1 9^T- WMm L M IT mm t V m L fM$ April, 1958 — Montana Fish and Game Department Official Publication M. R. (Bill) Ammermctn, Montana Game Warden- Pilot, met an untimely death on the evening of Febru- ary 13, 1958 in the course of official duties. He was flying one of the department's light planes when he struck a power line near Glasgow. Bill was born in St. Ignatius in 1920. His education was attained in Missoula schools and he served 57 months with the U. S. Army. Bill started with the Fish and Game Department as Game Warden at Superior in 1948 and was later trans- ferred to Glasgow as warden-pilot. At the time of his death, he was working as warden- pilot with headquarters at Malta. He is survived by his widow, Opal, and his chil- dren, Gayle and Bill. The personnel of the Fish and Game Department and the sportsmen of Montana join in expressing sym- pathy for this loss to his family and to the cause of conservation. MONTANA FISH AND GAME DEPARTMENT Official Publication Governor. STATE OF MONTANA J. Hugo Aronson Chairman. Secretary. Director Deputy Director Fisheries Superintendent Game Manager Coordinator, Restoration Chief Law Enforcement Officer Chief, Information and Education.. Chief Clerk MONTANA FISH AND GAME COMMISSION E. J. Skibby, Lewistown William T. Sweet, Butte Ralph D. Shipley, Miles City H. W. Black, Poison John T. Hanson, Sr., Malta A. A. O'Claire, Helena DIRECTORS A. A. O'Claire Walter I. Everin Walter M. Allen Robert F. Cooney Wynn G. Freeman Don L. Brown W. Kenneth Thompson R. H. Tumbull Tftovtatta TVdeCC^c Vernon Craig, Editor TABLE OF CONTENTS Page A Sportsman's Letter to His Son 3 The Fox and the Pheasant 4 The Long Trail... ; 8 Postcards and Pelts 12 Skull-Duggery _ 15 Emblem 471 ... 16 Water Pollution Abatement and Control for Montana 18 Children's Color Page. 23 Big Game-Livestock Competition on Montana's Mountain Rangelands 24 Montana Wildlife Federation— A Job To Do 31 "Montana Wildlife," may be obtained free of charge by writing the Montana Fish and Game Department at Helena. Contents of this magazine may be reproduced in whole or in part if properly credited. MCKEE ■i3|g55£» PRINT. 2 /i SfoonUmtut't ^etten % ^U Son TO MY SON:— Yesterday you asked permission to borrow my twelve gauge gun, and in loaning it to you I wish I could convey to you, for your enjoyment, the memories that attach to this faithful old friend of more than a score of years. I wish I could loan you the smell of the marshes at sun- rise, the vision of dawn stealing from the East through the passes and canyons of the mountains, as I have experienced them in company with this faithful old companion. It has been my eye alone through more than twenty years that has glanced along the rib between the barrels, now bright and shining from use, my finger that has pressed the trigger and for me alone that it has spoken when called upon. I wish I could loan you the memories of silent night camp- ing beneath the stars; of frosty morning air around a warm bed; the aroma of sage burning under steaming coffee and the companionship of many good fellows who have since been called home to hunt no more. To accompany this gun you should also have memories of a faithful pointer over whose white and liver back I have poured number eights into brown flashes of lightning on the uplands of this once great hunting country. I never used my gun as an excuse to play poker or booze, but rather it has led me out to enjoy nature's vast storehouse of secrets, and through these to grope for Nature's God. I commend it to you in that same spirit, not the desire alone to kill, but let it be the beckoning figure leading you into closer communion with the great and wholesome out-of-doors. YOUR DAD Printed by permission of Oliver C. Joseph Belleville. Illinois Through cooperation of the Carling Conservation Club THE FOX AND THE PHEASANT By David A. Arnold, Michigan Department of Conservation Illustrated by Oscar Warback ED. NOTE: Over the past few years there has been a marked increase of Red Fox in Montana, roughly correlated and possibly resulting from the decline in coyote numbers. Be that as it may, many sportsmen are becoming apprehensive of pheasant-fox relationships. This problem, new to Montana, has been experienced in many other states where there have been considerable numbers of red fox for many years. Since the problem is new to Montana, no extensive studies regarding red fox have been conducted here; however, we do have a vast storehouse of facts gleaned from many years of investigations in other parts of the U. S. Basically, the biological relationships under discussion remain the same the country over. Following is one chapter reprinted from "Red Foxes of Michigan." It is submitted respect- fully for what we may learn from the comprehensive endeavors of others. Michigan pheasants were boom- ing in the early forties. We may not have had all the pheasants we want- ed as hunters, but possibly we had all we needed and could put up with as farmers. But the pheasant boom like many others "busted" and then came the pheasant depression. The depression came not only to the swales of Michigan but to nearly every pheasant hunting ground east of the Rockies. Theories of the cause were numerous, but very little was actually known. Solutions for the trouble were nearly as numerous as ideas of the cause, and one of the most common recommendations for halting the pheasant decline was to get rid of the red fox. Biologists were skeptical of this remedy, to say the least, but the poor old fox had picked a very inopportune time to increase so conspiciously in Michigan's pheasant range. His presence, in quantity, in areas where only a few years before he had been almost un- known was more than enough to bring the wrath of the sportsmen down on his little red head. The cir- cumstantial evidence was admittedly strong and the fox was convicted. The sentence — the fox bounty. Biolo- gists know now that the fox was not guilty of this particular crime, but unraveling the case required much more than casual investigation. In the first place, foxes do eat pheasants. Foxes became numerous in pheasant range near the end of the peak years for pheasant hunting, and shortly after the fox became abun- dant, pheasants began to decline. This was the case against the fox and it was indeed popular to accuse him. But even before formal investi- gation of the case started, consider- able evidence threw reasonable doubt on Reynard's alleged guilt. The first evidence in his favor was that pheasants had also declined in isolat- ed areas where there were no foxes. These declines in foxless areas oc- curred at the same time and with a severity equal to that experienced in the areas of Michigan where foxes were abundant. This characteristic SAtJOy, AMD Q>BAVE:llY SOU.% 'A/ /VT/0//G*a/. of the drop strongly suggested that something other than foxes was re- moving pheasants. On Pelee Island, a pheasant paradise in Lake Erie, where there are not, and were not any foxes, pheasants went into a se- rious slump. Foxless areas in South Dakota, the nation's pheasant capi- tal, showed the same pheasant de- pression as did parts of that state that has lots of foxes. The claim was made that pheas- ants went down when foxes came up. But later biological studies showed that the pheasant decline was not related to the fox increase in Michi- gan. Foxes, after their long increase, were declining for two years before pheasants hit the bottom of the slump. The type of country where most Michigan foxes thrive was found to be unlike land on which pheasants reached their highest numbers. Ideal pheasant country is rich farmland where soils are heavy and fertile and often poorly drained. Foxes, on the other hand, seem to do best on lighter, sandy gravelly soils where cultivation is not as intense, where brushy areas and woodlands are numerous, and where hills and h40W£v£-R, PH2ASAMTS AK£- /WOST ABMOWT iaJ *£A UP - PHEASANTS OP TOO {! during these two years. It would seem that if foxes were responsible for the pheasant slump, pheasants would go down as foxes came up. This, however, has not been the case. Population trends and the distribu- tion of foxes and pheasants should be sufficient evidence to exonerate the fox, but biologists sought further evidence. They started an investiga- tion of pheasant-eating foxes to de- termine whether foxes are respon- sible for poor pheasant hunting. Studies in areas where both foxes and pheasants live have been car- ried on for a number of years. Studies were made winter and spring of the habits of the fox in taking pheasants. The welfare of pheasants throughout the year has been constantly check- ed and the food of the fox at all sea- sons of the year has been investi- gated. In the winter study, we followed fox trails on fresh snow in the pheas- ant range. Michigan's pheasant range is, generally, the southern third of the state. Some areas have more pheasants than others. For this rea- son, we trailed foxes in different areas, where pheasant densities were different. Pheasants were cen- sused and the effect of the foxes on the pheasant population determined. Biologists trailed foxes 1,000 miles. The walk was long, but the results are conclusive. Fox tracks were followed until the fox was jumped. There was no point in following him farther because from there on he would be running and not hunting. Biologists following the trails meas- ured the distance by carrying pedo- meters in their pockets. The 1,000 miles of tracking were thus actually measured. Records of everything foxes did were kept, records of all pheasants flushed or seen were kept, records were made of all other game seen, and records of all signs of game were put into the notes. In view of everything we have been able to learn about foxes and pheasants it appears that it wouldn't do much good to try to in- crease the birds by controlling foxes. In order to find out for sure if kill- ing foxes would help pheasant hunt- ing the New York Department of Con- servation tried an expeiiment. They selected two areas as nearly similar as possible. For 20 months, they trap- ped foxes in one area and left foxes alone on the other. At the same time they kept track of the number of pheasants and foxes on the two areas. They counted fox tracks on both areas with low-flying airplanes and by cars in order to measure the effectiveness of the control efforts. On the trapped area foxes were reduced 75 to 80 percent from what they were at the beginning of the study. Before this reducing effort be- gan, fox populations on both areas were nearly equal. The trapped area was isolated by the Finger Lakes and a river. At the end of the experiment the New York biologists found that pheasant populations changed very little. Hunting was no better on the trapped area than on the area where there were four times as many foxes. They concluded that fox control wasn't the answer to better pheasant hunting and the high cost of such control was far above any benefits that may have been derived. All these studies, in Michigan, New York, and in many other states point to the fact that foxes don't influence our pheasant hunting enough to get excited over. TRENDS m&H LOW HUSH LOW MKW6AN PEUE KLANO, ONTARIO 1941 1943 1944 I94S 1946 1947 1946 THE LONG TRAIL By KEN THOMPSON A beaver poacher sat before his tent in the middle fork of the Flat- head. He had made a big catch and was serenely fleshing a large pelt. After years of dodging the law he had learned to operate with the cun- ning of a hunted animal. He fol- lowed the trails used by elk, leaving little evidence of human tracks. His base camp lay concealed on a bushy island in the river, forty miles back in the wilderness. A police dog lay at his side and at the slightest indi- cation from the dog, all of the evi- dence would be dumped into the river. There wasn't a chance of any- one finding him with this rich catch of illegal pelts. He nearly fell off the log when a voice at his side said, "Well, I see you have been doing pretty good.'' "Why XO?!! O'Claire, how in XOXXI did you find me?" the poach- er cursed roundly, then concluded, "Well, I guess we might as well head for town." And head for town they did, forty miles or more to the nearest road. Deputy Game Warden O'Claire carried 60 pounds of illegal beaver on his back. The violator, burdened by nothing more than his own cal- loused conscience, trudged along amiably. After all it was a gamble and he had lost but he wasn't about to help tote the illegal evidence. Thirty live years ago when Archie started with the Fish and Game Department most of his district was back country. Thus it was in the early days of game law enforcement in Montana. It was a big rough country and very few roads. You could go anywhere you wanted on foot. One of the per- sons who has seen much of the state on foot in the course of his duties is the department's retiring director, A. A. O'Claire. To most of the states 200,000 sportsmen he is known as Archie and on June 1st, he will have completed 35 years of service with the department. During the period of his profession- al career, Archie has seen and helped the department grow from a small beginning to a million dollar organization responsible for main- taining one of Montana's most im- portant industries — recreation. 8 A. A. O'Claire started with the fisheries division, working at a spawn taking station in 1920. A year later he became a regular deputy game warden with his own district. And what a district it was, covering every- thing from the Canadian border about to Missoula and all of the area from the Continental Divide to Libby. Early days with the game de- partment were uncertain and Archie recalls one year when the depart- ment income dropped from $120,000 to $102,000. In those days the de- partment did not have an emergency reserve to handle drops in income. So being the youngest man on the force, he first received a letter saying no expenses would be allowed, and the next day a letter came advising that his salary would also be dis- continued. Memories of this type have caused Director O'Claire to insist that to- day's fish and game department have an emergency cash reserve to handle unforseen situations without jeopardizing the department's es- sential program. In 1941 when funds from the Wild- life Restoration Act made it possible for Montana to increase its program of wildlife research study and de- velopment, O'Claire was given the job of heading the fur research proj- ect. His knowledge of the back country and of fur-bearing animals served him well in completing this job. The biggest jump in Archie's ca- reer came in 1945 when he was asked to head Montana's growing Fish and Game Department. This he Not "plush" quarters but a welcome sight after long, weary miles on snowshoes. Game Warden O'Claire's Model T breaks trail for an elk transplant caravan in January, 1927. It took 13 days to haul the elk from Moiese Bison Range to the Fisher River. did until 1949 when he resigned in order to handle some private busi- ness, but in 1953 he was again asked to head the state's wildlife program. In this executive position, Director O'Claire has been an important part of the progress shown by the depart- ment. Chow Time On The Trail Airplanes have replaced Model T's. Professionally trained people make up a bulk of the department's personnel and the financial activities are recorded by an accounting divi- sion that makes an extensive use of modern business machines. Today, the beaver poacher would be spotted from the air and a radio message would send men in quickly to apprehend the violator. Every- thing has been streamlined to meet modern conditions and Archie has made significant contributions in this advancement. Director O'Claire has served his country as well as his native state. At the age of 18 he served in the army on the Mexican Border Patrol. World War I found him in the trenches from the Argonne to the second battle of the Marne and through the St. Mihiel, Meuse, Argonne campaigns. Again, in World War II he entered active service and emerged as a captain of the infantry. 10 Lt. O'Claire's coming home aboard the Bat- tleship U.S.S. Missouri at the end of World War I. May 30, 1919. Like all successful persons, Archie gives credit to his wife Viva for the part she has played in the progress he has made. Mrs. O'Claire, a charm- ing person, is an expert hand with a tractor, and can turn out a fine meal over a campfire. Versatility is a re- quirement of the fish and game wives and "Vi" qualifies in all categories. Montana's history has been forged by rugged, resourceful people. Each has contributed unsparingly of his strength and talents. As our fish and game department moves forward into a complex, demanding future we can thank such pioneers as Archie O'Claire that the foundation has been solidly built. A. A. O'Claire retiring director of the Montana Fish and Game Department after 35 years 11 1- Mink 3- Bsaver ' 4- *easel 5- Bobcat POST CARDS AND PELTS By Fletcher Newby — Management of Montana's fur re- source requires the efforts and co- operation of many people. Trappers and fur buyers, farmers and ranch- ers, game wardens and biologists — all have a stake in the successful management of fur animals. One of the things the manager or biologist must know in order to properly manage fur animals is the annual catch or harvest of fur-bear- ers removed by trappers. Obviously, one of the best places to learn this is from the trapper himself. Each spring, all the licensed trappers in the state receive a postal card bear- ing a printed form. Spaces are pro- vided for the trapper to report his take of fur animals and predators and the county in which he did most cf his trapping. A letter of explana- tion goes with each card and de- scribes the need for knowing his suc- cess. Results of the previous year's survey and other informative mate- rials are also included. Return of the card is entirely voluntary. Fur Resources Biologist Numbers of licensed trappers vary from year to year, but the percentage of cards returned has been very con- stant in the six years this survey has been conducted. Many times mail questionnaires bring a good response in the first year or so but as time passes each succeeding year indi- cates a progressive loss of interest. Montana trappers are to be com- mended for their interest and cooper- ation in maintaining this relatively high rate of return. It is only fitting in this modern age of science that electronics should enter into the science of wildlife management. Handling of the mail survey would be a much more diffi- cult and less effective task if it were not for the use of modern office ma- chines. Addressing of envelopes for mailing the cards and printing of names and addresses on the postal cards is done with electric account- ing machines — distant cousins of the electronic brains used in missile re- search. When the cards are returned, 12 the data are numerically coded and punched in analysis cards. Compila- tions which would take weeks of hand work are made from these cards in hours by the machines. One of the most valuable calcula- tions made from this survey is the total catch of various species made in different areas of the state. We also find out just how many trappers actually use their licenses — this varies from year to year, depending largely upon economic conditions. In addition we can compute the num- ber of trappers catching a given species and the average catch of that species. The question naturally arises in the minds of many people — How can you be sure that figures calculated on the basis of a 54 per cent return are really correct? What about the other 46 per cent who didn't respond? Without some kind of an accuracy check we couldn't be certain; how- ever, such checks have been made by compiling information from fur dealer and shipping permit records and by sending a second card to those trappers not replying to the first request. These checks have shown that figures calculated from results of the first mailing are sur- prisingly accurate for those animals managed on the basis of this infor- mation— mink, muskrats and otter. Beaver and marten are managed from more complete information from other sources. When mail survey information is added to data on weather, fur prices, unemployment and findings from bio- logical research, a rather complete MONTANA TRAPPER REPORT ANALYSIS (1957) Average Species No. of Pelts Price Mink 7,964 $15.12 Muskrat 28,663 0.54 Beaver _ 9,812 7.01 Weasel 962 0.63 Bobcat 808 3.16 Skunk _ 2,329 0.63 Coyote .. 100 1.00 Raccoon 468 1.57 Badger _ 183 0.65 Fox 136 2.21 Canada Lynx 45 5.00 Wolverine 4 20.00 Marten 494 5.65 Otter 62 17.71 13 picture is gained of the forces which affect trapping pressure. The job of management is to regulate this pres- sure in such a way that an adequate breeding stock is preserved while trappers reap an annual crop of pelts. Comparing this information from year to year and from area to area makes it possible to judge the results of changes in seasons and regula- tions and to plan for better ones. Another use of the mail survey is in mapping the distribution of fur animals and predators. Question- naires requesting more exact infor- mation are sent to trappers showing a catch of the particular animal of interest. The recent invasion of east- ern Montana by the red fox and the westward movement of the raccoon have been plotted by this method. The mail survey is an encouraging example of how it is possible for the public and the Department to work together toward wise use of a wild- life resource. It is recognized that the market demand for pelts regu- lates trapping activity to a consider- able extent, but management can do much to offset extremes in trapping pressure. Excessive pressure on valu- able species can be reduced by in- creased restrictions while interest in low priced pelts can be stimulated by more liberal regulations. Well managed, this resource can continue to contribute much recreation and in- come to Montanans. 14 -Phc S6uM- 'Duyyoiy While we slap mosquitos and others strain to control insect pests, the hairy fellow pictured here on a skull is busily doing his bit to aid science. He is the immature or larval form of the skin beetle (Dermestid) and is em- ployed by the Fish and Game Department Wildlife Investigations Labora- tory to clean clinging remains of flesh from animal bones used in game management studies. Considerable care is required to maintain healthy breeding colonies of these insects. They require darkness with carefully controlled tempera- ture and humidity. Four to five days and hundreds of insects are necessary to clean one skull. The larva are the gluttons while the adults (upper left) eat very little. Cleaning is completed with rinsing and drying. — Kenneih R. Greer 15 If a fuzzy-faced critter asks to check your license, it isn't necessarily a Fish and Game employee who for- got to shave. It might be Paddy, the District I mascot, and right hand (or paw) to District War- den Supervisor Ross Wilson. Paddy is a yearling mountain lion with all the claws and teeth of his kind but not the temperament. He has been raised in captivity by Ross since he was caught as a kitten by State Warden Lorney Diest. This is his story. 5 a.m. — I'm getting a little shut-eye on my favorite sack, dreaming of a few cats I've met when the phone jangles. Spotlighters are at work — my job — get 'em. We are sauntering along the boulevard after a cup of Java at Joe's when I spot this suspi' 'O. K. Mac," I says, "what gives?" My keen nostrils detect the odor of freshly killed deer so I knoT I wasn't born yesterday so I climb in to c< the furniture for fingerprints and note a di floor. So I lift up the blanket — It's there alri The guy folds up like an accordia: spaghetti," he says — "just had to "Tell it to the Judge," I tells him, "ye "What's that," he says? — "Taking f< "Catnapp Max: mum sentence for this fe or $27.50 — File re ny assistant who's the sleepy id clue him on the call from 'poachercide division." It looks like a clear cut case so I whisper a lew words of advice. is looking character. ve got him with the goods. the joint. I dust of blood on the — whitetail deer. 'I was tired of eating ve some fresh meat." going in on a 1014 Vz." from a cat," I says — sry is 2 years at hard labor led — Case closed. —Photos by Ken Thompson He numbles something about the blanket covering up his tired old "gramma." WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT AND CONTROL FOR MONTANA By John C. Spindler, Pollution Control Biologist Montana Fish & Game Department "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth . . . And God said, let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place and let the dry land appear: and it was so . . . Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit after his kind . . . Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creatures that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven . . . Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind . . . Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. ' '• — Genesis. In this sequence of events, created by His hand, we have first of all, the earth, with its land and water, then animals to use the earth for their perpetuation and finally man, as God's trustee to all these earthly blessings. How many times during the course of our lifetime do we violate this trust: — the trust that we shall use wisely all the natural re- sources? One cf these major violations is the pollution of our streams and lakes through disposal of large amounts of domestic and industrial wastes with no thought of the effects of such materials upon the water or water- shed. Many people realize the im- portance of pollution control. Others are indifferent to the effects of pollu- tion while still others are opposed to any type of waste treatment since it costs money. Water pollution may be defined as "the act of rendering unclean; de- filing; desecrating; or contaminating" or "the addition of anything to water which changes its natural qualities so that the user does not have the natural water transmitted to him." For our purposes, we can accept the latter definition, for water use must be considered when defining pollu- tion. Pollutants which adversely af- fect the quality of drinking water may not affect the quality of the water for industrial use. However, the con- tention that "what is good for hu- mans, is good for fish" is, in many cases a fallacy. For example, water contaminated by untreated domestic sewage some- times produces more and larger fish than the same water above the en- trance of the sewage. Still, this pol- luted water, even with chlorination, would be unsuitable for culinary use. By the same token, a stream polluted by silt for a number of years would 18 — Photo by John Spindler Fig. 1 — Silt-laden waters of the Sun River empty their muddy cargo into the Missouri. eventually be "smothered out;" fish food production of the stream would be reduced and spawning beds would be coated with silt. Yet simple filtration would render the water suitable for drinking. Other types of pollution may not be as readily recognized. In many cases a crystal-clear stream may carry enough dissolved materials (Particularly heavy metal ions) to completely kill out a game-fish pop- ulation, yet the water could meet public health standards. THE EFECTS OF DOMESTIC & INDUSTRIAL WASTES ON FISH DIRECT EFFECTS Overwhelming — usually by silt, sawdust, planer shavings, and other materials carried in suspension. Siltation (Fig. 1) sometimes occurs naturally but is generally an indirect effect of overgrazing or other poor land use. Most game fish can exist in muddy water during the short per- iods of early summer run-off but if subjected to extended periods of time in silty water, evenutally die or move out. The practice of dumping sawdust into streams has been prohibited by State law for many years but it still exists. Prolonged periods of exposure to sawdust and planer shavings kills fish and other life within the water or causes them to move from the contaminated area. The overwhelming action on game fish by oil sludges being carried in suspension is obvious. Such material is difficult to eliminate by the natural purification of water, and thus, has a deleterious effect for many miles downstream from its point of en- trance. Temperature — The disposal of cool- ing water by industry can warm streams so much that many water- dwelling animals are unable to live there; thus, fish production is re- 19 duced. In general, cold-water fish do best in waters with a maximum tem- perature of less than 70° F. This prob- lem has not been of importance in Montana in the past but most cer- tainly will present itself as industry is expanded. Suffocation — This problem gen- erally presents itself in one or two ways: (1) reduction of dissolved oxygen in the water and (2) coating of gills (breathing apparatus of fishes) with materials which prevent them from functioning. Dissolved oxygen in water is used up by the decomposition of plant or animal wastes and by the direct com- bination of oxygen with waste ma- terials from industry. Generally, the reduction of dissolved oxygen results from discharge of raw sewage into streams (Fig. 2). The decomposition of sewage in water requires oxygen and often uses it faster than it is re- placed to the water. Under light pol- lution loads or under conditions where sewage is greatly diluted by the receiving waters, game-fish are replaced by rough fish, the latter be- ing able to live with less oxygen. But as the sewage load increases, all fish life and nearly all air-breathing ani- mals are excluded. It is then that the foul odor of sewer gases (hydrogen sulfide and methane) become preva- lent. Under these conditions only those animals with special adaptions for breathing are found in septic zones of pollution. Such animals are used by biologists as indicators of pollution. The absence of the clean- water forms such as salmon flies, Fig. 2 — Eifluent From Improperly Treated Sewage. — Photo, State Board of Health caddies flies, may flies and their im- mature forms, helgramites and rock worms, and the presence of the pol- luted water forms indicate that a stream is receiving excessive amounts of raw sewage or other or- ganic wastes. Many materials, such as zinc, can cause suffocation by preventing the entrance of oxygen into the blood- streams of the fish through the gills. Most ore-mill wastes contain dissolv- ed metallic compounds that, under certain conditions, cause fish to ex- crete an excessive amount cf mucous from the gills. This mucous coats the gills and hampers respiration. Toxic — The direct poisoning ef- fects of gases, oil and tar wastes and mine-mill wastes are apparent. Minute traces cf arsenic, cynide, and the heavy metal ions in soft waters are extremely toxic to game fish and will soon completely wipe out a fish population. Other direct effects: Irritants, such as caustics (Fig. 3) may cause an ac- tual breakdown of fish tissue (skin, 20 — Photo by John Spindler Fig. 3 — Pulp mill wastes have a high dis- solved oxygen demand and often contain caustic compounds. gills, digestive tract). Brine from oil fields, discharged into streams, can raise the salt content of the water so that game fish are unable to live. INDIRECT EFFECTS The direct effects of pollution are sometimes evidenced by fish kills which result from large quantities of the pollutants being discharged into the river at one time. Recent exam- ples of this are kills resulting from the use of insecticides and pesticides (DDT, grasshopper poison, cattle and sheep dip) near streams. Possibly, the indirect effects of pol- lutants, which are not so spectacular, are of more importance since they represent a constant source of pol- lution which in many cases have cumulative effects. They pile up very slowly with the same end re- sults as slugging a stream with large volumes of deleterious substances. This is the type of pollution which must be carefully policed. Wood fibers from pulp mill opera- tions, while not poisonous, can even- tually "smother out" the bottom of a stream or lake, destroying the abil- ity of that stream or lake to produce fish food. In addition, such fiber can destroy spawning areas by exclud- ing the oxygen so necessary for the development of game fish eggs bur- ied in the gravel. Exposure of fish and other water animals to unfavorable conditions tends to lower their vitality, shorten their life span and reduce their nat- ural ability to cope with disease. Some materials, such as phenolic compounds from coal-char (coke) plants and oil refineries and mercap- — Photo by John Spindler Sawdust piles along stream banks are potential pollutants. 21 tans from sulphate pulp mills, impart an undesirable odor and flavor to fish. In addition, the recreational value of a body of water is most certainly lessoned by an oily film resulting from improper treatment of refinery wastes. Waterfowl and aqua- tic mammal use of a watershed can also be adversely affected by oil wastes. We all realize that the space age will most certainly increase the de- mand on our natural resources and as the population of Montana in- creases, thereby creating a ready market for commodities, industry will move closer to its sources of raw ma- terials. With this expansion, the de- mand for water will increase, both for direct use by industry and muni- cipalities and for carrying wastes. It is the contention of pollution con- trol authorities everywhere that prop- er waste disposal should be pro- vided for in the original building plans of industrial plants. Most in- dustrialists will readily agree that wastes from their plants can be ef- fectively treated, resulting in removal of poisonous substances and reduc- tion of dissolved oxygen demand. We can "have our cake and eat it too" so to speak, since our water resources can be counted upon to carry light loads of pollution within certain water quality standards main- tained by state governmental author- ities. The enforcement of the Montana water pollution act rests with a water pollution council, and the State Board of Health is charged with its administration. A biologist has been assigned to the board of health by the Montana Fish and Game Depart- ment to aid the council in classifica- tion of our waters as a basis for pol- lution control and abatement and to supply the council with information necessary for the enforcement of the water pollution act. Most conservationists agree that habitat destruction is the major cause for decreased fishing success. Some conservationists suggests that a habi- tat control program within conserva- tion departments is necessary for proper and efficient coordination be- tween all agencies concerned with land and water use. This suggestion has merit since it would fulfill a need for coordinated representation of con- servation interests on planning boards concerned with development of our natural resources. Many times, the knowledge of impending danger to fish and wildlife habitat by devel- opment projects comes too late for conservationists to take steps neces- sary to protect fish and game inter- ests. It is felt that the assignment of the biologist to the State Board of Health water pollution control pro- gram by the Fish and Game Depart- ment will tend to lighten the load placed on the small staff which has had to handle pollution problems concerning public health as well as fish and wildlife and, in addition, will insure the fishing and hunting license buyer a voice in pollution control as it concerns fish and game. 22 PAGE coio* jrk ^ /CaS^i. This little deer is cozy in his forest bed. He is not lost, so don't bother him. His mother will return when you have gone. BIG GAME-LIVESTOCK COMPETITION ON MONTANA'S MOUNTAIN RANGELAND'S This report will attempt to point out some of the basic principles and management practices which relate to the subject of big game-livestock competition. Basic principles involve con- siderations of the various seasonal ranges used by game and livestock and the overlap in food habits in these ranges. Management practices involve considerations of the various courses of action used to alleviate competition. The big game animals referred to are deer and elk. Livestock are sheep and cattle. — Glen Cole, Range Biologist SEASONAL RANGES Foothill Ranges Snow and inclement weather force deer and elk to concentrate on re- stricted range areas during the win- ter. These areas are generally loca- ted on south-facing slopes along the foothills of mountain ranges. During other seasons, deer and elk are dis- persed over relatively large range areas at high elevations. The rela- tionships of the various seasonal game ranges are illustrated below. It is basic that the available forage on the relatively small winter range NATIONAL FORE 5 BOUNDARY SUMMER RANGE WINTER RANGE Eiii^ 5PRING t FALL RANGE HBB OVERLAP OF SPRING 4 FALLOW INTER RANGE HTER GAME RANGE <0 V V T E- Diagramatic illustration of seasonal elk ranges in relation to state-owned winter game range. 24 These elk have more than adequate forage on their high elevation summer range, but the supply oi forage on the foothill area where they spend the winter is limited. — Photo by Hector LaCasse limits the size of deer and elk popula- tions. Deer and elk winter ranges are usually on lands which lie within or adjacent to National Forest boundaries. These lands may be either privately or publicly-owned. Privately-owned lands may be graz- ed by livestock during any or all seasons, but the usual situation is to have the animals on feed lots during the winter. The seasons of livestock use on the publicly-owned forest land are generally summer and fall. Intermediate Elevation Ranges With moderating spring weather, deer and elk leave foothill winter ranges and disperse over range areas at intermediate elevations. These same intermediate elevation ranges are used again during fall and in mild winters they may serve as the winter range. Forage supplies on these ranges are generally ade- quate for game, but exceptions have been noted. Intermediate elevation ranges are generally on public lands adminis- tered by the U. S. Forest Service. Livestock may use these same ranges during summer and fall. Live- stock distribution may be curtailed cs on high elevation ranges (see be- low) or it may be uninhabited by virtue of gentle slopes and adequate water facilities. High Elevation Ranges With the onset of summer, deer and elk travel to range areas at high elevations. The supply of forage on these ranges is usually more than adequate for game. High elevation ranges are usually on public land within National For- est boundaries. Summer and fall livestock grazing is permitted under a multiple use policy. As a rule, sheep and cattle use only portions of the total high elevation range area available for game. Steep slopes, limited water supplies, dense timber and animal habits serve to concen- trate cattle on restricted range areas. Sheep are less affected but their range area is still more restricted than that of game. It is basic that the number of livestock on a high eleva- tion range is limited by the available forage on the portions of the range where they tend to concentrate. The usual places of concentration are meadows and parklands adjacent to water. 25 BIG GAME-LIVESTOCK FOOD HABITS Browse, Forbs and Grass Numerous studies of big game food habits have been conducted in Montana and other western states. Considerable information is also available from studies of livestock food habits. The results from these studies have shown that big game and livestock have marked prefer- ence for one or more classes of for- age during certain seasons. These three recognized classes of forage are browse, forbs and grass. Browse is a term used to describe various woody shrubs and trees. Forbs are commonly known as weeds. The for- age class referred to as grass gen- erally includes other grass-like plants such as sedges. Deer Browse is the major class of for- age used by deer during the winter. Forbs and browse are the major classes of forage used during the spring, summer and fall. Forb use is generally highest during the summer. Grass is a relatively minor deer food during all seasons, but greater amounts are used during spring. Elk Either browse or grass may serve as the major class of forage for elk during spring, fall and winter. Browse is generally more important where elk inhabit timber and brush areas. Grass is generally more important where the animals can obtain forage from open grassland areas. Browse and grass may also be used during the summer, but the results from Montana, Colorado and Oregon Timber types furnish considerable forage for Elk. Note abundant forb and grass growth. - — Photo by Hector LaCasse studies indicate that forbs make up the greater part of the summer elk diet. It was also found that forbs were important elk food during late spring and early summer. Sheep Various studies suggest that the seasonal use of browse and forbs by sheep is similar to that of deer. How- ever, sheep appear to use greater amounts of grass than deer during all seasons. Cattle Most studies show that grass is the major class of forage used by cattle during all seasons. However, cattle may use substantial amounts of browse or forbs on some ranges. Certain browse species are particu- larly palatable to cattle during fall, winter and spring. Certain forb spe- cies are palatable during the late spring and summer. Overlaps in Food Habits The foregoing considerations indi- cate that there is some overlap in big game and livestock food habits. 26 However, the actual extent of over- lap is determined from considerations of use on plant species. Plant species of the same forage class may serve as preferred food for one kind of ani- mal, but not for another. As a rule, big game and livestock have the greatest opportunity to choose from a variety of plant species during the summer, less of an opportunity dur- ing spring and fall and the least op- portunity during winter. In addition, overlaps in forage choice are influ- enced by animal grazing habits. Pre- ferred forage is grazed first. If one kind of animal overgrazes the for- age plants which it alone prefers, it must then use other plants which may be important to another kind of animal. In general, big game and sheep will use the same browse species. Cattle tend to make little use of most coniferous browse species, but Grassy parks are used by small groups of elk during the summer, but examinations oi feeding areas reveal that weedy iorbs are the major class of forage being used. — Photo by Hector LaCasse certain others may be used during spring, fall and winter. Supplies of forbs are generally too abundant to have competition for this class of for- age. In addition, the species heavily used by game appear to be relatively unpalatable to livestock. Game and livestock preferences for certain grass and sedge species may over- lap or be far apart, depending upon such things as the stage of plant ma- turity, the season of range use and the presence of other forage species. In most cases, the grass species pre- ferred by elk during the winter are also preferred by livestock. COMPETITION Conditions Necessary for Competition The following set of conditions are necessary for competition between big game and livestock: 1 . that game and livestock use the same range areas. 2. that game and livestock use the same forage plants. 3. that the forage plants are an important source of forage for either game or livestock. 4. that the forage plants are in limited supply or deteriorating in production as a result of combined use. It is not necessary that game and livestock use the same area or forage plants at the same time. Use during any one particular season may have an effect on the forage available during another season. A further con- sideration is that competition will not occur on ranges where the supply of forage is adequate for both game and livestock. 27 On Foothill Ranges From the considerations thus far, it is apparent that the chances for competition are greatest on the foot- hill range areas where big game con- centrate during the winter. This is largely because game animals on these ranges are usually contending with a limited forage supply. If deer or elk are dependent upon a limited browse supply for winter forage, com- petition will usually result from any season of sheep grazing and all but the summer season of cattle grazing. Exceptions would occur only where the browse species were unpalatable to livestock. If elk are dependent upon a limited grass supply on a foothill winter range, any season of livestock use on the same range area will generally result in competition. On Intermediate Ranges The chances for competition on in- termediate ranges are far less than on foothill ranges. This is largely be- cause big game is dispersed over a relatively large area during the spring and fall. Much of this range area may also be inaccessible to livestock. In addition, spring and fall use on grasses and forbs has been found to be far less harmful than was previously supposed. Spring grazing occurs at a time when soil moisture and plant storage reserves (in the roots) are adequate for regrowth. Fall grazing is on plants in a near or complete stage of dormancy. Plants are most affected by summer grazing. At this time storage reserves are at a minimum and soil moisture is insufficient to permit re-growth of forage. In most instances, competi- tion between game and livestock will be non-existent on the portions of intermediate ranges where live- stock grazing is gauged to take no more than about 40% of the herbage production of grass plants. This level of use is considered proper grazing and will maintain plants in good condition. On High Elevation Ranges The chances for competition on high elevation ranges are usually even less than on intermediate ranges. This is because livestock grazing is usually confined to a rela- tively small portion of the total high elevation range area. Big game has access to the same areas used by livestock, but there appears to be very little overlap in food habits un- der summer conditions. In addition, since big game usually has access to a relatively large area, even the heaviest intensities of livestock graz- ing will not have any significant ef- fect on game forage supplies. As a general rule, livestock grazing on high elevation ranges stands a greater chance of competing with watershed values than with game. It follows, that complete removal of big game from a high elevation range will not permit increases in livestock. Similarly, under the con- ditions existing in Montana, complete removal of all livestock from a high elevation range will not permit in- creases in big game populations. This is because game numbers are limited by the available forage on the relatively small winter range 28 In deep snow areas, elk are dependent upon browse for winter forage. Only the terminal growth of browse represents the food supply. - — Photo by R. H. Cooney areas which are located along the foothills of mountains. Big game is often considered a factor in causing deteriorating for- age conditions (grass replaced by weedy forbs) on areas heavily graz- ed by livestock. In view of recent Montana studies which found that forbs were a preferred forage for deer and elk during late spring, sum- mer and early fall, we would expect that game use on heavily used live- stock areas was, in reality, a re- sponse to a concentrated source of forbs. It is a moot question whether this game use is not the result of de- teriorating forage conditions rather than the cause. MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Montana's game managers are obligated to investigate situations where big game and livestock may be competing for forage. If investiga- tions reveal that competition is oc- curring on public lands, the courses of action available to game manag- ers are: 1. Attempt to obtain agreements with forest officials and livestock permittees on an equitable allocation of forage for game and manage game accordingly. 2. Attempt to obtain agreements on retiring key winter areas for game. Compensate for such retirements by reducing game populations in adja- cent areas to non-competing levels. If investigations reveal that compe- tition is occurring on private lands, the courses of action available to game managers are: 1. Reduce game populations to levels where they are not competing with livestock. 2. Arrange for the acquisition of strategically located rangeland areas for game. Once a rangeland area is acquired, competition on adjacent private lands may be alleviated by liberal hunter harvests and extended seasons. Acquistion of Big Game Winter Ranges Throughout western and central Montana, the pattern of land owner- ship results in many deer and elk winter ranges being located on pri- vate lands which are ajacent to Na- tional Forests. The public-owned forest lands furnish forage for game during the spring, summer and fall under conditions where competition with livestock is either at a minimum or non-existent. However, competition between game and livestock may be intense on lands which furnish for- age for game during the winter — - particularly in the case of elk. Pri- vate landowners cannot be expected 29 • > • .x ti A group of elk on a state-owned game range. Grass is the principal winter food oi elk on foothill ranges where snow depths are not excessive. to support large numbers of elk at the expense of their livestock opera- tions. The initial benefit of a state-owned winter game range is, of course, the alleviation of conflict with livestock operations. Further benefits relate to the fact that an established winter game range is a stabilizing factor in elk management. This largely re- sults from the animals having a per- manent source of forage for the criti- cal winter season. Under these con- ditions, elk populations can be man- aged to produce the maximum num- ber of harvestable animals each year and for many years to come. It is our belief that criticism cf the program which provides imp^r'ant big game herds with a wintar range, largely stems from our own failure to acquaint people with the facts. A common misconception concerning state-owned game ranges is that they are off the "tax rolls." In all cases an amount "in lieu of taxes" is paid to the county in which a state-owned game range is located. These annual payments are determined by local county assessors and are equal to the taxes paid on adjoining lands of comparable value. Over the state as a whole, the lands suitable for de- velopment as winter ranges are limit- ed and they can never represent more than a relatively small area. However, the acquisition of certain strategically located rangelands is the key to resolving competition with livestock over relatively large areas. Since a state-owned winter game range simply transfers elk use from private to public lands, they cannot be expected to materially increase elk populations. In some instances, an acquired range area will have sufficient forage to permit increases. In others reductions from former num- bers will be necessary. Considering both the alleviation of conflict and the permanent source of recreation which results from the ac- quisition of a winter game range, it is doubtful whether any other expen- diture for big game management will provide so many benefits for so many people over such a long period of time. In many states, the expansion of agriculture into foothill mountain areas has resulted in the elimination of native elk populations. Perhaps no state has demonstrated as well as Montana that the acquisition of rela- tively small winter ranges is the means of having both elk and agri- culture. We would like to think that this is the program preferred by the majority of Montana's citizens. 30 MONTANA WILDLIFE FEDERATION -A JOB TO DO By Tom Deckert, President The operation of a state wildlife federation is more than a full-time job for any small group of men. It is doubtful if any organization, com- mercial or non-private could pay for all the personal services that are re- quired, even at a moderate hourly rate. Truly, wildlife conservation is a "labor of love" and whatever its motives or origin, none can today accuse a progressive federation of being merely a selfish-interest group. The multitude of interests evidenced by the men who gather together to share their enthusiasm for outdoor recreation reads like a listing of hob- bies, types of recreation and the nat- ural sciences in a modern encyclo- pedia! These organizations exist and pro- gress upon meager budgets. Some of them, unfortunately, are more proud of the meagerness of their budgets than of their accomplish- ments. While there is much to be said for keeping dues at as low a figure as possible and for as eco- nomical operation as possible, a fed- eration is in danger of losing light of its objectives if pennies are pinch- ed too greatly. Stagnation due to lack of finances destroys pride in the organization. Like it or not, hunting and fishing clubs, admittedly the least costly of all organizations, must keep up with the financial times. A dollar is worth only what it will buy. An organization whose sole requi- site for membership is the enjoyment of outdoor recreation is a diverse one. Every trade, profession and walk of livelihood are represented. As a general rule, the only common denominator is a liking for some form of recreation and, naturally enough, each individual thinks of his favorite form of relation to his likes and dis- likes, as well as his experience and training. Consider the divergent view- points of a farmer, a department store floor-walker, a physician and an automobile mechanic. Normally, none of these would regard himself as expert at the other's calling but such tolerances quite frequently fly out the window when recreation comes in the door, and all become self-confessed experts upon upland birds, deer, elk, goats, antelope, or some other form of wildlife or fish. Yet outdoor recreation has been the real eye-opener in allowing the public to see what happens to a plundered planet. And these men, despite the variance in their callings — and even in their chosen forms of recreation have been stimulated to become the champions of our natural resources, the voice that shouts for the conservation of those resources. The greatest service a state federa- tion can render is to make its mem- bers— these men — and others of the general public — see that resource management is a job for trained men, 31 MONTANA WILDLIFE FEDERATION OFFICERS— 1958 Back row (L-R): Robert Larimer. 1st Vice President. Glendive; Leland Schoonover, Treasurer, Poison; Front row (L-R): Virgil Janes. 2nd Vice President. Helena; Tom Deckert, President, Billings. —Photo by K. F. Roahen that their greatest service can, in turn, be rendered by clearing the way for the trained men to do a job. Resource management is today a recognized profession but no one should assume that there are cut- and-dried techniques which can be applied to any given situation. On the contrary, the complexity of the management job and the acknowl- edged low status of present knowl- edge need stressing at every pos- sible opportunity. Nowhere is a greater educational job needed than in convincing the public that it should seek out, then abide by, the best technical advice available upon the management of the wildlife resource. Presto! A major project for the state federation — the performance of that educational job upon both youth and adult. The project cannot even start there, for it must actually begin with the federation's educating its own membership. There is a fundamental difference between education and information. The former is the development of a philosophy. The latter is the accept- ance of factual material. Conserva- tion education will require much careful planning and a longer time than we like to believe. Conserva- tion information on the other hand may be presented and understood in the time it takes to tell it. Real education, like charity, begins at home. Therefore, before the feder- ation can seriously aspire to educate others it must be first assured that its own members understand and subscribe to the broad principles the federation seeks to teach. Toward this end, the Standard Committee system is the best tool with which to accomplish the task — a task, re- member, that is desperately needed. 32 Cute, but possessing the vicious nature common to the weasel family, the pine marten is a dweller of deep evergreen forests. Marten are at home both on the ground and in the trees. Even the agile pine squirrels can seldom escape him. — Photo by Fletcher Newby Helena, Montana Sec. 34.66, P. L. & R. U. S. POSTAGE PAID Permit No. 50 FORM 3547 REQUESTED