moo;
1EOLOGY
FROM-THE- LIBRARY-OF TRINITYCOLLEGETORONTO
MORAL THEOLOGY III
A HANDBOOK OF MORAL THEOLOGY
Vol. I. Introduction : Definition, Scope, Ob ject, Sources, Methods, History, and Litera ture of Moral Theology. — Morality, its Sub ject, Norm, and Object, iv and 293 pp. #7.50 net.
Vol. II. Sin and the Means of Grace, vi and 230 pp. $7.50 net.
Vol. III. Man's Duties to Himself, iv and 183 pp. $2.00 net.
Vol. IV. Man's Duties to God. vi and 423 pp. $2.50 net.
Vol. V. Man's Duties to His Fellowmen. viii and 624 pp. $3.00 net.
A HANDBOOK OF MORAL THEOLOGY
Based on the "Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie" of the late
ANTONY KOCH, D.D.
Professor of Theology in the University of Tubingen
BY
ARTHUR PREUSS
VOLUME m
MAN'S DUTIES TO HIMSELF
THIRD, REVISED EDITION
B. HERDER BOOK CO.,
15 & 17 SOUTH BROADWAY, ST. LOUIS, MO.,
AND 33 QUEEN SQUARE, LONDON, W. C.
1926
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Printed in U. S. A.
NIHIL OBSTAT
Sti. Ludovici, die 28. Aug. 1926,
Joannes Rothensteiner
Censor Librorum
IMPRIMATUR
Sti. Ludovici, die 30. Aug. 1926,
>J» Joannes J. Glennon,
Archiepiscopus
Copyright, 1919 by JOSEPH GUMMERSBACH
First Edition, 1919 Second Edition, 1920 Third Edition, 1926
Tail-BaUou Press, Inc., Binghamton and Ntw York
W 1 6 1946
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION i
PART I. INDIVIDUAL OR PERSONAL DUTIES 4
CH. I. Nature and Obligation of Christian Self-Love . . 4
CH. II. The Moral Significance of the Body 9
CH. III. The Care of the Body 21
CH. IV. Negative Duties in Regard to Life and Health . 74
CH. V. Positive Duties in Regard to Life and Health . . 86
CH. VI. The Duty of Developing the Mind 101
PART II. VOCATIONAL DUTIES 112
CH. I. Choice of a Vocation and Faithful Perseverance in
the Chosen Vocation 112
§ I. Choice of a Vocation 112
§ 2. Faithful Perseverance in the Chosen Vocation . .118 § 3. Sins against Vocation 121
CH. II. The Duty of Labor 124
§ i. Labor as a Natural Necessity 125
§ 2. Labor as a Moral Obligation 130
§ 3. Labor as a Religious Duty 132
§ 4. Manual and Intellectual Labor, and Recreation . .136
CH. III. Right and Duty of Acquiring and Possessing
Property 143
CH. IV. Duties in Regard to Honor 164
§ i. Notion and Value of Honor 164
§ 2. The Duty of Preserving Honor 168
INDEX I79
INTRODUCTION
In the two preceding volumes of this Handbook we dealt with the general principles of Moral Theology (Theologia Moralis Generalis). We must now show how these general principles are to be applied to man's conduct as an individual and as a member of society (Theologia Moralis Specialis).
The will of God is the supreme and ultimate source of all obligation (supremus debendi titu- lus). Hence, strictly speaking, man has but one duty, namely, to obey the divine law. This law, according to St. Paul, "is charity, from a pure heart, and a good conscience, and an unfeigned faith."1 St. Gregory the Great says: "The commandments one and all spring solely from love, and together constitute a single precept, because whatever is commanded, is founded upon charity."2 And St. Thomas Aquinas: "All the commandments are fulfilled in the one law of charity." 3
1 i Tim. I, 5. sola caritate solidatur." (Migne.
2 Horn, in Erang., 27, n. i: P. L., LXXVI, 1205).
"Omne mandatum de sola dilectione & Comment, ad Gal., c. 5, lect. 3:
est, et omnia iinnm praeceptum "Oninia [praecepta] in uno prae- sunt, quia, quidquid praecipitur, in cepto caritatis implentur." — IDEM,
2 INTRODUCTION
This one supreme law embodies a vast number of particular precepts, of which some oblige man to perform acts referring directly to God, while others enjoin acts that refer to Him only in an indirect way, their direct end being either some external object, or man himself, or his fellow- men.
The division of duties just mentioned is identi cal with that contained in the Decalogue. The first three commandments embody man's duties to God; the following five, his duties to his fel- lowmen; the last two, his duties to himself.
We arrive at the same partition if we consider the divine commandment of charity as obliging us to love, (a) God, (b) our neighbor, and (c) our selves,4 and if we ponder the Apostle's exhorta tion to "live soberly, and justly, and godly." 5
Man is both an individual and a member of society, and hence his duties appertain to two different spheres. The three classes of obliga tions mentioned, therefore, may be considered from two distinct points of view, namely, (a) that of the individual and (b) that of society.
We may accordingly divide all man's duties into three separate series, with two subdivisions each, to wit:
De Perfect. Vitae Spir., c. 12: 5)."— Cfr. Summo Thtol., 2a, ate, "Finis cuiuslibet praecepti est cari- qu. 189, art. I, ad 5. tas, ut dicit Apostolus (i Tim., I, 4 Cfr. Matt. XXII, 37-39.
6 Tit. II, 12.
INTRODUCTION 3
I. Individual or personal duties, which man owes to himself (self-love or self-discipline — sobrietas) ; more particularly.
1. The care for his bodily and spiritual wel fare;
2. The obligations arising from his vocation, occupation, and position in life.
II. Religious duties, which a man owes to God (charity, piety — pietas) ; particularly,
1. Individual obligations towards God;
2. Religious duties arising from one's position as a member of society.
III. Social duties, which a man owes to his fel- lowmen in justice (iustitia) or in charity, either
1. As an individual toward other individuals; or
2. As an individual toward society.
To these three principal heads of duty we will devote the remaining volumes of this Hand book.
The present (Volume III of the whole Series) treats of Man's Individual and Personal Duties; particularly (Part I) The Care for His Bodily and Spiritual Welfare, and (Part II) The Obliga tions Arising from His Vocation, Occupation, and Position in Life.
PART I
INDIVIDUAL OR PERSONAL DUTIES
CHAPTER I
NATURE AND OBLIGATION OF CHRISTIAN SELF-LOVE
i. NATURE OF CHRISTIAN SELF-LOVE. — The duties which man owes to himself may be sum marized in the proposition that he is obliged to love himself.
Self-love is so powerful an instinct of nature that it is impossible for man to act without it. Self-love not only follows logically from the universal commandment of charity, but is ex pressly inculcated in Holy Scripture as the stand ard and measure of that chiefest of all virtues. Matt. VII, 12: "All things therefore whatso ever you would that men should do to you, do you also to them." Matt. XXII, 39: 'The second
4
CHRISTIAN SELF-LOVE 5
[commandment] is like to this : Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." l
The second Commandment inculcates self-love, not in the sense of that innate disposition by which man seeks his own gratification, welfare, and advancement, but as a moral virtue.
Self-love as a natural instinct is not capable of governing man's conduct so as to enable him to attain its object, i. e., self-preservation. More over, in the debased state in which humanity unhappily exists since the fall of Adam and Eve, this natural instinct is perverted and tends away from, rather than towards, man's true end; in fact it has degenerated into inordinate selfishness, which, in the words of St. Thomas, is "the cause of all sin," 2 because it leads to covetousness, pride, blasphemy, disobedience, ingratitude, in- continency, and many other vices.3
Although the moral virtue of self-love derives
1 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Doctrina 3: "Proximus sum egomet mihi." Christiana, I, c. 25, n. 26: "Modus ~ Sumina Theol., la 2ae, qu. 77,
dtligendi praecipiendus est homini, art. 4: "Inordinatus amor sui est
id est, quomodo se diligat, ut prosit causa omnis peccati." sibi. Quin autem se diligat et pro- 3 Cfr. 2 Tim. Ill, 1-3. — Cfr. St.
desse sibi velit, dubitare dementis Augustine, De Civ. Dei, XIV, c. 28:
est." — Ibid., c. 26, n. 27: "Quum "Fecerunt civitates duas amores
praecurrat dilectio Dei eiusque dilec- duo, terrenam scilicet amor sui us-
tionis modus praescriptus appareat, que ad contemptum Dei, caelestem
ita ut cetera in ilium confluant, de vero amor Dei usque ad contemp-
dilectione tua nihil dictum videtur ; turn sui. Deniqiie ilia in se ipsa,
sed quum dictum est, 'Diliges proxi- haec in Domino gloriatur. Ilia
mum tuum tamquam teipsum,' simul enim quaerit ab hominibus gloriam,
et tui abs te dilectio non praeter- huic autem Deus conscientiae testis
missa est." (Migne, P. L., XXXIV, maxima est gloria." (Migne, P.
28 sq.).— Cfr. Terence, Andr., IV, L., XLI, 436).
6 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
its rule from the law of God, yet it is based upon or rooted in an instinct of nature.
Christian self-love, therefore, is a virtue op posed to selfishness and necessarily involves self- denial. "If any man come to me," says our Di vine Saviour, "and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple." 4 And again : "He that loveth his life shall lose it ; and he that hateth his life in this world, keepeth it unto life eternal." 5
To love oneself, therefore, in the Christian and Catholic sense of the term, means to combat selfishness and to seek the glory of God rather than one's own gratification.
Two corollaries flow from this proposition, namely:
a) Man is not his own master, but has con trol over his actions only in so far as he does not violate the divine order ;
b) He is in duty bound to regulate his conduct so as to be enabled to reach his divinely ap pointed end (bonum), and hence must avoid whatever is opposed to that end (malum).
2. THE DUTIES ARISING FROM CHRISTIAN SELF-LOVE. — The principal duty that springs from Christian self-love is that of preserving one's intellectual and moral personality. This
4 Luke XIV, 26. B John XII, 25.
CHRISTIAN SELF-LOVE 7
means that every man must provide properly for the salvation of his soul and the welfare of his body. The moral and religious life knows no standstill, and hence every Catholic is in duty bound so to exert his mental and physical facul ties as to reach what St. Paul calls "the meas ure of the age of the fulness of Christ," 6 and thus, by developing his personality, to achieve both his temporal and eternal destiny.
This constant striving after perfection is a duty which none may shirk and which, in importance and binding force, surpasses even the obligations we owe to our fellowmen. "For what doth it profit a man, if he gain the whole world, and suf fer the loss of his own soul ?" 7
"To govern oneself," says Seneca, "is to exer cise the highest dominion." 8
The virtue of Christian self-love inspires true self-respect because it is based on self-knowledge, humility, and a sincere desire to save one's soul and keep the body efficient for the attainment of
6 Eph. IV, 13.— Cfr. St. Jerome, 552).— IDEM, In Epist. ad Gal., II,
Epist., 54 (a/. 10), n. 6: "Arripe, c. 4: "Beatus qui ambulat in vir-
quaeso, occasionem et fac de neces- tutum via, sed si ad virtutes usque
sitate virtutetn. Non quaeruntur in pervenerit. Nee prodest a vitiis re-
christianis initia, sed finis. Paulus cessisse, nisi optima comprehendas.
male coepit, sed bene finivit. ludae Quia non tarn initia sunt in bonii
laudantur exordia, sed finis prodi- studiis laudanda qttam finis." (P.
tione damnatur. Lege Ezechielem: L., XXVI, 381). iMStitia iusti non liberabit eum, in 7 Matt. XVI, 26. — Cfr. A. Lehm-
quacunqve die peccaverit. Et im- kuhl, S. J., Casus Conscientiae, Vol.
pietas impii non nocebit ei, in qua- I, 3rd ed., n. 376. cunque die conversus fuerit ab im- S Epist., 113, 30: "Imperare sibi
pietate sua." (Migne, P. L., XXII, maximum imperium est."
8 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
its highest purpose by practicing temperance, diligence, and economy.
Opposed to self-love are, on the one hand, ex aggerated self-esteem, selfishness, and egotism, which are destructive of charity, and, on the other, disregard for the dignity of human na ture, indifference to spiritual things, and par ticularly that unnatural hatred of self which results from a wicked life and is almost in variably coupled with contempt for virtue, nay for God Himself, finally culminating in that ter rible sin which in a previous volume has been de scribed as "diabolical." 9
"He that loveth iniquity hateth his own soul," says the Psalmist ; 10 and the angel told Tobias : " They that commit sin and iniquity are enemies to their own soul." "
READINGS.— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., pp. 72 sqq., Innsbruck 1914.— Th. Meyer, S.J., Insti- tutiones luris Naturalis, Vol. II, n. 29-47, Freiburg 1900. — Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth edition, pp. 400 sqq., Freiburg 1910.— V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, 4th ed., Vol. II, pp. 46 sqq., Freiburg 1904. — E. Miiller, Theologia Moralis, 7th ed., Vol. II, pp. 86 sqq., Vienna 1894.— F. A. Gopfert, Moral- theologie, Vol. II, 6th ed., pp. i sqq., Paderborn 1909.
» Koch-Preuss, Handbook of Moral 10 Ps. X, 6.
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 91 sqq. 11 Tob. XII, 10.
CHAPTER II
THE MORAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY
i. THE CHRISTIAN VIEW OF THE BODY. — The Catholic Church in her ethical teaching avoids two false extremes: she neither undervalues the body, nor does she overestimate it.
a) Against what we may term false Spiritual ism the Church upholds the value and im portance of the material element in man. She teaches that the human body is superior to the bodies of all other creatures because it was di rectly created by God and is (not so much the prison as) the organ of an immortal soul.1 Through the body the soul exerts its activity and comes into contact with the material universe. In and through the body man exercises control over the lower creatures 2 and communicates with his fellowmen. There could be no social inter course if men had no material bodies.
The human body was raised to its true dignity when the Son of God was made flesh and suffered
1 Cfr. Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, onerat, ant certe iuvat et minime
Catech., IV, c. 23 (Migne, P. G., onerat. Primus status laboriosus,
XXXIII, 484). — Saint Bernard, De sed fructuosus, secundus otiosus, sed
Diligendo Deo, XI, n. 30 sq. : minime fastidiosus, tertius et glori-
"Bonus plane fidusque comes caro osus." (Migne, P. L., CLXXXVII,
spiritui bono, quae ipsum out si 993).
onerat, iuvat, out si won iuvat, ex- 2 Gen. I, 25. 9
io INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
and died to redeem men from sin and its conse quences. With the same body that endured the death agony on the cross, Christ rose from the grave, ascended into Heaven, and now sits at the right hand of God the Father, whence He shall come to judge the living and the dead.
Through the instrumentality of the Sacra ments the body, having been redeemed by Christ, participates in the graces of the atonement and thereby becomes a temple of the Holy Ghost,3 destined to rise again after death and to be for ever transfigured in Heaven. Hence every Christian is in duty bound not to "yield his mem bers as instruments of iniquity unto sin, but to present them "as instruments of justice unto God." 4
b) The Catholic view of the body differs also from that of the Materialists, who unduly exalt, nay fairly worship, the flesh. The Church values the body only in connection with, and as ennobled by, the spirit, and commands it to be mortified. "Put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh in its concupiscence." 5 "Mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth; fornication, uncleanness, lust, evil concupiscence, and covetousness, which is the service of idols." 8
8 i Cor. Ill, 16. 5 Rom. XIII, 14.
4 Rom. VI, 13; cfr. 19; j Cor. VI, e Col III, 5 sqq.
13, 20.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY n
To mortify the body does not, of course, mean to kill or maim it, but merely to subdue its sensual inclinations, so that it may become a fit compan ion for the spiritual and immortal soul — "bonus plane fidusque comes spiritui bono" as St. Bernard calls it,7 — and that it may be gradually prepared for its final transfiguration in Heaven.
2. LIFE. — Of even greater value than the body is life.
a) Life ranks first among the blessings of the natural order because it is the foundation and an indispensable condition of all the rest. Accord ing to revelation, man's life on earth is intended as a preparation for the life eternal in Heaven. It is the period of sowing for the great harvest; 8 the day assigned for laboring in the vineyard of the Master ; 9 the time appointed for trading with the God-given talents,10 for running the race and competing for the grand prize.11 Again and again Holy Scripture tells us, "What things a man shall sow, those also shall he reap," L2 and, "We have not here a lasting city," but should "seek one that is to come." 13 If this terrestrial journey forms but a moment, as it were, of our total existence, which is for the most part to be spent in the world beyond, then that moment is
7 See note i, supra, p. 9- 9 Matt. XX, 1-16.
8 Luke XII, 23.— Cfr. V. Cath- 10 Matt. XXV, 14-30. rein, S. J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. 11 i Cor. IX, 24 sq.
I, Freiburg 1911, sth ed., pp. 119 122 Cor. IX, 6; Gal. VI, 8 tq.
•qq. 13 Heb. XIII, 14-
12 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
extremely precious, and every fraction thereof possesses incalculable value for the welfare of the soul. What Christ said of Himself applies in a measure to every man : "I must work the works of Him that sent me, whilst it is day: the night cometh, when no man can work." 14
b) Life being a gift of such immense value, we are in duty bound to cherish it ; or, as St. Paul says, we must "redeem the time." 15
«) Hence no man is allowed to destroy or cur tail his life, even though it may have become a burden and is seemingly of no further value. By the aid of divine grace all temporal adversities and sufferings can be borne, nay made productive of supernatural glory. A life of suffering is not necessarily useless, but may be rendered highly meritorious by prayer, patience, and a good ex ample, and thus become beneficial to the afflicted individual as well as to the entire human race. He who has to suffer much should frequently rec-
14 John IX, 4. — Cfr. St. Jerome, cantet Ecclesia (Ps. C, i). Tempus
Comment, in Evang. S. Matth., 1. est misericordiae, age poenitentiam.
IV, c. 25: "Post iudicii diem Tempore iudicii illam luibes agere?
bonorum operum et iustitiae oc- Eris in virginibus illis, contra quas
casio non relinquitur." (P. L., clausum est ostium." (P. L.,
XXVI, 185).— St. Augustine, Serm., XXXVIII, 579).
93 (a/. De Verbis Domini, 23), c. 15 Eph. V, 16; Rom. XIII,
10, n. 16: "Dictum est, verum est, 13 sq.; Col. IV, 5. — Cfr. St. Au-
non fallaciter dictum est: 'Pulsate gustine, Serm., 16 (al. I inter
et aperietur vobis' (Matt. VII, 7), Homil., 50), n. 2; Serm., 17 (al. 28
sed modo quando tempus est miseri- inter Horn., 50), n. 7; Serm., 167
cordiae, non quando tempus est (al. 24 De Verbis Apost.), n. 3
iudicii. Non enim possunt con- (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 122, 138,
fundi ista tempera*, quam miseri- 910). cordiam et indicium Domino suo
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY 13
ommend himself to God, practice the virtue of resignation, cultivate good cheer, and never lose hope.16 Like St. Paul, he should offer the tribulations which he suffers "in the flesh" for the purpose of "filling up those things that are wanting of the sufferings of Christ." 17 Illness and suffering are by no means always a punish ment for personal sins.18 Oftentimes they are graces in disguise, given by a merciful God to enable man to train his soul for Heaven. "Suf ferings are lessons," runs an old saw,19 but they are also, in the words of a modern poet, favors from on high.20 When borne for the love of God, "tribulation worketh patience, and patience trial, and trial hope; and hope confoundeth not: because the charity of God is poured forth in our hearts by the Holy Ghost, who is given to us." 21
16 Matth. XVI, 24; XXVI, 39, St. Augustine, Confess., 1. II, c. 42; i Pet. IV, 22 sqq. — Cfr. 2, n. 4: "Domine, qui fingis do- Horace, Carmina, II, 3, i: "Aequam lorem in praecepto (Ps. XCIII, memento rebus in arduis servare 20), et percutis, ul sanes, et occidis mentem." — Seneca, Ep., 78, 20: nos, ne moriamnr abs te." (P. L., "Quid porro? Nihil agere te ere- XXXII, 677). — IDEM, Enarrat. in dis, si temperans aeger sis? Os- Psalmos, LXVIII, s. 2, n. i: " Et tendes morbum posse superan vel quando Dominus permittit aut facit, certe sustineri. Est, mihi crede, itt in tribulatione aliqua simns, etiam virtuti etiam in lectulo locus." tune misericors est." (Migne, P. L.,
17 Col. I, 24. XXXVI, 854).— Seneca, De Provid.,
18 Matt. IX, 2; Mark II, 5; Luke II, 2: "Omnia adversa [bonus XIII, 1-5; John IX, 1-3. fir] exercitationes putat."— IDEM,
i» UaerifjLara ^aO-fitiara. ibid., V, 9= "Ignis aurum probat,
20 Luise Hensel: "Leiden sind misericordia fortes i>\ros." — Ovid,
Gnaden."—Clr. Ecclus. II, 3 sqq.; Trist., V, 3, 75 = "Hectora guts
Phil. I, 29; i Pet. I, 17; Heb. XII, nosset, si felix Troia fuissetf'—'P.
7-1 1. — St. Ambrose, Expositio in W. v. Keppler, Das Problem des
Evang. sec. Lucam, 1. IV, c. 41 (v. Leidens, 2nd ed., pp. 12 sqq.
Koch-Preuss, A Manual of Moral 21 Rom. V, 3 sqq. Theology, Vol. II, p. 38, n. n. Cfr.
14 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
"We suffer with Christ, that we may be also glori fied with him. For I reckon that the sufferings of this time are not worthy to be compared with the glory to come, that shall be revealed in us." 22 Thus, suffering may be made a source of joy. "In much experience of tribulation," says the Apostle, "they have abundance of joy." 23
"The cross with its stern lines," writes Bishop Keppler, "a cold, bare, branchless tree with rough-hewn stumps for arms, is indeed at first sight a sad and joyless thing to look at, so true an image is it of harsh contradiction, so good a symbol of bitter pain. Yet men find that the cross possesses a certain beauty. In its sturdy, clear- cut, well-proportioned form they see a picture of stead fastness, of aspiring effort, of opposition conquered and contradictories reconciled. The sight of a man hanging in agony upon the cross arouses, at first, no sense of joy, it is true. Yet there is a wellspring of joy in the sure faith that the Divine Hero bleeding on the cross is dying in the battle against the fiercest foe of joy and of salva tion, and conquering as He dies. The cross becomes the symbol of victory and thereby the symbol of joy. Dark ness and gloom are dispelled and everywhere is shed the glory of the Resurrection. In its light, the tree of the cross becomes the tree of life, of resistless power; the dried trunk is clothed with blossoms and fruit ; and out of the crown of thorns spring forth roses. Thus also is it with the cross and the crucifixion in the life of each individual Christian. That a man should take up his cross daily; that he should not only bear his cross, but crucify the flesh, the old man — these are not forced
22 Rom. VIII, 17. 282 Cor. VIII, 2; cfr. Jas. I,
2-4; i Pet. I, 6-9; IV, i a sq.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY 15
figures of speech, but stern demands which certainly do seem likely to lead far away from joy. Yet the battle to which they summon is waged not against joy, but against joy's worst enemies. The cross obliges us to renounce the apples of Sodom, the wild cherries of sin, which are really no joys at all, but it does not demand a total re nunciation of legitimate natural joys; it only insists that they be used in moderation and with a good inten tion. Excessive enjoyment always begets disgust. Unrestricted activity and gratification of the sensual in stincts does not add to the sum of joy, but ruins both joy and the man; it sins not only against morality but against hygiene, which is to-day sometimes regarded as the supreme standard. A life 'beyond good and evil,' — to use Nietzsche's phrase — unscrupulous poaching, complete loosing of the wild, natural instincts, whose advocate, protector, and prophet Nietzsche was unwill ingly degraded into becoming by his less worthy dis ciples, the feeling of 'the beast of prey within man, the fair, ravenous, blond beast, lusting for prey and con quest,' — all this does not enrich, gladden, deepen, nor sweeten life. It delivers life over to the most wretched languor, to the hospital, the madhouse, to suicide, — 'those graves of lust,' 24 so numerous in the world to day." 25
Even Goethe realized that the spirit of austerity and self-sacrifice alone can provide the proper basis for a healthy, happy, cheerful life :
If thou hast not part
In death as well as birth, A sorry guest thou art
Upon the gloomy earth.
24 Numb. XI, 34- (tr. by Jos. McSorley, C.S.P.), pp.
26 P. W. von Keppler, More Joy, 76 sqq., St. Louis 1914.
16 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
"Man must die in order to grow. He must renounce selfishness, for it makes him poorer, not richer, and especially poorer in joy." 26
"Nothing," says a contemporary Protestant writer, "shuts in a life and shuts out satisfaction and joy like the self-considering temper and the self-centered aim. Such a life, though it may seem to itself self -developing, is in fact self-deceived. Instead of growing richer in its resources, it finds itself growing poorer. The more it cultivates itself, the more sterile it grows; the more it accumulates, the less it has; the more it saves, the more it is lost." 27
/?) To long inordinately for death is con trary to the Christian concept of life, its value and purpose. The "desire to be dissolved and be with Christ," which St. Paul extols as "by far the better thing," 28 must spring from an abso lutely pure motive and be accompanied by com plete resignation to the will of God. To wish for death in order to escape the dangers, vicissitudes, and tribulations of this earthly "vale of tears," is opposed to the teaching of Christ.29 Life is a precious gift which should be conscientiously employed.30 Though time is short, it is of suf ficient duration to enable us to gain eternity by making good use of the fleeting moments given to us.
28 Ibid., pp. 79 sq. 20 Cfr. F. W. Faber, Growth in
27 Peabody, Jesus Christ and the Holiness, Ch. IV.
Christian Character, p. 206. 30 Phil. I, 24 sqq. ; cf r. Sporer-
28 Phil. I, 23. Bierbaum, Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 2nd
cd., n. 373.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY 17
"Nothing," says the Ven. Don Bosco, "torments the reprobates in hell more than the thought that they have idled away the time which they received for working out their eternal salvation; nothing so consoles the elect in Heaven as the reflection that they have employed their days for the honor and glory of God."
c) By commanding us to sanctify our bodies and to employ time for the purpose of gaining eternity, the Church does not, as some assert, "preach gloom and sorrow and demand of her fol lowers that they forego all joy, thus making hyp ocrites of them." Both the Old and the New Testament bid man to be joyous. "Be glad in the Lord and rejoice, ye just, and glory, all ye right of heart." 31 "Let the just feast and rejoice be fore the Lord, and be delighted with gladness." 32 Christ Himself says : "Ask, and you shall receive, that your joy may be full." 33 And again : "These things I speak in the world, that they may have my joy filled in themselves." 34 Even the "Preacher," who so frequently insists on the vanity of earthly things, counsels the "young man" to enjoy life,35 though always, of course, in the fear of God and with due regard to His com mandments.36 Thomas a Kempis says: "There is no true liberty nor perfect joy but in the fear
31 Ps. XXXI, ii. ssEccles. XI, 9.
32 Ps. LXVII, 4; cfr. Luke X, 20. 36 Eccles. XII, 13; cfr. Ps.
33 John XVI, 24. XCVI, 12; Rom. XIV, 17.
34 John XVII, 13.
i8 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
of God with a good conscience." s7 The religion of Christ is by no means gloomy.
"Gloom is an alien and an enemy in Christian hearts," writes Charles Stanton Devas. "If Christianity is the religion of sorrow, it is also, and pre-eminently, the re ligion of joy; the solution of this antinomy being that Christianity is the religion of love, and that in this world love and sorrow are linked by a mysterious partnership. Now Christian asceticism is no superstitious pain-wor ship, no offering to some pain-loving deity, some evil principle opposed to the good, as though life and health were not God's good gifts; nor again has it ought in common, except sometimes the outward show, with the proud self -righteousness of the Hindu ascetic or Moslem dervish. Much rather Christian asceticism is a form of love ; and love being the root of joy, it follows that Christian joy fulness is not in spite of asceticism, but its consequence. We are taught as an elementary truth that man is on earth for the one end of perfecting him self in the love of God. This is his purpose and proba tion. But only through labor, pain and suffering is love perfected. Christianity, then, has no mission to eliminate labor, pain, and suffering from this world (pati et pcrpeti humanum est, wrote Leo XIII), but to transmute them. They can be the means whereby we can obtain the subjection of the lower selfish life and of greedy individualism ; the suppression of false self-asser tion and of blind nature before the law of reason and of God. Christianity is frankly 'the religion of suffering, of mortification, of self-sacrifice, of consuming love, of
87 De Imit. Christi, I, 21 (ed. — Cfr. Seneca, Ep., XXIII, 3:
Pohl., Vol. II, p. 39): " Non est "Hoc ante onwia fac, mi Lucili:
rera libertas, nee bona laetitia: nisi disce gaudere." — IDEM, ibid., 4:
in titnore Dei cum bona conscientia." "Verwn gaudium res severs est."
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BODY 19
self -forgetting zeal, of self -crucifying union, . . . the religion of the cross and the Crucified.' 38 Joyous aban donment, generous self-sacrifice, these are the watch words, and to become living images of the Divine Model of whom it is written that He pleased not himself." 30
"It is not true," says the Ven. Don Bosco, "that men are made sad by serving God. Who was more genial than St. Aloysius, or more joyful than St. Philip Neri or St. Vincent de Paul ? And yet these holy men devoted their entire lives to the practice of virtue."
"The Catholic attitude towards modern intellectual life," says Father Joseph Laurentius, S. J., "requires no other weapon for its defence than an unbiased knowledge of Catholic principles. The Syllabus [of Pius IX] does not condemn progress, liberality, or culture as such ; it merely rejects that which the enemies of the Christian religion have falsely decked out under these terms. A progress without God, without faith, without religion, — these are essential requisites of all true advance, — is no progress at all, but retrogression. A Liberalism de tached from the principles of Christian freedom and justice, based upon State omnipotence and the tenets of an atheistic pseudo-philosophy, is a false Liberalism. A
38 Cfr. St. Augustine, Contra hominibits nuptiae, non fecerunt,
Duas Epistolas Pelag., 1. Ill, c. 8, quia et ilia in plttrimis sine ipsis
n. 24: "Hae sunt nebulae [Pelagia- est, et ipsae, si nemo peccasset, sine
norum] de laude creaturae, laude ilia esse potuerunt." (Migne, P.
nuptiarum, laude liberi arbitrii, L., XLIV, 606). — St. Thomas,
laude sanctorum: quasi quisquam Summa Theol., 23. 2ae, qu. 28, art.
nostrum ista vituperet ac non 1-4; Contra Gent., 1. Ill, c. 112, n.
potius omnia in honorem Creatoris 6. — J. Mausbach, Catholic Moral
et Salvatoris debitis laudibus prae- Teaching and its Antagonists
dicat. Sed neque creatura ita vult Viewed in the Light of Principle
laudari, ut nolit sanari. Et nuptiae, and of Contemporaneous History,
quanta magis laudandae sunt, tanto (tr. by A. M. Buchanan), New
minus eis imputanda est pudenda York, 1914, pp. 131 sqq.
carnis concupiscentia, quae non est 39 C. S. Devas, The Key to the
a Patre, sed ex mundo est (i loa. World's Progress, pp. 121 sq.,
//, 16): quam profecto invenerunt in London, 1906.
20 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
culture that excludes the true religion from education and science, and pursues materialistic aims, is a misnomer. Such tendencies are not only unacceptable to the papacy, but must be rejected by every believing Christian, be he Catholic or Protestant. True Liberalism and progress, — the kind that ennobles man, emancipates him from the slavery of passion and sin, and elevates him to the ideal atmosphere of faith, knowledge and virtue, and strength ens and fosters the family, community, State, both in a material and in a spiritual way, — such the Church is ever ready, nay eager, to enlist in her service." 40
READINGS. — P. W. von Keppler, More Joy (tr. by Jos. Mc- Sorley, C.S.P.), St. Louis 1914.— C. S. Devas, The Key to the World's Progress, London 1906. — Jos. Mausbach, Catholic Moral Teaching and Its Antagonists Viewed in the Light of Principle and of Contemporaneous History (tr. by A. M. Buchanan), pp. 215 sqq., New York 1914. — W. Schneider-H. Thurston, S. J., The Other Life, pp. 74 sqq., New York 1920. — H. T. Henry, Catholic Customs and Symbols, N. Y. 1925, pp. 3 sqq.
40 Jos. Laurentius, S.J., in the zeit, Vol. II, Munich, 1904, pp.
Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, Vol. 477 sqq.; Philip Kneib, Die
LXXI (1906), pp. 241 sqq., "Jenseitsmoral" im Kampfe um
especially 250 sq.— Cfr. Hettinger- ihre Grundlagen, Freiburg, 1906, pp.
Stepka, Timothy; or Letters to a 133 sqq.; the Syllabus Errorum of
Young Theologian, St. Louis, 1902, Pius IX, n. 57, with the commen-
PP- 343 sqq.; G. Grupp, Kultur- tary of F. Heiner, Der Syllabus,
geschichte der romischen Kaiser- Mayence, 1905, pp. 267 sqq.
CHAPTER III
THE CARE OF THE BODY
I. THE CARE OF THE BODY IN GENERAL. — If the corporeal life of man is of such great impor tance for his eternal destiny, it follows that he must take good care of his body.
The desire to live (instinct of self-preserva tion) and to enjoy perfect health of mind and body is implanted by nature in every human being. "No man ever hated his own flesh, but nourisheth and cherisheth it," says St. Paul.1 Hence it is a natural duty to preserve life and health and to acquire and employ the means by which they may be prolonged and fostered.
Since, however, in consequence of the fall of our first parents, the sensual delight which men take in life and its pleasures easily degenerates into sinful enjoyment, the care of the body must be regulated by the precepts of Christian moral ity.
"By eating and drinking," says St. Augustine, address ing God, "we repair the daily ruins of the body until Thou destroy both the food and the belly (I Cor.
lEph. V, 29. 21
22 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
VI, 13). ... This Thou has taught me, that I should come to take nourishment as I take medicine. But while I am passing from the uneasiness of hunger to the satisfaction of satiety, the snare of concupiscence lieth in wait for me; for the very passage itself is a pleasure, and there is no other way to pass but this, to which necessity obliges me. And thus, whereas health is the cause of eating and drinking, a danger ous delight comes in as an attendant, and for the most part endeavors to go before, that for its sake I should do what I pretend and desire to do only for the sake of health. Nor are both of these content with the same allowance : for what is sufficient for health is too little for delight, and many times it becomes un certain whether it be the necessary care of the body that requires a further supply, or the voluptuous deceit of concupiscence that calls for this allowance. And the unhappy soul grows glad of this uncertainty, and pre pares therein the protection of an excuse, being pleased that it does not appear what is exactly proportioned for the maintenance of health, that under the cloak of health she may indulge her pleasure. These temptations I daily strive to resist, and I invoke Thy right hand to my assist ance, and refer my anxieties to Thee, for I have yet to seek for counsel in this matter." 2
2 Cfr. St. Augustine, Confess., 1. transeatur, quo transire cogjt neces-
X, c. 31, n. 34-44: "Reficimus sitas. Et quitm salus sit causa
quotidianas ruinas carports edendo edendi et bibendi, adiungit se tarn-
et bibendo, priusquatn escas et ven- quant pedissequa periculosa iucun-
tretn destruas (i Cor. VI, 13). , . . ditas et plerumque praeire conatur,
Hoc me docuisti, ut quemadmo- ut eius causa fiat, quod salutis
dum medicantenta, sic alimenta causa me facere vel dico vel volo.
sumpturus accedam. Sed dum ad Nee idem modus utriusque est, nam
quietem satietatis ex indigentiae quod saluti satis est, delectationi
molestia transeo, in ipso transitu pantm est. Et saepe incertum fit,
mihi insidiatur laqueus concupi- utrum adhuc necessaria corporis
scentiae. Ipse enim transitus volup- cura subsidittm petal an voluptaria
tas est, et non est alius, qua cupiditatis fallacia ministerium sup-
CARE OF THE BODY 23
Whatever God has created is good, and, broadly speaking, there are no material objects which man is per se obliged to renounce. St. Paul's as surance, "All things are yours," 3 is addressed to the faithful. Nevertheless the proposition is true only in a general way. The right of the individual to enjoy the good things of nature is limited in various ways.
1. It is limited, above all, by the particular needs of each. These needs are manifold and far exceed the essential requirements of life and health. They are measured by the personal necessities, bodily and spiritual, of each individ ual, by the degree of culture he has attained, by his position in society, the nature of his vocational duties, the climate, social environment, and many other factors.
2. The right of the individual to enjoy the good things of life is limited further by the social demands of the community in which he lives. Every member of society has a right to enjoy the things God has provided for the race as a whole. To waste or destroy them is against the law of nature, and to do so wantonly, without a just and
petat. Ad hoc incertum hilarescit invoco dexteram tuam ad salutem
infelix anitna et in eo praeparat ex- meam et ad te refero aestus meos,
cusationis patrocittium, gandens non quia consilium mihi de hac re non-
apparere quid satis sit moderations dum stat." (Migne, P. L., XXXII,
valetudinis, ut obtentu salutis obtim- 797).
bret negotium voluptatis. His ten- 8 i Cor. Ill, 22; cfr. i Tim. IV,
tationibus quotidie conor resistere et 3-5.
24 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
sufficient cause, would betray a brutal dispo sition and be a crime against nature. To waste the means of subsistence, on the proper distribu tion of which the welfare of entire classes de pends, involves an injustice against God and men.4
3. A third limitation arises from the purpose for which the good things of nature were created. The body must be nourished and fostered, not for its own sake, but that it may efficiently serve as the organ and companion of the soul. "We live not to eat, but we eat to live," says the wise Soc rates. Only in so far as the good things of na ture serve this higher purpose, is their use per mitted. "I say to you, be not solicitous for your life, what you shall eat, nor for your body, what you shall put on. Is not the life more than the meat, and the body more than the raiment?"6 "Put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh in its concupiscences." 6 "Let not then our good be evil spoken of, for the kingdom of God is not meat and drink, but justice, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost." 7
Good health is a necessary condition for the develop ment of talent. Those who are sickly depend on others,
4 Is. LXV. 8; Luke XVI, 19 sqq.; Cyril of Jerusalem, Catech., IV, c.
John VI, 13. 26 (Migne, P. G., XXXIII, 490);
o Matt. VI, 25; cfr. Matt. X, 39. Juvenal, Sat., X, 356: "Orandum
8 Rom. XIII, 14. est, ut sit tnens sana in corpore
7 Rom. XIV, 16 sqq. — Cfr. St. sano; fortem posce animum. . . ."
FOOD AND DRINK 25
whereas robust men have courage to dare and do. Therefore suitable provision for the preservation of health is an essential part of character training.8
II. VARIOUS MEANS OF CARING FOR THE BODY. — The ordinary means of keeping the body effi cient may be grouped together in two classes: those by which health is preserved and fostered, and those by which harmful and disturbing in fluences are warded off.
i. FOOD AND DRINK. — The chief means of preserving health are food and drink.
a) Mankind as such has unlimited control of the resources of nature. The Old Testament dis tinction between clean and unclean foods was purely disciplinary and ceremonial, and is no longer enforced under the New Law.9 "I know, and am confident in the Lord Jesus," says St. Paul, "that nothing is unclean of itself." 10 This includes animal as well as vegetable foods, for Christ Himself teaches that not what enters into the mouth, i. e., food and drink as such, but the inordinate use thereof defiles man.11
There is no moral objection to the common practice of making food more palatable by arti ficial means, because to enjoy one's meals is not to indulge in sensuality or sybaritism. Man is
8W. L. Pyle, Personal Hygiene, 10 Rom. XIV, 14; cfr. Col. II, 16.
Philadelphia, 1917. n Cfr. Matt. XV, 17-20; Mark
9 Gen. VII, 8; Lev. XI, 8; Matt. VII. 15-23; Tit. I, 15. XV, ii ; Mark VII, 15; Acts X, 15.
26 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
in duty bound to take wholesome food and to be moderate in its use, i. e., to eat neither too little nor too much for his physical well-being.
b) The use of food is limited by the needs of each individual, which differ according to age, climate, constitution, occupation, etc. Every man is allowed to take as much food as he re quires to maintain himself mentally and physi cally efficient, and all are in duty bound to avoid excess because it disturbs the equilibrium of soul and body and makes the former the servant of the latter, whereas it ought to be its master.12 Following the example of Christ and the Apostles, therefore, we should take our daily nourishment temperately and with gratitude to God, begin each meal with a blessing (benedictio mensae) and never forget to give thanks after eating.13
To eat or drink to satiety for mere pleasure (ob solam voluptatem) is morally illicit, even though it may not result in direct injury to the health.14 In the long run intemperance invariably revenges itself upon its victims.
On the sin of drunkenness in particular see Vol. II of this Handbook, pp. 79 sq. On the duty of self-denial, infra, pp. 72 sq.
izCfr. Rom. XIII. 14; XIV, 17; XXVII, 35; Rom. XIV, 6; i Cor.
cfr. Eccles. X, 17. X, 31; i Tim. IV, 3-5.
is Matt. XIV, 19; XV, 36; 14 Prop. Damnat. sub Innocentio
XXVI, 27; Mark XIV, 23; Luke XI., prop. 8: "Comedere et biber*
XXII, 17; John VI, ii ; Acts usque ad satietatem ob solam volup-
CLOTHING 27
Some believe that men were originally vegetarians and received permission to eat flesh meat only after the Flood. This opinion may be true or false, but we believe it has no basis in Holy Writ.
2. CLOTHING. — Another important means of preserving the health and warding off disease and other harmful influences is clothing.
a) Clothes are worn for a fivefold purpose: to protect the body against the inclemencies of the weather or climate, to adorn it, to cover naked ness and preserve modesty, to distinguish the sexes, and to mark differences in office, occupa tion, or social rank.15
b) In the choice of his garments the individual is to a considerable extent limited by season, cli mate, temperature, custom, fashion, and other factors.
Custom should not be disregarded entirely, and even erratic Dame Fashion may be followed to a certain reasonable extent.16 A person may dress well without being on that account guilty of vanity. For a man to dress like a woman, or vice versa, may be sinful or not, according to motives and circumstances. If done as a matter of necessity, or for any other good and sufficient cause, it is permissible; if the intention be
tatem non est peccatum, modo non 15 Gen. Ill, 7-11, 21; i Cor. VII,
obsit valetudini; quia licit e potest 34; XII, 23 sq. — Chas. S. Devas, (quis) appetitus naturalis suis acti- Political Economy, pp. 153 sqq. bus frui." (Denzinger-Bannwart, 18 W. T. Kane, S.J., "The Psy-
n. 1158). chology of Fashion", in America,
N. Y., 7 July, 1923, Vol. XXIX, No. 12, pp. 269 sq.
28
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
venially sinful, it is a venial, if grievously sinful, a mortal sin.17
The Church condemns vanity, wastefulness, carelessness, uncleanness as well as indecency in regard to clothing.18
For women to employ the arts of the toilet
17 C. 6, D. 30 (Condi. Gangr. a. 355, can. 18): "Si qua mulier suo proposito utile iudicans, ut virili veste utatur, propter hoc viri ha- bitum imitetur, anathema sit." (Decretum Gratiani, ed. Friedberg, Leipsic, 1879, p. 107). — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 23. 2ae, qu. 169, art. 2, ad 3; i a aae, qu. 102, art. 6, ad 6. — H. Busembaum, S. J., Medulla Theol. Mor., Tournai, 1876, 1. II, tr. 3, c. 2, dub. 5, a. 2: "Si femina utatur veste virili, vel contra, tantum ex levitate sine prava inten- tione aut periculo scandali et libi- dinis, veniale tantum erit, alias mortale, nullum vero, si ex necessi tate."
18 Cfr. St. Jerome, Epist., LIT, n. 9: "Ornatus ut sordes pari tnodo fugiendae sunt, quia alterum de- licias, alterum gloriam redolet." (Migne, P. L., XXII, 535)-— St. Augustine, De Serm. Dom. in Monte, 1. II, c. 12, n. 41: "Ma- xime advertendum est, non in solo rerum corporearum nitore atque pompa, sed etiam in ipsis sordibus luctuosis esse posse iactantiam, et eo periculosiorem, quo sub nomine servitutis Dei decipit. Qui ergo immoderato cultu corporis atque vestitus vel ceterarum rerum nitore praefulget, facile convincitur rebus ipsis pomparum saeculi esse secta- tor, nee quemquam fallit dolosa ima gine sanctitatis ; qui autem in pro- fessione christianitatis inusitato tqualore ac sordibus intentos in se
oculos hominum facit, quum id voluntate facit, non necessitate pati- tur, ceteris eius operibus potest conici, utrum hoc contemptu super- flui cultus an ambitione aliqud faciat." (P. L., XXXIV, 1287).— On wastefulness in the matter of dress and adornments, which is so conspicuous a fault of western na tions, especially since the Industrial Revolution, Charles S. Devas (Po litical Economy, p. 154) says from the standpoint of the economist, that it is a source of "frequent ruin." The following remark of the author deserves reproduction also in a handbook of Moral Theology: "In many modern countries, by the disorganization of family life, notably by the absence of the house wife from home and by the want of training in household work, the proper care or repair of clothes has been neglected (as well as of the house-linen and household utensils) : such neglect being no trifle; for since clothing will last twice as long if properly mended and cared for, the neglect of such care will compel a man, if he is to be clad as well as before, to spend on cloth ing nearly twice as much." The scarcity and high price of clothing consequent upon the Great War have checked this "depraved con sumption" of clothing and house hold utensils, and it is to be hoped that the lesson will not soon be for gotten.
CLOTHING 29
(cultus muliebris) out of vanity is not a mortal sin, but to do so in order to tempt men is grie vously sinful.19
It should never be forgotten that the highest purpose for which clothes are worn is the pres ervation of modesty.* The moralist has no right to inveigh against the vagaries of fashion unless they endanger modesty or health or unless peo ple spend more money on clothes than they can reasonably afford.
In some countries custom prescribes a definite attire for people according to profession, occupation, or social rank. Where such a custom exists, it should be re spected. The clergy, in particular, have a prescribed dress (habitus clericalis), which is regulated partly by the general laws of the Church and partly by diocesan ordinances, which should be conscientiously observed.20
Clement of Alexandria says that woman with her clothes puts off her modesty,21 but this sentiment, though quoted frequently in the writings of the Fathers,22 did not originate with Christian authors; it has been traced to Herodotus.23
IB Cfr. Prov. VII, 10; i Cor. Vol. XI (1918), No. 606, pp. 475
VII, 34; St. Thomas, Summa sqq.
Theol., 23 2ae, qu. 169, art. 2; 21 Al 5£ diroSvffdfjLevai. apa TU
Ovid, Remed. Amor., 342 sq. xiT^vl Ka^ TV ntSia-
* Cfr. A. Vermeersch, S.J., De 22 See, for instance, St. Cyprian,
Castitate, Bruges, 1919, pp. 19 De Habitu Virg., c. 19: "Vtre-
•q. cundia illic omnis exuitur, simul
20 Cone. Trid., Sess. XIV, c. cum amictu vestis honor corporis ac
6, de Ref.; Sess. XXIII, c. 6, de fudor ponitur." (Corpus Script.
Ref.; Codex luris Can., can. 136; Eccles. Lot. Vindobon., Vol. Ill,
Chas. Augustine [Bachofen], O. S. p. 201).
B., Commentary on the New Code of 23 Herodotus, Hist., I, 8. — Cfr.
Canon Law, Vol. II, pp. 84 sq.; St. Jerome, Adv. lovinian., 1. I, n.
Irish Eccles. Record, $th Series, 48: "Scribit Herodotus, quod
30 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
3. HOUSING. — The dwellings in which men live have a powerful influence upon them, either for good or evil. Improper housing conditions injure the family and social life in general.
a) A text-book of Moral Theology is not the place to discuss the intimate connection existing between housing conditions on the one hand and the death rate and public morality on the other. The moral degeneration of the poor, especially among industrial workers crowded together in our city slums, is largely owing to lack of decent and comfortable lodgings. The workingman who does not feel at his ease at home is often led to frequent saloons and other even more objec tionable places that supply the physical comforts for which he craves.
b) Of late years efforts have been made in practically all civilized countries to provide adequate dwellings for the laboring classes. These efforts deserve to be encour aged, but it would be still more praiseworthy if measures were taken to enable each individual laborer to acquire a home of his own. Leo XIII lays it down as one of the chief conditions of a satisfactory settlement of the labor question that the State induce as many as possible of the humbler class to become property owners.24
"The family that has a home, 'be it ever so humble/ " says a modern American writer, "has an interest in com-
mulier cum vests deponat et vere- lect Letters and Addresses on Social
cundiam." (Migne, P. L., XXIII, Questions by Leo XIII, London,
279). 1912, p. 208. 24 The Pope and the People, Se-
HOUSING 31
mon, an aspiration for life and good citizenship, which those cannot have who pay some one else to provide a roof under which they may sleep and eat, and who pack up and move to another place on the slightest pretext. . . . Whatever conveniences the best apartment house may afford, it can never possess the spirit and sentiment that are associated with the old cottage in the Green Mountain village or even the little home in West Philadelphia, where every house looks like the next one. Stephen C. Foster's melodies and John Howard Payne's 'Home, Sweet Home' reach every heart where the English language is known. But who could get sentimental about Apartment 10, on the sixth floor of 408 West i3oth Street?" 25
The ideal is, says Devas, "that each family should be in the secure possession of a house neither unhealthy nor overcrowded, nor overcharged, and that adequate garden ground should surround it to enable the housewife and young children to find, with the plants, the animals, and the domestic industries, occupation and amusement at home."
Every industrious workingman should be enabled to purchase a decent home at a moderate price on easy time payments. In the big industrial centres cheap lodg ing houses should be provided for working people of both sexes to discourage the lodging of unmarried per sons in small homes, which is a prolific source of physical disease and moral corruption. Adequate provisions of this kind are all the more necessary as the steadily in creasing migration from country to city makes housing conditions among the city poor more unsatisfactory from year to year. The physical and moral evils aris ing from urban congestion should be counteracted by ade quate legal measures, such as the careful inspection of
25 R. O. Hughes, Community F. X. Doyle, S.J., The Home Chics, Boston, 1917, pp. 86 sqq.; World, N. Y., 1922.
32 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
new buildings, strict enforcement of State and municipal ordinances, etc. Unsanitary and inadequate dwelling houses ought to be promptly condemned and the owners compelled either to make them fit for human habitation or devote them to some other purpose.26
To adorn one's home and furnish it with all the com forts and conveniences within one's means, is morally licit and socially desirable, provided, of course, the im portant truth is not lost sight of, that man has no lasting habitation here below, but must "seek one that is to come."
Surely if St. Bernard could return and see the luxury with which some people surround themselves, he would repeat his famous dictum : "Talia decent cives nan exules."
c) Besides providing suitable dwellings for the poor, the municipal governments should see to it that the streets are cleaned regularly and in a sanitary manner,27 that there is an abundant supply of pure drinking water, and that the air is kept free from contaminating smoke, gas, and other deleterious substances. Refuse should be collected and disposed of regularly and promptly and so as not to endanger the health of the community. Trees, shrubs, and flowers along the
26 Devas. Political Economy, p. London, 1918, Vol. CXXXII, No.
147. Literature: ID., Political Econ- 652, pp. 241 sqq.; J. Robertson,
omy, pp. 146-152; New Ency elope- The Housing Question, London,
dia of Social Reform, New York, 1919; E. E. Wood, The Housing
1908; Sykes, Public Health and of the Unskilled Wage-Earner, N.
Housing, London, 1901; G. Haw, Y., 1919; C. Aronovici, Housing
No Room to Live, London, 1900; and the Housing Problem, Chicago,
Jacob A. Riis, The Peril and Pres- 1921.
ervation of the Home, New York, 27 On street cleaning see R. O. 1903; James Cornes, Modern Hous- Hughes, Community Civics, pp. 45 ing in Town and Country, London, sqq. The author justly says: 1905; Dorothea Proud, Welfare "When we see children playing in Work, New York, 1916; J. E. Hut- some of our streets— the only play- ton, Welfare and Housing, Lon- grounds some of them have, poor don. 1918; Leslie Toke, The things!— we wonder not that dis- Housmg Problem, London, 1916; ease is common among them, but Herbert Lucas, S.J., in The Month, how they keep well at all."
HOUSING 33
streets and in open places, and ample breathing space in the form of public parks and playgrounds, not only beau tify a town or city, but likewise make it more healthful and its inhabitants more contented.28
Railroads, street cars, and other public conveyances demand careful supervision on the part of the authorities, both as regards the sanitary condition of the cars, barns, etc., and the welfare of the employees.29
Industrial hygiene offers another vast field for com munal supervision, to which we can refer only in a gen eral way. The health of factory workers should be safeguarded in every possible manner, — the shops and workrooms should be properly aired, lighted, and heated, all dangerous machinery equipped with mechanical guards, the production of health-destroying articles, such as white phosphor matches, prohibited, and so forth.
Among the means that have been suggested, and to some extent applied, for the solution of the housing prob lem is the so-called garden city plan, which aims at organ izing industrial communities in the suburbs or country, where, with many of the advantages of the city, healthful and more or less model factories and other forms of busi ness may be conducted, and where the workers can occupy inexpensive but attractive, hygienic and comfort able homes, each with its little garden, and all surrounded, if possible, by a belt of agriculture, so as to combine as
28 Cfr. Hughes, op. cit., pp. 64 est on a great deal of watered stock sqq., 99 sqq. and keep its service up to date in
29 The trouble with many of our addition, the task is not easy" street car companies is that they (Hughes, I.e., pp. 60 sq.), and, we are handicapped by past crooked- may add, the employees are often ness of management. "A very seri- made to suffer. — On the moral as- ous and common evil has been the pects of "stockwatering" see Thos. issuing of 'watered' stock — that is, Slater, S.J., Questions of Moral stock that does not represent actual Theology, New York, 1915, pp. 159 money invested in the business. sqq.
When a company tries to pay inter-
34
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
many as possible of the advantages of the city with thosi* of the country.80
Other suggested means of housing improvement are the various schemes of taxation reform, especially the so-called Single Tax, to be levied on the value of land irrespective of improvements, and a heavy tax on all unearned increments on the value of building sites. These two schemes must not be confounded. While the Single Tax is unfair and impracticable,31 the unearned increment tax has many arguments in its favor and is being widely tested at present.32
30 Bliss, New Encyclopedia of Social Reform, pp. 532 sq.; Wm. Webb, Garden First in Land De velopment, London, 1919-
31 See Arthur Preuss, The Funda mental Fallacy of Socialism, St. Louis, 1908 (contains an account of the famous McGlynn case) ; the New Encyclopedia of Social Re form, pp. 1114-19; C. B. Fille- brown, The Principles of Natural Taxation, Chicago, 1917; Young, The Single Tax Movement in the United States, Princeton, 1916; J. A. Ryan, Distributive Justice, New York, 1916, pp. 117 sqq.
32 Dr. Michael Cronin thus ex plains the rationale of the unearned increment tax (Science of Ethics, Vol. II, Dublin, 1917, pp. 290 sq.) : "It is evident that unearned incre ments on land are not to be re garded as unlawful in any way. They are increments in value due to increased demand, and they are just as lawful as increases in the value of any other commodities due to increased demand. What is wrong about them is that they are so often excessive. . . . There is a just price which ought not to be exceeded by the seller, and this price, even after increment occurs, always bears some proportion to the
original value of the article. On the other hand, in the case of build ing sites, the price demanded is often a hundred times greater than the original value, and often no limit in the price demanded is ob served except the limits imposed by the necessities of the buyers. This is altogether unreasonable and wrong. Though, therefore, what is spoken of as unearned increment in land is not unlawful, still in deal ing with, and imposing taxes on, in crements in the values of building sites, government ought to be given a very free hand. For, first, a good deal of money would thus accrue to the community; and, secondly, such a tax, particularly if it is made pro gressive, would help to prevent the extortions which at present are only too common in cities, extortions which go very far to prevent the erection of useful and necessary buildings of various kinds, and, as common sense will show us, the burden of which has in the long run to be borne for the most part by the poorer classes, in the in creased rents they have to pay, in creased food prices, and their di minished weekly wage." — An in structive discussion of the unearned increment tax by a Catholic author
RECREATION
35
4. RECREATION. — Another means of keeping the body healthy and strong is recreation.
a) Rest and recreation answer to a natural demand, the gratification of which cannot per se be illicit.33 "lucundi acti labores," says an an cient proverb, which we may render by, "It is pleasant to rest after work." Both body and mind at regular intervals need rest and recrea tion, which must, of course, be taken in accord ance with the laws of reason and revelation. As bodily rest can be lifted into a higher sphere and made supernaturally meritorious by prayer, so, too, mental recreation can be supernatur- alized by a good motive, moderation, proper regard for vocation, time, place, charity, mod esty, and morality.34
is found in Distributive Justice, by the Rev. John A. Ryan, D.D., Pro fessor of Political Science at the Catholic University of America, who is both an economist and a moralist (New York, 1916, pp. 102-117). Dr. Ryan says that "the morality of this proceeding must be determined by the same criterion that is applied to every other method or rule of dis tribution; namely, social and indi vidual consequences. No principle, title, or practice of ownership," he holds, "nor any canon of taxation, has intrinsic or metaphysical value. All are to be evaluated with refer ence to human welfare. Since the right of property is not an end in itself, but only a means of human welfare, its just prerogatives and limitations are determined by their conduciveness to the welfare of hu
man beings. By human welfare is meant not merely the good of so ciety as a whole, but the good of all individuals and classes of individ uals. For society is made up of in dividuals, all of whom are of equal worth and importance, and have equal claims to consideration in the matter of livelihood, material goods, and property. In general, then, any method of distribution, any • modification of property rights, any form of taxation is morally lawful which promotes the interests of the whole community, without causing undue inconvenience to any indi vidual."
83 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., za zae, qu. 168, art. 2; Horace, Car- mina, II, 10, 17; Ovid, Ex Ponto, I, 4, 21 sq.
34Eccles. Ill, i, 4; Phil. IV, 4;
36 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
A good Christian will gladly sacrifice pleas ure and amusement for the sake of higher bless ings.
b) Most men obtain the rest and relaxation they require by social intercourse with their fel- lowmen. The means of sociability or entertain ment are innumerable. Some of them are pre dominantly material in character, e. g., banquets, games, sports, excursions, dances, balls, gymnas tic exercises, etc. ; whereas others are mainly spir itual, as, e. g,, the enjoyment of beautiful scen ery or works of art, travelling, music, shows, etc. All amusements have an ethical bearing. En joyed at the proper time and in moderation, they are licit, but they become illicit if sought or in dulged in inordinately, especially if they endanger morality, injure health or are sought entirely for their own sake. Inordinate fondness for amuse ment is contrary to the spirit of Christian mortifi cation and injurious both to the temporal and the eternal welfare of man.
Needless to say, not all kinds of entertainment are suitable for all. Thus ecclesiastical custom and the canon law limit the amusements permit ted to clerics so as to safeguard their honor and virtue, for, as the Council of Trent says, "Omnia non pariter rerum sunt omnibus apta" 35
St. Ambrose, De Officiis, 1. I, c. 20, De Ref., c. i; cfr. St. Propertius,
n. 85. Elegia, IV, 9, 7. — Canon 138 of
86 Cfr. One, Trident., Sess. XXII, the New Code commands clerics to
RECREATION
37
Children will play, and it belongs first of all to the parents, local group, neighborhood or parish, and secondarily to the community or State, to see that their playing is directed properly and that facilities are afforded for it. The Church, too, has a mission in this matter. She cannot be
abstain from all things which are unbecoming to their state. It then proceeds to mention in detail what these things are: "They should not engage in unbecoming trades or oc cupations; they should not take part in games of chance when played for money; they should not carry arms unless there is just cause for fear; they should not indulge in hunt ing, and in that form of it which is called clamorosa, they should never engage; they should not enter public houses and other similar places without necessity or some other just cause approved by the Ordinary of the place." The occu pations which are prohibited as un becoming the clerical state are those which are commonly regarded as mean or sordid or which cannot be engaged in without serious danger of sin. In this connection canonists usually state that clerics are for bidden to be clowns, jesters, or ac tors in public theaters or in unbe coming plays. These are merely ex amples. The prohibition in regard to games of chance embraces only such as are entirely dependent on chance, e.g., dicing (cfr. St. Al- phonsus, Theol. Mor., Ill, n. 900). Canonists and theologians are, how ever, agreed that clerics are not guilty of a grave sin in this matter unless they play very frequently (cfr. Sabetti-Barrett, Comp. Theol. Mor., n. 587 sqq.). As to card-play ing, Dr. J. Kinane says in a com mentary on can. 138 in the Irish
Eccles. Record, Vol. XI, No. 6, p. 478: "Games which are de pendent entirely or almost entirely on skill, and those which are de pendent partly on skill and partly on chance, do not come within the scope of this prohibition. Most games of cards belong to this lat ter category, and, consequently, are not directly forbidden. It is hardly necessary to point out, however, that card-playing on the part of clerics may sometimes result indi rectly in a serious violation of the natural law itself, if it leads them to neglect their duties, or gives scandal to others, or produces some other evil effect of that kind. Lo cal legislation, too, may sometimes prohibit it directly." The regula tion in regard to the carrying of arms must also be interpreted in the light of the old legislation on this matter, which was regarded by canonists as prohibiting only mili tary arms intended for use against man. (Palmieri, Opus Theol. Mor., IV, p. 335: "Arma scilicet mili- taria quae publice more laicorum gerantur .") . Regarding hunting, the quiet form of it (venatio quieta) is sinful for clerics only in so far as time is wasted, duties ne glected, or scandal given in the in dulgence of it. (Cfr. J. Kinane, /. c., p. 479, and Chas. Augustine, O. S. B., Commentary on the New Code of Canon Law, Vol. II, pp. 86 sqq.
38 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
content with merely giving instruction, but must aim at the development of character. Char acter comes through self-expressive activity, and it is mainly in play that the child expresses his personality and his strongest interests. "The task of the teacher in either sphere [mental and moral as well as physical], says a recent Ameri can writer, "is that of so controlling and modify ing the environment of the child as to call forth those reactions that are likely to form the de sired habits of thought and conduct. In this training the reactions that are of greatest value are those that are most genuinely and completely self-expressive and, with children and youth at least, these are most readily discovered in the play life. Here we touch the springs of interest, and we may utilize that interest as a powerful factor in the accomplishment of our purpose. Play fur nishes the teacher or parent the most immediate point of contact with child life." 3G These and many other considerations, into which we cannot enter here, show the possibilities of wisely di rected play as an influence in Christian training. As the same writer justly says, "the responsibil ity for providing adequate and proper play for the children and youth of any community is a moral duty that cannot be lightly evaded, and the
36 H. W. Gates, Recreation and through Play, New York, 1915; Jos. the Church, Chicago, 1917, p. n; Lee, Play in Education, New York, cfr. H. S. Curtis, Education 1915.
RECREATION 39
Church must take at least an intelligent interest therein." 37
Both body and mind from time to time require recreation, in order that they may not be over taxed and thereby lose their efficiency. Bodily recreation has a wholesome influence on the mind as well. Practically every mental exertion in volves a strain on the body because the mind works through the bodily organs, and therefore recreation eases both body and mind, and pro duces pleasure, joy, and comfort. No man can exist without some sort of sensible pleasure, and the contention of the Stoics that pleasure is unworthy of human nature must be rejected as radically false. While it is true that recreation or pleasure may become sinful by inordinate in dulgence, it is equally true that complete absten tion from all pleasure is apt to make men dull and morose and a burden to one another.
Social intercourse is a postulate of reason and a demand of nature, and if properly regulated, has a high ethical value. In itself social inter course has its advantages as well as disadvan tages, just like solitude, which, if observed ac cording to the rules of ascetic theology, may be termed "the garden of the interior life." 3S
37 Gates, op. cit., p. 20. — Mr. and youth. See also Hy. A. Atkin-
Gates shows how certain churches son, The Church and the People's
have interested themselves with Play, Pilgrim Press, 1915.
good results in the matter of pro- 38 Cfr. Mich. VII, 6; Eccles. IV,
viding play facilities for children 10, 12; Prov. XVIII, 24; XXVII,
40 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
An important place among social pleasures be longs to those of the table. Significantly enough Jesus Christ represents the joys of Heaven un der the figure of a banquet.39 In the parable of the prodigal son He expressly mentions the meal which the father prepared in honor of his son's return.40 He often accepts invitations to din ner,41 takes part with His Blessed Mother in the wedding feast of Cana,42 and institutes a banquet of love to serve as a memorial of His passion.43 In the agape the Church recognized the ethical value of the common meal.44 To partake of food in the company of others is therefore a morally good act, which becomes illicit only by abuse. Luxurious feasting leads to sins against temper ance and purity.45
17; Matt. X, 36; Luke IV, 42; V, conturbat. Christus, qui non potuit
16; IX, 18.— St. Bernard, Serm. in impediri turba, declinavit a turba.
Cant., LXIV, n. 4: "Quanta ex Vita solitaria Deo et angelis grata,
monasteries spiritu fen'entes eremi pads semper arnica."
solitude suscepit et out tepefactos 89 Matt. VIII, n; Luke XIV, 15
evomuit out tenuit contra eremi sqq.
legem, non modo remissos, sed 40 Luke XV, 23.
etiam dissolutosf Sicque apparuit 41 Luke VII, 36 sqq.
vulpeculam adfuisse, ubi tanta facta 42 John II, i sqq.
est vastatio vineae, id est, vitae et 43 i Cor. XI, 23 sqq.
conscientiae hominis detrimentum. 44 i Cor. XI, 20-34; cfr. F. X.
Cogitabat, si solus degeret, multo se Funk, Kirchengeschichtliche Ab-
copiosiores fructus spiritus percep- handlungen und Untersuchungen,
turum, quippe qui in communi vita Vol. Ill, Paderborn, 1907, pp. i
tantnm spiritualis gratiae fuisset ex- sqq.; H. Leclercq in the Cath. En-
Pertus. Et bona visa est sua cogi- cyclopedia, Vol. I, pp. 200 sqq.;
tatio sibi, sed rei exitus indicavit, Keating, The Agape and the
tnagis eandem illi cogitationem vul- Eucharist in the Early Church,
Pern demolientem fuisse." (Migne, London, 1901; P. Batiffol, Etudes
P. L., CLXXXIII, 1085).— Thomas d'Histoire et de Theologie Positive,
a Kempis, Lib. Spirit. Exercitii, c. Paris, 1902, pp. 277-311.
4 (ed. Pohl, II, 336): " Solitude 45 i Cor. X, 5-8; cfr. St. Je-
devotionit est mater, turba vero rome, Epist., LIV (al. X), n. 10:
SOCIAL PLEASURES 41
Games and plays may be divided into two classes : those which require skill and talent, and those in which chance plays the leading part. To the former class belong chess, billiards, and ten pins; to the latter, dice and cards. In them selves both species of games are morally licit, even though played for money; for in many cases it is only by playing for stakes that sufficient interest can be maintained. But when playing degenerates into gambling, and is carried on purely for the sake of gain, it involves moral dan ger.
That gambling may not be illicit, theologians commonly require four conditions, which Father Slater states as follows : ( i ) What is staked must belong to the gambler and must be at his free dis posal; (2) the gambler must act freely without unjust compulsion; (3) there must be no fraud in the transaction, although the usual ruses may be allowed; and, finally (4), there must be some sort of equality between the parties to make the contract equitable. If any of these conditions be wanting, gambling becomes more or less wrong. Besides, there is in all gambling an element of danger which is sufficient to account for the bad name it has acquired. In most people
"Nihil sic inflammat corpora et a Kempis, De Imit. Christi, 1. I, c.
titillat membra genitalia sicut indi- 19 (ed. Pohl, II, 34) : "Frena
gestus cibus ructusque convulsvs." gttlam, et omnem carnis inclina-
(Mtgne, P. L., XXII, 555). Thomas tionem facilius frenabis."
42 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
gambling arouses keen excitement and quickly develops into a passion which is difficult to con trol. If indulged to excess it leads to loss of time and usually of money, to an idle and useless life spent in bad company and unwholesome sur roundings, and to scandal, which is an occasion of sin and a source of ruin to others.46
Dancing holds in social life a place that can not be ignored. It appeals strongly to the desire to express in rhythmical motion the exuberant spirit and vitality of youth, and gratifies the craving for society and companionship. If in dulged for the sake of recreation and social fel lowship, it is, in the words of St. Francis de Sales, morally indifferent, i. e., neither good nor bad in itself; but as now commonly practiced, it tends to evil and entails many dangers. The best dances are not above suspicion, and therefore dancing should be indulged but rarely and for a short time. Though the danger involved is of ten great,47 it would nevertheless be wrong to
46 Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, p. iota die saltarent." (Migne, P. L., 375.— Cfr. Cone. Trid., Sess. XXII, XXXVI, 281).— IDEM, ibid., XCI, de Ref., c. i; Sess. XXIV, de Ref., n. 2: "Melius est enim arare [die c. 12; St. Thomas, Sttmma Theol., sabbati], quam saltare." (P. L., 23. zae, qu. 168, art. 1-4; Funk, op. XXXVII, 1172).— IDEM, Serm., IX, cit. (see note 44), Vol. II, pp. 209 n. 3: "Non quomodo ludaei ob- sqq. servabant sabbatum carnali otio,
47 Cfr. Eccles. IX, 4. — St. Au- vacare enim volunt ad nugas atque gustine, In Ps.t XXXII, s. i, n. 6: luxurias suas. Melius enim faceret "Observa diem sabbati, non car- ludaeus in agro suo aliquid utile, naliter, non iudaicis deliciis, qui otio quam in theatro seditiosus existeret, abutuntur ad nequitiam. Melius et melius feminae eorunt die sab- tnim utique tota die foderent, quam bati lanam facerent, quam tota die
DANCING 43
condemn dancing1 absolutely. This form of amusement may be tolerated under the following conditions :
(a) All sinful intention must be excluded, and the participants must be earnestly resolved to render the danger of sin remote, and have a cer tainty, based upon experience, that they will be able to avoid sin ;
(b) Young people attending a dance or ball should be accompanied by their parents or other reliable chaperons, and avoid being alone with persons of the other sex;
(c) They should dress modestly, and
(d) The dances must not be indecent or ob jectionable in themselves.48
Systematic bodily exercise not only benefits health, but also occupies the mind in a useful man ner, and hence the various forms of wholesome sport, e. g., walking, riding, swimming, hunting, fencing, boxing, sleighing, skating, etc., are in themselves morally licit and often exert a whole some influence upon the mind. They become reprehensible only when they exceed the right measure or are made the object of sinful desire or the occasion of sensual excitement, effeminacy, or dissoluteness, or are indulged in to the detri-
in maenianis suis impudice salta- 414; C. L. Souvay, C.M., in the
rent." (P. L., XXXVIII, 77).— Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp.
Cfr. IDEM, Tr. in loa., Ill, n. 19 618 sq.; C. J. Sharp and A. P.
(P. L., XXXV1, 1404). Oppe, The Dance: A Historical
4S A. Lehmkuhl, S J., Casus Con- Survey of Dancing in Europe, Lon-
saentiae, Vol. I, 3rd ed., n. 411- don, 1924.
44 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
ment of vocational duties or of health. A sports man who is not satisfied with amusing himself and benefitting his health, but wishes to triumph and be admired at any price, may easily fall into sin.49
As regards football and other more arduous athletic sports, such as hockey, "track events," etc., their liceity must, of course, be gauged in each instance by the general principles of the moral code. In its early development in Eng land football, for one, seems to have been deci dedly brutal, if we can trust its characterization by a British writer of that day, Sir Thomas Elyot (1531), to wit, that it was "nothing but beastely fury and extreme violence, whereof pro- ceedeth hurte and consequently rancor and mal ice to remayne with thym that be wounded, wherefore it is to be put in perpetual silence."50 As to the present-day much improved status of this and other athletic sports, their all but uni versal adoption by reputable Catholic institutions everywhere would seem to relieve the individual devotee of athletics of fruitless scruples. Not so simple a matter, however, is the problem of the relation of athletics to morality as it confronts
49 Cfr. H. W. Gates, Recreation Abuses (1583) even claims that and the Church, p. 51. "brawling, murther, homicide, and
50 Encyclopedia Britannica, nth great effusion of blood" are not un- ed., Vol. X, p. 617, s. v. " Foot- usual experiences as a result of the ball." Fifty years later, another game. (Encyc. Brit., ibid.). writer, Stubbes, in his Anatomie of
BODILY EXERCISE 45
the authorities of educational institutions who have to decide upon a policy for all their subjects. A careful reading of the paper on "The Ethical Influence of College Athletics," by the Rev. Charles Macksey, S J., in the Report of the Cath olic Educational Association for 1906 51 and the articles of Dr. James J. Walsh in America 52 will no doubt prove instructive.
The early Christians condemned and avoided the dissolute diversions of their pagan contem poraries and followed the advice of the Apos tle, "Rejoice in the Lord always; again I say, rejoice." 53 This did not, however, prevent them from indulging in suitable recreations. Clement of Alexandria admonishes his hearers to hunt or fish, to play ball, and to try their hand at boxing, and adds : "To exert one's strength in the right way and for the benefit of one's health, is com mendable and manly." 54 The late Pope Pius X repeatedly admonished the young people of Rome to engage in gymnastic exercises, which, if car ried on with moderation, he said, "promote not only the health of the body, but likewise the wel fare of the soul." 5B
61 Columbus, O., pp. 10 1 sqq. Athletics," ibid., Vol. XIII, No.
62 "Athletics and Character," 24, p. 586. — On athletics in general, America, Vol. XIII, No. 8, p. 195: W. Camp, Athletes All: Training, "Athletics and Health," ibid., No. Organisation, and Play, N. Y., 1919. 7, p. 169; "Athletics in our Schools," 63 Phil. IV, 4-
ibid., No. 6, p. 142; "Athletics and 04 Paedag., Ill, 16; cfr. K. Er-
Scholarship," ibid., No. 10, p. 245; nesti, Die Ethik des Klemens von
"Why Have Competitive Athletics?" Alex-andrien, pp. no sqq.
ibid., No. 12, p. 293. — Against 66 Athletics, may be made a means
Walsh, R. E. Shortall, "Competitive of self-discipline and progress in vir-
46 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
Besides the pleasures of the body there are intellectual and aesthetic pleasures which tend to refresh the entire human organism and in spire the mind with noble thoughts and impulses. "If thy heart were right," says Thomas a Kempis, "then every creature would be to thee a mirror of life and a book of holy doctrine. There is no creature so little and contemptible as not to manifest the goodness of God." 56
The public library is not only a great educa tional factor, but an important element in the rec reational life of a community. Some of these institutions not only furnish abundant supplies of juvenile literature, but pay special atten tion to the wants of children by conducting "story hours" and other recreational features. Catho lics should watch these features in order to pre vent irreligious or immoral reading matter from getting into the hands of children and see to it that the public library authorities do not ignore Catholic literature or treat its productions in nig gardly fashion. Good Catholic books, especially such reference works as the "Catholic Encyclo pedia," ought to be placed on the shelves of every public library, and after putting them there, the
tue. "I knew one young man in his own struggle for Christian liv-
college who used to pray regularly ing." (H. W. Gates, Recreation
and earnestly for grace to control and the Church, Chicago, 1917, p.
his temper when playing football, 19).
and who definitely recognized sue- 56 De Imit. Christi, 1. II, c. 4
cess in this respect as a victory in (ed. Pohl, II, 66) : "Si rectum cor
ART 47
organizations which have discharged this duty (local K. of C. councils, etc.) should duly adver tise the fact and take care that the books are taken out and read. Many a librarian has started in with a will to do justice to Catholic lit erature, but lost his zeal when he observed that Catholic books gathered dust upon the shelves.57 Modern art, unfortunately, overemphasizes the sensual element; but the moralist cannot con tent himself with warning against its extrava gances, because, next to religion, art is undoubt edly the most effective means of influencing peo ple for good. "Both religion and art," says Hettinger, "have come forth from God, the high est ideal; and although their field is different, both must necessarily lead back to God if the religion is true and if art has not departed from its ideal. As all else that serves the truth serves God, art also must serve Him in representing beauty; for beauty comes from God and leads back to Him." 58 Those who extol "art for art's sake" would confine its practice and enjoyment to a select group of intellectuals. This is not the Catholic idea. From the beginning of Chris tianity, art was employed for the edification
tuum esset, tune omnis creatura Aspect of Our Public Libraries" in
speculum vitae et liber sanctae doc- "Your Neighbor and You," by the
trinae esset. Non est creatura tarn Rev. Edw. F. Garesche, S. J., and
parva et vilis, quae Dei bonitatem ed., New York, 1919, pp. 200-210. non repraesentat." BS Hettinger-Stepka, Timothy, p.
57 Cfr. Recreation and the Church, 203, St. Louis, 1902; cfr. J. Mari-
Chicago, 1917, pp. 46 sqq; "One tain, The Philosophy of Art, tr. by
J. O'Connor, Sussex, 1924.
48 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
of the common people, and the most eminent philosophers, ancient and modern, have declared it to be an important factor in the service of mor ality. It is, therefore, false to say that art has no object beyond itself. Morality, whilst not the goal of art, should be its standard and load star. The artist need not preach goodness, but neither should he attack it. His highest en deavor should be to use his talents for the honor of God and the edification of his fellowmen.
Modern aestheticians maintain that the repres entation of the nude is the highest ideal and tri umph of art. This contention is opposed to the Christian view. The Church has never regarded the naked body in itself as unchaste, but she has always insisted on the great dangers involved in its representation, and consistently disap proved of the freedom and promiscuity with which nude sculptures and paintings are publicly exhibited.59 The real lover of art will derive from its true ideals ever fresh impulses for the battle against pseudo-art. His slogan will be: Away with filth and obscenity, but all honor to the productions of genuine art! Msgr. Hettin- ger, while rather austere in his attitude, is no doubt right in saying that the nude statues of
60 " Facile conceditur corpus hu- Innsbruck, 1913, p. 62.) — Cfr.
manum in se honestum et pulchrum, D. A. Sertillanges, Kunst und
ftd tamen aptunt esse, quod in aliis Moral, Strasbourg, 1905, pp. 9 sq.,
sensum venereum excitet." (Nol- 59 sq.; see also J. Jungmann, S. J.,
din, De Sexto Praecepto, nth ed., Aesthetik, 3rd ed., Freiburg 1886.
THE THEATRE 49
antiquity belong to the time of the decline of art, and that the decline of morality was its com panion. The more carnal man is, the more car nal his art.60
A popular way of taking a vacation is to go traveling. Pleasure trips taken for recreation or with a view to broadening one's education or gathering knowledge, are morally licit, and have this special advantage that they often cause peo ple to appreciate their home better.
The theatre has been a bone of contention from the earliest times. The Church justly condemned the idolatrous and lascivious stage performances common in the first centuries of her history as "pompa diaboli." The Quakers and the Jan- senists regarded the theatre as immoral because of its essential untruth. It is "a counterfeit of life," they said. Others, on the contrary, ex tolled the stage as a school of morality and an educational agency of the highest importance fit to supplant church and pulpit. Both views are extreme. The theatre can be no substi tute for religion because its primary purpose is entertainment, though secondarily, of course, it may be turned into an educational and civilizing agency. Morality and miracle plays flourished in the Middle Ages. To-day, unfortunately, the stage, in all its forms, has sunk to an intel-
60 Hettinger-Stepka, Timothy, p. 227; on "the ethics of art" see VV. S. Lilly, Right and Wrong, 3rd ed., London, 1892, Ch. X.
50 .INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
lectual and moral level not far above that of pagan antiquity, and therefore cannot be ap proved unreservedly. Innocent plays may be rec ommended for the sake of lawful pleasure or recreation. But, as Noldin notes, "present-day theatrical representations are of such a nature that they nearly always constitute a more or less proximate occasion of sin, both against purity and against the faith." If the occasion of sin is merely remote, one may witness such plays for a reasonable cause; but if it is proximate, attend ance at them is forbidden under pain of mortal sin, except for a very grave cause and with due safeguards. A sufficient cause for attending an objectionable play, according to the same eminent author, would be indignation on the part of a hus band or parent in case of refusal to attend, but not a mere command or Joss of the money paid for admission, nor (at least ordinarily) the good purpose for which the proceeds of the perform ance are destined, because to contribute to a good cause one need not attend an immoral perform ance ; besides, the good end cannot justify the il licit means.61
61 On the attitude of the primitive of Catholic theologians, St. Themas,
Church see St. Augustine, De Civ. Summa Theol., aa zae, qu. 168, art.
Dei, passim; K. J. Hefele, Beitrage 3, ad 3; A. v. Berger, Ueber Drama
zwr Kirchengeschichte, Vol. I, pp. und Theater, 3rd ed., Leipsic, 1900;
28 sqq.; P. Wolf, Die Stellung der J. T. Smith, The Catholic Theatre,
Christen zu den Schauspielen nach New York, 1917. — On the Catholic
Tertullians Schrift De Spectaculis, origin of the modern theatre,
Vienna, 1897.— On the later attitude cfr. M. Sepet, Origines Catholiques
MOTION PICTURES 51
Needless to add, actors, and a fortiori mana gers, who produce obscene plays or such as no* tably excite the passions or offend against re' ligion, give scandal and are guilty of grievous sin.
The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages fostered and encouraged the drama. Even Luther favored theatrical entertainments in the schools. But the Calvinists, the Puritans, and other strait-laced Protestant sects con demned the stage, as did the Jansenists. The abuses and dangers connected with the theatre caused many Catholics to adopt the same unreasonable attitude.62
du Theatre Moderne, Paris, 1901; E. Michael, S.J., Geschichte des deutschen Volkes im Mittelalter, Vol. IV, Freiburg, 1906, pp. 400 sqq. ; G. Crosse, The Religious Drama, London, 1913; Brother Azarias, Philosophy of Literature, N. Y., 1890, pp. 1 08 sqq.; Card. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reforma tion; P. Kirwan, The Dawn of the English Drama, London, 1920. — Noldin's teaching in his Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, nth ed., Innsbruck, 1914, pp. 512 sqq.; Cfr. Gury, Compend. Theol. Mor., Lyons and Paris, 1850, Vol. I, n. 233.
62 How this attitude has grad ually changed can be seen, e.g., from the writings of Father John Talbot Smith. We will also quote a characteristic passage from Her bert Wright Gates's Recreation and the Church, Chicago, 1917, pp. 67 sq.: "In almost any of the argu ments against the theater, written twenty-five years or so ago, one finds the statement that clean and respectable plays cannot be made profitable, therefore stage managers will not present them. The same argument is occasionally used to
day as an excuse by managers who prefer to present the unwhole some type. Granted that the argu ment was true twenty-five years ago; who was to blame? Was it alone the people who patronized the immoral play, or the manager who presented it, or may not some share be justly borne by those who, through indiscriminate condemna tion of the theatre as a whole and through their refusal to f.upport the better type of plays, helped to make the statement true? But what is the condition of affairs to-day? By degrees we have come to see that the stage may not be all bad, and Christian people and cultivated men and women are lending their support to its elevation. As a re sult the person who says that the good play cannot be made financially successful is either indulging in a deliberate falsehood or is ignorant of the facts. The truth is that the plays which meet with the largest and most enduring success are those that have genuine merit, and many of them are of very high educational and moral value." And he con-
52 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
The attacks of writers like Juan Mariana and Bossuet were one-sided and extreme. As Father Baumgartner has pointed out, the Catholic courts of Europe in the sixteenth century and later continued to foster the drama, and the Jesuits produced many plays in their schools and colleges. The same eminent writer adds: "In view of the present condition of the stage, theatre- going cannot be generally and unreservedly recom mended; yet it would be far more advisable and more fruitful to restore the theatre to its rightful purpose by diligent cooperation, than to take a merely hostile attitude, and by a policy of abstinence to prevent some of the most flagrant abuses of dramatic art, while leaving the theatre itself in the control of our adversaries." 63
In connection with the theatre it behooves us to say a few words about its even more widely spread and more thoroughly commercialized step-daughter, the motion- picture show. The fact that three-fourths of our school children attend the " movies " — at least half of that number as often as once a week — and that statistics from several cities show the average weekly attend ance to be equivalent to, or more than, the entire popula tion of the respective city, gives some indication of the magnitude of the problem. Mr. Ellis P. Oberholtzer, the secretary of the Pennsylvania State Board of Censors, estimates that the number of moving picture houses throughout the United States is at least 15,000 and states that most of the films shown in these theatres are highly
eludes with the pertinent question: to tolerate the shady and sugges-
"What would be the further result live performance?" Here is where
if all those who have the culture good people often commit a grievous
essential to good taste and the char- sin of omission.
acter requisite to courageous action 63 Alex. Baumgartner, S.J., in the
were actively to demand and sup- Staatslexikon, and ed., Vol. V, pp.
port the best and resolutely refuse 680 sq.
MOTION PICTURES 53
objectionable and becoming more so from year to year. Seventy-five per cent, of all the pictures shown, according to the same competent authority, are devoted to violence and crime and twenty per cent, to vulgar comedy. Ac cordingly but five per cent, of the films manufactured and put on exhibition are good, yet all of them are being viewed every day by hundreds of thousands of people, including many children."4 In view of the evil thus caused many careful and conscientious students of the problem have come to the conclusion that a remedy must be found and that "there is no effective remedy to ex clude the evils from the motion picture business except impartial pre-publicity inspection, and this means legal censorship." 65 The U. S. Supreme Court in the case of the Mutual Film Corporation vs. Industrial Commission of Ohio 66 has declared that such a censorship is neither unreasonable nor a mere wanton interference with per sonal liberty. The self -constituted National Board of Censorship (now called National Board of Review) was created by, and is a tool in the hands of, the film manu facturers. A number of cities in the United States now have local censorship of moving pictures, the most no table being Chicago, where the censorship has worked effectively in spite of many difficulties.67 State Censor ship laws are in operation in Ohio, Kansas, Pennsyl vania, and Maryland. In no city or State where the legal censorship of motion pictures has been tried has it been abandoned, and the number of cities and States ex ercising such control is constantly growing.68 Whether
e* Cfr. the Catholic Fortnightly 66236 U. S. 230; reproduced by
Review, St. Louis, Mo., Vol. XXV Schneiderhahn, op. cit., pp. 58 sqq.
(1918), No. 12, p. 177. 67 Cfr. Fortnightly Review, St.
65 Edward V. P. Schneiderhahn, Louis, XXV, 14, p. 209.
Motion Pictures: Influence, Benefit, 68 Cfr. Schneiderhahn, Motion
Evils, Censorship, St. Louis, 1917, Pictures, p. 40. pp. i sq.
54
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
legal censorship is the only, or the most effective, means of counteracting the evils incident to the moving picture business is a question we can not undertake to decide. No doubt censorship has its drawbacks and, as even such an ardent advocate of it as Mr. Oberholtzer admits, it does not reach all objectionable films. But it eliminates what is absolutely indecent and directly suggestive of the immoral, and that is pure gain. Next to an official cen sorship with power to enforce its decrees and proper legal safeguards against abuses of that power, the best protection against the universal "cinema peril" is a strong public opinion ready to resent every infringement of morality or good taste. To this end it is recommended that the clergy and prominent citizens should frequent the "movies" as a matter of duty and give a lead in de nouncing whatever may be wrong.69
69 Besides Schneiderhahn's pam phlet, already quoted (see note 65), and the reports and lists of films censored by the National Board of Review, and those of the various State boards, especially that of Pennsylvania, the student may con sult E. P. Oberholtzer, The Morals of the Movies, Phila., 1922; O. G. Cocks, "Applying Standards to Motion-Picture Films," Survey, Vol. XXXII (1914), PP. 337 sqq.; J. Collier, "Censorship in Action," ibid. Vol. XXXIV (1915), PP- 423 sqq.; Dorothy Hurlbert, "Moving Pictures," Library Notes and News, published by the Minnesota Pub lic Library Commission, Vol. IV (Dec., 1914), pp. 132 sqq.; F. R. Willard, "The Motion-Picture and the Child," Education, Vol. XXXV (Feb., 1915), pp. 350 sqq.; "The 'Movie' Problem" Fortnightly Re view, St. Louis, 1919, Vol. XXVI, Nos. i, 2, 4, 8, ii sqq. — On "The Cinema Peril" in Great Britain and
Ireland see the paper by John Ryan in Studies, Dublin, Vol. VII (1918), pp. 112 sqq. Mr. Ryan inter alia adverts (pp. 116 sq.) to the view of that considerable body of men and women (mostly non-Catholics) who hold that films depicting plots that hinge mainly on sins against the Sixth Commandment and upon mat ters to which decent men would not venture to allude in the presence of ladies, are quite permissible for grown-up people and that it is only necessary to exclude children when they are shown. "This," he says, "is not the Catholic view, nor is it the view of High-Church Anglicans, nor is it the view of the bulk of evangelical Christians that sin can be depicted for the delectation of even grown-up people. Religious- minded folk of all denominations are aware that men and women have but a brief lease of life, and that lease given them for the elevation of their minds and souls. This is
DANCE HALLS 55
A word about public dance halls may not be amiss here. Reports from various American cities (as summarized by Mr. Gates) 70 show a wide range of conditions. In most places the dance halls are now under a fair degree of supervision, but almost every city has some where moral conditions are bad and certain to work harm. In judging of the moral character of a dance hall the import ant questions to be asked are these : What is the general character of the place? Is it connected with a bar-room, or is liquor sold on the premises? If not, are pass-out checks given, and are these used for the purpose of visit ing nearby bar-rooms, as is usually the case? What is the character of the attendance? Do girls and young women come alone and do they leave alone ? Are parents or chaperons present? Is there police supervision, and if so, of what character ? Is there evidence of dancing with out introduction or acquaintance? Are there any evi dences of drinking or intoxication ? What is the conduct of the dancers as to boisterousness, close holding, immodest attitudes and actions? What hours are ob served ? 71
the idea underlying Herrick's beau- remembrances. Why should the
tiful lyric to Daffodils: picture house add to them? Every
high-minded man strives after
Stay, stay higher things, for human life is but
Until the hasting day a film rushing through the cinema- Has run tograph of time. It is each man's
But to the even-song; business to see that this film of his
And, having prayed together, we will stand examination by the Cen-
Will go with you along. sor at the last public enquiry. Quis
We have short time to stay, as you; ascendet in tnontem Domini, out
We have as short a spring; quis stabit in loco sancto eiusf
As quick a growth to meet decay Innocens manibus et ntundo cordel"
As you or any thing. On a recent Catholic attempt at
self-help in the matter of the "mo-
You cannot touch pitch without vie" problem see Anthony Matr6 in
being defiled, and if you dally with the Fortnightly Review, St. Louis,
sin, you will not remain untainted. Mo., Vol. XXVI, No. 13, p. 199.
. . . Life is full of ghastly spec- 70 Op. cit., see note 53.
tacles, of sad sights and painful 71 A subtle influence that must
56 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
Public playgrounds, of adequate size and properly equipped,72 are a factor for good, but adequate super vision is necessary if the facilities provided are to serve their full purpose and abuses are to be prevented. "The Church will often find one of its most fruitful fields of service in the task of educating public opinion to the point at which it will duly appreciate the value of recreational work for its children, and not only justify but demand the expenditure of adequate funds for public playgrounds and their proper equipment." 73
As the individual and the family require their hours of recreation and pleasure, so the people as a whole demand community festivals and en tertainments. Here, too, nature and reason draw certain lines which must not be overstepped, either with regard to number or kind. Ours is a pleasure-seeking generation, and a goodly num ber of the amusements offered to the public fur nish occasions for sin and crime and thus prove a serious injury to the welfare of the family as well as the nation at large.
A good rule with regard to amusements of all kinds is that laid down by Don Bosco: "When you play or otherwise divert your mind and re create your body, occasionally raise your soul to
not be overlooked is exercised by W. Gates, Recreation and the long hours of dancing in a close, Church, p. 48).
overheated atmosphere. This means 72 Ibid., pp. 52 sqq.; cfr. Arthur
fatigue, and fatigue means weak- Leland, Playground Technique and ened powers of self-control. (H. Playcraft, New York, 190$.
73 Gates, op. cit., p. 57.
RECOVERY OF HEALTH 57
God and offer up to Him all your joys and plea sures for His greater honor and glory." '
5. RECOVERY OF HEALTH IN SICKNESS. — The duty of caring for the body entails the obli gation of restoring it to health in case of sick ness. This means that a sick man must employ natural medicaments or engage the services of a competent physician and obey his orders.75 Be sides employing these natural means of recovery, the devout Christian will pray to God, confide in His help, suffer patiently, and employ the days of his illness for the improvement of his character and in the practice of the virtues peculiarly in dicated by his condition, and, finally, if neces sary, ask for the holy Viaticum and Extreme Unction, which are specially instituted for the benefit of the sick.76
For the rest, it is well to recall to mind frequently the words of Thomas a Kempis : "Whilst thou art in health, thou canst do much good ; but I know not what thou wilt be able to do when ailing. There are few who mend their ways in sickness, just as those who go much on pil grimage seldom become holy." "
74 See Salesianisclie Nachrichten, 18; John V, 14; cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Trent, 1906, p. 241. The Sacraments, Vol. IV, and ed.,
75 Is. XXXVIII, 9 sqq.; Ecclus. St. Louis. 1918, pp. 1-51. XVIII, 20 sq.; XXXVIII, i sqq.; 77 De Intit. Christi, 1. I, c. 23 2 Chr. XVI, 12; on the teaching of (ed. Pohl, II, 46): "Multa bona the Fathers on this point see A. potes operari, dum sanus es: sed in- Harnack in Texte und Unter- firmatus nescio quid poteris. Pauci sitchungen, Vol. VIII, 56, Leipsic, ex infirmitate meliorantur: sic et 1892. qui inultum peregrinantur, raro
76jas. V, 14-15; Luke XVII, 15- sanctificantur."
58 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
6. MAN'S RELATION TO BEASTS. — This is an appropri ate place to add a few words regarding man's relation to brute beasts.
a) The irrational brute, so far as man is concerned, does not differ essentially from other created objects, for, like them, it does not carry its purpose within itself, but is ordained for the benefit of man, who is "the crown of the visible creation." The brutes have been given to man by God as a means which he may employ accord ing to his good pleasure, though never in opposition to the precepts of the moral law of nature, as re-inforced by Sacred Scripture.
God gave man "dominion over the fishes of the sea, and the fowls of the air, and the beasts of the whole earth, and every creeping creature that moveth upon the earth," 78 permitting him to use them all as "meat for himself." 79 But He also instructed man to treat the dumb beasts with consideration. "The seventh day thou shalt cease [to work], that thy ox and thy ass may rest." 80 And He expressly forbade cruelty to animals. "Thou shalt not boil a kid in the milk of his dam." 81 "Thou shalt not muzzle the mouth of the ox that treadeth out thy corn on the floor." *2 The Lord Himself "giveth to beasts their food," 83 and "provideth food for the raven when her young ones cry to Him and wander about be cause they have no meat." 84 In His mercy, when sparing Ninive, He thinks also of the innocent beasts.85 Jesus Christ illustrates the loving care which the Heavenly Father takes of man by pointing out how He provides for the birds of the air, "for they neither sow,
78 Gen. I, 26 sqq. 82 Deut. XXV, 4; I Cor. IX, 9.
79 Gen. IX, 3. 83 Ps. CXLVI, 9-
80 Ex. XXIII, 12, 19. 84 Job XXXVIII, 41.
81 Ex. XXXIV, 26; Lev. XXII, 85 Jon. IV, n. a? sq.; Deut. XIV, 21.
MAN'S RELATION TO BEASTS 59
nor do they reap, nor gather into barns ; and your heavenly Father feedeth them."85 "Are not two spar rows sold for a farthing?" He says, "and not one of them shall fall on the ground without your Father." 87 And again He asks: "What man shall there be among you, that hath one sheep, and if the same shall fall into a pit on the sabbath day, will he not take hold on it and lift it up?"88
b) Under the natural as well as the positive divine law, man in his relation to the brute beasts has first of all the duty of treating them merci fully and in accordance with the dictates of rea son. From the fact that these creatures, though lacking intellect and consciousness, have sensual perception and feeling, arises the further duty to treat them with sympathy and not to hurt them more than necessary.
It is no sin for man to kill dumb animals. For, as St. Thomas shows, "by the natural order of divine providence they are referred to the use of man, and hence man may employ them without injustice, either by killing them or in any other way. God said to Noe : 'As green herbs have I given you all flesh' (Gen. IX, 3). Wherever in Holy Scripture there are found warnings against cruelty to dumb animals, as in the prohibition of killing the mother-bird with its young (Deut. XXII, 6, 7), the object is either to turn man's
86 Matt. VI, 26. 88 Matt. XII, 1 1 ; cfr. Luke XIII,
87 Matt. X, 29. 15; XIV, 5.
60 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
mind away from practicing cruelty on his fellow- men, lest from practicing cruelties on dumb ani mals he should proceed to do the like to them, or because harm done to animals turns to the tem poral loss of man, whether the author of the harm or some one else; or for some ulterior meaning, as the Apostle expounds the precept of not muz zling the treading ox." 89
Hence it is cruel and immoral to kill, vex, or in any wise torment dumb animals without a reason able cause, or more than is necessary for the at tainment of a legitimate purpose. Cruelty to ani mals is a sin against God and man, especially if indulged in habitually, for the reasons mentioned in the above-quoted passage from St. Thomas. As a rule one who has no heart for dumb animals will not pity his fellowmen, as the annals of crime abundantly testify.
On the other hand, sentimentalism (indigna affectatio) with regard to brutes, e. g., surround ing dogs, cats, birds, etc., with luxuries and treat ing them with the affection due only to human be ings, is opposed to Christian ethics and positively pagan whenever it savors of zoolatry (brute worship).90
89 St. Thomas, Contra Gent., 1. L'Eglise et la Pitt* envers Us
III, c. 112. (The Pauline passage Animaux, and ed., Paris, spoj.
referred to is i Cor. IX, 9). Cfr. 90 Cfr. Pastor Bonus, Treves,
E. Wasmann, S.J., Instinct and In- 1895, pp. 199 sqq.; 1897, pp. &2
telligence in the Animal Kingdom, sqq. St. Louis, 1903; M. de Rambures,
BULL-FIGHTS 61
The various societies for the prevention of cru elty to animals have a laudable purpose, but un fortunately too much of their literature and work is permeated by the false notion that the brute beast is substantially the equal of man. To say, as some of the advocates of this movement do, that "every living being has a right to exist and be happy," is not in conformity with Catholic the ology. Strictly speaking, only rational beings en dowed with personality have rights. Man's duty to avoid unnecessary cruelty to animals is not based on any right of the latter, but on the will of God forbidding us to torture his irrational crea tures, on the property rights of our fellowmen, which we must respect, and on our own rational nature, which commands us to abstain from an ger, cruelty, and similar vices.91
The last-mentioned consideration is of special importance, because, as we have said before, a man who mistreats dumb animals will, as a rule, also abuse his fellowmen. The brutality of many a ruffian may be traced to acts of cruelty to dumb animals practiced in youth.
'Bull-fights are a favorite diversion of Span iards and Latin Americans. The Church au thorities formerly condemned these exhibi tions,92 but the prohibition is no longer in force.
81 See C. Gutberlet, Der Kosmos, 92 See esp. the Const, of Pius V,
Paderborn, 1908, p. 521. "De Salute/' Nov. i, 1567.
62 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
The modern bull-fight, as described by Father Ramon Ruiz Amado, S.J., in the "Catholic En cyclopedia," 93 as a rule does not involve the shed ding of human blood, and is no more, in fact is less brutal than our prize-fights.94 In conse quence most present-day moralists, following the famous "Doctor Navarrus," Martin de Azpil- cueta, who stood alone in his day,95 now hold that bull-fights, as held in Spain, are not forbidden by the natural law.96 But clergymen and religious may not attend them.97
c) Dumb animals were created for the service of man and hence he may kill them for food, deprive them of their liberty for the sake of profit or pleasure, tame or train them, and inflict
93 Vol. Ill, p. 52. comes to a test of brutality, with 84 An influential American news- our burning of negroes, our lynch- paper said a few years ago, apropos ings, and our prize-fights, we Amer- of some criticisms of the bull-fights icans need not throw any stones." held in Madrid in honor of King 95 On Azpilcueta see Vol. I, p. Alfonso's coronation, a month or 62, of this Manual. The reference two before the Fitzsimmons-Jeffries is to his Enchiridion sive Manuale prize-fight at San Francisco, Cal.: Confessarioriim et Paenitentium, "The killing of bulls by trained Wiirzburg, 1586, ch. XV, pp. 334 toreadors is not the pleasantest sqq. — Cfr. Stimmen aus Maria- spectacle in the world, although it Loach, 1903, No. 7, pp. 244 sqq., calls for courage, dexterity and en- "Urteile iiber Stiergefechte." durance, and has, besides, the mercy 96 Cfr. Gury-Ferreres, Compendi- of the coup de grace, but it is cer- urn Theol. Mor., Barcelona, 1906, tainly more decent than a fight to Vol. II, n. 56.
the finish between two bruisers, to 97 Cfr. Ferreres, Comp. Theol.
see which a boxing club in any Mor., 9th ed., 1919, Vol. II, n. no;
city of the United States can Plenary Council of Spanish America,
pack the biggest hall in the place n. 650. On the whole subject see
with men who have paid $10 for a P. Amado's excellent article in the
seat at the brutal show. Let us Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. Ill, pp. 51
not be hypocrites. Hypocrisy is sq. worse than brutality. And when it
VIVISECTION 63
pain upon them for the purposes of scien tific experimentation.98 There can be no rea sonable doubt that vivisection, i. e., the dissec tion of living animals for the observation of, and experimentation on, normal or morbid physiologi cal processes, is morally licit if it serves a good purpose, inflicts no more pain than absolutely nec essary, and is confined to proper limits, preferably within medical or hygienic institutes. "By the natural order of divine providence," says St. Thomas, "the dumb animals are destined for the use of man, and hence man without injustice uses them, either by killing them or in any other way." " Experts are all but unanimous in holding that vivisection is very useful, nay under certain conditions, absolutely necessary for the progress of science. True, in using brutes for his own benefit, man cannot avoid hurting them, but neither does nature spare them the pains of hunger and cold or preserve all of them from a cruel death.100
G8 Cfr. Gen. IX, 3; Deut. IV, 19; 100 The literature on vivisection
Ps. VIII, 8; i Cor. Ill, 22; Jas. has grown to vast proportions. A III, 7. — St. Jerome, Adv. lovinian. brief and instructive treatise is that
1. II, c. 5-6 (Migne, P. L., XXIII 290).
99 Contra Gent., 1. Ill, c. 112, n 7: "Per hoc e.vcluditur error ponen tium, homini esse peccatum, si ani
by Dr. L. Senfelder, "Vivisection (Moral Aspects of)," in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XV, pp. 494-496. — See also, against vivisection, Tait, The Uselessness of Vivisection
rnalia bntta occidat; ex divina enim upon Animals as a Method of
providentia natural* ordine in usum Scientific Research (1883); for
hominis ordinantur, unde absque vivisection, H'eidenhain, Die Vivisek-
inittria homo eis utitur occidendo tion (1884), an exhaustive and valu-
vel quolibet alio modo." able treatise.
64 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
Many believe that parrots learn to "talk" more easily if their tongues are loosened. This is a cruel mistake against which these birds ought to be protected.
All birds with but few exceptions deserve to be pro tected by law, first because they are useful and secondly because they beautify and enliven nature.101
Where agriculture, fishing or hunting is endangered by the multiplication of noxious birds or mammals, man has a right to kill them, but he should not completely exterminate any species, because to do so would be to contravene the laws of nature and to violate the demands of humanity. In the economy of nature beasts of prey have a well-defined purpose, viz.: to destroy other animals which are sick or weakly and therefore unsuited for the propagation of their kind.102
7. LUXURY. — We must not leave this part of our subject without briefly considering the cog nate topic of luxury.
"Luxury," says Professor de Laveleye in his classic work,103 "consists in the consumption of what has cost great labor to produce, for the satis faction of spurious needs." After so defining luxury, he condemns it unreservedly, saying: "Luxury is pernicious to the individual and fatal to society. Primitive Christianity reproved it in the name of charity and humility ; political econ omy condemns it in the name of utility, and jus tice condemns it in the name of equity."
101 Cfr. M. Hiesemann, Losiing 103 Emile de Laveleye, Le Luxe, der Vogelschutzfrage, Leipsic, 1907. Verviers, 1887.
102 Cfr. Natur und Offenbarung, 1910, pp. 5 sqq.
LUXURY 65
This view has been re-echoed by not a few mod ern writers, but it is extreme and cannot be adopted by the Catholic moralist without some decided reservations.
a) To acquire and use the good things of na ture over and above one's necessary requirements is not in itself sinful. On the contrary, as civili zation advances, man produces more and is en titled to use more than in the primitive stages of society. That political economy condemns all luxury in the name of utility is not true. Luxury may be distinctly advantageous to so ciety because lavish expenditures on the part of the rich usually benefit the poor, by furnishing employment, developing arts and sciences, and elevating the educational status of the nation. From the standpoint of the moralist, also, not every luxury must be regarded as extravagance, because ethical considerations may refine and en noble a pleasure which would otherwise be purely physical. Every man has a right to enjoy the comforts and luxuries proper to his state of life, provided he can reasonably afford them. On the other hand there is such a thing as in dulging in luxuries beyond one's means, or in a manner unbecoming to one's station in life, or beyond the bounds of reasonableness, or for the mere love of pleasure, or to shine and excite envy in others. To indulge in luxury in this sense
66 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
is immoral and contrary to social justice and progress, for it deprives society of good things without sense or reason, gives a bad example to others, provokes concupiscence and discontent, excites envy and hatred in the hearts of the poor, and, finally, is often a means of, or an occasion for, sins of vanity, impurity, and dishonesty.
b) Hence we must distinguish between justi fiable and unjustifiable luxury (extravagance). To live according to one's station in life and one's means is not reproved by the Gospel, which, though it extols voluntary poverty, does not impose it as a duty on all, but merely coun sels it to those who feel called to relinquish earthly pleasures and comforts for the sake of the higher treasures of the spiritual life. On the other hand it is immoral to be extravagant, i. e., to use the good things of life without stint or measure, without benefiting any one, nay with detriment to the important and nec essary duties of one's state, or in the service of sensuality and for the emancipation of the flesh.104 Such immoral extravagance is only too
104 W. D. P. Bliss and R. M. office, or the circumstances of time.
Binder, The New Encyclopedia of plac
Social Reform, New York, :po8, pp. extr
736 sq. — As practical tests of ex- ury
travagance, Msgr. H. Parkinson pro- for
poses these two questions: (i) one
Whether the expenditure is out of of a proportion to income; (2) whether Prn it is out of keeping with the per- edit
or custom. If so, we have vagance. Thus a simple lux- or one may be an extravagance lother, and a simple luxury at
assume the character
son's condition in life, or with his York 1913, p. 198).
extravagance at another. (A r of Social Science, American n, by T. J. Shealy, S.J., New
LUXURY 67
common among the wealthy now-a-days and often assumes the proportions of a grievous sin that cries to Heaven for vengeance. There is no de nying the fact that even the poorer classes not infrequenty live beyond their means.105 The desire to shine and impress others is not only silly in itself, but a source of economic hardship and unhappiness. How many families of the middle class sacrifice health and comfort in order to be able to look down upon their neighbors from the cushions of an expensive limousine ! How many stint themselves to "keep up appearances" ! Such conduct is worse than foolish, it is wrong and anti-social.106
Opposed to decent comfort and a reasonable measure of luxury corresponding to one's state of life and means are, on the one hand, parsimony, i.e., undue sparingness in the expenditure of money, and, on the other, ostenta- tiousness and pomp.
Frugality or thrift is called by Sam Smiles the daugh ter of wisdom, the sister of temperance, and the mother of liberty. An ancient proverb says that "thrift is in itself a good income," and another, that it is "the philos opher's stone." Roscher, the famous German economist, makes bold to assert that "he who has begun to save is no longer a proletarian."
105 Cfr. Prov. XIII, 7; Seneca, have to sell that which he needs.
£/>., XCIV, 27: "Ilia Catonis: Emas, 106 Cfr. i Tim. II, 9; Tit. II, 3:
non quod opus est, sed quod necesse I Pet. Ill, 3 sqq. — On the economic
est. Quod non opus est, asse carum aspects of extravagance see Parkin-
est." — Poor Richard somewhere son, A Primer of Social Science, pp.
says that if a man constantly buys 199 sq. what he does not need, he will soon
68 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
The Catholic Church is not opposed to luxury in the sense of reasonable comfort. On the contrary, cleanli ness, nourishing food, comfortable dwellings, neat clothes, are necessities which she demands for the poor as well as the rich, and nations that live in conformity with the moral law will always find ample means to satisfy these needs. What the Church reprobates and combats is that extravagance which withdraws many of the good things of life from those who need them, to satisfy the "spurious needs of the idle rich." 107 As long as there is inequality of possessions, the Church will continue to insist on the difference between various states of life and recommend to the poor a wise economy in the gratification of demands that are not strictly necessary.108
III. VIRTUES TO BE PRACTICED IN CONNEC TION WITH THE CARE OF THE BODY. — The vir tues that should be practiced in connection with the care of the body are mainly three, viz. : clean liness, modesty, and temperance.
i. Cleanliness is not merely a natural and nec essary function and a conventional custom; it is likewise a moral duty, the performance of which, in accord with reason and the moral law, may become a virtue. A clean body, clean clothing, and a clean domicile are fundamental requisites of good health and constitute, as it were, the lowest rungs on the ladder of civilization. Bod-
107 See Laveleye's definition of my, pp. 133 sqq.; P. Norrenberg, luxury, supra, p. 64. Franenarbeit und Arbeiterinnenereie-
108 C. S. Devas, Political Econo- hung, Cologne, 1880, pp. 68 sq.
CLEANLINESS 69
ily cleanliness should be the reflex and symbol of interior or spiritual purity. Its conscious dis regard is a moral defect, first, because it denotes carelessness and neglect, and second because it sets aside due regard for the necessities of social intercourse.
Cleanliness has been practiced more or less at all times. Even the "dark" Middle Ages had their public bathing houses and it was regarded as a work of mercy to erect free baths for the poor. If cultivated to excess, cleanli ness may degenerate into effeminacy. It was a reaction against the immorality connected with frequent washings of the body that led to the disregard for cleanliness shown by some medieval ascetics, even saints, whose conduct must consequently not be condemned as a reversion to barbarism. Abstention from the ordinary means of cleansing the body was with them not an end in itself, but merely a means to an end, namely, to purge man from his sinful inclinations.109 It was in this sense that Pope Nicholas I declared that bathing is never allowed as a means of sensual indulgence, but as a bodily necessity may be practiced at any time.110
2. Modesty is a decent reserve or propriety of manner and regard for the rules of taste and good breeding. It differs according to person, time, place, and social environment, and is not neces sarily identical with moral goodness.
109 Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der delicet discretionem servantes, ut si Moraltheologie, p. 276. quidem pro ln.ru animi atque volup-
110 Responsa ad Consulta Bulga- tate quis larari appetat, hoc fieri nee rorum, n. 6: "Non negatnus hanc vi- reliquo quolibet die concedamus, fi
70 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
As a Christian virtue modesty consists in the habitual avoidance of whatever is apt to arouse the sexual passion, either in oneself or in others. There is a natural chastity, or unconscious in nocence, which, in connection with inborn mod esty, constitutes a powerful vehicle for the most beautiful of all virtues, i. e., physical and interior purity.
Needless to add, the duty of modesty, e. g., in regard to participation in social amusements, the atrical performances, etc., does not bind all men in the same way, but differs according to state and profession.
Politeness is not strictly a virtue, though the lack of it often indicates a moral defect. As a rule the more polite a man is, the more truly ami able will he be. He who lacks tact and politeness is offensive to persons of good breeding and delicate taste.111 However, being but a natural instinct or a by-product of careful training, po liteness to be supernaturally meritorious, must be hallowed in the spirit of the Gospel and accom panied by humility, obedience, and charity. It goes without saying that a truly noble character will not stoop to untruth or affectation.112
Our books of etiquette contain many useful rules and
autem pro necessitate corporis, hoc ill Cfr. W. Wundt, Ethik, Vol.
nee quarto, nee sexto, feria prohi- I, 3rd ed., pp. 188 sqq.
beamus." (Mansi, Cone. Coll., XV, 112 Cf. Seneca, De Ira, 1. II, c.
405). 38: "Aut dulcedine urbanitatis pro-
POLITENESS 71
cautions; but true politeness is spontaneous. "There is a politeness of the heart," says Goethe, "which is akin to charity and inspires good conduct."
Newman's definition of a gentleman may be quoted here : "It is almost a definition of a gentleman to say that he is one who never inflicts pain. ... He is mainly occupied in merely removing the obstacles which hinder the free and unembarrassed action of those about him ; and he concurs with their movements rather than takes the initiative himself. . . . The true gentleman in like manner carefully avoids whatever may cause a jar or jolt in the minds of those with whom he is cast. ... He is tender towards the bashful, gentle towards the distant, and merciful towards the absurd; he can recollect to whom he is speaking; he guards against unseasonable allusions, or topics which may irritate ; he is seldom prominent in conversation, and never wearisome. He makes light of favors while he does them, and seems to be receiving when he is conferring," etc.113 In connec tion with this oft-quoted passage Father Arthur Barry O'Neill, C.S.C., points out a fact that is frequently over looked, — namely, that Cardinal Newman never intended his portrait of a gentleman to be that of a Christian gentle man. The Christian gentleman, says Father O'Neill, is of a different and far more perfect type. His essential qualities are interior — they spring from faith and love of God. The exterior qualities which Newman enu merates are transient, unless they are permeated with the charity of Christ.114
lapsus est aut fecit aliquid, non ut 113 Idea of a University, London
nobis obesset, sed quia consequi ipse ed. of 1893, pp. 208 sqq. non poterat, nisi nos repulisset. 114 Clerical Colloquies, New York,
Saepe adulatio, dum blanditur, of en- 1917; cfr. the Catholic Fortnightly dit." Review, St. Louis, Mo., Vol. XXIV,
No. 6, pp. 83 sq.
72 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
3. Temperance may be defined as rational self-control, especially in the use of food and drink. The brute beast blindly follows instinct in satisfying its desire for nourish ment, but man is able to control and regulate his appetite according to the dictates of reason and law. The preser vation of life and health, not sensual pleasure, is the motive which should govern a Christian in the use of food and drink. Guided by this motive, he will choose the food best adapted for that purpose and never notably exceed the quantity necessary for its attainment. Tem perance or wise moderation in the use of material things, especially food and drink, keeps the body in good health, strengthens the mind and will, and protects man from the evil effects, moral as well as social, of overindulgence. An important rule with regard to the virtue of temper ance is : "Deny yourself something licit now and then, in order that you may be able to abstain from the things which are forbidden." 115
"Temperance is not inborn, but must be acquired by practice," says Father Cathrein, "whence it follows that every man is in duty bound to practice self-denial now and then, so that the senses may get accustomed to the con trol of reason. If you allow a horse free rein at all times, you will have no control over him in the hour of peril. Sensuality in this respect resembles a horse. He who has never learned to deny his flesh the pleasures for which it craves, will sooner or later succumb to its whims. Self-denial — at least to a certain extent — is not a specifically Christian virtue, but a postulate of pure
115 Cfr. St. Gregory the Great, et inquieta dilabuntur. Solus enim Moralia, 1. V, c. 1 1 : "Saepe ii, qui in illicitis non cadit, qui se aliquan-
retinere nesciunt, ad Wcita opera (Migne, P. L., LXXV, 688).
TEMPERANCE 73
reason. 'Sustine et abstine' was a maxim of the ancient pagan philosophers." 116
READINGS. — Besides the works mentioned in the foot-notes see A Christian Social Crusade, published by the Catholic Social Guild, Oxford, 1919; J. Mausbach, Kath. Moraltiieologie, Vol. Ill, pp. 35 sqq., 3rd ed., Miinster, i. W. 1920; Fr. Walter, Der Leib und sein Recht im Christentum, Munich, 1910.
116 Victor Cathrein, S.J., Moral- sibi imperanda atque observanda
philosophic, Vol. II, 4th ed., p. 54. citret, is ent pleraque impeccabilis
— Cfr. Epicteti Fragmenta, n. 179: vitamqiie rivet tranqutllissimus.
"Itaqne, inquit [Epictetus], si quis Verba duo haec dicebat avfyov ha.ec duo verba cordi habeat eaque
CHAPTER IV
NEGATIVE DUTIES IN REGARD TO LIFE AND HEALTH
The life of the body is indeed a precious thing, but it is by no means the greatest of blessings,1 and consequently the duty of preserving and safe guarding it does not bind absolutely. There are circumstances in which it may be necessary or advisable to sacrifice one's life. This is the case, for instance, when the duty of conserving life cannot be reconciled with some higher obligation, or when superior spiritual blessings must be pur chased at the expense of life, either by the in dividual, or by the multitude. Hence man has the right, nay, under certain conditions he is in duty bound, to give up his life for the sake of a higher good.
This duty must now be more closely deter mined, both negatively and positively.
No man is allowed without a just cause (sine iusta causa) to destroy his own life or health, or to expose himself to the danger of certain death, or seriously to mutilate his body.
i. SUICIDE (suicidium, avrox^pia) 2 is the direct
iCfr. Matt. X, 28, 39; XVI, 25 2 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2*
«q.; Mark VIII, 35-37; Luke IX, aae, qu. 64, art. 5; Sporer-Bierbaum, 34; XVII, 331 John XII, 25. Theol. Mar., Vol. II, and ed., tr. 5.
74
SUICIDE 75
and intentional compassing of one's own death. This need not always be the immediate object of the will. If I will an action, I will its evident effect; and therefore, were I to refuse food, or, out of bravado, to leap from the top of a sky-scraper into the street below, I should be guilty of suicide, even though self-destruction was not my direct object. In suicide a man somehow aims at direct death.
Suicide is plainly forbidden by the fifth com mandment : 'Thou shalt not kill," 3 "either an other or yourself," as St. Augustine explains; "for he who kills himself kills none other than a man." 4 The Lord God alone "has power of life and death." 5
Suicide is also forbidden indirectly because of the immoral motives that usually inspire it, e. g., unbelief, cowardice, false notions of honor, an ex cessive craving for glory, wealth, etc., or that dullness of mind which results from overindul gence in carnal pleasures and usually ends by making its victim incapable of further enjoy-
n. 366-407; St. Alphonsus, Theol. cyclopedia, Vol. XIV, pp. 326 sqq.;
Mor., 1. Ill, n. 366-374 (ed. Gaude, A. O'Malley. The Ethics of Medical
Vol. I, pp. 622 sqq.); M. Inhofer, Homicide and Mutilation, N. Y.,
Der Selbstmord, Augsburg 1886; E. 1919, PP- 7 sqq.
Federici, La Prevenzione del Suici- 3 Ex. XX, 13; cfr. Deut. XXXII,
dio, Venice 1901, pp. 37 sqq.; K. A. 39-
Geiger, Der Selbstmord im klassi- 4 De Ciiitate Dei, 1. I, c. 20:
schen Altertnm, Augsburg 1888; M. "Restat, nt de homine intellegamus,
Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. quod dictum est: 'Non occides,' nee
II, Dublin, 1917, pp. 52 sqq.; A. alterum ergo, nee te. Neque enim.
Van der Heeren in the Cath. En- qui se occidit, aliud quam hominem
occidit." (Migne, P. L., XLI, 35) •
sWisd. XVI, 13-
76 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
ment.6 Seneca enumerates several causae fri- volae that lead to suicide and mentions circum stances in which it is morally illicit to seek refuge in death.7
a) Suicide is diametrically opposed to the strongest instinct of nature, that of self-preserva tion. "The tendency to persevere in life," says Goyau, "is the necessary law of life, not of hu man life only, but of all life." 8 Hence it must always remain a difficult psychological problem why so many people commit this unnatural crime. In the light of recent investigations there can hardly be a doubt that most of those who compass their own death do so in a state of mental de-
6 A. Van der Heeren in the Cath. of our natural appetite for con- Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, p. 328; H. tinued existence and well-being, is Rost, Der Selbstmord als sozial- refuted by Dr. Cronin as follows: statistische Erscheinung, Cologne "Natural tendencies are all ten- 1905, pp. 23 sqq.; H. A. Krose, SJ. dencies to the well-being of the nat- Der Selbstmord im iQten Jahrhun ural agent, the agent regarded as dert, Freiburg, 1906, pp. 28 sqq. a product of nature. Nature could IDEM, Die Ursachen der Selbstmord not set up in any thing a tendency haufigkeit, Freiburg 1906. towards a condition which is either
7 Cfr. M. Baumgartner, L. A. unnatural or which is even above Seneca itnd das Christentum, pp. nature. But the natural constitu- 135 sqq. tion of man, from which spring all
8 M. Cronin, The Science of our natural powers and appetites, is Ethics, Vol. II, p. 53 sq.; Vol. I, p. that of a composite of body and soul 90. The objection that it is incor- combined to form one person. And, rect to say that in committing sui- therefore, our natural desire for cide a person desires to compass his happiness is a desire for the hap- own destruction, because the soul piness and well-being of the natural does not disappear at death, while person, consisting of body and soul, the body will rise again, and that, In suicide, therefore, we use our therefore, what is desired and ac- natural powers for an end which complished in suicide is not anni- is the frustration of their own nat- hilation, but a new life, more per- ural purpose." (Ibid., Vol. II, p. feet than the present, and conse- 55).
quently suicide is not a violation
SUICIDE 77
rangement. "Most suicides," says Dr. James J. Walsh, "are persons that have been recognized as paranoiacs and likely to do queer things for a long time beforehand. Indeed, some of the melan cholic qualities on which the unfortunate impulse to self-murder depends are likely to have exhib ited themselves in former generations. ... As a matter of fact, suicides are not in possession of free will as a rule, but are the victims of circum stances and are unable to resist external influ ences." 9 However, it would be wrong to con clude from this that every case of suicide can be traced to some condition of organic disturbance in which the use of reason, and consequently re sponsibility, are suspended. Not every perturb ation of the moral life springs from physical or physiological causes, and melancholia, idiosyn crasy, fixed notions, hallucinations or illusions do not always hinder the use of reason and destroy freedom of action. It would be equally wrong to ascribe every case of suicide to personal guilt, and positively foolish to adopt the Stoic view that sui cide is not an act of cowardice, but rather a proof of courage, on the plea that by killing himself a man not only escapes evil and thereby fol lows an instinct implanted in his soul by God, but likewise relieves society of an intolerable
9 O'Malley-Walsh, Essays in Pastoral Medicine, New York, 1906, p. 306.
78 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
burden, and, moreover, by an act of supreme self-sacrifice, atones for his crime and thus con ciliates the eternal Judge.10 This view is radi cally false. For, in the first place, he who de spairs in a difficult or hopeless situation and tries to escape the tribulations of life by committing suicide, does not display courage and strength of character, but the very opposite, and, secondly, all misfortunes, even those which a man incurs through his own guilt, must, from the Christian point of view, be regarded as trials in which he should exercise patience, faith, and confi dence in God.11 The decisive factor is not public opinion but the duty which the individual owes to society and which he is still able to ful fill, even though it be only by giving an ex ample of Christian fortitude. Finally, for man to try to escape his judge instead of atoning for his sins in the way prescribed, namely, by contri tion and penance, is a pagan, not a Christian mo tive.12
10 K. Joest, Das Recht auf den hoc vita opus est, ut possint poeni- Tod, Gottingen, 1895. tendo sanari, neminem velut desi-
11 St. Augustine, De Civ. Dei, 1. derio vitae melioris quae post mor- I, c. 26: "Hoc dicimus, hoc asseri- tern speratur, quid reos suae mortis mus, hoc modis omnibus approba- melior post mortem vita non su- mus, neminem spontaneam mortem scipit." (Migne, P. L., XLI, 39). sibi inferre debere velut fugiendo 12 Ps. XXXIII, 19; L. 19. — A. molestias temporales, ne incidat in von Oettiger, Die Moralstatistik, 3rd perpetuas, neminem propter aliena ed., p. 761, says: "The Protestant peccata, ne hoc ipse incipiat grams- misses the energetic spiritual lead- simum proprium, quern non pollue- ership of the Church; when un- bat alienum, neminem propter pec- happy, he does not so readily find cata praeterita, propter quae magis consolation because he must do
SUICIDE 79
According to the principles of Christian mo rality a person who commits suicide while in the full possession of his mental faculties is not only a murderer and a criminal, but renounces God and the hope of salvation and forfeits every right to the blessings of the Church, including that to a Christian burial.13 In denying any one the last mentioned privilege the Church, of course, does not mean to pass judgment on his probable fate in the other world.
Does suicide always result from (temporary or perma nent) insanity, or is it sometimes committed by persons who are quite sane ? While some eminent scientists 14 hold that perfectly normal persons can and do commit suicide, others 15 adopt the theory of Esquirol, who nearly a century ago16 asserted that "suicide is a dis ease." No doubt suicide is very often due to dementia, but it is equally undeniable that many who compass their own death are impelled by pique, despair or anger, which usually involve malice or culpable cowardice.17
Suicide is a moral, a social, a biological, and a psycho logical problem. Its frequency is governed by laws
without the human mediation of den Selbstmord, 2nd ed., Munich, the priesthood (confession)." 1910, p. 32.
13 Codex Juris Canonici, can. i« He died 1840.
1240, § i, n. 3: "Ecclesiastica sepul- 17 "Despair and anger," rightly
tura privantur, nisi ante mortem ali- observes Van der Heeren (Cath.
qua dederint poenitentiae signa. . . . Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, p. 328),
qui se ipsi occiderint deliberate "are not as a general thing move-
consilio." — Cfr. Rit. Rom., tit. 6, c. ments of the soul which it is impos-
2, n. 3; S. OfKc., d. 1 6. Maii 1866. sible to resist, especially if one does
14 E.g., J. Maschka, Handbuch not neglect the helps offered by re- der gerichtlichen Medisin, Vol. I, ligion, confidence in God, belief in Tubingen, 1881, p. 477. the immortality of the soul and in
16 For instance, R. Gaupp, Ueber a future life of rewards and pun ishments."
8o INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
whose existence seems to be established by statistics, but whose nature we are but just beginning to surmise.18
b) As the theological notion of suicide implies the full use of reason and the deliberate intention, direct or indirect, of ending one's life, a man does not commit suicide if he kills himself acci dentally, or through carelessness, or in order to escape certain danger of death, or when in a state of mental derangement, be it complete or par tial, permanent or temporary; or indirectly by doing or omitting something the fatal conse quences of which he might and should have fore seen, but does not advert to on account of their remoteness ; e. g., leading a dissolute life, indulg ing in anger or intemperance, or mortifying his body beyond the bounds of reason. An act which is not in itself sinful and of which it cannot be foreseen that it will lead to the destruction of life (as, e. g., firing a gun, eating a food not known to be poisonous) is no sin. If death can be foreseen as the result of such a non-sinful act, the latter is forbidden, unless commanded by duty, as when a priest or a physician visits a patient who is suffering from a contagious dis ease or when a soldier goes into battle. If the act that results in self-destruction is in itself sin ful, it is a voluntarium in causa with regard to
18 Cfr. Familler, Pastor alpsychiatrie, pp. 142 sqq.
SUICIDE 81
such destruction, and may be imputed as a sin tending to self-destruction, which, however, is not suicide in the specific sense.
The ecclesiastical penalty inflicted upon those who are guilty of direct suicide does not affect those who commit suicide indirectly. If direct suicide has been committed in a state of mental derangement, the victim should not be buried in the customary solemn manner, but quietly, i.e., without song, bell, or sermon; not as if the Church wished to judge the soul of the departed, but merely to in dicate her sorrow at his misfortune and dreadful end. Where there is doubt as to the condition in which the act was committed, charity demands that the deceased be given the benefit of the doubt, and be buried with ec clesiastical honors. Mental alienation may be presumed, not only on the strength of expert opinion, but also on the testimony of trustworthy relatives or friends who were in personal touch with the deceased.19
A point to which attention should be called is that the power of suggestion and example have much to do with the increase of suicide. Dymond, an authority in the matter, says : "The power of the example of the suicide is much greater than has been thought. Every act of suicide tacitly conveys the sanction of one more judgment in its favor. Frequency of repetition dimin ishes the sensation of abhorrence and makes succeeding sufferers, even of less degree, resort to it with less reluct ance."
Dr. Walsh, who quotes this passage, adds: "Our modern newspapers, by supplying all the details of every
19 Regulae luris in VIto Decret. n. 49: "In poenis benignior est in- Bonifat. VIII, n. 30: "In obscuris terpretatio facienda." minimum est sequendum." Ibid.,
82 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
suicide that occurs, especially if it presents any criminally interesting features or morbidly sentimental accessories, familiarize the mind, particularly of the impressionable young, with the idea of suicide. When troubles come, lack of experience in life makes the youthful mind fore cast a future of hopeless suffering. Love episodes are responsible for most of the suicides in the young, while sickness and physical ills are the causes in the old. In a certain number of cases, however, domestic quarrels, and especially the infliction of punishment on the young at an age when they are beginning to feel their independ ence and their right to be delivered from what they are prone to consider restriction, are apt to be followed in the morbidly unstable by thoughts of suicide." 20
In order to forestall the putting into action of the suicidal impulse, Doctor Walsh suggests that those who are close to the patient should have some realization of the possibility of its occurrence. There are usually some previous indications of the suicidal trend. Many especially early suicides have distinct tendencies to and stigmata of hebephrenic melancholia. The best known symptoms of this condition are those described by Dr. Peterson in his book on mental diseases. The symptoms noted are extraordinarily rapid and paradoxical changes of disposition. Depressed ideas intrude themselves in the midst of boisterous gaiety, and untimely jocularity in the deepest depression, or at solemn moments. Then there is the paradoxical facial expression, the so-called paramimia, that is, a look of joy and pleasure when really mental depression is present, or a look of depression when joyful sentiments are being expressed.21
The tendency of suicide to repeat itself in families is
20 Essays in Pastoral Medicine, 21 Ibid., p. 309 sg.
P- 309-
SELF-MUTILATION 83
now well known and recognized. It is "not directly in herited, but there is a mental weakness that makes the individual incapable of withstanding the sufferings life may entail." 22
2. SELF-MUTILATION. — As we are not masters of life, so neither are we owners of our limbs, and hence cannot dispose of them at will. A man is not justified in mutilating himself, but as the limbs of the body are subordinate to life, they may be sacrificed as parts for the whole if life can thereby be preserved. Hence the amputation of one or several limbs is permissible when it is the only means of preserving life. A sick man may allow an infected limb to be amputated in order to prevent infection of the whole body, and one who is handcuffed, e. g., in prison, may tear or cut off a hand or an arm, or both, in order to escape certain death, e. g., from fire.23
To mutilate oneself or to allow oneself to be mutilated for any other purpose than that of saving one's life, for
22 Ibid,, p. 310. brum putridum est lotius carports
23 Cfr. St. Thomas, Sttmma Theo- corruptirum." — IDEM, Summa contra logica, 23 2ae, qu. 65, art. i: Gent., 1. Ill, c. 112, n. 5: "Mani-
"Quum membrum aliquod sit par totius hutnant corporis, est propte totum, sicut imperfectum propte perfectum. Unde disponendum est d membro humani corporis secundun
humani corpotis per se quidem util est ad bonum totius corporis, pe
festum est, paries omnes ordinari ad perfecttonem totius; non enim est totum propter partes, sed paries propter totum sunt." — Cfr. J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., Lyons
quod expedit toti. Membrum autet and Paris, 1850, Vol. I, n. 403,
9; H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. II, nth ed., Innsbruck,
accidens tamen potest contmgere, 1914, Pp. 35i sq. quod sit nocivum, ptita quum mem-
84
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
instance, to escape military conscription, is not permis sible.
Except as a remedy for diseased conditions of the body, castration or emasculation (eviratio) is never allowed, not even from religious motives, as, for instance, to pre serve chastity or avoid temptations, because the operation is neither necessary nor useful for that purpose ; 2i still less, of course, for minor ends, e. g., to keep the voice unbroken, because the preservation of a youthful voice is not a sufficient good to justify the commission of an act against nature. Following many censures of his predecessors, Leo XIII expressly forbade this practice for the singers of the Sistine Chapel.25
Vasectomy and the excision of the uterus or ovaries are operations which, though permissible when necessary for the direct preservation of life or health, would be sinful if performed for the sole purpose of superinducing sterility.26
24 St. Jerome, Ep., 84 (o/. 65), n. 8: "Origenes voluptates in tantum fugit, ut zelo Dei, sed tamen non secundum scientiam ferro truncaret genitalia." (Migne, P. L., XXII, 750).— St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 23. 2ae, qu. 65, art. i, ad 3: "Membrum non est praescindendum propter corporalem salutem totius, nisi quando aliter toti subveniri non potest. Saliiti autem spirituali sem per potest aliter subveniri quam per membn praecisionem, quia peccatum subiacet voluntati. Et ideo in nullo casu licet membrum praescindere propter quodcunque peccatum vitan- dum." — J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., Vol. I, n. 403, 10: "Non licet se castrare ad castitatem servandam Tel ad tentationes sedandas, quia ad
immo eviratio est prorsus inutilis ad peccatum vitandum, quia non
tollit carnis tentationes, sed tantum generationem impedit." — Cfr. O'Mal- ley and Walsh, Essays in Pastoral Medicine, p. 339.
25 Decree of Feb. 3, 1902. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. II, nth ed., p. 352: "Summi pontifices castrationem puerorum nunquam probarunt, nee unquatn licitam dixerunt, immo eos, qui cut- pabiliter se aliosve eunuchos feds- sent, irregulares declararunt. . . ." Cfr. Benedict XIV, De Syn. Dioec., \. XI, c. 7, n. 3; C. Richert, Die Anfange der Irregularitiiten, Frei burg, 1901, pp. 104 sqq.
26 S. C. S. Off., 22 May, 1895: "Si sia lecita la practica sia attiva sia passii'a di un procedimento il quale si propone intenzionalmente
della donna. R. Negative." Sa- betti-Barrctt, Comp. Theol. Mor., n.
SELF-MUTILATION 85
READINGS. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol, 2a 2ae, qu. 64, art. 5. — James J. Walsh, Essays in Pastoral Medicine, Ch. xxvii, New York 1906.— F. A. Gopfert, Moraltheologie, Vol. II, 6th ed., pp. 6 sqq., Paderborn 19x19. — Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 301 sqq., New York 1908. — Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 403 sqq. — Ad. Tan- querey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae Moralis et Fastoralis, Vol. Ill, pp. 124 sqq., Tournai 1904. — Westcott, Suicide, its History, Liter ature, etc., London 1885. — Bonomelli, // Suicidio, Milan 1892. — E. Durckheim, Le Suicide, Paris 1897. — Masaryk, Der Selbstmord als soz'mle Massenerscheinung, Vienna, 1881. — J. E. Ross, C. S. P., Christian Ethics, New York 1919, pp. 178 sqq. — Austin O'Malley, The Ethics of Medical Homicide and Mutilation, New York 1919, pp. 7 sqq., 244, 260 sqq.
267. — Cfr. H. Noldin, S.J., Summa est prorsus incapax, quippe qui Theol. Mor., Vol. II, p. 352: verum semen in testiculis elabora-
canales viri semen conferentes se- ratio, quae brevissimo tempore centur, adeo ut omnis communicatio peragitur, insuper nee periculosa testiculorum cum membra virili im- nee admodum dolorosa est, morali- pediatuf. Vasectomiacus, qui hanc ter dicenda est illicita, nisi ad ser- operationem passus est actiones vandam vitam vel sanitatem neces- sexuales per copulam carnalem pera- saria sit." — On vasectomy, see A. gere quidem potest, at fecundationis O'Malley, The Ethics of Medical
Homicide and Mutilation, pp. 244
sqq.
CHAPTER V
POSITIVE DUTIES IN REGARD TO LIFE AND HEALTH
Though man may not end his life at will, he is in duty bound to sacrifice it under certain condi tions. The reason for this obligation is twofold : First, there are higher duties than that of pre serving life, and, secondly, every man possesses certain rights over his own person. Hence the duty of preserving and safeguarding life and health, with which we dealt in the last Section, does not bind absolutely, but is subject to certain limitations.
i. Man is bound to give his life, or to allow others to take it, if he can preserve it in no other way than at the expense of truth and virtue, i. e., at the cost of his soul's salvation,1 or if the duties of his vocation or state require him to sacrifice health or life, as often happens with priests, physicians, nurses, firemen, and others ; or when ever it becomes a duty to run a serious risk for the sake of the common welfare.2
1 Cfr. Matt. X, 39; XVI, 25 sq.; II, 17; i John III, 16. Cfr. J. de Mark VIII, 35-37! Luke IX, 24-26; Lugo, De lust, et lure, disp. 10, qu. XVIII, 33; John XII, 25. i: "Ob magnum bonum commune
2 Acts XX, 24; Eph. Ill, 13; Phil. vcl ob specialem obligationem ex
86
SACRIFICING LIFE 87
2. It is permissible for a man to sacrifice his life or to expose himself to certain danger of death :
a) If he knows no other way of escape from a physically proximate occasion of mortal sin. Thus a virgin may risk death in order to preserve her chastity, e. g., by leaping into a river with the purpose of reaching the other side, even though there be no reasonable hope of attaining safety, or by offering resistance to her assailant, even though she run immediate danger of being killed and cannot escape except by a miracle. We say such conduct would be permissible ; but it would not be obligatory, for it is not absolutely impossible to refuse internal consent. A person does not share the guilt of another's sin, says St. Augustine, as long as he does not give his con sent.3 The Roman Breviary quotes St. Lucy as
pacto vel officio quam habet miles, XXIII, 957). — St. Alphonsus says gubernator, episcopus, parochus, li- (Theol. Mor., Ill, n. 368): "Hie cite possunt et tenentur mortem magis urget quaestio, an virgo tene- praeferre." — H. Busembaum, S.J., atur potiits pcrmittere se occidi Medulla Theol. Mor., Ill, tr. 4, c. quam violari, puta si invasor mine- it dub. i: "Miles potest, immo tur ei mortem, si copulae non ac- tenetiif persistere in statione, etsi quiescat. Adest duplex sententia. moraliter certus sit se occidendum." Prima dicit, quod, licet possit, non (Tournay, 1876, I, 172). Cfr. St. tcnetur tamen femina mortem pati, Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., 1. IV, n. sed potest tune permissive se ha- 366. here, dum accidit copula, modo vo- 8 Epist., 98 (al. 23), n. i: "Non luntate positive resistat et consensus potest vinculo alienae iniquitatis ob- periculum absit; quia, ut dicunt, ilia stringi, qm nulla sua vohintate con- permissio non est tune cooperatio sentit." (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, moralis, sed tantum materialis, et 359). — IDEM, De Mendacio, c. 19, n. idea ob periculum mortis satis excu,- 40 (P. L., XL, 514). — St. Jerome, satur. Secunda sententia docet, hoc Hebraicae Quaest. in Gen., c. 1.2: oinnino illicitum esse, quia, quum "Corpus sanctarum mulierum non femina possit copulam impedire, si vis maculat, sed voluntas." (P. L., timore inducta quiescit, eius tune
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
saying: "The body is not stained except by the consent of the mind, and if you command me to be violated against my will, my chastity will be to me a double crown." 4
Similarly, a woman has the right, though she is not in duty bound, to refuse to allow herself to be physically examined or operated upon in order to preserve her modesty or bodily integrity.6 She may furthermore refuse to submit to medical examination ordered by a court for the purpose of ascertaining whether she has committed infan ticide, even though her refusal would be inter preted as a confession of guilt and result in her conviction. For although in the case of crimes of this kind a physical examination is often im portant for ascertaining the guilt of the accused,
cooperatio vere moralis et volunta- ria fit; in femina enim ilia quies in copula reputatur ut actio. Haec ratio tamen non convincit, quia ilia quies feminae revera non po- test did actio, dum nullo modo est positira. Idea prima sententia (speculative loquendo) sua proba- bilitate carere non videtur. Non tamen negandum, secundum senten- tiam in pra.ri omnino suadendam esse, saltern ob periculum consensus, quod in ilia permissione facile ad- esse potest."—Cfr. A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I, loth ed., n. 580.
4 Breviarium Rom., Festum S. Luciae (13 Dec.), lect. 6: "Non coinguinatur corpus nisi de con- sensu mentis, et si invitam iusseris violari, castitas mihi duplicabitur ad
coronam." — Cfr. Busembaum, Me dulla, I. c.: "Etsi virgini non li- ceat ad castitatem servandam directe se occidere, licet tamen ei certo periculo mortis se exponere etiam pro sola integritate corporali, licet rationabiliter praesumeret se non consensuram, quia integritas ista magnt aestimatur."
5 Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., Vol. I, n. 403: "Non tenetur virgo operationem probrosam pati per ma- nus medici, licet eius vita pericli- tetur, quia amor verecundiae aequare potest out etiam superare malum quod morte pertimescitur." — St. Al- phonsus, Theol. Mor., Ill, n. 372: "Posset tamen virgo permittere, ut tangatur, immo teneretur sinere, ut ab alia femina curetur, ut recte ait Diana."
SACRIFICING LIFE
89
and it may happen that a guilty woman escapes punishment by her refusal to be examined, mod esty must be protected at all- costs, and Catho lics should use their influence to prevent the adop tion of laws that run counter to this principle.6
As regards the so-called suicidia martyrum? it is safe to say that the holy persons who thus voluntarily in curred death were divinely inspired 8 or at least acted in good faith.9 Samson's deed, as recorded in the Book of Judges,10 was justifiable from another point of view, besides that mentioned by St. Augustine.* He may be
6 Cfr. F. v. Holtzendorff, Das Verbrechen des Mordes und die Todesstrafe, Berlin 1875, pp. 337 sq-
7 See Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., 1. VI, c. 42; 1. VIII, c. 12 (Migne, P. G., XX, 608, 772).
8 St. Augustine, De Civitate Dei, 1. I, c. 16-19 (Migne, P. L., XLI, 30-34) : "Sed quaedam, inquiunt, sanctae feminae tempore persecu- tionis, ut insectatores suae pudi- citiae devitarent, in rapturum atque
debet committere in se critnen maxi mum, quod est sui ipsius occisio, ut vitet minus crimen alienum. Non enim est crimen mulieris per violen- tiam, si consensus non adsit, quia non inquinatur corpus nisi de con- sensu mentis, ut Lucia dixit. . . . Similiter etiam nulli licet seipsum occidere ob timorem, ne consentiat in peccatum, quia non sunt facienda mala, ut veniant bona (Rom. Ill, 8) vel ut ritentur mala, praesertim
eoque modo defunctae sunt earum- que martyria in catholica ecclesia veneratione celeberrima frequentan- tur. De his nihil temere audeo iu- dicare. Utrum enim ecclesiae ali- quibus fide dignis testificationibus, ut earum memoriam sic honoret, di- vina persuaserit auctoritas, nescio, et fieri potest, ut ita sit. Quid, si enim hoc fecerunt non humanitus deceptae, sed divinitus iussae, nee errantes, sed oboedientesf Sicut de Samsone aliud nobis fas non est credere." (P. L., XLI, 39). — IDEM, Tract, in loa., 51, n. 10 (P. L., XXXV, 1767). — St. Thomas, Summo Theol., 23 2ae, qu. 64, art. 5, ad 3: "Non licet mulieri seipsam occidere, ne ab alio corrumpatur, quia non
enim est, an aliquis in futurum con sentiat in peccatum; potens est enim Deus hominem quacunque tenta- tione superveniente liberare a pec- cato." — Ibidem, ad 4: "Dicendum quod, sicut Augustinus dicit [De Civ. Dei, I, c. 21 ; Migne, P. L., XLI, 35], nee Samson aliter excu- satur, quod seipsum cum hostibus ruina domus oppressit, nisi quod la- tenter Spiritus Sanctus hoc iusserat, qui per ilium miracula faciebat. Et eandem rationem assignat de quibus- dam sanctis feminis, quae tempore persecutionis seipsas occiderunt, qua- rum memoria in ecclesia celebratur."
9 Lessius, De lust., II, c. 9, n. 23.
10 Judges XVI, 23 sqq. * See note 8, supra.
90 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
said to have willed his death only indirectly as a means of destroying the Philistines, and hence acted for the common good (ex caritate boni communis) .ll
b) It is also permissible to sacrifice one's life or to expose oneself to certain danger of death in order to escape a serious temptation. The older moralists held that a patient would be justi fied in refusing to submit to an extremely pain ful operation, even though it were likely to save his life, if he knew, or at least had reason to fear, that the pain would cause him to sin griev ously by anger, impatience, despair, or blasphemy. In the present advanced stage of surgery this danger is slight,12 although, because of the more or less well-founded fear of death under the knife, no general obligation can be established.
The duty of employing the resources of medicine and surgery to save one's life must not be interpreted as com pelling a patient to employ such extraordinary means as would be harder to bear than death itself. No one is obliged, for instance, to consent to the amputation of a limb if he is not certain that the operation will not kill him. In the present stage of medical science there is nearly always at least a possibility of saving life, and hence it may be said, in a general way, that patients are bound to allow themselves to be operated upon if advised to do so by a reputable physician.
11 Cfr. Sporer-Bierbaum, Theol. 12 Cfr. Chas. Coppens, S.J., Moral
Mot., Vol. II, zwd ed., Paderborn Principles and Medical Practice, 1903, tr. 5, n. 390; F. X. Linsen- New York 1897. mann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, p. 259-
EUTHANASIA 91
Of course, no man is obliged for the restoration of his health to employ means which would entail poverty upon his family or cause extraordinary hardship to himself, es pecially if the result is uncertain.
From what we have said the reader will have rightly concluded that the duty of submitting to medical or surg ical treatment is never absolute, but always relative. When life can be saved in no other way, and it is very probable that the treatment suggested will prove success ful, the patient should take it if he has the means to do so. But as long as there is hope of restoring health in some other way, there is no strict duty to take medi cine or submit to the knife. If the disease is so far ad vanced that no reasonable hope can be entertained of sav ing the patient's life, he should not be molested, and the more doubtful the effect of a medicine or an opera tion, and the less inclined the patient is to take or under go it, the less should he be harassed. No matter how far advanced the disease or how meagre the hope of re covery, it is never allowed to give a patient drugs which are apt to directly cause death, but it is permissible to employ medicines that may possibly hasten the end, pro vided there is hope, or at least a possibility, that they will have a beneficial influence upon the patient.
To hasten death artificially by the employment of anaesthetics (dflavaaia) when all hope of re covery is gone, can be regarded as permissible only if the drugs employed for this purpose do not entirely deprive the sufferer of con sciousness. No man should be robbed of the capacity of acquiring merits in the hour of death, when, as Dr. Delany rightly says "the compe-
92 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
tency of acting meritoriously is most necessary and its products invested with finality." 13
"The time just before death," says Father Slater, "is very precious; a sinner may then be reconciled with God and save his soul; one who is in the state of grace may very much increase his merit by a good use at that time. Euthanasia, then, in this sense, is unlawful; it is virtually shortening a man's life." 14
Dr. Delany further says that there can be no doubt that "the administration of drugs of the nature specified is, in the premises, if not formally, at all events equiva- lently, a shortening of the life of the patient. Hence as long as the stricken person has as yet made no adequate preparation for death, it is always grievously unlawful to induce a condition of insensibility. In no contingency . . . can any positive indorsement be given to means whose scope is to have one die in a state of uncon sciousness. What has been said applies with equal force and for the same reasons to the case of those who have to suffer capital punishment by process of law." 15
c) Another motive which would justify a man in sac rificing his life or exposing himself to the danger of cer-
13 Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. V, p. permissive demeanor whenever it is 630. certain that the departing soul has
14 Thos. Slater, Manual of Moral abundantly made ready for the great Theology, Vol. I, p. 164. summons," and adds: "This is espe-
15 Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. V, p. cially true if there is ground for 630. — Dr. Delany, in the excised apprehending from the dying per- portions of the paragraph above son's continued possession of his quoted, goes farther than most other faculties, a relapse into sin." This Catholic writers by granting that sounds plausible, but is dangerous "those charged with responsibility in doctrine. (See O'Malley, The Eth- the case" may "take up a passively ics of Medical Homicide, PP- 13 sqq.)
DANGEROUS OCCUPATIONS 93
tain death, would be the desire to escape death in some other, equally certain but more painful form. Thus one who is unable to flee from a burning building would be allowed to leap, at the risk of breaking his neck, even though the hope of saving his life were very small.16
3. To give up one's life when such a sacrifice is necessary or justifiable for the common wel fare, is not only permissible, but positively virtuous.
a) A man is allowed to engage in occupations which may, though they need not necessarily be dangerous to life and limb, e. g., working on "sky-scrapers," church steeples, etc. He may also choose a vocation which involves proximate danger of disease or death, even though in so doing he have no higher motive than to earn a living or win pecuniary gain.
Dangerous occupations are not only those in which sudden injury and death are caused by ma chinery or unguarded perils, but also, and in the technical sense of the term particularly those in which some form of poison or disease is incidental to the trade itself as at present carried on.17 Most of the trades and occupations of this class
ie Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. sit aliqua spes mortem evadendi." —
Mor., 1. Ill, n. 367: "Quaeritur, Sporer-Bierbaum, Theol. Mor., Vol.
an liceat se occidere ad vitandam II, and ed., tr. 5, n. 389; A. Lehm-
mortem duriorem. Resp.: Directe kuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I, loth
se occidere nunqnam licet. . . . Li- ed., n. 580.
cet vero se indirecte occidere, puta 17 See Bliss, Encyclopedia of So-
si quis se eiiciat per fenestram, ut cial Reform, and ed., p. 360. effugiat incendium. praesertim si at-
94 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
are necessary for society as a whole and also for those individuals who make a living by fol lowing them.18
For the sake of gaining a livelihood, (which is a dira necessitas) , it is also legitimate for a man to engage in a hazardous occupation for the amusement, recreation, or utility of others, such as tight-rope walking, acrobatics, show athletics, etc., provided, of course, no divine or human law is directly transgressed.
To endanger one's life merely for the purpose of displaying agility or courage, without strict necessity or a reasonable cause, is always sinful.19
b) It is permitted to volunteer one's services in war, nay even to risk one's life at or without the express command of a superior officer, if some essential object can be attained thereby, e.g., if considerable damage can be done to the enemy or a great advantage gained for one's own side.20
18 Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., "Miles potest, immo tenetur, persi- Vol. I, n. 403, 6° : "Non peccant stere in statione, etsi moraliter certus artifices, qui super aedificiorum tecta sit, se occidendum. Item potest ad ascendunt et variis sese periculis ad evertendam turrim hostilem aut per- artem suam exercendam exponunt, dendos hastes pulverem incendere, nee fabri ferrarii qui quotidie ignem etsi sciat, se obruendum, uti et •versando -vitam sibi minuunt, quia navim mergere vel incendere, ne ex causa rationabili agunt." hostis ea potiatur cum gram reipubli-
19 "Graviter peccant viri audaces, cae damno." — Ibid., n. 367: "Quae- qui ex temeraria sponsione et vana ritur, an autem liceat navim incen- gloria in varia discrimina se inici- dere cum evidenti periculo vitae, ne unt, in altum ascendendo, deorsum ilia veniat in manus hostium. . . . se demittendo, onera graviora fe- Affirmat Lugo cum Lessio, licere, si rendo," etc. (Ibid.) sit aliqua spes saltern modicissima
20 Cfr. Judges XVI, 23-30; i vitandi mortem, vel, etsi mors sit Mace. VI, 73 sqq. — Cfr. St. Al- certa, vitari tamen expediat damnum phonsus, Theol. Mor., Ill, n. 366: publicum."
DEATH FOR GLORY OR CHARITY
95
But no one is allowed to seek death merely for glory or in order to escape the hardships of prison life.21 Committing hara-kiri, as the Japa nese are said to do, to escape falling into the hands of the enemy or being tortured by an angry prince, is immoral and therefore forbidden.22
c) A man may give up his life in the service of charity when there is question of the salvation of souls or the safeguarding of life, or some other equivalent good on the part of his fellow- men. Aside from the vocational duties of physi cians and priests, it is a heroic act of virtue to ex-
si 2 Mace. XIV, 37-46.— Cfr. St. Augustine, Epist., 204 (al. 61), n. 6: "Quid mirum est, si [Raziae] tamquam homini elatio superba sub- repsit, ut mallet manit propria peri- mi quam post illam in suorum aspectibus celsitudinem sustinere in- dignam in hostium manibus servi- tutemf" — Ibid., n. 7: "In his Ma- chabaeorum libris quamvis homo ipse fuerit laudatns, factum tamen eius narratum est, non laudatum, et indicanditm potius quam imitandum, quasi ante oculos constitutum, non sane nostro iudicio iudicandum, quod nos quoque ut homines habere possemus, sed iudicio doctrinae sanae, quae in ipsis quoque libris veteribus clara est. Longe quippe fuit iste Rasias a verbis illis, ubi legitur: 'Omne, quod tibi applici- tum fuerit, accipe, et in dolore su- stine, et in humilitate tua patientiatn habe.' (Eccli. II, 4). Non ergo fuit iste vir eligendae mortis sapi ens, sed ferendae humilitatis impa- tiens." — Ibid., n. 8: "Scriptum est, quod voluerit 'nobiliter et virilitef
mori' (2 Mach. XIV., 37-46), sed numquid idea sapienter? . . . Magna haec sunt, nee tamen bona; non enim bonum est omne quod magnum est, quoniam sunt magna etiam mala." (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 941). — IDEM, Contra Gaudent., I, c. 31, n. 39: "Proinde quomodolibet accipiotur a vobis huiits Raziae vita laudato,, non habet mors eius lauda- tricem sapientiam, quia non habet dignam Dei famulis patientiam po- tiusqtte huic vox ilia Sapientiae (Ec cli. II, 16), quae non laudis, sed detestationis est, competit: 'Vae qui perdiderunt sustinentiam.' " (P. L., XLIII, 730).
22 Cfr. Sporer-Bierbaum, Theol. Mor., Vol. II, and ed., tr. 5, n. 389: "Cerium apud omnes est, non licere seipsum directe occidere ad atroci- orem mortem iniustam evadendam. Damnabilis ergo mos est laponen- sium, qui, ut atrocem mortem, v. gr. lenti ignis evadere possint, discisso -venire necando se liberant." — Cfr. V. Cathrein, S.J., Moralphilosophie, Vol. I, 4th ed., p. 599.
96 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
pose oneself to immediate danger of death, for instance, in nursing a patient afflicted with a con tagious disease.23 We have here a just cause (iusta causa), i.e., the exercise of a duty or virtue of such great importance that the accompanying danger fades into insignificance and the sacrifice approaches martyrdom.24 To incur such a risk out of obstinacy, pride, presumption, anger, or pique can, however, in no wise be regarded as permissible because no higher moral good is in volved, and to risk life thoughtlessly or presump tuously would be opposed to the divine command ment of self-love.
Of those who charitably sacrifice or risk their lives for their fellowmen Jesus Christ says: ''Greater love than this no man hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends." 25 The highest exemplar of such heroic devotion is our Divine
23 Sporer-Bierbaum, op. cit,, n. etiam propriam vitam pro vita cor-
386: "Potest quis invisere, servire, porali proximi amid exponere, alio-
sacramenta administrare, etc., paste quin iniuste occidendi, ut si Titius
infectis vel simili morbo contagioso esset iniuste damnatus ad mortem,
laborantibus, quamvis timeatur et probabiliter poteris tu amicus eius
reipsa subsit periculum propriae in- te offerre ad occidendum, ut amicum
fectionis et mortis; multo magis serves. Dicunt tamen, iniuste: si
uxor (rel econtra maritus) cum suo enim iuste damnatus sit, non po-
frobabili vitae periculo laudabiliter tens, quia tune iudicem volentem
asfistet marito peste infecto; idque nonnisi iuste reum occidere indu-
non tantum ad necessarium obsequi- ceres ad occidendum te iniuste."
urn, sed etiam solum ad solatium vel 24 Phil. II, 29 sq. (Epaphroditus).
amorem demonstrandum licere, pie Cfr. S. Dionysius of Alex, apud
admittit loannes Sanchez." — Ibid., Euseb., Hist. Eccles., VII, c. 22;
n. 387: "Potest quis se obiicere telo (Migne, P. G., XX, 689); St. Cyp-
ad conservandam vitam principis vel rian, Dt Mortalit., c. 17 (Corpus
parentis, pietatis et boni communis Script. Eccles. Lot., Vindob., Ill,
causa, immo etiam in probabili ma- i, 307).
gnorum doctorum sententia licet 25 John XV, 13.
DEATH FOR CHARITY 97
Saviour Himself, dying on the cross for the sal vation of mankind.28
However, let it be well understood that, with the exception of those who are bound to do so by their vocation, no man is obliged to lay down his life for his fellowmen. The reason is that no man need love his neighbor more than himself. Therefore one who is caught in a shipwreck is not obliged to surrender his place in a lifeboat to an other ; 27 a mother is not obliged to submit to an indisputably dangerous operation in order to in sure the life of her unborn child. In both cases, moreover, the success of the sacrifice would be problematical. The mother, in the instance men tioned, would, of course, be allowed, nay should in certain circumstances be advised, to perform what would be an act of heroic charity on behalf of her child.
d) It is also permissible to sacrifice health and life in the interest of science for the common wel fare. There is no moral objection, for instance, to participating in a polar expedition for scien tific or research purposes, nay, such an act might be rendered positively virtuous by the circum-
26 Cfr. Rom. V, 6-9; i John III, Mot., Vol. I, loth ed., n. 580, 5:
1 6. — St. Thomas, Comment. in "Licet in naufragio amico tabulam
Sent., Ill, dist. 29, art. 5, ad 3: Jam acceptam cedere et ita eius vita
"Perfectissimus actus virtutis." — potius quam propriae consulere, nisi
St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., Ill, n. propria vita prae vita amid forte
366. necessaria sit."
ZTAug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol.
98 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
stances of the case. The same is true of the act of undergoing inoculation with some virus to as certain whether a certain disease is transmissible from beast to man, or for a similar purpose.28 (e) It is permissible for a murderer to surren der himself to the public authorities in order to pay the death penalty for his crime, though no man is strictly bound to do so unless an innocent person would otherwise be executed for the deed through his fault.29
A fugitive who has been innocently condemned to death may not of his own accord return to the country in which the sentence was pronounced, because to do so would be to incur death volun tarily. If, however, the circumstances of the case were such that he would be able to save his parents or friends from great distress, imprison ment or disgrace, it would be an act of heroic virtue to return.
It is not permissible for a criminal to commit
28 Cfr. Juvenal, Sat., IV, 91 : fugae pateat, potest non fugere et "Vitam impendere vero." — St. Al- amore iustitiae sententiae iudicis se phonsus, Theol. Mor., Ill, n. 369: conformare; guinimmo talis mortem "Ad experiendum antidotum." meritus ultra se iudici et iustitiae
29 Cfr. St. Th. Aquinas, Summa exercendae occasionem offerre non Theologies, za aae, qu. 69, art. 4, ad prohibetur. At certe ad neutrum 2: "Nullus ita condemnatur, quod tenetur, sed licite fugere potest, ipse sibi inferat mortem, sed quod non tantum ante iudicis latam sen- ipse mortem patiatur, et ideo non tentiam, nisi promiserit vel iuraverit tenetur facere id, unde mors se- se permansurum, sed etiam post quatur, quod est manere in loco, latam a iudice sententiam mortis unde ducatur ad mortem." — Sporer- propriae gravissimi periculi decli- Bierbaum, Theol. Mor., Vol. II, nandi causa." Cfr. A. Lehmkuhl, 2nd ed., tr. 5, n. 394: "Damnatus S. J., in the Theol. -prakt. Quartal- vet damnandus ad mortem, etsi via schrift, Linz, 1907, pp. 116 sqq.
CRIMINALS 99
suicide, even though the death sentence be already passed and its execution certain.
Were a Catholic condemned, like Socrates, to be his own executioner, would he be allowed to obey? Mor alists differ on this point. Assuming the judgment to be just, some answer the question affirmatively, saying that the culprit would end his life merely to obey the law and thus would cooperate in his own death only in a material and remote manner. Others take a negative view, for the reason that in a sentence of vindictive justice judge and culprit must be distinct and separate persons. As it is not certain that the act is intrinsically evil, Fr. Lehm- kuhl says such a culprit would be permitted to execute the judgment upon himself at the command of the supreme judge; but he would not be obliged to do so, because it can be defended as a probable opinion that this act is for bidden by the natural law, and it is, moreover, abhorrent to nature. The sententia communis of Catholic mor alists is against the act, though it is regarded as licit by Haunold, Elbel, Illsung, Lacroix, and others. St. Al- phonsus seems to defend it as "probabilis." Victoria, Aragon, Sa, and others draw a distinction : they hold that a guilty culprit legally condemned to execute judgment upon himself would be allowed to take poison, as So crates did, but not to kill himself with the sword.30
A criminal who has been justly condemned to die of starvation may refuse to take food offered to him.31
30 Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. occulte ministratum sumat, quid Mor., Vol. I, nth ed., p. 404. — Cfr. non sumere esset seipsum occidere." St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., Ill, n. — Sporer-Bierbaum, Theol. Mor., 369. Vol. II, and ed., tr. 5, n. 393:
31 St. Thomas, Sunima Theol., 23 "Danmatus ad mortem fame sub- 2ae, qu. 69, art. 4, ad 2: "Si ali- eundam potest a cibis clanculum quis sit condemnatus, ut fame mart- oblatis abstinere, quia talis ad mor- otttr, non peccat, si cibum sibi tern suam active non concurrit, sed
ioo INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
READINGS. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., pp. 345 sqq., 90 sqq.— Aug. Lehmkuhl, SJ., Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 401 sqq. — De Lugo, De lustitia et lure, disp. X.
passive tantum se habens iustitiae immo si talis esset iniuste dam- amor e earn fortiter perfert. Ad id natus, per se loquendo teneretur tamen non tenetur, sed cibos clam comedere, quia tune iusta causa non oblatos acceptare potest ipso iure esset vitam prodigendi excepta naturae, quo qttis vitam suam tueri, causa martyrii." quantum valeat, licite potest; quin-
CHAPTER VI
THE DUTY OF DEVELOPING THE MIND
i. In addition to developing his physical pow ers, man is obliged to cultivate his mental and moral faculties. Intellectual and moral culture should go hand in hand, because mere knowledge and mental acuteness do not ennoble the mind, but may co-exist with brutality.1
a) Though it is not true, as the ancient soph ists claimed, that knowledge spells virtue and that, consequently, a learned man is invariably a good man, no sane person will deny that, broadly speaking, genuine moral culture is impossible without a definite sum of knowledge. In the matter of education we must beware of two ex tremes. It is as foolish to train any one faculty exclusively as it is to attempt to train all facul ties of the intellect in an equal measure.2 To de mand that all men be raised to the highest attain able proficiency in literature and science is to re quire what is practically impossible. "Non
1 Cfr. J. Guibert, Le Caractere, Das Studium und die Privatlektiire, Paris 1905; P. Levy and M. Brahe, sth ed., Freiburg 1904; Brother Die natiirliche Willensbildung, Leip- Azarias, Books and Reading, New sic 1903. York 1896.
2 Cfr. J. B. Krier and J. Schofer,
101
102 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
omnia possumus omnes." The various faculties and talents were given to men for the purpose of being fully developed as a whole, for the benefit of society, but they need not all be developed in each individual, in fact this would be impossible on account of the difference in ability and character.
"Knowledge," says Lord Bacon,3 taking the term in its true and highest sense, "is power," and an ancient adage declares that the master of one book commands respect.4 St. Paul says : "If any man know not, he shall not be known." 5 Yet knowledge alone does not insure goodness. Intellectual proficiency may lead or help a man to adopt a sublime conception of the universe, but it will never by itself render him good and happy. Truth and knowledge are precious gifts, by means of which man enriches himself, makes his fellowmen happy, and glorifies God. This is the highest attainable prize of ear nest and continuous mental culture. But something more is necessary. Man must not only know the truth, he must also act in conformity with it ; in other words, he must lead a morally good, that is, a virtuous life. To be good, he must assimilate moral goodness through the will. Education, therefore, is not complete unless the will is trained as carefully as the intellect. Only in this way does a man become contented and happy and helpful to his fellowmen.
"Every man naturally desireth to know ; but what doth knowledge avail without the fear of God ? Better indeed is an ignorant laborer who serveth God, than a proud
3 Novum Organum, aphorism III : plish anything, you Must know
"Scientia et potentia in idem coin- something."
cidunt." — Cfr. St. Ignatius Loyola's 4 "Timeo lectorem unius libri."
dictum: "If you wish to accom- 5 i Cor. XIV, 38.
DEVELOPING THE MIND 103
philosopher who, neglecting himself, contemplateth the course of the heavens. ... If thou wouldst profitably know or learn something, love to be unknown and to be thought of no account. This is the most sublime and most useful subject of study: true self-knowledge and self-contempt." 6
b) Every man has the strict duty of acquiring so much intellectual and moral education as will enable him to follow a useful calling and to strive consistently for his mental and moral perfection. This duty implies instruction in matters of faith and morals and practice in the arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic, which, among civilized nations, constitute the elements of a general education and the indispensable means of communication. Every man who lives within the pale of civilized society, is bound under pain of sin to make use of the opportunities avail able to him for the acquisition of these elements, and, if the laws of State or Church demand it, he should also acquire a higher education.
When an opportunity of acquiring intellectual culture involves a proximate occasion of sin, there is no obligation to use it.
6 "Omnis homo naturaliter desi- ttihilo reputari. Haec est altissima
derat scire, sed scientia sine timore et utilissima lectio : sui ipsius vera
Dei quid importatf Melior est pro- cognitio et despectio." (De Imit.
fecto humilis rusticus, qui Deo Christi, I, 2, i ; ed. Pohl, II, 7 sq.)
servit, quam superbus philosophus, — Cfr. I, n. 3: "Quid prodest tibi
qui se neglecto cursum caeli consi- alta de Trinitate disputare, si careas
derat. . . . Si vis utiliter aliquid huntilitate, unde displiceas Trini-
scire et discere: ama nesciri et pro tatif" (Ibid., p. 6).
104 INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
Religion is the foundation of true culture, and any compulsory school law directed against re ligion would violate the natural rights of parents and children alike, for parents are commanded by God to take care that their children are trained in the principles of religion, and the children have a natural right to such training. Compulsory education may be a benefit to society, but it de generates into tyranny when the children are compelled to attend un-Christian, or, what is worse, positively anti-Christian schools, or if the State does not provide for, or at least permit, the giving of sufficient religious instruction.
Education contains both a religious and a secular ele ment. The control of the former belongs solely to the Church, whereas in regard to the latter, the State cannot be denied a reasonable share.7 "Though children are facts of the domestic order," says Father Joseph Rick- aby, S.J., "and the care and formation of them belongs primarily to their parents, yet if the parents neglect their charge, the State can claim the right of intervention ab abusu. It certainly is within the province of the State to prevent any parent from launching upon the world a brood of young barbarians, ready to disturb the peace of
1 On the respective rights of view. Vol. VI (1892), pp. 89 sqq. ;
Church and State in regard to edu- F. S. Chatard, "Dr. Bouquillon on
cation see M. Cronin, The Science the School Question," ibid,, Vol.
of Ethics, Vol. II, Dublin 1917, pp. VI, pp. 98 sqq.; R. I. Holaind, S.J.,
486 sqq.; W. Turner in the Cath. The Parent First, N. Y. 1895; S.
Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, p. 558; G. Messmer, "The Right of In-
Quigley, Compulsory Education, N. struction," Am. Bed. Review, Vol.
Y. 1894; Zach. Montgomery, Poison VI, pp. 104 sqq.; Card. O'Connell,
Drops in the V. S. Senate; S. M. The Reasonable Limits of State Ac-
Brandi, S.J., "The Touchstone of tivity, Columbus, O.( 1919. Catholicity," in the Am. Ecclts. R*-
PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE 105
civil society. The practical issue is, who are barbarians and what is understood by peace. The Emperor Decius probably considered every Christian child an enemy of the Pax Romana. But the misapplication of a maxim does not derogate from its truth. It also belongs to the State to see that no parent behaves like a Cyclops (KVK\WTTIK^, Aristotle, Eth., X, ix, 13) in his family, ordering his chil dren, not to their good, as a father is bound to do, but to his own tyrannical caprice. For instruction, as distin guished from education, it is the parent's duty to provide his child with so much of it as is necessary, in the state of society wherein his lot is cast, to enable the child to make his way in the world according to the condition of his father. In many walks of life one might as well be short of a finger as not know how to read and write. Where ignorance is such a disadvantage, the parent is not allowed to let his child grow up ignorant. There, if he neglects to have him taught, the State may step in with compulsory schooling. Compulsory schooling for all in discriminately, and that up to a high standard, is quite another matter." 8
The spread of culture is beneficial not only from the intellectual but also from the moral point of view. Cul tured nations as a rule stand on a higher moral level than those which are unlettered, and the same is true of social classes. A sound training of the mind and heart is a protection against evil passions and a means of con ciliation between opposing classes of people. Lectures, study courses, public libraries, university extension, the dissemination of good literature, are means of satisfy ing the popular craving for knowledge, but they cannot attain their highest object if they merely convey informa tion ; they must above all else train the will, for man's
8 Moral Philosophy, p. 358.
io6
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
true worth depends, not on his intellect alone, but on his character. Intellectual proficiency does not level social in equalities. The only kind of culture that really promotes the progress of society, as of the individual, is that which leads up to Him who is "the way, the truth, and the life." 9
2. Knowledge becomes transmuted into virtue if its motive, object, and standard are brought into harmony with the moral law.10 By earnestly
9 John XIV, 6.— Cfr. St. Augus tine, Confess., V, c. 4: "Numquid, Doniine Deus veritatis, quisquis novit ista, iam placet tibif Infelix enim homo, qui scit ilia omnia, te autem nescit; beatus autem, qui te scit, etiamsi ilia nescit. Qui vero et te ut ilia novit, non propter ilia beatior, sed propter te solum beatus est." (Migne, P. L., XXXII, 708). — Thomas a Kempis, De Imitatione Christi, I, i : "Si scires totam bi- bliam exterius et omnium: philoso- phorum dicta, quid totum prodesset
10 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Trinit., L XII, c. 14, n. 21 : "Habet et scientia modum suum bomtm, si quod in ea infiat vel inflare adsolet, aeternorum caritate vincatur, quae non inftat, sed, ut scimus, aedificat (I Cor. Fill, i). Sine scientia quippe nee virtutes ipsae, quibus recte vivitur, possunt haberi, per quas haec vita misera sic guber- netur, ut ad illam, quae vere beata est, perveniatur aeternam." (P. L., XLII, 1009).— St. Bernard, Serm. in Cant., XXXVI, n. 3: "Sed melius mitto vos ad Magistrum.
sed illius, immo et nostra, quoniam Veritatis. 'Qui se,' inquit, 'putat aliquid scire, nondum modum scit,
quomodo oporteat eum scire' (i Cor. VIII, 2). Vides quoniam non pro- bat multa scientem, si sciendi modum nescierit. Vides, inquam, quomodo fructum et utilitatem sci- entiae in modo sciendi constituit? Quid ergo dicit modum sciendi? Quid, nisi ut scias, quo ordine, quo studio, quo fine quaeque nosse oporteat? Quo ordine, ut id prius, quod maturius ad salutem; quo studio, ut id ardentius, quod vehe- mentius ad amorem; quo fine, ut non ad inanem gloriam out curiosi- tatem aut aliquid simile, sed tantum ad aedificationem tuam vel proximi. Sunt namque qui scire volunt eo fine tantum, ut sciant, et turpis curiositas est. Et sunt qui scire vo lunt, ut sciantur ipsi, et turpis vanitas est. Qui profecto non eva- dent subsannantem satyricum et ei qui eiusmodi est decantantem: 'Scire titum nihil est nisi te scire hoc sciat alter' (Persius, Sat., I, 27). Et sunt item qui scire volunt ut sci- entiam suam vendant, verbi causa pro pecunia, pro honoribus, et tur pis quaestus est. Sed sunt quoque qui scire volunt, ut aedificent, et
lunt, ut aedificentur, et prudentia est." — Ibid., n. 4. "Horum omni um solum ttltimi duo non invent-
PRUDENCE 107
striving to apply true knowledge to his conduct man acquires prudence or wisdom (prudentia), which, in the words of St. Thomas, is "the noblest of the moral virtues and directs all virtuous acts." J1
Prudence as the fundamental virtue manifests itself:
a) In love of truth or a tendency to develop the innate faculty by which the soul acquires the knowledge of truth. The desire to acquire knowledge per se serves only the truth, inasmuch as it is apt to lead man to the absolute Truth, i. e., God. Hence to seek enlightenment and knowl edge for the sake of enriching the mind and cul tivating the spiritual sense is a proof of true wisdom. The Christian religion, indeed, de mands faith; but its essential object is to propa gate the truth, and hence, far from interfering with the desire for knowledge, far from opposing new discoveries and ideas, it, on the contrary, hails and welcomes every increase of knowledge because the truth renders man intellectually and morally free.12
untur in abusione scientiae, quippe dentia est recta ratio agibilium,
qui ad hoc volunt intellegere, ut sicut scientia est recta ratio set-
bene faciant." (Migne, P. L., bilium." — Ibid., qu. 56, n. i: "Ip-
CLXXXIII, 968). — Cfr. St. Thomas, sa est directiva omnium virtuoso-
Summa Theol., 23 2ae, qu. 166 sq. rum actuum."
11 Summa Theol., 23 aae, qu. 47, 12 Cfr. John VIII, 32. — St. Jer-
art. 6, ad 3: "Prudentia est no- ome, In lerem., 1. I, c. i: "Sem-
bilior virtutibus moralibus et movet per amanda est veritas, nee timenda
eas." — Ibid., qu. 55, art. 3: "Pru- hominum multitude." (Migne, P.
io8
INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
It follows from all this that intellectual dullness and credulity is not only a mental, but also a moral defect, and a serious one if it furnishes cause for doubt and superstition. It follows further that the pursuit of knowledge, if carried on purely for its own sake or to satisfy inquisitiveness or van ity, is immoral. Knowledge acquired from such motives, in the words of the Apostle, "puffeth up," whereas "charity edifieth." 13
L., XXIV, 687).— Ibid., I. VI, c. 23: "Veritas claudi et ligari potest, vinci non potest, quae et suorum paucitate contenta est et multitu- dine hostium non terretur." (P. L., XXIV, 829).— IDEM, In Is. Proph., 1. XVI, c. 58: "Sicut matutina lux solvit tenebras, ita lumen scientiae et veritatis omnes errores fugat." (P. L., XXIV, 568).
13 i Cor. VIII, i.— Cfr. J. Gerson, Opera Omnia, I, 117: "Scientia in- flat et daemonium facit. Quid enim daemon inter pretatur, nisi sciens, sed absque caritatef" — Thomas a Kempis, De Imit. Christi, \. I, c. 3: "Non est culpanda scientia aut quaelibet simplex rei notitia, quae bona est in se considerata et a Deo ordinata, sed praeferenda est sem per bona conscientia et virtuoso vita. . . . Quam multi pereunt per vanam scientiam in saeculo, qui parum curant de Dei servitio! Et quid magis eligunt magni esse quam hutniles: idea evanescunt in cogita- tionibus suis." (Ed. Pohl, II, 10 sq.) — Cfr. St. Bernard, Serm. in Cant., XXXVI, n. 2: "Videar for- sitan nimius in suggillatione scien tiae et quasi reprchendere doctos ac prohibere studia literarutn. AbsitI Non ignoro, quantum Ecclesiae pro- fuerint et prosint literati sui swe
ad refellendos eos, qui ex adverse sunt, sive ad simplices instruendos. Denique legi: 'Quia tu repulisti scientiam, repellam et ego te, ut non fungaris tniki sacerdotio' [Os. IV, 6]; legi: 'Qui docti fuerint, fulge- bunt quasi splendor firmamenti, et qui ad iustitiam erudiunt multos, quasi stellae in perpetuas aeterni- totes' [Deut. XII, 3]. Sed et scio, ubi legerim: 'Scientia inflat' [r Cor. VIII, i], et rursum: 'Qui apponit scientiam, apponit et dolorem' [Ec- cles. I, 1 8]. Fides quia differentia est scientiarum, quando alia inflans, alia contristans est. Tibi vero ve- lim scire, quaenam harum videatur utilior seu magis necessaria ad sa- lutem, illane, quae tumet an quae dolet. . . . Apostolus non prohibet sapere, sed plus sapere quam opor- teat [Rom. XII, 3]. Quid est au- tern sapere ad sobrietatemf Vigi- lantissime observare, quid scire magis priusve oporteat. Tempus enim breve est. Est autem, quod in se est, omnis scientia bona, quae tamen veritate subnixa sit, sed tu qui cum timore et tremore tuam ipsius operari sahitem festinas, ea scire potius ampliusve curato, quae senseris viciniora saluti." (Migne, P. L., CLXXXIII, 967).
CAUTIOUSNESS 109
"Happy are they who do not pay for the treasure of knowledge with their hearts," says Schiller. The desire for knowledge, when inspired by proper motives, leads not to pride, but to humility. Dom Odilo Rottmanner, O.S.B., one of the greatest savants of his age, says : "If, as sometimes happens, a really learned man is puffed up with pride, this is an aberration of the heart, for which science must not be held responsible. As a rule those who display pride and vanity are least pro ficient and have acquired at best only half an education ; their knowledge is limited and one-sided. They resemble the empty ear of grain, which stands upright, whereas its neighbor, laden with kernels, bows humbly to the ground. How is it possible for one to be proud who at every step in the realm of knowledge perceives more clearly the vast- ness of science and the incapability of his tiny mind to compass it! How could he regard himself otherwise than as small who has envisaged, nay, glimpsed the immensity of the universe ! How puerile is it to take pride in the fragments of knowledge which man can at tain, in view of the infinite realm he can never hope to explore! Need we wonder that the highest degree of knowledge attainable to man is invariably united with sincere humility and modesty? " 14
Prudence furthermore manifests itself b) In the exercise of a reasonable caution. The virtue of cautiousness stands midway be tween fatalistic carelessness and indifference on the one hand, and, on the other, that un-Christian
i* O. Rottmanner, O.S.B., Predigten itnd Ansprachen, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Munich, 1904, p. 256.
i io INDIVIDUAL DUTIES
solicitude and worry against which Jesus has warned us so earnestly.15
We are commanded to employ all our bodily and mental faculties for the purpose of pressing the laws and powers of nature into the service of humanity, and as far as possible, warding off harmful influences from ourselves and others. Hence it is not distrust of Providence, nor " un- Christian interference with the plans of God," as one writer has charged, but a morally licit pre caution, which under certain conditions may be come a duty and a virtue, to employ those means of protection which human foresight and pru dence furnish, and take all proper or necessary measures to escape harm and loss, — for instance, by insuring one's life and material possessions against death, disease, fire, and other vicissitudes. The time-honored maxim, "Help yourself and God will help you," is in thorough harmony with the Catholic doctrine of Divine Providence, for, as Sacred Scripture says, "by slothfulness a build ing shall be brought down, and through the weak ness of hands the house shall drop through." 16
"To one who no longer takes an interest in the sun, the moon, and the stars," says a modern novelist, "they cease to convey a message ; and if a man neglects his house, it will go to ruin. This rule is of general applica-
15 Matt. VI, 25-34; cfr. Luke 16 Eccles. X, 18.
XII, 22-32; Phil. IV, 6.
FOSTERING THE SPIRITUAL LIFE in
tion. Neglect kills, whereas charity inspires all things with new life."
Therefore, in the words of the gentle and cultured Brother Azarias, whose writings are not as highly es teemed among us as they deserve to be, "it is worthy of our noblest efforts and our most undivided attention to foster in ourselves the Spiritual Life. Herein is the highest cultivation of the moral sense. No time should be thought too precious to devote to it, for it deals with the things of eternity; no thought too sustained or too painful, for its object is the Light of all intelligence." 1T
"Gather up with care," says the same writer in another place, "the treasures of knowledge and wisdom that lie strewn about you. Guard them with a jealous eye. See that they be not sullied either by the daubing of error or the turpitude of vice. Cherish them as a heaven-sent pat rimony by the right use and investment of which you are to purchase your title to eternal glory. All else may pass away, but the wisdom of well-digested knowledge and methodical thought remains through sunshine and storm, making the sunshine more beautiful and the storm less severe." 18
READINGS. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 23. 2ae, qu. 47-55. — Brother Azarias, Phases of Thought and Criticism, Boston 1896. — IDEM, Books and Reading, 5th ed., New York 1896. — J. L. Spalding, Education and the Higher Life, Chicago 1894. — J- Guibert, Le Caractcre, Paris 1905. — C. Krieg, Die Wissenschaft der Seelenleitung, Vol. I, pp. 506 sqq., Freiburg 1904. — Albert Muntsch, S.J., The Pilgrimage of Life, St. Louis 1918, pp. 179 sqq.
IT Brother Azarias, Phases of Thought and Criticism, Boston, 1896, p. 79. 18 Op. cit., pp. 10 sq.
PART II VOCATIONAL DUTIES
CHAPTER I
CHOICE OF A VOCATION AND FAITHFUL PERSEVER ANCE IN THE CHOSEN VOCATION
SECTION i
CHOICE OF A VOCATION
i. DEFINITION. — Man must live and move in the society of his fellowmen.1 In return for the physical and intellectual advantages which he re ceives from them, he must endeavor to make himself as useful to them as he can, by choosing or accepting certain work which his inborn or acquired faculties or means enable him to per form. The sphere of activity to which he de votes his powers is called vocation in the broad sense of the term.
2. IMPORTANCE. — The significance of such a vocation arises from the fact that, when sanc tified by religion, it becomes the natural basis
i Cfr. i Cor. XII, 12 sqq.; Gal. VI, a; Phil. II, 4. 112
CHOICE OF A VOCATION 113
of a higher, spiritual life, — "the garden, as it were, in which the seeds of eternal life are planted, grow, and ripen unto Heaven."
Every man is in duty bound to choose a defi nite vocation, — preferably the one which corres ponds best to his natural endowments, inclina tion, and bodily constitution, — and to prepare himself conscientiously for it.2
3. CHOICE OF A VOCATION. — In choosing a vo cation the individual is governed by subjective and objective influences, some of which may ex ercise a certain compulsion, whereas others are entirely under the control of the will.3
a) A degree of compulsion is exerted over each individual, first, by the social conditions and circumstances of the country or race to which he belongs, be they differences of class or caste, or of material means; secondly, by the social posi tion of the family of which he is a member; thirdly, by his own natural talents and inclina tions, which dispose him favorably for certain occupations, and fourthly, by the course and vicis situdes of his life. The latter, while they no doubt have a certain compelling force, are still subject to the guidance of Providence, that is, the
2 St. Ambrose says (De Offic., 1. aequalemque se iudicem sui prae-
I, c. 44): "Unusquisque suum in- beat, ut bonis intcndat, vitia decli-
genium noverit, et ad id se applied, net." (Migne, P. L., XVI, 87). quod sibi aptum elegerit; itaque qui 3 Job XII, 10; Ps XXXVI, 23;
sequatur, prius consideret. Noverit Prov. XVI, 33; XX, 24; Wisd. VII,
bena sna, sed etiam vitia cognoscat, 16; Acts XVTI, 28; Rom. XI, 36.
ii4 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
Will and Wisdom of God, who is both infinitely wise and infinitely good. "Man proposeth, but God disposeth, and the way of a man is not his." 4 Free-will and moral responsibility are never en tirely destroyed by what is commonly known as milieu. Every man, even he who has his voca tion practically pointed out to him by circum stances of birth or parentage, is obliged to give his interior consent, and no one may be forced into a vocation against his better knowledge or will. Such external and objective factors as birth, parental commands or wishes, and that which thoughtless men call chance, sometimes contain valuable indications in regard to a man's vocation, but they should not be allowed exclu sively to determine his final decision.
This is true especially of the vocation to the priesthood and the religious life. Foolish parents sometimes com pel their children to embrace the one or other of these im portant states by undue suasion, nay even by direct threats. As the final choice is generally not made before the individual has attained a somewhat advanced age, the fear of offending parents (timor reverentialis} cannot exert so strong an influence as to neutralize free-will. The liberty of choice is indeed rendered difficult, — not, however, from without, but from within, and hence the excuse, "I was forced into this state of life" is irrelevant.
4 Thomas a Kempis, De Imit. in homine via eius." (Ed. Pohl, II, Christi, I, c. 19: "Nam homo pro- 33). ponit, sed Deus disponit; nee est
CHOICE OF A VOCATION 115
b) Of the rules to be observed in the choice of a vocation, the first and most important is that the salvation of the soul must outweigh all other considerations. It would be as wrong, there fore, to try to work out one's salvation without regard to others, as to devote oneself entirely to their well-being, regardless of the fate of one's own soul.
Secondarily, and as a matter of considerably less importance, regard may be had for temporal advantages and the common welfare of society. Time contains the germs of eternity, and what ever we do for our fellowmen is apt, one way or another, to affect their eternal destiny. Hence it is forbidden to choose a vocation that is posi tively immoral or sinful in itself, as, e. g., to be a slave-trader or a pirate, but it is not forbidden to choose an occupation which does not redound to the immediate and tangible benefit of society, as, e. g., that of a hermit or member of a contem plative order. Man lives not by bread alone, but he has spiritual and moral needs, and prayer coupled with heroic renunciation is of great social and ethical value, as any one can see who will study the immense benefits conferred upon hu manity by the Mendicant Orders.5
6 Cfr. St. Thomas Aquinas, Sum- 1899) condemning "Americanism,"
ma Theologica, 23. 2ae, qu. 190 sqq. in which the Pontiff says: "Quam
and the Apostolic Letter of Leo hi [ordines religiosi] etiant praeclare
XIII to Cardinal Gibbons (Jan. 22, de hominvm soviet ate nteruerint,
ii6 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
Catholic moral science, as such, makes no distinction between higher and lower states of life, or between hon orable and dishonorable occupations, but, accepting the differences existing in society, both ecclesiastical and civil, commands every man to preserve the constituted order and to refrain from breaking down, without sufficient cause, the barriers that separate the different classes. Let no one be ashamed of the class to which he belongs or the occupation in which he is engaged, but let all remember that the Divine Founder of Christi anity chose to sojourn upon earth "in the form of a serv ant." 6
c) Besides the fundamental principles stated above, a man when choosing a vocation should have some knowledge of his own character and the work for which he is fitted. To acquire this knowledge is a strict duty. Unless a man knows his own character and has an earnest desire to save his soul, he will not be able to select the vo cation for which he is destined, and unless he has previously familiarized himself with the obliga tions and difficulties of that vocation, he is likely to experience grievous disappointment.
mereant, ii norunt profecto qui, tind Aufsatze, Vol. II, Ratisbon
quid ad placandum conciliandum- 1840; M. Heimbucher, Die Orden
que Numen posset deprecatio iusti und Kongregationem der hath.
assidua (Jas. V, 16) minims ig- Kirche, 3 vols., 2nd ed., Paderborn
norant, ea maxime quae cum af~ 1907-08. — On vocation to the re-
fiictatione corporis coniuncta est." ligious life cfr. M. J. Scott, S.J.,
— On the work of the religious Or- Convent Life: The Meaning of a Re-
ders see Montalembert, The Monks ligious Vocation. New York 1919. of the West, English translation, 6 Phil. II, 6 sq.— Cfr. Pohle-
witH »n introduction by Cardinal Preuss, Christology, 3rd ed., St.
Jasquet, 6 vols., 1896. See also F. Louis 1919, pp. 95 sqq. A. Mohler, Gesammelte Schriften
CHOICE OF A VOCATION 117
Let it be further borne in mind that all voca tions have two features in common, namely, work and self-denial, though not, of course, in the same degree. This is another reason why every man who is about to select his vocation, should en deavor to ascertain the will of God concerning himself, and then set to work to obey it. The means by which this may best be accomplished are mature deliberation at a time when the mind is calm and undisturbed, reading good books, con sulting prudent and experienced advisers, and, above all, praying for light and grace from above.
READINGS.— J. B. Krier, Der Beruf, 4th ed., Freiburg 1909.— Berthier, Christian Life and Vocation, New York 1897. — A. Ver- meersch, S.J., De Vocatione Religiosa et Sacerdotali, Bruges 1903 (Engl. tr. by Kempf, St. Louis 1925). — Hettinger-Stepka, Timothy, St. Louis 1912, pp. i sqq., 20 sqq., 34 sqq., 40 sqq. — Jos. Lahitton, La Vocation Sacerdotale, Paris 1909. — A. Mulders, La Vocation Sacerdotale, Bruges 1925. — J. Mausbach, Altchrist- liche und moderne Gedanken uber Frauenberuf, Miinchen- Gljadbach 1906, pp. 93 sqq. — Bernard Ward, The Priestly Vocation, London 1918.' — H. Davis, S.J., "Religious Vocation," in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record, 54th year (1918), Nos. 608 sqq.— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., Innsbruck 1914, pp. 77 sq. — Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 635 sq.— A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 362 sqq. — Damanet, Choice of a State of Life, Dublin 1880.— M. J. Scott, S.J., Convent Life: The Meaning of a Religious Vocation, New York 1919. — J. Goettsberger in Einfiihrung in das' Studium der Kath. The- ologie, Munich 1921, pp. 7-14. — Chs. A. Bruehl in the Homtietic and Pastoral Review, Aug., 1924, Vol. XXIV, No. n, pp. 1121- 1128.
SECTION 2
FAITHFUL PERSEVERANCE IN THE CHOSEN VOCATION
i. Once a man has chosen his vocation, he should persevere in it to the best of his ability and comply faithfully with the obligations which it imposes.1
We do not mean to insinuate that a change of vocation is never permissible or advisable. We merely wish to lay down the general rule that frequent changes of vocation, or any change not dictated by reasonable and sufficient motives, is unjustifiable from the moral viewpoint.2 Doubts may and often do arise with regard to the voca tion chosen, and if feelings of disgust with its duties and obligations cannot be entirely sup pressed, they should be regarded as temptations and vigorously combatted. Even when one has a well-founded fear (dubium prudens) that he may not be able to attain his eternal salvation or perform his allotted share for the welfare of so ciety in the vocation he has selected, he should, if
1 Cfr. Matt. XXV, 14 sqq. (par- 2 Cfr. i Cor. VII, 17 sqq.
able of the talents); Eph. IV, i sqq.; Acts XX, 18 sqq.
118
CHOICE OF A VOCATION 119
the choice is irrevocable (as in the case of a priest), repel all thoughts of change and make a virtue of necessity,3 nay, try to recognize in that necessity the will of God. Constant brooding over a past or future change of vocation is apt to paralyze a man's moral power and to destroy the joy with which he ought to go about his duties, whereas a firm resolution to do one's best in all circumstances, coupled with unremitting prayer, invariably brings down the grace of God and often enables a man to perform even the seemingly impossible.
A mere change of occupation may, of course, be made for any good and sufficient reason, pro vided that no positive duty is violated thereby and the individual is satisfied that he is called to some other state of life.
He who, though in lowly station, fills his place with honor, is better off, socially and morally, than he who seeks a higher vocation for which he is not fitted. Talent and energy find a suitable field of activity in every state, and if properly applied, will yield personal satisfaction and social benefit.
In laying down this principle we do not, however, condemn those exceptional natures who break through the barriers of an humble station and aspire to higher tasks for which they feel themselves qualified. Nor do we believe in confining people too rigidly to classes or castes. The caste system, in particular, is more or
3 Cfr. St. Jerome, Epist., 54 (a/. 10), n. 6.
120 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
less immoral. No class as such should be excluded from social honors and privileges. Every man is entitled to the advantages of civilization and culture, and where equal opportunities are open to all, we usually find that ability or intellectual power joined to moral probity succeeds in winning a fruitful sphere of activity. We hear much about an aristocracy of birth in Europe and an aristocracy of wealth in America ; but the only true aristocracy is the aristocracy of character and talent.4
The security of those in humble station finds graphic expression in the old Latin saying, "Procul a love, procul a fulmine." Everywhere and always fidelity to duty ranks above mere success.5 "It is all the same," says Lessing, "how an honest man makes his living, whether he splits wood or pilots the ship of State ; what really mat ters, in his inmost conscience, is not the thought how useful he is, but to what extent he is willing to make himself useful." A man's true worth consists in faith fully endeavoring to fulfil his appointed task, whatever it may be ; and in this all may enjoy equality, regardless of the existing differences of vocation and occupation.
4 F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch "Malo successum mihi quam fidem
der Moraltheologie, pp. 683 sq deesse." — IDEM, Ep., 14, 16: "Con-
6 Cfr. Acts XX, 18 sqq.; XXI, silium omnium rerum sapiens, non
13; Phil. II, 17. — Seneca, Ep., 25, a: exitum spectat."
SECTION 3
SINS AGAINST VOCATION
There are various ways in which a man may sin against his vocation.
i. He injures himself and society if he neglects to seize the opportunity of securing a living, or to acquire the necessary facilities by developing his bodily and mental talents, or to prepare him self for what he perceives to be his vocation by the conscientious employment of his time and all available means of training.
The first and greatest sin one can commit against one's vocation, therefore, is to refuse to choose a vocation. This sounds paradoxical, but is literally true nevertheless. Failure to choose a vocation, when inexcusable, is a sign of sloth, and sloth, as we all know, is the source of in numerable sins. Tramping and vagabondage not only entail grave social dangers, but their vic tims as a rule deteriorate morally.
Any man who, without a reasonable excuse, fails to labor in some legitimate occupation, whether intellectual or physical, is useless to so ciety, and forfeits the right to the benefits it con fers upon its members. "If any man will not
121
122 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
work, neither let him eat," says the Apostle,1 and "in the Lord Jesus Christ" he charges and ex horts those who "do no work but interfere with others," to "earn the food they eat," lest they be excluded from intercourse with their brethren.2
2. A man also sins against his vocation if he undertakes too many things or fails to make him self useful, physically or intellectually, to himself or to the community in which he lives, either be cause he is dissatisfied with what society offers him in return for his labor, or because a wrong dis position moves him to seek nothing but pleasure.
3. Another grievous sin against vocation is the pursuit of purely temporal rewards without re gard to the supernatural. To lead a life de voted entirely to mundane ambitions and ma terial gain degrades man to the level of the brute. "A voluptuous life," says the Angelic Doctor, "seeks its end in bodily pleasure, a tend ency which is common to us and the beasts, and hence, in the words of the Philosopher [Aris totle], such a life is bestial." 3 Unprofitable like the beast's is the life of him who has no super natural faith, for faith is the foundation of vocation, and without it no one can pursue his course with joy and spiritual profit.
12 Thess. Ill, 10 sqq.; cfr. i 22 Thess. Ill, 3, 10-12.
Thess. IV, ii.— St. Thomas, Sum- 3 Summa Theol., za 2&c, qu. 179,
ma Theol., 23 2ae, qu. 187, art. 5, art. 2, ad i : "Vita voluptuosa . . .
ad 2: "Non otiose vivit, qui quali- est vita bestialis." tercunque vtiliter vivit."
CHOICE OF A VOCATION 123
Work performed in the spirit of faith and prayer is like the gold standard, says Bishop Keppler ; it has a fixed, nay an eternal value. "Thus earthly deeds assume heavenly worth ; they become treasures which moths and rust cannot consume, nor thieves dig up and steal; they produce everlasting merits which give title to a crown. Performed for the honor of God and with the help of the divine power of grace, they become copies and images of God's omnipotent activity." *
READINGS. — F. H. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, Freiburg 1878, pp. 683 sq— Fr. Probst, Kath. Moraltheologie, Vol. II, 2nd ed., pp. 389 sqq., Tubingen 1853.— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. II, pp. 77 sqq.— J. Kearney, C. S. Sp., "Vocation : Its Essential Elements," in the Irish Ecclesiastical Record, No. 650 (Feb., 1922), pp. 165 sqq.
4 P. W. von Keppler, More Joy, Louis 1914, PP- 229 sqq.— Cfr. Pi. tr. by Jos. McSorley, C.S.P., St. CXXVI, i; i Cor. Ill, 7.
CHAPTER II
THE DUTY OF LABOR
Labor is a natural necessity, a moral obligation, and a religious duty. We shall treat it in as many sections, adding a fourth on recreation or rest, which is the necessary correlative of labor.
124
SECTION i
LABOR AS A NATURAL NECESSITY
i. Labor is, first of all, a natural necessity. Nature compels man to labor for the necessary means of subsistence. Since the fall of our first parents, the earth, which is the ultimate source of all things required for the support of the hu man race, of itself bears nothing- but thorns and thistles, and man is compelled to till the soil in the sweat of his brow to make it yield the products he needs. "With labor and toil thou shalt eat thereof all the days of thy life." 1 "The soul of him that laboreth, laboreth for himself, because his mouth hath obliged him to it." 2
"Manual labor," says St. Thomas, "has a four fold purpose. The first and principal one is to procure food, wherefore the first man was told: 'In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.' 8 . . . Therefore, since manual labor is ordained for the obtaining of sustenance, it falls under the necessity of precept, because it is necessary to at tain that end. For that which is ordained to wards an end, derives necessity from that end,
i Gen. Ill, 17 sqq. a Gen. Ill, 19.
aProv. XVI, 26.
125
126 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
i. e., it is necessary in proportion as the end can not be attained without it. Consequently, he who has no living from some other source, is obliged to perform manual labor, no matter what his position may be." 4
Having in view both the natural and the eco nomic aspect of labor, we can truly say that the more industriously men work, the more abundant are the means of sustenance and enjoyment at their disposal, and the less danger there is of \vant.
2. As man consists of body and soul, his labor is either bodily or mental, or perhaps it would be more correct to say, it is both bodily and mental; for as a rule the two occur in combina tion, though one or the other may, and usually does, predominate. Moreover, nearly every kind of bodily labor is more or less planned and di rected by the will and the intellect; — by the will, because all labor involves the overcoming of dif ficulties; by the intellect, because the proper util ization of the materials and powers furnished by nature requires a preliminary knowledge. Pro ductive labor is that which creates, conserves,
4 Summa TheoL, 23 aae, qu. 187, praecepti, prout est necessarius ad
art. 3: "Labor manualis ad quat- talent finem; quod enim ordinatur ad
tuor ordinatur. Primo quidem et finem, a fine necessitate™ habet, ut
principaliter ad victum quaerendum, scilicet intantum sit necessarium,
unde et primo homini dictum est: inquantum finis sine eo esse non
'In sudore vultus tui vesceris pane potest. Et idea, qui non habet ali-
tuo.' . . . Secundum ergo quod la- unde unde vivere possit, tenetur ma-
bor manualis ordinatur ad victum nibus operari cuiuscunque sit con-
quaerendum cadit sub necessitate ditionit."
LABOR A NATURAL NECESSITY 127
acquires or transfers material or economic goods, and likewise that which produces, pre serves, communicates or spreads personal or social values, as religious and moral convic tions or endeavors, useful knowledge or fa cilities, intellectual and spiritual culture, political order and security, or any other requisites of intellectual and physical well-being.5 While the work of some classes of men, e. g., physicians, teachers, priests, authors, etc., does not pro duce material goods, it may be truly said to be productive in a mediate and indirect way, because the creation, acquisition, and preservation of eco nomic values depends largely on personal and so cial goods. "He who writes a book," in the words of a modern author, "serves the intellect, and by serving the intellect, serves the world." Thus, in the natural or economic sense, labor may be denned as the conscious and purposeful appli cation of man's faculties with a view to produc ing those things which are necessary or useful for sustaining life.
6 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., norum, per opus manuum omnis ope-
23 2ae, qu. 187, art. 3: "Sciendum ratio intellegitur, de qua aliquis
tamen, quod sub opere manuali in- victum licite potest lucrari." —
telleguntuf omnia humana officia, Ibid., qu. 100, art. 3, ad 3: "Ille
ex quibus homines licite victum lu- qui habet scientiam et non suscepit
crantur, sire manibus sire pedi- cum hoc ofUcium, ex quo obligetur
bus sive lingua fiant. Vigiles enim aliis usum scientiae impendere,
et atrsores et alii huiusmodi de licite potest pretium suae doctrinae
suo labore viventes intelleguntur vel consilii accipere, non quasi
de operibus manuum vivere, Quia veritatem aut scientiam vendens,
enim manus est organum orga- sed quasi operas suas locans."
128 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
The line of demarcation between work and play is not always easy to draw ; nevertheless it exists and must be duly attended to.
Charles S. Devas,6 because of the invidious and mis leading character of the term "unproductive," prefers to divide labor into industrial and non-industrial, according as its end is, or is not, the preparation of material goods or the production of wealth. The terms industrial and non-industrial are also used by Dr. H. Sidgwick 7 and correspond substantially with Prof. Nicholson's "material production" and "immaterial production." The moralist may disregard this controversy as irrelevant.
3. The welfare of the individual as well as that of society depends not only on the amount of labor performed, but likewise on its proper dis tribution among the different individuals and classes that constitute the community, on the way in which the laboring men are treated, and on the perfection of the mechanical means employed, such as tools, machinery, power, and on the prog ress made in industry, trade, and commerce. A higher standard of living with less expenditure of labor is to-day the goal of all classes of work ers, including the farmer.
The necessity of working for a living entails the obligation of employing labor efficiently and economically, so as to make it as fruitful and re-
6 Political Economy, 3rd ed., 7 The Principles of Political
London 1917, pp. 15 sqq. Economy, p. 265, London 1883.
LABOR A NATURAL NECESSITY 129
munerative as possible and to satisfy not only the elementary natural needs of man, but likewise his legitimate craving for relaxation.8
Of the "right to work" we shall treat in the fifth vol ume of this Handbook.9
READINGS. — St. Thomas, Sumnta Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 187, art. 3. — Leo XIII, Encyclical "Rerum Novarum," May 15, 1891 (The Pope and the People, London 1912, pp. 188 sqq.) — E. Genicot, Theologiae Moralis Institutiones, 4th ed., Louvain 1902, Vol. I, n. 365. — S. Weber, Evangelium und Arbeit, Freiburg 1898. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., Innsbruck 1914, pp. 79 sqq.
8 Cfr. F. Schaffle, Kapitalismus lagen, and ed., Freiburg 1895. vnd Sosialismus, 2nd ed., Tubin- » See on this subject J. E. Ross,
gen 1878; G. Ratzinger, Die Volks- C. S. P., The Right to Work, New
•wirtschaft in ihren sittlichen Grund- York, 1918.
SECTION 2
LABOR AS A MORAL OBLIGATION
i. Labor is not only a natural necessity, it is also a moral obligation.1
Labor was enjoined upon our first parents in Paradise as the primary condition and chief means of moral progress and perfection. Man has to labor in order to ennoble his nature and to attain sanctification. Labor should be his very breath and life. It preserves his bodily and mental health; it steels and fortifies his will; it makes him contented and happy. Even when the tangible products do not seem to correspond to the energy expended, the right sort of work has an intrinsic ideal value which makes it worth while, whereas idleness and sloth entail spiritual death and at the same time are a gross violation of the duty which the individual owes to society ; for, as St. Paul says, "If any man will not work, neither let him eat." z
2. To toil faithfully and assiduously in one's
1 Job V, 7. — Cfr. St. Thomas, cadit sub necessitate praecepti se-
Summa Theol., 23 aae, qu. 187, cundum se consideratum, quia tnultis
art. 3: "Secundo [labor manu- aliis modis potest vel caro macerari
alts'] ordinatur ad tollendum otium, vel etiam otium tolli, quam per
ex quo multa mala oriuntur. . . . opus manuale." Secundum autem quod opus ma- 22 Thess. Ill, 10; cfr. A. Win-
nitale ordinatur ad otium tollendum terstein, Die christliche Lehre vont
vel ad corporis macerationem, non Erdengut, pp. 157 sqq. 130
LABOR A MORAL OBLIGATION 131
chosen vocation is to obey a divine command. Labor spells life; idleness, death. Distaste for labor has its source in repugnance to duty and involves contempt of the divine commandments which bind society together. There can be no doubt that labor brings its own reward. No matter how disagreeable any particular task or occupation may seem at first, after a while it be comes pleasant, as a bitter medicine grows sweet to the taste. Labor is a great blessing, and he who voluntarily renounces its benefits is a fool.
"Honor for every kind of work! In every man's labor a human will, an immortal soul, externalizes itself, a man's heart is throbbing and a man's blood is circulat ing. All work is capable of being spiritualized and en nobled to the highest degree. We must come at last to recognize that it is a sin against both culture and art for the 'upper' classes to brand as vulgar and dishonorable whole groups of occupations which are necessary, and in fact indispensable, in the human household. Those per sons should rather regard themselves as under personal obligations to all who perform menial offices and services. 'If there were nobody to perform the menial tasks, the higher culture could not exist.' " 3
READINGS. — See the authorities cited on page 129, and in ad dition: J. G. Uhlhorn, Die Arbeit im Lichte des Evangeliums betrachtet, Bremen 1877.— K. Eger, Die Anschauungen Luthers vom Beruf, Giessen 1900.— A. Sabatier, L'Eglise et le Travail Manuel, Paris 1895.— A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., Freiburg 1910, pp. 410 sq.
3 P. W. von Keppler, More Joy, tr. by J. McSorley, C.S.P., St. Louis, 1914, p. 228.
SECTION 3
LABOR AS A RELIGIOUS DUTY
i. Labor would have been a duty even in the pure state of nature, but it has become absolutely necessary, and sacred as well, since the fall of our first parents. For now it is also a punish ment and a means of penance, nay, more than that, — a means of atonement and redemption.1 St. Thomas says: "Thirdly, [manual labor] is ordained for the repression of concupiscence, in- as much as by it the body is mortified.2 . . . The Apostle prescribes manual labor, first, to avoid theft ; 3 secondly, as an antidote to covetousness ; 4 third, against dishonest transactions by means of which some men make a living." 5
iGen. Ill, 17-19.— Cfr. St. Au- 52 Thess. Ill, 10 sq. The quo-
gustine, De Gen. ad Lit., \. VIII, tation is from the Summa Theol.,
c. 8, n. 15: "Quidquid deliciarum 23 aae, qu. 187, art. 3: "Tertio
habet agricultura, tune utique [labor mattualis] ordinatur ad
longe amplins erat, quando nihil concupiscentiae refrenationem, in
accidebat adverse vel terra vel quantum per hoc maceratur cor-
caelo, Non enim erat laboris af- pus. . . . Nam primo quidem
flictio, sed exhilaratio voluntatis, praecipit Apostotus opus manuale
quum ea, qitae Deus creavcrat, hu- ad vitandiim furtum, secundum ad
mani operis adiutorio laetius fera- vitandam cupiditatem alienarum re-
ciusque provenirent." (Migne, P. L., rum, tertio ad eritanda turpia ne-
XXXIV, 379). gotia, ex quibus aliqui victum ac-
2 2 Cor. VI, 5. quirunt."—Cfr. M. Hausherr, Die
3 Eph. IV, 28. geheiligte Handarbeit, Mayence 1873.
4 i Thess. IV, ii.
132
LABOR A RELIGIOUS DUTY 133
Christ Himself was the son of a carpenter.6 He bore the burdens of an humble day laborer as part of His great work of sacrifice and atone ment and by His example showed men how to sanctify and ennoble their daily task. The faithful Christian, therefore, labors not only to earn his bread, to provide for his family, to heap up riches, to gain the means of enjoyment, or because he prefers activity to idleness, but mainly for the reason that labor is a sacred duty which he owes to God, to himself, and to his fel- lowmen. He works for the honor and glory of God, for the sanctification of his own soul, and for the relief of his needy neighbors.7
The last-mentioned point is thus explained by St. Thomas: "In the fourth place [manual la bor] is ordained for the giving of alms.8 ... In this respect it does not, however, fall under the necessity of precept, except where one is under strict obligation to give alms and can obtain the means of succoring the poor from no other source. In that case all men, religious as well as seculars, are obliged to perform manual labor." 9
Radulphus Ardens, a famous theologian and
6 Matth. XIII, 55; Mark VI, 3; faciendas, non cadit sub necessi- cfr. John IV, 34; V, 38; VIII, 29. tate praecepti, nisi forte in aliquo
7 Acts XX, 35; Eph. IV, 28. casu, in quo ex necessitate aliquis
8 Eph. IV, 28. eleemosynas facere teneretnr et
9 Summa Theol., 23. aae, qu. 187, non posset alias habere, unde pau- art. 3: "Quarto [labor manualis] peribus subveniret, in quo casu ob- ordinatur ad eleemosynas facien- ligarentur similiter religiosi et ilas. . . . Inquantum vero opus saeculares ad opera manualia ex- mnnualf ordinatur ad eleemosynas sequenda,"
134 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
preacher of the twelfth century,10 tersely sums up the benefits of labor as follows: It destroys vice, nourishes virtue, provides the necessaries of life, and affords the means of giving alms.11
It was a grand and thoroughly Christian idea, which found expression throughout the Middle Ages, that man shall not regard his work and earnings, no matter how modest, selfishly, but always in relation to his neighbor. The Pauline passage embodying this thought: "Let him labor, working with his hands the thing which is good, that he may have something to give to him that suffereth need," 12 was made the basis of a number of ancient monastic rules, which we know from the writings of St. Benedict of Aniane.13
Intimately related to this idea are two others, namely, (i) that labor is a duty which man owes to God, and (2) that it is a necessary means of developing the higher, spiritual side of his nature. Together these three con cepts acted as a ferment in the conservative social and economic life of the Middle Ages. The idea that the living to which one is entitled should correspond to one's social position, was thus safeguarded against undue exaggeration. A man was permitted to earn more than he required for himself and his dependents, but only on condition that he took good care of his soul, made becom ing sacrifices to God, gave alms to the poor, and faithfully performed all his duties to society.14
lOCfr. M. Grabmann, Geschichte 12 Eph. IV, 28.
der scholastischen Methode, Vol. I, 13 On Benedict of Aniane see
Freiburg 1909, pp. 246 sqq. J. P. Kirsch in the Catholic En-
11 Horn., 1. II, c. 32 (Migne, cyclopedia, Vol. II, p. 467.
P. L., CLV, 1615): "Vitia de- 14 Cfr. F. Schaub, Der Kampf
struit, virtutes nutrit, necessaria gegen den Zinswucher, Freiburg
parat, eleemosynam donat." I9°5. PP- J6 sq.
LABOR A RELIGIOUS DUTY 135
"Nothing hinders us from raising our daily work to the higher Christian plane of dignity and value. Hence there should no longer be question of compulsory labor; the loud, cheerful 'aye' of a man perfectly willing to work prevails over the 'nay' of indolent, weary nature. Thus a man becomes free, even if born in labor's chains. He determines the kind and value of his work; and he ap propriates its best fruit, the absolutely sure pay which no one can lessen. With his work he is serving not men, not force, nor necessity, nor a gloomy fate, nor a ma chine, nor the owner of a machine, but the Overlord of all work, his God and Lord and Saviour Christ Jesus." "So we learn to prize and honor and love work. We know that we never labor in vain, that despite all human weakness, misery, and imperfection, our work has a value. We know how much we owe to work, and what a benefit is a great serious life-task; how work steels the will, trains the faculties, strengthens the whole man ; how external labor helps us in our inner work with ourselves, promoting moral purity, mental breadth and depth. Often we profit as much by failure as by success, — some times even more. In a great sorrow or a terrible crisis, we find that work has a wonderful power of healing. When work is completed, we enjoy inner peace, a pleasant fatigue. And not only do we rejoice after work, but we learn to be joyful during our work, and even to enjoy the work itself. That is the true joy of work ; and sometimes it breaks out in song. 'Give me the man who sings while at work,' says Carlyle." 15
16 Bishop Keppler, op. cit., pp. 229 the man whom His Father made to
sq. A modern poet describes Jesus sing at work. He looks in vain,
going through a great factory, not (See Catholic Fortnightly Review,
impressed by its marvellous ma- St. Louis, Mo., Vol. XXV (1918),
chinery, its ipeed, its skill, but No. 23. " looking for His singing-man," —
SECTION 4
MANUAL AND INTELLECTUAL LABOR, AND RECREATION
i. Rest or recreation follows labor as inevit ably as day follows night or summer follows winter. To the duty of labor, accordingly, there corresponds the right to rest and recreation, — the right to enjoy an earthly Sabbath here below and the hope of a heavenly Sabbath in the world beyond.1
According to the teaching of Revelation there exists the right and, under certain circumstances, the duty of performing mental or spiritual labor, consisting in prayer, study, or contemplation of the eternal truths.2
The Schoolmen divided life into the active and the contemplative.3 "All endeavors of hu man activity," says, e. g., St. Thomas, "if they are ordained towards the necessity of the pres-
1 Gen. II, 2; Ex. XX, n; Apoc. logica, 23. aae, qu. 179, art. i: XIV, 13. "Quia quidam homines praecipue
2 Luke X, 38-42. — Cfr. St. Je- intendunt contemplation veritatis, rome, Epist., XIV (a/. I), n. 10: quidam •vero intendunt principali- "Labore terreris? At nemo athleta ter exterioribus actionibus, inde est IC'hristi] sine sudore coronatur." quod vita hominis convenienter di- (Migne, P. L., XXII, 354). viditur per activam et contempla-
3 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theo- tivam."
THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE 137
ent life according to right reason, pertain to the active life, which provides for the necessities of the present by duly disposed actions, . . . whereas those human endeavors which are or dained towards the consideration of truth, belong to the contemplative life." 4
The essential difference between the active and the contemplative life has been frequently lost sight of, even by Catholics. Only a few years ago Pope Leo XIII found it necessary to recall the traditional Catholic teaching on this point in a letter to Cardinal Gibbons.5
Labor, both bodily and mental, if it is not followed by sufficient rest, will in course of time cause nervous exhaustion (neurasthenia), which with its attendant disorders is apt to prove hered itary. The restless pursuit of wealth is ex pressly condemned by our Lord in the famous passage : "What doth it profit a man if he gain the whole world, and suffer the loss of his own soul?"6
The intellectual and the material aspects of human labor as a factor in the advancement of civilization and culture are aptly summarized in
4 Ibid., art. 2, ad 3 : "Omnia mana vero studio, quae ordinantur
studia humanarum actionum, si or- ad considerationem veritatis, perti-
dinentur ad necessitatem praesentis rtent ad vitam contemplativam." vitae secundum rationem rectam, 6 "Testem benevolentiae," Jan. 22,
pertinent ad vitam activam, quae 1899. per ordinatas actiones consulit ne- 8 Matth. XVI, 26.
cessitati vitae praestntis, . . . hit-
138 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
the ancient Benedictine adage : "Ora et labora — Pray and work !" 7
The duty of labor, however, must not be urged beyond reasonable limits. A man who retires from business after years of hard work to rest and prepare for death, is not to be accused of idleness. Man owes to his fellowmen, present and future, not his whole being, but only a portion of his power to work. No matter how important his position in life, the individual is never indis pensable, but his labor is merged in the collec tive toil of the race. Work is measured by hours and days, and may cease for hours and days with out perceptibly retarding the progress of society. Then again, there are cases in which it is better for a man, especially one advanced in years, to step aside than to cling to a position for which he is no longer fit.8
2. There are some species of human activity which afford employment to many thousands, yet do not deserve the noble name of labor. To this class of occupations, which do not pro duce, but merely consume and destroy, and batten on the financial and moral ruin of men, belong usury, prostitution, gambling in "futures," 9 etc.
7 See Anonymus, Die Regel des 9 On gambling in "futures" see hi. Benedikt, pp. 345 sqq. Th. Slater, S.J., Questions of Moral
8 Cfr. F. X. Linsenmann, Lehr- Theology, New York 1915, pp. 154 bjic/i def Moraltheologie, p. 287. »qq.
MANUAL LABOR 139
With these Special Moral Theology deals in con nection with economics.10
There is another kind of (predominantly intel lectual) labor which is destructive and therefore worse than useless. It is the writing and pub lishing of books, magazines, and newspapers that attack or undermine faith and morals.
To adjust the relative claims of manual and intellectual labor is not an easy task. The man who makes his living by the work of his hands, finds it hard to understand that mental labor can be quite as exhausting as physical exer tion,11 whereas the man engaged in purely mental work is apt to underestimate the hardships of the physical toiler. This lack of mutual understanding and sympathy leads to envy on the one and undue pride on the other side and frequently gives rise to unjust judgments on both.
3. Though a few ancient writers, like Hesiod, extolled manual labor as the source of well-being, or, like Homer, spoke of it with respect,12 pagan antiquity for the most part 'held it in contempt.13 Christianity restored it to honor and (respec tability. The Gospel emphasized the universal
10 See Vol. V of this Handbook. wrote my thoughts, without great
11 Shelley speaks of the "agony pain, pain reaching to the body as and sweat of intellectual travail." well as to the mind. It has mad« Newman says that "every book I me feel practically that labor 'm have written . . . has been a sort of sudore vultus sui' is the lot of man." operation, the distress has been so (Ibid., p. 637.)
great." (Ward's Life of Newman, 12 Cfr. M. Heinze, Dtr Eudd-
I, 296). And: "The composition monismus in der griechischen Philo-
of a volume is like gestation and sophie, Leipsic 1883, pp. 671 sqq. child-birth. I do not think that I 13 Cfr. Cicero, Dt Officiis, I, c.
ever thought out a question, or 42.
140 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
duty of labor and introduced a spirit of fraternal charity among all classes of people, high and low, learned and ignorant.14 The fact that St. Peter "abode many days in Joppe with one Simon, a tanner," 15 shows that even "unclean" and de spised trades were regarded by the Apostles as honorable. Protestants assert that it is only since the so-called Reformation that ordinary labor has received its due in the Christian Church. This is not true. The two principal ideas which Protes tantism claims for its own, viz.: that labor is a form of prayer, or a sacred office, and that it is a duty which the individual owes to society, were strongly enforced by the Catholic Church all through the Middle Ages.10 Again and again people of all classes were exhorted to labor and warned against idleness.
Bishop Ratherius of Verona ( -f 974) says in a sermon addressed to farmers : "You wish to be a good Chris tian? Well, then, be not only a just but a constant la borer." ir To the artisan he says : "Listen to what is written in Ecclesiasticus XXXVIII, 39,18 in order that you may know that you are able with your labors to offer
14 Cfr. A. Sabatier, L'Eglise et le Bremen 1877; K. Eger, Die An- Travail Manuel, Paris 1895, PP- 24 schauungen Luthers vom Beruf, sqq., 45 sqq., 85 sqq., 211 sqq. ; A. Giessen 1900.
Stockl, Das Christentum und die 17 "Laborator."
grossen Fragen der Gegemuart, is Ecclus. XXXVIII, 39: "But
Vol. I, pp. 169 sqq., Mayence 1879. they shall strengthen the state of
15 Acts IX, 43; X, 6, 17, 32. the world, and their prayers shall
16 Cfr. F. Schaub, Der Kampf be in the work of their craft, 3p- gegen den Zinswucher, p. 15; plying their soul, and searching In also J. G. Uhlhorn, Die Arbeit im the law of the most High." Lichte des Evangeliums betrachtet,
RECREATION 141
God an acceptable prayer of praise." And to the beggar : "Woe to thee if thou art able to work for a living!" With equal insistence the same prelate admonishes poor soldiers and rich burghers to work.19 The Emperor Charlemagne, in 806, forbade his subjects to feed the many idlers who roamed about the country beg ging but unwilling to work. Long before Luther, John Herolt, a famous Dominican preacher of the fifteenth century,20 said in a sermon that whatever a man's pro fession may be, his daily labor is ordained by God and therefore morally good.21 When St. Francis Xavier, on his journey to India, was urged to employ a servant be cause it was beneath his dignity as Apostolic delegate to wash his clothes and cook his food, he replied : "As long as I have hands and feet, I will allow no one to serve me, for there is but one thing that is unworthy of man, and that is sin." 22
With recreation we have already dealt in the first part of this volume,23 and here will only add that all forms of recreation are licit, provided they do not violate the laws of modesty and chastity, and are rightly ordered according to time, place, duration, and manner. Athletic sports are especially to be recommended, within proper limits, as they help to keep a sound mind in a healthy body, arid, in the words of Father
1» Praeloquia, 1. I, tit. 1-3, 17, Landmann, Das Predigtwesen in
19 (Migne, P. L., CXXXVI, 149 li'estfalen, Minister 1906, pp. 179
sqq., 179, 188). sq. ; K. Braun, Die kath. Predigt
20 He died in 1468. vitihrend der Jahre 1450-1650, Wurz-
21 See N. Paulus, "Luther und burg 1904, pp. 90 sqq., 100 sq. der Beruf in neuester Beleuch- 22 F. X. Brou, Saint Frangois tung," in the Katholik, Mayence, Xavier, Paris, Vol. I, 1915. 1902, Vol. I, pp. 327 sqq. Cfr. F. 23 Supra, pp. 35 sqq.
142 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
Noldin, are apt to serve not only the principal object of recreation, as such, but to aid in preserv ing and augmenting the virtues of chastity and temperance. Hence there is no reason why pas tors of souls should condemn clubs and associa tions formed for the practice of wholesome sports, but there is every reason why they should pro mote such and endeavor to have them conducted in accordance with the rules of probity and re ligion.24
Having dealt with labor, we pass by a natural transition to its product, i. e., property. This, too, may be twofold, material or ideal. Among ideal goods the most valuable is honor.
READINGS. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., Innsbruck 1914, p. 76.— F. A. Gopfert, Moraltheolo- gie, Vol. II, 6th ed., pp. 12 sq., Paderborn 1909. — J. E. Ross, C.S.P., Christian Ethics, New York 1919, pp. 177 sq., 329 sq.
24 Noldin, Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. II, p. 76.
CHAPTER III
RIGHT AND DUTY OF ACQUIRING AND POSSESSING PROPERTY
I. From the duty of labor flows the right of property or ownership, i. e., the right to acquire, hold, and dispose freely of the material fruits of labor, that is to say, the goods which are the result of man's individual and personal endeavor.
The right to acquire and possess property is by no means, as the Communists and Socialists maintain, a fictitious claim based on robbery and injustice,1 but corresponds to the natural duty of labor from which it arises, and therefore is a natural right.
Under certain conditions the acquisition of a limited amount of earthly goods even becomes a duty.2 The supreme, though not the sole, title of ownership is labor.
1 Cfr. V. Cathrein, S.J., Social- competunt homini, quorum union est ism: Its Theoretical Basis and potestas procurandi et dispensandi, Practical Application, tr. and adapt- et quantum ad hoc licitum est quod ed to conditions in the United homo propria possideat. Est etiam States by V. Gettelmann, S.J., New necessarium ad humanam vitam York 1904. propter tria: primo quidem, quia
2 Gen. Ill, 19; Eccles. V, 17; 2 magis sollicitus est unusquisque ad Thess. Ill, 10. — Cfr. St. Thomas, procurandum aliquid, quod sibi soli Sumtna Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 66, art. competit, quam id quod est com- a: "Circa rem exteriorem duo mune omnium vel multorum, quia
143
144 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
Private ownership is a wonderful institution, to which humanity owes the development of trade, commerce, and industry, nay whatever deter mines the differences between civilized man and the savage. Without it labor would languish because the laborer would no longer be sure of the product of his industry. The surer he feels that he is toiling for himself and his own, rather than for strangers, the greater the persistency and diligence which he will bestow upon his work. Private ownership safeguards the future, as far as this is humanly possible, and without it dili gence and thrift would never increase the movable capital that lends so powerful an impetus to pro duction, nor would the constantly renewed and always laborious work of cultivating the soil in sure to the earth that increase of fertility with out which society would be condemned to endless misery.3
Barely touching the traditional arguments as
unusquisque laborem fugiens relin- J. Kelleher, in what is probably the
quit alteri id quod pertinet ad com- best modern treatise on the subject
mune, sicut accidit in multitudine (Private Ownership, Dublin 1911)
ministrcrum; alio modo, quia ordi- points out (p. 149) that the classi-
natius res humanae tract antur, si cal theologians almost unanimously
singulis imminet propria cura alicu- taught that the division of private
ius rei procurandae; esset autem property does not depend directly
confusio, si quilibet indistincte upon the natural law, but is derived
quaelibet procuraret; tertio quia per from the ius gentium." (Cfr. Ross,
hoc magis pacificus status hominum Christian Eethics, pp. 278 sqq.) conservatur, dum unusquisque re 3 Chas. Perm, Les Lois de la
sua contentus est. Unde videmus, Societe Chretienne, 2 vols., Paris
quod inter eos qui communiter et 1876, especially Vol. I; F. Walter,
ex indiviso aliquid possident, fre- Naturrecht und Politik, Bonn 1863,
quentius iuriga oriuntur." — Father pp. 145 sqq.
RIGHT OF PROPERTY 145
developed, e. g., by St. Thomas, Pope Leo XIII, in his famous Encyclical "Rerum Novarum," bases private ownership on the rational nature of man.
"Every man," he says, "has by nature the right to possess property as his own. This is one of the chief points of distinction between man and the animal creation, for the brute has no power of self-direction, but is gov erned by two main instincts, which keep its powers on the alert, impel it to develop them in a fitting manner, and stimulate and determine it to action without any power of choice. One of these instincts is self-preserva tion, the other, the propagation of the species. Both can attain their purpose by means of things which lie within range ; beyond their verge the brute creation cannot go, for beasts are moved to action by their senses only, and in the special direction which these suggest. But with man it is wholly different. He possesses, on the one hand, the full perfection of the animal being, and hence enjoys, at least as much as the rest of the animal kind, the fruition of things material. But animal nature, however perfect, is far from representing the human being in its completeness, and is in truth but humanity's humble handmaid, made to serve and to obey. It is the mind or reason which is the predominant element in us who are human creatures ; it is this which renders a man human, and distinguishes him essentially and generically from the brute. And on this very account — that man alone among the animal creation is endowed with reason — it must be within his right to possess things not merely for temporary and momentary use, as other living beings do, but to have and to hold them in stable and permanent
146 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
possession; he must have not only things that perish in the user, but those also which, though they have been reduced to use, continue for further use in after time. This becomes still more clearly evident if man's nature be considered a little more deeply. For man, fathoming by his faculty of reason matters without number, and linking the future with the present, becoming, further more, by enlightened forethought, master of his own acts, guides his ways under the eternal law and the power of God, whose providence governs all things. Wherefore it is in his power to exercise his choice not only as to matters that regard his present welfare, but also about those which he deems may be for his advantage in time yet to come. Hence man not only can possess the fruits of the earth, but also the very soil, inasmuch as from the produce of the earth he has to lay by provision for the future. Man's needs do not die out, but recur ; although satisfied to-day, they demand fresh supplies for to-mor row." 4
The Pontiff goes on to show that private own ership was established through individual efforts before the existence of the State, and that it is recognized by history, by civil law, and by divine law.5
It is frequently asserted that the first Chris tians, especially those at Jerusalem, practiced Communism.6 Learned scholars who have in vestigated the question with great care deny that
4 English tr. from The Pope and 5 Cfr. A. C. Breig, Papal Pro-
the People, London 1912, pp. 181 gram of Social Reform, Milwau-
sq. A better tr. in Bolshevism — kee 1913, pp. 14 sqq.
The Remedy, New Haven, Conn., « Cfr. Acts II, 44 sq.; IV, 32-37;
1919, pp. 5 sq. V, 1-4.
RIGHT OF PROPERTY 147
there was Communism in the primitive Church. The early Christians were allowed to keep their property, and if some of them sold it, they did so voluntarily, for the purpose of assisting the poor.7 The most that can be said is that in some sections of the great congregation of Jerusalem there ex isted a sort of religious community of goods.8
Those Church Fathers who are represented as hav ing preached Communism, did not oppose private owner ship, but merely its abuse. The passages quoted from their writings by Socialist authors are largely spuri ous, and those which are genuine prove nothing more than that God did not distribute temporal goods directly among individual men, but gave the earth with its resources to the race at large for the common use of all, so that no one may claim anything as his own as if he had the right to exclude all others absolutely and for ever from its use.9 The Fathers simply wished to express the same truth which St. Thomas in the thirteenth century set forth as follows : "Man may not have exterior things for his own, but as the common property of all, namely in such a way that one readily shares them with others in case of need." 10
There are many Patristic texts which unmistakably as sert the right of private ownership.11 Lactantius defends
7 Cfr. E. Baumgartner, "Der art. 2: "Non debet homo habere Kommunismus ini Urchristentum," res exteriores ut proprias, sed ut in the Innsbruck Zeitschrift ftir communes, ut scilicet de facili ali- kath. Theologie, 1909, pp. 625 sqq. quis eas communicet in necessi-
8 O. Schilling, Reichtum und tate aliorum."
Eigentum in der altkirchlichen n See G. Ratzinger, Die Volks-
Literatur, Freiburg 1908, pp. 16 sq. wirtschaft, and ed., pp. 82 sqq.;
9 Cfr. J. Biederlack, S. J., Die A. Vermeersch, S. J., Quaeetiones sosiale Frage, 7th ed., p. 134, n. i. de Ittstitia, 2nd ed., pp. 266 sqq.:
loSutnma Theol, sa. aae, qu. 66, V. Cathrein, S. J., Moralphiloso-
148
VOCATIONAL DUTIES
it with great scientific acumen. St. Ambrose, who fre quently censures the wealthy, teaches that the condemna tion pronounced by Christ does not affect all who have wealth, but only those who abuse it, and adds that every man is allowed perfect freedom in giving alms.12
The phrase, "Omnis dives aut iniquus aut inigui heres," 13 which occurs repeatedly in the writings of St. Jerome, has led to his being classed as a Socialist. But
phie, 4th ed., Vol. II, pp. 313 sqq.; J. Seipel, Die tvirtschafts-ethischen Lehren der Kirchenvater, Vienna 1907, pp. 49 sqq., 120 sqq., 190 sqq.; J. A. Ryan Alleged Socialism of the Church Fathers, St. Louis 1913-
13 St. Ambrose, Expos. Evangel, sec. Luc., 1. V, n. 69: "Licet in pecuniarily copiis multa sint leno- cinia delictorum, pleraque tamen sunt etiam incentiva virtutum. Quamquam virtus subsidia non re- quirat et commendatior sit collatio pauperis quam divitis liberalitas, tamen non eos qui hdbeant divitias, scd cos qui uti his nesciant, senten tial coelestis auctoritate condcm- nat." (Migne. P. L., XV, 1654).— IDEM De Nabuthe lezrael, c. 13, n- 55' "Qui in divitiis potuerit comprobari, is vere perfectus et dignus est gloria." (P. L., XIV, 748). — IDEM, De Officiis, 1. I, c. 30, n. 14: "In tua potestate est lar- giri quod velis." (P. L,, XVI, 66). — On the teaching of St. Am brose consult O. Schilling, Reich- turn und Armut, (see note 8, supra) pp. 134 sqq., and J. A. Ryan, Al leged Socialism of the Church Fathers, St. Louis 1913, pp. 52-66. "What St. Ambrose teaches is not communism in any correct sense of the word," says Dr. Ryan (op. cit., p. 57 sq.). "It is rather a first principle of the natural law,
namely that the earth belongs to all the children of men, and not to a few only. He tells the rich to restore their excessive wealth to the poor, while a communist would or der them to turn it over to the community. It is true that he calls these donations of the rich by the name of restitution, but this is be cause the rich have accumulated so much that the poor have been deprived of their birth-right. Hence, he commands them to give back their unjust gains. Any one who will read the history of the oppression of the poor in Italy in the fourth century, will know that St. Ambrose was right when he told the rich that they had robbed the poor, and were consequently bound to make reparation. The most zealous defender of individ ual ownership could speak the same way in the same circumstances. What St. Ambrose demands, there fore, is not a return to common property, but a recognition of com mon rights."
13 This remarkable saying, which seems to have been of pagan or igin, was evidently current in St. Jerome's day, for he quotes it in three distinct passages of his writ ings. For an analysis of these pas sages see J. A. Ryan, Alleged So cialism of the Church Fathers, pp. 67 sqq.
RIGHT OF PROPERTY 149
the fact that St. Jerome makes this sentiment his own and quotes it with approval, does not prove that he looked upon every property holder as a thief. "Iniquus — from in -f- aequus — refers literally to a want of equality or want of proportion. Taken figuratively, it has about the same meaning as iniustus, for which it was often used as a synonym by the best authors. Now St. Jerome's style, as well as his own confession, assures us that he was well acquainted with classical Latin. We may safely infer then that he uses this word in the specific sense of iniustus, and not in the more general sense of peccator. This inference is confirmed by his manner of speaking in a sentence where he distinguishes between an impius on the one hand, and an iniquus and a peccator on the other. Even if he meant merely 'wrong doer' when he wrote iniquus, the specific wrong doing referred to must have been an act of injustice, since it was committed in acquir ing riches. When a man gets possession by wrong-doing, the greater part of the wrong will fall under the head of injustice, violation of personal rights. St. Jerome, therefore, subscribed to the opinion that every dives was an unjust man, and by dives he meant, not a man of some property, but a man of much property. All the synonyms of dives and its use by the best authors show that it refers to an abundance of goods, and not to mere ownership, as some would have us believe." 14
14 Ryan, op. cit., pp. 70 sq. Fur- ning, these are the sources to which ther on in his booklet (p. 74) these titles may be traced." The Dr. Ryan shows that Herbert passage occurs in Spencer's Social Spencer spoke in much the same Statics and was omitted in later way of the present titles to landed editions, but, as Dr. Ryan correctly property as St. Jerome did of those says, "the question is one of fact, of his time. "It can never be pre- not of opinion." W. S. Lilly de- tended that the existing titles to clares: "I say, without shadow of such property are legitimate. . . . doubt, that to much property the Violence, fraud, the prerogative of saying of Proudhon [namely, that force, the claims of superior cun- property is theft] is strictly ap-
150 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
The proposition, "No Christian should be engaged in commercial pursuits, and those who persist in them, should be expelled from the Church," 15 which it fre quently ascribed to St. Chrysostom, does not occur in his genuine writings, but in the Opus Imperfectum in Mat- thaeutn of an Arian writer falsely attributed to the Saint.18 Certain communistic ideas that occur in the genuine works of St. Chrysostom must be interpreted as the product of a sort of ideal Communism, resembling that of Plato, which marked a reaction against the dominating power of wealth, the materialism and egotism of certain rich people, and the exaggerated esteem in which worldly possessions were generally held at that time and which manifested itself in an insane pursuit of wealth similar to that which we behold all around us to-day. In attacking these flagrant and serious abuses St. Chrysostom occa sionally employed expressions which, when read through modern glasses, seem to stamp him as an opponent of the principle of private ownership.17
plicable." Charles S. Devas says: mercatof, out si voluerit esse, pro-
"As a matter of fact, much of the iiciatur de ecclesia Dei." wealth of the rich classes in mod- is Cfr. F. X. Funk's paper,
ern Europe has been gathered to- "Ueber Reichtum und Handel im
gether, and is still kept up, by christlichen Altertum," in his Kir-
dreadful deeds of cruelty, injustice, chengeschichtliche Abhandlungen
and fraud." — "Mr. Lilly," com- und Untersuchungen, Paderborn
ments Dr. Ryan, "is neither a So- 1917, Vol. Ill, pp. 150 sqq. cialist nor a radical, but above all " On the teaching of St. Chryso-
a pleader for law, while Mr. Devas stom, see O. Schilling, Reichtum
was an unimaginative student of und Armut, (note 8, supra), p. 123
economics. If men of this charac- and J. A. Ryan, Alleged Socialism
ter can write thus of titles to pro- of the Church Fathers, pp. 1-7; on
perty in modern times, is it any the teaching of St. Basil, ibid., pp.
wonder that St. Jerome used sim- 7 sqq., 17 sqq.; of St. Gregory
ilar language in his day?" (Al- of Nyssa, pp. 10 sq.; of Clement
leged Socialism of the Church of Alexandria, p. n; of St. Au-
Fathers, pp. 74 sq.) gustine, pp. 12 sq.; of St. Gregory
iS"Nullus christianus debet esse the Great, pp. 15 sq.
WEALTH AND POVERTY 151
2. In all that regards wealth and earthly pos sessions (bona fortunae) Catholics must be guided by the following principles.
a) Broadly speaking, every man is in duty bound to acquire the means which are necessary to support himself and his dependents and to ful fil the obligations that rest upon him as a member of society. He may, moreover, acquire a super fluity of earthly possessions, but if he does so, he incurs the additional obligation of making good use of his surplus; in other words, he must not acquire or cherish wealth for its own sake, but in order to share it with the needy.18
b) The possession of wealth is no sin in itself, but involves great danger because a rich man is constantly tempted to seek his happiness in this world and to neglect his soul.19 It is in this sense that Christ speaks of "the care of this world and the deceitf ulness of riches," 20 and warns His dis ciples that "a rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven." 21
Neither is poverty in itself a virtue, or a source of virtue, though apt to become such. That it is
18 Eph. IV, 28; I Tim. VI, 18. animae, aut pauper sis oportet, au-t — Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., pauperi similis." — Cfr. G. Ratzinger, 2B 2ae, qu. 187, art. 3. Die Volkswirtschaft, 2nd ed., pp.
19 Cfr. I Tim. VI, 9 sq., 17. — 43 sqq.
Seneca says (Epist., XVII, 3) : 20 Matth. XIII, 22.
"Multis ad philosophandum obsti- 21 Matth. XIX, 23 sq.; cfr. Mark
tere divitiae, paupertas expedita est, X, 23 sqq.; Luke XII, 16 §qq.;
secura est." And in another place Jas. V, i sqq.
(Ep., XVII, 5): "Si vis vacart
152 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
no disgrace to be poor, appears from the example of Christ and His disciples, who were all poor laboring-men. "Jesus saith to him: The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air nests : but the Son of man hath not where to lay his head." 2Z "Being rich," says St. Paul, "He [Jesus] became poor for your sakes, that through his poverty you might be rich." 2S
When poverty is the result of sloth and shiftless- ness, it easily leads to immorality and is in itself a sin if it makes a man discontented and covetous of the possessions of others. We read in Sacred Scripture : "Give me neither beggary nor riches : give me only the necessaries of life, lest perhaps being filled, I should be tempted to deny and say: Who is the Lord? or being compelled by poverty, I should steal and forswear the name of God." 2i Poverty becomes a virtue if borne humbly and with resignation to the will of God. "Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven." 25 St. Ambrose explains this text as follows : "Not all the poor are blessed, for poverty is merely a means : both good men and bad may be poor, unless per haps that poor man is to be considered blessed of whom the prophet says, 'Better is the poor man that walketh in his simplicity than a rich man that is perverse.' . . ,28 Blessed the poor man who cried to the Lord and was heard : poor in crime, poor in vice, a poor man in whom
22 Matth. VIII, 20; X, 9 sq. angustiis. Illae elevant ad super-
232 Cor. VIII, 9; IX, i sqq. biam, hae incitant ad querelam."
24 Prov. XXX, 8-9.— St. Leo the (Migne, P. L., LIV, 302).
Great says (Serm., 49 [al. 48], c. 25 Matth. V, 3; cfr. Jas. II, 5.
i): " Insidiae sunt in divitiarum 28 Prov. XIX, I.
amplitudine, insidiae in paupertatis
WEALTH AND POVERTY
153
the prince of this world finds nothing, who imitates Him who, being rich, was made poor for our sake.27 St. Matthew unfolded the full truth when he said : 'Blessed are the poor in spirit,' 28 for he who is poor in spirit does not become puffed up and proud in his conceit." 20
"Cheerful poverty is an honorable thing," says Epi curus,30 and Seneca, who quotes this sentiment with ap proval, adds : "Not he is poor who has little, but he who attempts to gain more by dishonest means." 31 In another place the great Roman philosopher says : "Great is the man who remains poor [i. e., in spirit] amid riches, but safer is he who does without them." 32
c) Those who devote themselves entirely to intellectual or mental labor, have a just claim to such material goods as they require, not merely to satisfy their necessities, but to enable them to live according to their rank or station. St. Paul's dictum that "they who serve at the altar share with the altar," 33 applies in a wider sense to all who devote themselves to spiritual and intellec-
272 Cor. VIII, 9.
28Matth. V, 3.
29 St. Ambrose, Expos. Evangel. in Lucam, i. V, n. 53: "Non omnes beati pauperes, paupertas enitn
media est: possitn esse pauperes. N tellegendus paupe propheta descrips meli&i* pauper iustu
et boni et tnali
si forte Hie in-
beatus, quern
t dicens : Quia
quam dives men-
dax. Beatus pauper qui clamavit et Dominus exaudivit eum: pauper a crimine, pauper a vitiis, pauper in quo muttdi princeps nihil invenit, pauper illius aemulus pauperis, qui quum dives esset, propter nos pau per foetus est. Unde plene Mat-
thaeus aperuit dicens: Beati pau peres spiritu; pauper enim spiritu non inflatur, non extollitur mente carnis suae." (Migne, P. L., XV, 1650). — Cfr. A. Wintcrstein, Die christl. Lehre vom Erdengut, pp. 73 sqq.
So "Honesta res est laeta pauper tas;" quoted by Seneca, Ep., II, 5.
31 Ep., n, 6: "Non qui parum habet, sed qui plus capit, pauper est."
32 E p., XX, 10 : "Magnus est ille, qui in divitiis pauper est, sed securior, qui caret divitiis."
83 i Cor. IX, 13. '
154 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
tual labor for the benefit of their fellowmen, and includes pre-eminently the members of contem plative orders.
d) As the individual, so also each social group (the family, the Church, the State, etc.) has the right and the duty to acquire property. But the group no less than the individual is exposed to the dangers that arise from wealth. History fur nishes abundant examples of the truth of the Apostle's saying: "They that will become rich, fall into temptation and into the snare of the devil, and into many unprofitable and hurtful desires, which drown men into destruction and perdi tion." 34
Man is not the absolute owner, but rather the steward of his possessions, and as such must give a strict ac count to God. Material wealth should never be the ulti mate aim either of the individual or of society, but should be regarded and employed merely as the basis and foundation of a higher life. "Charge the rich of this world," says St. Paul, "not to be proud, nor to trust in the uncertainty of riches, but in the living God, who giveth us abundantly all things to enjoy, to do good, to be rich in good works, to give easily, to communicate to others, to lay up in store for themselves a good foundation against the time to come, that they may lay hold on the true life." 85
The concentration of great fortunes in the hands of a few is becoming a serious danger,
84i Tim. VI, 9; cfr. Ps. 35 i Tim. XVI, 17-19; cfr. Matth.
XXXIII, n; Luke XII, 15-21. VI, 19-21.
LIMITING WEALTH 155
not only to the individual, since, as St. James says, the rich oppress the poor by might,36 but also to society, because so many rich men now-a-days employ their wealth to establish monopolies, ob tain excessive profits, defraud their fellowmen, purchase political power, etc. The fact that it is possible under present conditions, for the ex ceptionally able, the exceptionally cunning, and the exceptionally lucky, to accumulate enormous riches through the clever and unscrupulous utili zation of special advantages, natural and other wise, has given rise to a just demand for the legal limitation of fortunes. Various methods are sug gested. The law might directly limit the amount of property to be held by any individual. One of our leading Catholic authorities on social and po litical science, Dr. John A. Ryan, thinks that if the limit were placed fairly high, say at one hun dred thousand dollars, such a law "could scarcely be regarded as an infringement on the right of property. In the case of a family numbering ten members, this would mean one million dollars. All the essential objects of private ownership could be abundantly met out of a sum of one hun dred thousand dollars for each person. More over, a restriction of this sort need not prevent a man from bestowing unlimited amounts upon
36 Jas. II, 6; cfr. Henry H. Andrew Carnegie, The Gospel of Klein, Dynastic America and Those Wealth, New York 1900. Who Own It, New York, 1921;
156 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
charitable, religious, educational, or other benev olent causes." 37
On the other hand, "the dangers and obstacles confronting any legal restriction of fortunes are so real as to render the proposal socially inexpedi ent. It would easily lend itself to grave abuse. Once the community had habituated itself to a direct limitation of any sort, the temptation to lower it in the interest of better distribution and simpler living would become exceedingly power ful. Eventually the right of property might take such an attenuated and uncertain form in the public mind as to discourage labor and initia tive, and thus seriously to endanger human wel fare. In the second place, the manifold evasions to which the measure would lend itself would make it of very doubtful efficacy." 38
Another suggestion is that the amount of prop erty capable of being received by heirs of any person be limited, say, to one million dollars.39 This would be a restriction of the rights of be quest and succession, which are integral elements of the right of ownership. Is such restriction admissible ? The answer to this question, accord ing to the same authority, "depends upon the ef fects of the measure on human welfare. ... A
37 J. A. Ryan, Distributive Jus- Commission on Industrial Rela-
tice, New York 1916, pp. 292 sq., tions, p. 32; H. E. Read, The AboK-
cfr. Hy. H. Klein, Dynastic Amer- tion of Inheritance, N. Y., 1919;
ica, N. Y., 1921, pp. 164 sqq. A. Carnegie, The Gospel of Wealth,
aslbid., p. 293. N. Y., 1901, pp. u sqq.
s» Final Report of tho Fediral
LIMITING WEALTH 157
person needs private property not only to provide for his personal wants and those of his family during his life-time, but also to safeguard the wel fare of his dependents and to assist other worthy purposes, after he has passed away. . . . All the necessary and rational ends of bequest and suc cession could be attained in a society in which no man's heirs could inherit more than one million dollars. Under such an arrangement very few of the children of millionaires would be prevented from getting at least one hundred thousand dol lars. That much would be amply sufficient for the essential and reasonable needs of any human being. Indeed, we may go further, and lay down the proposition that the overwhelming majority of persons can lead a more virtuous and reason able life on the basis of a fortune of one hun dred thousand dollars than when burdened with any larger amount. The persons who have the desire and the ability to use a greater sum than this in a rational way are so few that a limitation law need not take them into account. Corporate persons, such as hospitals, churches, schools, and other helpful institutions, should not, as a rule, be restricted as to the amount that they might in herit; for many of them could make a good use of more than the amount that suffices for a nat ural person." 40
40 Ryan, Distributive Justict, p. 294.
158 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
The limitation of inheritance would, of course, also be liable to abuse, and while its bad effects would probably not be as great as those following a similar abuse with regard to possessions, they are, in Dr. Ryan's opinion, "sufficiently grave and sufficiently probable to suggest that the legal re striction of bequest and succession should not be considered except as a last resort, and when the transmission of great fortunes had become a great and certain public peril." 41
An indirect way of limiting large fortunes would be through a progressive tax on incomes and inheritances. This is a more feasible method, though the maximum limit that justice would set to the rate of taxation is not easy to determine. Some years ago Andrew Carnegie 42 recommended an inheritance tax of fifty per cent on estates amounting to more than one million dollars. While no country has yet reached this high level, the proposal cannot be stigmatized as unjust either to the testator or his heirs, nor can it be proved that it is in any other manner injurious to human welfare. In a general way, all that can be said with confidence concern ing the just rates of inheritance taxation is that "the increments of the tax should correspond as closely as pos sible to the diminishing intensity of the wants which the tax deprives of satisfaction ; in the case of each heir a certain fairly high minimum of property should be en tirely exempt; on all the highest estates the rate should be uniform, and it should fall a long way short of confis-
41 Ibid., p. 295.
42 The Gospel of Wealth, pp. 1 1 sqq.
DISTRIBUTING SUPERFLUOUS WEALTH 159
cation ; and the tax should at no point be such as to dis courage socially useful activity and enterprise." 43
It would be still better, perhaps, instead of clip ping off wealth from the top, by limiting pos session and transmission, to prevent these things by going to the root, i. e., by abolishing the wage system and admitting workingmen to a share in the possession of the means of production. This, too, could best be brought about, not by legal en actment, but by molding public opinion.44
e) We will close this chapter with a few re marks on the duty of distributing superfluous wealth. Here, also, we shall follow Professor Ryan.
It is the fundamental teaching of Christianity that ownership is stewardship and that he who possesses superfluous goods must regard himself as a trustee for the needy. St. Thomas clearly and concisely formulates this principle as fol lows: "As regards the power of acquiring and dispensing material goods, man may lawfully pos sess them as his own ; as regards their use, how ever, a man ought not to look upon them as his own, but as common, so that he may readily minister to the needs of others." 48 This teach-
43 Ryan, Distributive Justice, p. 1919; Cardinal Bourne's Lenten 300. Pastoral for 1918, "The Nation's
44 See Social Reconstruction, a Crisis," London, Catholic Social brochure issued by the four bishops Guild, 1918.
constituting the Administrative 45 Sitmma Theol., 23 aae, qu. 66,
Committee of the American Catholic art. 3. War Council, Washington, D. C.,
160 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
ing is in perfect conformity with reason. Since the goods of the earth were intended by the Crea tor for the common benefit of all mankind, the pos sessor of a surplus is reasonably required to use it in such a way that this original purpose of all created goods will be fulfilled. To refuse to do so is to treat one's less fortunate neighbor as something different from and less than oneself, as a creature whose claim upon the common bounty of nature is something less than one's own.
Is this obligation one of charity or of justice? In the case of wealth unjustly acquired it is clearly one of justice. But how about wealth honestly acquired? St. Thomas says : "The goods which a man has in superfluity are due by the natural law to the sustenance of the poor." 46 This is the official teaching of the Church, for Pope Leo XIII says: "When one has provided sufficiently for one's necessities and the demands of one's state of life, there is a duty to give to the indigent out of what remains. It is a duty not of strict justice, save in case of extreme necessity, but of Christian charity." 47
There seems to be a contradiction between this teach ing and that of certain Fathers, but the contradiction is apparent rather than real. "The truly important fact of the whole situation," says Dr. Ryan, "is that both the Fathers and the later authorities of the Church regard the
4« Ibid., art. 7. of Labor," 15 May, 1891; The Pope
47 Encyclical "On the Condition and the People, p. 192.
DISTRIBUTING SUPERFLUOUS WEALTH 161
task of distributing superfluous goods as one of strict moral obligation, which in serious cases is binding under pain of grievous sin. Whether it falls under the head of justice or under that of charity, is of no great practical importance." *8
What portion of his superfluous wealth is a man obliged to distribute among the needy? Dr. Ryan, proceeding from the unanimous teaching of moral theologians that the entire mass of su perfluous wealth is morally subject to the call of grave need, and from the principle of the moral law that the goods of the earth should be en joyed by the inhabitants of the earth in proportion to their essential needs, attempts to answer this question from the standpoint of common welfare. He thinks that, in view of available statistics, the conclusion is inevitable "that the greater part of the superfluous income of the well-to-do and rich would be required to abolish all grave and ordi nary need." He adds: "The proposition that men are under moral obligation to give away the greater portion of their superfluous goods or in come is, indeed, a 'hard saying/ . . . No Catho lic, however, who knows the traditional teaching of the Church on the right use of wealth, and who considers patiently and seriously the magnitude and the meaning of human distress, will be able to refute the proposition by reasoned arguments.
48 Distributive Justice, pp. 303 sq., 307 sq.
i62 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
Indeed, no man can logically deny it who admits that men are intrinsically sacred, and essentially equal by nature and in their claims to a reason able livelihood from the common heritage of the earth. The wants that a man supplies out of his superfluous goods are not necessary for rational existence. For the most part they bring him merely irrational enjoyment, greater social pres tige, or increased domination over his fellows. Judged by any reasonable standard, these are surely less important than those needs of the neighbor which are connected with humane living. If any considerable part of the community rejects these propositions, the explanation will be found not in a reasoned theory, but in the conventional assumption that a man may do what he likes with his own. This assumption is adopted without examination, without criticism, without any seri ous advertence to the great moral facts that own ership is stewardship, and that the Creator in tended the earth for the reasonable support of all the children of men." 49
READINGS. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 2a 2ae, qu. 66, art. I sq. — Theodore Meyer, S.J., Institutiones luris Naturalis, Vol. II, pp. 126 sqq., Freiburg 1900. — V. Cathrein, S.J., Moral- philosophic, 4th ed., Freiburg 1904, Vol. II, pp. 285 sqq. — IDEM, Das Privateigentum und seine Gegner, 4th ed., Freiburg 1909. — A. Vermeersch, S.J., Quaestiones de lustitia, 2nd ed., pp. 240 sqq.— Ch. Perin, De la Richesse dans les Societes Chretiennes, 3rd
48 Ibid., p. 314.
DISTRIBUTING SUPERFLUOUS WEALTH 163
ed., 2 vols., Paris 1881. — F. Walter, Das Eigentum nach der Lehre des hi. Thomas von Aquin und des Socialismus, pp. 266 sqq., Freiburg 1895. — H. Pesch, S.J., Lehrbuch der National- okonomie, Vol. I, Freiburg 1905, pp. 179 sqq.— Michael Cronin, The Science of Ethics, Vol. II, Dublin 1917, pp. 113 sqq.— R. I. Holaind, S.J., Natural Law and Legal Practice, New York 1899, pp. 203 sqq. — Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Moral Philosophy: Ethics, De ontology and Natural Law, 4th ed., London 1918, pp. 278 sqq. — J. A. Ryan, Distributive Justice: The Right and Wrong of Our Present Distribution of Wealth, New York 1916, pp. 3 sqq., 291 sqq., 303 sqq. — J. Husslein, S.J., The World Problem: Capital, Labor, and the Church, New York 1918, pp. 232 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., Innsbruck 1914, pp. 387 sqq. — Thos. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 344 sqq., 350 sqq., New York 1919. —A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., Frei burg 1910, pp. 499 sqq. — J. Kelleher, Private Ownership, Dublin 1911. — J. E. Ross, C.S.P., Christian Ethics, pp. 271 sqq., New York 1919.— H. Belloc, The Catholic Church and the Principle of Private Property, London 1920. — J. A. Ryan, The Christian Doctrine of Property, New York 1923.
CHAPTER IV
DUTIES IN REGARD TO HONOR
SECTION i
NOTION AND VALUE OF HONOR
i. NOTION. — The term honor may be taken either subjectively or objectively.
Subjectively, honor is the dignity of a person (honor, dignitos) based on his worth, character, or distinguished service. Objectively, it is any consideration due or paid to a person by oth ers, on account of worth, character or distin guished service; or, to express the same idea somewhat differently, recognition of a man's per sonal excellence, virtue, and ability by his fel- lowmen (aestimatio, existimatio)*
There are several degrees of honor.
i St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la Comp. Theol. Mor., Vol. I, n. 459: zae, q. 2, art. 2 : "Honor exhi- "Fama est bona aestimatio, quam betur alicui propter aliquam eius alii habent de vita et moribus ali- excellentiam, et ita est signum et cttius." — Aug. Lehmkuhl, Theologia testimonium quoddam illius excel- Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., p. 819: lentiae, quae est in honorato." — "Fama est bona aestimatio, qua IDEM, ibid., 23 2ae, qu. 103, art. 2: homo apud alias fruitur : honor "Honor nihil aliud est quam quae- huius aestimationis secundum virtu- dam protestatio de excellentia boni- tent, dignitatem, meritum significa' tatis alicuius." — Cfr. J. P. Gury, tio sen manifestatio." I64
HONOR 165
a) The first or lower degree is a good name or reputation (fama sen gloria humana)? This may justly be claimed by every man who conscien tiously follows his chosen vocation and has not forfeited his claim to the recognition and esteem of his f ellowmen by public crimes or blunders.
b) The second or higher degree of honor is that which is due to a man on account of his state of life or social position, regardless of whether these are acquired by his own labor or inherited from his ancestors.
2. VALUE. — Although intrinsic honor, i. e., the consciousness of one's personal worth, is superior to exterior honor, which is merely the considera tion or recognition received from others, the lat ter, too, is a valuable possession, whose loss may entail serious consequences.
The high value of exterior honor becomes evi dent from the following considerations :
a) Honor is the medium through which the individual exercises his authority or influence upon society;
b) Without honor no man can exercise a fruit ful activity among and upon his fellows, and the
3 Lehmkuhl, ibid. : "Fama bona laesio grmius etiam feratur quam
est fundamentum honoris, ita ut, si laesio famae; nam quum aestimatio
praecisive ipectetur, fama maius intus lateat, honor autem et exterius
bonum sit quam honor, honor au- prodatur et internae aestimationis
tern, si cum suo fundamento sumi- naturalis index sit: qui honorem
tur, aliguid plus dicat quam fama. exhibet, plus censetur dare, quam
Hinc est, cur honor apud homines qui intus aliquem aestimat." pluris valeat quam fama, honoris
i66 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
loss of honor often entails moral death or abso lute exclusion from the society of respectable men.3 "Take my honor, take my life," says an Irish proverb.
c) A man's moral character not infrequently depends upon his good name, and many are de terred from doing evil by the fear of disgrace.
"Honor," says St. Thomas, summarizing the doctrine of the Fathers, "is the greatest among the exterior things that affect man, both because it ranks next to virtue, being as it were a testi mony to man's virtue, and also for the reason that it is shown to God and those in authority, and men prefer the attainment of honor and the avoid ance of disgrace to all other things." 4
3 Cf r. Prov. XXII, i ; Ecclus. tef ad salutem, ad nostrum quoque
XLI, 15; John V, 44; Rom. XIII, redundat utilitatem." (P. L., XL.,
7; i Cor. IX, 15; 2 Cor. VIII, 448). — IDEM, Contra Faustum Ma-
21 ; Phil. IV, 9. — St. Augustine nich., \. 22, c. 56: "Fama popu-
says, Serm., 355 (a/. 49 de Diver- laris, qua etiam tnaior et clarior
sis), c. i, n. i: "Duae res sunt con- notitia comparatur, non ipsa per
scientia et fama. Conscientia tibi, sese expetenda, sed intentioni bono-
fama proximo tuo. Qui fidens con- rum, quo generi humano consulunt,
scientiae suae neglegit famam suam, pernecessaria." (P. L., XLII, 436). crudelis est, maxime in loco isto 4 Summa Theol., 23 2ae, qu. 129,
positus, de quo dicit Apostolus (Tit. art. i: "Res quae in usum hominis
II, 7) scribens ad discipulum suum: veniunt, sunt res exteriores, inter
Circa omnes teipsum bonorum ope- quas simpliciter maximum est
rum praebens exemplum." (Migne, honor, turn quia propinquissimum
P. L. XXXIX, 1569).— IDEM, De est virtuti, utpote testificatio quae-
Bono Viduit., c. 22, n. 27: "Quis- dam existens de virtute alicuius,
quis a criminibus flagitiorum atque turn etiam quia Deo et optimis ex-
facinorum vitam suam custodit, sibi hibetur, turn etiam quia homines
bene facit, quisquis autem etiam fa- propter honorem consequendum ut
mam, et in alias misericors est. No- et vituperium vitandum alia omnia
bis enim necessaria est vita nostra, postponunt." — Cfr. qu. 131, art i,
aliis fama nostra, et utique etiam ad 3. quod aliis ministramus misericordi-
HONOR 167
READINGS. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 2, art. 2 sq. ; 2a 2ae, qu. 103, art. i sq. — F. Kattenbusch, Ehren und Ehre, Giessen 1909. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., pp. 76 sq., 655 sqq., 678 sq.— J. E. Ross, C. S. P., Christian Ethics, pp. 258 sqq.
SECTION 2
THE DUTY OF PRESERVING HONOR
i. Every man is in duty bound to safeguard and preserve his honor or good name to the best of his ability.
a) This means, first and above all, that he must endeavor to acquire the basis of a good repu tation by irreproachable conduct and to become ever more worthy of honor by faithfully per forming his vocational duties and especially by conforming himself to Christ.1
b) We are exhorted to let our "light shine before men," that they may see our good works and glorify the Father who is in Heaven,2 and to declare the virtues of Him who hath called us out of darkness into His marvellous light.3 We comply with this duty if we, each in his own par ticular sphere, faithfully and punctually do the things that are given us to do, or, as the Apostle puts it, "provide good things not only in the sight of God, but also in the sight of men," 4 and
i Rom. VIII, 29.— Cfr. Virgil, 3 i Pet. II, 9; cfr. Acts XXIV,
Aeneis: "Famam ostendere fac- 16. tit, hoc irirtutis opus." 4 Rom. XII, 17; a Cor. VII, at.
a Matth. V, 16.
168
HONOR 169
avoid even the semblance of evil. "Do ye all things without murmurings and hesitations, that you may be blameless and sincere children of God, without reproof, in the midst of a crooked and perverse generation, among whom you shine as lights in the world." 5
He who does his share towards the well- being of society according to his insight and gifts,6 has no responsibility with regard to the recognition of his work by others. For, in the first place, the duty of providing for the proper recognition of his personal dignity and activity does not go beyond that of furnishing the object of recognition, which is dignity and activ ity itself ; and, secondly, the judgments of society upon the moral worth of an individual and his work are uncertain and fallacious, because men do not always esteem one another according to their true value, but are often deceived by appear ances and swayed hither and thither by error and prejudice. "Not he who commendeth himself is approved, but he whom God commendeth," says the Apostle,7 and our Divine Saviour admonishes
6 Phil. II, 14-16. — Cfr. St. Je- nomen Dei blasphemaretur in genti-
rome, Ep., 123 (a/, n), n. 15: bus. (Rom. II, 24). Habebat uti-
"Fuge personas, in quibits pottst que potestatem sororem mulierem
malae conversational esse suspicio, circumducendi, sed nolebat (i Cor.
nee paratum habeas illud e trivia: X, 29) se iudicari ab infideli con-
SttMcit mihi conscientia tnea, non scientia." (Migne, P. L., XXII,
euro, quid de me loquantur ho- 1056). Cfr. Ep., 148 (a/. 14), n. 33
mines. Et certe Apostolus provide- (P. L., XXII, 1215). bat bona, non tantum coram Deo, 8 Rom. XII, 5.
itd etiam hominibits, ne per ilium 7 a Cor. X, 18. — Cfr. It. XI, 3.
i;o VOCATIONAL DUTIES
us to "judge not according to the appearance, but judge just judgment." 8
It is entirely legitimate for a man to try to make himself worthy of honor before God and his fel- lowmen by leading a virtuous life. The love of honor, in its true sense, is not opposed to humil ity, for humility does not enjoin self-contempt, but merely forbids conceit. Both Church and State acknowledge man's right to strive after positions or offices of honor, and reward with titles and privileges those who distinguish them selves by extraordinary courage, zeal, or fidelity. Monuments are sometimes erected in their honor, whereas those guilty of certain public crimes, e. g., perjury, are formally deprived of honor (capitis deminutio ) .
To seek honor for its own sake, or as an end rather than as a means to a higher end, to delight in it unduly (vanity), to covet it without regard to God,9 to demand recognition for qualities which one does not possess (hypocrisy) or to seek it through actions which are for bidden, e.g., by neglecting one's duty, or doing evil, or omitting good which one is bound to do, are sinful acts.10 It is also sinful to be careless of honor or reputation, to
8 John VII, 24; VIII, 15. — Cfr. est, eius gloria semper vera est,
St. Thomas, Summa Theol, la aae, propter quod dicitur: Ille proba-
qu. 2, art. 3: "Est etiam aliud tut est, quern Deus commendat." consider 'andum, quod humana noti- 9 Ps. CXIII, 9; 2 Cor. XI, 30.—
tia saepe fallitur et praecipue in Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,
singularibus contingentibus, cuius- 23 aae, qu. 131, art. i. modi sunt actus humani, et idea 10 Cfr. Luke IX, 26. — St. Thomas,
frequenter humana gloria fallax Summa Theol., za zae, qu. 132,
est. Sed quia Deus falli non pot- art. 1-4.
HONOR 171
hold them lightly or to despise them cynically. The last-mentioned attitude is generally a result of disguised pride.
"There are honors which dishonor him who seeks them," truly says a modern novelist.11 Every honor or dignity, according to an ancient proverb, entails its own peculiar responsibilities and burdens.12
An ancient saw declares that honors and dignities often change a man's character.13 Unfortunately, the change is not always for the better, and consequently those who receive honors or dignities should strive to employ them as a means of moral improvement. "It is sure proof of nobility of character," says Jean Paul, "if a man uses honors and dignities as means of acquiring virtue."
The foundation of true happiness is neither honor nor wealth, but honesty, sincerity, and trust in God. Human glory frequently evaporates like smoke, but nobility of character is a stable possession. "The Lord rewards his servants, not according to the dignity of their of fice," says St. Francis de Sales, "but in proportion to the humility and love with which they discharge the same." 14
c) Every man is bound to preserve his honor and good name by faithfully complying with the duties of his vocation, leading a pure and upright life, and avoiding whatever might justly cause offense to others. If, despite all reasonable care, he has the misfortune to give scandal, either by making mistakes or letting his zeal run to ex-
11 "// y a des honores qui dis- is "Honores mutant mores."
honorent" (G. Flaubert). 1* De la Vie Devote, III, a.
ia "Honos habet onus."
172 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
cess, let him candidly admit his fault and humbly seek forgiveness. One whose honor is unjustly attacked has the right to defend it, nay, he is in duty bound to do so if his office, or the interest of his family, or the good name of those associated with him, or the danger of scandal render it nec essary. Sometimes, however, it is an act of heroic virtue to suffer persecution silently, like Christ and His Apostles, or to sacrifice one's good name for the honor and glory of God. Our Lord says : " Blessed are ye when they shall revile you, and persecute you, and speak all that is evil against you, untruly, for my sake."15 And St. Paul : "We labor, working with our own hands, we are reviled, and we bless; we are persecuted, and we suffer it." 16 A good conscience and the conviction that an omniscent God governs the uni verse and draws good out of evil, will give us the consoling assurance that we have nothing to fear, especially since we know from Revelation that the names of Christ's faithful servants, even though they be traduced by men, are held in high honor by God and indelibly graven in the Book of Life.17
IB Matth. V, ii ; Luke XVII, 3. ex pane vitare, ubi pro existima-
16 i Cor. IV, 12; Col. Ill, 12; tione nostra quidquid recte pos-
i Thess. V, 15; i Pet. II, 23. sumus fecerimus, si aliqui de nobis
IT Luke X, 20; XII, 7; Phil. IV, ve\ mala fingendo vel male credendo
3- — Cfr. St. Augustine, De Bono famam nostram decolorare conan-
Viduitatis, c. 22: "Quoniam quart- tur, adsit conscientiae solatium
talibet humana cautela suspiciones planeque etiam gaudium, quod mer-
malevolentissimas non potest omni ces nostra magna est in coelis, etiam
HONOR 173
When a man has lost his good name through his own fault, silence and patience may be rec ommended as suitable means of atonement. A person who has been innocently robbed of his good name and sees his career endangered or ruined, may find that the simple continuance of his accustomed mode of life is the most effective weapon of self-defence. Where deeds fail to convince, words generally prove of little or no avail.
It is never allowed to employ immoral means, such as lies or duelling, for the restoration of one's honor.
To hide secret sins and defects from others, in order to preserve one's honor and good name, is not forbidden. No human authority can pass judgment upon the secret deeds and motives of men. ("De internis non iudicat praetor.")
d) If a man has lost his good name through his own fault, he must try to regain it as soon and as fully as possible. The means by which it may be regained depend as a rule on the manner in which it was lost. A reputation that is com pletely shattered may be difficult to rebuild; but the obligation of trying to do so remains and
</iium dicunt homines mala multa de Cor. VI, 7-8) non solum dextera,
nobis pie tamen iusteque viventi- verum et sinistra, per gloriam scili-
bus (Mt. V, 11-12). Ilia enim cet et ignobilitatem, per infamiam
tnerces tamqtiam stipendium est et bonam famam." (Migne, P. L.,
tnilitantiuin per arma iustitiae (2 XL, 449).
174 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
binds especially in those cases where the welfare of a family or the good name of a community de pend upon the honor of the individual member. If honor has been lost through neglect or the commission of some minor fault, it may be re stored by increased zeal, fidelity, diligence, and prudence. If the fault was grievous, sincere pen ance and a genuine purpose of amendment are not only a strict duty, but the only suitable means of making amends for the sin committed and repair ing the scandal given. However, as Christ has expressly declared that there will be more joy in Heaven over one sinner who does penance than over ninety-nine just who need it not, every peni tent sinner who atones his fault, regains the right to his good name, and it must not be denied him. Nor should it be forgotten that even in the im penitent sinner, no matter how deeply he may have fallen, there is always the human dignity to be respected.18
a) The teaching of Catholic Moral Theology on the subject of honor has been denounced as a hindrance to progress and as subversive of that self-respect which no man can afford to surrender. This is a grievous mistake. Seeking honor and fleeing from it seem indeed contra dictory acts, but the apparent contradiction is solved by a higher unity. In preaching contempt of the world and of oneself 19 the Church does not mean to imply that, to be
18 Cfr. Luke XV, 7, 10; Gal. VI, ie "Spernere mundum, spernere
i; Eph. VI, 8 sq.; Jas. II, 1-9. sese, spernere nullum, spernere se
sperni."
HONOR 175
truly humble, a man must be indifferent to mundane things, but merely that he who is truly humble will pa tiently suffer contempt for Christ's sake, though he will never stoop to anything that would degrade his dignity as a man. Inordinate self-humiliation is not a virtue, but a sin (per excessum) against humility, which consists essentially in submission to God, and to men for God's sake,20 in the service of truth and charity.21 Humility, therefore, keeps the pursuit of honor within the bounds of reason and, together with charity, is the foundation of the Christian life. This noble virtue was practiced in a preeminent and exemplary degree by Jesus Christ, "the truth, the way, and the life," who was able to say of Himself: "Learn of me, because I am meek and humble of heart."22
Catholic ascetics neither condemns the striving after honor nor justifies carelessness in this regard, but merely forbids vainglory (gloria vana}, which has for its end and purpose not God, but self.
Contempt of worldly distinctions and honors does not imply want of self-respect if it is inspired by a desire for eternal glory. This desire lives only in noble souls. St. Paul, who did not hesitate to say of himself that he had
20 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., praemium veritatis." (Migne, P. L., 2a aae, qu. 161, art. i, ad 5. — St. XLIV, 265).
Bernard, De Gradibus Humilitatis, 22 Matth. XI, 29; John XIV, 6.—
c. i, n. 2: "Humilitas est virtus, Cfr. St. Augustine, Ep., 118 (o/.
qua homo verissima sui agnitione 56), c. 3, n. 22: "Huic [Christo]
sibi ipsi vilescit." (Migne, P. L., te, mi Dioscure, ut tola pietate sub-
CLXXXII, 942). das velim, nee aliam tibi ad capes-
21 Matth. XX, 28; XXIII, ii ; sendam et obtinendant veritatem Gal. V, 13. — S|. Augustine says viant munias, quam quae munita (De Natura et Gratia, c. 34, n. 38) : est ab illo, qui gressum nostrorum "Recte placet, ut in parte veritatis, tamquam Deus vidit infirmitatem. non in parte falsitatis magis humili- Ea est autem prima, htimilitas; se- tas collocetur, . . . ne humilitas con- citnda, humilitas, tertia. humilitas, et stituta in parte falsitatis perdat quoties interrogares, hoc dicerem."
(Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 442)-
1 76 VOCATIONAL DUTIES
labored more than all the rest and was "made a spectacle to the world, and to angels, and to men," 23 nevertheless declared : "I am the least of the apostles, who am not worthy to be called an apostle." 24
ft) The question has been raised whether a man may deprive himself of his good name (seipsum infamare). In answering this question the casuists draw a distinction. If one can defame himself without detriment to his voca tional duties and without injury to others, they say the sacrifice is permissible because it violates neither justice, as man has full ownership of his good name (dominium famae suae), nor charity, because charity requires regard for external goods only in so far as they are necessary for one's own salvation or the salvation of others. Accord ing to Gury and others of this school, however, it would be grievously sinful to deprive oneself of one's good name if the latter were an indispensable requisite of one's official position or if the defamation would result in danger to one's own life or injury to the good name of others.26
We cannot quite agree with this view, but maintain that defamation of one's own character is forbidden for rea sons which may be briefly stated as follows :
a) To preserve one's honor and good name is a pre cept of the moral law of nature as well as of divine law, and the duty arising from both, while it differs in pro-
23 i Cor. IV, 9. quisquc sit famae suae dominus,
24 i Cor. XV, 9 sq. nee contra caritatem, quia haec non
25 J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., obligat ad bona externa conser- Vol. I, n. 469: "Quaeritur, an vanda, nisi quantum id exigat salus lii-e>it seipsum infamare. Respon- propria vel proximi. Per accident detiir affirmative per se, si recta autem peccabis, et quidem graviter, intentione fiat, secluso scandalo et si fama tua necessaria sit muneri aliorum damno. Ratio est, quia two vel si tibi damnum vitae vel non est contra iustitiam, quum aliis infamiae ex hoc sequi deberet."
HONOR 177
portion to the concrete conditions or circumstances of each, can never cease entirely.
b) Self -defamation no matter by what motives it is in spired or how useful it may appear to be, by its very definition presupposes the telling of a lie. Now, no one is allowed to attribute to himself sins or vices of which he is not guilty because to lie is forbidden absolutely and in all circumstances.
To reveal one's real but secret faults (e. g., to a su perior) is not self -defamation but an act of humiliation or the expression of a strong purpose of amending one's life and correcting the fault in question. Such an act of humility, far from injuring one's good name, is apt rather to enhance it.
For the rest, there is hardly a vocation in which men do not feel the need of occasional recognition and en couragement from their fellowmen.
READINGS.— H. Noldin, S. J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, nth ed., pp. 76 sq., 656 sq. — Thos. Slater, S. J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, New York 1919, p. 346-— A. Lehm- kuhl, S.J., Thcologia Moralis, Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 818 sqq.— F. A. Gopfert, Moraltheologic, Vol. II, 6th ed., Paderborn 1909, pp. 326 sqq.— J. E. Ross, C.S.P., Christian Ethics, pp. 258 sqq.
INDEX
ACTORS, 51.
Adam, 5, 130.
Agape, 40.
Alms, 134.
Aloysius, St., 19.
Alphonsus, St., 99.
Amado, R. A. (S.J.), 62.
Ambrose, St., 148, 152.
Amputation, 83.
Amusements, 36, 56.
Apartment houses, 31.
Aragon, 99.
Aristocracy, 120.
Aristotle, 105, 122.
Arms, 37.
Art, 36, 47 sqq.
"Art for art's sake," 47 sq.
Asceticism, 18.
Athletic sports, 44 sqq., 141
sqq.
Augustine, St., 21 sq., 75, 87, 89. Azarias, Brother, in. Azpilcueta, M. de, 62.
B
BACON, LORD, 102.
Balls, 36.
Banquets, 36, 40.
Bathing, 69.
Baumgartner, Alex. (S.J.), 52.
Beasts, Man's relation to, 58 sqq.
Beasts of prey, 64.
Benedict of Aniane, St., 134.
Bernard, St., n, 32.
Birds. 64.
Blessing at meals, 26.
Body, Moral significance of the, 9 sqq.; Care of the, 21 sqq.; Various means of car ing for the, 25 sqq.
Books, 46 sq., 127. Bossuet, 52. Bull-fights, 61 sq.
CALVINISTS, 51. Card-playing, 37, 41. Carnegie, Andrew, 158. Castration, 84. Catholic Encyclopedia, The, 46
Cathrein, V. (S.J), 72.
Cautiousness, 109 sq.
Censorship of motion pictures, 52 sqq.
Character-training, 37 sq., 105 sq.
Charity, i, 18, 35, 95, 108.
Charlemagne, 141.
Chastity, 87 sq.
Children, 37 sqq.
Choice of a vocation, 112 sqq.
Christ, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 24, 25, 26, 40, 58 sqq., 96, no, 116, 122, 133, 135, 151, 152, 168, 169, 172, 174, 175.
Chrysostom, St., 150.
Cinema peril, 52 sqq.
Civics, Community, 31 sqq.
Cleanliness, 68 sq.
Clement of Alexandria, 29, 45.
Clergy, 29, 36 sq., 86, 95, 127.
Clothing, 27 sqq.
Comforts, 30, 32, 65, 68.
Communism in the primitive Church, 146 sqq.
Community sanitation, 31 sq.
Compulsory school laws, 104.
Concupiscence, 10, 22.
Congestion, Urban, 31 sq.
Contemplative life, 136 sq., 154-
179
i8o
INDEX
Credulity, 108.
Cross, The, 14, 19.
Cruelty to animals, 59 sq.
Culture, 105 sq., 137.
Cultus muliebris, 29.
Custom in regard to attire, 29.
DANCING, 36, 42 sq., 55.
Death, 16, 87 sq.
Devas, C. S., 18, 31, 128, 150.
Dignities, 171.
Don Bosco, Ven., 17, 19, 56.
Drama, 51.
Drinking, 21 sq., 25 sq.
Dullness, Intellectual, 108.
Dwellings, 30 sqq.
Duties, 2 sq. ; Individual or
personal, 4 sqq.; Vocational,
112 sqq. Dymond, 81.
EATING, 21 sq., 24, 25 sq. Education, 101 sqq. Egotism, 6, 8. Elbel, 99-
Elyot, Sir Thos., 44. Emasculation, 84. Environment, 104. Epicurus, 153.
Esquirol, 79. Eternity, 16.
Etiquette, 70 sq. Euthanasia, 91 sq. Excursions, 36. Extravagance, 66 sq., 68. Extreme Unction, 57.
FACTORIES, 33. Factory workers, 33. Failure, 135. Fall, The, 21. Family home, 30 sq. Fashion, 27, 29. Fidelity to duty, 120.
Films, 52 sqq.
Flesh, Emancipation of the, 10,
66.
Food, 25 sq., 72. Football, 44, 46. Foster, S. C., 31. Francis de Sales, St., 42, 171. Francis Xavier, St., 141. Frugality, 67. "Futures," Dealing in, 138.
GAMBLING, 41 sq., 138. Games of chance, 37, 41 sq. Games, 36, 37, 41 sq. Garden city plan, 33. Gentleman, Newman's defini tion of a, 71. Gibbons, Card., 137. Gladness, 17 sq. Goethe, 15. Good name, 165 sqq. Good things of nature, 23 sq. Goyau, 76.
Gregory the Great, i. Gymnastics, 43 sq.
H
Habitus clericalis, 29.
Haunold, 99.
Health, 21 sq., 24 sqq., 29, 33,
36, 57, 97-
Herplt, John (O.P.), 141. Hesiod, 139 Hettinger, F., 47. Homer, 139.
"Home, Sweet Home," 31. Honor, 75; Duties in regard
to, 164 sqq. Housing, 30 sqq. Humility, 175.
ILLNESS, 13, 24 sq. Illsung, 99. Income tax, 158 sq. Industrial hygiene, 33.
INDEX
181
Infanticide, 88.
Inheritance, Limitation of, 156
sq.
Inoculation, 98. Insanity and suicide, 76 sqq. Instruction, 105. Intemperance, 26.
JANSENISTS, 49. Jean Paul, 171. Jerome, St., 148 sq. Joy, 14, 15, 16, 17 sq., 135.
K
KEPPLER, BISHOP P. W. VON, 14
sq., 123. Knowledge, 102 sqq., 106.
L
LABOR, As a natural necessity, 125 sqq.; Manual, 125 sq. ; Mental, 126; As a moral ob ligation, 130 sqq. ; As a reli gious duty, 132 sqq.
Lacroix, 99.
Lactantius, 147 sq.
Laurentius, Jos. (S.J.), 19.
Laveleye, E. de, 64.
Lehmkuhl, Aug. (S.J.), 99.
Leo XIII, 30, 84, 137, 145, 160.
Lessing, 120.
Liberalism, 19 sq.
Libraries, Public, 46 sq.
Life, A blessing, 11, 16 ; A pil grimage, ii sq. ; Duty of cherishing it, 12 sqq. ; Duty of giving it up, 86 sqq.
Lucy, St., 87 sq.
Luther, 51.
Luxury, 32, 40, 64 sqq.
Lynchings, 62.
M
MACHINERY, 33. Macksey, Chas. (S.J.), 45.
Mariana, 52.
Mary, Blessed Virgin, 40.
Materialism, 10.
Medicine, 90.
Melancholia, 77, 82.
Mendicant Orders, 115.
Menial tasks, 131.
Milieu, 114.
Mind, Duty of cultivating the,
101 sqq.
Miracle plays, 49. Modesty, 27, 29, 35, 69 sq. Monopolies, 155. Morality, Public, 30. Mortification, n, 18, 36, 80. Motion pictures, 52 sqq. "Movies," 52 sqq.
N
NEEDS of Man, 23. Neglect, 1 10 sq. Neurasthenia, 137. Newman, J. H., 71. Newspapers, 81 sq. Nicholas I, 69. Nicholson, Prof., 128. Nietzsche, F., 15. Noe, 59.
Noldin, H, (S.J.), 50, 142. Nude in art, 48 sq.
O
OBERHOLTZER, ELLIS P., 52, 54. Obscenity in art, 48 sq. Occupations. 116, 138. Occupations, Dangerous, 93 sq. O'Neill, A. B. (C.S.C.), 71. Operations, Surgical, 88, 90, 97. Ovaries, Excision of the, 84.
PAIN, 12 sq., 18.
Paramimia, 82.
Parks, 33.
Parrots, 64.
Parsimony, 67.
Paul, St., I, 7, 12, 13, 14, 16, 21, 23, 24, 25, 45, 102, 108, 122, 152, iS3s 154, 169, 172, 175.
Payne, J. H., 31.
182
INDEX
Peabody, 16.
Perfection, 7, 18.
Perseverance in the chosen vo cation, 118 sqq.
Peter, St., 140.
Peterson, Dr., 82.
Philip Neri, St., 19.
Physicians, 57, 86, go, 95, 127.
Pius IX, 19.
Pius X, 45.
Plato, 150.
Playing, 37 sqq., 128.
Playgrounds, Public, 33, 56.
Pleasure, 36, 39, 122.
Pleasure trips, 49.
Politeness, 70.
Poor, 30, 151 sq.
Poverty, 151 sq.
Prayer, 35, 123.
Pride, 109.
Priesthood, 114, 119.
Private ownership, 143 sqq.
Prize fights, 62.
Property, Right and duty of acquiring and possessing, 143 sqq.
Prostitution, 138.
Protestantism, 140.
Prudence, 107 sqq.
Public dance halls, 55-
Puritans, 51.
QUAKERS, 49.
RADULPHUS ARDENS, 133. Railroads, 33. Ratherius of Verona, 140. Recovery of health in sickness,
57- Recreation, 35 sqq., 136 sqq.,
142.
Religious life, 114. Reputation, 165 sqq. "Rerum Novarum." 145. Rest (see Recreation). Resurrection, 14.
Revealing one's secret faults,
177-
Rickaby, Jos. (S.J.), 104. Roscher, 67.
Rottmanner, O. (O.S.B.), 109. Ryan, J. A., 148 sq., 155, 158,
159, 160, 161.
SA, 99.
Sabbath, 136.
Sacraments, 10.
Saloon, 30, 55.
Samson, 89.
Scandal, 171 sq.
Schiller, 109.
Schools, 104.
Self-defamation, 176.
Self-denial, 72 sq., 117.
Selfishness, 6, 8.
Self-love, 4 sqq.
Self-mutilation, 83 sq.
Self-preservation, 5, 21, 76.
Self-respect, 7.
Seneca, 7, 76, 153.
Sensuality, 25 66.
Sentimentalism, 60.
Shops, 33.
Sickness, 13, 24 sq., 57.
Sidgwick, H., 128.
Single Tax, 34.
Slater, Thos. (S.J.), 41, 92.
Slums, 30.
Smiles, Sam, 67.
Smith, J. T., 51.
Sociability, 36, 39 sqq.
Social intercourse, 39 sqq.
Societies for the prevention of
cruelty to animals, 61. Socrates, 24, 99. Soldiers, 86. Solicitude, 109 sq. Sorrow, 18. Spencer, Herbert, 149. Spiritualism, False, 9. Spiritual life, ill. Sports, 36, 43 sq., 141 sq. Stage, 49 sqq. Standard of living, 128.
INDEX
183
State, Rights of in regard to
education, 103 sqq. Sterility, 84. Stoics, 39, 77- "Story hours," 46. Street cars, 33. Streets, 32 sq. Suffering, 12 sq., 18. Suicide, 12, 74 sqq., 99. Suicidia martyrum, 89. Superstition, 108. Suprcmus debendi titulus, I. Sybaritism, 25.
TABLE, Pleasures of the, 40.
Talents, 24, 102.
Taxation reform, 34.
Teachers, 127.
Temperance, 72 sq.
Temptations, 90.
Theatre, 49 sqq.
Thomas a Kempis, 17, 46, 57.
Thomas Aquinas, St., i, 5, 59, 60, 63, 107, 122, 125, 132, 133, 136, 145, 147, 159, 160, 166.
Thrift, 67.
Tobias, 8.
Toilet, arts of the, 28 sq.
Travelling, 36, 49.
Trent, Council of, 36.
Truth, 102, 107.
U
UNCLEANNESS, 28.
Unearned increment tax, 34.
Usury, 138.
Uterus, Excision of the, 84.
VANITY, 27, 28, 29, 108.
Vasectomy, 84.
Vegetarianism, 27.
Viaticum, 57.
Victoria, 99.
Vincent de Paul, St., 19.
Virtues, 106 sq.
Vivisection, 63.
Vocation, Choice of a, 112
sqq.; Fidelity in, 118 sqq.;
Sins against, 121 sqq.
W
WAGE SYSTEM, 159.
Walsh, Jas. J., 45, 77-
War, 94.
Wastefulness, 23 sq., 28.
Wealth, 75, 137, 151; Concen tration of, 154 sqq.; Duty of distributing superfluous, 159 sqq.
Wisdom, 107.
Work, 117, 123 (see also La bor).
Workingmen, 30 sq.
Worry, 109 sq.
Zoolatry, 60.
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