H.R. MacMillan, 18-4- b^ J/. J^^.. //^.^M,, i '^i^t//t/f-1900 PART V, FOREST RESERVES— HENRY GANNETT, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF GEOGRAPHY AND FORESTRY WASHINGTOjST government printing office 1900 MOUNT RAINIER FOREST RESERVE, WASHINGTON FRED G. PL,UMMER 21 GEOL, PT 5 6 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of British Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/mountrainierforOOplum CONTENTS. Page. Boundaries - 87 General description 88 Climate - - 89 AraWe lands and soil formations 91 C'cial inilifatiuns 9:i Minerals and mining claims 94 ^lineral springs 94 Kvidences of recent volcanic activity 96 Caves ^ 96 Ml luntaiu parks 97 Tree species 98 Range of tree species lOti Eate of growth of timber trees 106 Defects and diseases of timber trees 109 Estimates of timber Ill Wliite River watershed Ill Puyallu]) River watershed 112 Nisqually River watershed 113 Cowlitz River watershed 114 Cispus River watershed 115 Lewis River watersheil 116 Washougal River watershed 117 Rock Creek watershed 117 Wind River watershed 118 Little White Salmon River watershed 119 White Salmon River watershed 120 Klickitat River watershed 121 Atanum River watershed 122 Tieton River watershed 1 23 Naches River watershed 124 Yakima River watershed 125 Summary of estimates - 126 Commercial uses of timber 127 Markets and prices 1 28 I'nderbrush.. 130 Forest litter 132 Humus - 132 Fires 133 Extent and location 133 Causes 134 Restocking of burned areas JlSO Timberless areas 137 Timber cutting in the reserve 138 Logging conditions 139 Settlement and improvements 1^0 Grazing HO S3 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate XXXIII. Map of Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, showing classification of lands In atlas XXXIV. .4, Mount Rainier and Longmire Springs, i?, Mount Rainier. 88 XXXV. A, Narada Falls, Paradise Park. B, Ice caves , 90 ■ XXXVI. ,I,Tatoosh Range, Mount St. Helens in distance. B, Small lake near Indian race track, second growth of mountain fir and hemlock 92 XXXVII. Map of Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, showing distribution of red or yellow fir 94 XXXVIII. A, Tsuga pattoniana. B, Pinus ponderosa. C, PinuK jiwnti- colii. D, Pseudotstiga taxifolia 96 XXXIX. ^Maji of Jlount Rainier Forest Reserve, showing distribution of hemlock 98 XL. ^-1, Larix occidentalis. B, Picea engehnanni. C, Allies Jasio- rarpii. D, Pinus alhicaulis 100 XLI. Diagram showing range and development of timber tree species 102 XLII. Map of Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, showing distribution of red cedar ; 1 04 XLIII. A, Pines and red firs. B, Red fir in Cowlitz bottom 110 XLIV. A, Maple grove. B, Yellow fir 12i feet in diameter 130 XLV. A, Fir, maple, and ash trees. B, Mount Hood witli momi- tain fir 132 XLVI. Map of Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, showing distribution of yellow pine 134 XLVII. A, Mount Rainier from Goat jMountain. B, Burn, with second growth 136 XLVIII. A, Summit of range in southern part of reserve, looking west. B, Headwaters of Tieton River from Goat Mountain 138 XLIX. ..1, Mount Adams. J5, Cisjjus Range from Goat Mountain . . 140 L. A, Recent cinder cone on north slope of ^Nlount Adams. B, Mount Adams, with mountain fir in foreground ... 142 85 MOUNT RAINIER FOREST RESERVE WASHINGTON. Bv Fred G. Plummer. BOtnS^D ARIES. B_v proclamation of the President made February 22, 1897, tlie Mount Rainier Forest Reserve was established with the following boundaries: Beginning at the southeast corner of township four (4) north, range (9) east, Wil- lamette base and meridian, Washington; thence northerly along the range line between ranges nine (9) and ten (10) east, subject to the proper offset on the first (1st) standard parallel north, to the northwest corner of township six (6) north, range ten (10) east; thence easterly along the township line to the northeast corner of said townshii^i thence northerly along the range line to the northwest corner of township seven (7) north, range eleven (11) east; thence easterly along the town- ship line between townships seven (7) and eight (8) north to the northeast corner of township seven (7) north, range twelve (12) east; thence northerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed range Hne between ranges twelve (12) and thirteen (13) east, subject to the proper offset on the second (2nd) standard parallel north, to the northwest corner of township eleven (11) north, range thirteen (13) east; thence easterly along the surveyed and unsurveyed township line between townships eleven (11) and twelve (12) north to the southwest ccirner of tow-nship twelve (12) north, range fifteen (15) east; thence northerly aloni; tlie surveyed and unsurveyed range line between ranges fourteen (14) and fifteen (15) t-ast, suV)ject to the proper offsets on the third (3rd) and fourth (4th) standard parallels north, to the point for the northeast corner of township eighteen (18) north, range fourteen (14) east; thence westerly along the unsurveyed and surveyed township line between townships eighteen (18) and nineteen (19) north to the southwest corner of township nineteen (19) north, range seven (7) east; thencesoutherly along the surveyed and imsurveyed range line between ranges six (6) and seven (7) east, subject to the proper offsets on the township line between townships seventeen (17) and eighteen (18) north, and on the fourth (4th), third (3rd), and second (2nd) standard parallels north, to the point for the northeast corner of township five (5) north, range six (6) east; thence westerly along the unsurveyed township line between townships five (5) and six (6) north to the southeast corner of township six (6) north, range four (4) east; thence southerly along the unsurveyed range line between ranges four (4) and five (5) east, subject to the proper offset on the first (1st) standard parallel north to the point for the southwest corner of township four (4) north, range five (5) east; thence easterly along the unsurveyed and surveyed township line between townships three (3) and four (4) north to the southeast corner of township four (4) north, range nine (9) east, the place of beginning. 87 88 FOKKST RESKKVES. Exi'fptiri),' from tlip force and effect of this proclamation all lands which may have l)een prior to tlie date hereof endjraced in any legal entry or covei-ed by any lawful filing duly of record in the i)roper United States land ofiice, or upon which any valid settlement has been made pursuant to law, and the statutory period within which to make entry or liling of record has not expired, and all mining claimtf duly located and held according U> the laws t)f the United States and rules and regulations not in conflict therewith: Provided, That this exception shall not continue to apply to any particular tract of land unless the entryman, settler, or claimant continues to comply with the law under which the entry, filing, settlement, or location was made. GENERAL, DESCRIPTIOX. The tract thus reserved includes the Cascade Ran^e in the southern part of AVashington. The Government land survej-s which partly ))Ouud and fix the location of the reserve have in western Washington been made from the Willamette meridian and in eastern Washington from the Columbia guide meridian. The sum of the discrepancies between them falls in th(> unsurveyed mountainous region partly cov- ered by the reserve, and for this and other reasons the area of the reserve is 2,146,600 acres, and not 2,234,880 acres, as would be implied by the above description if all the townships were of full size. Of this total area 890.440 acres, or 41.4 per cent, lies on the eastern slope, and 1.256,160 acres, or 58.6 per cent, on the western slope of the mountains. These two slopes, which will be often referred to in this report, pre- sent widely divei'gent conditions in climate and flora, but they share a bold topography in common. The line dividing these slopes, or the line separating the eastern drainage from the western, has a general direction of N. 5-^ E. Its detailed meanderiugs within the reserve are delineated on the map, PI. XXXIII. All of the eastern slope and the greater portion of the western drain into Colimil)ia River, the tributary streams being the Cowlitz, Cispus, Lewis. AVashougal, Rock. Wind, Little White Salmon, White Salmon, Klickitat, Atamun. Tieton, Naches, and Yakima rivers. The total watershed area of these streams is 1,794,600 acres, or 83.6 per cent of the reserve. The remainder, 352,000 acres, or 16.4 per cent, is drained into Puget Sound, the tributarj' streams being- the White. Puyallup, and Nisqually rivers. Within the reserve are four mountain peaks or domes of unusual magnitude: ^Moutit Rainier, 14.526 feet; Mount Adams, 12,470 feet; Goat Mountain, 8,500 feet, and Mount Aix, 7,623 feet. Of these Mount Rainier and Mount Aix are not on the summit line, but like Mount St. Helens, Mount Stewart, and Mount Baker, all in Washington, stand on one side or the other of the range. The glaciers and perpetual snow fields of Mount Rainier have a total area of 32,500 acres, and are therefore an important item in the estima- , S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1^ pK^.^BHi ^MoBilr^^:.-.* 1 .1. MOUNT RAINIER AND LONGMIRE SPRINGS. j:. MOUNT RAINIER. PLrMMER] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 89 tion of areas without timber. Tiie glaciers of Mount Adams cover onlj' 2,300 acres, and those of Goat Mountain are insignificant. In unusual summer seasons, such as that of 1899, small areas of high altitude, protected from the warm chinook winds, may remain snow covered, but the perpetual snow fields and glaciers within the I'eserve are limited to Mount Rainier and Mount Adams. Probably an excep- tionally warm season would leave no ice or snow on Goat Mountain. The routes of ti'avel in the reserve are few. Most of the trails shown upon the map are hardly deserving of the name, but indicate blazed lines where better progress can be made than by taking a course through the timber and brush. The Indian's policy was to go only where his pony could take him, and the idea of cutting and logging out a trail was repugnant to him ; therefore his lines of travel were along the sparsel}- timljered ridges, where feed was generally plenty, where game abounded, or where huckleberries grew. Later came the prospectors and sheepmen, and in some places thej' did considerable work. Since the advent of settlers in the valleys of the Nisqually, Cowlitz, Wind, and Little White Salmon, wagon roads have been built and the larger streams bridged. Since 1896 stages have run from Tacoma to Long- mires Springs. during July, August, and September of each year to accommodate the tourist travel en route to Paradise Park. Twch-e miles of this stage road is inside of the reserve and was constructed on a county survey prior to the proclamation of the reservation. Public sentiment strongly favors the opening of this scenic region by better lines of travel than the poor wagon road and pack trails. The Yellow- stone and Yosemite will have a strong competitor when this is done. The setting aside of nine townships around Mount Rainier as a national park was an act which met with universal approval. CL,I]>LVTE. Accurate meteorological data are not obtainable regarding that por- tion of the Cascade Mountains within the boundaries of the reserve, as the Weather Bureau has never had an observer in that area. Dur- ing the examination a large amount of fragmentary information was collected from settlers, prospectors, and trappers, and by personal observation. This has beien used, with many interpolations, in the preparation of the accompanying maps. The bold topography of the reserve is the cause of wide di\ersi- ties in climatic conditions, some of which are general and aft'ect large areas, while others afl'ect only small areas. The rain-bearing clouds ai'e brought by southwest winds from the Pacific Ocean, and find easy access to the Cascade Range through l)reaks in the Coast Range. The mountains along the coast, owing to their position and height, are great rain producers for their own areas, but the range is not itU KOKKST RESERVKS. continuous and the j^i'l'^ i" it i*'''" '"w. Iniportsint anionu- t!ic <;-iips. as artVctin};" the rcj^ion under consKU'ration, are those; made liy Grays Har- bor. Willipa Hay. Coluiiil)ia River, Tillamook Bay, and Yaquina Bay. Tile Cascade Range, rumiing north and south, parallel with thtr coast, presents a more continuous harrier to the rain-bearing clouds, the only break or gap being that through which Columbia River flows. The winters in the mountains are long rather than severe. Doubt- less upon such elevations as Mount Rainier. Mount Adams, or Goat Mountain the prevailing conditions during the winter are of extreme severity. A strong contrast is presented betw(>en the c-orn and tobacco fields of the Cowlitz Valley and the ice fields and glaciers of Mount Rainier, and yet among these same glaciers in the mountain parks a profusion of wild flowers and grasses results from the mild and delightful cli- mate that prevails during the short summer season. It is always a matter of surprise to the tourists that they maj- camp in summer gar- dens surrounded l)y arctic scenery on such a grand scale, but this camping season is limited to Juh*, August, and September. During 1886, 1887, and 1888 the engineer dejjartment of the North- ern Pacific Railwa}' kept a weather record at Stampede Pass tunnel, and from those observations the following table has been compiled: Average temperature and snowfall at Stampede Tunnel, WaKhint/ton, for ISSO-ISSS. [Altitude, 2,840 feet.] Months. Greatest depth of snow. Temperature. Highest. Lowest. January Feet. 8.9 7.5 7.5 5.5 2.6 Degrees. 42 47 55 61 77 72 86 82 76 62 50 42 Degrees. 10 16 February March 20 ' April 41 May ■luuf 35 43 48 51 40 32 19 18 July August September October . 2 1.1 3.6 November December ^^^^^^^^^F^^'^o- « ■ ^^^^HP^ ^ V:" -i ^ 1. ■ v> HHK '^-^l^^.t^'''^iyK mn^m PLUMMER.] MOUNT EAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 91 AR.VUIuE L,AKDS AXD SOIL, FORSIATIOTfS. Ouly ubout io.OOO acres or 2 per cent of the entire reserve is fair farming land, and of this amount more than one-lialf is under adverse climatic conditions due to great altitude and exposure. Of the favorably situated areas in western Washington the most important is the Cowlitz watershed. The Cowlitz Valley widens for a length of 13 miles within the reserve and includes some very good land known as the "Big Bottom," which contains about 12,000 acres, of which 25 per cent is slashed and partly cleared. The soil formation, as shown by the wells and river banks, averages as follows: Section in Cowlitz ]'a!leii, Wnshinc/lon. Feet. Sand or sandy loam 1.0 Scoria sand .5 Sand and sandy loam 12. 0 Gravel and sand 4.0 Scoria sand 2. 0 Clay and sand. Bear Prairie, in sec. 8, T. 14 N., R. 8 E., at the head of Snake Creek, in the same watershed, contains about 90 acres of good hay land and has been drained bj' the claimant. The formation as shown by the ditching is as follows: Section in sec. S, T. U A', B-. S E., Washington. Feet. Sandy loam 1.0 Scoria sand 1 Sandy loam 1 . 25 Scoria sand 1.0 Sandy loam. The Nisqually below the mouth of Horse Creek has an area of about 4,000 acres, of which 30 per cent is a liberal estimate of the arable portions. The balance of the bottom lands ai'e either rock}', gravel, or clear- washed .sands, with little soil or humus. The areas which are arable are covered with thick stands of forest and it costs §100 to §150 per acre to prepare them for the plow. The settlers on these lands often leave the stumps in their fields and garden patches. On the South Fork of Puyallup River, on which no settlement has been made, there are about 300 acres of arable land in scattered patches which would be difficult to clear. The Mowich River bottom inside the reserve has about 1,000 acres of veiy fair land which is heavily timbered. The Carbon River Canj^on is uninviting to the farmers. The steep side hills run almost to the river and a few little patches of good .soil are all that can be mentioned. The same is true of the White River Canvon. 92 FORKST KESEKVES. Ill tlu! valley of CLspus River, below the mouth of Anatass (h'eek, ther(> are about 1,000 acres of arable ])ottoin and bench lands in scat- tered tracts. The same scoria sand found in the Cowlitz and other watersheds is present. In sec. 2, T. 11 N.. K. 7 E.. a well 5 feet deep in a swale showed the following: Section in sec. 3, T. 11 N., R. 7 E. Feet. Scoria sand 1 Black muck 4 Coarse paml. The valley of the Lewis River within the reserve is a canyon at its lower end, and those areas nearer the headwaters are of too great altitude to be of any use. Wind River Valley is low and broad and contains about 8,000 acres of good land but difficult to clear. Being easily accessible from Columbia River, this area has found many settlers. The same is true of the valley of the Little White Salmon River, which contains about 2,000 acres. The timber is smaller and has ])cen partly removed by logging and railroad-tie cutting. In the White Salmon River Valley about 2,000 acres might be mjide profitable bv' irrigation, but the season would be short. In the Klickitat watershed lying between the Fish Lake Stream and the Clearwater is about 2,500 acres of moist bench land. It would cost $75 per acre to prepare it for the plow, and by reason of the severe winters and short summers it would be of doul)tful value. Bordering the Klickitat and the Lower- Fish Lake Stream in Ts. 8 and tt N.. R. 12 E., there is an area of about 10,000 acres of bench land supporting a growth of yellow piue {P/'nus ponderosa) and pine grass (Cafamaf/roatis Kukudorjii). When cleared it would be fair land under irrigation. On the headwaters of the main Klickitat River are a series of meadows which will aggregate about 800 acres. The level bottom and low benches of fair land bordering these meadows may be classed as arable land and will add 1,200 acres to the above, making a total of 2,00(1 acres. These bottoms are divided transversely by several low ridges both in appearance and formation strongly suggestive of ter- minal moraines of an ancient glacier. No stria? were noted. Conrad Meadows, on the South Fork of Tieton River, contain about Inu acres which should be drained. At the head of Taunum Lake on Bumping River is about 500 acres of bottom land with a growth of young fir, hemlock, cedar, and light underbrush. Small areas of this l)ottom are timberless and grassed. Other small and unimportant areas of arable land are Goose Prairie on Bumping River and Pleasant Valley on American River, and also a few benches and small lake beds on the Naches and Tieton rivers. A. TATOOSH RANGE; MOUNT ST. HELENS IN DISTANCE. n. SMALL LAKE NEAR INDIAN RACE TRACK; SECOND GROWTH OF MOUNTAIN FIR AND HEMLOCK, PLVMMER.] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. i»3 Near the headwaters of many of the smaller streams are small mead- ows, but their elevation and exposure forbid their use for agricul- tural purposes. The surface soils other than above detailed are entitled to only brief mention. The bold topography of the area prohibits the accumulation of deep or rich soils. The underlying ledges, talus, and gi'avels are covered with sand, resulting from decomposition, and over many areas with scoria. This scoria is both of interest and value. Some samples were taken from an undisturbed bank on a hill in the SE. i of SE. i of sec. 18, T. 12 N., R. 7 E., and gave a weight of 49.55 pounds avoirdupois per cubic foot. After being screened a cubic foot of the sand, whose grains ranged in size from one-half to one-eighth inch in diameter, weighed -tS pounds. The same screening after being dried weighed 37. i pounds. This sand follows the surface of the country, and in the higher ele- vations is often exposed, and over small areas has been recentl}' eroded. Its color is a dull straw, sometimes deep brown. It is very coarse, gritty, and free from loam and other foreign matters, and is never watcrworn. It is alwaj's loose, never compact. When exposed to air by the plow it undergoes a slow slaking process, and is regarded as remarkably fertile soil. In Cowlitz Valley John Blankenship says his field of sand changed very much by working, as it decomposed, turned yellow, and made good soil, which he has used for growing artichokes. His flower garden blooms freely, but the plants are not thrifty. Scoria sand taken from his well was thrown over the surface of the ground, and showed its fertility by the growth of weeds which followed. All of the evidence presented by the scoria sand points to the prob- ability of its being the result of a recent volcanic eruption, but to name the volcano or to fix the date will require more extended examination. COAL IXDICATIOXS. The Columbia River lava (Miocene) has overcapped and almost com- pletely buried the coal-bearing strata (Eocene) within the reserve. Rarely has erosion uncovered the upper measures, which are found badly faulted and broken, and in several cases aietamorphosed Ijy heat. Eocene sandstone and fossil-bearing shales were recognized near the southwest corner of sec. 18, T. 17 N., R. 8 E. ; also on Goat Creek, Coal Ci'eek, and Sweetwater Creek on the Nisqually watershed. The fossils are the leaves of alders, maple, and willow and resemble those found in the roof rocks of the Roslyn coal mine in eastern Washington and in other coal mines on the west side of the range. Coal float was found at these localities. Fossil leaves are also reported from the AViud River watershed, near Lookout Mountain. <,I4 FOREST RESERVES. I'lio Davns coul prospect on Summit Creek luis liccn worked to a siiijiJl extent to determine its value. A vein 6 feet wide is claimed, wliicli crosses Summit Creek, and is exposed on hoth sides of the canyon. Tlie improvements consist of two small cabins, a shaft about 10 feet deep, and two tunnels. Coal veins exist in sees. 13 and 14, T. 12 N., R. 8 E., and some prospecting- has been done, but the Avoi-k has been abandoned. Two miles north of Padvwood Lake several small coal veins have been prospected. On the headwaters of Cispus River. in'P. 10 N., R. 10 E., .several coal veins have been prospected, but no real development work has been done. Traces of coal have been found underlying the basalt at Steamboat Mountain. MIXERALS AND aiINIX(i CLAIMS. The Columbia River lava is not a favorable formation for the deposi- tion of the precious metals in j)aying quantities, although waters .slightly charged with minerals have deposited gold, silver, lead, iron, and silica along cleavage planes in the high country rock, which is maiidy diabase capped with lava. On the surface where these infiltrations occur the original sulphide deposit has been oxidized and concentrated, so that by panning some color of flour gold can be obtained. Below the line of oxidation, at a depth of about 30 feet, the mineral deposit changes to low-grade iron pyrites, which requires smelting and is not of sufficient value to make it profitable to mine. These veins do not show any characteristics of true fissure or contact fissure veins, there being no ribbon structure of the vein matter or striation of the walls, but merely an impregnation of the country rt)cks, which would indicate that they are merely gash veins which will in all probability terminate at a sliglit depth. The placer ground on Moore Creek, at the base of Gold Hill, is said to give colors to every pan, Ijut inasmuch as several parties have operated it in years past and have given it up it can not be very profitable. The Medina Mining Company is building a 5 stamp mill on the west side of Silver Creek to test the free or oxidized ore. On the opposite mdc of the gulch the Florence Company is running a crosscut tunnel easterly in diabase I'ock for the purpose of tapping some ore veins that crop on the slope of the mountain above. If the company is successful in this it may prove that the veins at this point have depth and are not gash veins in the cleavage of the country rock. MIXERAL, SPRINGS. James Longmire patented '20 acres of land lying in sees. 29 and 32, T. 1.") N., R. 8 E.. as a mineral claim. He erected an inn, barn, two bath houses, one storehouse, and two small shacks. U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT PART V PL. XXXVII LEGEND Less than 10 percent of the forest About 25percent of the forest About 50perceiit of tliefoiest About 75 percent of the forest Prepared under the direction of Heniy Gannett Geogiapher in charge BY FRED.GPLUMMER 1899 PLUMMEH] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVK, WASHINGTON. 95 Within tlie limits of this claim are about twenty mineral springs having- temperatures from 50° to 90° F. A sample of one of the springs was sent to G. A. Mariner, of Chicago, for analysis, who reported as follows: Analiists of imter from sees. -29 and 33, T. 15 N., R. S E. [Analyst: G. A. Mariner.] Grams. Silica 0. 080410 Calcium carbonate 1. 077200 Magnesium carbonate 617780 Iron oxide 060500 Sodium sulphate 090251 Sodium chloride 1. 463600 Potassium chloride Trace. Sodium carbonate 063195 Sodium silicate 062326 Hydrogen sulphide Trace. Tc )tal solid.s iu one liter 3. 515262 These springs are steady in their flow and hare shown no .signs of failing. On the north side of Summit Creek in the Cowlitz watershed is a mineral spring claimed by David Longmire. It was located Septeml)er 5, ISiVT, as a red mineral paint spring claim. The spring is 4 feet in diameter and is 100 feet from Summit Creek. The amount of flow is about 1 cubic foot per minute. It tastes like soda water strongly impregnated with iron. The temperature is about 40° and the water is very refreshing. The pack animals drank it with relish. A similar spring is reported on the right bank of Bumping Eiver, 5 miles below Tannum Lake. A mineral spring i-s located on the north side of Cowlitz River in sec. 32, T. 13 N., R. 9 E. The waters issue from several Assures of the rock in place and flow into the river, which is only 10 feet distant. The spring is below the level of high water, and its waters are strongly impregnated with sulphur and iron, and have a temperature of about 100° F. In sec. 34, T. 14 N., R. 14 E., on the south side of Tieton River, are mineral springs having a flow of about 0.25 cubic foot per minute. One has a temperature of 105° F. The others are cold. The Klickitat soda springs in the north half of sec. 23, T. 11 N.. R. 12 E., are probably the finest soda springs in the re.serve, although the}- have not so great a flow as the Longmire Springs, nor are they as well situated for use. The main spring issues from a rock crevice on the south side of Klickitat River, below the high-water line. To uiake the water accessiljle the stock herders have built a wing dam which exposes the bubbling spring. Its flow is about 1 cubic foot per ',)(■) FOREST KESERVES. mimitc. and is stosidy. The water is rli>ur iiiid sparkliiijr. with an a>rr(M'atilo taste resenibliiig- viehy. It is a strong appetizer, and acts (liiickiy and vigorously upon the kidneys. On the nortli side of the river, and just above high-water mark, are two harelv perceptiJ)le springs, one warm and the other cold. Two other springs issue in the bed of the stream, and can l)e located liy the bubl)les of gas which ri.se to the surface. In sec. 3»;, T. !» N., R. 12 E., is a line .soda .spring, which ha.s long been known and used by the Indians. Its waters are clear and cold and carry iron, as is shown by the red formation about it. Its flow is 0.-2') cubic foot per minute. Near this spring are three yellow pines (Pinm jwnderosa) of less than 18 inches diameter, which have been art'ected by the spring. Their foliage is of a light-brown color, is very scanty, and droops. Numerous small .soda and iron springs are found along the Clear- water Fork of the Klickitat River in the box canyons. EVIDEXCES OF RECEXT VOECAXIC ACTIVITY. On the slopes of Mount Adams are many evidences of recent vol- canic activity, and important among these are cinder cones and bombs. The cinder cones are miniature volcanoes in form. One. situated about 3 miles northeast of the summit of Mount Adams, at an eleva- tion of 7,000 feet, is worthj^ of special mention. Its height is about .50f» feet and the crater at its summit has a diameter of 175 feet and a depth of 75 feet. The cinders which form its mass and the flora growing upon it are unique and interesting. The lava, scoria, and pumice are often of brilliant colors — red, orange, and yellow predominating. Some of the pumice is of finer te.xture than that in u.se commercially, and the volcanic glass is found in all shades, from black to clear, transparent globules. On the northern side of Goat Peak an area of over 1,000 acres is completely covered with .scoria and cinders, and this area is timberless. If a crater exists it was covered with snow at the time of the examination. The bomt)s found on the lower slopes of Mount Adams are spherical masses of homogenous lava, and lie in piles upon the former lava flows. They are of all sizes up to 20 feet in- diameter, and in every case have been fractured and their hard, glass}' formation exposed. Fre(iuently the fracture planes show a rind of several inches depth from the original spherical surface toward the center. CAVES. At the headwaters of the White Salmon and Little White Salmon rivers are large areas of parth' exposed lava beds. Where a soil has formed it appears to be good, but of no depth, and the timber which it pi.iM.MKR.] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. i»7 supports is scrubby and of small size. A line of caves may be traced along this formation for a distance of 10 miles inside of the reserve and as far again outside. In some cases the caverns appear to exist by reason of the sinking of the flooring, which is of basalt, l)ut quite as frequently they take the form of gigantic bubbles, the roof sti'atum being buckled up and broken, permitting an entrance to the interior. Often these caverns arc continuous for a considerable distance under- ground, the pas.sages widening in the vicinity of the surface opening. In one of these caves, situated in sec. 25. T. 6 N., R. 9 E., ice remains during the entire year, and it has merited the local name of the " Ice Cave." It is about 350 feet in length, with a maximum height of 10 feet and extreme width of 60 feet. The ice is in the form of stalactites and stalagmites; in some cases joined into pillars 3 feet thick. It has been a custom of visitors to build fires in the caves, and much of the natural beaut}^ of this cave has been destroyed. The practice of wantonly breaking the ice forma- tions has also contributed to the destruction of its beauty. A small cave was found on the southeast slope of Mount Adams, near Hell Roaring River. Deep water prevented its exploration. MOUNTAIN PARKS. All the divides become beautiful parks as they approach the slopes of Mount Rainier. In place of the close stand of forest which charac- terizes the lower slopes, the mountain firs and hemlocks are grouped upon the lesser ridges and hummocks from which the snow first dis- appears in the spring. At least 80 per cent of the areas above 5,000 feet and below the timber line may be classed as mountain meadows. The}' are plentifull}' watered by little streams and lakes and the soil supports a heavy growth of wild flowers, ferns, and juniper. The limit of perpetual snow extending through some of these parks gives opportunities for coasting and snowballing, which are enjoyed by the many campers who make these grounds their summer resort. Parks which are well known because of their beauty and accessibility are Paradise Park, Magnetic Park, and Indian Henry's Ground, on the southern slope of the mountain. Spray Park on the northwest slope, Moraine Park and the Elysian Fields on the northern slope. The summit of the Cascade Mountains and the high spurs that extend from it are generally a succession of parks, plentifully grassed and flowered. On the eastern slope these areas have been considei'- ably used for pasturing sheep, and much of their natural beauty destroyed, but onl}^ in the regions of the burns do any of the grander vistas bear witness to the carelessness or greed of man. 21 GEOL, PT 5 T \)S KORKST KKSKRVES. TUEK SPECIKS. Tlio coiiifiMous trees of the reserve are as follows: Ci)iii/eninx IreeK of Mminl Itninin- Forexl JiiKi-rir, ]\'times reaches a diameter of 5 feet and a height of 175 feet, of which two-thirds would be crown. The wood is white, light, medium pi.iMMER] MOUNT EAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 103 hard, and strong, and is brittle when green, but qiiiti^ dural)le and splits easily. This spruce was positively determined only at one point in the reserve — namely, in the Nisqually Valley, near the west boundar}- — and it was from this that the upper limit of 1,800 feet was fixed. As its name indicates, its habitat is at lower elevations than those of the reserve. PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA Poif. (Yellow and red tir). There are two varieties of this species which are not distinct botan- ically, although the difference is recognized by loggers and mill men throughout the State. The yellow fir grows from sealevel to an altitude of 5,600 feet, (uid i-eaches an extreme diameter of LS feet and a height of 300 feet, of which two-thirds is crown. The bark is very thick and deeply fissured. The thickest specimen of bark found measured 22 inches on the radial line. The heartwood is yellow and the sapwood is white, quite heavy, hard, elastic, durable, and splits easily. The red fir. which grows to about the same altitude, does not exceed 7 feet in diameter and 225 feet in height, of which two-thirds is crown. The heartwood is salmon-red color and the sapwood is white or cream color. It is slightly heavier than the yellow fir, more resinous, and not so strong or elastic. When seen in the forest the red fir differs by having a thin bark of a lighter color, and in general does not present as rugged an appearance as the yellow fir. However, many specimens were found which were difficult to determine, and in indi- vidual trees it would not be easy to tell the difference between a thin- barked yellow fir and a heavy-barked red fir. Many of the larger trees having a diameter of from C to 9 feet are in process of decay, being from 500 to 800 years old. The bark is scaly and loose f roui the trunk at the butt, and the tops are dead. In estimating the amount of tim- ber per acre a due allowance was made for the above fact. This timber ranks first in commercial value among the timbers of this State by reason of its superior strength, wide distribution, and accessibility. In the Cowlitz Bottom a fallen tir tree was examined and found to be perfectly sound (excepting 2 inches of the exposed surface), although it had laid upon the ground for seventy -eight 3'ears,as testitied In" the age of a cedar tree which had grown over and straddled it. Thu.ja plicata Don. (Red cedar). This tree, which is also known as arbor vita?, has a range from sea level to 5,100 feet. The extreme diameter breast high was found to be 12 feet with a height of 175 feet, of which three-fifths is crown. The heartwood is very light brown and the sapwood generallj' white. It is verj' light, soft, and is not strong nor elastic. It is very durable when exposed to moisture and is generally of straight grain, splitting 1(14 FOKKST RKSER\'ES. ivadilv into sliinji'lcs. shakes, iiiid hoards. It ranks next to the red and vcllow lir coniinerriallv. and to the pioneer settlers in the valley it is the most valuable tiinl)er. At least Do per eent of the larger eedars are hollow butted. They ahvavs have a swell butt. Of three hollow-butted eedars of tt feet in diameter tlie rate of growth, as shown by the shell of sound wood. a\eraged about ten years per inch radius. In several exceptional cases noted the rate of growth has been very rapid, as much as one- half inch per year for twenty j-ears of successive growth. A fallen cedar tree 8(! inches in diameter was observed to be perfectly sound, although another cedar tree 40 inches in diameter had grown over and straddled it. In swamps and swales it sometimes grows to the exchi- sion of other conifers, but it does not stricth- form a forest of pure growtli, iH'ing accompanied by alders and maples. Chamjecyparis nootkatensis (Lamb.) Spach (Alaska cedar). This tree is found between elevations of 2,600 and 7,400 feet. The exti-eme diameter is 3 feet and the height is 100 feet, of which three- tif ths is crown. The wood from heart to the bark is yellow. It is light, not very hard nor strong, but is more elastic than the red cedar and very durable, but does not split as easily. Generally the branches look scrubliy and give the tree a poor appearance. The outer bark is in long, thin .scales and the inner bark strips easily. It never forms a forest of pure growth, but is generally associated with the mountain tir, pine, and hemlock. Generalh' the areas on which this cedar grows have well-defined limits, but the tree seems to require certain condi- tions of soil and climate, preferring shady valleys and basins. This timber would be very valuable if more widelj^ distributed and more accessible For turnings and fine woodwork it would excel, as its grain is even and straight, and its color uniform. It would be better material for lead pencils than many varieties of wood now used. Larix occidentalis Nutt. (Tamarack). This tree is found between altitudes of 2,200 and 5,000 feet. Extreme diameter is 4^ feet and height 150 feet, of which one-half is crown. The heartwood has an orange tinge and the sapwood is white. It is heavy and hard, not very strong, but is durable and does not split easily. It .sometimes forms a forest of pure growth on the sides of the river canyons, and such a forest-was found upon the flat divide between the Naches and American rivers. The wood makes good tie timber, and is largely used for fuel in eastern Washington. Probably this is the only timber tree of Washington which is not rep- resented on both sides of the Cascade Mountains. It is strictly an eastern-slope tree, and is the only representivtive of the deciduous conifers in the reserve. U. S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT PARTVPL XLI LEGEND lessthanlOpercejitnfthe forest MOUNT RAINIER FOREST RESURVE WASHIN(}TON Showing distribution of red cedar (Tliuja plicata) Prepared under fl\e direction of Heniy Gannett Geographer In ctiarge BY FRED.G.PLUMMER 1899 PUMMER] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 105 Taxus brevifolia Nutt. (Yew). This species of yew is found from sea level to au altitude of -1:,200 feet. Generally the diameter of the mature tree is about 12 inches, but a few individuals were found with a diameter of 2 feet and a height of 40 feet, of which three-fifths is crown. The heailwood is a deep red and the sapwood has a narrow zone of cream-colored wood. It is very heavy, hard, and strong. It is exceptionally tough and durable when not exposed to extremes of moisture and dryness, and will not split after being seasoned. Although absolutely sound on the outside, one tree U inches in diameter was found to be badly split on concentric lines from the butt to a height of 25 feet. Fraxinus oregona Nutt. (Ash). This tree has a range from sea level outside of the reserve to an elevation of 2,500 feet within the reserve. Its diameter is 3 feet and height 80 feet, of which two-thirds is crown. The wood is white, heavy, hard, but not very strong as compai'ed with the eastern ash. It is springjr and quite durable when seasoned. It splits easily and is used for firewood by the settlers. The only large quantit}' was found in the "Big Bottom" of Cowlitz Valley, where it is associated with maples and alders. Acer macrophyllum Pursh. (Maple). This maple is found from sea level to an elevation of 3,300 feet. The extreme diameter is 5 feet with a height of 30 feet, three-fourths to seven-eighths of which is crown. The heartwood is straw color and the sapwood is white. It is not heavy, but is quite hard, although the tree is locally known as the soft maple. The wood is strong. It forms small groves of pure growth in the Cowlitz Bottom, but is generally associated with the ash, j'ew, and alder. Popuxus trichocarpa Torr. and Gr. (Cottonwood). This tree grows from sea level to an elevation of 4,200 feet. The greatest diameter is 5 feet and the height 175 feet, of which two-thirds is crown. The heartwood is of a bufl' color and the sapwood is white. It is light, and is not hard or strong; in fact, it has no quality to recommend it commercially as a timber wood, but has been extensively used in the manufacture of paper pulp. PopuLirs tremuloides Michx. (Quaking aspen). This tree is found in the wet swales and bottoms, and has an alti- tudinal range from 2,500 to 5,800 feet. It does not exceed 20 inches in diameter, with a height of 60 feet, of which one-half is crown. The 10(3 FOREST RKSKRVKS. wood is wliitc iiiul soft iiiul of little or no valuta roiiiiin icially. All of the liirf,'!' tiwsoxuiiiini'd were rotten at the Initt. althouuli they looked clean and healthy outside. QUEKCLS GAISUYANA Douo-l. (Oak). 'J'his oak is the only one of its .speeies founcl in the reserve, and. unless the ash and yew he included, it is the only hardwood tree rep- resented, (ienerally the trees are small, with short trunks, and ot!er nothinir to the lunihernien. but a few individuals Avere noted with diam- eters of 2 feet and a heiirht of 5Ilcaia) amounts to as much as one-half inch annually. In logging, it is customary to cut the trees above the swell l)utts. leaving on the stump that portion of the trunk with the decayed center, and in the case of the firs to reject the sappy base of the tree. Cedars with decayed butts generally show dead tops, but this is of minor interest to the lumberman, who seldom cuts logs far into the crown. In the ideal forest of the lumberman the trees have clear trunks to 100 or 125 feet of height and the crowns form a continuous cover as seen either from below or above. Seldom is the seedling in such a forest able to compete under such conditions, for the existence of such a forest means the elimination of perhaps a hundred seedlings before supremacy in the sapling stage had been established, and the final elimination of at least 90 per cent of the saplings before each successful tree grows skyward in the final competition for light. In areas where this .severe competition does not obtain, the tree trunks are " limby," and even when the trunks appear clear at first glance the logs contain "pin knots." which, running through the heartwood, render the lumber second or third class. Large trees standing in the open, where the winds have greater effect, generally throw very few limbs toward the prevailing winds, but compen.sate on the protected side. The growth of the trunk is then eccentric to the heart and the lumber is not even grained. In the higher and more exposed areas the trees are often without limbs on the storm side, generally the southwest side, and the trees are .stunted, as described elsew'here in this report. It can not be .said that the giant shelf fungus {Poli/j)on/fi sp.) is a factor in killing or even in hastening the death of the large dead timber upon which it is found. Of the manv hundreds of these fungi that were observed, not one was found upon a living tree. The arceuthobium, on the contrary, attacks the living trees, and its range of ai-tivity appears not to be limited by altitude. It is a parasite on the foliage of the pines, firs, and hemlocks of eastern Washington, and in some cases, particularly on the mtiuntain fir (Ahies lasiocarpa), will cover the entire tree and, turning the foliage a red color, makes the tree a conspicuous object. .1 . P I N ES A N U R E Li I- I ^>4>*p^,^^.;i^^^^ v» ~:ti^. ■ RED FIR IN COWLITZ BOTT. MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. Ill ESTIMATES OF TIMBER. WHITE RIVER WATERSHED. Density of timber in \Miite River watershed, Woihinglon. Stand in feet B. M. per Number of acres. Total stand. Feet B. M 0 to 2, 000 33, 570 33, 570, Ot)0 2, 000 to 5, 000 18, 600 65, 100, 000 1 5, 000 to 10, 000 16,450 123, 375, 000 10, 000 to 25,000 29, 150 510, 125, 000 25, 000 to 50, 000 16, 000 600, 000, 000 50,000 t(i 100, 000 20, 850 1, 563, 750, 000 1 Total 134, 620 2, 895, 920, 000 1 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 18,544 feet B. M. Area of timbered and other lands in White Rieer watershed, Washington. Acres. Timbered area 134, 620 Burned area 10, 200 Glaciers 8, 900 Timberless area . 2,440 Total 156, 160 Proportions^ and amoiuils of timber species in White River watershed, W th'ngtun. Species. Proportion. Amount. Red or yellow fir Hemlock ' Red cedar Engelmann spruce White pine Alaska cedar White tir Lovely fir Noble fir Per cent. 45 25 15 5 3 9 5 Feet B. M. 1,303,164,000 723, 980, 000 434, 388, 000 144, 796, 000 86, 877, 600 57, 918, 400 144. 796, 000 Mountain hendock Total 100 2,895,920,000 : 112 KOKE.ST KKSKKVKS PUYALLUP RIVER WATERSHED. Drn.iihj of timber in Puyallup Rimr viaterxhfd , Wasliint/lor). Stand in feet B. M. peraere Number of acref,. Total stnlid. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25, 000 to 50,000 50,000 to ion, 000 Total 30, 160 26, 770 11,150 8,500 10, 900 12, 470 Feet B. M. 30, 160, 000 93, 695, 000 83, 625, 000 148, 750, 000 408, 750, 000 935, 250, 000 99, 950 1,700,230,000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 14,428 feet B. >I. Area of timbered and other lands in Puyallup loatenhed, \\'as)iin(itnv. Aeres. Timbered area 99, 950 Burned area 2, 580 Glaciers :--- 12,600 Timberless area 2, 710 Total 117, 840 I'ro/yortionx and amounts of timber species in Puyallup River viatershed, Washington. Species. Proportion. Amount. Kcd or yellow fir Ilriiilock Per eent. 50 25 10 5 3 2 5 Feel B. M. 850,115,000 425. 057, 500 170,023,000 85,011,500 51,006,900 34, 004, 600 85,011,500 Ri'd cedar Noble fir White fir Kngelmann spruce ! Mountain hemlock ' White pine Total 1 100 1,700,230,000 PLCMMEP..] MOUNT KAINIER KKSERVE, "WASHINGTON. NISQUALLY RIVER WATERSHED. Density of limhcr in Nisqually Rii'cr tmtcrslied, Waahinglon. 113 stand in feet B. M. per acre. Number of Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10, 000 to 25,000 25, 000 to 50,000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total 16, 610 3,360 6,770 5,960 6,370 Fat B. M. 16, 610, 000 11,760,000 50, 775, 000 104, 300, 000 238, 875, 000 39, 070 422, 320, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 5,414 feet B. M. Area of timbered and other lands in Nisqually River watershed, Washington. Acres. Timbered area 39,070 Burned area 27, 810 Glaciers 8,100 Timberless area 3, 020 Total 78,000 Proportions and amounts of timber species in Xisfjuully River ir(derslied, Washington. •Species. Proportion. Amount. Red or yellow fir Per cent. 50 25 10 5 4 1 5 Feet B. iV. 211, 160, 000 105, 580, 000 42, 232, 000 21,116,000 16, 892, 800 4, 223, 200 21,116,000 White fir Noble fir Engelmann spruce Mountain hemlock Total - ... 100 422, 320, 000 21 GEOL, FT 5- 114 KOHEST KKSERVE>: COWLITZ RIVER WATERSHED. Density of limhcr in Coidilz liivrr watcrsheiJ, Wnxliington. Stand in feet B. M. per acre.' ^'"a^re,"; °^ Total stand. 0 to 2,000 2,000 to 5,000 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25, 000 to 50, 000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total 37, 850 96, 380 12,540 47,610 3,720 2, 560 Fid J). .V. 37, 850, 000 337, 330, 000 94, 050, 000 833,175,000 139, 500, 000 192, 000, 000 200, 660 1,633,905,000 Average stand }>vv acre for entire watershed, 5.011 feet B. M. Area of timhi'ird and utlwr Itindu in Cuwlit: Rircr wntfrnhed, Wasliinyton. Timbered area . Burned area . . . Glaciers Timberless area Total Proportions and amoanlii of timber xpccie-^ in ConHitz River imterslied, ]yasliin 200, 660 86, 900 2,900 740 291, 200 mjlon. Species. Proportion. .\mount. j Red or yellow tir Fir cent. 55 25 5 5 4 1 5 Fed B. .V. 898, 647, 750 40S, 476, 250 81, 695, 250 81, 695, 250 65, 356, 200 16,339,050 81, G95, 250 1 Red cedar White tir Mountain hemlock Engelmann spruce Total 100 1, 633, 905, 000 MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. CISPUS RIVER WATERSHED. Den-silt/ of timber in Cispus Ricer inderxlied, Wa.iliington. 115 stand in feet B. M. per acre. Number of acres. Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, COO to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10, 000 to 25,000 25, 000 to 50,000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total 27, 400 64, 200 24, 300 76, 800 Feel B. .V. 27,400,000 224, 700, 000 182, 250, 000 1,344,000,000 1 192, 700 1, 778, 350, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 7,535 feet B. M. Area of tlmhered and other laiuh in Cispiix River watertihed, WaxJiington. Acres. Timbered area 192, 700 Burned area 43, 000 100 Glaciers Timberless area . 200 Total 236, 000 Proportions and amounts of timber species in Cisjjus River ivatershed, WaMngton. Species. Proportion. Amount. Red or yellow fir Per cent 45 30 10 5 5 Feet B. M. 800, 257, 500 533, 505, 000 177,835,000 88, 917, 500 88, 917, 500 SS, 917, 500 Noble fir White fir Mountain hemlock White pine Total 100 1,778,350,000 116 FOREST RESERVES. LEWIS RIVER WATERSHED. Di'nxilij !>/ limhif in Li'irlx liiirr iralershed, Wn.tliiiiriton. Stand in feet B. M. per acre. Number of aeres. Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10, 000 to 25, 000 25, 000 to 50, 000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total 14, 730 48, 450 61,810 7,900 54, 730 1,620 Feet B. M. 14, 730, 000 169,57.5,000 463, 575, 000 1.38, 250, 000 2, 052, 375, 000 121, 500, 000 189, 240 2, 960, 005, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 13,295 feet B. M. Area of limbered and other landa in Lewiti Rirer watershed, Washinr/lon. Acres, Timbered area 189, 240 Burned area 32, 360 Glaciers 350 Timl>erles.s area . 690 Total 222, 640 Proportions and amounts of timber species in Leieis River iratershed, Washine/ton. Species. Proportion. Amount. Ked or yellow tir Per cent. 50 20 15 5 5 Feet B. M. 1,480,002,500 592, 001, 000 444, 000, 750 148, 000, 250 148, 000, 250 148, 000, 250 Eed cedar White fir Mountain hemlock White pine Total 100 2, 960, 005, 000 MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. WASHOUGAL RIVER WATERSHED. iJensHy of liinhrr In ]\'iisliiiiignl River umiersheil, Washington. 117 stand in tect B. M. per acre. Number of Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10, 000 to 2.5,000 2.5, 000 to .50,000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total Feet li. M. 2,370 17, 775, 000 910 68, 250, 000 3,280 86, 025, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 26,227 feet B. M. Area of watershed, all timbered, 3,280 acres. Proportion) and amoHnts of timber species in Washougal River watershed, Washitiglon. .Species. Proportion. Amount. Eed or yellow lir Noble fir .... Per cent. 30 25 25 15 1 • Feel B. M. 25, 807, 500 21,, 506, 2.50 21,506,250 12, 903, 750 4, 301, 2.50 1 Hemlock White fir Total 100 86, 025, 000 ROCK CREEK WATERSHED. Density of timber in Rock- Creek, watershed, Washington. Stand in feet B. M. per acre. Number of acres. Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10, 000 to 25, 000 25, 000 to .50,000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total Fed B. M. 690 5, 175, 000 690 4,660 25, 875, 000 349, 500, 000 6,040 380, 550, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 63,005 feet B. BI. Area of watershed, all timbered, 6,040 acres. 118 FOBKST EESERVES. Proporlioii.1 and amounts of timber itpccies in Hock Creek iratcrxhed, Washington. Species. Proportion. .\mount. Red or yellow &r Per call. 30 25 25 15 1 ' Feet n. M. 114,165,000 95, 137, 500 95,137,500 57, 082, 500 19, 027, 500 AVhiteflr Total 100 380, 550, 000 WIND RIVER WATERSHED. Density of timber in Wind River watershed, Washiuijlon. Stand in feet B. M. per acre. Number of acres. Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10,000 10, 000 to 25,000 25, 000 to 50,000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total 21, 810 7,970 3,220 17,700 52, 900 18, 430 Feet B. M. 21,810,000 27, 895, 000 24, 150, 000 309, 750, 000 1, 983, 750, 000 1,382,250,000 122,030 3, 749, 605, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 25,858 feet B. M. Area of timber and other lands in the Wind River watershed, Washington. Acres. Timbered area 122, 030 Burned area 22, 970 Total 145,000 PH.M.MER.] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 119 Proportions and amounts of timber species in]Vind River waterslied, Washington. Species. Proportion. Amount. Red or yellow fir Per cent. 45 15 10 10 5 5 Feet B. M. 1, 687, 322, 250 562, 440, 750 374, 960, 500 374, 960, 500 187, 480, 250 187, 480, 250 187, 480, 250 187, 480, 250 Noble fir Lovely fir AVhite fir White pine Lodgepole pine Mountain hemlock Engelmann spruce Total 100 3, 749, 605, 000 LITTLE WHITE SALMON RIVER WATERSHED. nsitij of timber in Little ]Vliite Salmon River leatershed, Washington. stand in £eet B. M. per acre. Number of aeres. Total stand. 0 to 2,000 2,000 to 5,000 5,000 to 10,000 10,000 to 25,000 25.000 to 50,000 50,000 to 100,000 Total 16, 080 39, 590 4,720 6,430 Fed B. M. 16, 080, 000 138, 565, 000 35, 400, 000 112, 525, 000 66, 820 302, 570, 000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 4,223 feet B. M. Area of timbered and other lands in Little White Salmon River luaterslted, Washington. Acres. Timbered area 66, 820 Burned area 4, 830 120 KORKST KKSKKVES. Proporliona and amounls of timber xpccien In Litttr White Sntimtn I{iier watershed, Wanhington. Species. Proportion. Amount. Red or yellow fir Pereent. 55 10 10 5 5 3 5 Feet li. M. 166,413,500 30, 257, 000 30, 257, 000 15, 128, 500 15, 128, 500 15,128,500 9, 077, 100 6,051,400 15, 128, 500 Engclniann spruce White fir Jlountain hemlock Total 100 302, 570, 000 WHITE SALMON RIVER WATERSHED. Density of timber in Wliite Salmon River u-ater.ihed, Washington. stand in feet B. M. per aere. Number of acres. Total stand. Feet B. M. 0 to 2, 000 13, 370 13, 370, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 23, 670 82, 845, 000 5, 000 to 10, 000 30, 650 229, 875, 000 10, 000 to 25, 000 5,990 104, 825, 000 25,000 to 50,000 2,890 108, 375, 000 50,000 to 100,000 Total 76, 570 539, 290, 000 Average stand per acre for entire waterslied, 5,106 feet B. 51. Area of timbered and other lands in White Salmon River water.'^lied, Washington. Acres. Timbered area , 76, 570 Burned area 27, 200 Glaciers 450 Timberless area 1 , 380 Total 105, 600 PLUMMER.] MOUNT EAINIEE RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 121 Prvportions and amounts of timber species in White Salmon. Rlrer irnlerslied, Washington. Species. Proportion. Amount. Per cent 40 30 10 5 4 3 3 5 Feel 11. M. 215, 716, 000 161, 787, 000 53, 929, 000 26, 964, 500 21,571,600 16, 178, 700 16, 178, 700 26, 964, 500 Tamarack Hemlock Noble fir '. White fir ■ Lodgepole pine Engelmann s-pruce Mountain fir Mountain hemlock i Total 100 539, 290, 000 KLICKITAT RIVER WATERSHED. Density of timber in Klickitat Rirer icatcrshed, Washington. Stand in feet B.M.per acre. Number of Total stand. 0 to 2, 000 2, 000 to 5, 000 5, 000 to 10, 000 10, 000 to 25, 000 25,000 to 50,000 50, 000 to 100, 000 Total 29, 580 31, 660 15, 070 35, 440 17, 600 4,460 Feet B. .V. 29, 580, 000 110, 810, 000 113, 025, 000 620, 200, 000 660, 000, 000 334, 500, 000 133, 810 1,868,115,000 Average stand per acre for entire watershed, 11,075 feet B. JSI. Area of timbered and other lands in. Klickitat Hirer watershed, Washington. Acres. Timbered area .• 133, 810 Burned area .' 30,230 Glaciers .' 1,400 Timberless area 3, 240 Total 168, 680 122 FOREST RESERVES. Proporlionx mul iiiiioiiiils of tiinliir sjtcrii's in Klickitiit liiirr iralirxhrd, Wdxiuiirjtoii. Species. Proportion. Amount. I'cr mil. 55 20 10 5 5 5 Feet 11. if. 1,027,463,250 373, 623, 000 186,811,500 93, 405, 7.50 93, 405, 750 93, 405, 7.50 Red or yellow iir White pine Mountain hemlock AVhite fir Enpeliiiann spruce Alaska cedar Total 100 1, 868, 115, 000 ATANUM RIVER WATERSHED. DensUij of Hinhi:r in Atanum River imli-rKlwd, ]y a.'^ follows: («'.< (){ (i-imh uft'-ets in Moinil Uniniir Rewnc, Wii.->hl,ii/lon. Bridge timbers Kcd and yellow fir. Lumber Red and yellow fir, red cedar, tiile- land spruce, yellow pine, white pine, noble fir, lovely fir. Shingles Red cedar, white lir. Piles Kcd fir. Telegraph ])oles Red cedar. Railroad ties Tamarack, red and yellow fir, white pine, red cedar. Fence posts and fuel All kinds. Paper pulp Tlie following trees in the order of their importance: Tideland spruce, Cottonwood, quaking aspen, white fir, red and yellow fir, hemlock, maple. Furniture and <-abinetwork In addition to the lumber woods enumerated some oak, ash, and maple have been used. MARKETS AXD PRICES. Ih the absence of railroads and other well-established line.^ of travel the various divisions of the i*eserve are, b_v watersheds, comuicrcially tributary to the outlying markets, namely, Taeoma, Chehalis, Portland, and North Yakima. The following tables show these watersheds and the markets which they at present would naturally suppl3\ Markets for watersheds in Mount Rainier Reserve, Washington. Watersheds. Area. Tributary tn— AVhite River Acres. 156, 160 117,840 78, 000 291, 200 236, 000 222, 640 3,280 6,040 145, 000 71,650 105, 600 168, 680 40, 660 169, 000 327, 170 Tacoma. Do. Do. Tacoma or Chehalis. Do. Portland. Dq. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. North Yakima. Do. Do. Do. Cowlitz River Yakima River 7,680 PLiMMER.] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, "WASHINGTON. 129 Prices ofjir litmhir In markets adjacent to Minml Rainier Reserve, Wasltlnijton. Grndf. Siae. Finish. PerMteetB.M.at— Tacoma or Portland. North Yakima. Indict. 1 tiy 12 ,lo Rough Surface 2 siy 20 inches ' 100 22 by 22 inches : 50 22 by 22 inches 100 24 by 24 inches I 50 24bv24inches I 100 $12.50 35. 00 12.50 :«. 00 13.25 .37. .50 14.00 40. 00 15. .Ml 44. 00 17.00 48. 00 20. 00 53. 00 23.00 59.00 Prices of larger timbers are sjiecial. rXDEKBRl'SH. Small areas on the eastern slope are of open pine foi'ests, carpeted ■with pine grass {('(dcnniK/rostis xuA'sdorfi) and without litter or under- brush, bift the general statement is true that on both slopes of the mountuin.s the underbru.sh is heavA' as compared with eastern fores-t areas, and on the western slope it is not uncommon for the growth to be so rank as to be impenetrable. The term underbrush as here used does not include young trees of the same species as those composing the forest, nor does it include gras.ses. sedges, weeds, or ferns. In the typical forest of conifers there is considerable growth of the deciduous shrubs, which are prop- erly included as underbrush and are so called locally. The species common to both slopes are as follows: I'nderhrush in Mount Rninier Reserve, Washuifflon. SPECIES ForXD THROCGHOUT THE RESERVE. Oregon grape Berberis nervosa Pui-sh. Washington holly Berberis aquifoliuni Pursh. Pachystinia myrsinites Raf. Bearberry Rhaumus purshiana DC. Soapwood Ceanothus velutinus Dougl., com- mon. Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh . lER] MOUNT RAINIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 131 Vine maple Aier circinatum Pursh. Smooth maple Acer glabrum Torr. I Primus emarginata var. mollis AVild cherry Brewer. [ Prunus demissa Waljj. f Rosa gymnocarpa Xutt. Wild rose J Rosa nutkana Presl. IRosa oalifornicaCham. and Schlecht. Hardhack Spiraea douglasii Hook. Arrowwood Spira;a discolor Piireh. Alpine spiraea Spira-a rosea Gray. Spira;a corymbosa Raf. Mountain ash Pyrus sambucifolia (Cham, and Schlecht) Roem. Crab apple Pyrus rivularis Dougl. Juneberry Vmelanchier alnifolia Xutt. Thimbleberry Rubus nutkanus Moc. Salmon berry Rubus spectabilis Pursh. Raspberry Rubus leucodermis Dougl. Blackberry Rubu.s ursinus Cham, and Schlecht. Snowy or birds' -foot liramble Rubus pedatua Smith. Downy bramble Rubus lasiococcus Gray. Grease wood Purshia tridentata DC. Nine-bark Xeillia ojuilifolia B. and II. Mock orange or wild syringa. _ Philadelphus lewisii Pursh. Red-flowering currant Ribes sanguineum Pursh. Western fetid currant Ribes bracteosum Dougl. Ribes viscosissimum Pursh. Ribes cereum Dougl. Ribes ciliosmn Howell. Prickly gooseberry Ribes lacustre var. molle Gray. Black-berried gooseberr}- Ribes divericatum Dougl. Devil's walking club Fatsia horrida B. and H. Canada dogwood Cornus canadensis Linn. Western dogwood Cornus nuttallii Aud. White-berried dogwood Cornus pul lescens Xutt. White elder Sanibucus nielanoc^rpa Gray. Red-berried elder Sambucus racemosa Linn. Sambucus glauca Xutt. ? Viburnum Viburnum paucifiorum Pylaic. Snowberry Symphoricarpus racemosus Michx. Western honeysuckle Lonicera ciliosa Poir. Bush honeysuckle Lonicera involucrata Banks. Red huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium Smith. Myrtle-leaved huckleberry Vaccinium myrtilloides Hook. Small red huckleberry Vaccinium myrtillus var. micro- cephyllum Hook. Cranberry ( species not determined. ) Manzanita Arctostaphylos tomentosa Dougl. Kinnikinick Arctostaphylos uvaursi Spr. ^fountain salal Gaultheria ovatifolia Gray. Pale laurel Kalmia glauca Ait. var. ilenziesia ferruginea Smith. AVhite rhododendron Rhododendron albiflormn Hook. 132 FOREST RESERVKS. I.ulinidor U:\ Leiluiu latilnliiim Ait. l)\\:irf bircli Betula (ilaiiduloj'a Miclix. Mountain aliliT Alnus sinnata Kyd. Alnu.s rhunihil'olia Xutt. Ilazlc Coryliis rostrata Ait., vi-ry cnnnnun. Bee willow Salix i'iteheni'i.'- Sanson. Marsh willow Salix la.siamlra Rentli. Quakin;; a,«pen I'opnlu^' treninloiilcH Miclix. Alpine juniper Juniperns I'onniiuni.s ]Jnn. HPECIE-S KOIXI) o.Nl.Y ox THE WhXTEHX SI.OI'K. IMadrufia Arbutus menziesii Pursh. Salal Gaultlieria .-liallon Pur.-^h. State flower Khoiloflendron californicuni Hook. Honeysuckle Lonicera liispidula r)ou been totally destroyed. ASH TREES. a. MOUNT HOOD; MOUNTAIN FIR IN FOREGROUND. PLUMMER.] MOUNT KAINIER RKSERVE, WASHINGTON. 133 On the steeper hillsides it acts as a retarding- element to the surface drainage, preventing the sudden flooding of the streams during rains, and also preventing their entire cessation during the dry season. On the eastern slope, in the watershed of the Yakima River, the surface flow continues to feed the river for three months after the cessation of the winter rains and snows, and as the waters of this river are largely used for irrigation, the importance of the forest cover and the humus is easily seen. Lands are irrigated from April to October, inclusive, the largest demand for water generally being made in July, at which time at least one-half of the flow is from the melting snows. The time is i-apidly approaching when the entire flow of this river will bo util- ized in the necessary and desirable conversion of deserts into gardens, and it is conservative to say that a fall of 1 foot in the river aflects 300,0(10 acres of land. EXTENT AND LOCATION OF BURNS. The areas which may be classified as i)urns amount to 326.590 aci'es, or about loi per cent of the total area of the reserve. Of this area about two-thirds are on the western side of the Cascade Mountains. Ancient burns, of which traces still remain in the standing timber, cover probably 40 to 50 per cent of the area of the reserve, but being restocked with trees of large size, these areas can not be called burns. The tires of comparatively recent occurrence, whose eflects may be studied and compared, have results depending upon the nature of the forest, the time of yea?-, and the winds. A tire ma}' clear the ground of brush, litter, and humus, but not materially damage the standing- trees beyond charring them to a height of 10 or 15 feet. If more severe it maj- consume some of the standing trees without much regard to species or location, on account of the pi'oximity of under- brush and litter to the bases of the trees destroyed. Such tires leave standing Inirned snags surrounded by green and unharmed old timber. A '"burn"" results in the total destruction of all vegetation within the limits of the burned area, leaving only standing snags and stumps, and the ground covered with partly consumed logs. Small areas may be "clean burns" and show few signs of the former forest, but instead be a desert of burned sandy soil in which the traveler will sink ankle deep. The burns bear little relation either to topograph}' or the kind of timber, their boundaries and extent having been determined by the initial fire and the direction of the wind. The smaller deciduous trees which have their habitat in the moist bottoms, such as alder and maples, are more immune than their coniferous associates, but even they do not always escape. 134 FOREST REriEKVES. The ifivat liuriis in the Cowlitz \v:it(>rsliO(l occuiTpd in 1S41 and 1850, but |»ortions of the area have been Ijurned or reburned at intervals durinff the past ten years. Over hir<,'e and irregular areas this region is restocked with the same species of trees which l)order it and prob- ably constituted the original forest. In this restocking the noble fir (,li/t',v iwIIIIk) takes an important part. and. together with the other firs, would rapidly retimber this most unsightly region if tires could be picvented. On the Sawtooth Range a large lire occurred in 1896, and reliable witnesses say that one tree burned for six months. The hills on the north side of the Cowlitz River have been burned over several times since settlement, the last burn being three years ago. In this and adjoining areas the second growth after the burn is very rapid. From testimony of various Indians regarding the "big tire" it appears that it was of unusual severity. Many Indians and stock per- ished, and the few saved who were in its path were submerged in the river for protection. The heat was so intense as to kill some of the fish in the river. The large burn on Bald Mountain occurred about 1S60 and must have been a very severe and destructive fire, destroying all the vege- tation and humus and exposing the thin scoria soil, which barely covers the eruptive rocks. Under such adverse conditions the process of restocking is necessarih* slow, particularly as the seedlings must advance up hill unprotected. The burn about Juniper Mountain and the head of McCoy Creek occurred in July. 1898. At about the same time a portion of the southwest slope of Mount Adams was burned, leaving an unsightly patch of dead snags which detracts from the beauty of the mountain view. The recent burns near Steamboat Mountain and over scattered patches to the southward have occurred periodically during the past twenty years, the last and most extensive tire being in 1S97. On the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains the majority of the burns have occurred during the past decade, those of the Ataiium i>ud Tieton watersheds having mostly occurred since 1896. A portion of the basin of Silver Creek was burned August 10. 1898, and at this time ashes fell at Longmires Springs, which is distant about -lO miles. Mineral Creek Basin, which is a tributary to Ameri- can River, burned over in IS'JS. CAUSES OF FIRES. The fires which have occurred in the reserve may be traced to the following causes: Campers and packers build their fires against logs or trees and neglect to extinguish them. Small fires that are built in the open do U. .q GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT PART V PL XLVI LEGEND Less than 10 percent of the forest About25iH'R\'ntofthe forest p Ahdiii "lOperrent of thefoR" About 75 percent of the forest MOUNT RAINIER FOREST RESERVE WASHINGTON Showing distribution of yellow pine { Pinus ponderosa) Prepared underthe direction of HerayCannett Geographer in charge BY FRED. G PLUM MER 1899 10 15 MILES PLUMMER.] MOUNT EAINIER EESEBVE, WASHINGTON. 135 not spread unless the humus is deep and dry. They will smolder until fanned into flame by the wind. Sheep men start fires to promote the growth of grass near the sum- mits, believing that the destruction of the timber is generally followed by a growth of those grasses upon which sheep will feed. Severe fires also have the effect of clearing the ground of underbrush and litter and make it easier and .safer to drive sheep from point to point. Prospectors fire the timber with the object of clearing the ground to make prospecting easier. A great many miners are strongly opposed to this method as it gives a very dirty area to work in and the legitimate miner needs the timber for his shafts and tunnels. Settlers start fires for the purpose of clearing the land for cultiva- tion. As the settlei's do not like to go to the trouble of carrying their brush or slashed timber away from the standing timber, they burn it where it falls in slashing. Indians also start fires on the slopes and summits for the purpose of pi'omoting the growth of huckleberries, blackberries, and raspber- ries, and also to drive game. Camping parties often set fire to the resinous trees simph* for the the pleasure of seeing them burn. Cases of this kind were not uncommon, but of recent years sentiment has been so strongly against this practice that the evil has almost ceased to exist. Lightning also starts fires. Since the inauguration of the present forest policy the causes may be briefly stated as ignorance, carelessness, and lightning. The expert woodsman, trapper, hunter, or camper for pleasure is careful about his fires and knows how to build them so that they will not spread and burn his tent and outfit. His cooking fire is never larger than necessary to hold a coffee pot, kettle, and skillet, and is usually made between two rows of rocks or two small green or wet logs. The fire will measure 8 by 20 or 30 inches, and within a half hour from the time of starting every small twig and dry cone in its immediate vicinity has been used for fuel and to safeguard against burnt shoes or trousers. The tenderfoot, on the contrary, builds his fires large and open, and the chance of their spreading is much increased if they are against logs or trees. The fixing of a cause for any stated fire is almost impossible, unless lightning was the cause. Sheep men. prospectors, hunters, and ranchers accuse one another promiscuously, but no reliable data are obtainable. In the case of lightning, where the agencj' of a human being is not involved, some data have been collected and will be here given at the risk of giving that agent moi'e prominence than might be justified were the other causes capable of the same investigation. These well- authenticated instances do, however, prove that lightning can not be omitted from the list of causes, although it may be argued that during \^Ci FOREST RESKRVKS. iiii (■Ici-tric storm tlio precipitation siiould he so j^'n-iit as to pn-vcnt a iarj^o tiro from catrhing or spreading. In May. iS'.tT. lightning struck the timl)er in Cowlitz Bottom near the town of Vance on several occasions, the largest l)urn resulting in the destruction of about three acres of timber. In June. 180(3, it struck the hills in sees. 1 and 2, T. 12 N.. K. 7 E.. and a large forest lire in the second growth resulted. Timber on Juniper Mountain was struck by lightning in July, 1S'.>8, and a large burn resulted which destroyed considerable fair timber. In the basin of the South Fork of the Ilattlesnake on July 22, 1898, at 7.30 p. m.. lightning struck a tree and also killed three horses belonging to Joseph Melini. Another stroke set a .small fire which l)urn(^l for ten or tifteen minutes. Both tires were extinguished by the accompanying downpour of rain. On August 10. 18!I8, lightning struck several trees in Silver Creek Basin and a large burn resulted. There was no rain that day, nor was there at Longmires Springs, di.stant 20 miles, although the day was heavily clouded. Two lires were .started by lightning on July 2S. ISOK. in sec. 3t),- T. 7 N.. K. » E.. but did not spread l)eyond the trees struck. RESTOCKING OF BURNED AREAS. All of the re.stocking of the reserve is natural. Xo work has been done by man toward re.seeding with the best .species nor eliminating from young .second growths the undesirable species. All of the activity thus far has been toward protection against tire, which ma\' in a day destroy what would Ijalance the work of years. The process of reseeding is rapid. All of the timber ti-ees .seed aljundantly and at a .season when the high winds may distribute the seeds over large areas. It i.s doubtful if any assi.stance from man would noticeably aifect the progress of this reseeding, which, if con- ditions of .soil permit, results in a thicket of small growth in spite of the numerous animals which destroy seeds. In cases where a tire was not severe and representatives of one or more hardy species withstood the flames, the restocking begins from these survivors, which are not always the best timber species. The mountain hemlock (7*w^a ^x/<- tonldnit) seems to resist tire more successfully than the other species common in the alpine zone, and the tamarack {Larix occidental ts) sur- vives best in the middle zone. In Naches Valley above the junction of Bumping River there is a very old burn. A few yellow pine and red tir of the old forest are .still .standing, and the heavy second growth is of the .same species, with the addition of tamarack. Very small recent tires in the same area have injured many of the trees and made clean burns in .some locations. From Xaches Pass just outside the reserve for 5 miles down the river and into the reserve there is aa .1, MOUNT RAINIER FROM GOAT MOUNTAIN. B. BURN, WITH SECOND GROWTH. PLCMMEP..] MOUNT RAIXIER RESERVE, WASHINGTON. 137 old burn about 2 miles wide, which is now partly second growth white tir and tamarack, with willows along the banks. In the watershed of Atanum River there are indications that the tamarack stood the fires of an ancient burn better than other species. After a clean burn the restocking must proceed from the bordering forests, and it is observed that although these bounding forests may be mixed, one species often predominates in the new growth. This fact may be accounted for by assuming that a favorable wind pre- vailed whpn that particular species was in mature fruit, and that the soil conditions in the burn were such as to give encouragement to that species. In this respect the tamarack easily takes the lead in eastern Washington, and the hemlock [Tsuya mertimslana) in western Wash- ington. Of all the conifers these two species have the lightest cones and seeds, and are most exempt from the attacks of squirrels and chip- munks. These are among the least valuable of the timber trees, and it happens that the best of the pines, the white pine {P. montlcola), and the best of the firs, the noble fir (^4. nuhiUx), have large and heavy cones, and being subject to these dejiredations are checked in their efforts at restocking. The grazing of sheep and other stock upon Inirned areas certainly retards their restocking with timber. If stock pasturing were pro- hibited upon all burned and low timberle»ss areas until the restocking had resulted in such suflicient stand and age of timber trees that further protection would ))e unnecessary, it would remove a seriois enemy from the field, and in all pi'obability would result in extin- guishing forest fires in their incipiency. TIMBERLESS AREAS. There is no altitude which may be termed a timber limit. This results from the fact that the bold topography of the reserve and the presence of numerous perpetual snow fields and glaciers cause diffei*- ent climatic conditions to obtain in areas not wideh* separated. Upon the slopes of Mount Rainier the alpine trees cover the sharp ridges to an elevation of 7.200 feet, and above this only a few scattering pro- cumbent individuals rind shelter behind some rock or crag. The extreme altitude there reached Ijy trees may be stated at 7,600 feet, Init at Goat Peak the same forms reach an altitude of 8.400 feet. The difl'erence of latitude favoring Goat Peak is only a third of a degree, but the local climatic conditions are quite different. At lower eleva- tions than these, however, many rocky peaks are often too exposed to permit a growth of trees or the accumulation of a scanty soil, except- ing in the rock crevices where the hardy little alpine flowers will find strong root hold. Cliffs at all altitudes are often too steep and smooth to permit the spread of the timber which struggles for existence on the talus slopes 138 FOREST RKSERVES. below. Often the talus slopes are timberless, particularly when recent or when composed of line chips, hut in the majority of cases the pines and tirs manage to advance over these uninviting areas. Upon the slopes of ]\lount Kainier the glaciers flow to the lower altitudinal limit of 3,300 feet, and tliese areas arc of course timberless, as are the perpetual snow fields which border the glaciers or lie upon the ridges which form the divides l)etween the "cradles " of the glaciers. The great timberless area of eastern AVashington, or the "arid region," does not extend to the boundary of the reserve, but approaches it so closely that it is germane to the subject. It appears to the most casual observer that the trees of the lower mountain slopes are forcing their way over these arid regions. A similar phenomenon has long been observed on the beautiful pai'ked prairies of western "Washington near Tacoma, where the ad\-ance of the red firs (Pseudofsiu/a faxlfolid) has been as great as '2b feet per year. On the eastern slopes of the Cascade Mountains it is the yellow pine {Plnm 2)07iderosa) that takes the lead among the conifers in attack- ing these arid regions. The red iir follows closely, seldom being more than 2 miles behind, and is in turn closely followed h\ the tamarack {Larix occidental is). Other species follow rapidly, depend- ing upon topography and soil. TIMBER CUTTII^G i:ff THE RESERVE. A total area of about 8,000 acres has been cut within the boundaries of the re.serve. Of this amount 4-0 per cent has been cut l)y actual settlers and the balance by loggers. The largest area is along Tieton River, from the reserve boundary westward. The lumber is reported as used for fluming and other con- struction work on the Selah irrigating canal. The cordwood from the same area was marketed in North Yakima. At Tannum Lake about 200 logs have been cut and dressed on two sides ready for the construction of an impounding dam at the foot of the lake. This work was done in 1891 under the direction of the Yakima Investment Company, and most of the logs have been piled up at the point of proposed construction. Tannum Lake and Lakes Kitchelos, Katchess, and Clealum, which lie outside of the reserve, have been considered in connection with the extensive plans for the irrigation of the fertile slopes of the Lower Yakima Basin, which plans have been partly carried to completion. There is little doubt that they will be needed for storage in the future, as the nature of the Yakima watershed causes extremes of high and low stages in the river. At the ^Medina mining canij) on Silver Creek in Sunnnit district, a small mill has been erected to furnish luml)er to be used in the con- struction of a 5-stamp mill and the necessary fluming and buildings. A. SUMMIT OF RANGE IN SOUTHERN PART OF THE RESERVE, LOOKINli WEST. li. HEADWATERS OF TIETON RIVER, FROM GOAT MOUNTAIN. PLVMMER] MOUNT KAI:NIER reserve, WASHINGTON. 139 They have slashed an area of about 2 acres and cut a total of about 10,000 feet. A sawmill in sec. 29, T. 15 X., R. 7 E., was run for a short time. The logging was largely from an area subsequently cleared and cul- tivated. There are about 10,000 feet of lumber in the mill yard. A mill situated near Chenowith post-office in sec. 22, T. 4 N., R. 9 E., has cut a total of about 40 acres from patented land within the reserve. Another located in sec. 14, T. 3 N., R. 9 E., outside of the reserve, has cut about l(iO acres. A shingle mill is situated in sec. 20. T. 4 N.. R. 9 E., and has a capacity of about 30,000 shingles per day. It cuts from patented lands. In 1899 a small portal)le mill was located in sec. 8, T. 12 N., R. 7 E., but is now idle after filling a few small orders. The country triliutaiy to it is patented and settled. liOGGIXG COXDITIONS. It may be said generally that the logging of those areas examined must be by skid and railroads. The only drivable stream is the Lower Cowlitz River, and as there is not much timber in its valley skids or trams will be needed to transfer logs from the timbered slopes of its watershed to the river. The exception to the above general statement is that during flood seasons several of the rivers carry enough water in confined channels to drive logs for short distances, and that shingle bolts, fence posts, and cordwood might be driven during the greater part of the year if drifts and other obstructions are removed. Such rivers are the AVhite, Carbon, Little AVhite Salmon, Cispus, Lewis, Wind, Puyallup, Nisqually. Klickitat, and Naches. With the present method of logging it is not likely that any of these streams will ever be used. In all the watei'sheds the method and route of logging is fixed by the location of the main and secondary divides, which are usually sharp and well defined, without table-lands. In such cases the canyon slopes arc so steep that log chutes might be used, but the areas tributary to such chutes are generally limited and contain little timber. With the exception of a short narrow-gage railroad feeding the Oregon ]\Iill Company's mill in T. 4 N., R. 9 E., there are no railroads in the reserve, nor are there any wagon roads over which heavy logs could be hauled. The Northern Pacific Railway Company has made a survey up the Nisciually Valley via Bear Prairie, down Skate Creek, up the Cowlitz and Summit Creek and over Carlton Pass in the Cascade Mountains, thence down Bumping River, but no construction work has been done. The Tacouia and Columbia River Railroad has made a preliminary survey from the end of their line at Lake Park, 11 miles from Tacoma. This survey runs up the Cispus River to Cispus Pass with the expressed intention of tapping a timber belt and certain coal prospects in the Cispus watershed. 14U KOKEST RESKKVKS. SKTTI.K^IKXT AXl) IMPIiON'KMKXTS. Witliiii til.' ivscrvc thoiv iiiv Itio s(>ttlcr>. of whom u))out T.J per cut liaw iiuul.' iinprovoinents other than the building of houses oi- .•;il)in>. From detail memoranda made during the examination the followiiig figures are obtained: I,„p,-<,r,mn,h n, .U.,»„/ /.•.,;„;,/■ I:,s,rn: lIVw/i/'x;/'"" Niiiiilnr i.f hoiisi's uiuluiling tiapiiers aii4 jinii^pi'di Nuiulicr of l)arni- . ISl 90 NmnlitT of acres slashed •'• -'•''• °'^ Niimlier of acres cleareil (inosfly in pastures) 1. 864. ,5 Number of acres in gardens 'J'^- "^ Number of acres in orchards 9 1 . So CnMierally the clearing of land for pasturage does not include the removal of large stumps, as this work is expensive, and in some loca- tions would mean $150 per acre. The garden produce Is for local consumption and is only limited by climate. The best results are from potatoes, onions, turnips, carrots, beets, parsnips, squash, and small fruits. Corn, tomatoes, and cucumbers are raised, but not to perfection. The orchards are principally of apples, plums, and pears. GRAZIXG. The grazing lands of the reserve are mainly upon the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains, and have an area of about SOO.OOO acres. During the season of 18!t!> approximately 200.000 sheep were herded on this area. The general method of herding sheep in the State of Washington is as follows: In the late fall and winter the sheep are pastured in the vicinity of their home ranches in the low lands and valleys of eastern Washington, and in severe weather feed on hay. In the early spring, after lambing and sheai'ing. the bands are driven toward the mountains, reaching the reserve in June. They follow the receding snows to the very summits, grazing and browsing upon the new growth of grasses and deciduous vegetation. Late in August they commence to work down to the lower altitudes, and generally leave the reserve aliout the 1st of October. As might be expected, there is a wide divergence of opinion regard- ing the ad\antages or disadvantages resulting from this practice, and the sheep ownei-"s position has become one of active defense against public sentin)ent. The arguments presented against the grazing of sheep in the reserve are as follows: (1) That the sheep men lire the forests for the purpose of promoting the growth of the forage plants. ('2) That the sheep browse upon the young timber trees and trample out the seedlings. (3) That the removal of underbrush I'auses the streams to become more ^ •(^ I^^ mt^'^^ ^ •^"•g m *. '"■"i i i ."f 1 ^^^B?x '??gvd tofTotlior ill :i biiiuli of youiiijf tirs iiiul piin-s. They lisid pawed tlic <.rr()und for jrra.s.s roots, imd had jrimwcd the bark from the troes and hrowsod on .some of the foliage, but not to any extent. There is no doubt that the sheep trample out seedlings of the conifers as they do of other trees and shrulis. Along the routes of sheep travel the forest tloor is sometimes powdered by their sharp hoofs and all traces of undergrowth obliterated, and if this condition pre- vailed over a liurned area the process of restocking would lie very slow. All of the conifers .set cones in abundance, but not one seed in KMi.ooo pi-oduces a mature tree under ordinary conditions. Squirrels, chiinuunks. and liirdseat most of the .seeds; forest .shade kills many of the seedlings, and in the open it is a case of survival of the fittest. Inasmuch as a sufficient number of the seedlings generalh' survive to take part in the final competition and form the *" thickets" .so commons in the more open areas, it is evident that the enemies, including .sheep, do not .seriously affect the final result as stated. The effect of underbi-ush and forest cover in retarding or accelerat- ing the melting of snow is easily demon.strated by observation in the area of the Cascade Mountains examined. However, if it be a.ssumed that the snow melts more quickly in the open many locations may be cited as evidence, and if the contrary be assumed the evidences are quite as numerous. This is for the general hypothesis, but there are details of exposure and altitude which enter into the problem and make it capable of solution. The masses of compact snow which are found in the open or timberle.ss heights late in the summer aiv alwaj's upon hillsides protected from the warm chinook winds, and these are generally the northern and eastern slopes. Upon timbered mountains of e(iual altitude and where similar climatic conditions prevail the same slopes hold snow the longest. The effect of the underbrush and fore.st litter on the melting of snow is one which the traveler in these High altitudes is forced to observe for his own safety. It is only upon the hard snow which hides no brush or logs that .safe footing is found. Wherever a log or brush exists the snow is soft and melting and the pack animals and men fall through, a matter of some consequence where the snow is over 6 feet deep. Although the temperature in the forest may be .slightly higher than in the open, for any given altitude, there can be no doubt that a stand of timber protects the snow from the warm winds and prevents the sudden ri.se of a stream. The underbrush does not give this protec- tion, but is au agent in preventing the compacting and hastens the melting of the snow. To simimarize: The snows will remain longest (other conditions equal) in — (1) A forest without underbrush or litter. (2) An open without brush or litter. A. RECENT CINDER CONE ON NORTH SLOPE OF MOUNT ADAMS. li MOUNT ADAMS, WITH MOUNTAIN FIR IN FOREGROUND. PLfMMER.] MOUNT KAINIEK KESEKVE, WASHINGTON. 143 (3) A forest with underbrush or litter. (4) An open with Ijru.sh or litter. The question of the pollution of the streams bj' sheep is one rather for the future than for the present, inasmuch as provision is made that the sheep "shall not be corralled within 500 3'ards of an\- running stream or living spring." If the corrals bordered on or had surface drainage into the streams the waters would be polluted in sentiment if not in fact when they reached the distant settlements, and sentiment is a strong factor when it applies to drinking water. One specifica- tion for good drinking water is that it must not contain more than one part b}' weight of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts of liquid, and it is safe to say that this limit is not exceeded in the river waters even in the immediate vicinity of the corrals. The fact that running waters are self-clarifying is generally conceded, although not to the extent set forth by Dr. H. Letheby. medical officer of health for the citj- of London, in relation to the Thames. His statement is that " sewage " when it is mixed with twentj' times its volume of running water and has flowed a distance of 10 or 12 miles is absoluteh^ destroyed; the agents of destruction being infusorial animals, aquatic plants and tish, and chemical oxidation. The question of pollution is therefore one to be considered in the precautionarv way, and this has been done. The scenery of the reserve is on too grand and extensive a scale to be ati'ected by any operation of man, such as grazing or mining. The burns are the only disfigurement to the magnificent views which reward the climber of the peaks. Areas of particular beauty or novelty should be included in the National Park, on which pasturing is not allowed. The Secretaiy of the Interior on June 30. ISitl, promulgatetl rules and regulations relating to forest preservation, among which was the following: "13. The pasturing of live stock on the public lands in forest reservations will not be interfered with so long as it appears that injurj' is not being done to the forest growth and the rights of others are not thereby jeopardized."' From mj' observations the injury done the forest growth bj^ sheeping is not serious, and the attendant evils can be and are being guarded against. U.S.GEOLOCICAL SURVEY TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT PART V PL XXXIII 1 /:mu^^:c DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR-U. S, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 1^ II K EASTERN PART WASHINGTON FOREST RESERVE JNIAK'IIX \V. (r<)]iMAX TXlKAil lI:iiM IHK N-IXETKEXTH ANXUAl, ItKl'OKl' ill' THK STKA- KV. PAiM V. FllliKST i:i:SF.UVES-HENKY GANNETT, CHlEr OF I.llVISlDN (IF GElliillAPHT ANT FdUESTKV WASH I Nd'l'ON G f ) ^' E K N M E N T V \l I N T 1 X ( J i O' !•' IC K 1 S !» It THE EASTERN PART OF THE WASHINGTON FOREST RESERVE MAirnX \V. (iOWMAX EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON FOREST RESERVE. By Martin W. Gorman. ITISTERAKY. In compliance witli instrnctions to act as field assistant in making an examination of the woodlands and forests of the eastern part of tlie Washington Forest Reserve and to collect specimens of the vegetation of the region, I proceeded to Lake (3helan, where on August 7, I Joined the topographic party engaged in snrveying there, in charge of Mr. W. T. Griswold. The collecting of specimens at once began and on August 9 the party jjroceeded up Twenty-five Mile Creek to the neighborhood of Pyramid Peak, which was reached on the 10th, ascending from the lake level — 1,100 feet — to 6,169 feet. I^^umerous trips were made to the surrounding crests and ridges, the region from the foot of the yellow- pine belt to the timber line having been passed in the ascent. On the 14th the partj^ returned to the lake and made a few short trips to the south side of Twenty-five Mile Creek, to Grade Creek, and to the head of Camas Creek. From the 19th to the 25th the shores, creeks, and liills on both sides of the lake were examined as far north as the vicinity of Prince Creek, and on the 2r)th the main camp was moved to Mitchell Creek, from which point numerous short excursions were made to the surrounding hilltops and divides. Leaving camp on August 31, we proceeded to the head of Poison Creek and made a temporary halt on the Methow side of the divide at 5,100 feet, where, on September 2, we experienced our first snow of the season. On the 4th we descended one of the ridges to Squaw Creek, which we followed to the Methow Eiver, thence to the Columbia, and along the latter through Antoine Coulee to Lake Chelan, where we again joined the main camp on Mitch- ell Creek on September 7, and remained till the 12th. September 13 we moved to Stehekin, and on the 14th returned to Lakeside, where preparations were begun for sounding Lake Chelan. The time from September 15 to October 1 was spent in preparing the apparatus and sounding the lake, and on October 2 and 3 a side trip was made about 12 or 13 miles up Railroad Creek. From October 5 to October 1 7 the Stehekin Valley, Horseshoe Basin, Cascade Pass, Doubtful Lake, and 315 316 FOREST UKSliKVES. Bridge Creek were examined; a severe rain and suovv storm on the 1 Itb, 12tli, and l.'5tli interfered somewhat witli the progress of the work. On the ISth and lltth a trip was made up Bridge Creek (on tlie Sontli Fork and tllt^ ICast I'\)rk), Copper Creek, and State Creek to tlie summit of the divide— 5,800 feet— and on tlie L'Otli and 21st down I-larly Winters Creek to .Methow I iiver and u]) tlie hitter to its continence with Lost River. From this point an effort was made on tlie 22d and 23d to reach tlie boundary line by way of Rattlesnake Creek, Slate Pass, and Windy Pass, but the snow was about 18 inches deep in both passes, and we were obliged to return after reaching a point 8 or 10 miles from the boundary line. The return trip, which occupied the 24th, 25th, and 2(ith, was made down Rattlesnake Creek and the west side of Methow River to a point o])posite VVinthrop, them'C westward to the Twisp River, up that stream to the mouth of War Creek, along the north side of the latter to the divide — r),7(iO feet— and thence through War Creek Pass to Stehekiu, where we arrived on the night of the 26th. Lakeside, at the foot of Lake Chelan, was reached on October 31, and the work of the season was thus finished. It is somewhat to be regretted that the work was not begun at least a month earlier, as the ground to be covered was so extensive that it could not be examined as thoroughly as desirable in the time available. Owing to the dryness of the climate and the rapidity with which vege- tation advances in the hot early summer season, I would suggest that the collection of a set of botanical specimens from this region be begun not later than the end of June, as on my arrival on August 6 some orders, such as the Liliacea^ and a great portion of the Poacea', were too far advanced for collecting, and many of the specimens I collected were only to be had in ripe fruit. I'orOGRAPHY. The ])ortioii of the Washington Forest Reserve described in this report is that east of the summit of the Cascade Range. It is an oblong tract, 72 miles in length from north to south and averaging about 37.7 miles from east to west, with the western line somewhat sinuous and irregular, owing to the irregular course of the crest line. It contains, in round numbers, about 2,700 square miles. Besides the (.!ascade Range, the highest point on the crest line of . which probably does not exceed !»,()00 feet (Glacier Peak, about 0,500'^^^'^^ feet, being a little west of the main divide), the principal other moun- tains in the reserve constitute the Chelan Range, to the west of Lake Chelan, which divides its drainage basin from that of the Entiatqua River. The crest line of this divide ranges from 0,330 to 7,398 feet, the latter being the height of Stormy Mountain. The Methow Range, to the east of Lake Chelan, divides the latter from the-draiiiage basin of the Twisp and Methow rivers. The crest line of this divide ranges from 5,353 to 8,000 feet. The most prominent .1 VIEW UP RAILROAD CREE 1^ 1^1 li BURN IN STEhEKIN VALLEY GORMAN.i EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 317 peaks in the vicinity are South Jfavarre, 7,899 feet, North Xavarre, 7,983 feet, aud an unuained moiiutaiii a little to the east of Navarre, having two peaks, the south one 7,785 feet aud the north one 7,874 feet. To the north, among the most prominent summits are a pair of remarkable, round, dome-like peaks, known as "The Towers," with a height of probably 7,000 to 7,500 feet, while there are numerous unnamed peaks ranging fi'oni 0,000 to 8,000 feet. Twenty-seven miles north of Lake Ghelan there is an old glacial trough, known as " Horseshoe Basin." The floor of the lower basin has an average elevation of 4,300 feet aud that of the upper one of about 5,800 feet. The lower basin is surrounded by abrupt horseshoe-shaped walls of rock, as the name indicates, and the upper by rugged, more or less snow-clad j)eaks, while in late summer both constitute a veritable flower garden to the botanist, as well as a piece of such picturesque scenery that it may be considered by the tourist the gem of the Cascade Eange. A small and steadily diminishing glacier, the remnant of one formerly magnificent, still exists in the upper basin, the water from its slowly melting snow and ice falling into the lower basin in seven tiny ■waterfalls, which unite there into a small stream aud become one of the sources of Stehekin Eiver. At the head of IJailroad Creek are two mountains, in close proximity, fully 8,000 feet high, not laid down on the maps, but known locally as -'Bonanza" and "North Star," the glaciers on whose sides are the source of four streams, viz, Agnes Creek to the north, Entiatqua Eiver to the south, Eailroad Creek to the east, and Suiattle Eiver to the west. The lowest elevation of this part of the reserve is the shore line of Lake Chelan — 1,108 feet — while in close proximity on its west side is Pyramid Mountain, with an altitude of 8,281 feet. One of the most noticeable features of the whole region is the large number of ancient water levels, or, as they are locally called, "benches." The best marked of all these is probably the one known as the " 1,800- foot level," which is in reality 1,839 feet above sea level, or 731 feet above the present level of Lake Chelan. This bench can be traced down to and along the Columbia Eiver, and up the Methow Eiver until it reaches the corresponding level in that stream at the present time, and it is easily traceable on Squaw Creek and numerous other small streams. When the water stood at that level the waters of Lake Chelan, the Columbia, the Methow, and some of the tributary streams of the latter were united in a large lake, while the present Antoine Coulee formed a narrow strait between Chelan and the Methow, the summit of its present eastern wall forming a narrow, rocky island. Later on, when the Columbia, farther down its course, had deepened its bed by erosion, and so lowered the level of this ancient lake, the Chelan watershed for a time found an outlet through the present Knapp Coulee, thus forming the next prominent bench, at 1,501 feet. At a still more recent period the Chelan Eiver, oi miles long, came into existence, and, as it lowered the lake level by alternate periods of 318 KORKST RESERVES. rapid erosion and teini)orary stationary halts, numerous benches between that of l,.")(il feet and the present hike level were formed, none of theui, however, so well defined as the two just mentioned. A similar series of benches may be seen along the Methow, caused by alternate eroding and stationary periods on that stream and the Columbia. That this process is still going- on in the Chelan Basin can scarcely be questioned, but owing to reduced precipitation in the region, with consequent reduction in volume of water of the annual spring freshets, it is much slower and less noticeable, but 1 think none the less certain, than formerly. Of the many Indian pictographs to be seen painted on the rocks on the shores of Lake Chelan, one in particular would, I think, go to show that there has been a lowering of the water level of the lake even in recent times. This is on the face of a perpendicular cliff on the west bank, near the head of the lake, and the upper part of the picto- graph is fully 25 feet above the present level of the lake. The only other theory ou which its presence on this spot can be explained is that the artist was lowered from above; but as the painting is a rather extensive one, I do not think such an explanation tenable in view of the primitive means at the command of the early red man. A lower- ing of, say, Itt feet in the Chelan River would leave a bench of 3 or 4 square miles of dry laud about the foot of the present lake. The l)est yellow i)ine {Piitus 2}on(lcrosa) timber in the whole region is to be found growing on and about these benches, at elevations of from 1,200 to 3,.J0a feet. The work of glaciation is amply evidenced throughout the whole region. Many of the rocks in the Stehekin Valley, and particularly those on the shores of Lake Chelan, are as distinctly grooved and burinated as though the ice with its stone chisels had passed over them within the present century, while the rounded appearance of the hills at all elevations from 1,108 to 5,500 feet is characteristic of the region from the foot of Lake Chelan to the headwaters of the Methow. Chelan Butte — 3,722 feet — may be taken as a type of this rounding. It is only near the summits of the peaks, about the talus slopes, and along the crest lines of ridges and divides, that the rocks still remain sharp and angular. One aiguille to the west of Horseshoe Basin, near a mining prospect known as the " Blue Devil," can not, 1 think, be surpassed anywhere for acuteuess of angle. The surface rock of the region is chiefly granite, or granitoid, with occasional exposures of calcareous rock about Lake Chelan, mica on Chelan Butte, some red porphyry and conglomerate on the Methow, a considerable eruption of basalt on the north bank of Early Winters Creek, and an outcropping of lignite on the Twisp, while large, crum- bling bowlders of basalt are to be found near the foot of Lake Chelan and along the Columbia, where they were left by the retreating ice. GORMAN.] EASTERN PART OP AVASHINGTON RESERVE. 319 Alkali and alkali-bearing rocks are rather scarce, only two places with such indications being observed on the trip, a small alkaline lake- let (partially dry in summer) on the east side of Lake Chelan, and a similar one near theTwisp. This is well borne out by the fact that not a single specimen of the true greasewood, Sareobatus rermiculatus (a shrub well known to favor alkaline soils) was collected during the season. Marshes are rare iu this region, only two being seen, one on the Entiatqua divide and another on the ]\Iethow divide, both above 5,000 feet altitude. Some diminishing lakelets and one or two dried-up lake beds are to be found near the Twisp. CLIMATE. The climate of this portion of the reserve is a very dry one, even for the country east of the Cascade Range, being, in fact, drier than that of the sections farther east, north, or south. A record kept by the Weather Bureau on Lake Chelan for five years gives a mean annual temperature of 49.1° and a precipitation of only 12.23 inches per annum, of which 5.1 inches is in the form of snow, the mean annual snowfall for five years being 51.4 inches. At Spokane, about 100 miles to the east, the mean annual temperature is 48.5° and the precipitation 1S.12 inches. As the above record was kept at an elevation of 1,150 feet, and some 85 miles distant from Cascade Pass, the annual precipitation is, of course, greatly increased as a higher altitude is reached and the sum- mit of the divide approached; thus, while the average greatest depth of snow in midwinter at the foot of Lake Chelan is 36 inches, at Steliekin (head of Lake Chelan), 1,150 feet elevation, it is 60 inches, and at Bridge Creek, 2,204 feet elevation and 15 miles nearer the divide, it is 96 inches. In Horseshoe Basin and the northern section of the reserve the precipitation is still greater. This is well exemplified by the vegetation, particularly the grasses and trees, the more or less alpine among the latter being found grow- ing at a much lower elevation in the valley of the Stehekiu than any- where else about Lake Chelan, while such moisture-loving shrubs as Uchiuopanax liorridum and Viburnum paucijiorum are to be found only in moist, more or less elevated ravines and valleys, such as those of Eail- road Creek, Stehekin River, Copper Creek, and about the headwaters of Bridge Creek. But in proof of the fact that the whole region is still much drier than the country west of the Cascade Range, not a single specimen of the salal ( Gaidtheria shallon), a noted Tnoisture-loving shrub, was seen or collected on the trip. July and August are the driest months of the year, averaging only 0.18 inch — less than one-fifth of an inch — per mouth; January and December, the months of the greatest precipitation, averaging 1.91 inches per month. August is the hottest month, January the coldest. 320 FOREST KKSKRVES. The hottest day on record was August 17, 1897, 99'' V.; the cohlest, .Taiiuary .'U, 189;5,-1S^ F. The prevailing direction of the wind is west and southwest, except in January and December, when it is east and northeast. The lirst snow at lake level (1,108 feet\ usually occurs about the mid- dle of November, while at 5,100 feet elevation iu the Methow Range the lirst snow of this season was experienced on September 2. On October L'O there was 18 inches of freshly fallen snow in War Creek Pass (6,760 feet), with the snow line at 3,6r»() feet on the east or Twisp side and at •1,650 on the Chelan or west side of the pass. The combined effect of the sun and chinook winds in causing the early disappearance of the snow from the west and southwest .sides of the slopes and divides in spring, leaving them comparatively dry and arid in summer, is so great that it is not uncommon to And the east and northeast sides of some slopes and hillsides fairly well timbered with yellow pine and red fir, while the west and southwest sides are comparatively treeless. The first frost of the season at lake level occurs between the first and the middle of October, usually occurring about ten days earlier at the head than at the foot of Lake Chelan. At an altitude of 6,000 feet and upward frost is liable to occur under fiivorable conditions on any clear night, even in midsummer. During the trip to the headwaters of Twenty-five Mile Creek, August 9 to 14, we camped for some days at an altitude of 6,169 feet, and frost occurred on the nights of August 11, 12, and 13; while the minimum temperature on the corresponding nights at 1,150 feet was 51°, 56°, and 57° F., respectively. Notwithstanding this, many of the alpine and subalpine plants were to be seen in full bloom around camp without incurring the least apparent injury from this low temperature. Along the canyon of Copper Creek at an elevation of 5,150 feet, on October 19, iu spots entirely sheltered from the sunlight, ice 2 inches thick was observed on the creek, while in early morning the moist ground along the banks was frozen hard enough in some places to bear pack horses. The temperature at 7 p. ni. on that date was 23° F. The soil of this region is in general a powdery loam, sand and sandy loam being found only along some of the stream banks and in very limited quantity. Alkaline soil and alkaline deposits are rarer still, being observed in only two places. This is fully corroborated by the vegetation, which is lacking in most of the alkali-loving i)lants and shrubs. No clay soil whatever was observed on the trip. The depth of the soil is very limited in all parts of the reserve, the rocks jutting out at all elevations from the lake level to the summits of the divides, and the soil rarely exceeding a foot in depth anywhere except in the alluvial deposits. GOEMANi EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 321 Owing to the repeated forest fires, wliicli have devastated the region, humus is scarce, but where it occurs the soil is proportionately fertile. Wherever cidtivated the soil has been found \ ery fertile, the cliief need being sufficient moisture. The old water levels or benches, prob- ably because somewhat level, thus retaining longer the moisture ft'O'ij^-^ ■ ■ the accumulated snows of winter, are remarkably fertile— (Ffie case not only in the few isolated spots cultivated, but in the forest growth of these benches, where the yellow jjine (Pinun poyideroisa) is to be found at its best, both in (juality and in (juantity. Alluvial deposits are rather limited, the rapid descent and high sloping banlis of most of the streams precluding the fi)rmation of such dej)osits. The Stehekin River for about 6 or 7 miles from the mouth probably furnishes the best exanii)le in this portion of the reserve, the soil about the mouth being very fertile and, with one exception, growing the best hay seen during the season. A few dried-up lake beds were observed on the Methow near its con- fluence with the Twisp. Treeless, except about the margins, where a few willows and occasional alders are to be found, these spots furnish at once the only black mucky soil and the most fertile tracts of land seen in the reserve, and produce the finest hay and grain, as well as garden vegetables. It is needless to add that these tracts were all taken up before the formation of the reserve. AGRICULTURE. Apart from the few holdings already taken up, the amount of land fit for agriculture iu this portion of the leserve is almost nil. It is my judgment that there is not a single tract of 40 acres or more in extent in one piece suitable for agriculture tliat has not already been filed upon, and any tracts that would hereafter be filed upon under future concessionary legislation would undoubtedly be with other objects in view than those of pure agriculture. A small area about the shores and old water levels of Lake Chelan, a narrow strip in the valley of the Stehekin, and a few tracts along the Twisp and in the Methow Valley constitute the very limited and only- real agricultural land iu the whole region. All of this land has already been filed upon, some of it long prior to the setting aside of the reserve. Xearly all of the settlers who have thus taken up land are still obliged to have recourse to irrigation wherever possible, and nearly all of the small streams in the vicinity of these tracts are utilized when feasible, such as Twenty-five Mile Creek, IJainbow Creek, etc., near Lake Chelan, and Wolf Creek and other streams on the Methow and Twisp. In some instances, such as Wolf Creek, the whole stream, although of considerable volume, is diverted for this purjwse, leaving the moiitii of the original stream bed dry, exce[)t during the early spring freshets. In proof of the fact that some even of the so-called agricull ural tracts 19 GEOL, PT 5 -'1 322 FOREST RESERVES. wbicli have been tiled or settled upon are unsuitable for agriculture, one lias but to observe the abandoned cabins to be found here and there, in order to become convinced that many of them are not adapted for this ])uri)ose. GBAZING. The grazing possibilities of this portion of the reserve are somewhat greater than would be anticipated in so dry a climate. Tlie limited precipitation, except in the moist ravines and canyons, prevents the prolitic growth of underbrn.sh in the woods and forest, but is yet suffi- ciently great to insure a fair sni)ply of the various grasses. In early spring the grasses are abundant and nutritious from the lake level to the foot of the lodgepole-pine belt— say, from 1,100 to 3,000 or 3,500 feet. In this lower zone the prevailing trees are yellow pine and red fir. Although it is quite true that about pine trees in general, and this one in particular, there is usually a small circle almost entirely devoid of grass, owing to the shade and tbe presence of a carpet of decaying pine needles, which destroys the grass on these spots, the forest in this zone is so ojien that there is ample space in which the grasses flonrish luxuriantly. In this lower zone, therefore, the grazing is good for cattle and horses from spring till early summer, when the grasses begin to wither from lack of moisture. By this time in the next zone above — that of the lodgepole pine, from about 3,0(10 to .5.500 feet — the grasses, though not so luxuriant as in the zone either above or below it, owing to the denser tree growth, are yet fairly abundant and furnish good summer grazing. The dense growth, though apparently inimical to the growth of the grasses, is in reality very beneficial to them. The abundant forest litter to be found in this zone enriches the soil, and the shade furnished by the close growth of the trees, by retarding the melting of the snows, acts as a conservator of the water supply and thus insures moisture during the dry season, both for the grasses grow- ing within its own limits and, to a greater or less extent, for those of the zone below. In late summer and early autumn the whole region from the upper limits of the lodgepole-pine belt to the timber line, a range of about 2,000 feet in altitude, supplies grazing until the snow compels stock to again seek lower levels. In this upper zone grazing is, of course, scanty about the ridges and crest lines of the divides, but on the moist slopes and in the open glades and ravines the grasses, though short, are quite nutritious. On October 22, at 5,400 feet elevation on Rattlesnake Creek, although the ground was covered with 5 inches of freshly fallen snow, the grasses were still succulent, and our pack animals found very good grazing for so late a date. The grazing of sheep in such a region as this is much to be deplored and should be prohibited so far as possible. These animals crop the QoRsiAN.] EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 323 grass so closely that no other stock, with the possible exception of goats, can follow in a tract over which they have grazed and find enough to subsist on, and the roots of the grass are left so exposed that in the dry summers of this region much of it is destroyed. On the hill- sides and mountain slopes the effects are still worse. There,not only are the grasses cropped as closely as if devoured by locusts, but the sharp hoofs of the animals so trample the steep slopes that it takes years for a tract over which they have grazed to recover its original capacity to supijort other stock. I do not apprehend any direct injury to a forest from the grazing of sheej), as they do not eat the conifers, and the amount of young conifer- ous saplings trampled by them is not, I think, of material consequence; but a slope over which they have grazed and trampled is much more liable to serious erosion by the water of the melting snows of the fol- lowing spring than during years from the operation of natural causes. This, however, is but a trifling injury compared with the irreparable damage resulting to the forests from the fires which follow the sheep herder and his omnivorous band as constantlj' as foam follows in the wake of a steamer at full speed. During the trip to the head of Twenty-five Mile Creek in August it was my privilege to traverse a tract of lodgepole pine {P.viKrraj/aua) and subalpiue fir (Abies laslocarpa) some siiuare miles in extent on which a band of sheep had recently grazed. Such a picture of forest desolation I have seldom, if ever, seen. Scarcely a living tree was left, as both these species succumb readily to the ettects of fire. Many of the pines, which have more shallow roots and are taller than the fir, had been so undermined by the bui'ning of the dry humus about their roots that they had fallen, while the young and more succulent saplings had been scorched on one side and bent over like hoop poles. Scarcely a blade of grass was to be seen in the burnt district, the only vegetation that survived the fiery ordeal being one or two species of lupines, a sand- wort (Artnaria capillaris), aud a Gayophj'tum ( G. ramosissimum). A few smoldering logs bore evidence to the recent date of the fire, aud it is safe to say that the forest will not recover from the havoc wrought in less than a generation. In early spring stock will readily eat the foliage and young shoots of the rabbit-brush (Kunzla tridentata, locally but erroneously called "greasewood"), and are quite fond of the two willows, Salix lasian- ilra lanci/olia and S. longifoUa, besides many other deciduous shrubs. In autumn, when the grass has become dry and scanty, they again turn with a relish to the willows, and are particularly fond of the flowering heads of the two Bigelovias, B. douglasii stenophylla and B. douglasii tortifolid, both of which are fall bloomers. They are also very fond of an Aplopappus. The local thistle [Cnicus edtdis) is a Sjiecial favorite with them; and in early autumn, when ponds and streams are partly dry, there is a considerable growth of horsetail [Equisetum 324 FOREST KESEKVES. (trvensef) ou the moist banks, that is eateu with avidity by i)Oth horses aud cattle. DU.VIXAGE SYSTEM. Althouj^li the eastern ])ortioii of the reserve does not at any poiut impinye ii])on the Golumbia Itiver, the ulrimate drainage of tlie whole region is into that stream. The two principal drainage basins are Lake Ohelan, with its chief tributary, the Stehekin, in the west, and the Methow River, with its many tributaries, in the east. In the southwest corner, between the main divide of the Cascades and the Entiatqua Range, the drainage is through the various forks of White River aud the Chiwahwah into the Wenache and thence into the Columbia. A little farther to the east iu the same section, aud between the Eutiatqua and Chelan divides, the drainage is through Mad River and tlie headwaters of the Eutiatqua, aud thence via the latter river into the Columbia. This southwest basin is quite limited in extent, its whole area not exceeding 300 square miles. The floor of the basin is about 3,500 to 4,000 feet in altitude, and this, combined with its proximity to the sum- mit of the Cascade Range, causes an inci-eased annual precipitation aud consequent erosion. The result is a very steep slope in the banks of these streams in proportion to their volume. The chief tributaries of Lake Chelan on tlie east are Mitchell Creek, Prince Creek, and Fish Creek, and on the west. Twenty-five Mile Creek, Dumpke Creek, and Railroad Creek. The main source is the Stehekin River on the north. This stream, with its tributaries, Agues Creek and Bridge Creek, has a drainage area of about 280 scjuare miles, and is included in that of the Lake Chelan Basin. Its valley ranges in alti- tude from 1,108 feet at the mouth to 3,130 feet at the entrance to Horse- shoe liasin, the mean level being about -J.L'OO feet, the elevation at the conriueuce of Bridge Creek with the Stehekin. This valley has a greater annual preci|)itation than any other section of equal area in the eastern ]>ortion of the reserve. The drainage basin of Lake Chelan proper ranges iu altitude from 1,108 feet at lake level to about 0,500 feet at the crest line of the divides, the bulk of the area being between 2,000 and 3,500 feet. The whole basin has a drainage area within the limits of the reserve, includ- ing the area of the Stehekin above mentioned, of 1)80 square miles. Its drainage area outside of tbe reserve would i>robably amount to 100 square miles additional. The best yellow-pine timber in the reserve is to be found in this basiu. The lake itself is navigable for its entire length of ."lO miles, two snuill steamers plying on it. This is the only uavigatiou in this portion of the reserve at the present time. Methow River is the largest stream iu the eastern ])ortion of the reserve, its total length from its nu)st northerly source to its contluence with the Columbia, aj; Ives, being about 100 miles. It is not navigable. QOKMAN] EASTERN PART OF "WASHINGTON RESERVE. 325 and owiug to its rapid descent its erosive powers are considerable. This is well borne out by tlie numerous benches (indicating former higher levels) to be seen along its course, the steep slope of its banks in many places, and the rounded appearance of the hills in the lower part of its valley. Its width at the mouth is about 125 feet, while in some parts of its course, notably between Ventura and the mouth of Early Winters Creek, it is over 200 feet wide. In summer and early autumn, although the volume of water is yet considerable, it disappears in some places underneath its bed of bowlders and gravel, to burst forth again at a lower level farther down its course. The most notable of these disappearances takes place immediately after it is joined by Lost Eiver, a stream 50 feet wide and about 12 inches deep at the time of examina- tion, in October. .There are several indications about the lower part of the valley that at a former period this whole region had a much greater annual pre- cipitation than at present. The chief tributaries of the Methow are the TwisijKiver and Early Winters Greek on the west side, and Chewack Creek (sometimes called the north fork of the ^Methow), Goat Creek, Lost River, Eobinson Creek, and Rattlesnake Creek on the east and north. Of these the Twisp is the largest and most important and drains a considerable area, including some agricultural land near its mouth and a well-forested tract about its headwaters. Almost the whole basin of the Methow is included in the reserve, the drainage area of the portion included being a little less than that of the Lake Chelan Basin and amounting to about 940 square miles. The floor of the basin ranges in altitude from about 1,200 feet, where the Methow, near its mouth, leaves the reserve, to 2,700 feet at its conflu- ence with Lost River. Methow Valley contains the best agricultural land to be found in this portion of the reserve, and the bench land along its course produces a quantity of yellow pine suitable for lumber purposes. In the northern section the drainage is by Pasayton Creek and i!fais- nuloh River through British Columbia into the Similkameen, and thence through Okanogan River into the Columbia. The drainage area of this basin is about 120 square miles. The annual precipitation is greater than farther south in the reserve, but owing to its great altitude the region is so alpine in character that the forest growth, though abundant, is too scrubby and stunted to produce merchantable timber. UTILIZATION OF THE WATER SUPPLY. The annual precipitation of this portion of the reserve, particularly the southern section, is very limited, being only 12.23 inches, of which 8.85 inches, or a little over 72 per cent, falls during the six months from November to April, thus leaving only 3.38 inches — 0.56 inch i)er month — to be distributed over the remaining six mouths from May to October. Irrigation is consequently almost a necessity for even such limited agi'i- culture as there is here. As a result, wherever there is a small tract 32r) FOREST RESERVES. suitable for agricultnre the rrceks and runs in its vicinity are used for irrigation. Twenty-five Mile Creelc, Rainbow Creek, and a few otlier small streams are utilized very successfully for this purpose about Lake Chelan. On the Methow at the time of my visit the whole volume of Wolf Creek was diverted for the irrigation of adjoining ranches. Else- where along the river some smaller creeks were being wholly or par- tially utilized for the same purpose. Along Twisi> River a few of the smaller watercourses were likewise being used with very gratifying results. In fact, while a few fruits and some vegetables maybe raised, the successful raising of cereals or timothy in this region without irri- gation is out of the question. I found that the water of Squaw Creek, a tributary of the Methow, had been used for some years for the reduction of ores in arrastres, but at the time of my visit these were not in operation, owing to the reduced price of silver. In all I found ouly three sawmills taking their supply of logs from the reserve, all of them operated by steam power and usiilg such water only as was required for boiler purposes. On the Methow, however, I found a flume still in use, where oue of these sawmills had until recently made use of a considerable stream of water for some purpose; but this mill had been removed to the Twisp some months before my visit. There are numerous waterfalls and unused water powers in this por- tion of the reserve which can be readily and successfully utilized whenever the necessity for -its-emplovmeut arises. 'thtir- VEGETATIOX The vegetation of the eastern portion of reserve may be divided into four zones or belts, in ascending order as follows: 1. The yellow-pine zone, 1,100 to 3,000 feet. 2. The lodgepole-pine zone, 3,000 to 5,200 feet. 3. The subalpine-flr zone, 5,200 to 6,000 feet. 4. The white-barkpiiie zone, 6,000 to 7,500 feet. It should not be inferred that these trees are strictly confined to the limitations given. Such an inference would be misleading, as the trees frequently overlap. The j'ellow pine is sometimes found gxowing at as high an altitude as 5,700 feet; the lodgcpole pine as high as the lower limits of the white-bark pine, and the subalpine fir at slightly higher and sometimes at lower altitudes than those given. In the main, how- ever, the limitations given will be found to apply fairly well to the whole region with the exception of the moist valleys and canyons and the vicinity of the passes on the main divide of the Cascade Range, where the extra moisture will be found to produce certain modifications. In these moist valleys and canyons some trees will be found that do not occur outside of these locations, and all the alpine and subaljiine trees will be found growing at lower elevations than elsewhere in the reserve. EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 327 YELLOW-PIJiTE ZONE. This zone extends from 1,100 to 3,000 feet, and with a few exceptions includes all the merchantable timber to be found in this region. As the name indicates, the dominant tree in this zone is Pinus ponderosa. This tree, it is well known, avoids moist climates or locations, and consequently finds in this region a favorable habitat. It is to be found at its best on the benches in this zone, where it attains a height of 65 to 90 feet, with a diameter ranging from 18 to 52 inches, including bark. Its growth is never dense, and on the dry hillsides of this region it is quite scattering, but constitutes about 85 per cent of the trees growing within the limitations given. ^^^^^ ^^^^ The next tree in importance here is Pseudotsuga iaxifolm, which amounts to about 12 per cent of the tree growth of this zone, thus leaving but 3 per cent to be made up by a few others. It is not at home in this dry situation, and falls far short, both in size and in quality, of its growth west of the range. Thuja plicata occurs very sparingly in this zone, being found only along moist ravines, but the quality is good. Its favorite habitat here is in the moist valleys and canyons. . —seo^a/oru/nj Jimiperns viiyiiimmi is here almost entirely confined to lake level, where it is so twisted and gnarled by the winds as to be useless for economic purposes. Only one tree was found over 25 feet in height, and not a single specimen was seen above 2,000 feet elevation. The Cratiegii8 opTTNoi 080); Acer maciopli.vllum. A. glabrnm. Cormis uuttallii. other trees in this zone are : Salix lasiandia lancifolia. S. longifolia. Populus trichocarpa. P. tremuloides. Of these the most valuable is Acer macrophyllum, but it is only in moist ravines and river bottoms that it attains merchantable size. This zone includes nearly all the shrubs of any consequence in this region. Alders are common in all the moist ravines, but are by no means confined to this zone and may be found almost up to timber line. The two cherries, Prunus emarginafa and P. douglasii, bear fruit here abundantly, but are rarely to be found above this zone. The fruit of P. dotiglasii only is edible. The dominant shrubs and undershrubs may be enumerated as follows : Berberis aquifolium. Philadelphus lewisii. Ribes ceTiim ?. Holodiscus ariaafolius. Rnbiis nutkanus. Kunzia tridentata. Amelanchier florida. • Rhus glabra. Pachystiraa myrsinites. Acer glabrum. Ceanotbus volutinus. Cornns baileyi. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Sambucus glauca. Sympboricarpos rotuudifolius. Bigelovia douglasii stenophyllaf. B. douglasii tortifolia. Artemisia ludoviciana. 328 FOHEST RESERVES. Apart from tlie various grasses aud ferns, tlie dominant plants iu tbis zone are: Selaginella nipestiis. Zygailenus veiieiiostis. Eriogondm uivoiini. E. elatiira. C'leiiiatis ligusticifolia. Lotus americana. Euphorbia serpyllit'olia. Meutzelia la-vicaulis. Pentstemiin ricliardsonii. Balsamorrbiza sagittata. Anapbali8 iiiargaritaeea. Acliilica millcfnlivini. Coreopsis atkiiisoniana. Cha'iiactis iloiiglasii. THE LiODGEPOLE-PINK ZONE. The limits of this zone are from 3,000 t<) 5,200 feet in altitude, and include the densest growth iu tbis region outside of the moist ravines and canyons. The principal tree to be found here is, of course, Pinus vturrayana. This tree is more closely confined to the limits of the zone than the yellow pine, aud is not found at lower elevations, except iu moist canyons. In some lew localities it ranges upward to the lower limits of P. albicaulis. Its growth is so dense that very few shrubs are to be found in this zone. Toward the upper boundary it is largely intermingled with Abies lasiocarpa aud Ficea erujelmanni and small (juantities of Pinna ponderosa and Pseudotsiifiu faxi/olia, but its dense growth lower down prevents the latter trees from getting a foothold in the central j)ortiou of tbis zone. Owing to its dense growth and the consecjuent shade afforded by it, this tree is well adapted for the con- servation of the water supply, aud large patches of the winter snow may be found under its protectiug shadows as late as July. On the other hand, its shallow roots, tall, weak stems, and exposure to the winds at these high altitudes result in large quantities of fallen timber, which leave the trees an easy prey to forest tires, which are only too frequent iu tbis region. Tbis is the most vulnerable of the four zones aud should be protected wherever jjossible. Shrubs and undersbrubs here are few, comjiared with the zone below, the principal among them beiug: Aluns rubra. Berberis nervosa. Kibes viscosissimum. Spira'a luoiila. Aruucus aruncus. Pacbystima myrsinites. Ceanotbiis velutinus. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Leiluin glandulosum. Amoug the plants of tbis zone may be noticed a ^ew lupines: Castilleja linariipfolia. Achillea millefolium. Hieracium cynoglossoitle Linna-a bonalis. Auapbalis luargaritacea. Hieraciuiu albilloruui. About the upper limits there are also a few arnicas aud seuecios. THE SUBAIiPlXE-EIH ZOXE. Tbis zone is not so well defined as the last, but it may be said to extend from 5,200 to G,000 feet. The dominant tree here is .lines tasio- carpa, which a[)pears to obtain a foothold on many of the subalpiue GORMAN.] EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 329 grassy slopes long before they are occupied by any other tree. It is a small tree and is easily destroyed by fire, but it is much more firmly rooted than Pinus murrayana, and is therefore useful as a soil binder on the steep slopes. The next tree in amount here is Picea engelmanni. It has a greater altitudinal range than the preceding, being found both above and below it. It is also of much greater economic value, as it is a large tree, and makes very serviceable lumber. The greatest drawback here is its inaccessibility. Abies amiiliili.s belongs to this zone and ranks next, both in quantity and in value, to P. encielmanni. It is a much larger tree than A. lasio- carpa and is equally vulnerable to the attacks of fire, but prefers the moist valleys and canyons more than the latter. The most noticeable shrubs and uudershrubs in this zone are: Pachystima myrsiuitee. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. • Ceauothus velutiuus. Ledum glandulosum. Vaccinium parvifloriim. Artemisia liuloviciana. The dominant plants found here are : Eriogonum pyrolicfoliuiu. Valeriana sitchensis. Cardamine lyallii. Arnica alpina. Sediim steuopetalum. A. latifolia. Saxifraga ipstivalis. A. parryi. Parnassia fimbriata. THE WHITE-BARK-PINE ZONE. This is the uppermost of the four zones, and ranges from 6,000 to 7,500 feet, or timber line. The dominant tree here is, ot course, Pinus albicauUs. It is the most alpine of all the pines and quite valueless as timber, but as it persistently follows up the slopes and divides aud obtains a foothold there, it performs an important work in the economy of nature by retarding the too early disappearance of the snow from these slopes, and, by making more or less forest litter, encourages the spread of other vegetation. Tiie second tree in importance in this zone is Lari.v occidentalis. This tree seldom grows on the exposed side of a pass or divide, but on the sheltered side can be found in this region up to 7,000 feet elevation. It is a much larger and finer tree than P. alhicauUs, and in early autumn, when the first severe frosts have turned its foliage yellow, -it is noticeable on the clifls and mountain sides for miles. ^ h(>o7i9,ru The only other trees to be found in this zone are Tsuga 2)attonii and Picea enyelmanni. The former is a small alpine tree, with a northern range hundreds of miles beyond that of the white-bark pine, and is usually found on exposed ridges and cliffs, much twisted and gnarled by the winds. In these situations it can freciuently be found VI inches in diameter and not exceeding 10 or 12 feet in height. It differs from the type in being smaller and more alpine and having great masses of small, erect, purple cones, tliose of the type being pendulous- 330 FORKST KESEKVES. GkanKecyparis nootkatrnsiH belongs iti tliis zone, but in tliis region is not to be found outside of the moist canyons. Junipenis iuitid, tlie most diminutive representative of the conifer family, is fairly common about rocky cliffs and the crest lines of the ridges and divides iu this zone. It usually favors moist climates and localities, being a common shrub in the sphagnous marshes of Alaska, but in this region it appears quite at home in even the driest situations, and was found growing from lake level (1,108 feet) to timber line. The few shrubs and undershrubs to be found here are more or less alpine in habit, such as: Pachystima myrsinites. Ledum glandulosum. liry.inthiis eiiipetriformis. Sambuciis raceniosus?. (';issi()]io mertensiana. Artemisia ludoviciana. ~7(koe(o eCtrt-iii'cyi^ albirtornm. The fust named, although projierly belonging to the lowest zone, can \w found growing here almost to timber line. The principal plants of this zone are: EriogoQum uml)ellatiini. Polemonium pulchellum. Oreobroma coliiinbiana. Peutstemoii menziesii, Arenaria oapillaris. P. scouleri. Sediim stenopetalum. P. proceus. S. divergens. Macroiiema suft'ruticosuni. Saxifraga tolmiti. Erigeron cpi (No, 58frj. d(.l/if^it> . MOIST VAIiT.T]YS AND CA]>CYOXS. Tiie moist valleys and canyons here, of which those of Stehekin River and Early Winters Creek may be taken as typical, have a more or less local flora of their own, as compared with the rest of the i-eserve. Trees occurring iu them and not specially enumerated in the above- mentioned zones are briefly described below : Finns monlicola is a tall, graceful tree of considerable economic value as lumber. It was not seen outside of tbe moist valleys, and ranges here from 1,150 to 4,700 feet. Tsiifia mertensiana is fairly common iu tbe valleys of the Stehekin River and Early Winters Creek, and ranges from 2,100 to 4,700 feet elevation. Isiiga patlonii (type) is a fine subalpine tree occurring in all the moist valleys close to the i)asses in the main divide of the Cascade Range. Its extreme altitudinal range here is from 2,170 to 5,800 feet. Tsiii/n pallonii var. hoolerif Lemmon, a tree somewhat resembling the last but much more alpiue in size and habit, ranges from 5,500 to 6,400 feet elevation. Abies amabilia is fairly conmion here, and its altitudinal range is from 1,800 feet on the Stehekin to 5,500 feet on Early Winters Creek. Thuja plieaia, a tree quite rare outside of the moist valleys, is here fairly common, of largo size, and of considerable economic value. It ranges in altitude from 1,100 to 4,700 feet. Chamacijparia nootkatenais is fairly common on the Stehekin and its tributaries, but was not observed elsewhere. Its range here is from 2,100 to 5,500 feet elev.atiou. Taxiis hrevifoha is rare, and w.as seen only on ihe Stehekin and its tributaries, where it ranges from 3,500 to 5,100 feet elevation. Popiihia triehocarpa and Acer macrophylliim were found in the Stehekin Valley, far surpassing in size the specimens seen anywhere else iu tbe reserve. Acer ciroinatiim was seen onlv on the Stiliekin. floRMAN] EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 331 A few of the shrubs and undersbrubs already enumerated were found here, and many not elsewhere seen, such as : Berberis nervosa. Echinopanax borridum. Spirjea arbuscnla. Vacciniiim sp. S. menziesii. Kalmia glauca microphylla. Rubiis spectabilis. Menzicsia ferrugiiiea. Sorbus orcldentale. Viburnum pauciflornm. Lepargyrisa argentea. Lonicera involucrata. The characteristic plants of these valleys are : f young trees seen bear evidence that it is being well propagated, the only requisite for its greater distribution being suflicient moisture. The tall stems with the crowns elevateil above the surrounding forest growth, the mass of long typical cones of the mature trees, and the bluish green color of the foliage of the young trees and saplings, tend to make the tree so noticeable that one is liable to overestimate its quantity in the forest here. PiNUS ALBiCAULis Engelm. (White-bark pine.) This hardy ali)ine tree is quite common at all the higher elevations in this region, and is a]>parently as much at home in the humid atmos- phere of the passes as on the dry crest lines east of Lake Chelan. The lowest altitude at which it was observed on our trip was at 4,G00 feet, on Early Winters Creek, from which limit it can be found ranging upward at all elevations to 7,500 feet, or timber line. The tallest specimens seen did not exceed 40 feet in height, while the diameter ranged from 12 to 24 inches, with an occasional veteran of 28 to 30 inches. The diameter is no index to the height, as one of the largest seen was on a wind-swept ridge and did not exceed 20 feet in height. The tree is of very slow growth and slow propagation, but few young trees or saplings were seen, and only a limited number of the trees seen bore cones, while such cones as were found had in almost every instance been visited by Clark's crow (Xucifiaga columhiana) and the seeds dexterously picked out. The best specimens of the tree seen were in the vicinity of Slate Pass and Windy Pass, between C,000 and 6,800 feet in elevation. It is'of no economic value, but its alpine nature enables it to encroach steadily u]) the steep slopes almost to snow line, where its long, firm roots act as soil binders and its shelter olfers protection for the advent of other vegetation. Its wood is dose grained and resinous, and it is thus enabled to resist decay for a long period, ■when felled or uprooted. PiNUS PONDEROSA Dougl. (Ycllow pine; Piskwans name, Kuh-chin.) This is preeminently the most useful tree in this portion of the reserve, lieing used not only for lumber but for fuel, building purposes, and various other e(!onomic uses. It ranges in altitude from 1,100 feet on Lake Chelan to fully 6,000 feet above the head of Poison Creek and in the Chelan Ilangc, but it is found at its best for lumber i)uri)oses on the benches between 1,.jOO aiid,3,000 feet. It is a lover of dry climates and dry situations, being 'Mv'wxfy confined to the east side of the Cas- cade Range, and is not at home even in such moderately moist locali- ties as the valley of the Stehekin or Early Winters Creek, where it is to be found only in very limited quantities. Its usual height in this region is from 05 to 90 feet, and in favorable situations trees can be GOBMAN] EASTERN PART OP WASHINGTON RESERVE. 333 found 110 feet in lieiglit; the diameter ranges fiom IS to 52 inches. Aiuoug- the si)ecimens measured may be mentioned one on Lake Che- lan: Diameter at stump height, I'OJ inches; diameter of wood, 17J iuclies; height of tree, 07 feet; age, 110 years. And one on S(]uaw Creek: Diameter at stump height, 52f inches; diameter of wood, 47J inches; height of tree, 91 feet; age, 411 years. When young it is a veiy rapid grower and when mature its resist- ance to damage by fire is very great, more than 50 per cent of the mature trees seeu here showing evidence of having escai>ed from one or more forest fires without serious injury. For these reasons the tree is a valuable one in this dry regiou. Fully 00 per cent of the lumber used here is supplied bj' this tree. This is owing solely to its accessibility, as the qualitj^ is not eiiual to that of either the mountain white pine or the Engebnaun spruce. The lumber from it is very much inclined to warp when sun or air dried, but when kiln dried is found to be very nuich improved. Formerly there were three sawmills taking their supply of logs from this portion of the reserve, one on Lake Chelan, one on Methow liiver, and one on Squaw Creek; but at the time of my examination the last mentioned had been taken away from the reserve altogether and the one on the Methow had been removed to the Twisp, thus leaving only- two in oiteration, both on a very limited scale. The logs cut here average only 2 to a tree, and 7 logs to 1,000 feet of lumber. This tree is very healthy and produces large quantities of cones, but for some reason does not propagate very abundantly here. Apart from tliose killed by tire, only a few dead trees were seeu, chierty about the head of Poison Creek; very few were found to be iufested with Arceuthobium, and none afflicted with fasciatiou were observed. PiNtTs MTTRRAYANA Balf. (Lodgepolc pine.) The lodgepole, or tamarack pine, as it is sometimes called, is capable of enduring much more humidity than the yellow pine, and conse- quently is found to be as much at home in the moist valleys as on the dry slopes and hillsides. It is unsuitable for lumber, but makes excel- lent fuel, and is used to some extent locally for building purposes, fencing, etc., for which it is better adapted than the yellow pine. Its general altitudinal range in this regiou is iiom 3,000 to 5,200 feet, but I have observed it at 2,100 feet on tlie Stehekin and as high as 5,900 feet in the Chelan Range. When found growing near its upper limits, particularly in tlie less fertile spots, the foliage is short and frequently has a whorled appearance, so that at a distance it bears some resem- blance to a larix, thus giving rise to the common name tamarack i>iue, by which it is known in some localities. It grows from GO to 110 feet in height and ranges in diameter from S to IC inches. The largest specimen observed on the trip was at 5,1(»0 334 FOREST RESERVES. feet elevation, and measured 16^ inches in diameter inside bark at stump height. It is a very slow grower; a sapling 33 inches in height was cut and found to be 20 years old; it had not yet borne cones, but had well-developed male flowers of this season's growth. A mature tree examined at the same locality was found to be TJ inches outside bark, 7J inches inside bark, 04 feet in height, and 11.5 years old. Owing to its shallow roots and tall, weak stems, the tree is pecu- liarly liable to be uprooted or broken by the high winds that usually prevail at these altitudes, and consequently in the forest where it is the principal tree there is much fallen and dead timber. This con- dition of afl'airs, together with its thin bark, makes it an easy prey to the forest fires, to which this region, with its dry climate, careless camp- ers, and roving sheepmen, is liable. In fact, during the course of my examination 1 found that more than 50 per cent of all the dead timber observed was composed of this tree. Many dead and a few dying trees were also seen that showed no evidence of having been injured by fire, and the cause of their decay was not apparent. All the dead trees, and to a greater or less extent the dying ones, were thickly overgrown with a bright greenish-yellow lichen, which 1 take to be Evernia vulpina; but this is an effect rather than a cause of the decay. At about 5,000 feet altitude in several localities this tree was also found to be so badly infested with a small green aphis that all the vegetation beneath it was constantly bespattered with a transparent viscid substance exuded by the insects; but as the surrounding snbalpine firs were similarly infested without any apparent injury, the decay of the lodgepole pine must be attributed to some other cause. Larix occiDENTALis Nutt. (Western larch.) This is the only deciduous conifer in this portion of the reserve, and differs somewhat, both in appearance and in habit, from the same tree farther south, where it frequently occurs in moist situations and at as low altitudes as 2,000 feet. It was not seen at all in the moist valleys, and was generally found to favor the passes and the sheltered sides of the crest lines and divides, where it ranges in altitude from 5,800 to 7,100 feet. The best grove seen was at about 0,700 net elevation, near War Creek Pass. The tree ranges in height from 50 to 90 feet and iu diameter from 10 to 25 inches. The mature tree has a rather thick grayish bark, and is well fruited with oval, mostly erect, i^ersistent cones. The branches are mostly lateral, very brittle, and quite small in proportion to the size of the tree. The foliage changes color here with the first severe frosts, about October 1, and on October 20 I found about half still remaining on the trees, while on October 20 the surface of the snow was yellow with the foliage blown off by a recent storm. It is not used for lumber, but would make good fuel where accessible, owing to its hard wood and close grain. GORMAN] EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 335 PiCEA ENGELMANNI Engeltii. (Eugeliiiauu spruce.) This tree requires much more moisture than the preceding, though I have fouufl them growiug together in one or two instances. It has also a much greater altitudiual range, being found from 2,100 feet eleva- tion in the Stehekin Valley to 0,800 feet on the sheltered slopes of some of the ridges and divides. It generally avoids the wind-swept crest lines and passes, and is usually a robust, healthy tree, but in some localities, as on Early Winters Creek, I observed specimens aflected ■with fasciatiou. The tree is well adapted by nature for propagation, being fully fruited with large quantities of cones, which are massed near the top. When young, the cones are erect and reddish purple in color, becoming pendent and fading to a light brown as they mature. Near its upper limits the tree is quite stunted, the cones rather scanty, and a large percentage abortive. It is one of the finest trees in this region, ranging from 90 to l.")0 feet in height and from IS inches to i feet in diameter, the largest specimen measured being i feet 54 inches. The best grove seen was at 4,2.50 feet elevation, on Bridge Creek, where it would cut about 10,000 or 12,000 feet to the acre. Though not used here, it makes fair lumber and excellent fuel, but is very vulnerable to forest tires, the least injury about its base being fatal to it. TsuGA MERTENSIANA (BoDg.) Carr. (Western hemlock.) The western hemlock is here confined entirely to the moist valleys, and occurs in limited quantities along the Stehekin Eiver, Agnes Creek, and Early Winters Creek, ranging in altitude from 2,100 feet on the Stehekin to •1,700 feet on Early Winters Creek. It was not observed on Bridge Creek or on Twisp Kiver. In comparison with the size it attains west of the Cascade Kange, particularly near sea level, it is a small tree here, being from 50 to 75 feet high and from 10 to 25 inches in diameter. It is much superior to the eastern hemlock (T. canadensis) both in quality of wood and in the quantity of tannin contained in the bark, and makes very fair lumber. When thoroughly dry, it makes better fuel than any of the pines growing here. TsuGA PATTONii (Jeff.) Coville. (Alpine hemlock.) This hemlock is also confined to the moist valleys and the vicinity of the passes. It is the prevailing tree in Cascade Pass (5,421 feet) and is quite common about the headwaters of the Stehekin, where it attains a very fair size for this region, ranging from 50 to 90 feet in height and from 12 to 27 inches in diameter. The altitudiual range of the tree here is much greater than was expected, being not uncommon at 3,100 feet and ranging up to 5,800 feet; and a tree supposed to be of this species was observed as low as 2,100 feet elevation in the Stehekin Valley. 33(5 FOREST RKSKKVES. Tliis tree is .sometimes mistaken for tlie western liemlock, but close observation at once disi>els sucli an error; the top of tlie sapling is erect, the cones arc long, pur[)le, and more or less massed about tiie top of the tree, and the mature tree has an unusually thick, rouglily corrugated bark, while in the western hemlock the top of the sapling is generally drt)0[)ing, the cones are small, oval, and browu iu color and well distributed ou tlic branches, and the matured tree has a com- paratively thin bark. The alpine liendock is of slwv growth; the wood is close grained and of fine texture and is (piite suitable for lumber or fuel, but is not used for either purpose here on account of its iiuiccessibility. The bark is grayish brown in color aud ([uite noticeable iu the forest owing to its thickness, which api)ears to increase toward tlie upper limits of the range of tiio tree. The general altitude of this region is favorable to the growth of the tree, but the amouut of moisture, out- side of the valleys and canyons, is insufficient. TsuGA PATTONii var. HOOKEEi? (Hooker's hemlock.) Among the hardy alpine trees Hooker's hendock stands preeminent, ha\ing a northern range far beyond that of even the white-bark pine, it is a small, dwarfed, aud stunted tree compared with the type, and seldom exceeds 12 inches iu diameter or 30 feet in height. It usually ranges in altitude here irom 5,500 to 0,400 feet, but is occasionally found up to and beyond 7,000 feet, wherever it can find sufficient moisture. Though gencrallj^ favoring the heads of moist valleys, it is sometimes to be found on the leeward sides of peaks aud slopes where snowbanks of sufficient size have formed iu winter to maintain au adecjuate supply of moisture during the rest of the year. It is in the latter situations that the tree reaches its highest altitude. In addition to its smaller size and more alpine habit, it further differs from its nearest (tongener in having thinner bark and small, erect cones, all the other hemlocks having pendent cones. The tree is too small and inaccessible to have any economic value. PSEUDOTSUGA quAXiFOiiiA (Raf.) Sudw. (Red fir; Piskwaus name, Tsuh-kalp.) Next to the yellow pine this is the most economically important tree in tills region at the present time. It ranges in altitude liom 1,100 to 0,000 feet, and forms about IU per cent of the tree growth of the yellow- pine zone (1. 100 to 3,000 feet), where it attains its best development, both in size and in cpiality, on the benches aud in the sheltered ravines. It occurs only sparingly in the lodgepole-pine zone, ])articHlarly in all dense growths of that tree, but reappears again about its iii)per limits. Though a well-known lover of nuiistuie, it is (|uite limited in quantity in th(! moist valleys and canyons, juobably owing to low temperature. GORMAN] EASTERN PART OP WASHINGTON RESERVE. 337 It ranges in height here from 70 to 120 feet ami iu diameter from 20 to 50 inches. It grows very rapidly for the first one liuudred and fifty years, but after tliat period gradually becomes of slower growth. The bark is very thick, exceeding even that of the yellow pine, and on this account the grown tree is enabled to withstand a forest fire in which the lodgepole pine, Engelmanu spruce, or any of the firs would perish. Among the specimens measured, a tree at 5,510 feet elevation, 132 years old, gave a diameter at stump height of 18| inches inside and 213 outside bark, while one at 1,200 feet elevation, 244 years old, was 43 inches in diameter inside and 4!) inches outside bark. About 10 per cent of the lumber used here is supplied by this tree, and its wood excels that of all others iu this region for fuel. For some reason the' tree is not so healthy here as west of the Cascade Range, fully 50 per cent of the grown trees being found to be aft'ected with fasciation. About lake level it is rather stunted iu growth and much twisted and gnarled by the winds, so that the benches and higher levels must be sought for trees suitable for lumber. All the trees observed here bore cones abundantly, and all the cones examined were found to be well filled with seed. The tree bears cones at an earlier age than any other conifer. Among the saplings examined, one 12 years old had two well-developed cones of this season's growth; It would undoubtedly spread rapidly here if sufiBcieut mois- ture were obtainable, as on a level spot only 20 feet square at 3,400 feet elevation 15 saplings were seen. In late autumn all the grouse killed were found to have their craws literally filled with the seeds of this tree, to the exclusion of almost every other kind of food. Abies lasiocabpa (Hook.) Nutt. (Subalpine fir; Piskwaus name, Skwe-whe-alp.) Outside of the moist valleys and canyons this tree is fairly well con- fined in altitudinal range to the moist slopes between 5,000 and G,UOO feet, the lack of moisture preventing it from finding a foothold on the dry crest lines and ridges above, and the dense growth of lodgepoW pine, combined with lack of moisture, prohibiting its spread below. In the moist valleys, on the other hand, it has much more extended alti- tudinal limits, ranging from 2,150 feet , Thliih-.thluh-al-pitch-kil.) The Oregon maple was found to be fairly well distributed over this whole region, although it generally prefers the moist slopes and stream banks. It attains its greatest development, however, in the rich river bottoms like the Stehekin, where it ranges from 10 to 25 inches in diameter and from 40 to 70 feet in height. Outside of such valleys it rarely exceeds 8 inches in diameter. It ranges in altitude from 1,100 to 3,500 feet, but decreases rapidly in size towaid its upper limits. The wood is straight grained, compact, quite suitable for lumber, and excel- lent for fuel, but the latter is the only economic use yet made of it here. Acer circinatum Pursh. (Vine maple.) This straggling tree was observed only in the Stehekin Valley, where it ranges in altitude from 1,150 to 4,000 feet. It rei|uires much more moisture than the jneceding, but is not of any economic value. Acer glabrum Torr. (Dwarf maple; Piskwaus name, Sum- whum alp.) The dwarf maple is capable of withstanding a much drier climate than either of the two preceding, and consequently its regional distri- bution here is much greater. Its altitndinal range is also greater, being from 1,100 to 4,500 feet. It is a very small tree even in favorable situations, and is generally only a shrub. It has no economic value. Fully 50 per cent of the specimens observed had the foliage much aflected by a bright-red fungus. CoRNirs NUTTALLii And. (Western dogwood; Piskwaus name, Pil-pilalp.) This tree is very showy in the woods in spring, owing to the great white involucres surrounding its ilowers. It is still more noticeable here in late autumn, when the masses of bright-red berries, the rich 344 FOREST RESERVES. dark red of the foliage, aud the glaring white involucres of its autumn tlowers comhine to make it a very conspicuous tree in the forest. Its altitudinal range is quite limited— 1,100 to 2,.j00 feet— and it is mostly confined to moist ravines and stream banks. In moist valleys like the Stehekiu it grows large enough to be used for fuel. CoENUS BAiLEYi Coult and Evans. (Bailey's dogwood: Piskwaus name, Shtuksh-walp; fruit, Shta-kluh.) Though classed as a shrub, this is entitled to notice on account of its habit of growing iu dense thickets on the moist river bottoms, where it is sometimes almost inpcnetrable. It was not observed outside of the moist ravines aud valleys, and ranges iu altitude here from 1,100 to 3,000 feet. AVherever seen it was well fruited with great masses of white to bluish-white berries, which form the favorite food of pheasants in autumn. Sambucus callicarpA Greene. (Redberry elder.) This occurs only as a shrub in the moist valleys and canyons of this region, where it has a rather peculiar altitudinal range — 2,790 to 0,000 feet. It was observed almost up to snow line in Horseshoe Basin, and bore fruit only sparingly wherever seen. Sambucus glauca ifutt. (Pale elder; Piskwaus name, Chu-kweek- winlp; fruit, Chu-kweek.) The pale elder is much more common than the preceding, and, though generally preferring the ravines and valleys, may also be found on the moist slopes and hillsides. It ranges in altitude from 1,100 to 4,000 feet, but attains tree-like proportions only about its lower limits. At all altitudes it was found to bear fruit in such immense quantities that the branches were bent downward by the weight of the great masses of its jiale glaucous-blue berries. FOREST FIRES. There can be no doubt iu the mind of any thoughtful observer who has traversed this region that it was once much better forested than it is at the present time. The cause of this deforestation is not far to seek. The numerous burnt stumps, the bare slopes of the west and southwest faces of the hillsides, the charred and dead trees, the burnt areas of ditt'ereut ages, and the paucity of humus outside of the moist ravines and valleys all attest that the region has been burned over, not once, but many times. Of the whole region traversed by our party during the season, a few STuall spots about the passes and a small tract on Bridge Creek were the only sections that showed no evidence of ever having been visited by fire. Even the moist valleys of Stehekin River, Early Winters Creek, and Railroad Creek gave ample proof of having been burned over seriouslv more than once. GORMAX.] EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 345 According- to the testimony of settlers, some forest fires occur here every summer; for instance, during the present season, in addition to three simultaneous tires in the vicinity of Lake Chelan, there were also one on the Entiatqua divide and two in the iVfethow Valley. They further allege, apparently on good evidence, that this region had been burned over long before the coming of the first white settlers. This is well borne out by the scarred bases of the mature trees in the yellow- pine belt, nearly all of which show traces of more than one forest fire. As the two principal trees of this belt — the yellow pine and red fir — are well fruited with fully seeded cones, the great paucity of seedlings and saplings in this belt is undoubtedly attributable in a much greater degree to fires than to dryness of climate, as the repeated burnings have so deprived the soil of humus that the seedlings fail to take per- manent root, and sooner or later perish. In the yellow-pine belt the first visit of a forest fire rarely does more than burn the dry grass, kill the sapliugs, and scorch the bases of the grown trees, but a second or third fire usually results in the destruction of many fine timber trees. A slope or hillside in this belt with south or southwest exposure that has once been completely burned over sel- dom or never becomes reforested ; but the north or northwest exposures, where burned, are generally found to be slowly recovering. In the lodgepole-pine belt, on the other hand, a forest fire at any time proves most disastrous, as even on the first visit, if there is a high wind, many trees are burned outright, or, if not, the fire slowly burns in the humus about their roots until the trees are uprooted or destroyed, while a second or third fire over such a tract rarely leaves a living tree of this species. Besides its dense growth, the liability of this tree to injury by fire, and the number of windfalls and broken trees, tend still further to make a fire in this belt exceedingly destructive. The wind also does much more damage in this belt than in any other by uproot- ing and breaking so many of the trees that on the approach of a serious forest fire this material acts as fuel among the green timber and seriously aids in the destruction of the surrounding forest. On August 13, about the head of Twenty-five Mile Creek, we exam- ined a large tract in this belt that had recently been burned over by a fire left by a careless sheep herder who had been grazing his flock in the vicinity. This was apparently the first fire that had occurred here, but the destruction was most complete and not a single sapliug escaped. The trees, of which about 75 per cent were lodgejjole pine and 25 jjer cent subalpiue fir, were burned, fallen, and u])rooted on all sides, less than' 3 per cent of the trees, large or small, having escaped. Even the humus was so totally burned that nothing but a drj', powdery ash mixed with charcoal dust was left, into which one sank ankle-deep at every step, and each footfall sent up such a cloud of dust and ashes that after walkiiig a mile or two one looked like a coal heaver or chimney sweep. A few smoldering logs still lay about, in proof of the recent time of the tire, while the quantity of dead and fallen trees left will prove a 346 FOREST KESERVKS. source of danger to any new growth that might appear for many years. The lodgepole pine being so slow in growth, and all of the fnll-grown trees of that species being more than one liumlred years old, it will probably take a century, in the slow process of nature, to reforest this tract to the extent existing before the tirti, while the loss to the soil by denudation in its present unprotected condition is irreparable. The subalpine-tir belt suffers next to that of the lodgepole pine in the amount of injury done by forest fires. The most typical examjjle in this belt seen during the trip was on Kattlesnake Creek, where the parties who were making the trail to the Slate Creek mining district in 1S!).5 set Are to or allowed the lire to run in a large tract of forest here, composed of Abies lasiocarpa, A. amahilis, and Picea em/elmanni. In this tract about 7.5 per cent of the trees had been destroyed, very few of them having been burned outright, but the heat from the burn- ing resin vesicles in the bark of the firs was sufliciently intense to cause the bark to blister or separate from the trunk, thus destroying the trees. These two ftrs being much more deeply rooted than the lodgepole i)ine, very few of them had become uprooted or had fallen, nor was the humus destroyed to anything like the extent it had been in the tract of lodge- pole pine referred to above. Though the bark of the Engelinann spruce does not blister from excessive heat, like that of the firs, the fire was proportionately more fatal to it tlian to the latter, and wherever burned about the base the trees perished. This belt appears to recover from the effects of a fire more readily than any of the others, and more sap- lings in proportion to tlie number of grown trees were seen here than anywhere else outside of the moist valleys. In the white-barkpine belt tiie loss of timber by a forest fire is com- paratively light, but the damage to the soil is very great. Once tlie grass is burned off these elevated slopes and ridges, the amount of denudation caused by water from the accumulated snows of winter is so great tliat it requires many years for vegetation or young seedlings to regain a foothold there. The damage resultiug from a forest fire in the moist ravines and valleys is much greater than, in their moist condition, one would suppose possible. The tree growth is much denser, tTie saplings and young deciduous trees are more numerous, and the quantity of hunuis and forest litter is very much greater than in tlie region outside of these val- leys. This abundance of humus and forest litter is undoubtedly the cause of fires continuing so long and creating such havoc in the inclosed valleys. Even when the bottom lands of a valley are too moist to be much injured by fire the slopes on each side will continue smoldering and burning until quenched by the fall rains. Judging fioni the universal traces of fire in the forest, the number of old burnt tracts where reforestation has failed to take place, and the abundant evidence of the damage done during this season alone, it is safe to estimate that 50 per cent of the trees of the eastern portion of GORMAN.] EASTERN PART OP WASHINGTON RESERVE. 347 the reserve liave beeu destroyed by fire, while the total amount used for lumber, fuel, and other economic purposes will not exceed 5 per cent. Among the principal causes of forest tires may be named sheep herders, campers, hunters, prospectors, miners, trail and road makers, and settlers. The tirst named are generally the most culpable. Some of the numerous camp tires which they make as their herd moves from place to place are allowed to ignite the surrounding forest, by accident or by design, and iires once started in this dry region are seldom extin- guished before the arrival of the fall rains or until they burn out for lack of more material to feed on. Campers and hunters are mostly to blame for carelessly neglecting to extinguish their fires thoroughly on moving or breaking camps. A camp Are supposed to be burned out is frequently found to be still smoldering in the humus, and only awaits a favorable wind to flare into activity and spread to the nearest timber. Prospectors and miners frequently set out a tire for the purpose of clearing off the ground, so that the rock or ledge may be more accessible and the claim or mine more easily worked, and the fact that the tire may communicate to the adjoining forest and destroy much valuable timber is entirely ignored or lost sight of. There are few roads in this region, but the State and private parties have made numerous trails to the mines and over the passes, and in almost every instance a line of charred and burnt forest was found to exist in the vicinity of these trails. This is sometimes caused by the carelessness of the contractors or laborers in allowing their work tires to spread, but occasionally it is the result of design on their part, for the purpose of clearing off the timber and facilitating the making of the trail. One of the most seriously burnt tracts of timber seen in the reserve was along the line of the trail from the Methow Yalley to the Slate Creek mining district. The settlers in and about this portion of the reserve are responsible for many of the forest tires, perhaps not intentionally. It is, however, a well-known fact that a fire once started for the purpose of clearing land is seldom or never confined to the tract to be cleared, but gradu- ally finds its way into the adjoining forest, where it continues until burned out or extinguished by the fall rains. One of the tires seen in the Methow Valley had its origin in this way. Nearlj^ all the ranches here are in the yellow-pine belt, and the customary method of clearing the land of large timber is to "ring" the trees for a year or two until dead and fairly dry. The fire is then set out, and spreads rapidly along the dry grass till it reaches the trees, when it ignites the pitch oozing from the "ring'' or cut and, spreading, soon envelops the tree. The only precaution taken by the rancher is to set out the fire to the lee- ward of his buildings or fences, and then no effort whatever is made to prevent it from reaching the neighboring timber. Even his own fences frequently fall a prey to the devouring element, which a high wind soon places beyond his control. 348 FOREST RESERVES. The fire-resisting power of the trees in this region varies greatly in the (lifterent sjiecies. The thick bark of the yellow pine and red Qr enables them to survive a fire to which most of the others would suc- cumb, and it is some matter of doubt whicli of them possesses the greatest fire resisting qualities. Tlie Pacific arbor vita- and Alaska cedar, although thin barked, are deep rooted and iiouresinous and resist the attacks of fire fairly well. The highly resinous bark of the subalpine and amabilis firs leaves them an easy prey to forest fires, while the Engelmann spruce, though not resinous barked, is fully as vulnerable as either of the firs, probably owing to its thin, scaly bark and the paucity of sap in the tree itself. A list of the principal conifers here, in the order of their resistence to fire, would bo about a^ follows : 1. I'seuilotsugatiuiilolin, (Ka?^) Sudw Red fir. 2. Piuus ponderosa, Dougl Yellow pine. 3. P. albicaulis, Engelm White-bark pine. 4. Tsiiga pattonii, (Jeff. ) Coville Patton's hemlock. 5. Thuja plicata, Don Pacific arbor vitae. 6. Cham;i!cyparis nootkatensis, (Lamb) Spach Alaska cedar. 7. Larix occidentalis, Nutt - - - ^ - - , Western larch,.,, _j_- 8. .luuiperus virgininun, \j*.ry.... '. ^ttea luniper. 9. Teuga pattonii hookeri, Lemmou Hooker hemlock. 10. Pimis murrayana, Balf Lodgepole pine. 11. P. monticola, Dougl Monntain white pine. 12. Tsuga mertonsiana, (Bong. ) Carr Western hemlock. 13. Abies amabilis, (Loud.) Forbes Amabilis fir. U. A. lasiocarpa, (Hook.) Nutt Subalpine fir. 15. Picea engelmanni, Engelm Engelmann spruce. FOREST PRESERVATIOX. The rapidity with which our forests are being denuded for lumber and fuel, the immense amount of timber destroyed each year by forest fires, the value of our timber as a natural resource, and the importance of the forest in the conservation of the water supply, particularly in a dry climate like that of this regiou, all tend to make forest preservation a question on which the average citizen should be much better informed than he is at present. The history of all countries where forests have been neglected or destroyed is similar. The more mountainous the regiou and thedrier the climate the more serious the resulting damage. First, great freshets in the streams iu .spring, with consequent soil erosion; next, drying up of the stream beds and desiccation of the soil in summer, followed by climatic changes and the failure of crops without irrigation. Even now the successful raising of crops in this region can be assured only by the use of irrigation, and already many of the small runs which formerly contained water throughout the season are dry in summer, owing to the removal of the forestcovering about their sources and, consequently, too early melting of the snows in spring. Outside of the moist valleys GORMAN.] EASTERN PART OF WASHINGTON RESERVE. 349 the lodgepolepiiie belt contains the densest growth and, consequently, by preventing too rapid evaporation from the soil and retarding the melting of the snow, is the greatest conservator of the water supply. It is also the zone most liable to damage by fire, and on this account is entitled to great consideration in the matter of forest protection. The snow in the j'ellow-piue belt disappears very early in spring, and for the remainder of the season this belt must depend for its moisture, to a great extent, on the belt of the lodgepole pine above. The apparent indifference of the public to the importance of this mat- ter is undoubtedly due in great measure to misconception and lack of information on the subject, and it is but fair to our more intelligent citizens to assume that when they are made fully aware of the dangers of delay or neglect^orest preservation will receive the consideration to which it is entitled. The erroneous ideas that have prevailed in the popular mind for many years regarding the inexhaustibility of our timber supply on the Pacific coast are largely responsible for the great recklessness with which our forests are laid waste and the utter apathy and lack of interest of tlie general public in all matters relating to forest j)rotection or preserva- tion. The ignorance, sensationalism, and sectional boastfulness of newspapers are chiefly responsible for the spread of such pernicious ideas, and the error of such statements can not be pointed out too forcibly, nor the public mind be educated too promptly to the fact that our forests are fast disappearing and unless protected will in the course of another generation become so limited as to be barely sufficient for local consumption. Not only the newspapers but the sheepmen as well are instrumental in circulating these mischievous ideas regarding the unlimited supply of timber in our forests. The former have at least the excuse for their misstatements that they are made for the public- spirited imrpose of booming their own particular section, but the latter have no excuse whatever, and are actuated only by cupidity. In order to oVjtain free grazing in the forest reserves for their omnivorous herds, they seek to lull the public into complacent indifference under the pre- text that the forests are inexhaustible and that the grazing of sheep in them entails no injury or reduction of the timber supply. It is only necessary for a careful observer to examine a forest in which a baiul of these "hoofed locusts" have grazed and their careless herder with his numerous camp fires has dwelt for a seasou to have so fallacious a theory completely dispelled, and to become thoroughly convinced that the need of forest protection and supervision is imperative. One frequently hears the statement made, by persons presumably capable of knowing, that "there is just as much timber in this State now as there was when the first white settlers came"; the theory being that the growth of red fir is so rapid as to counterbalance the amount of timber used and destroyed each year. A more erroneous idea than this would be hard to conceive, and it should unhesitatingly be SfiO FOKEST RESERVES. corrected. It is (luite true that the growth of this tree is very rapid in the open woods on the west side of the Cascade Range, where trees can be found larji'e euough for railroad ties at 40 years old, but on the east side of the range, or iu a dense forest, the growth is very much .slower, aud a tree large enough for this purpose would be 80 year.s old. Trees of this species large enough for lumber purposes have to be 200 years old or more, and thousands of square miles of forest ou this coast have been overrun by lire since the arrival of the first white settlers, to say nothing of the lumber and fuel consumed. That our forests are diminishiug at an alarming rate, there can be no doubt, and it remains for the Federal Government to devise some system by which the reserves may be controlled and supervised so effectually that damage from forest tires will be reduced to a minimum, and that persons responsible for fires will be held strictly accountable. The first step in this direction should be the sti'ict maintenance of our forest reserves as at present constituted. DEPAETMENT OP THE DfTEEIOE-U. S. GEOLOGICAL SUEVET CHAKLES U. WALOOTT, DIRECTOR THE PIKES PEAK, PLUM CREEK. AND SOUTH PLATTE FOREST RESERVES JOHlSr Gr. JACK EXTRACT FROM THE TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SURVEY, 1898-99 PART V, FOREST RESERVES— HENRY GANNETT, (3hIEF OP DIVISION OF GEOGRAPHY AM) FORESTRY I WASHINGTON GOVERNMKNT PRINTING OFFICE 19 0 0 THE PIKES PEAK. PllIM CREEK. AND SOUTH PLATTE FOREST RESERVES JOHK O. JACK I PIKES PEAK, PLUM CREEK, AND SOUTH PLATTE RESERVES. Bv .John G. Jack. SITUATIOX. These throe reserves, known as the Pikes Peak Timber Land Re- sei"ve, the Plum Creek Timber Land Reserve, and the South Platte Timber Land Reserve, are all eoutiguous at some part of their bound- aries, and are situated between latitude 38° 45' and 39° 45', and between longitude 104° 45' and 106° 15' west from Greenwich (PL Vin, in pocket). The situation is practically in the very center of the State, Colorado Springs lying just outside the eastern boundary line, while the western limit is several miles east of Leadville. The three reserves are practically contained within the counties of El Paso, Douglas, Jefferson, and Park, nearly half the total area being in the last-named county. Very small areas on the south and west are understood to be within the jurisdiction of Chaffee County and Smnmit Count}'. The Pikes Peak Timber Land Reserve contains about 184,?yi0 acres; the area of the Plum Creek Timber Land Reserve is placed at 179,200 acres; while there are 683,520 acres in the South Platte Timber Land Reserve, about one-fourth of which lies in Jefferson County and the remainder in Park County. The total area of the three reserves, therefore, aniounts to about 1,047,040 acres. In general outline the Pikes Peak Reserve is a parallelogram 30 miles in length by 9 miles in width, with some small unreserved areas within these parallel lines and some reserved tracts extending beyond them. The Plum Creek Reserve is somewhat triangular in outline, the south, east, and north sides being arbitrary straight lines, the west side being the South Platte River. The South Platte Reserve is extremely irregular in outline, the main body of it lying south of and having for its northern boundary the North Branch of the South Platte River, while South Platte 39 40 FORKST KESKKVf;S. Rivor itself sciJiiratcs tlic ri'scrvc from the riuiii Crook Koserve on the east, !xnd a laii|:o unrosorvod traot 1<) miles in width lies between its southern portion and the Pikes Peak Reserve. Between the main body of the South Platte Reserve and its extreme western portion lies South Park, an extensive, comparatively level, and open graz- ing region, 24 miles in width in its widest part and over 50 miles long, which is not included in the reserve. The extreme western portion of the reserve, lying between this unreserved portion and the longitude of Leadville, is the narrowest and most irregular of all, varj'ing in widtii from 11 miles at its southern end to 1^ miles near Alma. With the exception of the natural boundaries formed by the rivers mentioned, the limits of the reserves are purely arbitrary, following the straight section or township lines drawn by surveyors. On this account, and as there are no fences or well-defined points to mark the actual boundaries, they are but little known or respected, and the result is that there is locally frequent disagreement as to how far the reserve lines extend, and it is not unusual to find settlers who are not aware that thej' are located within the area set apart by the Government for the preservation of the timber and the conservation of the water supply. GEXEKAL SOIL, COXBITIONS. Throughout almost all parts of the three reserves disintegrated granite soils, often resembling finely broken gravel, are everywhere manifest, and the abundant granite rocks and mountains from which the soils have been derived show the general geological character of the country; and it is only on a very limited strip along the lowest eastern edge of the Pikes Peak and the Plum Creek reserves that the tilted sandstone formation, so conspicuous and well known at Man- itou, is evident. There are frequent outcroppings of quartz and other rock in different parts of the reserves, and prospecting has shown that mineral-bearing material is likely to be found almost any- where. On the western arm of the South Platte Reserve limestone and volcanic rock are abundant. On the higher mountains the broken granite is generally piled in gi"eat masses, as on Pikes Peak, or in huge weather-worn lilocks, as on .some of the Tarryall peaks to the west. In the course of ages the interstices between these rocks have become tilled with smaller frag- ments upon which minute plants grow, thus forming some humus upon which other species grow more vigort)usly, so that some vegeta- tion, like lichens, grasses, sedges, and other herl)aceous plants, is found at the top of the loftiest summits. In natural hollows or cavities and with decreasing altitude and deeper deposit of decayed granite and .1 VERY ROCKY SLOPES EAST OF TARRYALL ^/10U^ PARK CREEK. /; ENGELMANN SPRUCE AND DOUGLAS SPRUCE ON GRANITE ROCKS ALONG LOST PARK CREEK JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 41 humus the vegetation is richer and more rank, including various species of dwarf shrubs. On steep slopes the finer material and humus is necessarily accumu- lated in pockets, and in the ravines and gulches through which streams run, the greatest accumulation of humus is found. Wherever the soil has been increased by winds blowing debris or sand from other places, or where it is subject to accretion bj- washing, the decayed granite and hunms is commonly found more or less mixed. The decaying roots of trees and other plants in the soil also add in a small degree to the fertility. Throughout the greater part of the reserves, however, there is a general and very noticeable absence of hunuis or accumulation of decayed vegetable matter of any kind, which is no doubt largely due to the dry conditions favorable for oxidation and to the prevalence of both heavy forest and light ground fires at various times, as well as to the general poverty of the natural living vegetation itself. Probably not 5 per cent of the entire area bears any appreciable amount of humus over the coarse material beneath, and most of such himius as exists is shallow, not more than from 1 to 6 inches in depth. As a rule the lower hills are rounded and formed of great beds of disintegrated granite resembling small gravel or coarse sand, upon which most of the forest and vegetation grows. Naturally the material accumulated near the base of the hills and in the gulches is of finer composition and contains more vegetable matter than that found above, and this is shown in the finer development of the trees and plants, although increased moisture and shelter are also factors to be considered in connection with improved soil conditions. The granite rock shows much variation in character in different parts of the reserves. For the most part natural decay and disinte- gration are very evident; but in some areas the rocks present a hard, polished, and enduring surface, and the wearing away of these areas proceeds more slowly, and great bare masses often ri.se conspicuouslj- above the surrounding territory. In cracks and crevices of these rocks and bo elders the seeds of trees and shrubs have .sometimes lodged, and, germinating, have survived droughts and storms, although often dwarfed and growing very slowly under these trying conditions. These plants serve to hasten the disintegration of such rocks. Along some of the narrow vallej's through which streams run, time has brought in an accumulation of plant-food material, which is the basis of the small farms or ranches which have been established in the most available and suitable sites in the reserves. Although the coarse sandy or gravelly soil on many areas looks unproductive, fair crops of grass and a few other farm products are raised wherever artificial irri- gation can be applied. Manures or artificial fertilizers are seldom used except by a very few of the more progressive and industrious farmers. 42 FOREST kesp:kves. Riircly. the hiiimis or ••imick" is of considcnil)!*^' depth in natural basins, as near Lake Moraine. There are many acres of boggy ground in the high Lost Park i-egion, and much hunuis occurs south and southwest of Florissant. CLIMATK AND HAIXFAL,L. The great elevation of this whole region gives it a comparativeh' cool summer, with liability of nightly frosts near the timber line. On the so-called agricultural area.s, mostly devoted to grazing, snow sometimes falls in midsummer and frosts are not very rare. On this account the variety of crops it is possible to raise within the reserves is very limited, consisting chiefly of hay, oats, barlej-, rye, and a little wheat in some localities at the lower altitudes. Alfalfa is also grown locally on the lowest levels, where potatoes also can be grown successfully, although it is not economicall}' profitable to attempt the cultivation of this crop at altitudes above 8,500 feet. The growing season is short, as is plainly shown in the slow growth of the trees. In winter the temperature at 8,500 to 9,000 feet altitude sometimes falls to 20° or 30° below zero. As showing the possibilities in this countrj-, it may be mentioned that on July 19, 1897, there was hard frost, with several inches of snow, throughout the country from Mauitou Park (8,000 feet altitude) to South Park, and snow and frost was recorded at Florissant (8,500 feet altitude) on July 1, 1898. There exist few accurate records of rainfall taken at various points and during a number of years to show the average annual precipi- tation of this region. The Weather Bureau maintained a station on the summit of Pikes Peak, at over 1-4,000 feet altitude, during fifteen years, and the average during that time was 28.65 inches, the extremes being 9 and 10 inches. At Colorado Springs, at about 6,000 feet altitude, or 8,000 feet lower than the summit of Pikes Peak, the aver- age during the same years was a little less than 15 inches. As a rule the precipitation decreases rapidly with decrease in altitude. Addi- tional observations were taken during several years in or near South Park. The average annual rainfall of the whole region covered by the reserves may be placed at between 16 and 18 inches. This small rainfall, combined with the drj' atmosphere, poor soil, and cool climate, causes nearly all the natural vegetation to be of relatively slow development, and nowhere can there be said to be a strong, rank growth, such as would be found in more fertile, warmer, and more freely-watered regions of nearly the same latitude. The snowfall is heavy on some of the mountains. Snowslides, liow- ever, are very rare, although they occur more frequently on the mountain slopes located outside the western limits of the South Platte Reserve. JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 43 There are no data to .show that there i.s any les.s a\-erage annual rainfall than existed tiftj' year.s ago. It i.s the general te.stimony of persons who have lived longest in the central part of Colorado that there is now a decided diminution of watfU' in the streams compared with the flow of water twenty-five or thii-ty years ago. This refers especialh' to the summer flow, as there is more than the normal amount of water in the early spring. The causes ai'c, locally, variously attributed to excessive pasturage, by which the ground becomes trampled hard and the protecting vegetation along streams destroyed; to the cutting of timber along streams, par- ticularly at high altitudes; and especially to the great areas which have l)een denuded of forest by tires, allowing the snows to melt more rapidly and the waters to flow off less gradualh' than they did under conditions existing before the earliest settlement of the country. FOREST CONDITIONS. Of all the reserves established by the Federal Goverimient, the three under consitleration have probably been the most damaged by fire and been subject to greatest depredations by timber cutters. A com- paratively small portion of the total area fails to show traces of forest or surface fires, some of the more recently burned sections presenting a desolate aspect, which luider present natural developments is likely to continue for many scores of years. There are a very few thousand acres of merchantable timber where the ax has not been used with evident effect. The best of the remaining timber can not be called large, but it is greedily sought by the liuul)ermen, who take any kind of sufficient dimensions without much discrimination regarding species. Such forests as exist are generally open and may be traversed by wagon or on horseback, and it is only on comparatively limited areas that any close or dense growth of trees is encountered. In young growths of lodgepole pine only are there what might be called thickets, and occasionally a dense growth of small red fir and its accompanying species is found on some locally favored northern slope. In a few places at high altitudes there is much dead and fallen tim- ber among the living, piled 2 or 3 feet deep, this deadwood usually representing the accimiulation of many scores of years; but this con- dition is rare in the reserves, although common in forests in other parts of the M'est. On the high altitudes, or between 10,000 and 11,500 feet, the forest growth is generally most dense, but much depends upon exposures or slopes. The forest found on slopes facing the south is usually greatlj^ inferior to that growing on the colder, .shaded northern slopes, pines usually pre^'ailing on the former and spruce on the latter ; but on steep southern slopes the pines are commonly thinly distributed, small in size, and often so much branched as to be nearlv worthless for com- 44 FOKKST KKSERVKS. mcrciiil purposes (PI. IX). Indeed, the southern slopes are soinet'nnos pnu'tically hare of tiiul)er of any kind, wlien th(> opposite northern slopes are well covered. The ifencrally open character of the forest over a large j'art of the reserves allows of the growth of grasses and herljaceous plants, which usuallj' occur in tufts or bunches and furnish a limited amount of food for cattle, the grasses naturally ))eing most a))undant on the cooler slopes, in gulches, and in the vicinity of streams. On tinibci- areas burned over at high altitudes the grasses generally spring up in greater abundance, excepting on some of the more arid or dry, warm southern slopes. The tops and branches of trees cut by lumbermen are rarely accu- mulated in great masses in the open forest, the tops of each tree cut usually being isolated, because suitable sawmill timber is so scattered. They do, howe\-er, furnish material to increase the destructiveness of fires. The finer and softer parts of this refuse material soon decaj's and about it a few unusually vigorous grasses are generallj' found. Probably at least 75 per cent of the total area of the reserves clearly shows damage by fire, much of it within the last half century or since the advent of white settlers in the region; and a great deal of ground shows traces of fires, which must have occurred prior to that time, and the forest has partially recovered the areas then burned over (PI. X, in pocket). LUMBERING. Lumbering is carried on at all seasons of the year, although it is generally stated that cutting in autumn and winter is preferable. The trees furnishing the Imnber are almost exclusively yellow pine, red fir, and Engelmann spruce, while some lodgepole pine and blue spruce are also used when found large enough in the localities in which they grow. The trees are usually felled by sawing nearly through and wedging the side on which the cut is made, so that the tree falls in the opposite direction. Trees and logs above a foot in diameter are usuallv taken, although some of the smaller sawmills accept logs not less than 8 inches in diameter at the small end. The logs are cut in various lengths, usuall}' 12, 14, or 16 feet, the branches and tops being trimmed oil' and generally allowed to remain and decay on the gi'ound. The logs are usually draM'n to the loading skids In' single horses trained to the work, and are hauled to the mill in wagons. The active mills are exclusively portable steam sawmills, with a capacity varj'ing from about 5,000 to 25,000 feet of lumber a dav. The fires for the JACK] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 45 boilers are fed by refuse luinber left in cutting. The saws used are thick, and about 25 per cent of the sawn timber is lost in sawdust when the lumber is .sawn into boards an inch thick, the saw taking- a quarter of an inch with each cut. All of the hauling of logs to the mill and of the lumber to market or shipping station is done with lumber wagons and 2- or i-horse teams. It is now commonly necessary to haul the lumber considerable distances, requiring a day or longer to make a round trip to and from a shipping station. No timber or lumber is now floated down any of the streams, although formerly a small amount appears to have been carried in this way. Limiber roads or trails have been made to the best timbered areas in all parts of the reserves, so that there is no great difliculty in getting to almost any part. The length of the haid to market has been the chief factor in preserving such good timber as still remains uncut. DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS TO TIMBER TREES. As a general rule the forest trees appear to be in a healthj^ condition and seem to be subject to few diseases caused by insects or fungi, the cool climate and dry atmo.sphere, no doubt, being adverse to these pests, which are often so destructive in other parts of the country more favorable to their development. Even dead timber, often stand- i!ig dry for twenty or thirty years, is little damaged, although l)orers generally attack the base of such trees. Occasionally tips of twigs of red tir or yellow pine were found affected by destroying insects, and the cones were sometimes destroyed by insects burrowing into them. Larvae of a species of Cllsiocmnpa sometimes defoliate the quaking aspen over a wide range of territory, and when this defo- liation is repeated during several successive seasons the trees usually die, to be succeeded bj' new stems from the roots. While the aspen is of comparatively little commercial importance in this region, it is, when large enough, used for the manufacture of excelsior, or for paper pulp, and the defoliation of the plants prevents them from attaining merchantable size. The most serious damage to the development of the yellow pine, lodgepole pine, and Douglas spruce noted was caused b^' three small species of mistletoe belonging to the genus Arceutlwbium {Razoumof- xkya., Hoffm). This parasite was found to check and distort the growth of a great many trees in some localities, and in some cases it eventually caused their death. Affected trees are often dwarfed and have their branches shortened or distorted by it, and tho.se bearing the parasite are usually readily detected. Trees of various ages and sizes are afflicted, from those only a few years old and a foot or two high up to those 150 years or more of age and 40 or 50 feet or more in height. As the parasite occasionalh' occurs on at least 50 per cent of 46 FOREST KESERVES. tile voimi;' trees, it may 1"' roiulily seen that the noniiul development of timber i.s seriously interfered with. Fortuiuiti'ly these parasites are not very generally distributed throughout all places where their hosts grow. In some parts of this mountainous eountry a great many trees are annually struck by lightning, which sometimes causes death, some- times kills only the top or some of the limbs, or leaves signs of its work by a split in the trunk, injuring its \-alue for lumber. Ground or surface tires or timber tires have often left th(^ trunks scarred or have desti'oyed the bark on one side, causing a defect which injures the tree for lumber. Snowslides of sufficient magnitude to damage timber are rare, although they sometimes occur on the high mountains west of the South Platte Reserve. At low altitudes heavy snowstorms occasion- ally break down large numbers of young trees, or the tops of older ones, both conifers and aspen. Besides the damage to timber, the dry debris thus formed increases danger from fire. Occasionally local windstorms or hurricanes occur with sutBcient force to blow down large areas of green timber, either by uprooting the trees or by breaking off the trunks. It was also the general belief, in the region south of Tarryall Creek, that the death of many yellow pines was caused by some unusually dry seasons which have prevailed in recent years. FOREST TREES IN THE RESERVES. That this region once had a climate and forest tlora differing con- sidei'ably from that which at present exists is shown by the fossil remains of trees and other plants to be found at various places, and particularly easily accessible at Florissant, near the southeastern boiuidary line of the main body of the South Platte Reserve. In the soft shale rock are found fossil leaves, fruit, and twigs of trees closel}' allied to the living .species of redwoods or .sequoias of California, to oaks, hornbeams, alders, walnuts, chestnuts, elms, ashes, sumachs, hollies, and other trees and shrubs. Fossilized stumps of prehistoric trees, apparently sequoias, still exist, although many have been destroj-ed or have been removed by collectors. About a mile south of Flori-s.sant one of these stumps is standing, with a frame work about it, and saws still in it, as evidence of the unsuccessful efforts of collectors to cut and remove it. The hardness of the fossilized wood rendered the cost of cutting so great that, after the expenditure of much money, the work of removal was abandoned. This stump was partly exposed by removing the accunuilation of soil about it. and at present it is between 8 and 10 feet in height and about 50 feet in circumference at the ground. It is a standing witness to the fact that many thousands of vears ago the meteorological and other conditions here allowed of U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEV TWENTIETH A NUAL REPORT PART V ,-L .(V 'yy^D^' ^jJKfcl M 5^^ J jji^.^ itii '--• s^^>».yf n 1 ■ 1 H ^p ^1 1 - ■■^■"--^ ^, »i ^-i» ... -ins ■■'•-^ .„ -^i^Si^ •^ J.. YELLOW PINE APPARENTLY KILLED BY MISTLETOE. PLUM CREEK RESERVE It ENGELMANN SPRUCE BLOWN DOWN BY WINDSTORM, LOST PARK, SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 47 the growth of much larger trees and a greater variet\' than is now possible. In comparison with this ancient growth, the forest growth here to-day is small and insignificant, and compared with some of the present living forests of the Pacific coast in AVashington, Oregon, or California the timber of these reserves would be regarded as little better than scrub or third-rate growth. Within the actual limits of the three reserves, covering an area of nearly 2,000 square miles, the number of difi'erent species of trees now occupying the ground is much more restricted than is commonly supposed (PI. IX). Within these boundaries there may be counted five species of pine, two spruces, two firs, Douglas spruce, two species of cedar {Juni-pei^us), one species of oak, and four species of poplars — seventeen species in all. Of these the cedars are small, local, and scat- tered ; the oak scarcly more than a shrub, specimens 20 feet high or 10 inches in diameter being rare ; three of the poplars are very local and are usually found sparsely along creeks near the reserve borders, and have no commercial importance, while the fourth, though widely distributed, does not often grow to a size sufficient to make it of much present economic value. PiNis roNDEROSA Laws. (Yellow pine, bull i>ine.)' Of the pines within the reserves the most al)undant, most widely distributed, and locally most valuable species is Pmus j)onderosa, most conmionly known as black-jack pine, but also passing under the local names of yellow pine, bull pine, black pine, etc. So far as observed, it here attains a larger size than any other tree, not excepting the red fir, which most closely approaches it in dimensions. The largest yellow- pine stumps or trees seen did not exceed 4 feet in diameter, and the tallest trees were not more than from 110 to 125 feet in height. These extreme proportions are exceptional, however, and the greater part of existing merchantable timber of this species ranges between 1 and 2 feet in diameter of trunk and 50 and 75 feet in height. As the timber is more or less open, the stems of the trees are usually well furnished with branches, so that the clear trunk is usually short, often furnishing but one free saw log 12 or 14- feet long, although the liml)s are genei'ally removed and two or even three saw logs are thus obtained. Trees of the larger sizes often have clear trunks for 50 feet, and as many as five or six saw logs, each 12 or 14 feet in length, are secured. The relative proportions of size and age of such trees vary some- what with the conditions under which they grow. Trees growing in coarse granite soil, on ground having a slight slope to the south and ' This yellow pine in the region under consideration is considered by some botanists ns distinct from the type, and is known as Piiius poJidirosa scopulorum Engelm. 48 KOREST KKSERVES. lyiiiji' at an altitude of about SJAH) feet, showed the followiiij;- ages and dimensions, which represent a fair average. A tree 100 feet high measured 38 inches in diameter at 5 feet from the ground. Trunk very i)ranehy, furnishing only one .saw log 12 feet long free from branches or knots, but altogether would furnish five logs of similar length, the topmost of which would measure a foot in diameter at the small end. Annual rings showed this tree to be about 270 years old. Another, 70 feet high, measured 15 inches in diameter at 5 feet from the ground and 12 inches in diameter at 40 feet from the- groiuid. First 25 feet free from limbs excepting a few small, dead branches. Annual rings showed about 200 years of age. Another of the same height and base diameter as the last was 8 inches in diameter at 40 feet from the gi'oundand more branchy on its upper parts, and showed annual rings approximating about 160 years of age. These measurements, taken from a considerable numoer, represent a fair average of the better class of trees where the timber is heaviest. Great quantities of trees are cut for sawmills, however, which do not produce more than one log of from 12 to 16 feet in length and from 12 to 16 inches in diameter, the remainder tapering too rapidly and bearing too many limbs to be considered of value. The activity of sawmills has removed nearly all trees above a foot in diameter in most of the territory under consideration except in a few of the least acce.ss- ible localities farthest removed from a ready market. Where the timber has been cut over it is unusual to find any perfect large speci- mens fit for the sawmill remaining. Where large trees are left on such land it is usually because they have some defect, as having been .struck by lightning, partially decayed, or having divided trunks. What to the eye of the botanist appears to be, and is considered, as one species is in this case divided by the lumberman into what he calls yellow pine and black pine, the former being most valued, hav- ing a wood lighter in weight and with less sapwood, while the latter is claimed to be of poor quality, to have much sapwood, and to be much heavier when green. Few lumbermen claim that they can always dis- tinguish the two when standing, although it is asserted that the less valuable tree can he separated by the darker, rougher, thicker bark and greater abundance of large living branches. Somewhat similar dis- tinctions are insisted upon by lumbermen of the white pine of the East- ern States. While our present understanding of them does not allow that they are specifically distinct, there is no doubt that the qualit}" of the wood is affected by the age of the tree, rate of growth, soil, and other conditions. The yellow pine is found from the lowest altitude in the reserves, which is under 6.000 feet, up to above 10,000 feet, where it is generally JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 49 supplanted by other species. In some sections it occurs almost alone, but as a rule the Douglas spruce is moi-e or less plentifully- associated with it, and occasionally it occurs mixed with the other pines and spruces. On the higher altitudes it does not appear so localized as on the lower, where it predominates on slopes facing- the south, while the Douglas spruce is more plentiful on those facing the north. This is a marked feature in most of the canyons and gulches, which chiefly extend in an ea.sterly and westei'ly direction. The 3'ellow pine is the prevalent tree over nearly all of the Plum Creek Reserve, and of the South Platte Reserve east of Craig Creek, the Tarryall Mountains, and Puma Hills. It does not occur in the Lost Park or Craig Park country, lying north of the Tarryall ^Mountains, although part of this ground lies nearlj- a thou.sand feet below the maximum altitude which the species reaches in other parts; and it is only occa- sionally found within and near the borders of the long, narrow ai'm of the reserve l.ying west of South Park, on the hills and buttes of which it occurs plentifully, and usually associated with Douglas spruce, blue spruce, and two other pines. It is a hardy and much-enduring tree, and will gain a foothold and grow on coarse, dry soils and sunny slopes on which other species do not seem able to become established or maintain their existence. The yellow pine is chieflj' sawed into lumber for various purposes, especiallj' for rough building, mine timbers, etc. It is also cut for railroad ties, is used as fuel, and is an important tree in the develop- ment of the country in which it grows. The lumber is coarse grained and is not durable when subjected to moisture. Its market value varies somewhat in price, according to quality, local demands, etc., but at the present time it usualh' sells for $11 or $12 per 1,000 feet, board measure, delivered at railroad stations. PiNUS MURRAYANA Engelm. (Lodgepole pine, white pine, spruce pine.) The pine of second importance in the reserves is the lodgepole pine, locally little known under that name, however, and more generally called white pine, occasionally spruce pine or tamarack pine, and at Alma passing as j^ellow pine. It is a smaller tree than the yellow pine {Plnu.s ponderosa), and specimens are not often found exceeding 2 feet in diameter of trunk or above 100 feet in height. It is sometimes found mixed vdih other pines or spruces, but its most characteristic growth is found in those areas where it occurs alone or greatly pre- dominates over other species. It is apparently a tree of slow growth, especially when crowded, and will endure for many j-ears without showing an}' ver}^ material increment of the wood. One out of a number of specimens, measured imder fair average conditions of 20 GEOL, PT 5 J: 50 FOREST KESERVES. mixed open woods, growing on nearlj' level disintegrated granite soil southwest of Fairplay and at an altitude of about t>,0(JO feet, showed tlie following dimensit)ns: Height, 05 feet; diameter, -i feet from the ground, IT inches; saw log furnished, 30 feet, the small end being 11^ inches in diameter, the remainder being vcr}^ branchy and rejected. Tlie annual rings showed about one hundred and sixty years of gi-owth, tiie first fiftj' years showing much the greatest annual incre- ment, the last tift_v years with very thin annual rings and all sapwood. This fairly represents all those examined under simihir conditions. In the Lost Park region, north of the Tarryall Moiuitains, at an altitude of al)out 10,000 feet, two saw logs cut on a cold slope facing north measured, respectively, 12^ and 15 inches in diameter at the butt and showed 260 and 310 rings of annual growth. These trees were growing with Engelmann spruce on granite soil with slight humus. They represent about the best of their species fit for the .sawmill. The height of such trees here usually varies from 60 to 75 feet, accord- ing as they may be growing with abundaiu'c of room, so as to produce many branches, or crowded by other individuals. In other places, where the lodgepole pine occurs practically alone, a great lumiber of individuals often spring up on a small area, forming a close and not easily penetrable growth while young, becoming more open with age and size by the death and decay of the weaker and smaller individuals. On such areas the annual gi-owth is verj- slow, but the young trees show a remarkable power of shade endurance when overtopped by more sturdy or older individuals. Many such areas were examined, and an idea of the general condi- tions may be given in a single exaiuple, in which four or five trees were crowded into a square foot, these trees varying from -4 to 8 feet high, 1 to 2 inches in diameter of stem, and with from 15 to 30 annual rings. Sometimes the stand of young trees is smaller and more dense, sometimes larger and proportionally more open, by the natural elim- ination of manj^ weaker individuals. Nowhere are there any consid- erable areas of pure timber of this species large enough for cutting into lumber by sawmills. Most of the existing lodgepole-pine areas consist of slender, pole-like growths of varying sizes, but not often exceeding 6 or 8 inches in diameter or 50 feet in height. Wherever found of sufficient size, however, it is cut into rough lumber and gen- erally sold mixed with yellow pine or spruce. Trees too small for the mill are often cut for mine timbers. A few years ago great quantities of all sizes were cut on territory lying to the north and west of the Kenosha Twin Cone Mountains, and converted into charcoal for smelt- ing purposes. This industry is noV abandoned in the region about the reserves, so that at present the lodgepole pine is of ver}' limited commercial value and local use. JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 51 The range of this tree is much more restricted than that of the yellow pine. It appears to be uncommon and very local in the Pikes Peak Reserve, having been observed in any numbers only at its northern end. In the Plum Creek Reserve it is found in small num- bers about Devils Head Mountain, but occurs in abundance, either nearly alone or mixed with other trees, from that point south and southwest to the Pikes Peak Reserve. Its distribution in the South Platte Reserve is peculiar and irregular. It is found more or less scattered through the Puma Hills, in the southern portion, sometimes occurring in small separate groves. It is found on the slopes of Free- man Peak, Green Mountain, and Stormy Peak, and is more or less scattered through the forest of the hills in the Lost Park and Craig- Park region, lying north of the Tarryall Moimtains. It is plentiful on the north slopes of the Platte River Mountains, and is, or was, the predominant species found on the slopes north and west of the Kenosha Twin Cone Mountains. It is distributed more or less plenti- fuU}' through all the long, narrow, western arm of the South Platte Reserve. When occurring in mixed growth its most common associate is Engelmann spruce, genei'ally known here as white spruce. It is found most abundantly on the higher plateaus and on northerly slopes, and at altitudes ranging between 8,000 and 10,500 feet, descending below 8,000 feet and, exceptionally, reaching up to about 11,000 feet, but never extending to the highest timber line. PiNUS ARiSTATA Engelui. (Range pine, bastard pine.) This species does not appear to have any generally known popular name in the reserves, but in part is called range pine, pitch pine, or, as in the region about Tarryall Mountains, passes under pinon pine, a name more properly belonging to Pinus edulis, which occurs within the reserves only on a small area near Manitou. The names of fox- tail pine and hickory pine, in some places applied to this tree, seemed to be rarely if ever used in this region. Pitch pine was the name applied to the tree about Alma, where it is common. The range pine is never a large tree, rarely exceeding 40 or 50 feet in height, although the trunk is often stout in proportion to the height, frequently measuring 2 or 3 feet in diameter. It is usually of low, branching habit of growth, with many large limbs and rapidly taper- ing stems, which are often forked, so that it is not common to get more than one saw log of from 12 to 16 feet in length from a tree. Much of this timber bears branches almost to the ground, or the clear trunks of a great majority of the trees are so short that not even an ordinary saw log can be obtained, so that this species is not often found among the logs which are to be cut by sawmills into ordinary lumber. It is frequently used for mine timbers, however, and for fuel. 52 FOREST KESERVE8. In its distribution the ranfjo pine is found mostly on I'idges, rocky ledges, and south slopes from about 8,000 feet altitude to timber line, which in these reserves averages about 11,500 feet, but in exception- ally favorable situations may extend, in twisted and dwarf(;d speci- mens, to 12,000 feet altitude. It is often the chief tree on the upper parts of southern slopes of many mountains, the upper northern slopes being chiefly occupied by Engelmann spi'uce. This division of the territory by the trees is often a marked feature in the canyons and gulches which lie in an easterly and westerly direction. The range pine is common on the slopes of Pikes Peak, where it was originally discovered, and on the higher ridges in that region; it appears local and uncommon in the Plum Creek Reserve, it is plenti- ful through a large portion of the South Platte Reserve, particularly on the south slopes of unburned parts of the Tarryall Mountains and the mountains in the Lost Park region, continuing all through the branch of the reserve l.ving west of South Park. As a low, bushy tree it is scattered on the rocks and ridges of the open, uneven, or broken country lying within the reserve boundaries on the eastern side of South Park, as about Bordenville. As would naturally be expected from the dry, poor, or rockj^ situa- tions on which it most commonly grows, this pine is of very slow growth. Few opportunities were had to make measui-ements, but an idea of average relative size and age may be had from dimensions of a typical individual, under average conditions, which measured about 40 feet in height, 17 inches in diameter at 5 feet from the ground, and showed annual I'ings approximating 290 years of age. Individuals of larger diameter of trunk, and growing nearer timber line were undoubtedly of considerably greater age. PiNus FLEXiLis Jamcs. (White pine, limber pine.) This is the least common of any of the pines found in the reserves; it is less known or distinguished from other species by people living in the region, and it has least economic importance. Nowhere does it appear to be recognized by any general familiar name, although it is occasionally refen-ed to as white pine; was also pointed out as sugar pine; and is said to pass under the name of bull pine. As a rule, howev^er, it seems to be confounded with the range pine, with which it most commonly grows and to which it bears some general superficial resemblance. In stature it is somewhat similar to the range pine; it has much the same kind of short, rapidly tapering trunk, often divided, and generally bearing many large limbs. The trunk is more free from lower branches and attains a larger diameter, however, than the range pine, and it more often makes good sawmill logs, although on account of the general scarcity of the tree its wood is not often seen in lum- ber piles. .1. RANGE PINE .PINUS ARISTATAi AT TIMBER LINE PIKES PEAK SOUTH SLOPE. B LODGEPOLE PINE iN SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE A little timber has been cut here-all under 10 inches .n diameter. JACK. I RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 53 "While the white pine is nowhere abundant, it is quite general^ scattered through most parts of the reserves, occuring from about the . lowest levels, or between 6,000 and 7,000 feet, up to timber line, or about 11,500 feet, although it appeared to attain the latter altitude only occasionally, and was not seen to reach the extreme limits of stunted specimens of the range pine. It grows with the latter and with Engelmann spruce at timber line on the south and east slopes of Pikes Peak, and occurs here and there through most of that reserve, and appears to have been more than usually plentiful on that portion of it north of Ute Pass which was burned over about twenty years ago. Jt is scarce in the Plum Creek Reserve; and in the South Platte Reserve it is very irregular, but appears to occur most often through its extreme western arm. Whenever of sufficient size and development of clear trunk, the white pine is sawed into lumber or used for mine timbers, but on account of its comparative rarity it is of veiy slight economic value in this region. PiNUS EDULis Engelm. (Pinon, pinon pine, nut pine.) This, the true pinon, or pinon pine, only occurs within the reserve limits in the vicinity of Williams Canyon, north of Manitou, under 8,000 feet altitude, where it is commonly mixed with Junlpenis monns- ferma and Juniperus scopulorum. It is here a low, bushy tree, rarely more than 15 feet high, not often exceeding 12 or 15 inches in diameter, and with a very short or no clear trunk. It is locally valued for fuel, and in the Arkansas Valley, south and west of the reserves, it was formerly' nuich cut and used in the manufactiu'e of charcoal for smelting purposes. PsEUDOTSUGA TAXiFOLiA (Laui.) Britton. (Red fir, Douglas spruce, red spruce.) The tree generally known to botanists and dendrologists as Douglas spruce is in the reserves almost universally known as red spruce, sometimes red pine, and certain trees which contain a large proportion of sapwood are sometimes called bastard spruce by lumbermen. It is the red or j^ellow fir of the Pacific coast. This tree has almost exactly the same range in the reserves as the yellow pine {Pinxis ponderosa) with which it is usualh* found associated, sometimes one preponderating, sometimes the other, according to the peculiar local conditions and exposures. It grows well at the lower altitudes in the reserves, or at about 6,000 feet altitude, and the highest altitude at which it was noted was between 10,500 and 11,000 feet, on the south slopes of the Tarryall Mountains, near Mountaindale. The altitude reached here seems to be exceptional, however, for as a rule the upper limits of this species appeared to be about 10,000 feet, or occasionally 10,500 feet. Growing mainly under similar conditions 54 FOREST RESERVKS. the red Hr appears to roac-h about the same dimensions, in this ])art of the country, as the yellow pine. Trees with trunks i feet in diameter at the stumj) aiul 111) or 120 feet in height, with a clear trunk of 50 or 60 feet, are very rare and apparently never were common, even before the coming of sawmills. .\ trunk diameter of 2 feet at 3 or 4 feet from the ground and a total height of 100 or 110 feet, giving, perhaps, 60 feet of saw log, the upper 20 feet or more of which bears branches, the small end about or little less than a foot in diameter, is considered fine timber of this species in this region. Trees of this extra size are verj' exceptional, however, and are found in few localities and on limited areas, either alone or so intermixed with poorer material or other species that the amount of lumber per acre on any given square mile or quarter sec- tion is not great, probablj' never exceeding an average of 2,000 feet to the acre. Wherever easily and profitably accessible, nearly all trees of suitable sizes have been cut for the sawmill or for rail- road ties. Most of the Douglas spruce which remains on the reserves consists of rather small, much-branched trees with not more than 12 or 15 feet of clear trunk, or those in which some defect unfits them for profitable luml)er purposes, or they are under 8 inches in diameter and therefore not useful either for sawmill lumber or for making of railroad ties. On the lower altitudes and along canyons and gulches the red fir is found mixed with blue spruce as well as yellow pine, and in its upper limits it is often scattered among Engelmann spruce and lodge- pole pine. It occurs throughout the Pikes Peak Reserve up to about 10,000 feet altitude, and is commonly mixed with other species over all the Plum Creek Reserve, particularly in gulches and on northern slopes. The Douglas spruce is distributed through the main body of the South Platte Reserve, but, like the yellow pine, it seems strangely absent from the Lost Park region lying north of the Tarrvall Moun- tains and east of South Park, although the lower part of this region has an altitude decidedly lower than the species generally reaches; and on the long narrow extreme western arm of this reserve it is found only at irregular intervals near the edge of the eastern slope adjoining South Park, upon the low hills and buttes of which it occurs, generally small in size, and mixed with yellow pine and blue spruce. The best trees yet uncut l)y lumbermen are found at altitudes of from 7,000 to 8,500 feet, on the ground drained by Wigwam Creek and Lost Park or Goose Creek, extending 4 or 5 miles back from their junctions with South Platte River; and on the nearly opposite slopes, of this river in the southwest corner of the Plum Creek Reserve, southwest of Thunder Butte. In these places, how- ever, the forest covering is thin and there is a preponderance of other kinds of trees, or of those too small for anv present use. A.. WHITE PINE (PINUS FLEXILISl, EASTERN SLOPE OF PIKES PEAK. Living tree. 1 8 incnes ; dead tree, 24 inches in diameter. i; ^:. jElmann spruce on breckenridge pass, west slope. La.-gest tfees 80 or 90 feet high ; trunks 3 feet m diameter. Above 1 1 ,000 feet altitude. JACK.] EESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 55 As a rule the Douglas spruce seems to maintain about the same relative rate of growth and increase in size as the yellow pine when growing together and under similar conditions. On north slopes and decayed granite soil, in the favoralile localities just mentioned, a number of red firs were measured and their ages ascertained. A tree growing without having been much crowded measured 58 feet in height, was 17 inches in diameter at 3 feet from the ground, and the small end of the second saw log, cut at 26 feet from the large end of the lirst log, was 12 inches in diameter. The remain- ing 32 feet of length liore many large green branches and was rejected by the lumberman. The aiuuial rings showed this tree to be about 175 years old. Another having a total height of 75 feet was ISi inches in diameter at 3 feet from the ground, 12 inches in diameter at small end of log 30 feet in length, the remaining 45 feet being rejected on account of branches. Annual rings showed about 180 years of growth. Douglas or red spruce is considered more desii'able for lumber and railroad ties than yellow pine, but although the railroad ties made from Douglas spruce generally command 10 cents each more than those made from pine, the sawmills, when cutting the logs into boards and other building liunber, rarely separate the spruce and pine, but all are mixed and sold at the same price per thousand feet. This is undoubt- edly in part due to the fact that the hunber is largely used locally, or in mining camps, for the construction of rough, hastily-erected, and cheap buildings, the lowest-priced lumber being sought; and also because the Douglas spruce fit for the sawmill is so scattered and mixed with pine that any slight difference in price it might command would not pay for sorting and separating at the mills. It is the principal tree used in constructing bridges over creeks and streams, being more dui-able in contact with water than most other timbers locallj^ available. PiCEA ENGELSiANNi Engelm. (Engelmann spruce, white spruce.) The Engelmann spruce is almost universally called white spruce throughout the reserves. It is the most abvindant tree on all the uppermost forest ranges, and to-day would probably furnish more ready sawmill timber than any other species within the territory under considei'ation. It often grows as almost pure spruce woods, but commonly some lodgepole pine, range pine [P. aristata), or alpine fir {Aljies laslocarpa) is found uiixed with it. Often extending down cool northern mountain slopes and following cold canj-ons and gulches in small numbers to 6,000 or 7,000 feet altitude it is most abundant, and seems most at home. It reaches its best development at an elevation between 10,000 and 11,500 feet, cover- ing the tops of mountains under timber line and forming a belt around 56 FOREST RESERVES. the highest, of ten furnishing fair .siiwniill tini1)(>r up to fi'oni 11.500 to 11,700 feet, and extonding in more or less dwarfed or .stunted form, according to the exposures, to the highest limit readied by trees in the reserves. As a rule this appeal's to be between 11,700 and 11,800 feet, but in some situations straggling groups or individuals are found at about 12,000 feet altitude. While the range pine (Pinus aristata) often chiefly occupies rocky southern slopes opposite the northern slopes, which are covered by Engelmann spruce, the latter species also appears to occupy most intermediate locations, and often crowds the pine from the extreme upper limits. In its best condition, as found in these reserves, the Engelmann spruce is a tree with regularly-tapering stem, sometimes 110 to 120 feet high, and with a trunk over 3 feet in diameter at 3 or -1 feet from the ground. Commonh- it ranges between 70 and 80 feet in height and 8 or 10 inches to 2 feet in diameter, although specimens 3 feet in diameter and much shorter in proportion are found near timber line. Branches, living and dead, are generally borne from near the ground to the top, so that there is practically no clear trunk, or only a few feet of it, this condition prevailing even where the trees are growing comparatively close together. The branches are slender and generally not more than 6 or 7 feet long and markedly depressed, so that besides offering comparatively little resistance to winds, to which the trees are much exposed, the drooping branches carry very little of the snow which falls upon them. As might be expected on the poor granite soils on which the Engel- mann spruce generally grows, and the cool high altitudes at which it reaches its best development, where frosts are common and snows not verj' rare throughout the simimer, the growth of the trees is slow, and a great many j^ears are required to produce the best of the sawmill timber now found. Many trees and logs were measured and the ages ascertained from specimens growing in different sec- tions, and the results showed a fairly uniform rate of growth and increment. In the Lost Park region, on a northern slope, in coarse granite soil, and at about 10,000 feet altitude, one of the best trees seen cut for lumber measured 110 feet in height (the top being dead), was 28 inches in diameter at 3 feet from the ground and had clear annual rings show- ing about 275 years of grow^th. This tree gave five good saw logs of a total length of 72 feet, the first three each 16 feet and the last two 12 feet in length, and measuring respectiveh' 24, 21, 19, 16i, and 12^ inches in diameter, at the small end, giving upward of 1,200 feet of lumber. At the top of the last log, 72 feet from the butt end or 75 feet from the ground, annual rings show'ed 140 years of growth, so that the remaining 35 feet of height had developed in about 135 yeai's. A. ENGELMANM SPRUCE TRUNK, OVER 3 FEET IN DIAMETER, BRECKENRIDGE PASS WEST SLOPE, Altitude above 1 1 ,000 feet. yj, ENGELMANN SPRUCE AT TIMBER LINE, NORTH SIDE OF PIKES PEAK Altitude nearly 12,000 feet. JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 57 Another tree, with its top broken and decayed, showed 325 clear annual rings of growth and gave three saw logs; the first 12 feet long, 35^^ inches in diameter at large end and 28 inches at small end; the second 1(3 feet long and 25 inches in diameter at small end; and the third also 16 feet long and 22 inches in diameter at small end. Up to about 200 years the annual rings were of fairly uniform thickness, but largest in the second half of the first century. After 200 years the rings become distinctly thinner with the age of the tree. Trees of the dimen- sions of these two are exceptional, the average being much smaller. Another specimen, cut near the last, measured 12^ inches in diameter at the stump and 68 feet in total height, and annual rings showed it to be about 225 j'ears of age. Thirty feet of saw log was taken from it, fhe small end measuring Si inches in diameter, the remaining 35 feet being rejected as too small and bearing too many branches for profita- ble lumber. Near Boreas, on Breckenridge Pass on the northern slope, at an elevation of 11,500 feet, the larger trees did not measure more than from 60 to 70 feet in height, although at 3 feet from the ground some of the trunks measured over 2 feet in diameter and showed as much as 31:0 annual rings of growth. All of these trees were growing on a coarse rocky or granite soil, where no traces of former forest fires were to be found, and where there was an accumulation of several inches of humus. The trees on Breckenridge Pass probably receive more moisture from westerly winds than those in Lost Park. Most of the timber land in the reserves which does not show any trace of damage by fire is situated at the higher altitudes where this spruce occurs, but the areas which have had such immunity are gener- ally not large. The Englemann spruce is sawed into much the same class of lumber, and is mainly used for the same purposes and commands about the same prices as the yellow pine and Douglas spruce, although it does not appear to be much cut for railroad ties. It was formerly used in making chai'coal, and recently has been cut for the manufacture of paper pvilp. Being, as a rule, the least accessible of all the good tim- ber trees, it has been the last to be attacked by lumbermen, and con- sequently there is more of it of a size fit for lumber standing on a given area than of any other species. It is found throughout most of the Pikes Peak Reserve and is particularly abundant on the higher mountains and slopes around Pikes Peak, especially to the south and west, and, although the principal tree, it does not occur of large size over any considerable areas uubi-oken b_v fire, the ax, or by predomi- nance of other kinds of trees which occur on exposures peculiarly suited to them. It is still plentiful near Lake Aloraine and the Seven Lakes on the south, and in the so-called Black Forest, occupj'iug a 58 FOREST RESERVES. iiiiricw licit to till" north iiiid west. It is uncommon in the northern part of the reserve; and so little of it is to be found in the Plum Creek Reserve that it is there of no economic importance. In the eastern part of the South Platte Reserve it is rarely seen within i or 5 miles of the South Platte River. It is found on the Puma Hills in the south(>rn part, and the Tarryall Mountains in the central part, and is most abundant to the north of the latter, over the region covered by the Kenosha and Platte mountains, with the inter- vening Lost Park and Craig Park. Here it is the prevailing tree, although it is often mi.xed mth lodgepole pine, the so-called range pine {Pmm arislata), and occasionally with alpine fir {Abies lasiocarpa). In this area it forms the only considerable body of original timber remaining within the limits of any of the reserves, although even here it has not been exempt from the ravages of fire, and the lumberman has been at work in the heart of it. This spruce is also found through the long western arm of the reserve, west of South Park, although unfortunately the best and most valuable forested areas are chiefly outside the western boundaries of the reservation. PiCEA PAKEYANA (Andre) Parry (Picea pungens, Engelm.). (Colo- rado blue spruce.) This tree is found passing under vari(ius local names, among them blue spruce, silver spruce, white spruce, fan-leaf spruce, and water spruce. Two or three names are sometimes applied to different indi^'id- uals when growing side by side, according as they may \ary in color of foliage, peculiarities of branching, etc. In its best condition, as found in these reserves, the blue spruce may attain a height of 110 or l:i() feet and a diameter of trunk of about 3 feet near the base. It is a more horizontally branched, broader spi'ead- ing, more symmetrical tree than the Engclmann spruce and grows much more rapidly, especiall^^ in the first few decades of its development. An example of the rate of growth may be given from a specimen on the banks of Tarrj-all Creek, near Farnham's ranch, at about 9.000 feet altitude, which measured 90 feet in height and 31 inches in diameter at 4 feet from the ground, and which the annual rings of growth showed to be between 180 and 200 years old. On exposed situations, when the species grows old, the branches often have a straggling, stunted aspect, which gives the trees anything but the beautiful, symmetrical appearance which they have in youth, in sheltered places, or in cultivation. As a rule there is little of clear trunk even where the trees are comparatively crowded among other species. The blue spruce is peculiarly uneven in its distribution, is confined to the lower altitudes, and is usualh' found along rivers and creeks or .1. BLUE SPRUCE (PICEA PARF?YANA) NEAR BUFFALO SPRINGS, SOUTH PARK, /;. CHARACTERISTIC GROWTH OF ASPEN IN PIKES PEAK RESERVE, WHERE FOREST HAS BEEN DESTROYED AND GROUND BURNT OVER MORE THAN ONCE. Prostrate trees burnt fifteen or twenty years before. 4S^^'^^ys|jjjfB7''^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^B ^^^^^^^H ,^y:^^m^ ^H^^H H iw J MBBi MH ^^^^B 9 ^^^IimHHHI fl ^ — -. — . — 's^^; -Ht-r^i^" '•' \ JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 59 where more than the average amount of moisture is obtained from the soil, although it occurs also on the north slopes of some low hills and ridges. It commonly occurs over the same territorj^ occupied by the yellow pine and Douglas spruce, which usually groAV on the slopes, while the blue spruce more closely follows the water courses. As a rule, it seems to range between 6.000 feet and 9,000 feet in altitude, but sometimes reaches fully 1.0(;)0 feet above the latter elevation. It never occurs as pure forest, and is nowhere sufficiently abundant to be of commercial value, generally being scattered among other species. It is found scattered along the creeks and gulches of the lower parts of the Pikes Peak Reserve, crossing it through Ute Pass, and occuring here and there over the lower unburned parts to the north. It is to be met scattered along creeks through the Plum Creek Reserve, and all around the main body of the South Platte Reserve, being more than usually plentiful in the southern portion, ascending Lost Park Creek almost to Lost Park itself, and crossing the reserve diagonally by way of Tarryall Creek from the South Platte River to South Park. It occurs at intervals along the eastern margin of the narrow western arm of the reserve, especially near its southern end, where, in spots, it most nearly appears as the pre\'ailing growth. It is commonly scat- tered over the hilly portion of South Park lying between the two parts of the reserve. Its altitudinal distribution is peculiar and variable according to locality and other conditions. As examples it may be mentioned that in the canyons east of Pikes Peak 8,500 to 9,500 feet seems to be the upper limit; along the North Branch of the South Platte it disappears a little above Webster, at about 9,000 feet altitude, and its place is taken by the Engelmaun spruce; it exceeds this altitude when follow- ing the course of Tarryall Creek to South Park; is found at an eleva- tion of fully 9,800 feet to the west of the town of Como; while to the south, within a mile or two of Platte Station or Rich's ranch, it is found reaching up to quite 10,000 feet altitude before it is entirely supplanted by Engelmann spruce and other trees. The wood of the blue spruce is generally coarse and otherwise of poor quality. Nevertheless, in this region, where rough timbers are chiefly in demand, wherever found of sufficient size, it is, with the yellow pine and Douglas spruce, usually sawed into boards and other classes of lumber and sold mixed with the better kinds. Young plants showing the most blue or glaucous foliage are some- times collected and shipped to nurserymen to be grown for ornamental purposes. Plants growing side b}' side show much variation in foliage, many having an ordinary green coloring, while others are verj' strik- inglv glaucous or blue. 60 FOREST RESERVES. Abies con color (Gord.) Parry. (Colorado white fir, balsam fir, blue fir.) This tree may be regarded as rare and very local in the reserves. It was not observed anywhere to reach an altitude greater than about 8,500 feet; and its best developement was attained along water courses or on adjacent cold north slopes, where it was sometimes found 70 or 80 feet in height and with a trunk 2 feet or more in diameter. When not crowded it is usually a beautifidly symmetrical tree, coni- cal in outline, with regular horizontal branches. It is most often to be seen along creeks and gulches on the eastern slopes of the Pikes Peak and Plum Creek reserves; and is apparently a veiy rare tree in the South Platte Reserve, not being found at all in the main body or extreme western portion of it. It is not of any special economic importance in this region, although, whenever large enough, it may be cut, with other species, for the sawmill. Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. (Abies subalpika, Engelm.). (Alpine fir, balsam.) AVhilc the preceding species is onl_v found at the lower levels, the alpine fir reaches up to the average timber line; also extending well down the mountain sides on cold northern slopes, but apparently not meeting or mingling with Aiies concolor. It is also rare and local, and nowhere occurs in sufficient numbers to be taken into commercial account. It is usually found scattered among Engelmann spruce, and is also sometimes foimd associated with lodgepole pine. But it is by no means always found wherever these trees occur. It is most often to be seen in the mountainous region between the Tarryall Mountains and the North Branch of the South Platte River, and on the high range of the narrow western arm of the South Platte Reserve. It is usuallj' a smaller tree, with decidedly shorter branches than Abies concolor. It is occasionally 70 or 80 feet high, with a trunk 2 feet in diameter, the height of the tree diminishing as timber line is ap- pi'oached, as is the case with Englemann spruce. At Boreas, on Breckenridge Pass, at fully 11,500 feet altitude, an average tree of this fir measured 53 feet in total height, was IS^- inches in diameter at 3 feet from the ground, and 12 inches in diameter at 20 feet from the larger end of the log. It showed 185 annual rings of age, the first 100 rings of nearly uniform size, the remainder appreciably smaller with the advancing age of the tree. JACK.] RESERVES IN CENTRAL COLORADO. 61 AYhen large enough the alpine fir is sometimes cut with the spruce for lumber or paper pulp. JuNiPEKUS scopuLORUM Sargent. (Cedar.) This tree sometimes passes in the same locality under the names of juniper, cedar or red cedar, and white cedar, the latter name being applied to trees with unusally glaucous foliage. It is local and never abundant in the reserves, usually growing scat- tered on the most rocky ledges or soils, and apparently chiefl}' limited to altitudes under 9,000 feet, or less than the general range of the yellow pine. It is rarely found 25 feet in height, and the trunk is usually very much branched to the base or has a divided stem. It is of verv slow growth and very tenacious of life. Many individuals are in part dead, probably mainly by reason of unusually dry seasons, the trees being situated on the driest and most exposed situations. This cedar is found on rocky, dry hills and rocks in parts of the lower levels of all of the reserves, but is nowhere sufiiciently abundant to make it of much commercial importance. It is much prized and used locally, however, its durability under nearly all conditions being fully recognized and appreciated. JuNiPERUs MONOSPERMA (Engelm.) Sargent. (One-seed juniper, cedar, red cedar.) This juniper or cedar is generally at once distinguished from the preceding species by having more rigid twigs and darker green foliage, never showing the glaucous coloring characteristic of Junipenis scojni- lorum. It is found near Manitou with J. scopuhmun and piiion pine {Pimm eduUs), and rarely at several other points near the reserve boundaries, but it does not grow to the same altitudes on the hills as J. scojjularum, being practically confined to very nearly the same limits as the pinon pine. The one-seed juniper appeal's to grow to about the same size as the other, and is used for similar purposes; but it is so rare in the territory under consideration as to be practically not deserving more than mere mention. PoPULUS TREMULOiDES, Michx. (Quaking asp, trembling aspen.) This is the only deciduous tree which occurs plentif ullj' over any con- siderable area of the reserves. It is found in almost all parts, from the low levels near the reserve borders up to 10,500 or 11,000 feet altitude, and even higher in favored localities and in small specimens. It may be seen at these higher altitudes on the slopes about Pikes Peak, and also in other places. 62 FOREST RESERVES. It commonly occurs most iibundiintly over areas that have been swept by forest fires, and if the ground gives evidence of having been burned over more than once the growth of "quaking asp" is usually proportionately more dense. It is also found to a limited extent in open woods which show no trace of fire since white men came into the country. It reaches its best development along streams or in places where there are springs or more than the usual amount of moisture, but, in smaller size, it grows on ordinary levels, slopes, or mountain sides, being, as a rule, less abundant on very warm southern slopes than in other situations. Under most conditions in which it is found it is rareh' more than 25 or 30 feet high, with a stem 5 or 6 inches in diameter, and com- monly- it is so small and poorly grown as to be practically worthless under present conditions and demands. In a few favored situations it sometimes attains a height of 60 or 70 feet, with a long clean trunk over a foot in diameter at 4 or 5 feet from the ground. Such trees, however, are exceptional. Wherever large enough the quaking asp has lately been cut for shiiDment to Denver for the manufacture of excelsior and also of paper, but the quantity obtainable for this purpose is so limited as to be totally exhausted with the shipment of a few carloads. The vast areas of smaller timber furnish at present only firewood and fencing. For the latter purpose it has been found that fence rails made of quaking aspen, stripped of the bark, will last for man}- years, rails in use for twent}' j'ears being yet perfectly durable. In the moist atmosphere of the Eastern States these would probably be decayed and useless at the end of two or three seasons. It is not found so enduring for fence posts, however, and for this purpose it is usual to employ either cedar, Douglas spruce, or yellow pine. The remarkable power of the quaking aspen to spring up and par- tially cover the ground soon after a forest fire is largely due to the fact that many plants exist in a more or less suppressed condition through these open woods. The roots are very widespreading and mostly near the surface of the soil, and when the ground is burned over adventitious buds produce stems at irregular intervals along these roots, so that from a single original plant there may spring up a colony of stems extending for man}' feet around it. PopuLUS ANGUSTiFOLiA James. (Cottonwood, narrow-leaved cotton- wood.) This tree is only found along rivers and creeks, sometimes ascend- ing these streams to between 9,000 and 10,000 feet altitude. It is nowhere abundant, occurring only as scattered individuals or groups, and on account of its scarcity it is of little economic value in and about JACK.] PIKES PEAK RESERVE. 63 the reserves, excepting that it is planted for shade. It may be con- sidered as the largest deciduous tree found in this region, but the best specimens seen hardly exceeded 2 feet in diameter of trunk and 50 feet in height. PopuLUS BALSAMiFERA Linn. (Balm of Gilead poplar, cottonwood.) This tree is found along streams in and about the reserves up to 10,000 feet or greater elevation, but it is nowhere common or of any extensive use. It sometimes attains about the same size as the narrow- leaved cottonwood, to which it often bears a close general resemblance. POPULUS DELTOIDES Marsh. (P. MONILIFERA Ait.) The broad-leaved cottonwood, so common along creeks and rivers on the plains, did not appear to be actually indigenous within the limits of the reserves, although it occurs in the vicinity of them and is planted for shade and other useful purposes. Populus acuminata Rydberg, was seen only about Colorado Springs and Manitou, where a few individuals may be found. In all specimens seen they showed features which suggested a hybrid between the broad-leaved and the narrow-leaved cottonwoods. PIKES PEAK FOREST RESERVE. BOUNDARIES. The boundaries of this reserve, as established by Executive order of March 18, 1892, supplementary to that of February 11, 1892, are as follows : Beginning at the northeast corner of section four (4) , township eleven (11) soutli, range .sixty-seven (67) , west of the sixth (6th) principal meridian ; thence westerly along the second (2nd) correction line south, between townships ten (10) and eleven (11) south, to the northwest corner of section six (6) , township eleven (11) south, range sixty-eight (68) west ; thence southerly along the range line between ranges sixty-eight (68) and sixty-nine (69) west, to the southwest corner of section eighteen (18) , township thirteen (13) south, range sixty-eight (68) west ; thence westerly along the section line between sections thirteen (13) and twenty-four (24) , fourteen (14) and twenty-three (23), fifteen (15) and twenty-two (22), sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21), seventeen (17) and twenty (20), and eighteen (18) and nineteen (19), to the northwest corner of section nineteen (19), township thirteen (13) south, range sixty-nine (69) west ; thence southerly along the range line between ranges sixty-nine (69) and seventy (70) west, to the southwest corner of section thirty-one (31) of said township ; thence easterly along the township line between townships thirteen (13) and fourteen (l4) south, to the quarter section corner on said township line between section thirty-five (3.5) , township (13) south, range sixty-nine (69) west, and section two (2), township fourteen (14) south, range sixty-nine (69) west; thence southerly through the middle of sections two (2) , eleven (11) , and fourteen (14) , township fourteen (14) south, range sixty-nine (69) west, to the quarter section corner on the section line between sections fourteen (14) and twenty-three (23) of said township and range; thence easterly along said 64 FOREST RESEKVE8. section line to the northeast corner of section twenty-three (23) of said township and range; thence southerly along the section line to the quarter section corner on said line between sections twenty-three (23) and twenty-four (24) of said township and range; thence easterly through the middle of section twenty-four (24) to the quarter section corner on the range line between section nineteen (19), township fourteen (14) south, range sixty-eight (68) west, and section twenty-four (24), township fourteen (14) south, range sixty-nine (69) west; thence southerly along said range line to the southwest corner of section thirty-one (31) , township fifteen (15) south, range sixty-eight (68) west; thence easterly along the third (3rd) correc- tion line south between townships fifteen (15) and sixteen (16) south to the south- east corner of section thirty-four (34), township fifteen (15) south, range sixty-seven (67) west; thence northerly along the section line between sections thirty-four (34) and thirty-five (35), twenty-six (26) and twenty-seven (27) to the point for the quarter section corner on the section line between sections twenty-two (22) and twenty-three (23), township fifteen (15) south, range sixty-seven (67) west; thence westerly to a point for the legal center of section twenty-one (21) of said township and range; thence southerly to the southwest corner of the southeast quarter of section twenty- eight (28) of said township and range; thence westerly along the section line between sections twenty-eight (28) and thirty-three (33), twenty-nine (29) and thirty-two (32) , thirty (30) and thirty-one (31) to the northwest comer of section thirty-one (31) of said range and township; thence northerly on the range line between ranges sixty- seven (67) and sixty-eight (68) west to the southwest corner of section six (6) of said township and range; thence easterly along the section line to the southeast corner of section six (6) of said township and range; thence southerly along the sec- tion line to the southw-est corner of section eight (8) of said township and range; thence easterly along the section line to the southeast corner of section ten (10) of said township and range; thence northerly along the section line between sections ten (10) and eleven (11) , two (2) and three (3) , township fifteen (15) south, range sixty- seven (67) west, to the northeast corner of section three (3) of said township and range; thence westerly along the township line between townships fourteen (14) and fifteen (15) south to the northwest corner of section three (3) , township fifteen (15) south, range sixty-seven (67) west; thence northerly along the section line between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) , twenty-seven (27) and twenty-eight (28) , twenty- one (21) and twenty-two (22) to the northeast corner of section twenty-one (21) , town- ship fourteen (14) south, range sixty-seven (67) west; thence westerly along the section line between sections sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21) , seventeen (17) and twenty (20), eighteen (18) and nineteen (19) to the northwest corner of section nineteen (19) of said township and range; thence northerly along the range line between ranges sixty- seven (67) and sixty-eight (68) west to the northeast corner of section one (1), township fourteen (14) south, range sixty-eight (68) west; thence easterly along the township line between townships thirteen (13) and fourteen (14) south to the south- east corner of section thirty-three (33) , township thirteen (13) south, range sixty- seven (67) west; thence northerly along the section line between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) , twenty-seven (27) and twenty-eight (28) , twenty-one (21) and twenty-two (22) , fifteen (15) and sixteen (16) , nine (9) and ten (10) , and three (3) and four (4) of townships thirteen (13), twelve (12) and eleven (11) south, range sixty-seven (67) west to the place of beginning. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. Of the 184,320 acres contained within the Pikes Peak Reserve, that having the lowest altitude consists of a small corner near Manitou with an elevation of between 6,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level. Almost the whole of the Pikes Peak Reserve is composed of rugged lEW AT SEVEN LAKES, PIKES PEAK RESERVE LOOKING SOUTh Jl VIEW LOOKING EAST TO LAKE MORAINE. SHEEP MOUNTAIN, AND CAMERON CONE FROM SLOPES OF PIKES PEAK. JACK.] PIKES PEAK RESERVE. 65 hills and mountains which attain an extreme elevation in Pikes Peak itself, the height of whieh is 14,108 feet. To the south and southeast of Pikes Peak are numerous mountains and ridges between 11,000 and 13,000 feet in elevation ; a very small portion is below 8,500 feet, and probably the average altitude exceeds 10,000 feet. To the north of Pikes Peak the land falls much more abruptly, and most of the ter- ritory lying in the reserve between the Peak and the Plum Creek Reserve ranges between 8,000 and 9,500 feet in altitude, the highest points not exceeding 10,000 feet. The soil is generally a coarse, broken, or decayed granite, among which are distributed manj' ledges, rocks, or bowlders. There is little huuuis or loam, and whatever there may be is generally accumulated in hollows, along creeks, or in small areas of forest which show no trace of fire. In the Lake Moraine vicinity there is a good deal of deep muck, the accumulation of many centuries. Several small creeks have their sources in the Pikes Peak Reserve, most of them falling to the east or west into larger streams, which in turn empty into the South Platte River on the north or the Arkansas River on the south, most of the water falling into the latter stream. The most important of these creeks is Fountain Creek, which rises in the western part, where it is known as Catamount Creek, and, passing across the center of the reserve, is joined by Monument Creek near Colorado Springs and falls into the Arkansas River at Pueblo. It is fed by a number of small tributaries, among them Ruxton Creek, which carries the waters flowing from the east of Pikes Peak and joins Fountain Creek near Manitou. The waters of Ruxton Creek are used both for power purposes and water saipply for the towns below. The southern end of the reserve is chiefly drained by Beaver Creek and its tributaries, and Cheyenne Creek and its branches carry off the water from a comparatively small area in the southeastern part. There are no large bodies of water on the reserve. The largest, known as Lake Moraine, is less than 100 acres in area, and is now, in fact, an enlarged artificial reservoir, forming part of the Ruxton Creek water s_ystem. The small bodies of water known as the Seven Lakes are above, and are separated from Lake Moraine by a high divide, and have Beaver Creek, which flows southward, for their outlet. These lakes are situated at an altitude of about 10,500 feet, are of various depths, and alto- gether, when full, may cover a hundred or more acres in area. A tunnel, known as the Strickler tunnel, is in process of construc- tion, with the object of drawing some of the waters near the head of Beaver Creek into Lake Moraine in order to increase and perpetuate the water supply for Colorado Springs and other places below. In its fall of several thousand feet the water will be utilized to furnish power for various purposes. 20 GEOL, I'T 5 5 66 FOREST RESERVES. Palmer Lake, a small artificial reservoir in the northeastern corner of the reserve, is situated outside the mountain region, so that it is of no special importance in relation to the reserve proper. Considering the ranching, manufactures, and especially the large transientandpei'manenthealth-seeking population at Colorado Springs, Manitou, and other places along thii eastern slope of this reserve, the importance of preserving a jjure and undiminished water supply c'an not be overestimated; and, as this purest water comes from the higher mountains in the vicinity of and including Pikes Peak, every means should be taken to preserve it from damage of any sort. Among the chief sources of the streams are the great snowdrifts above timber line, which accmnulate in winter in deep gulches or hol- lows, and, slowly melting in sunmier, still exist on the north or shaded sides of the mountains when they arc replenished by the snows of the succeeding autumn and winter. It is well known in mountainous regions that a constant and equable distribution of the water in summer is greatly helped b}- a good forest covering of the upper slopes and valleys, the effect being to cause a more gradual melting of snow where shaded and checking the water from precipitately rushing to streams lielow, as is generally the case on denuded gi'ound. Unfortunately there are no very large continu- ous forest areas on this reserve, fire and the ax having removed the best portion of the timber, so that there is little of the primeval forest remaining or which does iiot show molestation by man. The best of the remaining timber is found in a narrow belt near Glen Cove, north- west of Pikes Peak, in the so-called Black Forest, to the west of Glen Cove, and perhaps 3 or 4 square miles in irregular patches and very variable density, lying south of Pikes Peak and mosth' to the west of Lake Moraine and the Seven Lakes. Here and there, as near the Halfway House and a few other favored points near the line of the Manitou and Pikes Peak Railway, groves of a few .acres of fine trees may be found, but these are exceptional. As a rule the best remain- ing timber is on the least accessil>l(>, although not inaccessible, slopes. A consideral>le portion of the Black Forest district, situated between Cilen Cove and Midland Station, lies outside the reserve boundaries. It has nearly all been cut over and the l)est of the timber taken out, although nuich still remains of sufficient size for immediate use. The activitj' of sawmills is indicated by munerous abandoned sawmill sites (or sawmill '"settings," as they are called locally) which are fovuid along the creeks. In June, 1896, fires destroyed a cozisiderable portion of tlie living timber, and there was strong suspicion that the flames were started by lumbermen in order that their operations might come within FOREST LOOKING SOUTH TO SENTINEL POINT, WEST OF PIKES PEA MUCH CUT OVER AND BURNT -'••=St -»«:s::*' :^^^ ^ "'.^.€'&5^^^^'' J! RASPBERRY MOUNTAIN .CATAMOUNT HAYDEN Divide road about AND PIKES PEAK, LOOKING EAST ON SOUTH OF DIVIDE STATION .1 VIEW LOOKING SOUTH-SOUTHEAST FROM SLOPES OK PIKES PEAK TO HILLS SOUTH OF LAKE MORAINE B ENGELMANN SPRUCE IN PIKES PEAK RESERVE, r fifty years ago enough old tiees escaping to seed tile ground . the old t JACK.] PIKES PEAK RESERVE. 67 the provision allowing dead timber to be removed from the Govern- ment reserves. The timber near Lake Moraine has mostly been cut over and the best taken for Imnber or other purposes. About the Seven Lakes and along Beaver Creek the greater pnvt of the original forest has been destroyed by fire, many of the dead trees still standing, in spite of their destruction more than a quarter of a century ago. These trees, as well as the areas about Glen Cove and those composing the Black Forest, aie mostly Engelmann spruce, among which are some range pine {Pinus aristatci) and white pine {Piniis Jlexilis), which are most plen- tiful on south slopes, while the higher altitudes with a northerly slope are most exclusively occupied b_v Engelmann spruce. The tree ordi- narily .sought here for lumber is the latter species. "While occasion- ally 80 or 00 feet high, with a trunk 2^ feet in diameter, the average available timber trees would not measure above 6() or 70 feet in height and 12 to 1.5 inches in diameter, and on many portions there is practi- cally no timber left of a size suitable for the sawmill, although nmch could ])e utilized for paper pulp. On account of the extreme varialiilit}' of the timber on these areas, caused by cutting, by burnings at various times, and by very diverse quality according to exposure or elevation, so that no section or even quarter section of living timber ground can be found giving a fairly uniform growth, it is impossible to give a close estimate of the amount of lumber remaining here without more time for examination and measurements than was available in the present exploration. There are many acres which would cut over 5,000 feet of lumber to the acre if trees less than 10 or 12 inches in dlauieter were included, but not many acres of such timber could be found together. AVith the exception of a few scattered small areas, which are hardly more than groves, there are practically no forests deserving of the name on all the remaining portion of the reserve. In the southern portion, as along North and South Cheyenne creeks, and especially along the line of the wagon road between Colorado Springs and Crip- ple Creek, there are some patches of light timber; but most of the territory here has been burned over azid no important new growth has yet developed, or it bears a very scattered growth of very small or medium-sized trees. Some of the ground on south slopes and in val-. leys is absolutely bare of trees of any kind. The species found here are Engelmann spruce. Douglas spruce, vel- low pine {Pimvs pond-erosd)^ some range pine (/'. uristata), and white pine {P. Jfexills). In all the remaining part of the reserve, lying to the north of the Manitou and Pikes Peak Riilway, and comprising about 120,000 acres, or two-thirds of its entire area, there is no timber worthy of the name. Between the Pikes Peak Railway and Fountain 68 FOREST RESERVES. Creek, or the line of the Colorado Midland Kailwaj', the principal conspicuous growth is small aspen or " quaking asp," among which are scattered individuals or small groves of conifers, chiefly yellow pine, white pine, and Douglas spruce. Some of these trees are of good size, being the survivors that escaped the earlier great fires, and they bear the seed which is gi'adually, although very slowly, reforesting this ground, which was mostly burned over between two and three score yeai's ago. The new trees are of various ages, I'anging from seedlings to trees above 30 j^ears old. They are usually growing with the aspen, but they are rarely in sufficient numbers together to ultimately produce good timber. This rising generation of trees must arrive at seed- bearing age before, in the course of nature, the ground will become properly and sufficiently stocked. On the slopes and hills about Fountain Creek, for several miles northwest of Manitou, there is still left a generally open, irregular growth of small-sized or medium-sized yellow pine and Douglas spruce. There is little, however, to furnish ready material for sawmill luml)er. Excepting a comparatively small area, nearly all of the territory lying to the north of Fountain Creek, or more than one-third of the total area of the reserA-e, may be classed as practically destitute of livnng timber of any kind except small aspen. This ground, after being cut over, is said to have been burned al)out the _year 1880, only a few small belts, groups, or individuals of the timber then standing escaping the flames. This timber was not large, and the surviving remnants to-day would make mediocre sawmill Imnber. They stand like oases in a desert, and the seeds which they produce are the chief hope of natural reforestation of this burned district. Nevertheless, there are yet hundreds of contiguous acres upon which not a single young conifer has yet started to take the place of those destroyed. Near the living ti'ees which escaped burning there is generally a good, although not dense, growth of young trees coming, the individuals becoming more and more isolated and rare with increased distance from the old seed-bearing trees. The trees killed by the fire are mostly quite sound, and arc either standing or fallen to the ground, and are used locally for fuel and other purposes. Over most of this tract the white pine ( P'mm fi'.rilis) appears to have been plentiful, but yellow pine and Douglas spruce were the prevailing trees, some Engelmann spruce and blue spruce being mixed with them. A narrow strip along the extreme northern end of the reserve, and bordering on the Plum Creek Reserve, escaped the gen- eral conflagration of the time, and here are growing small or medium sized trees of the species mentioned, with a considerable percentage of lodgepole pine among them. The best of the timber has been cut out, but what remains is well worth care and protection, and in future should furnish a continual small local supply of building timber. .1 NORTHERN PART OF PIKES PEAK RESERVE, BURNT ABOUT 1380 B ASPEN AND SCATTERED PINUS FLEXILIS ON GROUND IN PIKES PEAK RE Burnt probably about frity years ago PIKES PEAK RESERVE. 69 No great forest fii-es have occurred within the Pikes Peak Reserve in recent years. The most serious of the later fires burned over con- siderable valuable timber lying to the west of Pikes Peak, partly within and partly outside the reserve. This area is said to have been burned in June, IS'M. and the owners of sawmills were accounted responsible. The early fires which devastated a great part of the forest land are said to have taken place when the country was first explored, about half a century ago; and it is claimed that they were started by Indians, who thus attemjited to drive out the game before them when they were compelled to leave this region for more distant reserves. The more recent fires have generally been confined to small areas, and the damage has not been very great in comparison with the earlier fires, which swept the ground and destroyed the primeval growth. Sparks from locomotives of the Colorado Midland Railway and the Manitou and Pikes Peak Railway have caused numerous small fires, but. in recent years at least, these corporations seem to have taken reasona- ble precautions to prevent them. Campei's, prospectors, and other persons making fires, and careless about guarding or extinguishing them, ha^'e sometimes been responsible for considerable damage. Onl}^ one tire was recorded during the past season. It occurred in early October among some timber south of Pikes Peak, burned slowly for several days, and was finally extinguished by a snowstorm. The origin of this fire or the extent of the damage could not be ascertained, as there was not time to make a personal inspection of the ground. Small grass fires are sometimes started from sparks from locomo- tives, but they are usually quickly suppressed before the\' get beyond control. It is probably safe to say that 75 or 80 per cent of the total area shows marks of damage b_v fire. Some of this burning occurred before the coming of white men, and these tracts have a considerable growth of trees or timber. Most of the forest has been burned since the country was first explored, the great fires about Pikes Peak occurring about fift}- j-ears ago, or about 1848, according to the best information obtainable. Aspen and some shrubs are abundant, l)ut conifers are coming in very slowh' except in the vicinity of groves or individuals, which escaped the general conflagration. Dr. W. A. Bell, of Colorado Springs, states that the large burned tract in the northern part of the reserve, north of Fountain Creek, was destroyed by fire about 1880. The few trees and groves which escaped are seeding the gi'ound about them, but it will be centuries before another coniferous forest exists here if natural conditions pre- vail. The fire burned the hunuxs so thorouohlv that the bare disin- 70 FOREST KESERVES. tejjratod granite is everywhere apparent. Aspen has come in, aiid a few shrubs, but grasses and grazing herbs are not abunchmt, except along some of the small streams. SETTLEMENTS. Excepting at Palmer Lake, situated in the northeastern corner there are no large settlements or aggregations of dwellings located within this reserve. There are few ranches or mining camps, and a relatively small proportion of the entire ai'ea comes under the pro- visions of patented or homestead lands. A large proportion of the lands in private ownership are located near the line cf the Colorado Midland Railway, between Manitou and Woodland Park, the latter small settlement being just on the reserve boundary. Cascade and Green Mountain Falls are the principal stations along this route, the total permanent population being but a few score persons, although in summer it is greatly augmented by tourists and people seeking rest and recreation in the mountains. Ute Park is another small summer resort situated between the two stations men- tioned, and there are a number of small ranches distributed along the creek and its tributaries up to Woodland Park, where several dwell- ings ai'e located within the i"eserve limits. Although Palmer Lake lies within the reserve, the fact is not generally known among the inhal)- itants. It is located on the line of the Denver and Rio Grande and of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads, and has a population of between 100 and 150 persons, this number being very greatly increased during the warm season by summer residents, lodgers, and campers. Glen Cove, on the wagon road on the north side of Pikes Peak, is mei'ely a lodging and way-station house for tourists and is vacated in winter. Along the line of the Manitou and Pikes Peak Railway there are a number of cottages and boarding establishments, occupied in summer, l)ut usually vacant in winter, and near Lake Moraine and above it are the stations and lodgings of those employed in the develop- ment of the waterworks. Along Bear Creek and North Cheyenne Creek are two or three small so-called ranches, and several are on the Cheyenne Mountain wagon I'oad between Colorado Springs and Cripple Creek, the largest and most important being located at Beaver Creek and consisting of four or live occupied buildings, forming a halfway station between the two important towns on the road. Throughout the reserve there are scattered a few solitary cabins of prospectors or miners, but at present there are no mining camps. During summer there are many camping parties throughout the reserve, either merelv traveling through it or remaining in one location for several weeks together. B VIEW ON LINE OF MANITOU AND PIKES PEAK RAILWAY Aspen burnt about five years ago new growth of aspen coming JACK.] PIKES PEAK RESERVE. 71 AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING. There is little practical agriculture possible in this reserve and little is attempted. A few of the hardier grains and vegetables may be raised in limited areas of low altitude where irrigation is possible, as at Palmer Lake, along Fountain Creek, and similar situations. Along the creeks the ground available and suitable is confined to very narrow strips, rarely more than a few rods wide excepting in a few places where it broadens into so-called parks. It is chiefly devoted to the raising of hay or forage for cattle in winter. The chief business of the ranches consists in the grazing of cattle, of which there are a considerable number, variously estimated at from two to five thousand head, ranging over most parts of the reserve where pasturage is to be obtained. Fewer cattle range in the northern portion than in the southern part of the reserve. The largest herds belong to a company whose cattle chiefly range in the Beaver Creek region. A large proportion of the cattle found in the reserve do not belong to persons located upon it, but are branded and driven in from settle- ments in the surrounding country, being taken out at the approach of winter. On this account it is not easily practicable to get a close esti- mate of the average number of cattle pastured on the Government land. The pasturage is undoubtedly greatly inferior to that which for- merly existed, and in past years much of the ground has been made to support a larger number of cattle than was warranted by the con- ditions. There are some areas where grazing should be restricted or abandoned. This is especially true of some of the high slopes or meadow-like intervales at the head of .some of the streams to the south of Pikes Peak. Even moderate pasturage here has a tendency toward injuriously affecting the purity of the water supply for domestic purposes upon which the towns below are dependent. Exces- sive pasturage near the streams has greatly reduced or destroyed the grasses and other herbage and shrubs which should hold the .soil and modif}' the flow of surface waters. MINING AND LUMBERING. There are no active, profitable mines located within the reserve limits, but considerable prospecting is carried on in almost all parts by individuals perennially hopeful of finding rich ore. Gold and silver are found, and it seems very probable that important discoveries may yet be made, such as have been made within 2 or 3 miles of the .southwestern boundai-y. It was reported that small mills for the treatment of low-grade ore or gravel were to be erected 2 or 3 miles to the north of Green Mountain Falls, and should these 72 KOKKST KKSKK^■KS!. prove successful it is lii<('iy tliiit un inijxjrtaiit iiiflustry nmy he devel- oped in the treatment of a low grade of mineral-bearing rock or gravel, of M'hich there seems to be an abundant supplv. No sawmills are now at work in the reserve. As most of the val- uable timber has been either cut or burned, there is little left to induce extensive lumbering operations. On the Cheyenne Mountain road to Cripple Creek a few trees were being cut for telegraph or trolley poles, and in places a few railroad ties were taken. A small portable sawmill was located at Woodland Park, just at the reserve boundaries, and undoubtedly nuxch timber which supplied it was taken from Gov- ernment land, although, of course, it was claimed that it had been cut on patented land within the I'eserve limits. In October, 1898, this mill was moved to another location farther from the reserve boundary. Another sawmill, located at Midland Sta- tion, must necessarily draw a large part of its supplies from public lands, perhaps also from the reserve, the boundary of which is within a mile of the mill. The most extensive recent cutting has taken place within three or four years on the portion of the reserve bearing the heaviest timber, sometimes called the Black Forest, and located to the west of Pikes Peak and Glen Cove. The numerous sawmill sites or "settings," indicating the moving of the mill from time to time in order to get neai'er the trees cut, and the heaps of sawdust and refuse attest the activity and extent of the lum- bering carried on here. The locations of the mill and the cuttings were situated in part on reserve land and in part on ground outside of it, but belonging to the Government. The destruction of timber by the ax was finally supplemented by the action of iire, which burned over a large area of that which remained. This tire was believed to be of incendiarj- origin, in order that the forest might come under the head of dead tiuiber, which is allowed to be taken freely from the reserves. After the cutting and fires had deprived the tract of its best value, Government officials interfered and the sawmill operations were stopped. In spite of the havoc already accomplished, there is still some good living Engelmann spruce and a small proportion of Douglas spruce here well worth guarding from further damage. The fires, which occurred in June, 1896, have left a great deal of standing dead, but sound, timber, which is now being utilized for mine timbers. The trees are cut in the forest into various convenient lengths and hauled to the Midland Station of the Midland Terminal Railway, where they are loaded upon flat cars and shipped to Cripple Creek and other mining camps. The logs are shipped without squar- ing or dressing, or even the removal of bark. Delivered at the cars, logs 16 feet long are paid for at the rate of 2i to 3 cents per inch of JACK.] PIKES PEAK RESERVE. 73, diameter, measured at the small end. and logs from 4 inches in diameter and upward are taken. At Woodland Park some aspen or quaking asp {Pojiulus treinuloides) was collected and shipped to Denver to be manufactured into excelsior. No sticks less than 4 or 5 inches in diameter were shipped. They were usually cut into lengths of 8 or 12 feet, and stripped of bark, and commanded about $4 per cord, delivered at the shipping station. This kind and quality of lumber is very limited in quantitv in this region, and the few cords accumulated represented gleanings from both Government and patented ground in the vicinity. A considerable quantity was also collected and shipped at Divide, a station about midway between Woodland Park and Florissant and 2 or 3 miles north of the westernmost part of the reserve. Aspen of fair size grew more pleutifulh' in this vicinity than in most other places seen. SUGGESTIONS. As may be readily seen from the foregoing observations and the accompanying photographs, which are selected to show fair average conditions, there is but a small portion of the area of this re- serve suiBciently covered with trees to deserve the name of timber land; and from such timber land as exists the best has been already taken out for sawmill lumber and other purposes. Such timber is confined to the southern portion, the northern half being practically timberless. South and west of Pikes Peak a few million feet of lumber could yet be found and taken out without material injury to the present forest covering, but care should be taken in removing old trees, as .seedlings or young growths are not abundant. A great many of the trees killed by tire are .still sound and in good condition and will be of value both for mining timbers and for fuel, and for the latter purpose will furnish a local supply for many j'ears to come. On large areas which were completely burned over, and where no conifers escaped destruction, it is probable that, left to natural condi- tions, two or three centuries must elapse before the gi'ound again bears a scant}' covering of medium-sized trees such as formerly grew upon it. Meanwhile aspen and various shrubs will occupy the ground in part. In places where a few trees or groves escaped, or in the neigh- borhood of unburned areas, the ground is likely to be much sooner tilled with a new growth. The northern part of the reserve may be regarded as of little or no present value as a timber reserve or for agriculture, and on account of the poverty of the soil the grazing is poor and meager. Moderate pasturage here, however, will not seriously aliect the returning forest conditions, which will naturally be very slow. That these conditions could be supplemented and aided artiliciall_v and economically by dissemination of seed would seem probable. Cer- 74 FOKKST RKSERVES. tain it is that this territory is fit for littlp else, than the cfrowth of siuii trees as will exist upon it. If practicable, it might l)e well to modify the Ixmndaries of the reserve so that Palmer Lake should not he included within them. It is also important that the actual boundaries should b'e more clearly marked, and the persons living near them be better informed in regard to them. This is particularly desirable along the boundaries where there is timber, especially in the Black Forest region, in the western part of the re.serve, where inquiries were made, and ignorance was professed in regard to the boundaries by persons who were removing dry timber from what was probably Government land. Without injury to an\- private rights, at least 15 or 20 square miles lying to the west and southwest of Pikes Peak could be added to the reserve with great advantage. This would include Sentinel Point and other territory above timber line, and the springs or sources of vari- ous small streams flowing westward or south w-ard. The irregular boundary line in the southeastern part of the reserve is inconvenient and without any apparent geographical or topographical significance. PliUM CREEK TIMBER LAND RESERVE. BOUNDARIES. The boundaries of this reserve, as established by Executive order of June 23, 1892, are as follows: Township ten (10) south, of ranges sixty-eight (68), sixty-nine (69), and seventy (70) west; township nine (9) south, of ranges sixty-eight (68) and sixty-nine (69) west; township eight (8) south, of range sixty-nine (69) west; and so niucli of town- ship ten (10) soutli, of range seventy-one (71) west; township nnie (9) south, of range seventy (70) west; township eight (8) south, of range seventy (70) west, and township seven (7) south, of range sixty-nine (69) west, as he to the eastward of the South Platte River. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. This reserve is situated directly to the north of the Pikes Peak Reserve, which adjoins it for 6 miles along its southern boundary. It is located entirely within Douglas Coimty. and the area is given as 179,200 acres. The average altitude is much lower than that of any of the three reserves examined, the highest point reaching to le.ss than 9,800 feet, in Thunder Butte, near West Creek, in the southwestern portion; the lowest falling below 5.600 feet in the extreme northeast corner. The reserve as a whole might be likened to a high, hilly plateau, having a diminishing slope northward, and cut by many gidches or canyons having a general easterly or westerly direction. The greater part of the area lies at an altitude between 7,000 and 8,000 feet. Irregular ridges, extending from north to south through the central .1 VIEW LOOKING OVER CASCADE TO NORTH SLOPES OF HILLS ALONG UTE PASS, PIKES PEAK RESERVE. />' EXCEPTIONALLY GOOD STAND OF YOUNG DOUGLAS SPRUCE ON NORTH SLOPE IN PLUM CREEK RESERVE AMONG ASPEN AND SCRUB OAK Alt.tude 7,500 feet. JACK.] PLU>f CREEK RESERVE. 75 part of the reserve throw the waters in an easterly direction into Plum Creek, which falls into the South Platte River below the reserve boundaries, or in a westerly direction into small streams, which also flow into the South Platte along the reserve boundary. The most important stream flowing through this reserve is West Creek, with its important tributary known as Trout Creek. These really have their .sources and .some of their most important feeders outside the reserve limits, in the high comparativelv level and partly open country h'ing to the west of the northern part of the Pikes Peak Reserve. They pass through and drain the southwestern por- tion of the reserve, coming together and forming what is locally called Horse Creek, which runs 4: or 5 miles before entering the South Platte River. The eastern slope of the reserve is drained b\- .several small branches of Plum Creek, the most important of which are West Plum Creek and Jackson Creek, which falls into it. There are practically no lakes or ponds or important natural reser- voirs in the Plum Creek Reserve, but there are several small private storage reservoirs and numerous situations where such could be eco- nomically constructed, as they are especially necessary to ranches along the eastern slope. The amount of water flowing from this reserve is not large, and it is liable to great variation. On account of its relatively low altitude and the ab.sence of dense forest covering, the snows disappear early in the sea.son, so that during summer the smaller creeks sometimes become dr}- or have a vei"y much diminished flow. On the west side the extended area of the watershed of West Creek and its tributaries enables this stream to maintain a fair flow of water throughout the year, although much diminished in summer, when many of the smaller tributaxy creeks and springs become dry. While passing through the reserve very little of the water is changed from its course for irrigation purposes, although much is used on the lands below. The trees of chief economic value in this reserve are yellow pine (Pinm jxmderosa) and Douglas spruce {Pseudot8\cyatax!folia), and with these are associated a small amount of blue .spruce, Engelmann spruce, Pintis aristatd and PinmflexlUs; while in the southeastern portion, south of Devils Head or Platte Mountain, there is an abundance of lodgepole pine {Pinus murrayana). North of Devils Head Moun- tain a large proportion of the hills or ridges are practically destitute of timber, at best only a few scattered trees being found upon them, although along the intervening gulches or creeks there is or has been a fair growth of small-sized or medium-sized timber trees. These nearly treeless hills generallv do not show manv indications of ever having 7(? FOREST RESERVES. l>oi-ne any heavy forest. The}' support several species of shrubs, which partly cover the coarse granitic soil. In the southern portion, which largely has an altitude of from 500 to 1,000 feet greater than the territory to the north of Devils Head Mountain, the country has much more of the appearance of a forest, although the trees are nowhere large or would produce over 2,000 feet of good sawed lumber to the acre on any a^'erage measured section of land. The local demand for lumber and the facility with which it could here be taken out has caused nearly the whole of this reser\e to be very thoroughly gone over bj- lumbermen, and the best has been removed. In some places a second or third culling out of the best trees has taken place. Notwithstanding the activity of sawmills, how- ever, there are still a good many million feet of coarse lumber pro- curable from yellow pine and Douglas spruce in the southern and southwestern part of the I'eserve. This fact is well known to the saw- mill men. and three or four portable steam sawmills are at work upon what timber remains. Trees 3 feet in diameter of trunk are very rare and most of the logs cut range between 12 and 20 inches in diam- eter at the stump. AVith the trees lit for cutting protitably into lumber there is a very large proportion of material of various ages and sizes which will not be servicable for man_v years to come and which should receive greater consideration and protection than is usually accorded by wood choppers w'hen taking out the trees which they consider worth cutting. As in most other parts of this region, it is coumion to find the slopes facing the south almost bare or producing a ver}' scattered growth of yellow pine, while the opposite northern slopes are much more closely timbered with Douglas spruce and yellow pine, although that w'hich remains is chiefly of small size. On account of great variation in the conditions and quality of the standing timber, the extensive culling out of the best over all parts, and the numerous practically bare tracts or those which have been l)urned over, it is extremely difficult to give any close approximate estimate of the quantity of ready available sawmill or railroad-tie tim- ber still standing upon tlie reserve. From as careful oljservations and estimates as could be hurriedlj- made, however, it is probable that, by taking trees above 8 or 10 inches in diameter, at least 50 million or 60 million feet of rough sawmill lumber could still be gleaned from the wooded parts of the reserve. The clear trunk furnished by the ready sawmill timber is very short, probably not over 25 or 30 feet, but a considerable portion of the limb bearing parts of the trunks are used. Douglas sprace 100 feet high, with 50 feet of clear trunk, and 20 inches in diameter at the stump, is still found in sheltered locations in canyons, but such good .-1 LOOKING WEST, ABOUT 2 MILES ABOVE FOOT OF HILLS ON JACKSON CREEK ROAD, PLUM CREEK RESERVE Timber long ago cut off of burnt. n AREA EAST OF DEVILS HEA[> Yellow prne and Doughs spruce , few trees large enouf -LUM CREEK RESERVE uch bunrt or showrng effects of forr .1. SOUTHWEST PART OF PLUM CREEK RESERVE Exceptionally favorable condiliori of timber not yet entered by lumbermen. Yellow pine and Douglas spn li VIEW ALONG FOURMILE CREEK W Ei ^ ■- . ER BUTTE, PLUM CREEK RESERVE Remnants of yellow pine and Unugias ipruce left by lumbermen. JACK.] PLUM CKEEK RESERVE. 77 trees are rare. Some lodgepole pine is lit for use, but most of it is undersized. In some of the gulches qualving aspen occasionally attains a height of 50 or 60 feet or more with the trunlv a foot in diameter, but timber of this species and size is too rare to be of much commercial import*ince. Throughout this reserve there are in different parts large areas which have in past years been visited by forest tires, and over much of the territory there are evidences of ground tires which have destroyed the humus, leaving only the bare granite sand. The forest fii'es have not swept any such extensive continuous areas as in the Pikes Peak Reserve; though thej' have bXirned over considerable tracts, they have left intervening groups or belts of living timber, especially in the northern and eastern parts. On some of the burned ground a new growth of conifers is gradually coming in and has already attained good size and density; in others the ground is practically 1)are, except- ing for aspen and various shrubs. Chief among these latter are scrub oak {Quercus (/ambelii), Ribes cereum, Cercocarpus parvifolins, IIolo- discus discolor, Ruhus delwiomw. Primus 2}'}n)isylvanica, Ceanotlius fendJeru Janmsia americana, and Ardostaphylos uva-ursi. The best timber remaining is in the southern and southwestern part of the reserve and along the South Platte River, and foi'tunately these parts have not been seriously devastated b}- tire. Small burned areas which were set on tire by sparks from sawmill engines are occasionallv seen. Several cases of fires started by lightning were reported. No railroad crosses the reserve, but the Colorado and Southern Railway, commonly called the South Park Line, follows the course of the South Platte River along the northern boundary. North of Devils Head Mountain there are large areas of nearh' bare hills which have been swept by tire, although they do not appear to have ever had a dense growth upon them. Upon these hills are a few scattered yellow pines, but little else which can be called arborescent, as the aspen on these dry exposures apparently never grows large. Recovery from the burns must be exceedingly slow, especially on southern slopes. On northern slopes seeds appear to germinate more freely and seedlings more easily get a foothold. South and southwest of Devils Head Mountain the young lodgepole pine is of various sizes, according to the age of the burns, and it sometimes forms almost impenetrable thickets. The lodgepole pine, on account of its dense growth and resinous character, burns more freely than the other species, and, apparently, small strips are sometimes burned, the tires eventually dying out, so that it is not uncommon to find different areas with trees of two or 78 FOREST EESEKVES. thivo distinct ages or periods >;ri)wiiijr upon a tract of a few linndn-d acres. In the more open woodland evidences of surface or ground tires are comnion, and on tiiese areas there are few or no seedling trees, and older trees sometimes show blackened bark, or destruction of the bark on one side, as evidence of damaging tires which did not reach up among the limbs of the trees, nor were hot enough to destroy the entire bark at the base, iind so cause death. SETTLEMENTS. A larger proportion of the total area of this reserve is in private ownership, under patent and homestead laws, than in any of the three reserves examined. At least one-third of the territory is claimed under the provisions of these laws. The largest proportion of these lands is situated in those parts having the lowest altitude and most level surface, as at the northern end, and also the middle eastern side, including Perry Park, where there is a solid contiguous block of al)out 20 square miles of patented land included within the reserve lines. A considerable portion of the patented land is not used or occupied by the owners. The western side of the Plum Creek Reserve has been the scene of intense mining excitements within the past four or five years, result- ing in the establishment of half a dozen small settlements or ''town sites." The boom having passed, on account of disappointing expecta- tions as to the richness of the discoveries, the so-called towns are partially deserted for other fields, so that many of the hastily con- structed buildings are now without tenants. The largest of these mining camps is Pemberton, sometimes called West Creek, located on West Creek 9 or 10 miles above its junction with the South Platte River and near the southern boundaiy of the reserve. Probably two-thirds of the hundred or more habitable build- ings were vacant in the summer of 18SI8, but the population here is liable to considerable fluctuation, from time to time, according to the activity of sawmills in the vicinity or the development of mines or mining prospects. Other small settlements are Given, al)out '2 miles atiove the mouth of West Creek; Daflodil or Trumbull, near the junction of West Creek and the South Platte River ; Dunaway and Nighthawk, at inter- vals of 3 or 4 miles down the South Platte River. These last three places are in part located across the ri\-er in the South Platte Reserve, in .Jefferson County. They are each composed of merely a few occupied biuldings of very cheap construction, and are lialile to have their populations depleted or increased any day, according to the rise of mining excitements in other places or developments in the inmiediate vicinity. At present they derive most of their life from prospectors, ,W AT DUNAWAY, LOOKING NORTHEAST ACROSS SOUTH PLATTE RIVER. 7!, VIEW ABOVE PEMBERTON (WEST CREEK.. PLUM CREEK RESERVE LOOKING NORTHWEST OVER SAWMILL TO THUNDER BUTTE JACK.] PLUM CREEK RESERVE. 79 or from those employed in the lumber business, as much lumber is hauled by team through these places on the way down the valley of the South Platte River to South Platte Station on the South Park Line, whence it is shipped by rail to Denver and other points. Besides these '"town sites," other settlements, mostly abandoned or with but a single occupied dwelling, and prospectors' cabins or ranches are scattered through the reserves, chiefly along the more important creeks. The largest and best ranches are located in the comparatively low region toward the northern end and about Perry Park on the eastern side of the reserve, where there are five or six considerable ranches chiefly devoted to the raising of cattle. Perry Park itself was originally designed as a summer resort by its owners, but at present contains only two or three occupied dwellings, and the hotel is not in use. As the situation is a very picturesque, interesting, and attractive one, it is probable that at some future time a considerable population will be centered here. At Dafl^odil, on the South Platte, are so-called mineral springs, which are visited by a varying numlier of people during the sum- mer, who occupy inexpensive cabins or cottages put up for their accommodation . The only expensive buildings on the reserve, or those costing more than a few hundred dollars, are located outside of the hills, about Perry Park. AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING. Timber, and possibly mining, must ever remain the chief consider- ations of commercial value in this reserve. Incidentally, grazing for several thousand cattle may be furnished, but much development of pure agriculture is out of the question. At the lowest altitudes, at the northern end of the reserve and the extreme eastern side, as rep- resented by the vicinity of Perry Park, lying southwest of Dawson Butte, it is possible to raise the hardier cereals and forage crops, pota- toes, and other hardy vegetables. Attempts have been made to raise some of the hardier fruits, but as yet with uncertain success. The areas suited to such crops are, however, limited to a comparatively few acres of irrigable land. Oats, rye, potatoes, and other hardy crops are also grown on the narrow strips, of fertile or irrigable land bordering the creeks in some places and along the South Platte River. There is a ready local demand for anything that can be raised, and, in fact, most of the food supplies used in the reserve have to be brought in from outside. Grain and fodder are the chief interests cultivated, and are used on the ranches for the cattle and horses in winter. The so-called ranches vary much in size and value. Some are deserted, some merely prospectors' cabins, others comprise perhaps an acre or two of arable land and three or four head of stock, while 80 FOREST RKSKRVEH. tlio largest may have 300 head of catth; grazing both on patented and reserve (Tovernment lands. Two of the largest of these, I'anches, esti- mated to graze about 300 head of cattle each, are located in the north- ern and western slopes of the reserve, and another large one is in the extreme south, near Manitou Park. The size of herds is no indi- cation of proportionate territorial ownership. In summer the cattle on these ranches are usually allowed to roam at large over any part of the reserve and are brought into sheltered places at the apprt)ach of severe winter weather. There ma}' be 50 or 60 persons having ranches upon the reserves, Avho, in the aggregate, probably have between 1.500 and 2.000 cattle and horses. This, however, does not represent the total number of cattle grazed on the reserve in summer, liecause a great many are annually sent into the reserve from ranches outside of the boundai'ies, sometimes at a considerable distance from them. By thus grazing on the public lands the ranchmen are enabled to keep a much greater herd than would be possible on their own comparatively small ranches. On their patented areas they commonly allow the native grass to grow for winter grazing or harvest it, and also i-aise other forage where irrigation is possible. As the forested lands are rarely densely covered, some grasses, fur- nishing scattered and limited grazing, are found almost everywhere; but it is naturally along the creeks that the best and only important pasturage is found. As it is here that cattle find necessary water, and as it is customar}^ to furnish them with salt in such localities in order to keep them together as much as possible, it naturally follows that these regions are most closely grazed. That the grazing is often exces- sive and too localized is apparent to anyone following many of the streams, particularly the tributaries of Trout Creek and West Creek, in the southwestern part. The consequence is that the pasturage has deteriorated greatly, the ground produces much less food for animals than it did a few years ago, and the conditions are j'early becoming worse. The best forage grasses, having no chance to reproduce them- selves by seed, and being constantly cropped almost to the very roots, and crushed or displaced by hoofs, must inevitably become greatly weakened or die out. Moreover, the shrulis and herbaceous vegeta- tion bordering the streams are constantly cropped, trampled upon, and eventually destroyed. These served to pi'otect the banks f)f the creeks, and prevent them from washing, and also served to check and hold the flow of water in times of unusually heavy precipitation. The slender streams themselves are trampled and the waters are so polluted as to be unfit for human use, if, indeed, the streams are not practically dry, as they are very apt to be during the late summer sea- son, owing to the unnatural conditions which prevail. Moreover, the excessive number of cattle in some localities is more or less damaging ijg southeast from high rock. r.d C A. Roberts's house on left- l; bAKAN (PERRY PARK., LOOKING NORTH, DAWSON BUTTE ON RIGHT Datk patches are chiefly scrub oak JACK.j PLtTM CREEK RESEBVE. 81 to young- forest growth, as even young conifers like Douglas spruce are oecasionally lirowsed upon, and many seedlings are desti'oyed by trampling. Unless the grazing is restricted and regulated the pasturage must certainly grow even poorer than it is now. Under proper regulations and limitations a considerable number of cattle might be pastured on the reserve without serious injury, but it would in the end be of greater benefit to the State and (Tovernment to prohibit grazing altogether than to allow it to be overdone. Sheep grazing does not appear to be carried ou in or about the reserve. No well-established paying mines are yet in operation, although it is claimed that numerous promising •' prospects" have l)ecn discov- ered and only lack capital for their proper development. Two or three small mills are in course of construction in the Trout Creek Valley north of the southern boundarj- of the reserve. These are intended to treat by cyanide process low-grade ore-bearing rock or the gravel or sand so abundant in this region and which is said to contain a sufficient percentage of gold to make the workings profit- able. Should this prove to be the case, it is likely that it will mean a considei'able and permanent addition to the pop«lation of this locality. Prospectors are busily engaged in developing shafts or tun- nels, constantly having before them the hope that they may make discoveries which will lead to the building up of a second Cripple Creek. That gold exists here there is ample evidence, and it is chiefly a question of the abundance of mineral-bearing rock and of the employment of capital necessar}- to get it out economically. Persons having ranches or cattle in the reserve, or in other kinds of business, besides professional miners and pi'ospectors, give some time to pros- pecting when not otherwise employed. While the principal mining or prospecting has been developed in the West Creek and Trout Creek regions and along the South Platte River, there are men in other parts of the reserve who are prosecut- ing the search for the precious metals. On the eastern side of the reserve, in Spring Creek Canyon near Perry Park, a tunnel 170 feet in length was found, from which it was stated that pay ore had lieen taken which assayed about ^35 in gold and 300 ounces in silver to the ton. The statements of prospectors are not always to be implicitly relied upon, however, as they are likely to be biased by their hopes. In the Perry Park territory, on the eastern edge of the reserve, a small mill has been started for the manufacture of plaster and similar products from gypsum and other rock suitable for such purposes, which is plentiful in this locality. The product is shipped by railroad 20 GEOL, PT 5 0 82 FOREST RESERVES. to Denver, ("olorudo Spriiiu-s, or wherever :i iiiiirket can be found. The work is yet largely experimental, l)ut may tle\elop into a consid- erable business. LUMBERING. A good deal of lumbering is still carried on in this reserve, no doubt largeh' illegally, although usually claimed to be under the provisions of existing laws. At the time the reserve was examined six portable steam sawmills were in operation upon it, altogether capable of turn- ing out between 60,000 and 70,000 feet of lumber a daj- when running full time. The largest of these mills was located on Fourmile Creek, west of Thunder Butte, and was stated to be able to produce from 15,000 to 18,000 feet a day. This mill had exhausted the adjacent supplies and was preparing for removal to another location within a few miles. It was claimed that the mill was located on private hold- ings of land and that the cuttings were from a purchased school section. Another mill is situated about a mile south of Pemberton. Its reported capacity was 12,000 or 13,000 feet of lumber a day, and it had been located on the same site for over a year and a half, a longer time than the average period for an active mill to remain in the same place. A large mill with a capacity of about 15,000 feet of lumber a day had been at work near the mouth of West Creek but was in process of removal to a location outside of the reserve, whei'e a more aliundant timber supply was obtainable. A mill capable of cutting 8,000 or 10,000 feet a day had been recently relocated at the head of Jackson Creek, to the west of Devils Head Mountain, cutting from what was claimed to be homestead and school-section land. It had previously been located farther down Jackson Creek. About 3 miles east of Nighthawk. on the road to Sedalia, a small sawmill was at work, and another was located ou the eastern slope south of Perry Park. Along rivers and creeks throughout the reserve, piles of sawdust and sawmill refuse are frequently met, each one indicating the base of active operations of some lumberman for a time. These piles are commonly left to sink graduallj' into decay, but at Given the great accumulation of sawdust left bj' a recently removed mill was burning and probably continued to burn for several weeks. The lumber cut and .sold by these mills is practically all yellow pine and Douglas spruce, the pine constituting decidedly the larger pro- portion. It is used locally for buildings, mines, and other uses, and commonly sells for §8 or $9 per 1,000 feet at the sawmill. The lumber sold for use in the reserve, however, constitutes but a very small fraction of the total amount cut, most of it being shipped to markets far outside the reservation limits. This involves long hauls by team A. PERRY PARK. LOOKING SOUTH-SOUTHEAST FROM HIGH ROCf ;; PERRi PARK LOOKII. JACK.] PLUM CREEK RESEEVE. 83 to distant railroad stations. The chief shipping point for lumber from this reserve is South Platte, ou the South Park Line. Florissant, on the Colorado Midland Railway, also receives some of it, and lumber from the Jackson Creek region is hauled to Sedalia for sale and ship- ment. At South Platte it was estimated that from 25,000 to 50,000 feet of lumber was loaded on cars and shipped daily, the points to which it was consigned being Denver and other commercial or demand centers. The lumber here is usually hauled by teams of four horses drawing two wagons together, and carrying 3,000 or 4,000 feet of lumber. Delivered at the railroad station it is worth $11 or $12 per 1,000 feet, pine and spruce generally being sold together and not sorted. Some- times Douglas spruce is kept separate and cut into planks for bridges. The lumber roads are in fair condition, especiallj^ along the South Platte River, where the present wagon road was once graded for a railroad, but upon which the rails were never laid. Nearlj' all parts of the reserve are comparatively easy of access, and roads are sought or cut as the encroachments and demands of the sawmill necessitate in order to obtain fresh supplies of logs. Some of the ground has been cut over a second time, and e\'en a third time, the first cuttings having taken only the larger trees, the last taking whatever can be found of sufficient size to yield a cash profit. Sticks not more than 8 inches in diameter are sometimes used by the smaller mills. Whenever possible it is the custom to locate the sawmill on patented or homestead land, the timber thereon, and perhaps also the timber upon a school section, being purchased. But the tree cutter knows no boundaries, and the best timber is taken wherever found so long as there is no interference by Federal authorities. The excuse is made by lumbermen and inhabitants that the cutting and shipping of lumber is necessary to give employment to people settled in the reserve, who may be prospecting part of their time, and who practically depend upon what they maj^ earn at lumbering for subsistence. But at the present rate of cutting the ready lumber will soon be exhausted, although such considerations give little trouble to the men who think only of themselves and their inmiediate welfare — a class too common in the region of mining camps. Should important mining industries ever be developed here all the timiier in the region around would be needed for local use, but if it is allowed to be shipped to othei' parts of the State at the present rate the time may come when lumber will be brought in from outside, at a much higher cost to the miner. Among other schemes for illegally getting timber from Government land, both in and outside the reserve, is the practice of staking out 84 FOREST KKSERVKS. ii iiiiiiiiiii' flaiiH on sonio heavily tiiiit«'re(l spot, cuttiiifi' and sellino- the timber, and then abandoning' the claim without attempting to get linal deed or patent for it. As a mining elaim includes aliout 10 acres, it is apparent that by frequent repetition of this scheme upon the very localized areas of good timbei- much of the best would very speedily be removed. Besides the sawmills found at woi-k within the reserve, several arc or were located on unreserved Government land to the south, procur- ing their timbei' largely from ground upon which they had secured no right to trespass. There were rumors of the coming of other mills to this section, in which much good timber is still tobefound, l)etterinfact than now exists within the boundaries of the reserve. It is altogether probable that other mills will locate within the reserve unless pre- vented by legal action. As it is generally considered more economical to move the mill from place to place as the local supply of timber is exhausted, instead of hauling the logs to the mill from any consid- erable distance, most of the active mills occupy a given site for only a few months. Great quantities of railroad ties have in the past been cut in the resei-ve and soldtothe various railroads having stations within hauling distance. The cutting of ties is still carried on, although only locally and in comparatively small numbers. The work has been done under certain rights and privileges claimed by the railroads, by cutting upon homestead and patented lands, upon mining claims, or the timber has been ])oldly taken from Govermnent land wherevei' trees of suitable size were found. Most of the cutting, however, has been done under cover of concessions claimed to have been granted to the raili'oads. but about the legality of which there appeared locally to be doubt and dis- pute. Douglas (locally called I'ed) spruce is the species almost exclu- sively used. Standard ties are cait 8 feet long and dressed or hewn on two opposite sides to 7 inches in diameter, the other two sides being allowed the full diameter of the tree stripped of bark. All sticks must be large enough to square 7 inches when dressed, but no limit is placed upon the maximum size or diameter of the tie in the broadest or undressed direction. This usuallj' regulates itself, as very large trees involve too much hewing and are too heavy and bulky for haul- ing most economically, inasmuch as the railroads pay no more for extra large ties than for those coming just within acceptable minimum dimensions. Such standard railroad ties are worth 35 cents each, delivered at a railroad station. From some of the best of the Douglas spruce to be found, which are trees about 20 inches in diameter at the stimip and 100 feet in height, 8 good ties may be cut, making a total length of (ii feet. Such trees are rare, and are found in only a few favored canyons; and, as a rule, not more than three or four ties are procured from each tree. JACK.] PLUM CREEK RESERVE. 85 The cutting- is done by outsiders, who come in for the sole purpose of getting- out ties, or bv persons owning- ranches or laud in the reserve, or by prospectors who, in many cases, having spent all their capital in sinking- shafts or tunneling, cut ties as almost their only means of obtaining- subsistence to prosecute their mining- work in their par- ticular locality. The cutting of ties is often very wasteful of good Douglas .spruce, which could he made to yield tine sawmill timber. Dry yellow pine or Douglas spruce which has died or been killed by lire is sometimes collected, hauled to railroad stations, and shipped for fuel. Such wood delivered at South Platte Station was paid for at the rate of about ^2.75 per cord. It invohed a haul of (j or 8 miles. SUGGESTIONS. This reserve must be considered as essentially a timber reserve, rather than one likely to furnish very important water supplies. The timber should be much more rigidly protected from inroads by thieves and damage by fire. On thinly -wooded areas no trees should be allowed to be cut, even although mature, because they are essential as seed producers and give shelter and shade to the ground while the seed is germinating and j'oung trees are getting established. Such treatment would apply to nearly all the territory to the north of a line drawn ea.st and west of Devils Head Mountain and much other to the south. South of Devils Head Mountain is located nearly all the timber which has an immediate marketable value and ^^hich could be cut without great damage to the forest covering. Much of this, however, is second-rate or third-rate in size and could advan- tageously be allowed to remain for many years. When cut, it should be under the general supervision of someone who would see that the young growth remaining- was not needlessly injured. All the lumber grown on the reserve may j^et be necessary for con- sumption within or near it, and, as a means of conservation, a rule prohibiting- the .shipping of lumber to distant points might be bene- ficial. The exclusion of sawmills altogether from the reserve for a term of years would certainly be no injury to the forest crop and would eventually be a gain to bona tide residents. At present the lumber is chiefly taken by outside lumber companies which, after tak- ing out what they are allowed to or can conveniently find, move out to other places, leaving- the country deprived of its best crop, for which little or no return has been given. One or two licensed saw- mills conscientiouslj' managed could be worked with profit and would yield some retui-n to the Government, but the wholesale indiscrim- inate destruction, carried on as in the past, should be stopped. Pasturage, too, should be regulated and restricted, and it is believed that a tax, however small or nominal, ou all cattle allowed to range 8() FOREST RESERVES. on (Tovcriinient land or found thereon, would have a lieneficial oft'eot. A.S all cattle are branded, the collection of such a tax or the registering of licenses should be practicable. The boundaries of the reserve include some nearly treeless and purely agricultural or grazing lands along the eastern side, which are almost entirely held in private ownership. For this reason it may be considered best to eliminate a strip which includes Perry Park, and is 6 or 7 miles in length by about 3 in width. This portion of the reserve is traversed by about 5 miles of the direct public road between Palmer Lake, Sedalia, and Denver. Perrj- Park itself is a very interesting and attractive locality, chiefly on account of the peculiar tilted sand- stone rocks and cliffs which are the distinguishing features of its surface and which in some respects are not excelled by the similar formations of the Gai'den of the Gods, near Manitou. The laws regarding the cutting of railroad ties and sale of them to railroads, also the rights pf railroads to timber from the reserves, should be better known among the people. The laws regarding lum- bering are also imperfectly understood. If copies of rules and regulations and some plan of description of the reserve boundaries could be served upon property owners in the reserve, and posted in public places in the couutiy about it, there would be less excuse for trespass than now exists. "Where there are no guideposts or natural features to indicate Ijound- aries notices posted along roads or trails crossing them should also serve for the same purpose. The considerable area of land in private ownership is likely to be a constant source of trouble in maintaining the integrity of the reserve for timber production. Of the three reserves examined the Plum Creek Reserve is the least important for the general welfare of the community, and at least the northern half could be eliminated without appreciably affecting the present oi- future water or timber supplies. THE S<)UTH PLATTE FOREST KESERVE. BOUNDARIES. The boundaries of the reserve as estaltlished by Executive order of December 9, 1892, are as follows : Beginning at the confluence of the North Fork of the South Platte River witli the Soutli Platte River ; thence up the middle of the channel of the North Fork of the Sout h Platte River to the range line between township seven (7) south, ranges seventy- four (74) and seventy-five (75) west of the sixth (6th) principal meridian : thence northerly on said range line to the northeast corner of township seven (7) south, range seventy-five (75) west ; thence westerly on the township line between town- ships six (6) and seven (7) south to the northwest corner of township seven (7) south, range seventy-six (76) west ; thence southerly on the range line between JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 87 ranges seventy-six (76) and seventy-seven (77) west to the northeast corner of sec- tion thirteen (13) , township seven (7) south, range seventy-seven (77) west ; thence westerly on the section line between sections twelve (12) and thirteen (13) to the northwest corner of section thirteen (13) of said township and range ; thence south- erly on the section line between sections thirteen (13) and fourteen (14) , twenty- three (23) and twenty-four (24), and twenty-five (25) and twenty-six (26) to the northeast corner of section thirty-five (35) of said township and range ; thence westerly on the section line between sections twenty-six (26) and thirty-five (35) , and twenty-seven (27) and thirty-four (34) to the northwest corner of section thirty-four (34) of said township and range; thence southerly on the section line between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) of said township and range, and sections three (3) and four (4), nine (9) and ten (10) and fifteen (15) and sixteen (16), township eight (8) south, range seventy-seven (77) west to the northeast corner of section twenty-one (21) of said last-named township and range; thence westerly on the section line between sections sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21), seventeen (17). and twenty (20), and eighteen (18) and nineteen (19) to the northwest corner of section nineteen (19) of said township and range; thence southerly on the range line between ranges seventy-seven (77) and seventy-eight (78) west to the northeast corner of section thirteen (13), township nine (9) south, range seventy-eight (78) west; thence westerly on the section Ime between sections twelve (12) and thirteen (13) and eleven (11) and fourteen (14) to the northwest corner of section fourteen (14) of said township and range; thence southerly on the section line between sections fourteen (14) and fifteen (15) to the southwest corner of said section fourteen (14) ; thence westerly on the section line between sections fifteen (15) and twenty-two (22) and sixteen (16) and twenty- one (21) to the northwest corner of section twenty-one (21) of said township and range; thence southerly on the section line between sections twenty (20) and twenty-one (21) and twenty-eight (28) and twenty-nine (29) , to the southwest corner of section twenty-eight (28) of said township and range; thence eastei'ly on the section line between sections twenty-eight (28) and thirty-three (33) , to the southeast corner of said section twenty-eight (28) ; thence southerly on the sec- tion line between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) of said township and range, and sections three (3) and four (4) , nine (9) and ten (10) , and fifteen (15) and sixteen (16), township ten (10) south, range seventy-eight (78) west, to the northeast corner of section twenty-one (21) of said last-named township and range ; thence w-esterly on the section line between sections sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21), seventeen (17) and twenty (20), and eighteen (18) and nineteen (19), to the northwest comer of section nineteen (19) of said township and range ; thence southerly on the range line between ranges seventy-eight (78) and seventy-nine (79) west, to the southwest comer of township ten (10) south, range seventy-eight (78) west ; thence westerly on the second (2nd) correction line south to the northwest corner of section one (1) , township eleven (11) south, range seventy-nine (79) west ; thence southerly on the section line between sections one (1) and two (2), eleven (11) and twelve (12), thirteen (13) and fourteen (14), twenty-three (23) and twenty-four (24), twenty-five (25) and twenty-six (26), and thirty-five (35) and thirty-six (36) of said township and range, and sections one (1) and two (2) , eleven (11) and twelve (12) , and thirteen (13) and fourteen (14), township twelve (12) south, range seventy-nine (79) west, to the southwest corner of section thirteen (13) of said last-named township and range; thence east- erly on the section line between sections thirteen (13) and twenty-four (24) of said township and range, and sections eighteen (18) and nineteen (19) , seventeen (17) and twenty (20) , sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21) , and fifteen (15) and twenty-two (22) , township twelve (12) south, range seventy-eight (78) west, to the quarter section comer between said sections fifteen (15) and twenty-two (22) ; thence southerly 88 FOREST RESERVES. through the middle of sections twenty-two (22), twenty-seven (27), and thirty-four (34) to tlie quarter section corner on the south boundary of section tliirty-four (;54) of said township and range; thence easterly on the township line between townships twelve (12) and thirteen (13) south, range seventy-eight (78) west, to tlie northwest corner of township thirteen (13) south, range seventy-seven (77) west; thence southerly on the range line between ranges seventy-seven (77) and seventy-eight (78) west to the southwest corner of section six (6), township thirteen (13) south, range seventy-seven (77) west; thence easterly on the section line between sections six (6) and seven (7) , five (5) and eight (8) , and four (4) and nine (9) to the south- east corner of section four (4) of said townshij) and range; thence northerly on the section line between sections three (3) and four (4) of said township and range and sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) , township twelve (12) south, range seventy-seven (77) west, to the northeast corner of section thirty-three (33) of said last-named township and range; thence easterly on the section line between sections twenty-seven (27) and thirty-four (34) , to the southeast corner of section twenty- seven (27) of said township and range; thence northerly on the section line between sections twenty-six (26) and twenty-seven (27), tw'ent}'-two (22) and twenty-three (23), fourteen (14) and fifteen (15), ten (10) and eleven (11), and two (2) and three (3) of said township and range, and sections thirty-four (34) and thirty-five (35) , township eleven (11) south, range seventy-seven (77) west, to the northeast corner of section thirty-four (34) of said township and range; thence westerly on the sec- tion line between sections twenty-seven (27) and thirty-four (34) , to the northwest corner of said section thirty-four (34) ; thence northerly on the section line between sections twent\'-seven (27) and twenty-eight (28) , to the northeast corner of section twenty-eight (28) of said township and range; thence westerly on the section line between sections twenty-one (21) and twenty-eight (28), twenty (20) and twenty- nine (29) , and nineteen (19) and thirty (30) , to the northwest corner of section thirty (30) of said township and range; thence northei'ly on the range line between ranges seventy-seven (77) and seventy-eight (78) west, to the northeast corner of township eleven (11) south, range seventy-eight (78) west; thence easterly on the second (2d) correction line south, to the southeast corner of township ten (10) south, range seventj'-eight (78) west; thence northerly on the range line between ranges seventy-seven (77) and seventy-eight (78) west, to the southwest corner of section eighteen (18) , township nine (9) south, range seventy-seven (77) west; thence easterly on the section line between sections eighteen (18) and nineteen (19), seventeen (17) and twenty (20), sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21), and fifteen (15) and twenty-two (22), to the southeast corner of section fifteen (15) of said township and range; thence northerly on the section line between sections fourteen (14) and fifteen (15) , and ten (10) and eleven (11), to the southwest corner of section two (2) of said township and range; thence easterly on the section line between sections two (2) and eleven (11), and one (1) and twelve (12), to the southeast corner of section one (1) of said town- ship and range; thence northerly on the range line between ranges seventy-six (76) and seventy-seven (77) west, to the southwest corner of township eight (8) south, range seventy-six (76) west; thence easterly on the township line tetween townships eight (8) and nine (9) south, range seventy-six (76) west, to the southeast corner of section thirty-one (31), township eight (8) south, range sevent3'-six (76) west; thence northerly on the section line between sections thirty-one (31) and thirty-two (32), to the southwest corner of section twenty-nine (29) of said township and range; thence easterly on the section line between sections twenty-nine (29) and thirty-two (32), to the southeast corner of said section twenty-nine (29); thence northerly on the section line ijetween sections twenty-eight (28) and twenty-nine (29) and twenty (20) and twenty-one (21), to the southwest corner of section sixteen (16) of said town- ship and range; thence easterly on the section line between sections sixteen (16) and twentv-une (21), to the southeast corner of said section sixteen (16); thence north- JACK] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 89 erly on the section line between sections fifteen (15) and sixteen (16), nine (9) and ten (10) , and three (3) and four (4) of said township and range, and sections thirt)'- three (33) and thirty-four (34), township seven (7) south, range seventy-six (76) west, to' the southwest corner of section twenty-seven (27) of said township and range; thence easterly on the section line between sections twenty-seven (27) and thirty-four (34) , twenty-six (26) and thirty-five (35) , and twenty-five (25) and thirty- six (36) of said township and range, and sections thirty (30) and thirty-one (31), twenty-nine (29) and thirty-two (32) , twenty-eight (28) and thirty-three (33) , and twenty-seven (27) and thirty-four (34), township seven (7) south, range seventy- five (75) west, to the northwest corner of section thirty-five (35) of said township and range; thence southerly on the section line between sections thirty-four and thirty-five (35) of said township and range, and sections two (2) and three (3) , ten (10) and eleven (11), fourteen (14) and fifteen (15), twenty-two (22) and twenty- three (23), twenty-six (26) and twenty-seven (27), and thirty-four (34) and thirty- five (35), township eight (8) south, range seventy-five (75) west, to the southwest corner of section thirty-five (35) of said township and range ; thence easterly on the township line between townships eight (8) and nine (9) south, range seventy- five (75) west, to the northwest corner of township nine (9) south, range seventy- four (74) west ; thence southerly on the range Hue between ranges seventy-four (74) and seventy-five (75) west to the southwest corner of township ten (10) south, range seventy-four (74) west ; thence easterly on the second (2nd) correction line south to the northwest corner of township eleven (11) south, range seventy-three (73) west ; thence southerly on the range line between I'anges seventy-three (73) and seventy-four (74) west to the northeast corner of section thirteen (13), township twelve (12) south, range seventy-four (74) west ; thence westerly on the section line between sections twelve (12) and thirteen (13), and eleven (11) and fourteen (14) of said township and range, to the quarter-section corner between said sections eleven (11) and fourteen (14) ; thence southerly through the middle of sections fourteen (14), twenty-three (23), and twenty-six (26) to the center of section twenty-six (26) of said township and range ; thence easterly through the middle of sections twenty-six (26) and twenty-five (25) to the quarter section corner on the range line between section twenty-five (25) , township twelve (12) south, range seventy-four (74) west, and section thirty (30), township twelve (12) south, range seventy-three (73) west; thence southerly on said range line to the southwest corner of township twelve (12) south, range seventy-three (73) west; thence easterly on the township line between townships twelve (12) and thirteen (13) south, to the southeast corner of township twelve (12) south, range seventy-three (73) west; thence southerly on the range line between ranges seventy-two (72) and seventy-three (73) west, to the northeast corner of section twenty-four (24) , township thirteen (13) south, range seventy-three (73) west; thence westerly on the section line between sections thir- teen (13) and twenty-four (24), fourteen (14) and twenty-three (23) , fifteen (15) and twenty-two (22), sixteen (16) and twenty-one (21) , seventeen (17) and twenty (20), and eighteen (18) and nineteen (19), to the northwest corner of section nineteen (19) of said township and range; thence southerly on the range line between ranges, seventy-three (73) and seventy-four (74) west, to the quarter section corner on the west boundary of section eighteen (18) , township fourteen (14) south, range seventy-three (73) west; thence easterly through the middle of sections eighteen (18), seventeen (17), sixteen (16), fifteen (15), fourteen (14), and thirteen (13), township fourteen (14) south, range seventy-three (73) west, and sections eighteen (18) and seventeen (17), township fourteen (14) south, range seventy-two (72) west, to the quarter section corner between sections seventeen (17) and sixteen (16) of said last-named township and range; thence northerly on the section line between sections sixteen (16) and seventeen (17) , and eight (8) and nine (9) , to the northeast corner of section eight (8) of said townshipand range; thence easterly on the section line between 90 FOREST RESERVES. sections four (4) and nine (9), three (3) and ten (10), two (2) and eleven (11), and one (1) and twelve (12), to the southeast comer of section one (1) of said township and range ; thence northerly on the range line between ranges seventy-one (71) and seventy-two (72) west, to the southwest comer of township thirteen (13) south, range seventy-one (71) west ; thence easterly on the township line between townships thirteen (13) and fourteen (14) south, to the southeast corner of section thirty-three (33), township thirteen (13) south, range seventy-one (71) west; thence northerly on the section line between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34), twenty- seven (27) and twenty-eight (28) , twenty-one (21) and twenty-two (22) , fifteen (15) and sixteen (16) , nine (9) and ten (10) , and three (3) and four (4) of said township and range, and between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) , twenty-seven (27) and twenty-eight (28) , twenty-one (21) and twenty-two (22) , fifteen (15) and sixteen (16) , nine (9) and ten (10) , and three (3) and four (4) , township twelve (12) south, range seventy-one (71) west, and between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34), twenty-seven (27) and twenty-eight (28), twenty-one (21) and twenty-two (22) , fifteen (15) and sixteen (16) , nine (9) and ten (10) , and three (3) and (4), township eleven (11) south, range seventy-one (71) west, to the northeast comer of section four (4) of said last-named township and range ; thence easterly on the second (2nd) correction line south, to the southeast comer of section thirty-three (33) , township ten (10) south, range seventy-one (71) west ; thence northerly on the section line between sections thirty-three (33) and thirty-four (34) of said town- ship and range, to the middle of the channel of the South Platte Eiver ; thence down the middle of the channel of the said river to its confluence with the North Fork of the South Platte River, the place of beginning. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. The South Platte Reserve includes 683,520 acres, an area nearly twice that of the combined extent of the Pikes Peak and Plum Creek reserves. The main body of it lies directly west of the Plum Creek Reserve and South Platte River, a small portion extending south of the latter stream. A long, narrow strip or arm extends from the northwest corner of the main part of the reserve along the eastern base of the Park Range of mountains, forming a western boundar}^ to the district known as South Park. Most of this reserve lies at a much greater average altitude than the Plum Creek Reserve, and the extremes of altitude are much greater. The lowest point is in the northea.st corner, at the junction of the North Branch of the South Platte with the South Platte River, where the altitude is a little above 6,000 feet for some distance along the shores of these streams. From this point the area within the reserve rises abruptly and rapidly in irregular ridges, hills, and mountains, divided by innumerable ravines, gulches, or canyons. In the main body of the reserve, which lies between South Platte River and the unreserved ai'ea known as South Park, there are a number of mountains and ranges which rise well above timber line, reaching an altitude of 12,400 or 12,500 feet. These nearly surround the regions known as Lost Park and Craig Park or Mountain Meadows, which have a minimum elevation of about 9,000 feet and form most impor- tant feeders to the streams which flow out of them. JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RKSERVE. 91 South of Tarryall Creek the average altitiido is much less than to the north, and there are no mountains reachino- the timber-line limit. The larger portion of the important territory of the reserve lies between 8,000 and 10,000 feet altitude. West of the main body of the South Platte Reserve is the agri- cultural or grazing- country known as South Park, the free limits of which are not generally locally known and which, topographically, can not be distinguished from considerable areas included within the reserve. It is in part composed of a nearl}' level, treeless plain, having an altitude mostly between 8,500 and 9,500 feet or higher, and m part of irregular, thinly-timbered hills or ridges with open treeless areas or "parks" between them. It serves for the pasturage of many thousands of cattle and sheep, the grass being good and much hay being raised where irrigation from the Platte River and Tarryall Creek is possible, these streams crossing it in a southeasterly direction. North and west of South Park lies the western branch or arm of the South Platte Reserve, a narrow strip over 40 miles long and vary- ing in width from li to 11 miles, ^vith an average width of pei'haps 4 or 5 miles. It is mainly composed of high, broad hills or mountains, and practically forms the lower eastern slope of what is known as the Park Range. Some of these mountains included in the reserve rise above timber line, but most of them bear trees to the summits. The highest peaks and the highest parts of the Park Range of mountains lie to the west, outside the limits of the resei've, and con- spicuously above timber line. In the ravines and gulches near the summits of some of these there are huge drifts of snow which do not disappear during the summer, and it is from these pei"petual snow banks that many of 'the streams start which cross the narrow western arm of the reservation, and which form the South Platte River and Tarryall Creek, these streams draining the entire eastern slope of the Park Range, and also the South Park. The main body or eastern portion of South Platte Reserve is chiefly drained by the South Platte River itself and the very numerous streams which fall into it, the most important of which is Tarryall Creek, while the tributary known as Goose Creek or Lost Park Creek carries the waters from an extensive area most valuable as a water reservoir. This area is also partly drained by Craig Creek, the waters of which, and also of Bufl'alo Creek, flow into the north branch of the South Platte River, which drains a small watershed sloping to the north. While South Platte River and Tarryall Creek drain most of the reserve, their true sources are many miles to the west, in the higher Park Range, just outside the limits of its western arm of the reserve. The South Platte is a comparatively small stream, rarely more than a few rods in width, and easily forded at many points, but it is very important to the region through which it flows. 92 FOREST KESKRVES. The largest and practically the only largo natural Ixuly of water in the reserve is known as Jefferson Lake, located at an altitude between 10.500 and ll.ODO feet, at the head of Jetfersou Creek, one of the branches of Tarryall Creek. This lake is more than half a mile across in its widest part, and soundings are said to have shown a depth of 850 feet. A few feet of its waters are now artificially drawn off to supply the necessities of a number of ranchmen along .Jefferson Creek, in South Park, below. It is a very valuable natural reservoir, chiefly fed from perpetual snow lianks. lying west of and outside the reserve lines. , Lake George is merely an artificial reseiToir foi-med by danuning the South Platte River, and Wellington Lake was made by building a dam near the head of Buffalo Creek. The altitude of each of these reser- voirs is about 8.000 feet. There are various reservoirs projected or in course of construction in this reserve, the most important being on the South Platte River, on Goose Creek .(also known as Lost Park Creek), and on Tarryall Creek. Near the outlet of the latter active preparations were being made during the summer of 1898 for the constructit)n of a reservoir which would have a maximum depth of over 100 feet of water and cover over 2.000 acres. The conservation of these waters is primarily intended for the supply of the city of Denver, about 50 miles away. Throughout the reserve, especially in the higher altitudes, there are innumerable springs, most of which maintain a good flow of the finest water in the driest seasons. In the Lost Park and Craig Park dis- trict there are large areas of treeless, boggy, or peaty ground which are practically reservoirs holding and gradually giving out large and perpetual supplies of pure and very cold water to the streams which run through them. These boggy areas are commonly covered with low shrubby willows from 2 to 8 feet high, and mixed with them are various grasses, sedges, and mosses which, with the accumulated humus of centuries, hold and but slowly release the water which stands beneath or among them. These areas might properly be likened to slowly -flowing reservoirs or lakes which are concealed by the sub- alpine vegetation growing over them. As a feeder of streams, this region, giving its waters to Lost Park Creek and Craig Creek, is the most valuable of any found within any of the three reserves examined, and no effort shoidd be spared to preserve or improve the pi-esent con- ditions existing there. On account of its limited area and topographical position, much of the extreme western section of the reserve contributes comparatively little water to the streams, most of it coming from farther to the west, from the eastern slope of the high Park Range, several of the summits of which exceed Pikes Peak in altitude. A number of small natural ponds or artificial storage reservoirs ,-1 biTE OF PROPOSED RESERVOIR ON SOUTH PLATTE RIVER, ABOVE MOUTH OF TARRYALL CREEK ;; SITE OF PROPOSED DAM ON SOUTH PLATTE RIVER, 2 OR 3 MILES ABOVE SOUTH PLATTE STATION. JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 93 occur at various points along this range. The broader southern end of this part of the reserve is the most valuable as a stream-feeder, as it includes the apex of the watershed and the beginnings of the creeks. The South Platte Reserve contains a varied assortment of forest conditions, and, like most parts of the country accessible to markets or railroads, the surface has been very largely deprived of its most valuable timber bj' the i-apacity of sawmill men and of railroad-tie hunters; many thousands of acres also having been cleared by manu- facturers of charcoal for smelting purposes. What remains of unmolested primeval forest is chiefly located far- thest awa}' from local markets or shipping stations, or is situated in limited areas on slopes not easily accessible. The timber in which the operations of lumbermen have not j^et been very destructive comprises but a few thousand acres, mostly located north of the Tarrvall Moun- tains, about the head waters of Lost Park Creek, Wigwam Creek, and Craig Creek, in and about the vagixely defined region generally known as Lost Park, having an altitude of from above 9,000 to 11,500 feet or more. The valuable timber here is almost all Engelmann spruce, but some good lodgepole pine, range pine {Pinun arhtata)^ and Pinus ^ffexilis also occur, although rarely used. The spruce attains a larger size than the other ti'ees in this region. The largest specimens seen and measured showed a total height of 110 or 115 feet and a diameter of 3 feet at the stump. This size is excep- tional, however, and the mature timber obtained would probably not average more than 15 inches in diameter at the stump and 70 to 80 feet in height, furnishing 35 or -±0 feet of saw logs. The large trees or those immediately available for the sawmill are interspersed with many too small for present profitable use, but selected acres may be found which would yield 10,000 feet of lumber to the acre by taking trees above 10 inches in diameter at the stump. But when a square mile is taken as a unit the average is greatly reduced on account of lightly timbered areas, burned strips, and the treeless ground or "parks" along the creeks and on the tops of the higher ridges and mountains. Throughout the remainder of the reserve the best of the timlier has already been removed or is in process of removal. A little fair tim- ber occurs at various places along the western arm of the reserve, west of South Park, about Jefferson Lake, on the slopes of Mount Silverheels, and at other points, although the best and most valuable parts of the forest actually lie to the westward, among the mountains, well outside the present boundaries of the reserve. On these outside slopes some very good timber still remains, although in no very 94 FOREST RESERVKS. extended areas without interruption l)y poor, burned, cut-over, or open tracts intervening-. In this region also the prevailing useful tree is Engclniann spruce, although there is nuich lodgepole pine mixed with it in some places, or this pine may occupy the ground in some localities almost to the complete exclusion of other species. Fully three-fourths of the total territory upon which trees grow is occupied 1)V yellow pine and Douglas spruce, among which a .small pro- portion of ))lue spruce is found along or near creeks, while some lodge- polo pine, range pine (Pini/s aristata), and Pimis fiexilis occur on the hills. The yellow pine and Douglas spruce prevail over all the eastern half of the reserve and the portion lying south of the Tarryall Moun- tains. As this gi'ound has nearlj' all been cut over at various times during the past thirtj- years, some of it having been twice or even three times searched for suitable sawmill trees, there are few trees of large size remaining. Some of the best trees of these species seen were found north of Lost Park Creek, a few miles from its mouth or junc- tion with the South Platte Kiver, where trees which would furnish from 500 to 1,000 feet of lumber each were scattered over a few hundred acres which had escaped fire and had not been entered by lum1)ermen, although some had been cut for local ranches. These exceptionally tine trees were surrounded by much timber of undersize or poor qual- ity, and indications seemed to show that forest lire had many years ago burned out smaller trees, leaving a scattered growth of larger ones. Upon a good deal of the area the yellow pine is more plentiful than the Douglas spruce, and it commonly occurs in very open or scattered growth and well furnished with branches, so that there is but a short, clear trunk. Some trees are ready to be culled out for the sawmill now according to the present standard accepted by the lumbermen, this standard being modified so as to include smaller material as the trees become scarcer and the ground is repeatedh' gleaned. A large proportion, however, is too small for any present purpose. In some parts the soil is so rocky, poor, or dry that it is unlikely that the trees upon it will ever reach a large size. In the soiithern part of the I'eserve, west of Florissant, a consider- able percentage of blue spruce occurs with the other trees found there, and it is also plentiful in some parts of the reserve liordering South Park. The lodgepole pine occurs in great abundance on the north and west slopes of the Platte River Mountains, in places through the Park Range, and on some parts of the slopes of Stormy Peak, Fi-eeman Peak, etc. It often occurs almost pure, but it is also frequently mixed with Engelmann spruce, as in the Lost Park region, among the Puma Hills, and along the Park Range. Trees 2 feet in diameter of trunk and 100 feet in height are considered rare throughout this region and although the species is plentiful, or even extremely abuu- .1 VALLEY OF TARRYALL CREEK .11 from Mountaindale to Bison Peak, at about 1 1 .000 feet a /EST FROM ROCK AT GRAHAM'S RANCI- OF LOST PARK CREEK OVE MOUTH JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 95 dant in certain sections, there is very little of it lai'ge enough to be manufactured into the ordinary kinds of sawmill lumber, as now accepted bj' the lumbermen. If preserved from damage in future the existing lodgepole pine should eventually yield a considerable amount of medium-sized merchantable timber. This pine seems to be espe- cially susceptible to damage from forest fires, which apparently sweep through a forest of these trees moi-e readily than through growths of any of the other species in this reserve. This is, no doubt, largely due to the resinous character of the tree, to its thin bark and slender twigs, and especially to its dense or close growth when young, several living plants sometimes standing to the square foot until they are sev- eral feet high. Standing thus relatively close, the ilames easily pass fi'om tree to tree as among dry grass in a meadow. The lodgepole pine reproduces itself more easily and generally forms a better stand of young trees than any other species. In the case of the yellow pine and the spruces the stand of seedling or young- trees is commonly insufficient to produce what would be considered good, clear timber in other regions. Locally, however, as in some gulches and on north slopes, good, fair stands of young trees are found, although they do not cover any very extended continuous areas. The range pine [Pinus aristata) occurs abundantly on many ridges or ranges, particularly on south slopes, but the trunks are generally so short, divided, or covered with large branches, that this tree is seldom cut to be sawed into ordinary lumber, although it is some- times used for mine timbers. Pinus Jlexilis, the limber pine, or white pine, or sugar pine, as it is sometimes called, is not abundant enough anywhere to obtain com- mercial consideration, although it becomes a much better timber tree than Pinus aristata. Probably at least one-fifth of the total area of this reserve is practi- cally destitute of trees of any kind, excepting in parts where a few widely-scattered pines and small aspens grow in situations where they will not attain arborescent proportions. This treeless area includes bare mountain tops, valleys, or parks between the mountains and along streams, grazing lands included within the present reserve lines, and areas so completely burned that they are not likely to be recovered for a century or two. These irregular treeless areas, the frequent burned tracts, those covered with practically useless kinds of timber (as range pine), the depredations of lumbermen, and the varied char- acter of the so-called wooded ground, make it extremely difficult or almost impossible to get any clear idea of the approximate amount of timber remaining on the reserve. Where lumbermen have already been at work once or twice, they may yet find a good many saw logs of medium or small size, and doubtless several small movable steam sawmills would continue to find employment for several years to come *)() FOREST KESEKVES. hpforc the aviiiliil)lo supplies were totally oxhaustcd. Such clo^o cut- tiii"', however, would be injufious to true forest interests, l)eeause, iu open },frowth of yellow pine and Dout^las spruce, the mature trees, or those simply large enough for the mill, should be allowed to remain until the ground has a sutficient number of seedlings upon it for proper restocking of the land. The destruction of necessary seed- bearing trees is often a serious loss in this country, where, in the struggle for existence, so nmch of the seed is taken by birds and rodents for food, and the conditions of germination are so unfavorable that a smaller percentage of plants results from any given quantity of seed than is the case in other regions, where the conditions are more favorable. In the region north of the Tarrvall Mountains, including what is known as Lost Park and the Kenosha Range and Platte River Moun- tains, it is probable that 50 million feet of lumber could be taken without serious injury to the forest covering if the work were prop- erly conducted, with due regard to the preservation of the imma- ture growth and the prevention of forest tires. This forest is the best on the reserve and is chiefly composed of Engelmann spruce, which also occurs iu considerable quantity on the western arm of the reserve. The remainder of the ready timljer is chiefly yellow pine and Douglas spruce, and altogether the supplies of all properly grown sawmill lum- V)er in the reserve may be placed at 150 million to 200 million feet, although such an estimate is largely guesswork, necessitated by the strangely unequal conditions met with everywhere ; and yet it would be impossible to estimate more nearly without a careful measuring and studv of each section of ground containing merchantable timber. Doubtless more than the above amount could be immediately cut if the reduced standard of the size of trees taken by the smaller saw- mills should be accepted ; but a too close and early cutting is often hurtful to the forest and the adjacent country, and is certainly not alwavs the most economical timber management. Probably between 60 and TO per cent of the total forested area of this reserve has damage by fire very clearly marked, and on a larger area there are evidences of ground fires or of forest tires which occurred so long ago that traces of them have become nearly obliterated and a natural forest growth has almost recovered the ground. The damage by fire is confined to no particular section of the reserve, but spots, streaks, or extended areas of burned ground are fre- quent on most parts, especially on those longest settled or near routes most traveled, such as long passes through the mountains. The burned tracts are often comparatively small and frequent; Ijut there .1 EAST SIDE O 3RECKENRIDGE PASS, LOOKING SOUTH TO/Va Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine ; mostly burr MOUN r SILVERHEELS li. VIEW AT MOUNTAINDALE burnt in 1863 or 1869. JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE KKSERVE. 97 are three or four areas upon which the burnings have been very extensive. The most widespread of these eonflagrations occurred in IStiS or 18(5'.) and burned over the larger portion of the Tarryail Mountains, which extend northwest and southeast through the central part of the reserve. The burning here was very complete over many thousands of acres, where barely a conifer has yet started to reforest the ground, and the onh' living woody vegetation consists of small cjuaking aspen and scattered shrubs of various species, Sometimes groups or belts of trees escaped, or a whole mountain side was passed unharmed by the flames, and it is from seeds of these living pines and spruces that a new natural forest must be derived. This lire covered a stretch of mountains over 20 miles in length and 6 or 8 miles wide at the widest parts, although sometimes cjuite nar- row and generally very irregular. It was said to have originated from the burning of a heap of brush by one of the early settlers; but other information placed the responsibility for the fire upon the Indians, who probably are charged with more than their share of such occurrences. The forest of this burned region consisted chiefly of yellow pine {Pinus pondtrosa), range pine {Pinuft nristafa), limber or white pine (^Pimis fiexilU), Douglas spruce, and Engelmanu spruce. Lesser tires have more recently occurred in the woods north of the Tarryail Range, many within a few years or since the advent of saw- mills. Large tracts have also been burned on the western arm of the reserve, especially along the slopes east of AVestou Pass, and other routes into or over the range. A great deal of ground shows traces of fire, which must have occurred from thirty to one hundred or more years ago, and upon this is a more or less dense growth of small timber of various ages and sizes, accoi-ding to the length of time since the fire and the time elapsing before fresh seed stocked the ground. As many of these fires appear to have been comparatively small and local, or to have left living individuals or many intervening strips of living trees which soon produced seed for the burned areas, the ground has become fairly well i-e-covered, much sooner than is possible when many thousands of acres are burned over and no living trees escape. Almost the only exception to this general rule is found in the case of the lodgepole pine, which, if burned under certain conditions, leaves seed enough unharmed to restock the ground with the same species. No ver}^ extensive fires have occurred on this reserve during the past four or five years, and only one, covering considerable area, was noted during the season when this examination was made. This 20 GEOL, PT 5 7 98 KORKST KESKRVES. Ofi-urt'd on BriH'kciii'iclffo Pass, on tlu' Colorado and Southern Rail- way, gein>rally known as the South Park Line, which crosses the reserve at this point. The lire was supposed to have originated from sparks from a locomotive, and it burned one of the snowsheds belong- ing to the railroad, besides several hu!idred acres of woodland, in st)me of which no trace of former tires was evident, although the best of the tiinbei' had long since been cut out. This tire burned to timber line or to an altitude of over 11,500 feet, the trees here being chiefly Engehiiann spruce, and it reached down to considerable tracts of lodge- pole piue. A number of other small tires wei'e i>urning at this time (October 8) among the timber on both the slopes east and west of the pass. Some of these were presumably started bv sparks from loco- motives, others perhaps from other causes. They were burning slowly and soon afterwards were extinguished by snowstorms. The railway employees were making no efl'ort to extinguish the fires on the wood- .land, but the snowsheds were guarded. Near Kenosha Pass, also, grass fires and incipient timber fires were seen, which were started from sparks thrown out by locomotives of the same railway. SETTLEMENTS. This reserve is crossed l)v two lines of railroad. The Coloi'udo Midland Railway crosses the southern portion west of Florissant, fol- lowing the course of the South Platte River into South Park. The Colorado and Southern Railway, otherwise known as the South Park Line, follows the North Bi'anch of the South Platte River along the entire noi'thern boundary of the main body of this reserve. It leaves this boundary and passes into South Park by crossing the reserve at Kenosha Pass, and the main line again crosses the reserve over Breckenridge Pass, between Como and Breckenridge. Two spurs or branch lines have been built to mines or mining camps located near or outside of the western boundary. One of these runs from Fairplay through Mosquito Gulch to the lower London mine, near the foot of Mosquito Peak. The other branch also starts from Faii-play and follows Horseshoe Gulch to the mining camp of Leavick, formerly known as Horseshoe, located near the eastern base of Horseshoe Mountain at about 10,800 feet altitude. The amount of land held in private ownership is smaller in propor- tion to the total area than on either of the other resen'es examined. It is chiefly situated in the northeastern and southern parts, and in open grazing areas lying east of South Park. The largest settlement included within the limits of this reserve is Alma, which is located at the narrowest part of its western arm, at an altitude of above 10,000 feet. It is situated on the Mosquito Pass wagon route, between South Park and Leadville, and has a popu- lation estimated at 400 or 500, which is likely to increase or decrease M A. VIEW AT KENOSHA PASS LOOKING SOUIHtA Small aspen, scattered lodgepote pine, and Engelmann sprue B. LEAVICK LOOKING NORTHWE JACK.] SOUTH PLATTK RESERVE. 99 considerably, according to the activity of the mining industries in the adjacent country. Alma is an important supply station for the miners and prospectors in the mountains to the north and west. A smelter is located here, but this was idle during the past summer. Another smelter, also idle, is located near London Junction, which is the railroad station for Alma. Park City, a})out a mile and a-half west of Alma, has several occupied cabins, but appears to be just out- side the reserve limits. East Leadville, about 6 miles south of Alma, is now nearly aban- doned for the acti\e mining camp of Leavick, on the western border of the reserve. The population of Leavick was roughly estimated at perhaps 100 persons, but is likely to vary greatly according to the activity of the mines, amount of timber cutting being carried on, and other industries. Throughout this region miners' or prospectors' cabins are not rare, but not so immerous as they are on the more mountainous range west of the reserve limits. In the southern part of this western division of the reserve there are several small ranches, the best known being that called Platte Station, on the route over Weston Pass, at nearly 10,000 feet altitude. Near the summit of this pass there is also a small mining camp. At the summit of Breckenridge Pass, at Boreas Station, are a number of buildings, chiefly occupied bj' employees of the railway. In the main body of the reserve east of South Park the most important settlements are situated along the North Branch of the South Platte River and near Tarryali Creek. Most of the settlements along the former stream are located on its north side and are therefore outside the reserve limits. The largest on the south side is Buii'alo, at the mouth of Buffalo Creek, the population of which is estimated at about 150, Ijeing very much increased in summer by residents whose cottages are vacant in winter. This land is in control of a regularly organized company known as the Buffalo Creek Park Company. At Wellington Lake. T or S miles up Buffalo Creek, there is also established a small colony of summer residents. Cassells, on the North Branch, near Chase, is another summer resort with accom- modations for 50 or more persons. South Platte and Estabrook are small stations from which is shipped considerable timber cut on the reserve. South of Tarryali Creek are several small mining camps. The largest of these is Puma City, which a couple of years ago had a " boom " and a population of several hundred prospectors, but which was reduced to two or three score when seen in the autumn of 1898. Gold City and Jasper are other small prospecting camps. In the southeastern corner of the reserve and along Wigwam Creek, 100 FOREST RESERVES. Lost Park Creek. Tiunyall Creek, and the principal creeks of the southern portion are a considerable number of small ranches, with cattle raising as the chief business, but where lumbering and pros- pecting also usually receive some attention. Bordenville, on Tarrvall Creek, consists simply of two or thi'ee ranches, with buildings located comparatively near each other, and at the post-ofSce of Alountaindale. on the same stream, there is a single dwelling with accompanying farm buildings. Weekly' mails are re- ceived here for other settlers or prospectors who are widelj' scattered in the region around. At the post-ofEce known as Rocky, in the southern part, similar conditions prevail, there being no aggregation of inhabited buildings to form a village, but simply a mail center for the scattered population of the country. Along the Colorado ^Midland Railway are five or six small stations within the reserve, rarely composed of more than the dwellings of railroad employees and an occasional ranch. Some attempt has been made to make Lake George a summer resort, but apparently with slight success. AGRICULTURE AND GRAZING. Tht> high altitude of the greater part of this reserve makes the prac- tice of ordinary agriculture impossible. Along some of the creeks, however, especially on the eastern slope at the lower altitudes, some hardy grains are raised and a few potatoes, but the total amount is inconsiderable, and is of no importance in outside markets, although potatoes are taken to Cripple Ci'eek or similar local markets. Potatoes are an uncertain crop, as they are liable to be damaged by late frosts. Hay and grain are the staples cultivated, and what is grown is mostly fed to stock upon the ranches. Stock raising is therefore really the only important agricultural interest, and this would be very limited if stock owners were compelled to graze their cattle on their own lands instead of allowing them to range upon Government territory, as is the general practice. The patches of cultivated ground are usually so small and irregular that it is difficult to obtain a true idea of the total amount actually tilled, but after a careful estimate it is probably safe to sa\' that the total area of the ground under cultivation in the reserve is less than 3,000 acres, although more may be irrigated and cut over for native ha^', but is not cultivated. On account of high altitude, narrowness of fertile valleys, and limited water supply it is probable that there will be no very great increase of the profitable tillable area, and the country here must be considered as essentially a grazing one. The large areas of land, covered with a very ,1, HERDSMEN S CABIN IN LOST PARK: TIMBER BURNT IN 1893 /.■ MOUNTAINDALE LOOKING NORTHWEST ACROSS TARRYALL CREEK . GEOLOGICAL SURVEY I • .1 VIEW LOOKING UP LOS TARRYALL POST-OFFICE LOOKING NORTH THROUGH MAIN STREET. JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 101 scant growth of timbei', produce a scattered growth of grasses and herbage sufficient to furnish food for a limited number of animals. East of Craig Creek and the Tarryall iMountains it is estimated that from -1:,000 to 5,000 cattle have been grazed by the ranchmen dur- ing some seasons, but during the past year the number was probaljly not more than one-half as great because of sales on account of a good cattle market. On all the remainhig poitions of the reserve it is probable that a maximum of about 5,000 cattle have been kept, the number being subject to great fluctuations in difl'erent seasons. The bona tide residents or settlers of the reserve are not alone in pasturing cattle on public lands, as large numbers of cattle are annually driven in from outside, often the property of persons in no way connected with agricultural pursuits. It was found, for instance, that persons living in Fairplay, on the western side of South Park, made a practice of sending cattle into the Tarryall Mountain region, on the east of the park; and others living at Woodland Park, on the borders of the Pikes Peak Reserve, had herds over 30 miles awav in the heart of the South Platte Reserve, to the west. Many of the ranchmen in South Park distribute some of their cattle on the reserve during the summer. Many of these cattle are annually sent uito the so-called Lost Pai"k, a region showing more of the original con- dition of the country and less molestation by human agencies than any othei- in the reserves. The number annually pastured here is said to vary in difl'erent seasons, from several hundred to two or three thousand. When visited in September, 1898, it was estimated that there were then not more than -±00 or 500 in that particular region. Cattle belonging to different owners commonly run together, but as they are branded they are easilv separated in the autumn "round-up," when they are sent to market or removed to lower altitudes or shelter for wintering. Cattle have l)een brought hundreds of miles to this region to be temporarily kept until in prime condition for final ship- ment, or for advantageous markets. It will thus be seen that it is vevy difficult to make any close estimate of the number of cattle which the reserve annually supports. ^lany sheep are kept on South Park or ai"e bi-ought there to be finally fattened before marketing. During the summer some thou- sands of them are pastured above timber line on Mount Bross, Mos- quito Mountain, and other mountains lying west of the reserve, across which they are driven in order to reach the gi'azing ground. Little of this sheep pasturage lies within the present boundaries of the reserve. The sheep are usually in charge of herders who temporarily live in cabms near the timber line. The pasturing of sheep as here practiced is an injury to the sources of the small streams and incidentalh' to the struggling young trees 102 FOREST RESERVES. near timber line. The vegetation of the high mountain slopes becomes badly trampled and cut up by hoofs, as well as reduced l\v excessive grazing; and in the hollows or ravines, where the streams originate or take definite form, the protective covering of low shrubs, which are chiefly willows, become A-ery much injui'ed or totally destroyed by trampling and browsing, leaving the ground 1)are and exposed, and liable to be washed away by any heavy rain. In regard to the pasturage afforded for cattle on those parts of the reserve principally used for grazing purposes, it seems to be the unanimous opinion of the earlier settlers that there has been a veiy decided reduction of the grazing value of the land as compared with its condition when first used for this purpose. The chief reason is obvious to these ranchmen, who admit that there has been over- pasturage, too many cattle on the same ground year after year trampling it, especially near water, so as to expose the roots of the grasses, keeping the latter as closely cropped as though devoured by grasshoppers, and preventing any possibilit}' of production of seed for regeneration. Unusually dry seasons have also helped to reduce the grazing power of the laud, droughts being so serious that it is claimed to have caused the death of mature yellow pines. The estimated area given as now necessary to support each animal, steer, or cow on these lands varied from 15 to 40 or more acres, which may give some idea of the scanty forage afforded on a good deal of the territorv under consideration. Throughout a large part of the South Platte Reserve more or less prospecting has been done, much is still prosecuted, and recently several small new mining camps have been established. The largest of these is Puma City (Tarryall post-office) south of Tari-yall Creek, 10 or 12 miles from its outlet into the South Platte. "When visited during the past summer the "boom" in this camp had passed, and a large proportion of the liuildings were vacant. It was claimed, however, that good ore had been found and only capital was wanted to develop gold mines and make Puma City a thriving place. Since the past summer (1898) rich strikes and a new rush of gold-seekers to this place has been reported, but whether or not there is really cause for excitement has not been settled. Smaller camps are Gold City and Jasper, both also south of Tarryall Creek, but nearer the South Platte River than Puma City. ]\Iore or less prospecting is done by most of the ranchmen living on or about the reserves, as well as by persons who give all their time to it. As yet little has been done in the northern part of the main body of the reserve, in the region lying north of the Tarryall Mountains, although ■H4i«i£^s£^tiM:^^ W .1. GOLD CITY, ABOUT 7 MILES NORTHWEST OF FLORISSANT, LOOKING WEST. ;; ABANDONED SAWMILL SITE ON JEFFERSON CREE JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 103 the northeastern portion, between Craig Creek and the South Platte, has been more carefully examined. On the extreme western arm or branch of the reserve lying west of South Park there is considerable activity in mining, both for gold and silver. The reserve limits are here so narrow in part that most of the actual mining ground lies to the west of the present boundaries. Mount Bross, Moimt Lincoln, Mount Buckskin, Mosquito Mountain, Horseshoe Mountain, and other peaks, which geographically should be included within the reserve, are all situated outside of it. On all of these acti\e prospecting and some profitable mining is conducted. The comparatively old town of Alma lies just within the reserve lines and is an important outfitting post for miners in the adjacent mountains, and flourishes or loses its importance with the rise or fall of mining- development in the country aliout it. The mining camp of Park City, a few miles west of Alma, also lies just on the reserve borders. It has been partially abaudonetl for more promising localities. Some other old but small camps, such as East Lead^^lle and Sacra- mento, situated within the reserve limits, have been nearl}^ abandoned for more promising localities mostly lying outside the reservation boundaries. East Leadville has been supplanted by the camp known as Leavick or Horseshoe, situated farther up Horseshoe Gulch, at the edge of the reserve and near the base of Horseshoe Mountain, where there is active and profitable gold and silver mining. Farther south, within the reserve limits, on Weston Pass, there is some mining, although it is necessary to haul the ore many miles to mills for treatment. Few of the operated mines possess proper mills or smelters of their own or in close vicinitj', and usually the ore is shipped to some dis- tance, as to Leadville, Colorado Springs, Buena Vista, and other places, to be ti'eated in large establishments. A smelter at Alma and another within 2 or 3 miles of that place have not been working recently. From most parts of the reserve the ore is either hauled by wagon to the nearest railroad or smelter, or it is bi'ought out over trails on the backs of burros or donkej's, locally known as "jackies." By the aid of these patient and enduring animals the miner without much capital is able to bring ore over narrow trails from places which would be otherwise inaccessible without the expenditure of considerable money in the making of roads or the erection of costly machinery. At the London mine, at about 12,000 feet altitude, on Mosquito Pass, and at the mines at the head of Horseshoe Gulch, both outside the present limits of the reserve, the ore is brought from high- slopes, diflicult of access, to the mill or cars in ])uckets suspended on endless wire rope or cables, no other power than the natural gravity of the laden buckets being required. 104 FOREST RESERVES. In some places wagon roads for haiilincr ore have l)eeii constriu'ted at considerable cost to the promoters. There is very little placer mining prosecuted within the I'eserve limits, the most extensive workings being those near Alma and on Tarryall Creek, above Como. During several mouths in some years these placers can not be worked on account of lack of water. Recently those near Alma have been idle on account of litigation, a too common hindrance to the development of mines and other industries in this part of the countrv. Thei'e seems to be no doubt as to the permanent richness of the mines in the mountain range to the west of South Park, and the industry is likely to increase. Protitable mining in the main body of the reserve east of South Park has not yet been proved a permanent and paying business, but there are indications that really good mines may yet be opened there. LUMBERING. Ever since this part of the country was first settled l>y ranchmen, about forty vears ago, the business of cutting lumber from the terri- tory now included within the boundaries of the reserve has been unre- mittingly prosecuted, although during the earlier years most of the timber cut was for strictly local use. With the advent of railroads and the development of mining the shipping of lumber became import- ant, and numerous sawmills have been almost steadily at work taking timber from private or public lands, legally and illegally. Beginning with the supplies available nearest to market or shipping station, por- table sawmills have Ijeen moved graduall}' to the farthest and least accessible of the timbered parts of the mountains, until now they have reached Lost Park, where is located the last of any considerable area of timber laud which has not had the best picked from it or been totally destroyed by lire. The timber nearest the South Platte River and for several miles back from this stream was naturally the first to be taken, and much of this easily accessible ground has been gone over a second time in the search for sawmill logs or for the few railroad ties which might be found. Abandoned sawmill sites, with their heaps of decaying sawdust and lumber refuse, are plentiful along the courses of the numerous small streams, but at present there are fewer sawmills in active operation than were to be found on this reserve several years ago. This is iu part due to exhaustion of supplies in certain localities, and in part to the energy of forest rangers appointed by the Department of the In- terior during the past summer. During the past autunm there were only four or five mills at Avork I: ENGELMANN SPRUCE UNTOUCHED BY AX OR FIRE, NEAR SAWMILL IN LOST PARK. NORTH SLOPE. Altitude above 10,500 feet: tiees 3 to 15 inches in < JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE RESKRVE. 105 in the entire reserve. The largest and most important of these was found located in Lost Park, in the midst of the last considerable body of unburned and uncut forest to be found in all this region. When running at full capacitj' this mill could cut about 25,000 feet of lumber per da}". It had been gradually moved from location to location as the good timber was cut out, a ver}- fair lumber road being constructed and extended as necessities arose in order to facilitate the hauling of the product to the shipping station at Estabrook. It was moved to the present site in the spring of 1893, but was then run for a feM' months only, when it was closed and not reopened until the spring of 1898. Like many of the larger mills in operation in this part of the country, this one was outfitted by a large lumber com- pany which has extensive lumber yards at Denver, Colorado Springs, and other points. It was claimed by the mill operators that they had title to two sections of land, upon which they were working. This mill is located beside a small stream in one of the open "parks,"' at an altitude of about 10,000 feet. The hills and ridges surrounding it are covered with timber of variable quality, according to exposure, and composed mainly of Engelmann spruce, here known as white spruce, which is almost the only tree used for lumber, although some lodge- pole pine is cut and mixed with it. The Engelmann spruce reaches its best development on cool slopes having a northerly aspect; on southerly slopes it is poorer and is often supplanted by Pinus aristata, which rarely makes good saw logs. The best spruce timber here is not veiy large, trees 3 feet in diameter at the stump being unconmion, as has already been stated. Most of the logs obtained and sawed are between 12 and 15 inches in diameter at the small end, the trees pro- bably averaging 35 to 40 feet in length of log used after stripping off the branches, as there is commoidy a very short clear trunk, or practi- cally none. The trees are felled by sawing nearly through and wedging the sawed side, so that the tree falls in the opposite direction. The branches are stripped off just so much of the trunk as is considered desii'able, usually up to about a foot in diameter at the small end. The timber is cut usually into lengths of 12, 1-1, or 16 feet, the heavier logs usually into the shorter lengths. Two men generally work to- gether in felling the trees and cutting the logs, although sometimes the\- are assisted by a " trimmer," whose chief work is to remove the branches from the logs. Single horses with whippletree and chain are usually employed in hauling the logs to the skids, at the side of a wagon road, where they are loaded upon wagons and taken to the mill. These skidding horses often suffer much injury to their feet and legs, especially where there is much debris from tree tops and branches, and on 10(5 FOREST KESERVKS. st(>ep slopes they are liable to be injured by th(; loj^s wliirli tlicy are hauling. The refuse tree tops and branches are left to decay where they fall, furnishing dry fuel, which would cause very destructive burning if tire should get started. Seedlings and young trees are ruthlesslj' sacrificed wherever they appear the least in the way of operations, but on most of the ground now being cut over a fair number of medium-sized trees remain to shade and seed the ground and protect the new growth, although many of these trees now left or rejected are liable to fall when visited a second time by the lumberman after gleaning the best from a first cutting, or ai'e sure to be taken when the manufacturer of wood pulp can not get material nearer a shipping station. Like most of the movable mills in this part of the country, the saw- mill in Lost Park is of cheap, rough construction, simply an open- framed building roofed over. One-fourth of the timber is lost in saw- dust by the thick circular saw, which consumes a quarter of an inch in thickness with every board cut. The sawed lumber costs about $3 per 1,000 feet to haul to Esta- brook, the nearest shipping station, 1-1 or 15 miles distant, where it is worth 111 or |12 per 1,000 feet. Choppers were here paid fl per 1,000 feet (Scribner's measure) for cutting logs ready for the mill. The lumbermen roughlv calculated that li or 1.5 logs of the mixed lengths cut (12, 1-i, and 16 feet) were required to produce 1,000 feet of lumbei'. Strong efforts were being made to have the operations of this mill stopped, and at last accounts they were at least temporarily successful. A sawmill was at work beside a small creek flowing from the Platte River Mountains into the North Branch of the South Platte, near Chase. Another small mill was located near Grant, farther up the river, but on the north or luireserved side of the stream. In October the mill was closed and the proprietor was placed under arrest. Another mill, with a daih' producing capacity of about 10,000 feet of lumber, was at work several miles south of Puma City, About •±50,000 feet of lumber was cut from ground within a radius of 2 or 3 miles from the sawmill. At the end of October this mill was moved to another location near Signal Butte, outside the eastern boundary of the reserve. The lumber cut in all this comparatively low counti'v (8,000 to 9.000 feet altitude) is yellow pine and Douglas spruce, and occasionally a blue spruce. It is here considered worth while locating and operating a portable steam sawmill if 500,000 feet of lumber can be obtained within a radius of y or 3 miles, so that the average amount of lumber obtained, around some locations of the mills, is sometimes under 100 feet to the acre. A mill may move to new locations several times in the course of a U. S. GEOLOGICA: A. CHOPPERS FOR SAWMILL IN LOST PARK CUTTING ENGELMANN SPRUCE. B HORSES ' SKIDDING" SAW LOGS IN LOST PARK LOl'T PARK. , Engelmann spruce, together containing over 1,000 feet lumber; largest log 25 inches in diameter at small end. Exceptionally large timber for this region. 7;. VIEW IN LOST PARK. Logs among refuse, cut and ready for " skidding" out to luniber road- JACK] SOUTH PLATTE RESERVE. 107 year, and during the last twenty -five years much of the ground has had two or three visitations from lumbermen. The distance for haul- ing logs depends somewhat upon the character of roads and the prac- tice of mill managers, some preferring frequent moving of the mill to a long haul of the logs. One or two small mills were at work near the reserve boundaries south of Florissant. No active sawmills were found in the western arm of the reserve west of South Park, but three or four were located close to the bound- aries. One of these was on the western slope of Breckenridge Pass, another east of Hoosier Pass, near the base of Mount Silverheels, and one close to the eastern boundary of the reserve on the i-oad through Horseshoe Gulch to Leavick. The timber cut by these mills was chiefly Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine. At Mountaindale was seen the only water-power sawmill in any of the resei'ves. Its power was obtained fi'om Tarryall Creek and its output was small, as it is operated only occasionally in order to suppty some local demands. A great many railroad ties have been cut and removed from this reserve, and the cutting of ties is still carried on, although the business is much diminished in comparison with former years. Apparently few ties are cut by regular lumbermen or by persons having tie making for their sole occupation, such cutting as is now carried on being done chiefly by ranchmen, squattei's, or prospectors. The work is generally incidental to some other undertaking, and it is almost impos- sible to obtain any very definite idea of the somewhat limited number of ties now annually cut within the reserves. Douglas spruce is prac- ticall}' the only species cut for this purpose, and to be acceptable to the railroads it is considered essential that it should be cut in autumn or winter, although it was during August and September that the two or three cases of actual tie cutting were observed. The cutting of Engelmann spruce for manufacture into paper is a comparatively recent industry- in this region, but is one likely to grow very rapidly and to the great damage of the spruce forest unless restrictive measui'es are enforced. No cutting for pulp was actually seen within the reserve lines, although some was reported; but in two places, close to the boundary, timber cut for this purpose was in proc- ess of removal from Government land. One of the locations was in Halls Valley, 2 or 3 miles north of the most northerly part of the reserve. The wood is cut into short lengths on the hills and sent down timber chutes to the valley below, whence it is hauled to Web- ster, a small station on the Colorado and Southern Railway, and there loaded on box cars and shipped to Denver. Another shipping point was Leavick, near the head of Horseshoe Gulch, so close to the western ))oundarv of the reserve that it was a 108 FOREST RESERVES. disputed matter whether or not the work came within the reserve lines. Sticks of any size down to 4 inches in diameter are taken here. The logs are hauled by horses down the slopes to a small steam saw- mill, which is used for cutting- them into pieces 2 feet long, after which they are loaded on Vrax cars for shipment. A machine for stripping off the bark before shipment was on the ground, but had not been set up or operated. In the northern part of the reserve, north and west of the Kenosha Twin Cone Mountains, during several years previous to 1893, a large gang of men were employed cutting timber for manufacture into char- coal for smelting purposes. Many thousands of acres were cut over, and practically all of the lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce were taken to the charcoal kilns, the pine being the principal tree of this section. Twenty-five or thirty kilns wei-e operated, part of them being located at Webster, others near Kenosha. The timber was taken from public lands and the depredations were stopped only bj' the establishment of the reserve in 1893. The kilns are now abandoned, some of them broken and fallen to decay, others still in a fail' state of preservation. A great deal of apparenth' needless destruction attended this cutting. Hundreds of thousands of small lodgepole-pine trees were cut and left on the ground, so as to not only destro_y a crop already partly grown, but to invite worse damage bj' fire. In some places a portion of the small trees was left standing, in others they are gradualh^ coming in to re-cover the ground. Destructive to forest as the cutter for wood pulp may be, he is out- classed by the manufacturer of charcoal from wood. Some timber is cut and used locally in mines and a small amount of dead and dry material is collected and sold. SUGGESTIONS AS TO BOUNDARIES. As they are at present drawn the boundaries of parts of the reserve are far from satisfactory, especially considering the objects of con- servation of timber and water supplies. The irregular artificial boundary lines of certain parts are little known or respected, although natural boundary lines, like the South Platte River, are too obvious to admit of any excuse for trespassing. On account of the irregularity and narrowness of much of the western arm of the reserve, west of South Park, the timber of almost any part is easily removed by persons outside of the reservation while the reserve lines are in dispute. For the purpose of water conserva- tion the reserve is of comparatively little value. It is unfortunate that the entire eastern watershed of the Park Range of mountains is not included within the reserve, and indeed it would have been advanta- A VIEW NORTH OF LOST PARK CREEK 4 OR 5 MILES FROM ITS MOUTh B VIEW AT PUMA CITY, LOOKING WEST. Yellow pine and remnants after cutting. KILNS AT WEBSTEK I^KONI VIEW. Openings are for filling /^ith wood /; CHARCOAL KILNS AT WEBSTER, BACK VIEW. Openings are for taking out charcoal. JACK.] SOUTH PLATTE KESERVE. 109 geous if much of the western slope had been taken in, as here are important feeders of the Arkansas River, and also of the Blue River, which flows into the Grand. It is true that the perpetual snow banks on the sides of these high unreserved peaks an; likely to furnish a certain amount of water during the summer, independent of forest conditions on the lower slopes, but the presei'vation of the forest would be certain to add to the flow of water and to distribute it more evenly in the early part of the summer, when the snows of the lower slopes are melting. The main body of the reserve would be better and more simply inclosed by making the South Piatte River the boundary along the entire eastern and southern sides, leaving out the territory on the south side of the stream. This ground is not mountainous, and is not of much value as a source of water supply. It is true that it has fur- nished and may furnish some timber, but in this respect, and also for its small streams, it is not so valuable as a large portion of the unre- served territory lying north of Florissant and Hayden Park, bounded on the east, north, and west, respectively, by the Pikes Peak, Plum Creek, and South Platte reserves. Much of this area, especially on the western side, might well have been included within reservation lines in order to preserve valuable timber upon it and to protect the small tributaries of West Creek and the South Platte River. There is nnich territory of an open and almost useless character lying east of the Puma Hills and south of Tarryall Creek, but as it could not very well be separated and may in time become better tim- bered, it is probably best to continue it as an integral part of the reserve, unless, indeed, it should ever be found advisable to eliminate from the reserve altogether all of the region lying south of Tarryall Creek, this region being of much less value for water conservation than the higher mountain region north of the creek. West of the Puma Hills and the Tai'rvall Mountains and east of South Park there are included within the reserve limits considerable areas of open, level, or but slightly timbered and rolling land, which is much used for grazing purposes. As this land is of little use for the pur- poses for which the reserves were established, it would seem the best policy to relocate the boundaries so that such areas would not come within the rules governing the reservation. TREES AND SHRUBS OBSERVED IK THE PIKES PEAK, PLt M CREEK, AND SOUTH PliATTE RESERVES, AUGUST, SEPTE3IBER, AND OCTOBER, 1S9S. The following list of trees and shrubs is undoubtedly incomplete, but there are probably very few more species to be found within the limits under consideration. The list will serve to show the paucity of the ligneous flora of the region examined, embi'acing over 2,000 110 FORKST KKSEKVKS. square niile.s in area and varying in altitude from under 6,000 to o^•el• 14,000 feet. The list is given alphabetically according to genera. Abies concolor (Gord.) Parry. (Silver fir, white fir.) Not abundant. Alonj; streams or f-anyons np to 8,000 or 9,000 fuet. Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. (^1. tmhaljunti Engelm.) (Alpine fir or balsam spruce.) • trows with Engelmann spruce up to timber line. Plentiful in few loralities. Acer glabrum Torr. (Maple.) Common along creeks anfl on many mountain slopes, from 6,000 to 10,000 feet altitude. A large shrub, never arborescent, not growing above 20 feet high. Acer negundo Linn. (See Negundo aceroides.) Alnus tenuifolia Nutt. (Alder.) A large shrub or small tree, near streams. Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. (Juneberry.) Occasional: from 6,000 to 10,000 feet altitude. Ampelopsis quinquefolia Michx. Local, near streams; 6,000 to 7,000 feet altitude. Arceuthobium. (See Easoumofskya.) Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Spreng. (Bearberry.) Common on mountain slopes, on coarse granite soils, and prevents washing. Artemisia tridentata Nutt. (Sagebru.sh.) In western part of the South Platte Reserve, with other Arlemima. Berberis repens Lindl. Common in some localities and on south slopes up to 9,000 feet altitude. Springs up freely from the roots after a fire has passed over the ground. Betula occidentalis Hook. (Birch, black birch.) Along streams, up to 10, .500 feet altitude or more. A tall shrub, with numerous stems. Never truly arborescent, although sometimes 15 or 20 feet liigh. Betula glandulosa Michx. Along streams and in wet places at high altitudes. A small shrul.i. Bigelovia. There are several species of small shrubby Bigeloma in this region. Ceanothus fendleri Gray. (Observed in Pikes Peak and Plum Creek reserves up to 9,000 feet altitude. Ceanothus ovatus Desf. About same range as C. fendleri. Ceanothus velutinus Dougl. Eastern side of Plum Creek Reserve, 7,000 to 7,500 feet altitude. . GEOLOGICAL SURvE A. VIEW ON FISH CREEK. 5 OR 6 MiLES iOjrn/.'EST OF F LuRISSAi. T, LOOMNG EAST. B VIEW LOOKING WEST TO PUMA HILLS, ALONG ROUTE BETWEEN PUMA CITY AND LAKE GEORGE, Timber on hills much burnt- JACK.J TREES AND SHRUBS IN CENTRAL COLORADO RESERVES. Ill Celtis occidentalis Linn. (Hackberry.) Karc, iiiily ^■e^.'n on lower eastern slope of Plum Creek Reserve. Small, scrubby. Cercocarpus parvifolius Nutt. (Mountain mahogany, Buffalo bush.) OtXen loL-ally uljundant on coarse, granite, soils, at altitudes from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. Usually an upright bush 7 or 8 feet high, but never arborescent. When burned, new shoots spring from the stumps. Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. Frequent ahiiig rrefks under .S,000 feet altitude. Clematis verticillaris De C. (Occasional, up to 10,500 feet altitude. Cornus stolonifera Michx. (Red-stemmed cornel or dogwood.) Occasional, along streams. Corylus rostrata Ait. (Hazelnut.) (Occasional, on lower slopes of mountains. Crataegus rivularis Nutt. (Hawthorn.) This species was found near Grant, on the North Branch of the South Platte River, and along the South Platte near the junction with West Creek. It is apparently rare and local in these reserves. Cratsegus sp. A thorn bearing some resemblance to but apparently distinct from C. maeraeaniha was noticed in the South Platte Reserve on Buffalo Creek, 2 or 3 miles from its mouth. It was hardly arborescent, although there were large, vigorous- stemmed plants, 8 or 10 feet high, accompanied by many suckers. Late spring frosts had destroyed blossoms so that no fruit was produced this season. Dryas octopetala L. Low creeping .^hvub, above timber line, 11,500 to 12,500 feet altitude. Gaultheria myrsinites Hook. (Wintergreeu.) I'lentifnl in sonic loralities. Holodiscus discolor Ma.xim. ( 'oninion on coarse poor soils and rocks up to 10,000 feet altitude or more. Jamesia americana Torr. and Gray. Common on rocks and coarse granite soil up to 9,000 or 10,000 feet altitude. Juniperus nana Willd. (Connnon juniper.) Occasional; never abundant. X low spreading shrub. Jtmiperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. (Cedar, red cedar.) Observed only along eastern edge of Pikes Peak and Plum Creek reserves, under 7,000 feet altitude. Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. (Red cedar; locally also called white cedar.) ilore generally distributed through the reserves and growing at a much higher altitude than /. monosperma, reaching at least 9,500 or 10,000 feet. 112 KUKEST RKSERVES. Lepargyraea canadensis (L.) Crreciic (Slu-j/herdia canadensis, Xutt.). (Buttalo berry.) Loi-al U|i to 10,")()0 feet ultitiuii; or more. Lonicera involucrata Bank.s. Occa.'^idiuil, e.«pc'cially near stream^', reaching to lO.-'iOl) t'eet altitude or more. Negundo aceroides Mooiicli {Acer lu/gundo Liiiii). (Box (>ldpr. iish- leuved maple.) Seen only along South Platte Kiver in northeai^t part of I'linu Creek Reserve, below 6.000 feet altitude. Pachystima myrsinites Kaf. Observed only on west slope from BreekenridKe J^ass, and not actually within reserve limits. Physocarpus torreyi Maxim. Common on ilisintegrated granite soils well up mountain slopes. Picea engelmanni Engelm. (Engelmaun .spruce, white spruce.) The prevailing tree at high altitudes to timber line. Picea parryana (Audre) Parry {P.jjunc/ens Engelm.). (Blue spruce.) Along creeks and gulches along the lowerparts of the mountains and on some of the " parks," up to 10,000 feet altitude. Pinus ednlis Engelm. (Piiion, pifion pine, nut pine.) Occurs only within the Pikes Peak Reserve north of Maniton. Pinus flexilis James. (Limber pine, white pine, "sugar" pine.) ( ienerally scattered through the reserves and reaching to timber line. Rarely abundant at any place. Pinus aristata Engelm. (Range pine, also miscalled "pinon pine.") Abundant on south slopes of mountains and reaching to timber line. Also scat- tered to the base of the mountains and on hills or "buttes." Pinus ponderosa scopulorum Engelm. (Yellow pine, bull pine.) The prevailing timber tree up to 10,000 feet altitude. Showing a great deal of variation and hardly considered distinguishable from the typical P. ponderosa Lawson, although the variety scojmlorum is considered distinct by some bot- anists and is the tree found in this region. Pinus murrayana Engelm. (Lodgepole pine, white pine.) Abundant in many regions, either growing with Engelmann spruce and other trees or forming close pure forest of this species alone. Populus acuminata Rydb. (Cottonwood.) Only a few trees seen, near Manitou and Colorado Springs. Populus angustifolia James. (Narrow-leaved cottonwood.) The most common cottonwood or poplar along streams in this region. Populus balsamifera Linn. (Balm of Gilead, balsam poplar, cotton- wood.) Frequent along streams; foimd at altituro:id- leaved cottoawood.) The tree most commonly planted for shatle at places along the eastern base of the mountains below 7,000 feet altitude. Not found in the mountains. Populus tremuloides Michx. (Quaking aspen or quaking asp, aspen.) Abundant almost everywhere, especially after forest fires. Tsually small, but in moist, sheltered canyons or gulches sometimes attaining 60 feet in height and a trunk diameter of a foot or more. Occasionally reaches to 11,000 feet altitude. Potentilla frutieosa Linn. This is probably the most generally distributed shnili in the reser^'es. Observed at different altitudes from 6,000 to 12,500 feet arid possibly higher. Often very abundant on open "parks" used for grazing. Prunus americana ^Nlarsh. (Wild plum.) Local, along creeks on eastern side of Plum Creek Reserve, under 7,000 feet alti- tude. A shrub or small tree 10 to 12 feet high. The fruit is valued for culinary purposes. Prunus pennsylvanica Linn. (Bii'd cherry.) Common in many places from 6,000 to 10,000 or higher altitude. Always very small, never arborescent. Springs up freely from roots af*er fire. Possibly a distinct variety or species from the eastern type. Prunus virginiana Linn. (Chokecherry.) Frequent, especially along creeks, sometimes on rocky mountain slopes, t snally 6,000 to 8,500 feet altitude. Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.) Britton {P. doiu/Jaiiii. Carr). (Douglas .spruce, red spruce.) Abundant, with yellow pine up to 10,000 feet or higher altitude.) Pyrus sambueifolia Cham. & Schlect. (Mountain asL.) Rather rare and local. ftuercus gambelii Nutt. (Oak. scruli oiik.) Usually growing to 7 or 8 feet in height, forming thickets. Rarely tree-like or 20 feet high. Razoumofskya americana (Nutt.) Kuntze iArciuflinhiimi americanuni Nutt.). Parasitic on lodgepole pine; plentiful in .some localities and causing considerable injury to the growing trees. Razoumofskya douglasii (Engelni.) Kuntze {Arc>-iithohium dmigJasii Eugelm.). Parasitic on Douglas spruce; local. Razoumofskya robusta (Engelni.) Kuntze {Arceutliohvum rohutiftmi Enocliii.). Parasitic on yellow pine (/'. jioitdcrtixti) . Abundant in many localities and sometimes causing nmch injury. 20 GEOL, PT 5 S 114 FOHEST KKSKKVES. Rhus glabra T/mii. (Sniootli sumac.) (Iccasi.iiial, at li>\v altitudes. Springs up a>.'ain after liri'. Rhus toxicodendron Linn. (Poison siuiiiic, ])oisoii "ixv.") Occasiciiial; dwarf, nrvi'V rlimliiiii;; fiuiiid mily at li i\v altitudes. Rhus trilobata Nutt. A coninion spreading busli in many jilaces from (5,000 to 8,000 feet altitmic. Ribes aureum Piireh. (Mi.ssonri currant, Imffalo currant.) ITncommoii an,000 feet altitude. r^ us. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT PART V PL.VIU U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT PART V PL. IX U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TWENTIETH ANNUAL REPORT PART V PL . X isi -TW ■^ ^ 39"b'- T J \Sp** d pXssm 1 \ ■•>^9, SUFF^LOJP*' \^ ^ >i;^ MARMOT P« :?■-'/ i<er Priest River is a mere nar- row canyon for about 10 miles of its length, as is that of its principal upper fork, Gold Creek. Below the junctiou of tbis fork to tiie head of the upper lake the river flows through a low swampy valley about throe-fourths of a mile wide. The valley below the lower lake has a width varying from about 2 to 4 miles. Low isolated ridges rise here and there, their bases buried in the mass of glacial detritus that has tilled up the ine(iualif.ies and approximately leveled the area that now constitutes tlie valley. Through this mass of transported material the stream has cut its way, excavating a channel that at the present time varies from 20 to 150 feet in dearth from the water line to the top of the inclosing banks. WATKR SUPPLY. The reserve is situated within one of the zones of heavy piecipitation in northern Idaho. Just how great the annual precipitation is we do not know, no data being obtainable iu regard to it, but that it is excep- tionally heavy is proved by the enormous development of the arbores- cent flora of the region. It is probable, however, that it lies between 50 and 60 inches for areas under 3,500 feet elevation above sea level, and from 60 to 90 inches for those above that altitude. The depth of snow on the ridges at 6,500 to 7,000 feet elevation varies from 12 to 20 feet, as indicated by marks on standing trees. Considering the extremely wet nature of northern Idaho snows, 80 to 90 inches is prob- ably rather under than above the actual annual precipitation at these heights. The water of precipitation is discharged slowly into the streams. The granitic rocks of the eastern range are much broken and fissured, permitting the water to sink freely and emerge as springs at lower elevations. There is a permanent snow line on the northern slopes in the central sections of the range, but the amount of snow retained through the summer is not large enough to aflect materially the water supply. Many of the streams that head in the range expand into semicircular basins near their heads. Some of these basins con- tain small ponds; others are partially filled with great masses of slidden rock which retain large quantities of water. Owing, however, to the precipitous nature of the range, and the short distance between the sunmiit and the lake basin, the drainage is too rapid on the whole, and but one stream of considerable size, the East Fork, heads in the range. The streams that enter the lake and river from the west are longer and carry a greater volume, of water. Their heads are at greater distances from their points of discharge, and, flowing through valleys with but little slope, their currents are rather sluggish. Many of them head in large marshy or springy tracts, and in their course are frequently inter- rupted by large timbered flats or low swampy meadows or sphagnous bogs. These flats and bogs are important conservators and regulators LEiBKRo.l PRIEST RIVER RESERVE. 221 of the water supply of the basin. The flow of water in the basin is apparently not subject to very violent fluctuations. Tlie tlifl'erence between high and low water in the lake is said to be but 5 feet. Whether the present condition of the forest in the region aflects the drainage as compared with the flow of water in the past, when differ- ent conditions existed, can not be learned, as the observations extend back only seven years. I am of opinion, however, that the spring freshets are greater than formerly and the summer stage of water less. The water in the streams and lakes is not utilized in any way at the present time. The existing agricultural interests are small, and irri- gation has not been found necessary for their maintenance, nor are there within the reserve any industrial enterprises tliat require water power. All the larger streams that enter the lake and river from the east have volume and fall sutticient to furnish great quantities of power, a few from the west could be utilized in the same way, and the main Priest River, especially below the rapids, is capable of supplying enough for all enterprises likely to be located within the reserve for generations to come. There appears, so far, to be but oue location for purposes of power ou any of the streams. This is at Blue Creek, about one-third mile above its junction with Priest Iliver. The creek here runs over a ledge of outcropping rocks, forming a series of falls and raijids with a total descent of between 30 and -10 feet. SOIL,. The soil of the basin varies considerably with location and elevation. In the eastern half of the basin, where the underlying rock is largely composed of hard quartzose granites, the soil is very siliceous. The softer schistose formations of the western half have yielded a soil with less silica and more magnesia and alumina. The soil on the summit of the main ridges, spurs, and upper slopes is a coarse gravel or sand thinly mixed with mold derived from ages of decaying forest growth, usually but a few inches in depth and resting on a substratum of still coarser fragments of rock or bowlders. The lower slopes and bottoms of the canyons heading in the eastern range are covered with masses of bowlders and slidden rock fragments, more or less cemented together by stift' clays and overlain by thick deposits of black mold and humus, in part accumulations washed down from the heights above. The low-lying broader and less sloping valleys on the west, together with the main Priest River Valley, have a subsoil wholly made up of glacial detritus, consisting in some localities of stiff, impermeable, gray, or extremely ferruginous clays, but mostly composed of fine or coarse gravel. The depth of this subsoil is unknown. It is commonly topped off by several feet of lacustrine silt, on which rests mold and humus of varying thickness, from 3 or 4 inches to 15 or 20 inches. The marshy flats or meadows occurring in the western half of the reserve are often the result of beaver dams, constructed ages ago when the animals were 222 FOREST BESERVES. plentiful and worked comparatively uudistiirbed. Owing to tlie more rapid growth and decay of vegetation on such tracts, tliere is a greater accumulation of mold than elsewhere, and it is also more fertile. The fertility of the soil resides largely in the superficial layer of mold and humus. When stripped of this the underlying silt deposit comes into view. While not so siliceous as the soils of the granitic half of the reserve, it contains too much silica to be classed as a prime soil for agricultural purposes. One chief drawback is its failure to retain moisture, losing it rapidly both by evaporation and by percolation. When, therefore, denuded both of its forest covering and the top layer of humus, the soil is apt to become quite sterile, owing to aridity. The soils on the small portion of the reserve that abuts on Pend Oreille Eiver are mostly similar to those of the Priest River Basin proper. Exceptions are found on lands periodically overflowed, which are cov- ered by a slimy subalkaline mud deposited from the waters of the river. FOREST CONDITIONS. The Priest River Basin is essentially a forest- covered region. There are but few tracts within its boundaries that do not now, or did not a few years ago, support a dense, magiiiliceut forest. The areas desti- tute of forest from natural causes are the low marshy expanses and sphagnous bogs along certain of the water courses, and rocky crests and slides of the main divides and of their higher laterals. Of the entire land area within the reserve, I estimate that about 3.5 per cent is uatui-ally devoid of forest. Assuming that lakes and streams of the reserve cover in the aggregate about 30,000 acres, and that the entire reserve consists of GoO,000 acres, we have a trifle more than 7.9 per cent deforested through the operation of natural causes. It would be possible to reclaim about 2.5 per cent of this by sylvicultural means, leaving but 5.4 per cent permanently timberless. The distribution of the timberless areas is nearly ecjual for each of the two divisions of the reserve, but their respective situations are diametrically opposite, for while the timberless tracts that exist in the western half are mainly grassy marshes at low elevations, those of the eastern half are regions of bare rocky expanses along the upper slopes of the divides. The forest growth on the reserve is composed of sixteen species of trees that are always arborescent, and seven that are either small trees or shrubs, depending on soil and altitude. (See tables, p. li-44.) Eleven of the trees are gymnosperms, or cone bearei'S; ten are evergreens; one, the larch, deciduous leaved. Five are augiosperms; three belong- ing to the willow and two to the birch family. Nine belong to the species commonly utilized as lumber trees, seven being conifers, two cottonwoods. Ninety-nine per cent of the lumber trees are comprised in five species, namely, western white pine, western larch, hemlock- spruce, cedar, and yellow pine. Of these, the white pine and tamarack (the larch) form about 91 per cent of the total. The distribution of LEiBERG] PRIEST EIVER RESERVE. 223 the arborescent flora lies within three of the western forest zones, the zones (1) of the yellow pine, (2) of the white pine, and (3) of the sub- alpine fir. The zone of the subalpiue fir comprises, in general, the ridges and sloi^es above -4,800 feet elevation. It follows, however, many of the smaller streams and tlie northern slopes of the ridges to lower altitudes, in such cases mingling with the white-pine zone. It covers about 10 per cent of the reserve area, or about 60,000 acres in the aggregate. The best development of the zone occurs on the summits, slopes, and higher portions of the canyons of the eastern or Priest Eiver Eange. It is found likewise on many "of the spurs that extend into the basin from both the eastern and the western divide. It is less prevalent on the summits and slopes of the Tend Oreille divide, and has there a greater admixture of species from the zone below. Of the total area included within the zone, 7 per cent, or about 42,000 acres, is situated in the eastern half of the reserve, and 3 per cent, or about 18,000 acres, in the western half. The difterence in development of the zone between the eastern and western portions of the basin is owing, in part, to the greater height of the Priest Eiver Eange, with the consequent increase in precipitation and lowering of the mean annual temperature, and, in part, to the ditference in rock formation. The granites of the eastern range, with their extensive fissuring and no definite cleavage, hold precipitation far better than the schistose rocks of the western range, which are either water-tight or else aftbrd a more or less rapid drain- age along their cleavage, depending on their angle of inclination. The characteristic trees of the zone are the subalpine fir and white- bark pine. (See tables, p. 244.) According to the direction of slope exposure, there also occur the Eugelmann spruce, the red fir, the lodge- pole pine, the western white pine, and the tamarack, together with the American aspen. About 98 per cent of the forest growth of the zone is composed of two species, the white-bark pine and the subalpiue fir, about 28 per cent of the former and 70 per cent of the latter. (For range in sizes see table, p. 246.) This zone possesses but little economic importance. The trees that form the bulk of it are not commonly utilized, and its considerable altitudes make it inaccessible to the lumberman. The white-pine zone is the predominant one in the reserve. It lies principally between altitudes of 2,400 and 4,800 feet above sea level, and reaches its greatest development between elevations of 2,800 and 3,500 feet. Its area is about 80 per cent of the forested portion of the reserve, or about 480,000 acres, including such tracts as are now in a state of reforestation and covered with pure, or nearly pure, growths of lodgepole pine. The principal species of trees growing within the zone are the western white pine, tamarack, cedar, Engelmann spruce, Merten hemlock, and white fir. Mixed with them are scattered indi- viduals of the red fir, cottonwoods, birches, and semiarborescent willows. The western white pme and the tamarack are the chief 224 FOREST RESERVES. componeuts of tbe zone, forming about 77 per cent of tlie entire growth, western white pine constituting about 42 per cent and tamarack about 35 per cent. (See tables, p. 246.) The heaviest growth of the zone occurs on the level areas bordering the principal streams. The white l)iue is therefore more abundant in the western half of the reserve and along the Lower Priest River than elsewhere. Some of the stream bottoms in the southeast corner of the reserve, opening into the Pend Oreille Valley, have also considerable bodies of it. The region of the white [)ine is the most important in the reserve from au economic stand- point. It contains by far the largest quantity of commercial timber that exists on any of the growing areas. This zone is generally easy of access, and, if the natural conditions of soil and humjas are not disturbed, is capable of maintaining and of rapidly producing a heavy forest growth. The zone is remarkable for the prodigious development of its two ijrincipal components, the white pine and the tamarack, surpassing in density any other area of similar composition in the West. Two stages of growth occur in the commer- cially valuable bodies of this timber. They are the "old growth" and the "second growth." The former ranges in age from 250 to 400 yeai's, the latter from 100 to 250. The old growth is found as small, scattered groves throughout the reserve, but in a large block only in the main Priest River Valley below its junction with the East Fork. It forms here a tolerably compact body of about 2,500 acres, with extensions up several of the adjacent canyons on the east amounting to about 1,000 acres more. The total area of the old growth is approximately 10,000 acres. The second growth was well developed in all portions of the reserve uj) to within the last thirty years. At the present time the heaviest bodies exist in the valleys of the Upper and Lower West Forks, especially in the latter. (For relative sizes of trees, see tables, p. 247.) The zone is not so well defined as that of the subalpine fir. Along its upper limits it contains more or less subalpine elements, and at its lower limits trees from the zone of the j^ellow pine. The only species of tree within the reserve not found in the white-pine zone is the white-bark pine. The zone of the yellow pine occupies mostly a lower position than that of the white pine. It is not generally possible, however, to draw a well-defined line of demarcation between the upper limits of one and the lower limits of the other. The two zones overlap constantly, depending largely on soil and moisture conditions. The main compo- neuts of the zone are the yellow pine, red fir, and white fir, in about the following proj-ortions : Yellow pine, 10 per cent; red fir, 70 per cent; white fir, 15 per cent. (See table, p. 246.) The altitudinal limit of the yellow pine as a commercially valuable tree on the reserve is under 3,500 feet above sea level, while the red fir readily ascends to elevations of 4,500 feet on the slopes fronting on the south, west, and east. The area covered by this zone is about 10 per cent of the forested portions of the reserve, or about 60,000 acres. It is therefore LEiBERQ] PRIEST RIVER RESERVE. 225 equal to the area of the subalpine zone, and, as a whole, is more ennally distributed betweeu the east and west halves, about 4.7 per cent being in the former and 5.3 per cent in the latter division of the reserve. There is, however, a marked difference in the distribution of the yellow pine and the red fir, the pine predominating in the eastern half and the red fir in the western. The. commercially valuable areas of yellow pine are much scattered. There are small tracts of it along the eastern shore of Lower Priest Lake, and some scattered growths facing the south and west on the rockier spurs tiiat come into the main valley from the east below the lake. The largest bodies of it are found in the southeast quarter of the reserve, but are not continuous over any considerable area, as most of the canyons which radiate from the main valleys carry the white-pine zone in their bottoms. The tracts which are covered with commercially valuable hemlock-spruce occur all over the reserve below the upper altitudinal limits of the zone to which they belong. The largest continuous growth of the species occurs, or rather occurred, along the summitii and slopes of the southern portion of the Pend Oreille divide, before the forest fires had done their work in that locality. The yellow pine is, on the whole, more difficult of access than the white pine, due to its habitat upon the rocky slopes and benches. ASPECT OF THE FOREST. The appearances of the growing forest are different for each of the zones, and several varying aspects occur in each subdivision; but as like conditions have produced them, they are (juite uniform throughout the reserve. There are no forests of pure growth on the reserve, the nearest being the forests of the subalpine zone, and the tracts covered with lodgepole pine, within the limits of the white-pine region. The subalpine zone presents four chief features. The fli'st and most typical consists of a forest of medium density — 300 to 400 trees to the acre. The trees are mostly straight and symmetrical. There is but little underbrush, the ground being covered with low shrubs of species of huckleberries, or with a growth of alpine sedges or junci, or, as is generally the case, with a dense sward of the common bear grass (Xcrophylium tcnajc). Litter is scanty, consisting of a few broken branches or tree tops. Humus is either wholly absent or but 2 or 3 inches in depth. Forests of this character are found on the ridges and slopes, mostly above 5,500 feet elevation, and represent the mature but still vigorous subalpine forest. The second aspect is that of a forest of great dens'ty — 1,000 to 2,000 trees to the acre. A tract of this character is usually littered with vast quantities of broken and dead trees, dead branches, and growing brush, consisting in the main of mountain alders, mountain ash (Sorhiis sam- hucifoUo), and ^Menziesia shrubs. There is sometimes a sparse growth of bear grass, but the sunlight admitted through the dense masses of 19 OEOL, PT 5 15 226 FOREST RESERVES. trees is usually too scauty to permit the growth of many herbaceous plants. Such tracts represent the young and rapidly growing su1)al- pine forest in the last stage of the reforesting process subsequent to complete destruction by burning. At the present time this type of forest is most prevalent on the slopes and summits of the lateral spurs with northern exposure, and in the saEBER. The dominant tree in the subalpine zone, Abies lastocarpa, is com- monly subject to heart rot at an early period in its growth. It is rare to find trees with diameters of 10 inches and upward that do not show a ring of decaj- at the core. The white-bark pine, on the contrary, is commonly sound even at the most advanced age. The wood is hard and tough, resisting decay to a remarkable degree, and if the tree grew in accessible localities would be of value in cases where it forms a siz- LEiBERo.] PRIEST RIVER RESERVE. 229 able clear trunk, as is soraotiines the case. The other trees of the subalpiue zone are generally free from defects, except such as are caused by external violence, as breakage by wind and snow. It may be estimated that of the total growth in this zone about CO per cent of the trees from C inches in diameter at the base and upward are defective from some cause. The timber in the white-pine zone contains considerable defective portions. Aside from the damage done by forest fires, which is not taken into account now, there is a great deal of heart rot, wind shakes, and gum cracks. Most of the damage occurs in the white pine, which appears to be more subject to decay here than else- where in the West. The percentage of defect varies with character of soil and age of growth. It is greatest on areas of old growth and on low ground, and least in the second growth and on moderately dry soils. The percentage runs from 15 to as high as 2a per cent in the former, and from 5 to 15 per cent in the latter, all species of trees included. More than three-quarters of these amounts belong to the white pine alone. Next in frequency of defect come the cedar, Merteu hemlock, and west- ern tamarack, in the order named. The most common defects are attacks by fungi, causing either decay of the heartwood or destruction of the cambium layer in the growing trees, wind shakes, gum cracks, and breakage and splitting of the trees by the excessively violent winds or snows. Aside from the agencies of man and wind, fungi are the most destructive. The white pine and cedar are especially subject to their attacks. The weakening effect of decaying heartwood on such tall trees is to render them less capable of resisting great wind stress, and therefore more liable to development of wind shakes and gum cracks. The defects at the heart of the white pine, cedar, and tamarack do not wholly destroy their usefulness, though very materially lessening the value of the individuals so affected. In shingle making, to which pur- pose the larger cedars are mostly i)ut, the decay at the core, if not too great, does not matter very much, as the central portions are usually discarded in any case, and in the white pine it is a common practice at the mill to saw around the decayed core. The defects in the tama- rack are chiefly gum cracks and wind shakes, due in part to the sway- ing of the tall trees under wind pressure. They are produced mainly in the lower part of the trunk and are pretty sure to enlarge as time passes. The defects in the yellow-pine zone are mostly gum cracks and crooked and deformed trees. Owing to the open character of the forest in many places the wind has a free sweep. The damage is confined chietiy to the red fir, aggregating about 5 per cent, against less than 2 per cent in the yellow pine. MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION OF LUMBER. The only method available at the present time to transport lumber out of the reserve is by driving on Priest Kiver to its junction with the Pend Oreille, at which point the Great Northern Eailway is reached. 230 FOREST RESERVES. The Lower Priest Lake is navigable for steamers of any draft; the upper, owing to shallowness in the Thorofare, only for boats of light draft. Above the upper lake the river can be utilized for driv'ing for several miles by removing the snags that block it here and there. Not many of the side streams can be used for this purimse without expensive improvements in their beds. Some, notably those tliat enter from the east, are full of big bowlders and interrupted by series of falls, while those from the west either have a sluggish (airrent which meanders through marshy expanses or are much obstructed by windfalls and in some cases by rocky ledges. The valleys on the west half of the reserve, however, with their easy slopes, offer good opportunities for the construction of logging roads to bring their tim- ber to the main river. The water in the river usually maintains until the 1st of August a sufficient depth to permit driving, but by building a dam across the point where it leaves the lake, an undertaking easily accomplished, a sufficient volume of water could be held back in the lake to float logs down Priest River at any time. The area in the south- east corner of the reserve fronting on Pend Oreille Valley is adjacent to the Great Northern Railway, and the timbered valleys are easy of access from that side by mfeans of logging roads. Tbe most feasible way to utilize the water in the tributary streams for logging purposes would be to construct flumes and turn the streams into them. r,OCAL, DEMAXn FOR I.U]\tBER. There is scarcely any local demand. Small quantities of timber are used locally for fencing, building material, shingles, logs, etc., but the total consumption for these purposes is insignificant. There are uo sawmills in the reserve. The nearest point at which a sawmill is located is Sand Point, at the northwest corner of Lake Pend Oreille. If the lumber on the reserve could be obtained without trespass and its attend- ant difficulties, it is pretty certain that sawmills would soon be estab- lished near the outlet of Priest River, in the Pend Oreille Valley, for the manufacture of lumber and shingles. The quantity of tie timber on the reserve is immense, and railroad ties are nearly always in demand at good prices to the producer. TIMBER CUTTING. The cutting done in the past on the area now included in the reserve ■was chiefly in connection with the construction of the Great Northern Railway some years ago. The timber taken was almost wholly tie timber and piling, consisting of young trees 12 to 20 inches in diameter, of cedar, hemlock, spruce, and tamarack. Most of the cutting was adjacent to the line of tbe road where it passes through the southeast corner of the reserve. Along a distance of about licata 8 Picea engelmamii 6 Tsuga inertensiana 3 Abies granilis 2 Species of Populus, Betula, etc 4 IV.— IN THE TELLOW.PINE ZOXE. Pinus pomlerosa 10 Pseudotsuga tasifolia 70 Abies grandis 15 Species of Populus, Betula, Acer, Salix, aud Amelanchier 5 Proportion of lumber trees of commercial 8i:e. (By commercial size is understood a measurement of 16 inches aud apward at the base.] Pinus monticola .-^ 50 Larix occidentalis 41 Pseudotsuga tasifolia 5 Thuya plicata 2 Pinus ponderosa 1 Picea engelmanni (') Tsuga mertensiana (') Populus tricbocarpa (') P. balsauiifera (') SIZE AND AGE OF TREES. Mange in size and aiic of trees. IBy clear trunks is meant height to first branches of distinctive crown.] I.— SUBALPINE ZONE, MATURE FOBEST.= Species. Height. Diameter. Clear trunks. Age. Feet. Feel. Feet. Tears. Abies lasiocarpa 20 to 60 1 toli 10 to 25 40 to 100 Pinus albicaulis 20 to 50 1 to3 0to20 50 to 200 Picea engelmanni 40 to 60 1 toli 0to30 30 to 90 Pinus munayaua 40 to 60 ItoH 20 to 25 100 to 150 Larix occideutalis 60 to 100 lto2 30 to 50 80 to 100 Pinus monticola 80 to 150 lto2| 30 to 60 50 to 120 Pseudotsuga taxifolia . . . 30 to 100 lto4 0 to60 50 to — Populus tremuloides 20 to 25 itoH 0 » Trifling. 'The larger heights and diameters are found near the lower limits of the tades above 5,500 feet. the smaller at alti- PRIEST RIVER RESERVE. 247 Eange in size and age of trees — ^Continued. II.— WHITEPINE ZONE, OLD TO SECOND GROWTH. Species. Height. Diameter. Clear trunks. Age. Pinus monticola Larix occideutalis Pinus murrayana Pseudotsuga taxlfolia .. Thuya plicata Picea engelmanni Tsuga merteusiana .... Abies grandis (c) Betiila papyraeea B. occideutalis Populns tremuloides Feet. 150 to 250 150 to 200 60 to 100 80 to 150 80 to 120 80 to 100 100 to 120 20 to 70 50 to 75 Small. 20 to 40 50 to 100 Feet. 2 to 5 2 to 4 itoli li to 2i o 2 to 3^ itoli 6 li to 3 f tol 1 to 2 Feet. 80 to 120 50 to 120 20 to 60 50 to 90 25 to 60 Oto 30 0 to 30 0 0 Tears. 200 to 375 175 to 420 30 to 90 100 to 200 120 to 800 50 to 120 1 100 to 200 I to 500 30 to 75 i to 1 ■ li to 3 10 to 20 20 to 40 a Rarely up to 8 feet. b Rarely up to 5 feet. c Rarely 3 feet in diameter, with cle.Tr trunks 40 to 80 feet in height. III.— YELLOW. PIXE ZONE, MATURE FOREST. 50 to 90 50 to 100 lito3 l}to2 Small. Small. 20 to 40 20 to 60 . 80 to 200 80 to 150 Pseudotsuga taxifola. .... AREAS OF FOREST ZONES. Areas occupied by each forest zone. Zone. Yellow pine. White pine. . Subalpine fir Total - . 60, 000 480, 000 60, 000 600, 000 In estimating the areas of the different zones regard is had to the species of forest trees that grew on the various tracts before their deforestation by fires began about thirty years ago, and not to the present conditions of the bunit areas. 248 FOREST RESERVES. . AMOUNT AND VALUE OF TIMBER. listimate of standing merchantable timber. SAW TIMBER. In the absence of surveys the various areas are computed from estimates as to the relative percentages that each bears to the total area embraced in the reserve, which is reckoned at 620,000 acres, exclusive of tracts xiermanently covered with water. Acres. Average per acre. Total. 134,400 60, 800 28, 800 3,840 150, 000 FeetB.M. 4,000 8,000 20, 000 40, 000 1,000 Feet B. 31. 537, 600, 000 486, 400, 000 576, 000, 000 153, 600, 000 150, 000, 000 377, 840 1,903,000,000 In this estimate only trees having a diameter of 16 incnes at tne base are included, and only such species as are commonly sawed in this region, for enumeration of which see table on p. 245. Living timber only is included in the above estimates. The amount of standing dead timber can not be computed even approximately. It varies from day to day, depending on the force and direction of the wind, on rain, snow, the degree of rot in the dead trunk and the position of the decay, together with the age of the burn, its location and exposure, the more or less complete burning of the humus, the character of the soil, and many other factors. RAILROAD TIES. Acres , Average Dum- Acres. 1 ^g^ pg^ ^^^ Total. 1 60, 800 i 296 134, 400 755 28,800 1 100 3,800 i 55 160,000 84 17, 998, 800 101, 472, 000 2, 880, 000 211, 200 13, 440, 000 387,800 136, 000, 000 j This gives, at 20 feet per tie, a total of 2,720,000,000 feet B. M. Trees having diameters at the ground of 8 to 16 inches are considered tie timber. The following species are included in the list: Paeudotsuga taxi folia. Larix occidentalis. Tsuga mertensiana. Thuya plicata. PRIEST RIVER RESERVE. Estimate of standing merchant-able timber — Continued TELEGRAPH POLES. 249 Acres. Average per acre. Total. 20, 000 150, 000 30 10 600, 000 1, 500, 000 170, 000 2, 100, 000 This gives, at 100 feet per pole, a total of 210,000,000 feet B. M. The only species utilized for purposes of telegrajih poles in this region is Thuya plicata, which is not abundantlyrepresented in the forests of the reserve. RECAPITULATION. Kind of timber. FeetB.M. 1, 903, 600, 000 2, 720, 000, 000 210, 000, 000 Total 4, 833, 600, 000 Estimated value on root of standing timber. Kind of timber. j Amount. Average stilmpage value. Total value. Saw logs... Ties Poles Total ...M. feet. ..number. do... . 1,903,600 . |136, 000, 000 .1 2,100,000 i $0.50 .02 .05 $951, 800 2, 720, 000 105, 000 3, 776, 800 1 Approximate value of timber when ready for consumption at first point of manufactur*. Kind of timber. A—*- ; ^^^^^ Total value. 1,903,600 [ $10.00 136,000,000 .20 2, 100, 000 1 .25 $19, 036, 000 27, 200, 000 525,000 Poles do Total ' 1 46, 761. 000 Living timber only is included in above estimates. Dead timber there has no commercial value. 250 FORKST BESKRVES. DESTRUCTION BY HIRES. Etlimale of mrrchantahU timber rontumeii by foreit firm in (Ac Intt thirty year: SAW TIMIIKK. Aon*. Avenge per ■ore. Total deelroj'Nl. 134,400 60,800 28,800 3,840 100,000 50,000 160,000 »«( II. M. 1,000 800 200 20, (WO 30,000 5,000 Ftel It. it. i:m, 400, 000 48, MO. 000 5, -liO, 000 2, 000, 000, 000 1,500,000,000 800, 000. 000 537,840 4,488,800,000 RAILROAD TIES. Number. Knmber. 50,000 100,000 120, 000 250,000 20,000 30 100 800 1,500 3,000.000 12, 000, 000 200, IHK), 000 30, 00< 1,000 540,000 245,000,000 TELEGRAPH POLES. 200,000 30 6, 000, 000 Estimated value of limber burned. 4,488,800,000 feet, .it 50 cents per thousand $2,244,400 245,000,000 ties, at 2 cents per tie 4, 9(H), 000 6,000,{XX) telegr.nph jioles, at 5 cents per pole 300, (XK) Value of young growth during thirty years 1, 500, 000 Less 5 per cent ilepreeiation caused by windfalls, rot, etc., during thirty 8, 044. 400 Total 8, 497, 180 Approximate raliie of timber burned at fimt point of manufacture. 4,488,800,000 feet saw logs, at -tlO per thousand feet $44. 888. 000 24.'),O00.00O ties, at 20 cents per tie 49.0(XI.000 6,000,000 telegraph poles, at 25 cents per pole 1.50(1. (MK) Value of young growth during tliirty years 15, 000, 000 110,388,000 Less depreciation in value during thirty years cau.sed by rot, windfalls, etc - 4,447,220 Total 105,940,780 LEiBERG.] PRIEST RIVER RESERVE 251 SUMMARY. Estimnte of nvailabJe sound limber. Feet. . Total amount of standing merchantable timber 4, 833, 600, 000 Young growth less than 110 years old, from 8 to 16 inches in diameter, about 65 per cent, or 3, 141, 840, 000 Second and old growths over 110 years old and 16 inches in diameter, about 35 per cent, or 1,691,760,000 Total 4, 833, 600, 000 Solid young growth, about 40 per cent, or 1, 256, 736, 000 Young growth mixed with old and second growths, about60 per cent, or. 1, 885, 104, 000 Total young growth 3, 141, 840, 000 Accessible solid young growth, about 60 per cent, or 754, 041, 600 Accessible young growth mixed with second and old growths, about 70 per cent, or 1,319,572,800 Accessible young growth 2, 073, 614, 400 Accessible old and second growths, about 80 per cent, or 1, 353, 408, 000 Total accessible timber, about 70.9 per cent, or 3, 427, 022, 400 Amounts that may be safely cut from the accessible places with due regard to the strength of the forest. Young growth : Feet. Of solid growth, about 50 per cent, or 377,020,800 In mixed old and second growths none. Total young growth 377,020,800 Old and second growths: Of old growth, reckoned at 20 per cent, about 80 per cent, or 270, 681, 600 Of second growth, reckoned at 80 per cent, about 30 per cent, or. 406, 022, 400 Total old and second growths 676, 704, 000 Total available merchantable timber 1, 053, 724, 800 Cord wood and fencing material are excluded from above estimates. Fencing material is an uncertain factor and cord wood has no other value in the reserve than the labor expended upon it. Aijricultural lands. Acres. Fork of Upper Priest River (Gold Creek) 300 North end of Upper Priest Lake 280 North end of Lower Priest Lake 200 Upper Granite Creek 500 Reeder Creek 1^ 030 Kalispel Creek 100 Bear Creek 350 Soldier Creek 200 Medly Creek 140 South end of Priest Lake 2.'i0 Junction of East and Priest rivers 425 Big Creek 160 252 FOREST RESERVES. AcreB. Lower Priest River above rapids 300 Long Creek (Blue Creek) 250 East Pine Creek 50 Lower West Branch of Priest River, including swampy country between the heads of West Branch, Benars, Lamb, and Granite creeks 3,380 Peiid Oreille Valley 1,200 Small creeks (no names) 375 Narrow strips of alder swamps along small creeks, beaver ponds, drainable lakelets, and cranberry bogs 500 Total 9,990 These areas comprise laud more valuable for agricultural thau for forestry purposes. , S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PART VPLXLVI LEGEND AGiu<-ri;ni;Ai.i.AXD I 2,01)1) TO ,i,O0() r),ono 10 lo.ooo 10,000 TO 2SiOOO 25.000 ro 50,000 MAP or PIUKST RI\'KRFORKST RESERAT: SHOWING LAND CLASSIFICATION AND DENSl'lY OF MERCR\NTABL?: TIMlil'-Pv us GEOLOGICALSURVEY NINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PART V PLXL\ LEGEND CKDAll.KNOI.I.MWN SPIMICK, r.\MAll/«K. vviiniU'iNi': AMI.) MERTON HK.MmCK MAP OV 1>IMEST RWY:U FOREST HESEHAT: SH(nVlX(J THE DISTRIBUTION OF ITIE PRINCIPAL TIMBER SPECIES Scale DEPAKTMENT OF THE INTEKIOE-tl. S. GEOLOGICAL SUEVET CHARLES D. WALCOTT, UlKECTOl; THE STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE FOREST RESEPyVES AND ADJACENT TERRITORY GEORG^E B. SXJDA^^ORTH EXTRACT FROM THE TWENTY-FIRST ANNPAL REPORT OF THE SURVEY, 1S99-1900 PAET V, FOREST RESERVES— HEXEY GANXETT. CHIEF OF DIVISION OF GEOGRAPHY AND FORESTRY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1900 STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE FOREST RESERVES, CALIFORNIA, AND ADJACENT TERRITORY GEORGE B. SUDWOKTII CONTENTS, Page. Introduction 505 Boundaries 506 Lake Tahoe Forest Reserve 506 Stanislaus Forest Reserve 506 Territory examined 507 General topographic features 507 Water supply 508 Settlements 508 Industries 509 Mining 509 Grazing 510 Agriculture and agricultural lands 511 Lumbering 512 Timber industries allied to lumbering 513 Forest land 514 General character and distribution of forests 514 Composition of forests 516 Character and distribution of species 517 Lower belt 517 Abundant and important trees 517 Gray pine 517 California rock oak 518 Rare or unimportant trees 518 California white oak 518 California live oak 519 Other species 519 Middle belt 519 Abundant and impoi'tant trees 519 Yellow pine 520 Incense cedar 521 Sugar pine 522 White fir 523 Jeffrey pine 524 Red fir 525 Big tree ' 526 California lilack oak 532 Rare or unimportant trees 532 Canyon live oak 533 Oregon maple 533 Pacific dogwood 533 Black Cottonwood 533 AVhite alder 533 Madroiia 534 Tan-bark oak 534 501 502 CONTENTS. Character and distribution of species — Continued. Middle belt — Continued. Rare or unimportant trees — Continued. Page. California scrub oak .5.'M Short-fiower mahogany .'i:!5 Coffee berry 535 Western chokecherry 535 Pacific plum 535 California torreya 535 Pacific yew 535 Shrubs 536 Upper belt 536 Abundant and important trees 536 Lodgepole pine 536 California red fir 537 Jeffrey pine 538 White fir 538 Eare or unimportant trees 539 Western white pine 539 Black hemlock 539 Western juniper 540 White-bark pine 541 Other species 542 Shrubs 542 Recapitulation 543 Uses and market price of timber 544 Lumber 544 Studding and lagging timber 545 Shake timber , 545 Fencing timber 546 Fuel 546 Standing commercial timber 547 Modification of forests by industries and their effect on reproduction 551 Lumbering and other timber-consuming industries 551 Grazing 552 Forest fires 557 Effect on reproduction and standing timber 557 Origin 559 Precautions against fires 560 Public sentiment toward forest reserves 560 ILLUSTRATIONS, Page. Plate LXXXV. Placerville sheet, California, showing classification of lands. In atlas LXXXVI. Pyramid Peak sheet, California, showing classification of lands In atlas LXXXVII. Jackson sheet, California, showing classification of lands.. In atlas LXXXVIII. Big Trees sheet, California, showing classification of lands. . In atlas LXXXIX. Markleeville sheet, California-Nevada, showing classifica- tion of lands In atlas XC. Dardanelles sheet, California, showing classification of lands In atlas XCI. A, California white oak (Qtiercus douglasii Hook. & Am.), southern Calaveras County. B, A typical wagon road in yellow-pine forest; southwestern section of Stanislaus Forest Reserve 506 XCII. A, Long Barn, a typical road station in yellow-pine belt, North Fork of Tuolumne River. B, Interior of yellow-pine forest on North Fork of Tuolumne River 506 XCIII. A, Jeffrey pine (Pinusjeffreyl "Oreg. Com." ), 4 feet diameter, showing best form as timber trees in yellow-pine belt; headwaters of South Fork of Stanislaus River, Stanislaus Forest Reserve. B, White fir (.4 6 i'm concotor Parry), 4i feet diameter; headwaters of South Fork of Stanislaus River, Stanislaus Forest Reserve 508 XCIV. A, Yellow pine (Pinns ponderosa Laws. ),3 feet diameter; near the Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, west section Stanislaus Forest Reserve. B, Characteristic distribution of yellow pine in forests; east slope of Middle Fork of the Stanislaus River, between Cow Creek and Lily Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve 510 XCV. A, A cattle herder's summer cabin; Bear Meadows, Stan- islaus Forest Reserve. B, California red fir {Abies mag- nifica Murr. ), 39 inches diameter; west slope of the Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, near headwaters of Lily Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve 512 XCVI. A, Sugar pine [Pinus lamhertiana Dougl. ), 50 inches diam- eter; west slope of Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, near headwaters of Cow Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve. B, Characteristic scattered and stunted growth of California red fir, Jeffrey pine, and juniper on high, rocky summits on headwaters of Lily Creek (tributary of Middle Fork of Stanislaus River), Stanislaus Forest Reserve 514 XCVII. A, Canyon of Middle Fork of Stanislaus River at Donalds Flat, looking south from near the mouth of Dardanelles Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve. B, Western juniper {Juniperus occidentalis Hook.), 28 and 30 inches in diam- eter; northwest border Stanislaus Forest Reserve 516 503 504 ILLUSTRATIONS. Paga Plate XCVIII. A, Falls of the Middle Fork of the Stanislaus River at north end of Donalds Flat, Stanis^laus Forest Reserve. B, Tyi>e of Jeffrey pine forest, headwaters of Summit Creek 518 XCIX. A, Incense cedar (JJhocedrua decurrenx Torr. ), 50 inches diameter, showing the effect of annual burning; near Dry Meadows on headwaters of Soaj> Creek (tributary of North Fork of Stanislaus River). B, Trunk of big tree {Si'qiwia gigantea), Tuolumne big-tree grove 520 C. A, Young growth of yellow pine, white fir, and incense cedar killed by surface fires near the mouth of Soap Creek (triV)u- tary North Fork of Stanislaus River) . B, Abundant repro- duction of yellow jjine on Middle Fork of Stanislaus River. 520 CI. A, Sawmill near headwaters of Love Creek. B, Effects of annual surface tires and excessive grazing in preventing all reproduction; headwaters of Jesus Maria Creek 526 CII. A and B, Calaveras big-tree grove 528 cm. A, California black oak (Quercus californka (Torr.) Cooper). B, Best development and maximum density of a mixed forest 530 CIV. A, Band of sheep in yellow-pine forest; near South Fork of Mokelumne River. iJ, Shake-maker's cabin. 530 CV. ^1, Reproduction of California red fir {Abies magnifica Murr.) on gravelly mountain summits near headwaters of Blue Creek. B, Subalpine lake and marshy meadow 532 CVI. A, Forest fire set by lumbermen to burn out a "jam" of tops. B, Interior of yellow -pine forest on sandy bench land ... 534 CVII. .1, South Fork of American River near Bullion Bend, i?. Can- yon of South Fork of American River 536 CVIII. .1, Cascade Lake, looking southwest from north end of lake. B, West slape of Rubicon River Canyon 538 CIX. .1, Little South Gerl(5 Creek at west end of Loon Lake. B, Sugar pine 4 feet diameter, felled by persistent burning. 540 ex. A, A gold miner and his cabin; settled in 1849. B, Com- mon method of hauling yellow-pine logs to sawmills 542 CXI. .4, Waste in liunbering. B, Lower limit of yellow-pine belt 544 CXII. ^, South Fork of Cosumnes River near Coyoteville. B, Dense second growth of yellow jjine 546 CXIII. ^4, Defect in all large incense-cedar timber. 5, Yellow-pine "studding" skidded for hauling to gold mines 548 CXIV. .1, The great quantity of yellow-pine cord wood consumed by large mining plants. Angels Camp. B, Canyon of Coyote Creek, looking north from a point 2 miles south of Vallecito 550 STANISLAUS AXD LAKE TAHOE FOREST RESERVES, CALIFORNIA, AND ADJACENT TERRITORY. By George B. Sudworth. INTRODUCTION. The information presented in this report is based on a personal reconnaissance of the territory, made during- the summer of 1899. The half-tone illustrations are from photographs taken at the same time. The lack of railroad facilities and the insufficient number of stage lines made it necessary to perform the necessary travel on horseback, with an attending pack outfit. Much of the territory examined has, from the value of its mineral and other resources, been long traversed by miners and other transient settlers. As a result the region is penetrated and crossed in certain portions by a number of rough wagon roads (see PI. XCI, B) and innumerable intricate trails. Unfortunately, however, several im- portant wagon roads and trails used by early emigrants have been abandoned and are now so thickly overgrown by forest trees as to be impassable. This fact and the roughness of the country made it difficult to penetrate some parts of the territory studied. The western part of the territory is directly accessible by roads and trails and the country is of such a nature as to allow direct routes, while much of the eastern part can not be reached except by long detours. This is due to the existence of deep, impassable canyons. The territory was traversed by crossing and recrossing from east to west at sufficient intervals to aflord an accurate idea of the composi- tion of the forests and also of the area! and altitudinal distribution of the timber species. In order to make the examination still more com- prehensive, manj' side trips were made into territory lying between the regular routes of travel. General features and the relationships of different forest types were studied from numerous elevations throughout the region. The composition of the various types of forest and the relative abundance of timber and other tree species was deter- mined by careful study and measurements of sample wooded areas. 505 506 FOREST RESERVES. These sample areas were so selected from various parts of coiiiim'rcial forests that it is believed an adequate idea of eoniposition and stand was thus obtained for the entire region examined. About .500 photographs were taken as an integral part of field notes, and also with a view to securing a systematic photographic description of all the forest and related features of the region. A part of these pictures are reproduced for illustration in the present report. liorXDAKIEfS. LAKE TAHOE FOREST RESERVE. The boundaries of this reserve are as follows: Townships eleven (11), twelve (12), and thirteen (13) north, range sixteen (16) east. Mount Diablo ba.se and meridian, California; townships eleven (11), twelve (12), and thirteen (ll-i) north, range sevent<,'en (17) east, and so mnch of township eleven (11) north, range eighteen (18) east, a.s lies west of the .summit of the Sierra Nevada Range of mountains in El Dorado County, California. The area is 218 square miles, or 13H.88.T acres. STANISLAUS FOREST RESERVE. Beginning at the southea.«t corner of township three (3) north, range twenty-four (24) east. Mount Diablo base and meridian, California; thence northerly along the range line to the northeast corner of said township; thence westerly along the town- ship line to the northwest corner of said township; thence northerly along the range line to the township line between townships four (4) and- five (5) north, range twenty-three (23) east; thence easterly along the township line to the southea-st comer of township five (-5) north, range twenty-three (23) east; thence northerly along the range line to the northeast corner of said township; thence westerly along the first (1st) standard parallel north to the southwest corner of township six (6) north, range twenty-two (22) east; thence northerly along the range line between ranges twenty-one (21) and twenty-two (22) east to the northeast corner of town- ship seven (7) north, range twenty-one (21) east; thence westerly along the town- ship line to the northwest corner of said township; thence northerly along the range line to the northeast corner of township eight (8) north, range twenty (20) east; thence westerly along the surveyed and unsurveyed township line between town- ships eight (8) and nine (9) north to the northwest corner of township eight (8) north, range .seventeen (17) east; thence southerly along the range line to the south- ea.«t corner of township eight (8) north, range sixteen (16) ea.«t; thence ea.«terly along the unsurveyed township line to the point for the southeast corner < >f township eight (8) north, range seventeen (17) east; thence southerly along the unsurveyed and surv^eyed range line between ranges seventeen (17) and eighteen (IS) east, sub- ject to the easterly offset on the first (1st) standard parallel north, to the southeast corner of township four (4) north, range seventeen (17) east; thence ea.sterly along the township line to the northea.st corner of township three (3) north, range eighteen (18) east; thence southerly along the range line to the southeast corner of said township; thence easterly along the township line between townships two (2) and three (3) north to the southeast corner of township three (3) north, range twenty- four (24) east, the place of l)eginning. The area is 1,080 square miles, or 691,200 acres. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVE A CALIFORNIA WHITE OAK (QUERCUS DOUGLASII HOOK AND ARN), SOUTHERN CALA- VERAS COUNTY. j: TYPICAL WAGON ROAD IN "lELLOW-PINE FOREST, SOUTHWESTERN SECTION OF STANISLAUS FOREST RESERVE, U S. GEOLOGIC A. LONG BARN, A TYPICAL ROAD STATION IN YELLOW-PINE BELT, NORTH FORK OF TUOLUMNE RIVER B INTERIOR OF YELLOW-PINE FOREST ON NORTH FORK OF TUOLUMNE RIVER. sxiDWORTH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 507 Ti: HRiTOR Y examixp:d. The territoiT oxamined is comprised in the six following atlas sheets of the United States Geological Survey: Big Trees, Pyramid Peak, Placerville, Jackson, Dardanelles, and Markleeville. Practically all of the Lake Tahoe and Stanislaus forest reserves are included in these quadrangles. Roughly estimated, the area of the territory examined amounts to 5,116 square miles, or about 3,270,000 acres. GElSrERAL TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES. This region is representative of the general character of the Sierra Nevada, the high crests of which are reached by a long rise from the broad San Joaquin River Valley. The western liorder of the region ha.s an altitude of about 500 feet, which increases to 10.000 feet and over as the summit is reached. This general slope is made up of rolling, wide valleys and low, soil-covered foothills on the west, while going eastward the valleys grow smaller and the foothills are replaced by high, rocky mountain ranges and peaks. Scattered among these high ranges are a few large subalpine lakes, the principal of which are Lake Tahoe and Fallen Leaf Lake. Cascade, Echo, Blue, Silver, and Loon lakes are important, but much smaller. Most of these lakes are situated in the north-central part of the region examined. Smaller lakes, ponds, and marshes are more or less common among the high mountains (Pis. CV, B. and CVIII, .1). The salient features in the eastern or more mountainous part of the territory are the high peaks known as the Dardanelles, Pyi-amid Peak, Mokelumne Peak, Round Top, Elephants Back. Jacks Peak, Dicks Peak, Moun*' Tallac, and Rubicon Peak. These peaks rise from high, rockv ranges, and have altitudes ranging from 9,000 to 10,400 feet. There are also numerous lesser peaks, i-anging from 8,000 to 9,000 feet in elevation. The common elevation of the mountain valleys and canyon bottoms in the region of these peaks is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. Equally striking features in the general topography of the region are the deep river canyons which traverse the countrj' more or less from northeast to southwest. Five important riv^ers and their numerous tributaries drain the region. Tlie Rubicon River and the North and Middle forks of American River drain the northwestern and northern border of the region, while the South Fork of American River crosses the entire northern part, the headwaters of this stream lying south of Lake Tahoe. The North, Middle, and South forks of Cosumnes River lie mainly in the west-middle portion of this terri- tory, while a few head branches extend eastward about halfway acro.ss the region. The upper main Mokelumne River and its North Fork cut the south half of this region from east to west, and this, with 508 FOREST RESERVES. American River, is the only .stream whicii completely crosses the strip of country studied. Calaveras River drains only the southwestern part, wiiile the North. Middle, and South forks of Stanislaus Ri\'er drain the south-central ar.d southeastern portion of the rejfion. These streams and their larger tributaries are similar in general character. E.vcept for parts of the streams within the west border of the region, the beds of these rivers are rough with huge bowlders and lie in deep gorges, canyons, or narrow valleys (.see Pis. XCVII. .1. and CVII, ^4 and B). At high water the principal rivers in the middle and eastern sections vary from 10 to 20 yards in width, and the main channels of these streams in the western sections are from 25 to 50 jards in width. The depth of water carried during the dry months — August, September, and October— ranges from 3 or -i inches to 1 or 2 feet, while .several of even the larger streams contained no water at all, or only a few pools (.see Pis. CVII, .1 and B, and CXII A). Low water is most common in the western sections of the region. This scarcity of water, or entire lack of it, is, however, partly explained by the fact that numerous large ditches, supplying mining camps and other settlements, take large quantities of water from near the head- waters of all these streams. As a rule, the flow of streams in the high mountain region is verj- rapid, while in the western sections the fall in the streams is much less, and the water flows slowly (.see PI. CXII, ^1). The sides of the canyons are usually rocky and steep, especially in the eastern sections, while in some localities they are pi'ecipitous or almost perpendicular walls of granite rock (see Pis. XCVII. ^1, CVII. B, CVIII. B. and CXIV, B). Where soil is present it is for the most part a light-brown clayey loam. A very striking feature, however, of the eastern and northern sections is that the surface of the mountains is bare granite rock, supporting the tree and other growths in pockets and crevices of the rock, or on small soil-covered rocky benches (see Pis. XCVI, B^ and CVIII. B). WATER SUPPLY. Only a general impression could be gained as to the supply and consumption of water in this region. But it may be .safely stated that the natural supply of water for all purposes is generally adequate dur- ing the dry months. A few localities were found where the local wells, springs, and streams were dry, forcing the settlers to haul water from distant sources. SETTLE3IENTS. Although the territory has been thoroughly explored and long traversed by miners, lumbermen, shake makers, and by sheep herders U. &. GEOLOGtCAL SURVEY A. JEFFREY PINE iPINUS JEFFREYI "OREG, COM " i 4 FEET IN DIAMETER J:. WHITE FIR lABIES CONCOLOR PARRY) 4J FEET IN DIAMETER, Headwaters of South Folk of Stanislaus Rivei, Stir.islaus Forest Reseivc. SVDWORTH] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOK KESEKVES. 509 and cattlemen, there is little permanent settlement except in the south- western and western sections. The principal towns in these sections are Confidence, Columbia. Robinsons Ferrv, Vallecito, Murphy, Sheep Ranch, Mountain Ranch, Lotus, Coloma, Georgetown, Amador, Sut- ter Creek, Angels, San Andreas, Mokelumne Hill, Jackson, and Placerville, the last eight being the largest and most important. Nearly all are situated at ele^^ations between 1,000 and 2,000 feet. The location and permanency of these settlements is determined by the presence and continuance of mining interests. With few excep- tions, the agricultural and horticultural interests of these localities are merely incidental. Throughout the more mountainous teri'itory there are numerous unimportant points called .settlements, which are chietiy temporary lumber "camps," provision stores, toll hou.ses, taverns, and feed sta- tions, or isolated cabins occupied by ti'ansient settlers during the sum- mer months only. Temporary post-offices are located at a few of these mountain points, and are reached b\' rough wagon roads. Sum- mer resorts are maintained at several points on Lake Tahoe for the benefit of tourists. The resorts within the territory examined are Tallac f)ost-ofiice at the southwest extremity of tlie lake, and two other.s — Murphv and Tahoe post-offices — on the west side of Lake Tahoe. Communication with these points and railroad connection at the north end of the lake is maintained b)' small steamers. Land communication with these resorts is only by rough trails. As already stated, the mountain settlements, or most of those at elevations above 3,000 feet, are temporary, being occupied during the summer onh'. This is due to the heavy winter snows, which prevent communication with the lower permanent villages from which the mountain .settlements derive nearlv all provisions and other supplies. \evy few people remain in this snowy region during the winter, the majority leaving l\v the middle or last of October. INDUSTRIES. The principal industries of this territorj^ are, in order of their importance, gold and copper mining, grazing, agriculture and fruit growing, and lumbering and alli(>d timber industries. Mijung is carried on chiefiy in the southern and western .sections, and is concerned mostly with the production of gold. Only three important copper mines were found. These were near Campo Seco and Copperopolis. The largest mining operations are confined to the vicinity of the various towns mentioned as permanent settlements, while a large numl)er of small operations are carried on more or less distant from these places (see PI. CX, A). 510 FOREST KKSKRVES. At present deep-.shaft mininir i.s resorted to almost entirely, and as this reiiuires the use of expensive machinery, it is jxjssihle foi- only large capital to carry on such operations (see PI. CXIV, .1). Placer mining and shallow pocket mining in (juartz are carried on in many localities by individuals whose eijuipment consists of a shovel, pick and sluice or hand drill, and a few sticks of dynamite. With few exceptions, the returns from these forms of mining appear to be small. The thrifty Chinaman, who is satistied with the small but sure daily income from washing the gravel and silt of rivei- l)eds. is the only one of these poorer miners who is improving his condition. The highly profitable placers of the early fifties and sixties appear to be generally exhausted. In all the foothill sections everj'where there is evidence of former extensive mining of this kind, where now there are standing forests of oO-year-old trees. Towns at one time of some importance have disappeared, and their sites are now marked only l)y heaps of gravel, the ruins of log cabins, and crumbling stone chimneys. The larger mining operations of the present time give the principal life to the small towns. They are important to the region also, as they afford a market for the lumber derived from the higher wooded country and for agricultural and other products from the lower hill and plains districts. Owing, however, to the lack of railroad facili- ties, all commodities are freighted long distances by teams and are high priced in proportion to the distance hauled. GRAZING. Grazing is an important industry throughout this region in con- nection with the production of beef, mutton, wool, and butter. The grazing of cattle for beef and the grazing of stock cattle for dairy products are separate industries, and there is also the grazing of sheep and goats. The grazing of beef cattle and sheep is the largest of these industries. With some exceptions sheepmen are not landown- ers, but depend for forage on transiently hired pasturage or, to a greater extent, on the public domain. Cattle raisers are more often owners of ranches in the foothills or \'allevs, where for a portion of the year their stock is cared for. The low valle3's and foothill country of the southern and western sections afford grazing for both stock and beef cattle, and also for sheep during the fall, winter, and spring. About July, however, cattle and sheep are driven for the sununer to ranges in the high mountain regions, from which they ai'e withdrawn by the middle or last part of October. No animals are intentionally left in the moun- tains during winter on account of the deep snow. Most of the cattlemen claim to own large tracts of the mountain land, a portion of which is fenced, but the larger part of the range used by .1. YELLOW PINE iPINUS PONDEROSA LAWS.) 3 FEET IN DIAMETER. Neat Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, west section of Stanislaus Forest Reseive. ^0i% 1— ^- — '. ^ r, ■ — am 7{. CHARACTERISTIC DISTRIBUTION OF YELLOW PINE IN FORESTS. East slope of Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, between Cow Creek and Lily Creek, Stanislaus Foie; SUDWOETH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 511 beef cattle is unfenced forest land. Simple cabins are maintained on the fenced parts of the range and are the headquarters of the riders who, in this exceedingly rough and broken country, are obliged to fol- low the drifting of cattle during the entire summer (see PI. XCV, A). If a careful wat(^h is not kept on the general movement of the cattle, many animals are likely to be missed in the fall round-up. Dairy ranchmen graze their herds entirely within fenced ranges in the higher mountains, always including as much alpine meadow land as possible. The exti'eme precautions taken by dairymen not to lose animals from their herds, even on a fenced range, is illustrated by the fact that every animal wears a bell. The din raised by 300 or 400 of these cattle close to camp at night is not conducive to slumber. The necessity for constantly seeking new pasture makes it impos- sible for sheepmen to maintain headquarters at one point in the moun- tain range longer than a week or two at most, but they graze their flocks over areas within boundaries fixed by common consent, or bj- priority of possession from year to year. The ranges used by sheep- men are usually those not claimed or used by cattlemen, for, although sheep will graze after cattle, the latter will not graze after sheep. On account of this, and also because forage is exceedingly short on all the luifenced mountain i-anges, very bitter feeling exists between cat- tlemen and sheepmen. The latter are constantly encroaching not only on unfenced but also on fenced cattle ranges. When discovered these encroachments are resented, and sometimes result in the destruction of large numbers of sheep and not infrequently in the loss of human life on both sides. AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL LANDS. Agriculture, including also fruit growing, is a relatively small indus- try in this region for the reason that only a small percentage of the total area is a\'ailable for this purpose. As shown by the accompanying maps (Pis. LXXXV-XC), the most extensive tracts of agricultural lands lie near the western and southwestern borders, at elevations of from 500 to 1,500 feet. Small isolated bodies of arable land are found in the nari'ow valleys of the foothills, while still smaller parcels are found throughout the western half of this region at elevations ranging from 2,000 to 3,000 feet. ]\Iost of these small tracts are near mining towns, which afi'ord markets for the fruit and ha}' produced. Unlike the ranchmen of lower elevations, who depend entirely on agriculture or fruit growing, or both combined, many of the ranch- men of the foothills and mountain valleys derive onlv a part of their support from tillage. They resort also to hauling lumber, mining- timber, wood, ore. hay, etc. Wheat hay and barley huy are. the principal forage crops raised. Alfalfa and timothv are raised for hav in the lower broad rivci- val- 512 FOREST RESERVKS. leys, and also in the Carson Valley country, but with these exceptions the hay of this region consists mainly of wheat and barley cut and cured when from one-half to two-thirds ripe. A wild oat (Artnit), which grows verj^ abundantly without cultivation on all the foothills, is extensively cut for hay, but is a poor substitute for the more nutritious wheat and barley. Comparatively little wheat and barley are cut for grain, except in the larger border agricultural districts. The bulk of the grain comes from grain-producing centers west and southwest of this region. The highest altitude at which wheat and barley were seen growing in the mountain valleys.was 5,000 feet, which is exceptionally high, as, for the most part, these grains are not grown above 3,000 feet. Piactically none of these agricultural lands are irrigated, the main grain and hay crops depending entirely on the fall and spring rains. The lack of irrigation water makes it impossible to raise alfalfa and other perennial forage crops, as they can not sur\'ivc the long drought whicli succeeds the spring rains. Crops of this kind were seen only in the lower moist river bottoms near the southwestern border of this region. Fruit growing is not a large industry, and, like the more extensive agricultural operations, is carried on chiefly in the southwestern and western border vallej' and hill country below 1,000 feet elevation. Small fruit ranches are occasionally found in the vicinity of settle- ments as high as 3.500 feet, but usually not above 1,500 feet. The fruits raised are mostly wine grapes, peaches, apricots, almonds, pears, and apples of small size and inferior quality. English walnuts are also raised to a limited extent, and near Coloma and Oimpo Seco a few hundred orange trees were seen in bearing. The quantity of fruit produced is comparatively small, and in some localities is annually growing less and of poorer quality, while a gi'eat many vineyards have been abandoned. Total failures and small and decreasing production are said to be due, howe^'er, to the scanty rain- fall of recent years and the general lack of irrigation water. Large almond orchards in the southwestern hill countiy failed to mature their heavy crops during ISitO on account of lack of rain. LUMBERING. Lumbering is carried on in the south-central and middle districts, and the output of all sawmills is consumed largely at the shaft mines and towns in the vicinity. The following nine sawmills are the princi- pal and largest: Bradford mill, on and near the headwaters of the North Fork of Tuol- umne River; McKay mill, on the headwaters of Love Creek (tribu- tary of North Fork of Stanislaus Riyer); Monucle mill, near the mouth of Moran Creek (tributar}' of above river); Whitmore mill, on the head- A. CATTLE HERDERS SUMMER CABIN, BEAR MEADOWS, STANISLAUS FOREST RESERVE. I!. CALIFORNIA RED FIR lABIES MA West slope of Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, r :-; - INCHES IN DIAMETER. f,f Lily Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve. siDwoRTH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 513 waters of Mill Creek (tributary North Forlv of INlokeluinne River); Banner mill, on the headwaters of Jesu.s Maria Creek (tributary North Fork of Calaveras River), a few miles north of Mountain Ranch; Beeeh mill, near the head of Big Iowa Canyon (tributary to South Fork of American River), IS miles northeast of Placerville; Blair's mill, in Sly Park, on the middle course of Sly Park Creek (tril)utar\- North Fork of Cosumnes River); Chicacola mill, near the headwaters of the South Fork of Cosumnes River; Twelvemile House mill, near the head of Deep Canj'on (tributary of Pilot Creek, a south tiranch of the ]\Iid- dle Fork of American River). The following five sawmills are the smallest and least impoitaiit in the region: Loon Lake Flume Company mill, S miles southwest of Loon Lake on a branch of Little Gerle Creek; McCarty and Bruce mill, near West Point; Barclay mill, '1 miles north of Indian Diggins; Blue Lakes Water Company mill, near the head of Bear River; and a very small mill (owner unknown) 3 miles northeast of Pleasant Valley on Clear Creek. A nearly equal number of abandoned sawmills were found thi'ough- out the regions in which the present active mills are located. Most of these old mills were abandoned for lack of saw timber. The work of these mills dates back from fifteen to twenty years. The active mills have been in operation from one to ten years, and the daily capacity of the larger ones is comparatively greater than those of former times and is from 7,000 to 15,000 feet B. M., while the smaller mills cut from 2,000 to 6,000 feet per day. The period, of activity is from April to November. A common practice of mill operators is to consume all saw timber in a radius from the plant of from 2i to 3 miles, and then move to another site. Logs are hauled to the mills chiefly by two- and four-wheeled trucks (see PI. CX, B),. or occasionally by the combined use of horse tram cars and steel cables and donkey engines. The timber cut is mainly yellow pine. In some localities, however, 25 to 40 per cent of the cut consists of white tir, red fir, sugar pine and Jetfrey pine, the latter, however, passing for yellow pine. Incense cedar is sawed for telephone and telegraph poles. The lumber cut from the other kinds mentioned consists largely of inch boards, planking, and large square timber. All the lum})er manufactured is consumed within the region. TIMBER INDUSTRIES ALLIED TO LUMBERING. There are, in addition to sawmill opi'rations, two other important timber-consuming industries. These are the cutting of round and rived mining timber and shakes. The round timber is extensively used for heavy props in all shaft mining, while the rived material, known as lagging, is used for minor stay work in these mines (see PL. •M (iEOL, PT 5 33 514 KOKKST KESKKVKS. CXIII, B). Tho riving' of shiilvcs. whicii ai'f !i t'oininoii siil)stitiit(' for shingles, is an old and important industry. A very large number of ordinary dwellings and other huildings throughout th(> region are roofed and a great many sided also with this material. The newer buildings of the larger towns, espcH'ially those near railroad eomuiu nieations. are roofed with sawed shingles. Itut prior to the advent of railroads in the foothill region, shakes were the oidy rooting niiiterial used. Round mining timber and lagging are derived entirely from yellow and Jeffrey j)iii(\ while shakes are made almost entirely from sugar ])inr. veliow pine and wiiite fir being seldom used. FOIIEST LAND. Seventy-tive or SO per cent of this region is more or less wooded. In traversing this area fi'om the lowest to the highest" timber line there are three natural divisions which can be made in the forest land. These are: First, a narrow belt of thinly stocked woodland, occupy- ing the foothills and ranging from an elevation of about 500 feet up to about 2,000 feet; second, a ])roader, more or less dense and impor- tant belt of timber forest, extending from about 3,000 feet elevation up to 6,000 feet; third, a belt of open, less important timber forest, ranging from about 6.000 feet elevation up to .s,500 and !t,500 feet. These higher elevations represent the variation of tmiber line. For convenience these divisions uiay be termed the lower, middle, and upper timber belts. The lower or foothill belt merges on the west into rolling grass lands with only ver\' scattered tree growth, forming where this prac- tically disappears an irregular line running in a northwest-southeast direction. Tongues of the lower tree belt extend eastward into the middle belt, forming where they terminate an etjually irregular line. The line of separation Ijetween the middle and ujjper timber belts is similarly intricate. The basis of this separation into timber belts is the more or less regular occurrence of certain timber trees within successive intervals of altitude. The lines of separation are very irregular and not always sharply defined, for there is a greater or less overlapping where the species of adjoining belts come together. But the lines separating these belts are perfectly dLscernible where, for example, the species of the lower l)elt cease, and the species of the next higher belt appcMir. GENEUAL, CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION" OF FORESTS. The general character of the three timber belts which make up the forests of this region is strikingly different. The lower ))elt is rightly termed woodland of little conmiercial value, while the middle })elt is a _1 SUGAR Pll:E PltJUS LAMEERTiArjA DOUGL.) 50 INCHES IN DIAMETER. West slope of Middle Fork of Stanislaus River, near headwaters of Cow Creek, Stanislaus Forest Rese CHARACTERISTIC SCATTERED AND STUNTED GROWTH OF CALIFORNIA RED FIR, JEFFREY PINE, AND JUNIPER. High rocky sumnnits on headwaters of Lily Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve. siuw.>KTH] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 515 true timber forest of the highest commercial value, ))oth on account of the quality and quantity of its timber and also on account of acces- sibility. Covering large watersheds, it is also of great value as protec- tive forest. The upper belt is in part a timber forest, but altogether of less commercial value than the middle section, because of inacces- sibility and the poorer quality and smaller quantity of timber it contains. The greatest value of this high mountain forest lies in the protection it gives to the headwaters of important streams. The lower belt comprises a thinly stocked open forest mostly of oak at the lowest elevations, with a preponderance of scrubby pine at the higher elevations (see PI. XCI, .1). Interspersed throughout this growth are strips of \'alle_y grass land I'anging in size from 100 to 1,000 acres or more. In the southwestern border sections low, broad hills of considerable extent are frequently covered with a dense growth of heath brush. The trees of this belt are usually low, of small diameter, crooked, and much scattered, admitting everywhere a thick growth of annual grasses. The middle timber belt is characteristically coniferous. Pines pre- dominate at the lower elevations, but in the higher sections cedar and fir are miugled with the pines in more or less equal numbers. These trees constitute the principal forest growth and are the commer- cially important features of the belt. As a rule the growth is con- tinuous but rather open (see Pis. XCII, B, and XCIV, B)\ there are, however, areas of considerable extent on broad benches where the forest is dense (see PI. CVI, B). The trees are usuallv of large dimensions. A few small, unimportant broad-leafed trees predominate along streams in the bottoms of canyons, and in some places mingle in extended patches with the general coniferous growth. The upper forest belt is likewise coniferous in character, hut the bulk of this timber is fir, with mingled areas of inferior pines, juniper, and hemlock. The lower elevations, including soil-covered, rocky benches and the muckv borders of subalpine meadows, contain the denser growths, while the bare, rocky, higher elevations have only a very scattered growth of stunted trees (see PI. XCVl, B). The size and quality of the timber in this belt is inferior to that of the middle belt. The tirs are the only large trees in the upper region, and these do not compare in size or value with the pines and tirs of the middle region. 516 FOREST KKSEKVES. COMPOSITIOX OF FOHESTS. Tho following limits of trees show the various species found in the forests of this region. The appearance of a few species in the lists of two separate regions indicates a wide overlapping, which will t)e dis- cussed lat(>r. <_',nnpnsilh,ii ijffuivsl ;,i Liil;,' Tisa i Xiiit. i Wal|i. ,1. CANYON OF MIDDLE FORK OF STANISLAUS RIVER AT DONALDS FLAT. Looking south from near the mouth of Dardanelles Creek, Stanislaus Forest Reserve. l;. WESTERN JUNIPER iJUNIPERUS OCCIDENTALIS HOOK, DIAMETER, Northwest borcfer of Stanislaus Forest Reserve, \H0 30 INCHES IN siDWORTH] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 517 Pacific plum Pruniis subcordata Bcntli. Oregon maple Acer macrophylluiu Pursli. Coffee berry Rhaninus purshiana de C Pacific dogwood Cornuy nuttallii Au DISTUIBUTIOX OF SPECIKS. LOWER BELT. Abundant and Important Trees. Two .species are conspiciiou.s iti thi.s belt and deserve .special notice. The.se are the gray pine and California rock oak. GHAY PINK. The g'ra\- pine is the only pine found in the lower belt, and, together with the California rock oak, forms the conspiciiotis open tree growth on all the dry, gravelly foothills. Its range in altitude is from 500 to 3.000 feet, the region of greatest abundance being between 1,000 and 2.000 feet elevation. This pine shows a marked tendency to stretch beyond its general limits into the middle pine belt. Straggling lines are thus frequently seen extending beyond the main range, and in a few localities detached groups were found well up among the yellow pine of the middle region. The gray pine is in no sense a timber tree. Its form is usually scraggy, with a low, much-branched crown and very little clear trunk; in most cases even the largest trees bear stout limbs nearly to the ground. Thirty to forty j'ears ago this pine is said to have been very abundant, of large size, and to have formed continuous forests of con- siderable density. At the present time, however, the stand is thin and composed chiefly of trees from 10 to 40 feet in height. Occasional old trees, 60 to 80 feet high, are found towering far above the present growth. These are doubtless remnants of the original forest. .The common diameter of this species ranges from 12 to 24 inches, while the occa.sional old trees are from 28 to 37 inches in diameter. 518 FOREST RKSKKVKS. The reproduction of this pine is almndant. Wlicrcvcr sm-facc tires have not oeeurred t're(]uently. seedlings spring up lajjidly and coxcr the driest and rockiest hills and shallow vallc_vs. (CALIFORNIA HOCK OAK. The only conspicuous broad-leaf tree of this l)elt is the California rocJ< oak (see PI. XCI, ^1). Like the gray pine, it is not a tinil)cr tree. It spreads over the lowest foothills, forming a very open forest, in which .scattered low brush and abundant annual grasses thrive. It occurs on the foothills farther westward and considerably outside of the region under consideration. Within this region the distribution is between 300 and 1.500 feet elevation, and is most common between 500 and 1.000 feet. It is rather exclusive, not generally mingling with other species, and then only with the gray pine. Areas, rather than individuals of the two species, are more often mingled. As a rule the California rock oak occurs on the richer hill soils, occasionalh', as stated, sharing poor gravelly and stony sites with the gray pine. Stragglers of this oak are occasionally found within the middle pine belt, especially in shallow valleys or along small streams. The trunks of the California rock oak are short and crooked, and the crown is much branched (see PI. XCI, A). Diameter measurements range from l-l to 21 inches or. exceptionally, 28 inches; The usual height is 25 to 40 feet. It reproduces itself very persistently, soon taking possession of abandoned oi' long-neglected ranch land within its rang(\ Rare or Unimportant Trees. Most of the other sixteen species found in this l)elt are of sucli rare occurrence and frequently also of such small size as to deserve only a passing notice. Moreover, the majority are restricted to the courses of streams or the narrow bottoms of dry canyons, and so form but a small part of the general tree growth of the region. The most con- spicuous of these species are California white oak and live oak. CALIFORNIA WHITE oAK. The California white oak is a tree similar in form to the California rock oak, but is much larger, and is found only in low. rich ))ottom lands; however, it occurs more extensively to the west of and outside of this region than within it. A number of large trees 2 to 1 feet in diameter were seen on ranches in the vicinitj' of Green Valley and Shingle Springs, at Pleasant Valley, along the Calaveras River at Jenny Lind, and in the valley of Bear Ci'eek (west side of Bear Moun- tains). It is .said to have been once abundant and to have formed open forests in the above localities; but as it occupied the best agricultural siDwi.RTM 1 STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RRSERVES. 519 lands, it lia.s been very largely cleared ofl', and is represented now b}' only a few widely scattered trees, which ranchmen preserve for fuel and shade for stock. Under these conditions there is little repro- duction. A few trees of much smaller size, standing far beyond the main range, probably stragglers, were seen also near Garden Valley, Coloma, Lotus, Indian Diggins, Coyoteville, West Point. Glencoe, Railroad Flat, and Sheep Ranch. CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK. The live oak also has a greater range westward, outside of this region, but it occurs more or less abundantly in the lower tree belt near the western and southwestern borders. It is confined entirelj- to ravines, gulches, and creek canyons, and is most common in the region of Bear Mountains, Gophei- Ridge, and Bald Mountain. It was seen sparingly on creek canyons from Garden Valley southward to the can^'on of the South Fork of American River near Coloma and Lotus. It was seen also on Hangtown and Webber creeks, west of Placer- ville, but disappeared one-half mile east of the latter place. It like- wise appears at Pleasant Valley and southward and in canyons from Indian Diggins westwai'd to Coyoteville and Oleta. It is always a low, bushy, intricately l)ranched tree from ti to 18 inches in diameter and 15 to 25 feet high. It prefers dry, gravelly, and rock\- soils, and is usually widely scattered. OTHER SPECIE.S. The one other white oak of this region is a rare, inconspicuous shrubby species, 6 to 15 feet high, forming occasional dense thickets somewhat similar to those of the Rocky ^Mountain scrul) oak. It was seen only in the vicinity of Volcanoeville and Georgetown. Querciis morehus (so-called "black oak") is a very rare species and previously not known to occur in this region. It is reported only from Lake County, California. It is usually associated with live oak. Single trees 20 to 30 feet high and 10 to 14 inches in diameter were seen on a head branch of Canyon Creek (2 miles northeast of George- town), on the head of Indian Creek (near Plymouth), on Mokelunme River (west of West Point), several times on Bear Creek Canvon (west side of Bear Mountains), on the head of Murray Creek (2 miles north of Mountain Ranch), and on San Domingo Creek (2 to 'P> miles north of Murphj-). MIDDLE BELT. Abundant and Important Trees. The trees of this belt form the greater and most valuable part of the forests of the entire region. Five species, the sugar pine, yellow and Jefl'rey pine, white fir, and incense cedar, make up the forests of great- 520 FOREST kes?:rves. est t'xtciit, iiiid. with the except ion of the rarer and isohited red fir and the giant big-trcc, exceed the dimensions of all other tVces in the regfion. In order of abundance the yellow pine i-anks first, white fir second, incense cedar third, sugar pine fourth, and Jeffrey pine fifth. Of equal or of nearly as great connuercial importance, but of less common occurrence, are the red fir and big-tree. The big-tree attains the greatest dimensions of all cone bearers in this region, and on this account is the most widely renowned of Sierra forest trees. The red fir ranks in size with the other large timber trees of the terri- tory, but has a limited range here and is the least abundant of this group. YKLI.OW PINE. This species is the most abiuidant and the second largest pine in the middle belt. The area over which it grows ranges in altitude from 2,000 to 6,0oo feet, while the region of greatest abundance and best development lies between .3,000 and 5,000 feet elevation. The relative amoiuit of yellow pine in the average stand varies considerably throughout the altitudinal range of the species and also in different localities at the same level. Large areas, however, especially at the middle and lower levels, often contain 80 to 90 per cent of yellow pine. For the most part, however, there is a larger admixture of incense cedar, white fii'. and sugar pine, the yellow pin(^ amounting to from 45 to sometimes 50 per cent. Yellow pine is very adapti\(> in point of soil and situation. It appears to be most common on southern, eastern, and western slopes, but in some localities is found also on northern slopes. It grows vigorously and attains large dimensions in the poorest gravelly days or in the crevices of bare, rocky moimtain or canj-on sides (see PI. CVI, B). The largest and finest timber trees are, however, found growing on rich sandy or gravelly loam benches of from one to several hundred acres in extent on the principal river and lower mountain slopes. Forests of large, mature timber are rarely if ever dense; the single big trees, or groups of three to six trees, stand far apart, forming a char- acteristically open forest (see PI. XCII. B). Younger forests, 40 to 60 years old. are often very dense, but later these become open by natural thinning, excessive shade, and frequent tires. The common height of yellow pine is from 150 to ISO feet, \nt\\ a diameter of from 3 to 4 feet; exceptionally large trees are 185 to 190 feet high and 6 to 7 feet in diameter. The maximum age reached is 500 to 520 ,years, but such trees are rare; the average age is from 250 to 350. The reproduction of this pine is remarkably persistent and abundant wherever it is not checked by fires and the excessive trampling of grazing h.-rds (see Pis. C. B. CI. /?, and CXII. B). The frecjuent open YOUNG GROWTH OF YELLOW PINE, WHITE F SURFACE FIRES, NEAR MOUTI- R. AND INCENSE CEDAR KILLED BY OF SOAP CREEK. 3UNDANT REPRODUCTION OF YELLOW PINE ON MIDDLE FORK OF STANISLAUS RIVER. suDwoRTHl STANISLAUS AND LAKK TAHOp: RESERVES. 521 spiK'e.s in _yellow-pine forests are sooner or later covered with dense patches of young trees., hut these thickets may in turn be swept off bj' fire. So continuous and widespread are these forest fires that, except where some natural barrier or chani'e has prevented, they keep a very large percentage of the seedling growth down. Hence, with the added damage done by other agencies, the general impression is that there is little reproduction of this pine. The forest floor looks clean swept. But the remarkable reproductive power of this pine is seen only in localities where fences and the exclusion of fire have protected the incoming seedlings. Here the stand is so dense as to be quite impenetrable. Cut-over lands thus protected are quickly reclothed with yellow pine. It is believed, therefore, that except in the few localities where this pine has been cleared and kept down the area originally claimed by it is veiy largely the same as that over which the tree now grows. Necessarily the amount of commercial timber has been greatly reduced on an area formerly well stocked, but the power of this pine to hold its own is unsurpassed by any other associated species. INCENSE t'EDAK. Incense cedar is an abundant tree in these forests. It is closely associated with the yellow pine, but reaches a higher altitude, occur- ring at elevations of from 2.000 to 7,000 feet. It is most common between 3.500 and 5.500 feet, where it forms from 20 to 30 per cent of the total stand, while on occasional small areas it may be the pre- vailing tree. Like the yellow pine, the older growth of incense cedar appears in an equally open stand, having to suffer in common with the pine, and with equal resistance, the thinning effects of fire. While following the pine closely in point of soil and slope, the cedar descends, more often than the pine, into the bottoms of canyons, where it .some- times shares the moist, rocky banks of streams with red fir, alder, and Cottonwood. The trunk form of incense cedar is strongly conical, and appears in marked contrast to the cylindrical boles of the yellow pine. The taper of large cedar trunks ranges from -i to sometimes 6 inches in 16 feet. The height attained is small compared with the proportionately greater diameter. Mature trees are 80 to 100 feet in height and -i to 7 feet in diameter. It is a comparatively short-lived tree, as it attains these dimensions in from 100 to 260 years. Old trees are quite gen- erally dead or damaged at the top. and lack the thrifty appeai'ance of younger trees, or even of much older pines and firs on the same ground (see Pis. XCIX, .1, and CXIII, A). The reproduction of incense cedar appears to be equal in abundance to that of the yellow pine, especially in the drier situations; but, as alreadv stated, the cedar is far less abundant as a mature forest tree 522 FOREST RESERVKS. than thf iiiiic. This may ho accounted for. howcvt'i'. hy tlic fart that iM'iiig fragile and disoascd in middle and old age it .succuini)s more rapidlv than the pine to high winds. Otherwise it is difficult to explain the persistent and abundant reproduction of cedar e\ery where visilile in the range of the species. SVCAK riXK. The sugar pine is quite, generally distrilnited throughf)ut the middle timber belt, but is the least common species of pine over the entire area. There is evidence, however, that formerly it was considerably more alnridant than now. and also that it once occupied areas from which it has since nearly or entirely di-sappeared. Undoubtedly the high commercial value of the timber for certain ])urposes and the comparativeh' less prolific reproduction of this pine must largely account for this reduced (luantity of the timber and its total disap- pearance in some localities. The reduction and tiiinnings referred to took place chiefly along the western border of this timber lielt. neari'st to the settled districts. The range of sugar pine in altitude. is from -2.000 to T.ooii feet. Only straggling small trees represent the species at the lower eleva- tion, while stunted, scattered trees are found at the higher elevatio-i. The area of greatest abiuidance and finest growth lies between i-i.ood and 5,000 feet. Sugar pine is nowhere common. At most it forms .) to 20 per cent of the total stand, while in a few exceptionally favor- able situations small areas contain 20 to 25 per cent sugar pine. Large stretches of forest possess only occasional trees. Like the white pines, the sugar pine is partial to north slopes and to the protected coves, broad valleys, and mountain benches of southern and western slopes; it is found also on the summits of low mountains. This pine thrives under practically the same soil couditions as the associated yel- low pine and incense cedar, but it usually seeks the moister and richer sandy or gra\'elly loam soils, where the largest and best -grown trees are found. Of all the pines in this region, it is the tallest and attains the greatest diameter. The usual height is from 180 to 200 feet, and in exceptional trees 210 to 218 feet. Diameter measurements range from 4 to 6 feet, or exceptionally from 6i to S feet. The trunks are clear of branches for 60 to 100 feet and are cylindrical (see PI. XCVI, A). Mature trees are 350 to 400 years old. while the oldest tree found was 515 years. The reproduction of sugar pine is evident throughout the range of the species. Moderate numbers of seedlings and saplings are always to be found in the vicinity of old trees and are usually mingled with the young growth of other timber trees. There is a marked difi'er- ence between the persistent, prolific reproduction of j-ellow pine and the slower, less aggressive advance of the sugar pine. The former sii>«..KrM.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESEKVES. b'lS readih" tsikes possession of dry. exposed sites, while the latter est-ih- lishes itself more often on moister, protected places; and when it takes to drier situations, it Ts usually' after the hardier yellow pine and cedar have gained a foothold. Once established, however, the young- trees show everj' ability to hold their own, being rarely crowded out after they attain a height of 6 to 10 feet. They usually soon pass the more numerous j-ellow pines in height, and remain abo\e them to the end. It is interesting to note, in connection with the limited reproduction of sugar pine, that in addition to the common destruction of seedlings b}- fires, the paucity of its numbers is due also to a comparati\"ely small seed production. Moreover, there is usually a longer interval (two to three jears) between the seed years of sugar pine than between the seeding years of the yellow pine. The latter also produces larger quantities of seed. Besides, the big, rich, nut-like seeds of the sugar pine appear to be eaten more frequently by squirrels than are the smaller yellow-pine seeds. WHITE FIR. Twotirs, the white iir and California red tir, occur in this timber licit. The former is of greater commercial importance, both on account of its more general distribution with the three preceding species and also on account of the superior quality of the timber. This fir is more or less closely associated with yellow pine, incense cedar, and sugar pine in the eastern part of their range, but does not descend to as low an altitude as these species; as a straggler, however, in the upper timber belt it reaches a higher altitude than any of them. It appears in lim- ited numbers at an elevation of about 3,800 feet and extends up to 7,;iOO feet. As a timber tree it is common only from about 4,000 feet up to about 5,500 feet elevation. It grows under practically the same conditions as the jellow pine and incense cedar, but is more partial to the situations and soil chosen by the better growth of sugar pine. As a rule, therefore, it is a closer associate of this species than is either of the above trees. It forms from 30 to 45 per cent of the stand over the area of its greatest abundance. On small benches of southern slopes near the lower limit of its range areas may be found where, alternating with those containing an almost pure growth of yellow pine, the stand of white fir amounts to 50 or 60 per cent; the remain- ing stand is usually ^yellow pine with a small percentage of incense- cedar. The occun-ence of so large a percentage of white fir is, how- ever, not general, but rather exceptional, and is mentioned only to show more fully the character of the species. The trunk form of this fir is cylindrical and straight throughout. The crown is small and narrow, often leaving a clear trunk 40 to SO feet long, or with only an occasional branch. The common height of mature trees is from 175 to 190 feet; in exceptional cases a height of 524 KoHKST KKSKHVKS. :i()() t'i'ct is rcaclii'd. niiiiiictcr moiisiirciiicnts I'aiitj^c from I5A to 5^ feet, or very ('X((']3ti.)iiiilly 7 feet. Large trees are from '.UM) to ;W(i years old. The reproduction of white fii- is very general over the range of the .species, and in .some sections the young growth is exceedingly abun- dant. Thickets of seedlings and saplings are often found covering many acres, and to the exclu.sion of all other .species. In locations where other young growth is present the white fir may compri.se 40 to 60 per cent of the whole growth. The wonder is that mature trees of this species are not more abundant. But when fires occur, the richly resinous foliage and ])ranches of the young growth suffer more severely than tli(^ pines or cedars. Owing to thinness of foliage and less resin, a few oi the latter may e.scape fatal burning; but it is rare that any of a low thicket of firs ever survives even a surface fire. Moreovei', the rather small seed production of this fir, and also the long intervals between seed years, has much to do with the frequency at which burned stock is replaced by reseeding. JEFFRFA' PINE. As a commercial tree this pine need not be separated from the yel- low pine, as th(^ timber of both is practically the same. Lumbermen and woodmen readily distinguish the two trees, but the lumber of both passes for yellow pine. Without referring to the botanical status of Jeffrey pine as a distinct species or, as some would have it. a variety of yellow pine, the distribution of this tree is interesting. It appears sparingly near the southeastern section of this region at an elevation of 5,000 feet and extends up to 8,500 feet. Between 5.000 and ti.OOO feet it is a large timl)er tree; liut above the latter level it is stunted and of little commercial value. From its marked abundance between rt.r)00 and 8,500 feet this tree appears to belong more properly to the upper timber belt. Its occurrence in the middle belt is little more than strag- gling, at most constituting not more than 5 per cent of the totiil stand. It is, moreover, not generally distributed over the middle belt, appear- ing irregularly and only at wide intervals: while in the upper lu'lt Jeffrey pine is one of the prevailing trees. In its lower range, Jeffrej' pine is as.sociated with yellow pine, sugar pine, and white fir on the richer mountain benches, or on the rich borders of mountain uieadows (.see PI. XCIII, A). In its higher range, Jeffrey pine grows almost entirely in the crevices of granite. It is often much .scattered, but is met everywhere, taking the place of the yellow pine in this high, rocky region (see PI. XCVI, B). When not the sole or principal tree it is mixed with western juniper, silver pine, lodgepole pine, and groups of California red fir. But for the bare, soilless .surface of these rocky sununits. Jeffrey pine would doubtless form forests comparable with those of the yellow pine of lower levels. For wherever in protected hollows or little rocky plateaus disintegrat(Ml rock has formed a .soil simvoRTH] STANIf^LAUS AND LAKE TAHdE RESERVES. 525 cover, den.se stands of Jeffrey pine are always found. The patches of Jeffrey pine seen on the small sandy and gravelly plains among- the high mountains to the west and southwest of Lake Tahoe give splendid illustration of this forest-forming tendency in high altitudes wherever sufficient soil is present. As a timber tree, efeflrey pine reaches a height of 125 to 160 feet or more, with a diameter of 3 to 5 feet. The trunks of these trees are usually straight, cylindrical, and free from branches for 50 to 60 feet. The age of this timber is from 200 to 350 years. Jeffrey pine of the upper tree belt is generally low and stunted, rarely exceeding 40 or 50 feet in height and 2 or 3 feet in diameter. The age of such trees is from 150 to 200 years. Evidently, from the extremely unfavorable conditions under which this tree exists, it is much shorter lived than trees in lower and more protected situations. It suffers considerably from the high winds which sweep over these rocky slopes, as they fr(>quentl_v tear it from its scanty hold in crevices. The reproduction of Jeffrey pine is observable everywhere in the vicinity of old trees in its lower range, but is nowhere abundant. In higher altitudes, however, seedlings and young trees are frequent. Reference has alread\- been made to the thickets of this pine west and southwest of Lake Tahoe, where the full capabilities of the tree are to be seen. It shows the same vigorous and persistent reproduction in high altitudes that yellow pine exhiliits at lower levels. On account of its limited I'ange and sparing occurrence in this belt, the red tir is of only secondary importance as a timber tree. Its origi- nal range here was probably not much greater than now, but evidently considerable large timber, represented now by young trees, was cut out long ago. The present value of red lir depends entirely on its occurrence with other more abundant timber trees with which it mav be prolitaljly lumbered. In has a range in altitude from 2.000 to 5,500 feet. Between 2,000 and 3,000 feet elevation it is inferior in size, widely scattered, and appears chieflv on the steep north slopes of river canyons, while between 3,500 and 5.O00 feet it becomes more abundant and is a large timber tree. From 5,000 to 5,500 feet red tir is much reduced in size and only occurs scattered along rocky river and creek canyons from the water's edge up to 500 or 1,000 feet above. The general distribution of this species is exceedingly irregular and there is little or no connection between the areas of growth. Two localities are worthy of special notice, as thej' include about all the commercial timber found in the entire region. Thej" are located at points 20 to 25 miles northeast and southwest of Placerville. The first area lies to the south and east of Mutton Canyon. The second area lies between Grizzly Flat and Indian Diggins, and is more or less connected by straggling growth with a third small area southeast of Indian Diggins, on Mill Creek (tributary of North Fork of Mokclunmc River). These 526 FOREST RESERVKS. .stations are accessible for lumbering the icd fir witii other tinil)er, while most of thi> other points at which th(> species occurs are iiiaci'es- sible or too remote from pine timber with which it could be linnbered. Where most abundant, red fir is usually associated with sujjfar i)ine, 3'ellow pine, incense cedar, and white tir, in sandv or gravelly loam soils. Here it represents from 2 to 5 per cent of the stand. Ai'eas of one-half to 1 acre may be found, however, where red Hr amounts to 40 per cent or more. The trunks of the best trees are straight, free from branches for 50 to 75 feet, but taper quite rapidly from a widely buttressed base. The height is from 150 to 175 feet, and the diameter is from -4 to 7 feet, while the average age is 850 years. The .scattered growth of red fir is from 75 to 100 feet high and 2 to 3 feet in diam- eter, the trunks generally bearing limbs near the ground. Red fir shows but little reproduction in the region of its be.^t growth, only occasional seedlings or young trees being seen among the greater abundanc'c of pines and cedar. Young growth is much more frequent on the .sides of rocky canyons where the old trees are .scattered. Ked fir, howevei', does not seed frequently, and the forest trees beai' uiuch less seed than the larger crowned trees of the canyon. liKi TUEE (sEyUOI.'V). The big tree is the largest conifei' foiuid in the middle timbci' l)elt. in fact, within the United States. Concerning the general history of this species it may be briefl_v stated that it grows only on the west slope of the Sierra, and is restricted in its distribution here to eleven more or less isolated groves. These groves extend irom the southern border of Placer County southward for a distance of about 260 miles. The elevation of the groves is from 4, GOO to 8,400 feet. The north- ernmost grove is the smalle.st, consisting of only six trees, while the other groves are much larger, comprising from one thousand to sev- eral thousand trees, the southernmost groves being the largest. Most of the groves were discovered between 1841 and 1870. Their exact location, however, and their full extent can hardly be said to be .satis- factorily determined even now. Beginning at the north, the names of these groves are as follows: Bi(j-lree firnvc.s in ( 'iilifornia. North grove. Calaveras or "Maiiiiuoth" grove. Stanislau." or "South Calavera.'^ " grove. Tuolumne grove. Merced grove. Mariposa grove. Fresno grove. Dinky grove. Kings River grove. Kawcah River grove. Tule River groves. .1. SAWMILL NEAR HEADWATERS OF LOVE CREEK. if. EFFECTS OF ANNUAL SURFACE FIRES AND EXCESSIVE GRAZING IN PREVENTING ALL REPRODUCTION, HEADWATERS OF JESUS MARIA CREEK, SII.W..KTH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 521 Two of these, the Calaveras and Stanislaus groves, are included in the territory under consideration. The Calaveras grove is situated at the post-ofiice Big Trees and is the smaller grove. The Stanislaus grove, also called " South,'' or " South Calaveras " grove, is the larger, and is situated about 6 miles southeast of Big Trees, south of the North Fork of the Stanislaus River, and on a high divide between Beaver Creek (on the north) and Griswold Creek (on the south), both tributaries of the above-named river. The elevation of the Calaveras grove is about 4.600 feet, and that of the Stanislaus grove about 5.000 feet. The former occupies 50 acres and contains about 100 ti'ees; while the latter includes about 1.000 acres with 1,880 trees. Historically these two groves appear to be the most widely known, most of the popular literature extant relating to them. The Calaveras groA'e is said to have been the tirst one discovered; but there is con- siderable doubt as to the exact date, and also as to the name of the discoverer. John Bidwell — afterwards candidate for Congress from California — is credited with discovering the grove in 18il, while a more current story is that a hunter, A. T. Dowd, found the grove in 185^. It is not definitely knoWn when the Stanislaus grove was discovered. Man}- of the trees, standing and prostrate, in both groves are named or marked with marble tablets which bear the names of States, distin- guished statesmen, generals, scholars, and other people of note. Seventy-live standing trees of the Calaveras grove are named as follows: yioiii's of hi() tnrx in Cain rerrrx fjrorf, California. Two Sentinels. V. S. Grant, named in 1865. \V. T. Sherman, named in 186.5. .r. B. McPherson, named in 1865. Pride of the Forest, once named The Eagle. Daniel Webster. Phil Sheridan. Mother of the Forest. Three Graces, three trees standing in close line. Henry Clay. Andrew Johnson, named in 1865. Florence Nightingale, once named Nightingale: named in 1S65 by a nephew of the English lady. Bay State. AV. C. Bryant, named in 1865 by a lady, an admirer of the poet. W. H. Seward. Pioneer's Cabin, named from the cabin-like chamlier and chimney formed by its hollow trunk. Pluto's Chimney, hollowed out on one side by fire for 90 feet above ground. Quartette; a cluster of four trees. .\^merica, named in 1865 by a San Francisco lady. California, once called Ada; named in 1865. Broderick, once called Mary; named in 1865. 52S KOKKST KESKRVES. Henry Wiinl Bccclicr. Aliraluuii MiK'nln. once i-iillcd llcniiit. Klilm liiirritt. L'liclo .Sum. Alta (Upper) Califoniia. Vnion. General Waflswortli. The T\vin.«. General Sutter. The trunk divides at .SO feet al)ove firiiiuid and I'nnus Uvo trunk.". Salem Witch. Ixingfellow. Prof. A.sa Gray. Pr. John Torrey. The Trinity; three trees fmni i.ne trunk, tlie circumferenre <t in luinnr of Century .Vs.soeiaticn. of New Ym-k. of which the poet Bryant was ])resid<'nt. John LeConte. Joseph LeConte. Sequoia Queen, ^ Maids of Honor, J Sir Joseph Hooker, named in honor of the English botanist. John Lindley, named in honor of the English botanist who wa.s tlie liist to name and describe the big-tree. Mother and Son; a large and suiall tree together. Old Bachelor. James King of William. Kentucky. The Siamese Twins. Granite State. The Old Republican. General Jackson. Vermont. Empire State; 94 feet in circumference. Old Dominion. George Washington. Uncle Tom's Cabin. The Beauty of the Forest. Several very large tive.s in this groxo liave been blown down and one ha.s been cut down; but the wood being of very lasting eharaetor, the trunks are still in a fair .state of pre.servation and will remain intact for a lontr time. These trees are named as follows: ■A cluster of three, tlie Queen in the center. SUDWORTH.I STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 529 Xaincs of big trim Uoirn iloira in Caliirrnis i/nne, California. Father of the Forest, cut down in 1853. Miner's Cabin, blown down in 1860. Fallen Monarch, fell probably fifty or more years ago. Twenty-five standino- trees in th(> Stanislau.s grove are named a.s follow.s: Xamix of hiij tree's: in Slaninlam groce, California. Columbus. Kew York. Correspondent Fred. Electra. Ohio. Grand Hotel. Smith's Cabin. General Custer. Sir Francis Hucks. Dr. J. W. Dawson. Two Lovers. Massachusetts. General Garfield. Hancock. Grover Cleveland. Mrs. Grover Cleveland. Cyclops. Palace Hotel. Knight of the Forest. The Three Graces. Noah's Ark. The notable fallen tree of this grove i.s Old Goliath. The big tree i.s always as.*;ociated with yellow pine, sugar pine, white fir, and incense cedar, but more commonly with sugar pine and white fir. Clusters of two to four trees are frequent, and often .several of these are found in close proximity, but in general the big tree is much more scattered, and forms from 1 to 3 per cent of the total stand. The forests in which it occurs are somewhat den.ser than elsewhere in the middle timlier belt, a fact which is accoimted for by the exception- ally rich, deep soil and the protected sites where the big tree grows (see PI. CTI, . 1 and B). Conditions elsewhere similar to these are condu- cive to the greatest density of the same pines and fir. which are here associated with the big trees. The big tree of these groves grows on northern, .southern, andwes*' ern slopes of gentle incline, and also in the inclosed broad shallow val- leys. The soil is a deep, rich, .sandy loam, with considerable humus on the lower levels of the tracts. Toward the outskirts of the groves, especiallj' on higher ground, the soil grows poorer and drier, and the 21 GEOL, VT .5 3i 530 FOREST KKSERVKS. big trees grow scarcer, while yellow pine iiiid iiiei'iisc ci'diir l>ecoiTie more eonimon. Frequent fires and extensivt; grazing in the Stiuiisluuw grove have reduced, and in some parts destroyed, tiu^ naturally thiek ground cover of underbrush and herbaceous plants. In the Cala- veras grove, however, the protection from fire and the exclusion of grazing during the last thirty or forty years have preserved in this forest the most perfect ground cover of low woody and herl)aceous plants (see PI. CII). As a result, the top layers of deep humus and earth are moderately moist, even in the driest months; while 100 yards outside, where fires are frequent and the forest land is over- grazed, there is no humus and the soil is dry and dusty. The forest conditions of these two tracts are therefore markedly difl'erent. The Calaveras tract represents, through its long protection, probably the only bit of strictly virgin forest anywhere in the Sierra. The Stan- islaus tract approaches nearest to these conditions of any other body of forest in the region examined. The vigorous undergrowth which persists in parts of this forest, even under the trying conditions of an open stock range, is due almost entirely to the small but continuous flow of water during the dry season. It is evident, therefore, that had this grove been rigidly protected the luxuriousness of its forest growth would have far surpassed that seen at present in the Calaveras grove. The trunk of the big tree has an enormous swell at. the ground. This swell is 2 to 8 feet greater than the diameter at 6 feet from the ground. The trunk above the swell is also rather strongly conical, often showing a decrease in diameter of from (> to 13 inches or more in every It) feet. The length of clear pole varies from 100 to 1 ifc" tliijiiiflfa .^ ^ iiS mivk itil rl : :IM. f ^ kijL. Imil m 11 : i^ I ■•> -lAVife*^-^ ♦--- 1 \ m\ ' 'C:_-.-. -v. •, Wimim:, "<'--. - ^"^ ■ -"■^ 511^ S^W^ ifiV^J^. m jfc^^v gUlj -H ■ ; ' i' J ^i ^ . • -^ ":- ii^^^^mi&s^k^ ■ IM iJ. INTERIOR OF YELLOW-PINE FOREST ON SANDY BENCH LAND. snDwoRTH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 535 to North Fork of Calaveras River) and on San Antonio and Indian Creek (tributaries to Soutli Fork of Calaveras River). SHORT-FLOWER MAHOGANY. The short-tiower mahogany is a rare shrubby tree seen onh' on the south slope of Indian Creek Canyon, near the headwaters, at 3.000 feet elevation. COFFEE BEERY. The eofl'ee berry {Cascara sagrada) is a rather eommon shrub, 4 to () feet high, and occasionally occurs as a slender tree 10 to 20 feet high on dry, gravelly, and rocky slopes and summits, at elevations from 1,500 to 6,000 feet. It is most abundant between 2,500 and 4,000 feet elevation, and is a fre([uent associate of the shrubby man- zanita. WESTERN CHOKECHERRY. The western ehoKecherry is a rare, slender tree seen in the canyon of the South Fork of American River at an elevation of 4,000 feet and also on the north slope of Mokelumne River at 2.500 feet elevation. PACIFIC PLUM. The Pacific plum is also a rare tree of shrubby habit, forming small thickets on dry slopes of canyons at elevations of 3,000 to 4,000 feet. It was seen on the headwaters of Camp Creek (tributaiy of North Fork of Cosumnes River) and at the head of Pioneer Creek (tributary of Sutter Creek). CALIFORNIA TORREYA. This species is exceedingly rare, if it is not the rarest in the region. Only 16 trees were seen. These were in the canyons of tlie following streams: Empire Creek (tributary of South Fork of American River) at 3,500 feet elevation; north slope of South Fork of Mokelumne River at 2,000 to 2,500 feet elevation; San Antonio Creek (tributary of South Fork of Calaveras River) at 2,000 feet elevation, and on South Fork of Webber Creek at 3,000 feet elevation. They are small, straight trees, 10 to 30 feet high, with branches down to the ground, and thrive in the densest shade of yellow pine, cedar, and red fir. A few seedlings were found near one group of trees only. The repro- duction of this species is apparently very limited, owing to the fact that being dicecious only a part of the trees bear fruit; and this, too, is produced sparingly. PACIFIC YEW. The Pacific yew is also comparatively rare and isolated. It occurs in the deepest shade of I'ed fir, white fir, and incense cedar, in moist soil along small streams, and in ravines and narrow coves. Only a 536 FdKKST RKSKRVES. few tnH'S (K'ciii' ill each locality, and these are coniinonly low and widely branched to the iind. The height is from 10 to 20 feet and the diameter is from (i to 10 inches. Moderate reproduction was seen near groups of these trees. The localities in which this species was found are as follows: Vicinity of Mutton Canyon and Deep Canyon (branches of Pilot Creek, a tributary of Rubicon River) at -i.OOO feet elevation; Big Iowa Canyon (tributary of South Fork of American River) at 8.000 feet; headwaters of Sly Park Creek (tributary of North Fork of Cosumnes River) and North Fork of Webber Creek, at 4.000 feet; at 2,500 to 3,000 feet on the headwaters of Cedar Creek (tributary same river); at 3,500 feet on CJlear Creek (tributary of Webber Creek); headwaters of Mill Creek (tributary of North Fork of Mokelumne River) at 3.500 to -i.oOO feet elevation. Besides the trees of this timber belt, there are several large shrubs, of which the manzanita {Arcfosfaj)/i.i//os j)>(nge7is) is the most conspic- uous. It is widely distributed on all dry gravelly slopes at elevations of from 1,500 to 6,000 feet. It grows abundantly in open places among yellow pines, and quickly taktj,s possession of exposed slopes wherever patches of forest have been cut or burned off. Here its stiff harsh stems form almost impenetrable thickets from 6 to 10 feet high. Surface tires repeatedly kill the growth down to the ground, but the roots sprout vigorously and continue to maintain a strong protective cover, which is important on steep slopes. In localities where the ground is not too constantly burned over this chaparral does not exclude the linal but slow recovery of the land by conifers. UPPER BELT. Abundant and Important Trees. The major part of this belt is made up of three conifers — the lodge- pole pine. Jeffrey pine, and California red tir. The white fir is more or less frequent at the lower limit of the belt, but even here must be regarded as a straggler from below. The other conifers and broad- leaf trees of the belt form no considerable part of the forests. Altogether the commercial importance of this forest is small, except at the lower limit, where most of the large timber is found and where also this timber is most easily accessible. LODGEPOLK PINE. This pine is widely distributed between elevations of 0.000 and tt. 300 feet, while the area of greatest abundance lies between 6,000 and 8,500 feet. A few trees, however, were discovered at elevations of 3,500, 4,000, and 5.000 feet. These stations are far distant and in no way connected with the wider range of the species, and must, there- fore, be considered mere outposts. The lodgepole pine occurs most A. SOUTH FORK OF AMERICAN RIVER, NEAR BULLION BEND. •5! 1 i * k^^PNk , /^T^S M g w^^ ^ 1 1 1^ ■ 1 {■^JHJ i;. CANYON OF SOUTH FORK uf AMERICAN RIVER. sinwoRTH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 537 abundantly in pure growth on the margins of mountain meadows. On higher ground it is associated more or less with Jeffrey pine, Cali- fornia red fir, western white pine, and occasionally with black hem- lock, here forming 50 per cent of the stand. The forests of pure growth are rather dense (100-150 trees to the acre), but in mixture on higher, rocky, broken ground the stand is open and often scattered (iO to 50 trees per acre). This tree shows a remarkable adaptation to widely different soil conditions and site. It thrives best in the mea- dow bottoms, but spreads persistently over low rocky ridges and stretches of high granite plateaus, establishing itself everywhere in crevices and pockets. The trunk form is poor, though moderately cj'lindrical, and is altogether much inferior to that produced in the Rocky Mountain range of this species. Except in patches of the densest stand, the trunks bear large limbs down to the ground. The height is from 30 to 80 feet, with diameters ranging from 11 to 39 inches; diameters from 11 to ii-t inches are most common. On the high, wind-swept sites at the upper limits of distribution the trunk becomes very short, in fact the form is reduced to a sprawling shrub under 2 feet in height. The age of the largest trees is from 100 to 150 j-ears. The reproduction of lodgepole pine is everywhere abundant and most persistent. Dense thickets of young trees and seedlings are com- mon wherever there is soil, and are always present in crevices and pockets where the tree occurs on granite. Patches of fire-killed tim- ber are replaced in a few years by reseeding from cones on the dt-ad trees, the cones being rarely destroyed by surface fires. A notable difference between the Sierra and Rocky Mountain form of this tree is that cones of the former usually open and shed their seed during the same year they mature. Mature cones of the Rocky Mountain lodge- pole pine are likely to remain closed for several seasons before opening. CALIFORNIA RED FIR. The California red fir is one of the three conspicuous trees in the upper timber belt, and is also the fir most commonly met with. Although generally distributed, the bulk of this timber occurs in for- ests more or less separate from those of lodgepole and Jeffrey pine. The altitudinal range is between 6,000 and 8,500 feet, and the prevail- ing growth lies between 6,500 and 7,500 feet. Its occurrence at levels between 5,000 and 6,000 feet is straggling. Forests of pure growth are frequent on the soil-covered lava-rock benches on the eastern, south- ern, and western slopes of the larger mountain peaks and ranges. Interspersed with such areas are those with a mixed forest of lodge- pole pine, Jeffrey pine, silver pine, and black hemlock, in which the California red fir forms 40 to 50 per cent of the stand. The forests of pure growth are usuallj- of considerable extent and uniformly so dense as to exclude all undershrubs. In this respect these fir forests are 538 KORKST RESERVES. exceptional for the entire territory, as no other timber tree produces so dense a stsind. The mixed growths are more open. The trunk form of this species at the lower levels of its range is cj-lin- drical, and the shafts are remarkably straight and clear of branches for 40 to t;0 feet or more. At the middle and upper levels of distri- bution the trunks are very conical, short, and invariably strongly curved at the ])ase. This curve in the trunk is traceable, however, to the annual bending of young .seedlings to the ground by heavy falls of snow. After the snow is gone, the young trees are partially straight- ened up by each season's upward growth, but the wide curve in the stem is retained and becomes a marked featui-e in the matuie trunk. The height of this tir is from 80 to 175 feet, with diameters ranging from l;i to upper limit. The age of mature trees is from 250 to 300 years. The reproduction of this fir is exceedingly abundant. The smallest openings made in high tir forests is promptly tilled by seedlings. The shade endurance of seedlings under such conditions is very great. Frequently they remain suppressed for 10 to 20 years and are no more than 2 or 8 feet high. The remarkable capacity of California red tir for re-covering large denuded areas is seen where fire and excessive grazing have left the gravelly soil bare and dusty. Here, if by acci- dent those spots are undisturbed for se\'eral years, this fir springs up in the clos(>st possible stand, and the young trees grow rapidly, reach- ing a height of 8 to 10 feet in five to seven years. Their thrifty, vigor- ous appearance is striking (see PI. XCV, B). Comparatively speaking, this fir is reproduced more plentifully than the white fir. The reasons for this appear to be three — greater seed production, more soil mois- ture, w'hich alone insures full germination of the seed, and less destruction by fire. There is one other advantage which this fir has over the white fir. A smaller percentage of California red-fir seed is eaten by rodents than of white-fir seed, a fact which is accounted for because these animals are far more at)undant in the yellow-pine belt, where the white fir abounds, than in the higher range of the Califor- nia red fir. JEFFREY PINE. This pine has been fully discussed as a tree of limited occurrence in the middle timber belt, where the small production of useful tim- ber gives the tree its only connnercial importance. WHITE FIR. The white fir, which is fully described as a principal species of the middle or yellow-pine timber l)elt, is mentioned in the present connec- U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY A. CASCADE LAKE, LOOKING SOUTHWEST FROM NORTH END OF LAKE. H WEST SLOPE OF RUBICON RIVER CANYON. SUDWOKTH.I STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 539 tion only as a species irregular in its extension into the upper timber belt. It occurs here very sparingly and is usualh' associated only with California red fir. There appears to be great irregularity in the extension of this fir into the upper Ijelt, the extension consisting in isolated trees or small gi'oups. Rare or Unimportant Trees. WESTERN WHITE PINE. Western white pine is rather rare but widely distributed between 6,500 and 9,400 feet elevation, being most f ref(uent between 7,000 and 8,500 feet. It appears as scattered individuals, or at most several trees together, associated with California red fir and black hemlock, or less frequently with k)dgepole pine. In rare instances small areas of mixed forest may contain 5 to 15 per cent. On ^'ery rocky exposed high slopes it is sometimes conspicuous in being about the only straggling tree. The trees are gnarled and twisted in such locations, becoming greatly stunted at the extreme upper limit of distribution. The trees found in the mixed forests of lower levels are generally of good timber form, the trunks being straight, cylindrical, and clear of branches for 30 or 40 feet. The height of such trees is from 100 to 140 feet and the diameter is from 15 to 40 inches. Isolated trees on high exposed slopes are rarely over 50 feet in height, but frequently 30 to 50 inches in diameter, the limbs on these trees extending nearlj^ to the ground. Matui-e trees are 160 to '225 years old. Very little reproduction of the species was observed, although both the forest grown and other trees bear seed plentifully. Only a few scattered seedlings, from 6 inches to 3 feet high, are found near trees in the mixed forests, and still more rarely are seedlings found about trees in the open. The sparse reproduction of this pine is in marked contrast with that of the prolific lodgepole and Jefl'rey pines, and indi- cates the much smaller capacity of this tree to multiply e\en under apparently favorable conditions. But for the very limited supply of this timber, its excellent quality in mixed forests would give the species great commercial importance as a timber tree. BLACK HEMLOCK. Black hemlock is a strictly subalpine tree, confined chieiiy to north- ern slopes at elevations between 6,!»00 and 9,400 feet. It is generally distributed within these limits and associated often with lodgepole pine only, or with western white pine, lodgepole pine, and California red fir; while in its highest range it occurs in small patches by itself, interspersed with those of white-bark pine. The mixed growths of lower levels are usually low, rather thin forests, entirel_y protective in character, largeh' on bare, broken lava rock or granite. Mixed with lodgepole pine it grows also on the mucky borders of subalpine 540 FOKE8T KESEKVES. meadows and lakes (see PI. CV, B). Black hemlock is most abundant between 7,()0() and 8,500 feet elevation. Within this area the hemlock sometimes forms from 10 to 25 per cent of the total stand. At the highest and lowest limits of distribution the occurrence of this species is irregular and at wide intervals. The common trunk form is rather strongly conical and the stem bears branches quite to the ground. A few of the larger trees in protec-ted gulches or on benches are fairly cylindric^al, and the trunks are clear of branches for 20 feet to 30 feet. The trunks are never quite straight, being slightly curved. The height is from 25 to 90 feet, the prevailing height being 30 to 50 feet. Diameter measurements are from 12 to 32 inches, but the latter dimen- sion is rather rare. The age of low timber in open forests on rocky sites is from 80 to 150 years, and that of larger trees in denser growth in protected localities is from 160 to 190 years. The largest trees of the open, exposed forests are often uprooted by high winds, a fact which may account for the general absence of old trees in this type of forest, while large trees in protected localities are less commonly destroyed by storms. Black hemlock is reproduced plentifully throughout the major part of its distribution, the extreme upper limits of range being the excep- tion to this, here showing only occasional reproduction. Numerous small seedlings and patches of young trees 3 to 10 feet high, are present everywhere among the older trees. The old and even half-grown trees bear large crops of cones which yield an abundance of seed, and the high range of the tree on northern slopes usually insures to the fallen seed more prolonged moisture conditions than ai'e available to species prevailing on the dryer southern, eastern, and western slopes. The black hemlock has no commercial value, but is an important concomitant of protective forests on and near the extreme headwaters of the larger streams or their tributaries. WESTERN .TUNIPER. This is a tree of high altitudes and of exposed situations. It is nowhere abundant, but is frequent as a scattered tree on bare granite- rock slopes and low summits between 7,000 and 8,500 feet elevation. On some of the mountain ranges it is more common on southern than on other slopes, yet elsewhere it is found on eastern and western exposures also. The western juniper never forms a close stand. Single trees, or clumps of two or three trees verj' close together, occur at rather wide intervals, at most not averaging more than three trees to the acre (see Pis. XCVI, B, and XCVII, B). Its principal associate is the similarly scattered Jeffrey pine. In the more exposed situations the trees are low and of disproportionately large diameter. The tops are frequently broken l)y storms, Init the trees are so strongly rooted in the crevices of rock that few are ever uprooted. Occasional protected gulches have much taller and better proportioned trees. The A. LITTLE SOUTH GERLE CREEK AT WEST END OF LOON LAKE, ^■g^^^^^^^K^^d^ps^^^^^^^BL ii hi*''^'''f ' tl '^•^ - lEC''; V^^B^H^'' IH 1^ ^' '"'"Si .-■■■ ■■- '**"Si ?!SI^HH^BHHBHiH^lK?^P S. SUGAR PINE 4 FEET IN DIAMETER FELLED BY PERSISTENT BURNINC srcwoRTH] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 541 height growth i.s from 20 to 30 feet, and in rare instances 35 to 40 feet, with diameters from 2 to 4 feet. The trunks are very irregular in form, usually having prominent broad ridges and being widely buttressed at the base. Stout branches are borne nearly down to the ground, leaving little or no clear trunk. The reproduction of this juniper is sparing. l)ut young trees and seedlings are nearly always to be found in numbers quite propor- tionate to the stand of mature trees. There is evidence in this and in the profusion of berries borne that this species holds its own. It is a tree of '^o economic importance, howev, r. and because of its .scattered growth contributes very little to the protective forest cover of the high mountains. WHITE-BARK PIXE. This pine has the most limited range in altitude of any conifer in the upper timber belt, but reaches a higher elevation than any other tree within these limits. It grows among broken bare rocks and in beds of disintegrated granite at elevations between 8,000 and 0,500 feet, forming small patches of stunted and storm-beaten trees with which, except at the upper levels, are interspersed groups and single trees of black hemlock. Western white pine and lodgepole pine. At the upper limits of its distribution the white-bark pine is the only tree and is the one which fixes the timber line for this belt. AVhite-bark pine grows on eastern, southern, and western slopes onl\', showing no tendency to establish itself on contiguous northern slopes, even at points where descent to such locations would seem natural. The largest trees occur at the lowest levels of distribution, while successively smaller trees are met as higher levels are reached. The form of this species found at and near timber line is represented bj^ a sprawling mat of branches lying flat on the rocks: the branches often grow to great length from a trunk less than a foot high. Ti-ees of greater height can not withstand the terrific winds which sweep over these high. 1)are slopes and summits. The trunks of this pine are, for the most part, crooked and twisted or gnarled. Occasional trees on the lower levels are straight, but these still show in their conical trunks the effects of exposure to heavy winds. The usual height of the largest trees is from 8 to 20 feet, with diameters from 14 to 24 inches. "While these short, sturdy trees gen- - erally withstand the tierce winds and the falling and sliding of tons of snow and ice, many trunks are uprooted or torn asunder. The reproduction of white-bark pine is rather scanty. A few .stunted seedlings and young trees can be found near the patches of old trees; but more often seedlings take root under the low protecting branches of the old trees. Those beyond this shelter are so constantly and violently swayed by wind that many of the stems are gradually ground ofi' by rubbing against sharp particles of rock. It is evi- 542 KOEKST RE8KKVES. dent from this diftirulty in .spreading, that the existing patx-hes of this pine have been established after a hard struggle. Most of the repro- diietion being within these groups, the latter long I'emain narrowly eircuMiscribed. OTHER SPKCIES. The rciiiaining trees of the upper belt are so insignificant in size as to deserve only passing notice. All arc practically shrubs, forming low, tangled thic-kets along small streams on the borders of moist meadows, or on the lower edges of timber belts occup3ang steep slopes. In this they are useful adjuncts to the general protective forest cover of high altitudes. The smallest and the least abundant of these species is the dwarf maple found at altitudes between 5,000 and 7,500 feet, and mainly between 6,500 and 7,500 feet. Its slender stems are 3 to 10 feet high, and almost prostrate from the weight of heavj- snows. The aspen is rather widely distributed at elevations between 6,500 and 8,500 feet, only occasional patches occur at 5,000 feet elevation. The small stems are rarel_y over 10 or 15 feet in height, and in the majority of instances the lower part of the trunk is greatly twisted or coiled and nearly pi'ostrate. The bitter cheny forms dense sprawling thickets in local- ities similar to those of the aspen, and is fairly frequent throughout the same range. The bent and semiprostrate stems are 6 to 12 feet high and 2 to 6 inches in diameter. The paper-leaf alder is also a thicket-forming species confined to the uppei' coui'ses of small streams, bogg3^ places, spring heads, and the moist, mucky l)orders of mead- ows.. It occurs at 6,000 feet elevation, but is abundant onh' between 7,000 and S.OOO feet. Besides the small trees just mentioned, there are several shrubs which are conspicuous in forming a low thick chaparral cover on rocky and gravelly summits and slopes between 6,500 and 8,000 feet eleva- tion. This cover is of consideral)le importance as a ground protection, and where abundant prevents the rapid descent of water on steep slopes. It is most abundant among the open and scattered growth of Jeffrey pine, lodgepole pine, and juniper, and with these trees consti- tutes the sole protection of the upper watersheds (see PI. XCVI, B). Large areas of this low cover are freq -.ently killed to the ground by fire, but the roots are almost never injured, so that, if the burning does not recur within two or three sea.sons, the cover is replaced by a crop of new shoots. It is evident in certain parts of these brash-cov- ered areas, that the existence of the shrubs, the roots of which break up the softer rocks, finallv make it easier for timber trees to become established than would otherwise be po.ssible. The most important of these shrubs is the "deer brush'' {Ceanot/ius A. A GOLD MINER AND HIS CABIN, SETTLED IN 1849. THOD OF HAULING YELLOW-PINE LOGS TO SAWMILL. SUDWORTH.j STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 543 jtrostratus Benth.), and a green-leafed manzanita {Arctostaphijlos), com- mon at the lower levels, and Palmer oak (Quercus vaccimifolia Kell.) and chinquapin {Castmiopsis chryxoplnjlla minor de C.). abundant at the higher elevations. RECAPITULATION. Tallin shati'hvj the all'dufUmd range of principaJ Irers in tlic Inun-, middle, and upper timber heltK. LOWER BELT. Gray pine California rock oak MIDDLE BELT. Yellow pine Incense cedar. Sugar pine White fir Jeffrey pine Red fir Big tree Calfornia black oak Canyon live oak Oregon maple Pacific dogwood Black Cottonwood White alder Madrona Tan-bark oak Short-flower mahogany Coffee berry Western chokecherry Pacific plum Pacific yew California torreva VPI'EK KELT. Lodgepole pine California red fir ... . Western white pine . Black hemlock Western juniper White-bark pine . . . . Aspen Feet. 500 to 3, 000 300 to 1,.500 2, 000 to 6, 000 2, 000 to 7, 000 2, 000 to 7, 000 3, 800 to 7, 500 5, 000 to 8, 500 2, 000 to 5, 500 4, 600 to 5, 000 1,500 to 6, 500 1,500 to 6, 000 2, 000 to 4, 500 3, 000 to 5, 000 3, 000 to 6, 500 2, 000 to 5, 000 2, 500 to 4, 000 3, 000 to 5, 000 3,000 1,500 to 6, 000 2, 500 to 4, 000 3, 000 to 4, 000 2, 500 to 4, 000 2, 000 to 3, 000 6, OOI to 9, 300 6, 000 to 8, 500 6, 500 to 9, 400 6, 900 to 9, 400 7, 000 to 8, 500 8, 000 to 9, 500 6, 000 to 8, 500 Fed. 1, 000 to 2, 000 500 to 1.000 3, 000 to 5, 000 3, 500 to 5, 000 3, 000 to 5, 000 4, 000 to 5, 000 6, 500 to 8, 500 3, 500 to 5, 000 3, 500 to 4, 500 3, 000 to 5, 000 4, 000 to 4, 500 2, 500 to 4, 000 6, 000 to 8, 500 6, 500 to 7, 500 7, 000 to 8, 500 7, 000 to 8, 500 54-i FOKKl^T UKSKRVKS. USES AND MAUKKT PRICES OF TIMBER. The tiinher trees of greatest commercial value in this region are tlie yellow pine, .Tetfery pine, sugar pine, white fir, red tir, and incense cedar. These supplj' nearly all of the sawed timi)er and all of tiie round and rived material used. The less important useful trees are the gray pine, live oak, California black oak, lodgepolc pine, and California red fir. Together with several of the above more valuable species, these timber trees supply the fuel, fencing material, and round logs used for buildings. LUMBER. The major part of all sawed luml)er is cut from yellow pine (includ- ing the small amount of available Jeffrey pine). This is supplemented to a considerable extent by sugar pine, white fir, and red fir. A lai'ge proportion of the lumber .sawed consists of inch boards and planking, and to a less extent of large-dimension square timber. High percent- ages of the best grades of clear stock are produced by all these trees. The sugar and yellow pines furnish the greatest quantities of clear luml)er and are u.sed most widely for construction. The excellent quality of yellow pine fits it for the finest interior finish, while its strength and durability make it applicable for general construction. All of the sawed lumber derived from the forests of this ten-itory is consumed here, principally by settlers in the mining and agricul- tural districts, a very small amount being used in the higher wooded regions. This local consumption prevails because without railroad facilities the lumber can not be placed on markets outside this region at prices low enough to compete with larger lumber manufacturers operating in territory served by railroads. The chief uses made of sawed lumber is for general house building in settlements, and also for construction at gold-mining plants, where, with other lumber, con- siderable large square timber is consumed. Very little round timber is used at the present time for houses and other buildings, except for summer cabins in the high mountains. All lumber is hauled by wagon from mills to the various local markets. The length of the haul is from 10 to 25 miles, and the aver- age cost of such transportation is about $5 per 1.000 feet. The price for second-class yellow pine, sugar pine, white tir and red fir lumber at the mills is from $9 to $10 per 1,000 feet, while the price for first-class or clear lumber hauled to the towns and mining camps is from |16 to $23, and dressed clear lumber is worth from $25 to $30 per 1,000 feet. Sawed incen.se-cedar telephone; and telegraph poles are used to a limited extent, and are the most durable poles available in the region. Apparently the diseased condition common in incense-cedar timber (see PI. CXIII, ^1) does not unfit the wood for such purposes, as badly affected .samples were constantly seen doing good service. A. WASTE IN LUMBERING. 11. LOWER LIMIT OF YELLOW-PINE BELT. SLDwoRrii] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOK RESERVES. 545 STUDDING AND LAGGING TIMBER. In addition to suwed tinibor used in mining' operations, large quan- tities of round studding and rived lagging are consumed in deep shaft mining. These materials are derived almost entirely from yellow pine. Studding, which is used for large props, is cut from compara- tively young pine — .50 to 125 years old. The size of studding is 10 to 20 inches in diameter and from 1(3 to 18 feet in length (see PI. CXIII, B). These logs are cut, peeled, skidded, and in order to lighten them are left to dry out for a time before hauling. The first cost of studding is about 50 cents per stick; hauled to the mines (dis- tant 8 to 20 miles) it Ijrings from $1 to $2 per stick. The large quan- tities of this timber used and the difficulty of hauling such heavy material in any but small amounts appears to keep up a lively demand. Lagging timber, a small split or rived prop used extensively in sur- facing mine shafts, is an important commodity. It is derived princi- pallj'^ from mature yellow pine and occasionally from red fir. The pieces are i feet long, 1 to (3 inches wide, and about 2 inches thick. The average price paid for lagging delivered at the mines is about $16 per 1.000 pieces, and the distance hauled is from 10 to IS miles. SHAKE TIMBER. ••.Shakes" are a form of shingle used exclusively in thi.-^ region from an early day for roofing, and to some extent also for weather- boarding (.see Fl. CIV, B). Except in some of the larger settlements near railroad communications, where .sawed shingles can be had. shakes are still in common use. The best shakes are made from sugar pine, which is the timber u.sed most commonly. They are also made from extra clear and straight-grained yellow and Jeflrey pine, and also from white and California red fir; but all are inferior to the sugar pine in wearing cjualities. The sugar pine is preferred also because the tim- ber can be rived more easily and because of the greater length of clear trunk available. For the most part, it is only when sugar pine is not available that other timber is used. Shakes are usuall}' 36 inches long, 5 to 6 inches wide, and from one-fourth to one-half inch thick. Sugar pine of perfect quality for making shakes splits so smoothly that the shakes do not require shaving. The market price of shakes is from §5 to f 7 per 1,000. The widespread and long-continued u.'^e of sugar pine for shakes has resulted in the destruction and waste of much prime timber. Onl)- a very small part, 15 to 20 per cent of each trunk, can be used, for the reason that the straight-grained portion of the trunk is of limited length; and as soon as the gi^ain of shake bolts shows any twisting, the remainder of the tree is abandoned. A common sight throughout the middle timber belt are the huge partly used trunks of sugar pines felled for shakes. All degrees of waste are seen. After felling and a 21 GEOL, FT 5 35 54<) FOREST RESERVES. few trisils iit riviiijif, some trees are found to l)e unfit and t-an not be used at all, while only lid to 4i) feet of other trunks have })een used. This wa.ste of good log timber left to rot seems wanton to the last degree, but in former years had some justification in the fart that necessity alone compelled settlers to use good shakes. Moreover, at that time, when the largest quantities of sugar pine were cut for shakes, there wore few or no sawmills for utilizing the waste timber. There is, however, little excuse at the present time for the contiiuiance of this waste, which is still to be seen in the middle timl)cr belt (see PI. CXI. .1.) FENCING TIMBER. In the inuHcdiate vicinity of the larger settlements fencing is done with sawed pine and fir lumber and oak or incense cedar posts. The majoritv of ranches in the agricultural districts are fenced with barbed wire and rock oak and cedar posts: while in the timbered mountain districts sawed fencing is used only at occasional road stations. Barbed wire and split incense cedar posts and rails are most common in this region. Lodgepole-pine logs are also used in the range of this species for slieep and cattle corrals and oth(>r fencing. In some parts of the yellow-pine and upper timber belt thousands of acres of timber land are fenced for holding cattle by felling the largest trees in a line so as to form a continuous barrier. If skillfully felled, the huge trunks of incen.se cedar, sugar pine, yellow and Jefi'rey pine, white and red fir, form effective and durable fences. However, the millions of feet of prime saw timber destroyed by this method of fencing is strikingly disproportionate to the amount of timber legitimately required to fence the land in the ordinary way. Incen.se-cedar rails and posts are the lightest and most durable of all fencing timbers in this territory, and wherever available are gen- ei'ally used in preference to any other kind. There is a good demand for post timber of this kind throughout the settled districts, but posts are rarely hauled farther than 18 or 20 miles to supply this demand. The extensive use of incen.se cedar posts and rails in the past has resulted in the disappearance of almost all large trees within the above distance from settlements. The species is. however, very persistently reproduced in the.se sections, and if allowed to grow will furnish a continuous supph'. FUEL. The fuel of this territory is very largely wood. Coal is used only in the southern and western border settlements near railroad com- munications. The trees furnishing fuel are chiefly gvAV pine, yellow pine, California black oak. rock oak (" white oak"), highland oak (''live oak"), and California white oak. Red alder is used occasionally, as is al.so red tir and incense cedar. California red fir and lodgepole pine are used to some extent by settlers in the upper timber belt. Gray A. SOUTH FORK OF COSUMNES RIVER, NEAR COYOTEVILLE. .^?v:^^: Esv- . ..f-'-^ ■■»»>' -Kn">" QS^ li DENSE SECOND GROWTH OF YELLOW PINE sHDwuRTH.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHDE RESERVES. 5-47 pine, yellow pine, rock oak, and highland oi- "•live oak'' are exten- sively used for domestic wood, and the latter is most highly prized. Fourteen-inch ""live oak" readily commands the enormous price of $4 and $o per cord at settlements. Four-foot wood of other oaks brings $6 to $7. Gold-mining plants consmiie the greatest quantities of cord- wood, which is derived entirely from gray and yellow pine (see PI. CXIV, A). The wood of these species contains a great deal of tur- pentine, and is therefore considered the best fuel for making steam. Yellow-pine fuel is superior to the gray pine. Large mines consume from 2,000 to 3, .500 cords of 4-foot pine wood annually. The prices paid for this wood delivered at the mines varies from §3 to $Q per cord. The distance hauled is 7 to IS miles. AVith the present demand for pine fuel, yellow-pine woodland on the lower border of the middle timber belt can be profitably managed for cordwood. To be fully productive such woodland needs only pro- tection against tire, and cutting .so regulated that four to six seed trees per acre are left to insure rapid reproduction. Young yellow-pine forests 25 to 50 years old are now cut clean in the region of mining districts, and no seed trees are purposely left. As already shown, how- ever, seed trees or groups are sometimes left by accident, and the cut- over areas are re-covered hj the same pine. The gva.y pine, although far less productive than the yellow pine, could be made to give simi- larly good returns on otherwise barren foothills. STAXDIXG COaOIERCIAIi TniBER. The .standing commercial timber of this territory is pine and fir, and is confined chieflv to the middle timber belt. The lower belt yields no saw timber. Considerable fir lumber could be obtained from the lower levels of the upper belt, but the rough, inaccessible nature of this region is likely to make lumbering in such high alti- tudes unprofitable for some time to come. These forests are not likely to be lumbered until the more valuable timber of the middle belt is severely depleted, and it is believed this can not occur within twenty- five years or more. As already stated in describing the distribution of various timber species, the original area of commercial timber has been considerably reduced by complete clearing. Only a small percentage of such clear- ing has been done for securing agricultural land. The major part of forest land has been cleared by lumbering operations, since which it has been abandoned and more or less recovered by the same lumber species. A still smaller pei-centage of originally well-stocked forest land has been culled. Cuttings of this kind have been confined largely to the immediate vicinity of roadways, where mostly sugar pine has been taken out for shakes. The accompanying maps show the cut-over for(>st land which must be regarded now onlv as wood- 548 FOREST EESERVES. land. The markedly pei-sistciit ri-produetion of yellow pine ana other timber species on these lands indicates, however, that they could be profit;ibly mainfaiincd in forest if protected from lire and conserva- tively mauaired. The timber forests of commercial value contain yellow pine. Jeftrey pine, sugar pine, white fir, red fir, and incense cedar. An examina- tion of the following table will show the percentage of each species found in these forests. For completeness the percentage of stand has been given for a few other species also. The percentages of stand given are based on an extensive study of sample areas selected from repi'esentative parts of the various timber belts.. Table showing the percentage of stand for the principal timber trees, in localities vliere they arc found. Species. Per cent of tola! sUiud. 45 to 50. 5; 30 to 40 on small areas. 5 to 20. 30 to 45. 2 to 5; 40 on small areas. 20 to 30. 1 to 3 on limited areas. 40 to 100. 50 to 100. 5 to 15. 10 to 25. Sugar pino White fir Red fir As a basis for computing the j'ield of timber per acre, the trees on a large number of sample acres were measured. A few of these sam- ple areas are presented in the accompanying tables, a study of which will give an accurate idea of the actual composition and character of the fore.sts. Table 1 shows the number and size of each kind of tree, obtained by actual count and measurement, on sample areas so selected as to fairly represent the stand of timber in all parts of the terri- tor}-. Tal)le 2 gives the same species grouped so as show a compar- ison of dimensions and number of trees of the same species found on the different sample areas. Table 3 gives the average size and average numl^er of difi'erent kinds of trees for all sample areas. The figures derived from these and other measurements are regarded a.s sufiiciently representati\e of the entire timbered area to form a basis for the acre yields given, and also for the estimated total stand of commercial timber. The acre yield of merchantable timber in these regions varies from 2,000 to 50,000 feet B. M., giving an average acre yield of about 20,000 feet for the middle belt, and 3,000 feet for the upper belt. artcr acre). sr Average diameter (inches). Average height (feet). Num- 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 ber of trees. Jeffrey pine ' White flr.... 46. S 46.2 47.3 42.0 36.4 49.8 40.0 62.5 44.8 37.0 49.0 28.2 39.5 34.8 38.1 35.7 27.6 43.9 62.5 51.2 34.6 37.4 35.0 35.5 39.0 40.5 43.7 26.5 27.8 22.5 60.6 39.6 44.0 65.8 55.9 45.2 40.4 53.3 16.7 28.1 21.8 18.8 23.3 42.8 44.1 37.1 37.6 45.4 24.2 35.0 23.4 23.0 35.0 39.2 49.5 27.6 25.6 21.7 37.0 18.0 44.3 4.5.5 40.6 34.2 60.0 41.6 1.50 182 175 161 90 190 172 89 185 168 97 50 176 100 130 158 60 160 190 98 145 16« 139 88 125 187 151 120 127 70 152 145 97 166 147 169 171 160 75 110 122 65 lis 73 146 157 156 164 145 118 70 50 143 1.54 76 48 145 . 62 120 39 87 158 152 90 200 170 White fir ...; 1 Yellow pine. 3 2 Incense ceda J SuKarpine.j- ■icllow- pine. Incense cede. 19 Sugar pine.. ....j.... 1 White fir ... 1 '"! Incense cede. California bl Yellow pine . Incense ceda I 1 8 12 11 20 California re. White fir .... Lodgepole pi White fir.... Sugar pine .. 1 1 1 California re 1 White fir.... 1 California rej. 20 Incense cedi Jeffrey pine Sugar pine . ;:; Jeffrey pine . 2 9 n 41 15 Western whi: California rei Black hemloi Jeffrey pine . White ffr...| 1 Incense cedft 8 5 4 Sugar pine . . Jeffrey pine . 1 1 White fir .... 1 White fir.... 4 6 13 Red fir ... Incense ceda; 1 1 1 1 Sugar pine . . California re( .... 2 16 28 4 Lodgepole pi: Western wfiil .... j -••;■ Incense cedai j 1 Red fir White fir.... Sugar pine . . 15 3 4 19 4 6 1 4 Y'ellow pine . Yellow pine . Sugar pme . . Incense cedai ■ Call forma blfl ; Y'ellow pine . ' .... .... Red fir Incense cedai California bl^ . ..!.... 1 2 2 17 9 1 1 5 13 12 5 1 3 Y ellow pine .| Incense ceda ::::;:::! 1 Sugar pme . . 1 1. California bh [ Incense ceda Yellow pine. Red fir 1 Incense cedai ) Sugar pine . . j White fir ....! j 1 ..... ...| - L T"'T-T-| ■""i-"T-r-,--| 21 Table I. Tahle shouting a cojnjyarixmi of the numher, diameter, and height of timber- trees on 22 sample areas (quarter acre). 1 j Number of trees of various diameters on each sample urea (rliameter in inches, breast high). j ATerage Average Num- >"P«J*^ ; area So' T 1 l"l 12 13 14 1 L 15 16 I- 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1 2 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 u 45 46 4- 48 49 so 51 52 63 M 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 01 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 — 73 74 ± 77 78 79 1 80 dlameter height (Inches), (feet). berol trees. -T 1, J. 1 .... 1 46.8 ' 150 46.2 1 IS 47.3 175 42.0 161 36.4 90 49.8 190 ^ f""-"-"-"::::: 1 "i' 'i' 'i' 'i' 'i' 'i' !!!! !!!! !!!'!!!! 1 .-. .;;: i "i'........ ;;;; .... ... 15 8 2 ... T ..-- "i' ""2" ■3' .... .... ;;::e; i' !!!!i.!!: ' "!:i!!!!i!!!! :::: ;;;; ::; ;;;; ■^■; .: i i' i' i' "i .... .... 11 , cedai 2 1 1 "i" V i' 2 'i' 3 40.0 172 19 '■^•; } S 1 .'.. '.'.'.'. .... .... 1 1 V.'.'. .... "i' •J -■-|--j- ::::!::!i:!!! "i' ::::i:::: 62.5 44.8 89 185 4 -^«dar !!!i:!!!i"i'|!!!! ■"1"" i .... 16 ;;:1 ....1!--- ""!.... 37.0 ll» 5 ... .;;;i;;;; 49.0 97 2 i.-^ cedar .... 28.2 50 :jhiL.mJfl black oak .... .... !:!:i:!;! :;;;i;;;; .... 39.5 8 Velkrtrpine o 1 .... .... ..-.1 1 34.8 100 12 iBMOse cedar i i i ........ 38.1 130 aliiomiarcdfir 1 g I ... 2 1 .... ....i 35.7 1.58 20 ffhiWfe / _ I "i' ....1.-.. ....L... 27.6 60 14 Lxlgepole pine < 1 1 ^ ... ^ ^ .... — 1 "2' i i I !!!!l"i' ;;;; .... .... .... .... 43.9 160 8 W^t*fir ,1 .... .... 62.5 190 SJgirpiue ■ e \ 51.2 98 4 ln«a=e cedar 1 .... .... 2 1 "i' ""l"!! 34.6 145 47 (iiilomia red fir 9 1 2 1 3 1 ....!.... S7.4 166 20 (iluiefir .... !!!: . 35. 0 139 4 ftlironiia red fir .... ■;;■ 35.6 88 3 Id ctaw cedar 10 — — ■ !!!!!!!! .... ;;;; :;;; 39.0 125 1 Jc5reypine ai|srpine Mrerpine ... ""1:"." ;;;; 40.5 187 2 n .... 1 "1 "{■ "i .... .... "i"]!!!! i .... .... :::: :;;: ;;;; ;;;;i;;;; 43.7 26.5 151 120 9 U ( .... i i :;;; ....!.... 27.8 127 12 \ .... 1 2 .... 3 2 3 1 2 2 - "■:i;;;: 22.6 70 15 1 T 2 1 3 1 2 .... .... "i' ........ ;;;;i;;;; 60.6 152 10 Jearey pine ffhiiefir 11 1 1 39.6 145 s 13 \ .... ;.;.!.... .... 44.0 97 5 laoenseeedar | i ^ 1 .... ;;;;i.... "i 1 "i' 65.8 166 4 \\\ .... .... ;;::;::: .... .... "i — ' — .... ....1....1.. ....1....1... .... ..'.. ....L... .... .... 55.9 45.2 40.4 147 169 171 3 4 6 1 "i' 53.3 160 U 1 ....;;:: 16.7 2 Inceascedar Sosarpine Cilitoniia red fir fe'^ ••••••••■ "UleJi '.'.'.'.'.'..'..'. ^supine Wottpme Moitfine ?WpiBe ffttlK cedar Milomia black oak ftr femse.Mdai 16 17 ;;;; .... .... 4 "i "i' "i" "i' "1 "i' 1 1 "4' .... "i' 3 ■3' 2 "2' 2 1 .... "2' 1 "i' "i .... 3 "i "i .... 1 ;;! "2" "i ■"i "i "i ::;: "i 1 "2 "2 "i 2 .... .... 1 2 .... :;!j!::: !!!:i:!:; :::: .... .... "i :;;; ;;;; ::;:t:;;: ;;;; .... ;;;; 28.1 21.8 18.8 23.8 42.8 44.1 87.1 37.6 45.4 24.2 35.0 23.4 UO 122 115 73 146 157 156 164 145 118 70 2 16 28 4 3 S 15 S 19 4 « 18 "}. "i .}. "i .}. y.! ^ ::: ::!!!::: 23.0 35.0 39.2 50 143 151 1 4 19 "i "i 1 "2 "i "i "2 !!■■ ... "i !!!! 1 49.5 27.6 25.6 21.7 48 M5 62 2 9 g«ie cedar..;;";;;!!"; I » "i ..! "2 "i "2 ' i !!!!'"i'l..' .."A.t 1 1 1 "i ... — ; — ;;;; :;;:';;;; 87.0 18.0 120 39 1 JwJomia biaii'oak 20 !!! 44.3 87 "i "i "i "i 45.6 IS I o, '!■.- "i "3 "i .... 1 3 ;;;; 1"" 40.6 152 i'ji"» pine. .;;:;;;; I 21 "2 "i 1 1 .... 1 31.2 ..- "i .... ;;;;i;;;; CO.O 200 ^^ttdar';;;;;;;;;;;"" I „„ .... 41.6 .5 ,'PiM r ;;;;;;; 1 .... 'L ii 1 i!i ZL _L _ 11 11 11 — 11 ^^^^ '""''"'"'""''"" 11 _^ — \ Lll '. 21 GeoL.Pt. 5— Faces p. 5-iS. I sample areas. Average diameter (inches). Average Num- heiglit ber of (feet), trees. Sp 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Sugar pine... 49.8 44.8 62.5 40.5 65.8 28.1 37.6 35.0 37.0 60.0 42.0 40.0 39.5 45.4 24.2 35.0 25.6 45.5 46.8 39.0 43.7 50.5 65.9 27.6 18.8 26.5 23.3 83.3 44.1 39.2 40.6 46.2 47.3 37.0 35.7 43.9 37.4 39.6 45.2 40.4 37.1 41.6 38.1 34.6 35.0 27.8 21.8 22.5 36.4 62.6 49.0 34.8 51.2 35.5 44.0 15.7 42.8 23.4 49 5 21 7 44 3 190 2 1 185 190 187 186 110 156 118 120 200 161 172 176 164 145 143 145 158 150 125 151 152 147 60 65 120 115 160 146 154 152 182 175 168 158 160 166 145 169 171 157 170 130 145 139 127 122 70 90 89 97 100 98 88 97 75 73 70 . 76 62 87 16 1 1 1 4 :::.;;. 2 1 1 4 2 ::::::::i 3 .. .. 4 1 1 Yellow pine , 2 19 1 8 4 1 19 :::: ::::i 1 4 1 1 17 13 Jeffrey pine. 6 1 9 1 1 18 ....!.... 3 Ludgepole pi .-...1 14 1 28 Western whif 11 4 Red fir , 1 1 1 1 13 2 1 12 White fir .... 1 1 15 ■■ (.. ; 1 3 1 5 ..!.... 20 1 8 i 20 8 ....1.... 4 1 1 6 j 1 15 1 1 3 California re<- 1 11 1 1. 47 ....1.... "■■■i:. 4 "J ___ 1 ... 1 41 j 16 Black hemlo(. Incense ceda]- 15 11 1 4 2 ....!.... 12 1 4 I 3 1 . 5 1 2 1 3 6 , 1... 2 9 1 5 1 :: 34 2 1 90 28.2 i 50 23.0 ' 80 27.6 i 48 18.0 1 39 5 California bla- 7 1 1 1 1 2 j 1 j 1 i 1 1 21 _ .iltiole pine iVdJeni whitt pine . aiHictiWMackook. Table II. Tahle shmring a cninpartsrm nf the number and dimemiom oftlrnber trees of the same species found on differmt sample areas. Number of trees of v s diameters of each species (diameters in inches, breast high). 11 12 18 H 16 16 I 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 2i 3 2 2 3 "i' 1 "i' "i' .... 1 .... 29 SO 81 32 33 34 35 iil Geo!., Pt. 5— Faces p. 548. 61 62 63 64 65 Arerage Koni- height jberof U2 28.2 23.0' tv). Totf.l number of trees. Total number of sample areas. -Werage diameter for total number of trees (inches). Average height for total number of trees (feet). Arerage age (years). s 1 Co CO c- 68 G9 70 VI V2 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 Sugar pine. 1 1 1 1 39 80 29 42 15 34 lo- ng 15 ■73 11 10 8 2 2 4 11 5 1 14 4 47.7 37.9 47.5 23.6 24.9 44.6 41.2 32.0 lo'g 24.5 164.2 158. 0 14.5.0 62. 5 117. 5 153.0 166. 0 132. 6 70.0 85.0 47.0 „— ■i ellow pine 1 380 Jeffrey pine 1 . 260 Lodgepolep AVestern ^vh 135 210 1 White pine 290 California r« ■ 275 Black heml 185 Incense ced 1 1 1.50 California b 190 1 ■"T" 21 Table III. Tallin shmi'ing avei'cuje diameter measurements of various timher sj-iecies for smnple areas (Quarter aav). s diameters on sample I, diameter in incites, breast high. 13 ' 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 i\ Geol.. Pt. .5 — Face,5 p. 548. 49 50 51 62 53 54 55 56 59 CO ei 62 63 CA C5 CG 9 5 158 145 9 « 2 0 117 153 166 132 9 6 86 47 REPORT PART V PL. CX1II B YELLOW-PINE "STUDDING" SKIDDED FOR HAULING TO GOLD MINES. srDw..p.Tn.] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE KESERVES. 549 Following are the statistics of area and estimated stand of timber in each of the six quadrangles examined: Land ckisttitication in PUirn-riHe r/uaflranifli; C'aliforiiiK. Square miles. Cultivable lands 178 Lands covered with chaparral 317 Grazing lands 2 Burned lands 5 Cut lands, restocking with timber 122 Culled lands 162 Virgin timber. 152 T(3tal 938 The total stand of timber upon this «juadrangle is estimated at 1,600 million feet B. M. The average stand of tim})er per acre on the tim- bered land, including the culled land, is S,000 feet B. M. Land ddsxiticatlon in Jackson quadrangle, California. Square miles. Cnltivaljle lands : 373 Lands covered with chaparral 349 Burned lands 23 Cut lands, restocking with timber _ 17.5 Culled lands 18 Total 938 The total stand of timber remaining upon the culled lands is esti- mated at 40 million feet B. M. There is no virgin forest land upon this quadrangle. Jjind liamjicatioti in Pi/ramid Peak quadrangle, California. Square miles. Barren lands (partly chaparral-covered foothills and partly high mountain smnmitsi ■ 110. o Grazing lands 7. 5 Culled lands 148. 0 Lands covered with virgin timber 642. 0 Total land area 908. 0 The total stand of timber upon this quadrangle is estimated at 3,400 million feet B. M., an average of 6,700 feet per acre of timbered land. Land da.'isijicatioii in Big Tree.s ijiiadrangle, California. Square miles'. Cultival)le land 7 Barren lands, consisting in part of cliaparral and in part of rocky summits 164 Grazing lands .' 4 Burned lands 2 Cut lands, restocking 89 Culled lands 104 Lands covered with virgin timber 564 Total 934 550 FOREST KESEKVKS. The totivl .stand of timl)(>r upon the quiidranj^lc is estinuitcd at 3,750 million feet H. M. The average .stand of tinihcred land per aere is 7,700 feet. Jjund clnxiiiticiiliiiii in MarklfevilU; ijiuiilriiKgU-, Oilijuriiin. Scjimre miles. Lands covered with chaparral 318 Grazing land.s 283 Lands covered witli virjriii timber .322 Total land area 923 The total stand of tiinlter upon thi.s (juadrangde i.s estimated at 320 million feet B. M. The average stand per aere of timbered lands is 1,500 feet. Lmid cidsaificdiian in Ddi-ilniifllex (juiulrtnitjlf, Ciitiforniii. s<]uaro miU'S. Chaparral-coverei 1 lands? 240 Grazing lands .39 Lands covered with virgin timber Ii59 Total - 938 The total stand of timber upon the quadrangle is estimated at 3.000 million feet B. M.. giving an average stand per aere of 7,100 feet. The total stand of timber upon these six (juadrangles is estimated at 12.110 million feet B. M. Of the total area of Stanislaus Re.serve — 1.080 .square mile.s — 924 square mile.s were included in this examination. Of this area, the lands are classified as follows: Land classiticalion in Slanislans /icwrrc, Cnlifornia. Square miles. Barren, consisting mainly of high, rocky lands 251. 0 Grazing lands 32. 5 Timlsered lands 640. .5 Ti ilal - 924. 0 The total stand of timber upon this area is estimated at 2,000 million feet B. M.. giving an average stand per acre of 5.000 feet. Of the total area of Lake Tahoe Reserve — 213 square miles — 193.5 square miles were examined. The following is the classification of these lands: Land i-ldssitiraiion in Lake Talioe JReseri-e, California. .Square miles. Barren, consisting of hinh, rocky summits 58. 0 Grazing lands 3. 0 Culled 3.0 Timbered lands , 129. 5 Total 193. 0 The total stand of timber upon this area is estimated at 322.5 million feet B. M. The average stand per acre is nearly 3,000 feet. .1. LARGE MINIMG PLANT AT ANGELS CAMP. SHOWING THE GREAT QUANTITY OF YELLOW-PINE CORD WOOD CONSUMED. E. CANYON OF COYOTE CREEK, LOOKING NORTH FROM A POINl 2 MILES SOUTH OF VALLECITO. sri>«<>itTii.l STANISLAl'S AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 551 Ttf:DUCTI01^ AJXD MODIFICATIOX OF FORESTS BY VARIOUS IXDUSTRIES AXD THEIR EFFECT OIV REPRODUCTIOX. LUMBERING AND OTHER TIMBER-CONSUMING INDUSTRIES. The hirycst sireas of forest hincl hiive l)een donuded and cut over for saw timber and mining' timber. Altogether, shake making has also made large inroads on the prime sugar pine. As this pine occurs in mixture only, the more extensive cutting for shakes — sometimes tak- ing the sugar pine clean — ha.s resulted in only a thinning of the orig- inal forest. The enormous amount of timber wasted by shake-makers has already been referred to. Naturally, the constant demand, from an early date, for shake timber has carried this industry over a large part of the middle timber belt. The major part of this cutting has, however, been carried on along and near the principal wagon roads. Occasional transient settlements were formed in regions of the largest supply of sugar pine, and continued for a number of years, but with the failure of timber these settlements were moved to other points. Squaw Hollow was originally a shake makers' settlement of con- siderable size, but has long since disappeared, along with its once abundant supply of sugar pine. It was situated between the Calaveras and Stanislaus big-tree groves. Unlike the cuttings for .sawmills, those for shake making commonly left small trees, and occasional large trees unfit for riving on account of a too twi.sted grain. As a result, with few exceptions, the forests cut over by shake makers have not been deprived of seed trees, and there has been acontinued reproduction of sugar pine (see PI. XCVl. A). But the cutting for lumber and mining timber has been quite dif- ferent. Considerable areas have been stripped, as shown in the accom- panying maps (Pis. LXXXV-XC. in atlas). As a consequence of clear- ing, the reproduction of all the species removed has been prevented or retarded to a great extent. With the subsequent ravages of fire, some cut-over lands have remained in a denuded state for many years, and are still in this condition. Moreover, the proportions of the original composition have been materially changed, because, even under the same circumstances, all the tree species concerned i>,re not equally per- sistent in reproducing themselves. The sugar pine is the least so. The yellow pine, incense cedar, and white fir are persistent species, and are the first to come back to denuded lands; and the proportion in which they form the second growth varies according to the nesirness and abundance of seed trees of each kind. I'^nder all circumstances the yellow pine will return in the largest proportion, while the sugar pine, originallv a considerable part of the forest, is likely to be the last to come back and may require many years to establish its former propoi'tion of stand in the forest. Conservative cutting for sawmills, in place of the prevailing method of stripping the land, would not disturl) the advantageous proportions 552 KORKST RESERVES. of iiiixtiirc i)i'('sciit 111 forests not yet luniltcrcd. Proxision could tlicn be iiuule for the reiJi'oduction of all useful tiinlxT trees. The method of liiniborin tire may consume the scant litter in a desultory sort of advance, but if fanned by a stitf breeze the flames usually reacli the branches and scoiH'h the close-standing" crowns. This usually kills even the 40 or ;')(• year old trees. The instiinces in this region where large timber has been killed out- right by surface fires are comparati\'ely I'are. Two cases only were found, and are shown on the accompanying map (see Pi. LXXXVIII, in atla.s). One of these ))urns involved less than an acre, and the other included several hundred acres. They are exceptional cases, and the killing of the trees is accounted for by the fact that long protection from fire and from all but cattle grazing had resulted in the accumulation of much fallen timber, considerable humus in depressions and on benches, and a dense undergrowth of brush and seedlings. The fires l)urned deep enough to badly injui'e the surface roots, which resulted in the subsequent death of the timl)er. The most serious and widespread injuiy to mature timber caused by surface fires is in the gradual hollowing out from year to year of the •green trunks near the base. The extent of this damag(> is very great. In the middle or main timber belt it is scarceh' possible 'to rind a tree trunk not blackened by fire, and from oO to 76 per cent of the trees have fire scars burrowed out in the green wood (sec Pis. XCII, B; XCIV, A; XCIX, A, and CII, A). The.se scars are from a few inches to 15 or 20 feet long and from 6 inches to 2 feet wide. Fre- quently also the trunks are scorched for 30 to 60 feet above the scar. Burning in the scar continues more or less from year to year, and results in felling the tive (see PI. CIX, B). The cause of this peculiar damage is due primarily to the presence of resin on the bark, while the persistence of the burning is due to the resin on the surface of the fire scar. In the first place, the bark of many trees is punctured by woodpeckei's in search of l)orers, which are especially i^lentiful in 3'ellow pine. A great many sugar pines also have been chipped by shake makers to test the straightness of the grain. Quantities of resin exude from these wounds and smear the trunks down to the ground. Surface fires ignite the inflammable resin, and it burns fiercely, deepening the chip marks and burrowing into the green wood wherever woodpeckers have exposed even the smallest surface. The green wood is so thoroughly charged with resin at the points of injury that the fire persists for a long time, heating the wood to a depth of several inches. After the fire has ceased a congestion of resin follows at this point, and during the next season or two more resin is exuded and smears the scar and adjoining parts. The next fire burrows in deeper. Others follow from time to time, each burn- ing with greater vehemence,, until at last the trunk becomes a thin suDwop.TH] STANISLAUS AND LAKE TAHOE RESERVES. 559 shell and the tree falls. The rapidity and persistence with which these fires burn in the screen wood of trunks is almost inconceivable. After the lire has burned well into the trunk the heat produced is very intense, drying out the moisture and drawing out the abundant resin to feed the flames. The pines are damaged more severely at each burning than are the much less resinous firs and incense cedar. Being most persistent in resinous woods, this type of fire is confined chiefly- to the middle pine belt I'egion. The amount of destruction wrought by trunk fires is difficult to estimate, but involves appro.vimately from 1 to 5 per cent of the total stand. It is difficult, also, to determine how many attacks the trees endure before succumbing. The amount burned each time is exceed- ingly irregular, as are also the periods at which the timber takes fire. Strangely enough, trees with half burned ofl' trunks, and some even more severely damaged, show no signs of declining vigor. Such trees fruit freely and appear vigorous to the last. ORIGIN OF FOREST FIRES. The habitual dryness of this region during the summer renders it most susceptible to fire, and therefore the greatest care needs to be taken to prevent very frequent occurrence of fires. The origin of a large number of forest fires has already been referred to under the heading Reduction and modification of forests Ijy various industries and their effect on reproduction. The causes there described were determined by actual observations, and are believed to account iov the majority of fires occurring in the timber belts of this region. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that the people carrying on grazing, milling, etc.. have occasion to use fire in forested regions more than any other class of settlers or sojourners. Sheep herders are campers, and, in addition to carelessness with camp fires, find it to their interest to deliberately set fires under certain con- ditions. Cattlemen are summer settlers in the forests and have some interest in the suppression of fires through the fact that they maintain fences and rude buildings which would be endangered by careless- ness M'ith fire. Moreover, the burning of brush and fallen timber are r-areh' of the same advantage to these men as to the sheepmen. Cattle are not herded as are sheep in feeding, but allowed to roam at large; and they feed from the tallest brush without difficulty, and otherwise give the ranger little trouble except to see that they do not wander ofl' the range. Milling operations arc productive of fires through carelessness. Jams of tops are frequentlj' set on fire by loggers to open Ijlockaded roads or ways. These tires usually escape and do damage elsewhere. The use of imperfect spark arresters on donkey logging engines is also a source of manv tires. A serious tire from this cause was wit- 560 FOREST RESERVES. nessod in timber iieiir tlic lioiidwiit(M-s of Love Creek, where :i eonsid- enihle quantity of staiidiiiJ Ht b LRV-E^'-cvfk^i ; ^"' u,,l i , 1 .,., .--- '^U.:^u ^ %■ Colorado . Hill S 0: -A. ,N I "i^/ll A H-Thompison. Geographer, EM. Douglas, Topographer in charge Triangtjlation by H. L.C, Feusier Topograpny by R.H. Chapman Surveyed in 1889 I DardeneUes } Scale i2Foob Henry Gannett, Geographer in charge Land classification by Geo. B, Sudwonth Contour inter\*al 100 feet PLATE XC TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT PART V I^.ND CLASSIFICATION AND DENSITY iF STANDING TIMBER CALIFORNIA DARDANELLES QUADRANGLE LEGEND H 1 Graiino land ( '^ '^'"-^ ^1^) "^^'^^Cii^-j^^f^^ -^ 1 M.T.'liiuUnblPlimt.cr N HI to 1(1,000 feel Bit hjuitable timber ill(>J5.(XK)reetB-M ^913 R.U,Goode>eographer in chaige. Trianguiation by H-EC-Feusier. Topo§raphy by R.MMc.Kee and R.B, Marshal ^Survsy.dlr 1891-96. c Henry Gannell, Geographer in charge Land classification by Geo.B.Sudworth m ^ JAH 2 3 1978 JAW '^ ^ *^'- AGRICULTURE FORESTRY LIBRARY \:mx — i — ^H> • FDF^ESTRY AGRICULTURE L13RARY