of
extending our travels to the capital of Tibet, we de-
termined nevertheless to advance as far as possible,
well aware how important to science is every ad-
ditional footstep in these unknown regions of Asia.

We obtained two guides as before from the
Mongol and Tangutan military officials, partly in
return for presents, and partly in consequence of the
letter of the treasurer of Chobsen to Mur-zasak and
of our Peking passport, which specified that two
subjects of the Celestial Empire were constantly to
be in our service. This paragragh indeed was
inserted to provide for the event of our hiring Mon-
gols or Chinese servants, but we were advised to
take advantage of it to obtain guides, as we succeeded
in doing, to Koko-nor and Tsaidam.

One of the guides whom we hired at Koko-nor
had formerly been an officiating lama at the temple of
Kumbum,twenty miles south of Si-ning,famed through-
out Lamadom as the birthplace of the Buddhist
reformer Tsong-kaba, whose sanctity, the Buddhists
say, was proved by different miracles. Thus a tree
grew up from the place where his swaddling clothes
were buried, ^ bearing leaves marked with the Tibe-
tan alphabet ; this may still be seen at Kumbum,
where it stands in a separate court, the most sacred

' His hair according to Hue (II. 1 13). — Y.

iS6 SACRED TREE. MEDICINE.

object in the place. In the Mongohan language it is
called Za7ida7noto,^ but the same word applies to the
arborescent juniper and to other useful trees ; for
instance, the walnut-wood stocks of guns are ' zanda-
moto ; ' the leaves of the sacred tree are said to be
about the size of those of the common lime. The
Tibetan letters are of course inscribed by the lamas,
or perhaps exist only in the imagination of devout
believers. And the tree itself is most probably a
native of Kan-su, as it grows in the open air, and
can therefore bear the severity of the climate. We
attach no weight to the mere fact of its being con-
sidered by all Buddhists as sacred and unique ; what
strange beliefs and superstitions obtain credence
even in Europe ! ^ Kumbum is famed for its school
of medicine, in which young lamas destined to prac-
tise that art receive instruction. During the summer
the students repair to the neighbouring mountains to
collect herbs, which are the only remedies known in
the Tibetan pharmacopoeia. Of course a great deal
of hocus pocus is added, but it is not improbable that
by these means discoveries unknown to European
science are made in the healing art. I think that
anyone who had made medical botany his study

'^ Chanda? Is this a corruption of the Sanskrit Chandana, sandal
wood ? Moto or 7>u)do is merely ' wood.' — Y.

'^ Hue, it will be remembered, gives testimony as an eye-witness to
this marvellous tree, declaring that the Tibetan characters are found
not only on the leaves but on the bark, which detaches like that of a
plane-tree. * We made every search for indications of trickery, but
none could we find ! and the drops of perspiration burst from our fore-
heads 1 ' In fact, Hue and Gabet regarded it in good sooth as opus
.Satliaiicc. — Y.

LAMAS AT KUMBUM.

157

might pick up some valuable hints were he to turn
his attention seriously to the Tibetan and Mongolian
practice.

Tibetan Lama-Physician (from a Photograph lent by Baron Osten Sacken).

In former times 7,000 lamas lived at Kumbum,
but their number is much diminished since the tem-
ple was despoiled by the Dungans, who, however,
spared the principal shrine with the sacred tree.
Such is the fame of the place that it will doubtless
soon be restored.

On leaving our camp to the north-west of Koko-
nor our route lay first along the northern and then
along the western shore of the lake. After fording
a few small streams, we soon approached the largest
of its affluents — the Pouhain-gol, which, as the

158 THE POUHAIN-GOL.

Mongols told US, rises in the Nan-shan mountains and
flows 260 miles before discharging its waters. In its
lower course, i.e. where the Tibetan road crosses it,
its width is about 100 feet, and it is fordable almost
everywhere ; the depth not exceeding two feet. The
Pouhain-gol is thus a river of very moderate calibre,
and the description given by the Abbe Hue of the
terrible passage of the Tibetan caravan which he
accompanied to Lhassa, across twelve of its channels,
appeared to us, as we read it on the very spot, mar-
vellously overdrawn. The worthy father remarks
that his companions considered it very fortunate that
only one man broke a leg, and two yaks perished.
Now, the river has here only one channel, which is
flooded, only in the rainy season, and might suffice
to drown a hare possibly, but certainly never so
powerful a swimmer as the yak. In the following
March we lived a whole month on the Lower Pou-
hain-gol, and forded it dozens of times on every
shooting excursion, often calling to mind as we did
so Hue's description.^ The valley of this river is
from eight to ten miles wide ; on the opposite side
rises a lofty range which, as the natives told us, ex-
tends along the southern shore of Koko-nor,^ and
continues for about y^o miles to the west. I shall
call it the Southern Koko-nor range, to distinguish it

• Compare Hue's account (vol. ii. p. 199). The river was covered
with ice, not strong enough, however to bear the weight of the caravan
animals, a circumstance which, combined with the darkness of night,
must have occasioned difficulties in the passage, and partly caused
the accidents which befell his party. Hue's passage was apparently
made in the first week of November.— M.

"^ It is curious that Hue docs not mention this great range. — M.

COUNTRY SOUTH OF KOKO-NOR. 159

from the Northern or Kan-su mountains, with which
it probably unites at its western extremity.

Just as these latter mountains divide its basin
from the moist, hilly, wooded region of Kan-su, so
does the southern range define the boundary between
the fertile steppes surrounding the lake and the
deserts of Tsaidam and Tibet. The northern slopes
of this range have many points of resemblance to
the Kan-su mountains, and are for the most part
covered with shrubs and small underwood, while on
the other side their character is completely Mon-
golian. Here the clay soil is in many parts quite
bare, or dotted only with an occasional tree-j uniper ;
the watercourses are dry ; and no sign of rich grass-
land is visible. Here also the traveller must prepare
to enter the desert, which lies on the south, and may
be compared in sterility with the plains of Ala-shan.
Nothing grows on its saline clay soil but such grasses
as the diristm, with budarhana, and karmyk ; its
animals, the kara-S2dta and kolo-djoi^, are such as
only inhabit the wildest deserts. Here lies the salt
basin of Djaratai-dabas, about twenty-six miles in
circumference, presenting a layer of excellent salt, a
foot thick in the middle, diminishing to an inch round
the edges. The salt is transported hence to Tonkir,
its excavation being superintended by a resident
Mongol official.^

The plain in which this basin lies is twenty miles

Mt is worthy of notice that the salt is paid for on the spot at the
rate of two packets (j lb.) of guamian (a kind of vermicelli prepared
from dough) for each camel-load ; however, at Koko-nor butter also
passes as currency.

i6o PRINCE OF KOKO-NOR.

wide, and extends some distance to the east, bounded
on the north by the Southern Koko-nor mountains,
and on the south by another parallel chain which
unites with the former a little to the west of Djaratai-
dabas.

Not far from the point of their junction, at the
entrance of a narrow defile formed by the Dulan-gol,
is Dulan-kit,^ where Tsing-hai-wang, governor of
Western Koko-nor resides. He used formerly to
live on the shore of the lake, but the constant depre-
dations of the Tangutans obliged him to remove his
camp. One may form an idea of the extent of their
robberies from the fact that 1,700 of his horses were
stolen in three years. The Wang, i.e. Prince, of Koko-
nor died a year before our arrival ;^ leaving as his suc-
cessor his eldest son, a youth of twelve, whose title
had not as yet been acknowledged by the Chinese Go-
vernment f and his mother, a young energetic woman,
acted as regent. We met her with the young prince
near Djaratai-dabas, on their way to Tonkir to trans-
act business. The latter eyed us with a sort of
stupid curiosity, but the princess demanded our
passport, and, after reading it through, remarked to
her attendants, that we were perhaps emissaries of

1 The word ' kit ' means a church, and there is certainly a small
temple at this place. [The river is the Toulain-gol of Hue (ii. 208), where
the French travellers found the ruins of a flourishing convent. — Y.]

2 Both the wangs of Koko-nor are subject to the amban of Si-ning,
i.e. the governor of Kan-su.

3 Tsing-hai-wang died in 1871. A thousand head of cattle, in-
cluding 300 yaks, were paid for the celebration of his funeral obsequies
at different temples ; besides Avhich several hundred lans in money
were sent to Tibet for the same purpose.

MONGOL PRINCESS.

i6i

the Emperor of China to report everything we saw
to him. She then bade them give us guides, and
we separated, after an interview which did not last
more than half-an-hour.

Mongol Princess.

Back View of Mongol Princess.

(From a Photograph lent by Baron Osten Sacken.)

But we received a hearty welcome, at the head-
quarters of Tsing-hai-wang, from the uncle of the
prince Avho assists his nephew in the affairs of
government. This uncle, a Gigen by profession,
once owned a temple, but the Dungans destroyed it.
He had been several times to Pekinsf and Urgfa,

VOL. II. M

1б2 / RANK AS A DEMI-GOD.

where he had met Russians. He was an excellent
fellow, and in return for our present to him sent us
a small yurta, which was afterwards of great service
to us in Tibet. But the greatest kindness he showed
us was in forbidding his subjects from entering our
tent except on special business ; so that for the first
and only time during the expedition we lived near
the natives without being disturbed by them.

We have more than once alluded to the inconveni-
ence we suffered from the curiosity and impudence of
the inhabitants during the whole journey. They were
especially intrusive and tiresome on our departure
from Koko-nor, when the report spread that four
strangers had appeared, and that one of them was a
great saint of the West, on his way to Lhassa to see
the Dalai-Lama, the great saint of the East. My
promotion to the rank of demi-god might be attri-
buted to several causes : first, our safe journey
through Kan-su at a time when it was as full as it
could be of robbers ; secondly, our new-fashioned
guns which killed animals at unheard-of distances
and birds on the wing ; and, lastly, our mode of
preparing skins, and the secrecy observed as to the
objects of our journey : all these combined to induce
the belief among the people that we were mysterious
beings. Whenever a person of consequence, such as
a Gigen or the Tibetan envoy, paid us a visit, they
were more than ever convinced that I must be a
great kubilgmi or saint. This circumstance favoured
us to a certain extent, because my reputation for
sanctity lessened the difficulties of the road, and

/ DISPENSE BENEDICTIONS. 163

thus In a measure removed the obstacles that beset
our path ; on the other hand, it was necessary to
keep up my character by dispensing benedictions,
prophesying, and every kind of absurdity. Tangu-
tans and Monsfols would sometimes come in crowds
to pray, not only to us but to our guns, and the
native princes often brought us their children, en-
treating us to lay our hands upon them, and thus
confer a lifelong blessing. As we approached
Dulan-kit, a crowd of 200 men assembled to worship
us, kneeling down on each side of the road.

I was often consulted in my capacity of prophet,
not only as to the future, but in cases of straying
cattle or lost pipes, and the like. And one of the
Tangutan princes besought us to tell him how to
make his barren wife bear children, if it were but two
or three ! The Kara-Tangutans, who are constantly
harrying the region round Koko-nor, not only never
dared to attack us, but actually discontinued their
raids in the district through which we happened to
be travelling. The chiefs of the Mongol banners
often applied to us for our assistance to protect them
against the robbers, and to order the restoration of
their ravished cattle.

The charm which attached itself even to our
name exceeded all bounds of probability. Thus on
the way to Tibet we left a bag of barley-meal with
the Prince of Tsaidam, who gladly took charge of it,
assuring us that it would protect him from marauding
Tangutans ; two months afterwards when we re-
turned, the same prince sent us a couple of sheep in

1б4 1 PLAY THE PART OF DOCTOR.

return for the service we had clone him ; for robbers
had been deterred from molesting his banner by
apprehensions lest they should steal something be-
longing to the Russians !

Endless were the absurd stories circulated about
us. Thus it was generally believed that though we
were but four in number, yet at my bidding a thou-
sand men would rise up and do battle in our behalf;
it was asserted that I had power over the elements,
and could infect cattle or even men with diseases, &c.
And I am firmly convinced that ere many years
have elapsed, the story of our journey in those coun-
tries will have passed into a legend, adorned with all
sorts of imaginative flights.

I had to play not only the saint but the doctor also.
The latter title was given me in the early months of
the expedition owing to my plant-gathering habits, and
to the successful cures which I afterwards performed
on some fever patients with doses of quinine ; quite
enough to convince the Mongols firmly of my powers
of healing. My fame spread far and wide throughout
Mongolia, Kan-su, Koko-nor, and Tsaidam. In the
two latter countries numbers of sick persons, especi-
ally women, came to consult me upon their maladies.
Being entirely ignorant of medicine, and having only
a small supply of drugs, and without either time or
inclination for such work, I usually had recourse to
one of the most impudent quackeries that ever ap-
peared in the medical world, viz. Bawnsteitismus,
a system which professes to cure every ill that flesh
is heir to by punctuating the skin of the affected

в A UMS TEITISMUS. 1 65

part with a bunch of needles set on a spring, and
afterwards rubbing in an ointment.

I had taken one of these instruments with me, in
some kind of prevision of its utihty. If Dr. Baum-
steit, the inventor of this marvellous panacea, be still
alive, he may take pride in learning that his dis-
covery was welcomed with enthusiasm by the inha-
bitants of Koko-nor, who regarded the needle-spring
as a sacred thing received almost direct from Buddha
himself ! I subsequently presented it to a Mongol
prince, who at once began to practise with it on his
aides-de-camp, although they had nothing earthly
that ailed them.

The most common maladies among the Mongols
were syphilis, different skin diseases, and stomach
complaints, besides contusions and fractures of bones.
The sufferers grave the most ludicrous accounts of
their ailments ; thus, one woman, whose digestive
organs were impaired by an excessive consumption
of barley-meal, declared that she had a fungus grow-
ing inside her ; another that her eyesight had been
harmed by the evil-eye, &c.

My patients, however, were not satisfied with
the operation of Baumsteitismus only ; they asked us
to give them internal remedies as well ; we usually
administered doses of salts, tincture of peppermint,
and soda powders, sometimes, as in cases of cataract,
magnesia, simply to rid ourselves of them. Our
stock of medicines, however, was at last exhausted,
and we had to fall back upon the needle-spring,
which never failed us to the end of the expedition.

1бб PLAIN OF TSAIDAM.

Two days' march from the residence of Tsing-
hai-wanor we left the mountains behind us. As we
crossed the last spurs of the southern range we saw
stretching before us the level plain of Tsaidam/
bounded on the north, east, and south by mountains,^
but extending westwards in one continued expanse,
as far, according to the natives, as Lake Lob-nor.

The plain of Tsaidam, which at a comparatively
recent geological age formed the bed of a huge lake,
is now covered with morasses, so thickly impregnated
with salt as to be encrusted with a layer in some
places half-an-inch to an inch in thickness, resembling
ice. Here too are shaking bogs, small rivers and
lakes ; and in the western part of the plain the large
Lake of Kara-nor. The most important of its rivers
is the Baian-gol, about i,6oo feet wide where we
crossed it, but of inconsiderable depth, in fact, not
more than three feet, with a soft slimy bed. Accord-
ing to the Mongols the Baian-gol flows out of Lake
Toso-nor at the eastern extremity of the Burkhan
Buddha, and after a course of about 200 miles loses
itself in the marshes of Western Tsaidam.

The saline argillaceous soil of this region is ill-
suited to vegetation. With the exception of a few
kinds of marshy grasses, which in places grow to-
gether and form meadows, the whole expanse is

' The boundary of Tsaidam lies a little over sixteen miles to the
south of Dulan-kit.

* On the north, by the western continuation of the Southern Koko-
nor range, on the south by the Burkhan Buddha mountains of Tibet,
and on the east by some transverse chains which unite the two
systems.

SCARCITY OF ANIMALS. MOSQUITOES. 167

covered with reeds four to six feet high.^ On the
drier ground karmyk {Nitraria Schoberi) abounds,
such as we had seen in Ordos and Ala-shan, but
growing here to a height of seven feet. Its sweet
saline berries are plentiful, and, like the fruit of the
sulhir in the Ala-shan, form the staple food of the
inhabitants. The Mongols and Tangutans supply
their wants for the whole year by collecting these
berries late in autumn, when they hang dry on the
twigs, boiling them in water, and eating them with
barley-meal. They also drink the sweet brackish
liquor in which the berries have been boiled. Many
birds and beasts, including wolves and foxes, feed
on these berries, and camels are particularly fond of
them. Large animals are, however, scarce in Tsai-
dam, probably owing to the crust of salt on the
surface of the ground, which injures the soles of
their feet and their hoofs. Now and then a kara-
S2ilta or a kiilan (wild ass) may be seen, or more
often a wolf, fox, or hare. The small number of
animals is in part due to the myriads of mosquitoes,
midges, and gadflies, which at certain seasons of the
year oblige even the natives to retreat to the moun-
tains with their herds.^ The birds of Tsaidam belong
chiefly to the orders of Swimmers and Waders ; but
as we passed through this country late in autumn

1 Compare Hue's account, page 209 of vol. ii., which does not
differ much from that of the author, except that he omits to mention
the marshes and reeds, and calls the Baian-gol the Tsaidam River. — M.

^ It is remarkable how seriously the cattle suffer from the insects ;
the sheep and other domesticated animals become much thinner than
in winter when the food is not so rich, but when they are free from the
torment of flies and mosquitoes.

i68 BIRDS. INHABITANTS. LOB-NOR.

and early in spring we saw very few of either kind.
There was, however, a new pheasant in large num-
bers distinct from the Kan-su and Mongol species.
We also found a few wintering birds, such as the
Ru tic ilia eiythrogastra, Carpodaciis riidicilia, Buteo
aquilinus, Falco Hendei'soni, Circus Cyancus, An-
thiLS pratensis ? Anas bosckas, Ra litis aquatictis.

The inhabitants of Tsaidam are the same as
those of Koko-nor — Mongols and Kara-Tangutans ;
the latter, however, only inhabiting the east of the
country. For administrative purposes Tsaidam is
included in the Koko-nor region, and is divided into
five banners : K^irlik, Biirtm, Tsimg, Koko-behleh,
and Taiji. According to the account we heard from a
native prince the population numbers 1,000 yurtas, i.e.
5,000 to 6,000 men and women, taking the average
of five or six to a yurta. The Mongols told us that
the marshes extended for fifteen days' march
WNW. from the point where we crossed them ; and
that beyond lay a tract of bare clay, after which the
country again became steppe-like, abounding in water
and pasturage known by the name of Cast. The
only living creatures in these regions are the kulans,
or wild asses ; and hunters come from Lake Lob-nor,
only seven days from the Gast country, in search of
them. We were assured by the natives that Lob-nor
was only a month's journey, i.e. 500 to 600 miles,
from that part of Tsaidam in which we were. Guides
may be obtained here on payment of a good sum, to
take one, at all events, as far as Gast, whence there is
no difficulty in getting to Lob-nor.^

' Mr. Ney Elias remarks that the approximate position of Lob-nor

APPEARANCE OF THE WILD CAMEL. 169

Such a journey as the one we have just men-
tioned, besides its geographical interest, would finally
set at rest the question of the existence of wild
camels and horses. The natives repeatedly told us
of the existence of both, and described them fully.

According to our informants wild camels are
numerous in North-western Tsaidam, where the
country is barren, the soil being clay, overgrown with
biidarhana, and so destitute of water that they have to
go seventy miles to drink, and in winter are obliged
to satisfy their thirst with snow.

The herds are small, averaging five to ten in
each, never more than twenty. Their appearance is
slightly different from the domesticated breed ; their
humps are smaller, the muzzle more pointed, and
the colour of the hair grey.

The Mongols of Western Tsaidam hunt them
for the sake of their delicate flesh, especially in
autumn when they are fat. The hunters supply
themselves with ice to avoid perishing from thirst in
the wilderness. These camels cannot be very shy
if it be true that they may be killed with the match-
lock. They are described as wonderfully long-sighted
and keen-scented, but unable to see objects near
them. In February, during the pairing season, the
males become very bold and approach close to the
caravans passing from Tsaidam to Ngan-si-chau.
Caravan camels have been known to elope with their
wild mates, never returning to their owner.

lies between that deduced by Pere Gaubil from a Chinese itinerary
based on Hami and Mr. Shaw's carefully drawn up itineraries con-
verging on that lake from several sides. See ^ Proceedings of the
Royal Geographical Society,' vol. xviii., No. i, note on page 83. — M.

I70 WILD CAMELS AND HORSES.

Before we entered Tsaidam we had heard of
wild camels in the country of the Tangutans, and in
the desert between Lob-nor and Tibet. Shaw^ also
heard of them on his journey from India to Yarkand,
and they are also mentioned by Chinese writers. But
of what breed are they ? Were their ancestors wild,
or are they descended from some which escaped to
the desert, ran wild, and multiplied ? This question
cannot be decided on the unsupported testimony of
the natives, but we think that the fact that the do-
mestic camel cannot propagate without human assist-
ance argues for an original wild stock. ^

Wild horses, called by the Mongols dzerlik-aditl^
are rare in Western Tsaidam, but more numerous
near Lob-nor. They are generally in large herds,
very shy, and when frightened continue their flight
for days, not returning to the same place for a year
or two. Their colour is uniformly bay, with black
tails and long manes hanging down to the ground.
They are never hunted owing to the difficulties of
the chase.

The plains of Tsaidam are 1,700 feet below
Koko-nor, and on this account the climate is
warmer. The absence of water also tends to in-
crease the heat.

About the end of October, when we left Kan-su,

* ' High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar,' by Robert Shaw, page
168. See also the note on that page. [See remarks in Introduction to
the work.]— M.

"^ Domesticated animals may perhaps acquire this faculty after
they have been set at liberty for some years.

^ i.e. ' wild troop.'

NIGHT FROSTS, CLEAR ATMOSPHERE. 171

and all through November, the autumnal weather
was fine and clear, and though the night frosts were
sharp (— 9° Fahr. in October, and— 13° Fahr. in No-
vember) the days were warm^ when the sun shone and
there was no wind, and we enjoyed it the more after
the constant rain and snow in Kan-su. Towards
the end of October Lake Koko-nor remained un-
frozen, only some of the smaller bays being covered
with ice, but a month later the rivers, including the
Baian-gol, were ice-bound. Very little snow fell, and
the little that did fall soon disappeared under the
combined influence of sun and wind.^ The natives
said that even in winter snow was rare in Tsaidam
and Koko-nor ; in Kan-su, where the weather is
generally clear at that season, it snows but little.

After taking our leave of the Tsing-hai-wang,
we crossed a barren saline plain, in which are the
two salt basins of Sir-ho-nor and Dulan-nor, after
Avhich we ascended a spur of the southern range,
whence we saw the plain of Tsaidam in our front,
and the Burkhan Buddha mountains, which rose like
a wall, beyond it. The atmosphere in autumn is so
clear that with the naked eye we could see the
mountains although eighty miles off, and with a
field-glass we could make out almost every cliff.

Before entering the salt marshes we crossed a
wide undulating plain which connects them with the

' The first day that the thermometer descended below the freezing-
point at I P.M. was November 9.

- The snow here and in Kan-su is so dazzling that the inhabitants,
as they have no spectacles, bandage their eyes with blinkers made
from the black tail of the yak.

172 CULTIVATED LAND. SALT MARSHES.

high border-land. Here the soil is clay and shingle,
with occasional sand drift, where the saxaul, charac-
teristic of Ala-shan, at once appears. The clay flats
were for the most part entirely barren, bushes of
karmyk and tamarisk only growing here and there.

A rare sight now met our eyes, for we came
upon a few acres of cultivated land sown with barley
and wheat. The largest plot of this cultivation
covered from twenty to thirty acres near the en-
campment of Tsing-hai-wang, to whom it belonged.
Agriculture is of quite recent introduction in Tsai-
dam, dating only from the time when, owing to the
Dungan insurrection, communications with Tonkir
were cut off, and the inhabitants could not obtain
the needful supplies of the barley which forms their
staple food.

Our course lay across nothing but salt marshes
for 40 miles. There are no tracks here, and we
steered in a straight line, first over the bare salt
crust, and then over frozen clay. It was painful
walking for the animals ; some of the camels were
lamed by it, and the dogs could hardly put their
bleeding feet to the ground.

On November 30 we reached the station of the
p-overnor of the banner of Tsunof-zasak, whence the
Gigen of Koko-nor had directed that we should be
supplied with guides to Lhassa. We concealed the
abandonment of our intention to go so far, in order
to avoid suspicion. The prince hesitated for some
time before selecting a guide for us. At length a
Mongol, by name Chutun-dzamba, who had been

START FOR TIBET. 173

nine times to Lhassa with caravans, came to us.
After a long consultation and the usual tea-drinking,
we hired the services of this old man at the cheap
rate of seven lans per month, with food and a
riding camel provided by us. We further promised
him a present if he discharged his duties zealously ;
and the next day we started for Tibet with the
intention of advancing through that unknown country
to the upper waters of the Blue River. ^

^ i.e. of the Yangtse-Kiang. I do not know whence the name
Blue River, commonly used by French authors, and here by a Russian,
has been taken. — Y.

174 BURKHAN BUDDHA RANGE.

CHAPTER VI.

NORTHERN TIBET.

The Burkhan Buddha mountains ; the effects of a rarefied atmosphere
— M. Hue's ' vapours of carbonic acid gas ' — The Nomokhun
stream — The Shuga mountain range and river — Tibetan frontier
— The Urundushi mountains — Sources of the Hoang-ho, and pil-
grimage thereto — The Baian-kara-ula range — Character of the
desert plateaux of Tibet — Extraordinary exhaustion produced by
exertion at high altitudes — Caravans to Lhassa — Time occupied
on the journey — Dangers and hardships of the road — Abun-
dance of animal life — Mammals — The wild yak ; its habits ;
its physical defects and low intelligence ; disease to which it is
subject — Wild yaks hooting — The animal hard to kill — Grandeur
of the sport — Mode of stalking — They rarely charge — Examples
of yak-shooting — The yak-meat — The white-breasted Argali —
The Orongo {Ant Hope Hodgsoni) — Large herds of these antelope
— Their unwary habits — Held sacred by Mongols — Unicorns —
The ata-dzeren, or little antelope — Its amazing swiftness — The
Tibetan wolf {Lupus Chanco) — The fox {Canis Corsac) — Birds
of Northern Tibet — Progress of journey — Travelling yurta — Intense
cold — Tattered garments — Rarefied atmosphere— The halt — Pre-
paring dinner — Long nights — Sport on the plateau — Climate —
Dust-storms — Chutun-dzamba — Arrival at the Murui-ussu — Limit
of the expedition — Necessity for return.

The Burkhan Buddha range forms the southern
boundary of the marshy plains of Tsaidam, and at
the same time the northernmost Hmit of the lofty
plateau of Northern Tibet. Its length (according to
what we were told by the inhabitants) is about 130
miles from east to west, and while its eastern extre-
mity is near the Yegrai-ula ^ mountains and Lake

^ The Yegrai-ula range is not far from the sources of the Yellow
River ; according to the Mongols it is not covered with perpetual snow,

ORIGIN OF NAME. 175

Toso-nor, it is defined on the west by the course of
the Nomokhun-gol, which flows from its southern
foot, sweeps round the western end and enters the
Tsaidam plain, where it joins the Baian-gol.^ The
Burkhan Buddha is, therefore, a distinct range, more
particularly on the north, where it rises boldly from
the perfectly level plains of Tsaidam ; it has no very
conspicuous peaks, but extends in one unbroken
chain.

The Mongol tradition regarding the origin of the
name ' Burkhan Buddha,' ^ dates several hundred
years back, when a certain gigen happened to be
returning to Mongolia from Tibet, and, after en-
countering all the horrors of the Tibetan deserts,
descended in safety to the warmer plains of Tsaidam ;
desirous of showing his gratitude to the Divine Being,
he named after Buddha himself that range which,
like a giant watchman, keeps guard over the adjacent
cold and sterile highlands. These mountains are
indeed a distinguishing physical feature of this region.
To the south of them the elevation is from 13,000 to
15,000 feet^ the whole way to the head waters of

but is well wooded. Lake Toso-nor is narrow, but about forty miles, or
two days' journey, in length. The Baian-gol flows out of it.

* The Nomokhun-gol flows from the Shuga mountains in a narrow
channel ; at its confluence with the Baian-gol the Mongols say there
are some old ruins, formerly occupied by Chinese troops.

" This name means ' god Buddha.' [Since Burkhan is a word
commonly used by the Mongols as the synonym of ' Buddha,' it is
probable that the name as given by Hue is more correct, viz. Burkhan
Bota, which that traveller interprets as ' Buddha's Kitchen,' connecting
the name with the supposed mephitic gases which he speaks of there,
ii. 212. — Y.]

' With the exception of the narrow gorge of Nomokhun-gol, which
intersects the plateau.

17б ASCENT OF BURKHAN BUDDHA.

the Yangtse-kiang, and considerably beyond these
to the Tang-la mountains, which in all probability
are even higher than the Burkhan Buddha.

The ascent from the foot to the chief axis of the
range is about twenty miles, ^ rising by a gentle
incline until within a short distance of the summit
(15,300 feet), where it becomes steeper. The nearest
peak, and also the highest in the whole range '-^ (if we
may believe the Mongols), also bearing the name of
Burkhan Buddha, rises 16,300 feet above sea-level,
and 7,500 above the Tsaidam plain.

Yet notwithstanding its great height, the Burkhan
Buddha does not attain the limit of perpetual snow ;
even when we crossed in the beginning of December
there was but a slight covering, a few inches in
depth, on the northern slopes of the highest summits
and of the axis of the range itself, and on our return
march, early in spring, we saw no snow of the pre-
vious year unmelted, even in those gorges well
sheltered from the sun.

This phenomenon is explained by the circum-
stance that, although at a great elevation above the
sea, these mountains rise very slightly above the ex-
posed plains to their south, and the currents of wind
passing over the surface of the latter, after they
have been thoroughly warmed by the summer sun,

' Between the foot of the mountains and the salt marshes of Tsai-
dam there is an intervening strip, ten miles wide, of sloping gravelly
ground, completely devoid of vegetation and dotted with boulders.

^ This is hardly correct, 1 think ; some of the other peaks arc
higher than the one I measured, although perhaps only a few hundred
feet.

GREAT ELEVATIOX. EXHAUSTION. 177

drive the snow off the very highest summits. More-
over in Avinter the snowfall is very slight/ and
although heavier in spring it soon thaws in the sun,
without having time to drift into more compact
masses, such as might last throughout the summer.
The extreme barrenness of the Burkhan Buddha is
its most prominent characteristic. The slopes are
of clay, small pebbles, debris or bare rocks of schist,
syenite, or syenitic porphyry ; the latter are most
marked on the borders and along the axis of the
range. Vegetation is almost exclusively confined to
stunted bushes of budarhana and yellow kurile tea ;
birds and beasts are also rare.

The southern slopes are in general somewhat
less sterile than those facing the north ; here too
running streams are more abundant, and something
like grass may be seen. But the herbage is soon
eaten off by wild animals, or by the Mongol cattle
driven hither during summer to escape the swarms
of insects which infest the Tsaidam marshes.

Notwithstanding the gradual nature of the
ascent, the exertion to both man and beast was very
severe, owing to the enormous elevation, and the
consequent rarefaction of the atmosphere. Our
strength failed us, a feeling of languor supervened,
respiration became difficult, and our heads ached
and grew dizzy. Camels frequently fall down dead
here ; indeed one of our own expired on the spot,

^ The Mongols told us that the snowfall was very unequal. One
winter there would be more, another less.

VOL. II. N

178 IWCS GASEOUS VAPOURS.

whilst the others were only j"ust able to surmount
the pass.^

The descent from the pass was even more gra-
dual than the ascent. It continued for fifteen miles,
and terminated at the stream called Nomokhun,
flowing in a gorge of which the height above the sea
was 1 1,300 feet. And this was the lowest elevation
in the whole of our route across Northern Tibet.
Beyond the Nomokhun the ground gradually rises
to another range, the Shuga (Chouga), lying
parallel with the Burkhan Buddha and terminating
as abruptly on the west, where it abuts on the
Tsaidam plains." This range is somewhat longer
than the preceding. It commences with the Urun-
dushi mountains on the east, where the Shuga gol
also rises. This stream is 280 feet wide'^ where we

1 In his description of these mountains (ii. 210-212), Hue says that
the range is remarkable for the presence of noxious gases on its north-
ern and eastern face. He continues to relate how he himself and his
companions felt the injurious effect of these gases on the pass. An
exactly similar description may be fcmnd in a translation of a Chinese
itinerary from Si-ning to Lhassa (Trans, of the Russ. Imp. Geogr. Soc.
1873, vol. ix. pp. 298-305), where it is said that in twenty-three places
on this road deleterious exhalations, ' chan-tsi' are met with. We were
for eighty days on the plateau of Tibet and never once experienced
the ' pestilential vapours ' or exhalations of ' carbonic acid gas.'
The difficulty of marching here as well on the perfectly level parts of
Northern Tibet, the catching of the breath, fatigue and giddiness, arc
of course attributable to the enormous elevation and rarefaction of the
air at those altitudes. This also accounts for the argols burning so
badly. Again, if there really were carbonic acid, or other noxious
gases, how could the Mongols live there in summer with their herds,
or how could the vast troops of wild animals pasture here and farther
in the desert ? [See also remarks in Introduction.]

- In all probability these two ranges, i.e. the Burkhan Buddha and
Shuga, unite in the extreme west, where they abut on Tsaidam.

^ This was the width of the ice in the channel in winter ; the stream
itself is probably much narrower.

SHUGA RANGE. 179

crossed and shallow throughout ; it flows with a
course of 200 miles {so the Mongols told us) along
the southern foot of the range, and then disappears
in the marshes of Western Tsaidam. Its valley, like
that of the Nomokhun-gol, is grassy and fertile, com-
pared with the sterile mountains on either side.

The Shuga range closely resembles the Burkhan
Buddha. Here we find the same absence of life,
the same bare slopes varying in colour and shade
according to the nature of the clay, or of the rocks
which cover them. Huge crags of limestone and
epidote are piled on their summits, but by the Tibe-
tan road the ascent and descent are gentle, although
the absolute elevation is greater than that of the
more northerly range. ^ In the centre of this chain
five isolated peaks attain the limit of perpetual
snow.^

This range forms the political boundary between
Mongolia (i.e. the Tsaidam district) and Tibet. But
the frontier is not laid down with accuracy, and the
Tibetans claim the territory up to the Burkhan
Buddha. Serious disputes, however, are not likely
to arise, because for a distance of 530 miles along
the Tibetan road, i.e. from the Burkhan Buddha to
the southern slopes of the Tang-la, there is no popu-

' The pass over the Shuga is 1 5,500 feet.

"^ These five peaks were about five miles to the east of our line of
march ; their apparent height above the pass is 2,000 feet ; in the middle
of December and middle of February snow lay in quantities on their
northern slopes, and on the south in a narrow belt only, near the very
highest summits.

N 2

i8o SOURCES OF THE HOAXG-HO.

lation whatever/ The Mongol name for this region
is ' gziressii-gadzir,' or ' country of wild beasts,' from
the abundance of animals which exist here in a state
of nature, and which we shall have occasion to speak
of presently.

The group of the Urundushi mountains, from
which the Shuga range diverges, rises on the north
of the plain of Odon-tala^ famous for its springs, and
known to the Chinese under the name of Sing-su-hai
or ' Starry Sea.' Here are the sources of the cele-
brated Hoang-ho, only seven days' journey from the
point where we crossed the Shuga range, but unfor-
tunately our guide did not know the road. Every
year in the month of August the Mongols of
Tsaidam make pilgrimages to Odon-tala to offer
sacrifices and pray there. Their offerings consist of
seven white animals (a yak, a horse, and five sheep)
decked with red ribbons and let loose in the moun-
tains. What becomes of them afterwards is not
known, but it is not impossible that they are slain b)^
Tangutans or devoured by wolves. About seventy
miles to the south of the Shuga range rises a third
chain of mountains, called by the Mongols Baian-

' With the exception of 500 Tangutans encamped, as the Mongols
informed us, in the valley of the Murui-ussu (Blue River), six days'
journey from its confluence with the Napchitai-ulan-muren. \J\Iurui-
Usstt signifies in Mongol, according to Klaproth as well as Hue,
' Tortuous River.' It is the Ihi-chii of the Tibetans, the Briusoi Marco
I'olo, and as already stated the upper stream of the Yangtse. — Y.]

- This plain is two days' journey in length ; to the south lie the
Soloma mountains, forming the eastern part of the Baian-kara-ula
ranee.

BAIAN-KARA-ULA RANGE. iSi

kara-ula,' and by the Tangutans Yegrai-vola-daktsi \
they are situated on the left bank of the headwaters
of the Blue River, called by the Mongols Murui-ussu,'"^
and from the watershed between its basin and that
of the sources of the Hoang-ho.

The general direction of this range is from east to
west, but it is known by different names in its several
parts. In this way its western extremity, as far as
the N^apcJiitai-idan-murcn'^ is called K7iku-shili\ its
central part is the Baian-kara-2ila proper, beyond
these again are the Daktsi, and on the extreme east
the Soloma mountains. The Mongols informed us
that no part of the range attained the limits of
perpetual snow. The Kuku-shili is about seventy
miles long, the other three chains together upwards
of 260 miles in extent, giving a total of about 450
miles for the length of the entire range. Its central
portion follows the course of the Blue River, while
on the east and west it diverges from it.

The Baian-kara range is distinguished from the
Burkhan Buddha and Shuga mountains by its softer
outline and comparatively lower elevation. On its
northern side (at all events where we saw it) the
range rises only 1,000 feet above the base, but the
counter slope facing the south presents a bold pre-
cipitous front to the valley of the Murui-ussu, Avhere

' The meaning of this name is ' rich black mountains.'

'^ [The ' Bhie River,' as already observed, is the Yangtse-kiang. —

Y.]

•' This river flows from the snowy mountains of Tsaga?i->iir, and

after a course of about 230 miles falls into the Murui-ussu. The width

of its lower channel in winter is from 210 to 280 ft. ; it is remarkable

that its water is brackish to the taste.

1 82 SNOWY MOUNTAINS. THE CLIMATE

the elevation is 13,000 feet above sea-level. The
rocks are mostly siliceous slate and felspathic por-
phyry. There are hardly any cliffs or chasms on
the north ; water is abundant, and the southern side
is beyond comparison more fertile than any part of
Northern Tibet that we saw. The soil is sandy, but
owing to plentiful moisture the valleys and slopes
are well clothed with grass.

Between the Shuga and Baian-kara-ula chains
lies a terrible desert 14,500 feet above the level of
the sea,^ for the most part undulating, dotted here
and there with groups of hills hardly more than
1,000 feet above the plain.

The only snowy mountains are the Gurbu-7iaidji
(in Tangutan Achiun-gonchik)l^ lyirig" towards the
north-west, and which would seem to form the
commencement of the Kuen-lun system. For the
Mongols say that a continuous succession of moun-
tains extends hence a long way to the west, now
rising above and again sinking below the snow-line.
In the eastern part of this system, other snowy
peaks besides the Gurbu-naidji rise from the groups
of Yusim-obo and Tsagan-nir.

The elevated plateau between the Shuga and
Baian-kara-ula chains is typical of the deserts of
Northern Tibet in general. The climate and natural
character of this region are simply awful. The soil
is clay mixed with sand or shingle, and almost

' Lake Bitkha-nor is 14,000 ft., and the Heitun-shirik swamp at
the northern foot of the Baian-kara-ula, 14,900 ft. above sea-level.
^ These mountains were forty miles to the west of our route.

AND CHARACTER OF NORTHERN TIBET. 183

devoid of veg-etation. Here and there a tuft of grass
or a patch of grey Hchen may be seen covering a
foot or two of the surface, which in many parts is
coated with an efflorescence of salt as white as the
driven snow, and seamed in all parts by deep
furrows caused by the violent and constant tempests.
It is only in those spots where springs rise to the
surface that verdure and an approach to grass-land
may be seen. But even these oases bear the death-
like stamp of the surrounding desert. The grass is
all of one kind of Graminet^} half a foot high, as
hard as wire, and so parched by the wind that it
crackles like straw under foot and falls to powder."

The exhaustion consequent on the enormous
elevation affects the strongest man. A short march,
or even the ascent of a slight eminence, produces
languor, giddiness, trembling of the hands and feet,
and vomiting. Argols burn so badly owing to the
want of oxygen in the air that it is difficult to light
a fire, and water boils at sixty degrees Fahrenheit
below boiling point at sea-level.

The climate, too, is in complete harmony with
the sterility of these wilds. The winter is bitterly
cold and tempestuous ; the gales in spring are ac-
companied by hailstorms ; the summer rains are also
mingled with large hailstones ; and it is in autumn
alone that the weather becomes clear, still, and

^ As rare exceptions, some of the order of Composito' may be seen.

' As a proof of the hardness of the turf in the grassy parts of these
deserts, I may mention that our camels often spiked their feet till the
blood flowed, notwithstanding the thick soles with which they are pro-
tected.

1 84 PILGRIMAGES TO LHASSA.

warm. This is the season selected by the caravans
for their pilgrimages to Lhassa.^ The rendezvous
is Lake Koko-nor, where the camels, which have
already accomplished a long journey, are fed up in
preparation for the still longer and more arduous
march before them. Here too the pilgrims are joined
by Mongols of the vicinity, mounted some on yaks
and some on camels. The latter travel more rapidly,
averaging twenty miles a day,^ and accomplish the
entire distance of 1,000 miles from Tonkir to Lhassa
in two months, while the progress on yaks is much
slower, occupying double the time.

There is no regular road anywhere in the
Tibetan deserts, nothing but the tracks of wild
animals in all directions. The caravans take a
straight course, guiding their march by the salient
features of the country. The route is as follows :
from Tonkir along the northern shore of Koko-nor,
and across Tsaidam, to the Burkhan range, a journey
of fifteen or sixteen days ; to the Murui-ussu, ten
days ; ascending the course of this river, ten days
more ; across the Tang-la range to the Tibetan
village of Napchu, five days ; and thence to Lhassa,
twelve days. The camels are usually left behind at
Napchu, on account of the steepness of the moun-
tains, and the journey is continued on yaks. The
Mongols, however, assured us that it was possible to

> The Dungan insurrection put a stop to the pilgrimages from
Northern Mongolia for eleven years, during which time caravans pro-
ceeded only from Koko-nor and Tsaidam, and this not every year.

- There are only two halting-places ; one in Tsaidam at the foot of
the Burkhan Buddha, and the other on the bank of the Murui-ussu.

DISASTROUS CARAVAN JOURNEY. 185

travel to Munhu-tsu ^ (Lhassa) itself on camels, but
that pilgrims left theirs at Napchu because no good
pasturage could be found beyond.

Caravans leave Koko-nor or Tonkir early in
September,'- to arrive at Lhassa in the beginning of
November, Here they remain two or three months,
and start on the return journey in February. They
are then usually accompanied by Tibetan merchants,
who take cloth, lambskins, and various other com-
modities, to sell at Tonkir and Si-ning. In former
years an envoy from the Dalai- Lama was sent every
three years with presents for the Emperor at Peking,
but since the outbreak of the insurrection these
embassies have been discontinued.

The caravan journey across Northern Tibet in
the autumn and spring of the year is never unaccom-
panied by danger ; and casualties to men and beasts
are frequent. So many of the latter perish that a
large reserve of camels or yaks is always taken ; but
notwithstanding this precaution, the m^en have some-
times to abandon all they possess, and to think only
of their own safety. In February 1870, a caravan
which left Lhassa 300 strong, with 1,000 beasts of
burden, in a violent snow-storm, followed by severe
cold, lost all the animals and fifty men besides. One
of the survivors related to us how, when they found

' We find in Hue and Gabet Monghe djo, interpreted as signifying
' Eternal Sanctuary,' applied to Lhassa. The words are misprinted
Mouhe dehot in Hue, ii. 240. — Y.

- But rarely in winter or summer : it sometimes snows heavily
in winter ; and in summer no fuel is obtainable, all the argols having
become damp from the constant rains.

i86 SNOW-STORM ON NORTHERN TIBET.

that their beasts were dying by the score every day»
they were compelled to abandon first their merchan-
dise, and such things as were not absolutely indis-
pensable, then part of their supplies, until they were
actually reduced to trudge on foot and to carry their
own food on their backs. Of the entire force of
camels only three were kept alive by feeding them
on barley. The argols were buried so deep be-
neath the snow that it was almost impossible to find
them, and the travellers had to cut their clothes to
pieces and burn them for fuel to keep themselves
warm. Every day one of their number fell down
dead, and the sick were left to their fate.

But notwithstanding their sterility and the un-
favourable conditions of climate, the deserts of
Northern Tibet abound with animal life. Had we
not seen with our own eyes it would have been
impossible to believe that in these regions, left so
destitute by nature, such immense herds of wild
animals should be able to exist, and find sufficient
nourishment to support life by roaming from place
to place. But though food is scarce, they have
no fear of encountering their worst enemy, man ;
and far removed from his bloodthirsty pursuit, they
live in peace and liberty.^

The characteristic animals belonging to the
order of Mammalia, which are most numerous in
the Tibetan deserts, are the wild yak {Po'cphagus
grtmniens), the white-breasted argali [Ovis PoliV),

' The rarefied atmosphere apparently has no effect on the Tibetan
animals born and bred in it.

MAMMALS. THE WILD YAK. 187

the kuku-yaman [Ovis Nakoor), the antelopes
called orongo and ata (Aittilope Hodgsoni and
A. pic Исак da), the kulan or wild ass {Eqtius
Kiang), the grey wolf {Lupus Chancd). Besides
which are the bear (Ursus sp.) the manul [Felts
тапиП)} the fox {Canis viclpes), the steppe fox
(Canis Corsac), the hare [Lcpiis tolai), the marmot
[Arctomys sp.) and two kinds of lagomys [Lagomys
sp.).

We had already seen some of these animals in
Kan-su and Koko-nor : I will, therefore, confine the
following remarks to those which are peculiar to
Tibet, amongst which the wild yak or long-haired
ox of course takes the first place.

This handsome animal is of extraordinary size
and beauty, measuring when full grown eleven feet
in length, exclusive of its bushy tail, which is three
feet long ; its height at the hump is six feet ; girth
round the centre of the body eleven feet, and its
weight ten or eleven hundredweight. The head is
adorned with ponderous horns, two feet nine inches
long, and one foot four inches in circumference at
the root. The body is covered with thick black
hair, which in the old males assumes a chestnut
colour on the back and upper parts of the sides, and
a deep fringe of black hair hangs down from the

1 We ourselves did not see either the manul or the bear, but we
were told about them by some hunters in Tsaidam ; and I once saw a
footprint in the snow, which the guide declared to be that of the manul.
(See Supplementary Note.) Bears were dormant for the winter, but it
is said they are very numerous in the Burkhan Buddha and Shuga
ranges. Judging from the description given us, they must be of the
same species as the bear of Kan-su.

i88

THE WILD YAK.

flanks. The muzzle is partly grey, and the yoiinger
males have marks of the same colour on the upper
part of the body, whilst a narrow silvery grey stripe
runs down the centre of the back. The hair of
young yaks is much softer than that of the older
ones ; they are also distinguishable by their smaller
size,^ and by handsomer horns with the points
turned up, whereas those of the older males are
turned more inwards, and are always covered near
the root with dun-coloured wrinkled skin.

The females are much smaller than the males,^

'\'nv. Wild Yak (Poc/>/tagics grii/inieiis. Pall.).

and not nearly so striking in appearance ; their horns

'^ A six-year-old bull is only 9^ feet long, not measuring the tail, and
is altogether a smaller animal than the old one.

^ An old cow-yak is 7 ft. 3 in. without the tail ; Iieight at the hump
4 ft. 9 in. ; girth round the middle of the body 7 ft. ; weight one half
or one third lliat of the male.

RANGE AA'D PHYSICAL QUALITIES. 189

are shorter and lighter, the hump smaller, and the
tail and flanks not nearly so hairy.

But in order to have a correct idea of the yak, he
should be seen in his native state, on vast plains
which lie at an elevation of 15,000 feet, seamed
with rocky ridges as wild and barren as the sur-
rounding deserts, where the scanty herbage finds little
encouragement to grow, owing to the constant cold
and the violent storms of wind which rage through-
out the greater part of the year. In these inhospi-
table wastes, in the midst of a desolate nature, yet
far removed from pitiless man, the famous long-
haired ox roams in unrestricted freedom. This
animal, peculiarly characteristic of the highlands of
Tibet, is also found further north, and is said to
haunt in considerable numbers the mountain ranges
of Kan-su near the headwaters of the Tatung and
Etsina, the northernmost limit of its distribution.
In Kan-su, however, it is becoming extinct, owing to
the way in which it is persecuted by the native
hunters.

In some physical qualities the yak is singularly
inferior to other wild animals. Endowed with enor-
mous strength and an excellent sense of smell, its
sight and hearing are defective. Even on a clear
day, and on perfectly level ground, it cannot dis-
tinguish a man at any great distance, and in misty
weather it cannot see him when comparatively near.
Again, it requires a very loud noise to attract its
attention, but its sense of smell is very keen, and it
will scent a man half-a mile to Avindward.

I90 HABITS OF THE YAK.

Its intelHg-ence, like that of the bovine tribe in
general, is of a very low order, a fact which is indi-
cated also by the remarkably small size of its brain.

At all other times, except the rutting season, the
old bulls ^ keep single, or in small troops of three or
five ; younger fully grown males (six to ten years of
age) occasionally join their older companions, but
are more often found in separate troops of ten or
twelve, with one or two old bulls among them. The
females, young bulls, and calves assemble in enor-
mous herds of several hundred or a thousand head.
In such large numbers they have difficulty in finding
sufficient food, but the calves are thus best protected
from the attacks of wolves.

While browsing they generally scatter over the
pasture, but when reposing lie close together.^ When
in danger they form a phalanx, the calves in the
centre, some of the full-grown males advancing to
reconnoitre. If the cause of the alarm be apparent,
and the hunter continue his approach, or if a shot
be fired, the whole herd takes to flight at a trot or
gallop, raising a cloud of dust, and the sound of
their hoofs is heard a long way off. This furious
pace, however, does not last long ; after a flight of
less than half a mile they slacken speed, and halt in
the same order as before, i.e. the young in the
centre, and the older males outside. If the hunter
again approach, the same tactics are repeated, and
once alarmed they will flee a long way.

' It is said that the wild yak Uves to the age of twenty-five.
- During a violent storm the yak usually lies down.

LARGE HERDS. 191

Solitary yaks always trot, and never gallop more
than a few paces from the spot whence the}^ have
been disturbed. They may be easily overtaken by
a horseman, at whatever pace they may be going.
They climb nimbly over the loftiest and rockiest
mountains, and we have seen them in places where
no other animal, unless it were the kuku-yaman,
could find a footing.

In winter large herds repair to the places
where pasturage is most abundant, while solitary
bulls or small troops may be seen in all parts. We
first saw single animals soon after crossing the
Burkhan Buddha, but it was not until we came to
the Baian-kara-ula, and particularly on the southern
slope of this range, that we saw herds of them, and
again, in the valley of the Murui-ussu ; previously
we had seen two small troops near the river Shuga.

The Mongols told us that in summer, when the
tender young grass shoots up, large herds of yaks
visit the Burkhan Buddha, roaming from place to
place, but always returning for the winter to the
banks of the Murui-ussu ; old bulls, which dislike
making long journeys, remain all the year round at
the same place. Indolence is a prominent trait in
their character. They feed morning and evening,
passing the rest of the day in unbroken repose,
either lying or standing ; at such times the only sign
of life they show is in chewing the cud, otherwise
they are as motionless as statues, even keeping the
head in one position ; and this for hours together.

They always select the coldest spot they can

192 MORE PARTICULARS OF THE YAK.

find for repose, or seek the shelter of some cliff
where they can avoid the sun's rays, preferring to
lie on the snow, or if there be none, on the bare
ground, in which they scrape a hollow with their
hoofs.

Their favourite resorts are thickly strewn with
their dung, which is the only fuel in these deserts,
and without which the journey across Tibet would
be impracticable, for there are no bushes of any kind
in this country.

The wild yaks require plenty of water, and their
numerous tracks and droppings near the warm
springs prove the frequency of their visits to them ;
when water is unobtainable they slake their thirst
with snow. But in summer they are at no loss, for be-
sides an abundance of streams and springs, plenty of
rain water collects in the pools, by the side of which
grass is abundant, and the yak, by no means a
dainty feeder, after growing thin during winter, be-
comes fat again in autumn ; this is particularly the
case with young bulls and single cows.

The breeding time, which is in September, lasts
a whole month, and then the character of the yak
undergoes a complete change. At this season the
bulls wander day and night over the plains in search
of mates, and engage in sanguinary battles with one
another. These fights must often be of a desperate
kind, judging from the fact that nearly all those
that we shot in Avinter bore the marks of wounds
inflicted in these amorous duels, some of the scars
being very large ; one bull that we shot had one of

WILD YAK-SHOOTING. 193

its horns broken off close to the head. I leave my
readers to imagine how terrific the crash must have
been to break off the huge thick horn of one of
these animals. What powerful heads to receive and
deliver such a blow !

The Mongols said that during the rutting season
the bulls constantly uttered a grunting noise ; this is
most probable, because the domesticated yak grunts
like a pig ; but we did not hear it once ; indeed, at
any other season except the pairing time it is very
uncommon.

The Mongols say that the calves are born in
June, and that a cow will only bear every alternate
year.

Gifted with enormous physical strength, the yak
in its native deserts, far from the haunts of men, has
no dangerous enemies, and dies generally of old age.
But he is subject to a kind of mange, called in Mon-
golian ' Jiomiui' which spreads over the whole body,
and causes the hair to fall off. I cannot say whether
they ever recover from this complaint, or whether in
time it proves fatal, but I myself shot two yaks
which had lost a great deal of hair and were covered
with the scab.

Wild yak-shooting is as exciting as it is dan-
gerous, for a wounded beast, especially an old bull,
Avill often attack his pursuer. They are the more
formidable owing to the uncertainty of killing them
outright, however great both skill and nerve may be.
A bullet aimed at the body very seldom wounds

VOL. II. о

194 DANGEROUS SPORT.

mortally, while one fired from a first-rate rifle fails
to penetrate the skull unless it hit the brain-pan,
which is small in comparison with the size of the
whole head. Under these circumstances it may
easily be understood how impossible it is, even at
close quarters, to depend upon the sureness of your
aim, and how doubtful must be the issue of the
contest with this giant of the Tibetan deserts. The
only security of the sportsman is in the stupidity and
indecision of the yak, which, despite its ferocity,
shows an unconquerable fear in the presence of a
daring man. Were it not for this, the yak would be
a more formidable foe than a tiger, because, as I
said before, it is quite in exceptional instances that
you can be sure of giving him his death-blow.
Your best chance lies in the number of wounds you
can inflict, and therefore you must be armed with a
breech-loader. Of course I am now merely referring
to old bulls ; the cows and herds retreat precipitately
as soon as the first shot is fired. But old bulls will
not always attack the hunter, and often take to their
heels even though wounded. In such a case let
loose your dogs after them ; they Avill very soon over-
take a yak, seize hold of his tail and bring him to
bay, and, in his fury, he will assail first one dog then
another without noticing you.

It is easier and less dangerous for a mounted
sportsman to follow the yak, whether single or in a
herd ; a good horse will soon come up with the
unwieldy brutes. Unfortunately, both our steeds
were so starved that they could hardly move their

YAK-STALKING. 195

legs, and consequently we never once had an op-
portunity of yak-hunting on horseback.

But even on foot it was fine sport ! Armed with
our breech-loaders, my companion and I would start
from our yurta early in the morning in pursuit of
the game. The huge beasts might easily be seen
through a field-glass, more than a mile off, but one
is very liable to take lumps of rock for so many yaks
conchant. They were so plentiful on the Baian-
kara-ula and on the banks of the Murui-ussu that
we could generally see them grazing within a short
distance of our camp.

They are more easily stalked than any other wild
animal we know, and so defective are their sight and
hearing that you may get within 300 paces of them
in the open without difficulty ; and single bulls (but
not herds) will allow the sportsman to approach
nearer still, even though they have noticed him in
the distance. Never having been hunted, and con-
fident in their own strength, they show no signs of
fear at the approach of a man, but look him steadily
in the face, lashing their sides with their bushy tails,
or curving them over their backs, to express their
anger at being disturbed.

If the hunter continue to advance the yak retires,
stopping every now and then to look round in the
direction of its pursuer, but when once alarmed by
the report of a gun, or лvounded, they will run for
hours without stopping.

You may occasionally get within fifty paces of

iy6 RECEIVIA'G THE CHARGE

them in the mountains by going against the wind ;
in the open I usually stalked them in the following
way. When within three hundred paces I would
drop on my knees and raise my rifle above my head
with the stand inverted, so that the legs might look
like horns ; my costume, too, a Siberian shooting
coat made of young reindeer skin with the hair
outside, helped to deceive the short-sighted animal.
In this way I would crawl up to within 200 or even
150 yards, prop my rifle on its rest, place some
cartridges in my cap which I laid on the ground
beside me, and fire in a kneeling posture. If the
first shot took effect the animal would turn and go
off, followed by my bullets until it was out of range.
An old bull, however, would often charge with horns
lowered and tail up, but in a stupid indecisive
manner, advancing a few paces, and then stopping
and lashing its tail furiously ; a second shot, and it
would renew the charge vvith a similar result, until
after being pierced by perhaps a dozen bullets, when
it would fall dead, without having come nearer than
100 paces. Sometimes after being hit twice or
thrice it would take to flight, but on receiving
another wound it would turn and again offer a fair
mark for my rifle. Of all the yaks we killed, only
two advanced to within 40 paces of us, and these
would probably have come to closer quarters had
we not killed them. I should think, however, that
the nearer they are to the sportsman the more
cowardly and undecided they become.

In order to give my readers a better notion of

JV£ KIIJ. A HUGE BULL! 197

yak-shooting I will describe how we shot one of
those whose skins are in my collection/

One evening we observed three yaks browsing
in a defile not far from our yurta. I went towards
them at once, and when within 200 paces aimed at
the biggest and fired. All three scampered off, '^
but after running less than half a mile they stopped.
This time I approached to about 300 paces, and
fired again at the same animal as before. His com-
panions bolted, but the huge beast, wounded for the
second time, came slowly towards me. I carried
my Berdan breechloader, from which I fired shot
after shot, apparently producing no more effect on
him than if I had been firing at a target. I could
see the dust fly off his coat as the bullets struck him,
nevertheless he still advanced, only now and then,
as he received a more serious wound, recoiling a
few paces. When he got within about 1 50 paces of
the place where I stood, my ammunition was spent,
so, leaving one cartridge in my gun in case of emer-
gency, I ran back to camp for a fresh supply, as fast
as my legs would carry me. My companion and
one of the Cossacks now joined me, and we all
three proceeded to the spot where I had left the
yak. Here we found him prostrate on the ground,
giving no signs of life except by the movement of
his head, adorned wuth a splendid pair of horns,

^ We brought home with us two bull-yak skins. Each, when dried,
weighed with the horns nearly 2\ cwt. ; the raw hide, which is half an
inch thick on the head and neck, weighs with the horns upwards of
3 cwt. 24 lbs.

- When in company the wild yak seldom charges.

198 EXTRAORDINARY LUCK.

It had now become dusk, and we could not see to
aim. We fired a volley at one hundred yards ; in a
moment he was on his feet and charging us. We
now continued to pepper him from all three rifles,
but none the less did he still come on. A second
volley, and he flourished his tail in the air and was
off; not far, however, for after running lOO paces he
stopped. It was now so dark that I determined to
waste no more ammunition, feeling confident that
he would succumb from his wounds during the
night. The following morning, true enough, there
he lay quite dead. We counted thirteen bullets in
his body and three in his head, one having fractured
the skull, which was covered with an integument
half an inch thick. On another occasion I was
clambering over the mountains when I suddenly
caught sight of three yaks lying down ; they had
not observed me as I was concealed by a rock. I
immediately took deliberate aim and fired. All
three jumped up and seemed at a loss to know what
was the matter ; my second bullet killed the one I
had first fired at outright. His two companions
remained beside him, as usual swishing their tails.
My third shot was equally successful in breaking
the leg of a second, compelling him to remain
stationary. I now directed my fire at the last of
the trio, but he was not to be despatched so easily.
After the first shot he charged, but after advancing
only ten paces in m)- direction, began to waver. A
second bullet caused him to renew the charge, and
at last, when forty paces off, I killed him with my

THE VULNERABLE SPOT. 199

seventh shot. I now had no difficulty in finishing
the one with the broken leg, and thus secured three
of these huge beasts in a few minutes without
stirring from my place. On examining the slain
animals more closely, I found that all seven bullets
fired at the one which charged had lodo^ed in his
chest, and stuck there like a row of buttons.
Knowing with what force a rifle will project a
bullet at nearly point-blank range, I was amazed
at the prodigious strength displayed by this animal
in resisting seven such tremendous blows.

After great experience in yak-shooting I am
convinced that one cannot do better than aim
behind the shoulder of the left side if possible, for
the bullet will go right through and lodge under-
neath the skin of the opposite side after touching
some vital part. But a rifle bullet of small calibre,
such as the Berdan, even if it touch the heart, does
not of necessity instantaneously kill an old bull, who
will often run for several minutes after receiving
such a wound. If you aim at the head you are
never certain of killing even at short ranges, and if
your bullet strike obliquely, although of larger
calibre,^ it will not penetrate the skull. It was
always my intention that, if I should ever be hard
pressed by one of these animals, I would cripple
him by firing at the legs.

Cows and young bulls are also exceedingly diffi-
cult to kill for another reason, viz. that they are
always in troops, and you cannot single one out of

* 1 had a Lancaster rifle which carried a bullet of No. 16 calibre.

200 MONGOL HUNTERS.

the herd to fire at several times. They are also
more wary and difficult to stalk than solitary bulls.
Out of a total of thirty-two yaks, shot by my com-
panion and myself during our expedition in Tibet,
only three were cows. The Mongols are terribly
afraid of the wild yak, and we were told that if a
caravan chance to come upon one lying down in a
narrow defile, they will halt and not venture to con-
tinue their journey till the animal has risen. The
Mongols of Tsaidam, however, often hunt the wild
yak, their chief inducement being the large quantity
of meat which it yields ; gluttony overcoming their
fears. The hunters, in parties of ten, proceed to
the haunts of this animal beyond the Shuga river ;
afraid to attack him in the open, they get behind
some ambush and deliver a volley, concealing them-
selves till the result of their fire has been ascertained.
The wounded beast, after looking in vain for the
aggressor, makes off, followed by the hunters at a
respectful distance, and if severely wounded the
next day he will be found dead. Of course it rarely
happens that a yak is killed on the spot by a bullet
fired from one of their wretched matchlocks. It
sometimes happens that after being wounded in the
way we have described, the infuriated beast en-
counters the horses of his pursuers, and gores them
terribly with his formidable horns. Besides eating
the yak beef, Mongols use the heart and blood of
this animal, taken internally, for medicinal purposes ;
the hides are sent to Tonkir, and ropes are spun
from the lone hair of the tail and flanks.

THE WHITE-BREASTED ARGAIJ. 201

A young fat bull or a heifer is excellent eating-,
though inferior to the domesticated breed {sarlok) ;
but the flesh of old bulls is intolerably tough.

We left the greater number of those \ve shot
untouched, having no use for the meat in Tibet.
The carcasses soon froze into a solid mass, the
tough hide resisting the vultures and wolves. On
our way back from the Blue River we saw them
lying exactly as we had left them.

Another remarkable animal of Northern Tibet
is the white breasted argali (Ovis Poll ?), of equal

Ovis PoLi after an engraving in SevertsofTs ' Turkestanskiya Jivotniya ').

size with its Mongolian congener, but differing from
it in the horns, and in the white breast, which has a
frill of long hairs. We first saw these sheep beyond
the Burkhan Buddha, and afterwards as we pene-
trated farther into the country, but they are not
common. The Mongols assured us that they are
to be found in the South К око- nor range, and in
the Kan-su mountains near the sources of the

202 ITS HABITS, BEAUTY,

Etsina, but we could not discover if this were pre-
cisely the same breed. My impression, however, is
that it is the same, and that the Tibetan species is
also a native of Kan-su and Koko-nor.

Its habits are similar to those of the Mongolian
argali. It is generally found in the more elevated
plateaux, avoiding the steep and rugged mountains,
and keeping to the outer slopes and hills ; in
Northern Tibet it may frequently be seen pasturing
along with kulans and antelope in the ravines.

The senses of the aT-gali are keener than those
of any other animal in Tibet, and it is an exceedingly
wary animal, although hardly ever hunted ; the
Mongols finding it useless to attempt shooting them
with their matchlocks. They collect in flocks of
five to fifteen, and occasionally twenty-five to thirty,
accompanied by one, two, or three rams, which
appear to guide and protect the ewes ; the latter
relying on their leaders to warn them of danger and
conduct them to a place of safety. When alarmed
they run for a few hundred yards and wheel round ;
the leader will then often climb the nearest hill or
rock, in order to reconnoitre the surrounding coun-
try. In this position the ram forms a fine picture,
his graceful figure standing well out from the rocks,
and his snow-white breast glistening in the sun.

I often asked myself which was the finer beast
of the two, the yak or the argali ; and the best
answer I could make was, that each of these animals
was perfect in its way. The mighty size of the yak,
his ponderous horns and long fringe of hair almost

AND WARINESS. 203

touching the ground, his bushy tail and jet black
colour, render him a magnificent specimen of the brute
creation ! On the other hand, the gracefulness of the
argali, his great curving horns, snowy breast, and
proud bearing, entitled him to rank among the
noblest of creatures in these deserts. In the early
morning the argalis graze on the mountains, or in the
valleys, but no sooner is the sun up than they seek
some spot for repose, sequestered, yet commanding
a view all round. Here they scrape a convenient
resting place for themselves in the clay, and lie down
for several hours. When a flock is reposing in this
way, the rams station themselves a little to one side
and keep watch ; a herd consisting entirely of rams
lies close together, their heads turned outwards in
different directions. Indeed they are ever vigilant
and wary, and the hunter who would approach them
must note the direction of the wind and stalk them
very carefully. Even with the utmost caution a
great deal will still depend on the accuracy of his
aim and the trueness of his rifle ; for under the most
favourable circumstances he cannot expect to get
within 200 paces. In all our shooting excursions in
Tibet we only killed eight argalis, of which three
were full-grown rams.

The Mongols told us that the breeding season was
late in the autumn. When we arrived in Tibet in
the beginning of December it was over, and the rams
were behaving peaceably, but while it lasts they
have furious fights, traces of which may be seen in the
numbers of broken horns strewn about in all direc-

204 THE ORONGO-ANTELOPE ;

tions. AccordincT to the same authority the ewes
drop their young in June,^ and the horns of old rams
curve so much downwards and forwards as to pre-
vent them from feeding, and thus sometimes cause
their death by starvation. I will not vouch for the
truth of this statement, and can only say that in
Northern Tibet I rarely saw one of their skulls.

Another characteristic animal of the Tibetan
highlands is the antelope, called by the Mongols and
Tangutans oi^ongo [Autilopc Hodgsoni). The male
is remarkably handsome ; in size no bigger than a
dzeren, with a beautifully shaped body set on long,
slender legs, and with elegant black horns (twenty-
three inches long) standing vertically above the
head, slightly curved, and annulated on the anterior
surface. In winter the hair on the upper part and
sides of the muzzle, the sides of the breast, and fore
parts of the legs are black, the neck, middle of the
breast, stomach, and rump white, the back dun-
coloured."^ When seen at a distance it appears white.
The female is much smaller than the male, and has
no horns or black marks on the body. We first
saw the orongo after crossing the Burkhan Buddha
range, beyond which it is distributed towards the
south as far as the Tang-la mountains. It loves the
valleys and rolling plains, and, after the yak, is the
most numerous of the animals of Northern Tibet.
Like the kulan and the yak it requires water, and

' The argali of Mongolia breeds in August, and the young are
dropped in March.

In summer its hair is said to lie of a reddish rolour like th:it of
dzeren.

/7"^- HABITS. 205

selects those parrs of the desert where rivers and
springs abound.

It is found in small herds from five to twenty, or
forty head, rarely collecting In large troops of several
hundred, and this only where the pasturage is good
and plentiful. Though a few of the old bucks, usu-
ally accompanying every herd, are more cautious
and experienced, the orongos generally are not wary
in their habits. In their flight the males follow the
herd as though to prevent straggling ; whilst \vith
the dzerens and kara-sultas this order is reversed.
When In motion, either leisurely or at full speed, the
orongo holds Its horns erect, w^hich adds greatly to
its appearance. When trotting — Its usual pace — the
legs move so quickly that at a distance they are
invisible, and dogs or wolves are soon left behind.

We arrived In Tibet during the breeding season
of these animals, which begins late In November and
lasts a month. At this time the full-grown males ^
are in a most excited state, taking little food and
soon losing the fat which they had gained during
summer. The buck soon forms his harem of ten to
twenty wives, and these he jealously guards lest any
of them should fall into the power of a rival. No
sooner does he see an adversary approaching than
he, the lawful lord of the herd, rushes to the en-
coimter with head lowered, uttering short deep
bleats. The combat is fierce, and the long sharp

' The young bucks, with small horns, and in colour exactly resem-
bling the does, appear not to take part in this internecine warfare, but
hold themselves aloof in separate herds with the does, during the rut-
ting season.

2o6 DUELS BETWEEN О RON COS.

horns inflict terrible wounds, often causing the death
of both antagonists. Should one feel his strength
ebbing, he takes to flight pursued by his enemy, then
suddenly wheeling round receives the latter on his
horns. As a proof of the fury with which they fight,
I remember shooting one of the combatants, who to
my surprise continued the fight for several minutes
after he had received his death-Wound, and then
suddenly expired. If a doe chance to stray from
the herd, the buck immediately gives chase, and,
bleating as he goes, tries to drive her back again.
While his attention is thus engaged the others give
him the slip, and pursuing first one, then another, he
often loses his whole harem. At last, deserted by
all, he gives vent to his fury and disgust by striking
the ground with his hoofs, curving his tail, lowering
his horns and bleating defiance at his compeers.
From morning until evening these scenes are con-
stantly occurring, and there appears to be no bond
of union between the male antelope and his does ;
to-day they consort with one buck, to-morrow with
another.

The rutting season over, the orongos again live
peaceably with one another ; the males and females
often collecting in separate herds. We saw a troop
of about 300 does in February in the valley of the
Shuga ; the young are dropped in July.

The orongo is fearless and will let the hunter
openly approach within 300 yards, or even nearer.
The report of fire arms or the whistle of a bullet
does not alarm it ; it only shows surprise by walking

SUPERSTITIONS REGARDIXG THEM. 207

quietly away, frequently stopping to look at the
hunter. Like other antelope it is extremely tena-
cious of life and will run a long way although
Avounded.^

They are not difficult to shoot, for besides show-
ing no fear they haunt rocky defiles in the mountains,
where they may be easily stalked. I have fired as
many as one to two hundred shots at them in the
course of the day, my bag of course varying a good
deal with my luck in the long shots.

The orongo is held sacred by Mongols and Tan-
gutans, and lamas will not touch the meat, which by
the way is excellent, particularly in autumn when the
animal is fat. The blood is said to possess medicinal
virtues, and the horns are used in charlatanism :
Mongols tell fortunes and predict future events by
the rings on these, and they also serve to mark out
the burial places, or more commonly the circles
within w^hich the bodies of deceased lamas are ex-
posed : these horns are carried away in large numbers
by pilgrims returning from Tibet, and are sold at
high prices. Mongols tell you that a whip-handle
made from one will in the hands of the rider prevent
his steed from tiring.

Another prevalent superstition is, that the orongo
has only one horn growing vertically from the centre
of the head. In Kan-su and Koko-nor \ve were told
that unicorns were rare, one or two in a thousand ;

^ In all the orongo killed by us, we found under the skin of the
posterior a number of the larvae of the gadfly, which we found on no
other animal of Northern Tibet.

2o8 THE ATA-DZEREN ;

but the Mongols in Tsaidam, who are perfectly well
acquainted with the orongo, deny entirely the exist-
ence there of a one-horned antelope, though admitting
that it might be found in South-western Tibet. Had
we gone farther we should probably have heard that
it was only to be found in India, and so on till we
arrived at the one-horned rhinoceros !

Another antelope native to Northern Tibet, and
called by the Mongols ata-dzeren, i.e. little antelope
[Antiiope picticauda), is remarkable for its diminu-
tive size. The male is three feet four inches long-
(including the bend of the neck), two feet four inches
high, and only weighs thirty-six pounds ; the horns
are long and slightly curved, with the points turned
backwards, and numerous small notches in front.
The prevailing colour is a dusky grey, the rump and
belly white, bordered behind and on the flanks by
a narrow yellow stripe. We saw this animal near
the head waters of the Tatung-gol, and apparently
the same species on ascending the high lands of
Kan-su in the uneven plain beyond the border
range.'

Like the orongo it frequents elevated plains, pre-
ferring, however, the valleys in the mountains where
water is abundant. Yet its habits are very different
from the orongos, and it is without exception the
most graceful and the swiftest of the antelopes of
Mongolia and Northern Tibet. It generally moves
in small herds of five or seven (seldom as many as
twenty), though solitary males are often seen. It

' These are never found in Koko-nor and Tsaidam.

ITS SWIFTNESS AND COLOUR. 209

is extremely wary, specially in those districts where
it has learnt to fear man ; on the banks of the Murui-
ussu it is a little less timid. Its swiftness is amaz-
ine ; it bounds alonof like an india-rubber ball, and
when startled seems absolutely to fly.

During their breeding season, which begins to-
wards the close of December and lasts a month, the
males chase one another from their herds, but we
never saw them fighting like the orongo, nor did луе
ever hear them utter any sound other than a snort
(like that of the kara-sulta) on seeing a man ; and
the does when startled give a short loud cry very
similar to that of the young pygarg. They scrape
themselves trenches a foot deep, in which they lie at
night (and probably during the day), and in these we
found heaps of their droppings.

This little antelope is more difficult to shoot
than the orong-o, besides beino; much scarcer and
extremely tenacious of life. Its ashy-grey colour,
exactly resembling the soil, renders it almost invisible
at a distance, and it is only by its conspicuous white
rump, and its snort, that you may discover its pres-
ence. By twilight it sees badly, and suffers the
hunter to approach quite close. In conclusion, we
may remark that both species are swift runners over
smooth ice.

The only beasts of prey that we saw in Northern
Tibet were wolves and steppe-foxes, both in great
numbers.

The Tibetan wolf {L7Lpus Chanco) is about the
size of the common wolf (from which it only differs
VOL. ir. p

2IO THE TIBETAN WOLF.

in its yellowish-white colour)/ and is most probably
identical with the species we heard the Mongols in
Kan-su call tsobr; but whereas it is rare in the latter
country, in Northern Tibet it is very common, of
course owing to the unpeopled nature of this country
and the abundance of animals upon which it can prey.
Here it ranges over the plains in large packs, and
attacks the yak, the orongo, and the rest. Tibetan
wolves are savage and impudent, but are more
cowardly and less powerful than the grey species.
Our dogs fought with them, and drove them away
every night. They frequently attempted, in their
nocturnal visits to our yurta, to carry off things by
stealth ; we could leave no dead game exposed (ex-
cept yak) without its being instantly gnawed or de-
voured by these ravenous brutes. My companion on
one occasion shot four orongo about two m.iles from
camp, whither he went for assistance, and on return-
ing with a camel to bring them in, found that they
had been devoured in his absence.

At one place in the valley of the Shuga we made
a cache among some loose rocks, hiding our butter
there ; but these horrid brutes scented it, turned up
the heavy stones and devoured the store we had
prepared for our return journey, actually swallowing
the woollen cloth in which it was wrapped ! On
another occasion I left my fowling-piece in the moun-
tains with some prepared tin cartridge cases ; the
following day on going to fetch it, I could find neither
gun nor cartridges, which had been dragged away by

' There are no grey wolves in Tibet, although plentiful in Tsaidam.

STEPPE-FOX. 21 г

these wolves ; the gun was lying a little distance off
with one barrel exploded, the trigger having evi-
dently struck against a rock as they hauled it along ;
the cartridges were completely gone. Yet with all
his impudence this wolf is so wary that he will never
allow a man to come near him during the day, and re-
course must be had to artifice to kill him ; for such is
his tenacity of life, that unless shot through a vital
part he will escape. We lost a great deal of time in
trying to secure one of their skins, and at last I suc-
ceeded in killing one by lying in ambush behind the
carcase of a kulan.

We tried watching at night by the side of a slain
yak, but although we wounded several, they always
managed to get away. In Northern Tibet, had we
possessed strychnine or traps, we might have killed
any number of them.

Their breeding season is January, when they are
never more than ten or fifteen in a pack. They utter
a short sharp bark like a dog.

The fox is rare in Northern Tibet, but the closely-
allied steppe-fox {Canis Corsac\ called by the Mon-
gols kiarsa, is more common.

This sagacious animal is distributed over the
whole of Mongolia, Kan-su, Koko-nor, and Tsaidam,
but is most numerous on the plains round Koko-
nor, where it finds an abundance of marmots, — its
chief food.

Owing to its excessive wariness I was unable to
study its habits. On seeing a man a long way off, it

P 2

212 BIRDS OF NORTHERN TIBET.

disappears instantaneously, either by taking to flight
or by crouching on the ground, a manoeuvre frequently
practised during the breeding season, which lasts from
the end of January to the end of February. During
this time their hideous cry may be heard night and
morning, closely resembling the hooting of an owl.
The corsac lives in burrows of its own construction.
The Mongols and Tangutans catch it by setting traps
at the entrances of these holes.

Turning from the mammalia of Northern Tibet
to the birds, we find a general deficiency of the lat-
ter. It was, to be sure, mid-winter when we were
there, and the summer birds had all flown away ; but
at the best of times no great variety can be expected
in this country, so variable and unfavourable are its
physical conditions. During our two and a half
months' stay here we saw but twenty-nine kinds,
only one of which {Cinclus sp.) was new ; the others
we had seen in Kan-su and Koko-nor. The few we
saw in Northern Tibet were mostly on the border,
north of the Shuga, and between this river and the
Murui-ussu they were very scarce.

The most common birds of Northern Tibet are :
vultures ( Vulhtr mojtacJms, Gyps nivicola), lammer-
geiers {Gypa'dtos barbatus), and crows {Corvus cor ax) ^
all which appear as soon as an animal is slain ; red-
legged crows [Fregilus gramhis), which collect in
vast flocks during winter ; sandgrouse {Syrr/iaptes
Tibetamis), larks {Melanocoiypha maxima, Alaiida
albigula), linnets {Linota brevirostra), the last named
probably only wintering here ; also the Podoccs /m-

DIFFICULTIES AND PRIVATIONS. 213

mills and the Mo7itifringilla (sp.) so numerous in
Koko-nor,

After this long digression on the fauna of North-
ern Tibet, I resume my narrative.

As I mentioned in the last chapter, we hired a
guide in Tsaidam, and, accompanied by him, started
for the Burkhan Buddha. In order to lighten as
much as possible the loads of our camels, which carry
with great difficulty the smallest pack over these
enormous elevations, we left some of our supplies of
barley-meal and flour in Tsaidam, and buried our
spare ammunition under some stones near the sum-
mit of the Burkhan Buddha pass. Notwithstand-
ing this our packs, filled as they were with skins of
animals, were quite heavy enough, and we were com-
pelled to bury in the sand two yak skins obtained
for our collection, only taking them with us on our
way back.

These two months and a half ^ in Northern Tibet
were the most arduous of the whole of the expedi-
tion. Winter had set in with severe frosts and storms,
and the want of even the bare necessaries of life,
with other privations, reduced our strength ; so that it
became a hard struggle for life, and nothing but a
consciousness of the scientific importance of our
labours inspired us with strength and energy to carry
out the task we had undertaken.

For better protection against the cold we took the
yurta given us by the uncle of the Prince of Koko-nor ;
and if it gave us a great deal of additional trouble,

' Exactly cii^hty days from December 5, 1872, to February 22, 1873.

214 OUR TRAVELLING YURTA.

what with pitching, taking to pieces and packing, still
it was a far better shelter against storms and cold
than the ordinary tent.

Its dimensions were these: diameter, ii feet;
height from the ground to the aperture in the roof,
9 feet ; the entrance was by an opening in the side,
3 feet square, through which we crept in and out ;
the sides and roof were covered with three layers of
felt, besides which we lined the sides with orongo
skins.

The interior did not admit of much comfort : here
stood two boxes (containing journals, instruments,
&c.) besides felts for sleeping upon, whilst our arms
were ranged round the sides, and an iron grate stood in
the centre, in which argols were continually burning
during the day, to cook our food and afford us some
warmth. Towards evening, and particularly after
undressing for the night, sundry articles of apparel
might be seen suspended from the lattice woodwork
of the sides, and from the rafters supporting the
roof.

Such was our home during the whole of our
arduous winter journey in Tibet. Two hours before
daybreak every morning we rose, lighted the argols,
and boiled our brick-tea, which, mixed with some
barley-meal, served for our breakfast ; sometimes for
a chanofe we baked either zatiiran ^ or wheaten cakes
in the hot argol ashes. As soon as the day dawned

'^ ^ Zaiiiraii' is a favourite dish of the Cossacks of Trans-Baikalia
and the Amur country. It consist of brick-tea, into which flour baked
with butter and salt is added, the mess tasting much like soap.

lllliliilllllli'lJllHllllllllllllllinil'll' llll.l'

RAGS AND TATTERS. 215

we made preparations for the march, by taking the
yurta to pieces and packing it with the other bag-
gage on the camels. All this occupied a good hour
and a half, so that by the time we were ready to start
we already felt tired. Sometimes it was so cold, and
the wind was so keen, that we could not sit on horse-
back, yet the exertion of walking, encumbered
as we were with some eighteen pounds' weight in
the shape of gun and ammunition, was often too
much for our strength at that terrible elevation,
where every additional pound told, and we constantly
suffered from those distressing symptoms caused by
the extreme rarefaction of the atmosphere.

Our warm clothing, too, was so worn out by two
years' use as to be a most ineffectual protection
against the cold ; our fur coats and trowsers being
in tatters. As for boots we had none, and were
reduced to sewing bits of yak-hide to old leggings,
as a coverinor for our feet in the coldest weather.

О

Frequently, towards midday, the Avind would
increase to the violence of a hurricane, filling the air
with sand and dust, and making further progress
impossible while it lasted ; and we would be com-
pelled to halt, although we had gone only six or
seven miles. But even in the finest weather a march
of twelve miles on those lofty plains is more exhaust-
ing to the strength than double that distance at a
lower elevation.

On arriving at the halting place our first duty
was to unload the camels and set up the yurta,
which took us another hour ; the next was to collect

2i6 THE DAY'S ROUTINE.

argols, break ice for water, and then we had to wait,
hungry and tired, till the water boiled. How we
used to relish the nasty compound of butter and
barley-meal, glad enough even to get that !

After this meal my companion and I would start
off on a shooting expedition, weather of course per-
mitting, or I would write up my diary while the
Cossacks cooked the dinner. Now the axe was
again required to break the ice and chop the frozen
meat before putting them into the pot, whilst that
again had to be tinkered with raw hide and barley-
meal paste. This utensil, which served the double
purpose of saucepan and tea-kettle, had, from con-
stant use, worn into holes, and these had to be
mended every day. It was not till afterwards that
we succeeded in patching it more effectually with
the copper cartridge cases of our Berdan rifle.

Dinner was ready at six or seven p.m., and was
a sumptuous repast, for we had now enough meat
and to spare ; indeed we might have supplied a regi-
ment with the game we killed. Unfortunately, it
was often frozen so hard that we could scarcely thaw
enough for our soup. Moreover, the argols burnt so
badly and gave out so little heat at this great eleva-
tion, and water boiled at such a low temperature
(185° Fahr.),^ that It was difficult to cook the meat
properly.

After this meal, which was dinner and supper
combined, we had more work to do : the marshes
and streams being all, with a few exceptions, ice to

' The boiling point of water at sca-levcl is ixz"" Fahr. — M.

LONG WINTER'S NIGHT. 217

the bottom, we had every day to melt two buckets
full of water for our horses. Then followed the
most tedious time of all, the long winter's night !
One would have supposed that after the day's work
we should have passed it quietly and slept soundly ;
but this was far from being the case. Our fatigue
was of a more than ordinary kind, and we felt a
prostration of the whole system which seemed to
render sound sleep impossible. The dry rarefied air
produced a choking sensation like a heavy night-
mare, and our lips and mouths became parched.
Our beds consisted of pieces of dusty felt of a single
fold, laid on the frozen ground ; on these we lay for
ten consecutive hours, but unable to enjoy a really
good night's rest, and so to forget for a time the
hardships which encompassed us.

The days devoted to sport passed more plea-
santly, but cold and wind often interfered with our
shooting excursions, and sometimes quite put a stop
to them. The wind blew every day, and even if not
always with the force of a gale it was always suffi-
cient to impede our movements ; for, to say nothing
of the cold, which obliged us to don ear-protectors,
warm gloves, and fur coats, to face the wind ^ would
fill our eyes with tears, thus seriously affecting the
rapidity and accuracy of our fire. Our hands, too,
became so benumbed that we had to rub them be-
fore placing a cartridge in the chamber of a breech-
loader, and the metal contracted so that we had to

' When we were shooting we were always going against the wind
to prevent the game from scenting us.

2i8 WINTER IN NORTHERN TIBET.

use ramrods to get the empty cartridge cases out of
the Snider rifle. With the Berdan this never oc-
curred, but its locks were injured by the cold and
dust, and the cartridge often missed fire, only going
off after a second blow of the hammer.

The climate of Northern Tibet during December
and January is marked by the prevalence of severe
frost, dearth of snow, and dust-storms.

Although in more southern latitudes than the
warmest parts of Europe, we were often reminded
here of the extreme north. At night the thermo-
meter descended to — 24° Fahr.,^ occasionally when
it was cloudy rising to 10° Fahr. However, as soon
as the sun was high up in the heavens the mercury
rapidly rose, and on four days stood above freezing
point (or 32° Fahr.) at midday.

But little snow fell,'^ and what there was in fine
flakes, and as dry as dust ; occasionally covering the
surface an inch deep, but only for a short time, and
vanishing with the next gale, when it became mixed
up with the sand, and melted by the sun. It seldom
happens during winter that these deserts are quite
white,^ and even on the summits of high mountains
the snow only lies in small patches on the northern
slopes. The dust-storms which were so frequent
invariably came from the west or north-west, and

^ And probably even lower, for \ve had no minimum thermometer,
ours being broken, so we took the night temperature at sunrise.

'^ In December snow fell on four days, in January on eleven.

' It is said that in some years a large quantity of snowfalls. How-
ever, this can hardly be the case, because if so, all the herbivorous
animals of these regions would die for want of food.

HURRICANE. DUST-STORMS. 219

always occurred in the daytime. They would begin
with a moderate gale, gradually increasing in vio-
lence until midday, when they would continue to
rage like a hurricane till sunset. By degrees the sky
assumed a dust colour, growing thicker and thicker
until the sun shone dimly, and at length was quite
obscured from sight. Sand and small stones were
carried through the air like hail or snow. We could
neither open our eyes in the face of the wind, nor
draw breath, and so charged was the air with fine
dust that it could hardly pass into the lungs, and
camels let loose to graze would forget their hunger
and throw themselves on the ground.

But while the storm lasted, the thermometer rose
to 32° Fahr., or even higher, a phenomenon which
may be explained by the rapid passage through the
air of the sand and dust previously warmed by the
sun. Towards sunset it suddenly became calm,
the dust remaining suspended in the atmosphere,
often till the following morning, when a light wind
had been stirring during the night.

Our travelling companion and guide in Northern
Tibet was a Mongol, by name Chutun-dzamba ; he
was a zanghin, or officer of low grade, fifty-eight
years of age, and had been nine times to Lhassa
with caravans, so that he was well acquainted with
the road. He was one of the most intelligent men
in Tsaidam, and gave us a good deal of information
on the countries through which we were travelling ;
and he would probably have imparted more if our
interpreter had been better up to his work.

220 CHUTUN-DZAMBA.

Like all Mongols, he was a dreadful hypocrite,
and lazy to a degree. Once on his camel he would
^ never cease muttering his prayers through the march,
and would not dismount to луа1к for any considera-
tion, even in the coldest Aveather, or on the steep
descents and in other dangerous places, where it
would have been safer to have tried the streno^th of
the ice. A casual observer might have taken him
for a plucky fellow, but the fact was that his exces-
sive laziness overcame his fear.

Chutun-dzamba, however, took good care of
himself, and laid in a supply of medicines for the
road, with which he doctored himself daily for some
imaginary complaint. He was really ill several
times, but this was entirely owing to the extraordi-
nary quantity of meat he had eaten. During dinner
he ranged round him plates of frozen yak-dung, on
which he placed junks of hot meat to cool, and which,
as these melted, adhered to the meat, and must
truly have added a fine flavour to his viands, judging
from the relish with which he ate ! His behaviour
after dinner was equally indelicate, and in the even-
ings he employed himself industriously in the de-
struction of the parasitical insects which swarmed in
his habiliments.

Another trait in his character was the passion he
had for picking up and hiding in his bag all sorts of
odds and ends and rubbish which we had thrown
away. Thus, an old bit of leather or tin, a spoilt
steel nib, a scrap of paper, empty cartridge cases, all
would find their way into his travelling bag, and at

THE MURUI-USSU. ■ 221

last we were obliged to throw anything away by
stealth, to avoid its attracting the attention of this
monomaniac.

After passing the low Baian-kara-ula ^ range, at
length, on January 22, 1873, we reached the banks
of the Yangtse-kiang or Blue River, called by the
Mongols in its upper course the Murui-ussu, and
by the Tangutans Di-chu.^ This river rises in the
Tang-la mountains, and after passing through the
highlands of Northern Tibet, pursues its course to
the boundaries of China Proper, where it soon swells
into a mighty stream.^ The current of the Murui-
ussu is extremely rapid, and the Avldth of its channel
at the spot where we saw it, i.e. at its confluence
with the Napchitai-ulan-muren, is 750 feet ; but the
whole river-bed from bank to bank is upwards of a
mile wide and, as our guide assured us, is entirely
covered with water during the rainy season in sum-
mer, when it sometimes even overflows the banks.
In autumn, after the floods have subsided, the
Murui-ussu is fordable, but only in a few places.'*

^ The pass over the Baian-kara-ula is very gradual and not high ;
it may even be entirely a voided by following the valley of the Napchitai-
ulan-muren, as we did ; Hue, however, describes it as an enormous
range, dreadfully difficult to cross. The pere declares that in certain
places he was obliged to hold on to the tail of his horse and drive it
before him up the steep incline. — Sotivenirs d'nn Voyage, &^c., ii. 216-
218.

- The latter name signifies ' cows' river,' probably from the abund-
ance of Avild yak. The translation of the Alongol name is 'river-water,'
'mur' being an abbreviation of ' muren,' i.e. river, and ' ussu ' meaning
water. [I should greatly doubt this bit of etymology. — Y.]

^ See Supplemetary Note.

4 The first ford, in ascending the river from the confluence of the
Napchitai-ulan-muren, is 20 miles distant.

222 LIMIT OF OUR WANDERINGS.

The breadth of the valley is less than a mile and
a half, and in some places the mountains on either
side narrow it even more. The Tibetan road
ascends the river for a ten days' march to its sources
in the Tang-la mountains.^ Here, too, there is no
population, with the exception of 500 Tangutans,
who are encamped about 100 miles above the
mouth of the Napchitai-ulan-muren. About 230
miles lower down there is a large agricultural popu-
lation, and the climate is said to be warmer, so that
probably the elevation of the country is not so great
in those parts.

The banks of the Blue River were the limit of
our wanderings in Inner Asia. Although we were
only twenty-seven days' journey, i.e. about 500
miles from Lhassa, that goal was beyond our reach.
The frightful difficulties of the Tibetan deserts had
so completely exhausted our animals that three of
our eleven camels had died, and the rest could
scarcely move. Our pecuniary resources, too, were
entirely expended, and after exchanging some
camels for the return journey to Tsaidam, we had
only five lans (27^. бл'.) left, with many hundred
miles of road before us ! Under these circumstances,
we could not imperil the results already obtained by
our journey, and we resolved to return to Koko-nor
and Kan-su, to pass the spring there, and then to
continue our journey to Ala-shan by the road we

' All caravans with camels take this road: there is another more
direct road practicable for yaks, without ascending the Murui-ussu,
'but it crosses many steep and lofty ranges.

DISA PPOINTMENT.

223

had come, where we should have no need for a
guide.

Although this decision had been formed some
time previously, it was not the less with sorrowful
hearts that we bade farewell to the banks of the
Yangtse-kiang. For well we knew that neither
nature nor man stood in our way, and that the want
of funds was the only obstacle to our reaching the
capital of Tibet,

Horns of the Orongo-Antelope

RETURN TO TSAIDAM.

CHAPTER VII.

SPRING ON LAKE KOKO-NOR AND AMONG THE KAN-SU
MOUNTAINS.

Return to Tsaidam — Influence of its warmer climate — Spring in
Tsaidam — Migratory birds — Spring in Koko-nor — Mirages —
Shooting excursions — Fishing — Thaw on lake — Scarcity of birds —
Departure for Chobsen — Equipment of caravan — Sale of revolvers
— Humidity of Kan-su — Slippery mountain paths — Fording the
Tatung-gol — Encounter with ' Kotens ' — First signs of spring —
Night frosts — Gales — Atmospheric phenomena — Tardy vegetation
— The great rock-partridge {hailik) — The snow-vulture ; how to
shoot it — Heavy snowfall — May in Kan-su — The long-eared
pheasant {Crossoptilon aiij-itiim) — The marmot {Arctomys robiistus)
—The bear {kung-giiressu') — Extraordinary reports concerning it
— We see one — It escapes — Straitened finances — Last weeks in
Kan-su — Its variable climate — Departure.

About the middle of February our wanderings
through Northern Tibet terminated, and we returned
to the plains of Tsaidam. The contrast between its
climate and that of the lofty plateau of Tibet was
so marked that in descending the Burkhan Buddha
we felt it grow warmer at every step.

The influence of the warmth of these plains on
the neighbouring highlands is apparent as far south
as the Shuga range ; for we had hardly recrossed this,
and commenced the descent of its northern side,
when the climate became sensibly milder. Though
the night frosts continued with their former intensity
(— 1 8° Fahr.), during the day the sun was powerful,

SP/^/N(J LV TSAWAM. 225

and on the 17th February we saw the first insects
on the Tibetan side of the Burkhan Buddha. On
our outward journey to the Murui-ussu the weather
had been fine, and in the daytime warm, as far as
the Shuga range, after crossing which and the Uyan-
Karza rivulet, it became very cold and storm)-.

Spring in Tsaidam begins early and is of a trul)'
continental character. In the end of February the
frosts at night still carried the cold down to — 4°
Fahr., whilst in the day the temperature in the shade
was 59° Fahr., and the ice began rapidly thawing
under the influence of the sun ; on the 2 2d of the
month the first to appear among migratory birds
was the widgeon, followed on the 25th by the
mallard ; ^ and the day after the goosander i^Mcrgus
tncrganser), the red-breasted thrush {Turdus ruji-
collis), and swans (Cygmis musicits) arrived : in the
mornings were heard the notes of small birds and
the call of the pheasant ; in fact, Spring asserted
her right to reign.

But all these harbin^jers of the beneficent season
were again suddenly checked by the recurrence of
cold weather, accompanied by snow,^ and by gales
of wind, generally from the west, filling the air with
clouds of fine dust raised from the salt marshes,
which hung like vapour over everything long after
the storm had subsided. Frosts and cold winds, too,

' This duck sometimes winters in Tsaidam in the unfrozen marshes
fed by springs.

''■ In the latter end of February snow fell in Tsaidam (in thick flakes,
not in dry fine dust as in Tibet) four times, and although covering the
ground an inch or t\\ о in thickness, soon thawed in the sun.

VOL. II. Q

22б FLIGHT OF BIRDS.

SO materially retarded vegetation that its aspect
differed very little at the end of the month from that
which it had presented at the beginning. Although
by the second week in March thirteen kinds of
birds ^ had made their appearance, it was only singly
or in small numbers ; and how rapid must their
flight have been over the terribly cold deserts of
Northern Tibet, where they could have procured
neither food nor water !

We arrived on the shores of Lake Koko-nor in the
middle of March and found the season as backward
as it had been in Tsaidam a month earlier. The
lake was entirely frozen over, and even the rapid
Pouhain-gol was only here and there free from the
ice, which in winter attained a thickness of three feet.
Here, too, migratory birds were even less numerous
than in Tsaidam. The cause of this difference in
the climate of two countries lying in such close
proximity to one another is, first, the great eleva-
tion of the Koko-nor basin, and, secondly, the influ-
ence which the great expanse of its waters exercises
over the surrounding countr}\ This sufficiently
accounts for the contrast in the climates, which is so
marked that it is even noticed by the inhabitants.

We determined to remain by the lake till the end
of April to observe the flight of birds ; and with this
object in view we stationed ourselves at the mouth

' They appeared in the following order : Anas riffila, A. boschas,
Linota brevirostris, Mergns merganser, Tnrdus rujicollis, Cygniis
musicus, Anas crecca, Vanellus cristatus, Ardca alba, Anser cincreus,
Anas acuta, Anthus pratensis? (occasionally wintering in Tsaidam),
and Cms virgo.

LAKE KOKO-NOR FROZEN. MIRAGES. 227

of the Pouhain-gol, pitching our yurta by a small
marsh on the borders of a plain, where our horses
and camels could find plenty of good grass, and the
latter might feast on gudjir and on their favourite
tamarisk bushes, which grew in the bed of the river.

The lake itself presented a very different aspect
from what it had borne the previous autumn. The
dark blue waters, now covered with a glittering
expanse of ice, lay like a vast mirror in a frame-
work of mountains and plains. Not a broken space
was visible, and but little snow was scattered on the
frozen level surface, which in places was clear as
crystal and reflected the sun's rays, making it look
like open water.

The plains surrounding the lake were clothed
with yellow withered grass, for the most part tram-
pled under foot by wild asses, antelope, and Tangutan
cattle, whilst the monotony of the landscape was
only relieved by mirages. These луеге so frequent
and so delusive as to render it impossible to shoot
any large animals with the rifle, for the game would
appear to float in the air, magnified to twice its
natural size.

Having encamped in a spot where there were
neither Mongols nor Tangutans to interfere with us,
we made daily expeditions along the shores of the
lake and the banks of the Pouhain-gol. But, alas !
day after day passed without the longed-for arrival
of birds. Some there were certainly, but in little
variety, and so few in number that we could not
always shoot enough for our personal requirements,

Q2

223 FlSHhVG. A THAW.

and hardly ап)^ specimens were added to our orni-
thological collection, the weather continuing cold,
snowy, ^ and tempestuous during the latter half of
March.

Our fishing was far more successful ; for although
we only caught one kind, the Schizopygopsis (nov. sp.),
yet this was in such quantities that on one occasion
we actually hauled out with our small thirty-one foot
casting net a hundred and thirty-six of them, averag-
ing some two feet in length and nearly three pounds
in weight. These, with the birds and antelope that
we shot, were our exclusive food at this time. The
roe of the fish, however, proved very unwholesome,
and after eating it we were all seized with violent
sickness, dysentery, and pains in the stomach. For-
tunately the Mongol who was with us had not
touched any, and was able to make a fire, at which
we prepared hot poultices, taking internally some
excellent cholera drops which we found in our medi-
cine chest, and by these means we were all right the
following day.

Towards the end of March the weather became
less severe, and on the 29th the lower course of the
Pouhain-gol was free of ice, the lake still remaining
frozen except near the mouths of streams. But the
heat of the sun gradually thawed it, and on the 6th
April a gale of wind suddenly sprang up and dis-
persed the ice. On the 7th large open spaces might
be seen in all parts of the lake, whilst fragments of

' Snow fell seven times in the latter half of March ; in the (irst
fortnight in April it neither snowed nor rained once.

MIGRATORY BIRDS. 229

ice were piled up on the shore, and on the frozen
expanses that still remained unbroken.

The water now rapidly cleared, and in a week it
was quite open ; the floes having been partly driven
by the wind into the bays on the western shore, and
partly washed on to land. But night frosts continued
with their usual severity, the thermometer register-
ing 11° Fahr., and the temperature falling after
sunset as rapidly as it rose on bright still mornings.

The winds, which were almost of daily occurrence,
mostly blew from the east' and west, the former
always moderate and wafting the chilly air of the
lake to its western shore, the latter, although from a
warm quarter, raged with great fury,^ bringing clouds
of dust.

In the beginning of April migratory birds were
extremely scarce. By the 13th of the month,, though
we had seen thirty-nine kinds (inclusive of those
noted in Tsaidam),-^ yet no large flocks of geese,
ducks, or other birds had passed over, and the
shores of the lake and river were inanimate, without
any of those sounds which usually accompany the

1 Between the middle of March and the middle of April there were
six severe gales, without, however, blowing with such violence as in
Tibet, or even in South-eastern Mongolia.

"^ Twenty-six migratory birds appeared in Koko-nor by that date,
viz. between March 13th and 22nd : Accentorriibeciiloides^Cinclus Cash-
mirietisis, Cygnus olor, Fuligula clangiila, Larus ichthycstos, L. ridi-
bundus^Anser Indiciis, Fuligula cristata, and Milvus govinda. Between
March 22nd and April ist: Phalacrocorax carbo, Anas iadorna, A.
dypeata^ Numenius sp., Fuligula ferina, Avocelta recurvirostra, and
Grus cinerea. Between April ist and 13th: Anas Penelope, Limosa
ntelatiuroides'? Totanus calidrisl EudromiassT^.^Halicstos Macei, Cit-
cus rufus,Motacilla sp., Scolopax gallinago, Coturnix muta, and Grus.

230 LATE SPRING.

spring flight of the feathered tribe. The mornings
and evenino^s were almost as still and silent as in
midwinter ; the call of the widgeon, the cackle of
geese, the cry of the sea-gull, or the noise of the
duck were indeed rare sounds, and had it not been
for the loud notes of the great lark [Melanocorypha
maxima), the shores of Koko-nor had been indeed
voiceless.

Spring fell far short of our expectations, and
birds were not nearly so numerous as they were on
Dalai-nor at the same season, two years ago. 1пЫ1
probability they leave Koko-nor to one side in their
flight northwards, keeping to the valley of the
Hoang-ho and to China Proper, and avoiding the
Kan-su mountains and the deserts of Ala-shan.
In proof of this, I may mention that we found many
kinds of waterfowl in the northern bend of the
Hoang-ho which we never saw at Koko-nor : such
as Anser cyguoides, A. scgetum, Anas falcata, Ardea
cinerea, Fulica atra, and others.

The dearth of birds induced us to abandon our
intention of remaining on the shores of the lake
until the end of April ; so on the 13th we broke up
our camp and marched towards the temple of Chob-
sen by the same road that we had travelled in
autumn. We might have taken the easier route ^
through Tonkir, but having experienced the unplea-
santness of journeying through thickly populated

' After the re-capturc by the Chinese troops of the towns of Si-ning
and Scn;j-kwan.

RETURN TO KAN-SU. 231

districts, we preferred again facing the difficulties of
the mountains.

During our month's stay on the Pouhain-gol we
finally equipped our caravan for the march. We
exchanged our felt tent for camel-saddles, of which
we stood greatly in need. On returning to Tsaidam
half the camels were unfit for work, and although
we succeeded in obtaining others in their stead the
money we had to pay in addition completely ex-
hausted our finances, leaving us only five lans with
which to supply the place of those that had perished
in Tibet. We were at length driven to the last

о

extremity of selling revolvers to the Tangutans and
Mongol officials, and bartered away three out of our
remaining twelve for three good camels, besides
selling two for sixty-five lans (18/.), which enabled us
to remain three spring months in Koko-nor and
Kan-su.

The first step we took in Kan-su everything
suddenly changed. Instead of a dry atmosphere, we
had a fall of snow every day, whilst the ground was
saturated with moisture like a sponge. Vegetation
had not begun to develope itself under the influence
of spring ; the watercourses were still covered with
ice, and the night frosts were still sharp. There луеге
fewer migratory birds even than at Koko-nor, and
summer visitants had not arrived in large numbers ;
a few solitary specimens only having made their
appearance. In fact the Kan-su mountains looked
just as we had left them in the end of October of
the previous autumn.

235 SLIPPERY PATHS. FORDING THE TATUNG.

The road over the mountains was now more
difficult than ever, owing to the sHpperiness of the
patlis after the night frosts ; patches of winter snow
too Hngered on the northern sides of the higher
summits.^ Our loads, increased in weight by the
excess of humidity, lay heavier on the camels'
backs without the slightest increase of advantage to
us, and these animals, from lying on the damp
ground at night, began to cough and grow thin.
Our unshod horses were continually falling on the
slippery paths, so that we ourselves had to go on
foot ; an exercise for which the make-shift boots we
had improvised out of old leggings and yak-hide
were no better adapted than the thick-soled feet of
the camels. To add to our troubles we had twice
to ford the Tatung-gol ; the first time over the ice,
which had settled to the bottom of the river, and the
second time through four feet of water, in a place
where the current was rapid, and the channel full of
huge boulders. Had one of our camels missed its foot-
ing here, it must inevitably have been drowned, with
the precious burden of our collections. Besides other
work, I had now to survey the route back from the
Murui-ussu, having purposely avoided doing so on
the outward journey in order not to excite the sus-
])icions of our guides.

Although the mountains were no longer infested
by Dungans, we might at any time have a dis-

' The cause of the small quantity of snow on the Kan-su mountains
so early in spring, is that the snowfall in winter is small, and soon
thaws in the sun, which on calm, Ijright days, even in February, is hot.

^ к от ens: signs of spring. 233

agreeable encounter with Chinese soldiers ; and this
actually happened to us at the very place where the
Dungans had threatened to attack us the year
before. This time it was a party of ' Kotens ' that
met us on their way from Seng-kwan to the Tatung-
gol. We showed the commander of the detachment
our Peking passport, but while doing so a soldier
stole a revolver from one of our holsters. We pro-
tested vigorously against this, and though we could
only express our sentiments by pantomimic gestures,
the Chinese officer understood their meaning, and,
afraid lest we should prefer our complaints at Peking,
he gave orders that it should be restored to us. He
then asked for gunpowder, and on receiving a dozen
charges expressed himself entirely satisfied, and we
parted good friends.

We reached Chobsen on the 27th April, and
after a two days' stay at the temple, started for the
mountains in the vicinity of Chertinton, where we
had passed the previous summer.

Spring now began in earnest; on the 21st we
saw the first butterflies, and on the 23rd the first
flower, a species of Ficaria. The southern slopes
were tinged with green, small birds arrived in
numbers, and near Chobsen ploughing and sowing
(barley and wheat) had begun, some corn being
already visible above ground.

There was a thunderstorm on the 26th April,
which, though accompanied by hail, reminded us of
the approach of spring, for which we had so long
waited. But vegetation advanced slowly owing to

234 ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA,

constant night frosts (16° Fahr. in the first week of
May), and though by the 1 3th of May twelve kinds
of flowers had blossomed, it was generally in very
small numbers, by ones and twos under stones and
bushes, where they were protected from storms.
The wind and snow continued to the second week
in May ; indeed no rain fell, whilst snow fell on
seventeen days. Moreover, the • wind blew hard
and incessantly by day and night, most frequently
from the east or from the west ; but it varied much,
constantly shifting from one quarter to another, and
sometimes coming in violent gusts. While these
gales lasted, and for hours afterwards, the air was
laden with dust from the neighbouring deserts.

Notwithstanding the abundance of the atmo-
spheric deposits and the humidity of the soil, the
Avatercourses contained less water than in the sum-
mer, and many were quite dry ; whilst the psychro-
meter indicated considerable dryness m the air on
those days on which it neither snowed nor rained.
The first of these phenomena is probably due to the
circumstance that the frozen earth imbibed a great
deal of the moisture which fell ; and the dryness of
the atmosphere in clear weather was doubtless
caused by the influence of the surrounding barren
plains, which were at this time quite parched.

We had no fine spring weather. Occasionally it
would clear up at midday, but the wind would again
rise, bringing more snow and a lower temperature.
The hottest day was the 24th April, when the mer-
cury stood at 68° Fahr. in the shade ; whilst the

CLIMATE OF KAN-SU. 235

year before, at the same season, the maximum tem-
perature in the valley of the Hoang-ho was 88°
F'ahr., and even in South-eastern Mongolia, near
Kalgan, the thermometer in April 1S71 showed 79°
Fahr.

From all we have said it will be apparent that
spring in Kan-su Is as cold and humid as the sum-
mer and autumn ; in fact the whole year round there
is not one entire month of fine weather, such as we
are accustomed to in other countries. In spring and
autumn snow falls abundantly ; the summer is wet ;
in winter the sky is clear, but the winds are bitter
and tempestuous.

On our way from Chobsen to the mountains
south of the Tatung-gol we passed the early part of
May in the alpine zone, which was quite inanimate.
Flocks of small birds had arrived in large numbers
early in May, only to rest for awhile on the meadows
or near the rocks, whilst the less hurried visitants
still kept to the lower and more genial valleys.
Vegetation was awakening but tardily, and the
Ficaria and Primula were the only flowers out.
Finding them, as we often did, on the alpine
meadows beside unmelted snow, we wondered how
they could adapt themselves to such unfavourable
conditions. I saw primulse, gentians, and irises
uninjured by the frost (8° Fahr.) or the deep snow
at nio-ht ; and no sooner did the sun shine out than

О

these children of spring decked themselves as bril-
liantly as ever, and appeared to be hastening to

2зб THE ^hailik: or

enjoy the fleeting moments of warmth before they
should be overtaken by the next frost or snowfall.

In the absence of summer birds, those we saw
most of in the upper alpine belts, besides jackdaws
and wall-climbers, were the great rock-partridge,
called by the Tangutans hailik {Alegaloperdix Tibet-
aniLs) and the snow-vulture {Gyps nivicola)} The
former is never seen in Mongolia, but is distributed
through the highlands of Kan-su, Koko-nor, and
Tibet. Its exclusive habitat is among- the wild crags

о о

and loose rock ddbi^is at an elevation never below
10,000 feet above the sea; the wilder the cliffs and
the more extensive the loose debris the better suited
are they to the rock partridge, which is equal in size
to the hen capercailzie. It pairs in spring, and
during the remainder of the year is found in coveys
or small flocks of ten to fifteen, never in large packs.
It is a blithesome bird and may be heard all day
long, enlivening the otherwise silent, weird rocks of
the alpine zone with its loud note, which resembles
the cluck of the hen accompanied by a long whistle
and sometimes by short abrupt sounds ; but these it
generally utters whilst on the wing. But this par-
tridge, like the gallinaceous tribe in general, is not
fond of flying. It is so swift a runner that it will elude

' As we have stated in a note to Chapter III., this vuUure is identi-
cal with Gyps Himalayensis, described by Hume. (See Rough Notes,
p. 12.) The first specimen of this bird was sent to the zoological
museum of the Academy of Arts and Sciences at St. Petersburg, by
M. Carelin, from Alatau in the Semirechinsk division of the Russian
province of Turkestan ; see Severtsoffs Turkcstanskiya yivotniya^
p. III.— M.

GREAT ROCK-PARTRIDGE. 237

the pursuit of the sportsman, who is often baffled by
the perpendicular descents and the great extent of
loose rock. Although rarely hunted by the natives
it is nevertheless extremely shy and not easily seen,
owing to its grey plumage closely assimilating with
the colour of the rocks.

Early in the morning and towards evening it
flies to the grassy knolls Avhere it feeds. I never
detected insects in its crop ; its favourite food in
summer consisting of the heads of wild onions which
grow in abundance on the alpine meadows.

There are five to ten chicks in a brood, over
which the parent birds watch with anxious solicitude.
If danger be near, particularly when the young are
very small, the old birds will run about twenty paces
from the sportsman and try to attract his attention
by feigning lameness or illness, as our partridges will
often do at home. Chickless pairs, whose eggs have
most likely been destroyed by the frost, are not
uncommon, and the probable frequency of these
mishaps may account for their comparatively small
numbers in the Kan-su mountains and the ranges of
Northern Tibet.^

Another characteristic bird of the alpine zone of
the Kan-su mountains is the snow-vulture {Gyps
nivicola)^ resembling in its mode of life and habits
other species belonging to the same family, and

^ This hailik or Mcgaloperdix is probably the ' Great Partridge,'
which Marco Polo mentions in the Great Khan's mews at Chaghan-nor,
Bk. I. chap. Ix.— Y.

- The black vulture {I'ul/ur momir/iKs) is but rarcK' seen in Kan-su.

2з8

THE SNOW-]'ULTURE.

chiefly remarkable for its powerful flight and glut-
tony.

Late in the morning when the sun is already
warm, the snow-vultures rise from their nocturnal
haunts, which are invariably amongst the most inac-
cessible cliffs, and fly at first low along the axis of

f' ;

' t

\ /

/
/

SniowVllture (7)'/s «?-7t(7/rt (SevcrtsotT) Gyps nDiialaycnsnt^Wwmi^^

the range, then, circling upwards, soar to untold
heicrhts. When we have been encamped at an ele-
vation of 1 2,000 feet I have watched them with a
good field-glass ascending until they completely dis-
appeared from sight, as each stroke of their powerfiil

GATHERLXC FOR THE FEAST. 239

wings impelled them upwards. Yet from these
heights the extraordinary vision of the vulture
enables him to distinguish every thing that happens
on earth. Now, it is a flock of crows and kites
gathering round some carrion in the valley that
attracts his attention, and makes him fold his mighty
wings and descend by the weight of his body in a
somewhat slanting direction from the clouds to earth,
with a rustling noise caused by his rapid passage
through the air ; but before reaching the ground he
opens his enormous wings and drops quietly on his
prey. Warned by the manceuvres of their companion,
his fellows are not slow to follow his example, and
drop like stones to earth, so that before you knew of
their existence a dozen or more of these huge birds
are feasting on the carrion.' They then begin quar-
relling among themselves, advancing with half-
unfolded wings and threatening air to attack one
another; but their fights are never serious. If the
dead animal is still entire they tear out the entrails
and liver, and then begin upon the flesh. Having
gorged themselves, they retire a short distance to
look on while their companions feast. The smaller
birds of prey, — kites, crows, and magpies, — waiting
impatiently at a little distance, dare not approach
the tempting repast until these giants have eaten
their fill and departed. The latter now rise heavily
in the air, and betake themselves to the nearest
cliffs, there to digest their food.

^ Brehm describes a similar sight with African \ultiires. (See his
Li'fe of Ammalx, vol. iii. pp. 562-564.)

240 RAPACITY OF SNOW-VULTURES.

Snow- vultures are numerous in Kan-sii, and wc
often wondered how they could find sufficient food,
especially as the Mongols, Tangutans, and Chinese
often eat carrion themselves, and the vultures would
have but a small share of the dead domestic cattle.
In summer too, when the weather is rainy and the
mountains are often clothed in mists, it must be
extremely difficult, sometimes impossible, to see the
prey from a distance, and it is probable that at this
season the vultures take very distant flights to coun-
tries where the atmosphere is clearer. A flight of a
few hundred miles is no exertion to this bird, which
sails all day long beneath the clouds almost without
flapping its wings.

Such is their rapacity that notwithstanding their
habitual wanness they return to the carrion after
they have been sev"eral times fired at. Their tena-
city of life is almost incredible : my companion
and I once fired a dozen charges of slugs at a number
of them only fifty paces off, without killing one.

They may be easily shot \vith ball, however, if
you will take up a position in ambush near some
exposed food ; but you must be careful to hide your-
self, and your best plan is to select a small cave, and
plant its entrance with bushes. The bait should be
carrion, or any offal laid on a freshly drawn hide, and
disposed about seventy paces from your place of
concealment, to enable you to move at your ease
without fear of starding the birds. It is of no use
stationing yourself before eight or nine o'clock in the
morniniL!^, Avhen t\\v. vultures leave their eyries, and

LYING /.У AMBUSH. г\\

you should select the alpine belts of the mountains,
to which they are more readily attracted than to the
low valleys, where these cautious birds will some-
times absolutely refuse your bait, if any human habi-
tations be near.

The sport is full of interest. Hardly have you
seated yourself before the kites fly down and wheel
in long low circles round the meat, but their suspi-
cions are aroused and they take their departure.
The next to appear are magpies and crows, cawing
and hopping round the dainty morsels, without ven-
turing to touch them. At last one bolder than the
others seizes a piece of the meat, but, frightened at
his own temerity, drops it again and retires. But
the ice once broken, others soon follow suit. Here
comes a raven who has been watching the proceed-
ings from a short distance, and now with waddling
gait approaches the carrion, and pauses a minute or
two before thrusting his beak in and swallowing a
morsel. Then magpies fall to ; the kites, plucking
up courage, descend from all sides, and the feast
begins in earnest ; such noise, such fighting and
screeching !

All this time you remain perfectly still in your
place of concealment, impatiently watching the ex-
pected arrival of the prize you covet. But hark !
what is that rustling noise '^. a lammergeier has
descended. Yes ! it is indeed that handsome bird
which, after wheeling a few times round the exposed
meat, perches on yonder ledge. But where are the
vultures ? Perhaps they have by this time espied

VUL. И. R

242 PATIENCE REWARDED.

the feast and are circling high up among the clouds ;
but you cannot look up, and therefore cannot see
them from your cave. Another good hour passes.
At length your patience is rewarded. A rustling of
heavy wings is heard, and the snow-vulture perches
on a rock beside the carrion. You are trembling
with excitement, fearful of making the slightest
noise by which you would frighten the wary bird
away. In a little while he flies down to the
ground, and, after sitting still for a few minutes,
walks towards the prey, swaying his great body
from side to side and hopping occasionally. In a
moment the whole crew of feasters retires to make
room for the giant, one solitary crow perhaps re-
maining on the opposite side of the carcase, but his
behaviour is now more deferential. Greedily the
hungry vulture begins swallowing the entrails or the
meat ; in another minute, however, a shot is heard
and he falls lifeless on the spot.

But if you defer your fire other vultures are sure
to appear, and after the first one has cautiously des-
cended the others alight directly on the meat, and
sometimes a dozen or more will collect round a large
carcase, and you may if you are fortunate secure
two with one bullet.

The heavy snowfall in the alpine zone obliged
us to remove our camp in the second week of May,
and descend to the middle forest belt. From this
my companion and a Cossack started for the temple
of Chertinton, to fetch the boxes containing our col-
lections which we had left behind Avith some other

IV ARM WEATHER. FLOWERS. 243

things in autumn. Among these was a pair of
boots, of which I was very glad, for they enabled
me to walk over the mountains Avith far greater
comfort than in those I had improvised for myself
We had also stored five pounds of sugar, which was
the greatest treat for us, deprived as we had been so
long of every European comfort ; and we bought a
yak of the Tangutans which supplied us with meat
for a long while.

In the middle of May the weather in Kan-su
was spring-like and showery, and although night
frosts continued, the heat of the sun during the day
rapidly developed the vegetation. By the 27th of
the month, the trees in the central zones were turn-
ing green, whilst on the lower ground they were in
full leaf; the verdure looked brilliant when the sun
shone, ^ and many of the bushes and herbaceous
plants were covered with flowers. In the thick
underwood on the banks of the mountain streams
the wild rose, cherry, currant, gooseberry, honey-
suckle, and the barberry, with its long yellow clusters
of flowers, were in blossom ; to these must be added
the fragrant DapJme Altaica{}) and on the exposed
slopes the hawthorn and yellow caragana. In the
woods we saw anemones, wild hyacinths, peonies,
and whole beds of wild strawberry ; the valleys were
gaily decked with iris, primrose, and potentilla ; and
the slopes of the mountains with saxifrage, Draba,

' The 26th was the warmest day in May ; the heat, 86° Fahn, in the
valley of the Tatung-gol being equal to the hottest day in July the
previous year.

R 2

244 BIRDS: ' SHIARAMA,' OR

Polygonatum i^oseum, Thermopsis, Podophyllum^ and
others.

Animal life too displayed full activity, especially
among the feathered visitants of the forest zone,
where the voices of song-birds sounded in concert,
completing the general picture of spring. The ex-
quisite melody of the thrush, and of its congeners
the Pterorhinus Davidii and TrocJialoptcron, the
note of the cuckoo, the call of the pheasant, and of
a variety of smaller birds, resounded unceasingly for
days together. Even at night time, in calm weather,
some might be heard too impatient to restrain their
songs till daybreak. Indeed everything around
gave signs of returning life and activity after the
long winter's silence.

Every day we obtained a number of most in-
teresting specimens, and made up for the poor orni-
thological collection of the preceding summer when
most of the birds were moultinof.

Amongst the rarer kinds we secured some speci-
mens of the long-eared pheasant {Crossoptilon auri-
liuu), which we had seen the first year of our travels
in the mountains of Ala-shan. This remarkable
bird, called by the Tangutans shiaraina, inhabits in
largfe numbers the forest-covered mountains of Kan-
su, but is never found in the treeless ranges of Nor-
thern Tibet. It prefers forests on the sides of rocky
mountains, and abounding in underwood, at an abso-
lute elevation of 10,000 feet. It feeds exclusively on
vegetable matter, and I found nothing but young grass,
the buds and leaves of the barberry, and roots of

LONG-EARED PHEASANT ; 245

different kinds of herbs in its crop. While feed-
ing its movements are stately, and it holds its mag-
nificent tail straight out.

Late in autumn and in winter they collect in
small coveys, often perching on the trees, ^ probably
to feed on the leaf-buds. They pair in the early
spring, and at such time keep to parts of the forest
where the underwood is very dense, and where they
rear their young ; ''^ they lay five to seven eggs.

In winter the Tangutans shoot them sitting on the
trees or snare them for the sake of the tail-feathers.
The four centre ones are much worn by Chinese
officials in their uniform caps ; and are worth 2d.
apiece here.

In early spring, as soon as they have paired, the
male birds may be heard calling their mates. Their
notes are harsh and discordant, and those of the hen
birds equally so, as far as we could judge. We also
heard them utter peculiar deep notes which reminded
us a little of the cooing of doves, and when startled
their cry was like that of the guinea-fowl.

During the breeding season they have no regular
call, like that of the common pheasant or of black
game. The cocks only call at irregular intervals,
generally after sunrise, although sometimes before

' In spring and summer the long-eared pheasants keep exclusively
on the ground, although during the night, as the native sportsmen
declare, they roost on the trees : my companion and I, however, never
saw one on a tree, although we took many walks in the evening and
early morning in the woods.

* By the middle of May most of the hen birds were sitting on
their nests.

24б DIFFICULTY OF SHOOTING THEM.

daybreak and at midday. In any case they are
rarely heard, and one bird repeats its cry only five
or six times durino" the momino•.^ The lono^ and
irregular intervals between their call-notes, and their
extreme shyness, make it difficult to shoot them, at
all events in spring ; besides which, the uneven
ground in which they are found, covered, on the
northern sides of the ravines, with dense bushes of
rhododendron, and on the southern slopes, with
prickly bushes of barberry, hawthorn, and wild rose,
added to the numerous rocks, and the fallen timber,
make it most difficult sport. In such ground as this a
dog is of no use, even were it able to follow its master
up the steeper places. You have only your ears and
eyes to assist you, and even these are not of much
use, for the wary bird sees or hears you long before
you can come up to it ; it is a fast runner, and will
never rise from the ground unless surprised. You
may hear the patter of its feet a few paces off, as it
disappears in some impenetrable thicket, before you
have time to raise your gun, far less to shoot ; and
its tracks are as completely hidden as though it had
dived under water. Its tenacity of life too is mar-
vellous. I have seen them fly after receiving a
whole charge of shot at fifty paces ; and, if only
winged, run into the bushes and escape. If by
some extraordinary luck you happen to see one close
by, you fire at once, as your only chance of a shot,
and the charge blows the bird to pieces and spoils
it for preserving. The difficulties indeed are so

* The cocks fight ckiring the pairing time.

THE MARMOT. 247

great, the odds against you so numerous, that noth-
ing but the rarity of the bird induces you to try
such thankless sport.

My companion and I often went in pursuit of
these pheasants, repairing to the woods long before
daybreak, but only succeeded in obtaining two speci-
mens ; and two of the Tangutan sportsmen, whom I
hired for that purpose, climbed the mountains day
after day, but only succeeded in bringing home a
couple by surprising them on their nests.

The great difhculty lies in discovering the where-
abouts of the bird, owing to the long, irregular
intervals between its cries, whilst it is sometimes
absolutely silent even on a fine bright morning. It is
remarkable, too, how quietly, for so large a bird, it
rises off the ground, and takes wing without your
havino; heard it. It is slow in its fliMit like the
capercailzie, and will not fly far.

Among the mammals we noticed the marmot
{^Arctomys robiistiis ?), which awoke about the middle
of April after lying dormant all winter. This little
animal, called by the Mongols tarabagan, and by the
Tangutans shoo, was never found by us in Mongolia,^
and we first saw it in Kan-su, whence its range
extends into Northern Tibet. It inhabits the lower
valleys, as well as the alpine zone, of the Kan-su
mountains, and we saw its burrows in Northern
Tibet at an elevation of 15,000 feet above the sea.

^ The Trans-Baikalian marmot (Лг^/^;//;'л- TJ^i^^i:), is only distrib-
vited as far south as seventy miles beyond Urga ; where the fertile
steppes terminate and this little animal disappears.

248 KAN-SU MARMOT.

It prefers to burrow in the sides of grassy moun-
tains, and lives in small societies, burrowing deep
into the stony ground ; several side-passages serve
as a means of ingress and egress into the principal
chamber.

Early in the morning as soon as the sun is up,
and the air a little warmed, it issues out of its habi-
tation and scampers about feeding on the grass, not
returning to its burro w% unless disturbed, till about
ten o'clock, where it remains till two or three in the
afternoon, when it again comes out and plays and
feeds till sunset. This rule of course is not without
exceptions, but in rainy weather they never stir
above ground, although the rain may last several
days in succession.

The Kan-su marmot is sagacious and wary,
especially when it is hunted by man. Before leaving
its burrow it pokes its head out, and remains half an
hour in this position to assure itself of safety. Then
half its body may be seen, and again it listens and
looks all round, and then only comes quite out and
feeds on the grass. If it notice danger, however far
off, it immediately makes for its burrow, sits up on
its hind legs and utters a loud, prolonged whistle ;
then if the object of its fears approach nearer it con-
ceals itself aofain below the oi'round. But where it is
in close proximity with the Tangutan yurtas and is
not molested, its behaviour is bolder, although it
never quite forgets its cautious cunning.

The usual mode of killing these animals is by
lying in wait for them near the burrow, hiding before

THE 'MAN-BEAST' OF KAN-SU. 249 >

they come above ground. They are remarkably
tenacious of Hfe, and will escape to their burrows
even though mortally wounded ; ^ nothing but killing
them outright will secure them for the hunter. They
begin to lie dormant in the second week in October,
and like the European marmot a great many will
conpfre^ate in one burrow.

And now a few words about another of the
mammalia of Kan-su, viz. the bear.

Before arriving in Kan-su we heard from the
Mongols of some extraordinary animal which ranged
through this province, and was known to the in-
habitants under the name of kttng-gm^esstL, i.e. ' man-
beast' We Avere told that it had a flat face like
that of a human being, and that it often walked on
two legs, that its body was covered with a thick
black fur, and its feet armed with enormous claws ;
that its strength was terrible, and that not only were
hunters afraid of attacking it, but that the inhabitants
removed their habitations from those parts of the
country which it visited.

These accounts were corroborated by the Tangu-
tans in Kan-su, who one and all declared that an
animal answering to the above description inhabited
their mountains, but that it \vas rare. When we
questioned them if it were not a bear they shook
their heads, and assured us it was not, adding that
they knew well enough what a bear was like.

^ Dr. Hooker mentions the extraordinary tenacity of life of the
Tibetan marmot (Hooker's Himalayan yournals, i. 93), and gives an
en^ravin^ of one of them. — Л1.

250 ' KUiXG-GURESSU; OR BEAR.

Upon arriving in Kan-su in the summer of 1872,
we offered a reward of five lans to anyone who
would show us where one of these fabulous beasts
could be found. Nobody, however, came forward,
to impart the desired information ; unless that the
Tangutan, who was acting temporarily as our guide,
did certainly say that the kiing-giiressu inhabited
the rocks on Mount Gadjur. But on our repairing
to that sacred mountain, in the middle of August,
we saw no trace of the extraordinary animal, and
almost despaired of ever seeing one, when one day
I heard that a skin might be seen at a little temple
about ten miles from Chertinton, Hither we pro-
ceeded after a few days, and having made a present
to the superior, requested him to show us the rare
skin. The request was granted, when what was my
astonishment to see, instead of some extraordinary
animal, a small bear-skin stuffed with straw ! All
the stories we had heard were after all a pack of
fables, and the narrators, after listening to my as-
surances that this creature was none other than a
bear, declared that the ktmg-guressiL never showed
itself to people, and that its tracks alone were oc-
casionally seen by huntsmen. This bear, whose skin
I now saw, stood 4^ feet high ; the muzzle pro-
truding ; the head and forepart of the body a dirty
white colour ; the back darker, and the paws almost
black ; the hind feet long and narrow, and the claws
about an inch long, blunt, and of a dark colour.
Unfortunately I could not take more accurate mea-

RUSSIAN DEARS. 251

surements, or examine it more closely, for fear of
exciting suspicion.

In the following spring, as we were returning
from Koko-nor to Chobsen, one morning, on the
borders of a forest in Kan-su, we saw one of these
bears wild and engaged in catching alpine hares.
We went towards it ; but it made off, and although
pursued by our dogs, never turned to bay. We
fired several long shots after the bear, but only
wounded it, and to our extreme regret it got off.

The one we saw in Koko-nor, as far as we could
judge in the distance, was of the same colour as the
stuffed specimen we had seen at the temple, but
rather larger, and about equal in size to our flesh-
eater ; ' it seemed to have an unusual long body, and
a kind of hump on its back.

The Mongols told us that they were plentiful on
the Burkhan Buddha and Shuga ranges, where they
inhabit the rocky parts, in summer, however, de-
scending to the plains ; and said they had even been
seen on the banks of the Murui-ussu.

After passing the latter part of May in the cen-
tral forest belt, we descended to the valley of the
Tatung, and remained there a week, making daily
shooting excursions as before ; but our supply of
small shot was soon expended, and we had to give
up shooting small birds. Of eggs we obtained but a
few ; many of the birds not having begun to lay,

^ There are three kinds of bears in Russia : the miasnik or flesh-
eater, so called because it attacks cattle, the oi'siannik or corn-eater,
and the viurovcd ox ant-bear. — M.

252 DUNCAN RAVAGES. SEVERE WEATHER.

although their nests were ready. In the middle of
June we could have collected any number of them
in the mountains, especially in the thickets on the
banks of streams ; but we could not remain longer
in the vicinity of Chertinton, so straitened were our
finances, which were again reduced to a small lump
of silver weighing only a few ounces. Owing to the
density of the population, moreover, game was
scarce, and we could not shoot enough to supply
ourselves with food. Under these circumstances we
were constrained to hurry our departure for Ala-
shan, for which country we set out, following the
same route by which we had come the year before
when travelling in the company of the Tangutan
caravan. Deserted villages lay by the roadside then
as now, although the Chinese population had begun
to reappear ; and it is most probable that in a few
years' time the ruined houses will be rebuilt, the
deserted fields cultivated, and the inhabitants as
numerous as they were before the Dungan insur-
rection.

The first half of June was, contrary to our ex-
pectations, again characterised by severe, changeable
weather. On May 28th there was a fall of snow at
night, and the following four nights it froze {25°
Fahr.). In the second week of June, the very last
of our stay in Kan-su, the weather was even worse ;
for on the 9th of that month a violent storm con-
tinued the whole day, covering the ground to the
depth of a foot with snow ; towards morning there
was a sharp frost (23° Fahr.). and this occurred in

JVE BID ADIEU TO KAN-SU. 253

the thirty-eighth parallel, at a time when seventy-six
kinds of flowers were blooming, Avhich, however, re-
mained uninjured by the cold, so accustomed are the
plants of Kan-su to the severity of its climate. The
slig-htest drought, on the other hand, is far more
injurious to them. Rain fell on twenty-two days In
May, but as it was not continuous, it was not enough
for the herbaceous plants which require great
moisture. We noticed this particularly on the ex-
posed side of mountains, and in the plain to the
north-east of the Chagrin-gol, where the year before,
in the end of June, the flowers were more abundant
and brilliant.

This only proves how elastic is the nature of
these plants, and how capable they are of adapting
themselves to the climate. I have myself taken up
by the root the yellow alpine poppy {Pap aver alpi-
nuni) when the earth has been so hard frozen that I
could hardly cut into it with my knife, yet the plant
was uninjured, whereas it would perish if it were not
for the incessant rains.

We took leave of the highlands of Kan su, having
experienced to the very last their inclement, unset-
tled climate ; still the variety and abundance of the
scientific harvest that we reaped there in the vege-
table and animal kingdoms make us regard our
stay in that region as the best time of our whole
enterprise.

254 CROSSING SAND-DRIFT.

CHAPTER VIII.

RETURN TO ALA-SHAN. ROUTE TO URGA BY THE
CENTRAL GOBL

Departure from Ala-shan — Nearly lost in the desert — A dilemma —
We follow the wrong road — A night of suspense — Looking for
landmarks — The ' obo' — Water at last ! — Meeting with pilgrims —
Din-yuan-ing — Letters from home — Excursion to Ala-shan moun-
tains— Their changed appearance — Their flora and fauna— Sudden
flood — Collections endangered — Caravan re-organised — Start for
Urga — Terrible heat— Guide at fault — Death of ' Faust ' — Des-
perate situation — Saved — Grief at the loss of our dog — Route
across the Gobi — Urute country — The Galpin Gobi — Wells
choked by rain — Similarity between Gobi and Sahara — The
Hurku range — Mountain goat {Capra Sibirica) — Trade routes —
The desert north of the Hurku — Shortlived oases — Large and
flourishing herds — Polluted water — The mirage — Migration of
birds — More trade routes — Altered aspect of country — Rich pas-
turage—Abundance of animal liTe — Climate — Impatience to reach
Urga — Arrival there — End of the Expedition.

The second week in June we left the high lands of
Kan-su, and crossed the threshold of the desert of
Ala-shan. The sand drifts now lay before us like a
boundless sea, and it was not without sundry mis-
givings that we entered this forbidding realm.

Without sufficient means to enable us to hire a
guide, we went alone, risking all dangers and difficul-
ties, the more imminent because the year before,
while travelling with the Tangutan caravan, I could
only note down by stealth, and often at haphazard,
the landmarks and direction of the route. This

JVE LOSE THE TRACK. 255

itinerary was of course inaccurate, but now it served
as our only guide.

We were fifteen days ^ marching from Tajing to
Din-yuan-ing, and safely accomplished this difficult
journey, only once nearly losing ourselves in the
desert. This happened on the 2rst June between
Lake Serik-dolon and the \vell of Shangin-dalai.
Having left Serik-dolon early in the morning, we
marched through miles of loose sands, and at last
came to an expanse of clay where the track divided.
We had not noticed this spot on the outward jour-
ney, and had therefore to guess which of the two
roads луоиЫ lead to our destination. What made it
worse \vas that the angle of bifurcation being acute,
we could not decide, even with the aid of a compass,
which we ought to take. The track to the right
being more beaten, we determined to follow it, but
after all we were mistaken, for having gone a few
miles a number of other tracks crossed ours. This
fairly puzzled us, however we still pressed forward,
till at length a well-beaten road '^ joined the one we
had first chosen. This we durst not follow, for it
Avent we knew not whither, nor could луе return to
the place where the roads first branched off. Choos-
ing the lesser of two evils, we resolved to perse-
vere in our first route, hoping soon to see the group
of hills at whose foot lies the well of Shangin-dalai.

' Including three clays' halt.

^ We afterwards ascertained that this cart-road led from Din-yuan-
ing to the town of Dirisun-khoto (Mongol name), near the south-eastern
boundary of Ala-shan.

25б А АЧОНТ OF SUSPEXSE.

But it was midday, and the intense heat obliged us
to halt for two or three hours. On resuming our
march, with the aid of the compass we steered
in the same direction as before, till at length
we discerned a small group of hills to our right.
These we supposed to be the landmark of the
Shangin-dalai, but they were still a long way off, and
the dust which pervaded the atmosphere the whole
day prevented our seeing their outline distinctly
even with a glass.

Evening fell and we halted for the night, fully
confident that these hills were indeed those we were
in search of But on projecting our line of march
on the map, I became aware how far луе had di-
verged to the right of our proper course, and doubts
arose as to whether we were really in the right road
or not. In the meanwhile, only five gallons of
Avater ' were left for the night ; our horses had had
none, and were suffering such agonies of thirst that
they could hardly move their legs. The question of
findino- the well on the morrow became one of life
and death. How can I describe our feelings as we
lay down to rest ! Fortunately the wind fell and the
dust in the air cleared off. In the morning, with the
first glimmer of light I climbed on to the top of the
pile of boxes containing our collections, and carefully
scanned the horizon with a glass. I could see distinctly
the group of hills we had remarked the previous day,

' Water in wooden casks soon evaporates from the heat, so that a
cask filled in the morning generally loses what would fill several
bottles before evening.

MONGOLS WORSHir'PlN4; ' OBO.

THE ^ обо: meeting a caravan. 257

but in a direction due north of our halting place ; I
could also distinguish the summit of another, which
might perhaps be that of Shangin-dalai. Towards
which should we direct our steps ? Having taken
careful bearings of the latter, and having compared
its position on the map with that noted down last
year, we decided to march in that direction.

In doubt and anxiety we loaded our camels and
started, the hill now and then visible above the low
ridges, and now and again hidden from sight. In
vain we strained our eyes through the glass to see
the cairn of stones (' obo') piled upon its summit ; the
distance was still too great to distinguish anything
so small. At length, after having gone nearly seven
miles from the halting place, we descried what we
sought ; with strength renewed by hope we pressed
onwards ; and in a few more hours we stood by the
side of the well, to which our animals, tortured with
thirst, rushed eagerly forward.

On one of the marches through Southern Ala-
shan we met a caravan of Mongol pilgrims on their
way from Urga to Lhassa. Ever since the outbreak
of the insurrection, i.e. for eleven years, these vota-
ries of the Dalai- Lama had not ventured to visit his
capital ; now however, since the occupation of central
Kan-su by Chinese troops, a large caravan ^ had
been equipped at Urga to proceed in search of the
Kutukhtu, who had died a few years before at
Bogdo-kuren, and was reported to have been re-born
in Tibet. The pilgrims were marching in echelons,

^ Numbering, it was reported, a thousand tents.
VOL. II. S

258 ^MOLODTSi: NEWS FROM HOME.

some distance apart, having agreed to rendezvous at
Koko-nor. As the foremost files met us, they ex-
claimed, ' See where our brave fellows have got to ! '
and could hardly believe at first that we four had
actually penetrated into Tibet. But what must have
been the appearance of the Russian molodtsi ? ^
Exhausted with fatigue, half-starved, unkempt, with
ragged clothes and boots worn into holes, we were
regular tatterdemalions ! So completely had we lost
the European aspect that when we arrived at Din-
yuan-ing the natives remarked that we were the
very image of their own people ! i.e. of the Mon-
gols.

At Din-yuan-ing we received a thousand lans
in money, sent to us from Peking by General
Vlangali. We also received letters from Russia,''^
with three of the last numbers of the ' Goloss ' for
1872. No words could depict our pleasure at sight
of these. We read with feverish impatience letters
and ne\vspapers which, although more than a year
old, were new to us, Europe, our country, old
times, rose up before us with startling vividness, and
we became more than ever sensible of our lonely
position in the midst of a people alien not in aspect
alone but in every shade of character.

The Prince of Ala-shan and his sons were not at

1 Molodtsi, i.e. brave fellows.

"^ I cannot refrain from mentioning an absurd incident with refer-
fence to a letter sent me from one of the governmental towns of my
fatherland. The address was 'Peking, via Kiakhta.' The word Peking
had been erased doubtless by the postmaster, and the following words
written in large letters : ' There is no such town as Peking, tliercforc
forward this only as far as Kiakhta.'

THE ALA-SHAN MOUNTAINS. 259

Din yiian-ing, having gone to Peking, whence they
would not return before the autumn.

In accordance with the plan we had previously
sketched, we purposed marching straight to Urga
from Din-yuan-ing, by way of the Central Gobi, a
route which had never before been travelled by any
European, and was therefore of the greatest scien-
tific interest. Before starting, however, we deter-
mined to rest, and to take this opportunity of explor-
ing more thoroughly than last time the mountains of
Ala-shan.

These were not so deserted as they had been
when we saw them in 1S71, for, upon the cessation
of brigandage, many of the Mongols had returned
hither ; ruined temples were being restored ; and
hundreds of Chinese from Ning-hia were engaged in
felling timber. The difficulty was to find a ravine
untenanted by some of these people, and we were
obliged after all to choose one in which there was no
water, preferring to be two miles away from such a
necessary to abiding cheek by jowl with either Mon-
gols oi(Chinamen.^ We sent our camels out to grass
about thirty miles from Din-yuan-ing, keeping with
us only the two horses, which took it in turn to fetch
water.

Here we stayed three weeks, and finally came
to the conclusion that the mountains of Ala-shan are
rich neither in flora nor in fauna. As regards the

' The ravine in wliich we were encamped is eleven miles WSW.
of Din-yuan-ing.

s 2

2бо TREES AND VEGETATION.

former (at all events in the western side which we
explored), the range may be divided into three belts,
viz. the marginal, the tree-belt, and that of the
alpine meadow-land.

The first of these, with the strip of undulating
plain belonging to it/ has an argillaceous soil studded
on the plain with boulders, and on the hills with
blocks of fallen rock. In this section the cliffs are
smaller and fewer in number than in the other two.
This marginal zone or skirt of the mountains is no-
where over a mile and a half in width.

Here the only trees are occasional stunted
elms ; amongst the bushes we observed the yellow
briar [Rosa pimpinellifolid), the caragana, and an
occasional Ephedra, such as we had seen in Tsaidam,
at the foot of the northern slope of the Burkhan
Buddha ; nearer the mountains the commonest kinds
are the thorny convolvulus {ConvolvtUus tragacan-
thoides), and prickly astragalus {Oxytropis aciphylld).
The chief herbaceous plants are the thyme ( Thymus
serpylluni), Solomon's seal [Polygonatimi officinale),
Pegomim nigcllastriim (the last named belonged
exclusively to the plain), the onion, also growing on
the mountains as high as the alpine region, the

* The belt of steppe, ten to thirteen miles wide, lying at the foot of
the western side of the Ala-shan range, is of a distinct character, dif-
fering from other parts of this country. Its surface is seamed with
deep gorges, and it has a general and in some places a very steep slope
from the mountains to the plain. Its soil is clay covered with shingle
or coarse sand, and studded with small fragments of fallen rock from
the neighbouring hills ; springs occur in parts of it, and the vegetation
is the same as that of the desert, with the addition of some mountain
plants.

FOREST ZONE. 261

Androsace on the rocks, Siberian milkwort {Poly-
gala Sidirica), clematis [Clematis crt/mscsfolia), twin-
ing through the bushes at the entrances to ravines,
but seldom found on the plain, and on the border
of the mountains the rhubarb,^ likewise found in the
tree-belt as high as the alpine region."

The upper limit of the forest zone is 10,000 feet
above the sea, the western side of the range being
the most densely wooded, and especially the slopes
which face the north. The variety of trees, how-
ever, is not great. The prevailing kinds are the
spruce [Abies obovata ?), the poplar [Popuhis Iremtila),
and willow, interspersed with arborescent j'uniper
[Juniperus communis ?), more rarely w^th the white
birch [Betula alba) ; and, on the eastern side of the
mountains, with the pine. All these trees are small
and stunted, and can bear no comparison with those
of Kan-su.

Amongst bushes in the Ala-shan forests we ob-
served spiraea, white and yellow kurile tea [Poten-
tilla glabra, P. temdfolia), and hazel [Ostryopsis
Davidiana) on the open hillsides facing the south,
especially on the eastern side of the mountains, the
honeysuckle ; the juniper too is to be seen trailing
its long branches over the rocks on the outskirts of
the mountains.

There is more variety of bushes in the wooded
ravines, where we saw syringa [Syringa vulgaris)
like the familiar plant of our gardens, a new species
of cotoneaster growing on the hillsides ; two kinds

^ Not the medicinal, and different from the two species of Kan-su.

2в2 ALPINE VEGETATION.

of currant (Rides piilchcllum and another), raspberry
(Rubus IdtTics), and the chmbing Atragcne alpina.

The commonest herbs were the red lily (Lilium
temiifoliiLiii), French honeysuckle (also found in the
lower alpine meadow-land), several kinds of astra-
galus, violets, several varieties oi pedicularis, includ-
ing one conspicuous for its pink flowers, Rhaponti-
cuin unijiorum and Polygonatum Sibirictmi. Where
the ground was moist we observed a greater variety
of herbaceous plants; valerian, meadow-rue, the
willow herb (Epilobhmi angustifoliuni), dandelion
( Taraxacum officinale), columbine (Aquilegia viridi-
Jlord), Avormwood, Silenc repens, Rubia cordifolia,
and Sanguisorba alphia, often growing in patches in
the alpine meadows. The vegetation of the tree-belt
is richer than either of the others, although far less
luxuriant than that of Kan-su.

The alpine region, which begins at an elevation
of 10,000 feet, is of comparatively small extent, more
limited even than that of the Munni-ula range. Here
we saw the beautiful caragana, covered with white
and pink blossoms early in July, the meadow-sweet,
the white kurile tea (the same we had seen in the
forests), and a low kind of willow.

In the lower alpine belt, besides many of the
flowers we have already enumerated, we observed
ranunculus, larkspur, beautiful carnations [Dianthus
siiperdus), onion, and corydalis. On the higher
ground bushes cease altogether, the caragana being
the only one to appear up to the very summit of
Mount Bugutui ; but here its proportions are dwarf-

A VI-FA UNA. 263

like, and its height from the ground not above
twelve inches.

The herbaceous plants diminish in variety, and
the clay of the soil becomes more bare as we ascend.
At the very summit of the alpine zone, the com-
monest plants are the Polygonum^ Sausszirea pygmcsa,
and a kind of Hesperis.

Indeed the alpine meadow-land does not shine
in flowers. The breath of the neighbouring deserts
exercises a withering influence over the vegetation
in all parts of these mountains, which are far more
deficient than those of Kan-su or even than the
Munni-ula, yet resembling the former rather than
the latter.

The fauna of the Ala-shan can boast neither
number nor variety ; such as it is I have given it in
Volume I., Chapter VI. Birds are few, even in sum-
mer ; besides those previously mentioned, I found
most commonly at this season : the bullfinch {Py7^-
rhula erythrina), two kinds of carpodacus, the swift
{Cypselus leiicopygiis), mountain swallows {Hirtmdo
rupestris and H. lagopodd), the cuckoo {Cuculus
canorus), the bunting, redstarts {RiUicilla nov. sp.,
and another), the PJiyllopnciiste, and the stone-thrush
{Petrocincla saxatilis). There are neither pheasants
nor Avoodpeckers.

The scarcity of birds in these mountains makes
them mournful even in summer Avhen all nature is
stirring ; no joyful notes enliven the gloomy forests
or beetling cliffs. Only an occasional song may be
heard in the early morning or late evening ; in the

2б4 SUDDEN RAINFALL AND FLOOD.

daytime a desert-like stillness pervades everything.
In conclusion, we may remark that both in flora
and fauna this range has a greater affinity to the
Kan-su than to the In-shan system.

In such arid mountains as these one would have
supposed that we should not have incurred the
slightest risk from water ; but fate willed that we
should experience every misfortune which can pos-
sibly overtake the traveller in these countries, for,
without giving us the slightest warning, a deluge,
such as we never remember to have seen, swept
suddenly down upon us.

It was on the morning of the 13th July; the
summits of the mountains were enveloped in mist, a
sure indication of rain. Towards midday, however,
it became perfectly clear and gave every promise of
a fine day, when, three hours later, all of a sudden,
clouds began to settle on the mountains, and the
rain poured down in buckets. Our tent was soon
soaked through, and we dug small trenches to drain
off the water which made its way into the interior.
This continued for an hour without showing any
signs of abatement, although the sky did not look
threatening. The rainfall was so great that it was
more than could be absorbed by the soil or retained
on the steep slopes of the mountains ; the conse-
quence was that streams formed in every cleft and
gorge, even falling from the precipitous cliffs, and
uniting in the principal ravine, where our tent hap-
pened to be pitched,^ descended in an impetuous

' Our ravine was two miles long and only 350 feet wide ; it was
hemmed in on all sides by steep slopes and precipitous rocks.

COLLECTIONS ENDANGERED. 265

torrent with terrific roar and speed. Dull echoes
high up in the mountains warned us of its approach,
and in a few minutes the deep bed of our ravine was
inundated with a turbid, coffee-coloured stream,
carrying with it rocks and heaps of smaller frag-
ments, while it dashed with such violence against the
sides that the very ground trembled as though with
the shock of an earthquake. Above the roar of the
waters we could hear the clash of great boulders as
they met in their headlong course. From the loose
banks and from the upper parts of the defile whole
masses of smaller stones were detached by the force
of the current and thrown up on either side of the
channel, whilst trees were torn up by their roots and
rent into splinters.

In the meanwhile the rain continued with undi-
minished violence, and the torrent kept ever swelling.
The deep bed of the ravine was soon choked Avith
stones, mud, and fallen timber, which forced the water
out of its channel on to higher ground. Barely
twenty feet from our tent rushed the torrent, destroy-
ing everything in its course. Another minute,
another foot of water, and our collections, the fruit of
our expedition, were irrevocably gone ! The flood
had been so sudden that we had not a chance of
rescuing them ; all we could have done would have
been to save our own lives by climbing on the
nearest rocks. The disaster was so unexpected, the
ruin so imminent, that a feeling of apathy took pos-
session of me, and although face to face with so
terrible a misfortune I could not realise it.

.266 START FOR THE DESERT.

Fortune, however, again befriended us. Before
our tent was a small projecting ledge of rock upon
which the waves threw up stones which soon formed
a breakwater, and this saved us. Towards evening
the rain slackened, the torrent quickly subsided, and
the following morning beheld only a small stream
flowing where the day before the waters of a mighty
river had swept along. A bright sun lit up the
scene of yesterday's destruction, and displayed so
complete a change in the appearance of the valley
that we could not recognise it for the same.

On returning to Din-yuan-ing we equipped our
caravan, bartered away our bad camels, bought new
ones, and on the morning of the 26th July started
on our journey. Thanks to our Peking passport,
and still more to the presents we bestowed on the
tosalakchi, who acted as regent during the Prince's
absence, we were able to hire two guides to
escort us to the border of Ala-shan, where we were
to obtain others, and for this purpose the yamen (or
magistracy) of Ala-shan issued an official document :
in this way we continued to obtain guides from one
banner to another ; a matter of great importance, for
our road lay through the wildest part of the Gobi, in
a meridional direction from Ala-shan to Urea, and
we could not possibly have found our way Avithout
them.

Another long series of hardships now awaited us.
We suffered most from the July heat, which at mid-
day rose to 113° Fahr. in the shade, and at night
was never less than 'j;^' . No sooner did the sun

EXTREME HEAT AND TORNADOES. 267,.

appear above the horizon than it scorched us merci-
lessly. In the daytime the heat enveloped us on all
sides, above from the sun, below from the burning-
ground ; the wind, instead of cooling the atmosphere,
stirred the lower strata and made it even more
intolerable. On these days the cloudless sky was of
a dirty hue, the soil heated to 145° Fahr., and even
higher where the sands were entirely bare, whilst at
a depth of two feet from the surface it was 79°.

Our tent was no protection, for it was hotter
within than without, although the sides were raised.
We tried pouring water on it, and on the ground
inside, but this was useless, in half an hour every-
thing was as dry as before, and we knew not whither
to turn for relief.

The air, too, was terribly dry ; ^ no dew fell, and
rain-clouds dispersed without sending more than a
few drops to earth. We observed this interesting
phenomenon several times, particularly in Southern ^
Ala-shan near the Kan-su mountains, where the
rain, as it fell, met the lower heated atmosphere and
passed off in steam '"^ before reaching the earth.
Thunderstorms rarely occurred,^ but the wind was
incessant night and day, and sometimes blew with
great violence, chiefly from the south-east and south-
west. On calm days tornadoes were frequent about
the middle of the day or a little later. To avoid the

^ The difference between the wet and dry bulbs of the thermometer
Avas sometimes as great as 39°, with the temperature at 1 1 3°.

- This phenomenon only occurred when the clouds were too small
to cool the atmosphere sufticiently.

' Only three times in July.

2б8 LOSS OF 'FAUST.'

heat as much as possible we rose before daybreak ;
tea-drinking and loading the camels, however, took
up so much time that we never got away before four
or even five o'clock in the morning. We might have
lightened the fatigue considerably by night-march-
ing, but in that case we should have had to forego
the survey which formed so important a part of our
labours. The line on the accompanying map mark-
ing our route from Din-yuan-ing to Urga is barely
over a foot long, yet it was obtained at the cost of
forty-four marches, mostly accomplished in the burn-
ing midday heat of the desert.

The commencement of our journey was unpropi-
tious, for on the sixth day after we left Din-yuan-ing,
we lost our faithful friend ' Faust/ and we ourselves
nearly perished in the sands.

It was on the 31st July; луе had left Djaratai-
dabas and had taken the direction of the Khan-ula
mountains ; our guide having informed us that a
march of eighteen miles lay before us that day, but
that we should pass two wells about five miles
apart.

Having accomplished that distance, we arrived at
the first, and after watering our animals, proceeded,
in the full expectation of finding the second, where
we intended to halt ; for though it was only seven in
the morning, the heat was overpowering. So confident
were we that the Cossacks proposed to throw away
the supply of water that we had taken in the casks,
in order not to burden our camels needlessly, but
fortunately I forbade their doing this. After nearly

GUIDE AT FAULT; EXHAUSTION. 269

seven miles more, no well was to be seen, and the
guide announced that we had gone out of our road.
So he proceeded to the top of a hillock in the im-
mediate neitrhbourhood to obtain a view over the
surrounding country, and soon afterwards beckoned
to us to follow. On rejoining him, he assured us
that although we had missed the second well, a third,
where he purposed passing the night, was scarcely
four miles farther. We took the direction indi-
cated. In the meanwhile it was near midday and
the heat intolerable. A strong wind stirred the hot
lower atmosphere, enveloping us in sand and saline
dust. Our animals suffered frightfully ; especially
the dogs, obliged to walk over the burning sand.
We stopped several times to give them drink, and
to moisten their heads as well as our own. But the
supply of water now failed ! Less than a gallon
remained, and this we reserved for the last extremity.
' How much farther is it ?' was the question we con-
stantly put to our guide, who invariably answered
that it was near, that луе should see it from the next
sand hill or the one after ; and so we passed on
upwards of seven miles without having seen a sign
of the promised well. In the meanwhile the unfor-
tunate ' Faust' lay down and moaned, giving us to
understand that he was quite unable to walk, I
then told my companion and guide to ride on, charg-
incf the latter to take ' Faust ' on his camel as he was
completely exhausted. After they had ridden a
mile in advance of the caravan the guide pointed
out the spot where he said the well should be, appa-

270 A DRAUGHT OF WATER.

rently about three miles off. Poor ' Faust's' doom
was sealed ; he was seized with fits, and Mr. Pyltseff,
finding- it was impossible to hurry on, and too far to
ride back to the caravan for a glass of water, waited
till we came up, laying ' Faust ' under a clump of
saxatil and covering him with saddle-felt. The poor
dog became less conscious every minute, gasped two
or three times, and expired. Placing his body on
"^ one of the packs, we moved on again, sorely doubting
whether there were really any well in the place
pointed out to us by the guide ; for he had already
deceived us more than once. Our situation at this
moment was desperate. Only a few glasses of water
were left, of which we took into our mouths j'ust
enough to moisten our parched tongues ; our bodies
seemed on fire, our heads swam, and we were close
upon fainting. In this last extremity I desired a
Cossack to take a small vessel and to ride as hard
as he could to the well, accompanied by the guide,
ordering him to fire at the latter if he attempted to
run away. They were soon hidden in a cloud of
dust which filled the air, and we toiled onwards in
their tracks in the most anxious suspense. At length,
after half an hour, the Cossack appeared. What
news does he bring ? and spurring our jaded horses,
which could hardly move their legs to meet him, we
learned with the joy of a man who has been snatched
from the jaws of death, that the well had been found !
After a draught of fresh water from the vesselfull
that he brought, and having wet our heads, we rode
in the direction pointed out, and soon reached tlie

GRIEF AT 'FAUSrS' DEATH. 271

well of Boro-Sondji. It was now two o'clock in the
afternoon ; we had, therefore, been exposed for nine
consecutive hours to frightful heat, and had ridden
upwards of twenty miles.

After unloading the camels, I sent a Cossack
back with the Mongol for the pack which had been
left on the road, by the side of which our other
(Mongol) dog, who had been with us nearly two
years, was laid. The poor brute had lain down
underneath the pack but was still alive, and after
getting a draught of water he was able to follow the
men back to camp. Notwithstanding the complete
prostration of our physical and moral energies, we
felt the loss of ' Faust ' so keenly that we could eat
nothing, and slept but little all night. The following
morning we dug a small grave and buried in it the
remains of our faithful friend. As we discharged
this last duty to him my companion and I wept like
children. ' Faust' had been our friend in every sense
of the word ! How often in moments of trouble had
we caressed and played with him, half forgetting
our griefs ! For nearly three years had he served
us faithfully through the frost and storms of Tibet,
the rain and snow of Kan-su, and the wearisome
marches of many thousand miles, and at last had
fallen a victim to the burning heat of the desert ;
this too within two months of the termination of the
expedition !

The route taken by most of the caravans of
pilgrims from Urga to Ala-shan on their way to
Tibet, turns a little to the west at the Khan-ula

272 THE G Л LP IN GOBI.

mountains, afterwards taking the direction of the
Khalka country. We did not follow this road be-
cause the wells along" it were not sufficiently numer-
ous, and had been neglected since the outbreak of
the rebellion.^

Our course lay due north, ^ and after crossing
some spurs of the Kara-narin-ula entered the country
of the Urutes, which lies wedge-shaped between
Ala-shan and the Khalka country.

This country is considerably higher than Ala-
shan, but soon begins to sink towards the Galpin
Gobi plain, where the elevation is only 3,200 feet;
north of this again it rises towards the Hurku moun-
tains which form a distinct definition between the
barren desert on the south and the more steppe-like
region on the north. There is also a slope from the
ranges bordering the valley of the Hoang-ho west-
ward to the Galpin Gobi, which forms a depressed
basin, no higher than Djaratai-dabas, extending, as
we were informed by the Mongols, for twenty-five
days' march from east to west.

The soil of the Galpin Gobi, in that eastern por-
tion of it which we crossed, consists of small pebbles
or of saline clay almost devoid of vegetation ; the
whole expanse of country to the Hurku range being

' The Urga caravan, which started in the summer of 1873 for
Lhassa to find the Kutukhtu, crossed the Gobi in small dchelons and
by different routes. People were sent in advance along the high road,
to clear out old and dig new wells ; notwithstanding which there was
a scarcity of water.

"^ There is no road here, and you may sometimes go seventy miles
without seeiniT a track.

ELMS AND BUSHES. 273

a desert as wild and barren as that of Ala-shan, but of a
somewhat different character. The sand-drifts, so vast
in the latter country, are here of comparatively small
extent, and in their stead we find bare clay, shingle,
and naked crumbling rocks (chiefly gneiss) scattered
in low groups. Vegetation consists of stunted half-
withered clumps of saxaul, karmyk, diidarkana, and
a few herbaceous plants, the chief amongst which is
the sidliir ; the elms ^ are the most striking features
in the Urute country, forming in places small clumps ;
bushes of wild peach ^ are also occasionally met with,
such as are never seen in the desert of Ala-shan.
Animal life in these regions is very scant ; birds and
mammals are the same as in Ala-shan. You may
often ride for hours together without seeing a bird,
not even a stone-chat or a kolo-djoro ; nevertheless,
wherever there are wells or springs, Mongols are to
be found, with a few camels, and large numbers of
sheep and goats.

During our progress through this country, in the
latter half of August, the heat was excessive, al-
though never so high as in Ala-shan. Winds blew
ceaselessly night and day, often increasing to the
violence of a gale, and filling the air with clouds of
saline dust and sand, the latter choking up many
of the wells ; but these were more frequently de-
stroyed by the rains, which, although rare, came

' These trees are from 1 5 to 20 feet high and 2 to 4 feet thick ;
they are mostly met with in dry rainwater courses, probably because
they find more moisture here.

■-' There is no wild peach in the Ala-shan mountains, or in those of
Kan-su and Northern Tibet.

VOL. II. T

274 THE GOBI AM) SAHARA DESERTS.

down with terrific force, and for an hour or two
afterwards large rivers continued to flow, silting up
the wells (always dug on the lower ground) with
mud and sand. It would be impossible to travel
here without a guide thoroughly acquainted with
the country ; for destruction lies in wait for you at
every step. In fact this desert, like that of Ala-shan,
is so terrible that, in comparison with it, the deserts
of Northern Tibet may be called fruitful. There, at
all events, you may often find water and good pas-
ture-land in the valleys ; here, there is neither the one
nor the other, not even a single oasis ; everyw^here
the silence of the valley of death.

The well-known Sahara ^ can hardly be more
terrible than these deserts, which extend for many
hundreds of miles in length and breadth. The
Hurku hills, where we crossed, are the northern defi-
nition of the wildest and most sterile part of the Gobi,
and form a distinct chain with a direction from SE.
to WNW. ; how far either way we could not say
positively ; but, according to the information we re-
ceived from the natives, they are prolonged for a great
distance towards the south-east, reaching the moun-
tains bordering the valley of the Hoang-ho, while on

' In the Sahara desert we find the same diversity in composition
and altitude ; the same immense tracts of shingly and sahne soil ; the
same loose drifting sands, with occasional patches of rocky ground
covered with thorny scrub, while at distant intervals an oasis or islet
of vegetation occurs. Such are also the characteristics of the great
deserts of Persia and Arabia, which form the prolongation eastward
and northward of the Sahara • — ' the whole tract from the Sahara to the
(Gobi or) Shamo pointing at once to similarity of conditions and same-
ness of geological origin.' (See Page's Physical Geography, p. 104.) — M.

THE HURKU HILLS. WILD GOAT. 275

the west they extend, with a few interruptions, to
other far distant mountains of no great elevation.
If the latter statement may be relied upon, we may
conclude that they unite with the Thian Shan, and
supply, as it were, a connecting" link between that
range and the In-shan system ; an extremely inter-
esting fact and one worthy the attention of future
explorers.

Their width where we crossed them is a little
over seven miles, and their apparent height hardly
above a thousand feet. The chief formation is
porphyry, of which the loose debris scattered over
their slopes is composed. Springs of water are
extremely rare, and the appearance is desolate and
lifeless. They are almost devoid of vegetation,
except where an occasional dwarf peach, acacia, and
Sarcosygiiim xanthoxylon appear, or where along the
dry watercourses the karmyk and dirisun, or more
rarely still the elm, is seen. There is a remarkable
absence of birds, and it is only now and then that
you see a vulture, a lammergeie.r, a kestrel, a par-
tridge {Pei^dix Ckukor\ or a stofie-chat [Saxicola
Isabellind).

Yet despite their barrenness, the Hurku hills are
inhabited by a large and rare animal, the mountain
goat [Capra Sibirica), called by the Mongols Ulan-
yaman^ which is also said to have its habitat in the
Yepfrai-ula mountains in the north-western ano'le of
Ala-shan, not far from the town of Sogo.^ In the

' I.e. red goat.

^ This town is ten days' journey (about 170 miles) north-west of
Din-yuan-ing: it was not occupied by the Dungans.

T 2

27б TRADE ROUTES.

whole course of our three years' wanderings we only
found this animal in the Hurku hills, and our eager-
ness to secure its skin for our collection was propor-
tionately great. But in this we were unsuccessful,
for the simple reason that our make-shift boots ^
were unfit for climbing over the steep rocky ledges,
and this caused us frequently to miss our footing, to
the great risk of our guns, or still worse, of our necks.
Nevertheless we climbed half a day over these hills,
at times literally ' on all fours,' and after completely
exhausting ourselves we were convinced that shod
as we were it was impossible to slay this wary
animal.

South of the Hurku lies the great trade route
from Peking, via Kuku-khoto and Bautu, to Hami,
Urumchi and Kulja,'"^ branching off near the spring
of Bortson, where we encamped for the night, whence
one branch leads to the town of Suh-chau. We were
told that before the Dungan insurrection the traffic
along these roads was considerable, and wells were
dug at frequent intervals ; now, however, nobody
goes that way.

The Hurku hills are the northernmost limit of the
distribution of saxmil^ of the sand-martin and spar-
row {Passer ammodcndri) of Ala-shan ; here too we
saw for the last time Perdix Chukor.

' Chinese boots with felt soles are unfit for the European. We
tried wearing them, but after an hour's walk rubbed our feet sore.

"^ The former province of Hi.

' However, Mongols say that saxaul ^xc\w% north of the Hurku
chain, in the bare sands near the trade route between Kuku-khoto and
Uliassutai.

VEGETATION DEPENDENT ON RAIN 277

Northwards the character of the desert exhibits a
marked chanre. The bare sand-drifts which cover

о

so vast an expanse of the Urute country soon termi-
nate ; ^ and in their place we find a clay soil covered
with pebbles. But the topography continues the
same ; level or slightly undulating plains studded
with low hills, now connected in low ridges, now
standing in isolated groups, composed of silicious
slate, gneiss, and some of the later igneous rocks.
There is scarcely any vegetation, and indeed it is
also scanty on the plains. Wherever the soil is
saline the karmyk and budarhana appear, as in the
former tract, and where it improves a little, scrub
wormwood and onion are most conspicuous, the
latter being characteristic of this region, together
with the dirisun and a few more of the Gi'aminecB
composing the flora of the desert. Vegetation, how-
ever, is in every part of the Gobi mainly dependent
on rains ; for no sooner have these fallen, and the
sun's rays exerted their influence, than the young
plants shoot up with a rapidity Avhich compensates
for their long period of inactivity. Green oases
quickly manifest themselves where all was desert ;
the dzei^en appears, the loud song of the Mongol
lark is heard ; the inhabitants remove hither, and
the favoured spot teems with life in the midst of
surroundino- desolation. But how brief a time it

О

lasts ! The powerful sun gradually evaporates all

' I should mention, however, that sand-drifts occur sporadically
in all parts of the Gobi, but are less continuous here than in Ala-shan
and the conterminous Urute country.

278 THE CENTRAL GOBI.

moisture and withers the grass, trampled under foot
by the enormous herds of cattle ; the Mongols de-
part ; the dzerens seek other pastures ; the larks
fly away ; and the desert remains as silent as the
grave.

The elevation of the Gobi between the Hurku
hills and Uro-a along- our line of march nowhere

о о

exceeds 5,500 feet, nor falls below 4,000. No de-
pressions occur in this tract, like those of Djaratai-
dabas and the Galpin Gobi, or that along the Kiakhta-
Kalgan road ; the whole region is a lofty plateau,
varying in height between these two extremes.

The Central Gobi, like the other parts of this
desert, is absolutely wanting in irrigation ; even
wells are fewer than in the tract south of the Hurku ;
yet such as there are, the nomads depend entirely
for their supply of water in summer on them, and on
the temporary lakes formed after heavy rains, and re-
tained on the surface of the hard clay, while in winter
they satisfy their wants with snow, removing at that
season to pastures which have been left untouched
during summer on account of the absence of water.

The population of the Central Gobi, as in general
throughout the Khalka country, is numerous and
well to do. Enormous flocks of sheep roam near the
encampments ; camels, horses, and horned cattle in
smaller numbers. Towards the end of summer all
these animals become remarkably fat, a surprising
circumstance if the scanty pasturage be considered.
I think their good condition is mainly attributable to
the freedom they enjoy, and also to the absence of

IMPURE WATER. 279

insects, which are such a grievous torment in the
more fertile districts.^

On crossing" the frontier of the Khalka country
we entered the principahty of Tushetu-khan, and
hastened by forced marches to Urga, which was now
the goal we were so desirous of reaching. Nearly
three years of wanderings, attended by every kind
of privation and hardship, had so worn us out phy-
sically and morally that we felt most anxious for a
speedy termination of our journey ; besides which,
we were now travelling through the wildest part of
the Gobi, where want of water, heat, storms of wind,
in short every adverse condition, combined against
us, and day by day undermined what little of our
strength remained.

I need only describe the water we had to drink
after crossing the Hurku hills, to give some idea of
our discomforts. Shortly before we passed through
this country a heavy fall of rain had choked up most
of the wells and had formed temporary lakes, by the
side of which Mongols were as usual encamped :
some of these lakes were but a hundred yards across
and two or three feet deep, yet a dozen or more
yurtas would often be seen pitched by them, and
their brackish water was rendered muddy and filthy
in the extreme by the large herds daily driven to
drink in it, the heat of the sun raising its tempera-
ture to 77°. The first sight of this water was enough

* Tsaidam is an instance of this ; here cattle grow thin on good
pasturage, only recovering in winter when they are relieved from their
tormentors.

28o MIRAGE. LAND OF DEATH.

to disgust anyone ; but we, like the Mongols, were
obliofed to use it, taking: care to boil it first and to add
brick-tea.

The mirage, that evil genius of the desert,
mocked us almost daily, and conjured up such tanta-
lisinof visions of tremulous water that even the rocks
of the neighbouring hills appeared as though reflected
in it. Severe heat and frequent storms of wind pre-
vented our sleeping quietly at night, much as we
needed rest after the arduous day's march.

But not to us alone was the desert of Mongolia
an enemy. Birds which began to make their appear-
ance in the latter half of August suffered equally
from thirst and hunger. We saw flocks of geese and
ducks resting at the smallest pools, and small birds
flew to our tent so exhausted with starvation as to
allow us to catch them in the hand. We found
several of these feathered wanderers quite dead, and
in all probability numbers of them perish in their
flight across the desert.

The chief migration of birds was in September,^
and by the 13th of that month we had counted
twenty-four varieties. From our observations the
geese directed their flight not due south but south-
east towards the northern bend of the Hoang-ho.

Eighty-seven miles north of the Hurku hills we
crossed another trade route from Kuku-khoto to
Uliassutai ;^ practicable for carts although the trafiic

* Especially in the latter part of the month, but we had already
arrived at Urga, and were therefore beyond the confines of the desert.

- In all probability our camels were driven off by this road in
1 87 1, when they were stolen from us near the temple of Shireti-tsu.

TRADE ROUTES. COUNTRY IMPROVES. 281

is mostly on camels. Since the reinforcement of the
Chinese garrison at Uliassutai after its destruction by
the Dungans in 1870, the trade has considerably
increased ; supplies for the troops are sent this way,
and Chinese merchants travel with millet and mer-
chandise to barter with the Mongols for wool, leather,
and cattle. ^

Another route, a hundred miles further north, is
maintained for the conveyance of mails and officials,
between the two above-mentioned towns. Soon
after leaving Kuku-khoto this track joins the Kalgan-
Urga post road, from which it again diverges at Sair-
ussu'"^ in the direction of Uliassutai.

Northwards the character of the Gobi again
changes, and this time for the better. The sterile
desert becomes a steppe, more and more fruitful as
луе advance to the north. The shino^le and eravel
are in turn succeeded by sand mixed in small quan-
tities with clay. The country becomes extremely
undulating. The gradual slopes of low hills ^ inter-
sect one another in every possible direction, and
earn for this region the Mongol name, ' KangaV, i.e.
hilly. This continues for upwards of a hundred
miles to the north of the Uliassutai post road, when
the waterless steppe touches the margin of the basin
of Lake Baikal ; here finally, at Hangin-daban, you
find yourself among groups and ridges of rock)-

' Chinese petty traders ply a barter trade all through the summer
in all parts of Mongolia, especially in the east and centre.
' Sair-ussu is 220 miles south-east of Urga.
' ' In this part of the Gf>bi ihc low hills are almost without rocks.

282 RICH MEADOW-LAND.

hills, beyond which lie the well-watered districts of
Northern Mono-olia.

о

The poor pasturage of the Central Gobi now
gives place to rich meadow-land, increasing in luxu-
riance the nearer we approach Urga. The karmyk,
the biidarhana, and the onion entirely disappear, and
are replaced by several kinds of grasses, vetches,
Compositcc and carnations. Animal life, too, becomes
suddenly abundant. Dzerens roam over the fat
pasture-lands,^ alpine hares [Lago?jiys ogotond) and
marmots i^Arctomys bobac) bask in the sunshine, and
high up in the sky soars the lark, whose familiar
song we had not heard since луе left Kan-su.

Water, however, is still as scarce as ever ; of
lakes and rivers there are none, and only an occa-
sional spring or well, at no depth below the surface.
Indeed between Ala-shan and Urga we never saw a
well deeper than eight feet, and water is generally
obtainable at a less depth by digging for it in the
right place. ^

As for the climate of these last months in Mon-
golia, I should say that the heat in July and August
is equally severe, the thermometer rising to 97° Fahr.
in the shade. The nights are always warm, some-
times hot,^ and the air exceedingly dry, no dew
falling. We had not a single good shower, although
large clouds often gathered only to send a few drops

' We saw no dzerens in the Central Gobi, but they appear there
periodically, wherever pasturage is abundant.

^ The wells in Ala-shan are also at no great depth from the surface.
^ Only on two occasions, viz. on August 21 and 24, the temperature

at sunrise fell to 43" and 41° b'ahr.

ARRIVAL ON THE BANKS OF THE TOLA. 283

of rain to earth. But, not long before our arrival in
the Central Gobi in July, there was a terrific down-
pour of rain, accompanied by large hail, луЬ1с11
destroyed numbers of cattle and some people.

In August the weather was in general clear, but
the winds, which frequently blew with violence, almost
invariably lasted throughout the day and night, shift-
ing several times in the twenty-four hours ; westerly
winds prevailed, with a northerly and southerly
variation.

The beginning of September was marked by a
sudden alternation from heat to cold, for on the 8th
of this month at midday the thermometer stood at
79° Fahr. in the shade, whereas the next day it blew
hard from the north-west with large flakes of snow,
and the mercury fell to 32° Fahr. at sunrise.

Our impatience to reach Urga kept ever increas-
ing as we approached it, and we counted the time no
longer by months or weeks but by days. At length
after crossing the Hangin-daban range we arrived on
the banks of the Tola, the first river we had made
acquaintance with in Mongolia. For 870 miles, i.e.
between Kan-su and this river, we had not seen a
single stream or lake, only stagnant pools of brack-
ish rain-water. Forests now appeared, darkening
the steep slopes of the Mount Khan-ola. Under
these grateful circumstances we at last accomplished
our final march, and on the 1 7th September entered
Urga, where we received a warm welcome from our
Consul, I will not undertake to describe the moment
when we heard again our mother-tongue, when

284 URGA. END OF THE EXPEDITION.

we met again our own countrymen, and experienced
once more European comforts. We enquired eagerly
what was going on in the civilised world ; we de-
voured the contents of the letters awaiting us ; we
gave vent to our joy like children ; it was only after
a few days that we came to ourselves and began to
realise the luxury to which our wanderings had
rendered us for so loner a time strangers. The con-
trast between the past and the present was so great
that what we had gone through appeared like a
horrible dream. After resting a week at Urga, we
proceeded to Kiakhta, which we reached on the ist
October 1873.

Our journey was ended. Its success had sur-
passed all the hopes we entertained when we crossed
for the first time the borders of Mongolia. Then an
uncertain future lay before us ; now, as \ve called to
mind all the difficulties and dano-ers we had gfone

о о

through, we could not help wondering at the good
fortune which had invariably attended us every-
where. Yes ! in the most adverse circumstances,
Fortune had been ever constant, and ensured the
success of our undertaking : many a time when it
hung on a thread a happy destiny rescued us, and
gave us the means of accomplishing, as far as our
strength would permit, the exploration of the least
known and most inaccessible countries of Inner
Asia.

NOTES.

The following Note, translated from the Russian, pur-
ports to be an extract from the Diary of a Chinese Exile at
Urumchi. Although this place is only incidentally men-
tioned in the preceding narrative, I have nevertheless
thought it worth while inserting, the more so, because, from
a letter lately received from Colonel' Prejevalsky, I learn
that his next expedition, to start in March 1876, will be
directed to the Eastern Thian Shan and Kuldja, whence he
w'ill try to penetrate to Lob-nor and Northern Tibet.
Urumchi would, therefore, lie so near his route that doubt-
less it will be visited by him.

Urumchi, or Urumtsi, the Bish-balik of the Middle
Ages, has played an important part in history. Its ad-
vantageous position at the northern foot of a chain of the
Eastern Thian Shan, dividing Dzungaria from Eastern
Turkestan, always enabled it to recover rapidly from the
wars which destroyed its less fortunate neighbours. Its
district is fertile and its water and pasturage abundant.
The first mention of Urumchi dates from the period of the
establishment of the Chinese empire in the extreme north-
west during the Tang dynasty (a.D. 646). Its district, with
that of the neighbouring Barkul, became dependent on the
government of the province of Kan-su, from which, however,
it was separated by the Great Desert of Gobi.

When the Uigurs forsook their homes on the banks of
the Orkhon, the Tola, and the Selenga, they settled here ;
and the ruins still remaining in the vicinity of the town
probably date from that period. After the Mongols were

286 NOTES.

driven out of China, Urumchi and the adjoining district fell
into the power of the Elcuths ; but about the middle of the
last century it was conquered by the Manchus and became
the military centre of a district extending from Barkul to
Hur-kara-ussu. In 1775, Kien-long raised it to the rank
of a city of the second order, and gave it the Chinese name
of Ti-hwa-chau. But it was best known under its ancient
name of Bish-balik, i.e. the five cities, when it flourished
under the sway of the powerful Khans of the Mongol
dynasty.

The streets of this town were wide and populous, and it
was visited by merchants from the surrounding countries of
China, Mongolia, and Turkestan. It contained a gymna-
sium, two temples, one school for the town and another for
the district, and, according to a Russian traveller (Putimtsefif),
ranked, in 181 r, as the richest town in Dzungaria, and was
famed for its manufactures and the industry of its inhabit-
ants. At that time it carried on an important trade with
Chuguchak, on the Chinese-Siberian frontier. The moun-
tains on the west are reported to abound in excellent coal,
and at their foot lies a great plain, lOO li in circumference,
covered with sulphurous ashes. Still further to the west, on
the borders of Urumchi and Kuldja, is a great abyss 90 //
in circumference, covered with a surface as white as snow,
which becomes so hard, after rain, that if struck with a stick
it gives forth a hollow sound like the Solfatara of Pozzuoli,
near Naples ; but neither man nor animal m.ay venture
beyond its edge without being irrecoverably lost. It is
called the ' ash-pit.'

It was Humboldt (see ' Cosmos,' edited by Sabine,
i. 232), who first called attention to the volcanic character of
the Urumchi district ; and he was followed by Ritter, who
adduced the testimony of travellers to prove that severe
earthquakes occurred as recently as the year 17 16, and the
same year (according to Falk) the town of Aksu was almost
entirely destroyed by a similar cause. Severtsoff denies
the volcanic character of the Western Thian Shan where
seen by him ; but as no travellers have, as far as I am aware.

URUMCHI. 287

recently explored its eastern chains, the whole subject
requires further investigation. The following is the trans-
lation : —

The name Urumtsi or Urumchi is the Dzungarian for a
wood suitable for a battue. Its official name, as the central
place of administration for convict settlements, is Ti-hwa-
chau, but it is better known in the commercial world by
the name of Hung-miau-tsz, i.e. 'red temple,' after a pagoda
outside the town painted red. Urumchi is situated at the
foot of a western spur of the Bogdo-ula, whose triple peak
is visible some distance off, and in whose honour sacrifices
are annually offered up from a hill in the immediate vicinity
of the town.

Urumchi consists of two parts : the old, or commercial,
situated on the right bank of the river, on the slope of the
mountain ; and the new or Manchu town, placed on low
ground near some springs.

The climate is severe, less so, however, since it has been
inhabited by a settled population. Rain falls very rarely,
not oftener than once or twice a year, and some years not
even that, but snow falls in quantities, and lies so thickly
on the ground as sometimes to block the communications.
The inhabitants supply themselves with water from the
streams issuing from the mountains fed by the meltino-
snows ; and from wells, which are easily dug owing to the
vertical disposition of the strata. The fields are artifi-
cially irrigated. Near the town are some hot sulphur
springs.

The district of Urumchi extends westward alono- a
valley watered by the streams flowing from the Thian
Shan mountains and afterwards discharging into a great
marsh, whence there is no outflow. This is called VcJi-i-hu
or Vch-i-taii, i.e. the ' reed marsh.' It is overgrown with
reeds, and is several hundred li in extent from east to
west, foiming a barrier to the north of the district. What
there is to the north of this again no one can say, for no-
body ever set foot there. Popular superstition has it that
this is the breeding ground of the locust, although this

288 NOTES.

insect has never been seen at Urumchi. The peculiarity in
the physical formation of the country favours the presump-
tion of the existence of an extensive depression on the
northern side of the Thian Shan, like that of Lob-nor on
the south.

Within the district ruined sites of towns and traces of
ancient cultivated fields may be seen, evidencing ancient
settlements in this country ; of especial interest are the ruins
near the Himus station, probably dating as far back as the
Tang dynasty, and here is preserved a large stone image of
Buddha, half buried in the earth ; carbonized objects found
here prove, in the opinion of the author of these Notes, that
this ancient city was destroyed by fire.

The population of Urumchi consists of Chinese settlers
who have lived here for so many generations that they may
be regarded as its original inhabitants. When the Manchus
conquered Dzungaria they were desirous of consolidating
their empire in this remote country, and accordingly drew
up a broad scheme of colonization, in accordance with
which they planted military colonies of their own dynastic
subjects (Manchus, Sibos, Dahurs, Solones, Chakhars, and
Eleuths), with their wives and families and a few native
Chinese ; further, they encouraged voluntary emigration
from China, supplying the colonists with money, provisions,
and agricultural implements, and granting them arable
land. In other ways, too, they endeavoured to increase the
settled population in the nomadic districts.'

The military, stationed at Urumchi, consist of Manchus
and native Chinese, some of the former being obligatory
agriculturists, Tsi-ho, i.e. bannermen or Manchus ; the latter,
free agriculturists or simply Bing-hu, i.e. military.

The common people are divided into several classes :
I. Those who have voluntarily emigrated from China at
the invitation of government, Nim-pu. 2. Merchants de-
sirous of becoming agriculturists, who have inscribed them-

'^ About this time a colony of settlers from the towns of Turkestan,
called by the Eleuths Tariacld {Taranclii), or colonists, was established
near Hi.

URUMCHI. 289

selves among the inhabitants of the town, Sha>ig-/m. 3.
Chinese vagrants Avho have been colonized here, An-cha-hu.
4. Exiles, including those whose term of banishment has
expired, and who have joined the class of agriculturists,
Tsian-Jiu. Each class forms a separate commune with an
elder, called Tou-mii, or Siang-yu, to whom reference is
made in cases of official interference, whence their authority
is very great.

Besides the classes we have enumerated, there are the
gardeners, Yiian-Im, who hire land from government, but
as they do not form part of the regular population, they are
not included among the natives. The tradesmen and
operatives mostly belong to the class of exiles, and these
also supply servants for the townspeople.

The colonists do not live in villages but in detached
farms, each on his own land. They never fertilise the soil
with manure, but sow their crops in regular rotation.
Owing to the depth to which the ground is frozen in winter
no corn is sown in autumn but all in spring. Those
colonists who belong to the class of exiles return to Urum-
chi after the harvest is over, and engage in other occu-
pations, repairing to their fields again in spring for the
sowing. The merchants often buy the growing crops of
the peasants, paying for them as they come up and after-
Avards gathering them themselves.

Wheat and oats are chiefly cultivated at a place called
Gau-tai; rice is also sown, but what kind of rice, the dry or
the watery, the author does not mention. Oats are used
for feeding cattle and distilling brandy. Oatmeal also
.serves the inhabitants for food. Of the vegetables pro-
duced by the gardeners, the author praises the cabbage
and turnip in particular. Two kinds of poppy are also
cultivated. But in its fruit and all the other produce of its
soil, this country is far behind the neighbouring Turkestan.'
The tobacco cultivated at Urumchi is said to be excellent.
Asafoetida and madder arc also among its productions, the

' This is of course Eastern Turkestan, or Kashgaria, and must not
be confounded with Russian Turkestan to the west of the famir.

VOL. II. и

290 NOTES.

latter superior to the Chinese kind, but hitherto unused ;
its root ground into powder is an antidote to the bite of the
phalangium.'

The natural wealth of the Urumchi district is consider-
able. In the mountains south of Manas alluvial gold is
found everywhere. The iron works near Urumchi are
supported by government ; the ore, however, only yields
13 per cent, of metal. Saltpetre is obtained at Yan-
balgasun, and several thousand pounds of it are annually
sent to the gunpowder manufactories at Hi and Tarbagatai.
The talc found here is of excellent quality, and serves the
inhabitants instead of glass. The mountains near Urumchi
yield an abundance of excellent coal of different qualities ;
the best being found in the northern mountains ; this burns
without smell or smoke, is easily lighted, not quickly ex-
tinguishable, and leaves a perfectly white ash. The coal
from the mountains west of the town is suitable for the
kitchen and burns to a red ash ; besides these there are
two inferior qualities of mineral coal. The best charcoal
is prepared from a tree called the soso ; if fired in the
evening, it will burn all night ; the wood of this tree is
very hard, but its root does not penetrate deep into the
ground.

Salt is obtained in the lakes and is of a dark colour ;
red salt is brought from Turfan.

Urumchi, like Hami, is a great entrepot for trade as well
as for. the transport and storage of merchandise. It has
communications with China (via Hami), Turfan, Hi, and
Tarbagatai, besides a direct road across the desert to
Kuku-khoto, frequented by merchants. The merchants
live in the suburbs of the old town in separate communities.
Thus there are communities of Suh-chau, Lan-chau, and
Kuku-khoto merchants, the latter known at Urumchi as
'guests from the Trans-Ordos country' (^Peh-taii-kch), are

' This may be the venomous spider of Eastern Turkestan described
by Timkowski (i. 405). Its bite was said to cause death if remedies
were not immediately applied. Mianeh, in Persia, near Tabriz, is also
celebrated for a venomous kind of white bug, which is said to be
dangerous to strangers.

ТНК RHUBARB PLANT. 291

the richest ; they are natives of the province of Shan-si,
and by their superior enterprise have monopohsed most of
the Central Asian trade. There is also a community of
Mongol merchants and Turkestan traders come from
Turfan. The author gives no details concerning the trade,
merely remarking that the local consumption of tobacco
and brandy is enormous.

We have omitted, for the sake of brevity, the author's
remarks on the peculiarities of the Urumchi country, its
wonderful boars, and its snakes with tails so stumpy as to
have the appearance of having been cut off. We also
readily omit his sketch of the manners and morals of the
inhabitants and the dissipated lives led there by the foreign
merchants ; he observes, amongst other things, how easily
the Chinese merchants accustom themselves to the gay life
at Urumchi and forget their homes ; and how it frequently
happens that the families of such persons petition govern-
ment to take measures to oblige their relatives to return,
and that in consequence these are summarily arrested and
sent back to China under escort.

THE RHUBARB PLANT.
P. 81.

The following Note is a translation of an article which
appeared in Kegel's ' Garten Flora ' (January 1875), from the
pen of Professor Maximovitch, of St. Petersburg, who is at
present engaged in preparing for publication the botanical
results of Colonel Prejevalsky's expedition, and to whose
kindness I am also indebted for the illustration of the
Rhubarb plant on page 82 of this volume.

By way of introduction, I give an extract from ' Purchas,
his Pilgrimage,' ' a collection of travels in all parts of the
world,' published in London in 1617: —

' In the same province of Tanguth is Succuir,' whose
mountains are clothed with rheubarbe, from whence it is by

' i.e. Suh-chau.

и 2

292 NOTES.

marchants conveyed through the world. Campion' is the
mother citie of the countrey, inhabited by Idolaters, with
some of the Arabian and Christian nations. . .

' Succuir also is, according to his report,^ 'great and
faire, beautified with many temples. Their Rheubarbe they
would not bestow the paines to gather, but for the mar-
chants, Avhich from China, Persia, and other places, fetch it
from them at a cheap price. Nor doe they in Tanguth
use it for Phisick, as wee heere, but wdth other ingredients
make perfumes thereof for their Idols ; and in some places
they burn it instead of other firing, and give it their horses
to eat. They set more price by an hearbe which they call
Diemhroni cini, medicinable for the eyes,^ and another called
Chiai Catai, growing in Catay, at Cacianfu,'* admirable
against very many diseases, an ounce whereof they esteem
as good as a sack of Rheubarbe ; whose description you
may see at large, according to the relation and picture of
the said Chaggi in Raimisius ; for (to add that also) they
have many painters, and one countrey inhabited onely by
them. These Tanguthians are bearded as men in these
parts, especially some time of the yeere.'

RHEUM PAL^IATUM L. THE GENUINE RHUBARB.

Although the accounts of the true Chinese Rhubarb,
collected from various travellers and writers, agree wonder-
fully with one another as to its native land, station,
gathering, preparation, and principal place of trade ; all
pointing unanimously to Kan-su, the country of the Tan-
gutans, and north-westernmost province of China Proper ;
still the only Europeans who had hitherto seen the genuine

' i.e. Kan-chau.

Kan-su itself is a name compounded of the two cities of А'<г«-сЬаи
and Suh-ckizxi (Yule's ' Marco Polo,' 2d. ed. i. 222.)

" i.e. Hajji IVIahomed's, the Persian traveller in Ramusio's
' Navigationi.'

^ An account of this drug mamira was given by the late Daniel
Hanbury in the ' Pharmaceutical Journal,' some six or seven years ago.

* Probably Kenjanfu, i.e. Singanfu, the capital of Shen-si, though
tea does not i^row there.

THE GENUINE RHUBARB. 293

Rhubarb in its native land, were Marco Polo and the
Jesuits, who travelled through China and surveyed it, at the
end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth
century, by order of the government. But as they neither
brought to Europe a scientific description of the plant, nor
the plant itself, nor even seed, the genuine Rhubarb ever
remained unknown. At the beginning of the last century
the Russian Government prepared at Kiakhta, on the
Siberian-Chinese frontier, a Rhubarb-' Brack,' where all the
Rhubarb imported from China w'as subjected to a compul-
sory and strict examination previous to being admitted to
the European market, in consequence of wdiich that received
through Russia, and called the Muscovite Rhubarb, was
universally considered the best. The officers stationed at
this ' Brack,' endeavoured in the discharge of their office to
obtain fresh seed of the genuine Rhubarb through the
Chinese Rhubarb importers. The jealousy of the Chinese,
who would not allow so valuable a plant to leave their land,
rendered this attempt at first unsuccessful. A few seeds
were certainly obtained in 1740, at a high price, propagated
in European gardens, and the plants raised from them con-
sidered for some time to be genuine, and even described by
Linnaeus under the name. Rheum Rhabarbariim ; but this
soon proved to be nothing more than the RJiapontik R.,
which also grew' in Siberia, and Linnaeus accordingly altered
his hastily-given name to R. undulatnm. But about the
year 1750, fresh seed was obtained from which the genuine
R. palinatinii, never before seen, was propagated. In this
way, thanks to the exertions of Russia, Europe acquired
the genuine Rhubarb plant ; its cultivation developed
rapidly, and in the eightieth year of the last century it was
widely diffused through Scotland, England, and Germany ;
indeed, in the tAvo first-mentioned of these countries, where
the Horticultural societies in every way encouraged its
culture and preparation, the root had already become an
article of trade, and was found by many doctors fully equal
to the Chinese in operation, and w^as exclusively used in
practice. It was found, however, after numerous experi-

294 XOTES.

ments, that no roots under eight years' growth furnished a
good drug; and that, even with these, much depended on the
time of gathering, the after-treatment, and especially the
drying ; further, it appeared that only the parent root and
not the branches furnished the strongest medicine ; but as
the former was liable to decay, the cultivation was difficult.
Such were among the principal causes which combined to
disappoint the expectations which had been formed of the
garden rhubarb. An opinion, moreover, gained ground
among merchants as well as among physicians, that the
Chinese quality was superior. Nevertheless R. palmatitm
w^uld have gradually made its way, had not doubts of its
being the parent plant of the genuine Rhubarb soon been
expressed direct from Russia. Pallas showed the Chinese in
Kiakhta dried specimens oi R. palmatum, and believed their
assurances that this was not the true plant, but that it was
smaller, and had an undivided leaf, besides other falsehoods.

Sievers, who travelled, between 1791-1795, along the
whole Siberian-Chinese frontier, by order of the Russian
Government, to study the Rhubarb question, also heard
a confirmation of the same story from the Chinese in
Kiakhta. Relying on these statements, they asserted that
the original plant of the genuine Rhubarb was still un-
known. This, doubtless, gave a severe blow to the cultiva-
tion of R. palmahim ; and as another Indian species {^R.
australc) was about this time introduced into England,
which appeared to answer better to the Chinese description,
everyone turned their attention to it, and R. palmatum
gradually disappeared from our gardens. It was soon
evident that R. australc furnished but a bad root, and many
authorities, especially Guibourt, луеге firm in their support
of the R. palmatum as the only kind which at all equalled
in appearance and property the genuine Chinese root ; but
the mischief was done and could not be easily repaired, for
though the interest was still as great as ever, it had become
extremely difficult to procure a fresh supply of plants.

It was reserved for Lieut. -Col. Prcjcvalsky to decide
finall}' the I'cxata qiuestio of the parent plant of the

THE GENUINE RHUBARB. 295

Kiakhta or Kan-su Rhubarb in favour of the R. palma-
tum L., he himself having gathered in Kan-su and brought
a quantity of good seed to the Botanical Gardens at St.
Petersburg. To the communication of Colonel Prejevalsky,
(see supra, vol. ii. p. 82) I may add, says Professor Maxi-
m.ovitch, that the dried roots (about 36 lbs.) brought home
by this traveller, after having been carefully analyzed and
tested by our chemists and physicians, entirely agreed with
the best Kiakhta Rhubarb both in internal structure as
well as in the number of the crystals of oxalate of lime, the
quantity of extract obtained from the root, and in the
medicinal effect of the powder and other preparations.
The only apparent difference between them was, that not
having been subjected to a second cleaning and sorting
process, small layers of rind still adhered to these samples,
and the holes through which the string had passed by which
they had been suspended to dry, were of smaller diameter
than those of the Kiakhta Rhubarb, in which all the rind
was carefully scraped off and the holes enlarged in order to
remove all discoloured or bad pieces. The rules for the
cultivation of Rhubarb {R. palmatinii L.), are as follow : —
Plant in light, loose black soil, in a shady situation, and
not exposed to the south ; leave sufficient space for each
plant to develope itself (8 feet), water regularly, for it must
be borne in mind that the climate of Kan-su is damp.
Moreover, I think it necessary to call attention to two other
conditions.

According to an analysis of the (salt) water of Koko-nor,
made by Professor Schmidt of Dorpat, from samples
brought by Colonel Prejevalsky, it was found to be much
richer in salts of lime than other salt water ; and this pro-
perty Professor Schmidt attributes to the lime contained in
the sweet waters which fall into the lake. But since the
medicinal value of the root increases in proportion with the
greater quantity of crystals of oxalate of lime contained in
it, and a good root is immediately ascertained if it grate
between the teeth on being chewed, it follows that hard
(lime-containing) water is essential to its successful cultiva-

29б NOTES.

tion, for it supplies the plant with the lime requisite for the
formation of crystals. Perhaps, it was entirely owing to the
absence of these requisite conditions, that the root of the
R. palmatiim, as formerly cultivated in Europe, did not
grate between the teeth, and was less powerful in operation
than the Chinese Rhubarb of commerce, which it resembled
in every other respect.

Another important circumstance is, that the principal
root becomes so rotten under cultivation, that the less
valuable lateral branches are alone retained for use ; whereas,
the pieces cut from the main root are by far the most
prized. Rain-water accumulates in the cavities formed by
the breaking off and decaying of the flower stalks, from
Avhich it is prevented from running off by the numerous old
leaf sheaths which remain round the Jiilum, or eye, and in
this way causes an ever-deepening and spreading decay.
How this can best be prevented must be left to further
experiments to determine ; the remedies which appear to
be most practical are : cutting away the old leaf sheaths
and withered stalks before they have had time to decay at
the root, and covering or stopping the eye of the stalk.
Perhaps, it would be best not to allow the plants, in general,
to bloom. Nearly all our larger kinds of Rhubarb, not
excepting the R, palmatiim, show in almost every joint of
their root-leaves and of the old stipules numerous embryo
buds, of which only the smallest come to maturity, because
the plants must develop their flower-stalks. But, whilst old
plants hardly ever throw out more than three flower-stalks,
and their principal roots have seldom more than four or
five root-heads, each of which has a corresponding stalk, or
would have, were it not for the obstructing formation of the
stem, which causes them to throw out numerous buds,
these not only add more quickly to the size of the root but
also form a number of shoots. Now it is j'ust this which
causes the marbled appearance with the irregular stellated
spots in the parencJiyma, and the more this is encouraged, so
much the more will that valued structure thrive, which, as
is well known, quite does away with the side branches of

THE GENUINE RHUBARB. 297

the root. This difficulty in the cultivation of the Rheum
palmatum induces me to say a few words of a newer im-
portation— the Rheum officinale.

When the importation through Kiakhta ceased, the
' Brack ' there was useless, and, therefore, done away with ;
and the Muscovite — the best Rhubarb — entirely disappeared
from the market. Henceforward, the Rhubarb was shipped
from the Chinese ports to Europe ; and, owing to the
absence of a ' Brack,' every commodity, good, bad, or in-
different, found purchasers. The consequence was, that a
quantity of inferior, decayed, or badly dried roots, Avith an
admixture of thin pieces cut from the lateral shoots, were
introduced into the trade. The quantity of Kan-su Rhu-
barb likewise diminished in consequence of the disturbed
state of that province. But, inasmuch as the need of a
good article continued as great as ever, and the demand
remained firm, new countries began interesting themselves
in its production, and a new and excellent species from the
southern provinces of China made its appearance in the
markets of Europe. In 1867, the French Consul at Hankau
(on the Yang-tse-kiang), M. Dabry, obtained through tlie
Chinese several growing roots of this good Rhubarb, and
these he forwarded to Paris, where they arrived certainly in
a very bad condition, notwithstanding which, one plant was
raised, which blossomed in 1871, and was described by
Baillon under the name of Rheum offieinale.

This plant exhibited a striking contrast to all kinds of
Rheum, in that it formed ramified stalks above ground, a
foot long and of great thickness, and as no water can
accumulate upon it, it is easily preserved from harm.
Baillon considered it an inhabitant of Eastern Tibet, and
the only genuine parent-plant of the best Chinese Rhu-
barb ; and Fluckiger and Hanbury, as w^e have seen, hastily
accepted it as such.

It is very possible that we may have in this new species
a i)lant which may take the place of the old and less easily
cultivated R. palmatum. But I cannot help remarking,
that every Rheum hitherto introduced among us, as a

298 NOTES.

medicinal plant (even R. vnchdatimi and R. conipactuni), at
first answered admirably, but soon afterwards deteriorated.
It remains then to await the issue of the further cultivation
of this species hitherto propagated in but a few gardens,
and in single specimens. But even admitting that we now
possess two kinds Avhich furnish excellent Rhubarb, the
preference must still be given to R. palmatuvi, since its
genuineness as the parent plant of the Kiakhta Rhubarb
has now been established beyond all doubt, seeing that its
fame dates back" to the times of the Grecian and Arabian
doctors, and that its earlier cultivators have decided, that,
with careful treatment, its root affords an admirable drug.
Let us hold firmly to R. palmatiim, and take care that its
wholesale cultivation does not die out, now that a quantity
of freshly imported seed renders it once more practicable.
Should the R. officinale prove to be an equally valuable
production, we have the choice between the two, unless it
be found that one plant thrives better in a different climate
to the other. As ornamental plants, both have certainly a
future.

THE MANUL (FELLS MANUL OF PALLAS).
P. 187.

This species is intermediate between the cats and the
lynxes, but its tail is much longer than that of the lynx
and its ears are not pencillated. It is said to possess one
tearing tooth fewer than the typical cats ; but still it belongs
to the genus Felis. In its general habits it differs from all
its congeners, being found in bleak and exposed places,
generally among rocks, where it seeks its food by chase
rather than by stratagem. That food consists chiefly of
hares and other rodent animals ; but, true to the habits of
the genus, it preys during the night. It does not climb
trees or enter forests, and, according to all the accounts we
have of it, it differs greatly from the rest of the genus. It
combines with the characters of the cats and lynxes some
at least of the habits of the fox.'

' ' British Cyclopaedia.'

-99

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

THE TALDI.
P. 69-70.

It is obvious that the passage of Palladius which Mr.
Morgan has translated in the footnotes bears no very clear
reference to the Taldi of Col. Prejevalsky. Mr. Ney Elias
remarks on his account of them as follows : —

' The description of these people, as also the locality in
which they occur, corresponds closely w^th Hue's account of
the race he calls Dchiahours. The name of Da/dc^ may
certainly have suffered in copying or printing, but I can
find no approximation to it in any work treating of Western
China ; nor, with the exception of Hue's, it must be added,
of the Dchiahours either. The only specimen of Dchiahours
that I am personally acquainted with is Hue's old servant
" Samdadchiemba," who certainly, as regards language,
corresponds to Prejevalsky's description of the Daldes."^

I transcribe Hue's account, referred to by Mr. Elias :
' The Dchiahours .... occupy the country commonly
called Sau-tcliouan — " Three Valleys," — the native district
of our camel-driver Samdadchiemba. The Dchiahours
have all the rascality and craft of the Chinaman without
his civility and polished language ; so they are feared and
detested by all their neighbours. When they fancy their
rights infringed on it is ahvays with the dagger that they
seek redress. Among them the man held in most honour
is always the one who has committed most murders. They

' So it is written in Col. Prejevalsky"s original letters as published
in the yournal de St. PetershoKrg.
* Proc. Roy. Gcog. Sac, xviii. 84.

Зоо SUPPLEMEXTARY NOTES.

speak a language of their own, which is a medley of Mongol,
Chinese, and East-Tibetan. By their own account they
are of Tartar origin ; and if it be so it may be said that
they have exceedingly well preserved the savage and inde-
pendent character of their forefathers, whilst the manners
of the present people of Mongolia have been singularly
modified and softened.

' Although subject to the Emperor of China, the Dchia-
hours are under the immediate government of a kind of
hereditary sovereign belonging to their own tribe, and
bearing the title of Toii-sse! ' — [Y.]

SI LING AND TON KIR.
Pp. 107 and 119.

What the footnote at p. 107 refers to is this :—

Certain textures of shawl-wool, or resembling it, are
imported from the eastward into Kashmir and Ladak
under the name of SUing. And certain other manufactures
were found by Mr. R. B. Shaw in the markets of Kashgar,
which were stated to come from a region called Zilni.
Knowing from P. della Penna, and other sources, that
Sining-fu was called by the Tibetans Ziliiig or Jiling, ami
by the Mongols Scling Khoto, it seemed to me almost
certain that both the S4ing of Ladak and the Zih>i of
Kashgar, referred to the same place. Mr. Shaw doubted,
from the particulars given him, if Zilm could be so far
east ; but I see by a recent letter that he now accepts the
identity.^

In the footnote at p. r 19, it is indicated that the Tonkir
of the Russian traveller is Hue's Taiig-kcu-cul. The latter
calls it 'a small city, but very populous, and with very

1 ii. 35-36.

^ In the Philos. Transactions, vol. Ixvii. pt. ii. p. 482, in a letter
from Mr. Stewart to Sir John Pringlc, regarding Bogle's mission,
dated March 20, 1777, mention is made oi Scling, as a place to which
the caravans traded. It is also probably the place 'on the river
Sullum,' mentioned by Turner (see Embassy, p. 274).

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 301

great trade. It is a regular Babel ' (ii. 54). The place is
mentioned in P. Orazio della Penna's account of Tibet as
Tongor {jf. Asiat. 2nd S. xiv. 195). And in the Chinese
' Itinerary ' already quoted, we find under the first march
out of Sining-fu : ' Between this and Sining there is a
large lamasery, Dcngcr. In (1727) this became a trade-
centre for all the Mongols west of the Hoang-ho.' — [Y.]

THE KYANG AND THE KULAN.
P. 146.

Some naturalists have distinguished between the Kttlan
of West Turkestan, and the Kyang (or Djiggetai of Pallas)
of Tibet and Mongolia. But it appears from the text
that the Knlan of the Turki-speaking people of Central
Asia is the same as the Kyang of the Tibetans, and of our
Trans-himalayan sportsmen. And this is confirmed by a
passage in Dr. Bellew's * Kashmir and Kashgar ' (p. 400),
from which it appears that a place on the Yanghi Daban
Road is called Knlan Uldi, ' The wild horse (ass .'') died.'
Now I believe there is certainly only one species in the
Trans himalayan region ; indeed, I see in another place
Dr. Bellew says : * We came upon a herd of six or seven
kyang or culan ' (p. 182). — [Y.]

THE TAN GU TANS.
P. log.

Tangut was a kingdom well known by that name in
the Middle Ages, and nearly corresponded to modern
Kansuh in a general way. Indeed Kansuh was, under the
Mongol Emperors (i 260-1 368) the official Chinese name
of the region known to the Mongols and Western Asiatics
as Tangut. It was, however, in the Middle Ages also called
Ho-si, ' Countr)- west of the (Yellow) River ; ' and in a
Perso-Chinesc Dictionar\', made about A.D. 1400, Tangut is
explained by Tlo-si. The bulk of the inhabitants were
of Tibetan blood, and the capital was at Ning-hia, on the

302 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

Yellow River. The country was several times overrun by
Chinghiz-Khan, and on the last occasion (1227) he died
in this country. The name is still, we see, in use among
the Mongols, but it seems often to be applied to the whole
of Tibet. There is something requiring further elucida-
tion about this double application of the name. The
Tangutans of Prejevalsky are those Eastern Tibetans who
are called by the Chinese Si-fan, or ' Western Barbarians.'
They inhabit the district of Koko-nor, and extend also
along the western borders of Szechwan.'

The Sifan are divided in the Chinese accounts of the
frontier states into Black Sifan (probably the Kara-Tangiit
of Prejevalsky) and Yellow Sifan ; the former being derived
from their custom of using tents made of black yak-hair
cloth. The Yellow are stated always to have a prince at
their head who becomes a cleric and wears the yellow robe.
Sifan seems, undoubtedly, often to be employed in Chinese
for people of the Tibetan race generally ; and I suspect
these Yellow Sifan are simply the Tibetans of Tibet, under
the Grand Lama, whilst the Black Sifan are the nomadic
people of Tangut.

The language of the vocabulary given by Prejevalsky
at pp. 136-138 is evidently Tibetan. And this agrees with
what is said in the Chinese papers translated by Grosier :
' The language of Tibet is almost the same as that of
the people called Sifan, and differs only in the meaning
attached to certain words, and in some peculiarities of
pronunciation.' ^

The difficulties of Tibetan spelling, and other uncer-
tainties of transcription by ear, render it hard for any-
one but an expert to make a thorough comparison. But
the following examples will show that the language is
Tibetan : —

' Kovalefsky gives ' Tant^hout ; Ch. Sifan .... pays situe avi
nord et к I'occident de Chen-si province chinoise ; ' but also ' Tanghoiit-
Ichi, connaisseur de la langue Tangoutaine {tibetame).' Delia Penna
speaks of Tibet as being called ' Kingdom of Tangut.'

"^ Desc. Gen. de la Chine; 1785. 410. pp. 150-152.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

English.

Mountain

Lake

Water

Grass

Fire .

Rain

Lightning

Thunder

Heat

Wind

Road

Butter

Meat

Sheep

Fox

Camel

Tobacco

Smoke

Ears

Prejevalsky's

Vocabulary of

Tangutan.

Tibetan.

Ri

Tsd

Chsiu

Rtsa

Ml

Tsiar

Ток

Tsa-tchigeh

Lung

Lam

Marr

Sha

Link

Get

Namung

Do-iva

Rna

Numerals.

Prejevalsky's Tangutan.

Khtsik

Ni

Sum

Bjeh

Rna

Chok

Diun
Dziat
Rgiu
Tsiu-tamba

Ri
Thso
CKhu
Tsa

Me
Char-bba

Tog
Cha
inLimg
Lam
Mar
Jsha
Ltig
Kwa
xHa-mong

Dii-tva
xNa-iva

etc. etc.

Jaeschke's Tibetan.

chig

nyi (s)

sum

zhi

nga
jdhug ^
i dshug-

dun

gyad

gu, rgu^

chu, or chu-tham-pa

It may be noted that both Black and Yellow Sifan
appear to have been visited by Friar Odoric as early as
i\\e or thereabouts. He says, in quitting Kansau x.c
Ke'njan-fu or Shensi : ' I came to a great kingdom called

. Partly from Jaeschke's Romanised Tibetan -f^.^^f^l^fj''-
Kyelang in Lahoul, .866 ; partly from Klaproth's As^ Polyglotta.
'^ Asia Polyglot la.

304 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

Tibet, which is on the confines of India Proper, and is
subject to the Great Khan. They have in it great plenty
of bread and wine as anywhere in the world. The folk of
that country dwell in tents made of black felt. But the
chief and royal city is all built with walls of black and
white, and all its streets are very well paved. In this city
no one shall dare to shed the blood of any, whether man or
beast, for the reverence they bear to a certain idol which is
. there worshipped. In that city dwelleth the Abassi, i.e. in
their tongue, the Pope, who is head of all the idolaters, and
who has the disposal of all their benefices, such as they
are, after their manner.' This is very curious, as showing
that there was a Grand Lama (at Lhassa .'') recognised as
Pope of Lamaism many years before the period assigned
to the establishment of the spiritual dynasty of the Dalai
Lama as now existing. — [Y].

THE DUNCANS.

P. 122.

There is no need to add to what has been written about
these Tungaiii, whom Russian ears apparently transform
into Dungans. The name does no; seem to be applied in
any sense of race, but simply to be the popular name by
which Chinese MaJwvnnedans are known among the Turki-
speaking people of Central Asia, and on the Russian
frontier.

The earliest mention of it that I have met with is in
Tzzat UUah's * Itineraries,' published in the seventh volume
of the ' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society ' (p. 310). The
name also occurs thus in Burnes : —

' These soldiers (of the Chinese garrisons in Kashgar)
are drawn from the tribe of Toonganee, who claim relation-
ship to the army of Alexander ; they are Mahommcdans
from the adjacent provinces, but dress as Chinese.' '

And in Mr. Wathen's ' Notes on Chinese Tartary,'
derived from certain pilgrims who passed through Bombay
to Mecca in 1835, we find the following: —

' Tfn7'c/s to Tok/inra, \?,T,\; ii. 229.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 305

' The Tungani live in the country, the chief towns of
which are Salar and Sairam. Alexander the Great is said
to have penetrated as far as Salar, and to have left a
colony of his soldiers in the country, from whom the
Tiinganis are descended. They derive the name from
several Turkish and Persian words signifying " left behind,"
" looking back," &c.' ' This shows how old is the question
of the obscure etymology of the name. The most pro-
bable seems to be that assigned by Vambery, from a
Turki word signifying ' a convert.' — [Y.]

RED AND YELLOW LAMAS.
P. 151.

Col. Prejevalsky's definition of the radical difference
between these would better have been described as loose,
than as ' not to be relied on.' Some notion of the distinc-
tion may be obtained by reading what is said about
Tsong-kaba's reform of Lamaism, in the Introduction.
Marriage of the clergy Avas admitted by the Red, or un-
reformed. Lamas in some cases, and under some restric-
tions. But it does not appear that it is by any means a
general or present characteristic of them. Ladak, Bhutan,
and Sikkim are nurseries of the Red Sect, since the pre-
dominance of the Yellow in Tibet Proper. — [Y.]

DIFFICULTY AS TO FIRES AT GREAT ALTITUDES.

P. 183.

Marco Polo notices this in his account of Pamir ; and a
note on that passage (2nd ed. i. p. 187) gives some remarks
on the subject by Humboldt, and some of the experience
of my friend Col. Montgomerie, R.E. — [Y.]

^ Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, iv. 655.

VOL. II.

зоб SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

THE MURUI-USSU, THE TIBETAN SOURCE OF THE
YANGTSE-KIANG.

P. 221.

The Chinese seem generally to regard the River Min,
which flows through the city of Chingtu-fu, and joins the
Yangtse at that of Siu-chau-fu, as the true river. But
there is no question that the river which comes from Tibet
is much the longer, and probably little question that it is
also much the larger. The Dutchman, Samuel Van de
Putte, who travelled from Lhassa to Peking in the earlier
part of last century, wrote to the Italian priests at Lhassa,
that when crossing the river upon that journey he started
in a boat of hide one morning, passed the night up%i-n a
small island in the river, and did not achieve the com-
pletion of the passage till the middle of the following day.'

The ' Tangutan ' name given as Di-cJm in the text
should probably be Bi-cJiu. Bi-tsiu, or Bhri-tsiu, ' the
River of the Yak-cow,' is the Tibetan name, and this is
almost certainly the origin of the name Brins.^ that Marco
Polo gives to the river. The Mongol name Mnrui-iissn
means, not ' River-water,' as the author says, but ' Winding
River.' The Chinese name down to Siu-chau is Kinsha-
Kiang or Gold-sand River. — [Y.]

' Journ. Asiatique, 2nd series, xiv. 191-192. A curious notice
of this Dutch traveller has just appeared in Mr. Markham's work
upon Tibet.

PREJE VA LSK Y'S OBSER VA TIONS.

307

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■S a'S 6 3 ^ «^ ;?

u 3 Л ^'-' о n! <5 ci

X 2

3o8

PREJEVALSKY'S OBSERVATIONS.

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H

<:
>

w

p
о

СЛ

>^

СЛ

<
>

Ы
t— >

W
P^
Pi

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Ы

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о
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Ш ШГ^ООМООЮ гпм Ю'ФММОГ^ »л

, го C^wrofONwOr^ l^ro -^t^rOI^OOO, ,СО

- а

а т|- 1ЛОО oo^mfofo-* ^Ч! «!>-"'-' "^-ю | '^i

л--'

tC о rococo uS^d" t-Tin ■^'^ rn '^ •^ en IT, -^ '•■

bJD с1

д"-

kh к

■- а а

G "

SU S

ro '- Ov M

1 ? >S & ll;

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m f^ f^ Ci

b <U о 3

о •-. 1Л U)

X

•S д

o> o\ «

.у ^

1 ^ %i> Ъ

I W in rj-

1) rj

°„ 0 О

с с

N MO

ьл

1 • • 1 1 • ■

п!

S

„ „^j^ ro

Ы M M "^ ^

rt

чо" ol -фОО* rovo'vo'co" -ф сГ рГ гл м" м" -ФСО ю" >-«" го гп

Q

х:

^'Srto^i----^ С- .М...-g....

3 a^S oa).-.jj b- -3---tr---

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00 0 "0 00 00

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J5

oooo со oo

м CN СТ VD "ФО \D vo

00 o\--o> o-o oo

►J

OON " "0\ ooin

c^юм^o гл,л ПО"

^

roM " -^ m nSSui

!-•

GOO о oo OOO

О

\0 t^ 1^ ЧЭ -^ N -ф ^O

iz:

roro rO'-m ro■s^-■••■^^■*

■ -^ "3 • --s • •&

" . 3 с '3

rt w 2 « 5

. .^ . . .^ . . . 4 E . .^ . . . .

..^. J... J. Ipl.l....

2й^■o o^ s ?:s:£>b s ^

III =-1^1^ 2" 1^^'^° ^ „

•sllii.^lpiil^sh-li^ll^ll

wH.j fSaQs^Kii^j *^S papiHHl^OHUi

INDEX.

AIM

A I МАК. the word, i. 84
Ala-shan, xxix, i. 17, 25, 28,
40, 62, 72, 121, 122, 143, 153,
174 seq., 193, 221, 231-270 ; its
mountains,]. 256-269; ii. 56, 259
-266 ; divisions, i. 238 ; prince,
241 seqq.\ ii. 2seqq., 11, 13, 34
seqq. ; Southern, 53, 74, 78, 1 23 ;
return to, 254

Alai steppe, xxi

Alatau, ii. 236

Alexander the Great, ii. 304 seq.

Almanack, Mongol, i. 65

Altai range, i. 166

All in temple, ii. 104

Amban, or governor, i. 242 seqq.,
247 seq.; interview with, 253
seqq.

Amitaoha, xxxv, xxxvii

Amneh (ancestors), the sacred
peaks, ii. 76

Amur R. and country, i. 160, 170 ;

ii- 57, 78, 79, 84

Anguli-nor, lake, i. 33

Antelope, steppe- {Antilopeguttii-
rosa), i. 20, 28 ; ii. 61 ; shoot-
ing, i. 29 seq. ; first sight of, 31 ;
mountain- (^. caudata), 156
seq.\ black-tailed {^A. sud-
giitturosa), 197, 207 seqq.; ii.
49; orongo- {A. Hodgsoni), 187,
204 ; superstitions regarding,
207 ; horns of, 223 ; ata or little
{A. picticaudd), 187, 208 seq.

Ara-Bautu, see Bautu

Ara-mirgin-gol K.,\. 168, 173

Arbus-ula range, i. 221, 257

Argali, i. 139-142 ; shooting, 140
seq. ; its range, 142 ; ii. 5 ; the
white-breasted, 201 seqq.

Arnold, Matthew, xvii

Ata-dzeren, see Antelope

•Atmosphere, dryness of, ii. 36 ;
effects of rarefied, xvii seqq.,
178, 183, 305

BOR

BACTRIAN Camel, see Camel
Baga-Khatun, i. 187, 198

Baian-gol R., ii. 166, 171, 175

Baian-kara-ula range, xv, ii. 181,
221

Baikal lake, ii. 84, 281

Baldin-Sordji, i. 245 seq., 249,
250, 253 ; ii. I, 36, 38, 43

Baiidi, a rank of clergy, i. 79

Banik-Koksum, ii. 152

Banner, legend of White, i. 204
seq.

Barkul, i. 86 ; ii. 69

Bargaining, dumb, i. 145, 284

Barun-kung, a territorial division,
i. 144

Bashpa Lama, i. 280

Bathar-Sheilun temple, i. 155
seq., 158

BaiDiisteitismus, universal pan-
acea, ii. 164 seq.

Bautu, town of, i. 158, 172 ; expe-
dition enters, 174 ; military
quartered at, 177 ; 183, 186,
187, 193, 195 ; ii-3, 4, 10, II,
276

Bayan Tsumbur Mt., i. 257

Bears, ii. 249 seqq.; three kinds
in Russia, 251

Beggars, Mongol, i. 14 ; of Peking,

91
Bellew, Dr., ii. 301
Bergmann, referred to, i. 194
Birch, black, i. 7, 160 ; white, 7,

160, 259, 261; red-barked, ii. 78
Birds, see Ornithology
Blyth, the naturalist, referred to,

ii. 146
Bodhisatvas, xxxv, i. 282
Bogdo-kuren, i. 8, 15
Bogle, i. 281, 286 ; ii. 300
Boots, of yak-hide, ii. 215
Boro-sondji well, ii. 271
Boro-tohui, a. I\Iongol name for

Ordos, i. 196

3IO

INDEX.

BOR

CRO

Bortson well, ii. 276
Botanical gardens, of St. Peters-
burg, i. 95, 96
Bread, leavened, ii. 58
Brehm, the naturalist, referred to,

ii. 239
Budar/iana, a desert shrub, i.

19, 122, 235; ii. 55, 159, 269
Buddha, image of, i. 9, 21 1; ii. 71
Buddha-La, i. 274, 275
Buddhas, incarnate, xxxiii seqg.
Buddhism, xxxii seq., i. 74
Buguk-gol R., ii. 107
Bugutui Mt., i. 257 seqq.; ii. 262
Bugutui-gol R., i. 258
Bukha-nor lake, ii. 182
Bulun-tokhoi, ii. 123, 126
Buriat, see Cossack
Burkhan-Buddha range, xv scq.,

ii. 74, 166, 174 seqq.; the name,

175 ; 177, 201, 213, 224
Burnes, ii. 304
Bushell, Dr., referred to, xxi, i.

105, 283
Buzzard {Buteo ferox), i. 27

CALACHAN, see Ning-hia-fu
Camels, caravans of, i. 36
seq.\ their flesh used as food,
43 ; the two-humped or Bac-
trian, 120-131 ; breeds of, 121 ;
their habits, 121 seq.\ food, 122;
endurance, 123 ; timidity, 124 ;
rearing, 124 ; training, 125 ;
loads, 126 ; rate of travel, 127 ;
coat-shedding, 127 ; ailments,
128, 130 ; uses, 129 ; treatment
of, 130 ; their aversion to \vater,
179 ; loss of, by expedition, ii.
16 seqq. ; their sufferings from
damp, 98 ; wild, xxvi seqq.., 169
seq.

Caragana, a flowering shrub, i.
190, 259 ; ii. 80, 86 seq.., 260,
262

Caravan, Colonel Prejevalsky's re-
organisation of, i. 133 seq., 216

Carelin, j\I., ii. 236

Carp, ii. 32 seq.

Cart, Chinese, i. 4

Cattle, prices of, in Mongolia, i.
57 ; importance of, 149 ; wild,
2 1 2 seqq.

Chadau (Chatow), i. 44 seqq.

Chagan-kuren, i. 174
Cliagan-7ior, i. 283
Chagrin-gol R., ii. 61, 63
Cha-ho R., i. loo
Chakhars and their country, i.
26, 32 seq., 84, 117, 143 ^'-'q-y
152, 169, 184, 203
Chang-kia-kou, see Kalgan
Chebayeff, Pamphile, a Cossack,

ii. 25, 67
Cheng-ta-fu, district of, i. 85, 103
Chertinton temple, ii. 67, 76, 83,

96, 233, 242
Chihli, see Pechihli
Chinese mob, i. 150 seq., 176 seq.
Chinese swindling, i. 37
Chinese year and cycle, i. 27S seq.
Chinghiz-Khan, his sepulchre, i.
16, 181, 205 ; traditions con-
cerning, 167, 194, 203, 216,
221, 279 ; ii. 302
Chingtu-fu, ii. 306
Chobsen, temple of, ii. 38 seq., 47,
58, 67 seq., 70 seqq.; militia at,
65, 72, 98 ; arrival at, -J^, 98 ;
dangerous position at, 100 seq.;
departure from, 103 ; siege of,
127 scq.; return to, 230, 233
Choh'Ji or click (copper coin), ii. 3
Chorchi, temple of, i. 137
Christianity in Mongolia, i. 83, 134
Chulkan (assembly of tribes), i. 85
Chutun-dzamba, Mongol guide,

ii. 172 seq., 219 seq.
Clouds, rainless, ii. 267
Coal-beds in the Ala-shan range,

i. 259
Compradors, i. 40 scq.
Cofwo/znthts tragacanthoidesy a

prickly shrub, i. 235
Conveyance in Mongolia, modes

of, i. 4
Cookery, Chinese, i. 43
Cooper, T. Т., xxxii
Copper currency, inconvenience

of, i. 97 seq.
Cossacks, i. 95, 99, 123, 133, 147,

201, 217, 222, 229; ii. 25 seqq.
Cotoneaster, ii. 261
Cranes, flocks of, ii. 102
Crossoptilon auritum, see Long-
eared Pheasant
Crows of the Gobi, their rapacity,
i. 21, 22

INDEX.

3"

cso

FOR

Csoma de Koros, i. 284
Cycle, of Mongols, i. 65 seq.
Czar's officer, ii. yj, 52

7~)ABAN, the word, i. 6, 274

J-^ Dabry, Л1., ii. 297

Dalai Lama, xxxv seq., i. 1 1, 12, 76
scg.; stories about, 250 ; ii. 141,
150, 154, 185, 304

Dalai-nor lake, i. 99, 106 seqq.\
description of, 108 scqq.\ wild
fowl on, no, 115

Damsuk Mongols, ii. 152

D'Anville, his map referred to,
i. 102

Daphne Altazca, ii. 243

Darhan-bil, a territorial division,
i. 144

Darhan-ula temple, i. 109

David, Armand, the French
naturalist, xx, xxxix ; his dis-
coveries, i. 168

Dchiahours, ii. 299 seq.

Dead, disposal of, i. 14, 82

Deer, i. 261 seq.

Deguignes, referred to, i. 180, 184

Delia Penna, O. P. ,11.300,301,302

Demchuk lake, ii. 95 seq.

Dhyani Buddhas, xxxv

Di-chu, ii. 221, 306

Digarchi, xxxvi

Ding-hu, town of, xxiii, i. 183, 187,
196, 215 ; arrival at, 220 seq. ;
description of, 222, 257; ii. 10

Din-yuan-ing, town of, xxiv ; i. 238
seq.; arrival at, 241 ; appearance
of, 242, 246, 269 ; departure
from, ii. I seq., 9, 36 seq., 45,
255, 258 seq., 266 seq.

DirisHH, kind of grass, i. 19, 122;
ii. 10, 12, 159

Dirisun-khoto, ii. 255

Djanji, the Gigen, ii. 47, 71

Djaratai-dabas, lake bed of salt,
ii. 2 seqq., 159 seq., 268

Djasaktu-Khan, i. 15

Djuldjig, Col. Prejevalsky's Mon-
gol guide, i. 172, 220, 222, 239

Djung-hng, town of, ii. 58, 63,

123, 134
Dolon-nor, xxi, i. 9, 99, 102 ; ar-
rival at, 105 ; its idol foundry,
106 ; height of, 104 ; position of,
105,284; ii. 71

Dugiini (oratories), i. 76

Dulan-gol R., ii. 160

Dulan-kit, ii. 160, 163, 166

Dungans, and their insurrection,
i. 12, 15, 62, 82, 94, 197 seq.,
210, 222, 238, 251, 259 ; ii. 8
seq., II, 40, 43 seqq., 51, 60
seqq., 98 seqq.; encounter with,
105 ; insurrection, 122-136,
252 ; thename, i 22, 276, 2,o^seq.

Durban-oirad, or the Four Allies,
i. 231

Durbutes, i. 117, 144

Dust-storms, i. 118 seq.; ii. 35,
2 1 8 seq.

Dzamba, or barley meal, ii. 71

Щ-ПЪ, 119 •5'^?-
Dzara (hedgehog), see Convolvu-
lus
Dzeren, see Steppe Antelope
Dzungaria, i. 61 ; divisions of, 84,
86, 232, 277

EAGLE, i. 27 ; fishing, 197
Egngaya, see Ning-hia-fu
Eleuths, i. 231 seq., lyj ; four

clans of, 231 ; ii. 149, 152
Elias, Ney, referred to, xv, xxi,

xxii, i. 277, 285 ; ii. 126, 168, 299
Elms, in the Urute country, ii. 273
El-shi-siang-fu, ii. 1 34 seq.
Emperor of China, ii. 135 seq.
Ethnology, notices of, i. 47-89 ;

ii. 109-138
Etsina R., i. 232 ; ii. 53, 75, 107, 202
Etzina, city of, i. 232
Exploration in Asia, progress of,

ix seqq.

FACE, the, Tibetan custom of
dyeing, ii. no seq.
' Faust,' Colonel Prejevalsky's set-
ter, \y 6, 133, 150, 217, 224; ii.
26 ; death of, 268 seqq.
Fedchenko, Alexis and Olga, xxi
Ferries across Hoang-ho, i. 215
Fish in Lake Dalai, i. 109 ; in
Hoang-ho, 197, 215 ; in Koko-
nor, ii. 141
Flood, sudden, ii. 264
Floods in China, i. 271 seq.
Flora, of Munni-ula, i. 162 ; of

highlands of Kan-su, ii. "]"}
' Foreign de\ils,' Kwei-tze, epithet

312

INDEX.

FOR

HOD

applied by Chinese to Euro-
peans, i. 42, 91, 230

Forsyth's expedition referred to,
XX, i. 236

Fox, steppe {CcdUs Corsac), ii. 211
scq.

Fritsche's observations, i. 17, 308 ;
ii. 307 seq.

Fuss and Bunge, their observa-
tions, 17

GABET, Hue's companion, xi
scq д., i. 39, 185

Gadjur Mt., ii. 63, 76, 94 seq.;
hike near sumniit of, 95 ; legend
concerning, 96, 250

Galdan Khan, of Dzungaria, i. 232

Gandjiir (Kanjur), sacred litera-
ture of Buddhism, i. 75, 211,
272 seq.

Gflj"^ country, ii. 168

Gaubil, Pore, referred to, ii. 169

Gaii-dji-iuH, Chinese settlement,
i. 103

Geographical Society (of Russia),
i. 95,96; ii. 27

Gerbillon and Verbiest, Jesuit mis-
sionaries, referred to, i. loi, 183

Chat, the word, i. 275

Ghorkhar, wild ass of Persia, ii.
146, 148

Gigens, xxxviii scq., i. 12, 76 scq. ;
miracles performed by, 149, 251
seq.,2J\^, 275 ; ii. 40, 41 scq., 47

Gissar Khan, i. 194

Gmelin, the naturalist, named, i.

195

Goat mountain {Capra Sibirica),
ii. 275

Gobi desert ; the name, i. 16 ;
height, 17 ; character, 18; in-
habitants, 20 scqq. ; terrors of,
194, 231 scq. ; ii. 5 seq., 74;
winter in the, 22 ; route across,
271 scq. ; the Galpin, 2^2 scqq. ;
Central, 278 scqq. ; trade routes
in, 276, 280 seq.

Gol (river), the word, i. 6

' Gnloss' newspaper, ii. 258

Gordon, Colonel, ii. 133

Gossip, love of, i. 68

Grass, poisonous, ii. 81

Great Wall of China, i. 34. 38 scq. ;
45, 84, 93, 100, 103, 181 ; ii. 56

Grosvenor, Hon. Т., xxi

Grueber and Dorville, i. 2S2, 283

Giichin-gurbu sand hills, i. 107
seq.

Giidjir, a saline efflorescence, i.
122 ; ii. 227

Guibourt, French pharmacologist,
referred to, ii. 85, 294

Gungir-gol R., i. 109

Gurbu-iiaidji, Snowy Mts., ii. 182

Gurcssii gadzir, Mongol name for
Northern Tibet, ii. iSo

Gushi-Khan, prince of Mongolia,
ii. 152

Gwan-kau pass, i. 45

Gyps Himalaycnsis,sce Snow Vul-
ture

TTADAKI, Khata (scarves),
-^ -^ interchange of, i. 73, 280

scq. ; ii. 121
Halicctos Macci,see Fishing Eagle
Haliutai R., i. 153 seq. ; ii. 4, 13
Hami, ii. 169, 276, 290
H anbury and Fliickiger, referred

to,i. 191 ; ii. 85, 292, 297
Hanga-nor lake, i. 109
Hangin-daban, ii. 281
Hankau, tea plantations near, i.

35 ; Russian firms at. 40 ; ii. 267
Hares, i. 8, 107, 164, 197 ; Alpine,

8, 26 scqq. ; ii. 251, 282
Heat, intense, i. 199, 217; ii. 297

seq.
Heeley, Mr. Wilfred, i. 281
Hchliing, a rank of clergy, i. 79
HeJitsul, a rank of clergy, i. 79
He-shui, sec Shara-muren
Himalayas, i. 75, 'j'j
H imping temple, i. 168
Hoang-ho (Yellow River), i. 25,

28, 39,46,85,99, 137, 150,153;

first glimpse of, 154, 180; valley

of, 173, 183, 189, 193, 195, 203,

206, 221, 231, 240, 271, 284;

ii. 5, 8, 13; ferries across, i.

178 seq.; course of, 184 seq.,

188 ; described, 186 seqq. ;

channels of, 188 seq. ; ii. li

scq. ; 35, 53 ; left bank, 10 ;

sources, 180
Ho-chau, i. 1S4 ; ii. 149
Hodgson, Mr., now Sir Brian H.,

i. 273

INDEX.

313

HOL

KHA

Holeh-gol, small stream, i. 109

Home news, ii. 258

Ho-nan, see Ordos

Hooker, Dr., referred to, ii. 249

Horns, stag's, Chinese demand for,

i. 170, 261
Horse-racing, i. 117
Horses, steppe, i. 116 seq.; wild,

xxvii, ii. 170
Ho-tau, i. 1S4
Hue's travels referred to, xi seqq.,

i- 39,70, 137, 174, 185, 210, 274,

276, 281 ;ii. 3, 58, 119, 121,123,

139 seq., iS2, 155, 156 158,160,

167, 175, 178, 185, 221, 299;

his veracity, xiv seqq., xxxiii
Humboldt, Alexander von, referred

to, i. 198 ; ii. 2S6, 305
Hume, the naturalist, referred to,

ii. 236
Hurku hills, ii. 272, 274, 275

seq.
Hwang-cheng, Imperial town of

Peking, i. 92
Hwei-hwei, see Dungans
Hwen-thsang, i. 284
Hyacinthe, Pere, referred to, i. 77,

84, 87, 92

TBN BATUTA, i. 2S5

i Hi R., i. 232 ; province of, ii.

56. 290
Images, colossal, at Urga, i. 9
Inns, Chinese, i. 42 seq., 246
In-shan range, i. 153 seqq., 173,

185, 186 ; ii. 5, 264, 275
Interpreter of the expedition sent

back, i. 5 ; want of a good, xxix,

66
Irgai, Irghai, see Ning-hia-fu
Irinchinoff, Dondok, a Cossack,

ii. 25
Iro R., i. 7
Irtish R., i. 83, 231
Izzat UUah's ' Itineraries,' ii. 304

T ACKDAWS, i. 8
J Jaeschke's ' Tibetan Diction-
ary,' ii. 303
Japanese goatsucker, ii. 90
Japanese owl, i. 165
Jehol, summer residence of Em-
peror, i. 102 •

Jesuits, i. 45

Juniper, a sacred tree, ii. 78 seq.,
261

KAI-FONG-FU, i. 185
Kalgan, ix, xxi ; the word,
i. 34 ; described, 34 seq. ; mer-
chants at, 40 seq. ; road to Pek-
ing from, 42 seqq. ; 59, 68, 99,
105, 115, 126, 133, 181; 11. I
seq., 5 ; return to, 22 seq., 26
seqq., 4 1, 56
Kalmaks, or Kalmucks, i. 231,

237
Kamba, a rank of clergy, i. 79
Kambi-nansu, Tibetan envoy, ii.

^54 . .. ,

Kan-chau, town, 1. 232 ; u. 56, 59,

73, 75, '23, 292

Kangai, or hilly region, ii. 281

Kanghi, Emperor, i. 16, 61, 106,
183, 232

Kanjur, see Gandjur

Kan-su, province of, i. 25, 40, 78,
79, 86, 122, 128, 130, 180, 232;
ii. 38, 47, 53, 59 ; the mountains,
24, 55, 59 -y^Y-, 74 ^eqq., 201 ;
climate, 76 seq., 252 seqq.; flora,
77 seqq. ; fauna, 87-92 ; bound-
aries, 69 ; inhabitants, 69 ; hu-
midity, xxxi-ii, 93, 231 ; rebel-
hon in, 122, seqq. ; governors of,
151, 171 ; the name, 292, 301

Karagol R., i. 6, 7

Kara-kung (black folk), the com-
mon people, i. 62 seq.

Kara-Moriteh, spring of, ii. 2, 4

Kara-)nure?i, see Hoang-ho

Kara-narin-ula range, i. 153 seq.;
ii. \seq., 7 seq., 272

Kara-nor lake, ii. 166

К ara-siilta, see Black-tailed An-
telope

Kara-takia, sec Pheasant

Kara-Tangutans, ii. 149 л^^.

Karmyk,i. 235 ; ii. 34, 55 ; berries
used as food, 167

' Karza,' Col. Prejevalsky's Mon-
gol dog, ii. 26 seq., 37

Kashgar, ii. 300

Keshiktch-murren, i. 258

Keshikten, principality of, i. 106,
117

Khalkas and their country, i. 3,

314

INDEX.

КНА

LAN

I5j ЪЪЛ1 ^<^ЧЧЛ ii- 1 16 ; invasion
of, i. 62 ; rate of travel, 64 ; lan-
guage, 67 ; territorial divisions,
84; their horses, 117 ; camels,
121 ; the name, 232 ; ii. 149,
272, 278 seq.

Khan-ola mount, its sanctity, i.
16, 205 ; ii. 283

Khan-ula Mts. (Haldzyn-bur-
gontu), ii. 4, 268

Khassar, the archer, see Gissar
Khan

К hat a, see Hadaki

Khatun-gol (Lady's River), i. 203

Khingan range, i. 104

Khotens, see Chinese Soldiers

Khubilghan, xxxvi

Khubina (water casks), ii. 27

Kiakhta, characteristics of, i. i
seqq. ; departure from, 6 ; ii.
70, 83, 284, 293 seqq.

Kia-King, Emperor, i. 102 ; his
death, 103

Kia-yui-kwan fortress, ii. 56

Kien-long, Emperor of China, i.
102, 273

Kiepert's Asia referred to, ii. 123

Klleh, the word, ii. 143

Kinsha-Kiang, ii. 306

Kiri-nor, lake, i. 137

Kitai-gorod, i. 44

Klaproth, referred to, i. 75, 84,
272, 277 ; ii. 303

Kobdo, town of, i. 59, 62 ; ii, 20,
123, 126

Koeppen, referred to, xxxiii, i. 76,
275, 281 seq.

Koir-Bogdo Mt., ii. 35

Koites, ii. 149

Koko-nor, lake and district, xv,
i. 25, 28, 56,64,67,72, 84, I'o,
.1S4, 269; ii. 8, 22, 24, 27, 36,
2,Zseqq., 58, 74, 85, 100 ; arrival
at, 107 ; the lake described,
139-157 ; the word, 139 ; legend
of the lake, 141 seqq. ; admin-
istration, 153 ; tish, 228 ; moun-
tains, 158 seq. : the lake in
spring, 225-230; water of, ii. 295

Kolo-djoro,the bird of the desert,
i. 236 ; ii. 159

Kolo-sun-nur, ii. 32

Konkir Mt., ii. 76, 107

Korchin tribes, i. 194

Koshu7igs, or territorial divisions,

i. 84 seq., 144
Kosin lake, ii. 96
Kovalefsky, i. 275, 276 ; ii. 302
Kublai-Khan, i. 67, 106, 279, 280,

284
Kuen-lun range, ii. 182
Kuku-Khoto, xxii, i. 59, 85, 105,

133,144,153,188; ii. 1б^<,^.,27б,

28o seq., 290
Kuku-shih Mts., ii. 181
Kuku-yafnan, see Mountain Sheep
Kulan, or wild ass, xxvii, ii. 146

seqq., 167, 168, 301
Kuliang Mt., ii. 55
Kulja, ii. 276
Kumbum, xiii, xxxiv, i. 79 ; ii. 155

seqq.
Kumiss (tarasKJii), i. 54, 276
Kunduling-gol R., ii. 13
Kiing-gtiressii, i.e. ' man-beast,'

see Bears
Ku-peh-kau, i. 100 seq.; height

above sea-level, 104; ii. 56
Kurai-hundu, i. 206, 210
Kurei-hundu, i. 206
Kurile tea, see Potentilla
Kutukhtu, xxxviii ; or Great Lama

of Urga, i. 9, II, 12, 13 ; cere-
monial observed before, 75 ;

his rank, 76 ; ordination by,

79 ; legend of, 165 seqq. ; ii. 46

seq., 257
Kiiyiti-cheng, ruins of, ii. 70
Kuzupchi sands, i. 186, 189, 190,

192 seqq., 210, 215, 220, 233;

ruins in, 216
Kwei-hwa-cheng, see Kuku-Khoto
Kyang, xxvii, ii. 301

LADAK, ii. 300, 305
Lagojiiys Tibeta7ius, ii. 88
Lamas, at Urga, i. 11 ; their doc-
trines, 1 1 ; food, 56 ; service
performed by, 75 ; clergy, or,
78 seqq. ; Donir-, ii. 47 ; at
Chobsen, 71 seq. ; red and
yellow sects, xxxiv seqq., ii.

305

Lamaism, x.Zoseq. ; and Roman-
ism, xxxiii seq.

Lama-miau, or Dolon-nor, i. 105

Lammergeier, ii. 241

Lan (Hang), value of, i. 5 ; ii. 3, т^)

INDEX.

315

LAN

Lang-chau, town of, ii. 56, 75, 123

Lang-hwaisa ferr>', i. 179

Larks, i. 8, 25, 197, 236 ; Mongol,

2\seqq. ; great, ii. I45;2I2, 230
LarvcC of gad-fly in antelope, ii. 207
Latitude, fatigue in determining,

i. 115
Lespcdesa, ii. 79
Lhassa, i. 11, 76, 78 ; road to, 128,

276; ii. 222; 47, 103, 141, 154,

304, 306
Liang, called by Col. Prejevalsky

Ian, i. 96
Liang-chu mount, ii. 55, 60
Linnaeus, ii. 293
Linnets, i. 8 ; ii. 212
Liquorice, i. 191
Li-vang-ti ferry, i.. 198
Lizards, i. 193, 236, 237
Lob, xxvii, xxviii
Lob, Lake, xxix, i. ij; ii. 155, 166,

168
Longitude, no means of fixing, i.

Lontcera car id га ^ ii. 79
Luan-ho, see Shandu-gol R.

MACGAHAN, author of
' Campaigning on the

Oxus ' referred to, i. 234
Mahommedans at Kalgan, i. 35 ;

in China, ii. 124, 304; their

cowardice and cruelty, 126 seq.
Maidari (Maitreya), the future

Buddha, i. 9
Mailla Pere, i. 271
Maimaicheng, i. 8
Manchu country, i. 232
Manchus, their conquest of China,

i. 49
Mandarins, interviews with, i. 174

seqq., 222 seqq.
Manhadai range, i. 7
Manipe, i. 282
Manul, the {Fells Afaiiul), ii.

187, 289, 298
Map-making, i. 114
Marmots, i. 164; ii. 54, 88, 247, 282
Martens, sand-, i. 236
Matches, Viennese, in China, ii.

94

Matrenitsky, Mr., i. 40
Maximovitch, Professor, ii. 79, 85,
291

MUN

Medicine, Tibetan, ii. 156
Merchants, Russian, at Kalgan,

i-35

Mianeh, ii. 290

Min R. ii., 306

Ming dynasty, i. 232

Mirage, ii. 280

Missionaries, Protestant, i. 35 ;
Roman Catholic, 134-136

Missions, Russian, at Peking, i.
3, 92 ; foreign, lb.

Mohl, M. Jules, xi

Mongolia, rate of travel in, i. 64 ;
its boundaries, 83 ; divisions,
84 ; princes, 86 ; its population,
87 ; nobles, 88

Mongol, alphabet, i. 280 ; orien-
tation, 277

Mongols, Chinese impositions on,
i. 2)7 '■> their costume, 49 ; un-
cleanliness, 51 ; domestic uten-
sils, 52 ; food and beverages,
52 seqq. ; gluttony, 55, 56, 276 ;
importance of cattle to, 57 seq. ;
their indolence, 58 ; horseman-
ship, 59 ; physical capabilities
and defects, 60 ; cow'ardice, 61 ;
sagacity and obtuseness, 62 ;
curiosity, 63 ; modes of saluta-
tion, 63, 72 ; distances, how
calculated by, 64 ; their lan-
guage, 66 seq. ; songs, 69 ;
marriage customs, 69, 70 ;
domestic relations, 71 ; hospi-
tality, 72 seq.; religion, 74, 149 ;
superstitions, 81 ; disposal of
dead, 82 ; organisation, 84 j-^$^.;
princes, 86 seq. ; their classes,

87 ; laws, 88 ; military service,

88 ; venality, 144 ; traffic with,
147 ; their invasions of China,
1 82 seq.\ of Ala-shan, 237 seq.\
of Koko-nor, ii. 150 seqq.;
Princess, 161

Montgomerie, Col., his pundits,

xix ; ii. 305
Moorcroft, ii. 146
Aloschus fnoschl/erus, see Deer
Moscow, i. 44
Mosquitoes, ii. 167
Mountain-ash, ii. 78
Mukhur range, i. 7
Munhu-tsu, Mongol name for

Lhassa, ii. 185

3i6

INDEX.

MUN

PLA

Munni-ula range, i. 153, 158-173;
height, 159; its peaks, 159;
trees, 160 ; flora, 160 seqq.\
fauna, 164 seq.; legends of, 166
seq.; sport in, 171 seq. ; 187
seqq., 204, 212 ; ir. II, I3, 29
seqq., 36, 79, 263

Murui-ussu R., XV, xxix, ii. 180,
181, 221, 222, 306

Mur-wang, ii. 153

Murzasak, banner, ii. 100 seq.,
106, 107, 129

NAN-KAU, town, i. 45 seq.;
range, 100
Nan-shan Mts., ii. 75, 144, 158
Napchitai-ulan-muren R., ii. 221

seq.
Napchu village, ii. 152, 184
Nei-cheng, inner town of Peking,

i. 9 1 seq.
Ngan-si-chau, ii. 169
Nimgan, a territorial division, i.

144
Nim-pi, town of, ii. 69, 102, 134
Ning-hia-fu, town, i. 181, 187 ;

identification of, 241, 257, 265 ;

ii. 3, 11,45, 259, 301
Nomokhun-gol R., ii. 175, 178
Nor or Nur (Lake), the word, i. 6

</^B0,' i. 76, 283; ii. 257
V_/ Odon-tala plain (Sing-su-
hai, i.e. Starry Sea), ii. 180
Odoric, Friar, ii. 303
Ogotono, see Alpine Hare
Okkodai, son of Chinghiz-Khan,

i. 61.
Oliutai, Prince, i. 231
Oliuths, see Eleuths
От fnani padmi hom, Buddhist
formula, explained, i. 75, 282^77.
Onion heads used as tea, ii. 119
Opium-smoking, i. 178, 200 seq.;

■ li- 130

О rat, see Urutes

Ordos, and their country, i. 25,
62, 72, 85, 154, 174 seq., 204;
the country described, 180-195 ;
the name, 180 seq.; boundaries,
180, 188 ; divisions, 184, 196,
204,210; ii. 3, 10, 11,13, 56, 123

Orkhon R., i. 7, 8, 231

Ornithology, notices of, i. 8, 23-

26, 102,, \io seqq., \6^seq., 197,
236, 259, 260 ; ii. 12, 29, 31
seqq. у 88 seqq., 168, 212, 225
seq., 229, 236 seqq., 244 seq.,
263, 276

Orongo, see Antelope

Ortolan, i. 25

Outfit of the expedition, i. 94 seq.

Ou-yam-pu,town of,ii.69, 102, 134

Ovis a7-gali, see Argali

Ovis Burrhel,see Mountain Sheep

Ovis Poll, ii. 201

PALLADIUS, the Archiman-
drite, referred to,xvi, ii. 124,
149, 299

Pallas, referred to, i. 23 ; ii. 146,
294

Pamir, ii. 305

Panjan Rimbochi, or Teshoo-
Lama, xxxvi seq., i. 1 1

Pan-tsiii-Erdeni, i. и, 76

Partridge, grey, i. 8 ; rock, 165 ;
great snow, ii. 91 ; great rock,
236 seq.

Passport, Chinese, i. 2, 98, 158,
174, 269: ii. 24, 27, 266

Peach, wild in the Urute country,
ii. 273

Pechihli, gulf of, i. 46, 185 ; pro-
vince of, 103

Peh-cha Mt., its existence contra-
dicted, i. loi

Peh-king, see Peking

Peh-kwan. northern suburb of
Peking, i. 92

Pehling and Fanqui, the terms, i.
276

Peiho R., i. 100 seq.; ii. 25

Peking, i. 42 ; entrance into, 46,
65, 68, 'J'] ; described, 90 seqq.;
departure from, 98 ; ii. 24, 36

Penna, P. Orazio della, ii. 300, 301

Pheasants, i. 197,260; Phasiaiiiis
torquatus, ii. 12, 92 ; long-
eared {Crossoptilo7i auritum),
244 seqq.

' Plicenix. the,' referred to, i. 103

Pigeon-Russian, i. 41

Pilgrimages, stopped by Dungan
insurrection, i. 78 ; to Lhassa,
ii. 1 84 seq.

Pinus Massoniana, ii. 78

Plain of China, i. 44

INDEX.

317

POD

SHA

Podoces Hendersoni, see Kolo-

djoro
Polo, Marco, referred to, xviii. xxiv,

XXXV, i. 16,23,24,56,61,65,106,

185, 194, 232, 241; ii. 82, 117,

132, 146, 237, 305, 306
Poppy, the yellow Alpine, ii. 253
Post communication in Mongolia,

i. 2 seqq., 21
Potentilla anserina, ii. 81 ; P.

frttticosa, 80 ; P. glabra, 80,

261 ; P. tenui/olia, ii. 86, 261
Pouhain-gol R., xiv seqq., ii. 140,

157 seq., 226 seqq.
Provisions, ii. 50, 93, 99 ; scarcity

of, 102 seq.
Pugiofinin cormihim, a rare plant,

i. 195
Purchas, his Pilgrimage, ii. 291
Putte, Samuel van de, ii. 306
Pygarg, i. 107, 164. 169
Pyltseff, Michael Alexandrovitch,

Col. Prejevalsky's travelling

companion, i. I, 95, 133, 220 ;

illness of, ii. 2, 4 ; 27, 43, 270

ГЛиЛК TERL Y RE VIE W,
%> referred to, i. 194
Qumcey, T. de, referred to, i. 232
Quinine, fever cured by, i. 149

RAMUSIO, ii. 292
Randze7)iba, ihe Tangutan

lama, ii. 48 seqq.., 64, 65
Rangta-gol R., ii. 68
Rashiduddin, the Persian his-
torian, referred to, i. 241, 242
Rcgel's Garten Flora, ii. 291
Rheuvt officinale, ii. 85, 299 ; R.

palmatufn, 81 seqq., 292-298 ;

Л'. RhaponticHin, 85, 293 ; R.

spiciforjue, 85, 293 ; R. undula-

tum, 293
Rhododendrons, new kinds, ii. 85

seq.
Rhubarb, medicinal {Rheum pal-

matuni), ii. 81 seqq.; mode of

preparing, 84 ; cultivation, 84,

261, 291 seq.
Richthofen, Baron F., xx, xxxix
Rifles, for antelope-shooting, i.

30 ; and revolvers, 228, ii. 24

seq. ; practice with, 26 ; sale of,

42, 231

Ritter, Carl von, referred to, i.

loi, 102, 181, 184, 193. 205
Rubruk, William de, i. 276, 280

SAHARA desert, compared
with Gobi, ii. 274

Sain-noin, i. 15

Sairam, ii. 305

Sair-ussu, ii. 281

Sakya Muni, i. 284

Salar, ii. 305

Salirs, or Salars, ii. 149

Salt, necessary for camels, i.
122 ; mode of obtaining, ii. 3 ;
marshes, 172

Samdadchiemba, Hue's com-
panion, xiii, i. 135 ; ii. 297

Sanang Setzen, Schmidt's edition,
referred to, i. 194, 203, 204, 205

Sand-grouse, i. 23, 236; ii. 145,212

San-tchouan, ii. 299

Sarlok, the domesticated yak, ii.
201

Saxaul, a tree of the desert, i.
122, 233 seq.; limit of, ii. 276

Sa-yang-cheng town, ii. 58; posi-
tion of, 123

Scenery, impressive, i. 172, 265

Schlagintweit, Adolphus, xix

Schmidt, Prof, at Dorpat, ii. 295

Selenga R., i. 7, 231

Semen off, the Russian geographer,
referred to, i. loi, 181

Seng-kwan town, ii. 69, 100, 10 1,
136, 230, 233

Serik-dolon lake, ii. 255

Severtsoff, referred to, ii. 236, 286

Sha-chang, town, i. 42

Shamanism, traces of, i. 74

' Shambaling ' promised land of
Buddhists, i. 250 seqq., 284 seqq.

Shandu-gol R., i. 102, 106

Shanghai trade reports, i. 191

Shangin-dalai well, ii. 255 seqq.

Shangtu, xxi

Shangtu-gol, see Shandu-gol R.

Shara-gol R., i. 109

Shara-hada range, i. 137 seqq.;
vegetation on, 138 seq.

Shara-muren R., i. 107, 135, 153

Shara-oroi Mt., i. 159, 167

Shara-tsu temple, i. 210 seqq.
Shaw, referred to, xx, ii. 169, 170,
Я00

3i8

INDEX.

SHE

TAN

Sheep, a sacred animal, i. 54 ;
mode of killing, 55 ; purchasing,
\\\seqq.; mountain (O^'/.c Biir-
rhtil), 261, 262 seqq.; chase of,
264 scqq.; their furious fights,
264 ; their extraordinary jumps,
268 seq.

Sheiten-ula range, i. 153 seq., 210 ;

"■ 5, 13
Shen-si province, i. 180; ii. 303
Shiggatzi, i. 1 1

Shig, a Chinese measure, ii. 73
Shireti-tsu, temple, ii. 16, 19, 280
Shisomareff, consul at Urga, i. 8
Shohoin-daban (limestone) range,

i. 154 ; ii. 14
Shuga range, xv, ii. 175, 178 seqq.,

224
Shuga R., ii. 200
Siberia, i. 30, 77, 162 ; ii. 79, 80
Sievers, ii. 294
Si-fan, see Tangutans
Sikkim, ii. 305
Siling-gol R., ii. 107
Silver currency, i. 96 seq. ; loss

in exchanging, 152
Simni, ii. 129
Singanfu, i. 280 ; ii. 292
Si-ning town, xxv, i. 79 ; ii. 38,

58,68,70, 73, 75,83, 102, 119,

122, 123 ; siege of, 134 seqq. ;

capture of, 136, 1 39, 1 53; way

to Lhassa from, 178 ; 300, 301
Si-shan range, i. 44
Sita River, i. 285
Siu-chau-fu, ii. 306
Siuen-hvva-fu, i. 44, 135
Siue-shan, see Nan-shan
Sivanzi, R. C. missionary station,

i. 13s

Si-wang, see Sivanzi

Siya, i. 243, 245, 247 seq., 256 ; ii.

I, 37,41,44^7-

Siyinza, R. С missionary station,
i. \2>J,seqq.

Snow-storm, ii. 7, 14

Sodi-soruksum Mt, ii. 76 ; ascent
of, 93 seq.

Sogo, ii. 275

Soldiers, Chinese, i. 158, 174, 175,
176, x-]-] seq., 199, 221 seq.;\\. il,
58, 60, 65, 104, 126, 127, 130
seqq.; their low morale, 132
seq.; massacre by, 136, 233

Solones, i. 177 ; ii. 57 seq., 130
Songs of Mongols, i. 69
Sparrow {Passer ammodendri), ii.

276
Spring in Mongolia, i. 118 seqq. ;

in Tsaidam, ii. 225 ; in Koko-

nor, 226 seqq.
Stars, falling, i. 202
Steppe-fire described, i. 108 *
Stonechats, i. 1 1 1
vStrachey, H., x
Suen-hwa, referred to, ii. 149
Sugar, a luxury, ii. 243
Suh-chau, town, ii. 56, 59, 70, 75,

123, 125, ; capture of, 136, 276;

290, 291, 292
Sidhir, kind of grass, i. 23, 233 ;

seeds used as food, 234 ; U. i >]
Suma-hada range, i. 138 seqq.

152 seq., 169
Summers, Rev. J., i. 273
Sung-shan, town, ii. 61
Sunites, Mongol tribe, i. 144
Superstitions among Mongols, i.

81
Surveying, i. 1 1 1 seqq.
Suspicions of natives avoided, i.

113 seq.
Syringa, ii. 261

Syrrhaptes Paraeioxiis, see Sand-
grouse
Szechuan province, ii. 85, 302

T'

*ABASUN-NOR lake, i. 205,

!IO

Taeping revolt, ii. 125
Tahilga R., i. 200, 201, 206
Ta-jing town, ii. 53, 57 seqq., 60,

123,255

Taldi tribe, ii. 69 seq., lOjC)

Taltu or Tartu, see Taldi

Tamarisk bushes, i. 130; ii. 227

Tang-keu-eul, see Tonkir

Tang-la Mts., ii. 152, 176, 179,
184, 221

Tangut kingdom, xxiv, i. 181,
242 ; ii. 301 seq.

Tangutans, xxv ; caravan of, ii.
38 seq. ; encampment of, 66, 68
seq., 72, 76, 84, 96 ; described,
109-122; their language, in
seqq., 302 seq.; dress, 113;
habitations, 114 ; customs, 121 ;
301 seqq.

INDEX.

319

URG

Tarbagatai, ii. 290

Tarik, sour milk, ii. 1 20

Tarim, R, i. 284

Tartar manners at food, i. 276

Tashilunpo, xxxv, xxxvi, xxxvii, i.

II, 286
Ta-tsin dynasty, i. 49
Tatung town, ii. 73, 97, loi, 103,

104, 123, 125, 129, 136
Ta-yi-gu town, ii. 60
Tea, Brick, as a currency, i. 10 ;

caravans of, 35 seq. ; a staple

food, 52 ; drinking, ii. 12 seq.
Temples, at Urga, i. 9 ; ruined,

2 1 о seqq.
Temujin, see Chinghiz-Khan
Temur Khan, i. 280
Tent inundated, i. 155
Tetung-gol, or Tatung R., ii. 63,

66 seq., 74 seqq., 83 ; valley of,

93, 94,96, 100, 106 ; upper, 106,

116, 208, 233, 251
Thian Shan range, x, i. 83, 231 ;

ii. 275
Thomson, Dr. Т., x
Thrushes, ii. 90
Tibet, its submission to China, i.

T] ; its Mongol name, 277 ;

Northern, ii. xiZseq., 182 seqq.,

218, 221, 224, 304
Tien-tsin, i. 35,40 ; ruined chapel,

254, 255 ; ii. 24 seq.
Timkowski, the traveller, referred

to, i. 70,75,84,105,232; ii. 3,290
Tinged (sands), i. 233 ; ii. 53 seq.
T la R., i. 8, 16, 19, 205 ; ii. 283
Tolai-gol R., ii. 75
Tonkir, town (Tang-keu-eul), 281 ;

ii. 69, 100, 119, 154, 159, 184,

230, 300
Tortoises, river-, i. 201 seq.
Toso-nor lake, ii. 166, 175
Toulain-gol, ii. 160
Trade, openings for, i. 249
Traditions and legends, i. 165

seqq. ; ii. 96, 141 seqq., 151 seqq.
Trans-Alai, xxi

Trans-Baikalia, i. 26, 28 ; ii. 214
Trans-Ordos, or Ala-shan, i. 232
Trees, between Kiakhta and Urga,

i. 7 ; on the л\'ау to Jehol, 102 ;

on the Munni-ula, 1 59 seq. ; of

Kan-su, ii. 78 ; of Ala-shan, 260

seq. ; of the desert, 273

Tsagan-balgas, ruins of, i. 106, 283
Tsagan-chulutai, Chinese settle-
ment, i. 151 seq.
Tsagan-Khan (white Khan), name

among Mongols for Emperor of

Russia, i. 246 ; ii. 38
Tsagan-nor lake, i. 239
Tsagan-sar (white month), i. 65
Tsaidam, xv, i. 84, 85, 207 ; ii. 74,

149, 166, 208 ; its inhabitants,

168, 170 seqq. ; its banners, 168,

279
Tsaideming-nor lake, i. 196, 199

seq. ; halt near, 206
Tsazak, or proprietary chief, i. 86
Tserting (festivals), i. 65
Tsian-men, gate of Peking, i. 92
Tsien, copper coin, ii. 3
Tsi-ming town, i. 44
Tsing-hai-wang, governor of Ko-

ko-nor, ii. 153, 160 j^^., 171
Tsitseng-Khan, i. 15
Tsong-kaba, Buddhist reformer

xxxiv, ii. 155, 305
Tsung-zasak, ii. 172
Tu, a Chinese measure, ii. 73
Tula manufactures, ii. 130
Tumites, tribe of Mongols, xxii

seq., \. 143 ; western, 144
Tumyr-alhu, tomb of Chinghiz- '

Khan's wife, i. 203 seq.
Tungani, see Dungans
Turfan, ii. 290

Turguts, i. 231 seq., 237 ; ii. 149
Turkestan, i. 234
Turner, his embassy referred to,

i. II, 281 ; ii. 121, 283, 300
Tushetu-khan principality, i. 1 5 ;

ii. 279
Tu-shi-kau pass, i. 100

UGYN-GOL R., ii. 8
Uighur written character,

i. 2S0
Uigurs, ii. 151
и la, the word, i. 6
Ulan-khafun, see Hoang-ho
Ulan-sabo, i. 144
Uliassutai, xxii, i. 15, 59, 62, 85 ;

ii. 16, 20, 123, 126, 276, 2S6 seq.
Unicorn, superstitions about, ii.

207
Urga, xxii, i. 6 ; described, 8 seqq.;

threatened by Dungans, 15

320

INDEX.

URI

seq., 41, 62, 79, 83 ; racing at,
117, 202 ; ii. 20, 25, 117, 257 ;
caravan, 272 ; arrival at, 284

Uriankhai, i. 84

Urns, iron, to contain prayers, ii.

71
Urumchi, i. 86 ; ii. 69, 276, 285-

291
Urundushi mountains, ii. 178, 180
Urutes and their country, i. 143

seq., 174, 188, 232 ; ii. 2, 6, 272,

277
Utai, monastery, ii. 47

VAMBERY, ii. 305
Vang, banner of, i. 205

Vassilieff, Professor, referred to,
i. 74, loi, 273

Vegetation, of desert, i. 19 ; of
Munni-ula, 160 ; ii. 33 ; of
Kan-su, 79 scqq., 243 ; of Bur-
khan Buddha, 177 ; of Ala-shan
mountains, 260 seqq. ; of Central
Gobi, 273 seq.

Veterinary practice, i. 130

Vlangali, General, xxix. i. 2, 96 ;
ii. 24, 70, 258

Vocabulary, Tangutan, ii. 136
seqq., 303

Vulture {УнИыг 7nonac]iiis),\. 164,
260 ; ii. 89 ; snow, 237 seq. ;
mode of shooting, 240 seqq.

WAI-CHENG, outer town of
Peking, i. 92
Walls, mud, ii. 73
War, department of, i. 95, 96
Water, undrinkable, i. 116 ; ii. 51,

279
Wathen, Mr. ii. 304
Wa-yang-pu, see Ning-hia-fu
Wei-tching-pu, see Din-yuan-ing
Wells, silted up, ii. 273 seq.
White Russia, ii. 114
W41d-duck, i. loi, 197
Wilson, Andrew, author of ' The

Abode of Snow,' referred to, i.

75 seq. ; ii. 116
Wolf, Tibetan {Lupus Chancd), ii.

209 seqq.

ZOO

Women, Mongol, i. 49, 50, 69-71 ;

as lamas, 80 ; Taldi, ii. 69 ;

Tangutan, no, 113, 114, 121
Wood's journey to Oxus sources, x
Wormwood, i. 20, 235, 240 ; ii. 6

YAK, the, ii. 115 seqq. ; its uses,
117; its milk, butter, ib. \
acclimatisation of, in Europe,
ib. ; cross-breed, 117 ; its wool,
118; the wild, 186-201 ; dis-
eases to which it is subject, 193 ;
shooting, 193 seqq.

Yakub-Beg, of Kashgar, ii. 136

Yanghi Dabrnt, i. 274 • ii. 30

Yang-ho R., i. 44

Yangtse-kiang (Blue River), i.
35, 271 ; ii. 173, 176, 181, 221 ;
sources of, 222, 306 ; upper, xv,
xviii, xxviii

Yarkand, ii. 170

Yarlin-gol R., ii. 63

Yegrai-ula range, ii. 85, 174, 275

Yegurs, ii. 151 seq.

Yuen, or Chinghizid dynasty, i.
231

Yuen-kwan, southern suburb of
Peking, i. 92

Yunan-chen, town of, ii. 76, 106,
107, 129, 136

Yunnan revolt, ii. 125

Yurta, or felt tent, i. 50 seq. ; Col.
Prejevalsky's, ii. 213 seq.

ZAK (saxaul) i. 233 seq., 236 ;
ii- 34, 55

Zanghin, Mongol subaltern officer,
i. 85, 229 ; ii. 219

Zandamoio, or sacred tree, ii. 1 56

Zatura>i,a. favourite Cossack dish,
ii. 214

Zoology, between Kiakhta and
Urga, i. 8 ; of the Gobi, 20-28 ;
of the Munni-ula, \6^ seq ; of
the valley of the Hoang-ho,
197 ; of Ala-shan, 235 seqq.,
259 seqq. ; ii. 263 ; of Kan-su,
236-251 ; of Hurku Hills,
275; of Northern Tibet, 186,
213

Sppttisiiioocie 6^ Co., Printers, Kew-strcrt Square, London.

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