OOtiJraiuisco tf $0 n* *n ,\ LIBR.AFOr /rn^ r~i MOSSES AND LICHENS Nature Books With Colour Plates AMERICAN ANIMALS Witmer Stone and Wm Everitt Cram AMERICAN FOOD AND GAME FISHES David Starr Jordan and Barton W Evermann BIRD HOMES BIRD NEIGHBOURS GAME BIRDS MOSSES AND LICHENS NATURE'S GARDEN THE BUTTERFLY BOOK THE FROG BOOK THE INSECT BOOK THE MOTH BOOK THE MUSHROOM BOOK THE REPTILE BOOK THE TREE BOOK A. R Dugmore Neltje Blanchan Neltje Blanchan Nina L. Marshall Neltje Blanchan Dr. W. J. Holland MaryC Dickerson Dr. Leland O. Howard Dr.W. J Holland Nina L. Marshall Raymond L. Ditmars Julia E. Rogers MOSSES AND LICHENS FRONTISPIECE, COLOUR PLATE I .w. Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Company OLD MAN'S BEARD, Usnea barbata, (L.) Fr. " The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, bearded with moss " MOSSES AND LICHENS A POPULAR GUIDE TO THE IDENTI- FICATION AND STUDY OF OUR COM- MONER MOSSES AND LICHENS,THEIR USES, AND METHODS OF PRESERVING BY NINA L. MARSHALL Author of "The Mushroom Book" SIXTEEN PLATES IN COLOUR, THIRTY-TWO IN BLACK AND WHITE, FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY J. A. & H. C. ANDERSON; AND MANY TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS GARDEN CITY NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 1919 COPYRIGHT, 1907, BY DotTBLEDAY, PAGE & COMTANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED INCLUDING THAT or TRANSLATION INTO FOREIGN LANOO. INCLUDING THE SCANDINAVIAN PREFACE MOSSES AND LICHENS has been written with the hope that it may meet a need often expressed, for a book with pictures which will help to identify some of the many beautiful growths which, winter and summer, in wood and open, excite the admiration and arouse the curiosity of all nature lovers. It is the result of the author's desire to know something of the dainty plants which are so lavishly employed by nature in beautifying the trails and brooks of the North woods. The more striking mosses and lichens were collected and carried about until by the kindness of one friend and another "learned in mosses," names were secured for them. No book was found which offered an easy path to the knowledge desired. In truth, no book was found which could be used at all until many months of patient labor in a botankal laboratory gave the necessary foundation. Then the author, urged on by friends who would have an easy path or none, set to work to make pen-and-ink sketches of bits of moss and details of structure. After a number had been made with some degree of success, a new plan was suggested by experience. An accurate detail was made with the aid of a microscope or was procured from a rare work, Bryologia Europce ; and with this detail a tuft or cushion on a large scale was built up and then reduced to natural size with a camera. Later, with the success crowning persistent attempts, Mr. J. A. Anderson and Miss H. C. Anderson succeeded in photographing specimens not too small, direct from nature. The plates in the book are the measure of their success. Thanks are due to Dr. Lucien M. Underwood, of Columbia University, for his never-failing readiness to give encouragement and valuable assistance; also Mrs. E. G. Britton, who has named most of the mosses collected by the author and has been ever ready to suggest works for reference and to render assistance in other ways. Thanks also are due to Dr. Howe, of the New v : I Mosses and Lichens York Botanical Gardens, and to Dr. Curtis, of Columbia, for assistance with certain subjects; and especially to Mr. Williams, a moss and lichen specialist of the New York Botanical Gardens, who named the lichens pictured in the book and undertook the laborious task of reading the copy before it was submitted to the publishers. The pen-and-ink drawings were made by the author direct from nature or were redrawn from the works mentioned in the ''Authorities consulted." Vi CONTENTS PART I PAGE PREFACE v I. MOSSES AND LICHENS AT HOME 3 II. How TO KNOW THE LICHENS AND MOSSES AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING ON ROCKS AND TREES General comparison of Mosses and Lichens . 8 Poets' conception of Mosses and Lichens . . 9 Scientists' conception of Mosses and Lichens . 1 1 Soil makers 12 corroding rock 12 decomposing vegetable matter . . . 12 reclaiming marshes 15 Marsh-building on Mt. Marcy . . . . 17 Mosses which build up limestone . . . 17 III. LICHENS IN HISTORY Mention by early Greek philosophers . . 19 Use in dye industry 19 Use as drugs 20 Use as food 20 IV. THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF LICHENS Spontaneous generation 22 Dual nature 22 The fungus partner 22 The alga partner 23 Experiments in artificial production of lichens . 24 How a lichen is made 24 Free fungus spore with free algal cell . . 24 Classification of algae associated . . . 25 Classification of fungi associated . . 25 Interest to the collector ..... 26 External beauty and form . . . . 26 Absorbing power of water . . • . . 27 vii Mosses and Lichens MM V. LEAFY-MOSSES Sporophy tes in general 30 Sporophyte of Hairy-cap in detail . . -35 How spores escape from a spore-case . . , 37 How a spore becomes a leafy-moss ... 38 How a spore-case is formed .... 39 How a Hairy-cap procures a maximum amount of light 42 How a Hairy-cap avoids too strong light . 43 Gametophyte 43 Leaves in general 43 Leaves of Hairy-caps 44 Stem 45 Antheridia 46 Archegonia 47 Development of a sporogonium .... 49 Veil or calyptra 50 Spore-case 51 Lid or operculum 51 Teeth or peristome 53 Teeth of Polytrichum Mosses . . . 55 Pedicel or seta 57 Asexual reproduction. Protonema from spores, rhizoids, cellular bodies, sporogonium, leaves, stems, gemmae 59 VI. THE POSITION OF HEPATICS AND MOSSES IN THE PLANT-KINGDOM AS SHOWN BY A COMPARISON OF HOMOLOGOUS PARTS . . . . . . . 61 VII. THE HERBARIUM How to collect Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 73 How to preserve Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 73 How to study Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 73 with the naked eye 73 with a lens 74 How to dissect Hepatics, Mosses and Lichens . 74 with a compound microscope ... 74 NOMENCLATURE . v . .75 ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORITIES . . v . -. . . v . 75 viii Contents PART II LICHENS, GENERA AND SPECIES Genus Cetraria 79 Cetraria lacunosa 79 Cetraria Islandica 79 Genus Usnea 80 Usnea barbata 80 Usnea tricbodea 81 Genus Thelochistes 81 X author ia parietina 81 Genus Parmelia 81 Parmelia conspersa . 82 pbysodes 82 saxatilis 83 " perlata 83 " caperata 83 Genus Physcia 84 Pbyscia leucomela 84 Genus Umbilicaria 84 Umbilicaria pustulata 84 vellea 85 Dillenii 85 Mublenbergii 85 Genus Peltigera 85 Peliigera canina 86 apbtbosa 86 " polydactyla 86 Genus Sticta 86 Sticta pulmonaria 87 " amplissima 87 Genus Stereocaulon 88 Stereocaulon pascbale 88 " tomentosum 88 Genus Cladonia .88 Cladonia pyxidata ..... 89 jimbriata 89 cristatella 89 " rangiferina (typical) .... 90 " cornucopioides 90 ix Mosses and Lichens PART III PACK LIVERWORTS OR HEPATICS Ribbon-like or Thalloid Hepatics . . . • 93 Marcloantia polymorpha 93 Names of parts 95 Description of development 95 Leafy Hepatics, Scale Mosses and Foliose Hepatics 99 Porella platypbylla 99 Names of parts 99 Genus Porella 100 Porella platypbylla 101 Genus Frullania 102 Frullania eboracensis 103 Genus Ptilidium 104 Ptilidium ciliare 104 Genus Bazzania 150 Bahama irildbaia 106 PART IV LEAFY-MOSSES Genus Sphagnum 109 The method by which Peat-mosses encroach upon water to form land 109 The pale tint of Peat-mosses 116 The method by which Peat-mosses absorb water 1 16 The development of organs 119 Synopsis of Genus Sphagnum 1 22 Sphagnum acuti folium 123 " molle 123 " subsecundum 124 rubellum . . . . . . .125 cuspidatum 126 squarrosum 128 cymbifolium 128 Genus Andreaea 130 Andrecea petropbila 132 " rupestris 133 Genus Sphaerangium 133 Spbarangium muticum 134 Genus Phascum 135 Pbascum cuspidatum 136 x Contents PAGE LEAFY-MOSSES (Continued) Genus Pleuridium . . ' 137 Pleuridium subulatum 138 Genus Bruchia 139 Brucbia ftexuosa . . . . . . .139 Genus Archidium 140 Arcbidium Obiense 140 Genus Astomum ......... 141 A sternum Sullivantii 142 Genus Gymnostomum 143 Gymnostomum calcareum 143 curvirostrum 144 Genus Weisia 145 Weisia viridula 146 Genus Trematodon 147 Trematodon ambiguum 149 longicottis 150 Genus Dicranella 150 Dicranella beteromalla 151 Genus Dicranum 152 Dicranum flagellare . . . . . .154 scoparium 155 Genus Fissidens 157 Fissidens adiantoides 160 Genus Leucobryum , .161 Leucobryum vulgare 163 Genus Octoblepharum 165 Octoblepbarum albidum 165 Genus Ceratodon 166 Ceratodon purpureum 167 " " var. xantbopous . .169 " " aristatus . . . .169 " " minor 169 Genus Pottia 169 Pottia truncate 170 Genus Ditrichum or Leptotrichum . . . .171 Ditricbum pallidum 171 Genus Barbula 172 Barbula unguiculaia . . . ... . 1/3 " ccespitosa xi Mosses and Lichens LEAFY- MOSSES (Continued) PAOE Genus Tortula . . . 1 76 Tortula princeps 1 77 " ruralis 178 Genus Grimmia . 178 Grimmia apocarpa 1 79 Genus Racomitrium 180 Racomitrium lanuginosum . . . . .181 Genus Hedwigia 182 Hedwigia ciliata 183 Genus Ulota 184 Ulota crispa 186 " pbyllantba 187 " Hutclinsice 188 Genus Orthotrichum 1 88 Oribotrichum strangulatum 189 Genus Encalypta 190 Encalypta ciliata 192 Genus Georgia 193 Georgia pellucida 195 " geniculata 197 Genus Tetradontium 198 Tetradontium repandum 198 Genus Schistotega 199 Scbistotega osmundacea 201 Genus Tetraplodon 202 Tetraplodon mnioides 203 Genus Splachnum . 204 Splacbnum rubrum . , 206 luteum 207 Genus Physcomitrium 207 Pbyscomilrium turbinatum 208 Genus Funaria 209 Funaria flaricans 210 bygrometrica 210 Genus Bartramia 214 Bartramia pomiformis . . . . .1 . 215 Genus Leptobryum 216 Leptobryum pyrijorme . . . . . .217 xii Contents LEAFY-MOSSES (Continued) PAGK Genus Webera 218 Webera nutans . . . 219 albicans 220 Genus Bryum 221 Bryum argenteum 222 " roseum 224 Genus Mnium 225 Mnium cuspidatum 228 a/fine 229 bornum 231 punctatum 232 var. elaium .... 234 Genus Aulacomnium 234 Aulacomnium androgynum 235 palustre 236 beterosticbum 237 POLYTRICHACE^E Key to Genera 239 Genus Catharinea 240 Caibarinea angustata 241 undulata 242 Genus Pogonatum 242 Pogonatum brevicaule 243 bracbypbyllum 245 capillare 245 urnigerum 246 Alpinum 247 Genus Polytrichum, with key to species . . . 248 Polytricbum gracile 251 Obiense 252 formosum 252 piltferum 253 juniperinum 254 commune 256 Genus Diphyscium 258 Dipbyscium foliosum 259 Genus Buxbaumia 260 Buxbaumta apbylla 261 Genus Fontinalis 262 Fontinalis antipyretica, var. gigantca . . . 263 xiii Mosses and Lichens POLYTRICHACE^ (Continued) PAGE Genus Neckera 265 Neckera pennala 265 Genus Anomodon 266 Anomodon rostratus 267 attenuatus 268 " apiculatus 269 Genus Climacium 271 Climacium dendroides ...... 272 " Americanum 273 Genus Hypnum with synopsis of sub-genera . . 274 Sub-genus Thuidium 280 Tbuidium minutulum . . . 282 " delicatulum . . . 282 Brachythecium 284 " Bracbytbecium rivulare . . 285 Starkii ... 286 Nava-Anglice . 287 " Eurhynchium 289 Eurbyncbium Boscii . . . 290 " Plagiothecium 291 " Plagiotbecium Muetterianum . 291 Amblystegium 292 Amblystegium varium . . . 293 Harpidium 294 Harpidium uncinatum . . 295 " Ctenium 296 Ctinium crista-castrensis . . 297 Euhypnum 298 Eubypnum reptile ... 299 imponens . . .301 " " curvifolium . . 303 Calliergon 305 Calliergon Scbreberi . . . 306 Pleurozium 307 Pleurofium splendens . . . 307 Hylocomnium 309 Hylocomnium triquetrum . . 310 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 313 INDEX 317 xiv COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS E I. Old Man's Beard, Usnea barbaia, (L.) Fr Frontispiece FACING PAGE 1 1 . Yellow Wall-lichen, Tbelocbistes parietinus, (L.) Norm. 4 III. Hypnum uncinatum Hedw 24 Golden Cord Moss 24 Georgia pellucida, Rabenh 24 Neckera pennata, Hedw. 24 Sphagnum cymbifolium, Ehrh 24 IV. Ceratodon purpureum, Brid 42 Catbarinea angustata, Brid. . . . . . .42 Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr .... 42 Pogonatum brevicaule, Beauv 42 V. Parmelia conspersa, (Ehrh.) Ach. . . . . 58 VI. A Forest Boulder . 70 [VII. Iceland Moss, Cetr aria Islandica, (L.) Ach. . . no Sticta pulmonaria, Ach no Sticta amplissima, (Scop.) Mass no The Dog Peltigera, Peltigera canina, (L.) Hoffm. . no VIII. Reindeer Lichen and variety . . . . .130 Reindeer Lichen, variety Alpestris . . . .130 Reindeer Lichen, Cladonia rangiferina, (L.) Hoffm. . 130 Pbyscia leucomela, (L.) Michx 130 IX. Wood Path 152 X. Hairy-cap Moss, Polytrichum commune, L. . . .162 XI. Umbilicaria vellea, (L.) Nyl. 174 Rock Tripe, Umbilicaria Mublenbergii, (Ach.) Tuckerm 174 XII. Scarlet-crested Cladonia, Cladonia cristatella, Tuckerm. 1 84 Brown-fruited Cup Cladonia, Cladonia pyxidata, (L.)Fr. 184 XIII. A Thalloid Hepatic, Marcbantia polymorpba, L. . 204 Mosses and Lichens FACING PAGE XIV. Hepatic, Dry, Frullania eboracensis, Gottsche . . 228 Hepatic, Porella platyphyUa 228 Hepatic, Moist, Frullania eboracensis, Gottsche . 228 Hepatic, Ptilidium ciliare, Nees 228 XV. Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr . . . .250 Climadum Americanum, Brid 250 XVI. Hypnum curvifolium, Hedw. . . . . . 276 xv I BLACK AND WHITE PLATES FACING PAGE I. The ruby-throated humming-birds know these lichens and so use them in decorating their nests as to make it difficult to distinguish them from lichen-covered knot-holes .... 34 II. The Pitted Cetraria, Cetraria lacunosa, Ach. . 80 III. Old Man's Beard, Usnea barbaia, variety Florida 82 IV. Old Man's Beard, Usnea longissima ... 84 V. Parmelia pbysodes, (L.) Ach., variety vittata. . 86 VI. Parmelia perlaia, (L.) Ach 90 VII. Spotted Lungwort, Sticta pulmonaria, (L.) Ach. . 96 VIII. StereocaulonPascbale, L 98 IX. The Fringed Cladonia, Cladonia fimbriaia, (L.) Fr. 102 X. Batfania trilobata, L. 106 XI. Acute-leaved Peat-moss, Sphagnum acutifolium, Ehrh. 124 XII. The Spread-leaved Peat-moss, Sphagnum squar- rosum, (Pers.) 128 XIII. The Broom-moss, Dicranum scoparium, Hedw. . 154 X I V. Whip-fork Moss — young, Dicranum flagellare, Hedw. 1 70 Whip-fork Moss — old, Dicranum flagellare, Hedw. 170 Ditricbum pallidum 170 Ortbotricbum 170 XV. The Curly-leaved Ulota, Ulota crispa, Mohr, and 186 Lichen, Parmelia saxatilis, (L.) Fr. . . .186 XVI. Top Moss, Pbyscomitrium turbinatum, Muell. ined. 210 The Pale Funaria, Funaria flavicans, Michx. . 210 The Water-measuring Cord-moss, Funaria bygro- metrica, Sibth 210 XVII. Weber a nutans, Hedw 218 Weber a albicans, Schimp. L c 218 XVIII. The Rose Bryum, Bryum roseum, Schreb. . . 224 XIX. Mnium punctatum, variety elatum, Bruch & Schimp 232 Mosses and Lichens PLATE XX. Buxbaumia apbylla, L Aulacomnium heterostichum, Bruch & Schimp. XXI. Juniper Hair-cap, Polytricbum juniperinum,Wi\\d. XXII. Anomodon apiculatus, Bruch & Schimp. . XXIII. The Dainty Cedar-moss, Tbuidium delicatulum, Linn XXIV. BracTjyihedum rivulare, Bruch, Ms. XXV. Bracbytbecium Navce-Anglice, (Sull. & Lesq.) Jaeger & Sauer Bracbytbecium Starkii, (Brid.) Br. & Sc. . XXVI. Hypnum Boscii, Schwaegr XXVII. Hypnum reptile, Michx Amblystegium varium, (Hedw.) Lindb. XXVIII. The Knight's-plume Moss, Hypnum crista- castrensis, L XXIX. Hypnum imponens, Hedw XXX. Hypnum Scbreberl, Willd XXXI. The Glittering Feather-moss, Hypnum splendens, Hedw. FACING PAGE 236 236 254 27O 282 284 288 288 290 292 292 298 302 306 308 XXXII. The Triangular Wood-reveller, Hypnum triquei- rum.L 310 PART ONE MOSSES AND LICHENS AT HOME CHAPTER I MOSSES AND LICHENS AT HOME V " Children of lowly birth, Pitifully weak ; Humblest creatures of the wood To your peaceful brotherhood Sweet the promise that was given Like the dew from heaven : 1 Blessed are the meek, They shall inherit the earth* ; Thus are the words fulfilled : Over all the earth Mosses find a home secure. On the desolate mountain crest, Avalanche-ploughed and tempest-tilled, The sweet mosses rest ; On shadowy banks of streamlets pure, Kissed by the cataracts shifting spray, For the bird's small foot a soft highway For the many and one distressed . Little sermon of peace." Willis Boyd Allen. No FREQUENTER of the woods can be unfamiliar with the more conspicuous lichens and mosses. It is with them that nature adorns her bare unsightly children. She drapes the time- worn evergreens with gray fringes (see Frontispiece) and decks the old tree-stumps with red or yellow corals. Soft lichens spread over the ground in the deep shade of the pine trees, while pale green or yellow rosettes creep over the fence-rails and the big rocks in the pasture lot. (See Colour Plate II.) " Far above among the mountains the silver lichen spots rest, starlike, on the stone ; and the gathering orange stain upon the edge of yonder western peak reflects the sunsets of a thousand years." — Ruskin. Lichens and mosses are met with all over the world, in the cold North and in the sunny South, in the East and in the West, Mosses and Lichens by the seashore and on the highest mountain peaks. They are the first growths to appear on the rocks and in the places which give no foothold to other plants. When the side of a mountain is torn away by frosts and floods, and the bared rocks, shorn of their forest trees and shrubs, are left unsightly with nothing to tempt other plants to make a home on their ledges, then the lichens come and cover the bared cliffs with delicate traceries and mantles of exquisite grays and greens. They need no soil, a polished rock will meet their need. "Meek creatures; the first mercy of the earth, veiling with hushed softness its dustless rocks ; creatures full of pity, covering with strange and tender honour the scarred disgrace of time." — Ruskin. The foothold of the lichens is often so insecure that one must exclaim as he sees them, " How do you grow in such unfavour- able places? On what do you subsist ? No soil! No water! Dry as tinder! Crumbling at any rude touch!" If the plant could answer, no doubt it would say, "There must be pioneers to open up new territory for higher plants, so from the earliest times nature has employed us to do this work. We travel swift as the wind for we travel with the wind. We are fed by the rains and the dews, the hard rocks soften at our touch and give us food." " The chapel and bridge are of stone alike, Blackish-gray and mostly wet ; Cut hemp-stalks steep in the narrow dyke, See here again, how the lichens fret And the roots of the ivy strike." Browning — By the Fireside. It is true that these little plants as they lie upon the rocks, secrete an acid which dissolves the hard minerals. It is true that they have the power to condense moisture from the air, however little it may be, for they must have water as an item of food and as a medium by which mineral-salts dissolved from the rocks may enter the interior of the plant and may pass from cell to cell to those parts where they are to be worked up into plant food. The lichens are often the forerunners of rock-loving mosses as without the scanty soil prepared by their chemical action and, without the slight foothold which their debris afford, many mosses would be unable to get a start upon the forbidding rock. 4 Mosses and Lichens at Home With the mosses nature first clothes naked sides of ditches and clay banks and spaces between stubble of hay and corn. These otherwise unsightly spots she covers and makes attractive with a bright green carpet. Even the hard soil along the city pavement or in the tiny city yard she covers with a velvety coat of young moss plants, although they rarely develop further than this velvet stage. " All green was vanished save of pine and yew, That still displayed their melancholy hue ; Save the green holly with its berries red, And the green moss that o'er the gravel spread." Crabbe — Tales of the Hall. The blackened embers of the picnic fire are hidden with Golden Cord-mosses (Colour Plate III) and the roadsides in the woods and the slopes to the lake are carpeted with sturdy Hairy-caps (Colour Plate X). The crumbling roofs of deserted cottages and the unused well-sweep and old oaken bucket are decorated with soft tufts of green. Indeed the mosses are lodged in the crevices of the stones which line the well itself and late in the winter when all the world is asleep under its blanket of soft white snow, these little mosses grow and flourish unaffected by the cold above. Nature distributes the mosses lavishly in all humid climates, regardless of altitude, cold or heat. They are found on trees living or dead, on earth or on rock, in streams and on the land. " The orange stain, which is time's finger mark on the gray wall, and the cups with scarlet edges spread for fairy banquets — the soft green beds into which our feet sink, and all the loveliness which we think of when we think of — mosses." — Ruskin. Who has not loved the mossy banks and the little velvet cushions which cling to the plaster of the old wall (Colour Plate IV) or spring up in the crevices of the pavement, giving restful spots of green to the dreary monotony of brick and stone? Children play with mosses and lichens. Poets sing their charms. Artists endeavour to reproduce their wonderful colours traced on bark and rock. Aside from their artistic charm, mosses and lichens have other charms for all who will pause awhile to study their habits, and for all who will linger long enough to make out what the plants are doing in their humble way. They have wonderful 5 Mosses and Lichens mechanical contrivances for the physicist, curious processes of interest to the chemist, and many suggestions for the philosopher. Go into the woods and pastures after a rain. You will find a beauty and loveliness on rocks and trees and fallen logs which were not even suggested on a dry sunshiny day. The wood is in her glory at such times, and everyone who once sees her in her splendour will visit her again. " Here are cool mosses deep, And thro' the moss the ivies creep.'' Tennyson — The Lotos Eaters: Choric song. The habit the mosses and lichens have of changing form and colour is one full of interest. The crisp gray moss cushions, which quickly turn green in the rain, must excite curiosity (Colour Plate IV). Pause awhile by a fresh green bank of Hairy- caps (Colour Plate X) wet with dew, and as the sun comes out and shines upon the little plants, watch them shrink away, changing the fresh bank into one brown and bare. Watch them again in a rain or when the evening dew is falling, to see every apparently dead brown plant revive and become green as before. The cause of the change is easily seen by one looking closely. The plant does not die when the sun shines, it simply folds the edges of its leaves together and turns them up against the stem so that their horny tips, instead of their delicate leaf surfaces, are presented to the sun. The cause of the upturning of the leaves of the Hairy-caps, the change of colour of many mosses and lichens from gray to green, the methods by which they subsist on bare and barren rocks and soils, and endure extreme and sudden changes in the dryness and humidity of the air, are all interesting questions to be answered by the microscope, together with careful observa- tions in the field. Gray or crimson Bog-mosses (see Colour Plate III), steadily working their way over swamps and ponds, preparing a foothold for larger plants, illustrate to us how the great peat-bogs of Ireland and of other parts of world were made. Whether one study the mosses and lichens for their natural beauty, for their habits, or from a botanical standpoint, they are interesting. They are true lovers of fresh air and clear running water, beautiful creatures in beautiful homes. They are 6 Mosses and Lichens at Home beautiful even when dried and pressed for the herbarium, so that one with a taste for collecting may regard the artistic as well as the useful. The wide distribution of the mosses and lichens and their power of enduring great cold renders them available for study at all times of the year. They are reported to have been found in all parts of the globe. Dr. Isaac I. Hayes who in 1854 discovered Grinnell Land, tells of finding "moss" as far north as Booth Bay in Greenland, in Latitude 76° 30'. The uses to which the moss was put in their distress were varied. After improvising a hut from a crevice in the rock by filling open places with loose stones pried from the frozen ground, they made a roof of sails and thatched it a foot thick with "moss" dug with their tin dinner plates from under two feet of snow. All cracks were closed with the moss, and tapers of "moss" dipped in oil were depended upon to light their dismal quarters. The habit of using moss for filling in chinks and cracks is a common one among all pioneers, as one may see by observing the log huts in newly opened districts, for mixed with clay it forms a useful cement. This art is not known alone to man. " Within a thick and spreading hawthorn bush That overhung a molehill large and round, I heard from morn to morn a merry thrush Sing hymns of rapture, while I drank the Sound with joy — and oft an unintruding guest, I watched her secret toils from day to day; How true she warped the moss to form her nest, And modell'd it within with wood and clay." Claire— The Thrush's Nest. CHAPTER II HOW TO KNOW THE LICHENS AND MOSSES — WHAT THEY ARE DOING ON ROCKS AND TREES Under the name of moss, in the popular mind, are included all small flowerless plants which grow in cushion-like tufts on stone or wood or bark. The name "moss" is made to do duty for the lichens, the mosses and their near relatives, the Hepatics, plants which differ widely in structure and appearance, as those will see who give more than a passing glance. LICHENS If a small plant, rootless, of almost any colour except bright green, grows as a dainty mat — a ibal~ lus— Hat (Colour Plate V) or ruffled (Plate II) on its support, one may suspect that it is a lichen. If in addition to this habit of growth, it bears its fruits in flattened coloured disks (Colour Plate VII) one may know it is a lichen, also if the plants branch like corals (Colour Plate XI), or hang in fringes (Colour Plate I) from the trees, and are without leaves, one may suspect that they are lichens and may be pretty sure of it if the fruits are little coloured disks or cushions on the tips of the branches. The "Florida Moss," which grows in long gray fringes from the trees in the South, is neither a lichen nor a moss, but is a true flowering plant with stamens and pistils, the old seed capsules are often found still clinging to this moss-appearing plant, in the season when it Aulacomnium Heterostichvm. Moss. 8 How to Know the Lichens and Mosses Hepatic. Hepatic. Hepatic. is not in flower. It was probably to this plant Gannet referred when he wrote: "A cloister dim, where the gray moss waves, And the live-oaks lock their arms at will." TRUE MOSSES If plants are small and green, with leafy stems, and have the habit of living in such close proximity as to form Spore-case without lid. Lid. Spore-case velvety cushions, (Cera- with lid re- . ., : \ moved to todon purpiireum) one Spore-case with lid. Bryum argenieum. show teeth wanting. Hedwigia ciliata may suspect them of be- ing mosses, but if they have this habit of growth, or grow in clusters resembling tiny ferns or miniature trees and bear their spores in little cases opening by lids, one may feel confident that they are the true mosses as distinguished from hepatics. Hepatic. Spore-case split into four symmetrical valves. Ceratodon purpureum, Velvety Cushion. 9 Mosses and Lichens HEPATICS If the plants are green, growing flat and ribbon-like or as prostrate stems with paired, veinless leaves and with fruits umbrella-like or cups which do not open by lids but split irregularly into symmetrical valves in order to permit their spores to escape, one may know them to be hepatics. The beauty which mosses lend to the surfaces upon which they live is pretty generally conceded. One has but to recall the frequent reference which our poets make to them to feel that they have always appealed to the poetic eye. Mnium ajfine. Moss. " On our other side is the straight-up rock ; And a path is kept 'twixt the gorge and it, By boulder-stones where lichens mock The marks on a moth, and small ferns fit Their teeth to the polished block. These early November hours, That crimson the creeper's leaf across Like a splash of blood, intense, abrupt, O'er a shield else gold from rim to base, And lay it for show on the fairy-cupped Elf -needled mat of moss." Browning — By the Fireside. Ruskin says: "To them, slow-fingered, constant-hearted, is entrusted the weaving of the dark, eternal tapestries of the hills." 10 How to Know the Lichens and Mosse Whittier in " The Bridal of Pennacook," to the query of "Why turns the bride's fond eye on him, in whose cold look is naught beside the triumph of a sullen pride ?" replies: " Ask why the graceful grape entwines The rough oak with her arm of vines ; And why the gray rock's rugged cheek The soft lips of the mosses seek : Why with wise instinct, Nature seems To harmonise her wide extremes, Linking the stronger with the weak, The haughty with the soft and meek ! " Shakespeare calls the mosses "idle": " It is dross, usurping ivy, brier, or idle moss." Comedy of Errors, Act II, Sc. a. Scientists of to-day tell us that the rock-loving mosses and lichens are at work upon the "everlasting hills" to convert them into new soil ; that the saprophytic mosses on dead logs in the forest are at work returning to Mother Earth the materials which her tree-children took from her many years ago. They tell us that bog-mosses are reclaiming the marshes for higher plants, and that the water-loving mosses are receiving from the brooks lime-solutions which were brought up from depths below, and are laying them down in places where they are useful to man. As our knowledge of their practical value increases we shall not lose sight of their beauty, a new wonder will be added to our knowledge and many new interests to our trips "among the nodding ferns and mosses cool." Their association with aged castles and trees is so familiar to everyone that the poet has but to mention mosses and lichens to picture lonely places and peaceful decay. "Moss-muffled for- ests dim" and "the rocks where the brown lichen whitens " give to us a feeling of loneliness, while the picture of Oliver — " A wretched, ragged man o'ergrown with hair " is complete when Orlando finds him sleeping on his back " under an oak, whose boughs are mossed with age." As You Like It. Act. IV, Sc. 3. Wordsworth tells us: ' ' There is a thorn — it looks so old, In truth, you'll find it hard to say II Mosses and Lichens How it could ever have been young, It stands erect and like a stone With lichens it is overgrown." Spenser expresses another idea when he saysof the ancient oak : "But now the gray moss marred his rine ;" and Shakespeare also when he introduces Tamora, Queen of the Goths, to " A barren, detested vale . . . The trees, though summer, yet forlorn O'ercome with moss, and baleful mistletoe." Titus Andronicus, Act II, Sc, 3- Mosses and Lichens are both soil-makers. They work by two methods. The one chemical, the other mechanical. By chemical action they either construct plant tissue of gases taken directly from the air or they first free from rock or wood or earth- mould, the minerals needed and then construct them into plant tissue. By mechanical action they pry off bits of soil from hard rock, arrest dust and debris brought to them by the wind, and constantly add to the mass, such plant tissue as they themselves are continually shedding. " Upon this herbless rock a small gray lichen Did fix her home. She came with meek intent, To bless her stern and sterile place of rest ; And presently her gentle sisters followed, Some vestal white , and some in robes of brown, And some in yellow vestures, labouring all At the same work, with tiny cups held out To catch the raindrops, and with mattocks small To pierce the rock. And well did they effect Their destined purpose." One of the most important sources of the nourishment of plants is carbon dioxide (C O2). It is the gas which bubbles up from "soda water" and it is the gas breathed out by animals. It is formed wherever a candle, lamp, or wood is burning or wherever vegetable or animal matter is decomposing. The gas is itself a compound of an elementary gas, oxygen (O) united with an elementary solid, carbon (C) known by the common names of charcoal and graphite. Stated in a general way, the carbon dioxide passes through the walls of the plant cells into the cell-contents and there by the leaf-green (chlorophyll) the 12 How to Know the Lichens and Mosses oxygen gas (O) is set free to return to the atmosphere, and the solid carbon (C) is worked up with water into plant foods called carbohydrates, compounds of carbon and water, of which starch, sugar, and plant tissues are examples. " A small sisterhood of plodding lichens Wrought on the rock ; the sun, the wind and rain, Helping then gladly, till each fissure filled And fit for planting, mosses came in haste And strewed small seeds (spores) among them, destined they To clothe the stern old rock with softest verdure With ferns and flowers, where yet the labouring bee May find pasture." Certain lichens carried by the winds to places unsuitable for other plants, begin their work of dissolving the inhospitable rock to obtain mineral salts which the leaf-green may, together with water, manufacture into plant food; the delicate threads of the lichen work their way in and out among the particles of rock too small to be visible to the naked eye, and as they swell with water absorbed from the atmosphere, they pry off tiny particles of rock, thus slowly but surely preparing soil for higher forms. The mosses also can take their start in life on bare and rugged rock, although not so generally as the lichens. If a tuft of Grimmia apocarpa is lifted away from the lime- stone upon which it is growing, one may see corroded depressions in the neighbourhood of the place where the stemlets of the moss colony meet, and one may see the rhizoids of the moss imbedded in loose particles of limestone which have been separated from the main rock by a dissolving fluid which the rhizoids secreted upon the rock. In this way the moss obtains mineral salts which are necessary for its growth. The solid rock is crumbled to a dust which may be blown by the wind to other localities, or which may remain on the spot and furnish soil for higher plants. In addition to the chemical action which the moss exerts in dissolving the rock, it, as well as the lichen, exerts a purely mechanical influence, for a growing rhizoid penetrates wherever the merest particle of limestone has been dissolved and by mechanical pressure separates the particles of limestone which remain. The mosses and lichens are truly efficient agents in rendering rocks available for plant life by retaining minute particles of soil IJ Mosses and Lichens but their work does not stop here, for as the older plants die and crumble and mingle with the disintegrated rock, an incredible amount of earth-mould is formed which is a favourable site for higher forms of mosses, ferns, and other spore-bearing plants. That the leafy parts above arrest to a remarkable degree the dust which pervades the atmosphere, not only along dusty road- sides and open plains, but also in remote mountain valleys, in Arctic ice fields, and in most of the elevated parts of the earth's crust, will be evident to one who detaches and examines a small tuft of Barbula, which everywhere occurs on roadside walls. He will be surprised to learn the extent to which the road dust has been lodged in the older dead parts of the plants, and he will be equally sur- prised to learn with what tenacity the dust is held. The power the older parts of the plants have of holding the dust is due to certain alterations which take place in the lifeless cell-tissue. To be con- vinced that fine dust is also carried to the more remote and elevated regions, one must examine the lichens and dark Grimmias, Andr&as and other rock mosses which grow in small cushion-like tufts on weather-beaten mountain crags, when he will find that not much less dust has been arrested by them than by the Barbula living near the dusty roadside. Old crumbled lichens, together with dust blown Andraa rupestnt ,.,.... , , , Plant with spore- thither by the wind, accumulate under the thallus, case- or leaf-like expansion of the lichen, and soon form a suitable home in which moss spores may grow. The mosses in turn add their share to the accumulation of humus preparatory to the coming of the ferns, and the ferns in turn prepare for the trees with winged seeds, the evergreens and birches, which require no very great depth of soil, sturdy pioneers of mountain forests. It is true that all green plants do a similar work, but they do not work under such primitive conditions as do the mosses and lichens. Aquatic mosses possess, perhaps to a greater degree, the power of arresting and retaining mud and fine sand hurried along by a violent rush of water. The plants of Hypnum rusciforme and 14 How to Know the Lichens and Mosses Atnblystegiwn riparium, which cling to rocks in streams, are so conglomerated by mud and sand that they cannot be freed from it until the plants have become dried and shrivelled. Limnobium molle, which grows in the turbid waters from glaciers, has such an abundance of earthly particles adhering to it that only the green tips of the leaf-bearing stems are visible above the gray- coloured cushions imbedded in the mud. It is the dead parts alone which retain in their thick felt of interwoven filaments, the firmly divided mud and sand. That they are able to do this is due to the fact that the cell-membranes swell up and become slightly mucilaginous. This mechanical retention and storage of dust by rock-plants, and of mud by aquatic plants, is of the greatest importance in determining the development of the earth's covering of vegetation. The first settlers are crustaceous lichens, minute mosses, and algae. Larger lichens and mosses are able to gain a footing on the substratum prepared by them. " Tis spring-time on the eastern hills! Like torrents gush the summer rills, Through winter's moss and dry dead leaves The bladed grass revives and lives, Pushes the mouldering waste away, And glimpses to the April day." Whittier — Mogg Megone, Pt. HI. The dead filaments, stems, and leaves of this second genera- tion arrest dust in the air and mud in the water, and thus prepare a soft bed for the germs of a third generation, which on rocks consists of grasses, composites, pinks, and other small herbs, and in the water of pond- weeds, water-crowfoots, hornwort, and related plants. The second generation is produced in greater abundance than the first, and the third develops more luxuriantly than the second. The third may be followed by a fourth, fifth, and sixth, each successive generation crushing out and supplant- ing the one preceding it. Another marked and important change results from these small beginnings. Streams on rather flat lands are turned from their courses by the accumulation of debris made possible by the arrested sand and mud, ponds have their outlets choked so that often new outlets must be cut, and small lakes are often cut in two by a natural divide which is due to the accumulation of sand and silt bound together, first by water plants and later by shrubs and trees. IS Mosses and Lichens The fact that at the present time the lichens and mosses are the first plants to appear on the soil, leads one to think that in ages gone by these little plants may have been the first to appear on the earth, and that they may have reigned supreme for a time in the plant world. This view is not sustained by positive tes- timony from the rocks, as there is no fossil evidence that mosses existed in Paleozoic times, nor has any certain trace of a moss been found in the coal-measures. Fossil mosses have been obtained almost entirely from tertiary and quaternary deposits. Notwithstanding that there is no fossil evidence that mosses did exist, there is no evidence that they did not exist, as their absence from the plant records written in the older formations is probably to be accounted for by reason of their insignificant size and the difficulty of their preservation. Another use the lichens and mosses subserve in the economy of Nature is illustrated by their habit of retaining great quantities of water in their spongy mass both on lofty mountain heights and in the forests of the valleys. In many parts of the world it is principally the moss-covered soil of the forests which, by collecting the rainfall, prevents the pouring down from mountains of violent and excessive torrents of water. Above the tree-line, in slight depressions on the sloping, rocky mountain sides, one may often find extensive patches of Sphagnum-moss and Reindeer-lichens which are crisp and dry on the surface, and yet retain so much water in their matted bases as to render it possible for one to obtain a supply of clear water. From areas of moss more extensive and of greater depth, tiny rills often trickle on their way to join other rills of similar origin. The sources of many a babbling brook or purling spring in the valley may be traced to the supersaturated moss-bed of a mountain forest. " Desolate ledges, frost-riven and bare, A tiny rivulet bore on their breast ; Cloud-gray mosses and lichens fair Mutely besought her to slumber and rest.'' Willis Boyd Allen. "Thou hastenest down between the hills to meet me at the road, The secret scarcely lisping of thy beautiful abode Among the pines and mosses ot yonder shadowy height, Where thou dost sparkle into song, and fill the woods with light." Lucy Larcom. 16 How to Know the Lichens and Mosses MARSH BUILDING ON MOUNT MARCY Upon the open summit of Mount Marcy, 5,344 feet above sea level, there are two small marshy areas. One is a decided depression in the northeast slope; the other is on the eastern slope and nearer the summit. The water necessary to maintain the character of these marshes is probably supplied in part by rainfall, and in part by melting of snows which have accumulated in the crevices of the rocks above. The two marshes are cold botanical gardens of natural formation, unique indeed, as there is no evidence that the soil for them could have been brought from other sources, while everything suggests that the mosses and lichens at the present time growing on the bare surfaces of the rocks are active soil-makers. The boulders of the summit are variegated by the different colours of the lichens growing on their hard and almost naked surface. The rock beneath the lichens is more soft and scaly than elsewhere, and the moss tufts have the spaces between their lower stems and leaves filled with dirt and sand. The soil in most places is but a few inches deep, and largely composed of dead vegetable matter. Only plants of the most hardy nature are found here, and these are small and imperfect representations of similar plants growing at lower alti- tudes. The total number of species found on the summit is 206, of which 103 — just half of the total number — are dependent for their existence on the other half, the Lichens, Liverworts, and Mosses. MOSSES WHICH BUILD UP LIMESTONE In trickling springs of mountainous regions, and on the lime- stone rocks of Niagara Falls, and in other localities are found mosses which obtain part of the carbon dioxide (C O2) they require by the decomposition of the bicarbonate of lime [HaCa ( CO3)2] dissolved in the surrounding water. The mono- carbonate of lime (CaC O3), which is insoluble in ordinary water, is then precipitated in the form of incrustations upon the leaves and stems of the plants. Gymnostomum curvirostre, Trichosto- mum tophaceum, Hypnum falcatum, and others which regularly occur in streams arising from springs loaded with bicarbonate of lime [HaCa(CO3)2] in solution become completely incrusted with lime, but go on growing at the tips as the older and lower parts imbedded in lime die off. In consequence, the bed of the stream Mosses and Lichens itself becomes calcified and elevated, and, in the course of time, banks of calcareous tufa are formed, which may attain to consider- able dimensions. Banks raised in this manner are known which are not less than forty-eight feet in height. To construct them, it is estimated that mosses must have been at work on them for more than 2,000 years. 18 CHAPTER III LICHENS IN HISTORY Somewhat authentic reference to lichens is found in the writings of the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (382-287 B. C.), a pupil of Aristotle. He gives us imperfect descriptions of Old Man's Beard (Usnea barbata) and Roccella tinctoria. Dioscorides, a Greek physician, and the founder of botany, who flourished in the first and second centuries, and also Gaius Plinius, a Roman naturalist (23-79), wno perished in the eruption which destroyed Pompeii, both wrote of lichens which may have been those described by Theophrastus. It is not improbable, however, that they were speaking of Marchantia or some other liverwort. The fact that lichens had few qualities which rendered them particularly conspicuous, caused them to be largely neglected by the early botanists. They are not as a rule striking in colour, size, or form and they have no marked useful or harmful properties. The incentive which led to the early study of plants was a desire to find properties which would be of use in medicine or in the household, therefore the early herbalists gave their attention to plants with real or imaginary medicinal properties. The lichens which could yield a dye were among the first to receive attention. Roccella tinctoria is supposed to have yielded the blue and purple dye of the Old Testament (Ex. XXV: 4). The dye called oricello, was certainly in use before the first century of our era. The knowledge of the dye was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire, but in 1300, Federigo, a Florentine of German parentage, accidentally rediscovered the method of preparing and using it. He is said to have achieved great success, and to have become the head of a distinguished family, the Oricellari, Roccellari, and Rucellai. From which we have orseille, the name of the dye material, and Roccella, the name of the genus of which Roccella tinctoria is a member. A blue litmus solution is produced by fermenting this lichen. It may be turned red by adding an acid and then turned blue again by adding an alkali as 19 Mosses and Lichens ammonia or limewater. For this reason it serves as a test for acid and alkaline substances. LICHENS AS DRUGS Since many lichens had a fancied resemblance to certain parts of the human body, they were supposed to be a cure for the disease of that part of the body which they resembled. Old Man's Beard (Usnea barbata, Colour Plate I) was used to promote the growth of hair. Yellow wall lichen (Xanthoria parietina, Colour Plate II) was given for jaundice. Peltigera canina dried and finely powdered and mixed with red pepper formed an anti-hydrophobia powder (Pulvis antilyssus) of the London Pharmacopoeia. In the history of the Royal Society it is recorded that several mad dogs belonging to the Duke of York were saved by this powder. A prescription of Dr. Mead reads: "Patient is bled and ordered to take a dose ofpeltt'gera in warm milk for four conse- cutive mornings thereafter. He must take a cold bath every morning for a month, and for two weeks subsequent, a bath three times a week." LICHENS AS FOOD " Iceland moss" (Ceiraria Islandica, Colour Plate VII) is even now used as an article of food, as it contains a high per cent, of lichen-starch. The Spotted Lungwort (Sticta pulmonaria, Colour Plate VII) was considered a sure cure for lung trouble and was used in a Siberian monastery for a beer which was noted for its peculiar bitterness. The manna of the Israelites is supposed to have been a species of Lecanora (Lecanora esculenta). This lichen is plentiful in Algeria and Tartary, as well as in mountainous districts of other countries. It is its habit to grow and spread rapidly and, as it is loosely attached, it is often carried by the wind down the sides of mountains into the valley, where it is spoken of as " Rains of manna." Kirghiz Tartars eat it as "earth bread." It first forms thick-wrinkled and warted grayish-yellow crusts on the stones. Within, they are as white as parched corn. 20 Lichens in History As the plant grows older the crust is rent and loosened from the substratum, while the edges curl over until the loosened piece forms an elliptical warted body about the size of a hazel-nut. The Manna Lichen is sometimes brought down in such quantities by the rain that it accumulates to a depth of several inches, and in the Steppe region, and in the high lands of southwest Asia is used as a substitute lor corn. From the time of Dioscorides in the first century, A. D., until 1825, advance in exact knowledge of lichens was practically nothing. Between 1825 and 1868 considerable progress was made in the chemical study of lichens, the investigations still being primarily made with a view to improving the dye industry. France took the lead in improved methods of extracting dye as well as of applying it. LICHENS " Little lichen, fondly clinging In the wild wood to the tree, Covering all unseemly places, Hiding all thy tender graces, Ever dwelling in the shade, Never seeing sunny glade." R. M. E.. Lichens. CHAPTER IV THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF LICHENS STRANGE opinions were entertained in regard to the origin of lichens. The belief was general that they were spontaneously generated. In them the philosopher found the origin of plant life. "Spontaneously, inorganic stone became living plant!" Dr. Hornschuch wrote in 1819, "Algae, lichens, and mosses may develop without seed from decomposing water. The decom- position of water induced by warmth and sunlight gives rise to the common ancestral type of algae, lichens, and mosses. This ancestral type is a vegetable infusorium known as monas lens which, when acted upon by light and air, under- goes an evolutionary transformation into algae, lichens, and moss." Nees Von Esenbeck, in 1820, was wont to lead his pupils to an old castle in order to demonstrate ad oculos, how the green substance when occurring on rocks will develop into lichens. De Bary was the first author to hint at the true nature of lichens (1866). His conception of the lichen as a dual organism composed of a fungus and an alga, was upheld by the researches of Schwendener and Bornet in 1868. Further investigation seems to prove that the lichen is not an individual plant, but that it is the result of an alliance perhaps for mutual benefit between two forms of plant life, an alga and a fungus. The alga gives the green colour to the lichen and is a relative of the simple plants which make damp stone or wood- work green on the shady sides of streets and houses and trees. The fungus is a relative of the toadstools and moulds. If one look at a piece of white mouldy bread, or in the ground at the base of a toadstool, one can see a true fungus plant which is simply a network of fine white treads (hyphce) stealing their food instead of manufacturing it for themselves. They have lost their leaf-green granules, the tools with which plant-food is manufactured from air and water and mineral salts, but they have acquired the 22 The Origin and Nature of Lichens An Alga-fungus company. The cut shows a magnified portion of a lichen, Stereocaulon ramu- losum, (Sw.), (h) colourless hyphae of a fungus en- veloping, (g) filaments of a blue-green alga Scytonema. power of absorbing great quantities of water and of resisting alternate drying and wetting. The alga will perish if exposed to dry air, but when kept moist is capable of taking elements from the air and 01 manufac- turing them into plant-food by means of little granules of leaf-green it has in its cells. In the alliance the fungus is entirely dependent upon the food manufactured by the green alga and in return keeps the sun's rays from the alga and absorbs water for its work. The Alga-fungus com- pany, or lichen, is perhaps one of the earliest instances of division of labour, a little community in which one party manufactures and supplies food to the other which serves as protector. The gray-green of a lichen is then due to the fact that a bright- green plant is covered over by a translucent white plant, and the brighter green of the wet lichen is due to the fact that the wet strands of the fungus are rendered transparent by the absorbed moisture, and permit the colour of the imbedded green to be seen. A magnified portion of a dissected lichen very much resembles a tangle of fine white threads in which are scattered bits of green. The white threads of the fungus creep around in search of moisture and as a rule determine the shape the lichen is to be, while the green cells or threads of the alga follow their protecting fungus. However little moisture there may be in the surrounding air, the fungus threads absorb it for their working companion, and so the lichen can live in places too dry and parched for other plants. "Strong in loveliness, they neither blanch in heat nor pine in frost." On account of this dual nature it has been difficult to decide where to place the lichens in the plant kingdom ; to decide Mosses and Lichens whether they belong with the algae, with the fungi or have a place as individual plants. It is claimed that with the microscope one may often deter- mine the species of the associated fungus, as well as that of the associated alga and that this alga freed from the lichen-fungus pursues its normal mode of life and can then be identified. It is also claimed that lichens have been formed from the spores of a fungus partner allowed to germinate on free-growing algae, and that a variety of lichens have thus been developed and that the same alga will produce different kinds of lichens if associated with different fungi, and that spores of the fungus- partner have been grown on nutrient solutions and have pro- duced a fungus. One instance is known of a fungus- partner (Cora pavonia) which can lead an existence independent of the alga-partner. HOW A LICHEN IS MADE According to this theory, if a wandering fungus spore meets a group of algal cells with which it can live in harmony, a lichen- fungus-company may be founded on the spot. This lichen may grow and flourish and may from time to time send forth representatives to found new colonies. By another method, which is some- what analogous to the budding of higher plants, the partners for the new colonies arise within the parent lichen company. Certain groups of cells (So- redia) separate from the rest, each group consisting of one or more algal cells enmeshed in a dense weft of fungus hyphae. At the proper time the surface of the parent lichen ruptures, and the numerous social groups appear, giving to the old lichen that attractive hoary or frosted appearance they so often have. With the aid of the wind these easily travel, to form new companies. The fungus spores (ascospores) which enter into partnership with groups of alga cells are produced in sacs (asci, singular 24 Coccocarpia molybdia. A section of the thallus showing the green cells of the alga covered by the colourless cells of the fungus. When the lichen is damp the colourless cells are more translucent and the green cells show more and the lichen is greener than when dry. MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE III HYPNUM UNCINATUM, Hedw. GOLDEN-CORD MOSS. Funaria hygrometrica, Sibth. GEORGIA PELLUCIDA, Rabenh. NECKERA PENNATA, Hedw. A moss creeping around the tree trunk . . . tA Copyright, 1907, by Doublcday, Page & Company SPHAGNUM CYMBIFOLIUM, Ehrh. . , . Crimson bog-mosses . . . illustrate how the peat-bogs . . . were made . . . The Origin and Nature of Lichens ascus) in organs of various shapes, knobs, or flat disks (apothe- cia), or cup and flask-like cavities (perithecia). In addition to these large spores (ascosporcs) of the knobs and cups there are smaller spores (conidia) produced in smaller cavi- ties scattered over the thai- ' lus. There is much conjee- ture as to what may be the function of these spores. In tropical countries there is found a very beautiful fanlike, greenish - yellow lichen (Cora pavonia) hav- ing a thallus marked with concentric ridges. This lichen bears its spores on the under surface on tiny clubs (basidia) instead of in sacs. The algal partner is one of the unicellular blue-green algae (Chrodcoc- cus) often found in muci- Usnea barbata. {Ft.) (A) A vertical section through a strand of the lichen. (B) A cross section of a strand at a point where a radiating strand was cut in vertical section. (*) Apex of strand, (r) cortex, (g) algae, (m) pith layer, (*) a central card, (ja) section of a radiating branch with its central cord, (*•)• laginous masses in damp places. Another tropical form (Dictyonema) grows as delicate blue-green, felt- like plates standing out from the tree-branches to to which they are attached. The algal partner in this case is a blue-green, branching, and thread-like species (Scytonema) found enveloped in a mucilaginous mass in fresh water. The fungus- partner in both the Cora pavonia and the Dictyonema is one of the group which forms leathery crusts on twigs and tree trunks. Another lichen, Laudatea, has the same partners as the Dic- tyonema. It is a crustaceous form and in it we find the exception to the rule, that the fungus is the leading member of the lichen firm. In it the alga has the upper hand and determines the direction of the growth. One lichen (Emericella -variecolour), which resembles a tiny puff-ball, is known to be due to the confederacy of a Mosses and Lichen* member of the pouch-fungi group (G aster omycetes) with an . alga (Palmella). In the majority of lichens the algae are arranged in definite layers, sometimes — as in the gelatinous lichens — they are distri- \ buted through the whole thickness of the thallus. The fungus partner which, with but few exceptions, directs the growth of the lichen, determines whether it shall encrust the surface so that it cannot be removed without injury, or whether it shall form shields and ribbons lightly attached, or corals and fringes fastened at one point. Although it is impossible without microscopic examination to determine the exact relations of one lichen to another, much pleasure may be derived from an acquaintance with their external form alone. No plants are more readily preserved and none will so satisfactorily respond to one's effort to revive them. Even after they have been dry for years they will become as beau- tiful as ever if placed in a .moist atmosphere. One may find them every- where and at all times of the year. Their power of absorbing moisture is tru- ly wonderful. It is stated that if living lichens which have become dry in the air, are left in a place saturated with moisture, they take up 35 per cent, of water in two days and as much as 56 per cent, in six days. Certain lichens after a long continuance of dry weather will absorb one-half their own weight of water in ten minutes and will lose it as quickly when exposed to dry air. It is an interesting experiment to put a mass of Reindeer-lichen in a glass of clear water, and note how quickly 26 Stictima ]vliginosa. (Dicks.) Nyl. A section showing (o) the upper cortex, (u) the under cortex, with (r) rhizoids: (m) Pith layer showing hyphae in side and end views, (g) gonidial zone, with the blue-green alga chroococcus. The Origin and Nature of Lichens it will expand into a beautiful fresh plant. One may appreciate their wonderful absorbing power by comparing the dry forest trail with a wet one. The old tree stumps are decked, as for a banquet, with branching, coral-like Cladonia, a lavish display of fairy candelabra! The red tips of Cladonia cristatella and the brown tips of Cla- donia mitrula are in rich contrast with their frosted green branches. The gray goblets of Cladonia pyxidata and Cladonia A magnified portion of Cladonia fur- cola (Huds.) Fr. (g.) The alga protococcus enveloped by colourless strands (h) of a fungus. •Pith An ideal section through the thallus of a lichen at a point where an apolhecium is situated. gracilis are suggestive of many a wood-sprite revel. In cedar woods and on sunny mountain slopes, Reindeer-lichen (Cla- donia rangiferind), covers the ground with a carpet of loveli- est grays, crisp and crumbling when dry but soft as a sponge when moist, and "O'er yon bare knoll the pointed cedar shadows drowse on the crisp, gray moss." J. R. Lowell — An Indian Summer Reverie. Gyrophora cylindrica, (L) Ach. (A.) A magnified section of a lichen thallus at a point where a perithecium (Pycnidium) is situated: showing (o) the upper surface. («) the under surface, (m)the pithy layer, (b) the interior and (c) the opering of the perithecium. (B) A highly magnified bit from the interior of A; (j) sterig- mata — the tiny stalks upon which the spores are borne, (w) Wall of the pycnidium. (m) Side and end views of hyphae from the in Lapland feed Pittv laver- . ... (v) Sterigmata with spores from the lichen Cladonia Novae almost entirely The reindeer Mosses and Lichens upon this lichen, and in times when food has been scarce, even man has been glad to avail himself of it. In Sweden at one time the people made their bread from this lowly plant. In moist places, velvety green ruffles (Pdtigera, Colour Plate VII) spread on the ground or on stones and stumps, the edges of the ruffles set with fruit- disks curled in such a way as to resem- ble brown finger nails, or dogs' teeth. In the days when drugs were selected because of a fancied resemblance to the part of the body in need of cure, Pelti- gera canina was considered a cure for Section hydrophobia and received its specific ot thaiius toshow aig* and hyp- name canina because of the resemblance hae in definite layers. of its fruit-disks to a dog's teeth. When dry the surface of the ruffles is a light quaker-drab, which quickly changes to a bright green when the lichen is damp. It is on the bark of trees that one finds the richest har- vest of lichens. They are found in the greatest profusion on the north sides of -^ the trees and for this reason serve the wood- man as a guide through the forest. Emerson in "Wood Notes" refers to this, when he says: " The moss upon the for- est bark Was pole-star when the night was dark." (Colour Plate IX) The encrusted lichens, Parmelia (Colour Plate V), and Stic fa (Colour Plate VII) which grow flat on rocks and trees, cling so closeiy that they can with difficulty be separated. Their pretty gray or green mats dotted with shining brown fruits grow from the centre outward in an ever-widening circle, covering old fence 28 Epkebe Kerneri. A gelatinous lichen with the alga distributed throughout the thallus. The Origin and Natuie of Lichens rails, unpainted cabins, and all other hard unsightly things which Nature wishes to render soft and beautiful. "O'er yon low wall, . . . whose rough, discordant stone Is massed to one soft gray by lichens fine The tangled blackberry, crossed and recrossed, weaves A prickly network of ensanguined leaves." J . R. Lowell — An Indian Summer Reverie. Coliema pulposum (nat. size). A gelatinous lichen with Nostoc as alga. The ruby-throated hummingbirds know these lichens and so use them in decorating their nests (Plate I) as to make it difficult to distinguish them from lichen-covered knot holes. The Lungwort (Sticta ptilmo- naria, Colour Plate VII), so called from the resemblance of the pitted surface to the surface of a lung, does not encrust the bark on which it grows, but clings lightly to its support when moist and curls up its under white surface when dry, to protect its green surface. On the same tree with the Lungwort one often finds an hepatic (Porella platyphylla, Colour Plate XIV), with braided strands, and a moss (Neck- era pennata, Colour Plate III) creeping around the tree trunk its strands in parallel rows. On overhanging cliffs by lake or stream, or on huge rocks in the forest, one finds the oddest lichen of all, the Rock Tripe (Colour Plate XI). When wet, the velvety green shields lie flat, held by a stout cord at their centres. As the air around them becomes dry, the edges begin to curl, bringing the soot-black under surfaces to the light to form black tubes here and there over the rocks. With every change in the moisture of the air the Rock Tripe curls and uncurls, writhes, and twists; at one time presenting its gray or green surface, at another its black. This lichen is also used for food and is said to have saved the life of Sir John Franklin in the Arctic seas, when he was reduced to starvation. 29 Section of CV/Vma pulposvmto show uniform distribution of the alga throughout the whole thickness of the thallus. CHAPTER V LEAFY MOSSES The tiny moss, whose silken verdure clothes The time-worn rock, and whose bright capsules rise, Like fairy urns, on stalks of golden sheen, Demand our admiration and our praise, As much as cedar, kissing the blue sky, Or Krubul's giant flower. God made them all, And what He deigns to make should ne'er be deemed Unworthy of our study and our love." All true mosses produce their spores in a spore-case of one shape or another which opens, with few exceptions, by a lid. The spore- case may be situated at the summit of the stem of the moss-plant or on one side of the stem. It may or may not be supported upon a pedicel (seta). Many species of moss have two rows of teeth about the rim of the spore-case, while some have one row and some have none. The Spore -case Plant with closed opening with- spore-case. out a lid. Andrea rupeslris. An exception to the rule that a moss spore-case opens by a lid. Pottia trun- cata; spore - case opening by a lid. 30 Plant with spore-case im- Spore-case open mersed by the and spores falling. leaves. Archidium Ohiense. An excep- tion to the rule that a spore-case opens by a lid. Leafy Mosses Spore-case with lid re- mo ved to show single row of teeth. Neckera pennata. Gymnostomum ca2- careum. Spore-case without teeth. Hypnum uncinalum. Por- teeth may vary greatly in shape and num- tion of penstome to show her; as a rule, there are four, sixteen, thirty- ciUa fnd teeth °f the inner ' membrane and one tooth tWO, Or SiXty-four. of outer membrane with The spore-case when immature is often annuius at the base. covered by a cap or veil (calyptra). The veils vary in shape and in size, sometimes persisting a long time, sometimes falling away in the early stages. All leafy mosses have leaves which may vary in size, in shape, in Funaria hygrometrica. Spore- cases borne on pedicels grow- ing at the summit of stem. Thuidittm delicalulum. Spore - case sho wi ng two rows of teeth. Brachythecium rivulare. Spore-case borne on a pedicel growing from the side of the stem. 3' Mosses and Lichens texture, in colour, and in the nature of the margin, this being sometimes entire, and sometimes toothed, sometimes with a thickened margin or with one made up of cells very different from those within. The species of mosses are based on the characters of the plant, the spore-case, the pedicel, and the leaves, together with their habit of growth. Everything about the moss-plants indicates that their purpose in living is to reproduce their kind. Each part is designed and perfected with this end in view. In the struggle for existence they have come to adapt themselves to the most varied condi- tions, but a certain amount of water is as necessary to them as to all other forms of life. Without water the male cells can never reach the egg-cells and the leaf-green (chlorophyll) cannot manu- facture plant food. It is true that there are species which have ceased to attempt the formation of spores in localities where the rainy season is never long enough to permit their reaching maturity. In such species the plants become very dry, the leaves Funaria hy- trometrica. With an immature spore-case cov- ered by its veil. ' Polylrichum brachyphyllum. Spore-case with hairy veil Fissidens adi- antoides. Spore- case with one row of teeth. Dicrantlla heteromdla. Spore-case with and without a veil. Polytrich- um pilifer- um. Leaf with apex prolonged into an awn. Gtorgia geniculata. Spore -case with four teeth. Leafy Mosses and branches break off and are blown hither and thither by the wind, each piece being capable of growing into a new plant, if it has moisture long enough to permit it to get well started. It can then endure long periods of drought and can avail itself of small quantities of moisture which may be condensed from the air. It must be remembered that normally all plant food is manu- factured by the green colouring matter in the leaves and stems of plants, nnd that these little agents can work only in the light. The light must not be too weak, or the leaf-green becomes yellow and cannot work; again the light must not be too strong or the leaf-green is destroyed and the water in the plant is too rapidly evaporated, with the result that the plant dies. In order that moss plants may avail themselves of small quantities of water and may Polytrichum commune. Summit of spore- case showing membrane surrounded with sixty-four teeth. Apex of leaf to show entire margin. Catharinea undttlaia. Tip of spore-case with thirty-two teeth at- tached by their tips to a membrane. Octoblepharum albidum. Spore- case with eight teeth. Spore-case. Part of peristome. Ulota Hutchinsue. Aulacomnium heterostichum. Leaf apex to show serrate margin. Mosses and Lichens withstand the fierce heat of the sun, they have various interesting contrivances for folding their leaves so as to retain what moisture they have absorbed, and they have methods of trans- ferring their delicate leaf-green from one part of the plant, too much exposed to the sun, to a part less exposed, or of surrounding the leaf-green-bearing cells Stem with Portion of leaves, leaf to show marginal cells different from body cells. Mnium punctatum. Mnium cuspidatum. Stem with leaves. Pogonatitm Alpinum. Apex prolonged into an awn. Margin serrate- Surface covered with delicate cells. in a wall of large colourless cells. This arrange- ment accounts for the fact that some mosses, as the peat-mosses (Sphagnum, Plate XI), white- mosses (Leucobryum, Colour Plate IV), and others appear light gray when dry and green when wet. The luminous moss has given up- the struggle for a place in the outer world and has retreated to caves where but a few rays of light enter. It has adapted itself to the semi- darkness by devising a method where- by it can con- verge the sev- eral feeble rays which fall upon it so that they form one beam Cell. Sphagnum cymbifolium. Surface view of leaf- Bryum argenteum. Leal with open cell - structure. MOSSES AND LICHENS PLATE I ! The ruby-throated hummingbirds know these lichens and so use them in decorating their nests as to make it difficult to distinguish them from lichen-covered knot-holes. . . Leafy Mosses sufficiently strong to permit their leaf-green to manufacture plant food. THE HAIRY-CAP MOSSES Among the best subjects for a beginner are the Hairy-caps, the most common mosses, which every- one who frequents the woods will find bordering trails and wood-roads, or covering the ground in con- tcn-wtyxij UO.J- Leucobryum vulgare. Cross-section of open leaf. Pogonalum ur- nigerum. Leaf open to expose the delicate surface. almost all open places. They are so large that with a hand-glass many of the principal parts may be made out and will thus serve as a foundation for a study of other mosses. FRUITING PORTION (SPOROPHYTE). The most striking part of the plant (Gametophyte) is the fruiting portion (sporophyte) with its parts. The spore-case is a thin-walled cylindrical box with four or six sharp edges running lengthwise. The spore-case is borne on a flexible pedicel (seta), the two together resembling a tiny Turkish pipe. In cer- tain stages of this moss the spore-case is entirely Folytrichutn , , . ' juniperinum. COVered With 3 COniCal Leaf closed to \\a\\\. - bro wn, hairy cover the del- . . , , icate surface, veil fringed about the Sporf-caae o.po/»h«j«i« : Pdytric Mosses and Lichens base. When this veil falls, the case is tightly shut by a round lid, resembling in some species a tiny Tam-o-Shanter, and in others a tiny dunce-cap. The lid has a point in the centre and its edges fit closely about the rim of the spore-case. When the lid is thrown off, sixty-four blunt teeth are seen to border the rim of the case. They are bent inward, and bear at their extremities a thin mem- branous disk (epipkragm) which now closes the case. Spore -case without veil and with a Spore-case short-pointed with veil- lid. Polytrichum juniperinum. Polytrichum gracile. Spore- case with long-pointed lid. Polytrichum piliferum. Moss Gametophyte. Polytrichum commune. Summit of spore-case with sixty-four teeth surrounding a membrane. Within the spore-case are myriads of green, dust-like spores, which, when scattered 36 Leafy Mosses by the wind, will grow into new plants, if they fall in favourable places. HOW THE SPORES ESCAPE FROM THE SPORE-CASE When the weather is damp, although the spores are ripe, the teeth of the Poly- trichum mosses hold the membranous disk so that the spores cannot escape. When the weather is dry the teeth are so modified as to make a ring of holes be- tween the teeth and the edge of the disk, through which the spores may pass. There are mosses with their teeth trian- gular in shape. These have the bases of the triangles fastened at the rim and the points Tetraplodon mnioides. Spore-case with eight pairs of teeth turned back. Leucobryum vulgare. Portion of single peristome showing four teeth split half way to the base. .Jh. emir a HE. Tttth. P... Spope-ca.se Polytrichum juni- per inum. An old sporophyte with lid removed. Georgia pellucida. Top of spore -case with four teeth. meeting at the centre. In some species the teeth simply arch up, remaining fastened at the points, and let the pores escape, while in other species they turn back like the ray flowers of a daisy. Some species have at the base of the teeth a single or double row of short bead-like cells (annulus) which swell up at the proper time to push off the spore-case lid. 37 Sport-case. ...annulus ...TeetX Funaria hygrometrica. Summit of spore -case. Mosses and Lichens When the spores of the Hairy-cap are mature, the pedicel bends to bring the spore-case into a horizontal position, and the sides of the spore-case wrinkle up, and by so doing oust the spores. HOW A SPORE BECOMES A LEAFY -MOSS PLANT The spores which the wind carries from the spore-case to favourable places germinate. The spore first swells and sends forth a delicate tube which divides into a net-work of cells (protonema). Some cells (rhi^oids) of the pro- tonema contain leaf-green (chlorophyll) and extend over earth or wood or stone as a Tine green web. Upon this green web little bud-like structures appear which develop into leafy Spores. Widely branching protonema. Spore germinating. w. Rhizoid of the moss-plant starting at K. v>. Rhizoid; .». Outside wall h. A main filament of protonema from which branch- of spore; v. Vacuole; p. Pro- ing protonema h has grown. tomena. Funaria hygrometrica moss-shoots. The leafy structure is the part one ordinarily sees and knows as "moss." As a rule, when the Hairy-caps and other mosses are well grown, the protonema disappears. In a few species, as in the Beard Moss (Pogonatum brevicaule), it persists, being visible as a soft green covering on the ground, with small plants on its surface and conspicuous spore-cases erect upon the plants. 38 Leafy Mosses HOW A SPORE-CASE IS FORMED Upon the leafy part which is known as the moss-plant there soon appear little organs which together are to produce the sporophyte, spore-case, pedicel and foot. Plant stripped of leaves to show male t and female 9 Fertile branch. branches. Tetraplodon mnioides. — Monoicous in florescence. Fvnaria hygromelrica. — Monoicous inflorescence. One organ contains an egg-cell and is known as the arche- gonium; the other organ contains the fertilising cells (sperm- cells) and is known as the antheridium. The archegonia and antheridia of the Hairy-caps are on 39 Mosses and Lichens different plants (dioicous, two households). This plan is common to many species of mosses, while other species have the antheridia and archegonia on the same plant (monoicous, one household). JftauU. ctttJtcr of ale cluster of first jj Terminal male Female plant. Male plant. flower-cluster. Polytrichum. — Dioicous inflorescence. Sperm cell. Antheridium bursting and sending forth sperm cells. (See page 46.) Phascum cuspidatunt. — Paroicous inflores- cence. Vertical section through stem to show (an) male and (ar) female flowers side by side on the same plant. (6) Leaf blades, (p) Paraphyses. Trematodon ambiguum. Examples of autoicous inflorescence. Two male clusters and one female cluster. 40 Leafy Mosses The sperm-cells which develop in the antheridia are tailed and swim in water to an archegonium which contains an egg-cell. The sperm-cells pass down the necks of the archegonia, unite with the egg-cells, and after Cut leaf Vetx Funaria hygromelrica. Moss stem cut vertically to show (a) archej?onia alone, (b) leaf blades. Bryum binum. Stem cut vertically. the union, each egg-cell be- gins to divide, forming new cells until a spor- ogonium is com- pleted. As the spor- ogonium, still within the archegonium wall, grows up- ward, the wall of the archego- nium is torn away at the base and is carried up as a veil on the Summit of a stem with two perfect sporogonia and five withered antheri- dia. One sporogo- nium i s entirely within the arche- gonium wall, the other is raising the archegonium wall as a calyptra. Phascum cuspidatunt. Stem cut ver- tically to show , (ar ) archegonia on one branch and (on) antheridia nearby on another branch; (p) paraphyses and (b) leaf blades. Mosses and Lichens growing sporogonium, thus the veil of the spore-case is the old archegonium wall. Anomodon apicu- latus. Leaf with vein extending to the apex. HOW A HAIRY-CAP PROCURES A MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF LIGHT The leaves of a Polyirichum have many points of interest. It is a recognised law in nature that the position of the leaves of a tree or plant is such as to admit the greatest amount of light and air possible to the great- est number of leaves. Since it is the habit of these mosses to grow perpendicularly with little or no branching and to have the leaves long and slender, the leaves are so placed on the stem as to form a spiral of leaves, every eighth leaf lying directly above the first one counted. If a line be started atone leaf, and wound about the stem joining all eight leaves, it will be found that it has coiled three times about the stem. The leaves joined form "one story." If a plant with several stories of eight leaves each has straight perpendicular lines drawn joining leaves which lie one directly above another, it will be found that the dis- tance between each line is % of the circumference of the stem. The fraction which represents distance will always have for a numerator the number of spirals in a story and will always have for the denomi- nator the number of leaves in a story. In some Polytrichum mosses every thirteenth leaf is directly over the first one counted, so that it would require a spiral of five coils to connect all thirteen and would require the circumference to be divided by thirteen perpendicular lines, each line •£% of the circumference Pogonatwm Alpinum. Upper view showing transparent base and lamelias cover- ing the surface ex- cepting along the serrate margin. Ceratodon purfur- eum. Cross section of leaf showing blade one cell thick, and vein several cells thick. the horizontal > Leafy Mosses from the next line. If the two fractions are reduced to the same denominators ^°T and •&$ and compared, it will be seen that the leaves were but little more crowded. The extra crowding is compensated for by the greater distance between two succeeding leaves in the same line and by the fact that the leaves in the second instance are narrower than the first. HOW A HAIRY-CAP AVOIDS TOO STRONG LIGHT The devices for avoiding the extreme heat of the sun are per- haps still more wonderful than those for obtaining a sufficient amount. It is a fact that in the leaves of the Hairy-caps only the upper surface of the leaves is so constructed as to be injured by too dry heat. The cell walls of the lower surfaces are on the contrary thick and impervious to water, so that they cannot give Bryvm argenteum. Leaf with open cell - structure and midvein extending only part way to the apex. Catharinea ttndtilata. Cross section of leaf to show the leaf- blade one cell thick, and the lamellae rising from a thickened vein. Dicranwm flagellate. Part of leaf to show open cell- structure of base. Solid vein on the right of cut. up moisture to the air when it is dry, a character which insures against loss by evaporation, for when the air is dry the mosses simply turn the awn-pointed leaves upwards with the points and the impervious under-surfaces to the sun and the delicate cells toward the stem. VEGETATIVE PART (Gametophyte) The structure of the leafy-mosses is mostly very simple. The leaves are generally but one cell thick from surface to surface, except along a line from apex to base where they form a mid-vein (costa). 43 Mosses and Lichens The leaves have no epidermis' and no breathing pores as do the leaves of higher plants. LEAVES OF POLYTRICHUM The leaves of a Polytrichum represent about the highest stage in the development of mosses. The mid-vein is broad, and only at the extreme margins is the leaf-blade one-layered. The central tissue of the mid-ribs of the leaves continue so as to unite with the central axis of the stem in a manner quite analogous to that found in stems of higher plants. A cross section of a leaf shows that the marginal cells and a line of cells running through the central part are comparatively thin- walled and are Pogonatum Al- pinum. Upper face of leaf to show deli- cate lamellae. Catharinea angustata. Cross section of leaf to show the thin blade and two lamellae rising from the vein. Catharinea undulata. Upper surface of the apex of a leaf showing lamellae with thin leaf-blade on either side. empty water-conducting cells similar to the wood-ducts (tracheae) of a fibro-vascular bundle in a higher plant. The next layer is composed of similar but smaller cells containing starch. The rest are thick-walled cells (sclerenchyma) . The outer cells contain more or less leaf-green (chlorophyll). When breathing pores occur they are on the spore-case walls. The cells of the upper surfaces, have their walls exceedingly delicate, so that they can absorb gases and permit gases or water to leave them. The thin blades (lamella) are undoubtedly the 44 Leafy Mosses result of an effort on the part of the plant to increase to the high- est degree its absorbing surface without widening the leaf-blade itself. By directing the growth of the delicate cells upward in thin blades, this end is accomplished. Polytrichum. Cross section of a portion of a leaf to show: Co) lamellae, (s) sclerenchyma. Thickened cells of vein. The leaf -blade one cell thick shows on the left. Polytrichum slrtctum. Cross section of leaf through the mid vein to show bead-like lamell» on the upper surface and thick-walled cells on the under-surface. THE STEM The stems of most mosses are simple in structure, they have no vascular bundles for strengthening the stem and for the pur- pose of carrying liquids from one part to another. The cells of one part differ but little from the cells of another part ; those on the exterior may have thicker walls so as to form a firmer rind- layer, and those of the interior may be elongated and serve for the storage and transmission of albumen and hydrocarbons. The stem of the Hairy-cap is perhaps the most highly devel- oped of all moss stems. A cross section shows a central portion of thick- walled cells 45 Mosses and Lichens with here and there cells whose walls have remained thin and yellowish. Immediately without the central portion is a zone of several layers of thin-walled narrow cells, bounded _,. . . , .. Mnium undulatum. Cross Macomnium faluitre. Cross Chmacium dendrotdes ^.^ Q{ stem ^ ^^ ^ •ection of central part of stem. Cross f >f central structure without fibro-vascu- part of stem. lar bundles. on the outside by from one to three layers of cells with thin, mostly dark-brown, walls. These as well as the cells lying immediately within are char- acterised by the starch contained in them as are the narrow cells of the leaf-traces. The "roots" are very simple in structure, being either hair-like tubes or simply chains of cells. To dis- tinguish them from the roots of higher commune. plants they are called rhizoids. Cross section of stem. ANTHERID1A Antheridia, or the male organs of the Bryophytes, are spheri- cal, oval, or club-shaped bodies, with long or short stalks. They consist of an outer wall of a uniform layer of cells, and an interior tissue formed of numerous small cells, in each one of which a sperm-cell has its origin. (See diagram on page 40). The sperm-cell is a spirally coiled filament, thickened at the rear and pointed at the forward end with two long fine cilia projecting from the point. When mature, the antheridia walls rupture, and the sperm- cells, in virtue of their coils, spring from the antheridia and by means of their cilia swim in water to the archegonia. 46 Leafy Mosses ARCHEGONIA An archegonium is produced by a multiplication of cells which form a flask-shaped body. The lower or swollen part of the flask contains an egg-cell (ovum) and the upper portion is drawn out to form the IMUa^yein neck which in -711 the early stages is filled with a layer of cells. Later the chain of cells becomes a mucilaginous jelly, w h swelling with water, bursts openthelidofthe neck, and lying on the summit arrests the sperm cells which pass that way in the water, and directs their course down the neck of the flask to the egg-cell (ovum) with which they are to blend. hec* ivrc h, e o o n lu>n SUM Cut leaf W Bryunt binum. Vertical section of stem. ....Walt. ___..£ m b T 4 o OV, •Sporoqonium Sections of archegonia, Sphagnum cuspidatum. 47 Mosset and Lichens The archegonia and antheridia are developed among the leaves of the moss-plant. As has been stated before, they may be on separate plants (dioicous, of two households), or they may Pedicel Climaciunt dendroidet. Sporogo- nium. (a) Spore-case with lid. (b) Columella attached to lid. (c) Spore-case with lid lifted to show teeth, (d) Spore-case with veil. (See page 49.) Fun aria hygrometrica. Autoicous inflorescence. both be separated on different parts of one plant (autoicous), or side by side on the same plant (paroicous) or on the same part of the same plant (synoicous) — Monoicous — one household — is a general term including the last three forms. 48 Leafy Mosses THE DEVELOPMENT OF A SPORE-CASE (Sporogonium) After the union of the sperm-cell of the antheridia, with the egg-cell of the archegonium, a division of the egg-cell takes place, Vertical section through male flower-cluster, (a) Young Vertical section through •ntheridium. (6) Mature antheridium. (c) Paraphysis. female flower-cluster, (a) Ar- (d) Leaf -vein, (e) Leaf -blade. chegonium. (6) Leaf-blade. " Funaria hygrometrica. — Dioicous inflorescence. (See page 48). which brings about a multiplication of cells, the ultimate result of which is a mass of tissue called a sporogonium, which is the Sphterangtum muticum. Sporogonium •with wall partly removed to show colum- ella with spores attached. Funaria kygrometrica. Summit of spore* gonium to show the annulus rolling back from the teeth. fruit of the moss made up of the lid, spore-case, teeth, annulus, spores, and columella. (See diagrams on pages 48 and 53.) 49 Mosses and Lichens CALYPTRA The calyptra or veil is the dry remains of the outer wall of the archegonium in which first the egg-cell and then the embryo moss-plant were developed, for as the em- bryo within enlarges, the wall of the archegonium sooner Funaria hygrometrica, Young sporogonium still covered with its veil. Encalypta ciliata. Old sporogonium with fringed and transparent veil. Two developing sporogonia with five shrivelled arche- gonia at their base. The figure on the left shows the archegonium wall severed from its base thus disclosing the pedicel of the spore-case within. Pogonatum brachy- pkyllum. Spore-case with hairy veil. or later ruptures near the base, and is carried up by the grow- ing spore-case. This severed archegonium wall may be thin and smooth and often split up one side, or it may be as in the Hairy-caps rough with hairs, caused by the stretching and ultimate rupturing of the fibres which composed the tissue of the walls. Tetradontium repandum. Spore- case with conical veil. Leafy Mosses SPORE-CASE In the early stages of a developing spore-case the cells may be distinguished as forming two groups, first an outer wall con- sisting of a number of layers of cells and second an inner mass of cells; the outer wall is separated from the inner mass by a Veil split up one side. Spore-case borne on a short pedicel, lid wanting. Astomum Sullwantii. (See page 50). Spore-case with veil. space filled with air. The centre portion of the inner mass will become the columella and the enclosing stratum of cells (arche- sporium — beginning of spores), will be the "mother-cells" of the spores. Just outside the mother-cells between them and the air-space will be a layer of cells (the endothecium). UJ ... .tu.rt tilth. 2Tbn t of ttUt IfutUTt anx i»VieH will** Co»vt (listen 13. loVth tvatt* a.nl f-r ic tkt. Cdlt al>ov t to form *UL. Funaria hygrometrica. Portion of a vertical section through a young sporogonium. Sphagnum acutifolium. Ehrh. Vertical section through an early stage of a sporogonium. THE LID OR OPERCULUM The upper part of the spore-case is in the leaf-bearing mosses usually thrown off as a lid (operculum). In order that the upper portion of the spore-case may be separated from the lower, either 51 Mosses and Lichens one of two things happens : The walls of a zone of cells of the spore-case wall, in the exterior layer, separates from the adjoining walls when the spore-case is mature, or a zone of cells consisting of one or more rows has the cell-walls modified so that when they are distended by absorbed moisture, the zone of cells is dis- placed as a ring or annulus and so frees the outer layer of cells in the upper part of the spore-case to form a lid. Spore-case with lid. Mnium af/ Lid. Spore-case without lid, Polytrichwn commune. Tooth. Spore-case with lid. Spore-case without lid. Bryum argenteum. Lid. Trtmalodon ambiguum. Vertical section of a single peristome. (See page 53). Lid Ulota crispa . Double row of teeth. (See page 53). Spore-case with lid. Spore-case without lid, Polytrickum sexangvlare. Leafy Mosses TEETH OR PERISTOME When the lid falls, as a rule, one or two rows of teeth are discovered. They are the remains of the cell-walls lying just within the layer which separated as a lid. (See diagrams on page 52.) If the outer walls of this layer of cells become thickened and split from the summit downward, but one row of teeth will be formed; if the inner walls as well, become thickened, and only Groove pedicel. tcal I eaves. Sphagnum acuttfolium. Ehrh. Vertical section from & young sporogonium, (See page 49). Funaria hygrometrica. Annulus. Fissidens adianioides. Old spore-case. 5) Tetraplodon mnioidtt, Tip of spore-case. Mosses and Lichens the side walls break down, then an inner row of teeth or cilia will be formed. All the varied forms of teeth are determined by the portions of the cell-walls which remain. Upper part of epore-case with four teeth. Cross-section of the four teeth to show their solid nature. Georgia pellucida. Tayloria splachnoidts. Colum- ella attached to the base of the spore-case. In the genus Georgia, after the outer layer of the upper part of the spore-case has fallen away as a lid, the whole inner layer splits into four triangular valves which form the teeth. Portion of peristome to show Summit of Spore-case Spore-case a singie row of teeth, spore-case. without lid. with lid. Tetraplodon mnioides. To show a single row of teeth in pairs. In Fontinalis antipyreiica the inner peristome forms a lattice work due to the breaking down of the inner cell-wall faces and the retention of the side walls. The columella of many mosses shrivels up and disappears 54 Leafy Mosses when the spores are ripe; in some cases it remains attached to the base of the spore-case when the lid falls; in some cases it is severed from the base and remains attached to the lid. Spore-case with Spore-case with columella attached short pedicel and to the base and conical veil, summit. Sph&rangiitm muticum. Veil. Spore-case with lid. Snore-case Climacium dendroidet. ...... (a) Spore-case with lid with shnv- Lid with colum- hfted to show teeth, elled lid. ella attached. (b) Columella attached Gymnostomitm curvvostrum. to the lid. In Polytrichum mosses it remains standing in the spore-case and retains at its summit a plate of cells (epiphragm) in the form of a thin membrane to the rim of which are attached the tips of the teeth. CoUmlto. TeitV. Thuidium minuiulum. Vertical section o f double peristome. The structure entirely different posed of bundles form. The ends Splachnum rubrum. Columella attached to the base of the spore- case ; teeth turned back. Pogonatum brevicavle. Up- per part of spore-case with thirty-two teeth surround- "ing the epiphragm. of the peristome in the Polytrichum mosses is from that of other mosses. The teeth are com- of thickened fibrous cells arranged in crescent of the crescent point upward and are united 55 Mosses and Lichens with the adjacent ends of the bundle next to it. On the inner face of each tooth is a growth of cells extending inward as a thin blade; the tip of each tooth is connected with a thin, papery membrane which covers the opening of the spore-case. From the under surface of this membrane, processes like little curtains Spore-case with lid. Spore-case with lid removed to show epiphrasm. Polytrichum commune. Fontinalis antipyretics. Sum- mit of spore-case with inner teeth forming a cone; outer teeth curled in. Three teeth showing bundles of fibres. hang down and in the young stages of the spore-case reach the basal membranes, so that the case is completely closed. Later, when the spores are mature, the "curtains" shrink away from the basal membranes and leave little holes between the teeth for the exit of the spores. In the species of Catharinea the epi- phragm is not attached to the apices of the teeth, but hangs from them by processes which at first exactly line the inner surfaces of the upper parts of the teeth. As the spores within the spore-case mature they exert a pressure upon the under surface of the epiphragm which causes it to rise and at the same time to peel upward the lining of each tooth. As the linings of the teeth are torn away, they curve upward and inward until they lie against the under surface of the epiphragm, which then appears to rest upon the tips of the teeth. ^^SKSSSSJ" When in this position, the tiny Potytrichum commw*. Leafy Mosses spaces between the teeth open into the spore-case and through them spores may escape. THE PEDICEL OR SETA The seta has undoubtedly been developed for the purpose of raising the spore-case to a height where the spores may be most advantageously scattered. In many mosses the seta becomes ua illicit Catharine a undulata. Summit o f spore-cast with thirty-two teetj. attached to the epi phragm. Buxbaumia aphylla. Sporophyte. Ulota crispa. Fuaariahygrontetrica. Cross-section of seta. abruptly larger just below th» spore-case to form an apophysis. This may be long and cylindrical, or of many other forms. In the Polytrichum mosses it is a more or less flattened disk. The seta is surrounded at the base by a sheath which is the vaginule and may be the remains of the base of the archegonium. The pedicels (setce) have vari- ous methods of twisting or turn- ing while growing so as to bring the developing spore-case into positions most favourable with reference to light and moisture. 57 Mosses and Lichens Lfucobryitm vulgare. (a) Young plant. (6) Terminal leaves with root-hairs, each capable of growing into a new plant. Bryum erythrocarpum. Gemmae in the axis formed by leaf and stem. Georgia pellucida. Vertical section of gemmae cluster. Ulola phyllantha. Portion of a leaf with gemmae on the apex. Gemmse cluster enlarged. Aulacomnium andiagynum. MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE V Copyright, 1907, uy DouLiieday, Page & Company PARMELIA CONSPERSA, (Ehrh.) Ach. Where lichens mock the marks of a moth . . . Elf-needled mat of moss " ...CLpophvjsis a. PedU«t. Splachnutn rubrwn. Splachnum luteum. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION The ultimate aim of the plant in developing all these complex parts is to produce tiny dust-like spores which are found in a ripened spore-case, to insure their safe keeping until all conditions are favourable for their dispersal, and then to disperse them in the most effectual way. Why it has been favourable for the perpetuation of the mosses to evolve these complicated methods, is a marvel and past the mind of man to reveal, for the plants have other and simpler methods of reproducing their kind which are, as far as man can see, just as effectual as the com- plicated method. Almost any part of the moss plant is able to develop protonema cells from which new plants may grow. Every one of the hair-like roots (rhi%pids) from any part of the plant has the power of developing protonema. The protonema of Phascum and Ephemerum lives on from year to year, reproducing new plants which live but one year. In the species Barbula, little cellular bodies covered with a dark 59 Phascum. cuspidatum. Spore-case with veil and short pedicel. Mosses and Lichens membrane and with their cells filled with food material appear in abundance on the protonema. Each one of these is capable of growing directly into a moss-plant or of producing protonema upon which moss-plants may grow. Portions of a growing sporogonium, or of leaves, or of stems, may produce protonema. Special buds or gemmae are also formed on many species. Georgia pellucidd produces cellular bodies with stalks in clusters at the extremities of special stems, the clusters surrounded with a rosette of leaves. That all gemmae are modified leaves is an accepted theory. Plant with two gemmae Gemmse cluster clusters. enlarged. Georgia pellucida. Barbula unguicu- lata. Sporophyte with twisted seta. Tetraplodon mnioides. Plant with slender pedicel and apo- physis larger than the spore- case. 60 CHAPTER VI THE POSITION OF HEPATICS AND MOSSES IN THE PLANT KINGDOM AS SHOWN BY A COMPARISON OF HOMOLOGOUS PARTS " Quorsum, inquient multi, tantum laboris in rebus adeo tenuibus insumtum ? — cui bono haec omnia ? Primo ; ut cognoscamus sapientiam creatoris, quas in minimis non minus elucet, quam in magnis plantis." Dillenius in prczfatione ad Hist. Muse. " Wherefore, many ask, is so much labour spent on such small things? — for what good are all these things ? Primarily ; that we may know the wisdom of the Creator, which shows itself not less in the smallest plants than in the great ones. Dillenius, in the preface to The History of Mosses. " If by the microscopic glass Survey 'd, you'll see how far surpass The works of nature, in design, And texture delicately fine, And perfectness of every part, Each effort of mimetic art ; And as the gardener's watchful care, The ground, of native clothing bare, Indues with vegetable soil ; And with the waste's collected spoil The tender plants exposed defends ; So the Great Gardener, mindful, sends The mossy tribes wherewith to shun The pinching frost, the scorching sun." AFTER one has become familiar with the conspicuous parts of a thalloid and leafy hepatic, and a leafy moss, it is interesting to study the homologies or origin of the parts, and to determine the position of the plants in the plant kingdom. To quote Dr. L. M. Underwood : * "The group known since the time of Adanson as the Hepaticce stands in a unique position on the boundary line of *L. M. Underwood, Bot. Gazette Vol. xix, 1894, p. 347. 61 Mosses and Lichens thallose plants, and its position is not only intermediate from a structural standpoint, but in its relation to the evolution of the higher plants it stands as a key or link between the lower or simpler, and the higher or more complex. "The hepatics possess almost no utilitarian aspect. Beyond the doubtful use of one or two for medicine, and the occasional occurrence of one or more tropical species as weeds, they are, so far as the physical condition of the human race is concerned, an entirely useless group of plants . . . and yet from the higher standpoint of genetic relationship, there is probably no single group of plants that occupies such a unique position in the plant world. What the group 'Vermes' is to the animal kingdom, the Hepaticce are to plants, with this difference, that we have here a much less complicated group of organisms with which to deal." MINUTE STRUCTURE To understand the relation of this plant group it is necessary to have some knowledge of the microscopic structure of a developing moss plant, both liverwort and leafy-moss, and a knowledge of plants less and more complicated in structure than the mosses. This knowledge can to a certain degree be acquired by a study of somewhat diagrammatic drawings of magnified sections of algae, mosses and ferns. If after this preliminary knowledge has been acquired, an opportunity occurs to see the sections themselves under a compound microscope, the interest will be intensified. PROTONEMA As was stated, a germinating moss or hepatic spore results in a single cell or a group of cells (protonema.} A part of the cells ....".Moss-pla-nt* Sphagnum cymbifolium. First or sexual generation. of the more elaborate protonema are without leaf-green (chloro- phyll) and seek the darkness afforded by the structure of the 62 The Position of Hepatics and Mosses substratum in which they serve to anchor the protonema, while they assist in procuring food-materials. Another part of the Point wntrt plant will orcur. Sphagnum cymbifoliwm. Protonema. The protonema resembles a leaf-like thallophyte. protonema remains above ground, each cell containing leaf-green and in the light doing its work of con- verting mineral matter, gases, and liquids into plant foods. Upon this protonema appear plants which are to produce male and female organisms. These plants, together with the protonema are known as the first or sexual generation in the life- history of mosses and hepatics, in distinction from the spore-cases which, in connection with their pedicels and "foot" constitute the second generation. The protonema resembles some of the Thallophytes, examples of Branch stripped of ... , . . - leaves to show S male which are bacteria, algae, and fungi, ^d ? feraale clusters. The Thallophytes are so called Tttrapiodo* 63 Pemala Branch Mosses and Lichens because their vegetative body is a "thallus," that is to say, is not divided into stem and leaf, like that of higher plants, but grows in water or over a substratum in the form of single cells, (b) Protonema branching from (h) a primary filament of protonema. (*) A bud from which a new plan t will grow, (if) ARhizoid. Funaria hygrometrica. Germinating spore (i) Spore wall. (w) Rhizoid. (v) Vacuole in protonema cell. chains of cells, or ribbon-like patterns of varying designs. The Bryophytes or moss-plants agree in many of their stages of development with the Thallophytes. Many of the liverworts (Hepaticce),o\\e division of the Bryophytes, have never developed Under side showing stipules. Upper side. Stipule. Ptttidivm ciliart. A leafy-hepatic. The magnified stipule shows the simple cell-structure. further in form than the ribbon-stage or thallus, while others show transitional stages from this ribbon-like form to a leafy stem such as all leafy-mosses possess. 64 The Position of Hepatics and Mosses Lii Porella plalyphylla. The leaf and stipule show the simple cell structure; Asexual generation. Asexual generation on the sexual generation. Viola crispa. A bit of the lichen Cladonia furcala,showing an alga of one cell (Pro- tococcus ) 1 i ving with a fun- gus consisting of chains of cells. HEPATIC LEAFY-MOSS FERN A germinating spore produces an insignificant proto- nema. A germinating spore produces a well-defined proto- nema. A germinating spore produces a plate of cells (pro- thallium). Protonema pro- duces ordinarily, an hepatic plant (ga- metophyte). Protonema pro- duces a moss plant (gametophyte). Gamelophyte bears antheridia and arche- Gametophyte bears antheridia and arche- Prothallium bears antheridia and arche- gonia. gonia. gonia. Therefore, prothallium is game- tophyte. All ferns develop from spores, the spores germinate to form — generally a flat plate of cells (prothallium} large enough to be seen well with the naked eye. The prothallia are heart-shaped 65 Mosses and Lichens and green. They are common around the bases of ferns in the woods and may be found in green-houses where ferns are propa- gated. The prothalJium is the sexual or first generation in the life-history of a fern, for on it are produced the antheridia and archegonia necessary for the production of the embryo which shall grow into a fern plant. It is not an easy matter to keep clearly in mind the rela- tion of the fern parts and the leafy-moss parts. It will help to do this, if one remember The alga scytonema growing with a fungus that the Criterion by which to form the lichen Stereocaulon ramulosum. ^ decision k to he madf U Both alga and fungus consist of chains lfle aecisic of cells and belong to the group of Thaiio- one of origin of parts rather than of function and appear- ance. A glance at the parallel columns will show that if one .2rotKa.lliu.wx cell. .Chlorophyll.. A vertical section of an •fche ;;oa:u»a >r female organ t a torn* Hepatics with leafy stems. The leaves have no veins and are but on* cell thick. 66 The Position of Hepatics and Mosses employ the origin and position of antheridia and archegonia as a criterion, then the vegetative part of hepatic plants and moss plants is an homologous stage with a fern prothallium. ,ProtH*lllu,>n.. The sexual or first generation. Under side of a mature fern-pro- thallium on which are borne an- theridia— male organs, and arche- gonia— female organs. A young fern prothallium. Again, if one employ as a criterion that which originates from a fertilised archegonium, then the spore-case, foot, and pedicel (sporophyte) of an hepatic and moss are homologous .Wall-cell. Sperm cells coiled in little vesicles in an antheridium. ..Sperm- tell. Sperm-cells escaping from an antheridium. Vertical sections of Antheridia. with the spore-cases, fronds, stems, and roots of a "fern-plant" (sporophyte). The sporophyte is known as the asexual gen- eration. 67 Mosses and Lichens Fern sporophyte. The asexual generation. Moss gametophyte — Sexual generation supporting a sporophyte. Moss sporophyte. The asexual generation. Torn Rametophyte — The sexual generation supporting a sporophyte. 68 Hepatic gametophyte supporting a sporo* phyte. The Position of Hepatics and Mosses HEPATIC Moss FERN Archegonia pro- Archegonia pro- Archegonia pro- duce foot, and pedi- duce foot, and pedi- duce fern- "plants," cel, and spore-cases cel, and spore-cases — roots, stems, containing spores containing spores fronds, and spore- (sporophyte). (sporophyte). cases containing spores (sporophyte). Tittle, One pinnule from a leaf of Ruta-muraria. Fern-prothallium — (sexual generation) with young sporophyte (asexual generation), In comparing hepat- ics, mosses, and ferns with a view to deter- mining their relative positions in the plant kingdom one must be careful to compare homologous parts, gam- etophyte with gameto- phyte, sporophyte with sporophyte. A study of the asexual generation, the sporophyte, (spore- case, foot, and pedicel) of leafy-mosses, will show that they have suggestions of the more complex structure found in the asexual stage, (sporophyte), of the pteridophytes, a group including ferns (filices), horse-tails (equisetums), and Christmas- greens (lycopodiums), which possess tissue composed of tubular cells (vascular bundles), set apart for the purpose of strengthening the plant and of carrying liquids from one part to another. The Pteridophytes have also true roots or underground organs with a vascular tissue. 69 ftoots. Complete sporophyte — Asplenium Ruta-muraria. Mosses and Lichens Equisetum arvense. Nat. size Vernal spore-bearing shoot with whorls of scale- like leaves. Asexual gen- eration. Eguisetnm arvense. Natural size Summer sterile shoot with whorls of branches bearing scale-like leaves. Single spore- bearing scale, from 3. Spore with ela- ters coiled. Spore with elaters expanded. MOSSES AND LICHENS . i, ; , v . t^^^^fn COLOUR PLATE VI Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Conipanj A FOREST BOULDER A huge boulder showing all stages in Nature's preparations for plant growth. The lower sides are now covered with lichens alone, while the parts above are covered with leafy-mosses which made their start in lichen debris. Ferns nestle in the mosses and a spruce tree sits astride the rock . . . The Position of Hepatics and Mosses The hepatics and mosses are therefore classified between the lowest group of plant life (Thallophytes), bacteria, algae, fungi, etc., without stem, (Sport-Case leaves' h and roots and the m i mir. man spore-bearing plants which Vttl I ] H ft/ have well-developed stems, leaves and roots, such as ferns, horse-tails, and lycopodiums, (Fteridophytts). The genus Riccia has no foot and no pedicel, simply a spore case. .PttUttl .Veil Hepatic sporophyte. The asexual generation. Fvnaria hygrometrica. A cross-section from the pedicel of the sporophyte. The cells through the centre of the pedicel are modified to form rudimentary fibro-vascular bundles, which one may interpret as fore- shadowing the true fibro-vascular bundles found in the sporophyte of ferns, etc. Equisetum sylvaticum with fertile cone and whorls of branches. Male prothallium of a horse-tail with antheridia. Sexual generation. Mosses and Lichens Pores (stomata) for the inlet and outlet of gases which serve for food and respiration are found on certain parts of the sporophyte of leafy mosses and not on the gametophyte ; they are found on the sporophyte of ferns and not on the gametophyte (prothallium). They are on the gametophyte and not on the sporophyte of hepatics, (except in the Anthocerotacece). Fvnaria hygrometrica. A pore from the spore-case of the sporophyte. Hypnum Boxii. Sur- face view of pore from the sporophyte. Polytrichum juniperinum. Sur- face view of a pore from the spore-case of the sporophyte. Polytrichunt piliferum. Vertical section through a pore. M. polymer pha, Surface view of pore. ct U«. Marchantia polymorpha. Vertical section of a "plant" (gametophyte) through a pore which leads into an air chamber. 72 CHAPTER VII THE HERBARIUM HOW TO COLLECT HEPATICS, MOSSES AND LICHENS Search for them in damp places at all times of the year. They are so much more beautiful when in a moist atmosphere that you will feel inspired to learn as much as possible about them. Collect the finest specimens you find, selecting some in fruit, if possible. Place your specimens in a convenient receptacle, box, bag or basket; in such a way as to keep them separate, each specimen with a few notes in pencil telling its habitat and the date and place of finding. Clasp-envelopes, such as are used by dry-goods merchants for samples, will be found particularly desirable as the mosses may be dried in them and may be kept indefinitely before being per- manently mounted. HOW TO PRESERVE HEPATICS, MOSSES AND LICHENS The specimens to be preserved should be laid between ab- sorbent paper, under a moderate pressure until dry, then they may be placed in envelopes which come for the purpose and these may be glued to regular herbarium sheets or the specimens themselves may be mounted directly upon sheets of paper. Several specimens of the same species from different localities may be mounted on one sheet; but it is undesirable to put different species on a sheet as this interferes with a proper classification of material. HOW TO STUDY HEPATICS, MOSSES AND LICHENS WITH THE NAKED EYE AND WITH A LENS Have both fresh and dry material before you for comparison. If you have only dry material to start with, freshen part of it by 73 Mosses and Lichens soaking in clean hot water and learn what you can with the unaided eye about the colour, texture, manner of branching, and character of pedicel and spore-case. Many of these pretty plants can be easily recognised with the naked eye. If necessary, use a hand lens to determine the shape of the leaves and the character of the spore-case rim. To study the specimens more in detail have a lens so mounted that it will be possible to dissect the parts with needles while watching the process through the lens. HOW TO DISSECT HEPATICS, MOSSES, AND LICHENS To remove leaves from stems, grasp them near their bases with a pair of forceps and strip them downward. To obtain cross sections of leaves, grasp a bunch between the thumb and forefinger and slice it across from apex to base with a sharp knife. Among the sections there should be found some which will show the structure. To study the spore-case, cut off the upper portion with a pair of scissors and then holding this on a slide with a needle, split it lengthwise and lay the two parts flat on the glass so that a view is given of the inner and outer surfaces. Cross sections of stems and rhizoids may be made while holding them between two pieces of pith or candle-wax. HOW TO STUDY THE HEPATICS, MOSSES, AND LICHENS WITH A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE To study any part still more in detail, place it in a drop of water or dilute glycerine between two pieces of mica or glass and view it through a compound microscope. If it seems desirable to preserve the detail, let the glycerine mica-mount remain without- a cover-glass in a place free from dust until the water has entirely evaporated, then slightly warm the slide and place a drop of warm glycerine-jelly on a mica cover and invert this over the mount. Glycerine jelly and mica may be procured of any dealer in microscope supplies. Small bits of mica may also be procured at slight cost from wall-paper factories or from factories where mica is used in the manufacture of electrical supplies. 74 The Herbarium NOMENCLATURE When anyone for the first time refers a newly discovered species to a genus, he gives the species a specific name and appends his own name or an abbreviation of it as the authority, thus, Bryum argenteum, L. means that Linnaeus referred a species to Bryum and gave it the specific name argenteum and that his classification has not been changed. If a plant has been referred by one man to a certain genus that later is proved by another man to belong to a different genus, the name or abbreviation of the first author is placed in paren- thesis and followed by that of the second author thus: — Ramalina ceruchis (Ach.) De Not., means that De Notaris placed the species ceruchis in its proper genus Ramalina after Acharius had placed it in another genus (Borrera). ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORITIES CITED Ach. — Acharius, Erik, 1757-1819. Beauv. — Beauvois, Palisot de, A. M. F. J., 1752-1820. Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume, 1759-1828. Brid. — Bridel, Samuel Elisee, 1761-1828. Bruch, Philipp, 1781-1847. Bruch. ms. — A name in manuscript never printed by Bruch. Bruch & Schimper. Delise, Dominic Frangois, 1780-1841. De Not. — De Notaris, Giuseppe, 1805-1877. Dicks. — Dickson, James, 1738-1822. Dill. — Dillenius, Johan Jacob, 1687-1747. Ehrh. — Ehrhart, Friedrich, 1742-1795. emend. — emended, corrected. Fee, Antoine Laurent Apollinaire, 1789-1874. f. — fils, son. Fr. — Fries, Elias Magnus, 1794-1878. Fuern. — Dr. August Emanuel Furnrohr. Girgens. — Girgensohn, Gustav Karl. Gottsche, Carl Moritz, 1808-1892. Gr. & Benn or B. Gr. — Gray, Samuel Frederick. B. or Benn. — Bennett, either Edward or John; two London surgeons who devoted their leisure time to botany in the first part of XIX century. Hall. — Haller, Albrecht von, 1708-1777. 75 Mosses and Lichens Hampe, Ernst. Hampe, I.e., locus citatus. Hedw.— Hedwig, Joannis G., 1730-1799. Hoffm. — Hoffman, Georg Franz. Hook. — Hooker, William Jackson, 1785-1865. Hornsch. — Hornschuch, Christian Friedrich, 1793-1850. Huds. — Hudson, William, 1730-1793. Hueben. — Huebener, J. W. P., -1847. Jaeger & Sauer. — Jaeger and Sauerbach. Lindb. — Lindberg, Sextus Otto, 1835- Lindle. — Lindley, John, 1799-1865. Linn, or L. — Linnaeus, Carolus, 1707-1778, or Linne, Carl von. Linn. 1. c. — 1. c., locus citatus, previously cited. Marchant, Nicholas, -1678. Michx. — Michaux, Andre, 1746-1802. Michx., f. — Michaux, Francois Andre, 1770-1855. Mohr, Dr. Charles, 1824-1901. Muell. ined.— Karl Mailer (Halle), 1818-1899. Note : — ined. means unedited manuscript. Muell. — Mueller, Jean (ofAargau), 1849-1851. Neck. — Necker, Noel Joseph de, 1729-1793. Nees von Esenbeck, Christian Gottfried, 1776-1858. Norm. — Norman, Johannes Musaeus., Nyl. — Ny lander, William, 1822-1899. Pers. — Persoon, Christian Henrik, 1755-1837. Rabenh. — Rabenhorst, Ludwig Christian Gottloeb, 1806-1881, Raddi, Giuseppe, 1770-1829. Roehl. — Roehling, Johann Christoph., 1757-1813. Schimp.— Shimper, Wilhelm Philipp, 1808-1880. Schreb. — Schreber, Johann C. D. Schwaegr.— Schwaegrichen, Christian Friedrich, 1775-1853. Scop. — Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio, 1723-1788. Sw. — Swartz, Olaf, 1760-1818. Tayl. — Taylor, Thomas. Timm, C. T. Tuckerm. — Tuckerman, Edward, 1817-1886. Turner, Dawson, 1775-1853. Web.— Weber, Friedrich, 1781-1823. Weis. — Weiss, Frederigo Wilhelm, 1744- Willd. — Willdenow, Carl Ludwig, 1765-1812. PART TWO LICHENS, GENERA AND SPECIES LICHENS, GENERA AND SPECIES The Genus CETRARIA, (Ach.) Fries The Spanish-shield Lichens. — The members of this genus are generally found on trees, although sometimes they are found on rocks or even earth. The colour on the upper surface is bright yellow, greenish-yellow, straw, olive, or brown. The thallus is expanded and leaf-like or shrubby (fruiiculose or fruticose) with branches compressed or channelled; the lobes are flattened and broad; root-like growths on the under surface (rhi^oids) are few or wanting. Fine hairs (cilia) are frequently present and sometimes are numerous. Soredia are rare. The fruiting disks (apothecia) are medium in size or large; they are attached on or near the margin of the lobes; the disk itself is shield-shaped, light chestnut to dark reddish-brown. The shape of the disk suggested the name Cetraria, from ceira, a Spanish shield. The Pitted Cetraria, Cetraria lacunosa, Ach. — See Plate II. Habitat. — On trees and old fence-rails, easily detached. Vegetative organ (thallus). — Leaf-like (foliaceous) the lobes rounded, the surface pitted (lacunose) ; pearl to slate colour above, white to darker below, margins scalloped. Fruiting disks (apothecia). — Abundant on the lobes, some- what elevated, the disk light chestnut, growing darker, the margin entire. Name. — The specific name lacunosa is from the Latin lacus, a saucer, referring to the pitted surface of the thallus. Iceland Moss, Cetraria Islandica, (L.) Ach. — See Colour PJate VII. Habit and habitat. — On earth. Vegetative organ (thallus). — Cartilaginous and shrubby (fruticulose); usually brown above, lighter toward the base where there is sometimes a red stain. 79 Mosses and Lichens Fruiting disks (apothecia). — Not numerous, shield-like and dark chestnut. Branches. — Flattened, not hollow, rolled in on the margin which is beset with a fringe of dark-coloured hairs 0.3 to 0.5 mm. long. Name. — The specific name (hlandica) refers to the fact that this lichen is very abundant in Iceland. Genus USNEA (Dill.) Ach. Thallus shrub-like (fruticulose) or pendulous, in cross-section round or angular, grayish-green, to greenish-white, sometimes straw-coloured ; the interior consisting of a central tough cord surrounded by a cottony layer. The fruits (apo- thecia) shield- shaped (scutellce- form), pale, with a fibrillous margin, spores more or less ellipsoid, undivi- ded, colourless. The name is de- rived from achneh, the Arabic for lichen. The Bearded Lichen, Usnea bar- bata, (L.) Fr. — See Colour Plate I, fron- tispiece, also Plate HI. Habitat.— On trees, both living, and dead. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Shrubby (fruticulose) often pendulous, greenish, covered with numerous radiating fibrils of the same colour; the interior tissue (medulla) consisting of a central cord surrounded by a cottony layer. The branches are circular (terete) in cross-section and are rough with papillae. 80 Cross section through Vertical section through the thallus. the thallus. Usnea barbata. Fr. (*) central tough cord; (*) central tough cord of radiating fibre; (w) cottony layer; (g) algae; (so) radi- ating fibre; (r) cortical layer; (s) apex of thallus. < • « "S M w u • Lichens, Genera and Species Fruiting organ (apothecia) — Shield-like (scutellceform) with a pale disk. Name. — The specific name barbata is the Latin for "bearded." The Hair-like Usnea, Usnea trichodea, Ach. Habit and habitat. — On trees in long waving tufts. Vegetative organ (thallus). — Pendulous, greatly elongated. The few secondary branches are smooth, bearing numerous lax fibrils of variable lengtli, cross-section circular (terete). Fruiting organ (apothecia). — Small, disk pale flesh-colour with margin bearing very few fibrils. Name. — The specific name trichodea is derived from the Greek rplxoeiS^, resembling hair, and refers to the thallus. Genus THELOCHISTES, Norm., emend. The thallus is leaf-like (foliaceous) or scale-like ; usually yellow, appressed or sometimes ascending and scrub-like; the fruits {apothecia) are yellow and shield-like (scutellceform). The spores are colourless, ellipsoid, simple, or with the ends divided off by partitions (polar-bilocular) the end spaces sometimes united by a tube running through the middle space. The Yellow Wall-lichen, Thelochistes parietinus (L.) Norm. (Xanthoria parietina) — See Colour Plate II. Habit and habitat. — On trees and rocks usually near bodies of water. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, pale yellow to orange above, white below; loosely appressed to the surface on which it grows, the margins sometimes ascendant, not gelatinous when moist. Fruiting organs (apothecia). — The disk orange, the margin (thalline exciple) entire. Spores. — Colourless, ellipsoid, polar-bilocular. Name. — The specific name parietina, is from the Latin parie (/-) 5, a wall, referring to its habit of growing on stone walls. Genus PARMELIA, (Ach.) De. Not. Parmelias usually grow as horizontal mats, gray, blue-green, dark brown, or brown tinged with green. They are closely attached by black rhizoids to rocks and trees and are distinctly 81 Mosses and Lichens branched and lobed. If the thallus is torn across and viewed with a hand lens, the torn edge shows that the thallus is com- posed of a layer of long, loose, white fibres (the medullary layer) between thin but more substantial surface tissues (cortical layers). Over the surface of the mat are scattered flat or saucer-shaped disks (apothecia) generally brown with a thin margin. These are numerous toward the centre. The apothecia have suggested the generic name Parmelia from parma, a small round shield. Many species have also a powdery appearance due to the bursting of the surface to emit little bodies (soredia) which may grow into lichens. Parmelia conspersa, (Ehrh.) Ach. — See Colour Plate V. Habit and habitat. — On rocks and stones; degenerate on dead wood. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, not gelatinous when moist. Pale green or straw-coloured above, blackening below, appressed, the margin sometimes ascendant; cartilaginous, mem- branaceous, the lobes mostly rather narrow sub-linear and much divided, smooth, not wrinkled, the centre often bearing little stalked bodies with knobs (isidiophorous) . Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Disks chestnut; margin (thai- line exciple) entire. Spores. — Ellipsoid, simple, colourless. Name. — The specific name conspersa, besprinkled, refers to its surface which looks as if sprinkled with little grains. Parmelia physodes, (L.) Ach. — See Plate V. Habit and habitat. — Common on dead limbs of pines and hemlocks, lightly attached to its support. When it completely encircles the smaller twigs the tree has a particularly attractive appearance. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Gray-green above with finely cut, inflated lobes, usually overlapping; black beneath except at the margins where it is smooth and brown. Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Large shallow cups; reddish- brown with entire margins. Name. — The specific name physodes is from the Greek vo-a, bellows, and olB, like, and refers to the inflated character of the lobes. NOTE : The illustration shows a variety (vittata) with the thallus more narrowly dissected than in the species. 82 MOSSES AND LICHENS PLATE III OLD MAN'S BEARD, Usnea barbata, variety Florida Lichens, Genera and Species Parmelia saxatilis, (L.) Fr.— See Plate XV. Habit and habitat. — On rocks. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Greenish or ashen-gray above (sometimes reddish) somewhat ornamented with a fine network and with shallow depressions; black beneath with dense hairs (rhi^oids) reaching the margin, much cleft with narrow lobes, with margins wavy and bordered with a fine white beading (soredia). Fruiting organs (apothecia). -Chestnut border (thalline ex- ciple), rather thick, somewhat evenly notched. Spores. — Simple, ellipsoid, colourless. Name. — The specific name saxatilis, the Latin for "rock," refers to the habitat. Parmelia perlata, (L.) Ach. — See Plate VI. Habit and habitat. — The lichen is found on both rocks and trees. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Greenish-yellow, gray green, slate colour and even light brown above; black beneath with a reddish-brown border which rolls up so as to bring the brown lobes in rich contrast to the surface colours. The lobes have no fine hairs on their margins and are frequently covered with a white powder (soredia). Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Large, greenish-brown, entire margins which split down to the centre when the disk is mature. Name. — The specific name perlata is the Latin for "widely spread." The Wrinkled Parmelia, Parmelia caperata, (L.) Ach. Habit and habitat. — Grows on trees and rocks to form light pea-green, wrinkled and wavy mats. Vegetative organs (thallus). — Leaf-like, appressed, hori- zontal, cartilaginous; lobes usually broad and rounded with entire margins; the upper surface usually covered with a very light green powder (soredia)] the under surface, black with a reddish-brown margin and scattered thread-like bodies (fibrils'). Fruiting organs (apothecia). — Cup-shaped, with wavy margins often grainy (sorediferous). Spores. — Ellipsoid. Name. — The specific name caperata, the Latin for "wrinkled," describes the habit of growth. 83 Mosses and Lichens Genus PHYSCIA, Fries. The vegetative portion (thallus) of the Genus Physcia is leaf like, star-like, or sometimes with narrowly linear divisions, beneath it has usual fibres of varying length; the generic name is from the Greek v•?$ -C9U, ! UtirS. Marchantia polymorpha. One leaf magnified to show cell structure. Porella platyphylla. Male branch. The spore-cases with their enveloping parts are terminal on the branches; although they appear often to be on the sides because a side branch has grown in the same direction and beyond the main stem. JPeriatitlu .Ytti. Veil .Vttl Female branch. Young Sporophyte. Sporophy te. Porella platyphylla. Beginning with the spore-case as a centre, and observing the parts in order outward, a veil (calyptrd) may be found, and then a perianth, and outside of all, several slightly modified leaves. Genus PORELLA, (L.) The Genus Porella is composed of large plants, dark-green to yellowish-brown, usually 2 to 3 times feather-branched. The lobes of the leaves are very deeply two-parted; the dorsal large, and roundish egg-shaped, usually entire, the ventral lobes smaller, sometimes nearly separate from the dorsal, varying in different species from ovate to lanceolate; underleaves large, entire or toothed. 100 Liverworts or Hepatics The antheridia are spherical, in the axils of overlapping leaves which form short rigid branches. The perianth is oval to obovate, flattened at the mouth, which is fringed, toothed or entire. The spore-case is spherical to ovoid-oblong on a short stalk (seta) splitting nearly to the base into four parts. The spores are covered with spines. The elaters are once to thrice spiral. The generic name is a diminutive of the Latin porus, a pore. Its significance is not evident. Porella platyphylla, (L.) Lindle. Plant (gametophyte). — Stems 2 or 3 inches long, prostrate, rigid with the tips bent upward; i to 3 times regularly or irregularly pinnate; root-hairs in tufts at the base of the under-leaves. View of upper surface of •tern with two leaves. Two leaves showing lobe and lobule Under view of stem. Porella platyphylla. Leaves. — Deeply two-parted, dorsal lobes overlapping in two rows so as to conceal the stem, obliquely placed relatively to the stem, oval to oblong, apex obtuse, toothed or entire. Ventral lobes oval to oblong obtuse, diagonally pressed to the surface of the upper lobes; margins recurved and entire or with a single tooth at the base; under leaves tongue-shaped, parallel with the stem, margins recurved, decurrent, entire, or sparingly toothed at the base. Name. — The specific name platyphylla from the Greek TrXctrw, flat, and v\\ov, a leaf, describes the prostrate habit of the plant. Perianth. — Ovate, inflated, narrowed above, margin toothed with a notch on one side. Veil (calyptra). — Persistent, globose, splitting above. Spore-case. — Pale yellow-brown on a short pedicel, splitting into four, often irregular valves ; elaters bi-spiral. Spores. — More or less spiny. 101 Mosses and Lichens Habit of flowering. — Male flowers (antheridid) and female flowers (archegonia) on separate plants (dioicous). Antheridia. — Spherical, short-stalked, single in the axils of two-lobed, pouch-shaped leaves which lie opposite on the stem. These antheridial leaves are united by their margins to the under leaves, and with them form short oval branchlets on the sides of the main branches. Archegonia. — Numerous, terminal on very short lateral branches. Genus FRULLANIA, Raddi The plants are usually in shades of red or brown or even black, although sometimes green. They grow in delicate tra- ceries over the bark of trees or rocks. F. ecklonii. A lobule separated from its lobe. A tiny stylus is present at the point where the lobule is attached to the main stem. F. ecklonii Under view of a portion of the stem ; with eight inflated lobules, each on its lobe, the amphigastra have been removed. F.complanata, Under view of stem showing 3 cup-like lobules each lying on its lobe: two notched amphigastra are on the stem. The stems are opaque and branched, each branch arising from the axil of a stem-leaf from which it is always free. The upper leaves are alternate and are inserted somewhat obliquely. They are two-lobed, one lobe folded to lie over the other. The upper and larger is known as the lobe and the lower and smaller as the lobule. The lobule, is an inflated water-sac, in shape resembling a helmet or hood or cylinder and often has at the base a tiny pro- cess (stylus). 102 Liverwort! or Hepatic* The under leaves or stipules (amphigastrd) are strongly two- cleft and have often tufts of rootlets at their bases. The male flowers (antheridia) are found on short branches either on the same plant with the female flowers (archegonia) or on separate plants. The envelope of the flower (perianth') is free and exserted from the leaves. It is 3- to 4-angled and tipped with a short tubular beak (mucronate). The veil (calyptra} is free and included The involucre opened out. Perianth with beak. Amphigastra with F. tcklonii. rootlets. in the perianth. The spore-case is somewhat spherical on a stout pedicel 2 to 3 times longer than the perianth. It opens by four valves to eject its spores. There are about 150 species in all, which are well represented in both temperate and tropical zones; about twenty are found in North America. The generic name Frullania was given in honour of Signer Leonardo Frullani, an Italian minister of state. Frullania Eboracensis, Gottsche. — See Colour Plate XIV. Transverse Upper view of section of the stem with two perianth. leaves. F. eboracencts, This dainty hepatic is usually found in some shade of green or red, forming delicate traceries on the bark of trees. It is par- ticularly beautiful on the smooth bark of the yellow birches in the North woods. The leaves lap as shingles (imbricate). The lobule is hood- like (galeate), bluntly terminating at the base. The perianth is somewhat compressed with a short, broad beak. 103 Mosses and Lichens Genus PTILIDIUM, Nees The species of the Genus Ptilidium grow usually in dense and brownish mats, the stems prostrate or ascending, i to 2 pinnate or irregularly and sparingly branched, without whip-like branches, the branches are lateral; root-hairs are few and short. The leaves are obliquely inserted, variously cut or fringed, a character which suggested the name Ptilidium, derived from the Greek TTT(\OV, down, the dorsal segment larger and with its tip lying over the base of the leaf next above it (incubus), under- leaves (ampbigastra) similar but much smaller. Male flowers (antberidia) short-stalked in the axils of more closely imbricate leaves. Female flowers (arcbegontd) terminal, sometimes apparently lateral because a side branch has grown on beyond the stem which bears it. Bracts commonly two pairs, similar to the leaves. Perianth free, several times longer than the bracts, cylindrical egg-shaped with constricted mouth. Veil (calyptrd) free. Spore-case egg-shaped on a moderately long stalk (seta) de- hiscing to the base by four rather rigid valves; spores dotted. Elaters two to three spiral. There are about eight species. Ptilidium ciliare, Nees. — See Colour Plate XIV. Habit and Habitat. — On fallen logs growing in loosely entan- gled purple, brown, or dark-green tufts. Upper view of Under view of stem to show Lobule enlarged to stem. show cell-structure. P. Ciliart. Name. — The specific name ciliare, from the Latin cilia, lash, refers to the fine hairs on the margins of the leaves. Plants (gametopytbe). — The plants have stems I to i£ inches long, mostly erect; root hairs few at the base. Branches short, once or twice pinnate. 104 Liverworts or Hepatics Leaves. — Crowded, hiding the stem, roundish; lobes lance- shaped, folded toward each other, the front lobe convex and parted half-way down, the back lobe similar, but much smaller; the margins all divided into numerous long hair-like teeth. Under leaves (ampbigastra) pressed to the stem, rectangular, nearly as large as the upper, four- to five-lobed with marginal teeth. Leaf- cells small, roundish, with thick walls. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants, dioicous. Perianth. — Pear-shaped, pale, dull yellow, mouth narrow, and margined with small short teeth. The bracts at the base un- equally four-lobed with teeth like the leaves. Spore-case. — Nearly spherical. Genus BAZZANIA, Gr. and Benn. The vegetative part of these plants grows in large mats, bright or dark green; the branching stems are 2 to 4 inches long, mostly creeping and bearing many long whip-like shoots with minute leaves and few whitish root-hairs. A Leaf -apex 3-toothed. Leaves from the base of the perianth. Perianth. Battania trilobata. Leaves from male branch. The leaves are egg-shaped, over-lapping and embracing the stem half-way around, they are narrowed to the apex which is bluntly three-to five-toothed. The leaf-cells are six-sided and opaque. The male and female flowers are on separate plants (dioicous). The perianth is white and tubular with slight folds in the wall and splits open at one side, the leaves at the base (bracts) are very small, scale-like and slightly toothed. The genus Bahama may be easily distinguished from all other genera by the leaves which are dark green, three-toothed and 105 Mosses and Lichens have the anterior margin of each leaf lapping the posterior margin of the leaf in front. The genus was named for M. Bazzani, an Italian professor of anatomy. Bazzania trilobata, L. — See Plate X. Habit and habitat. — On damp shady banks, forming extensive cushions. Name. — The specific name trilobata is com- pounded of Ires (Iff-), three, and lobatus, lobed, referring to the apex of the leaf. Plants (gdmetopbyte). — Shining olive-green; stems simple or once- or twice-forked, 3 to 5 inches long; procumbent or creeping, rootlets few, beset on the under side with minute leafy scales; and numerous thread-like whips (flagella) about an inch long. Stem with sporo- Under phyte, the long View of under side of Stem with leaf leaf. slender pedicel ris- stem to show the third enlarged to show ing from the per- row of leaves. cell-structure. ianth. Bazzania trilobata The tip of the per- ianth. Leaves— Olive-green, the upper about i* times longer than broad and placed at right angles to the stem in two rows, the sides of the leaves overlapping like shingles, the anterior margin of one leaf overlapping the posterior margin of the leaf in front, apex with three acute teeth, texture firm; the under leaves (ampbigastra) broad, four-sided, apex three- to five-toothed. Habit of flowering. — Female flowers on short branches on separate plants. Male flower-clusters minute aments, with folded and toothed bracts, antheridia solitary. Pmanto.— Highly exserted, nearly white, oblong, narrower upwards; mouth slit on one side and with a few teeth. Bracts at the base oval, fringed at the apex and delicate in texture. Spore-case.— Dark shining-brown, ovate, on a long, slender, white pedicel, the valves slit to the base to form a Roman cross; elaters twice spiral. 106 PART FOUR MOSSES MOSSES PEAT-MOSSES Genus SPHAGNUM, Dill. THE peat- or bog-mosses are usually of large size, green or gray, dark-red, yellow, or purple, growing over extensive areas in the wet places of lowlands or mountain summits. They are attractive both to travellers and to botanists and are always a source of wonder on account of their habit of changing colour with every change in the humidity of the air. The individual plants are so perfectly preserved when carefully pressed that they are attractive to the collector, whether artist or botanist. Nature employs these mosses to redeem shallow waters for the use of higher plants. The geologist solves many problems by reading their life-history. The economist uses them for fuel in localities where other vegetation is scanty, and finds them useful packing for plants on account of their ability to hold moisture. The great Linnaeus calls them "flowers of Lapland " and tells us that the Lapland mothers use them for their children's cradles. THE METHOD BY WHICH PEAT-MOSSES ENCROACH UPON WATER TO FORM LAND The bog-moss plays an important part in the formation of peat. In a peat-moor the plants on the surface are the tips and branches of the very same plants whose under parts long ago died away. When a peat-moss spore germinates in water, a meshwork of fine thread-like strands is formed, called the protonema; upon this protonema bud-like growths occur which in later stages are known as the peat-moss plants. These plants very soon lose any root-like growth which they may have possessed, and con- tinue to grow, year after year, from the apex of the stem or from lateral branches just below the apex of the stem. 109 Mosses and LIcbens As the floating plants multiply along the borders of a body of water, extending outward over the water as an anchored raft, the immersed dead parts of the moss are continually dropping disintegrated plant-tissue and so build soil from the bottom up- ward. The accumulation of vegetable matter attached to the living and floating plants on the under side causes the raft to sink gradually ; so gradually that the new growth always rests just at the surface of the water until the depth of the moss-raft is sufficient to permit it to reach the bottom. In time, the weight of the superimposed mass, together with chemical changes which take place in the dead plant-tissue, convert the moss plants into more or less compact peat. Ideal section of pond showing bog-moss growing outward from the shore. Ideal section of old pond showing bog-moss growing on the surface of the water and forming a " quaking-bog." Thus a border of peat-moss soil is built around the shore; and as new plants are continually growing on the water-line, forming new rafts which in turn sink and make new moss-soil, the body of water becomes gradually less until finally it dis- appears altogether. During this process of marsh building a "quaking bog" occurs, when the moss covers the whole surface of the water but has not yet filled up the underlying water. Both men and animals, while endeavouring to cross a "quaking bog," have sunk through the overlying moss to be entombed in the underlying peat; and, owing to the antiseptic quality of the peat, the bodies have been kept in a state of preservation for hundreds of vears, no MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE VII ICELAND MOSS, Cetraria Islandica, (L.) Ach. STICTA PULMONARIA, Ach. " A cure for lung trouble " STICTA AMPLISSIMA, (Scop.) Mass. Fruits in flattened coloured disks Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Pa; THE DOG PELTIGERA. Peltigera canina, (L.) HofTm. " A cure for hydrophobia" Peat-Mosses The building of bog-mosses is not confined to depressions filled with water. Strange as it may seem, it is true, that they can climb the slopes of the surrounding shore and extend the marsh up a hill. The hill-climbing character of the moss is due to its habit of absorbing water like a sponge. If one recall the moss habit of making the new growth upon the dead and water- soaked remains of the old plants, he will readily understand that it is as simple for the moss plants to grow up a slope, if it is not too steep, as it is for .them to grow on a level. The value of the bog-mosses as peat producers in the belt over which the great continental glacier swept is greater than that of any water-loving plant. It will be remembered that the great glacier of the Ice Age moved in North America from the northwest in a southeasterly direction as far down as the northern part of New Jersey, and as the climate changed and the great ice sheet receded by melting backwards to its source, it left in its wake numerous small lakes, ranging from a few feet to several miles in diameter. It is in these lakes, when not over a mile in width, that the peat-mosses have found most favourable quarters for their work, for the smaller sheets of water are less liable to be lashed into waves by the wind. Examples of this method of marsh building are found all over the world. Professor H. W. Brewer reports finding peat-mosses building marshes on Lassen's Peak, California, at an altitude of 5,000 feet. He found Sphagnum fimbriatum on the Sierra Nevada Chain, California, at an altitude of 11,000 feet; and Sphagnum mendocinum forming swamps near King River, California, at an altitude of from 800 to 900 feet. Examples may be found on the Palisades of the Hudson and on the summits of Mount Marcy and the Shawangunk Mountains in New York, or on the Pocono Mountains, Pennsylvania. In the pass between Mount Marcy and the highest point in New York State, and Mount Skylight, near the camp and about half a mile from the summits of the mountains, lies "Lake Tear of the Clouds." To-day it is a mere bog-hole, neither large nor deep, but when named by Verplanck Colvin not very many years ago, its clear waters nestling in a rocky basin suggested to him the pretty name. At that time a fringe of peat-moss wreathed its shores and was reflected from it as from a mirror. To-day it is surrounded by boggy shores and is dotted with little islands of in Mosses and Lichens similar character; its bottom is soft mud made of decayed vege- table matter. There is no visible inlet that could bring in sedi- ment; it is fed only by the slight drainage of rain and melting ice under the rocks on the adjacent mountain sides, and yet it is never dry. There are many places all through the Adirondacks which illustrate the same thing in different stages of completion — Connery Pond, Mud Pond, Calamity Pond, Hidden Swamp and Averyville Swamp are examples, all within walking distance of Lake Placid, New York. Mr. Charles H. Peck tells of an example within fifteen miles of Albany. He says: "A marsh covered with Sphagnum, in my boyhood days, was so soft and yielding that it seemed dangerous to go over some places. It was then productive of cranberries in nearly all parts. Now it is firm in nearly all parts. The cranberry vines have almost disappeared and shrubs and young trees have come up. It is greatly changed. The same sluggish stream flows through the centre; nothing has been done to ward draining it, but the mosses, growing at their summits and decaying at their base, have gradually made more dense the soft ooze beneath, till now there is sufficient soil to support sedges, marsh-shrubs and even young trees of tamarack, balsam, and spruce." The climbing bogs may be found on the east shores of Maine, near the Bay of Fundy, in New Hampshire, Michigan, and Min- nesota. They are rare in the United States on account of the short hot summers, and for the same reason, when they do occur, they do not climb declivities of more than 2°. In northern Europe, on the other hand, they climb declivities of 5° and a bog often rises a score of feet above the water in which it stands. Peat bogs represent the accumulated remains of thousands of generations of plants, among which were the Sphagnum mosses. There is conclusive evidence that the Sphagnum mosses are an important constituent of peat-bogs now forming; and there is every reason to believe that in ages gone by they served as soil- makers for more complex peat-producing plants. Extensive peat-bogs occur in the northern parts of the world, New England, Ireland, India, and northern Europe, where the peat is used as fuel to a limited extent. Owing to a peculiar odour given off from burning peat, as well as to other contingencies, it is not popular as a fuel. Its great value lies in the fact that, when bogs are properly drained, 112 Peat-Mosses they afford the most desirable land for farming purposes. One- fifth of the most fertile fields in Great Britain and Ireland have been won from bog districts by draining. During the time of the Saxon kingdoms, England was to a grea; extent occupied by morasses which have since been cleared away. Sites of ancient bogs in northern Germany and in the valley of the River Po, Italy, are indicated by the great and persistent fertility of the soil. Probably not far from ore-twentieth of :he tillable land in Europe was inundated and unfit for agri- culture in the eighth century. Sphagnum acutifolium, var. rubellum. A bit of stem with three stem-leaves and a fascicle of three branches, one appressed and two spreading. A bit of stem with one stem-leaf and a fascicle of five branches, two appressed and three spreading. Sphagnum cytnbifolittm. (Genus SPHAGNUM) Peat-mosses are common, growing in more or less compact green or purple patches on the surface of bogs, or along mountain Mosses and Lichens springs and rivulets, or even floating on water. The genus is an easy one to recognise and the plants form an attractive feature of one's walk through woods or over fen-land. The name Sphagnum (Greek o-^cryvo?) was used by the an- cient botanists Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny to indicate certain non-flowering plants. The name was restricted to a more limited use in 1719 by Johann Dillenius, a German, who was the first professor of botany at Oxford. Cttt. Leaf magnified to show large cells with perforations and spiral thickenings and small cells with leaf-green grains. Sphagnum cymbifotium. Surface view of leaf cells. The plants are soft and weak-stemmed mosses, generally of large size, white or yellow, light green or sometimes red. The stems appear almost simple with clusters of branches at the summit and on the sides ; the branches at the summit are grouped to form a dense rosette (capitulum), while each side cluster (fascicle) consists of from 2 to 7 or more branches, some spreading and some appressed to the stem. A cross section of the stem shows three zones of cells — the outer (cortex) of large loose cells, the central of pithy cells and the intermediate of woody cells. The leaves are translucent, without veins, and consist of a single layer of two kinds of cells : (i) Large colourless and transparent cells (utricles), generally perforated and lined with 114 Peat-Mosses spiral or circular thickenings (fibrils) to secure them against collapse. They have lost the cell-contents which were present in a younger stage and are, when dry, filled with air. (2) Smaller cells (ducts), containing active cell-contents and leaf-green. They are narrowly linear and form a net of rhomboidal or hexa- gonal meshes around the large cells. The stem-leaves are distant, obliquely inserted, erect or bent downward, flat or concave, tongue-shaped, oval, inserted at the small Apex. Leaf from branch. Stem leaf. Leaf from base of pedicel. Male branch (perigonium). Sphagnum cymbtfolium. or large end generally obtuse. The "branch-leaves are smaller, round, oval or lance-like, concave or rolled-up lengthwise. Each leaf apex overlaps the base of the next leaf above and every fifth leaf lies in a perpendicular line on the stem, directly over the first leaf counted, that is they are five ranked. The veil (calyptra) is a ragged membrane left at the base of 5. acuiifolium, var. rubellum. Cross-sec- tion of leaf showing cells with cell contents and empty cells with perforations. the as the latter spore-case grows. The spore-cases are chestnut brown, globular, without teeth. 115 Mosses and Lichens Normally they are in the crown (capihiluni) of the plant, but by an elongation of an erect branch near the apex of the stem they are often left behind so as to appear to have grown from the side. The pedicels are thick and stocky. [The Sphag- num pedicel (pseudopodium) does not have the same origin as the pedicel of other mosses]. The lids (opercula) are flattened in the form of an inverted saucer. These are normally cast off by the contraction of the spore-case wall. Some- times a lid remains attached at one point and opens to permit spores to escape or closes to protect them. Sometimes, if wet, a lid does not fall, then the spores germinate within the spore-case and the growing embryos burst the spore-case and escape. The spores are of two kinds — large four-angled spores (tetrahedral macrospores) and small many- angled spores (polyhedral microspores). The small spores are supposed to be the spores of a parasitic fungus which lives upon the developing spores of the moss. Two hundred and fifty-eight species in all are known, seventy-four being found in North America. Sphagnum tguarrosum. A plant with a sporophyte rising from the perichaetial leaves at its summit ; the slender pedicel bears a globu- lar spore-case closed with a saucer-like lid and having a ragged veil at its base. THE PALE TINT OF PEAT-MOSSES The pale tint of peat-mosses is due to the struc- ture of the leaves. When the moss is wet, the large cells are rendered more transparent and the colour of the small cells can be seen through them. When the moss is dry and the green cells are less evident, then it is paler green or even white. THE METHOD BY WHICH PEAT-MOSSES ABSORB WATER The tiny openings of the large cells communicate with similar openings in adjoining cells. When the atmosphere is dry, as has already been said, the large cells are filled with air; but as soon as the atmosphere is moist, the surrounding water rushes through the holes on one side of the large cells and the air is 116 Peat-Mosses forced out through the holes on the opposite sides. When all the large cells are filled with water, the contents of the small cells can absorb through their thin walls the water from the adjoining large cells. It may help one to comprehend the structure to imagine a number of thin, transparent-glass capsules of irregular shape, with spiral or circular thickenings of glass in their walls and tiny openings here and there. Imagine the capsules piled up with the openings of each capsule contiguous to the openings of adjoining capsules and all the spaces between filled with very small capsules containing a colourless jelly and green granules. Diagram to show plan of cell-structure. If the base of this imaginary pile be immersed in water, immedi- ately the water will creep up through the whole system. This is in accordance with nature's law that water rises in fine hair- like tubes or crevices. To understand the process by which the water passes from a large cell to a small cell one must recall another of nature's laws, that whenever a non-crystallisable substance, as the cell-contents of the small cells, is separated by a membranous partition from a crystallisable liquid, as the water in the large cells, the crystallisable liquid will pass through the membranous wall into the non-crystallisable substance. It is evident that one function of the large cells is to procure water for the small cells to work with ; but since this same function would be performed as well if all the cells were filled 117 Mosses and Lichens Point whtrt. Proton tmo,.*, «,. Protonema of Sphagnum cymbifolium. (See page 119.) Sphagnum acutifolium. Stem of moss-plant with leafy branches ; (ch) involucral leaves of the female flower ; (a) involucral leaves of the male flowers; (fc) stem leaves. (See pages 120 and 121.) 118 Sphagnum acutifolium. (A) Male flower-cluster with involucral leaves stripped off to show male flowers (a) antheridia. (B) Antheridium burst- ing and emitting antherozoids. (0 Coiled antherozoid with two lashes. (See pages 120 and lai.) Peat-Mosses with non-crystallisable cell-contents as in other mosses, one must conclude that the large cells serve other purposes beside that of water carriers. Perhaps they are, when filled with air, a protec- tion to the cells containing leaf-green, serving both as shields against excessive heat and light and as a barrier to excessive evaporation. THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANS Protonema. — The large spores germinate in water to form a thread-like protonema ; or, on land, to form a flat plate of cells, from which the moss-plant develops. Several stages from spore to adult plant are shown in diagrams i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. (See also diagrams on pages 118 and 120.) Sphagnum acutifolium. Vertica section to show: (or) archegon- ium; (ch) cut edges of perichaetial leaves; (y) involucral leaf. (Seepage 120.) Sphagnum acutifolium. Plant (gametopbyte).—The cells of the protonema by division at one point form the plant — stem, leaves and rhizoids — then the protonema disappears. Upon the moss plant are developed the male flowers (antberidta) and the female flowers (archegonia) . In Sphagnum acutifolium the male and female flowers mature in late autumn and in winter and may often be found by digging under the snow. Antberidium.—An antheridium has its origin in a cell of the outer wall of a branch. This cell divides to make two, one of 119 Mosses and Lichens which divides to form a stem or pedicel, while the second divides to form the globular part of the antheridium. The mature antheridium bursts at the apex, the margins roll back and a cloud ."JVtoss-plo/nt* .JpTotontwou Sphagnum acutifolium. Male flower-cluster with sterile branch at base. Moss plant on protonema of Sphagnum acutifolium. of flattened membranous sacs (vesicles), each containing one spirally coiled antherosoid, are thrown out. The antherosoids are soon set free by the breaking down of the vesicle wall. Each antherosoid is a spirally coiled cell, club-shaped, with two vibratile lashes at the attenuated end. .Wait Sphagnum subsecundum. Young arche- gonium. Sphagnum papillosum. Vertical sec- tion of a de- v e 1 o p i n g archegonium. Sphagnum cuspidatum. Vertical section to show young embryo. Sphagnum cuspida- tum. Vertical section of a ripe archegonium to show egg-cell. Archegonium. — The archegonium is developed by cell-division; it is similar to a tiny flask, at the base of which is an egg-cell (ovum) which, after fertilisation, is to become a spore-case (i, 2, 3). 120 Peat-Mosses Fertilisation occurs early in the spring, that is, sperm-cells (antherosoids) from antheridia, swim over in water to a mature egg-cell of an archegonium, coalesce with it and make possible the development of an embryo spore-case (4). The Spore-case. — The first embryos may be found late in February. A study of their development shows that the fertilised egg-cell divides into four cells and then by repeated division of cells takes the form of the several diagrams in order, A, B, C, and D. The embryo which has been formed as a result of fertilisation is divided into two regions, the three upper segments with the Okttr luxlX. Inner >nas« Vertical section of developing embryo. Sphagnum acutifolium. apical cell give rise to spores, while the lower segments with the basal cell form a "foot." The rudimentary spore-case is at first sessile, but later is raised by the lengthening of the apex of the branch upon which it is borne. Veil (calyptrd). — The veil is the fragmentary remains of the old archegonium wall which was burst by the enlarging spore- case within and left at the base, or carried up on the lid. Pedicel (seta). — The "foot" of the Sphagnum* is homologous with the pedicel of other mosses, as it is due to a development of the base of the archegonium. The so-called pedicel (pseudo- podium] is the result of a lengthening upward of the apex of the branch which bears the archegonium. This branch so enlarges just below the developing spore-case as to completely envelop the "foot." Lid (operculum). — When the spore-case is mature enough to open, the upper portion separates from the lower by the breaking down of the walls of a zone of cells. This zone of weak cells is 121 Mosses and Lichens first noticeable in a young spore-case as a groove. This groove is due to one zone of cells growing less rapidly than the zones of cells on either side. The breaking along the groove is due to the thinner walls of the groove cells. One zone of thicker- walled cells forms a rim to the spore-case and the other zone of thicker-walled cells forms the rim of the lid. pedicel. ieaves, Vertical section of a young sporogonium. The character of the leaves and the manner of branching, both of which are visible to the naked eye, enable one to separate the species with some accuracy into eight groups, which are helpful to a beginner, in that they gave him some definite points of difference to look for in a genus of which to the novice all species appear alike. SYNOPSIS OF GENUS SPHAGNUM i. Acuta. — With branch-leaves erect and stem leaves large. Examples: Sphagnum acutifolium and Sphagnum rubellum. (See diagram on page 123.) 122 Peat-Mosses 2. Cuspidata. — With branch-leaves longer and narrower than the Acuta group, erect, spreading and wavy on the margins when dry; stem-leaves small. Example: Sphagnum cuspidaium. Stem leaves. Branch leaves. Sphagnum acutifolium. 3. Squarrosa. — Plants stout, branch-leaves spreading open widely and abruptly from the middle of the branch. Example: Sphagnum squarrosum. (See diagram below.) 4. Mollia. — Plants short, densely crowded, very soft when Stem leaves. Branch leaf. Sphagnum mollt. Branch leaves. Sphagnum cuspidaium. A Branch leaf. Sphagnum squarrosum. Branch leaf. Stem leaf. Sphagnum subsecundum. 123 Stem leaf. Branch leaf. Sphagnum cymbifolium. Mosses and Lichens wet, brittle when dry, branch leaves short. Example: Sphag- num molle. (See diagram, page 12^.) 5. Subsecunda. — Branch-leaves more or less turned to one side or strongly curved and more or less folded. Example: Sphagnum subsecundum. (See diagram, page 123.) 6. Cymbijormia. — Plants robust; stem-leaves large, tongue or boat-shaped, branch-leaves very concave. Example: Sphagnum cymbifolium. (See diagram, page 123.) 7. Cyclophylla. — Plants not crowded, stems short, usually without short hanging branches; leaves loosely overlapping, roundish or oval, with a broad blunt apex. Acute-leaved Peat-moss (Sphagnum acutifolium) , E h rh . — See Colour Plate XI. Habit and habitat. — Green or purple or red, common in open, shaded bogs, in valleys or on mountains; many varieties are noted; the variations due to their special habitat. Name. — The specific name acutifolium is compounded of two Latin words acutus, sharp, and folium, a leaf, referring to the apex of the leaf. Plants (gametophyte). — Stem without pores in the triple layer of cells which form the outer covering ] cluster branches spreading, 3 to 5, one to two pendent. Branch. Leaf. Sphagnum cyckphylla. Transverse section of leaf. Part of cross section of stem showing triple layer of cells. Sphagnum acutifolium. Leaves.— Stem-leaves large, erect, oval or tongue-shaped ; apex irregularly notched ; with the large cells lined with a few or no 124 Peat-Mosses spiral thickenings; branch-leaves deeply concave, erect, oval lance-shaped and awl-shaped, apex toothed; margin in-rolled. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous) or on separate plants (dioicous) ; male branches usually red. Leaves at the base of the spore-case (perichatial leaves). — Ob- long, gradually narrowed to a point, apex sinuous, toothed, recurved. Sphagnum- acutifolittm. Stem of moss plant with leafy branches; (d) involucral leaves of the female flower; (a) involucral leaves of the male flowers. Male branch, perigonium. Sphagnum acuttfolium. Spore-case. — Numerous, on long false pedicels. Spores. — Rust-colour, mature in July. Distribution. — Universal. The Reddish Peat-moss (Sphagnum rubellum), Weis. Habit and habitat. — Common in the Adirondack Mountains. The plants cover sunny bogs with a deep red carpet. Name. — The specific name is the Latin rubellum, somewhat red. 125 Mosses and Lichens Stem with three leaves and three branches, two spreading and one pen- dent. Female branch. Sphagnum rubellum. Branch leaf. Plant (gametophyte). — Resembling Sphagnum acutifolium, stems softer and more slender. Leaves. — Stem-leaves broad, obtuse, sometimes with fibrils in the cells ; branch-leaves shorter, oval oblong, apex obtuse, three- toothed. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). The Pointed Peat-moss (Sphagnum cuspidatum), Ehrh. Habit and habitat. — Green or brown, floating in loose tufts in ponds and on the borders of streams flowing from bogs. Apex. Leaves of divergent branch. Stem leaves. Sphagmim rubellum , 126 Peat- Mosses Male branch perigonium. Sphagnum rubellum. Perigonial leaf. Sphagnum rubellum. Portion of cross section of stem. Branch leaves. Sphagnum cuspidatum. Name. — The specific name is the Latin cuspidatum, sharpened at the end, referring to the cluster-branches. Plants (gametophyte). — Long and slender, 6 to 18 inches or even several feet; cluster-branches (fascicles), spreading or hanging, not closely appressed to the stem, 3 to 5, tapering to a stout point owing to the fact that the terminal leaves are rolled lengthwise. Leaves. — Stem-leaves small, triangular, apex 2- to jj-toothed ; branch-leaves loose, erect spreading, wavy on the margins when dry, lance-like and taper-pointed, deeply concave, apex with several small teeth; awl-shaped at the ends of the branches. Leaves at the base of the spore-case. — Distant, broadly ovate, apex cut square or obtuse; large cells lined with fibrils. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Spore-case. — Scattered down the stem, small, the false pedicel often half an inch long. Spores. — Light brown, mature in July. Distribution. — Universal. Sphagnum squarrosum. Transverse section of leaf. Apex. Leaves from divergent branch. Sphagnum squarrosum. 127 Mosses and Lichens The Spread-leaved Sphagnum (Sphagnum squarrosum), Pers.— See Plate XII. Habit and habitat. — Bluish-green, stout, loosely crowded, the summits appearing like edelweiss, almost white when dry; com- mon in boggy places. Name. — The specific name is the Latin squarrosum, scurfy, applied to describe the scale-like leaves of the stem. Plant (gametopbyte). — Stems solid, simple or forking, red; cluster-branches 4 to 5, 2 to 3 divergent, the others pendent and appressed. Stem leaves: Leaf at base of pedicel. Femalebranch. Sphagnum squarrosum. Leaves. — Stem leaves soft, spreading or turned backward from the stem, tongue-shaped; apex rounded and ragged; branch-leaves spreading widely and abruptly from the middle of the branch oblong lance-shaped, apex four-toothed. Leaves at tbe base of tbe spore-case (perichcetial leaves). — Very broad, thin apex rounded and notched. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers generally on the same plants (monoicous). Spore-case. — Large, nearly spherical, shining dark brown, numerous at and near the summit of the plant. Spores. — Yellow, mature in August and September. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia, Africa. The Boat-leaved Moss (Sphagnum cymbi folium), Ehrh. — See Plate III. Habit and habitat. — Common in bogs, robust, yellow-green or red, densely crowded when growing out of water, rarely floating, male plants slender with thick flower-clusters. 128 • Peat-Mosses Name. — The specific name cymbifolium is compounded of two Latin words, cymba, a small boat, and folium, a leaf, referring to the branch-leaves. Stem solid, simple or two-parted; cortical cells in 3 to 4 layers; cluster-branches (fascicles), swollen, 4 to 5, 2 to 3 hanging, the rest curved. Leaves. — Stem leaves large, tongue-shaped or spatulate, gener- ally turned back from the stem ; apex rounded and irregularly notched; branch-leaves broadly oval and boat-shaped, apex finely serrate and rough, densely overlapping; translucent rtt*. Bit of stem with one leaf and fascicle of four branches, two appressed and three spreading. Cross section of stem Female Bract of branch, male branch. Perichsetial Apex of Male leaf. leaf- flower-cluster. Sphagnum cymbifolium. cells (utricles) large, with spiral thickenings (fibrillose) and few pores, green cells (ducts) narrowly oval. 129 Mosses and Lichens Leaves at the base of the spore-case (pericbcetial leaves). — Small, oval. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous), male branches rather thick, yellow-brown, red, or olive-green. Veil (calypird). — As in genus. Spore-case. — Large, almost spherical, dark brown. Stem leaf. Branch leaves. Sphagnum cytnbifoliutn. Pedicel. — As in genus. Lid (operculum). — Saucer-like. Teeth (peristome). — None. Spores. — Rust-colour, mature in July. Distribution. — Universal. Antheridium. Genus ANDRE^A, Ehrh. The species of the Genus Andreaea are found in small, brown or black, fragile tufts on granite or slate rocks in high altitudes. They are among the first mosses to grow on rock and are Andreato Hartmanii. Leaves. Andrecea «- pes-tris. Spore- case open ins by four valves. efficient agents in preparing soil for higher forms of plant life. The plants are small with forked branches which start from just below the flower-bearing apex. The leaves are thick, open or 130 MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE VIII REINDEER LICHEN— A VARIETY. REINDEER LICHEN, VARIETY ALPESTRIS. REINDEER LICHEN. Cladonia rangijerina, (L.) Hoffm. Reindeer feed upon it ... Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Company PHYSCIA LEUCOMELA, (L.) Michx. Peat- Mosses spreading, ovate to lance-shaped and usually have their surface covered with projecting points. The terminal oval spore-cases are immersed among the leaves before maturity, but later are protruded by the elongation of the cellular sheath (vaginule) surrounding the base of the spore-case. This is known as a false pedicel (pseudo- podium). There is no lid, as the case opens by splitting perpendicularly into four or rarely six equal segments which cohere at the apex. There are, Veil Fertile plant. A sporophyte separated from the cellular sheath. Andrecea Hartmanii. Sterile plant. of course, no teeth when there is no lid. The small spores are at first coherent in fours, later, when the case splits into valves, they are disseminated by the wind, if the weather is dry; if it is damp, the valves draw together to protect the spores. There are about one hundred species known at present, six or more of them occurring in North America. The specific char- acters are drawn mainly from the leaves. 131 Mosses and Lichens By the early writers these mosses were classed with the leafy hepatics (Jungermania) on account of their manner of opening the spore-case by valves instead of by a lid. They agree in structure with the true mosses. Their proper place seems to lie between the peat-mosses and leafy-mosses. They agree with the peat-mosses because the spore-case is first enclosed in a sac- like vail and then elongated on a false pedicel. They agree with the genus Grimmia in habitat, manner of growth and in structure of their leaves, differing chiefly in the opening of the spore-case. The name was given by Fredrich Ehrhart, in honour of his friend J. G. R. Andreae, a Hanoverian naturalist. The Stone-loving Andresea (Andrecea petrophila), Ehrh. Habit and habitat. — Found in small olive or dark brown tufts on wet rocks of high mountains. Name. — From irerpa, a rock, and i\eiv, to love, referring to its choice of habitat. Plants (gametophyte). — Stems slender, $ to i inch long, leafless below. A . petrophila. Vertica section of spore-case. A. petrophila. Leaves. Leaves. — Spreading or turned to one side, lance-shaped, rough on the back with projecting points; apex sometimes oblique, transparent; vein none, margin incurved, entire. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant (monoicous) . Veil (calypird). — Thin, closely fitting the spore-case. Spore- case. — Egg-shaped, immersed in the leaves at its base until maturity and then protruded by the elongation of the cel- lular sheath (vaginule) surrounding its base. Pedicel (seta). — None. Lid (operculum).—None. Teeth (peristome) .— None. 132 Peat- M os sea Spores. — Small, mature in June- August. Distribution.— Widely distributed in cooler regions. The Rock Andreaea (Andrecea rupestris), Turner. Andreaea rupestris has lance-shaped leaves, smooth with a vein extending beyond the apex. This moss is common in the mountains of Georgia and North Caro- lina, descending to the plains northward. The specific name from the Latin rupes, a rock, refers to its habitat, spore-case open. and Leaves. Fertile plant, spore- case immersed. Sporophyte still carrying its veil, one peri- chaetial leaf at the base of the pedicel. A. ruptstris. Genus SPH^iRANGIUM, Schimp. The Species of the Genus Sphasrangium are minute bud-like plants with spore-case immersed, without stems, growing on the ground in clusters, but with no protonema at the base. The lower leaves are small, while the upper are large, somewhat twisted and overlapping as shingles. They are concave or keeled and covered with minute protuberances on the back or on both surfaces. The spore-cases are spherical and for this reason Wilhelm Philipp Schimper gave them their generic name Spbarangium, from the Greek aipa, a ball, and ayyeiov, a vessel. The cases with their 133 Mosses and Lichens tiny erect veils are borne on pedicels and are enclosed in the leaves at their base; when mature they split irregularly and transversely for the emission of the spores, which are small, somewhat globular, minutely granulous and brown. There are fourteen species known in all, four of them in North America. Spore. Spore -case. Spore-case split open to show columella of spores. VeU. S. muticuin. Leaf -cells. Sphaerangium muticum, Schimp. Individual plants are more or less separated. Habit and habitat. — On bare clay or sandy soil. Name. — The specific name muti- cum, blunt, refers to the apex of the spore-case. Plants (gametophyte). — Like yellow-brown buds j of an inch high. Leaves. — The lower and middle oval and long taper-pointed; apex recurved, with a short sharp point; vein passing beyond the apex ; the upper two or three, twice as large as the lower; apex irregularly toothed. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Very small, erect, conical, with a long beak. Spore-case. — Orange, spherical, immersed. Pedicel. — Very short. Lid (operculum). — None. Teeth (peristome). — None. Spores.— Mature in winter and early spring. Distribution.— Europe, Africa, and North America. 134 Spore-case split- ting irregularl y and emitting spores. Sfheerangium Schimferanum. Peat-Mosses Male and female branches at the left and (a) rhizoids. Lower leaf. Upper leaves. Plant. Spharangium muticum Genus PHASCUM, Linn. The plants of the Genus Phascum are very small with simple distinct stems. They grow in loose clusters on bare ground under old willows and along brooks and garden paths. The protonema is not persistent. The leaves are crowded, forming small heads and are lance-shaped with taper-pointed apex and a broad base with a vein extending as an awn be- yond the apex. The cells are distinct and pale below, smaller and green above, sometimes with minute projecting points on one or both faces. The spore-cases are spherical or egg-shaped with a short point or a blunt beak. They are raised on a short, erect or curved pedicel and break irregularly and transversely for the emission of the large, rough spores, which are borne on a thick, central column (columella) . There are ten species known in all, three of them in North America. By some they are believed to be mosses in a primitive condition ; by others they are believed to be degenerate forms of higher mosses. U5 Leaf. Sporophyte. Spore - case with veil. Pedicel short, with the vag- inule a t the base. Spore-case split open to show colu- mella. Phascum cuspidalum. Mosses and Lichens The generic name Pbascum is derived from the Greek do-/covt an ancient name for a moss. It was originally applied by Theo- phrastus to a lichen, Usnea barbata, and first used as a generic name for these mosses by Linnaeus in 1753. He enumerated three species, all founded on figures made by Dillenius and pub- lished in 1741. Schreber limited the name more closely to its modern sense. In a quaint little pamphlet printed in 1770, he praises the invention of lenses which make it possible to see the tiny mosses as if they were of greater stature, and says that the ancients spoke well and wisely when they said "Nature is never more perfect than in small things." Plant with immersed spore-case and new shoots. Plant with nodding spore-case. Male flower. Phase-urn cuspidatum. Phascum cuspidatum, Schreb. Habit and habitat. — In loose yellow-green tufts in old fields. Name. — The specific name cuspidatum, pointed, refers to the apex of the leaves. Plants (gametopbyte). — Stems simple or branched, ITT to TTF of an inch high, often bushy with numerous fertile stems, dividing from the base or branching above, occasionally whip-like. Leaves. — Small and few below, much larger and crowded above, broadly lance-like, twisted when dry: apex awl-like; margins recurved, entire \vein thick and extending beyond the 136 Peat-Mosses apex; basal cells large, clear; upper cells small, green, with tiny projecting points. Habit of flowering, — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous) ; male flowers sessile in the axils of the upper leaves. Veil (calyptra).— Split on one side. Spore-case.— One or several on a plant, erect or nodding, spherical with a sharp point at the top, -£$ °f an incn in diameter. Pedicel. — Short and curved, immersed or slightly emergent. Spores. — Brown, rough, mature in March and April. Distribution. — North and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa. P. nenosum. Vertical section of spore-case to show columella and spores. P. tubulatum. Plants. P. tubulatum. Leaves. P. subulatum. Spore- case split open to show columella. Genus PLEURIDIUM, Brid. The plants of the Genus Pleuridium are minute and erect with simple or branching stems clustered to form dense cushions on the ground. The leaves are small and few below, but longer and crowded above; they are oval at the base, tapering to a long awl-like point with a broad vein forming most of the apex. U7 Mosses and Lichens The spore-cases are solitary and terminal, immersed on a short pedicel. They are almost spherical with a point on the summit and a persistent columella. There are thirty-six species known in all, five in the United States. The generic name Pleuridium is derived from the Greek 7r\€vpiSiov, at the side. The name is suggestive of the position of the spore-cases, which in some species appear to be on the sides of the stems instead of on the summits, because a side branch has grown from near the base of the spore-case — but in the same direction as the main stem — leaving the spore-case behind. Pleuridium subulatum, (Huds.), Rabenh. Habit and 'habitat. — In loose bright-green and silky tufts on earth and clay, along woods, banks and heaths. Name. — The specific name subulatum, from the Latin subula, an awl, refers to the shape of the upper leaves. Spores. Spore-case Veil. Leaves. with veiL P. subulatum. Plants (gametopbyte). — Minute, ^ to -nrof an inch high, simple or branching. Leaves. — The lower distant, short, oval and taper-pointed; the upper longer, more crowded, spreading; apex an awn minutely toothed and rough on the back; vein broad, forming most of the awn. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers close together on the same plant (paroicous) ; male flowers naked in the axils of the leaves at the base of the spore-case. Veil (calyptra). — Split on one side. Spore-case. — Immersed in the leaves at the base, egg-shaped with a tiny point at the apex (apiculate). Pedicel (seta). — Short, immersed. Lid (operculum). — None. 138 Peat- Mosses Teeth (peristome). — None. Spores.— Rough, mature from March to June. Distribution. — Quite universal. Genus BRUCHIA, Schwaegr. The species of the Genus Bruchia are minute, with simple or two-forked stems. They are found growing in loose clusters on the ground. The stem-leaves are small and distant, those toward the apex being long- er and crowded to form a rosette. The vein of all leaves is distinct to the apex. The spore-cases are emergent, oval and beaked, with a base which tapers into a long solid neck (collum). They open irregu- larly for the emission of the spores as they have no lid. There are eighteen species in all, two in Europe and eleven in North America. The generic name Bruchia was applied by D. Fridericus Schwaegrichen in 1824, in honour of the distinguished bryologist Ph. Bruch, one of the authors of " The Bryologia Europaea." Bruchia flexuosa, Muell. Habit and habitat. — Found on clay or OR fcase soil in fields or under old willows and along brooks. Name. — The specific name flexuosa, the Latin for "crooked," refers to the curving of the stems near the bases. Plant (gametophyte) . — In loose tufts, stems comparatively long, curved downward at the base. Leaves. — Stem-leaves distant, very small, nearly smooth, narrowly lance-shaped and prolonged into an awn; apex ob- scurely serrate. Habit of flowering.— Male and female flowers close together on '39 Leaf. Leaf, side view Plant. showing vein. Bruchia flexuosa. Mosses and Lichens Bruchia flex- uosa. Sporophyte. the same plant (paroicous) or in separate buds on the same plant. Veil (calyptrd). — Resembling a bishop's mitre, thin, lobed, or torn at the base. . Spore-case. — Not immersed in the leaves at the 0 base, egg-shaped with a neck (collum) shorter or equal to the spore-sac, long-beaked. Pedicel. — One-tenth to two-tenths of an inch long. Lid (operculum). — None. Teeth (peristome). — None. Spores. — Mature in the fall. Distribution. — Found in the central part of North America. THE PRIMITIVE MOSSES Genus ARCHIDIUM, Brid. The species of the Genus Archidium are minute terrestrial plants having stems with branches short and erect or long and prostrate. The leaves are narrowly or broadly lance- shaped ; with a vein ; the cells are loose and contain but little leaf-green. The spore-cases are terminal, sessile and globular, opening irregularly and transversely for the exit of the spores, which are few, smooth and larger than those of any other moss. There are thirty-five species in all, five of them in North America. Their structure is more simple than that of most mosses; and for this reason Bridel gave it the generic name Archidium from the Greek apxt&on, a beginning. Archidium Ohiense, Schimp. Habit and habitat. — Moist meadows and waste fields. Name.— The specific name Ohiense refers to the fact that this moss was first found in Ohio. Plant (gametophyte). — Minute; stems slender. Leaves. — Narrowly lance-shaped, spreading; apex awl-like, finely toothed; vein extending into the apex of the leaf-blade. 140 Archidium ense. Vertical section through sporophyte to show large spores, foot immersed in the upper part (vaginule) of the spore-pedicel. Archidium Ohiense. Exit of spores. The Primitive Mosses Leaves at the base of the spore-case (pericljcetical leaves). — Broader and longer. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers in separate clus- ters on the same plant (autoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Very thin, irregularly torn below. Spore-case. — Spherical, on short side branch. Pedicel. — Very short. Lid (operculum). — Wanting. Teeth (peristome). — Wanting, Spores. — Sixteen to twenty, angular, smooth, mature in fall and winter. Distribution. — North America, Ohio and southward. Plant. Archidium Ohienst. Sporophyte. Spore- case with veil. Plant with spore-case Leaf. immersed in leaves. Astomum Stdlivantii. Genus ASTOMUM, Hampe The species of the Genus Astomum are minute, simple or branching plants, living in matted tufts on the ground. The leaves are lance-shaped, tufted and curling toward the apex of the stems. 141 Mosses and Lichens The spore-cases are erect and symmetrical on a short pedicel and are immersed in the leaves. They have distinctly formed, beaked lids, which are not easily detached. There are no teeth. The generic name Astomum, from a, privative, without, and a-rofj.a, a mouth, was given because when first known this moss was supposed to have no lid. There are seventeen species in all. Bract. Sporophyte. Upper leaves. Papillose leaf. Veil. Leaves. Astomum Suilivantii. Astomum Suilivantii, Schimp. Habit and habitat. — In fields and gardens, living from year to year. Name. — The specific name Suilivantii was applied to this moss by Wilhelm Philipp Schimper, in honour of William S. Sullivant, a noted bryologist. ; Plant (gametophyte). — Minute, simple, or branched. Leaves. — The lower leaves small, narrowly oval; the upper narrowly lance-shaped, densely tufted, covered on the back with tiny projections papillosa; curled in various directions when dry; apex pointed ; margins rolled in ; vein round, extending beyond the apex of the leaf-blade (percurrenf). Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous). 142 The Primitive Mosses Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Bright orange, symmetrical. Pedicel (seta). — Shorter than the spore-case. Lid (operculum}. — Short, conical. Teetb (peristome). — None. Spores. — Bright, rusty brown, mature in autumn. Distribution. — North America. Genus GYMNOSTOMUM, Hedw. The species of the Genus Gymnostomum are found in matted tufts on the ground and on limestone walls and rocks. The plants have slender stems branching twice or many times to form clusters, with terminal erect spore-cases, cylindrical or globose, exserted on erect pedicels. The leaves are small, generally larger upwards and tufted at the apex of the stem ; they are lance-shaped with a solid vein prominent on the back. The lid is long-beaked and falls to permit the escape of the spores. There are no teeth, a character which suggests the generic name, from the Greek 71/^1/0?, naked, and (TTOfj,a, a mouth. There are fifty-five species in all, eight of them known in North America. Gymnostomum calcareum, Nees & Hornsch. Habit and habitat. — Densely tufted, bright-green above, rusty below ; on shaded limestone rocks. Name. — From calcarius, pertaining to lime, a name suggested by the plant's habit of depositing lime. Plants (gametophyte) . — Stems 1 to | of an inch long, covered with root- . Leaf and IclS. cross -section Leaves. — The lower very small, t ° show • 11 . . prominent gradually or abruptly larger upward ; vein. slender lance-shaped ; apex blunt ; Gymnostomum cakargum. Mosses and Lichens vein extending to near the apex ; margin minutely blunt-toothed. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case.— Exserted, oblong, yellow-brown, slightly con- stricted under the mouth when dry. Spore-case without teeth. Spore-case with veil. Gymnostomum cakareum Leaves. Pedicel. — £ to f of an inch long. Lid (operculum). — Base conical ; beak awl-like. Teeth (peristome). — None. Annulus. — Short and persistent. Spores. — Rare, mature in summer. Distribution. — Universal. Gymnostomum curvirostrum, Hedw. Habit and habitat. — This moss is found on limestone rocks and on deposits of carbonate of lime about springs and streams. The plants obtain the carbonic acid gas (CO2) which they need, from bicarbonate of lime which is dissolved in the surrounding water. By decomposition of the bicarbonate of lime [Ha Ca (CO3)a], which is soluble in water, the mono- carbonate of lime (Ca CO3), which is insoluble in water is precipitated in the form of incrustations upon the leaves and stems of the moss, so that in time a very appreciable deposit of limestone is made.* Name. — From the Latin curvus, curved, and rostrum, a beak. G. curvirostrum. with long beak. *See page 17. 144 The Primitive Mosses Plants (gametopbyte) . — Dark red or brown, matted, stems % to 5 inches long ; branches of equal height, in close clusters, covered with a felt of red radicles. Leaves. — Spreading, slightly incurved when dry, pointed, lance-shaped, keeled, smooth, or with tiny projections ; base transparent ; margin entire or slightly serrate and recurved above the base ; vein vanishing below the apex. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case . — E gg- shaped, oblong, or nearly spherical, thick-walled, chestnut colour, shining, top-shaped when dry and empty. Pedicel — I to f of an inch long. ! Lid (operculum). — With a long oblique beak, at base attached to a central column (coin- melld) in the spore-case, by which it is held long after it has split away from the rim. Annulus. — Two rows of persistent cells. Spores. — Mature in late summer. Distribution. — Common in North America, Europe, and Asia. Very abundant in Niagara Falls. Genus WEISIA, Hedw. The species of this genus are small and slender, growing in tufts or cushions on the ground. The leaves are lance-shaped and twisted when dry, the apex is awl-like and the vein single. Spore-case Spore-case with lid lif- with lid. ted. G. curvirostrum. Peristome. Portion of peristome. Weisia viridula. M5 Leaves. Mosses and Lichens The spore-case is erect, oval-oblong, symmetrical or rarely incurved on an erect exserted pedicel. There is but one row of sixteen teeth, often imperfect or wanting, granular and trans- versely barred. The generic name Weisia was given in honour of Frederigo Wilhelm Weiss, a German professor of botany. About twenty-four species are known in all. Weisia viridula, Brid. Habit and habitat. — Common, forming more or less compact cush- ions on the ground in meadows, broken fields, borders of ditches and grassy roadsides, where it is conspicuous for its bright green colour. Very variable. Name. — The specific name viri- dula is the Latin diminutive of viridis, green. Plants (gametopbyte). — Stems about \ of an inch long, simple or branched. Lid in veil. Weisia viridula. Spore-case with veil. Leaves. — The lower minute ; the upper much larger, narrowly lance-shaped and curled when dry; base enlarged, pale, concave; vein (costa) stout and extending beyond the apex into a short sharp point ; margin inrolled in the upper part to form a tube, flat toward the base ; cells opaque, dot-like, with tiny pro- jecting points. 146 The Primitive Mosses Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Smooth, split on one side and reaching to the middle of the spore-case. Spore-case. — Light-brown, oval, oblong, of thick texture, slightly con- stricted under the mouth, wrinkled lengthwise when dry. Dry spore-case. Top of spore-case with peristome. Portion of peristome. Weisia viridula. Pedicel (seta).-^ to £ of an inch long and twisted to the right. Lid (operculum). — Beak, long, straight or bent obliquely. Teeth (peristome). — Orange-red, variable, slender or broad, often ending abruptly (truncate) or split into two parts with 2 to 5 cross bars, sometimes rudimentary. Annulus. — Narrow, persistent. Spores. — Mature from March to May. Distribution. — Universal. Genus TREMATODON, Michx. The species of the Genus Tremato- don are short plants, sparingly branched and forming pale-green or dusky-brown tufts on the ground. The leaves are lance-shaped, tapering toward the apex; a vein is present, and the cells are large and long-hexagonal. The spore-cases are oblong, slightly arched with a long neck (coUum) once or twice as long as the spore-case. They have long-beaked lids with conical bases and are raised on slender pedicels % to i£ inches long. A simple or compound annulus is present and a single row of sixteen red-brown narrowly lance-shaped teeth cleft to near the base into two unequal forks. '47 r ambiguum Portionof Mosses and Lichens The generic name, compounded of two Greek words: a perforation, and 6So>v, a tooth, was suggested by the character of the teeth of one species, Trematodon ambiguum, which often have a cleft or perforation running lengthwise of each tooth. Plant. T. ambiguum. 148 Plant. The Primitive Mosses There are sixty-four species in all, two in the United States. Trematodon ambiguum, Hornsch. Habit and habitat. — Wet sandy places on hills ; in peat-bogs, ditches, etc., of Alpine regions. Name. — The specific name ambiguum, doubtful, was given to this species at the time it was classified in the genus Dicranum (1792) and expressed the doubt as to its rightful position, which was determined in 1803. Plants (gametophyte) . — Short, | to I inch long. Leaves. — Open, lance-shaped, channelled ; apex long and slender ; base concave, oval-oblong ; margins entire, inrolled ; vein extending beyond the leaf-blade (excurrent). Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Large, oblong, with a short tapering point. Perichaetial leaves. Plant stripped of leaves to show two male and one fe- male cluster. Tooth. Spore-case with veil. Lid. T. anibiguum. Vertical section of peristome showing two cells of the annulus at the base of a single tooth. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers in different places on the same plant (autoicous) ; male flowers terminal on a basal branch, bracts small, taper-pointed. Veil (calyptra). — Translucent, slit on one side (cucullate). Spore-case. — Oblong, straw-coloured or orange-brown ; in length equal to or shorter than the slightly arched neck (collum) which is swollen on one side at the base. Pedicel (seta) .—Long, twisted, £ to i£ inches long, straw- coloured. Lid (operculum). — Conical at the base; beak, long and oblique. 149 Mosses and Lichens Teeth (peristome}. — Cleft to near the base or in the middle only; segments sometimes irregularly torn. Annulus. — Large, rolling back when mature. Spores. — Mature in July and August. Trematodon longicollis, Michx. Trematodon longicollis, the long-necked Trematodon, may be distinguished from Trematodon ambiguum by the neck, which is twice as long as the spore-case, by the shorter plants, and by the slender character of the teeth and the leaves at the base of the pedicel. The specific name longicollis is compounded of two Latin roots, longum, long, and collum, a neck. T. ambiguum. (a) and (b) old spore- cases; (c) mature spore-case; (d) young spore-case. THE LITTLE FORK-MOSSES Genus DICRANELLA, Schimp. The species of this genus are generally small with slightly branching stems. The leaves are very long and narrow from a broader often clasping base and are never curled, but spread on all sides or turn in one direction. Usually they are smooth with the margins plane and the vein broad. The spore-cases are erect or inclined, symmetrical or un- equal on yellow or red pedicels. They have lids with long awl-like points. The peristome consists of sixteen large teeth, two-cleft to about the middle, closely cross-barred and marked with fine parallel bars running lengthwise. There are one hundred and twelve species in all, thirty-two known in North America. The generic name Dicranella, is the diminutive of Dicranum, from Sfapavos, a fork. 150 Fork-Mosses Dicranella heteromalla, Schimp. Habit and habitat. — Forming silky, green tufts of moderate size on rocks, clay banks, naked soil and roots of trees. Name. — The specific name heteromalla is de- rived from the Greek ere/ao'/iaXXo?, having hair only on one side, referring to the habit the leaves have of turning to one side. Plants (gametophyte) . — Stems simple or fork- ing, % to 2 inches high. Leaves. — Glossy, crowded, turned to one side, lance-shaped from the base; apex slender, awl-shaped, toothed or entire. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perich&tial leaves). — Abruptly and narrowly awl-shaped from a half-clasping base. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Egg-shaped or oblong with the summit inclined. The base tapers to form a short neck (collum) and is slightly constricted under the mouth. Plaited when dry. Pedicel. — Slender and pale yellow, to i inch long. Perichaetial. D. htteromaUa. Leaves. Mosses and Lichens Lid (operculum). — Long-beaked. Teeth (peristome). — Showy, red, two- or three-forked to the middle. Annulus. — Simple, very narrow. Spares. — Mature from November to February. Distribution. — North America, Europe and Asia. a e d e f D.heteromalla. (a) Spore-case with veil; (b) veil; (c) and (d) spore-cases with lid; («) spore- case with peristome; (f) portion of peristome. FORK-MOSSES Genus DICRANUM, Hedw. The species of this genus are universally distributed, and include some of our most easily recognised mosses. They usually grow in dense tufts or cushions on the ground or on old decaying logs or even on rocks. About two hundred and thirty-four species are known in all ; about sixty-three are found in North America, six of these within the limits of New York City. Their showy dark-green or glossy yellow-green cushions are often conspicuous in damp shady places and consist of numerous more or less erect and forking stems, often crowded together and covered with a felt of reddish hairs at least below, with lance-shaped often curved leaves above that spread all about the stem or turn to one side. 152 Tuft of Dicranum scoparium MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE IX Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Company WOOD PATH " The moss upon the forest bark Was polestar when the night was dark " Fork-Mosses The leaves have a slender apex with a vein usually broad and extending into the apex. The character of the vein and the cell- structure are relied upon for perfect classification of the species. The cells vary from short to linear oblong in the upper part of the leaf, to long and narrow in the lower part ; four-sided, inflated, orange or brown, in the angles of the base. The leaves at the base of the pedicel are sheathing and abruptly pointed. The spore-cases are erect or turned to one side, the base, which is often swollen so as to be unsymmetrical, tapers to an erect pedicel, long and smooth. An annulus is generally present. The lid is conical with a long beak. The perisiome is sin- gle, of sixteen teeth, two-cleft to the middle and red-brown at the base. D. scoparium. Perichaet ial leaf. D. subidatum. D. congestum. D.scoparium. Leaf. The name of the genus is derived from a Greek word. o?, a flesh-hook or fork, from a supposed resemblance of its teeth to that instrument. The American Indians call Fork- mosses "Women's heads," "because when you trample them under foot they spring right up again." Although at first glance the Dicranums appear to have their spore-cases on the sides of the plants, they truly belong to the group of mosses which bears them on the summits of the stems (acrocarpi) and not to the group which bears them on the sides of the stems (pleurocarpi), for a closer examination shows that a side stem grows on after the spore-case has 153 Mosses and Lichens begun to develop, leaving the spore-case and pedicel behind on the apex of the main stem. The felt of hairs on the stems serves as a sponge through which water may creep to the upper parts of the plants. " How glorious are the summer woods, Where the bright Broom Fork-moss grows, With their gush of love-born melody, And their world of verdant boughs." Perforated Portion of leaf to show leaf -cells. basal leaf -cells. D. scopariutn. D. undulatum. Whip Fork-Moss, Dicranum flagellare, Hedw. — See Plate XIV. Habit and habitat. — Growing in bright green, dense tufts producing fragile, small-leaved branches (flagelke) in the axils of the upper leaves. Common on decayed trunks in deep woods. Name. — The specific name flagellum, the Latin for "whip," refers to the young branches, which are so small as to be easily overlooked. They fall away as the plant dries. Plant (gametopbyte). — Repeatedly branching ; stems I to 2 inches high ; covered with a thick felt of hairs. Leaves. — Forming little clusters on the summits of the stems ; lance-shaped, convolute ; apex toothed, turned back from the stem, the upper twisted when dry ; margin below entire, incurved ; vein broad, compressed, extending to the apex ; cells inflated at the basal angles, yellow-brown, four-sided. The leaves of the "whips" have no vein. Leaves at tie base of the pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — Rolled about the pedicel. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). 154 Fork-Mosses Veil (calyptra). — Split on one side. Spore-case. — Erect symmetrical, long, cylindrical, grouped lengthwise when dry. Pedicel (seta). — Pale, twisted to the left when dry. Lid (operculum). — Conical, with long oblique beak. Annulus. — Narrow. Teeth (peristome). — Sixteen, narrow, cleft nearly to the base. Spores. — Mature in autumn. Distribution. — North America, Asia, Africa ; rare in Great Britain. Spore-case with lid. Old spore-case Basal leaf -cells. with teeth. D. flagellare. Leaf. The Broom-moss, Dicranum scoparium, Hedw. — See Plate XIII. Habit and habitat. — The Broom-moss, Dicranum scoparium, is a conspicuous species. It commonly grows in the woods forming large and symmetrical cushions on the ground, although it may extend in large patches over decaying stumps and logs or on the ground where there is a rich vegetable mould. The long- 155 Mosses and Lichens beaked spore-cases, tilted on one side, commonly point one way, and the leaves also are all turned to one side pointing in the same direction as the beaks. Children fancy they resemble duck heads and see in them flocks travelling toward the water. Some call them soldiers and sing "The troops of Dicranum are tilting their lances." Name. — The specific name scoparium, the Latin for "broom," is suggested by the resemblance of the plants to small counter- brooms. D. scoparium. Leaves. D. scoparium. Sections of vein toward apex of leaf. Plant (gametopbyte) . — Large ; stems 2 to 5 inches high in loose yellow, rarely green, tufts, covered with rootlets to the newest growth, forking once or twice. Leaves. — Glossy, turned to one side, or scythe-shaped, rarely erect, crowded at the tops of the stems ; apex awl-shaped ; base lance-shaped ; vein compressed, with four-toothed ridges on the back toward the apex ; margin sharply serrate and wavy toward the apex ; cells perforated, elongated in the upper part, narrow and worm-like toward the base, large, four-sided and orange- coloured at the angles. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (periclcelial leaves) . — Sheathing at the base. 156 Fork-Mosses Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different plants (dioicous}. Veil (calyptra). — Thin, smooth, beaked and split up one side. Spore-case. — Long, with summit somewhat in- clined, rarely erect, cylindrical, somewhat incurved, arched and grooved when dry. Pedicel (seta). — Solitary, golden-yellow. Lid (operculum). — Conical at the base, gradually narrowed into a strong beak, reddish, and as long as the spore-case. Teeth (peristome) . — Sixteen, dark-red, cleft to the middle. Annulus. — None. Spores. — Mature in summer. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia. ii w Perforated leaf cells Tuft of D. scoparium. Basal leaf -cells. D. scoparium. Genus FISSIDENS, Hedw. The species of this genus are metallic green, plume-like, simple or sparingly branched, growing in mats upon shady wet banks and rocks ; sometimes on tree-trunks, and sometimes floating in water. The leaves grow in two opposite rows (distichous), and are double below as if folded together, they are winged along the 157 Mosses and Lichens back and expanded toward the apex into a vertical simple blade; the vein extends to or beyond the apex ; the cells are small and filled with leaf-green. The spore-cases are erect, horizontal or pendent, always smooth and terminal, unless they have been thrust to one side by the growth of a branch at the base of the pedicel. Leaf with double- base lid. Portion of peristome. The apex of the main stem is at the base of the pedicel ; a side branch on the right has grown on beyond the main stem. Cross sections of leaf. F. adiantoides. Spore-case with veil. The peristome is single with sixteen teeth, red at the base and cleft at the apex, a character which has suggested the generic name from the Latin fissus, split, and dens, a tooth. When dry the teeth are incurved. The annulus consists of from one to four rows of large cells. 158 Fork- Mosses Five hundred and seventy-eight species are known in 'all, seventy-four in North America. The genus is represented throughout all the tropical and temperate regions of the world. It is probably to this pretty moss that Mungo Park, the African traveller, referred when he wrote the lines : " Sad, faint and weary, on the sand Our traveller sat him down ; his hand Oover'd his burning head. Above, beneath, behind, around, No resting for the eye he found ; All nature seemed as dead. One tiny tuft of moss alone, Mantling with freshest green a stone, Fix'd his delighted gaze ; Through bursting tears of joy he smiled, And while he raised the tendril wild, His lips o'erflowed with praise. Oh ! shall not He who keeps thee green, Here in the waste, unknown, unseen, Thy fellow-exile save ? He who commands the dew to feed Thy gentle flower, can surely lead Me from a scorching grave. Thy tender stalks, and fibres fine, Here find a shelter from the storm ; Perhaps no human eye but mine Ere gazed upon thy lovely form. He that form'd thee, little plant, And bade thee flourish in this place, Who sees and knows my every want, Can still support me with His grace.' Leaf. Cross section of leaf. Stem to show distichous leaves. F. taxifolium. 159 Mosses and Lichens Fissidens adiantoides, Hedw. Habit and habitat. — In bright or dark-green mats on moist shady ground, wet rocks and roots of trees. Varying according to locality. Name. — The specific name is compounded of aSiavros, maiden- hair, and the suffix olB, like, referring to the habit the leaves of the maidenhair have of shedding water, aSiairo?, being compounded of a, without, and Statvw, wet. Plant (gametophyte) . — Stems I to 5 inches long ; branches growing from the apex or base of the stem, with root-like fibres at their base. Portion of peristome. Empty spore-case. F. adiantoides. Stem with male flower- cluster at the base and female cluster above on the right. Leaves. — Numerous, close, overlapping like shingles, linear- oblong, clasping at the base ; apex taper-pointed and tipped with a short point continuous with the vein, the wing long and con- tinuous ; margins transparent, irregularly and minutely serrate. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different parts of the same plants (autoicous)] male flower-clusters small, axillary, bud-like. Veil (calyptrd). — Split on one side. Spore-case. — Oval, red-brown, much constricted under the orifice when empty. Pedice. — Red, % to I inch long, appearing as if attached to the side- of the stem. 160 White Mosses Lid (operculum). — Conical, with a long beak. Teeth (peristome). — Red, sixteen, each cleft into two slender segments with numerous cross-bars; inclined when dry. Annulus. — One or two rows of large cells. Spores. — Mature in December. Distribution. — Universal. WHITE MOSSES Genus LEUCOBRYUM, Hampe The white mosses are found in conspicuous greenish-white cushions about the roots of trees, in woods and on the borders of swamps. The moist cushions are soft and spongy and decidedly greener than the dry, which are so brittle that they can be readily crumbled to dust; and so colourless that they lead one to think they are parasitic or sapro- phytic plants. The change from brittle to soft is due to large cells in the leaves being filled alternately with water and air. The pale colour is due to the fact that the cells which contain leaf-green and active cell-contents are relatively small and are hidden between transparent cells many times as great. This arrangement of the cells is a contrivance for protecting the Leucobryum vulgare. Cross-section of leaf. • 161 Mosses and Lichens delicate leaf-green bearing cells from the fierce heat of the sun, and for providing a means by which water may be quickly trans- ferred to all parts of the plants. ctU. Perforation. Leucobryum vulgare. Model to show structure. The walls of these large colourless cells are very thin and are punctured with small holes which communicate with the holes of adjacent cells, so that the moment the plants are moistened, the cells fill with water by capillary attraction. The large cells when filled with water serve as reservoirs to the adjacent small cells, making it possible for the leaf-green to do its work of assimilating plant food. The greater transparency of the water- filled cells makes the leaf-green of the small cells more apparent from the exterior and gives the plants their deeper hue, when wet. Dry spore- Empty case to show spore-case, swollen base. Spore-case. Leucobryum vulgare. 162 Leaf. White Mosses The name Leucobryum, from the Greek Xev*odpov, eye- lash. There are fifteen species in all, eight of them in North America. The Eight-toothed White Moss, Octoblepharum albidum, Hedw. Habit and habitat. — In small white cushions on bark and on shady rocks. 165 Mosses and Lichens Name. — The specific name albidum, white, refers to the colour of the leaves. Plant (gametopbyte) . — Spongy, soft when wet, brittle and white when dry. Leaves. — Close, thick, composed, except on the borders, of two or three superimposed layers of large porous cells without leaf-green, these separated by a layer of simple, narrow cells containing leaf-green. Veil (calyptrd). — Large, split on one side. Spare-case. — Erect. Pedicel (seta) .—Short. Ltd (operculum). — Plane at the base with an oblique and awl-shaped beak. Natural size. Spore-case with eight teeth. Leaf. O. albidum. Teeth (peristome). — Eight, short, broadly lance-shaped, pale- yellow and transparent. Spores. — Mature in spring. Distribution. — Common in the warmer parts of the world except Europe. Genus CERATODON, Brid. The species of this genus are small erect plants growing in bright or dark-green cushions on soil or in the crevices of rocks. The leaves are lance-shaped and keeled, with entire or toothed margins, and a vein extending to or beyond the apex. 1 66 The Horn-tooth Mosses The mature spore-cases are long-egg-shaped, erect or slightly arched, with a short neck. They are dark or pale-red with wine- red or yellow pedicels, and short-beaked, conical lids, becoming deeply furrowed, inclined, and contracted below the mouth when old. Leaf. Pel'tca. C. purpureum. There is but one row of teeth, each tooth being cleft into two equal and strongly jointed segments, which suggest the generic name Ceratodon, a compound of two Greek words, fcepa<;, Keparo?, a horn, and 6Sa>v, a tooth. The two characteristics by which one may feel sure that his moss is a horn-tooth, are the cleft teeth and the shape and groov- ing of the spore-cases. There are eighteen species in all, one common in North America. The Purple Horn-tooth Moss, Ceratodon purpureum, Brid. — See Colour Plate IV. Habit and "habitat. — Look for the Purple Horn-tooth Moss on rocky ledges in open sunny places of the woods, in pastures and along roadsides, and in vacant city lots. Bright-green cushions of this moss may be found in depressions of the rocks during 167 C' Mosses and Lichens February and March. At this time the pedicels are often numer- ous and well-grown and their wine-red colour makes the moss conspicuous even while the spore-cases themselves thus early in the season are but little larger in diameter than the pedicels and are concealed by their veils. With the approach of warmer weather they mature rapidly still carrying their transparent veils. These are discarded before a great while and then the spore-cases and their conical short-beaked lids are glossy and wine-red. Later the lids fall, exposing a fringe of horn- like teeth about the rim. The spore- cases finally become deeply furrowed, inclined, and contracted below the mouth and in this condition may be found during most of the year. Name. — The specific name pur- pureum is the Latin for "purple," It refers to the colour of the spore-cases and pedicels. Plant (gametophyte). — Slender, erect, branch- ing from the base of the pedicels ; stems £ to 3 inches long. Leaves. — Lance- shaped, keeled ; vein ex- tending to or beyond the apex ; margin somewhat irregularly toothed re- flexed, opaque ; surface with slight protuber- ances; cells distinct. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Smooth, transparent, split on one side. Spore-case. — Long, egg-shaped with a short neck, dark-red, erect, somewhat arched ; four- or five-angled and deeply furrowed when dry. 168 C. purpureum. C. purpureum. The Horn-tooth Mosses Pedicel. — Slender, wine-red, erect. Lid (operculum). — Conical, short-beaked. Teeth (peristome). — Purple, each split into two equal, strongly cross-barred segments, with tiny projections toward the apex. Annulus. — Large, rolling back as the lid falls. Spores. — Mature in early spring, when they are ousted by the shrinking of the wall tissue. -Ui. VeiL Spore-case with veil. Spore-case. Annulus. C. purpure-um. Distribution. — Almost universal. Variety Xanthopous. — Greek fayflo's, yellow, and 77-01)9, a foot; has a pale-yellow pedicel. Variety Aristatus. — Latin "awned"; has the spore-case and pedicel pale and the mid-vein of the leaf extending beyond the apex of the leaf blade. Variety Minor. — Latin "smaller"; is said to have narrower teeth jointed only from the middle downward. Genus POTTIA, Ehrh. The species of this genus are small and grow in tufts or cushions on the ground or in crevices of rocks. The stems are simple or sparingly branched from the base. The leaves are oval to oblong and obovate, soft, opaque, smooth or covered with tiny projections; the apex is usually taper-pointed, or hair-pointed ; the base transparent ; the vein round in section. The cylindrical to obovate spore-case nas sometimes a very short pedicel and 169 P. truncate. Leaves. Mosses and Lichens sometimes a long one. The peristome may have imperfect teeth or none or sixteen tiny flat ones. There are about eighty-three species in all, fourteen in North America. The genus was named for Professor D. F. Pott, a German botanist. Pottia truncata, Fuern., 1. c. Habit and babitat. — Common in loose brighb-green tufts in fields and gardens and along hedge-rows. Name. — The specific name is the Latin truncata, cut off squarely, and refers to the abrupt summit of the spore-case which appears as if it had been sliced off. Plant (gametopbyte'). — Small, J of an inch high and simple, or longer and branching. Leaves. — Long-oval with the narrow end attached to the stem, concave, smooth ; apex taper-pointed, tipped with a sharp point ; margin flat ; vein extending below or beyond the apex. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split on one side, smooth. Spore-case. — Egg-shaped, broad end up (truncate). Pedicel. — Short, red. P. truncata. Spore-cases with veils. Veil. Spore -cases. P. truncata. Sporo-cano with Jifted lid. Lid (operculum). — Plano-convex with an oblique beak, falling with the columella attached. Teeth (peristome). — None. Spores. — Brown, mature in fall and winter. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia. 170 The Ditrichum Mosses Ditrichum pallidum. (a) cells from annulus ; (6) annulus ; (c) portion of peristome. Genus DITRICHUM, Timm, (1788) LEPTOTRICHUM, Hampe, (1842) The species of this genus are smooth and glossy plants growing in pale yellow-green tufts on soil or on rocks. The plants are dwarf, or tall and slender with lance-shaped, long- pointed leaves, and oval or cylindrical, erect spore-cases on long and straight, rarely flexuous, pedicels. The peristome has a compound annulus, and a single row of purple teeth cleft to the base into two slender, cross-barred segments, which have suggested the name of the genus. The generic name Leptotricbum, used by some for the genus, from Xe7TT09, narrow, and 0plg, T/J^W, a hair, has been shown by Hampe to be untenable, having previously been given to a genus of fungi. It has been replaced by Ditrichum, from 845, two, and 6pl%, T/W^W, a hair. This name has also the right of priority, There are seventy-two species in all, seventeen in North America. Ditrichum pallidum, Leptotricbum pdllidum, Hampe, 1. c. — See Colour Plate XIV. Habit and habitat. — Common in loose tufts, pale or yellow- green, on bare sandy or clay-soil, in fields or by roadsides. Name. — The specific name pallidum, pale, refers to the colour. Plant (gametopbyte). — Slender, erect. Leaves. — Open, erect, spreading or curved to one side, lance- shaped at base and prolonged to an awl-shaped apex ; vein extending beyond the apex and distinctly toothed. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous) ; the male flower-clusters bud-like at the apex of the stem. Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Long, egg-shaped, brown. Pedicel. — Bright yellow, I to 2 inches long. Lid (operculum). — Conical, short-beaked. 171 Mosses and Lichens Teeth (peristome) . — Dark-red, each tooth divided into two unequal forks, free or united by the cross-bars. Annulus. — Double. Spores. — Very small, smooth, mature in early spring. Distribution. — Nearly universal, but not found in Great Britain. Leaves. Vein at Spore-case Spore-case apex. with veil, with lid. D. pallidum. Plant. The tinged and the The THE LITTLE-BEARD MOSSES Genus BARBULA, Hedw. species of this genus are found in tufts or cushions with rusty-brown, on stone walls, rocks, tree-trunks ground. leaves usually much curled and twisted when dry are small, and gradually lance-shaped from an oval base, with a round vein vanishing below or rarely ex- tending beyond the apex ; the basal cells are small rectangular and transparent ; the upper are small, round or four-sided, often obscure. B. caspiiosa. Leaves. I72 The Little-beard Mosses I B. coespitosa. Tip of spore- case to show twisted teeth. The spore-cases are egg-shaped or cylindrical on long pedi- cels, and have lids with either long or short beaks. The peristome consists of a very short membrane with sixteen short, straight, imperfect teeth, or of sixteen long teeth each cleft to the base into two long slender forks very much twisted. The generic name from barba, a beard, refers to the long twisted teeth of some species. There are in all three hundred and ninety-four species, nineteen being found in North America. The Claw-leaved Barbula, Barbula ungui- culata, Hedw. Habit and habitat. — Com- mon and variable in soft bright or dirty-green tufts on damp black soil, along fences, on rocks, stones, etc. Name. — The specific name unguiculata from the Latin unguis, a claw, refers to the sharp-pointed leaves. Plant (gametophyte). — Variable, J to i inch high. Leaves. — Narrowly ob- long, apex obtuse with an abrupt sharp point ; vein rough with tiny points and passing beyond the apex ; margin rolled back from the middle down- ward ; cells, the upper obscure, nearly square, the basal longer, small, narrow, transparent. Leaves at the base of the spore-case (perichatial leaves). — Transparent to near the apex. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous) ; male plants more slender, flower-clusters terminal and bud-like, bracts broadly egg-shaped. '73 B. caespitosa. Fertile plant. Barbula unguiculata. Mosses and Lichens Veil (calyptra). — Narrow, long-beaked. Pedicel (seta). — Brown-red or purple, variable in length. Spore-case. — Oblong-elliptical or sub-cylindrical, regular or incurved. Lid (operculum). — Conical, beak long, straight, or curved. Teeth (peristome). — Long and slender, deep-red and twisted two or three times. Annulus. — None. Spores. — Mature in winter or spring. Cross-sec- tion of leaf to show round vein. Leaves. Pericnxtial leaf. Sporophyte with twisted teeth and twisted pedi- cel. Spore-case with veil. B. unguiculata. 174 Spore -case with veiL Spore-case with lid. MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE XI • UMBILICARIA VELLEA, (L.) Nyl. ROCK TRIPE, Umbilicaria Muhlenbergii, (Ach.) Tuckerm The Little -beard Mosses The Tufted Barbula, Barbula ccespitosa, Schwaegr. Habit and habitat. — Common and variable, roots of trees in grassy places. Name. — The specific name ccespitosa, from the Latin ccespes, turf, refers to the tufted manner of growth. B. ctespitosa. Leaves. B. ceespitosa. B. caspitosa. Spore-cases. Plant (gameiopkyte) . — Loosely tufted, soft, variable in size. Leaves. — Long and narrow, more or less wavy, curled or bent in various directions and with a very narrow wavy point when dry; apex bearing a short sharp point; vein strong, yellow, prolonged beyond the leaf-blade; cells, the basal loose and transparent, the upper green and indistinct. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same Mosses and Lichens plant (monoicous) ; male flowers in axillary buds, with short pedi- cels and two or three leaves. Veil (calypira). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Red, thin, long, egg-shaped, more or less incurved. Pedicel. — Long and slender, twisted when dry. Lid (operculum) . — Conic, taper-pointed. Teeth (peristome). — Basilar membrane none or scarcely visible; teeth very long, purple, twice or three times twisted. Annulus. — None. Spores. — Minute, greenish, translucent, smooth; mature in May and June and late summer. Distribution. — Hills of the Southeastern States; also in Europe, Asia, Africa, South America B. unguicu- lata. Tip of spore-case with twisted teeth. Genus TORTULA, Hedw. The plants of this genus are variable in size with simple stems forming yellow-green tufts on walls, rocks, or rarely on trees. The leaves are oblong or spatulate and are covered with tiny protuberances. The apex is obtuse with the vein extending T. princeps. (a) Leaf, (b) Apex of leaf tip with transparent awn. beyond as a point or as a long transpar- ent hair. Toward the apex the cells are six-sided, opaque and filled with chloro- toward the base they are transparent and elongated. The spore-cases are erect, oblong or cylindrical and somewhat incurved on usually long pedicels. The 1*76 T. princeps. Portion of peristome. phyll grains: T. ruralis. Tip of spore- case, (a) Bas- i lar m em - b r a n e . (b) Teeth. The Tortula Mosses peristome is sometimes absent; when present, it consists of thirty- two thread-like teeth remotely cross-barred and covered with tiny protuberances. The teeth are either straight, incurved, or spirally twisted, all united at the base into a distinct tubular more or less elongated basal membrane. The spores are small and nearly smooth. The generic name Tortula, the diminutive of the Latin tortus, twisted, refers to the teeth. Tortula princeps, De Not. Habit and habitat. — In tall, loose, red-brown tufts on rocks, walls, and sometimes trunks of trees. A fine moss, easily known by its interrupted stems and dense, broad, rust-coloured leaves. Name. — The specific name prin- ceps, the Latin for "chief" refers to the striking character of the moss. It is described under the name of Barbula Muelleri, Bruch and Schimp., in Lesquereux & James Manual. Plant (gametophyte) . — Stems re- peatedly interupted by new growths with root-like fibres at their bases. Leaves. — Soft, dense, broad and rust-coloured in interrupted rosettes along the stem and at the summits of the branches ; apex obtuse ; margin rolled back to below the middle; vein red, extending beyond the apex in a slender transparent, faintly spiny hair-point; cells at the base loose, rectangular and transparent. Habit of flowering. — Male and female organs in the same flower (synoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split on the side. Spore case. — Cylindrical, brown, arched like a bow. Pedicel— Red. Lid (operculum). — Long and conical. Teeth (peristome}. — The lower half tubular and pale, the teeth red. 177 T, prince ps. Spore-case with veiL T. princeps. T. princeps. Tip of spore-case, Mosses and Lichens Annulus. — Double. Spores. — Mature in spring. Distribution. — Headquarters in the Mediterranean basin; rare in England, common in the western states of North America. Tortula ruralis. Tortula ruralis is much like the preceeding, but smaller, with flowers dioicous. It grows on thatched roofs or stony ground, in tall cushions I to 3 inches deep; bright green above and bright red- brown below. The awn at the apex of the leaf is strongly spiny, transparent above and often red at the base, some- times equalling the rest of the leaf. The spore cases are narrowly cylin- drical with a lid half as long and a T. ruralis. Tip , ,. • , of spore-case, (a) StOUt red pedicel about 3tt inch long, basilar mem- T. ruralis. brane , (6) twisted Awn at the apex teeth. of the leaf. Genus GRIMMIA, Ehrh. The species of the Genus Grimmia sometimes form con- spicuous gray tufts, often hoary from the white hair-points which terminate the leaves; sometimes they form soft fragile patches on exposed rocks of higher mountain regions. The tufts vary in size from little dense cushions one-third of an inch high, to the mats of Gr. bypnoides, whose stems attain a length of eight inches. The dingy colour of their leaves, tipped with long or short white hairs is their most striking character. The chlorophyll is not only absent from the hair-point but often from the apex of the leaf-blade as well, thus adding to the grayish-white appear- ance of the tufts. The plants are usually short, with forked stems, crowded with lance-shaped leaves, frequently thick- ened along the margin, which is mostly entire; the vein is percurrent or extends into the transparent hair; the cells of the lower part are rectangular, of the upper part small, often obscure. 178 The Grimmia Mosses The generic name was given in honour of J. F. C. Grimm, a German botanist, who was a physician of Gotha. The spore-cases are oval «nd smooth, borne on arched or straight pedicels. The peristome consists of sixteen red, lance- shaped teeth, entire or cleft at the apex and often perforated below. There are about two hundred and forty species known at present, fifteen of them in North America. Grimmia apocarpa, Hedw. Habit and habitat. — Loosely tufted to form olive-green or black tufts on rocks or stone walls or even on roofs. There are varieties which grow in streams. Name. — The specific name apocarpa from airo, without and tcapTros, a fruit, was given by J. G. Hedwig, in 1787, to describe the hidden spore-case. Plant (gametophyte). — Robust, the stems one inch long, branching in pairs, free from root-like fibres. Leaves. — Lance-shaped, open when moist, erect when dry; apex sometimes slightly toothed, the upper leaves usually prolonged into a short, rough hair about one-quarter as long as the leaf; the base is concave, becoming keeled upward; margin recurved; the vein continued into the transparent hair, or vanishing below the apex ; cells, the basal rectangular, then narrow, the upper rounded. Leaves at the base of iloe -pedicel (pericbcetial leaves'). — Broader, thinner; vein narrow; apex with or without short 'point. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate part of the same plant (autoicous); male flower-clusters bud-like. Veil (calyptra).—Very small, not reaching below the lid, lobed at the base. Spore-case. — Egg-shaped, almost concealed in the leaves at the base, red. Pedicel. — Very short. G.apocarpa. ^id (o^fCM/WW).— Bdght-red, tipped With Spore - case . with lid. a sharp point ; columella attached to the lid and falling with it. Annulus. — None. Teeth (peristome').— Arising below the mouth, large, purple- red, entire or perforated, spreading when dry. 179 Mosses and Lichens Spores. — Mature in winter. Distribution. — Universal. R. lanugino- THE TORN-VEIL MOSSES Genus RACOMITRIUM, Brid. The species of the Genus Racomitrium are usually of large size, with stems branching in pairs, the branches simple and all reaching the same height, or unequal, in lateral clus- ters. They are widely and loosely tufted on rocks in mountainous regions. Many of the species resem- ble the Hypnum mosses on account of their long pros- num. veil, trate stems, their numerous short branches, and their apparently lateral spore-cases. . The name is from the Greek pd/cos, a shred, and fiirptov, a veil, referring to the torn base of the veil. The leaves are not tufted Racomitrium lanuginosum. at the tOp Of the Stems but are close, nearly equal, long, lance-shaped, concave and channelled, with an apex blunt or ending in a fine point or hair; the margin is recurved; the cells are usually obscure, rounded or four-sided in the upper part, and long and narrow in the lower part. The spore-cases are oblong cylin- drical, narrowed at the orifice and usually erect on erect pedicels. The R.\ lids are small and more or less beaked v*rticalsef ion o i penstome and the peristome consists of a single with two ceils row of sixteen long teeth cleft two or °( ^ *nnulu* Portion ot peris- , .... at the base of tome. three times to below the middle, or one tooth. divided into two thread-like, knotty, nearly equal segments, 180 The Torn-veil Mosses erect when dry, rarely spreading. The annulus is compound, rolling back when the lid falls. Eighty-one species are known at present, twenty in North America. They are mostly distinguished from the species of the genus Grimmia by the peculiar narrow and wavy cell- structure of the leaf-base in conjunction with their habit of growth. The Woolly Torn-veil Moss, Racomitrium lanuginosum, Brid. Habit and habitat. — Common on the tops of walls and on rocks in mountainous regions. The thick grayish-white tufts extending in wide patches. Spore-case Spore-case with lid. with veil. R. lanuginosum. R. lanuginosum. Apex of leaf. R, lanuginosum. Leaf. Name. — The specific name lanuginosum, woolly, was applied by Bridel to describe the white appearance due to the transparent tips of the leaves. Plant (gametopbyte) . — Long and slender, stems I to 12 inches long, prostrate, branches in pairs, the side branches numerous. Leaves. — Close, long-spreading, erect or recurved narrowly lance-shaped, bent to one side toward the apex; apex tapering to a white transparent hair-point often longer than the leaf-blade; 181 Mosses and Lichens vein narrow ; margin from the middle upward a pellucid mem- brane bearing tiny protuberances, and bordered with hair-like teeth, wavy when dry; cells, those of the margin very small, dot-like; those of the leaf-blade narrow. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil. — Resembling a bishop's mitre, long-beaked, rough at the apex only. Spore-cases. — Oblong, egg-shaped, pale- brown, finally darker. Pedicel. — Short, £ to ^ of an inch long on a lateral branchlet. Lid (operculum). — Tapering from a con- ical base. Teeth (peristome). — Long, cleft into two forks ; orange-red. Annulus. — Broad. Spores.— Mature in summer. Distribution. — Universal. Vertical section of peristome showing two cells of the an- nul us at the base of one tooth R. laMuginosum. HEDWIG'S MOSS Genus HEDWIGIA, Ehrh. The species of the Genus Hedwigia have two-forked stems with roots at the base. They are usually found in hoary fragile patches on rocks. The leaves are broad, oval, veinless, and coarsely toothed or fringed on the margins. The spore-cases are globu- lar, immersed with almost no pedicel and no peristome. There are ten species in all, three in North America. The generic name was given in honour of J. G. Hed- piant stripped of wig, a distinguished German leaves to show two male flower- , . ... , . n clusters on the stem and one botanist, who llVCd in 1782. spore-case surrounded with three fringed leaves. H.ciliata. Leaf. 182 Hcdwig's Moss Hedwig's Fringe-leaf Moss, Hedwigia ciliata, Ehrh. Habit and "habitat. — In small or wide patches, loosely tufted, and hoary-green ; common on rocks. Name. — The specific name ciliata, H. ciliata. Apex of perichaetiai leaf. H. ciliata. Sterile plant. Vefl. Veil. H. ciliata. I83 Mosses and Lichens referring to the fringed perichaetial leaves, is derived from the Latin cihum, an eyelash. Plant (gametopbyte). — Pale-green, stems slender, I to 4 inches long, at first erect, then procumbent, repeatedly twice-forked. Leaves. — Spreading all round when moist, crowded and over- lapping like shingles when dry, broadly lance-shaped; apex re- curved, translucent by the absence of leaf-green ; margins wavy, base growing down the stem and yellow at the point of attach- ment; cells with tiny projections. Leaves at the base of the spore-case (perichcetial leaves). — Thin and transparent, taper-pointed, fringed on the margins. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant (monoicous) . Veil (calyptrd). — Small, covering the lid, conical, with or without hairs. Spore-case. — Immersed, globular, light- brown, red at the mouth. Pedicel. — Almost none. Lid(operculum). — Convex, with or with- out an obtuse point in the centre. Annulus. — None. Teeth (peristome}. — None. Spores. — Mature in spring. Distribution. — Universal. H. ciliata. Plant stripped of leaves to show spore- case surrounded with three fringed leaves; two male flower-clusters on the stem. Spore-case. H. ciliata. THE CURLED-LEAF MOSSES Genus ULOTA, Mohr The species of the Genus Ulota usually grow in small rounded cushions, which live year after year on trees but never on soil. They are common on the trunks and small stems of mountain trees. 184 MOSSES AND LICHENS COLOUR PLATE XIT SCARLET-CRESTED CLADONIA, Cladonia cristatetta, Tuckerm. Copyright, 1907, hy Doubleday.Page & Company BROWN-FRUITED CUP CLADONIA, Cladonia pyxidata, (L.) Fr. The Curled-leaf Mosses The leaves are narrowly lance-shaped from a broad oval base and are usually curled when dry. It is this character which gives them their generic name from 6v\oTr)<;t curled. The cells are very narrow, coloured and thickened along the median line while the marginal cells below are transparent in several rows. Fresh spore-case with vaginule at the base of the pedicel. Plant with exserted spore-case. Perigonial leaf. Leaf. Dry spore-case. Male flower- cluster. The veils are conical bell-shaped, usually covered with erect, yellow hairs; they are lobed at the base and folded lengthwise in plaits. 185 Mosses and Lichens The spore-cases are exserted on straight pedicels; they are pear-shaped, narrowed at the base into a long neck, 8-striate and twisted to the left when dry. The peristome is single or double, the outer of the sixteen white teeth usually united in pairs; the inner of 8 to 16 narrow processes alternate with the teeth or wanting. There are fifty-seven species in all, sixteen in North America. The Curly-leaved Ulota, Ulota crispa, Brid.— See Plate XV. Habit and habitat. — In small dense round cushions, yellow- green on the surface and rust-colour within. Common in mountain woods on trunks and branches of trees, especially beeches, firs and birches. Name.— The specific name from the Latin crispus, curled, refers to the special curling of the dry leaves. Plant (gametophyte). — Small, erect. Leaves. — Linear, lance-shaped from an enlarged oval concave base ; apex narrow or hair-like, curled when dry ; cells at base long and narrow, worm- like, thick-walled, on the margin enlarged and 4-sided. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flow- ers on same plant (mo- noicous) ; male flower- clusters bud-like. Veil (calyptra). — Yellow, bell-shaped, split at the base, plaited lengthwise and covered with soft hairs. Spore-case. — Pale-green or light-brown, thin-walled, pear- shaped, narrowed end extending almost to the base of the pedicel, constricted under the mouth and deeply grooved when dry and empty. Pedicel (seta). — Short and erect. Lid (operculum) . — With a comparatively short beak. Teeth (peristome). — The outer of eight pairs, at first spreading, then recurved, the inner eight, rarely sixteen. 186 U. crispa. Leaves. U. crispa. Sporophyte spore-case with a long neck and tooth, pedicel short with vaginule. MOSSES AND LICHENS PLATE XV THE CURLY-LEAVED ULOTA, filota crispa, Mohr. The lichen is Parmelia saxatilis, (L.) Fr. The Curled-leaf Mosses Spores. — Mature in August. Distribution. — Universal. The Bud-leaved Ulota, Ulota pbyllantba, Brid. Ulota pbyllantba grows in dense cushions ^ to i^ inches high, green or yellow above and rich red or brown below. U. Hulchinsite. Dry spore-case. U. fhyllantha. Leaf apex with gemmae. Ulota Hutchinsia. Ulota Hutchinsia. Veil. U. Hutchinsice. Leaves. The leaves are acutely pointed with percurrent vein, upon the apex of which are abundant red-brown, club-shaped and jointed gemmae which have suggested the specific name from the Greek v\\ov, a leaf, and avOos, a flower or young bud. This moss has been found on the highest plant-line of Chim- borazo as well as close to sea-level, and is widely distributed over the world. 187 Mosses and Lichens Hutchins's Ulota; Ulota Hutclinsice, Schimp. Habit and habitat. — The plant grows in dark red-brown tufts, rigid and fragile. They are common on granite rocks in the mountains. Name. — The specific name was given by Wilhelm Philipp Schimper in honour of Miss Hutchins, who first collected the plants on the lake shore near Bantry, Ireland. Leaves. — Close and overlapping like shingles, rigid and appressed when dry; erect or slightly spreading when moist; oblong, lance-shaped; apex obtuse; base oval or oblong; margins turned back; vein strong; cells, the basal linear or worm-like, the marginal somewhat 4-sided, the upper small. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous) ; the male flower- clusters bud-like. Veil (calyptra). — Very hairy. Spore-case. — Oval, narrowed to a very long neck 8-furrowed the whole length, hardly contracted at the mouth. Pedicel (seta). — Long. Lid (operculum). — Conical, taper- U. Hutchinsicc. Portion nointed of peristome with four cilia * and six teeth in pairs. Teeth (peristome). — Eight; long, lance-shaped, in pairs, entire or split at the apex, reflexed when dry ; the inner segments eight, a little shorter than the teeth. Spores. — Mature in summer. Distribution. — Common in mountainous regions MOSSES WITH STRAIGHT-HAIRED VEILS Genus ORTHOTRICHUM, Hedw. (See Plate XIV.) The species of the Genus Orthotrichum grow in round cushions on rocks, trees and walls. The plants are usually erect, with branching stems having radicles at the bases. The leaves are lance-shaped, lapping like shingles, rarely twisted when dry, the surface is covered with minute protuber- ances, or is rarely smooth in the upper part; the margin is recurved; the cells toward the apex of the leaf are dot-like and contain chlorophyll, toward the lower part they are longer and 1 88 Mosses with Straight-haired Veils transparent; the veil is bell-shaped, more or less split at the base and keeled or deeply grooved throughout, it may be naked or may have a few straight hairs, a character which suggested the name Orthotrichum, from o/30oV, straight, and Opll;, r/at^o'?, hair. The spore-cases are immersed or exserted on a short pedicel and have usually, when dry, 8 to 16 grooves running lengthwise, but they may be smooth. The pedicels are gen- erally short with an enlarged base (vagi- nule] crowned with a minute cup-like sheath. The peristome is simple or double, the outer consisting of 16 single teeth or 8 pairs, with either no annulus or a very narrow one. In all there are two hundred and thirty-five species, fifty-seven being found in North America. Orthotrichum strangulatum, Beauv. Habit and habitat. — In small, loose dirty-green tufts ^ of an inch deep; on trees, rarely on rocks. Name. — The specific name strangula- tum, strangled, refers to the constriction under the mouth of the spore-case. Plant (gametophyte) . — One-quarter of an inch long. Leaves. — Linear lance-shaped from an oblong base, keeled; apex pointed or blunt; margins rolled back; cells, the upper, round, small, close, with slight protuberances; the basal, long and quad- rangular. Leaves at the base of the -pedicel (peri- chcetial leaves'). — Longer, erect, some- what sheathing. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous} . Veil (calyptra). — Resembling a bish- op's mitre (mitriform) furrowed and nearly naked. Spore-case. — Oblong egg-shaped, 189 Portion of peristome, w ith two cilia and four teeth. 0. strangulatum. Mosses and Lichens half-emergent, dirty-brown when old, strongly constricted under the mouth. Lid (operculum). — Conical, obtusely short-pointed. f Teeth (peristome) . — The outer eight double teeth, dirty-yel- low, granulose, reflexed when dry; the inner, of eight filiform strong segments. Spores. — Mature in May and June. Distribution. — North America only. With veil. Without veil Mature sporophyte. O. rtipestris. O. strangulatum Dry spore-case. O. strangulatum. Leaf. O. rupestris. Dry sporo- phyte with- out lid. Mature sporo- phyte with veil. O. strOKguiatum. O. strangulatum. Spore-case without lid. O. ruptstris. Plant. THE EXTINGUISHER MOSSES Genus ENCALYPTA, Schreb. The species of the Genus Encalypta grow on bright-green cushions on rocks or on the ground. The leaves are linear, spatulate or tongue-shaped and are 190 The Extinguisher Mosses covered with tiny double-pointed projections. The cells toward the base are thin and transparent, while those toward the apex are small and opaque with leaf-green. The spore-cases are borne on long solid pedicels ; they are regular, erect and ribbed or twisted when dry with conic and long-beaked lids. E.ciliato, Leaf. E, ciliata. Veil E. ciliata. Plant with spore-case still in the veil. Perigonium. Perigonial leaves. E. ciliata. E. ciliata. Lid. The veils are large, cylindrical and bell-shaped, longer than the spore-cases, tapering at the apex and sometimes fringed at the base. This character suggested the generic name, from the Greek eweaXvTrro?, veiled. The peristome is variable, having no teeth or a single or double row. The spores are large and beset with small projections. 191 Mosses and Lichens In all there are thirty-nine species, sixteen being found in North America. The Extinguisher Mosses with Fringed Veils, Encalypia ciliata, Hedw. Habit and 'habitat. — In loose bright or pale-green tufts on shaded rocks and soil; not rare. Name. — The specific name ciliata, from the Latin cilium, an eyelash, refers to the fringed base of the veil. IP E. ciliata. Portion of peristome. ffl E. ciliata. Spore-case (a) with lid, (fc) with- out lid. E. ciliata. Spore-cases in their veils. Plant (gametopbyte). — Stems ^ to 2 inches high, thick, cov- ered with rooting filaments, simple or sparingly branched. Leaves. — Soft, large, crowded, recurved-spreading, oblong, egg-shaped or tongue-shaped, slightly concave; apex short, taper- pointed with a tiny sharp point; margin wavy; vein pale-yellow, 192 Pour-toothed Mosses vanishing below the apex or passing into it; cells, toward the base loose, red, the marginal of several rows narrower and paler. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Straw-colour, descending far below the base of the spore-case, bordered at the base by lance-shaped solid white or orange segments. Pedicel. — Long; yellow or pale- red. Spore-case. — Cylindrical, smooth, slightly constricted under the mouth when dry, the neck short and indistinct. Lid (operculuni). — Conic, with a long slender beak. Teeth (peristome). — Rarely absent, single, of 16 narrowly lance-shaped red teeth, sometimes divided into two irregular seg- ments, connivent when dry, incurved when moist. Distribution. — Mountain regions of New England, the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific slope, Europe and Africa. FOUR -TOOTHED MOSSES Genus GEORGIA, Ehrh. The species of the Genus Georgia are erect, growing in clus- ters but not matted, on the ground, on rotten wood and sandstone. The lower leaves are small, distant and scale-like; the upper leaves are longer, broadly lance-shaped, close and tufted at the apex of the stems; the vein reaches to below the apex; the cells are somewhat six-sided, less crowded and linear rectangular at the base. Linear root-leaves (frondiform) or whip-like leafy branches are often present. These frondiform leaves appear in some species only in the protonemal stage, while in other species they persist at the base. The spore-cases are cylindrical or oval on long slender, smooth, brown pedicels which are straight or abruptly bent. The lids are conical with mitre-like veils. The four teeth arising from just below the rim of the box are a conspicuous character of the genus. They are formed by the splitting of a solid mass of pithy tissue within the lid into four slender triangular segments, red and slightly furrowed on the back. A cross section of a tooth shows it to be triangular and composed externally of large trans- parent cells and internally of small thick-walled pointed cells. There is no annulus. 193 Mosses and Lichens G. pellucida. Cross section of four teeth to show that they were formed by the splitting of a solid mass. With veil. With lid. G. pellucida. Spore-case. G. Brovmii. Prondiform leaves G. pellucida. Branch with gemmae cluster. G. pellucida. Gemma. G. pellucida. Side view of gemma cup. G. pellucida. Bract from gemma cup. Spore-case • Tip of spore-case, with teeth. G. pellucida. Lid. G. pellucida. Veil. G. pellucida. Tooth. G, pellucida. 194 Four-toothed Mosses There are but two spe- cies known and both of these are found in North America. The genus was named by Friedrich Ehrhart, in honour of King George III. of England, whom he con- St sidered one of the greatest ' patrons of botany. Georgia pellucida, Rabenh. — See Colour Plate III. Habit and "habitat.— Erect, rather densely crowded, bright-green above, red damp places, G. pettwcida. Vertical section of gemma cup showing gemmae with slender stems and cut edges of leaves on either side. below. On decayed wood in common. Name. — The specific name pellucida from the Latin per, through, and lucida, transparent, refers to the texture of the leaves, which are very translucent. Plant (gametophyte). — Stems of two kinds, ( i ) the fertile ^ to I inch long, pale red, simple or branching in pairs, fibrous at the base with crowded leaves tufted at the summit of the stem; (2) gemmae-bearing, the gemmae disk-like with short stalks, greenish, transparent, inclosed in a rosette of 4 to 5 bracts. Leaves. — The lower leaves are small, remote, erect, ap- pressed, broadly lance-shaped G. pcttucidd. Lower leaves of fertile plant. G. pellucida. Upper leaf of gem- mae plant. 195 G. pellucida. Pericluetial leaf. Mosses and Lichens and red ; the upper leaves are larger, broader, not lying against the stem; margin entire; vein vanishing below the apex; cells round-hexagonal above, elongated and rectangular at the base. It is not an uncommon thing to find gemmae which have fallen from the cups, entangled and growing among the leaves. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri- cbcetial leaves'). — Lance-shaped, sheath- ing elongated, rather obtuse. H obit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous) ; male flower-clusters bud-like at the apex of the shoots which arise in pairs. Veil (calyptra). — White below, more solid and red above, mitreform, reach- ing to the middle of the spore-case, irregularly folded lengthwise into 8 or 9 ridges, somewhat ragged at the base. Spore-case. — Erect, elongated, cylindric, pale-brown with the mouth red. Pedicel (seta). — Straight, smooth, purple; when dry twisted to the left in the lower part, to the right above, }4 to Y^ of an inch long. Lid (operculuni) . — Thin, conical, straight or oblique, Annulus. — None. Teeib (peristome). — Four, erect, brown, pyramidal, grooved lengthwise on the back, arising from below the rim of the spore-case. Columella. — Slender, cylindrical. Spores. — Small, smooth, green, ma- ture from July to September. Distribution. — Widely in America, Europe and Asia. G. pettucida. Fertile plant, with male branch at the left. 196 Four-toothed Mosses Georgia geniculata, Girgens. Georgia geniculata may be distin- guished from G. pellucida in having the pedicel suddenly bent near the middle, a character which suggested the specific name geniculata from the Latin geniculum, a little knee. It is found in Japan and in North America. Gemmae -bearing branch. G. pellucida. G. geniculata. Sporophyte with four teeth and a twisted spiny pedi- cel. G. geniculata. Plant with two spore-cases on bent pedicels; male branch on the right. 197 Mosses and Lichens Georgia fellucida. Spore-case •with veil. FOUR-TOOTHED MOSSES Genus TJETRADONTIUM, Schwaegr. This genus was established by Schwaegrichen, but differs so little from the genus Georgia that many think it should not be considered a separate genus. There are two species in all, one in North America. It differs from Georgia in having both teeth and stems shorter, in having the spore-case oval instead of cylindrical and in having the veil cover the spore-case. The name is derived from the Greek Tetradontium TCTpa, four, and 68a>V, 3. tOOth. repandum Tetradontium repan- Spore-case with veil. dum, Schwaegr. Habit and habitat. small, growing shaded rocks. in loose Very clusters on Name. — The specific name repan- dum, the Latin for "curved," refers to the margin of the mouth of the spore-case. Plant (gametophyte) . — Stems very short, bearing little gemmae at the base of thread-like leafy branches. Leaves. — Ovate-lance-shaped, rigid, red-brown, closely overlapping like shingles. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri- chcetial leaves). — Ovate and oblong, very concave, vein obscure; scales about the male flowers (perigonium) smaller, thinner, vein absent. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous). with male branch Veil(calybird).— Conical, resembling °ntheri«htattl>e x * *• & D3.sc unci tnrcso- a bishop's mitre and covering the spore- like branch on case to the base. Spore-case. — Thick, oval, the margin of the orifice somewhat notched between the teeth. T. rcpandum. Female branch male plant with thread- like branch at the base. Four-toothed Mosses Perichatial leaves. Leaf. Two teeth and curved spore-case Perigonium and margin. perigonial leaves. Tetradontium repandnm. Pedicel (seta). — Thick and rigid. Lid (operculum) . — Conical, erect, short. Teeth (peristome). — Simple, of four short, triangular teeth. Spores. — Mature in autumn. Distribution. — Near Glen House and at Dixville Notch, White Mountains. Very rare. Genus SCHISTOSTEGA, Mohr The Genus Schistostega contains but one species; this is found growing in bright-green patches on the ground in caverns and grottoes and under the shade of rocks. The protonema is persistent, and shines with a weird light in the semi-darkness where it grows. The most striking character of the moss is the highly refractive power of the protonema cells. These are able to converge the feeble rays of light which enter the caves and Vertical section of a protonema to show paths of refracted and reflected light rays; (5) an incident ray refracted to t, then reflected from * to t and again reflected and refracted T. repandum. Thread- from * to 5'; (v) clear cell contents; (c) chlorophyll grains; like branch. (P) plasma. 199 Mosses and Lichens grottoes so that they fall upon the chlorophyll grains and enable them by light-energy to build up plant foods from gases and water. When searching for this moss one must be careful not to intercept the rays of light which enter the cave and then one may be fortunate enough to get the feebly reflected rays which VeiL Protonema in natural position, very highly magni- fied. Illumination from above. Spore-case with lid. Three cells of protonema from L to show position of chlorophyll grains when the light rays enter per- pendicular to the surface. Three cells of protonema to show position of chloro- phyll grains when light rays enter obliquely. Schistostega osmundacea Spore-case with lid raised show- ing spores. 5. osmundacea. emerge from it. The four diagrams if taken in Older with their legends, will give one a clear idea of how the light rays are refracted and reflected by the cell-contents and of how the chlo- rophyll grains move to that part of the cell which is illuminated. 200 The Luminous Moss Schistostega osmundacea, Web. & Mohr. Plant (gametopbyte) . — Living but one year, produced from a persistent, thread-like growth (protonema); stems tender and deli- cate, usually simple, ^ of an inch high with root-like filaments at the base. Two forms are found, the barren which are naked below and have two rows of vertically placed leaves above, the fertile which resemble the bar- ren or are naked except for a small tuft of terminal leaves. Name . — The specific name os- mundacea suggests a resemblance to the ferns of the same name. Leaves. — Ob- long-pointed, con- fluent at the base; cells large, rhom- boidal, containing leaf-green. Habit of flower- ing. — Male and fe- male On Separate S. osmundacea. Barren ..... plant with male branch at plants (dlOlCOUS) the left. male flower -clus- ters bud-like. Veil (calyptra).— Minute, narrow, resembling a bishop's hat, covering the lid only. Spore-case. — Small, almost spherical, soft. Spore-sac (sporangium). — Distinct. Columella. — Present, thick. S. osmundacea. Fertile plant. 2O I Mosses and Lichens Pedicel. — Long and soft. Lid (operculum). — Small, convex, with a red border. Teeilo (peristome). — None. Spores. — Minute, maturing in the spring. Species. — But one known. Distribution. — It has been found in northern and central Europe and in New York and the White Mountains. THE aUARTETTE MOSS Genus TETRAPLODON, Bruch & Schimp. The plants of the Genus Tetraplodon are perennial, growing in densely crowded cushions. They closely resemble the plants T. mnioides. Growing on porcupine bones. T. mnioides. Leaf apex. Empty spore- case. T. mnioides. of the genus Splacbnum, but differ principally in that the enlarged part (apopbysis) of the pedicel under the spore-case is not inflated and is of the same colour and consis- tency as the spore-case. The plants are peculiar in their choice of hab- itat, being invariably found on ani- mal substances. Tetraplodon an- Mature spore- gustdtus JS Said tO have been found T. mnioides. Per- case. . ..... istome of sixteen growing on an old stocking near double teeth. 202 The Quartette Moss Veil. T. mnioides. 7*. mnioides the summit of Ingles- borough, Yorkshire, and also on an old hat on Mt. St. Bernard, Switzerland. The stems are branching and bear root-like filaments. The leaves are lance -shaped or oval-oblong, and are prolonged into an awl-like point. The spore-cases are small and erect with conical-convex, obtuse lids. They are borne on pedicels which are enlarged just under the spore-case to form a club- shaped apophysis. The apophysis is of importance as an assimilating and trans- piring organ and is the only part of the moss which bears pores (siomata). The peristome is single with sixteen dark-purple double teeth r e fl e x e d when dry. These are at first in T. mnioides. groups of four, and af- terward in pairs, a character which has suggested the generic name Tetraplodon from the Greek T6T/3a7rXo'o9, four-fold, and oSovs, oSoVro?, a tooth. Nine species are known in all, four being found in North America. Tetraplodon mnioides, Bruch & Schimp. Habit and habitat. — Growing in dense tufts on decaying animal matter in mountainous regions. The specimen illustrated was Leaf. found on porcupine bones in 203 T. mnioides. Plant stripped of leaves to show ( t ) male and (?) female flower- clusters. Mosses and Lichens Vermont. The specific name mnioides is derived from moss, and the suffix olS, like. Plant (gametopbyte) . — Robust, pale-green, J4 to 3 inches high, stems branched, covered with matted root-like filaments below. Leaves. — Crowded, ovate-lance-shaped or narrowly obovate- lance-shaped ; apex pointed, suddenly narrowed into a flexuous yel- low awn ; vein prolonged to form the awn ; margin yellow, entire. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant (monoicous) . Veil (calyptra}. — Small, conical, usually split up one side. T. mnioides. Portion of peristome to show teeth. T. mnioides. Tip of spore- case to show position of teeth when closed. T. mniodes. Per- istome with reflect- ed teeth. Spore-case. — Short-cylindrical, fawn-colour, with a cylindrical green apophysis, both become dark-red, and the spore-case is contracted below the mouth when empty. Pedicel (seta). — Stout, orange to red, variable in length, £ to 2 inches long. Enlarged under the spore-case. Lid (operculum). — Obtusely conic. Teeib (peristome). — Reflexed when dry, orange-red. Spores. — Small, mature in summer. Distribution. — Universal. COLLAR MOSSES Genus SPLACHNUM, Linn. The species of the Genus Splachnum are easily recognised by the extraordinary enlargement of the pedicel at the base of the spore-cases. They are perennial and grow in tufts, invariably on the dung of animals. The branches are soft and slender with broadly lance-shaped leaves, the lower distant and open; the upper tufted ; all with a vein. 204 Collar Mosses The name is the Greek CATHARINE MOSSES Genus CATHARINEA, Ehrh. The members of this genus will always attract attention from their habit of growing in extensive patches in partly shaded places. The leafy part of the plant is erect and large enough to form soft and luxuriantly green areas very conspicuous when beset with slender ped- icels bearing either pale im- mature spore-cases or shining rich-coloured mature ones. The genus was founded by Friedrich Ehrhart in honour of Catharine II, Empress of Rus- sia. The leaves are strap- P, commune. Teeth sixty-four, summit , . of spore-case. (See page 239.) shaped Or OVal-Oblong, rich 111 leaf-green and wavy when fresh, and curled or twisted in various directions when dry; the apex is acute or obtuse and the base is not sheathing; the vein bears a few lamellae toward the apex. The veils are split up one side and are sometimes rough. Pogonatum. Teeth thirty-two. (See p. 239.) The spore-cases are oval cylindrical, nodding, or arched, with long-beaked lids and are borne on long exserted pedicels. The little column (columella) within the spore-case is termin- ated by a disk-like mem- brane (epiphragm). The peristome is simple, of 32 tongue- like teeth united at the base; the tips are united by their inner faces to processes on the edge of the epiphragm so that the epiphragm hangs down irom them by the length of the pro- cesses. C. undulata. Apex of leaf with lamellae. With lid. With veil C. angustata. Spore- 24O Catharine Mosses Apex of leaf. C , angustata. Leaf. There are about forty-eight species known in all, nineteen being found in North America. The Slender Catharinea, Catharinea angustata, Brid. — See Plate IV. Habit and habitat. — Very com- mon in conspicuous patches on the ground at the bases of trees, along roadsides, and in woods. The fruits and the bright red rosettes of the male plants may be found in winter. In cold or dry weather this moss curls up its leaves so as to protect the upper deli- cate surface from frost and too rapid evaporation. Name. — The specific name angustata, the Latin for "narrow- ed," refers to the slender habit of the plant. Plant (gametophyte). — Simple or forked, erect, bearing one to three spore-cases. Leaves. — Long, narrowly strap- Male plant shaped, wavy on the borders. Apex serrate; base not sheathing; mar- gin serrate only in the upper half. Lamellae 5 to 7. Habit of flowering. — Dioicous, male flower on one plant, female flowers on another. Veil (calyptra). — Membranous, split up one side, hairy at the summit. Spore-case. — Nearly erect, narrowly cylindrical, green or dark- purple, shining. Pedicel (seta). — Red, about one inch high. Lid (operculum). — Dome-like, abruptly long-beaked. Teeth (peristome) . — Thirty-two, blunt, connected at the base, attached by the tips to the disk at the summit of the «olumella. 241 Female plant. C. angustata. Mosses and Lichens Spores. — Mature in winter. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia. The Wavy-leaved Catharinea, Catharinea undulata, Web, & Mohr. Catharinea undulata differs from C. angustata in the leaves being more acute and with margins toothed throughout. Also it is a rather larger plant with less-prominent lamellae and with a monoicous inflorescence. Apex of leaf. Top of spore-case with Spore-case the teeth united near Cross section of a leaf to show with veiL their tips to an epiphragm. lamellae erect from the vein. Leaf. C. undulata. HAIR-CAP MOSSES Genus POGONATUM, Beauv. The Pogonatum mosses grow in tufts on the ground, often with a green felt of thread-like cells (protonema) at the base. The plants are short and simple, or long and robust; with branches starting below the leaves at the base of the pedicel, or half-way up to the stem. The male plants continue to grow from the cen- tre of a terminal rosette of bracts. The leaves are erect or spreading, the upper-half lance-shaped or strap-shaped; the base is clasping, with large pale cells; the margins are entire or serrate; the vein is broad, with numer- ous lamellae occupying almost the entire width of the leaf-blade, and with their terminal cells smooth or bearing tiny projections (papillose). The generic name Pogonatum, from the Greek Tr&xy&n/, a beard, refers to the veil, which is hairy and almost covers the spore-case. The spore-cases are cylindrical, but not angular. They are 242 Hair-cap Mosses P. brevicaule. Top of spore-case with 33 teeth united by their tips to a membrane. P. Alpinum Leaf with serrate mar- gin and numerous lamella*, P. brevicaule. Stem with peri- chaetial leaves. P. breviccuk. Spore-case with reil. P. urnigerum. Spore-case with lid. nearly symmetrical, erect, or turned to one side, with flat lids having a central point. They are borne on erect pedicels. The peristome is simple, of 32 blunt teeth, orange in the middle, united at the base and appearing as if attached at the apices to a membranous disk (epiphragni) . There are one hundred and fifty-six species known in all, nine in North America. The Short-stemmed Hair- cap Moss, Pogonatum brevi- caule, Beauv. — See Colour Plate IV. Habit and habitat. — The short- stemmed Pogonatum is remarkable because of its habit of retaining the protonema, which persists as a bright-green felt covering the ground at the base of the plants. It binds the crumbling earth so that one may gather it in sheets. As the moss commonly grows in clay- banks, in ditches, and in places rather insecure, it may be that the habit of retaining the protonema has been evolved in the struggle for existence to enable it to live in situ- ations too insecure to be occupied by other mosses. 243 P. brevicavle. Spore-case with id. Mosses and Lichens Name. — The specific name brevicaule, from the Latin brevis, short, and caulis, stem, refers to the height of the plant. Plant (game topbyte) . — Short, sim- ple; J to i of an inch high. The male plants are minute and bud- like. Leaves. — Five or six, erect, lance- shaped; apex awned; base broad, transparent; margin serrate, with appressed teeth ; lamella few, 5 to 6 cells deep, the terminal one smooth Blunt teeth. Lid. P. brevicaule. Leaf. P. brevicaule. Plant with a sporophyte. and elliptic in section. Male-duster leaves erect, curved back from the middle, lapping as shingles,broadly obcordate; vein passing beyond the apex to form a sharp point. Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Sheathing, long, membranous, ab- Section of lameAe. ruptly narrowed to a long, erect, P. brevicaule. obtusely serrate point. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Male plants bud-like. Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, reaching to the base of the case. Spore-case. — Cylindrical, broadest at the mouth, below the mouth when dry, rough with tiny (papillose). Pedicel (seta}. — Twisted, i to 2 inches long. Lid (operculum). — Flat, with a point at the centre. Teetb (peristome). — White, simple, of 32 blunt teeth. Spores. — Mature in winter. 244 spore- contracted projections Hair-cap Mosses Distribution. — North America ; Eastern States, north to New- foundland, west to Ontario. The Short-leaved Hair-cap Moss, Pogonatum brachyphyl- lum, (Michx.) Beauv. Habit and habitat. — The short-leaved Pogonatum is found on sandy or loamy soil. The plants do not grow close together, but scattered somewhat, on a persistent green felt of slender alga- like threads. Name. — The specific name brachyphyllum is compounded of the Greek fipaxu, short, and v\\ov, a leaf. Plants (gametopbyte) . — Olive-green or dark-brown when old; stems rigid, short, £ to f of an inch long. Leaves. — In rosettes at the summit of the stems, curved, appressed and brown when dry, very short, strap-shaped; apex blunt; margin entire; •vein broad; lamellce numer- ous, 6 to 7 cells deep, irregu- lar, the terminal cell smooth, elliptic in section; base clear with large cells. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, dirty-brown, reaching to the middle of the spore-case. Sport -case. — Yellow-brown, erect or curved, broadest at the mouth, rough with tiny projections. Pedicel (seta).— Erect, short i to i£ inches long, twisted. Lid (operculum). — Flat, beak short, blunt-pointed. Teeth (perislome).— Simple and blunt. Thirty-two in num- ber. Spores. — Mature in winter. Distribution. — Pine barrens of New Jersey, south to Florida and Louisiana. The Hair-like Hair-cap, Pogonatum capillare, (Michx.) Brid. Habit and habitat.— Pale-green plants growing rather close together. Name. — The specific name capillare is the Latin for "hair- like," referring to the slender character of the stem, leaves and teeth. 245 P. brachyphyllum. Spore-case with veil. P. brachyphyllum. Spore-case with lid. Mosses and Lichens Plant (gametopbyte). — Simple, or increasing by shoots from the summit of the main stem, I to } inches high, naked below, loosely leafy above. Leaves. — Curled when dry, spreading when moist, \ to f of an inch long, broadly lance-shaped; base transparent; margin ser- rate, with many-celled, triangular teeth; lamellae, numerous, 30 to 35, cells of the lamellae 5 to 7 deep, the terminal broadest in sec- tion with tiny projections on the flat surface. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, covering the spore-case to the base. Spore-case. — Erect, egg-shaped, -^ of an inch long, with tiny projections on the surface, not contracted below the mouth when dry. Pedicel (seta). — One-half to one and a half inches long, slender, flexuous, erect. Lid (operculum). — Hemispherical at the enlarged base, abruptly straight-beaked. Teeth (peristome) . — Thirty-two in number, long and narrow. Spores. — Mature in winter. Distribution. — Rare in the mountains of New York, common in the mountains of New England; also along the Gaspe Coast to Newfoundland, west to the Rocky Mountains. The Urn-bearing Hair-cap Moss, Pogonatum urnigerum, (L.) Beauv. Habit and babitat. — Pale-green or with a bloom, growing in wide mats but not crowded. On the banks and by streams. Name. — The specific name urnigerum, urn-bearer, refers to the spore-case. Plants (gametopbyte). — Erect, i to 3 inches high, the branches reaching the same height and densely leafy, each branch of the female plant bearing a spore-case. Male plants continue to grow from the centre of the terminal rosette. Leaves. — Pale-green or brown, lance-shaped, erect when dry, spreading when wet; apex acute; base short, clasping; vein extending slightly beyond the apex of the leaf as an awn; lamel- lae numerous, 40 to 50; 6 cells high, the terminal oval, with tiny projections (papillose}, lower leaves scale-like. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the summits of separate plants (dioicous). 246 Hair-cap Mosse Veil (calyptrd). — Yellow-brown, covering the spore-case. Spore-case. — Erect, red-brown, cylindrical or egg-shaped, con- tracted below the mouth when dry, the surface rough with tiny projections (papillose), the neck nearly SmOOth. r^'w^of^ameUas Pedicel. — Red-yellow, slender, ceils, the terminal i to i£ inches long. Lid (operculwri) . — Broad, coni- cal, beak short and straight, sur- face rough with tiny projections. Teeth (peristome). — Thirty-two, symmetrical, short and broad. cell papillose. Spores. — Mature and winter. in autumn . Leaf. p- w*iger™:., The Alpine Hair-cap Moss, Pogonatum Alpinum, (L.) Roehl. Habit and habitat. — Growing in wide mats on rough stony and grassy places on all mountains. This is a pretty moss, larger than most Hair-cap mosses and may be readily distinguished from the others by its smooth spore-case, narrower at the mouth than below, obliquely inclined to the red pedi- cel, and by its veil which does not reach to the base of the spore-case. Name. — The name refers to its habit of grow- ^ ing in mountain regions. Plant (gametopbyte). — Erect, 2$ to 7 inches high, the branches at- taining an equal height, and densely leafy; stems naked and subterra- nean at the base. Male plants i to 2^ inches high. Leaves. — Erect, or recurved, narrowiy lance-shaped ; apex awl- tical row of cells J from lamellae, shaped, spiny on the back; base white' sheathing, margins incurved, red, serrate; lamellae numerous p-Al&»«m- Leaf. 247 p. Mosses and Lichens 20 to 30, covering most of the upper half of the blade, 6 to 7 cells deep, the terminal cell oval in section with tiny projection (•papillose). Leaves at the base of the -pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — Sheath- ing, longer, without lamellae. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the summits of separate plants, (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Hairy, not covering the spore-case. Spore-case. — Nearly cylindrical to egg-shaped, smooth, light- green, inclined or horizontal, somewhat curved. Pedicel (seta). — Flexuose, i to 2 inches long. Lid (operculum). — Small with a slender beak. Teeth (peristome). — Thirty-two in number, blunt. Spores. — Mature in late summer. Distribution. — In mountainous regions. nea HAIRY-CAP MOSSES Genus POLYTRICHUM, Linn. sJioot Found in extensive patches by roadsides and in °Pen woods- Brown and unattractive when dry, fresh and luxuriantly green when moist, owing to the habit of inrolling the ale cluster thin margins of Jt-rst year, of the leaves and folding them against the stem in dry air and of un- rolling and turning them at right angles to the stem in damp air. The Genus Poly- trichum contains plants which were the first to be recog- " P. j-uniperinum. . . . Male plant. niSCd 3S plants With- P. juniperinum. Leaves with inrolled margins. 248 Hairy-cap Mosses out flowers." Pliny called them "golden maiden-hair." They were dedicated to Venus and afterward to the Virgin Mary. Because of this fancied resemblance of the veils to a maiden's tresses, they were used to make a wash which was supposed to strengthen the hair. Polytrichum commune. Crc ss- section of stem. With lid. Without lid. With veil P. commune. Spore-cases. The plants are very tall, i to 18 inches high, and live on year after year, growing perpendicularly from the centre of the male (aniberidial) flower-heads or from horizontal underground stems, or from the side of main stems. The stems (see page 45) are stout, with almost woody fibres run- ning up through them. The leaves are long and slender, with a lance- shaped, awned apex and a membranous sheathing base; the vein is broad and covered by numerous thin green blades (lamella, see page 44), and the margins are entire or serrate, often inrolled. The generic name Polytrichum is composed of two Greek words, TTO\W, many, and 0pl%, a hair, and refers to the large mitrate, hairy veil which may partially or entirely cover the spore-case. The spore-cases are erect or horizontal with 4 to 6 angles, a distinct basal portion (apophysis, see page 57), and lids conical or flattened-convex with a point at the centre. The peristome is single, of 64 short, rigid teeth united at the base and joined above to a thin circular disk (epiphragm) which terminates a central column. 249 M. juniperin- um. Leaf with unrolled mar- gins. Mosses and Lichens The spores small and smooth. There are ninety-nine species in all, about fifteen of them known in North America. Genus POLYTRICHUM KEY TO SPECIES I. — Leaves entire, margins inflexed, apex obtuse, P. sexangulare. Apex rough-awned. Awn coloured brown or red, short. Leaves spreading when moist, somewhat re- curved . . P. funiperinum. Awn whitish, transparent, long P. piliferum. II. — Leaves serrate. Marginal cells of lamellae not enlarged in section, higher than broad. Spore-case egg-shaped, ob- scurely angled. Lid beaked P. gracile. Spore-case oblong, 4- to 6- angled. Lid acutely conic, P. formosum. Marginal cells of lamellae en- larged, broader than high, 2 to i P. Ohiense. Marginal cells of lamellae semi- lunar, with two prominent horns at corners, P. commune. P. in nipsrinum. Leaf. P. piliferum. Leaf. P. Ohiense. Vertical rows of cells from lamella. (a) Terminal cell broader than high; (6) terminal cell semilunar. 250 P. gracile. Spore-case. Hairy-cap Mosses Slender Hairy-cap, Polytrichum gracile, Dicks. Habit and habitat. — The slender Polytrichum is not common. It may be found densely tufted — on the ground in woods, or on rocks. Name. — The specific name gracile is from the Latin gracilis, slender. Plant (gametopbyte).— Light green, erect, I to 4 inches high, simple above, divided at the base and covered with soft matted hairs. Leaves. — Spreading or erect when dry, broadly lance-shaped ; apex sharply taper- pointed ; base sheathing ; vein broad ; margins serrate ; lamellae 50 to 40, not covering all of the leaf blade, 4 to 6 cells deep, the terminal cell elliptic in section. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri" cbcetial leaves}. — Sheathing, £ an inch long. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants, (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Orange, not quite covering the spore-case. Spore-case. — Erect or horizontal, broadly egg-shaped; indistinctly six- angled, mouth small ; apophysis obscure. Pedicel (seta). — Slender, orange, 2 inches long. Lid(operculum). — Conic, beaked. Teeth (peristome). — With 64 teeth often confluent and unequal. Spores. — Mature in summer. Leaf. P. gracile. Portion of peristome. Spore-case with lid. P. gracile. Distribution. — From the mountains of Virginia to .Newfound- land and west to the Rocky Mountains. Also in Europe, Asia and the Pacific Isles. 251 Mosses and Lichens Ohio Hairy-cap, Polytrichum Ohiense, Ren. and Card. Habit and habitat. — Found on the ground growing loosely in patches. Distinguished from P. formosum* by the form of the spore-case, which is more or less narrowed toward the base and has an indistinct apophysis, but chiefly distinguished by the form of the marginal cells of the lamellae, a character which separates it from all our other species of Polytrichum. Name. — The specific name Ohiense refers to the fact that the type specimen came from Ohio. Plant (gametophyte). — Erect, simple or divided, i£ to 3 inches high, woolly below. \ Spore-case. Vertical sections of lamellae to show terminal cells. P. Ohiense. Leaves. — Spreading when moist, erect and slightly twisted when dry; apex narrowly taper-pointed, the awn spiny; base white, sheathing; margin serrate; lamella 30 to 40; cells 5 to 7 deep, the marginal cell much larger, broader than high, stirrup- shaped in section. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichatial leaves). — Resembling the stem-leaves, longer and with a longer transparent base. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Pale, small, ragged, not concealing the spore-case. Spore-case. — Erect, finally horizontal, with 4 to 6 acute angles, the base tapering into an indistinct apophysis. Pedicel (seta). — Red below, paler above, 2 to 4 inches long. Lid (operculum). — Conic and taper-pointed, bordered with orange. Teeth (peristome) . — Si xty-four. * NOTE. — Polytrichum formosum seems to be rare in America, having been reported only from Miquelon Island, near Newfoundland. 252 Hairy-cap Mosses Spores. — Rust colour, ripe in summer. Distribution. — North Carolina to Prince Edward's Island, and west to Minnesota and British Columbia. Also in Norway and Sweden. The Awned Hairy-cap, Polytricbum pili- ferum, Schreb. Habit and babitat. — Found in sandy fields, on rocks or on old roofs, conspicuous on account of the white hair-like tips and the bluish- white bloom of the leaves; the plants in clusters but not matted together. The male flower-clusters surrounded with red bracts. The specific name piliferum is compounded of two Greek words, mXc?, hair, and <£e/3&), to bear, referring to the numerous white hairs of the leaves. Plants (gametopbyte) . — Short, I to i finches high, simple from subterranean creeping shoots, wiry and naked below, densely leafy above. Leaves. — The upper long lance-shaped, the lower oval, appressed to the stem when dry, spreading when moist ; apex smooth on the back, prolonged iectylifr into a rough, hair-like awn; margin entire, inflexed upon the upper surface of the leaf-blade; vein red, becoming suddenly I YoUnj Shoot' transparent at the apex; lamella about 30, 4 to 7 cells deep, the upper cell pointed in section. Leaves at the base of the seta (pericbcetial leaves). — Narrowly tongue-shaped, erect, concave, 253 P. piltferum. Plant with sporophyte and with creeping shoots at the base. Mosses and Lichens without lamellae; base sheathing, transparent, shorter than the awn. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Mitrate, covering the spore-case. Spore-case. — Erect, finally horizontal, egg-shaped, 4-angled. Apophysis distinct, constricted above where it passes into the spore-case. \ /N Pedicel (seta). — Erect, I to \ \ii l^ mcnes l°ng- Lid (operculum). — With a short stout beak, red or orange. Teeth (peristome). — Sym- metrical, sixty-four in number. Spores. — Smooth, ripe in summer. Distribution. — America, Europe and Asia. P. filiferum. Perichaetial leaves. P. piliierum. Leaves. Spore-case. Perigonial leaves. P. piliferum. Vertical section of lamellate show pointed terminal celL Juniper Hairy-cap, Polytrichum juniperinum, Willd. — See Plate XXI. Habit and habitat. — Common by damp sandy roadsides, or in peat-bogs. This is one of the Hairy-caps which in dry air turns its leaves up against the sun in order to protect the delicate lamellae from his rays. It as well as P. piliferum, is conspicuous for its bluish-white bloom, but differs from P. piliferum in that the leaves are tipped with a short red awn instead of with one long, white, and hair-like. Name. — Carl Ludwig Willdenow named this pretty moss juniperinum from its resemblance to tiny Juniper trees. 254 Hairy-cap Mosses Plant (gametophyte). — Simple or forked, erect, i to 4 inches high from subterranean shoots. Leaves. — Erect, when dry, spreading when moist, lance-like ; apex a rough red awn ; base enlarged and sheathing; vein rough; margins entire, indexed lamella 40 to 50, 5 to 6 cells deep ; cells square in section, the terminal ^-toothed. Bracts of male flower-cluster short and abruptly awned. P. p&ifentm. Subterranean shoot. P. juniperinutn. Vertical sections of lamellae to show papillose terminal cell. Spore-case Spore-case with veil. with lid, Cluster- P. juniperinum. P. juniperinum. Leaves. JITS* ije,an two years growth marked by the bracts of a terminal rosette. Leaves at He base of the pedicel (perichatial leaves). — Sheathing, with- out lamellae. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicious). Veil (calyptra). — Large, covering the spore-case. Spore-case. — Erect, finally hori- Male plant with zontal, 4~angled ] apophysis small, red, shield-like. 255 Mosses and Lichens Pedicel (seta). — Red-orange, becoming brown, stout, glossy, to 2\ inches high. Lid (operculum). — Red, flattened-convex with a short beak. Teeth (peristome). — Pale, symmetrical, rather short, sixty-four in number. Spores. — Ripe in summer. Distribution. — From Florida to Alaska, also in Europe. The Common Hairy-cap, Poly- tricbum commune, L. — See Colour Plate X. Habit and habitat. — This moss is widely distributed and attains its largest size in peat-bogs where it may usually be recognised by the long stems covered below by the silvery bases of the leaves and by the angular spore -case which bears a flat disk at the base. It has the dis- tinction of being one of a few mosses which have served in the economy of the household. In the P. juniperinum. Spore-cases. north of England the plants are made into small dust- ing brooms and mats. Withering states that the plants are used for bedding by bears, and Carolus Linnaeus, the renowned Swedish botanist, is said, , f . conttnttnt, Spore-case. P. juttiperinum. Cross section of leaf to show (a) lamellae growing from the inner surface of the vein, (s) The vein. On the left, the blade is shown one cell thiok and seven cells wide. Hairy-cap Mosses while on a trip in the North, to have used the dry plants as stuffing for his pillow and mattress and to have recommended it as not harbouring fleas and infectious diseases. Name. — The specific name commune, common, describes the general distribution of this moss. Plant (gametopbyte} . — Tall, 6 to 18 inches high; dark-green or red-brown. The male plants often with the flower-heads in an ascending series of five to six, marking the age of the plant; stems simple, rarely forking; below, leafless, with the basal portions of old leaves adhering; growth erect from the centre of the male heads or directly from the ground. Leaves. — Crowded above, about ^ of an inch long; apex spreading and recurved, lance-shaped and pointed, base enlarged, white, glossy, sheathing; vein rough on the back 2nd bearing from 50-60 lamellae on the upper surface; margin inrolled when dry, serrate ; lamella 5 to 6 cells deep, the ter- minal the largest, semilunar or concave in section. Leaves at tbe base of the pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — White, "$. of an inch long, without lamellae; awn long and horny. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants, (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Covered with long silky hairs, concealing the spore-case. Spore-case. — Erect, finally horizontal, 4-angled; apophysis distinct, disk-like. Pedicel (seta). — Stout, 2\ to 4 inches long. Apex of leaf. Leaf. P. commune. Polytrichum lamella seen from the side. Spore-case. P. commune. Veil. Veil on spc re- case. Mosses and Lichens Lid (operculum). — Flattened with an acute point at the centre. Teeth (peristome). — Sixty-four, blunt at the apex, continuous at the base. United at the tips with a thin disk (epiphragm). Spores. — Red-brown, ripe in summer. Distribution. — Universal. Too* Lid. Portion of peristome. P. commune. Summit of spore-case with 64 teeth around the thin disk. Genus DIPHYSCIUM, Mohr The species of the Genus Diphyscium are minute stemless plants growing scattered on the ground and on rocks. The leaves are strap-shaped or lance- shaped with a vein. The cells are a to 3 layers deep. The leaves at the base of the spore-cases are large, saw-toothed or cut into a ragged fri n ere ®' i°l*°SMm- Growing on the ground. The spore-cases are immersed or exserted on an inconspicuous pedicel, they are oval and taper-pointed, oblique and swollen on one side, with a conical lid. The outer teeth are none, or rudimentary and the inner membrane forms a pale blunt cone of 16 twisted folds. The name, from Sk, twice, and vatctov, a vesicle, refers to the double wall of the spore case, which is due to the spore-sac being widely separated from the outer wall. There are eleven species known in all, one of them being found in North America. 258 D. folum, The Genus Diphyscium The Leafy Diphyscium, Diphyscium foliosum, Mohr. Habit and habitat. — Dark-green, widely tufted; growing on clay soil and shady banks along roads, also on rocks. Name. — From the Latin foliosus, leafy. Plant ( gametophyte} . — Simple with short stems. Leaves. — Strap-shaped, thick, or curled in various directions when dry, vein (costa) present ; margin roughened with minute projections above and sometimes with a few distinct teeth, cells small and containing leaf-green. Top of spore-case with inner teeth. D. foliosum. Top of spore case with outer teeth. Single plant. Perigonial leaf. Leaves at the "base of ike spore-case. — Ovate lance-shaped, mem- branous, and without leaf-green; vein excurrent, forming a bristle point almost as long as the blade of the leaf. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants, (dioicous). Veil. — Acute, conical, covering the lid. Spore-case. — Immersed in colourless leaves; swollen on oneside, ovate, lance- shaped, yellowish-green. Pedicel (seta). — Very short. Lid (operculum). — Conical, acute. Teeth (peristome). — Double, the outer short, triangular, grainy, and with transverse bars, often perforated in the middle, pale- yellow, purple at the apex; the inner membranaceous, and form- ing a blunt cone of twisted folds. Spores. — Small, mature in summer. Distribution. — Europe, Asia and North America. 259 Male plant. Veil. D. foliosum. Mosses and Lichens Genus BUXBAUMIA, Hall. The species of the Genus Buxbaumia are tiny stemless plants growing scattered over decayed wood or on the ground. The leaves are extremely minute, some broadly oval or oblong terminating in broad, spread- ing cilia. The spore-cases are the conspicuous part of the plant, they are egg-shaped with a con- ical cap, depressed above, swollen on the lower side, and are borne obliquely on a thick pedicel covered with wart-like protuberances. The outer skin at the margin of the mouth is split into irregular fragments which roll back from the thickened rim which is formed of several layers of cells (the pseudo-annulus). The teeth are in several rows, the outer short and rudimentary; the inner mem- brane (endostome) is conical tubular, of 32 fan-like plaits, slight- ly twisted to the right. There are five species known at present, three of them in North America. Albrecht von Haller, the founder of the genus, named it Buxbaumia in honour of its discoverer, J. C. Buxbaum. B. aphylla. Young plant with spore-case with a veil and sur- rounded by leaves. B. aphylla. Sporophyte with depressed spore-case ; and hairy vaginule at the base of a rough pedicel. B. aphylla. Inner membrane. The Genus Buxbaumia Buxbaumia aphylla, L. — See Plate XX. Habit and habitat. — Small stemless plants growing on earth and decayed wood. Coloured patches of a peculiar green-black felt appear at first, and on this felt, which under the microscope is shown to be a web of minute-branched threads (protonema), young plants, minute and spherical, appear. The moss has an annoying habit of disappearing from a station so that one can- not rely upon finding it the second time in the same locality. This sporadic habit and the scanty numbers of this moss invest its discovery with a charm known only to one who has collected it. The young spore- cases appear early in September. During the winter they remain green and with the warm days of early spring begin growth again and the colour changes from green to brown. By the middle of March the plants are ready to disperse their spores. Name.— The specific name aphylla is a B.aphyOa. Leaf, compound of a, privative, without, and v\\ov, a leaf. History. — In 1712, J. C. Buxbaum, a German botanist, dis- covered the curious plant on which the genus was founded. He collected it near Astrakhan, on the banks of the Volga, and says, "I wished to make it into a new genus and name it after my father, but called to mind the fox, who was derided by the others, because he begged the grapes, not for himself, but for his sick mother." It was for a time regarded as a fungus; but in 1741 Johann Dillenius correctly referred it to the mosses. Schimdel made a careful study of it in 1758, and Linnaeus also wrote of it. Plant (gametophyte) . — Stemless, the male plants solitary in red-brown felt at the base of the female plant. Leaves. — Extremely minute, oval or palm-shaped, soon disap- pearing; margin in shreds, or coarsely saw-toothed; cells, loose, colourless, long six-sided; leaves of the plant only two and with- out a shredded margin. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Conical. Spore -case. — Inclined, boat-shaped, and depressed above, swollen below, smooth, greenish- B. aphylla. , _ , , ... , , Veil. brown; coat, firm, glossy, and thickened on the 261 Mosses and Lichens margin, rolling back at the mouth irregularly to form a crown-like border. Pedicel (seta). — Rigid, erect, straight, i inch high, deep pur- ple, rough; the base (vaginule) thick, covered with rusty hairs. Lid (operculum) . — Short, conic, obtuse, remaining for a time attached to the columella after separating at its margin. Teeth (peristome). — The outer of short irregular teeth; the inner, a deeply plicate, funnel-shaped membrane. Spores. — Very small, mature from April to September. *. <*Wfa. _ . \ ., , . r . . A, . . phyte with de- DlStnbUtlOn— North Amen- pressed spore-case ica, Europe and Asia. and hairy vaginule at the base of rough pedicel. B. aphylla. Top of spore-case show- ing the peristome with cone of inner membrane rising from a cone of outer teeth. THE FOUNTAIN MOSSES Genus FONTINALIS, L. The species as the name suggests grow either submerged or floating in streams and ponds. Peristome with latticed cone protruding from outer teeth. Stem. F. antipyretica. Female branch with immersed spore-case at the summit. The plants are branched, often naked at the base. Every third leaf is directly over the first one counted ; usually concave or keeled, with a base often auricled and growing slightly down 262 The Fountain Mosses the stem. They have no vein. The cells are linear, those of the basal angles more or less enlarged. The spore-cases are oval or cylindrical with conical lids and are immersed in the leaves at the base. The peristome is double, the outer of sixteen lance-shaped teeth, the inner of sixteen slender cilia united into a latticed cone. There are about forty species in all, over twenty-five being known in the United States. Fontinalis antipyretica, var. gigantea, Sulliv. Habit and habitat. — Glossy, yellow-green or bronzed plants growing in fresh water. Name. — The specific name antipyretica is a compound of the Greek avrl, against, and irvpeicTuccK, fever, given because of a belief in its efficacy in fevers. The varietal name gigantea re- fers to its size. Fontinalis antipyretica with tiny female branches. Plants. — One to two feet long, rooting only at the base and growing attached to stones, and roots of trees in streams. Leaves. — Keeled and overlap- ping; vein none; apex finely toothed; cells of the basal angles enlarged. 263 F. antipyretica. Leaves. Mosses and Lichens Leaves at the base of ibe pedicel (pericbcetial leaves). — Over- lapping, broad and blunt. Perichaetial leaves. Veil. F. antipyretica. Spore-case with lid. Habit of flowering. — Fruiting branch £ an inch long, male and female flowers on separate plants. Veil (calyptra). — Beaked. Spore-case. — Cylindrical. Top of spore -case with the inner teeth forming a latticed cone in the centre of the outer teeth. Cone Portion of peristome show- ing one outer tooth on the left and a portion of the inner membrane on the right. F. antipyretica. Lid (operculum). — Conical. Teeth (peristome}. — As in the genus. Spores. — Mature in summer. Distribution. — In temperate regions of both continents. 264 The Genus Neckera Genus NECKERA, Hedw. The species of the Genus Neckera grow in extensive mats on tree-trunks or rocks. The primary stems are creeping, and the secondary are once or twice feather-branched, erect or pen- .LU. dent, often whip-like, and covered at the base with red-brown filaments. The leaves are glossy, translucent, often flat and generally wavy. The cells are minute rhomboidal, oblong in the upper part, linear in the middle and quadrate on the borders. N. pennata. Sporophyte The spore-cases are immersed or ex- with paraphyses at the serted, with a short or somewhat elongated pedicel. They are erect and symmetrical with conical beaked lids. The peristome is double, without an annulus, the outer teeth being long, linear, lance-shaped, and closely cross-barred. The inner membrane consisting of a basal por- tion with 1 6, often short, processes without intermediate cilia. The genus was named by J. G. Hedwig in honour of J. N. Necker, a distinguished botanist. 158 species are known at present, 8 being found in North America. The Feathered Neckera, Neckera pennata, Hedw. See Colour Plate III. N. pennata. Por- u 7 ., 777 M j r- • • • j t tion of peristome Habit and habitat. — Growing in widely -withf our long outer spreading pale-green matted tufts (cespitose) on teeth and three . short inner. tree trunks. It is a conspicuous moss on trees of the Adirondack woods. The older parts of the plants are shabby, while the newer parts are pale yellow-green and grow horizontally around the tree. Name. — The specific name pennata, from the Latin penna, a feather, was suggested by the arrangement of the branches. Plant, (gametophyte). — The primary stems are long, the secondary 2 to 4 inches long in opposite rows (distichous), close or distant, erect. Leaves. — In the same plane with the branches, spreading, glossy, broadly lance-shaped, transversely wrinkled ; apex acute ; margin entire or slightly saw-toothed from the middle 265 Mosses and Lichens upward ; vein faint and short, single, or two-forked, or want- ing ; base slightly unequal ; cells very small, rhomboidal-oblong, 4-sided at the basal angles. Leaves at tie base of the •pedicel (perichcetial leaves). — Long and sheathing, taper- pointed, surpassing the spore- case. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Small, white, covering the lid only, oval-oblong, dirty-yellow, brown N. pennata. Leaves. Spore-case. — Immersed, when old, thin-walled. Pedicel. — None, the cellular sheath at the base of the spore-case hairy. Lid (operculum.) — Conical, beaked. Teeth (peristome). — Pale-yellow, the outer of linear awl-shaped teeth from a narrowly lance- shaped base, cohering at the apex, densely cross- barred, irregularly divided, the inner segments rudimentary. Spores. — Mature in spring. Distribution. — Common in North America Perichaetial leaves. N. pennata. Old spore- ( 9 ) Female case with- branch. ( 4 ) out lid. Male branch. universal. Genus ANOMODON, Hook & Tayl. The species of the Genus Anomodon are found on the roots of trees in woods, on rocks and on decayed logs. The primary stems are prostrate, with horizontal shoots from the base and erect secondary stems irregularly branched. The stem-leaves are distant and minute, while the leaves of the branch- lets are crowded, spreading, or turned to one side, and have minute cells, usually with tiny protuberances on both faces. 266 The Genus Anomodon The spore-cases are erect, cylindrical, regular, chestnut- coloured with conical beaked lids, and are borne on more or less elongated pedicels. Annulus narrow or wanting. The peristome is pale, with narrowly lance-shaped teeth, and the segments of the inner membrane short, narrow and more or less irregular from a narrow base. The character of the teeth was not very well understood at first and so the genus was named Anomodon, from ai>o/zo9, irregular, and 6Swv, tooth, from the supposed unusual construction. There are forty-nine species known in all, eleven being found in North America. Branch. Anomodon apiculat«s. Plant. Anomodon rostratus, Schimp. Habit and habitat. — Densely tufted, bright green at the sur- face, yellow-brown within. Growing on trees, roots, and limestone rocks. v Perichaetial leaves. Leaves. A. rostratus. 267 Mosses and Lichens Spore -case. A. rostratus. Veil. Name. — The specific name rostratus, beaked, refers to the lid. Plant (gametopbyte) . — Primary stems brittle and bearing numerous thread-like branches, forming dense tufts. Leaves. — Dense, overlapping as shingles, lance- shaped ; apex long-pointed ; vein solid, vanishing below the apex ; base oval. Leaves at tie base of the pedicel (peri- cbcetial leaves). — Long, white and thin; apex of the inner leaves narrowed into a thread-like, reflexed point as long as the leaf-blade. Habit of flowering. — Male ;tnd female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptrd). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Red-brown, oval-oblong. Pedicel (seta). — Short. Lid (operculum). — Long-beaked. Teeth (peristome). — The segments of the inner membrane about as long as the teeth, keeled, dirty-yellow, with cilia between, solitary, rudimentary or none. Spores. — Mature in Fall. Distribution. — North America, Europe and Asia. Anomodon attenuatus, Hueben. Habit and babitat. — In loose wide tufts on roots of trees and on rocks along streams ; common. Name. — The specific name attenuatus, slender, refers to the branches. Plants (gametopbyte). — Irregularly branched and intri- cate, the branches short and rather obtuse; i to 2 inches high, or elongated and whip- like with minute leaves. Leaves. — Spreading or turned to one side ; oblong lance-shaped from a widely oval base ; apex acute with a tiny sharp point ; base narrow at the 268 A. attenuatus. Perichastial leaves. The Genus Anomodon point of attachment and growing slightly down the stem; margin plane, minutely wavy, with papillae ; vein translucent, vanishing below the apex ; surfaces densely covered with tiny protuberances. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Pedicel (seta}. — Twisted, f of an inch long. Spore-case. — Red-brown, shining, cylindrical, straight or slightly curved. Lid (operculuni). — Conic and beaked. Teeth (perislome}. — Narrowly lance-shaped ; segments of the inner membrane, thread-like, fragile and irregular. Annulus. — Narrow. Spores. — Mature in autumn, not found in Britain. Distribution, — North America, Europe and Asia. Lid. Spore -case. Male plant Leaves. A. attenuates. Plant. Anomodon apiculatus, Bruch & Schimp. — See Plate XXII. Habit and Habitat. — Loosely and widely tufted on trees and rocks in mountains. Name. — The specific name apiculatus from the Latin apex, apicis, refers to the short-pointed leaves. Plants (gametophyte). — Green, with a bloom, dirty-red when old. Primary stems prostrate and whip-like ; secondary stems straight, simple or divided at the base. Leaves. — Two-ranked, tongue-shaped, thick, opaque ; apex pointed; margin wavy; vein transparent, vanishing below the 269 Mosses and Lichens apex ; surface covered with tiny protuberances ; base oblong-oval with ear-like and fringed appendages; cells dense, minute, round. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves}. — Long and sheathing, tongue- shaped toward the apex. Stem. A. apiculatus. Leaf. A. apiculatus. Male flower-cluster. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants, (dioicous}. Veil (calypira). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Egg-shaped or elliptical. Pedicel (seta}. — Short. Lid (operculum). — Conic, beaked. Teeth (peristome).— Narrowly lance-shaped and awl-shaped, cross-barred and knotty. Segments of the inner membrane very short from a very narrow base, sometimes wanting. , l Female branch. . Lid. Perichsetial leaf. Spore-case. A, apiculatus. Veil. Annulus. — None. Spores. — Mature in autumn. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia. 270 Tree Mosses TREE MOSSES Genus CLIMACIUM, Web. & Mohr The species of the Genus Climacium are large, resembling miniature evergreen trees. They are common in shady woods, in damp places on decayed logs, on roots of trees and on hummocks in swamps, and will be easily recognised from the photograph. The primary stem is creeping, and the secondary erect and robust, with stout branches. The stem- leaves are scale-like ; the branch-leaves oblong lance- shaped with a thin vein, and the leaves at the base of the pedicel are long and sheath- ing. The spore-cases are clus- tered on long, erect pedicels ; they are cylindrical with a beaked lid and a long calyptra split up one side and embracing the base. The peristome is double, the outer teeth large and united at the base ; the inner keeled and perforated. a Stem leaf. Branch leaves c. Perichaetial leaf (base of pedicel) . Spore-case with veil. Top of spore-case with columella ex- tending above the inner teeth. C. dendroides. 271 Portion of peristome. Mosses and Lichens The generic name Climacium is derived from the Greek K\ifjidKiov, a little ladder, referring to the appearance of the inner teeth. Six species are known at present, two in North America. Climacium dendroides, Web. & Mohr. — See Colour Plate IV ; also Colour Plate XV. Habit and habitat. — Bright green, tree-like,found in wet places. Name. — The specific name is from the Greek SevSpov, a tree, and eiSo?, like. Plant (gametophyte}. — Primary stem creep- ing, secondarysimple, erect, often sharp- pointed at the apex, 2 to 4 inches high; branches clustered at the summit. Leaves. — Stem- leaves broad, clasp- ing ; branch leaves nar- rower, oblong, folded lengthwise; base only a c d e (a) Spore-case with lid ; (J>) lid with columella ; (c) spore-case with lid lifted ; (d) spore-case with veil ; (e) veil. Cross-section of stem to show central strand. Top of spore-case with columella ex- Portion of peristome with five outef tending above the and five inner teeth- inner teeth. C. dendroides. 2J2 Tree Mosses slightly growing down on the stem at the hollow basal angles; apex sharply serrate; vein vanishing below the apex. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). yeil (catyptrd). — Thin, smooth, extending below the spore- case. Spore-case. — Erect, cylindrical, red-brown. Pedicel (seta). — An inch long or more, deep-red. Lid (operculum). — Straight, acutely beaked, remaining for some time attached to the central column of the spore-case. Teeth (peristome). — As in the genus. Annulus. — None. Spores. — Olive-green, small, mature in the autumn and winter. Distribution. — Common in North Amer- ica, Europe, Asia and Africa. Climacium Americanum, Brid. — See Colour Plate XV. This species closely resembles the last, but may be distinguishedby the long de- current stem-leaves broadly eared at the base and coarsely serrate at the apex, as well as by the longer and more narrowly cylindrical spore-cases with more abruptly, longer beaked lids. Spore-case with lid. Stem leaf. C. Americanum. HYPNUM RUSCIFOLIUM, Neck. " Where, through some meadows, soft and green, Gemm'd with the daisy's silver bloom, A gentle stream is wandering seen, 'Mid flowering banks of rare perfume ; There you may look beneath the waters Sweetly gliding on serene, For one of Beauty's lovely daughters — Lovely though of humble mien ; And where the stream, in childish glee, Leaps o'er the rocks with infant pride, This little moss, in eddying swirl Of foaming waves, its head doth hide." 273 Mosses and Lichens Genus HYPNUM, Dill. The species of the Genus Hypnum in its wider sense all agree in having the peristome double and perfect, the outer of sixteen, strong, lance-shaped, taper-pointed and densely cross- barred teeth; the inner a broad membrane divided to the middle, or about, into sixteen, keeled, yellow segments, dis- tantly cross-barred, entire, or cleft more or less along the keel, the segments generally separated by i to 3 filiform divisions (cilia) cross-barred and often bearing tiny spurs on the margin. The difference in the species will perhaps better be understood by refer- ence to the following synopsis of the sub-genera represented by the species which follow. Dr. Johnston in speaking of the genus Hypnum said that perhaps it formed one-fourth of the vegetable cloth- ing of Great Britain. The word bypnum is the Greek VTTVOV, an ancient name for some sort of moss supposed to promote sleep. Hyfmum triquetrunt. Por- tion of peristome showing one outer tooth on the left with annulus cells at its base, two keeled inner teeth on the right with three spurred cilia between. SYNOPSIS OF SUB-GENERA Thuidtum. — Primary stems prostrate and irregularly divided; leaves with tiny protuberances (papillose} ; paraphyllia more or less numerous. Stem-leaf. Branch. Thuidium delicatuhim. 274 Cross-section of leaf to show papillae. Spore -case with lid. i The Genus Hypnum Secondary stems regularly feather-branched ; stem-leaves differing decidedly from the branch-leaves ; vein translucent; spore-case curved ; lid conic, beaked. Brachythecium. — Plants often large, prostrate, irregularly divided, the branches erect; leaves usually smooth with folds Brachythecium Starkii. Leaf. Brachythecium rivulare. Plant with sporophyte. Brachythecium Starkii. Base of leaf to show cells enlarged at the angles. extending lengthwise of the leaf and veined to the middle or above; cells loose, elongated, rhomboidal, enlarged at the base and angles ; lid conical, obtuse, or short-pointed. Eurhynchium. — Plants somewhat feather-branched ; leaves heart-shaped, growing down the stem at the basal angles, 275 Mosses and Lichens serrate ; cells narrowly rhomboidal; spore-case oval, nodding or horizontal, inflated and with long sharp beak. Lid. Leaf. Eurhynchium; Hypnutn Boscii. Plagiothecium. — Stems irregularly branching, not pinnate ; leaves usually flattened out in the same plane or all turned in one direction, ovate or oblong lanceolate, often somewhat oblique at base, two-veined or veinless. Leaf- cells elongated hexagonal to linear; seta smooth, spore-case oblong to cylindrical, curved. Lid from conical to short-beaked. Eurhynchium; Hypnum Boscii. Spore-case. Spore-case. Leaf -cells. Plagiothecium Muellerianum. Leaves. Amblystegium. — Plants usually small or medium size with numerous irregular entangled branches, often forming broad soft mats over the ground. Leaves mostly small, ovate acute, spreading regularly around the stem, straight or sometimes 276 The Genus Hypnum slightly curved. Leaf-cells comparatively broad, short six-sided, usually not abruptly enlarged in the angles. Pedicel tall and smooth. Spore-case more or less cylindrical and curved, with conical lid obtuse or acute. Base. Apex. Leaf -cells. Leaves. Amblystegittm varium. Harpidium. — Stems usually tall, more or less feather- branched ; leaves scythe-shaped and turned to one side, very acutely pointed ; win simple, often reaching the apex ; cells Portion of leaf to show Leaf. enlarged alar cells. Harpidium -uncinatum. narrow, linear, the alar much inflated. Plants often growing in water. Ctenium. — Plants in compact tufts of a pale yellow-green, the branches and branchlets regularly and closely placed feather- 277 Mosses and Lichens like, giving the plant a beautiful plume-like appearance. Leaves hooked and turned to one side, with short double veins or Leaves. Spore-case without lid. Ctenium: Hypnum crista-castrensis. none, somewhat serrate at apex. Spore-case large, curved horizontal. Euhypnum. — Plants variously divided ; branches more or less densely feather-branched ; leaves obscurely two-veined, Leaf-cells. Leaf. Spore-case. Euhypnum: Hypnum curuiiolium. Spore-case. Leaf. Euhypnum: Hypnum imponens. membranous, shining, usually curved ; cells compact, narrowly linear, distinctly four-sided at the angles ; spore-case oblong cylindrical, curved, usually somewhat inclined or horizontal. 278 The Genus Hypnum Calliergon.— Large plants with stem erect or inclined and with few cylindrical branches ; leaves very concave, mem- branous, round to oblong or heart-shaped ; cells very com- pact, narrow, alar sells inflated ; spore-case oblong, horizontally curved. Leaves. Spore-cases. Calliergon: Hypnum Schreberi. Pkurofium. — Plants feather-like, branches twice to three times divided ; leaves membranous, shining ; veins short, single or double; paraphyllia numerous; cells linear, uniform ; spore-case short, egg- shaped ; lid beaked. Hylocomnium. — Plants of large size with few irregular branches, or sometimes more or less feather-branched. Leaves widely Paraphyllia. Spore -case. Pleiurosium: Hypnum splendens. Leaf. Mosses and Lichens spreading or recurved ; -veins two, and short ; cells long and narrow ; spore-case short, broadly ovate, horizontal. Leaf. Spore-cases. Hylocomnium: Hypnum triquetrum. THE CEDAR MOSSES HYPNUM: Sub-genus THUIDIUM, Schimp. The species of this sub-genus are fern-like and grow in dense flat mats on decaying wood. The generic name is derived from the Greek Ova, or 0via, an ancient name for some resinous-bearing evergreen. The moss was so called by Wm. Philipp Schimper, from its resemblance to a tiny cedar tree. The primary stems are densely covered with rootlets, and the sec- ondary are i to 3 times pinnately branching. The leaves on the stem are tri- angular heart-shaped with a strong vein, a more or less long- pointed apex, and a base extending down- ward on the stem ; papillae are found on one or both faces ; leaf-'ike organs (para- Vertical section of peristome show- ing three cells of the annulus and an Inner and outer Spore-case tooth. without lid. Spore-cases with lids. Thuidium delicatulum. 280 The Cedar Mosses phyllia) on the stem between the true leaves are numerous and of many forms. The leaves on the branches are smaller, ovate, lance-shaped, concave and overlapping; the cells are small, round, six-sided, some- times long, linear at the base and four-sided on the borders. The leaves at the base of the pedicel are long, and over- stem-leaf. lapping. The spore-cases are nar- rowly ovate or cylindrical and arched, with conical or more or less long-beaked lids and long pedicels. The teeth are as in the genus Hypnum. Two hundred and forty- four species are known at present, fifteen of them in North America. Cross-section of leaf to show papillae. Branch-leaves. Leaf at base of pedicel. Thuidium delicatulum. untrtootX. Vertical section of peristome showing three cells of the annulus on the right and an outer and an inner tooth. (a) and (6) Spore-cases with lids ; (c) spore-case without lid , (J) spore-case with lid. Portion of peristome showing four outer teeth on the left with the inner membrane on the right, annulus at the base of the tooth on the extreme left. Tkuidittm minutulitm. 28l Paraphyllia. Mosses and Lichens Branch-leaves. Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Oblong-egg-shaped, nodding or horizontal, dark yellow-brown when old. Pedicel (seta). — Smooth and f to I inch long. Lid (operculuni). — With a long awl-shaped beak. Annulus. — Large, of three rows of cells. Teeth (peristome). — Double, as in genus Hypnum. Spores. — Mature in autumn. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Africa. The Tiny Cedar Moss, Hypnum ( Thuidimn) minutulum, Hedw. Habit and habitat. — Tiny fern-like mosses growing in woods on decaying trees and stumps. Name. — Hedwig, a great German botanist, gave this dainty moss its specific Latin name, minutuium, tiny, on account of its small size. Plant (gametophyte) . — Minute, twice pin- nate; stem irregularly divided, densely covered with soft matted hairs ; branches pinnately branching. Leaves. — Stem-leaves triangular, opaque ; apex taper-pointed or with an abrupt short point ; margins somewhat rolled back ; vein stout, vanishing near the apex ; branch-leaves oval, with taper point, concave ; vein shorter; leaves covered with tiny protuberances. Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Thin, nearly smooth, the inner lance-shaped with a taper point. Leaf-like organs (paraphyllia). — Numer- ous, and of various shapes covered with tiny projections. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant ; monoicous. The Dainty Cedar Moss, Hypnum (Thuidium) delicatulum, Linn.— See Plate XXIII. Habit and "habitat. — Creeping fern-like plants on ground, roots of trees, and rocks. Common and exceedingly beautiful. The specimen photographed grew on a stone in a babbling brook. 282 Leaf at base Ot pedicel. T. minutultttn. The Cedar Mosses Name. — The Dainty Cedar Moss is most attractive ; it was well known to the great Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus, who gave it the specific name delicatulum, dainty. Plant (gametophyte). — Three times feather-branched, the primary stems densely rooting. Leaves. — The stem-leaves densely crowded, enlarged at the base ; branch-leaves broadly oval ; apex long-pointed ; base concave ; "vein strong ; margin serrate ; cells small, the apical truncate and crowned with 2 to 3 acute papillae ; paraphyllia of varied forms. Vertical section of peristome show- ing three cells of the annulus on the left and an inner and outer tooth. Stem -leaf with paraphyllia. Stem -leaf. Spore-case with peris- tome. Spore-cases with lids. Thuidium delicatulum. Branch-leaf. Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Long-ciliate. Habit of flowering.— Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Cylindrical, arched. Pedicel (seta).— One to one-and-a-half inches long. Lid (operculum). — Conical. Annulus. — Double. Teeth (peristome).— Double as in Hypnum. Spores. — Mature in winter. Distribution.— Europe, North and South America. 283 Mosses and Lichens HYPNUM: Sub-genus BRACHYTHECIUM, Schimp. The plants of this sub-genus are generally large, prostrate or creeping, forming loosely matted tufts ; the stems branch irregularly, the branchlets somewhat regularly branching again, and covered densely with leaves. The leaves are broadly oval and oblong-lance-shaped, usually with folds lengthwise; the apex is acutely pointed, either broadly or narrowly so ; the base is heart-shaped (cordate)] the vein is single, continuous or vanishing half-way ; the cells are usually smooth and much elongated, the alar enlarged. There are no small leaf-like organs (paraphyllia). Spore -cases. Stem-leaf. Portion of the base of leaf to show enlarged cells at the angle . Brachythecium Starkii. The spore-cases are oval or oblong, short, nodding, usually arched with a convex-conical, obtuse, or short-pointed lid ; they are borne on smooth or rough pedicels. The generic name Brachythecium is derived from two Greek words, @pa%v<;, short, and #77/07, a case, relating to the short spore-case. The peristome is double, the outer teeth being united at the base, slender, lance-shaped, closely and regularly cross-barred, with a distinct median line ; the inner teeth are lance-shaped with 2 to 3 well-developed cilia all attached to a wide basal membrane. There are one hundred and sixty-three species known at present, about forty being found in North America. 284 The Sub-genus Brachythecium Brachythecium rivulare, Bruch, Ms.— See Plate XXIV. Habit and habitat. — Growing in dark or yellow-green mats on rocks and stones about springs and in swamps of moun- tainous woods. Namt. — The specific name rivulare refers to the habit of growing in wet places Portion of peristome with one outer tooth on the right with annulus cells at its base, two keeled and perforated inner teeth are seen on the left with cilia between. (a) Spore-case with lid showing point; (6) spore- case without lid. Branah-leaf. Brachythecium rivulare. Plants (gamefophyte). — Woody, prostrate, naked, or with rooting filaments, secondary stems ascending from old stems, arched £ to 3 inches long, nearly free from branches below, irregularly branching above. Leaves. — Branch leaves erect spreading, oval to oval lance- 285 Mosses and Lichens shape, concave or somewhat grooved ; apex acute to short taper- pointed ; margin with small sharp-pointed teeth above ; base grow- ing somewhat down the stem; -vein extending Z/T, of the length of the leaf; cells, median, linear; basal, broader; alar, enlarged. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Large, oblong or egg-shaped, horizontal or inclined. Pedicel (seta). — Thick and rough, red-brown, I to i£ inches long. Lid (operculum). — Conical, with an abrupt slender point. Teeth (per is tome} . — As in the genus. Annulus. — Large. Spores. — Chestnut colour, mature in autumn. Distribution. — Universal in mountainous regions. Brachythecium Starkii, (Brid.) Br. &Sc. Habit and habitat. — In dark-green, loose mats on fallen logs and old tree-trunks in moist mountain regions. Name. — The specific name was given in honour of Robert M. Starke. Plant (gametophyte). — Prostrate, branch- ing, the branches ascending, arched, % to i inch long. Leaves. — Branch-leaves distant, spread- ing, oval, lance-shaped, narrowly acute or taper-pointed; apex usually half twisted; base somewhat decurrent; margin serrate; vein extending beyond the middle; cells, the middle linear, the basal shorter and broader; the alar starku. plant. few> rhomboidal to quadrate; stem- leaves broadly oval and long taper-pointed, less strongly serrate, cells looser. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichatial leaves'). — Longer and narrower. 286 The Sub-genus Brachythecium Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on one plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Abruptly horizontal, short egg-shaped, dark red- brown, black when old. Pedicel (seta). — Rough, red-brown, 1 to iX inches high. Pt&Oll Portion of peristome show- ing two outer teeth on the left with annulus cells at the base, two keeled and perforated cells with cilia are seen at the right. Spore-case Plant w ith female branch with peri- on the left and male branch stome. on the right. Brachythecium Starkii. Leaf. Lid (operculum). — Convex, conical, tipped with a short, sharp point. Annulus. — Large, of about two rows of cells. Teeth (peristome'). — As in the genus. Spores. — Chestnut, maturing in autumn and winter. Distribution. — In the northern United States and Canada, across the continent, south to New Jersey; Europe. Brachythecium Novae- Angliae, (Sull. & Lesq.) Jaeger & Sauer.— See Plate XXV. Habit and habitat. — On earth and stones. Name. — The specific name is the Latin for "New England." Plant (gametophyte). — Forming loosely entangled mats; stem i£ to 2 inches long, irregular; branches cylin- drical, with rather short, overlapping, slightly spreading leaves. Leaves. — Erect, spreading, some- times very concave, not plaited, not glossy, incurved, broadly ovate, 287 Female plant. Male plant. B. Novce-Anglice. Mosses and Lichens narrowly taper-pointed; base growing down the stem; decur- rent; vein reaching the middle: margin finely saw-toothed all around; cells narrowly oblong- hexagonal, shorter and broader at the basilar angles. Leaves at the base of the pedi- cel.— Ovate, long, taper-pointed, recurved from the middle; vein not easily distinguishable. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants. P erichaiial leaves (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split B. Novce-Anglice. Spore-cases. uo one side Spore-case. — Oblong, erect, slightly curved. Pedicel (seta). —Rough, purple. Lid (operculum). — Long, conical, taper-pointed. Annulus. — Double, large. Stem. Leaves at base of pedicel. B. Novce-Anglice. Teetb (peristome). — Teeth denseiy articulate, segments of the inner membrane as long as the teeth. Cilia well developed but without transverse spurs attached at intervals to the margin. 288 MOSSES AND LICHENS PLATE XXV BRACHYTHECIUM NOV.E-ANGLLE, (Sull. & Lesq.) Jaeger & Sauer BRACHYTHECIUM STARKII, (Brid.) Br. & Sc. The Sub-genus Eurhynchium Spores. — Mature in late fall and early spring. Distribution. — Northeastern United States and Canada. Leaves. Cells. B. Novae-Anglice. THE LONG-BEAKED HYPNUM HYPNUM: Sub-genus EURHYNCHIUM, Schimp. The species of this genus are robust, glossy plants, more or less feather-branched, prostrate or creeping. The leaves are open, overlapping as shingles ; they resemble the bowl of a spoon, with the apex abruptly drawn out into a slender point and the margin serrate all around ; a vein extends to the middle or beyond ; the cells are smooth or slightly covered in a few species with tiny protuberances, they are narrowly rhomboidal, some- what worm-like and enlarged at the basal angles. The leaves at the base of the pedicel have root-like filaments. The spore-cases are oval-oblong nodding or horizontal, on a smooth or rough pedicel, with lids more or less long-beaked. This character suggested the generic name from the Greek eu, well, and pvyx0*' a beak. The annulus is compound or rarely none. Stem-leaf. Stem. H. Boscit. Mosses and Lichens Seventy-four species are known in all, nineteen in North America. Hypnum (Eurhynchium) Boscii, Schwaegr. — See Plate XXVI. Habit and habitat. — A very beautiful and easily identified moss, growing in thick soft-golden cushions or in loose thin mats on the ground among grass or on the ground and on rocks in shady places and open fields. Name. — The specific name Boscii was given by D. Fridericus Schwae- grichen, in honour of Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc, a distinguished natur- alist. Plants. — Stems prostrate, somewhat pinnately branching ; branches mostly simple, inflated, blunt, and cylindrical by the arrangement of the leaves. Leaves. — Thin, dry and shining, closely overlapping, oblong-oval, very concave ; apex narrowed to a twisted slender point ; base clasping ; margin finely serrate to the base ; cells narrowly linear, those of the base shorter, thick and yellow-brown. Leaves at the base of the pedicel. — Narrowly long taper- pointed. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Split up one side. Spore-case. — Brown, oblong, erect-incurved, gradually nar- rowed into the pedicel, strongly arched under the mouth when dry. Pedicel (seta). — Smooth, red to red-brown, slightly twisted to the right. Lid (operculuni). — Conic, the beak about £ the length of the urn. Teeth (peristome). — As in the genus Hypnum. Annulus. — Compound. Lid. Spore-cases. H. Boscii. H. Boscii. Breathing pore. 290 MOSSES AND LICHENS PT.ATE XXVI HYPNUM BOSCH, Schwaegr. The Sub-genus Plagiothecium Spores. — Mature in autumn. Distribution. — Vermont to Florida and Louisiana, west to Missouri and Illinois. HYPNUM: Sub-genus PLAGIOTHECIUM, Schimp. The species of this genus are partly prostrate, irregularly branching plants with rooting stems. They are soft and vari- able in size. The leaves are thin, glossy and mostly entire ; a vein is wanting or double ; very short and thin ; the cells are long and narrowly rhomboidal- hexagonal; larger at the base. Male and female flowers are usually found on the same plant. The veil is narrow and falls early. The spore-case is somewhat erect, oblique or almost horizontal, oval-oblong to cylindri- cal, somewhat arched, short-necked, thin, smooth or rarely wrin- kled when dry. The teeth are whitish. The name is derived from the Greek TrXayio?, oblique, and dqictov, a little chest, referring to the spore-case. Plagiothecium Muel- lerianum, Schimp. Habit and habitat. — This moss is found in rocky ravines ; it grows in loose, bright and shining green tufts. Name. — The specific name, Muellerianum, was given by William Schimper in honour of Baron Ferdinand Mueller, Government botanist of Australia. Stem-leaves. Cells. P. Muellerianum. Spore-case with lid. Leaves at base of pedicel. P. Muellerianum. 291 Mosses and Lichens Portion of peris- tome showing one outer tooth on the right with annulus cells at its base, one keeled inner tooth and two cilia on the left. Dry spore -case. Plant (gametophyte). — Very small; stems with runners, creeping, with branches erect, rooting at the base and some- times at the apex. Leaves. — In two rows, spreading, concave, ovate-lance-shaped at the base, taper-pointed, with an abrupt, short, acute point ; margin entire ; •vein wanting ; base not growing down the stem ; cells narrow, uniform. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves). — Half-clasping at the base, oblong-ovate, taper-pointed, entire. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Small. Spore-case. — Somewhat nodding, tapering from the en- larged mouth toward the pedicel, long- necked, enlarged at the mouth and bell-shaped when dry. Pedicel (seta}. — Short, purple. Lid (operculum). — Conical, short-beaked. Teeth (peristome). — Distantly jointed, cilia short, robust, unequal. Annulus. — Narrow, simple. Spores. — The fruit is very rare. Distribution. — Found in Europe and eastern North America. HYPNUM: Sub-genus AMBLYSTEGIUM The species of the Sub-genus Amblystegium vary in size from minute to large and robust and vary in colour from bright yellow-green to dark dull-green. The stems are prostrate, creep- ing, decumbent, ascending, or erect. The male and female flowers are usually on separate plants. The stems are usually tender and soft, but are occasionally rii>id. They are repeatedly branched, commonly irregularly so, \vith the branches more or less erect. 292 Spore-cases with peristome. P. Muellerianum. MOSSES AND LICHENS PLATE XXVII HYPNUM REPTILE Michx. AMBLYSTEGIUM VARIUM, (Hedw.), Lindh. A. varium. Leaves. The Sub-genus Amblystegium The leaves spread in all directions. They are narrowly lance- shaped to broadly egg-shaped, concave, or flat, never eared at the base and never with the cells narrowly linear. The base may or may not grow downward on the stem. Vein absent or prominent, margins entire or serrate. The spore-cases are oval to cylin- drical, symmetrical or unsymmetrical, erect to horizontal and usually con- stricted under the mouth when dry. The base tapers into a large or small collum. The colour varies from uniformly purple or brown through two shades to pale throughout. The peristome is normal, with usually 2 to 4 cilia, although in a few cases they are absent or rudimentary. The generic name from the Greek a/*/3\t"?, blunt, and trr^yo?, a cover, refers to the character of the lid, which is convex or conic, usually bluntly pointed, rarely sharply pointed. The annulus consists of from i to 3 rows of cells. The calyptra is small and falls early. Sixteen species are known in North America, ten of them being found in both America and Europe. Amblystegium varium, (Hedw.) Lindb.— See Plate XXVII. Habit and habitat. — This species is found growing in extensive loose or crowded tufts, bright green, dull dark- green or pale yellow-green, on ground, decayed wood, bases of trees and rocks in moist, wet or shady places. Name. — The specific name, varium, refers to the variable character of the plant. Plant (gametoplyte) . — The plants are of small or medium size, the stems obscurely angled, prostrate and branched, the branches slender, irregular, erect or ascending, never plume-like, straight or with tips incurved. 293 Base. Apex. A. varium. Leaf -cells. Mosses and Lichens Leaves. — Leaf-cells spreading or appressed, flat or concave; variable in size and shape, lance-shaped to ovate-lance-shaped or broadly ovate; apex usually slender, straight or slightly curved; margin entire to toothed above; vein extending to the apex or well into the point; cells broad and applied end to end (parencby- matous) toward the base, and narrow, with the ends overlapping (prosenchymatous) toward the apex. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants. Veil (calyptra). — Small and falling early, equal to or shorter than the spore-case, split half the length. Spore-case. — Cylindrical, unsymmetrical, upright to horizontal, pale yellow-green when young, chestnut when mature; con- stricted under the mouth when dry; neck i to i the length of the spore-case. Pedicel (seta). — One-half inch to 2 inches long, stout, reddish at the base, pale-yellow or dark throughout. Lid (operculum) . — Obliquely pointed from a high convex or conical base. Annulus. — With two to three rows of cells. Teeth (peristome) . — Cinnamon brown or yellow, paler above, lance-shaped; cilia 2 to 4. Spores. — Mature in late spring. Distribution. — Common and widely distributed. THE BOAT-HOOK MOSSES HYPNUM: Sub-genus HARPIDIUM, Sulliv. The species of the Sub-genus Harpidium are found usually in marshes. They have stems divided irregularly into long ascending rootless branches sometimes plume-like with short branchlets which are all more or less curved at the apex like a boat-hook. The leaves are firm and membranous with the apex prolonged into a slender point and turned to one side as a scythe- blade ; a single vein extends to above the middle or to the apex ; the cells are narrow, enlarged and inflated at the basal angles. 294 H. uneinatum. Leaf. The Sub-genus Harpidiurc The name Harpidium, the Latin for "hook," describes the hooked leaves, the important character of the sub-genus. The spore-cases are borne on long smooth pedicels, they are oblong-cylindrical, often arched, with short and conical lids. The teeth are as in the genus Hypnum. H. uncinatum. (a) and (6) Spore-cases with Kds ; (c) spore-case without lid. H. uncinatum. (a) Vertical section of peristome showing three annulus cells on the right at the base of an outer tooth, inner tooth on the left ; (b) portion of peristome showing on the right one outer tooth, on the left two keeled inner teeth and four cilia below three rows of annulus cells. There are numerous species. In the "Kryptogamen Flora," of 1898, K. Gustav von Limpricht, a prominent bryologist, devotes about seven pages to a most intricate classification of the sub-genus Harpidium. The Hooked Boat-hook Mosses, Hypnum (Harpidium) uncinatum, Hedw. — See Colour Plate III. Habit and habitat. — In pale yellow- green tufts, erect or drooping, on stones bordering streams, or on shaded ground, rarely on decayed wood, common and variable in mountain regions. Name. — The specific name, Latin un- cinatum, hooked, refers to the character of the leaves. Leaves. — Long, lance-shaped, grooved lengthwise, the taper-point spreading, scythe-shaped or hooked ; apex minutely serrate; vein thin; cells narrow, more en- larged at the base, broader and rectangu- lar at the angles, which are slightly hollow. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichaztial leaves).— Very long, 295 H. uncinatum. Right side from base of a leaf to show en- larged cells in the angle. Mosses and Lichens the outer recurved from the middle, the inner soft, long, with a slender thread-like point; apex sharply serrate; vein present. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same plant (monoicous) . Veil (calyptra).— Split up one side. Spore-case. — Nodding, cylindrical, incurved, constricted under the mouth when dry, brown-orange, darker when old. Pedicel (seta). — Variable in length, smooth. Lid (operculum). — Orange, highly convex, conical, acute. Teeth. — Orange at the base, yellowish above; seg- ments of the inner membrane slightly cleft; cilia two, as long as the outer teeth. Annulus. — Broad, of three rows of cells. Spores. — Mature in summer and autumn. Distribution. — Universal. COMB MOSSES HYPNUM: Sub-genus CTENIUM The species of the Sub-genus Ctenium are large and grow in loose tufts with stems erect or prostrate, rigid and compressed, simple and two-forked, closely H . uncinatum. (a) Leaf from base of pedicel ; (b) perigonial leaf ; (c) an antheridium and a paraphysis. C.crista-castrensis. Stem -leaves. and regularly feather-branched; the branches are fern-like and the branchlets close, resembling the teeth of a comb, a characteristic which has suggested the generic name from the Greek, /cret? a comb. 296 Sub-genus Ctenium The leaves have longitudinal folds with the apex turned to one side. The spore-cases are raised on long pedicels; they are cylin- drical-oblong, arched, and with broadly conical lids tipped with a point. Stem-leaf. Cells at base of leaf. C. crista-castrensis. Female plant. The Knight's Plume Moss, Hypnum (Ctenium) crista- castrensis, L.— See Plate XXVIII. Habit and habitat. — In loose, rigid, yellow-green tufts on decaying logs, in mountainous regions. Spore-case with lid. Leaf at base Spore-case without lid. of pedicel. C. crista-castrensis. Paraphyllia. Name.— The great Linnaeus named this pretty moss crista- castrensis from its resemblance to a military plume or crest— Latin crista, a crest, and castrensis, military. Plant (gametopbyte).—The stems prostrate, 3 to 5 inches long, the tips upright ; simple or twice-branched, closely and 297 Mosses and Lichens regularly feather-branched, the branches resembling a fern frond ; branchlets close, diverging horizontally and curved back at the apex like a plume. Leaves. — Stem-leaves broad, gradually long lance-like and taper-pointed, thin, turned to one side as a scythe blade, with longitudinal folds ; vein double or none ; margin sharply serrate from the middle upward. Leaf -like organs (paraphyllia). — Numerous, long, narrowly lance-shaped. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (peri- chcetial leaves'). — Long, sheathing, white, veinless. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin, smooth, pointed and split up one side. Spore-case. — Cylindrical-oblong, arched, green-brown when ripe, dirty- yellow when empty. Pedicel (seta). — One-and-a-half to two inches long. Lid (operculum) . — Broadly conical, sharp-pointed. Teeth (peristome). — The outer teeth orange below, pale, serrate, and awl-pointed above ; the inner teeth long-pointed and cleft ; cilia three or four, thick and as long as the teeth. Annulus. — Simple and narrow. Spores. — Mature in summer and autumn. Distribution. — North America, Europe, Asia. HYPNUM: Sub-genus EUHYPNUM The plants of this group generally have creeping stems which are more or less regularly feather-branched. The leaves are usually scythe-shaped and turned to one side, ovate lanceolate be- low and narrowly taper-pointed. The vein (costa) is short and double or none. The cells are linear and narrow, 4-sided 298 C. crista-castrensis. Portion of peristome showing on the left two outer teeth; on the right two keeled teeth of the inner membrane and six cilia. H. curvifolium. Branch -leaf. H. imponens, Spore-cases with lids. The Sub-genus Euhypnum at the angles ; the inner leaves at the base of the pedicel are deeply folded; small leaf-like organs (paraphyllia) on the stem are few. The spore-cases are cylindrical-oblong on smooth Paraphyllia. Spore-case with lid. H , curvifolium. Cells. Leaf at base* of pedicel. Stem-leaf. H. imponens. pedicels ; the lids are large, from very acutely pointed to convex-conical. The prefix ev, proper, indicates that this sub-genus is the most typical among the different groups of Hypnum. Hypnum (Euhypnum) reptile, Michx.— See Plate XXVII. Habit and habitat. — Found in pale- or dusky-green, wide and loose tufts on the bark of living or decayed trees. Com- mon and variable in sub-alpine regions, rare in the plains except northward. Name. — From the Latin rcptilio, creeping. Plant (gametophyte). — Drooping, stems branching, the branches feather-branched, the branchlets erect and incurved. Leaves. — Crowded, concave, long taper-pointed from an ob- long base ; margin sharply serrate above, flat or recurved below ; vein double, short, yellowish; leaf -like organs (paraphyllia) on the stem, few and very small, lance-shaped or palm-like. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves}. — The inner long, taper-pointed, longitudinally grooved with double vein and toothed apex. 299 Mosses and Lichens Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on the same stems, (monoicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split up one side. Spore-case. — Somewhat erect, cylindrical, yellowish, curved when dry. H. reptile. Stem-leaves. Pedicel. — Smooth. Lid (operculum). — Large, yel- low, shortly beaked from a highly convex base. Teeth (peristome}. — Long taper- pointed, orange at the base, seg- ments of the inner membrane cleft between the cross bars ; cilia shorter than the segments. Annulus. — Large, compound. H. reptile. Plant. Spore-cases with lids. Portion of the peris- tome showing on the left two outer teeth ; on the right two inner teeth and four cilia. H. reptile. 3OO Spore-cases with- out lids. The Sub-genus Euhypnum Spores. — Mature in August. Distribution, — North America and Europe. Perigonial leaves. Male and female plant. H. reptile. Leaves at base of pedicel. Hypnum imponens, Hedw. — See Plate XXIX. Habit and habitat. — This moss is exceedingly handsome, growing in flat yellowish-green tufts on decayed trunks and about the bases of trees. Paraphyllia. Stem leaves. H. imponens. Plant )gametophyte). — Prostrate, stems feather-branched. Leaves. — The stem-leaves overlapping, lying in two rows on the lower side, base broadly ovate, orange, at the angles minutely ear-like ; apex thread-like, and turned to one side ; borders reflexed below, minutely toothed all around or almost entire ; vein double or none ; cells very narrow, linear, somewhat 301 Mosses and Lichen* worm-like, enlarged, and 4-sided at tne basilar angles, the branch-leaves narrower, hooked, and rolled together at the apex of the branches ; the leaf-like appendages (paraphyllia) attached to the stem, large, palm-like or lance-like. Branch-leaves. Leaf at base of pedicel. H. imponens. Apex of leaf. Leaves at the base of the -pedicel (perichcetial leaves). — Without a vein, gradually narrowed to a long thread-like flexuous and finely toothed point. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split up one side- Female plant Perigonial leaf. H. imponens. Spore-cases with lids. Spore-case. — Cylindrical, pale-brown, somewhat erect or slightly incurved. Pedicel (seta). — Long and slender. The Sub-genus Euhypnum Lid (operculum). — Convex, with an oblique point, orange at the apex. Teeth (peristome). — Inner segments slightly cleft and as long as the cilia; outer, normal, cilia single, with small transverse spurs attached to the margin. Annulm. — Large, compound, adherent to the mouth. Spores. — Mature in the autumn. Distribution. — Common in sub-alpine America, rare in Europe. Spore-case with peristome. Spore -case with lid. H. imponens. Portion of peristom* showing on the left two outer teeth ; on the right two inner teeth and two cilia. Hypnum curvifolium, Hedw. — See Colour Plate XVI. Habit and habitat.— This attractive moss grows in intricate tufts, yellowish-green and glossy. It is very common on decayed logs in shady woods. Stem. Branch-leaves. H . curvifolium- 303 Cells. Mosses and Lichens Name. — The specific name, is from the Latin curvum, bent, and folium, a leaf. Plant (gametophyte). — Large, stems, 3 to 4 inches long, prostrate with but few branches, these feather- branchlets compressed, unequal, and short Spore-case, dry. fc>pore-case with lid. H. curvijolium. Veil Perigonium. Leaves. — Crowded, in two rows, each leaf overlapping one in front, scythe-shaped concave and turned to one side; base, eared; apex gradually long taper- pointed; margin slightly serrate; vein absent or slightly evident at the base, cells above pale, narrow, linear and worm-like; cells of the base and angles, shorter, broader, and golden-yellow. the Branch-leaves. Leaves at base of pedicel. H. curvifoltttm Sub-genus Calliergoa Leaves at the base of the pedicel (pericb&tial leaves). — Numerous, whitish, erect ; and close, the cells loose. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin and split up one side. Spore-case. — Large, oblong, swollen, and arched, when young; thin and distinctly ribbed, when dry. Pedicel. — Long and slender. Lid (operculum). — Conical, with a short abrupt point. Teeth (peristome). — Yellow with small blade-like projections on the inside ; segments of the inner membrane slightly cleft ; cilia 2 to 3, nearly as long as the segments. Annulus. — With three rows of cells, rolling back as the lid falls. Spores. — Mature in fall. Distribution. — North America. THE EXQUISITE FEATHER-MOSS HYPNUM, Sub-genus CALLIERGON The species of the Sub-genus Calliergon are large, erect, or prostrate plants growing in wide mats on the ground, or on rocks; the branches are simple or compound and have but a few rooting filaments. The sub-generic name is the Greek word Ka\\tepyov, beauti- fully made. Stem-leaves. Spore-cases with lids. H. Schreberi. The leaves are heart-shaped, oval or oval-oblong, deeply con- cave, spreading or overlapping, rarely turned to one side; the apex is obtuse, the vein variable, and the cells linear above and four-sided at the basal angles. 305 Mosses and Lichens Spore-cases with lids H . Schreberi. Spore -case without lid. The spore-cases are borne on variable pedicels; they are oblong and incurved with convex-conical lids. An annulus is sometimes present, and the teeth are as in the genus Hypnum. The Red-stemmed Feather-moss, Hypnum (Collier gon) Schreberi, Willd.— See Plate XXX. Habit and habi tat . — On shaded ground of hills and mountains. The specimen photographed grew on the dry knolls of a swamp in Lake Placid. Name. — The specific name was given by Karl Ludwig Willd enow in honour of D. J. C. Schreber. Plant (gametopbyte). — Stems rigid, dark-red, branching, the branches with somewhat regularly arranged branchlets; branches and branchlets obtuse at the apex. Leaves, — Pale-green or yellow, loosely overlapping, broadly oval-oblong, slightly concave; apex ©btuse or obtusely pointed, incurved; base recurved on the borders; vein double, short; margin entire; base extending down the stem; cells narrow, four-sided, orange at the base and the basal angles. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (pericbcetial leaves'). — The inner sheathing, erect, not plaited; apex short-pointed; vein none. Leaf -like organs among the leaves (para- pbyllia). — None. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separate plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin, split up one side. Spore-case. — Oblong, dark-coloured, incurved. Pedicel (seta). — Dark-red, long, twisted above. -Red, conical, with a sharp point. H. Schreberi. Leaves at base of pedicel. Lid (operculum) .- Annulus. — None. Teeth (peristome). — Long, with lamellae on the inside, inner The Sub-genus Pleurozium segments split nearly the whole length ; hair-like segments three, slightly shorter. Spores. — Mature in autumn. Distribution. — North and South America, Europe and Asia. THE ARCHED FEATHER-MOSS HYPNUM Sub-genus PLEUROZIUM The species of this sub-genus increase yearly by arched branches or by rigid erect growths, the branches are short, unequal, and grow outward from the main stem, a character which suggested the name Pleurozium, a compound of the Greek m-\evpbv, a side, and of 09, a branch. The leaves on the stem are larger than those on the branches, and are different in shape. Besides these leaves there are numer- ous large and many-parted leaf-like organs (parapbyllid). The other characters of this sub-genus are similar to those of the genus Hypnum. THE GLITTERING FEATHER-MOSS HYPNUM (PLEUROZIUM) splendens, Hedw. (See Plate XXXI.) Habit and babitat. — The Glittering Feather-moss is one of the most beautiful species. It is common on rocks in deep woods, in swampy places, on stumps, and on fallen trees. " Glittering with yellow, red and green, As o'er the moss, with playful glide, The sunbeams dance from side to side." Female plant. Male plant. H. splendens. 307 Paraphyllia. Mosses and Lichens Name, — J. G. Hedwig showed his appreciation of its beauty when he called it splendent. Plant (gametophyte).—ln loose tufts, rigid, pale olive-green; stems glitterjng, 4 to 8 inches high, increasing by annual arched branches, or by rigid, upright branches; branches once or twice feather-branched. Leaves. — Stem-leaves, at the base, distant, small and scale-like; above, loosely overlap- ping, slightly concave, broadly oval-long, often narrowed into a long wavy point; vein (costa) Stem-leaf. Apex. Perigonial leaf with paraphysis and antheridium. H. splendens. Branch-leaves. faintly double; margin finely toothed; branch-leaves smaller, oval-oblong, shorter pointed. Leaves at the base of the pedicel (perichcetial leaves). — Narrowly pointed, sub-erect or recurved at the apex. Leaf-like organs (paraphyllia) . — Numerous, large, varied in form. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on different plants, (dioicous). Veil (calyptra). — Thin, transparent, pointed, split on one side, large and persistent. Spore-case. — Egg-shaped, horizontal by a curve of the pedicel under the base. Pedicel (seta). — Curved under the spore-case, about one inch high, smooth. Lid (operculum). — Large and beaked. Teeth (peristome). — Double, as in the genus Hypnum. 308 Sub -genus Hyloc omnium Annulus. — Single. Spores. — Fruit not common, mature in spring. Distribution. — Common in mountains or northward, America, Europe, northern Asia and Africa. Portion of peristome showing on the left four outer teeth ; on the right two cilia, two inner teeth split along Spore-case Leaves at base of their length. with peristome. pedicel. H. splendcns. THE WOOD REVELLERS HYPNUM: Sub-genus HYLOCOMNIUM, Schimp. The species of the Sub-genus Hylocomnium are large and robust, two or three times irregularly feather-branched. The stems grow from the apex only, or produce lateral branches. The generic name Hylocomnium is derived from the Greek v\r), wood, and *o//,t>5, a reveller; it was given to these mosses by William Philipp Schimper, to describe their habit of growing on wood. The leaves spread abruptly from the base, or spread and turn to one side. There are no leaf-like organs (paraphyllia) among the leaves. The spore-cases are red-brown, swollen egg- shaped or nearly globular, abruptly horizontal, inclined when dry on pedicels twisted to the right. The lids are convex, or conic, with no annulus, or a double one. The teeth are as the genus Hypnum. 309 H. triquetrum. Spore-case with- out lid. Mosses and Lichens Twenty-one species are known in all, five in America. The Triangular Wood-reveller, Hypnum (Hylocomnium) triquetrum, Linn. — See plate XXXII. Habit and habitat. — In large yellow or light-green mats 4 to 8 inches deep, on decayed wood in plains and mountains. H. triquetrum. Female plant. Name. — The specific name triquetrum was given to the moss by Linnaeus to describe its habit of pointing its branches in three directions, the Latin triquetrum meaning "having three angles." Plants (gametopbyte) . — Stems stout and rigid, erect, simple or slightly divided, branched unequally and irregularly or with feather branches not all in the same plane. H. triquetrum. Branch leaves. Leaves. — Very large, horizontally spreading both when wet or dry, stiff and membranous, glossy, triangular; apex acute; vein 510 The Sub-genus Hylocomnium double to the middle; margin closely toothed; base auriculate; cells of the basal angles wide, transparent, oblong six-sided. Branch-leaves narrower, and gradually smaller upward. Habit of flowering. — Male and female flowers on separata plants (dioicous). Veil (calyptra*). — Split up one side. Leaf at base of pedicel. Stem leaves. H. triqtutrum. Apex of leaf. Spore-case. — Oblong, horizontal or inclined by a curve of its pedicel under the base, narrowed at the mouth when dry. Pedicel (seta).— Curved below the spore-case, i to i£ inches high. Base of leaf. (a) Spore-case with veil; (6) Spore-case with lid. H. trigtutrvm. IM Mosses and Lichens Lid (operculum). — Convex with a tiny point in the centre. Annulus. — Simple. Teeth (peristome) . — As in the genus Hypnum. Spores. — Mature in autumn and winter. Distribution. — Common in Europe; widely spread in America; common in the Adirondacks. H. triquetrum. Portion of peristome showing on the left one outer tooth with annulus cells at its base ; on the right two keeled and perforated in- ner teeth with three spurred cilia between. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED BRAITHWAITE. The Sphagnaceae of Europe and North America. London, 1880. BAUER. Mosses Collected in California, in Linnea. 1859. BRIDEL. Bryologia Universa. Leipsic, 1826-1827. BRITTON. How to Study the Mosses. The Observer, 1894-1897. Contributions to American Bryology. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1889. BRUCH AND SCHIMPER. Bryologia Europaea. Stuttgard, 1836-1855. CHENEY. North American Species of Amblystegium. Botanical Gazette, 1897. CORRENS. Unterauchungen tiber die Vermerung der Laub- moose. Jena, 1899. CROMBIE. British Lichens. London, 1894. ENGLER AND PRANTL. Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Leipzig, 1889. EKHART. Synopsis Jungermaniarum. Coburg, 1832. EVANS. Hepatics. Trans, of the Conn. Ac., Vol. III. 1892. GOEBEL. (Dr. K.., Professor in University of Rostock, Germany). Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants. Polytrichum commune. Translated by H. E. F. Garnsey, M. A., Revised by I. B. Balfour, M. A., Oxford, 1887. GROUT. Revision of North American Isotheciacea and Brachy- thecia. Memoirs Torr. Bot. Club, 1897. GROUT AND SMITH. The Bryologist. Brooklyn, 1898. HAMPE. Mosses Collected in Southern United States by Beyrich, in Linnea. 1839. HEDWIG. Species Muscorum Frondosorum. Edited by Schwaeg- richen. Species Muscorum. Leipsic, 1801-1842. Musci Frondosi. Leipsic, 1787-1792. HOOKER. WM. JACKSON. British Flora. London, 1830. HOOKER AND TAYLOR. Muscologia Britannica. 1827. HOWE. Hepaticae and Anthocerotes of California. Memoirs Torr. Bot. Club, New York, 1899. JAGER AND SAUERBACH. Adumbratio Florae Muscorum. 1870-1878. Mosses and Lichens KINDBERG. European and North American Bryineae. 1897. LESQUEREUX AND JAMES. Manual of the Mosses of North America. Boston, 1884. LIMPRECHT. Die Laubmoose. 1895. MICHAUX. Flora Boreali Americana. MUELLER. Synopsis Muscorum Frondosorum. PARIS. Index Bryologicus. 1894-1898. PIERCE. The Nature of the Association of Algae and Fungi in Lichens. Proceedings Calif. Acad. Sci. 1899. SCHIMPER. Synopsis Muscorum Europaeorum. Stuttgard, 1860. SCHNEIDER. General Lichenology. SULLIVANT AND LESQUEREUX. Icones Muscorum. Musci Alleghani- ensis. Columbus, O., 1846. SULLIVANT. Mosses and Hepatics of the United States. New York, 1856. TUCKERMAN. North American Lichens. Boston, Parti, 1882; and New Bedford, Part II, 1888. UNDERWOOD. North American Hepaticae. 1883. WILSON. Bryologia Britannica. London. INDEX Abbreviations, 75 Achneh, 80 Acrocarpi, 153 Adanson, 61 Air chamber, 7 a Albumen, 45 Alga, chain-celled, 66 determination of, 24 green colour of lichen, a a one-celled, 65 producing different lichens, 24 scytonema, 66 thallophyte, 66 Algae, 71, 80 Amblystegittm riparittm, conglomerated with mud, i s Amphigastra, 102 (cut) Amphigastrum, 100 (cut) Andreae, J. G. R., 132 Andre cea, genus, 130-133 pelrophila, 132 (cuts) rupestris, 133 (cuts) exception to rule that spore-case opens by lid, 30 plant with spore-case, 14 Andreaeas, retainers of dust, 14 Androecium, 96 Annulus, 52, 55 (cuts) defined, 37 function of, 51 (cut) origin of, 49 rolling away, 49 (cut) Anomodon, genus, 266-270 apiculatus, 269 leaf, 42 attenuates, 268 (cuts), 269 rostratus, 267 (cut) Antheridia, 41 (cut), 65 defined, 46 stages in development of, 96 (cut) where developed, 48 Antheridium, bursting, 118 (cut) criterion for classification, 67 development of, 119 (cuts) immature, 49 mature, ^49, 49 (cut) of Equisetum, 71 (cut) on prothallium, 67 position of, 39, 40, 118 (cut) sending forth sperm-cells, 40, 46 (cuts) sperm-cells coiled in, 67 escaping from, 67 vertical section of, 67 Antherozoid, 118, 120, 121 Apiculate, 237 Apophysis, 35 (cut), 37, 52, (cuts), 205 bell-shaped, 59 defined, 57 in Polytrichum mosses, 57 larger than spore-case, 6 umbrella-shaped, 59 varieties of, 57 Apothecia, 25 Apothecium, 27 (cut) Apple-moss, 215 Archepronia, 6.s criterion for classification, 67 (cut) Archegonia, origin of, 47 section of archegonia, 47 (cut) where developed, 48 Archegonium, 49 (cut), 50 character of wall, 50 development of, 120 (cuts) position of, 39, 40, 119 (cuts) stages in development of, 96 (cut) wall in Marchantia, 98 (cut) severed from base, 50 (cut) Archesporium, defined, 51 Archidium, genus, 140, 141 Ohiense, spore-case not opening by lid, 30 (cut), 140, 141 Aristotle, 19 Asci, 24 Ascospores, 24, 25 Ascus, 24 Asexual, generation, 65, 68, 69, (cuts) Equisetum, 70 (cut) fern, 68, 69 (cut) Hepatic, 71, (cut) moss, 68 (cut) reproduction, aim of, 59 Asplenium Ruta-muraria, 69 (cut) Astonrnm, genus, 141—143 Sullivantii, 51 (cut), 141 (cut), 14* (cuts) Aulacomnium, genus, 234-239 androgynum, 235 (cut), 237 (cut) gemmae cluster enlarged, 58 (cut) plant, 58 (cut) heterostichum, 237 (cut), 238 (cuts) leaf apex to show margin, 33 (cut) plant, 8 (cut) palustre, 236 (cuts), 237 annulus, 237 (cut) branch, 236 (cut) cross-section of stem, 237 (cut) lid, 237 (cut) plant, 236 (cut) stem, 46 (cut) with whip-like branch, 236 (cut) veil, 237 (cut) whip-like branch, 236 (cut) Authorities, 75 Autoicous, 40, 48 Awned Hairy-cap, 253 (cut) Bacteria, 63, 71 Barbula, genus, 172-175 ccespii-osa, 173 (cut), 175 (cuts) protonema of, 59 retainer of dust, 14 unguiculata, 173, 174, 176 (cut) sporophyte with twisted seta, 60 (cut) Bartram, John, 215 Basidia, 25 Bazzania, genus, 150 trilobata, 106 Bazzani, M., 106 Beard Moss, protonema of, 38 Bicarbonate of lime, 17, 144 Bladder-cap Moss, 207 Boat-leaved Moss, plate III., 128 * Index Bog-mosses, colour plate III. crimson, 6 forming peat-bogs, no, iia gray, 6 reclaiming marshes, n see Sphagnum (under Mosses), 109 Booth Bay, 7 Bornet, 22 Brachythecium rivulare, 31 (cut) Branch, fertile, 58 sterile, 58 Breathing pores, 44 Brewer, H. W., in Broom-moss, 155 Browning, 4, 10 Bryum, genus, 221-225 argenteum, leaf, 34 (cut), 222 (cuts), 223 leaf of, 43 (cut) spore-case without lid, lid of, 9, 52 stem cut vertically, 41, (cut) binum, stem cut vertically, 41 (cut) vertical section of stem, 47 erythrocarpum, gemmae in axis of leaf and stem, 58 (cut) roseum, 224 (cuts), 225 (cuts) Bryophytes, compared with thallophytes, 64 Bud-leaved Ulota, 187 Buxbaum, J. C., 260, 261 Bttxbaumia, genus, 260-262 aphylla, plate XX., 57, 261, 262 collum of, 57 (cut) inner membrane, 260 (cut) leaf, 261 (cut) sporophyte of, 57 (cut), 260, 262 top of spore-case, 262 (cut) vaginule of, 57 veil, 261 (cut) young plant, 260 (cut) Calyptra, 122 denned, 50 Hepatic, 95 (cut) origin of, 41 (cut) Sphagnum, 115 (cut) variation of, 31 Canal-cell, 97 (cut) Carbohydrates, 13 Carbon, i 2 dioxide, 12, 17 Carbonate of lime, 17, 144 Caiherinea, genus, 240—242 angustata cross section of leaf, 44, (cut) epiphragm of, 56 undulata; cross section of leaf, 43 (cut), 242 (cuts) summit of spore-case, 57 (cut) surface of leaf, 44 (cut) tip of spore-case, 242 (cut) Catkin-stemmed Silver Moss, 222 Cells, 134 (cut) chains of 23, 46, 65, 66 contents, 12, 99 (cut) floor-cells, 72 (cut) large loose, 114 mother, 51 open at base, 43 pithy, 114 single 27 structure open, 43 tubular, 69 without leaf -green, 62 woody, 114 zone which forms lid, 53 Cellular bodies of Barbula, 59 sheath, 131, 132 (cuts) Central cord, 80 Cephaloid, 88 Ceratodon purpureum, 9 cross section of leaf, 42 Cetraria Islaiidica as food, ao 316 Chimborazo, 187 Chlorophyll, 12, 32, 38, 44, 62, 67, 199 (cut) Christmas-greens, see Lycopodiums, 69 Chroococcus, 25, 26 Cilia, origin of, 54 Cinderella, 210 Cladonia, genus, 88 coral-like, colour plate XII., 27 cornucopioides, 90 cristatella, colour plate XII., 27, 89 fimbriata, plate X., 89 furcate, 27 (cut) bit showing alga and fungus, 27 (cut) tnitrula, 27 Novce-Anglicc, 27 pyxidata, colour plate XII., 89 rangiferina, colour plate VIII., 27 Cladoniaeform, 89 Claw-leaved Barbula, 173 Climacium, genus, 271-273 Americanum, 273 dendroides, 271, 272 lid with columella attached, 55 (cut) spore-case with lid lifted to show teeth, 55 (cut) sporogonium, 48 (cut) Coccocarpia molybdcea, 24, 28 (cuts) Collar Mosses, 204 Collema pulposum, 29 (cut) section of, 29 Collum, 39, 147, 149 in Buxbauwia, 57 Leptobryum pynforme, 58 (cut) Ulola crispa, 57 (cut) Columella, 31, 49, 59, 122, 135, 205 (cuts) attached to base and summit, 55 (cut) development of, 53 (cut) lid, 35 (cut) origin of, 49, 51 varieties of 55, Colvin, Verplanck, in Common Hairy-cap, 256 Continental glacier, in Cora pavonia, 24 Cord-moss, 209 mosses on blackened embers, 5, colour plate III. Cornucopia Cladonia, The, 90 Cortex, 87 Cortical layer, 80, 82 Costa denned, 43 Cottony layer, 80 Crabbe, 5 Criterion for relation between ferns and mosses, 66 Cucullate, 149 Cups with scarlet edges, 5 Curled-leaf Mosses, 184 Curtains in peristome of Polytrichum mosses, 55 Cyphels, 86 De Bary, 22 Development of organs, 119 Dicranella heteromalla, spore-cases, 32 (cut) Dicranum ftagellare, leaf for cell-structure, 43 (cut) Dictyonema, 25 Dillenius, Johann, 61, 114, 136, 221, 222, 261 Dioicous, 40, 48 Dioscorides, 19, 21, 205, 221 Diphysctum, genus, 258 ioliosum, 259 leaf, 258 (cut) lid lifted to show teeth, 259 (cut) male plant, 259 (cut) perigonial leaf, 259 (cut) peristome, 259 (cut) plant, (250 (cut) spore-case, 259 (cut) Index Diphyscium, veil, 259 (cut) Distichous, 157 Dotted Mnium, 232 Ducts, 115, 129 Duke of York, dogs belonging to, 20 Dust of open plains in mountain valleys ot Arctic ice fields, 14 Earth bread, 20 Ecorticate, 90 Egg-cell, 39, 41, 47, 49, 120 (cut) division of, 49 Ehrhart, Friedrich, 132, 195 Eight-toothed White Moss, 165 Elater, 70, 94 Embryo, 50 of ferns, 66 Emericella variecolour, 25 Emerson, 28 Endothecium, 51 Ephebe Kerneri, 28 (cut) Ephemerunt, protonema of, 59 Epidermis, 72 (cut) Epiphragm, 36 55, 56 (cut), of Catharinea, 56 Equisetum, 69 arvense, 70 (cut) asexual generation of, 70 (cut) fertile cone, 70 (cut) plant with fertile cone, 71 (cut) sexual generation of, 71 (cut) spore bearing scale, 70 (cut) shoot, 70 (cut) spore with elaters coiled, 70 (cut) expanded, 70 (cut) sterile, shoot 70 (cut) sylvaticum, 71 (cut) Excurrent, 149 Extinguisher Mosses, 190 False pedicel, 122 defined, S3 (cut) Fascicle, 113, 114 Female flower-cluster, vertical section of, 49 (cut) Fern, antheridium of, 67 archegonium of, 67 gametophyte, 69 life history, 66 pinule, 68, 69 prothallium of, 65, 66, 67 relative position of in plant kingdom, 69 Ruta-muraria, 69 sporophyte of, 67 stem, 69 Fibrillose, 129 Fibrils, 115 Filices, see ferns, 69 Fissidens, genus, 157-161 adiantoides, 32 (cut), 158 (cuts), 160 old spore-case, 53 taxifolium, 139 (cut) Flagellae, 106 (cut) Florida Moss, 8 Flower-cluster, vertical section, 49 (cut) Flowers of Lapland, no Foliaceous, 80 Foliose, 93 Hepatics, see Hepatics, leafy, 99 Fontinalis, genus, 262-264 antipyretica, 262 (cuts), 263 formation of peristome, 54, 56 (cuts), Foot, S3 (cut), 67, 122 (cut), 140 in Marchantia, 98 (cut) origin of, 39 Forests, moss-muffled, 11 Four-toothed Mosses, 193-198 Franklin, J., 29 Frondiform, 193, 194 (cut) Frullani, Signor Leonardo, 103 Fruticulose, 79 Futtaria, genus, 209-214 flavicans, plate XVI., 210 hygrontetrtca, colour plates III. and XVI., 210-214 annulus, S3 (cut) archegonia of, 41 (cut) bud from which new plant will grow. 64 (cut) cross section of seta, 57 (cut) of stem, 71 (cut) dioicous inflorescence, 49 (cut) germinating spore, 64 (cut) immature plant, 32 (cut) infloresence, 48 (cut) mature plant, 31 (cut) plant to show parts and monoicous inflorescence, 39 (cut) protonema, 64 (cut) spore germinating, 38 (cut) summit of spore-case, 37, 49 (cuts) surface view of pore, 72 vertical section through young sporogonium, 51 (cut) widely branching protonema, 38 (cut) young sporogonium, 50 (cut) Fungi, 63, 71 Fungus, chain-celled, 66 determination of, 24 partner in lichen, 23 stealing food, 22 Fungus-partner, independent of, 34 Gaius Plinius, 221 Galeate, 103 Gannet, 9 Gametophyte, 35, 36, 43 fern, 68 (cut) Hepatic, 68 (cut), 69 Marchantia showing pore, 72 (cut) moss, 68 (cut) without pores, 72 Gasteromycetes, 26 Gemma, 58 Gemmae, 58 (cut) cluster of Georgia pellucida, 60 (cut) homology of, 60 in axis formed by leaf and stem, 58 producing protonema, 59, 60 terminal cluster, 58 (cut) terminal head, 58 (cut) tip of leaf, 58 (cut) Gemmate, 206 Generations, succession of, 15 Georgia, genus, i93-iQ7< character of teeth in genus, 54 Brownii, frondiform leaves, 194 (cut) geniculata, 197 spore-case, 32 (cut) pellucida, 195 cluster enlarged, 60 (cut) cross-section of four teeth, 54 (cut) gemmae cluster, 58 (cut) plant with gemmae cups, 60 (cut) produces cellular bodies, 60 spore-case, 198 (cut) tip of spore-case, 37, S4(cuts) vertical section of gemmae cluster, . 58 (cut) Glycerine ielly, 74 Gonidja, 27 (cut) Gonidial layer, 87 zone, 26 Gonimia, 86 Gonimous layer, 86 Gray fringes, i, 8 Grimm, J. F. C., 179 317 Index Grimmia, genus, 178, 179 apocarpa, 179 corroding work of, 13 Gritnmias, retainers of dust, 14 Hair-like Hair-cap, 245 Hairy-cap Mosses, 242, 248 short-stemmed, 243 subjects for beginners, 35 Hairy-caps, plate X., 5 hairy veils due to, 50 how to avoid too strong light, 43 to procure maximum amount of light, 42 leaves proof against dryness, 43 stem most highly developed, 45 upturning of leaves, 6 Haller, Albrecht von, 260 Hayes, Dr. Isaac I., 7 Hedwig, J. Q., 182, 215, 228 Hedvrigia ciliata, 183, 184 spore-case with lid removed, 9 (cut) Hepatics, 9, 91, 93 Bazzania, leaf apex, 105 (cut) leaves from base of perianth. 105 (cut) male branch, 105 (cut) perianth, 105 (cut) stem with leaf, 106 (cut) sporophyte, 105 (cut) tip of perianth, 106 (cut) trtolobata, plate X., 106 (cut) under leaf, 106 (cut) view of underside of stem, 106 (cut) classified between, 71 (cut) compared with leafy moss and fern, 65 genetic relationships, 62 foliose, 93 Frullania, genus, 102 amphigastra with rootlets, 103 (cut) complanata, 102 (cut) cross section of perianth, 103 (cut) eboracensis, 103 transverse section of perianth 103 (cut) upper view of stem, 103 (cut) ecklomt, 102 (cut) lobule of, 102 (cut) stylus of, 102 (cut) under view of stem, 102 (cut) gametophyte, 65 how to collect, 73 to dissect, 73 to know them, 10 to preserve, 73 to study, 73 involucre opened out, 103 (cut) leafy, inrolled, 99 (cut) irregular, 99 (cut) stipule of, 64 (cut) third row of leaves, 99 (cut) toothed, 99 (cut) with lobe and lobule, 99 (cut) Marchantia polymorpha, air-chamber, 96 androecium of, 96 antheridia, stages in development of, 96 (cut) archegonia of, 96 areolae of, 95 canal-cell, 97 (cut) egg-cell of, 07 (cut) elater, 94 (cut), 98 (cut) epidermis of, 96 (cut) false-perianth, 94, 97, 98 floor-cells of, 96 (cut) foot of, 98 (cut) fringed involucre of, 94 gemmae of, 93, 94, 97, 98 (cut) peduncle of, 94, 97, 98 Hepatics, Marchantia polymorpha, pores of, 96 (cut) protonema of, 95 ray, 94 sperm-cells of, 95 (cut) spore-case of, 94 (cut) sporophyte developing, 97, 98 (cut) stages in a developing archegonium, 96 (cut) surface of pore, 93 (cut) under surface of female receptacle, 95 (cut) vertical section of antheridium, 95 (cut) female receptacle, 94 (cut) male receptacle, 95 (cut) through pore, 93 (cut), 96 no utilitarian aspect, 62 perianth, 103 (cut) Porella platyphylla, colour plate XIV.. 29, 99 amphigastrum, 100 (cut) antheridia of, 100 archegonia of, 100 calyptra, 100 (cut) creeping stem, 99 (cut) female branch, 100 (cut) leaf magnified to show cell structure 100 (cut) lobes and lobules, 99 (cut), 100 lobule, 100 (cut) male branch, 100 (cut) pedicel, 100 (cut) perianth, 100 (cut) spore-case, 100 (cut) sporophyte, 100 (cut) under view of stem, 99, 100 (cuts) upper surface of stem, 101 veil, 100 (cut) position in plant kingdom, 61 Ptilidiwn ciliare, colour plate XIV., 104 (cut) lobule of, 104 (cut) under view of stem, 104 upper view of stem, 104 (cut) relative position in plant kingdom, 69 ribbon-like, 93 spore-case, 71 (cut) cut into four symmetrical valves, 9 sporophyte, 71 (cut) veil, 71 Hepaticce, analogous to Vermes, 62 degree of development, 64 unique position of, in plant kingdom, 61 Herbarium, the, 73 Hermaphrodite, 235 Hoffman, G. F., 89 Homologies, study of, 61 of fern parts, 61 of Hepatic, 61 of moss, 6 1 Homologous parts, 61 Hooker, Sir Wm. J., 223 Horn-tooth Mosses, 166 Hornschuch, Dr. Christian Friedrich, 22 Horse-tails, 69, 71 Humming-bird, 29 Hutchins, Miss, 188 Ulota, 1 88 Hypnunt, 180 Boscii, surface view of pore, 72 (cut) falcatum, 17 rusciforme, conglomerated with mud, 14 •uncinatum, to show cilia, teeth and annulus, 31 (cut) Hyphae, 22, 24, 26, 28 Ice Age, in Iceland Moss, 20 3l8 Index Inflorescence, 39, 40 autoicous, 48 dioicous, 48, 49 monpicous, 48 paroicous, 48 synoicous, 48 Involucre, 94 (cut), 95 Isidiophorous, 82 Jaundice, 20 Jungermania, 132 Juniper Hairy-cap, 254 Jumper inum, 249 Key to genera of Polytrichaceaet*3Q to species of Genus Polytrichum, 250 King George III., 195 Lake Tear of the Clouds, 1 1 1 Lamellae, 35, 43 (cut), 44 (cut), 45 (cut), 239 (cut), 240 (cut) Lapland, 27 Larcom, Lucy, 16 Leaf apex prolonged into an awn, 32, 34 (cuts) cell-structure in hepatic, 100 (cut) cross section of, 1 24 mf ~sin entire, 33 (cut) serrate, 33 , 34 (cut) structure of, 43 •with antheridium, 125 Leaf -green, 12, 32, 62, 67 transparence of, 34 variation of, 3 1 work of, 33 Leafy Diphyscium, 259 Leafy Hepatics, 99 mosses, 30 Leaves defined, 36 (cut) frondiform, 194 (cut) modified to form gemmae, 60 producing protonema, 60 scale-like, of Equisetums, 70 variation of, 31 with root hairs, 58 Lecanora, earth bread, 20 esculenta, 20 manna of Israelites, 20 Leptobryum pyriforme, 217 collum, 58 spore-case, 58 Leptotrichum, 171 Leucobryum, genus, 34, 161 colour due to, 161 vulgar e, 163 portion of peristome, 37 (cut) section of open leaf, 35 (cut) closed leaf, 35 (cut) terminal leaves with root-hairs, 58 (cut) young plant, 58 (cut) Lichens, absorbing power of, 26 advance in exact knowledge of, 21 algae distributed, 26 in definite layers, 26 alliance for mutual benefit, 22 as drugs, 20 bearded, 80 Blistered UmbiUcaria, The, 84 blue-green felt-like plates, 25 branching like corals, 8 Brown-fruited Cup Cladonia, colour plate XII., 89 cause of neglect of, by early botanists, 19 Cetraria Iskmdica, colour plate VII., 79 Jacunosa, 79 check against torrents, 16 chemical action of, 13 work of, 12 Lichens, Cladonia carnucopioides, 90 cristatella, colour plate XII., 89 fimbriata, plate IX., 89 pyxidata. colour plate XII., 89 rangiferina, colour plate VIII., 90 colour due to, 23 common ancestral type of, 22 condense moisture, 4 constant hearted, 10 Cornucopia Cladonia, The, 90 cortical layer of, 80 (cut) cortex of, 87 cottony, 80 (cut) debris of, a source of humus, 14 delicate threads prying rock, 13 dissolving rock, 13 distribution, i, 7 Dog Peltigera, The. colour plate VII., 86 dual organism, 22 dye industry, 21 encrusted, 28 endurance of cold, 7 exact relation of one to another, 26 fancied resemblance to injured parts, 20 fan-like greenish-yellow, 24 first growths, 4 first plants to appear on soil, 16 forerunners of rock-loving mosses, 4 fossil evidence of, 16 from spores of fungus, 24 fruits of fungus, 24 fruits in flattened coloured disks, 8 gelatinous, 26, 28 (cut) genera and species, 77 gonidial layer of, 87 growing flat or ruffled, 8 Hair-like Usnea, The, 81 how they are made, 24 how to collect, 73 to dissect, 73 to know them, 8 to preserve, 73 to study, 73 Iceland Moss, colour plate VIII., 79 ideal section to show apothecium, 27 in history, 14 in moist atmosphere, 26 isidiophorous, 82 magnified portion of, 23 manufacturing plant food, 13 mechanical action of, 13 work of, 12 meek creatures, 4 "mock the marks on a moth," 10 not an individual plant, 22 origin and nature of, 22 Parmelia, genus. Si caperata, 83 conspersa, colour plate V., 82 perlata, plate VI., 83 physodes, var. vittata, plate V., 82 saxatilis, plate XV., 83 Peltigera, genus, 85 apthpsa, 85, 86 canina, colour plate VII., 86 polydactyla, 86 venosa, 85 Physcia leucomela, colour plate VIII., 84 pioneers, 17 among plants, 17 pith, layer of, 87 Pitted Cetraria, The, plate II., 79 place in plant kingdom, 23 "plodding," 13 poem to R. M. E., 21 Red-fruited Cup Cladonia, The, 90 Reindeer, The, colour plate VIII., 90 used for bread, 27 resembling puff-ball, 25 319 Index Lichens, retainers of rainfall, 16 of soil, 13 of water, 16 Rock Tripe, colour plate XI., 85 ruffled on support, 8 Scarlet-crested Cladonia, The, colour plate XII., 89 scutellseform, 80 secrete acid, 4 sections of thallus, 80 (cut) "silver spots" — Ruskin, 3 "slow fingered," 10 soredia, 82 sought for medicinal properties, 19, 20 source of brooks, 16 spontaneous generation of, 22 starch, 20 Stereocaulon, genus, 88 paschale, plate VIII., 88 tomentosum, 88 Sticta, genus, 86, 87 amplissima, colour plate VII., 87 pulmonaria, colour plate, VII., 87 Stictina fuliginosa, 87 (cut) surface, hoary, 25 flat disks, 25 ruptured, 24 with knobs, 25 Thelochistes, genus, 81 parietinus, colour plate II., 81 true nature of, 22 Umbilicaria, genus, 84, 85 Dillenii, 85 Muhlenbergii, colour plate XI., 85 pustulata, 84 veiled, colour plate XI., 85 uniform distribution of alga, 29 Usnea, genus, 80 barbata, 80 cross sections of thallus, 80 (cut) trichodea, 81 vertical section of thallus, 80 (cut) what they are doing on rocks and trees, 8 which yield a dye, 19 with coloured disks or cushioned, 8 concentric edges, 25 work done under primitive conditions, 14. Wrinkled Parmelia, The, 83 Xanthoria parietina, colour plate II.,8i Yellow Wall-lichen, The, colour plate II.. So yielding litmus, 19 Lid, 35 defined, 36 development of, 51 origin of, 49 with columella attached, 55 Limestone, 17, 144 Limnobium molle, in turbid water of glaciers, 15 Linnaeus, Carolus, 109, 136, 261 Little -beard Moss, 172 Little Fork-Mosses, 150 Litmus, how obtained, a test for acid and alkalies, 19 Liverworts, 93 pioneers, 17 Lobe, 99 (cut) Lobule, 99 (cut), 102 (cut) Lowell, James Russell, 27, 29 Luminous moss, 34 power of conveying light, 34 Lungwort, 29 Lycopodiums, 69, 71 Male flowers-cluster, vertical section, 49 (cut) Male flowers, 125 Mammillatc, 221 Manna, lichen, 20 Manna of Israelites, 20 Marchantia, genus, 19, 93, 98 polymorplia, 93-98 (cuts) surface view of pore, 72 (cut) vertical section of pore, 72 (cut) Marsh building on Mt. Marcy, 17 Medulla, 80 Medullary layer, 82 Membrane, 33 (cut), 56 Mica, 74 Minute structure, how to gain a knowledge of, 62 Mnium, genus, 225-234 affine, 10, 229 anmilus, 231, (cut) apex of leaf. 225, 231 (cut) leaves, 230 lid, 231 (cut), 52 male plant, 230 (cut) perigonial leaf, 231 (cut) peristome, 227 (cut), 231 (cut) spore-case with lid, 52 (cut) spore-cases, 231 (cut) stem, 230 (cut) tuft, 230 (cut) cuspidatum, 226-230 annulus, 228 (cut) apex of leaf, 226 (cut) of leaves, 229 (cut) border of leaf, 226 (cut) inner membrane, 226 (cut), 339 (cut) leaves, 228 (cut) plant, 226 (cut) spore-case, 229 (cut), 236 (cut) stem with leaves, 34 (cut), 229 (cut) tuft 226, (cut) hornum, 231 apex of leaf, 226 (cut) leaves, 231 (cut) plant, 231 (cut) spiny leaf border, 226 (cut) spore-case, 232 futtctaium var. elatum, 225, 234, plate apex of leaf, 226 (cut), 233 (cut) leaf border, 226 (cut), 235 leaves, 233 (cut) marginal cell of leaf, 226 (cut) spore-case, 233 (cut) stem, 233 (cut) with hairs, 233 (cut) with leaves, 34 (cut) undulatum, stem, 46 Monocarbonate of lime, 144 Monoicous, 40, 48 Mosses, 107, 109 and Lichens, poem by Willis Boyd Allen, 3 as a cement, 7 at work on the everlasting hills, u change of colour, 6 check against torrents, 16 chemical work of, n classified between, 71 distinguishing character, 30 distribution, 5, 7 "elf-needled mat," 10 endurance of cold, 7 first plants to appear on soil, 16 fossil evidence, 16 fruiting portion, 35 gametophyte, 65 how to collect, 73 to dissect, 73 to know them, 8 to preserve, 73 to study, 73 idle, 10 in rock crevices, 5 32O Index Mosses, mechanical work of, 1 2 method of obtaining water, 34 necessity for light, 33 pioneers, 15, 17 plants wrongly so called, 8 pores of, 72 position in plant kingdom, 61 produced without spores, 33 relative position in plant kingdom, 69 reproduction of, 32 resembling miniature trees, 9 tiny ferns, 9 retainers of rainfall, 16 of soil, 13 of water, 16 retention of mud by aquatic, 14 rock-loving, 5 saprophytic, n "soft lips of," 10 soil makers, 12, 17 source of brooks, 16 species based on, 32 start in life not general on rocks, 13 velvet stage, 5 velvety coat of young, 5 cushions, 5 what they are doing on rocks and trees, 8 which build up limestone, 17 do not produce spores, 32 with straight-haired veils, 188 work done under primitive conditions , 1 4 Andrecea, genus, 130-^133 Hartmanii, fertile plant, 131 (cut) leaves, 130 (cut) sporophyte, 131 (cut) sterile plant, 131 (cut) petrophila, 132 leaves, 132 (cut) vertical section of spore-case, 132 (cut) rupestris, fertile plant, 133 (cut) leaves, 133 (cut) spore-case open, 133 (cut) sporophyte, 133 (cut) with four valves, 130 (cuts) Archidium, genus, 140, 141 Ohiense, 140, 141 exit of spores, 140 (cut) plant, 141 (cut) sporophyte with veil, 141 (cut) vertical section of sporophyte, 140 (cut) Astomum, genus, 141 Sttliivantii, bract, 142 (cut) leaves, 142, (cut) plant, 141 (cut) spore-case with veil, 142 (cut) sporophyte, 142 (cut) upper leaves, 142 (cut) veil, 142 (cut) Attlacomnium, genus, 234 androgynum, 235 head of gemmae, 234 (cut) plant, 234 (cut) spore case, 234 (cut), 235, 237 heterostichunt, plate XX., 237 annuhis, 238 (cut) cross section of leaf, 237 (cut) lid, 237 (cut) male flower, 230 (cut) spore cases, 237, (cut), 238 (cut) palustre, 236 antheridia and paraphyses, 238 (cut) leaves, 238 (cut) plant, 238 (cut)- stem, 238 (cut) Barbula, genus, 172-176 caspitosa, 175 fertile plant, 173 (cut) Mosses, Barbula, caspitosa, leaves, 172, 175 (cuts) male flower-cluster, 175 (cut) plant, 173, 175 (cuts) spore-case, 175 (cut) tip _ of spore-case, 173 (cut) Muellcri, 177 (cut) unguiculata, 173 cross-section of leaf, 174 (cut) leaves, 174 (cut) plant, 173 (cut) spore-cases, 174 (cut) sporophyte, 174 (cut) _tip of spore-case, 174 (cut) Bartramia porni]onnis, 214, 215 leaves, 216 (cut) plant, 216 (cut) stripped, 215 (cut) tuft, 216 (cut) Bruchia flexuosa, 139 leaves, 139 (cut) plant, 130 (cut) sporophyte, 140 (cut) Bryum, genus, 221-225 argenteum, 222 annulus, 223 (cut) leaf, 221 (cut) lids, 222 (cut) peristome, 221, 222 (cuts) plants, 222 (cut) spore-case, 221, 222, 223 (cut) veil, 223 (cut) roseum, plate XVIII., 224 annulus, 225 (cuts) apex of leaf, 224 (cut) leaves, 224 (cut) peristome, 225 (cut) plants, 225 spore-case, 225 (cut) Ceratodon, genus, 166-169 ptirpureum, colour plate IV., 167 annulus, 169 (cut) leaf, 167, 1 68 (cuts) lid, 169 (cut) peristome, 167, 169 (cut) plant, 1 68 (cut) spore-cases, 167, 169 (cuts) tuft, 167 (cut) variety aristatus, 169 minor, 169 xanthopous, 169 veil, 169 (cut) Dicranella, genus, 150—152 heteromalla, 151 leaves, 151 (cut) peristome, 152 (cut) plant, 151 (cut) spore-cases, 152 (cut) Dicranunt, genus, 152 congestum, 153 (cut) flagellare, plate XIV., 154 basal leaf -cells, 155 (cut) leaves, 155 (cut) spore-cases, 155 (cut) xopariunt, plate XIII., 152,155 base of leaf, 154, 157 (cuts) leaf -cells, 154, 157 (cuts) leaves, 153, 156, 157 (cuts) sections of vein, 156 (cut) tuft, 152, 157 (cuts) subulatum, 153 undul.it um. 154 Ditrichum pallidunt, genus, colour plate XIV, 171-172 annulus, 171 (cut) leaves, 172 (cut) peristome, 171 (cut) plant, 171 (cut) spore-cases, 172 (cut) vein, 173 (cut) 321 Index Mosses, Encalypta, genus, 190-193 ciliata, 192 leaf, 191 (cut) perigonial leaves, 191 (cut) perigonium, 191 (cut) peristome, 192 (cut) plant, 191 (cut) spore-cases, 192 (cut) veil, 191 (cut) Fissidens, genus, 157-161 adiantoides, 158, 160 cross section of leaf, 158 (cut) flower-clusters, 160 (cut) leaves, 138 (cut) peristome, 158, 160 (cuts) plant, 158 (cut) _ spore-cases, 158, 160 (cuts) taxifoUum, 159 (cuts) cross section of leaf, 159 (cut) leaf, 159 (cut) spore-case, 159 (cut) stem, 159 (cut) Funaria, genus, 209-214 hygrometrica, colour plates III. XVI., 210 annulus, 212 (cut) breathing pore, 213 (cut) cross-section of young pedicel 212 (cut) female flower, 211 (cut) leaf, 212 (cut) peristome, 210, 214 (cut) plant immature, 211, 214 (-.%ut) plants, 211, 213 (cuts) protonema, 211, 213 (cuts) spores, 21 1 (cut) tip of female shoot, 213 (cut) spore-case, 211 (cut) vertical section of female flower, 211 (cut) through male flower, 213 . (cut) Georgia, genus, 193-197 Braumii, frondiform leaves, 194 geniculata, gemmae-bearing branch 197 (cut) plant, 197 (cut) sjxwophyte, 197 (cut) pellttcida, colour plate III., 195 bract from gemma cup, 194 (cut) branch with gemmae clusters, 1 94 (cut) cross section of four teeth, 194 (cut) gemma, 194 (cut) leaves, 195 (cut) lid, 194 (cut) plant, 196 (cut) side view of gemma cup, ip4(cut) spore-cases, 194 (cut) tip of spore-case, 194 (cut) tooth, 194 (cut) veil, 194 (cut) vertical section of gemma cup 195 (cut) Grtmmta, genus, 178, 181 hypnotdes, 178 apocarpa, 179 plant, 179 (cut) spore-cases, 179 (cut) Gymnostomum, genus, 143-145 calcareum, 143 leaf and cross section, 143 (cut) leaves, 144 (cut) plant, 143, (cut) spore-cases, 144 (cut) dtrvirostrum, 144, 145 lid, 145 (cut) spore-case, 145 (cuts) Mosses, Hedwigia, genus, 182-184 ciliata, 183 apex of leaf, 183 (cuts) leaves, 182, 183 (cuts) plant sterile, 183 (cut) stripped, 183, 184 (cuts) spore-cases, 184 (cut) Leptobryum, genus, 216-218 pyriforme, 216, 217 annulus, 218 (cut) apex of leaf, 218 (cut) leaves, 217 (cut) peristome, 217 (cut) plant, 218 (cut) spore-case, 217 (cut) Leitcobryutn, genus, 161-165 glaucum, 163 portion of peristome, 163 (cut) vulgare, 163 cell structure, 162 (cut) cross section of leaf, 161 (cut) leaves, 162, 164 (cuts) peristome, 1 65 (cut) plants, 164 (cut) spore-cases, 162, 163, 165 (cuts) terminal leaves, 163 (cut) young plant, 163 (cut) Octobiepharum, genus, 165, 166 aloidum, 165 leaf, 1 66 (cut) plants, 1 66 (cut) spore-case, 166 (cut) Ortitotrichum, genus, plate XIV., 188-194 rupestris, 190 plant, 190 (cut) sporophytes, 190 (cut) strangulatum, 189 leaf, 190 (cut) peristome, 189 (cut) plant, 189 (cut) spore-cases, 100 (cut) sporophyte, 190 (cut) Phascum, cenus, 135-137 cuspidatum, 136 leaf, 135 (cut) male flower, 136 (cut) plants, 136 (cut) spore-case split to show colum- ella, 135 (cut) with veil, 135 veil, 136 (cut) Physcomitrium, genus, 207-209 pyrifortne, ideal section of young spore-case, 208 (cut) tttrbinatum, plate XVI., 208 leaf, 207 (cut) plants, 207 fid, 208 (cut) spore-cases, 208 (cut) young plant, 208 (cut) Pleuridium, genus, 137, 138 subidalum, 138 leaves, 137, 138 (cut) plants, 137 spores, 138 (cut) spore-case split, 137 (cut) with veil, 138 (cut) veil, 138 (cut) nervosunt, spore-case split to show columella, 137 Pottia, genus, 169, 170 truncata, 169, 170 (cut) leaves, 169 (cut) lid, 170 (cut) plants, 170 (cut) spore-cases, 170 (cut) veil, 170 (cut) Racomitrium, genus, 180-182 lanuginosum, 181 apex of leaf, iSi (cut) 322 Index Mosses, Racomitrium, fanuginosum, leaves, 181 (cut) peristome, 180, 182 (cut) spore-cases, 181 (cut) veil, 1 80 (cut) vertical section of peristome 1 80, 182 (cuts) Schistostega, genus, 199-30* osmundacaa, 201 barren plant, 201 (cut) fertile plant, 201 (cut) protonema in natural position, 201 (cut) cells light, perpendicular, 200 (cut) oblique, 200 (cut) veil, 200 (cut) vertical section of protonema, 200 (cut) Sphaerangium, genus, 133-135 muticum, 134 branches, male and female, 135 (cut) leaves, 135 (cut) Schimperanum, leaf cells, 134 (cut) spore-case emitting spores, 134 (cut) Sphagnum, genus, colour plate XI., 113- 130 (cuts) absorbing quality of, in, 116 acutq, 122 acutifolium, 124 antheridia, 118 (cut) antheridium bursting, nS(cut) development, 119, 120 mature, 119 antherozoid, n8(cut), 120 archegonia mature when, 119 branch leaves, 123 development of spore-case, 121 (cut) female branch, 123 (cut), 126 (cut) gametophyte, 126 male flower-cluster, 118 (cut) 120 (cut), 125 (cut) moss plant on protonema, 120 (cut) penchastial leaf, 125 (cut) perigonial branch, 125 (cut) leaf, 125 (cut) protonema, 119 (cut) section of leaf, 124 (cut) stem, 1 24 (cut) stem leaves, 123 of moss plant, 118 (cut) 120, 121, 125 vertical section to show arche- gpnium, 119 (cut) antiseptic quality of, no cell, structure of, 113, 114, 115, 117, (cuts) change of colour, 109 climbing habit of, in, 112 euspidata, 123, 126 branch leaves, 127 stem leaves, 127 vertical section of ripe arche- gonium, 1 20 (cut) young embryo, 120 (cut) cyclophylla, 124 branch, 1 24 (cut) leaf, 124 (cut) cymbifoliutn, 1 23, plate III., 124, 128 antheridium, 130 apex of leaf, 115 (cut), 127 bit of stem, 113 (cut), 129 bract, 115 (cut), 129 branch leaves, 130 Mosses, Sphagnum, cymbifolium, cross section of leaf, 115 (cut) stem, 113 (cut), 129 female branch, 115 (cut), 129 leaf from branch, 115 (cut) from base of pedicel, 115 (cut) magnified, 114 (cut) male branch, 115 (cut) perichastial leaf, 129 protonema of, 118 (cut) stem leaf, 113 (cut), 130 surface view of leaf cells, 114. (exit) zones of cells in stem, 115 (cut) foot of, 121 formation of peat by, 109, no quaking bog by, no (cut) raft by, no germination of spore in water, ioj> growth from apex, 109 outward from shore, no (cut) lid of, 121 loss of root-like growth, 109 marsh building by, in at Albany, 112 in Averyville swamp, na in Connery Park, 112 in Hidden Swamp, iia in King River, Cal., in at Mt. Marcy, in at Mt. Pocono, in at Mud Pond, 112 near Palisades of Hudson, in in Shawangunk Mts., 111 tnendocinum, 1 1 1 methods by which they encroach upon water, 109 molle, 124 branch leaves, 124 (cut) stem leaves, 124 (cut) tnollia, 123 pale tint of, due, 116 papillosum, vertical section of developing archegonium, 120 (cut) pedicel of, 121 problem solved by geologists, 109 protonema of, 109 pseudopodium, 121 rubellum, 122, 123 apex of leaf, 126 (cut) branch leaf, 126 (cut) female branch, 126 (cut) leaves of divergent branch, 126 (cut) male branch, 127 (cut) perigonial leaf, 127 (cut) section of leaf, 115 (cut) stem, 127 (cut) stem, 113 (cut), 126 (cut) squarrosa, 123 squarrosum, plate XII., 128 branch leaf, 123 (cut) female branch, 128 (cut) leaf at base of pedicel, 1 28 (cut) leaves of branch, 127 (cut) sporophyte, 116 (cut) stem leaves, 128 (cut) transverse section of leaf, 127 (cut) subsecundum, 124 leaves, 123 (cut) young archegonium, 120 (cut) synopsis of, 123 use to economist, 109 veil of, 121 vertical section of young sporo» gonium, 122 323 Index Moses, Splachnum, genus, 204-207 iwteum, 207 sporophyte, 205 (cut) rubrum, 206 capsule, 205 (cut) fertile plant, 205 (cut) leaf, 206 (cut) male plant, 206 (cut) sporophyte, 205 (cut) tip of spore-case, 206 (cut) veil, 206 (cut) Tetradontium, genus, 198, 199 repandum, 198 leaves, 199 (cut) perigonial leaves, 199 (cut) perigonium, 199 (cut) plants. 198 (cut) teeth, 199 (cut) thread-like branch, 199 (cut) Tetraplodon, genus, 202 mnioides, 203 leaf, 203 (cut) leaf apex, 202 (cut) peris tome, 202, 204 (cuts) plant, 203 (cut) plant with male and female flower-clusters, 203 (cut) tuft, 202 (cut) veil, 203 (cut) Tortula, genus, 176-178 princeps, 177 leaves, 176 (cut) peristome, 176 (cut) plant, 177 (cut) spore-case, 177 (cut) tip of spore-case, 177 (cut) ruralis, 178 awn of leaf, 178 (cut) tip of spore-case, 1 76, 1 78 (cuts) Trematodpn, genus, 147-150 ambtguum, 149 annulus, 148 (cut) leaves, 148 (cut) ltd, 149 (cut) peristome, 147, 149 (cuts) plants, 148, 149 (cuts) spore-cases, 148, 149, 150 (cuts) longicottis, 150 Ulota, genus, 184-188 congesium, spore-cases, 153 (cut) crispa, plate XV., 186 leaves, 185, 186 (cuts) peristome, 185 (cut) plant, 185 (cut) male flower-cluster, 185 (cut) spore-case, 185 (cut) sporophyte, 185, 186 (cuts) Hutchinsice, 188 leaves, 187 (cut) peristome, 188 (cut) plant, 187 (cut) spore-case, 187 (cut) sporophyte, 187 (cut) veil, 187 (cut) phyllantha, 187 leaf apex with gemmae, 187 (cut) subulatum, spore-cases, 153 (cut) undulatum, spore-cases, 154 Webera, genus, 218-221 albicans, 220 leaves, 220 (cut) lid, 219 (cut) male plant, 220 (cut) peristome, 220 (cut) spore-cases, 219 (cut) stem, 218 (cut) tip of spore-case, 219 (cut) nittans, 218 annulus, 219 (cut) Mosses, Webera, •nutans, apex of leaf, 217 (cut) inner membrane, 219 (cut) leaves, 217 (cut) lids, 219 (cut) plant, 217 (cut) spore-case, 218, 219 (cuts) Weisia, genus, 143-147 viridula, 146 leaves, 145 (cut) lid with veil, 146 (cut) peristome, 145, 157 (cuts) plant, 146 (cut) spore-cases, 146, 147 (cuts) Mother cells, 51, 53 (cut), 121 (cut), 122 (cut) Mucronate, 103 Mungo Park, 159 Mount Marcy, height of, 17 marsh building on, 17 variety of flora on, 17 Nomenclature, 75 Oak, "moss marred," 12 Octoblepharunt, genus, 165 albidum, 33 (cut), 165 spore-case, 33 (cut) Ohio Hairy-cap, 252 Old Man's Beard, 19, 20 Oliver, picture of, n Operculum, development of, 51 Orange stain, 3 Orlando, 1 1 Ovum, 47, 120 (cut) Oxygen, 1 2 Palmella, 26 Papillate, 214 Paraphyllia, 279 Paraphyses, 40 (cut) Paraphysis, 49 (cut), 213 Parma, 82 Parmelia, 28 Paroicous, 48 Pear-shaped Thread -moss, 217 Peat bogs, 6 Peat-moss, 126 Peat-mosses (see Spliagnwm under Mosses) , 34, 109 Peck, Chas. H., 112 Pedicel, 30, 35 (cut) cross section of, 57 defined, 36 (cut) function of, 37 origin of, 39 purpose of, 57 change in position of, 57 to show rudimentary bundles, 71 (cut) twisted, 60 (cut) Peltigera, genus, 8s, 86 apthpsa, 86 canina, 20 a cure for hydrophobia, 28 for hydrophobia, 20 polydactyla, 86 Perichaetial leaves, 53 (cut) Percurrent, 142 Perigonium, 115 (cut), 125 Peristome, character in genus Catharinea, 56 opening of, in Catherinea, 56 structure of, in Polytrichum mosses, 55 56 (cut) vertical section of double, 55 of single, 52 Perithecia, 25 Perithecium, 27 (cut) 324 Index Phascum, genus, 135-13? cttspidatum, 59 (cut), 135, 136 paroicous inflorescence, 40, 41 protonema of, 59 (cut) Pinnule, 68, 69 (cuts) Pith layer, 26, 87 Plants, nourishment of, 12 Plasma, 199 Pleurocarpi, 153 Pliny, 249 Porella, genus, 100—102 platyphylla, 99 (cuts), 100, ica cell structure of, 65 (cut) Podetia, 88 Pogonatum, genus, 242-248 Alpinum, 34 (out), 42, 247 lamellae, 247 (cut) leaf, 242 (cut) brachyphyllum, 245 (cut) spore case, 32, 50 (cuts) brevicaule, colour plate IV., 243 (cut) leaf, 244 (cut) lid, 244 (cut) plant, 244 (cut) protonema of, 38 section of lamellae, 244 (cut) spore-cases, 243 stem, 243 (cut) teeth, 244 (cut) tip of spore case, 243 capHlare, 245 (cut) tenue, spore-case, 239 (cut) urnigerum, 246, 247 (cuts) lamellae, 247 (cut) leaf, 35 (cut), 247 (cut) spore-case, 47 (cut) Pointed Mnium, The, 228 Pompeii, 221 Polytrichacece, 239 Catherinea, genus, 239, 240 angustata, 241 apex of leaf, 241 (cut) female plant, 241 (cut) leaf, 241 (cut) male plant, 241 (cut) spore-cases, 240 (cut) •undulata, 242 apex of leaf, 240 (cut), 242 (cut) cross section of 239 leaves, 239 (cut), 240 (cut) spore-case, 242 (cut) tip of spore-case, 239 (cut), 242 (cut) Polytrichwn, genus, 239, 248, 250 arrangement of leaves, 42 commune, 256 apex of leaf, 257 (cut) cross section of stem, 46 (cut), 249 (cut) lamella see from side, 257 (cut) leaf, 250 (cut), 257 (cut) lid, 258 (cut) row of lamellae cells, 350 (cut) spore-cases, 249, 256, 237 (cuts) with lid, 5- (cut), 56 without lie!, 52, 56 (cuts) summit of spore-case, 33, 36, 240 (cuts), teeth around membrane, 258 (cut) veil, 257 (cut) cross section of leaf, 45 (cut) dioicous inflorescence, 40 (cut) female plant, 40 (cut) forntosum, 252 gracile, 251 leaves, 257 (cut) peristome, 251 (cut) spore-case, 231 (cut), 250 (cut) with pointed lid, 36 (cut) Polytrichacece, Polyirichum, juniperinum, cross section of leaf. 257 (cut) leaves, 248 (cut) leaves, 44 chlorophyll, 44 mid-vein, 44 sclerenchyma, 44, 45 male plant, 40, 255, 248 (cuts) Ohiense, spore-case, 252 (cut) old sporophyte, 37 (cut) piliferum, 250 (cut) leaf, 32 (cut) leaves, 254 (cut) perichaetial leaves, 254 (cut) perigonial leaves, 254 (cut) plant, 253 (cut) spore-case, 239, 254 (cuts) subterranean shoot, 255 (cut) vertical cells of lamella, 254 (cut) sexangulare, leaves, 250 (cut) spore-case with lid, without lid, 52 (cuts) spore-case, 35, 355, 356 (cuts) strictum, 45 structure of peristome, 55 surface view of spore, 72 (cut) vertical cells of lamellae, 255 (cut) Pores, 72, 203 Primitive Mosses, 140 Protococcus, 27, 65 (cuts) Protonema, defined, 62 development of, 120 (cut), 118 of Barbula, 59 of Ephemerum, 59 of fern, 65 of Hepatic, 65 of leafy moss, 6 5 of Phascum, 59 origin of, 38 permanent in Beard-moss, 38 persistence, 38 Prothallia, of ferns, 66 Prothallium, defined, 65 mature, of fern, 67 young, of fern, 67 Pseudopodium, 122, 131 (cust) Pteridpphytes, 69, 71 Ptilidium, genus, 104, 105 ciliare, 64 (cut) stipule, 64 under side, 64 upper side, 64 Pycnidium, 27 (cut) Quartette-moss, The, 203 Rays of light, 199 Red Collar-moss. 206 ReddHi Feat-moss, 125 Reindeer-lichen, 27 as food, 28 Reproduction, asexual, by cellular bodies o« protonema, 59 gemmae, 60 portions of leaves, 60 sporogonium, 60 stems, 60 rhizoids, 59 Rhizoids, 26, 64 (cut) defined, 36 (cut) dissolving fluid from, 18 imbedded in limestone, 18 mechanical action of, 13 origin of, 38 Ribbon stage, 64 Roccella, a source of Etmus, 19 tinctoria, 19 325 Index Rock Andreaea, The, 133 Rock tripe, The, colour plate XI., 99 Root-hairs, terminal, 58 Roots, 69 definition of, 46 Ruskin, 4 Scale-mosses, see Hepatics, leafy, 99 Schimper, Wilhelm Philipp, 142, 188 Schimdel, 261 Schreber, Johann C. D., 76, 136 Scutellaeform, 80 Schwaegrichen, Christian Friedrich, 76, 198 Schwendener, 22 Scytonema, 23, 25 Seta, 30 cross-section of, 57 enlargement under spore-case, 57 purpose of, 57 change in position of, 57 sheath at base, 57 Sexual generation, 65 of ferns, 66 Shakespeare, n, 12 Short-leaved Hair-cap, 245 Silvery Bryum, 222 "Silver lichen spots," 3 Slender Catherinea, plate IV., 241 Hairy-cap, 251 Soreciia, 24, 82 Spanish-shield Lichens, see Cetraria, 79 Spenser, 12 Sperm-cells, 39, 40 (cut), 41, 49 defined, 46 Sphccrangif.'m, genus, 133-133 muticum, 49 (cut), 134 (cuts) sperm-case of, 55 (cut) Schimperanum, 134 (cuts) Sphagnum, genus, 34, 109-130 acutifolium, 51 (cut), 118, 119, 121, 123, 124 (cuts) vertical section of young sporogon- ium, 51 (cut) to show development of young spore-case, 53 (cut) cuspidatutn, 120 (cuts), 123, 126 sections of archegonia, 47 (cut) cymbifolium, n (cut), 114, 115, 118 (cuts), 128, 129 first or sexual generation, 62 (cut) protonema, 63 (cut) resemblance to thallophyte, 63 (cut) surface view of leaf, 34 (cut) rubellutn, 125 squarrosum, 128 SpJachnum, genus, 204-207 luieunt, 207 apophysis, 59 (cut) columella, 59 (cut) rubrum, 31 (cut), 206 Sporangium, 207 of fern, 69 Spores, 30, 38 (cut) defined, 36 ellipsoid, 80 exit of, in genus Catharinea, 56, 57 in Polytrichum mosses, 55 germination of, 38 (cut) fern, germinating, 65 Hepatic, germinating, 65 how they escape from Polytrichum mosses, 37 leafy-moss, germinating, 65 origin of, 51 (cut) polar-bilocular, 81 Soreciia, 82 326 Spore-case, borne on side of stem, 3 1 (cut) borne on summit of pedicel, 31 (cut) cell structure of, 51 closed, s (cut), columella exposed, 55 (cut) defined, 35 (cut), 36 developing in Marchantia, 97 (cut) development of, 49 illustrated by Sphagnum acuti- folium, 53 (cut) favourable positionsfor obtaining light, 5 7 formation of, 39 homologies of, 67 immature, 31 immersed, 30 (cut) of fern, 68 opening by a lid, 30 (cut) opening without lid, 30 (cut) rim, origin of, 53 situation, 30 split in four valves, 9 spores falling, 30 teeth four, 37 teeth in one row, 30 in two rows, 30 of, in Catharinea, 56 wanting, 9 thirty-two teeth surrounding an ept- phragm, 55 (cut) to show columella, 54 (cut) twisted, 60 (cut) two rows of teeth, 31 (cut) wall, origin of, 53 (cut) with anmilus rolling away, 37 conical veil, 50 (cut) eight teeth in pairs, 37 (cut) four teeth, 32, 54, (cuts) hairy veil, 32, 50, (cuts) lid, 9, 48 (cut), 52 lifted, 48 (cut) short pedicel, 51 thirty-two teeth, 57, 123 (cut) veil, 48 (cut), 51 without lid, 52, 57 teeth, 30 wrinkling of wall to oust spores, 38 Spore-sac, 207, 53 Sporogonia, 41 Sporogonium, 48, 49 defined, 49 producing protonema, 60 wall removed, 49 (cut) Sporophyte, 35 fern, 68 (cut) Hepatic, 68, 69, (cuts) homologies of, 67 moss 68, 69, (cuts) origin of, 39 with pores, 72 Spotted Lungwort, a cure for lung trouble, 30 Spread-leaved Sphagnum, plate VII., 128 Squamulose, 88 Starch, 44 Stem, The, 45 cross section of, 46 (cut), 124 producing protonema, 60 Stereocaulon ramulosum, 23, 66 Sterigmata, 27 (cut) Sticta, genus, 28, 86, 87 amplissima, 87 pulmonaria, colour plate XIV. 39, 87 used for beer, 20 Stictina fuliginosa, 26, 87, (cuts) Stipule, 64 (cut) Stolons, 224 (cut) Stomata, 203 function of, 73 of Funaria, 72 (cut) of Hypnum. 72 (cut) of Marchantia, 72 (cut) Index Stomata, of Polytrichum, 72 (cut) vertical section of, 72 (cut) Stone-loving Andreaea, 132 Stylus, 102 (cut) Sugar, 13 Sulliyant, William S., 142 Synoicous, 48 Tayloria splachnoides, 54 (cut) columella attached to base of spore-case, 54 (cut) Thuidium, sub-genus, 280, 281 delicatulunt, 31, 282, 283 (cuts) minutulum, 55, 282, (cuts) vertical section of double peristome. 55 (cut) Teeth, attached by tips, 33 (cut) cross-section of four, 54 (cut) development of, 53 eight, 33. 37, (cuts) four, 37 , 54 (cut) function of, 37 in pairs, 54 (cut) lattice work, character of, 54, 56 (cut) methods of opening, 37 opening of, in Catharinea, 56 origin of varied forms, 54 sixty-four, 33 (cut) split half-way to base, 37 thirty-two, 33 (cut) varieties of, 37 with crescent-shaped fibres, 56 Tennyson, 6. Terete, 80 Tetraplodon, genus, 202—204 angustatus, 202 mnioides, 203, 204 (cuts) branch with male and female clusters, 39 (cuts) female branch, 63 monoicous inflorescence fertile branch, 39 (cut) peristome with single row of teeth in pairs, 54 plant sho wing male and female branches, 39 (cut) spore-case without lid, 54 (cut) summit of spore-case, 54 (cut) with lid 54 (cut) with teeth, 37 (cut) tip of spore-case, 53 (cut) with apophysis larger than spore- case, 60 (cut) Tetradontium, genus, 198 repandum, 198 (cuts), 199 spore-case with conical veil, 50 (cut) Thalline exciple, 27 Thalloid, 93 Thallophytes, 66, 71 algae, 63 bacteria, 63 compared with bryophytes, 63 fungi, 63 why so called, 63 Thallus, 8, 64 cross section of, 80 (cut) denned, 64 vertical section of, 80 (cut) Theophrastus, 19 "Thorn with lichens overgrown," 12 Thread -moss, 216 Tooth, 52 (cut) Top-moss, 208 Torn-veil Mosses, 180 Trabecvdate, 213 Tracheae, 44 "Trees o'ercome with moss," 12 Trematodon, genus, 147-150 ambiguum, 149 (cuts) autoicous inflorescence, 40 Trematod&H, ambiguum, vertical sections of single peristome, 52 (cut) longicollis, 150 Trichostomum tophaceum, 17 True mosses, distinguishing characters, 9 Ulota, genus, 184-188 asexual generation, 65 crispa, 186 collum of, 57, 65 double row of teeth, 52 lid, 65 pedicel, 65 spore-case, 65 vaginule, 57, 65 veil, 65 (cut) Hutchinsia, 187 (cuts), 188 (cut) part of peristome, 33 (cut) spore-case, 33 (cut) phyllantha, 187 portion of leaf with gemmae on the apex, 58 Ultima Thule, 223 Underwood, Dr. L. M., 61 Usnea, genus, 80, 81, barbata, 19, 25 (cut), 80 (cuts), 136 promotes growth of hair, 20 trichodea, 81 Utricles, 114, 129 Vacuole, 38 (cut), 64 (cut) Vaginule, 57 (cut), 122 (cut) defined, 53 (cut) homology of, 57 of Ulota crispa, 57 (cut) Vascular bundles defined, 69 rudimentary, 71 Vegetative part, 43 homologies of, 67 Veil, 31 conical, 50, 55 (cuts) covering young sporogonium, 50 (cut) defined, 35 hairy, 32, 50 (cuts) due to, 50 of Hepatic, 71 (cut), 94 (cut), 95 split up on one side, 51 (cut) Vein defined, 43 extending part way to apex, 43 (cut) to apex, 42 solid, 43 (cut) thickened cells of, 45 (cut) Venus, 249 Vermes compared with Hepaticce, 62 Vesicle, 67 Villous, 86 Virgin Mary, 249 Wainio, Dr., 86 Water, necessity of, 32 Water-measuring Cord-moss, 210 Wavy-leaved Catharinea, 242 Weiss, Frederigo Wilhelm, 146 Whip Fork-nioss, 1 54 White mosses, 34, 161 Whittier. n, 15 Wildenow, Carl Ludwig, 254 Wood-ducts, 44 Woolly Torn- veil Moss, 181 Wordsworth, n Xanthoria parictina, colour plate II., 20, 81 a cure for jaundice, 20 Yellow Collar-moss, 207 rosettes, 3 Wall-lichen, 20. 81 327 THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS GARDEN CITY, N. 7. ^J o* % ,/ r^-1 f "H9n — r c SRARJ