B 3 DflS ED2

LONDON

WALTON AND MABERLY,

UPPER GOWER STREET & IVY LANE.

Price Eighteenpence.

IWUtY '

EDITED BY

DIONYSIUS LARDNEE, D.C.L.,

Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London.

ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS OX WOOD.
VOL. X.

LONDON:
WALTON AND MABERLT,

UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.

1856.

IOAN STACK

tOKDOX :
BRADCVRY AND EVANS, PRINTERS. WHITKFRIARS.

V, 10

CONTENTS.

THE BEE.

ITS CHARACTER AND MANNERS.

PAGE

CHAP. I. 1. Moral suggested by economy of nature. 2. Antiquity
of apiarian researches Hebrew scriptures Aristomachus
Philiscus Aristotle Virgil. 3. Modern observers. 4. Huber.
5. His servant Burn ens curious history of his blindness.
6. His wife and son. 7. Pursuit of his researches. 8. Structure
of insects. 9. Plan of their anatomy. 10. Hymenoptera. 11.
Varieties of bees. 12. Hive-bee. 13. The queen her numerous
suitors. 14. Her chastity and fidelity. 15. Her fertility. 16.
Her first laying. 17. Royal eggs. 18. Royal chamber. 19.
Effect of her postponement of her nuptials. 20. The drones.
21. The workers. 22. Structure and members of the bee.
23. Mouth and appendages. 24. Use of proboscis. 25. Struc-
ture of tongue. 26. Honey-bag. 27. Stomach. 28. Antennae.
29. Wings. 30. Legs. 31. Feet. 32. Sting. 33. Organs
of fecundation and reproduction. 34. Number of eggs produced
by the queen ......... 1

CHAP. II. 35. This fecundity not anomalous. 36. Bee architec-
ture. 37. Social condition of a people indicated by their buildings.
38. This test applied to the bee. 39. Individual and col-
lective habits. 40. Solitary bees. 41. Structure of their nests.
42. Situation of nests. 43. Anthidium manicatum. 44.
Expedient for keeping nest warm. 45. Clothier bee. 46. Car-
penter bee. 47. Mason bee. 48. Expedient to protect the nest.
49. Upholsterer bee. 50. Hangings and carpets of her rooms.
51. Leaf-cutter bees. 52. Method of making their nest. 53.
Process of cutting the leaves. 54. Hive-bee. 55. Structure of
the comb. 56. Double layer of cells. 57. Pyramidal bases.
58. Illustrative figures. 59. Single cells. 60. Combination of
cells. 61. Great advantages of hexagonal form. 62. Economy

384

iv CONTENTS.

PAC

of space and material. 63. Solidity of structure. 64. Geome-
trical problem of the comb solved. 65. Expedient to secure the
sides and bases of the cells 1

CHAP. III. 66. Drone cells and worker cells. 67. Store cells.
68. Construction of combs. 69. Wax-makers also produce
honey. 70. First operation of the wax-makers. 71. Process of
the foundress. 72. Kneading the wax. 73. Formation of first
wall. 74. Correction of mistakes. 75. Dimensions of first wall.
76. Operations of the nurses. 77. Bases of cells. 78. Wax-
makers resume their work Completion of pyramidal bases.
79. Pyramidal partition. 80. Formation of cells. 81-82.
Arrangement of combs. 83. Sides not parallel. 84. Process
not merely mechanical. 85-86. Process of construction. 87.
Labour successive. 88. Dimensions of cells. 89. Their number.
90. Bee-bread. 91. Pap for young. 92. Food adapted to
age. 93. Transformation. 94. Humble-bees females. 95.
Their nursing workers. 96. Transformation. 97. How the
temperature of the cocoons is maintained. 98. Anecdote related
by Huber. 99. Remarkable care of the nurses. 100. Heat
evolved in respiration by the hive-bee. 101. Cross alleys con-
necting the streets. 102. First laying of the queen in Spring.
103. Her royal suite. 104. The eggs

CHAP. IV. 105. The larvae. 106. Transformation of worker nymph.
107. Worker cells. 108. Treatment of a young worker.
109. Of the drone. 110. Drone nymph. 111. Koyal cell and
nymph. 112. Its treatment. 113. Honey cells. 114. Pas-
turage progress of work. 115. Construction of comb. 116.
Remarkable organisation. 117. Magnitude and weight of bees.
118. Character of queen. 119. Royal jealousy. 120. Prin-
ciple of primogeniture. 121. Assassination of rivals. 122.
Battle of virgin queens. 123 . Reason of mutual hostility. 124.
Result of the battles. 125. Battle of married queens. 126.
Battle of a virgin with a fertile queen. 127. Sentinels at the
gates Treatment of an intruding queen. 128. Remarkable
proceeding of bees that have lost their queen effect of her
restoration. 129. Effect of the introduction of a new queen.
130. Policy of the hive. 131. Operations at the beginning of a

CHAP. V. 132. Change of state of the queen after laying. 133.
First swarm led by her majesty. 134. Proceedings of the first
swarm. 135. Loyalty and fidelity to the queen remarkable
experiment of Dr. Warder. 136. Interregnum after swarming.
137. The princess royal. 138. Second swarm its effects.
139. Successive swarms. 140. Production of a factitious queen

CONTENTS. v

PAGE

Schirach's discovery. 141. Factitious queens dumb. 142.
Factitious princesses allowed to engage in mortal combat.' 143.
Homage only offered to a married queen. 144. Respect shown
to her corpse. 145. Functions of the drones. 146. Their treat-
ment. 147. Their massacre described by Huber. 148. Case
in which no massacre took place. 149. Character and habits of
the workers. 150. Products of their labours. 151. Process of
work. 152. Honey and pollen nectar and ambrosia. 153. Bee
the priest who celebrates the marriage of the flowers. 154.
Why the bee devotes each excursion to one species of flower.
155. Unloading the workers. 156. Storage of spare provision.
157. Radius of the circle of excursion . . . .65

CHAP. VI. 158. How they fly straight back to the hive. manner of
discovering the nests of wild bees in New England. 159. Average
number of daily excursions. 160. Bee pasturage transported
to follow it in Egypt and Greece. 161. Neatness of the bee.
162. Its enemies. 163. Death's-head moth. 164. Measures
of defence adopted by Huber. 165. Measures adopted by the
bees. 166. Wars between different hives. 167. Demolition of
the defensive works when not needed. 168. Senses of insects.
169. Senses of the bee. 170. Smell. 171. Experiments of
Huber. 172. Remarkable tenacity of memory. 173. Experi-
ments to ascertain the organ of smell. 174. Repugnancy of the
bee for its own poison. 175. Their method of ventilating the
hive. 176. Their antipathy against certain persons. 177.
Against red and black-haired persons. 178. Difference of opi-
nion as to the functions of the antennae. 179. Organs of taste.
180. Hearing : curious anecdotes. 181. Vision. 182. Pecu-
liar character of queens ; royal old maid. 183. Drone-bearing
queens. 184. Change of their instincts and manners. 185.
Their treatment by the workers. 186. Nuptials never celebrated
in the hive. 187. Effect of amputating the royal antennae . . 81

CHAP. VII. 188. Apiculture. 189. Suitable localities and pas-
turage. 190. The Apiary. 191. Out-door Apiary. 192. Bee-
house. 193. Cabinet bee-houses. 194. Form and material of
hives. 195. Village hive. 196. English hive. 197. Various
forms of hives. 198. Various forms of bee-boxes. 199. Bee-
dress and other accessories of apiculture. 200. Purchase of
hives. 201. Honey harvest. 202. Honey and wax important
articles of commerce. 203. Various sorts of wild honey.
204. Periodical migration of bees. 205. Poisoned honey. 206.
Maladies of bees. 207. Curious case of abortive brood. 208.
Superstition of bee cultivators. 209. Enemies of bees. 210.
Attacks of bees when provoked. 211. Anecdote of Mungo Park.
212. Anecdote of Thorley. 213. Bee wars. 214. Curious
case of a battle 97

vi CONTENTS.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

PAGE

CHAP. I. 1. Inventors of steam navigation uneducated. 2. First
steamers on the Hudson and the Clyde. 3. Sea-going steamers
due to British engineers. 4. Progress of steam navigation from
1812 to 1837. 5. Atlantic steamers projected. 6. Abstract
possibility of the voyage could not be doubted. 7. The voyage
had been already made by two steamers. 8. Projects advanced
in 1836. 9. Discussion at Bristol in 1837. 10. Report of
Dr. Lardner's speech in the Times of 27th August, showing the
falsehood of the report*that he pronounced the project imprac-
ticable. 11. Atlantic steam voyage advocated by Dr. Lardner in
1836-7. 12. The practical results of the various projects prove
the truth of his predictions. 13. The Cunard steamers, esta-
blished on the conditions suggested by him, were alone successful.
14. Voyages of these steamers. 15. Other lines established.
16. Probable extension of steam navigation to the general
purposes of commerce. 17. Auxiliary steam-power the most
probable means of accomplishing this. 18. Advantages of sub-
aqueous propulsion. 19. Means of realising them. 20. Im-
proved adaptation of steam-power to vessels of war required.
21. Mercantile steam-marine available for national defence. 22.
Principle of marine engine. 23. Propellers. 24. Paddle-wheels
and screws. 25. Arrangement of paddle-wheels. 26. Paddle-
shaft. 27. General arrangement of marine engine . . . 113

CHAP. II. 28. Arrangement of-the engine-room ; governor and other
regulating partsvomitted. 29. Flue boilers and tubular boilers.
30. Construction of flue boilers. 31. Tubular boilers. 32.
Indications of engineering ignorance. 33. Number and dimen-
sions of tubes. 34. Incrustation produced by sea water. 35.
Hydrometric indicators. 37. Thermometric indicators. 38.
Seaward's contrivance. 39. Brine-pumps. 40. Blowing out.
41. To detach the scale. 42. Effect of corrosion. 43. Efficiency
and economy of fuel. 44. Coating the boiler and pipes with felt. 129

CHAP. III. 45. Economy of fuel. 46. Width and depth of furnace.
47. Advantage of expansive action. 48. Siamese engines.
49. Simplified arrangements. 50. Number and position of cylin-
ders. 51. Proportion of diameter to stroke. 52. Oscillating
engines. 53. Engines of the " Peterhoff." 54. Propellers. 55.
The common paddle-wheels. 56. Feathering paddles. 57.
Morgan' s'paddle- wheel. 58. Field's split paddles. 59. American
paddle-wheel. 60. Practical objections to feathering paddles.
61. Proportion of marine engines. 62. Submerged propellers.
63. Their disadvantages. 64. Screw-propellers. 65. Pitch and
slip. 66. Manner of mounting screw-propellers. 67. Their
various forms 145

CONTENTS. vii

PAGE

CHAP. IV. 68. Effect of the screw-propeller reaction on the vessel.
69. Their best practical proportion. 70. Their varying pitch.
71. Relative advantages of screw and paddle-wheels. 72.
Their effects in long sea-voyages. 73. Experiments with the
"Rattler" and "Alecto." 74. These experiments continued.
75. Admiralty experiments. -76. Government report. 77.
Application of the screw in the commercial marine. 78. Appli-
cation of screw to mail-vessels.79. Geared and direct action.
80. Geared-engines. 81. Fairbairn's internal gearing. 82.
Subdivision of the power among several cylinders. 83. Protec-
tion from shot. 84. Regulation of slides. 85. Relative speed
of screw and vessel. 86. Engines of the "Great Britain." 87.
Engines of the "Arrogant" and "Encounter." 88. Various
forms of screw-engines. 89. Cross action of H. M.'s screw steam-
packet "Plumper." 90. Auxiliary steam-power. 91. Effect of
screw- vessels head to wind. 92. Nominal and real horse-power.
93. Official tables of the strength of the steam-navy . . 161

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING, AND THE AURORA
BOREALIS.

1. Atmospheric electricity. 2. The air generally charged with
positive electricity. 3. Subject to variations and exceptions.
4. Diurnal variations of electrical intensity. Observations
of Quetelet. 5. Irregular and local variations and excep-
tions. 6. Variations dependent on the season and weather. 7.
Methods of observing atmospheric electricity. 8. Methods of
ascertaining the electrical condition of the higher strata. 9.
Remarkable experiments of Romas, 1757. 10. Electrical change
of clouds varies. 11. Thunder and lightning. 12. Form and
extent of the flash of lightning. 13. Cause of the rolling of
thunder. 14. Affected by the zigzag form of lightning. 15.
Affected by the varying distance of different parts of the flash .
16. Affected by echo and by interference. 17. Inductive action of
clouds on the earth. 18. Formation of Fulgurites explained.
19. Accidents of the surface which attract lightning. 20. Light-
ning follows conductors by preference its effects on buildings.
21. Conductors or paratonnerres for the protection of buildings.
22. Effects of lightning on bodies which it strikes. 23. The
Aurora Borealis the phenomena unexplained. 24. General
character of the meteor. 25. Description of auroras seen in the
polar regions by M. Lottin . . . . . . .177

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

CHAP. I. 1. Prospects of improvement in motive power by the appli-
cation of electricity. 2. Example of its practical application in
the workshop of Mons. Froment, mathematical instrument maker
in Paris. 3. Mention of it in Catalogue of the Great Exhibition

viii CONTENTS.

in Hyde Park. 4. Property of electro-magnets. 5. Alternate
transmission and suspension of the current. 6. How this pro-
duces a moving power. 7. Voltaic piles used by Mons. Froment.
8. Forms x>f his electro-motive machines. 9. Details of their
construction. 10. Regulator applied to them. 11. Their appli-
cation to divide the limbs of philosophical instruments. 12.
Their wonderful self-acting power. 13. Application of electro-
motive power to the telegraph by Mons. Froment. 14. Micro-
scopic writing. 15. Electric clocks . . . . .193

Fig. 54. Uncovered Apiary.

THE BEE.

ITS CHARACTER AND MANNERS.

CHAPTER I.

1. Moral suggested by economy of nature. 2. Antiquity of apiarian
researches Hebrew scriptures Aristomachus Philiscus Aristotle
Virgil. 3. Modern observers. 4. Huber. 5. His servant
Burnens curious history of his blindness. 6. His wife and son.
7. Pursuit of his researches. 8. Structure of insects. 9. Plan of
their anatomy. 10. Hymenoptera. 11. Varieties of bees. 12.
Hive bee. 13. The queen her numerous suitors. 14. Her chastity
and fidelity. 15. Her fertility. 16. Her first laying. 17. Royal
eggs. 18. Royal chamber. 19. Effect of her postponement of her
nuptials. 20. The drones. 21. The workers. 22. Structure and
members of the bee. 23. Mouth and appendages. 24. Use of
proboscis. 25. Structure of tongue. 26. Honey-bag. 27. Stomach.
28. Antennae. 29. Wings. 30. Legs. 31. Feet. 32. Sting.
33. Organs of fecundation and reproduction. 34. Number of eggs
produced by the queen.

1. NATURE offers herself to human contemplation under no
aspects so fascinating, as those in which she renders manifest the
provident care of the Creator for the well-being of his creatures.
The spectacle of infinite wisdom directing infinite power to bound-

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. B 1

No. 118.

THE BEE.

less beneficence, never fails to excite in well-constituted minds the
most pleasurable and grateful emotions. Such views of Nature
are the truest and purest fountains of that reverential love,
which so eminently distinguishes the Christian from all other
forms of worship.

In the notices from time to time given in this series of the
stupendous works of creation presented in the heavens, and of
the benevolent care displayed in the supply of the physical wants
of the inhabitants, not of the terrestrial globe * alone, but also of
the planets,t which, in company with the earth, revolve round
the sun, numerous examples of such beneficence are presented.
The vast dimensions of these works, as well as the great import-
ance and the countless numbers of the objects to be provided for,
leading the mind naturally to expect a system of provisions esta-
blished on a corresponding scale, their display, while it excites
equal admiration and reverence, produces a less intense sentiment
of wonder. When, however, we turn our view from the vast
works of creation exhibited in the celestial regions, to the more
minute ones presented in the organised world around us, our
wonder is as much excited as our admiration, at beholding the
same traces of Divine care in the economy of an insect, as were
observed in the structure and motions of a planet. There are the
same infinite wisdom and foresight, the same unapproachable
skill, the same boundless goodness directed to the maintenance of
the species and the well-being of the individual, as we have seen
displayed in the provisions for a globe a thousand times larger
than the earth, or for a cluster of worlds millions of times more
numerous than the entire solar system, sun, earth, planets, moons,
and all ! We have thus before us a demonstration that as the
most stupendous works of the universe the expression of whose
dimensions surpasses the powers of arithmetic are not above
Divine control and superintendence, so neither are the most insig-
nificant of creatures whose existence and structure can be made
evident only by the microscope below the same benevolent care.

2. Among the numerous examples, suggestive of reflections
such as these, presented by the insect-world, there is none more
remarkable than the little creature, to the character and economy
of which we shall devote this notice. How true this is, is proved
by the examples of those who, in all ages of the world, have de-
voted their labours to the observation and investigation of its
character and habits. In the Hebrew Scriptures numerous allu-
sions to the bee show that, in those remote times, it had already

* See Tracts on the Earth, Geography, Terrestrial Heat, Ah-, Water, &c.
f See the Planets, are they inhabited ? the Sun, the Moon, the Stellar
Universe, &e.

2

ARISTOTLE VIRGIL HUBEE.

been a subject of attention with the wisest and the best. Pliny
relates that Aristomachus of Soli in Cilicia devoted fifty-eight
years of his life to the study of the bee ; and that Philiscus, the
Thracian, passed so large a part of his time in the woods observing
its habits, that he acquired the title of AGKIUS. Among his
numerous researches in natural history, Aristotle assigned a con-
siderable share to the bee ; and Virgil devoted to it the fourth
book of his Georgics :

' ' Protenus aerii mellis ccelestia dona
Exsequar. Hanc etiara, Maecenas, adspice partenu
Admiranda tibi levium spectacula rerum,
Magnanimosque duces, totiusque ordine gentis
Mores, et studia, et populos, et prselia dicam.
In tenui labor ; at tenuis non gloria, si quern
Numina 10eva sinunt, auditque vocatus Apollo."

G-EORG. IV. 1 7.

' ' The gifts of Heaven my following song pursues,
Aerial honey, and ambrosial dews.
Maecenas, read this other part that sings
Embattled squadrons and advent'rous kings
Their arms, their arts, their manners, I disclose,
And how they war and whence the people rose.
Slight is the subject, but the praise not small
If Heaven assist, and Phcebus hear my call."

DRYDEN.

3. In modern times the bee has been the subject of the obser-
vations and researches of some of the most eminent naturalists,
amongVhom may be mentioned Swammerdam (1670), Maraldi
(1712), Ray, Reaumur (1740), Linnseus, Bennet, Schirach, John
Hunter, Huber father and son, and more recently Kirby, whose
monograph upon the English bees may be regarded as a classic in
natural history.

.4. Among these, the elder Huber stands pre-eminent, not only
for the extent and importance of his contributions to the history of
the insect, but for the remarkable circumstances and difficulties
under which his researches were prosecuted. Visited with the
privation of sight at the early age of seventeen, his observations
were made with the eyes and his experiments performed with the
hands of others ; and, notwithstanding this discouragement and
obstacles which might well have been regarded as insurmountable,
he continued his labours for forty years, during which he made
those discoveries which have conferred upon him such celebrity.

5. Happily for science, Huber, after losing his sight and at the
commencement of his researches, had in his service a domestic,
named Frai^ois Burnens, a native of the Pays de Vaud, in Swit-
zerland. Reading and writing constituted the extent of the

B 2 3

THE BEE.

education of this person ; but nature had bestowed upon him
faculties which, with better opportunities, would have rendered
him an eminent naturalist. Huber commenced by employing him
as a reader.

He read to his master various works on physics, and, among
others, those of Reaumur, in which the admirable observations of
that naturalist on the bee are so clearly and beautifully stated.
Huber soon perceived by the observations and reflections of his
reader, and by the consequences he deduced from what he read,
that he had at his disposition no ordinary person, and resolved to
profit by him. He accordingly procured the means of prosecut-
ing a series of observations on the economy of the bee, with the
aid of the eyes, the hands, and the intelligence of Burnens. All
the observations of Reaumur were first repeated, and the accord-
ance of the phenomena, as described by Burnens, with those
which had been recorded by Reaumur, gave Huber full confi-
dence ; and the master and servant, quitting the beaten path,
entered upon new ground, and during a period of fifteen years,
prosecuted those researches in the natural history and economy of
the bee, which, being committed to writing by the hand of Bur-
nens at the dictation of Huber, were published in one volume
about 1792, in form of letters addressed by Huber to Bonnet.

6. Soon after this, Huber lost his invaluable colleague, for
servant he had long ceased to be. Burnens was recalled by
family ties to his native place, where the personal estimation in
which he was held caused him to be raised to a high position in
the local magistracy.

Previously to this, Huber had the good fortune to consolidate his
domestic happiness by marriage. * ' My separation from my faithful
and zealous Burnens," said Huber, " which was not the least cruel
of the misfortunes with which I was visited, was, however, softened
by the satisfaction which I felt in observing Nature through the eyes
of the being who was dearest to me, and with whom I could com-
mune with pleasure on the most elevated topics. But what more
than all the rest contributed to attach me to natural history, was
the taste manifested by my son for that subject. I explained to
him the results of my observations and researches. He expressed
the regret he felt that labours which would, as it seemed to him,
so deeply interest naturalists should remain buried in my port-
folio. Perceiving, meanwhile, the secret repugnance that T felt
against the task of reducing them to order, he proposed to take
charge of that labour."

7. From that time our great naturalist was again consoled, by
having at his disposal two pair of eyes in place of one. The wife
and the son, animated by a common enthusiasm, and urged by

4

STiiUCTUKE OF INSECTS.

conjugal and filial devotion, more than compensated for the loss
of Burnens ; and the observations and researches were pursued
with unabated zeal, and were finally collected and published in
the second volume, which appeared about 1814, more than twenty
years after the publication of the first.*

8. Since any explanation, however popular and familiar, of the
economy and habits of the bee, must necessarily involve very
frequent references to its structure and organs, it will be con-
venient in the first instance briefly to explain the terms, by which
naturalists have designated its several parts.

The body of insects in general consists of a series of annular
segments, so articulated one to another as to allow more or less
flexibility. It consists of three chief parts, the head, the thorax,
and the abdomen.

The head consists of a simple segment, the thorax of three, and
the abdomen of a greater number, sometimes as many as nine.
Each segment is distinguished by its ventral or inferior, and
dorsal or superior part.

Insects have three pairs of legs, which are inserted in the sides
of the ventral parts of the three thoracic segments of the body ;
and generally two pairs of wings, which are inserted in the sides
of the dorsal parts of the second and third thoracic segments,
counting from the anterior to the posterior part of the body.

A pair of members, called antennce, are inserted in the sides of
the head, varying much in structure in different classes, and
in many, including the bee, have the form of slender and flexible
horns, consisting of many minute pieces articulated one to another.
These are generally presumed to be tactile organs, and are con-
sequently sometimes called feelers.

9. This description will be more easily comprehended by
reference to the annexed diagram, fig. 1, which may be taken
as a general theoretical representation of the structure of an
insect.

As here indicated, the three thoracic segments are distinguished
as the pro-, meso-, and metathorax.

10. Insects have been classified by naturalists according to the
structure of their wings, and the order to which the bee has been
assigned, and of which it is regarded as the type, is the Hymen-
optera, a compound of two Greek words signifying membranaceous
wings.

The section or subsection of the order of Hymenoptera, which
in its economy and peculiar construction differs most from all
other orders of insects, has been designated by Latreille Mellifera,

* " Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles." Paris, 1814.

5

THE BEE.

a Latin word signifying HONEY- GATHERERS ; or Anthophila, a
Greek word signifying FLOWER-LOVERS.

First pair of ^

legs (

First pair of) ....\z

wings j

Second pair ) .
of legs )

- Head

Pro thorax
- Mesothorax

Metathorax

Second pair \ ,\

of wings j

Third pair of \ .
legs.

Abdomen

Tarsus

Fig. 1.

11. How numerous are the varieties of bees may be conceived,
when it is stated that of bees found in Great Britain alone, Kirby
in his Monograph has enumerated 220 species, and other more
recent observers have increased the number to 250. The species,
however, which by its commercial importance, as well as by its
remarkable habits and social organisation, presents the greatest
interest, is the Hive Bee, to which, therefore, we shall chiefly
limit our notice.

12. The Hive bee belongs to what naturalists have denominated
the perfect societies of insects. Each community of these insects
consists of three orders of individuals distinguished by their
number, their organisation, and the respective share they take in
the common labour of the society. These are denominated seve-
rally the queen or sovereign, the males or drones, and the workers ;
the latter consisting of two classes, called the wax- makers and
the nurses. A hive which contains as many as 50000 bees will
have only one queen, and not above 2000 males.

13. The queen who, as her title implies, is the acknowledged
6

QUEEX DRONES WORKERS.

monarch of the hive, is distinguished from her subjects by con-
spicuous personal peculiarities. Her body, fig. 2, is considerably

Fig. 2.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 4.

Queen.

Drone.

Wax-maker.

Fig. 5.

Fig.

Nurse, loaded with pollen.

Drorie in flight, showing
organs of fecundation.

longer than that of any of her subjects ; she is distinguished by a
more measured and majestic gait, by the comparative shortness of
her wings, and the curvature of her sting. Her wings, which are
strong and sinewy, are only half the length of her body, extending
very little beyond the posterior limit of her thorax, while those of
the drones, tig. 3, and the workers, fig. 4, cover the abdomen. Her
legs are destitute of the brushes and baskets with which those of
the workers are furnished. She has no occasion for these instru-
ments of industry, since her exalted station exempts her from
labour, all her wants being munificently provided for by her
subjects. She is distinguished by her colour as much as by her
form, the black of the dorsal part of her body being much brighter
than that of the drones and workers, and the ventral parts and
legs being of dark orange or copper-colour, the hue of the hinder
being deeper than that of the other legs.

The queen, who is the only lady of the hive, enjoys the
privilege of being followed by many hundred suitors in the persons
of the drones. At the early age of two or three days she is mar-
riageable, and it rarely happens that her royal decision is long
postponed ; and, indeed, if she were not favourably disposed for
such an event, the anxiety of her numerous subjects would urge

7

THE BEE.

her to it, for in no human monarchy are the hopes of succession so-
anxiously cherished as in the Empire of the Hive.

14. It must not he imagined, that hecause a lady is thus
domesticated alone with so many hundred lovers, there is any
the least degree of laxity in the morals of the society ; on the con-
trary, although she is absolutely uncontrolled, and is courted
hy so many hundreds, her choice is strictly limited to one. A fine
warm sunny day is selected for the nuptials, which are celebrated
in the air. On the auspicious occasion, her majesty issuing from
the hive followed hy the^nultitude of her suitors, rises in the air,
where she is encircled hy the flight of the candidates for her
favour. Here she makes her selection, but, alas ! the felicity is
brief, for the object of her choice never outlives the wedding-day.
She is, however, not the less faithful to him, and never contracts
a second marriage.

15. Though her majesty is thus left a widowed bride-, in
two days after the celebration of her nuptials and the loss of
her lord, she commences to lay eggs from which a posthumous
progeny of that lord, countless in number, are destined to issue.
Of the hundreds of rejected suitors, a limited number emigrate
with the successive swarms, which from time to time leave the
overpeopled hive. Those which remain, being no longer useful to
the community, become objects of general aversion, and are finally
exterminated by a general massacre, as will presently be more
fully explained.

16. During six or eight weeks the queen constantly lays eggs,,
from which working bees only are destined to issue. Chambers
have been previously prepared for these, suitable to the future
young ones, in form, size, and position, by the workers. In each
of those cells the queen deposits a single egg.

At a later period her majesty begins to lay another kind of egg,
from which males will issue. For these also special chambers
have been provided by the careful workers, of suitable dimen-
sions, being somewhat more roomy than those prepared for
worker-eggs. The number of these male eggs and of the
cells for their reception is incomparably less than those of the
workers ; less, in short, in the proportion in which the drone
class is less numerous than that of the workers in the population
of the hive.

17. In fine, the queen, sensible of her mortality, and more-
over of the approaching state of superabundant population in the
hive, lays a certain small number of royal eggs, from which as
many princesses issue, who are severally destined to be candidates
for the thrones of the colonies which are to emigrate, or to succeed
to the throne of the hive itself, should the queen-mother, as often.

8

ROYAL NUPTIALS.

happens, decide on abdicating and accepting the allegiance of one
or other of the emigrating colonies.

18. Special chambers of exceptional form, position and magni-
tude have been previously prepared for these royal eggs by the
provident workers. In these the princesses are reared and
educated with extraordinary care, being fed with a peculiar food.

19. It is essential to the prosperity of the community, that the
nuptials of the queen should not be postponed to a later period
than the second day of her age, the consequence of such postpone-
ment being that her progeny would consist of a redundancy of
drones. Thus, if the marriage be postponed till she is about a
fortnight old, she will lay as many drone as worker-eggs, and if
it be delayed until her age is three weeks, she will only lay
drone eggs. How great a calamity such events must be in the
apiarian economy will be understood, when it is considered that
in a well-regulated society there ought to be about ten workers
to each drone. The general duration of the life of a queen is
from five to six years.

20. The males or drones, fig. 3, are less than the queen and
larger than the workers, fig. 4. The extremity of the body is
more velvety. The last segment being fringed with hair, extend-
ing over the tail, so as to be visible to the naked eye. They take
no part whatever in the labours of the community, contribute
nothing to the common stock, are idle, slothful, and cowardly, and,
as if to render their extermination more easy to the industrious
part of the population, nature has given them no sting. They make
a louder buzz with their wings in flight, never exercise any in-
dustry, and are destitute of the baskets and other appendages with
which the busy workers collect the materials of honey and wax.

The life of a drone does not exceed a few months, and he
seldom dies a natural death. If he is honoured by the choice of
the queen and elevated to the rank of king-consort, he dies on
the very day of the nuptials. If he be among the hundreds
rejected by her majesty, and do not emigrate with one or other
of the swarms, being a useless and idle member of the community,
he is massacred by the workers.

21. The workers, sometimes called neuters, are generally con-
sidered as sterile females. The number of these in each com-
munity is very variable, being seldom less than 12000, more
generally amounting to 20000, and in hives where swarming is
checked by affording abundance of room, the number may rise to
60000. They are the smallest members of the society, fig. 4,
have a long flexible proboscis and legs of peculiar structure.

22. Among the wonders presented by the insect- world the head
of the bee and its appendages command especial attention.

THE BEE.

In common with insects generally, the chief parts of the mouth
are, the tongue, the jaws, the lips, and the throat or oesophagus.

The jaws are each double, separated by a vertical division.
Each pair opens, therefore, with a horizontal instead of a vertical
movement like the human jaws. The pair of upper jaws are called
mandibles, and the lower maxilla. The upper lip is called the
Idbrum and the lower the labium. The mouth is also supplied
with two pairs of special organs called palpi or feelers, one pair
attached to the lower lip and called Idbipalpi, and the other to the
lower jaw and called mafipalpi.

23. In fig. 7, is given a magnified view of the buccal apparatus
of the wild bee (Anthophora retusa},* the parts being indicated.

Mandibles -

Maxillary feeler-*'

Labial feeler ....

Aiitenine
Labium

Lateral lobss of little tongue
Little tongue

A less detailed view, also magnified, of the same apparatus of
the hive-bee is shown in fig. 8.

Mandibles . . .

Lateral sheath. . .

Inner sheath. .

. . . Mandibles

. . . Lateral sheath

. . . Inner sheath

10

. . . Tongue
Fig. 8. Tongue of Hive bee (magnified).
* Milne Edwards.

HEAD AND MOUTH.
A magnified view of the head of the drone is shown in fig. 9.

Antennae . . . \ , J . . . Antennae

Compound eyes . . .' J|lj($I0ffl| ..H^' Compound eyes

Mandibles . . . m Mandibles

. . . Tongue
Fig. 9. Head of a Drone (magnified).

The mandibles, or upper pair of jaws v in the workers are strong,
horny and sharp. They are the tools with which it performs its
various labours. Meeting over the other parts of the mouth, they
are covered in front by the labrum or upper lip. The maxillse, or
lower jaws, on the contrary are pliable and leathery, and hold the
objects upon which the insect works with its mandibles.

The tongue, which is long and endowed with great flexibility,
is moved by a complex system of powerful muscles. When it is
in a state of inaction, it is withdrawn within its sheaths, the
end which protrudes beyond them being doubled up under the
head and neck, the sheaths consisting of two pair of strong
scales.

24. When the bee lights upon the blossom of a flower from
which it desires to extract the nectar, it darts out its tongue from
the sheaths that invest it, and having

pierced the petals and stamina where
the treasure is hidden, it inserts its
tongue which moves about in every
direction in virtue of its great flexibility
and muscular power, and probes to the
very bottom the floral cells, sweeping
their surfaces and draining them to the
last drop of their precious juice. Having Fig 10 ._ W( ker extracting

thus Collected the nectar Upon the nectar from a blossom.

tongue, that organ being drawn back

into the mouth, the liquid sweets are projected back into the

pharynx, and thence into the throat or oesophagus.

25. It must be observed also, that the tongue is not only flexible
but susceptible of inflation, so as to form a sort of bag,* in which

* Dr. Bevan on the Honey Bee, p. 298.

11

THE BEE.

the nectar is collected preparatory to being transferred to the
oesophagus.

26. The first stomach or honey-bag into which the nectar

Stomach.

( Posterior
j segmenl

--.

. Large intestine
Fig. 11. Digestive apparatus of the Bee (magnified).

passes through the oesophagus, which is a long and slender tube
passing from the back of the mouth through the neck, has the
form of a Florence flask, and is composed of a material as trans-
parent as glass. "When filled it has the magnitude of a small pea.
The honey received by it is partly regurgitated and deposited for
general use in the cells of the comb, which will presently be
described, The remainder which constitutes the food of the insect
passes into the true stomach, and from thence into the intestines
where it undergoes the process of digestion, the products of which
are distributed through suitable tubes to all parts of the body for
its nourishment.

27. Both the honey-bag and the stomach are susceptible of
contraction, by which the food is thrown back from the former
into the mouth as in ruminating animals, and from the latter into
the intestines.

28. The antenna? are organs of great importance, upon the
functions of which, however, naturalists are not fully agreed. It
appears certain nevertheless, that they are not only tactile instru-
ments of great sensitiveness, but are organs, by the signs, gestures,
and mutual contact of which the bees communicate to each other
their mutual wants, and convey information in many cases, some
of which will be noticed hereafter, respecting the condition of the
hive.

29. The fly ing- apparatus of the bee, as well as that of many
other insects, far exceeds in power the instruments of flight with
which the swiftest birds are furnished. To the anterior margin
of the under wings are attached eighteen or twenty hooks, which
when spread for flight (figs. 5, 6) lay hold of the posterior edges
of the upper wings, so that the two wings on each side thus united
act as a single wing.

12

LEGS.

30. The three pairs of legs are composed of several joints (fig. 1)
articulated like those of the human arm, so as to give great
mobility to the member. The lower joints of the two under pairs
form brushes, the hairs of which are stiff and bristly, and set
upon their inner surfaces. The farina which they collect from
the stamina of flowers is swept off by these brushes, as well as by
the hairs with which their abdomen and thorax are covered. This
farina is afterwards by means of the maxilla? or jaws, and the feet
of the anterior pair of legs, rolled into pellets and packed in a pair
of spoon-shaped cavities or baskets, provided for that purpose and
attached to the feet of the hindmost pair of legs. In this process
the brushes, after disposing of their own collection of farina,
sweep that flour also from the surface of the abdomen and thorax,
and pack it in like manner in the baskets. The exterior of these
baskets is smooth and glossy, and the interior lined with strong
close hairs to retain the load in its place, and prevent its escape
in flight.

Basket

Fig. 12. Posterior leg of a worker.

It is worthy of remark that neither the queen nor the drones
are supplied with this appendage. Since neither exercise any
industry they would have no use for it.

31. Each foot terminates in two hooks, the points of which are
opposed one to the other. By means of these the insects suspend
themselves at will to the sides and roofs of their habitation, and
hanging from each other form a living curtain in certain operations
which will be presently noticed.

In the middle of each of these is placed the sucker, by which
the insect is enabled to walk with facility on surfaces with its body
downwards, as we see flies walk on ceilings. These suckers are
little flexible cups, the edges of which are serrated so as to allow
of their close application to any kind of surface. When closely
applied, the air between the sucker and the surface is excluded,
so that the body is attached to the surface by the pressure of the
atmosphere. When the foot is to be detached from the surface,
as in walking, the air is readmitted. This apparatus may be

13

THE BEE.

easily seen, and its action observed, by inspecting with a microscope
the feet of a fly walking on a pane of glass, the observer being on
the side of the pane opposite to that on which the fly moves.

32. Besides the stomach and intestines, the abdomen of the
queen and workers contains the sting and the apparatus connected
with it, by which the venom which it pours into the wound is
secreted, an instrument of offence supplied to these in common
with many other species of four-winged insects. This formidable
weapon of vengeance is established in its tail. All the insects
which in common with tjje bee are supplied with a sting, belong
to the order hymenoptera or membrane-winged. This weapon
consists of two darts finer than a hair, which lie in juxta-
position, being barbed on the outer sides, bat so minutely that
the points can only be seen with the microscope. These darts
move in the groove of a strong sheath, which is often mistaken
for the sting itself. When the dart enters the flesh, a drop of
subtle venom, secreted fey a peculiar gland, is ejected through
the sheath and deposited in the wound. This poison produces
considerable tumefaction, attended with very acute pain.

The posterior extremity of the body of a worker with the sting
protruded is shown in fig. 13.

Sting

Sides of the sheath

Muscular apparatus by
which the sting is
propelled
VKmmmaB m mm*

Fig. 13. Posterior extremity
of the body of a worker with ^KtzxKz-.-*^

the sting protruded. ^\" ^0^^ Venom-bag

Fig. 14. The same slightly magnified, showing
the venom-bag.

The sheath of the sting, also called the ovipositor, consists, ac-
cording to Dr. Bevan, of a long tube, or rather of several tubes,
which pass one into another like those of a telescope. The muscles
by which the sting is propelled, though too minute to be seen
without the microscope, have, nevertheless, sufficient power to
drive the sting to the depth of the twelfth of an inch into the thick
cuticle of a man's hand. The sting is articulated by thirteen scales
to the posterior extremity of the body, and at its root are the pair
of glands, one of which appears in fig. 14, in which the poison
14

STING.

is secreted. These glands, communicating by a common duct with
the groove formed by the junction of the lower parts of the barbed
sting, send the venomous liquid through that groove into the
wound. On each dart there are four barbs. When the insect
intends to sting, one of these piercers having its point a little
longer, or more in advance than the others, is first darted into the
flesh, and being fixed there by its barb, the other strikes in also ;
and they alternately penetrate deeper and deeper, till they acquire
a firm hold of the flesh with the barbed hooks, and then follows
the sheath, enclosing and conveying the poison into the wound.
The action of the sting thus, as Paley observed, affords an example
of the union of chemical and mechanical principles : of chemistry,
in respect to the venom ; and of mechanism, in the motion into
the flesh. The machinery would have been comparatively useless,
had it not been for the chemical process by which in the body of
the insect honey is converted into poison ; and, on the other hand,
the poison would have been ineffectual without an instrument to
wound, and a syringe to inject it.

In consequence of the barbed form of the sting, and the strong
hold it takes on the flesh, the bee can seldom withdraw it, and in
detaching herself from the part stung she generally leaves behind
her not only the sting itself, but the venom-bag and a part of her
intestines. Swammerdam mentions a case in which even the
stomach of the insect was torn from the abdomen in detaching
herself, so that in most cases her life is the sacrifice for the grati-
fication of her vengeance.

Although the bee, except in certain cases to be mentioned
hereafter, uses its sting only in defence, or for vengeance, when
molested, it is sometimes found that it manifests an antipathy to
particular individuals, whom it attacks and wounds without pro-
vocation.

33. The organs of fecundation and reproduction are also con-
tained in the abdomen. Those of the drone are represented on a
magnified scale in fig. 15. They correspond in their functions to
those of the superior animals.

Fig. 15. Apparatus of fecundation of the drone.

The organs of reproduction of the queen, which are objects of
considerable interest, are shown on a magnified scale in fig. 16.

15

THE BEE.

34. We have already stated that the king-consort never sur-
vives the bridal day. As this does not affect the conjugal fidelity

Ovaries ;M Ovaries

Oviducts

Sperm reservoir ^^^_ Ovipositor

Venom-bag

Venom duct
Fig. 16. Ovaries of the queen and their appendages.

of her majesty, who never allows a successor to her departed
lord, so neither does it impose any limit to the posthumous off-
spring which she hears to him. Small as are the ovaries, or egg
organs, which are shown highly magnified in fig. 16, her majesty,
according to Huber, generally produces from them about 12000
eggs in the short interval of two months, being at the average
rate of 200 per day.

Although her majesty does not continue so prolific during the
remainder of her life, she nevertheless gives birth to a progeny
enormous in number. The number of eggs deposited by her in
the cells in the months of April and May is, as above stated, about
12000. According to Schirach, a prolific queen will lay in a
season that is, from April to October inclusive from 70000 to
100000 eggs. This amazing power of reproduction is not exerted
uniformly during the season. There are two fits, so to speak, of
fruitfulness. The first in April and May ; the second, in August
and September, with an interval of comparative repose in July.
This immense increase of population, rendering emigration indis-
pensable, the over-peopled hive sends forth swarm after swarm,
so fast as the young arrive at maturity ; and with each swarm
one of the princesses goes forth, and is elevated to the throne of
the new colony, except in the event of the abdication of the queen-
mother, in which case she emigrates herself, resigning the sove-
reignty of the hive to one or other of the princesses.

1C

Fig. 76. Hiving a swarm.

THE BEE.

ITS CHARACTER AND MANNERS.

CHAPTEE II.

35. This fecundity not anomalous. 36. Bee architecture. 37. Social
condition of a people indicated by their buildings. 38. This test
applied to the bee. 39. Individual and collective habits. 40.
Solitary bees. 41. Structure of their nests. 42. Situation of nests.
43. Anthidium manicatum. 44. Expedient for keeping nest
warm. 45. Clothier bee. 46. Carpenter bee. 47. Mason bee. 48.
Expedient to protect the nest. 49. Upholsterer bee. 50. Hang-
ings and carpets of her rooms. 51. Leaf-cutter bees. 52. Method
of making their nest. 53. Process of cutting the leaves. 54. Hive-
bee. 55. Structure of the comb. 56. Double layer of cells. 57.
Pyramidal bases. 58. Illustrative figures. 59. Single cells. 60.
Combination of cells. 61. Great advantages of hexagonal form. 62.
Economy of space and material. 63. Solidity of structure. 64. Geome-
trical problem of the comb solved. 65. Expedient to secure the sides
and bases of the cells.

35. The prodigious fecundity of the queen of the bees is by no
means an anomaly in the insect world. The female of the white
ants produces eggs at the rate of one per second, or 3600 per hour,
or 86400 per day. Now, although this insect certainly does not

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. c 17

No. 19.

THE BEE.

lay at this rate all the year round, yet, taking the lowest estimate
of the period of her reproduction, the number of her young will
probably exceed not only that of the queen bee, but that of any
other known animal.*

36. There is nothing in the economy of the bee more truly
wonderful, nor more calculated to excite our profound veneration
of the beneficent power, which conferred upon it the faculties
which guide its conduct, than the measures which it takes for the
construction of its dwelling, and for those of its young. These
processes are very various, according to the particular species of
the insect which executes them. Now, most of these species
differ in the mechanical and architectural principles upon which
they base the construction of their dwellings, all agreeing, never-
theless, in this, that they select those principles with admirable
skill, adapting them in all cases to the situation and circum-
stances in which their habitations are erected.

37. If we would form an estimate of the civilisation and intel-
lectual condition of the population of a newly-discovered country,
we usually direct our attention, as Kirby observes, to their build-
ings and other examples of architectural skill. If we find them
like the wretched inhabitants of Yan Diemen's land, without
other abodes than natural caverns, or miserable penthouses of
bark, we at once regard them as ignorant and unhumanised. If,
like the South Sea islanders, they live in houses of timber
thatched with leaves, and supplied with various utensils, we
place them much higher in the scale. But when we discover a
nation inhabiting towns like the ancient Mexicans, consisting of
stone houses regularly arranged in streets, we do not hesitate to
pronounce them advanced^to a considerable point in civilisation.

If, moreover, it be found that each building has been con-
structed upon the most profound mathematical principles, so that
the materials have been applied under such conditions as ensure
the greatest degree of strength, combined with the greatest degree
of lightness ; and that, while the internal apartments display the
most beautiful symmetry, they also afford the greatest capacity
which a given amount of materials can admit, we at once arrive
at the conclusion that such a population must have arrived not
alone at the highest degree of civilisation, but at the highest point
in the advancement of the sciences.

38. If we were to affirm that all this may be said with the
most rigorous truth of many varieties of the bee, and above all of
the common hive-bee, we might be suspected of being merely
excited by that enthusiasm so common with those, who devote

* See Tract on the White Ants.
18

NESTS.

themselves exclusively to one particular pursuit. We must,
nevertheless, leave the reader to judge how fa^r such a statement
is chargeable with the exaggeration of enthusiasm, when he shall
have duly pondered upon all that we shall explain to him in the
following pages ; and if, perchance, his wonder be raised to the
point of incredulity, that sentiment will be repressed when he
remembers, who taught the bee !

39. Bees, like the human race, sometimes exercise their industry
individually and sometimes collectively. Their habitations also are
sometimes constructed exclusively for their young, and may be
called nests rather than dwellings. This is more especially the case
with solitary insects. In the case of social bees, which live together
in organised communities, the habitations are generally adapted as
well for the members of the colony themselves, as for their progeny.

40. The operations of these solitary insects, though exhibiting,
as will presently appear, marvellous skill, are infinitely inferior to
those of the social bees. We shall, therefore, first notice the
more simple labours of the former.

41. Among the most inartificial structures executed by the
solitary species, are the habitations of the colletes succinctee,
fodiens, &c. The situation chosen in these cases is either a bank
of dry earth, or the cavities of mud walls. A cylindrical hole
pierced in a horizontal direction about two inches in length is
first produced. The bee makes in this three or four thimble-
shaped cells, each of which is about a sixth of an inch in diameter
and half an inch long, fitting one into another like thimbles. The
materials of these cells is a silky membrane resembling gold-
beater's leaf, but much finer, and so very thin and transparent
that the form and colour of any enclosed object can be seen
through it. This material is secreted by the insect. When the
first of these cells is completed, the insect deposits in it an egg and
fills it with a pasty substance, which is a mixture of pollen and
honey. When this is done she proceeds to form the second cell,
inserting its end in the mouth of the first as above described, and
in like manner lays an egg in it and deposits with it a like store
of food for the future young. This goes on until the cylindrical
hole receives three or four cells which nearly fill it. The bee
then carefully stops up the mouth of the hole with earth.

42. The situations in which these simple nests are placed are
very various. They are not only found as above stated in banks
of earth and mud walls, and the interstices of stone walls, but
often also in the branches of trees. Thus a series of them was
found by Grew in the pith of an old elder branch.

43. Some varieties of the bee, such as the anthidium manicatum,
dispense with the labour of boring the cylindrical holes above

c 2 19

THE BEE.

described, and avail themselves of the ready-made cavities of trees,
or any other object which answers their purpose. Kirby mentions
the example of nests of this kind found by himself and others,
constructed in the inside of the lock of a garden-gate.

44. A proceeding has been ascertained on the part of these
insects in such cases, which it is extremely difficult to ascribe to
mere instinct, independent of some intelligence. Wherever the
nest may be constructed, the due preservation of the young requires
that until they attain the perfect state, their temperature should
be maintained at a certain point. So long as the material sur-
rounding their nest is a very imperfect conductor of heat, as
earth or the pith of wood is, the heat developed by the insect,
being confined, is sufficient to maintain its temperature at the
requisite point. But if, perchance, the mother-bee select for her
nest any such locality as that of the lock of a gate, the metal,
being a good conductor of heat, would speedily dissipate the animal
heat developed by the insect, and thus reduce its temperature to
a point incompatible with the continuance of its existence. How
then does the tender mother, foreseeing this, and consequently
informed by some power of the physical quality peculiar to the
metal surrounding the nest, provide against it ? How, we may
ask, would a scientific human architect prevent such an even-
tuality ? He would seek for a suitable material which is a non-
conductor of heat and would surround the nest with it. In fact
the very thing has occurred in a like case in relation to steam-
engine boilers. The economy of fuel there rendered it quite as
necessary to confine the heat developed in the furnace, as it is to
confine that which is developed in the natural economy of the
pupa of the bee. The expedient therefore resorted to is to invest
the boiler in a thick coating of a sort of felt, made for the pur-
pose, which is almost a non-conductor of heat. A casing of
sawdust is also used in Cornwall for a like purpose. By these
expedients the escape of heat from the external surface of the
boiler is prevented.

45. The bee keeps its pupa warm by an expedient so exactly
similar, that we must suppose that she has been guided either by
her own knowledge, or by a power that commands all knowledge, in
her operations. She seeks certain woolly leaved plants, such as the
stachys lanata or the agrostemma coronaria, and with her
mandibles scrapes off the wool. She rolls this into little balls,
and carrying it to the nest, sticks it on the external surface by
means of a plaster, composed of honey and pollen, with which
she previously coats it. Thus invested, the cells become impervious
to heat, and consequently all the heat developed by the little
animal is confined within them.
20

CLOTHIERS CARPENTERS MASONS,

This curious habit of swathing up its pupa in a kind of warm
blanket has. given to these species the name of clothiers.

46. Another class of bees has acquired the name of carpenters,
from the manner in which they carve out their nest in wood-
work. This bee, which is represented in fig. 17, and of which
the nest is shown in fig. 18, having been, already described in our
Tract on Instinct and Intelligence (72), need not be noticed further
here.

Fig. 17. The Carpenter Bee.

Fig. IS. Nest of the Carpenter Bee.

47. Another class of this insect has acquired the name of
masons, from the circumstance of building their nests of a sort of
artificial stone. The situation selected is usually a stone wall,
having a southern aspect, and sheltered on either side by some
angular projection. The situation being decided upon, the mother-
bee proceeds to collect the materials for the mansion, which consist
of sand, with some mixture of earth. These she glues together,
grain by grain, with a cement composed of viscid saliva, which
she secretes. Having formed this material into little masses,
like the grains of small shot, she transports them with her
mandibles to the place where she has laid the foundation of her
mansion.

With a number of these masses, united together by an excellent
cement secreted by her organs, she first lays the foundation of the
building. She next raises the walls of a cell about an inch in
length, and half an inch broad, resembling in form a thimble.
In this she deposits an egg, fills it with a mixture of pollen and
honey, in the same manner as described in the former case, and
after carefully covering it in, proceeds to the erection of a second
building of the same kind, which she furnishes in the same manner,
and so continues until she has completed from four to eight.

These cells are not placed in any regular order ; some are

21

THE BEE.

parallel, others perpendicular, and others inclined to the wall at
different angles. The whole mass is consolidated by filling up
the irregular intersticial spaces between the cells, with the same
material as that of which the walls are built. After this has
been accomplished, the whole is covered up with coarser grains
of sand.

The nest when thus finished resembles a mass of solid stone, so
hard as to be cut with much difficulty by a knife. Its form is an
irregular oblong, and to a casual observer presents the appearance
of a mere splash of mud mther than that of a regular structure.

The insects are sometimes so sparing of their labour, that they
avail themselves of old nests when they can find them, and often
have desperate combats to seize and retain possession of them.

48. It might be imagined that nests so solidly constructed would
afford perfect protection to the young from its enemies ; such is
nevertheless not found to be the case. The ichneumon and the
beetle both contrive occasionally to deposit their eggs in the cells,
the larvse of which never fail to devour their inhabitants.

Different varieties of the masons select different situations and
materials for their nests. Some use fine earth, which they make
into mortar with gluten. Others mix sandy earth with chalk.
Some construct their nests in chalk-pits, others in the cavities ot
large stones, while others bore holes for them in rotten wood.
Wherever placed they endeavour to conceal them, by plastering or
covering them with some material different from that of which
the nest is constructed. Thus one species surrounds its nest with
oak-leaves glued to its surface. M. Goureau mentions the case of
a bee that employed an entire day, in arranging blades of grass
about two inches long, in the form of the top of a tent over the
mouth of its nest. A case of this sort was also observed by Mr.
Thwaites, who saw a female for a considerable time collecting small
blades of grass, which she laid over the empty shell of a snail in
which she had located her nest.

49. The name of upholsterers has been given by Kirby to certain
species of bees, who, having excavated their nest in the earth,
hang its walls with a splendid coating of flowers and leaves. One
of the most interesting of these varieties is the megachile
papaveris, which has been described by Reaumur. It chooses
invariably for the hangings of its apartments the most brilliant
scarlet, selecting as its material the petals of the wild poppy,
which the insect dexterously cuts into the proper form.

50. Her first process is to excavate in some pathway a burrow
cylindrical at the entrance, but enlarged as it descends, the depth
being about three inches. After having polished the walls, she
next flies to a neighbouring field, where she cuts out the oval

22

UPHOLSTERERS LEAF-CUTTERS.

parts of the poppy blossoms, and seizing them between her hind
legs returns with them to her cell. Sometimes it happens that
the flower from which she cuts these, being but half blown,
has a wrinkled petal. In that case she spreads out the folds, and
smoothes away the wrinkles, and if she finds that the pieces are
too large to fit the vacant spaces on the walls of her little room,
she soon reduces them to suitable dimensions, by cutting off all
the superfluous parts with her mandibles. In hanging the walls
with this brilliant tapestry she begins at the bottom, and
gradually ascends to the roof. She carpets in the same manner
the surface of the ground round the margin of the orifice. The
floor is rendered warm sometimes by three or four layers of
carpeting, but never has less than two.

Our little upholsterer having thus completed the hangings of
her apartment, fills it with a mixture of pollen and honey to the
height of about half an inch. She then lays an egg in it, and
wraps over the poppy lining, so that even the roof may be fur-
nished with this material. Having accomplished this she closes
the mouth of the nest.*

51. It is not every insect of this class which manifests the same
showy taste in the colours of their furniture. The species called
leaf -cutters hang their walls in the same way, not with the
blossoms but the leaves of trees, and more particularly those of
the rose-tree. They differ also from the upholsterer, described
above, in the external structure of their nests, which are formed
in much longer cylindrical holes, and consist of a series of
thimble -shaped cells, composed of leaves most curiously convo-
luted. We are indebted likewise to Reaumur for a description of
the labours of these.

52. The mother first excavates a cylindrical hole in a horizontal
direction eight or ten inches long, either in the ground or in the
trunk of a rotten tree, or any other decaying wood. She fills this
hole with six or seven thimble-shaped cells, composed of cut
leaves, the convex end of each fitting into the open end of the
other. Her first process is to form the external coating, which is
composed of three or four pieces of larger dimensions than the
rest, and of an oval form. The second coating consists of portions
of equal size, narrow at one end, but gradually widening towards
the other, where the width equals half the length. One side of
these pieces is the serrated edge of the leaf from which it was
taken, which, as the pieces lap over each other, is kept on the
outside, the edge which was cut being within.

The little animal next forms a third coating of similar material,

* Reaumur, vi. 139 to 148.

23

THE BEE.

the middle of which, as the most skilful workman would do in a
like case, she places over the margins of those that form the first
side, thus covering and strengthening the junctions by the expe-
dient which mechanics call a break-joint. Continuing the same
process she gives a fourth and sometimes a fifth coating to her
nest, taking care at the closed end or narrow extremity of the
cell, to bend the leaves so as to form a convex termination.

After thus completing each cell, she proceeds to fill it to within
the twentieth of an inch of the orifice with a rose-coloured sweet-
meat made of the polle* collected from thistle blossoms mixed
with honey. Upon this she lays her egg, and then closes the
orifice with three pieces of leaf, one placed upon the other, con-
centrical and also so exactly circular in form, that no compasses
could describe that geometrical figure with more precision. In
their magnitude also they correspond with the walls of the cell with
such a degree of precision, that they are retained in their situation
merely by the nicety of their adaptation.

The covering of the cell thus adapted to it being concave,
corresponds exactly with the convex end of the cell which is to
succeed it, and in this manner the little insect prosecutes her
maternal labours, until she has constructed all the cells, six or
seven in number, necessary to fill the cylindrical hole.

53. The process which one of these bees employs in cutting the
pieces of leaf that compose her nest, is worthy of attention.
Nothing can be more expeditious, and she is not longer about it
than one would be in cutting similar pieces with a pair of scissors.
After hovering for some moments over a rose-bush, as it were to
reconnoitre the ground, the bee alights upon the leaf which she
has selected, usually taking her station upon its edge, so that its
margin shall pass between her legs. She then cuts with her
mandibles, without intermission, in such a direction as to detach
from the leaf a triangular piece. When this hangs by the last
fibre, lest its weight should carry her to the ground, she spreads
her little wings for flight, and the very moment the connection of
the part thus cut off with the leaf is broken, she carries it off in
triumph to her nest, the detached portion remaining bent between
her legs in a direction perpendicular to her body. Thus, without
rule or compass, do these little creatures measure out the material
of their work into ovals, or circles, or other pieces of suitable
shapes, accurately accommodating the dimensions of the several
pieces of these figures to each other. What other architect could
carry impressed upon the tablet of his memory such details of the
edifice which he has to erect, and destitute of square or plumb-
line, cut out his materials in their exact dimensions without
making a single mistake or requiring a single subsequent correc-
24

STRUCTURE OF THE HONEY-COMB.

tion ? Yet this is what the little bee invariably does. So far are
human art and reason surpassed by that instruction which the
insect receives from its Divine Creator.*

54. But of all the varieties of this insect, that of which the
architectural and mechanical skill is transcendently the most admi-
rable, is the hive-bee. The most profound philosopher, says Kirby,
equally with the most incurious of mortals, is filled with astonish-
ment at the view of the interior of a bee-hive. He beholds there
a miniature city. He sees regular streets, disposed in parallel
directions, and consisting of houses constructed upon the most
exact geometrical principles, and of the most symmetrical forms.
These buildings are appropriated to various purposes. Some are
warehouses in which provisions are stored in enormous quantities.
Some are the dwellings of the citizens, and a few of the most
spacious and magnificent are royal palaces. He finds that the
material of which this city is built, is one which man with all
his skill and science cannot fabricate, and that the edifices which
it is employed to form are such that the most consummate engineer
could not reproduce, much less originate ; and yet this wondrous
production of art and skill is the result of the labour of a society
of insects so minute, that hundreds of thousands of them do not
contain as much ponderable matter, as would enter into the com-
position of the body of a man. Quel aMme aux yeux du sage
qu'une ruclie d'abeilles ! Q.uelle sagesse profonde se cache dans
cet abtme ! Quel philosophe osera le sonder ! Nor has the problem
thus solved by the bee, yet been satisfactorily expounded by
philosophers. Its mysteries have not yet been fathomed. In all
ages naturalists and mathematicians have been engrossed by it,
from Aristomachus of Soli and Philiscus the Thracian, already
mentioned, to Swammerdam, Reaumur, Hunter, and Huber of
modern times. Nevertheless the honey-comb is still a miracle
which overwhelms our faculties, f

55. A honey-comb, when examined, is found to be a flattish

cake with surfaces sensibly parallel, each surface being reticulated

with hexagonal forms of the utmost regularity. No geometrician

could describe the regular hexagon with greater precision than is

here exhibited.

It is proved in geometry that there are only three regular
figures, which, being joined together at their corners, will so fit
each other as to leave no unoccupied spaces between them. These
figures are the square, the equilateral triangle, and the regular
hexagon. Four squares united by one of their angles will fill all

* Reaumur, vi. 971 ; Kirby, Int., i. 377.
t Kirby, i. 410.

25

THE BEE.

the surrounding space, and any number of squares may thus be
combined so as to cover a surface like a mosaic pavement without
leaving any intermediate unoccupied spaces.

In like manner six equilateral triangles will have a like pro-
perty, and in fine, three regular hexagons being similarly united
at one of their corners, will in like manner completely occupy the
surrounding space.

Since no other regular geometrical figure possesses this property,
it follows that a regular mosaic pavement must necessarily be
composed of one or other *>f these figures.

Fig. 19 represents such a pavement composed of squares ; and
fig. 20, one composed of equilateral triangles ; and in fine,
fig. 21, one composed of regular hexagons.

Fig. 19.

The angles, in fig. 19, are 90 ; those in fig. 20, are 60; and
those in fig. 21, 120. No other angles save these, therefore,
could be used in any regular pavement of this kind without
leaving intersticial uncovered spaces.

Now it will be at once perceived that the form presented by the
surface of a honey- comb is that of an hexagonal pavement. "We
shall presently see why the bee has selected this in preference to
either of the other possible forms.
26

HEXAGONAL STRUCTURE.

56. On further examining the comb, it will be found that the
hexagonal spaces presented by its surface are the mouths of so

Fig. 20.

many hexagonal tubes which are filled with honey. If any of
these be empty, it will be seen that the depth of these tubes is
half the thickness of the comb.

57. It appears therefore that the honey-comb is a combination
of hexagonal tubes, placed in juxtaposition, the angles of the
hexagon being fitted into each other like the stones of a mosaic
pavement ; that there are two systems of such tubes, meeting in
the middle of the thickness of the comb, their mouths being pre-
sented outwards on both sides, and consequently their bases
resting against each other.

If by the dissection of the comb, the forms of their bases be
examined, they will be found to consist, not as might be at first
supposed of plane regular hexagons, which would be the case if
they were plane surfaces at right angles to the tube ; they will
be found, on the other hand, to have the form of pyramids, each of
which is composed of three regular lozenges united together at
their edges, so as to form an apex ; this apex being pointed always
towards the opposite side of the comb. The pyramidal base is

27

THE BEE.

thus a geometrical figure, having as much regularity as the
hexagonal tube, of which it forms the termination, but constructed

Fig. 21.

on a totally different principle. The angles of the lozenges,
which form its sides, are one obtuse and the other acute ; and these
pyramidal bases of the cells, on one side of the comb, fit into
corresponding cavities, made by the similar pyramidal bases of the
cells, on the other side of the comb, so as to leave no intermediate
unoccupied space.

58. Without the aid of perspective figures, and even with such
aid, without some effort of imagination on the part of the reader,
it would be impossible to convey a clear notion of this part of the
structure of the honey-comb, and yet without such a clear notion
it would be totally impossible to appreciate the admirable results
of bee industry. "We have, therefore, attempted to represent in
figs. 22 and 23, the bases of four contiguous cells seen from the
inside and from the outside. In fig. 22 is presented an inside view
of the bases of three adjacent cells, a a a. It must be observed that
a a a are here intended to represent angular cavities, each formed
by the junction of three lozenge-shaped planes, such as have been
just described. Now it will be seen, that as a necessary consequence
of this juxtaposition, a figure will be formed at b, by three lozenge -
28

STRUCTURE OF THE COMB.

shaped planes, one belonging to each of the three bases, a a a,
and that this, instead of being hollow on the side presented to

j. 23. Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

the eye, will be hollow on the opposite side, which is turned from
the eye, and will there form an angular cavity precisely similar
and equal to the cavities a a a, which are turned towards the eye.
]$Tow this cavity, which is thus turned to the opposite side, is the
base of one of the cells on the other side of the comb. In fig. 23
we have presented a view of the combination as it would be seen
on the other side. In this case, the angular cavity darkly shaded
in the middle of the figure, is the angular projection, b, in fig. 22,
seen on the other side ; and the three angular projections which
surround it, jutting forward towards the eye, are the three angular
bases, a a a, fig. 22, seen on the other side.

59. A perspective view of a single hexagonal tube or cell, with
its pyramidal base, is shown in fig. 24.

The manner in which the hexagonal cells are united base to
base to form the comb, is shown in perspective in fig. 25, where a
is the open mouth of the tube, and b c the lozenge- shaped planes,
forming the bases of the opposite tubes. The same is shown in
section in fig. 26.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 28.

60. Several hexagonal cells are shown in their natural juxta-
position, placed base to base, as they form the comb, in fig. 27,
and a perspective view of their pyramidal bases is given in fig. 28.

Nothing can be more surprising than this production of such an
insect, when regarded as a piece of scientific engineering. The
substance which comprises it being one secreted by the bees in
limited quantity, it was of the greatest importance in its use, that
a material so scarce should be applied so as to produce the
greatest possible result, with the smallest possible quantity of the
material. The problem, therefore, which the bee had to solve

29

THE BEE.

was, with a given quantity of wax, to construct a combination of
similar and equal cells of the greatest aggregate capacity, and such
as to occupy the available space in the hive to the greatest possible
advantage. The form and magnitude of the cells must neces-
sarily have been adapted to those of the bee itself, because these
cells are intended to be the nests in which the eggs are laid and
hatched, and the young bee raised to its state of maturity.

The body of the bee being oblong, and measuring about
six-tenths of an inch in length by two-tenths in diameter, cylin-
drical tubes of corresponding dimensions would have answered
the purpose ; but such tubes could not be united together in
juxtaposition without either a great waste of wax or great defi-
ciency of strength, since, when placed in contiguity, they would
leave between them empty spaces of considerable magnitude,
which, if left unoccupied, would render the structure weak, and if
filled with wax, would have the double disadvantage of giving
needless and injurious weight to the comb, and involving the
waste of a quantity of a scarce and precious material, greater than
all that would be necessary to form the really useful part of the
comb.

61. From what has been explained it will be understood that, to
form a combination of tubular cells without interstices, the
choice of the bee was necessarily limited to the three .figures
already mentioned the equilateral triangle, the square, and the
regular hexagon. The equilateral triangle would be attended
with the disadvantage of a great waste of both space and material ;
for if its dimensions were sufficient to afford easy room to the
body of the bee, a large space would be wasted at each of the
angles, towards which the body of the bee could never approach.

A like disadvantage, though less in degree, would have attended
square tubes. The bee, therefore, with the instinct of an engineer,
decided on the third form, of the regular hexagon, which at once
fulfilled the conditions of a sufficiently near adaptation to the
form of its own body, and the advantage of such a combination
as would leave neither waste space nor loss of material.

62. In the structure of the comb there is still another point
worthy of attention. It might naturally have been expected
that it would be composed of a single layer of cells, one side pre-
senting the mouth, and the other the pyramidal base ; but if this
had been the course adopted, the side consisting of the pyramidal
bases would be an extensive surface, upon which the industry of
the bee would have no occupation, and the space in the hive to
which such surface would be presented would, therefore, be so
much space wasted. Instead, therefore, of constructing the
comb of a single layer of cells, the bees judiciously make it of a

30

FORM OF THE CELLS.

double layer, the pyramidal bases of each layer being placed in
contact with each other.

It might also have been expected that these bases would have
received the most simple form of plane surfaces, so that the side
of each layer occupied by them would be a uniform plane ; and
these planes resting in contact would form the comb ; but to this
there would be several objections. In the first place, the capacity
of the comb would be less ; the bases of the cells, placed in contact,
would be liable to slip one upon the other ; and if the cells had a
common base, they would have less strength ; but independently
of this, the bee itself tapers towards its posterior extremity, and a
cell with a flat bottom having no corresponding tapering form
would be little adapted to its shape, and would involve a con-
sequent waste of space. The bee avoids this disadvantage by
giving the bottom of the cell the shape of a hollow angular
pyramid, into the depth of which the tapering posterior extremity
of the insect enters.

63. There is another advantage in this arrangement which
must not be overlooked. The pyramidal bases of each layer of
cells, placed in juxtaposition by reciprocally fitting each other, so
that the angular projections of each are received into the angular
cavities of the other, are effective means of resisting all lateral
displacement.

64. Pyramidal bases, however, might have been given to the
cells in a great variety of ways, which would have equally served
the purposes here indicated ; but it was essential, on grounds of
economy, that that form should be selected which would give
the greatest possible capacity with the least possible material. On
examining curiously the form of the lozenges composing the pyra-
midal bases of the cells, Maraldi found by accurate measurement
that their acute angle measured 70 32', and consequently their
obtuse angle 109 28'. Magnitudes so singular as these, invariably
reproduced in all the regular cells, could scarcely be imagined to
have been adopted by these little engineers without a special pur-
pose, and Reaumur accordingly conjectured that the object must
have been the economy of wax.

Not being himself a mathematician sufficiently profound to
solve a problem of this order, he submitted to M. Koenig, an
eminent geometer of that day, the general problem to determine
the form which ought to be given to the pyramidal bottom of an
hexagonal prism, such as those constituting the cones, so that with
a given capacity, the least possible material would be necessary
for the construction. The problem was one requiring for its solu-
tion the highest resources to which analytical science had then
attained. Its solution, however, was obtained, from which it

31

THE BEE.

appeared that the proper angles for the lozenges would be 70 34'
for the acute, and consequently 109 26' for the obtuse angle.
Here are then in juxtaposition the result of the labours of the
geometer and the bee.

ACUTE ANGLE.

OBTUSE ANGLE.

Geometer
Bee

70 34'
70 32'

109 26'

109 28'

"We leave the reader to enjoy the contemplation of these num-
bers without one word more of comment.

65. ''Besides the saving of wax effected by the form of the
cells, the bees adopt another economical plan suited to the same
end. They compose the bottoms and sides of wax of very great
tenuity, not thicker than a sheet of writing-paper ; but as walls of
this thickness at the entrance would be perpetually injured by the
ingress and egress of the workers, they prudently make the margin
at the opening of each cell three or four times thicker than the
walls. Dr. Barclay discovered that though of such excessive
tenuity, the sides and bottom of each cell are actually double, or
in other words, that each cell is distinct, separate, and in some
measure an independent structure, agglutinated only to the
neighbouring cells ; and that when the agglutinating substance
is destroyed, each cell may be entirely separated from the rest.
This, however, has been denied by Mr. Waterhouse, and seems
inconsistent with the account given by Huber, hereafter detailed;
but Mr. Gr. Newport asserts, that even the virgin-cells are lined
with a delicate membrane." H

* Kirby, i. p. 412.

Fig.

COVICRKD APIARY.

THE BEE.

ITS CHARACTER AND MANNERS.

CHAPTER III.

66. Drone cells and worker cells. 67. Store cells. 68. Construction
of combs. 69. Wax-makers also produce honey. 70. First
operation of the wax-makers. 71. Process of the foundress.
72. Kneading the wax. 73. Formation of first wall. 74. Correction
of mistakes. 75. Dimensions of first wall. 76. Operations of the
nurses. 77. Bases of cells. 78. Wax-makers resume their work.
Completion of pyramidal bases. 7?. Pyramidal partition. 80.
Formation of cells. 81-82. Arrangement of combs. 83. Sides not
parallel. 84. Process not merely mechanical. 85-86. Process of
construction. 87. Labour successive. 88. Dimensions of cells.
89. Their number. 90. Bee-bread. 91. Pap for young. 92. Food
adapted to age. 93. Transformation. 94. Humble-bees females.
95. Their nursing workers. 96. Transformation. 97. How the
temperature of the cocoons is maintained. 98. Anecdote related by
Huber. 99. Remarkable care of the nurses. 100. Heat evolved in
respiration by the hive-bee 101. Cross alleys connecting the streets.
102. First laying of the queen in Spring. 103. Her royal suite.
104. The eggs.

66. Since the population of the hive is composed, as already
explained, of different classes of individuals having different
stature, and since one of the purposes of the cells is to be their

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. D 33

No. 121.

THE BEE.

abode from the time they issue from the egg until they attain
maturity, it follows that the capacity of the cells, or such of them as
are thus appropriated, must be subject to a corresponding difference.
The cells of the workers will therefore be less in magnitude than
those of the drones, and these last much less than the royal cells.
The comb therefore consists of different parts reticulated by
hexagons of different magnitudes, the smaller ones being the
mouths of the cells appropriated to the workers, and the larger
those of the cradles of the drones. As to the royal cells they differ
altogether from the others^not only in capacity, but also in position
and form. As already explained, the general forms of the cells
are hexagonal tubes, with pyramidal bases, and open mouths
ranged horizontally, their axes being at right angles to the flat
sides of the comb. The comb itself is placed vertically in the
hive, and the royal cells which are large and pear-shaped are
cemented to its lower edges, hanging from it vertically like stalac-
tites from the roof of a cavern. Although there be but one queen
in each hive, she produces, nevertheless, three or four or more,
and sometimes even as many as thirty or forty royal eggs. The
princesses which issue from these, are destined to be the queens of
the successive swarms which the hive sends forth.

67. The cells which are appropriated exclusively to the storage
of honey and pollen, are similar in form and position to those
appropriated to the young drones and workers, but are greater in
length, and this length the bees vary according to the exigencies
of their store of provisions. If more .of these result from their
labours than the cells constructed can contain, and there is not
time or space for'the construction of more cells, they lengthen
the honey- cells already made by cementing a rim upon them.
They sometimes also use for storage, cells which have already been
occupied by young drones or workers, which, having attained their
state of maturity, have vacated them.

68. Having thus explained in general the forms and structures
of the cells, we shall briefly explain the operation by which the
bees construct them, and by their combination form the combs.

The material of the combs is wax, a substance secreted beneath
the ventral segments of the bodies of that class of the workers,
which, from this circumstance, has received the name of wax-
makers. The apparatus by which the material which ultimately
acquires the character of wax is secreted, consists of m four pairs of
membranous bags, called wax-pockets, which are situated at the
base of each segment of the body, one on each side, and which
in the natural condition of the body, are concealed by the seg-
ments overlapping each other. They can, however, be rendered
Visible by drawing out the 1)ody longitudinally, so that the part
34

CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS.

of each segment covered by the preceding one shall be disclose
(fig. 29).

In these pockets the substance to be ultimately converted into
wax is secreted from the food taken into the stomach, which,

Fig. 29.

transpiring from thence through the membrane of
the wax-pocket, is formed there in thin laminae.
The stomach and its appendages which are en-
dowed with these functions, though much less
capacious in the nurses than in the wax-makers,
is not altogether absent ; and the nurses have a
certain limited power of secreting wax. In them
the wax-making function, however, seems to exist
in little more than a rudimentary state.

69. Although the chief duty of the wax-makers

is that from which they have taken their names, they are also
capable of producing honey, and when the hive is abundantly
furnished with combs, they accordingly change the object of their
industry and produce honey instead of wax.

70. When a comb is about to be constructed, the operation is
commenced by the wax-makers, who, having taken a due portion
of honey or sugar, from either of which wax can be elaborated,

Fig. so. suspend themselves one to ano-

therthe claws of the fore-legs
of the lowermost being attached
to those of the hind-legs of the
next above them, so that they
form a cluster, the external sur-
face of which presents the appear-
ance of a fringed curtain (fig. 30).
After having remained in this
state unmoved for about twenty-
four hours, during which period
the material of the wax is secreted, the thin lamina into which it is
formed may generally be perceived under the abdomen.

A single bee is now seen to separate itself from the cluster and
to pass from among its companions to the roof of the hive, where
by turning itself round, it clears a circular space for. its work,
about an inch in diameter. Having done this, it proceeds to lay
the foundation of a comb in the following manner, if one may be
permitted to apply the word foundation to the top of a suspended
structure.

71. The foundress bee, as this individual is called, commences
its work by seizing with one of its hind feet a plate of wax,
or rather of the material out of which wax is to be constituted,
from between the segments of its abdomen. The insect is

2 35

THE BEE.

represented in this act in fig. 31. Having fixed a secure hold on
the lamina, it carries it by its feet from the abdomen to its mouth,
where it is taken by one of the fore-legs which holds it vertically
while the tongue rolled up serves for a support, and by raising
and depressing at will, causes the whole circumference to be
brought successively under the action of the mandibles (fig. 32),
so that the margin is soon ground into pieces. These pieces fall
gradually as they are detached in the double cavity of the
mandibles which are bordered with hair.

Fig. 31. ' Fig. 32.

The mandibles or jaws which execute this process open in a
horizontal, instead of a vertical, direction as in the case of the
superior animals, and have a form resembling that of a pair of
shears or scissors.

72. The fragments of the laminte thus divided falling on either
side of the mouth, and pressed together into a compact mass,
issue from it in the form of a very narrow ribbon. This ribbon
is then presented to the tongue by which it is impregnated with
a frothy liquor, which has the same effect upon it as water has
on potter's earth in the formation of porcelain paste. That this
process, by which the raw material of the wax is worked and
kneaded, is an extremely elaborate and artificial one, is rendered
apparent by observing carefully the manoeuvres of the bee's tongue
in the process. Sometimes that organ assumes the form of a
spatula, or apothecary's knife, sometimes it takes the form of a
mason's trowel, and sometimes that of a pencil tapering to a point,
never ceasing to work upon the ribbon which is being evolved
from the mouth in these several forms.

After the ribbon has been thus thoroughly impregnated with
moisture, and carefully kneaded, the tongue again pushes it
between the mandibles, but in a contrary direction to that in which
it previously passed, when the whole is worked up anew.

The substance is now converted into true wax, the characteristic
properties of which it has acquired in this process. The material
evolved in laminae from the segments of the abdomen is brittle
and friable, and would be as unfit for the structure of the comb
as dry potter's earth would be for the formation of a vase. The
liquid secreted from the mouth, with which it has been impreg-
36

CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS.

nated, and the elaborate process of kneading which it has under-
gone, have totally changed its mechanical properties and have
imparted to it that ductility and plasticity so eminently charac-
teristic of wax. It has also undergone other physical changes.
The laminee taken from the abdominal segments are colourless
and transparent, the substance into which they are converted
being white and opaque.

73. The pieces of wax thus elaborated the insect applies against
the roof of the hive, arranging them with her mandibles in the
intended direction of the comb. She continues thus until she
has in this way applied the wax produced from the entire laminae,
when she takes in like manner another from her abdomen, treat-
ing it in the same way. After thus heaping together all the wax
which her organs have secreted, and causing it to adhere by its
proper tenacity to the vaults of the hive, she withdraws from her
work and is succeeded by another labourer who continues the
same operations, who is followed in a like manner by a third and
fourth, and so on, all disposing the produce of their labour in the
direction first intended to be given to the comb.

74. Nevertheless it would seem that the curious facility by
which these proceedings are directed is not altogether unerring, for
it happens by chance now and then that one of the workers will
commit a mistake by placing the wax in the wrong direction. In
such cases, the worker which succeeds never fails to rectify the
error, removing the materials which are wrongly placed, and
disposing them in the proper direction.

75. The result of all these operations of the wax-makers is the
construction of a rough wall of wax about half an inch long, a
sixth of an inch high, and the twenty-fourth of an inch thick,
which hangs vertically from the roof of the hive. In the first
rough work there is no angle nor the least indication of the
form of the cells. It is a mere straight and plain vertical parti-
tion of wax, roughly made, about the twenty-fourth of an inch
thick, and such as can only be regarded as the foundation of a
comb.

76. The duty of the wax-makers terminating here, they are
succeeded by the nurses, who are the genuine artisans ; standing
in relation to the wax -makers in the same manner as, in the con-
struction of a building, the masons who work up the materials into
the form of the intended structure would to the common labourers.
One of the nurses commences its operation by placing itself hori-
zontally on the roof of the hive, with its head presented to the
wall of wax constructed by the wax-makers. This wall or
partition is intended to be converted into the system of pyramidal
bases of the cells already described, and accordingly the first

37

THE BEE.

labour of the nurses is directed to accomplish this change. Their
first operation, therefore, is to mould on that side of the wall to
which its head is directed, a pyramidal cavity having the form of
the base of one of the intended cells. When it has laboured for
some minutes thus, it departs and is succeeded by another, who
continues the work, deepening the cavity and increasing its lateral
margins by heaping up the wax on either side by means of its
teeth and fore-feet, so as to give the sides a more regular form.
More than twenty nurses succeed each other in this operation.

77. It must be remembered that during this process, nothing
has been done on the other side of the partition, but when the
cell just described has attained a certain length, other nurses
approach the opposite side of the partition and commence the
formation of the pyramidal base of two cells corresponding in
position with that just described, and these in like manner prose-
cute their labours, constantly relieving each other.

78. While the nurses are thus employed in converting the rough
partition into the pyramidal bases of cells, and in forming the
hexagonal tubes corresponding to these pyramidal bases, the wax-
makers return and, resuming their labour, increase the magnitude
of the partition in every direction, the nurses meanwhile still
prosecuting their operations.

After having worked the pyramidal bases of the cells of one
row into their proper forms, they polish them and give them a
high finish, while others are engaged in laying out the next
series.

79. In fig. 33, is represented one of the faces of such a partition

Fiff. 33. Fig. 34.

as is here described, after it has been formed into a continuous
system of pyramidal bases. These are intended to represent the
bases of the cells of the workers. A similar piece showing the
bases of the cells of the drones is represented in fig. 34.
80. The cells themselves, consisting, as already explained, of

CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS.

hexagonal prismatic tubes, are the next objects of the industry
and skill of the nurses. These are cemented on the borders of the
pyramidal cavities shown in figs. 26 and 27.

81. The surfaces represented in figs. 33 and 34 having a contour
very unequal, the edges of the pyramidal cavities being inclined to
each other, so as to form angles alternately salient and re-entrant,
the first work of the bees is to form those parts of the prismatic sides
of the cells which are necessary to fill up the re-entrant angles of
the contours of the pyramidal bases. When this has been accom-
plished, the contours of all the hexagonal divisions extended over
the surface of the partition, represented in figs. 33 and 34, are
brought to a common level, and from that point the labour of the
little artificers becomes more simple, consisting of the construction
of the oblong rectangles which form the remainder of the six sides
of each cell.

82. It must nevertheless be remarked, that the first row of
cells, being necessarily attached to the roof of the hive, and not
at its upper edge connected like the other rows with other similar
cells, has an exceptional form, these being not hexagonal, but
pentagonal ; two of the sides of the ordinary cells being replaced
by the roof of the hive, as shown in figs. 33 and 34. A corre-
sponding exceptional form is of course also given to the bases of
the first row of cells.

The combs constructed in this manner are ranged in vertical
planes parallel one to the other in the hive, as shown in per-
spective in fig. 35, in vertical section in fig. 36, and in horizontal

Fig. 35. Fig. 36.

section in fig. 37. They are not always ranged strictly in single
parallel lines ; but are sometimes bent at an angle, as shown in
fig. 37.

An end view of a comb, showing the mouths of the cells fore-
shadowed by perspective, is represented in fig. 38.

83. The flat sides of a comb are not strictly parallel, but

39

THE BEE.

generally slightly inclined one to the other, so that the thickness
gradually diminishes from top to bottom, as shown in the vertical
section, fig. 36. This gradation of thickness is continued to a

Fig. 37.

certain point, while the width of the comb is continually aug-
mented ; but so soon as the workers obtain sufficient space to
lengthen it, it begins to lose this form, and the surfaces become
sensibly parallel.

84. A certain class of naturalists, who have directed their at-
tention to the history of this insect, appear to have taken a
pleasure in forming hypotheses, by which it would be reduced to
a mere machine. Thus, according to them, the formation of the
various parts of the comb would result from a mere mechanical
necessity, the organs of the insect being supposed to be so formed
that the different parts of the cells would receive their forms by a
mechanical process, as in certain operations in the arts the most
exact geometrical forms are imparted to materials by punches and
dies expressly made for the purpose.

Between such expedients and the organs of this admirable
insect, there is, however, not the remotest analogy.

The mechanical instruments with which they work are the
feet, the mandibles, and the tongue, the operations of which are
guided by the antennae, which are feelers of exquisite sensibility.
They do not remove in their operations a single particle of wax,
until the surface to be sculptured has been carefully explored by
the antenna). These organs are so flexible and so easily applied
to all parts, however delicate, of their workmanship, that they
are capable of performing the offices of square and compass,
measuring the minutest parts with the utmost precision, so as to
guide the work in the dark, and produce with unerring precision
that wondrous structure called the comb.

85. It is impossible to behold a dissected comb without per-
ceiving the 1 geometrical necessity which connects one part with

40

CONSTRUCTION OF COMBS.

another. In the formation of such a structure, chance can have
no share. The original mass of wax is augmented hy the labour
of the wax-makers in the exact quantity which is necessary ; and
these wax-makers, who thus are constantly on the watch to
ohserve the progress of the comb, so as to keep the artificer-bees
constantly supplied with the necessary quantity of raw material,
are themselves utterly destitute of the art and science necessary to
construct the cells.

86. The bees never commence the construction of two contiguous
and parallel combs together, for the obvious reason, as it should
seem, that to make one parallel to and at a given distance from
another, the actual formation of one must be first accomplished to
a certain point. They therefore begin by the middle comb ; and
when that has been constructed to a certain depth, measured from
the top of the hive, two other combs, parallel to it and at regu-
lated distances from it at either side, are commenced ; and when
these again are completed to a certain depth, two others outside
these are commenced, and so on. This order of proceeding is
attended with a further advantage by preventing the workers on
one comb from being inconveniently crowded or obtruded upon
by those of the adjacent combs.

87. The labour of the bees is conducted in common, but not
always simultaneously. Every partial operation is commenced
by one individual bee, who is succeeded in her labours by others,
each appearing to act individually in a direction depending on the
condition in which she finds the work when it falls into her hands.
The whole band of wax-makers, for example, is in complete
inaction until one of them goes forth to lay the foundation of a
comb. Immediately the labours of this one are succeeded and
seconded by the others, and, when their part is done, an individual
nurse-bee goes to lay out the plan of the first cell, and is in like
manner succeeded continuously by others.

88. "The diameter of the cells intended for the Iarva3 of the
workers is alway 2| lines, and that of those meant for the
larvce of the males or drones 3i lines. The male-cells are gene-
rally in the middle of the combs, or in their sides; rarely in
their upper part. They are never insulated, but form a corre-
sponding group on both sides the comb. When the bees form
male-cells below those of neuters, they construct many rows of
intermediate ones, the diameter of which augments progressively
till it attains that of a -male-cell; and they observe the same
method when they revert from the male-cells to those of workers.
It appears to be the disposition of the queen which decides the
kind of cells that are to be made ; while she lays the eggs of
workers, no male-cells are constructed ; but when she is about to

41

THE BEE.

lay the eggs of males, the workers appear to know it, and act
accordingly. When there is a very large harvest of honey, the
bees increase the diameter and even the length of their cells. At
this time many irregular comhs may he seen with cells of twelve,
fifteen, and even eighteen lines in length. Sometimes, also, they
have occasion to shorten the cells. When they wish to lengthen an
old comh, the sides of which have acquired their full dimensions,
they gradually diminish the thickness of its edges, gnawing down
the sides of the cells till it assumes the lenticular form ; they
then engraft a mass of wax round it, and so proceed with new
cells." *

89. The numher of cells contained in the comhs of a well-
stocked hive is considerable. In a hive twenty inches high and
fourteen inches diameter, they often amount to forty or fifty
thousand. A piece of comb, measuring fourteen inches long and
seven inches wide, containing about 4000 cells, is frequently con-
structed in twenty-four hours.

90. Nothing can be more admirable than the tender solicitude
and foresight shown by the bee towards its offspring. Although
these insects provide a great number of cells, as storehouses, for the
honey intended for the use of the community, yet the object which
more exclusively engrosses them is the care of their young, to the
provision and rearing of which they sacrifice all personal and
selfish considerations. In a new swarm, accordingly, the first
care of these insects is to construct cradles for their young, and
the next, to provide an ample store of a peculiar sort of pap,
called bee-bread, for their food.

This bee-bread consists of the pollen of flowers, which the
workers at this time are incessantly employed in gathering, flying
from flower to flower, brushing from the stamens their yellow
treasure, which they collect in the little baskets with which their
hind-legs are so admirably provided. They then hasten back to
the hive, where, having deposited the store thus collected, they
return to seek a new load.

Another troop of labourers are in constant attendance in the
hive to receive the stock of bee-bread thus collected, which they
carefully store up until such time as the queen has laid her eggs.
These eggs she places in an upright position in the bottoms of the
cells, where they are severally hatched.

91. The bee-bread is converted into a sort of pap, or whitish
jelly, by being swallowed by the bee, in the stomach of which it is
probably mixed with honey and then regurgitated.

The moment the young brood issue from the eggs in the state of
larvse, they are diligently fed with this jelly by the class of bees

* Kirby, i. 419.
42

ORGANS OF THE BEE.

called nurses, who attend them with all the solicitude implied by
their title, renewing the pap several times a day, as fast as it is
consumed.

The curious observer will see, from time to time, different
nurses introduce their heads into the cells containing the young.
If they see that the stock of pap is not exhausted, they imme-
diately withdraw and pass on to other cells ; but if they find, on
the contrary, the provision consumed, they never fail to deposit a
fresh supply. These nurses go their rounds all day long in rapid
succession thus surveying the cradles, and never stopping except
where they find the supply of food nearly exhausted.

92. That the duty of these tender nurses is one which requires
the exertion of some skill will be understood, when it is stated
that the quality of food suitable to the young varies with their age.
When they first emerge from the egg the jelly must be thin and
insipid, and, according as they approach to maturity, it requires
to be more strongly impregnated with the saccharine and acid
principles.

Not only does the food of the larva thus require to be varied
according to its age, but the food to be supplied to different larvae
is altogether different. The jelly destined for the larvae which
are to become queens, is totally different from that prepared for
those of drones and workers, being easily distinguished by its
sharp and pungent flavour ; and it is probable, also, that the jelly
appropriated to the drones differs from that upon which the
workers are reared.

These insects, moreover, exhibit as much economy as skill;
the quantity of food provided being as accurately proportioned to
the wants of the young as its quality is to their varying functions.
So accurately is the supply proportioned to the wants of the larvse,
that, when they have attained their full growth and are about to
undergo their final metamorphosis into nymphs, not an atom of
bee-bread is left unconsumed.

93. At the epoch of this metamorphosis, when the nymph needs
seclusion to spin its cocoon, and has no further occasion for food,
these tender nurses, with admirable foresight, terminate their cares
by sealing up each cell, enclosing the nymph with a woven lid.

In all the maternal cares described above, neither the drones nor
the queen participate. These duties fall exclusively upon the
workers, and are divided between them, as has been explained, the
task of collecting the bee-bread being appropriated to one set, and
that of feeding and tending the young to another. This duty has no
cessation ; as the queen lays her eggs successively and constantly,
the young arrive successively at the epoch of their first metamor-
phosis ; and, consequently, so soon as some are sealed up and

43

THE BEE.

abandoned by the nurses to spin their cocoons, others issue from
the egg and demand the same maternal care ; so that these nurses
spend their whole existence in the discharge of the offices here
described.

94. Although the organisation of other species of the bee does
not approach to the perfection of the hive-bee here described, it is
nevertheless worthy of attention and study.

The humble-bees, which so far as respects their social policy,
compared with the hive-bee, may be regarded as rude and un-
civilised rustics, exhibit nevertheless marks of affection for their
young quite as strong as their more polished neighbours.

Unlike the queen of the hive, the females take a considerable
share in the education of the young. When one of these provident
mothers has constructed with great labour and much skill a com-
modious woven cell, she furnishes it with a store of pollen moist-
ened with honey, and, having deposited six or seven eggs in it,
carefully closes the opening and all the interstices with wax ; but
her maternal cares do not end here. By a strange instinct, pro-
bably necessary to restrain an undue increase of the population,
the workers, while she is laying her eggs, endeavour to seize
them, and, if they succeed, greedily devour them. Her utmost
vigilance and activity are scarcely sufficient to save them ; and it
is only after she has again and again repelled the murderous
intruders, and pursued them to the furthest verge of the nest,
that she succeeds in accomplishing her object ; and even when she
has sealed up the cell containing them, she is obliged to continue
to guard it for six or eight hours ; since otherwise the gluttonous
workers would break it open and devour the eggs. The mother is
conscious, however, by a heaven -inspired knowledge, of the time
when the eggs will cease to excite the appetites of the depredators.

After this the cells remain unmolested until the larva issues
from the eggs. The maternal cares having there ceased, the
workers, before so eager to devour the eggs, now assume the
character of nurses. They know the precise hour when the larvae
will have consumed the stock of food, provided for them by
maternal care, and from that time to the period of their maturity
these nurses continually feed them with honey or pollen, introduced
in their proboscis through a small hole in the cover of the cell
opened for the purpose, and then carefully closed.

95. These nursing-workers also perform another duty of a most
curious and interesting description. As the larva increases in
size, the cell, which has been appropriated to it, becomes too small
for its body, and in its exertions to obtain room it splits the thin
woven walls which confine it. The workers, who are constantly
on the watch for this, lose no time in repairing the breach, which

44

HUMBLE-BEES.

they patch up with wax as often as the fracture takes place, so
that in this way the cell increases in size until the larva arrives
at maturity.

96. As in the case of the hive-bee already described, the larva
after the first metamorphosis, is shut up in the enlarged cell to
spin its cocoon. When this labour has been completed, and that
the perfect insect is about to issue, the workers still discharging
the duty of tender foster-parents, set about to assist the little
prisoner in cutting open the cocoon, from which it emerges in its
perfect state.

97. While in the pupa state, however, another tender and con-
siderate measure of the workers must not be passed without notice.
It is essential to the well-being of the pupa that while concealed
in the cocoon it should be maintained at a genial temperature.
To secure this object, the workers collect upon the cocoons in cold
weather and at night, so that by brooding over them they may
impart the necessary warmth.

98. The following curious anecdote connected with this subject
is related by Huber.

"He put under a bell-glass about a dozen humble-bees,
without any store of wax, along with a comb of about ten silken
cocoons, so unequal in height that it was impossible the mass
should stand firmly. Its unsteadiness disquieted the humble-bees
extremely. Their affection for their young led them to mount
upon the cocoons for the sake of imparting warmth to the enclosed
little ones, but in attempting this the comb tottered so violently
that the scheme was almost impracticable. To remedy this
inconvenience, and to make the comb steady, they had recourse
to a most ingenious expedient. Two or three bees got upon the
comb, stretched themselves over its edge, and with their heads
downwards fixed their fore-feet on the table upon which it stood,
whilst with their hind- feet they kept it from falling. In this con-
strained and painful posture, fresh bees relieving their comrades
when weary, did these affectionate little insects support the comb
for nearly three days. At the end of this period they had pre-
pared a sufficiency of wax, with which they built pillars that kept
it in a firm position : but by some accident afterwards, these got
displaced, when they had again recourse to their former manoeuvre
for supplying their place ; and this operation they perseveringly
continued, until M. Huber, pitying their hard task, relieved them
by fixing the object of their attention firmly on the table." *

It is impossible not to be struck with the reflection, that this
most singular fact is inexplicable on the supposition, that insects
are impelled to their operations by a blind instinct alone. How

* Linnaean Trans., yi. 247, et seq.

45

THE BEE.

could mere machines have thus provided for a case which in a
state of nature has probably never occurred to ten nests of humble-
bees since the creation ? If in this instance these little animals
were not guided by a process of reasoning, what is the distinction
between reason and instinct ? How could the most profound
architect have better adapted the means to the end how more
dexterously shored up a tottering edifice, until his beams and his
props were in readiness ? *

99. The following remarkable example of the care bestowed by
the nurses in keeping the pupa warm, more especially during the
day which immediately precedes its exit from the cocoon as a
perfect insect an epoch, when as it would seem it is more
especially necessary that it should be maintained at an elevated
temperature, was supplied by Mr. Newport. That naturalist
observed that in the process of incubation, the humble-bee at that
particular stage increased considerably the force of its respiration.
To render the purpose of this intelligible to the reader not accus-
tomed to physiological enquiries, it may be necessary to state that
in the act of respiration the oxygen, which is one of the constitu-
ents of the atmosphere, enters into combination with the carbon
and hydrogen, which compose part of the body of the animal.
Now this combination being identical with that which produces
heat in a common coal fire or the flame of a lamp, the same
effect is produced in the animal economy from the same cause ;
and hence it arises that the development of heat in the body is
always so much the greater, in proportion to the increased activity
of respiration.

100. To return to the hive-bee, it was observed by Mr. Newport
that in the early stage of the incubation of the pupa, the rate of
respiration of the insect is very gradual, but becomes more and
more freqiient as the epoch approaches at which it issues from the
cocoon; the number of respirations per minute then amounting
to 120 or 130.

Mr. Newport states that he has seen a bee upon the combs con-
tinue perseveringly to respire at that rate for eight or ten hours,
until its temperature was greatly increased and its body bathed
in perspiration. When exhausted in this way it would retire
from its maternal duty and give place to another foster-mother,
who would proceed in the same way to impart warmth to the
pupa.

In one case Mr. Newport found that while the thermometer in
the external air stood at 70*2, it rose on the lips of these cells
which were not brooded upon at the moment, to 80*2, but when
placed in contact with the bodies of the brooding bees, it rose

* Kirby, Int., i. 320.
46

FIRST LAYING OF THE QUEEN.

to 92-5. It appears therefore that by the voluntary increase of
their respiration they were enabled to impart to the nymph
enclosed in the cocoon 12 '3 additional degrees of heat.*

101. In every well- filled hive the combs are ranged in parallel
planes, as shown in figs. 36, 37 ; and that no space may be lost,
while at the same time sufficient room is left for the movements
of the workers, the open spaces between the parallel combs leave
a width just sufficient to allow two bees easily to pass each other.
These open spaces are the streets of the apiarian city, the high-
ways along which the building materials are carried while the
combs are in process of construction, through which the supply of
provisions is carried to the stores, and food to the young, who are
being reared in the cells.

But since the nurses must tend the cells of all the combs, and
therefore pass successively and frequently from street to street,
they would be compelled to descend to the lower edge of the comb
to arrive at an adjacent street, unless cross alleys were provided
at convenient points to abridge such journeys. The prudent
architects foresee this in laying out their city, and make such
passages, alleys, or arcades, by which the bees can pass from any
street to the adjacent parallel street, without going the long way
round.

102. On the return of spring, when the genial temperature of the
weather begins to produce its wonted effects on vegetation, and
when the vernal plants which the bees love begin to put forth
their foliage and flower, the busy population of the hive re-
commence their labours ; and the queen, who has passed the
winter in repose, attended by her devoted subjects, and feeding:
on the stores laid up by them during the previous season, com-
mences laying her great brood of eggs. At this epoch she is
much larger than at the cessation of her laying in the autumn.
Before she deposits an egg, she examines carefully the cell
destined for it, putting her head and shoulders into it, and
remaining there for some time, as if to assure herself that the
cradle of her offspring has been put in proper order. Having
satisfied herself of this, she withdraws her head, and introducing
the posterior extremity of her abdomen deposits a single egg upon
the pyramidal base of the cell, which adheres there in the manner
already described.

She then passes to another empty cell, where, after the same
precautions, she deposits another egg, and so continues, sometimes,
committing to the cells two hundred eggg and upwards in the day.

103. In this operation, so essential to the maintenance of the
population, she is assiduously followed and most respectfully

* Philosophical Trans., 1837, p. 296.

THE BEE.

surrounded by a certain train of her subjects, appointed apparently
to attend her, and form the ladies-in-waiting on the occasion. They
range themselves in a circle around her (fig. 39). From time to time

Fig. 39. The queen depositing her eggs iu the cells, surrounded by her suite.

the individuals of her suite approach her and present her with
honey. They enter the cells where the eggs have been deposited,
and carefully clean them, and prepare them for the reception of
the pap which is to feed the young when it issues from the egg.

104. In some exceptional cases, where her majesty is rendered
over prolific by any accidental cause, the eggs will drop from her
faster than she can pass from cell to cell, and in such cases two
or more eggs will be deposited in the same cell. Since the cells
are constructed only of sufficient magnitude for the due accom-
modation of a single bee, the royal attendants in such cases
always take away the supernumerary eggs, which they devour,
leaving no more than one in each cell (fig. 40).

The eggs are oval and oblong, about the twelfth of an inch in
length, of a bluish white colour, and a little bent. They are
hatched by the natural warmth of the hive (from 76 to 96 Fahr.),
in from three to six days, the interval depending on the tem-
perature of the weather.

48

Fig. 5S. VILLAGE HIVES.

THE BEE.

ITS CHARACTER AND MANNERS.

CHAPTER IV.

105. The larvae. 106. Transformation of worker nymph. 107. Worker
cells. 108. Treatment of a young worker. 109. Of the drone. 110.
Drone nymph. 111. Royal cell and nymph. 112. Its treatment.
113. Honey cells. 114. Pasturage progress of work. 115. Con-
struction of comb. 116. Remarkable organisation. 117. Magnitude
and weight of bees. 118. Character of queen. 119. Royal jealousy.
120. Principle of primogeniture. 121. Assassination of rivals.
122. Battle of virgin queens. 123. Reason of mutual hostility.
124. Result of the battles. 125. Battle of married queens. 126.
Battle of a virgin with a fertile queen. 127. Sentinels at the gates.
Treatment of an intruding queen. 128. Remarkable proceeding of
bees that have lost their queen effect of her restoration. 129.
Effect of the introduction of a new queen. 130. Policy of the hive.
131. Operations at the beginning of a season.

105. THE larva which issues from the egg is a white grub, des-
titute of legs, having its body divided transversely by a series of
parallel circular grooves into annular segments. "When it has

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. E 49

Xo. 123.

THE BEE.

grown so as to touch the opposite angle of the cell, it coils itself
up in the form of a circular arc, or as Swammerdam describes
it, like a dog going to sleep. It floats
there in a whitish transparent fluid, pro-
lg * ' vided for it by the nurses, on which it
probably feeds during this early stage of
its life. Its dimensions are gradually en-
larged until its extremities touch one ano-
ther, so as to form a complete ring, fig. 41 ,
in the base of the cell. In this state the
8 TU k is fed with the pap or bee bread
already mentioned. The slightest move-
ment on the part of the nursing bees is
Fig. 43. sufficient to attract its attention, and it
eagerly opens its little jaws to receive the
offered nourishment, the supply of which,
presented by the nurse, is liberal without being profuse.

The growth of the larva is completed in from four to six days,
according to the temperature of the weather. In cool weather
the development takes two days more than in warm weather.

When it has attained its full growth, it occupies the whole
breadth and a great part of the length of the cell. The nurses at
this time knowing that the moment has
arrived at which the first metamor-
phosis, in which the grub is changed
into a nymph, takes place, discontinue
the supply of food, and close up the
mouth of the cell by a light brown
waxen cover, which is convex externally.

This convexity of the cover is greater in the drone cells than
in those of the workers. The covers of the honey cells are, on
the contrary, made paler in colour, and quite flat or even a little
concave externally.

When the larva has been thus enclosed, it immediately com-
mences, like the silk-worm, to spin a cocoon. In this labour it is.
incessantly employed, lining the sides of its cell and encasing its
own body in a white silken robe. The threads which form^ this
mantle issue from the middle of the under lip of the nymph, as
the insect in this intermediate state between that of the grub and
the perfect bee is called. This thread consists of two filaments,
which, issuing from two adjoining orifices in the spinner, are then
gummed together.

106. The nymph of a worker spins its robe in thirty-six hours,,
and after passing three days in this preparatory state, it undergoes
so great a change as to lose every vestige of its previous form. It
50

METAMORPHOSES.

is clothed with a harder coating, with dark brown scales, fringed
with light hairs. Six annular segments are distinguished on its
abdomen, which are inserted one into another like the joints of a
telescope tube, and give the insect the power of elongating and
contracting itself within certain limits. The breast is also
invested with a sort of brush of grey feathery hairs, which as age
advances assume a reddish hue. In about twelve days all the
parts of the body of the perfect insect are developed, and can be
seen through the semi-transparent robe in which it is clethed.

About the twenty-first day, counting from that on which the
egg was laid, the second metamorphosis is complete, and the
perfect insect, gnawing through the cover of its
cell, issues into life, leaving behind it the silken Fi s- 45 -

robe which it wore in the intermediate state of
nymph. This is closely attached to the inner
surface of the cell in which it was woven, and
forms a permanent lining of it. By this cause p u paofaworker.
the breeding cells become smaller and smaller,
as the eggs are successively hatched in them, until at length
their capacity becomes too limited for the full development of the
nymphs. They are then turned into store rooms for honey.

107. In fig. 46 is represented apiece of comb, consisting exclu-
sively of workers' cells, in different states. Several, c, c, c, &c., are
closed, the nymph not having yet undergone its final metamorphosis.
A bee having arrived at the perfect state and gnawed open the

Fig. 46.

cover of its cell, is shown at m. The cells, h, h, have their
openings on the opposite side of the comb, and g, g, g, are cells
from which the perfect insects have already issued.

E 2 51

THE BEE.

108. When a young bee, after its final metamorphosis, has issued
from the cell, the nurses crowd round it, carefully brushing it,
giving it nourishment and showing it the way through the hive.
Others meanwhile are occupied in cleaning the cell from which
it has issued and putting it in order to receive another egg if it
be still large enough, and if not, to receive a store of honey.

The young bee is not sufficiently strong to fly on the first day.
It is only on the morrow, after being well fed and brushed down
by the nurses, and having taken a walk from time to time through
the combs, that it ventufes on the wing.

109. The drone passes three days in the egg, and continues to
receive the care of the nurses as a grub until the tenth day, when it
passes into the state of nymph, and is sealed up in its cell by the'

nurses with a very convex cover. As already stated, the drcne
grub being larger than that of the worker, the cell assigned to it
is proportionately more capacious, and the cover by which as a
nymph it is shut up is much more convex externally. A piece of
comb consisting of drone cells is shown in fig. 47.

Some cells, o, o, o, being those from which the perfect insect
has issued, are open and empty.

Near the borders of the comb, where local circumstances render
it necessary to modify the principles of its architecture so as to
accommodate the cells to their position in the hive, may be
52

METAMORPHOSES.

observed several, 7c, 7t, of unusual and irregular forms, While
some such cells have six unequal sides, others have only four or
five. It seems also that in the case of certain cells intended only
for the reception of honey, the bee is not at all as scrupulous in
the observance of architectural regularity as in the case of brood
cells.

110. The drone nymph undergoes its final metamorphosis and
becomes a perfect insect, from the twenty- fifth to the twenty-
seventh day from that on which the egg is laid, according to the
temperature of the hive. It is therefore six or seven days later
in arriving at maturity than the worker.

111. The changes to which the young of the royal family are
subject before arriving at maturity, are different from those above
stated. It has been already explained that the royal cells are
vertical instead of being horizontal, are egg-shaped instead of
being hexagonal, and in fine are much more capacious than those

Fig. 48.

of the drones or workers. One of these cells is shown at r s in
fig. 48, a part, u u, being removed to show the royal nymph
within it. It will be observed that a much larger space is given
to the royal nymph than is allowed either to that of the worker
or the drone, the bodies of which nearly fill their respective cells.
The royal nymph is always placed, as shown in the figure, with
her head downwards.

The progressive formation of a royal cell is shown in fig. 49.
It is unfinished, as at a, when the egg is deposited ; and is gradually
enlarged, c, as the grub increases in size ; and is sealed up, b, when
it is transformed into a nymph.

53

THE BEE.

The grub issues from the egg on the third day, he comes a
nymph from the eighth to the eleventh day, and undergoes its

final metamorphosis, becoming a perfect insect on the seventeenth
day. It is, however, sometimes detained a prisoner in the cell
for'seven or eight days longer.

112. Naturalists are not agreed as to some of the circumstances
attending the treatment of the young, which we have here given
on the "authority of Feburier and other French entomologists.
Mr. Dunbar, in reference to the circumstances attending the first
issuing of the perfect insect from the cell, says that in hundreds
of instances their situation has excited his compassion, when
after long struggling to escape from its cradle, it has at last
succeeded so far as to extrude its head, and when labouring with
the most eager impatience, and on the very point of extricating
its shoulders also, which would have at once secured its exit, a
dozen or two of workers, in following their avocations, have
trampled without ceremony over the struggling creature, which
was then forced for the safety of its head, quickly to pop down
again into the cell and wait until the unfeeling crowd had passed,
before it could renew its efforts. Again and again will the same
impatient efforts be repeated by the same individual, and with
the same mortifying interruptions, before it succeeds in obtaining
its freedom. Not the slightest attention or sympathy on the part
of the workers in these cases was ever observed by Mr. Dunbar,
nor did he ever witness the parental cares and sage instruction
given to the young which are described by the French
entomologists.
54

ROYAL NYMPH.

Positive, however, is more entitled to consideration than
negative testimony, and it cannot be doubted that Feburier and
others witnessed those cares, guidance, and education which they
have so well described. Besides, Dr. Bevan admits that he has
seen assistance rendered to the infant drones. So soon as the
young insect has been cleaned of its exuviae and regaled with
honey by the nurses, the latter clean out the cell exactly as we
have already described.

113. A piece of comb is shown in fig. 50, the upper part A, of
which contains honey-cells closed with flat sides of wax. The
cells, c c, &c., contain pollen, and c' c f , &c., propolis. The cells

Fig. 50.

of the upper part are those which originally belonged to workers,
and those of the lower part, with convex covers, are occupied by
the drone nymphs.

114. The various flowers and herbs which supply the materials
for honey, wax, and propolis taken collectively, are called the
pasturage of the bees, and it is observed that when this pasturage
is very abundant, the bees, eager to profit by the rich harvest,
depart from their habit of conveying their booty first to the
uppermost cells of the comb, so as to fill them gradually down-
wards. On the contrary, upon arriving with their load, and eager
to return for a fresh supply, they unload themselves in the nearest
empty cells they can find. The wax-makers meanwhile charge

55

- THE BEE.

themselves with the labour of taking the provisions thus deposited
from the lower to the upper parts of the combs.

115. In fig. 51, is shown a piece of comb in process of construc-
tion. It has, as usual, an oval form. The wax, of which it is
formed, is white, but as it advances in age it takes successively a

Fig. 51.

darker and darker colour, being first yellow, then reddish, and
sometimes even becomes blackish. The sides of the cells are
gradually thickened, by the constant adhesion and accumulation
of the cocoons, of which the nymphs successively bred in them are
divested. The top and sides of the comb are every where
strongly cemented, by a mixture of propolis and wax, to the roof
and sides of the hive. These structures are almost never known
to fall except by some accidental cause external to the hive, such
as a blow or the too intense heat of the sun dissolving the
cement.

116. The character and manners of the bee have an intimate
relation with its social organisation. We have seen that in the
56

WEIGHT OF BEES.

building of their city this organisation is never for a moment lost
sight of. The chambers vary in number, magnitude, form, and posi-
tion. Those designed for the members of the royal family are few
and exceptional, those for the drones much more numerous, but
about one hundred times less numerous than those of the workers.
The magnitudes are in like manner strictly regulated, in relation
to the volume of the body of the occupant, except the royal
chambers to which a magnitude is given much greater in propor-
tion than that of the bodies of the royal tenants. The object to
be attained by this increased capacity, as well as by the vertical
position specially given to the royal cells, has not been ascertained.

117. How little relation there exists between mere bodily
magnitude, and the faculties which govern acts so remarkable as
those of the insects now before us, will be understood when it is
stated that, according to the experiments of lleaumur, the average
weight of the bee is such that 336 go to an ounce, and 5376 to
a pound ; and John Hinton found that 2160 workers would not
more than fill a common pint.

118. Having thus explained in a general way the persons com-
posing the society, and the structure and architecture of their
dwellings, we shall proceed to notice some of the more remarkable
traits of their character and manners.

It has been already explained that the community of the hive
bees is strictly a female monarchy. The jealous Semiramis of the
hive, as Ivirby observes, will have no rival near her throne. It
may, therefore, be asked to what purpose are the sixteen or
twenty princesses reared, for whom royal chambers are provided,
and who are treated in all respects by the nurses as aspirants to
the throne ? This will be comprehended, however, when it is
remembered that the hive, soon after the commencement of the
season, becomes so enormously over-peopled, that emigration
becomes indispensable, and that with each emigrant swarm a
queen is necessary. Either therefore the queen regnant must go
forth, abdicating the throne, in which case it is ascended by the
eldest of the princesses, or the latter is raised to the sovereignty of
the emigrating colony. Now, since a rapid succession of swarms,
issue from the hive, especially in the early part of the season,
sometimes as many as four in eighteen days, and since one queen
is required for each, a proportionately numerous royal family is
required to fill so many independent thrones.

119. AVhen the growth of several princesses and their arrival
at maturity occurs, before the increase of the population renders
emigration necessary, so as to create thrones for them, the most
violent jealousy is excited in the breast of the queen regnant,
who is either mother or sister to these several queens presumptive,

57

THE BEE.

and her royal breast is iired with agitation, nor does she rest until
she has engaged in mortal conflict with her rivals, and either puts
them to death or suffers death at their hands.

120. When a hive, having lost its queen by emigration or other-
wise, is provided with several royal cells, which generally happens,
the first princess which issues from these in the perfect state im-
mediately ascends the throne in right of primogeniture. Although
her rivals are not yet in a condition to dispute the title, they,
nevertheless, excite her jealousy in the highest degree. Scarcely
ten minutes elapse from themoment she has attained the perfect
state, and issued from the royal cell, when she goes in quest of the
other royal cells, assails with fury the first she encounters, and
having gnawed a large hole in it she introduces the posterior
extremity of her abdomen, and kills her rival with her sting.

121. A crowd of workers, who are passive spectators of this, ap-
proach the cell, and enlarging the breach, drag out the corpse of the
murdered princess, who, in such cases, has already assumed the
perfect state. If the queen attack in like manner a cell of which
the occupant is still in the state of nymph, she does not waste her
strength in slaying it, well knowing that its premature exposure
will do the work of death. The workers, in this case also enlarg-
ing the breach made by the queen, pull out the nymph, who
immediately perishes.

122. Huber, who witnessed, and has described all these curious
proceedings, being desirous to ascertain what would happen if two
xival queens, both in the perfect state, found themselves together
in the same hive, produced artificially that contingency on the
15th May, 1790. He managed to provide in the same hive
royal cells, in an equal stage of forwardness, so that virgin
queens issued from two of them almost at the same moment*

When they appeared in presence of each other they fell upon
each other with all the appearance of insatiable fury, and so
engaged one with the other, that each held in her mandibles the
antenna) of the other. They were engaged breast to breast, and
abdomen to abdomen, so that if each had put forth her sting,
mutual death would have been the consequence. But as if nature
had forbidden this mutual destruction, the combatants disengaged
themselves from each other's grasp, and fled one from the other
with the greatest precipitation.

Huber says that this was not a mere incident which might have
occurred in a single case, but would not occur in others, for he
repeated the same experiment frequently, and it was always
followed by the same result. It seemed, therefore, as though it
were a case foreseen by nature, and that one only of the
combatants should fall in such combats.
58

BATTLE OF QUEENS.

123. Nature has ordained that in each hive there shall be one,
and but one queen, and when by any concurrence of circumstances
a second appears, one or the other is doomed to destruction. But it
is not permitted to the common class of the people to do execution
on a royal personage, since in that case it might not be possible to
secure unanimity as to the particular queen who is to be preserved,
so that different assemblages of the people might at the same time
assail different queens, and so leave the hive without a sovereign.
It was, therefore, necessary, as Huber argues, that the extermina-
tion of the superfluous queens should be left to the queens them-
selves, and that they should in their combats be filled with an
instinctive horror of mutual destruction.

Some minutes after the two queens above mentioned had
separated and retired from each other, and when their fears had
time to subside, they again prepared to approach each other.
They engaged once more in the same position, involving the
danger of mutual destruction, and as before, once again separated
and mutually fled each other.

124. During all this time the greatest agitation prevailed among
the population who assisted at the scene, more especially when the
two combatants separated. On two different occasions the workers
interfered to prevent them from flying from one another. They
arrested them in their flight, seizing them by the legs and detain-
ing them prisoners for more than a minute. In fine, in a last
attack, one of the queens, more active and furious than the other,
taking her rival unawares, laid hold of her with her mandibles
at the insertion of the wing, 'and then mounting on her back,
and bringing the posterior extremity of her abdomen to the
junction of one of the abdominal segments of her adversary,
stabbed her mortally with her sting. She then let go the wing
which she had previously held and withdrew her sting.

The vanquished queen fell, dragged her body slowly along for
a certain distance, and soon after expired.

125. Having thus ascertained the conduct of virgin queens under
the circumstances here described, Huber made arrangements for
observing the conduct of queens who were in a condition to pro-
duce eggs. For this purpose he placed a piece of comb on which
three royal cells had been constructed in a hive with a laying
queen. The moment they caught her eye she fell upon them,
opened them at their bases, and surrendered them to the
attendant workers, who lost no time in dragging out the royal
nymphs, greedily devouring the store of food which re niained in
the cells, and sucking whatever was in the carcases. Having
accomplished this they proceeded to demolish the cells.

It was now resolved to ascertain what would be the behaviour of

59

THE BEE.

a queen-mother regnant in case a stranger queen pregnant were
introduced into the hive. A mark having been previously made
upon the back of such a queen, so that she might be afterwards
identified, she was placed in the hive. Immediately on her
appearance the workers collected in a crowd around her, and
formed as usual a circle of which she was the centre, the heads of
all the remaining crowd being directed towards her. This very
soon became so dense that she became an absolute prisoner
within it.

While this was going o^h, a similar ring was formed by another
group of workers round the queen regnant, so that she was
likewise for the moment a prisoner.

The two queens being thus in view of each other, if either
evinced a disposition to approach and attack the other, the two
rings were immediately opened, so as to give a free passage to the
combatants ; but the moment they showed a disposition to fly
from each other, the rings were again closed, so as to retain them
in the spot they occupied.

At length the queen regnant resolved on the conflict, and the
surrounding crowd, seeming to be conscious of her decision,
immediately cleared a passage for her to the place where the
stranger stood perched on the comb. She threw herself with
fury on the latter, seized her by the root of the wing, and fixed
her against the comb so as to deprive her
of all power of movement or resistance,
and then bending her abdomen inflicted
a mortal stab with her sting, and put an
end to the intruder.

126. A fruitful queen full of eggs was
next placed upon one of the combs of a hive
over which a virgin queen already reigned.
She immediately began to drop her eggs,
but not in the cells ; nor did the workers,

by a circle of whom she was closely surrounded, take charge of
them ; but, since no trace of them could ^ be discovered, it is
probable that they were devoured.

The group, by which this intruding queen was surrounded,
having opened a way for her, she moved towards the edge of the
comb, where she found herself close to the place occupied by the
legitimate virgin queen. The moment they perceived each other,
they rushed together with ungovernable fury. The virgin,
mounting on the back of the intruder, stabbed her several times
in the abdomen, but failed to penetrate the scaly covering of the
segments. The combatants then, exhausted for the moment,
disengaged themselves and retired. After an interval of some
60

SENTINELS AT THE GATES.

minutes they returned to the charge, and this time the intruder
succeeded in mounting on the back of the virgin and giving her
several stabs with her sting, which, however, failed to penetrate
the flesh. The virgin queen, succeeding in disengaging herself,
again retired. Another round succeeded, with the like results,
the virgin still coming undermost, and, after disengaging herself,
again retiring. The combat appeared for some time doubtful,
the rival queens being so nearly equal in strength and power,
when at last, by a lucky chance, the virgin sovereign inflicted a
mortal wound upon the intruder, who fell dead on the spot.

In this case, the sting of the virgin was buried so deep in the
flesh of her opponent, that she found it impossible to withdraw it,
and any attempt to do so by direct force would have been fatal to
her. After many fruitless efforts she at length adopted the
following ingenious expedient with complete success. Instead of
exerting her force on the sting by a direct pull, she turned herself
round, giving herself a rotatory motion on the extremity of her
abdomen where the sting had its insertion, as a pivot. In this
way she gradually unscrctced the sting.

127. The gates of the hive are as constantly and regularly
guarded night and day as those of any fortress. The workers
charged with this duty are, of course, regularly relieved. They
scrupulously examine every one who desires to enter ; and, as
though distrustfulfrof their eyes, they touch all visitors with their
antenna}. If a queen happens to present herself among such
visitors, she is instantly seized and prevented from entering.
The sentinels grasp her legs or wings with their mandibles, and
so surround her that she cannot move. As the report of the event
spreads through the interior of the hive, large reinforcements of
the guard arrive, who augment the dense ranks which hold the
strange queen in durance.

In general, in such cases, the intruding queen is thus detained
prisoner until she dies from want of food. It is remarked that
the guard, who thus surround and detain her, never use their
stings upon her. In one instance Huber attempted to extricate a
queen, thus surrounded, by taking her directly out of the ring of
guards. This excited the rage of the guard to such a pitch that,
putting forth their stings, they rushed blindly not only on the
queen but on each other. The queen, as well as several of the
guard, were killed in the melee.

128. When the sovereign of the hive is removed or accidentally
destroyed, the population seem at first to be wholly unconscious
of their loss, and pursue their usual avocations as if nothing had
happened. But after the lapse of some hours they begin to
manifest a certain degree of uneasiness. This gradually increases,

61

THE BEE.

until the entire hive becomes a scene of tumult. The wax-
makers abandon their work, the nurses desert the infant brood :
they run here and there in all directions through the streets and
passages of the hive as if in delirium. That all this disorder
and alarm is produced by the report spreading that the sovereign
has disappeared, was proved to demonstration by Huber, who
restored to the hive the queen he had purposely withdrawn.
Her majesty was instantly recognised by those who happened to-
be assembled at the place of her restoration ; but what is remark-
able is that the intelligence of her return was immediately spread
through every part of the hive, so that the bees in its most remote
streets and alleys, who had no opportunity of personally seeing*
her majesty, were informed of her re-appearance, as was proved
by the restoration of order and tranquillity, and the resumption
of their usual labours by all classes of the population.

1 29. If, instead of restoring to the hive the queen herself, a new
queen, stranger to the population, be introduced, she will not
at first be accepted. She will, on the contrary, be guarded and
imprisoned by a ring of bees, in the same manner as a strange
queen is treated in a hive which still retains its reigning sovereign.
But if she survives sixteen or eighteen hours in this confinement,
the guard around her gradually disperses itself, and the lady
enters the hive and assumes without further question the state
and dignity of queen, and becomes the object o* the homage paid
to the sovereign.

As we have already stated, the first work which the population
undertakes, after being assured of the loss of its queen, is directed
to obtain a successor to her. If there be not royal cells prepared,
they set about their construction. "While this work was in
progress, and in twenty-four hours after their queen had been
taken from them, Huber introduced into the hive a fruitful queen
in the prime of life, being eleven months old. Not less than
twelve royal cells had been already commenced and were in a
forward state. The moment the strange queen was placed on
one of the combs, one of the most curious scenes commenced which
was probably ever witnessed in the animal world, and which has
been described by Huber.

The bees who happened to be near the stranger approached her,
touched her with their antennae, passed their probosces over
all parts of her body, and presented her with honey. Then they
retired, giving place to others, who approached in their turn and
went through the same ceremony. All the bees who proceeded
thus clapped their wings in retiring and ranged themselves in a
circle round her, each, as it completed the ceremony, taking a
position behind those who had previously offered their respects. A
C2

POLICY OF THE HIVE.

general agitation was soon spread on those sides of the comhs corre-
sponding with that of the scene here described. From all quarters
the bees crowded to the spot, and each group of fresh arrivals-
broke their way through the circle, approached the new aspirant
to the throne, touched her with their antenna) and probosces r
offered her honey, and, in fine, took their rank outside the circle
previously formed. The bees forming this sort of court circle
clapped their wings from time to time, and fluttered apparently
with self-gratification, but without the least sign of disorder or
tumult.

At the end of fifteen or twenty minutes from the commence-
ment of these proceedings the queen, who had hitherto remained
stationary, began to move. Far from opposing her progress or
hemming her in, as in the cases formerly described, the bees
opened the circle on the side to which she directed her steps,
followed her, and, ranging themselves on either side of her path,
lined the road in the same manner as is done by military bodies
in state processions. She soon began to lay drone eggs, for which
she sought and found the proper cells in the combs which had
been already constructed.

AVhile these things were passing on the side of the comb where
the new queen had been placed, all remained perfectly tranquil
on the opposite side. It seemed as though the bees on that side
were profoundly ignorant of the arrival of a new queen on the
opposite side. They continued to work assiduously at the royal
cells, the construction of which had been commenced on that side
of the comb, just as if they were ignorant that they had no
longer need of them ; they tended the grubs in those cells where
the eggs had been already hatched, supplying them as usual,
from time to time, with lioyal Jelly. But at length the new
queen in her progress arriving at that side of the comb, she was
received by those bees with the same homage and devotion of
which she had been already the object at the other side. They ap-
proached her, coaxed her with their antenna? and probosces, offered
her honey, formed a court circle round her when she was stationary,
and a hedge at either side of her path when she moved, and proved
how entirely they acknowledged her sovereignty by discontinuing
their labour at the royal cells, which they had commenced before
her arrival, and from which they now removed the eggs and
grubs, and ate the provisions which they had collected in them.

From this moment the queen reigned supreme over the hive,
and was treated in all respects as if she had ascended the throne
in right of inheritance.

130. Most of the proceedings of these curious little societies are
explicable by what seems a general social law among them, to

63

THE BEE.

suffer no individuals or class to continue to exist, save such as are
necessary in one way or another to the well-being of the actual
community, or the continuance of the species. This principle
once admitted, we find explanations satisfactory enough of all the
circumstances attending the conduct of the queen regnant towards
the royal princesses, of the population generally to the several
members of the royal family, and, in tine, of the workers towards
the drones.

The royal family, as we have seen, are all fertile females, and
their sole function is to assume the throne of the hive itself, or
of the colonies called swarms, which successively issue from it,
and thus placed to become the fruitful mothers of thousands,
which will continue the race and form future colonies.

The drones have no other function than that of kings consort
presumptive, either of the hive itself or of the colonies which
successively emigrate from it. As has been explained, one only
is chosen as consort by each queen. So long as the swarming
season continues, a sufficient body of drones are wanted to supply
the necessary troop of suitors to each emigrant princess. But
when the last swarm of the season has gone forth, and the queen
regnant has long since made her choice and celebrated her
nuptials, the drones are no longer useful to the general popula-
tion, and become the objects of a general massacre.

131. After the close of the winter, and at the commencement of
the first fine days of spring, the active life of the society recom-
mences. A well peopled hive is then always provided with a
fertile queen, who has held the sovereignty since the close of
the preceding season. In the months of April and May she begins
to lay drone eggs in great numbers. This is called the great
laying.

While she is thus engaged depositing her eggs in the larger
class of hexagonal cells, previously constructed for their reception,
the workers, well knowing that the deposition of royal eggs will
speedily follow, occupy themselves in constructing a number of
those cells of oval shape and vertical position, (fig. 49,) which
have been already described.

C4

Fig. 56. THE CABINET BEE-HOUSE. "'E'

THE BEE.

ITS CHARACTER AND MANNERS.
CHAPTEE Y.

132. Change of state of the queen after laying. 133. First swarm led by
her majesty. 134. Proceedings of the first swarm. 135. Loyalty
and fidelity to the queen remarkable experiment of Dr. Warder.
136. Interregnum after swarming. 137. The princess royal. 138.
Second swarm its effects. 139. Successive swarms. 140. Pro-
duction of a factitious queen Schirach's discovery. 141. Factitious
queens dumb. 142. Factitious princesses alloAved to engage in mortal
combat. 143. Homage only offered to a married queen. 144. Ke-
spect shown to her corpse. 145. Functions of the drones. 146.
Their treatment. 147. Their massacre described by Huber. 148.
Case in which no massacre took place. 149. Chai-acter and habits of
the workers. 150. Products of their labours. 151. Process of work.
152. Honey and pollen nectar and ambrosia. 153. Bee the priest
who celebrates the marriage of the flowers. 154. Why the bee
devotes each excursion to one species of flower. 155. Unloading the
workers. 156. Storage of spare provision. 157. Radius of the circle
of excursion.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. F 65

No. 125.

THE BEE.

To make this great laying of drone eggs, her majesty must be
at least eleven months old. Supposing that she has been hatched
the preceding season in February, she will lay during that sea-
son workers' eggs almost exclusively, producing at the most from
fifty to sixty drone eggs. But after the winter, at the epoch
now referred to, the hive being then filled exclusively with
workers, and standing in absolute need of drones to supply
suitors to the future queens, she produces drone eggs constantly
and exclusively until the commencement of the swarming season,
with the exception, however, of a limited number of royal eggs,
which she deposits at intervals more or less distant in the royal
cells just now mentioned, which the workers occupy themselves
in constructing during the great laying.

The great laying usually continues for about a month, and it
is about the twentieth or twenty-first day that the workers begin
to lay the foundations of the royal cells. They generally build
from sixteen to twenty of them, and sometimes even as many as
twenty- seven. When these cells have attained the depth of two-
tenths to three-tenths of an inch, the queen deposits in each of
them successively a royal egg. Now since the princesses which
are to issue from these eggs are destined to ascend the thrones of
the emigrant colonies, which are to issue in succession from the
hive, it is important that they should arrive at maturity at suc-
cessive intervals, corresponding as nearly as possible with the
emigration of the swarms.

The queen acts as if she were conscious of this, for she
deposits the royal eggs, not like the drone or worker eggs in rapid
and uninterrupted succession, but after such intervals as will
insure their arrival at maturity in that slow succession, which
will correspond nearly or exactly with the issue of the successive
swarms.

132. It has been already explained that the nurses seal up the
cells, at the time at which the grub is ready to undergo its meta-
morphosis into a nymph. In accordance with this, and with the
successive deposition of the royal eggs, just described, the times of
sealing up the series of royal cells are separated by intervals
corresponding with those of the deposition of the royal eggs.

Before the commencement of the great laying, the abdomen of
the queen is so enlarged that her movements are seriously impeded,
and she would be altogether unable to fly. According as the
laying proceeds, she becomes smaller and smaller, and when it
has been completed, the royal eggs having been meanwhile depo-
sited at regulated intervals, as above described, her majesty
recovers her natural form and dimensions, and with them her full
bodily activity. This change in the condition of the queen, and
66

FIRST SWARM.

Ihe simultaneous deposition of fifteen hundred to two thousand
-drone eggs, and some sixteen or twenty royal eggs, are intimately
connected with the approaching social state of the colony.

133. It was shown by Huber, and since confirmed by other ob-
servers, that it is a constant law of bee politics that the first swarm
of the season shall be led by the queen-regnant, who therefore ab-
dicates her native throne in favour of the colonial sovereignty. This
-swarm takes place when the grub proceeding from the first of the
eggs deposited by the queen in the royal cells, as above described,
has undergone its transformation into a nymph.* The necessity
for this law is thus explained by Huber. "Without it, the mutual
conflict of the queen-regnant and the princesses, as they would be
successively developed, would render the emigration of swarms
impossible. For as each princess would issue perfect from the cell,
she would be attacked, and forced to engage in combat with the
queen, who being, by reason of her age, the stronger and more
powerful, would be always victorious. Thus princess after prin-
<cess would be destroyed, and none would be forthcoming to
take the thrones of the successive emigrating colonies. To pre-
vent such a catastrophe, nature has therefore wisely ordered that
the queen-regnant, by leading forth the first swarm of the season,

should remove all cause of danger to the succession of princesses.

134. "When the emigrant swarm thus first sent forth from the
parent hive has established itself, the first care of the workers is to
construct combs, consisting of workers' cells. They labour assidu-
ously at these, and in accordance with this the queen, who has
already deposited in the original hive her full brood of drone
eggs, soon begins in her new city to deposit a broocj. of worker
eggs ; workers being then the first and most pressing want of the
colony. This laying begins as soon as the cells are ready for the
deposition of the eggs, and continues for ten or twelve days.
About the latter part of this interval, the bees occupy themselves
in the construction of the larger class of hexagonal cells for the
drone eggs. It would seem as though they knew that her majesty
would at this time lay a certain number of such eggs. She
accordingly commences laying these, though in far less number
than in the great laying, but still sufficient to prepare her people
for the succeeding deposition of royal eggs, for which they con
struct meanwhile a suitable number of royal cells.

It rarely happens, at least in the country where Huber made
his observations, that the original queen leads forth a swarm from
the new hive. The thing nevertheless occasionally occurs, and
when it does, it takes place in three or four weeks after the

* Huber, i. 279.

F 2 67

THE BEE.

original swarm, and is attended with, circumstances precisely
similar.

135. Let us now return to the original hive and see what took
place there after the departure and abdication of the reigning
queen.

As examples proving the loyalty and fidelity of the bees to their
queen, Dr. Be van quotes some remarkable and interesting cases
supplied by Dr. "Warder. That apiarist being desirous of ascer-
taining the extent of t^e loyal feeling among these little people,
hazarded the loss of a swarm in an experiment made with that
object. Having shaken on the grass all the bees from a hive
which they had tenanted only the preceding day, he carefully
sought for and quietly caught the queen. Then placing her with
a few attendants in a box, he took her into his parlour, where the
lid being removed, she and her attendants immediately flew to
the window, when he clipped off one of her wings, returned her
to the box and confined her there for more than an hour.

In less than a quarter of an hour the swarm ascertained the
loss of their queen, and instead of clustering together in a single
mass as usual, like a bunch of grapes, they spread themselves
over a space of several feet, were much agitated, and uttered a
plaintive sound. An hour afterwards they all took flight and
settled upon the hedge where they had first alighted after leaving
the parent stock, but instead of clustering together in a single
bunch, as when the queen accompanied them, and as swarms
usually hang, they extended themselves thirty feet along the
hedge in small bunches of forty or fifty or more.

The queen was now presented to them, when they quickly
gathered round her with a joyful hum, and formed one harmonious
cluster. At night the Doctor hived them again, and on the next
morning repeated the experiment to see whether the bees would
rise. The queen being in a mutilated state, and unable to accom-
pany them, they surrounded her for several hours apparently
willing to die with her rather than abandon her in her distress.
The queen was a second time removed, when they spread them-
selves out again, as though in search of her. Her repeated
restoration to them at different parts of their circle produced one
uniform result, and these poor loving and loyal creatures always
marched and counter -marched every way as the queen was laid.
The Doctor persevered in these experiments, till, after five days
and nights of voluntary fasting, they all died of inanition except
the queen, and she survived her faithful subjects only a few
hours.

This remarkable attachment between queen and subjects appears
to be reciprocal, the sovereign being as strongly sensible of it as
68

THE PRINCESS ROYAL.

those over whom she rules. Though offered honey on several
occasions during her temporary separation from the swarm in
these experiments, she constantly refused it, disdaining a life
which was no life to her, deprived of the society of her faithful
people.*

136. After the departure of her majesty there seems to be a sort
of interregnum in the hive during the succession of swarms. No
new sovereign is for the moment elevated to the throne. A strong
guard is established at each of the royal cells, whose duty it is
to confine the princesses with the utmost rigour to their respective
cells, carefully feeding them, and only liberating them at intervals
of some days according to the successive departure of the swarms.
They are liberated in the strict order of their seniority, the
nymph proceeding from the first royal egg, or the princess royal,
being invariably the first set free.

137. When she issues forth, her first impulse, like that of all
queens, is to fall upon the cells containing her younger sisters to
destroy them. This, which in other states of the colony is permitted
by the workers, is now strenuously and effectually opposed by them.
When she approaches the neighbourhood of the royal cells, the
guard in whose charge these are placed, pinch, worry, and hunt
her until they compel her to depart, but never attempt to assail
her with their stings or seriously injure or disable her.

Now, as there are usually a great number of these royal cells in
different parts of the hive, our princess finds it a difficult matter
to obtain any corner where she can remain unmolested. Inces-
santly impelled by her instinct to attack the cells of her sisters,
and as incessantly repulsed from them by the surrounding guard,
her life is rendered miserable. She is in a constant state of
agitation, running from one group of workers to another, until at
length the agitation is shared by a certain portion of the workers
themselves. When this occurs, a crowd of bees are seen rushing
towards the portals of the city. They issue from it accompanied
by their young and virgin queen. It is the second swarm of the
season, and differs from the first only in the age and condition of
its sovereign.

138. Alter this emigration the workers, who have remained in
possession of the hive liberate another of the princesses, the
second in seniority, whom they treat exactly in the same manner
as the former. The same succession of repulses by the guards of
the remaining royal cells takes place, attended by like consequences,
this second princess leading forth in the same manner the third
swarm, and so on.

139. This spectacle is repeated three or four times in the season

* Bevan, p. 148. 69

THE BEE.

in a well-peopled hive, until the population is so reduced that the-
number necessary to form a sufficient guard upon the royal cells
can no longer be spared from the general industry of the hive.
Several princesses then escape from the cells, nearly at the same
time, who fall upon each other in the manner already described,
being now encouraged instead of being opposed by the workers.
In fine, all but one fall in those combats, and this fortunate
survivor, who is in general the eldest of the princesses remaining
in the hive, ascends the throne, and is acknowledged by the whole
community.

According to Huber, swarms issue from the hive only in sun-
shine and a calm atmosphere. After all the precursors of a
swarm have appeared, a passing cloud often arrests it, and the
intention of the bees seems to be abandoned. An hour later the
appearance of the bright sun will reproduce all the usual move-
ments, and the swarm will issue.

Many conjectures are made as to the means by which the-
workers know so well, as they undoubtedly do, the relative ages
of the several princesses, so as to liberate them according to-
seniority. Huber conjectures that a peculiar sound, which they
produce before their liberation from the cells, and which he
thought varied in loudness and pitch, might be the distinguishing
character of relative age.

140. A contingency arises occasionally in the bee community r
which we have not yet noticed, and which is attended with conse-
quences of a very curious and interesting nature. It was dis-
covered by Schirach, and confirmed by numerous and long continued
observations of Huber, that when by any cause a colony loses its.
queen, without having any royal cells or royal eggs previously
provided, they are enabled by certain extraordinary processes and
expedients to produce princesses, among whom they may obtain a
successor to their last sovereign.

M. Schirach, Secretary of an Apiarian society, at Little
Bautzen in upper Lusatia, observed that bees, when shut up with,
a portion of comb containing worker brood only, would soon con-
struct royal cells, into which they would put worker eggs, the-
grubs from which, being nourished with royal jelly, would grow
up as queens. This remarkable result is known among apiculturers
as the Lusatian experiment. This experiment has since been
repeated thousands of times, and always with the same results by
all the most eminent naturalists who have directed their
researches to this part of entomology, and indeed generally by
all bee cultivators. So that of the fact itself, strange and
incredible as it may seem, there is not the faintest shadow o
doubt.
70

FACTITIOUS QUEENS.

The following is the process by which this miracle of nature is
performed.

Having chosen a worker grub, from one to three days old, the
workers pull down two of the cells adjacent to that in which the
chosen grub lies. They pull down the walls which separate
these three chambers, so as to throw them into one three times
more spacious than the single cell of the grub. Leaving the
pyramidal bases of these three cells untouched, they construct
around the grub a large cylindrical tube, which is consequently
included within the remaining walls of the three demolished cells,
the axis of the tube being parallel to that of the cells, and there-
fore horizontal.

It seems, however, that to accomplish the desired change on
the nature of the grub, it is not only necessary to give it an
enlarged cell, but one of which the axis is vertical instead of
being horizontal. On the third day, therefore, from the com-
mencement of their operations, they take measures to cement to
the horizontal tube a vertical chamber having a conical form,
making with the horizontal tube an elbow. To accomplish this
they gnaw away several cells below the end of the tube, sacrificing
without mercy the grubs which occupy these, as well as those
which occupied the two cells adjacent to the original cell of the
chosen grub.

This rectangular cell, therefore, composed of the original
cylindrical, and the more recently constructed conical cell, may
be considered as having some such form as here roughly sketched,

.A B

Fig. 53.

(fig. 53,) where A BCD is the horizontal cylindrical part formerly
filled by three worker hexagonal cells, and B F E D, the vertical
conical part, subsequently cemented to it, and built with the wax
obtained from the demolition of the worker cells under A B c D.

During two days which the grub inhabits this vertical cell,
B F D E, a nurse may always be observed with its head plunged

71

THE BEE.

into it, and when one quits it another takes its place, thus
relieving each other with all the regularity of military sentinels.
These bees keep constantly lenthening the cell, SPED, as the
grub grows older, and duly supply it with food, which they place
before its mouth and round its body. The animal, which can
only move in a spiral direction, keeps turning to take the jelly
deposited before it, and thus slowly working downwards, arrives
insensibly nearer the orifice of the cell, just at the time that it
is ready to be metamorphosed into a nymph. At this moment,
the workers, conscious*of the impending change, seal up the
mouth E F of the cell, and cease their attentions, leaving nature
to effect the last transformation.

One of these cells is shown at d, in fig. 49.

That the mere change in the quality of the food, combined with
the increased capacity and altered form of the cradle, should be
the means of producing a transformation, so extreme as that from
a worker to a queen, must be a matter of profound astonishment
to every reflecting mind; so much so indeed, that without the
most incontestable evidence, and the pow r er moreover of repro-
ducing the phenomenon at will, it could not be credited. Let
any one imagine how such an assertion as this, that the foal of
an ass by a particular sort of provender, and by being reared in
a stable of particular magnitude and form , could be made to grow
into a through bred horse, would be received. Yet, such a trans-
formation produced by such means would not be one whit more
wonderful than the change of a worker grub into a queen-bee,
by the means just stated. "What!" says Kirby, addressing his
correspondent, u you will ask, can a larger and warmer house,
a different and more pungent food, and a vertical instead of an
horizontal posture, give a bee a different-shaped tongue and
mandibles ; render the surface of its under-legs flat instead of
concave ; deprive them of the fringe of hairs that forms the basket
for carrying the masses of pollen, of the auricle and pecten which
enable the workers to use these legs or feet as pincers, of the brush
that lines the insides of the feet ? Can they lengthen its abdomen ;
alter its colour and clothing ; give a curvature to its sting ;
deprive it of its wax pockets ; and of the vessels for secreting that
substance ; and render its ovaries more conspicuous and capable
of yielding worker and drone eggs ? "

In the next place, can the apparently trivial circumstances just
mentioned alter altogether the instincts of these creatures ? Can
they give to one description of animals address and industry, and
to the other astonishing fecundity ? Can we conceive them to
change their very passions, tempers, and manners ? That the
very same foetus, if fed with more pungent food, in a higher

"72

COMBAT OF FACTITIOUS QUEENS.

temperature, and in a vertical position, shall become a female,
destined to enjoy love, to burn with jealousy and anger, to be
incited to vengeance, and to pass her time without labour that
this very same fo&tus, if fed with more simple food, in a lower
temperature, in a more confined and horizontal habitation, shall
come forth a worker, zealous for the good of the community, a
defender of the public rights, enjoying an immunity from the
stimulus of sexual appetite and the pains of parturition laborious,
industrious, patient, ingenious, skilful, incessantly engaged in
the nurture of the young, in collecting honey and pollen ; in
elaborating wax ; in constructing cells, and the like ; paying the
most respectful and assiduous attention to objects which, had
its ovaries been developed, it would have hated and pursued
with the most vindictive fury until it had destroyed them !
further, that these factitious queens, thus produced from worker
eggs treated as above described, shall differ remarkably from the
natural queens proceeding from royal eggs in being altogether
mute ! All this must seem so improbable, and next to impossible,
that it would require the strongest and most irrefragable evidence
to establish it.*

141. It will be remembered that the princesses, when forcibly
confined to their native cells by the workers on guard over them,
after they have undergone the last transformation, utter a peculiar
sound, to the varieties of which Huber ascribes the power of the
workers to determine their relative ages. Kirby in the observa-
tions just quoted, refers to this, when he indicates one of the
distinctions between the factitious and natural queens, the former
never uttering these or any other sounds.

142. Another remarkable distinction between the factitious and
natural queens is indicated by Huber ; no guard is kept at the
doors of the cells of factitious princesses, like that which has been
already described in the case of the cells of natural princesses.
The factitious princesses, unlike the natural, are not detained in
their cells after they have undergone the last transformation, but
are allowed to issue forth, if they have not been already destroyed
by the jealous rage of the first which comes to life.

This peculiarity in the policy of the hive may be explained by
the fact, that while the natural princesses are wanted to take the
sovereignties of the successive swarms, the factitious ones are only
produced to meet the extraordinary emergency of the hive being
deprived of its queen, leaving behind her no royal brood, and
since only one queen is wanted, the factitious princesses are
allowed, and indeed encouraged, by the workers to engage in

* Kirby, Int., vol. ii. 110.

73

THE BEE.

martial conflict until one only survives, who assumes the throne-
of the hive.

143. The circumstances and anecdotes related by observers
illustrative of the affection, devotion, and respect manifested
towards the queen by her subjects are innumerable. In addition
to those which we have already given, the following will be
read with interest.

All the devotion, it must be observed, commences only after the
royal nuptials. A virgin queen is treated with indifference the
most absolute. But aftfr her marriage has been celebrated, and
she presents herself to her subjects in the double character of
sovereign and mother, they more than respect her. " They are,"
says Reaumur,* "constantly on the watch to make themselves-
useful to her, and to render her every kind office. They are for
ever offering her honey. They lick her with their proboscis, and
wherever she goes she has a court to attend her."

144. The same naturalist relates that even the inanimate body of
the queen is an object of tenderness and affection to the bees. He
took one out of the water quite motionless and seemingly dead.
It was also mutilated, having lost part of one of its legs. Bring-
ing it home, he placed it among some workers that he had found
in the same situation, most of which he had recovered by means
of warmth, some, however, being still in as bad a state as the
poor queen. No sooner did these revived workers perceive the
latter in this wretched condition than they appeared to compas-
sionate her case, and did not cease to lick her with their tongues till
she showed signs of returning animation ; which the bees no sooner
perceived than they set up a general hum as if for joy at the
happy event. All this time they paid no attention to the workers,
who were in a most miserable condition, f

145. In the economy of the bee, there is nothing which presents-
more difficulty to the naturalist than the satisfactory explanation
of the functions of the drones. These, as has been already ex-
plained, are the sole male members of the society ; the queen
being the sole fertile female ; and the workers, though female,
exercising none of the functions of that sex, and being limited to
the industrial and parental duties of the society. The number of
drones in a single society is from 1500 to 2000, one only of whom
can enjoy the honour of elevation to the distinguished position of
king consort, and that one, as already explained, never surviving
the day of the nuptials. What then, it may well be asked, are
the services rendered to the community by thes^e hundreds of con-
sumers of the products of the industry of the society ? They never
themselves take part in the common labours. They neither

* Beaurmir, v. 262. f Reaumur, v. 265.

74

MASSACRE OF DRONES.

collect food nor materials, nor do they aid in any way in the con-
struction of the dwellings, nor in the care or nurture of the
young. In the absence of any better explanation of their vast
number it has been said that the purpose is to insure a consort
to the queen. But surely this object might be effected without
encumbering the society with 2000 candidates for the royal
favour.

It has been suggested by some apiarists that the drones may
sit upon the eggs, and by others that their use may be to develope
heat sufficient to maintain the hive at the necessary temperature ;.
but the experiments and observations of other naturalists have set
aside these hypotheses.

146. Whatever be the purpose which this section of the society is-
destined to fulfil, their treatment by the people, and the manner
in which their existence is terminated, are remarkable.

So long as swarms continue to issue from the hive, drones are
wanted to supply the necessary proportion of that class to accom-
pany them. But after the swarming season closes, which in these
climates it generally does towards the end of July, at least in dry
summers, the general massacre of the drones takes place. At that
time the bees are seen hunting them in all parts of the hive, and
driving them to the base upon which it stands. Soon after this
the stand and the ground before the hive are found to be covered
with the bodies of hundreds of the murdered drones. It was
supposed by Bonnet that no direct massacre was executed, but
that the drones driven from the stores of their food died of
starvation.*

147. Huber, however, among his other numerous discoveries,
contrived to witness, through the eyes of his faithful Burnens,
the actual massacre.

At the season at which the extermination usually took place,
he placed upon plates of glass six populous hives occupied by
swarms of the preceding year, and Burnens lying on his back
under the hives was enabled to witness all that took place by the
transparency of their bases. On the 4th of July, 1787, he wit-
nessed the massacre, which took place at the same hour in all the
six hives. The base was crowded with bees, who appeared in a
state of great excitement. As fast as the drones, hunted by
other bees from the superior parts of the combs, arrived at the
base, the bees there assembled fell upon them, seizing them by
their antenna), legs, or wings, and after dragging them about with
apparent rage, put them to death by stabbing them with their
stings between the segments of the abdomen. The moment they
were thus pierced, they spread their wings and expired. However,,

* Bonnet, "Contemplation de la Nature," chap. xxvi. part. xi.

75

THE BEE.

as if the workers did not feel sufficiently certain of their fate,
they continued to pierce their bodies with their stings, and often
drove these formidable weapons in so deep that they could
only extricate them by unscrewing them in the manner already
described (126).

The next day they resumed their observations, when a most
curious spectacle presented itself. During three hours they saw
the massacre of drones, which had been resumed with the same
fury, continued. On the preceding day they had exterminated
all the drones of their own hives ; but this time their attack was
directed against those of neighbouring hives, which, having fled,
had taken refuge in these, after the massacre of the preceding day
had been concluded.

Not content with this complete extermination of the drones
themselves, the workers resorted to the cells in which drone
nymphs were contained, which had not yet completed their final
transformation. These they pitilessly dragged forth, killed,
sucked the juices contained in their bodies, and then flung the
carcasses out of the hives.

148. It was also ascertained by Huber, that in hives deprived of
their queen, or in which the queen, by reason of retarded fecunda-
tion, only laid drone eggs, no massacre ever took place. In such
hives the drones not only find a sure refuge, but are carefully
nurtured and fed.

This circumstance, combined with the fact that the massacre
never takes place until after the swarming season is over, seems to
indicate the functions of the drones. They are useful only where
candidates for the royal nuptials are likely to be wanted.

149. The most interesting class of the bee community is also that
which is by far the most numerous, the workers. Indeed, to this
class all others must be regarded as subordinate, just as in human
societies all are dependent on the producing classes. Much
respecting their character, habits, and manners, in relation to
the care of their young, and the construction of the city, in a
word in respect to their internal labours, has been already
explained. Something now must be said of their external
industry, directed to the collection of provisions for the com-
munity, young and old, and of the materials necessary for the
prosecution of all their various works, labours which have been
illustrated by Professor Smyth in the following beautiful lines :

' ' Thou cheerful bee ! come, freely come,
And travel round my woodbine bower ;
Delight me with thy wandering hum,
And rouse me from my musing hour.
76

CHARACTER OF WORKERS.

Oh ! try no more those tedious fields,
Come taste the sweets my garden yields ;
The treasures of each blooming mine,
The bud, the blossom all are thine.

' ' And, careless of this noontide heat,
I'll follow as thy ramble guides ;
To watch thee pause and chafe thy feet,
And sweep them o'er thy downy sides ;
Then in a flower's bell nestling lie,
And all thy envied ardour ply !
And o'er the stem, though fair it grow,
With touch rejecting, glance and go.

"Oh, Nature kind ! Oh, labourer wise !
That roam'st along the summer's ray,
Glean' st every bliss thy life supplies,
And meet'st prepared thy winter day !
Go, envied, go with crowded gates
The hive thy rich return awaits ;
Bear home thy store, in triumph gay,
And shame each idler of the day."

150. The immediate objects to which the exterior industry of
the bee is directed, are nectar, pollen, and propolis.

Nectar is a specific juice, found in certain classes of flowers,
from which the bee elaborates honey and wax.

Pollen is a peculiar powder, or dust, spread over the anthers of
flowers, which constitutes the principle of fecundation of the
flowers themselves, and is the material of which the bee makes
bread, which serves as food both for old and young.

Propolis is a resinous substance, evolved by certain vegetables
which the bee uses as cement, mortar, or glue, in its architecture.
When the bee pierces the vessels of the flowers, which, containing
nectar, are called nectarines, and swallows that precious juice, it
is deposited provisionally in the honey-bag already described
(26) ; sometimes called, on that account, the first stomach. Here
this nectar is converted into honey, the chief part of which is
regurgitated, to be stored up for future general consumption in the
honey-cells of the combs.

In the stomach, properly so called (26), and in the intestines,
the bread only is found.

How the wax is secreted, physiologists have not yet discovered
with any certainty. It is evident, however, that the immediate
seat of its production is within the abdomen, since the parts called
wax-pockets, from which it is externally evolved, are rendered
visible by pressing the abdomen so as to make it extend itself. A
pair of quadrangular whitish pockets, of soft membranaceous
texture, will then be seen on each of the four middle ventral,

77

THE BEE.

segments. On these the plates of wax are formed, and are found
upon them in different states so as to be more or less perceptible.

151. Observe a bee, says Kirby, that has alighted on a flower.
The hum produced by the motions of her wings ceases,
-and her work begins. In an instant she unfolds her tongue,
which was previously rolled up under her head. With what
rapidity does she dart this organ between the petals and the
stamina! At one time she extends it to its full length, then she
contracts it ; she moves ij about in all directions, so that it may
be applied to the concave and convex surface of the petal, and
sweep them both, and thus by a virtuous theft, she robs it of all
its nectar. All the while this is going on, she keeps herself in a
state of constant vibratory motion.

Flowers, though the chief, are not the only sources from which
the bee derives the material of honey and wax. She will also eat
sugar in every form, treacle, the juice secreted by aphides ; and,
in fine, the juice of the bodies of nymphs and of eggs of bees
"themselves, as already explained.

152. When the industrious little creature has filled its honey-
bag with nectar, it proceeds to collect the pollen, of which it
robs the flowers by brushing it off with the feathery hairs with
which its body is covered. As the honey is called the NECTAB, so
this pollen, or the substance bee-bread, into which it is converted,
may be called the AMBROSIA of the hive. Together they con-
stitute the food and the drink of the population.

When the bee has so rolled itself in this farina of the blossoms
of the garden and the field, that its whole body is so powdered
with it, as to give it the peculiar colour of the species of flowers
to which it happens to resort, it suspends its excursions, and sets
about to brush its body with its legs, which, as already explained, are
supplied with brushes for this express purpose. Every particle of
the flower thus brushed off is most carefully collected and kneaded
up into two little masses, which are transferred from the fore to
the hind legs, and there packed up into the baskets provided for
its reception and transportation.

Naturalists generally are of opinion that in each of its excur-
sions a bee confines its foraging operations to a single species
of flower. This explains the fact that the colour of their load
after such excursions is uniform, depending on the particular
species of flower which they have robbed of its sweets. Thus,
according to Reaumur, some bees are observed to return loaded
with red pellets on their thighs, others with yellow, others
whitish, and others with green.

Kirby observes, that it seems probable that the bee confines its
operations in such excursions to flowers of the same species, and
78

MAERIAGE OP FLOWERS.

that the grains of pollen which enter into the same mass should
be homogeneous, and consequently fitted by their physical pro-
perties to cohere with greater facility and firmness.

153. But connected with this, another important purpose of
nature is fulfilled, which must not here pass without special notice.
The principle, so fruitful in important social consequences among
animals, that the offspring owes its parentage jointly to two
individuals of different sexes, or, in other words, must always
have a father and a mother, equally prevails in the vegetable
kingdom. There also are the gentlemen and ladies, there also
are the loves which unite them, loves which as well as those of
superior orders of beings have supplied a theme for poets.* Now
among the many other interesting offices with which the Author
of nature has invested the little creatures, which form the subject
of this notice, not the least singular is that of being the priests
who celebrate the nuptials of the flowers. It is the bee literally
which joins the hands and consecrates the union of the fair virgin
lily and the blushing maiden rose with their respective bride-
grooms. The grains of pollen which we have been describing are
these brides and bridegrooms, and are transported on the bee
from the male to the female flower ; the happy individuals thus
united in the bands of wedlock being the particular grains, which
the bee lets fall from its body on the flower of the opposite sex, as
it passes through its blossom.

154. And here we find another circumstance to excite our admi-
ration of the wise laws of that Providence, which cares for the well-
being of a little flower, as much as for that of a great lord of the
creation. If the bee wandered indifferently from flower to flower
without selection, the gentlemen of one species would be mated
with the ladies of another, hybrid breeds would ensue, and the
confusion of species would be the consequence. But the bee, as
knowing this, flies from rose to rose, or from lily to lily, but never
from the lily to the rose, or from the rose to the lily.

155. When a bee, laden with pollen, arrives in the hive, she some-
times stops at the entrance, and leisurely detaching it piecemeal
from her legs, devours it bit by bit. Sometimes she passes into
the hive and walks over the combs, or stands stationary upon
them, but whether moving or standing never ceases flapping her
wings. The noise thus produced, a sort of buzzing, seems to be
a call understood by the populace within hearing, for three or four
of them immediately approach and surround her. They begin
to aid her to disembarrass herself of her load, each taking and
swallowing more or less of her ambrosia until the whole is
disposed of.

* Darwin's Loves of the Plants.

79

THE BEE.

156. When more pollen has been collected than the society wants
for present use, it is stored up in some of the unoccupied cells. The
bee, laden with it, puts her two hind legs into the cell, and with
the intermediate pair pushes oft* the pellets. When this is done
she, or another bee if she be too much fatigued, enters the cell
head-foremost and remains there for some time, during which she
is occupied in diluting, kneading, and packing the bee-bread ; and
so they proceed one after another, until the cell has been well
packed and filled with the store of provisions. In some combs a
large portion of the cells is filled with this ambrosia, in others,
cells containing it are intermixed with those filled with honey or
with bread. It is thus everywhere at hand for use.*

The propolis, the third object of bee industry, is collected from
various trees, and especially from certain species of the poplar.
It is soft and red, will allow of being drawn out into a thread, is
aromatic, and imparts a gold-colour to white polished metals. It
is employed in the hive, as already stated, not only in finishing
the combs, but also in stopping up every chink and orifice by
which cold, wet, or any enemy could enter. They coat with it the
chief part of the inner surface of the hive, including that of the
sticks placed there for the support of the comb. It is carried by
the bees in the same manner as is the pollen on the hind legs.

157. The radius around their habitation, within which the bee
industry is confined, is differently estimated, being according to
some a mile, and according to others extending to a mile and a
half. Various experiments prove that it is by their scent that
the bees are guided to the localities where their favourite flowers
abound.

* Kirby, Int., ii. 151.

SO

Fig. 65. Cork hi\
(South of France).

Fig. C4. Radouaii*
hive.

THE BEE.

CHAPTEE VI.

158. How they fly straight back to the hive manner of discovering the
nests of wild Lees in New England. 159. Average number of daily ex-
cursions. 160. Bee pasturage transported to follow it in Egypt and
Greece. 161. Neatness of the bee. 162. Its enemies. 163. Death's-
head moth.- 164. Measures of defence adopted by Huber. 165. Mea-
sures adopted by the bees. 166. Wars between different hives. 167.
Demolition of the defensive works when not needed. 168. Senses of
insects. 169. Senses of the bee. 170. Smell. 171. Experiments
of Huber. 172. Remarkable tenacity of memory. 173. Experi-
ments to ascertain the organ of smell. 174. Repugnancy of the bee
for its own poison. 175. Their method of ventilating the hive.
176. Their antipathy against certain persons. 177. Against red and
black-haired persons. 178. Difference of opinion as to the functions
of the antennae. 179. Organs of taste. 180. Hearing: curious anec-
dotes. 181. Vision. 182. Peculiar characters of queens ; royal old
maid. 183. Drone-bearing queens. 184. Change of their instincts and
manners. 185. Their treatment by the workers. 186. Nuptials never
celebrated in the hive. 187. Effect of amputating the royal antennae.

158. OXE of the many wonders 'presented by their economy is the
directness and unerring certainty of their flight. While collecting
their sweets they fly hither and thither, forward or backward, and
right or left, as this or that blossom attracts them ; but when
fully laden with the spoil, though upwards of a mile from their city,
they start for it in a course more exact than if they were guided
LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. o 81

No. 127.

THE BEE.

by a rudder and compass, governed by the hand of the most con-
summate navigator. By what means this is accomplished has
never been explained, but connected with it is an account given
in the " Philosophical Transactions " which we cannot refrain from
quoting here. 1 ' In New England a species of wild hive-bees
abounded in the forests about the year 1 720. The following was
the method practised for discovering their nests and obtaining
their honey. The honey-hunters set a plate containing honey or
sugar, upon the ground on a clear day. The bees soon discovered
and attacked it. Having captured two or three who had thus
gorged themselves, the hunter liberated one of them and marked
the direction in which it new. He then changed his position,
walking in a direction at right angles to the course of the bee to
a distance of a few hundred feet, where he liberated another of
his little captives, and noted as before the direction of its flight.
The point where the two directions thus obtained, intersected, was
of course that to which both bees had directed their course, and
there the nest was always found."

159. The industry of the bee may be estimated by the average
number of its daily excursions from the hive to collect provisions.
According to Heaumur, if the total number of excursions bt
divided by the total number of bees in a hive, the average number
daily made by each bee would be from five to six. But as one-
half of the bees are occupied exclusively with the domestic busi-
ness of the society, either in nursing and tending the young,
packing and storing the provisions, or constructing the combs,
the total number of excursions must be divided, not between the
whole, but between only half the total number of bees, which
would give ten excursions to each individual of the collecting
class ; and if the average length of each excursion be taken at
three quarters of a mile, this would give the average distance
travelled by each collector as fifteen miles ! It is estimated by
Kirby that the quantity of ponderable matter thus transported
during a season in a single hive would be about 100 Ibs. " What
a wonderful idea does this give of the industry and activity of
those useful little creatures ! and what a lesson do they read to
the members of societies, that have both reason and religion to
guide their exertions for the common good! Adorable is that
Great Being who has gifted them with instincts which render
them as instructive to us, if we will condescend to listen to them,
as they are profitable." '

160. The plants and flowers which form the pasturage of the
bees are, in many countries, produced at different places at different
seasons of the year ; and where the bees in a particular neigh-

* Kirby, Int., ii. 155.
82

TRANSPOKT OF BEES.

bourliood are numerous, the pasturage surrounding their hives
often becomes exhausted. In such cases the agriculturists trans-
port the bees from localities which they have exhausted, to others
in a state of comparative abundance, just as the shepherd drives
his sheep from field to field, according as the pasturage is eaten
down. In Egypt, towards the end of October, when the inunda-
tions of the Nile have ceased, and the husbandmen can sow the
land, saintfoin is one of the first things sown ; and as Upper is
warmer than Lower Egypt, the saintfoin gets there first into
liower. At this time bee-hives are transported in boats from all
parts of Egypt into the upper district, and are there heaped in
pyramids upon the boats prepared to receive them, each being
marked with a number which indicates its owner. In this station
they remain for some days, and when it is considered that they
have pretty well exhausted the surrounding fields of their sweets,
they are removed a few leagues lower down, where they are
retained for a like interval ; and so thej r descend the river, until
towards the middle of February they arrive at its mouth, where
they are distributed among their respective proprietors.*

A similar practice prevails in various parts of the East and
in Greece. The inhabitants of the towns are often the proprietors
of fifty or sixty hives, the product of which forms an article of
their trade. The hives are sent in the season when the herbage
is in flower to the various rural districts, being sealed up by the
owner, the small bee-door only being open, and are given in
charge to the villagers, who at the close of the season are paid for
their care of them. Ilanges, consisting of five or six hundred
hives, are often seen thus put out to grass. f

161. Bees are remarkable for neatness and cleanliness, both as to
their habitations and their persons. They remove all dirt and
nuisances from their hive, with the regularity of the neatest
housewives, When their strength is insufficient for this, they
contrive various ingenious expedients to abate the nuisance. If
snails find their way into the hive, as they sometimes do, they
kill them with their stings ; and in order to prevent noisome and
unwholesome effluvia from their decomposing remains, they
embalm them with propolis. If the snail is protected from their
stings by its shell, they bury it alive in a mass of propolis.

When pressed by natural wants, they do not defile their habita-
tion by relieving themselves in it, but go abroad for the purpose.

When a young bee issues from the cell, a worker immediately
approaches, and, taking out its envelope, carries it out of the
hive ; another removes the exuvire of the larva, and a third any

* Reaumur, v. 698.
f Willock, in "Gardeners' Chronicle, 1841, p. 84.

a 2 83

THE BEE.

filth or ordure that may remain, or any pieces of wax that may
have fallen in when the young bee broke through its cocoon. But
they never attempt to remove the silk lining of the cell spun by
the larva in its first transformation, because that, instead of being
a nuisance, gives increased solidity and ornament to the cell.

162. Notwithstanding the amiable character and excellent poli-
tical organisation of the bees, these little people have numerous
enemies, with some of whom they are often compelled to wage
offensive wars, and against others to fortify themselves, by expe-
dients and with skill, which will bear comparison with the opera-
tions of the most consummate military engineers. Sebastopol itself
was not more ingeniously defended by its outworks than, in certain
cases, bee-hives are.

From the curious account which Latreille has given us of
Philanthus aviporus, a wasp-like insect, it appears that great havoc
is made by it of the unsuspecting workers, which it seizes while
intent upon their daily labours, and carries off to feed its young.

163. Another insect, which one would not have suspected of
marauding propensities, must here be introduced. Kuhn informs
us, that long ago (in 1799) some monks who kept bees, observing
that they made an unusual noise, lifted up the hive, when an
animal Hew out, which, to their great surprise, no doubt, for they
at first took it for a bat, proved to be the death's-head hawk-moth
(Acherontia atropos], already celebrated as the innocent cause of
alarm ; and he remembers that several, some years before, had been
found dead in the bee-houses. M. Huber also, in 1804, discovered
that it had made its way into his hives and those of his vicinity,
and had robbed them of their honey. In Africa, we are told, it
has the same propensity; which the Hottentots observing, in
order to monopolise the honey of the wild bees, have persuaded
the colonists that it inflicts a mortal wound.

This moth has the faculty of emitting a remarkable sound,
which he supposes may produce an effect upon the bees of a hive,
somewhat similar to that caused by the voice of their queen,
which as soon as uttered strikes them motionless, and thus it may
be enabled to commit with impunity such devastation in the midst
of myriads of armed bands.

The larvse of two species of moth ( Galleria cereana and Mcllo-
nella] exhibit equal hardihood with equal impunity. They,
indeed, pass the whole of their initiatory state in the midst of
combs. Yet, in spite of the sting of the bees of a whole republic,
they continue their depredations unmolested, sheltering themselves
in tubes made of grains of wax, and lined with silken tapestry,
spun and woven by themselves, which the bees (however disposed
they may be to revenge the mischief which they do to them, by
84

ENEMIES OF BEES.

devouring what to all other animals would be indigestible their
wax) are unable to penetrate. These larva? are sometimes so
numerous in a hive, and commit such extensive ravages, as to
force the poor bees to desert it and seek another habitation." *

164. Huber gives the following most interesting account of
the measures taken by his bees, to fortify themselves against the
incursions of the death's-head moth.

When he found his hives attacked and their store of honey
pillaged by these depredators, he contracted the opening left for
the exit and entrance of the bees to such an extent, as while it
allowed them free ingress and egress, it was so small that their
plunderers could not pass through it. This was found to be per-
fectly effectual, and all pillage was thenceforward discontinued
in the hives thus protected.

165. But it happened that in some of the hives this precaution
was not adopted, and here the most wonderful proceeding on the
part of the bees took place. Human contrivance was brought into
immediate juxtaposition with apiarian ingenuity.

The bees of the undefended hives raised a wall across the gate
of their city, consisting of a stiff cement made of wax and propolis
mixed in a certain proportion. This wall, sometimes carried
directly across and sometimes a little behind the door, first com-
pletely closed tip the entrance ; biit they pierced in it some
openings just large enough to allow two bees to pass each other in
their exits and entrances.

The little engineers did not follow one invariable plan in these
defensive works, but modified them according to circumstances.
. In some cases a single wall, having small wickets worked through
it at certain points, was constructed. In others several walls were
erected one within the other, placed parallel to each other, with.
trenches between them wide enough to allow two bees to pass
each other. In each of these parallel Avails several openings or
wickets were pierced, but so placed as not to correspond in posi-
tion, so that in entering a bee would have to follow a zigzag 1
course in passing from wicket to wicket. In some cases these
walls or curtains were wrought into a series of arcades, but so
that the intervening columns of one corresponded to the arcades of
the other.

The bees never constructed these works of defence without
urgent necessity. Thus, in seasons or in localities where the
de'ath's-head moth did not prevail, no such expedients were
resorted to. Nor were they used against enemies which were
open to attack by their sting. The bee, therefore, understands

* Kirby, vol. i. p. 130.

85

THE BEE.

not merely the art of offensive war, and can play the part of the
common soldier, but is also a consummate military engineer ;
and it is not against the death's-head moth alone that it shows
itself capable of erecting such defences.

166. Thinly peopled hives are sometimes attacked by the popu-
lation of other bee cities. In such cases, incapable of immediate
defence by reason of their inferior numbers, they erect similar
fortifications, but in this case they make the wickets in the walls
so small that a single worker only can pass through them ; and a
small number stationed on the inside of these openings, are accord-
ingly sufficient to defend the hive against the attack of large
besieging armies.

167. But when the season for swarming arrived, these works of
defence, whether constructed against the invasion of the moth or
hostile bees, became an impracticable obstruction to the exit of
the succession of emigrating colonies, and were therefore demo-
lished, and were not reconstructed without pressing necessit}".
Thus the works constructed in 1804 against the invasions of the
moth were taken down in the swarming season of 1805 ; and as
the plunderers did not re-appear in that year, they were not re-
erected. But in the autumn of 1807, the moths appearing in
great numbers, the bees immediately erected strong barricades,
and thus effectually prevented the disaster with which their
population was menaced. In the next swarming season, in May
1808, these works were again demolished.

It ought to be observed, that whenever the door of the hive
is itself too small to admit the moth, the bees erect no defences
against it.*

168. One of the most interesting and, at the same time, most
difficult question connected with the faculties of insects, is that of
the number and nature of their senses. It has been often and truly
said, that no being, however intelligent, can form even the most
obscure notion of a sense of which he is himself deprived. The
man deprived of sight, to whom the colour scarlet was elaborately
described, said that his notion of it was that of the sound of a
trumpet. Granting then the possibility that insects may be
endowed with a peculiar sense, or mode of perception, of which
we are destitute, we are in no condition to form a conception
of the power or impressions of such a sense, any more than the
blind man was who attempted to acquire a conception of a red
colour.

But without supposing the possible existence of peculiar senses
independent of the five with which we are endowed, it may be
that the very organs which we possess may be given with an infi-

* Huber, ii. 293298.

SENSES OF BEES.

aiitely higher degree of sensibility to these minute species. Their
auditory organs may be such as to give them the power of ear-
trumpets, and their eyes may be either microscopic or telescopic,
or both united. Their olfactory organs may have a susceptibility
infinitely more exalted than ours, as indeed innumerable facts
prove those of many species of inferior animals to be. Art and
science have supplied us with numerous tests, by which the
physical properties of substances are distinguished, by characters
which escape all our senses. Why may not the Creator have
given to inferior animals specific organs, capable of perceiving
those distinctions, as surely and promptly as the eye distinguishes
shades of colour, the nose varieties of odour, or the ear the pitch
of a musical note ?

169. Among social insects, the hive-bee stands preeminent for
the manifestation of sensitive faculties. Sight, touch, smell, and
taste, are universally accorded to it. Hearing was regarded as
doubtful, but we have shown that a noise produced at any side of
a hive, will immediately bring there the queen and her court, to
.see what is the matter.

But if the sensibility of the ear be doubted, what exaltation
:of power do we not find in the eye ! How unerring is the per-
ception of her dwelling, while the bee lies at distances and under
circumstances, which might well appear to baffle the most acute
human organ, aided even by human intelligence ! The little bee,
issuing from her hive, departs upon her industrial excursion, and
flies straight to the field which she has already discovered to be
most fertile of honey flowers. Her route to it is as straight as
the flight of a bullet from a gun to the object aimed at. When
she has gathered her load, she rises in the air, and, flying
back to her hive with the same unerring certainty, finds it
among many, and entering it, finds the cells which are, appro-
priated to her care.

The sense of touch is, perhaps, even more to be admired than
that of sight, for it supplies the place of that sense in the darkness
of the internal labyrinth of the hive. In darkness the architec-
ture of the combs is constructed, the honey is stored in the cells
appropriated to it, the young are nourished, their food being
varied with their respective ages, the queen is recognised, and
all this appears to be accomplished by some sensitive power
possessed by the antenna), organs whose structure, nevertheless,
seems to be incomparably inferior to that of the human hands.

'The industrial activity of the. bee is much less excited by
warm weather and bright sunshine, than by the prospect of col-
lecting an abundant supply of provisions for the hive. When
the lindens and the buck- wheat are in flower, they brave the rain

87

THE BEE.

ond cold, commencing their excursions before sunrise, and con-
tinuing their work much later than their customary hours. But
when the flowers rich in pollen and nectar prevail in less abund-
ance, and when the scythe has swept away the flowers which
enamelled the fields, even the brightest sunshine and the warmest
days fail to attract the industrious population to go abroad.

170. Of all the senses of the bee, that of smell appears to be the
most acute. Certain odours have an irresistible attraction for
the insect, while others aije in the same degree repugnant to it.
Of the former, as might naturally be expected, honey is by far
the most exciting. It was supposed by Huber, not without much
probability, that the bee is attracted to this or that flower, not
by its colour, form, or other visible properties, but by the odour
of the nectar it contains. To test this experimentally, Huber put
some honey in a box, so as to be invisible from the outside, and
placing it in the neighbourhood of his hives, found that the bees
crowded round it in a few minutes, finding their way to the honey
through a small hole left for the purpose.

171. He next made several small entrance holes in a box con-
taining honey, but covered each hole with a sort of card valve, such
that it would be possible for a bee to raise it and enter the box.
The box thus prepared was placed at two hundred yards from the
hives. In half an hour the bees found it, crowded in great
numbers on every side of it, examining carefully every part, as
if to seek for an entrance. At length, finding the valves, they
set to work at them, and never ceased until they succeeded in
raising them, when they entered and took possession of the spoil.

How exquisitely acute must be their olfactory organs will be
apparent, when it is considered that, in this case, the box and
valves must have confined very nearly the whole effluvia of the
honey.

172. The following remarkable proof of the tenacity of memory
with which the bee is endowed, is given by Huber. A supply of
honey had been placed in autumn upon an open window. The
bees had the habit of coming to feast upon it. This honey being
removed, the window was closed, and remained closed during the
winter. In the following spring the bees again found their way
to the same window, expecting again to find a supply there,
although none had been placed there. It is evident in this case,
that the insect must have been guided by its memory alone, and
that it was capable of retaining a recollection of places and cir-
cumstances for several months.

173. Huber made several curious and interesting experiments to
determine the seat of the sense of smell. If, as was natural to
xpect, it were situate in some of the appendages of the mouth,

SMELL MEMORY.

it would be deadened by stopping these, as we defend ourselves
from a noisome odour by stopping the nose. Catching several
bees he, therefore, held them while he stopped their mouths and
probosces with flour-paste, and liberating them when the paste
was hardened, he found that they no longer showed any sign of
the possession of a sense of smell. They were neither attracted
by honey, nor repelled by objects whose odours were known to be
most repugnant to them.

174. Among the substances to whose odour the bee shows the
strongest repugnance, is its own poison. This was demonstrated
by Huber by very remarkable experiments. Having provoked
the insect to put forth its sting, an4 eject its poison, he presented
this offensive juice on the end of a sharp instrument to some
worker bees, which were quietly resting at the door of their
hive. A general agitation was immediately manifested among
them. Some launched themselves on the poisoned instrument,
and others fell upon the individual who held it. That it was
not the instrument itself which in this case provoked their rage,
was proved by the fact, that a similar one, bearing no poison,
being presented to them, did not produce any effect.

175. An inconvenient elevation of temperature and want of ven-
tilation will sometimes impel the bees to leave their combs, but if
they are excited to remain upon them by the want of feeding, they
know how to reconcile the conflicting impulses. In that case they
produce coolness and change of air without deserting the provisions
which surround them, or the care of their young. A certain num-
ber of the insects begin to flap their wings, which are thus used
as fans, producing currents of air. But as they are not able to
sustain this labour for an indefinite time, they take it by turns,
regularly relieving each other.

To try what the conduct of the bees would be, if by artificial
means the ventilation of the hive were so impeded that the usual
small number of fanners would not suffice, Huber submitted hives
to such unusual conditions, and found that in such cases the
number of bees flapping their wings was augmented in the same
proportion as the ventilation was impeded, until at length the whole
population of the hive were thus occupied.

176. The antipathy which bees manifest against particular indi-
viduals, is generally ascribed to some odour proceeding from their
persons to which the insect bears a repugnance. M. de Hafor, of
the Grand Duchy of Baden, had been for many years an assiduous
cultivator and amateur of bees, and was on such friendly terms
with them that he could at all times approach them with impunity.
He would, for example, put his fingers among them, select the
queen, and taking hold of her, place her on the palm of his

89

THE BEE.

hand. It happened that this gentleman was attacked with a
violent and malignant fever, which long confined him to his bed
and his house. Upon his recovery he, naturally enough, revisited
his old friends the bees, and began to caress them and renew his
former familiarity.

He found, however, to his surprise and disappointment, that he
was no longer in possession of their favour, and instead of being
received as formerly, his advances were resented as an unwel-
come and irksome intrusion ; nor was he ever afterwards able to
perform any of the usual operations upon them, or to approach
them without exciting their rage.

177. According to Dr. Bevan and M. Feburier, both close and
accurate observers of the habits of the insect, red and black-haired
persons are peculiarly obnoxious to it. Feburier mentions a
mastiff to which his bees had a particular aversion, pursuing him
into the house with such pertinacity, that doors and windows
were obliged to be closed for his protection.

Dr. Bevan mentions that he had two friends, brothers, one of
whom was so inoffensive to the bees, that he could stand with
impunity over the hive and watch all their doings, while the
other could scarcely enter the garden with impunity.

178. The antennee are generally regarded as the proper organs
of the tactile sense, and hence are popularly, though not properly,
called feelers, the feelers being in fact the palpi already men-
tioned. Xaturalists are not agreed as to the functions of the
antennas, though all concur as to their importance. Some con-
sider them as organs of smell, others as organs of hearing ; while
others claim for them the place of organs of a sixth sense, of
which man and the higher animals are destitute. This sense is
considered by Kirby as an intermediate faculty between sight and
hearing, rendering the insect sensible of the slightest movement
of the circumambient air. Dr. Evans, as quoted by Dr. Bevan,
in reference to the faculty conferred on the bee by the antennae,
says,

" The same keen horns, within the dark abode,
Trace for the sightless throng a ready road ;
While all the mazy threads of touch convey
That inward to the mind, a semblant day."

The antennae, and the two pair of palpi, would seem to have
correlative and complementary functions : they are both in con-
stant motion. The palpi are in reality the feelers, in the proper
sense of the term ; as is apparent by observing the manner in
which the insect applies them to the food before eating it.

179. Cuvier considers the organs of taste in the bee to consti-
tute one of its most important characters. The sensibility of these

90

TASTE SIGHT.

organs is manifested by the delicate choice of food which the
insect makes, showing a preference for those flowers, wherever
they can be found, which yield the finest honey. Hence the cele-
brity of the honey of Narbonne, Hymettus, Hybla, and Pontus.

180. Numerous indications show that the bee possesses the
sense of hearing. The manner in which they are attracted to any
quarter of the hive where an unusual noise is produced, has been
already mentioned. Dr. Bevan mentions some curious examples
of their power of hearing, and even of the sense they seem to
attach to particular vocal sounds. Thus he mentions an old
dame of his acquaintance, who was a very fearless operator in the
treatment of these insects, and who used to suppress any move-
ment of anger on the part of the bees merely by saying to them,
"Ah! would you dare?" A servant of Mr. Knight, the well-
known apiarian, used to quell their anger by exclaiming, * ' Get
along, you little fools ! "

Some difference of opinion has nevertheless prevailed as to the
existence of this sense in insects. The opinion of Linnccus and
Bonnet was against it. Many evidences, however, may be adduced
in favour of its existence. Thus, one grasshopper will chirp in
response to another, and the female will be attracted by the voice
of the male. Brunelli shut up a male in a box, and allowed the
female her liberty ; as soon as the male chirped she flew to him
immediately. A bee on the window within a bee-house will
make a responsive buzz to its fellows on the outside.*

181. The indications of a keen sense of vision, in the certainty
and precision with which the bee flies to its pasturage and back
to its hive, have been already mentioned. Naturalists, however,
are not agreed as to the particular power of the eyes of these
insects. Some, for example, contend that their sight is extremely
short, and that

Its feeble ray scarce spreads
An inch around ;

while others contend that its vision of near objects is obscure and
imperfect, but for distant ones quite distinct. Thus Butler and
Wildman say that they have observed the bees go up and down
seeking the door of the hive, as if they were in the dark ; but
Bevan observed that they easily discovered it by rising on the
wing, and thus throwing themselves at a greater distance
from it.

182. Among the mysteries of the social economy of the bee, there
is perhaps nothing more curious than the circumstances which,
in certain cases, appear to affect the personal character of the

* Bevan, p. 362.

91

THE BEE.

sovereign. "We have already explained that there are certate
periods in the life of the queen, during which she produces eggs
of certain sorts, at one period those only of workers, at another
those only of drones. But if the epoch of her nuptials be post-
poned to a certain advanced period of life, at which, if we may
be allowed the expression, she begins to approach the condition
of an old maid, a singular change is found to have taken place in
her constitution, in consequence of which she is no longer capable
of having any but male ojfspritnj, in other words, she is incapable
of laying any but drone eggs.

183. Now since such a queen is obviously incapable of discharg-
ing those functions, which are indispensable to the continuance of
the population over which she presides, and of whose young she
ought, in the ordinary course of nature, to be common mother, it
might be inferred that the instincts of the insects would lead
them to disembarrass themselves of a sovereign, incapable of
discharging the most important functions of her office, and to
substitute for her, as we know they always have the power to
do, one who should enjoy the plenitude of these functions.

184. Among the innumerable experiments of Huber, those are not
least interesting which were directed to this point, that is to say,
to submit the faculties of the queen to tests supplied by artificial
means, contrived for placing her in social conditions, in which it
could scarcely ever happen that she should find herself in the
common course of bee-nature.

The first question which suggested itself to the great naturalist,
was to ascertain whether queens, who thus married so late in life
as to have only drone offspring, would exhibit the same spirit
of jealous hostility towards the tenants of royal cells, and the
future aspirants to thrones, as is invariably manifested by younger
royal brides. To determine this it was necessary to place such a
queen in a queenless hive, in which, however, there was at least
one royal cell tenanted by a princess. Huber, therefore, placed the
queen, who had not married until she had bordered upon old
maidenhood, in a hive which had no queen, but in which there
was one royal cell occupied by a princess. The old bride, whose
nuptials had not been celebrated until she had attained the
twenty-eighth day of her age, laid nothing of course except drone
eggs. On being placed in the hive she exhibited none of the
usual signs of hostility against the royal cell. On the contrary,
she passed and repassed it many times a day without seeming to
take the least notice of it, or to distinguish it in any way from the
numerous cells which surrounded it on every side. In such of
these latter cells as were unoccupied she deposited eggs, and not-
withstanding the jealous guard which the workers kept around
92

CHARACTER OF QUEENS.

the royal cell occupied by the princess, the queen did not appear
either to show a disposition to attack the imprisoned princess, or to
fear any attack on the part of the latter.

185. Meanwhile the workers exhibited towards the queen the
same respect and homage, lavished upon her the same affectionate
cares, offered her honey, and formed round her in the same respect-
ful circle, as they are wont to do round a sovereign possessing all
the functions necessary to perpetuate the race.

It appears, therefore, that the postponement of the royal nuptials
beyond a certain age, while it deprives the queen of the faculty of
having any but male offspring, also deprives her of that instinctive
feeling of jealous hostility towards rival queens, which forms a
trait so remarkable in the characters of queens, whose nuptials
take place at an earlier and more natural age.

To those who regard these little creatures as mere pieces of
mechanism, obeying unreflecting impulses, having purposes always
directed to the fulfilment of some important end in their economy,
it will doubtless be surprising that members of the community so
useless as those princesses, who postpone their nuptials until they
are incapable of bearing worthier offspring, should not be destroyed
as the drones are, after they cease to be useful. So contrary to
this, however, is the fact, that no royal bride, however young, is
the object of solicitude more tender, affection more sincere, and
homage more profound, than those drone-bearing mothers. " I
have seen," says Huber, " the workers lavish the most tender care
upon such a queen, and, after her decease, surround her inanimate
body with the same respect and homage as they had paid to herself
while living, and, in the presence of these .beloved remains, refuse
all attention to young and fertile queens who were offered to
them." * It must be admitted that this looks much more like the
tenderness of moral affection than the mechanical impression of
blind instinct.

186. "We have already stated that the royal nuptials are always
celebrated in the air, and under the bright beams of the sun,
where the bride rises with her numerous suitors, and makes her
choice. This bridal excursion into the fields of ether is so inti-
mately interwoven with the customs of these little people, that if,
by cutting off her wings before her nuptials, her majesty is de-
prived of the power of flight, she is consigned irretrievably to a
life of single blessedness, since she can never submit to nuptials
celebrated in the recesses of the hive, instead of the gay and
bright sunshine of the free air.

* It will be observed that, according to the general habit of the blind,
Huber uses the language of vision, and describes what he saw with the
eyes of Semens as if he had seen them with his own.

93

THE BEE.

Lest it might be imagined, as indeed Swammerdam supposed,,
that the marriage is really consummated in this case in the hive,
and that her majesty is only rendered sterile by the mutilation
she has undergone, Huber cut off the wings of a queen imme-
diately after the royal nuptials, but before her majesty had yet any
offspring. In this case, however, her fertility was as great as usual,
and she produced the customary number and variety of eggs.

187. One of the questions in insect physiology, which has been
attended with a certain degree of doubt, is that which regards
the functions of the antenna?. Huber, therefore, desiring to
ascertain how the queen would be affected by the privation of
these organs, cut off first one and then both, observing the conduct
of her majesty after such mutilation.

The excision of one only of the antenna? produced no dis-
coverable effect upon her faculties or conduct, but the amputation
of both was followed by some very remarkable consequences.

The antenna? of a queen of limited fertility, who was incapable
of having other than drone offspring, were cut off. From the
moment she lost these organs she appeared to be affected by a
sort of delirious intoxication. She ran over the combs with extra-
ordinary vivacity. She did not give her suite, who formed the
usual circle around her, time to make way for her, but rushed
madly through them, violently breaking their ranks. She did
not deposit her eggs in cells, but dropped them at hazard. The
hive not being very full, there were parts of it unoccupied by
combs. To these parts she rushed, and remained there a con-
siderable time quiescent, appearing to avoid the presence of her
subjects. Some of them, nevertheless, followed her to these
deserted places, and eagerly testified their solicitude for her,
caressing her, and offering her honey. This she generally
declined ; and when now and then she seemed disposed reluctantly
to accept it, she appeared to lose the power of presenting her
proboscis to receive it, directing that organ at one time to the
head and at another to the legs of the workers, so that it was
only by chance it encountered their mouths. She would then
run back to the combs, and from the combs to the glazed sides of
the hive, in wild delirium, never ceasing to drop her eggs here
and there as she went along.

At other moments she seemed to be tormented with a desire to
quit the hive, and rushed to the door for that purpose, but the
orifice being too small to allow her body to pass through it, she
was forced to desist, and returned to the interior. Notwithstand-
ing this state of delirium, the bees never ceased to lavish upon
her those cares which they are accustomed to bestow on their
queen ; but she received them with indifference.
94

EXPERIMENTS ON QUEENS.

Whether all this singularity and eccentricity of conduct was to
be ascribed to the excision of the antennso, or to that mutilation
combined with the partial sterility which limited her offspring to
drones, was not clear. To decide this point, Huber amputated
the antennee of a perfect queen, married at an early age, and who
was bearing a numerous offspring, consisting of workers, drones,
and princesses. This queen he placed in the same hive with the
former, with a view to determine at once two questions, the one
relating to the general conduct of the amputated queen, and the
other, that which regarded the mutual bearing of two mutilated
personages.

The general conduct was the same as that of the former queen.
There was the same wild delirium ; the same rushing here and
there as if under the influence of intoxication ; the same efforts to
escape from the hive; and, in a word, the same peculiarity of con-
duct and manners. A like difference was apparent in their con-
duct towards each other. Instead of entering into deadly combat,
as queens in their natural state would have done in like circum-
stances, they met and passed each other again and again without
the slightest indication of mutual hostility. This is perhaps the
strongest proof which can be obtained, that the privation of the
antennae utterly subverted their natural instincts.

Another curious social anomaly was manifested on this occasion.
It will be recollected that where a strange queen is introduced
into a hive over which a regular sovereign already presides, the
population surround her, confine her as a prisoner within a ring
of sentinels, and refuse to permit her to enter their city. In the
present case, no such measures were adopted. On the contrary,
the second mutilated queen was received with the same signs of
welcome, and immediately became the same object of attention
and homage as the first.

But the most wonderful fact of all those developed in this
series of experiments, was that when a third queen in the perfect
state, without mutilation, was introduced, the bees who had
already treated the other two so well, immediately proceeded to
maltreat this third and perfect queen. They seized her, dragged
her about, bit her, and so closely surrounded her as to leave her
room neither to move nor to breathe.

Having observed the apparent desire of these mutilated queens
to issue from the hive, which they were only prevented from
doing by the limited magnitude of the door, and desiring to see
whether the bees or any considerable number of them would
depart with her, as they would do with a perfect queen, Huber,
after taking away the two queens who were sterile, or partially
so, and leaving her who was fruitful in all respects, but deprived

95

THE BEE.

of her antennae, he enlarged the door so as to allow her free
passage through it. So soon as this was done, she went out, and
took flight, but not a single bee accompanied her. She was,
moreover, so heavy, being full of eggs, that she was not able long
to sustain herself on the wing, and fell to the ground.

Various conjectures are made by Huber to explain this singular
departure from the prevailing habits of the insect, but none of
them appear so satisfactory as to require to be reproduced.

9 3

Fig. 85. Oblique piece to elevate
a village hive.

Fig. 86. The bee-dress.

THE BEE.

CHAPTER VII.

188. Apiculture. 189. Suitable localities and pasturage. 190. The
Apiary. 1.91. Out-door Apiary. 192. Bee-house. 193. Cabinet
bee-houses. 194. Form and material of hives. 195. Village hive.
196. English hive. 197. Various forms of hives. 198. Various
forms of bee-boxes. 199. Bee-dress and other accessories of apicul-
ture. 200. Purchase of hives. 201. Honey harvest. 202. Honey
and wax important articles of commerce. 203. Various sorts of wild
honey. 204. Periodical migration of bees. 205. Poisoned honey.
206. Maladies of bees. 207. Curious case of abortive brood.
208. Superstition of bee cultivators. 209. Enemies of bees. 210.
Attacks of bees when provoked. 211. Anecdote of Mungo Park.
212. Anecdote of Thorley. 213. Bee wars. 214. Curious case of a
battle.

188. APICULTURE is the name given to the art by which the
products of the industry of the bee are augmented in quantity,
improved in quality, and rendered subservient to the uses of man.

189. The most favourable localities for the practice of apicul-
ture are of course those of which the climate is suitable to the
habits and character of the insect, and which most abound in those
vegetable productions on which it loves to feed. Among these
the principal are saintfoin, Dutch clover (trifolium repens], buck-
wheat, rape, honeysuckle, clover (trifolium pratense), and yellow
trefoil (medicago lupulina). According to Dr. Bevan, the earliest

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. H 97

129.

THE BEE.

resources of the bee are, however, the willow, hazel, osier, poplar,
sycamore, and plane ; to which may be added, the snow-drop,
crocus, white alyssum, laurustinus, orange and lemon trees,
gooseberry and currant and raspberry bushes, sweet marjoram,
winter-savory, thyme, and mint. In a word, fruit-trees and green-
house plants and shrubs in general, such especially as abound in
ornamental grounds, all constitute a part of bee-pasturage.

" First the gray willows' glossy pearls they steal,
Or rob the hazel of its golden meal ;
While the gay crocus and the violet blue
Yield to the flexile trunk ambrosial dew.

EVANS, quoted by SEVAN.

An undulating country is highly favourable to the bee.

190. The apiary should be near the dwelling-house, in the garden,
and in a position sheltered from unfavourable winds. The farm
and poultry-yard should be avoided, as well as too great proximity
to railways, forges, factories, bakehouses, workshops, and the like.
The bee loves tranquil spots, planted with ornamental shrubs
and fruit-trees, and sown with sweet flowers, such as mignonette,
thyme, mint, rosemary, &c. The aspect of the apiary may be
east, west, or south, according as the one or other affords best
shelter, but never north.

191. The hives should be placed on separate stands, a few feet
apart, should be clear of any wall or fence, and elevated eighteen
inches or two feet above the ground.

Hives are sometimes assembled together in the open air,
forming an out-door apiary, such as is shown in fig. 54, p.l, in
which case they are generally made of straw, and protected in cold
weather by straw roofs, but sometimes also formed of wooden
boxes, as shown in the figure.

This arrangement, having the advantage of simplicity and
cheapness, is most commonly adopted, especially by those to whom
economy is important, and in warm climates where shelter is less
necessary.

192. Under other circumstances bee-housss are much more
strongly recommended, as well for comfort and convenience as for
security. The bee-house, one form of which is shown in fig. 55,
p. 33, consists of two or more rows of shelves, established one
above the other, on which the hives are placed at distances of
from twelve to eighteen inches apart, so that the bee-doors shall
be from two to three feet asunder. The house should be thatched
not only on the roof but on the sides and ends. A passage should
be provided for approaching the hives behind, and windows in the
side for ventilation.

193. A form called the Cabinet bee-house is shown in fig. 56,
98

HIVES.

p. 65, where B B are doors, one of which is glazed, and A a pipe
of tin or caoutchouc, by which the bees have ingress and egress.

194. Hives have been constructed of different materials, as straw,
osiers, rushes, sedges, wood, and earthenware; and of still more
various forms, some being bell- shaped or conical, some cylindrical,
some square in their section, some with rectangular and some with
oblique tops, being internally divided by comb-frames fixed or
movable, by shelves, and other expedients.

Their forms of structure depend in some degree upon the object
of the proprietors. When apiculture is prosecuted on a large
scale for the produce of honey and wax, as articles of trade, the
foreign cultivators prefer hives of the most simple forms and
most easy construction, and those from which the products can be
obtained with most facility. The material preferred is, generally,
straw or rushes. The process of making such a hive is indicated
in fig. 57.

Fig. 57. Process of making
a straw hive.

Fig. 61. Movable comb-
frame of the village
hive.

Fig. 59. Top of the
cylindrical body of
the village hive.

195. The bell-shaped straw hive, called the village hive, repre-
sented on the right of fig. 58, p. 49, is cylindrical in the body,
and surmounted by a bell-shaped cap. The top of the cylindrical
body is covered by a frame of bars, shown separately in fig. 59,
and the cap itself is shown in fig. 60.

Fig. 60. Cap of the

Fig. 62.-Dewhurst's hive.

One of the movable comb-frames is shown in fig. 61, where A
is the vertical section of the stage, shown by plan in fig. 59 ; B
the uprights, and c a shelf shown in vertical section.

H 2 99

THE BEE.

196. The English hive of Dewhurst, having a box at the top, is
shown in fig. 62 ; where A is the "body of the hive, B the opening
at the top, and c the box provided with shutters.

197. In fig. 63, p. 81, is shown a form of straw hive used in
Scotland, and in .fig. 64 the Radouan hive, similar in form to
the village hive, but provided with movable pieces, by placing
which successively below it, its elevation can be gradually
augmented without disturbing the superior part, so as to give
increased space to the bees and prevent the issue of swarms.

A form of hive mucn used in the South of France, and known
to French apiarists as the Vulgar Hive (Ruche Vulgaire), is shown
on the left of fig. 58, p. 49, in the process of transferring the bees
from one hive to another.

A form of cork hive used in the South of France is shown ill

Fig. 66. Cylindrical hive Fig. 67. Delia Rocca hive (Greece

(Switzerland and Italy). and Turkey).

fig. 65 ; and a cylindrical hive with its axis horizontal, much

t

Fig. 68. Murie's bee-box,
with cylindrical cap (French).

Fig. 69. De Frarifere's garden hive.

used in Switzerland and Italy, is shown in fig. 66.
100

BEE-HOUSES.

In Greece and Turkey a hive of earthenware, known as that of
della Rocca, is much used, fig. 67.

Straw hives have the advantage over wooden boxes in being
better non-conductors of heat, and therefore preventing immo-
derate cold in winter and immoderate heat in summer in the

Fig. 70. Patteau's bee-box, with
horizontal divisions.

Fig. 71. Gelieu's bee-box, with vertical
division.

interior. They are on this account preferred where the apiary is
uncovered.

198. When apiculture is practised partly for the purpose of

Fig. 72.' Feburier's bee-box, with vertical Fig. 73. Huber's experimental
division and sloping roof. leaf-hive.

observing the habits of the insect, boxes with divisions and

101

THE BEE.

movable comb-frames, with glazed openings and other like con-
trivances, are used. These bee-boxes, as they are called, are

Fig. 75. Vertical frame of box
shown in fig. 74.

Fig. 74. Debeauvoy's bee-box, with
sloping roof and shelves.

infinitely various in form, and although our limits will not allow
us to enter into the details of the advantages derived from them

Fig. 78. Shutter of
box shown in fig. 77.

Fig. 77. Debeauvoy's box, with
vertical frames.

by their inventors and contrivers, it will nevertheless be useful to
show the forms of those most generally used.

The common bee-box used in the South of France is shown in
fig. 76, p. 17, the cover c being hinged, so as to be capable of
being raised at pleasure. The process of transferring the bees
102

BEE-HOUSES.

Fig. 78.* Lefebvre's box, with mov-
able frames. A, a frame drawn out.

Fig. 79. Harriet's ' bee-box,
with oblique horizontal
divisions.

Fig. 80. One of the divisions by
which fig. 79 is elevated, with
a movable frame, A, drawn
out.

Fig. 81. Hamet's bee-box, with
divisions and movable frames.

from one hive to another by smoking them, is indicated, and also
the method of hiving a swarm.

gggigii^^

Fig. 82. Uprights
of fig. 81.

Fig. S3. Frame ol
fig. 81.

Fig. 84. Side of fig. 81, with
its movable frame.

199. In the practical details of apiculture there are many

103

THE BEE.

accessories, some of which are of occasional, and others of
constant use.

The bee-dress, fig. 86, is a sort of armour, by which the operator
is protected from all hostile attacks of the insect. It is usually
made of Scotch gauze, or catgut, and so formed as to inclose the
head, neck, and shoulders, as shown in fig. 76, p. 17, where a
person invested with such a dress is represented in the act of
hiving a swarm. It should have long sleeves to tie round the
wrists over a pair of tkick gloves, and the body should descend
low enough to be tied round the waist. Thick

Fig. 87. Fig. 88- ,. . . , ..

woollen stockings and a woollen apron are recom-
mended, the material being ^one from which the
bee can readily withdraw its sting.

Knives of different forms (figs. 87, 88) should
be provided, for the partial removal of the honey-
combs, when the smothering process is not re-
sorted to.

A bellows connected with a fumigator (fig. 89)
for projecting tobacco- smoke into those parts of
the combs from which it is desired to expel the
bees, should be provided.

A hive with a handle for mixing swarms is
often useful (fig. 90).

A basket, with an open bottom, placed over
a tub for the purpose of draining the honey-combs, is also a
convenient accessory (fig. 91).

200. A hive should, in general, be purchased in autumn, and
its value will be pretty well ascertained by its weight. That of
a good hive which will be sure to go through the winter, and
to be productive in the ensuing season, should be from 25
to 30 Ibs., and should contain about a peck of bees. If the
weight be much greater than 30 Ibs., a part of the honey
may be advantageously taken out. Hives are to be preferred
which are only a year old, and which have sent out no more
than a single swarm. Such will be distinguished by the
superior whiteness and purity of the combs. The transport
should be made in cool weather, and should be conducted without
shocks or jolts.

201. Honey should never be taken from any but the nearest and
most populous hives. If they are provided with movable comb-
frames, it is usual to make a partial harvest in May, the principal
stores of the insect being collected between the middle of May and
the end of June, the commencement and termination, however,
varying three or four weeks, according to the climate peculiar to
the locality.

104

COLLECTION OF HONEY.

Dr. Bevan recommends, as a general rule, that no honey should
be taken from a colony the first year of its being planted.

Fig. 90.

Fig. 89.

Fig. 91.

To make a partial collection of honey, the hive is opened at the
top or at the side, and the bees expelled from the combs by puffing
tobacco-smoke upon them. The combs are then cut away with
knives of suitable forms (figs. 87, 88). This operation requires
to be performed with skill and care, so as to avoid as much as pos-
sible irritating the bees. To withdraw the queen from the part of
the combs which are to be removed, the operator taps with his
fingers on the opposite part of the hive, which will cause her
majesty to run there, to ascertain the cause of the noise. If any
bees are seen upon the combs removed, they may be brushed off
with a feather, when they will generally return to the hive. The
combs taken away are replaced either by empty ones, or by full
combs taken from the lower part of the hive.

"When hives are constructed on the principle of those shown in
fig. 64, &c., consisting of several parts separable, laid one upon
the other, the honey may be collected by causing the bees to
desert the division intended to be removed by tapping on remote
parts of the hive, and by projecting tobacco-smoke on them.

These operations may be performed in the day between ten and
three o'clock. If the country be one rich in bee pasturage, a
superior division of the hive may be taken away and replaced by
an empty one, if the operation take place early in the season ; and
this latter may sometimes be again harvested before the close of
the season, so as to obtain honey of the purest and finest quality.

105

THE BEE.

But where the pasturage is not so rich, or where the operation is-
performed later in the season, it will be necessary either not to-
replace the division harvested, or to put the empty division at the
bottom of the hive.

To collect the honey in the hives of the form represented in
fig. 58, p. 49, called the vulgar hive, it is necessary either to expel
the bees or to smother them.

To expel and transfer them to another hive, that which is to be
harvested is inverted,as shown in fig. 58, p. 49, and over it i&
placed the hive to which the bees are to be transferred. The bees
may be driven from one to the other, either by being smoked, as
shown in fig. 76, p. 17, or by tapping upon the superior hive,
fig. 58, p. 49.

If some bees remain in the hive to be harvested, they will
voluntarily pass into the new hive by the arrangement repre-
sented in fig. 76, p. 17.

When the hive is harvested, either wholly or partially, by
affecting the bees with temporary asphyxia, the process is as
follows : after having beaten the black powder from a puff-ball of
Lycoperdon, it is placed with some red charcoal in the fumigator,
fig. 89, the nozzle of which is inserted at the door of the hive.
The bellows being worked for five or six minutes, the bees will
fall insensible from the hive, when the combs may be removed,
wholly or partially, as the case may be. In twenty or thirty
minutes the bees will revive, and re-enter the hive, or may be
received in a new one if desired.

If it be not desired to preserve the bees, the hive may be
placed over a pit into which they will fall, and where they may
be buried.

To obtain honey of the first quality, the purest combs, con-
taining neither bee-bread nor brood, being selected, are drained
through a hair-sieve or osier-basket. Their product, called
virgin honey, is limpid. It hardens and keeps if potted and put
in a cool and dry place. Honey of inferior quality is obtained
by pressing the residue of the combs, and exposing them to heat.

Whenever honey is collected, wax may also be obtained, but
the latter substance may be separately collected at the close of
the winter, by paring away the lower ranges of comb, taking
away by the knife those which are old, black, and mouldy, and
those which have been attacked by the moth. The wax is dis-
solved with boiling water, after which it is purified and collected
in moulds of glazed pottery.

202. Honey and wax, the products of bee industry, form
important articles of commerce in various parts of the world.

Although the production of wax is not confined to the bee,
106

HONEY AND WAX.

nearly all of that article employed in Europe is of bee manu-
facture.

Although honey has lost much of its importance as an article of
food, since the discovery and improvement of the fabrication of
sugar, it is still regarded as a luxury, and of considerable value
in this country, as the material out of which a wholesome vinous
beverage is produced. In many inland parts of the continent
where sugar is costly, few articles of rural economy could be less
spared. In the Ukraine some of the peasants possess from 400 to
500 hives, and are said to make more profit of their bees than
even of their corn. In Spain the nurture of bees is carried to a
still greater extent ; according to Mills, a single parish priest was
known to possess the almost incredible number of 5000 hives.

The common hive-bee is the same, according to Latreille, in
every part of Europe, except in some districts of Italy, where a
species called the Apis ligustica of Spinola is kept. This species
is also said to be cultivated in the Morea and the Ionian Isles.
Honey, however, is also obtained from many other species of bees,
as well wild as domesticated.

203. The rock honey of some parts of America, which is very
thin and as clear as water, is the produce of wild bees, which sus-
pend their clusters of thirty or forty waxen cells, resembling a
bunch of grapes, from a rock. In South America large quantities
of honey are collected from nests built in trees by the Trigona
Amalthea and other species of this genus, under which, according
to Kirby, should be included the Bamburos, to gather the honey
of which the whole population in Ceylon make excursions into
the woods.

According to Agara, one of the chief articles of food of the
Paraguay Indians is wild honey.

Captain Green observes, that in the Island of Bourbon, where
he was stationed for some time, there is a bee which produces
honey much esteemed there, of a green colour, having the con-
sistency of oil, and which, besides the usual sweetness of honey,
has a remarkable fragrance. This green honey is exported to
India in considerable quantities, where it bears a high price.

A species of bee called the Apis fasciata was probably culti-
vated ages before the present hive-bee was attended to. This
species is still so extensively cultivated in Egypt that Niebuhr
met on the hill between Cairo and Damietta a convoy of
4000 hives, which the apiarists of that country were transporting
from/ a region where the season had passed, to one where the
spring was later.

204. This periodical migration of bees is by no means of modern
date. According to Columella, the Greeks used to send their

107

THE BEE.

bee-hives at certain seasons of the year from Achaia into Attica,
and a similar custom still prevails in Italy, and even in this
country in the neighbourhood of heaths.

Among the domesticated species of bees may be also mentioned
the Apis unicolor in Madagascar, the Apis Indica at Pondicherry
and in Bengal, and the Apis Adansonii at Senegal.

Fabricius affirmed that the Apis Acraensis laboriosa, and
others in the East and West Indies, might be domesticated with
greater advantage than* even the common hive-bee of Europe,
called the Apis mellifica.

205. Honey is one of the class of aliments which requires to be
used with some precaution, since not only are certain constitutions
of body affected injuriously by it, even in its most natural and
wholesome state, but it happens occasionally that the insects which
collect it resort to poisonous flowers, which impart their noxious
properties to the honey extracted from them.

Kirby mentions the case of a lady of his acquaintance upon
whom ordinary honey acted like poison, and says, that he heard
of instances in which death ensued from eating it.

But where the bee unfortunately resorts to poisonous plants,
the consequences are not thus limited to individuals of peculiar
idiosyncrasies. Dr. Barton has given a remarkable example of
this.*

In the autumn and winter of the year 1790, an extensive
mortality was produced amongst those who had partaken of the
honey, collected in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. The
attention of the American government was excited by the general
distress ; a minute enquiry into the cause of the mortality ensued,
and it was satisfactorily ascertained that the honey had been
chiefly extracted from the flowers of Kalmia latifolia. Though the
honey mentioned in Xenophon's well-known account of the effect
of a particular sort, eaten by the Grecian soldiers during the cele-
brated retreat, after the death of the younger Cyrus, did not
operate fatally, it gave those of the soldiers who ate it in small
quantities the appearance of being intoxicated, and suc^ as par-
took of it freely, of being mad or about to die, numbers lying on
the ground as if after a defeat. A specimen of this honey, which
still retains its deleterious properties, was sent to the Zoological
Society in 1834 from Trebizond, on the Black Sea, by Keith
E. Abbott, Esq.

206. The maladies of the bee proceed from three causes, hun-
ger, damp, and infection ; all of which admit of prevention when
the insect is maintained artificially.

* American Philosophical Transactions, vol. v. of the year 1790.
108

MALADIES OF BEES.

Dysentery is the malady which is at once the most dreaded by
bee-owner, and the most easy to be prevented. It is always due
to damp or to bad diet, such as impure honey and indigestible
syrups. The remedies are consequently to place the hives in a
dry situation, and to supply the insects with wholesome food, such
as good honey mixed with a little generous wine. The greatest
care should also be taken to remove such combs as may be
rendered foul by excrement, and to clean the shelves in the
bee-houses.

Among other maladies may be mentioned, diseases of the
antennae, vertigo, and abortive broods of eggs. These are gene-
rally produced by bad food, damp, and drafts of cold air. On
that account some bee- cultivators reject the forms of hive or bee-
houses having two doors on opposite sides, thus placed for the
purpose of ventilation. This arrangement is never seen in the
natural habitations of the insect.

207. Dr. Bevan mentions a case of abortive brood which occur-
red in one of Mr. Dunbar's hives. The colony had been very
strong in the previous autumn, and possessed a fertile queen, but
in the spring it failed, and did not swarm. On examination, he
found the four central leaves of the hive (which was one of Huber's,
fig. 73), full of abortive brood, by the presence of which the queen
seemed to t be paralysed, though she still laid a few eggs at the
edge of the combs. As the population seemed gradually dimi-
nishing, Mr. Dunbar cut out the whole of the abortive brood,
removed the old queen, and added an after swarm to the family.
The conjoined bees soon betook themselves to work, replaced the
old combs by new ones, and laid in an ample store of honey. This
is an operation called castration by French apiculturists ; and in
all such cases it is prudent, in order to prevent contagion, to have
the infected combs burnt or buried.

208. Butler, in his " Female Monarchy," relates a story of a
credulous lady who devoted herself to the cultivation of bees.
This person having gone to receive the sacrament, retained the
consecrated wafer ; and at the suggestion of a friend, more simple
than herself, placed it . in one of her diseased hives. The bee
plague, according to her report, immediately .ceased ; honey accu-
mulated ; and, on examining the inside of the hive, she found
there, to her astonishment and admiration, a waxen chapel, of
wondrous architecture, supplied with an altar, and even with a
steeple, and a set of bells, all constructed of the same material.

209. The most dangerous enemies of the bees are the larvae of
certain moths, which when once they take possession of a hive can-
not be extirpated, and no remedy remains but to transport the
entire population of the insect colony to a new habitation.

109

THE BEE.

The bee-louse, an insect about the size of a flea, often infests
populous hives, so as greatly to annoy the bees by fixing itself
upon them. Sometimes two or more attach themselves to a single
bee, making it restless and indisposed for its usual industry.

A magnified view of one of these parasites is shown in fig. 92,
as seen from above ; and in fig. 93, as seen from below.

Fig. 92. Bee Louse, Fig. 93. Bee-Louse,

seen from above. seen from below.

That universal plunderer the wasp, and his formidable congener
the hornet, often seize and devour them ; sometimes ripping open
their body to come at the honey, and at others carrying off that
part in which it is situated. Wasps frequently take possession
of a hive, having either destroyed or driven away its inhabitants,
and consume all the honey it contains. Nay, there are certain
idlers of their own species, called by apiarists, corsair bees, which
plunder the hives of the industrious.

210. Examples have been already cited, in which bees have
manifested peculiar personal antipathies, which have been
ascribed, in the cases mentioned, to some odour, offensive to
the insect, proceeding from the obnoxious individuals. Inde-
pendently, however, of such general causes of hostility, the
insects are sometimes provoked against even their best friends
and most familiar acquaintances, by occasional circumstances.
Kirby relates, that although he was generally exempt from their
hostility, he could not venture with impunity to put them out
of humour. Thus happening one day, during the season when
asparagus was in blossom, to pass among the beds, which were
crowded with bees, he discomposed them so much that he was
obliged to make a hasty retreat, pursued by a swarm of his
offended friends.

211. In Mungo Park's last mission to Africa, he was much
annoyed by bees. His people, searching for honey, having dis-
turbed a large colony of them, the insects sallied forth by myriads,
and attacking men and beasts indiscriminately, put them all to
the rout. One horse and six asses were killed or missing in con-
sequence of their attack, and for half an hour the bees seem to
have completely put an end to their journey. Isaacs, upon

110

MALADIES OF BEES.

another occasion, lost one of his asses, arid one of his men was
almost killed by them.*

212. Bees, however, as we have already observed, are not
usually ill-tempered ; and, if not molested, are generally inoffen-
sive. Thorley relates, f that a maid servant, who assisted him in
hiving a swarm, being rather afraid, put a linen cloth as a defence
over her head and shoulders. When the bees were shaken from
the tree on which they had alighted, the queen probably settled
upon this cloth, for the whole swarm covered it, and then getting
under it, spread themselves over her face, neck, and bosom, so
that when the cloth was removed, she was quite a spectacle. She
was with great difficulty kept from running off with all the bees
upon her. But at length her master quieted her fears,*and began
to search for the queen. He succeeded, and expected that when
he put her into the hive the bees would follow. He was, however,
in the first instance disappointed, for they did not stir. Upon
examining the cluster again, he found a second queen, or probably
the former one, which had flown back to the swarm. Having
seized her, he placed her in the hive, and kept her there. The
bees soon missed her, and crowded into the hive after her, so that,
in two or three minutes, not one remained on the poor frightened
.girl. After this escape she became quite a heroine, and would
undertake the most hazardous employment about the hives.

213. The duels of rival queens have been already mentioned.
Similar combats take place occasionally between the workers of
one hive and those of another. Nor are such wars confined ^to
single combats. General actions take place now and then between
neighbouring colonies. This occurs when one takes a fancy to a
hive which another has pre-occupied. Reaumur witnessed one of
these battles, which lasted a whole afternoon, and in which great
numbers fell on the one side and the other. In such cases, each
combatant selects his opponent, and the victorious one flies away
with the slain body of its enemy between its legs. After making
a short flight thus, she deposits it on the ground, and rests near
it, standing on her four anterior legs, and rubbing the two hinder
legs against each other, as though she enjoyed the sight of her
victim.

214. The following account of a bee battle was published in a
Carlisle newspaper. A swarm of bees flying over a garden, where
a newly tenanted hive was placed, suddenly stopped in their
flight, and, descending, settled upon the hive, completely covering
it. In a little time, they began to make their way to the door,
and poured into it in such numbers, that it became completely

* Park's Last Mission, 153, 297. t Thorley, 150.

Ill

THE BEE.

filled. A loud humming noise was heard, and the work of de-
struction immediately ensued. The winged combatants sallied
forth from the hive until it became entirely emptied, and a fero-
cious battle commenced in the air between the besiegers and the
besieged. These intrepid warriors were so numerous, that they
literally darkened the sky overhead like a cloud. Meanwhile,
the destructive battle raged with great fury on both sides, and
the ground beneath was covered with the killed and wounded.
Hundreds were seen dispersed on the ground, lying dead, or
crawling about in a disabled state. To one party at length the
palm of victory was awarded, and they settled upon a branch
of an adjoining tree, from which they were removed to the deserted
hive, of which they took quiet possession, and commenced and
continued their usual industry.

112

STEAM NAVIGATION.

CHAPTER T.

1. Inventors of steam navigation uneducated. 2. First steamers on the
Hudson and the Clyde. 3. Sea-going steamers due to British
engineers. 4. Progress of steam navigation from 1812 to 1837.
5. Atlantic steamers projected. 6. Abstract possibility of the
voyage could not be doubted. 7. The voyage had been already made
by two steamers. 8. Projects advanced in 1836. 9. Discussion at
Bristol in 1837. 10. Report of Dr. Lardner's speech in the Times of
27th August, showing the falsehood of the report that he pronounced
the project impracticable. 11. Atlantic steam voyage advocated by
Dr. Lardner in 1836-7. 12. The practical results of the various
projects prove the truth of his predictions. 13. The Cunard
steamers, established on the conditions suggested by him, were alone
successful. 14. Voyages of these steamers. 15. Other lines
established. 16. Probable extension of steam navigation to the
general purposes of commerce. 17. Auxiliary steam-power the most
probable means of accomplishing this. 1 8. Advantages of subaqueous
propulsion. 19. Means of realising them. 20. Improved adaptation
of steam-power to vessels of war required. 21. Mercantile steam-
marine available for national defence. 22. Principle of marine-
engine. 23. Propellers. 24. Paddle-wheels and screws. 25.
Arrangement of paddle-wheels. 26. Paddle-shaft. 27. General
arrangement of marine-engine.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE, i 113

No. 120.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

1. IF the spirits of Watt, Trevithick, and Fulton can look down
on the things of this nether world, and behold the grand results
their discoveries and inventions have produced, what triumph
must be theirs ! For half a century the steam-engine had re-
mained a barren fact in the archives of science, when the self-
taught genius of the Glasgow mechanic breathed into it the spirit
of vitality, and conferred upon it energies by which it revived the
drooping commerce of his country, and, when the auspicious
epoch of general peace^ arrived, diffused its beneficial influence to
the very skirts of civilisation. Scarcely had the fruit of the
labour of Watt ripened, and this great mover been adopted as
the principal power in the arts and manufactures, than its uses
received that prodigious extension which resulted from its acquir-
ing the LOCOMOTIVE character. As it had previously displaced
animal power in the MILL, and usurped its nomenclature, so it
now menaced its displacement on the ROAD. A few years more
witnessed perhaps the greatest and most important of all the
manifold agencies of steam that by which it has given wings to
the ship, and bade it laugh to scorn the opposing elements, trans-
porting it in triumph over the expanse of the trackless ocean,
regardless of wind or current, and conferring upon locomotion
over the deep a regularity, certainty, and precision, surpassed by
nothing save the movement of chronometers or the course of the
heavenly bodies. Such are the vast results which have sprung
from the intelligence of men, none of whom shared those privi-
leges of mental culture enjoyed by the favoured sons of wealth ;
none of whom grew up within the walls of schools or colleges,
drawing inspiration from the fountains of ancient learning ; none
of whom were spurred on by those irresistible incentives to genius
arising from the competition of ardent and youthful minds, and
from the prospect of scholastic honours and professional advance-
ment. Sustained by that innate consciousness of power, stimu-
lated by that irrepressible force of will, so eminently characteristic
of, and inseparable from, minds of the first order, they, in
their humble and obscure positions persevered against adverse and
embarrassing circumstances, impelled by the faith that was in
them, against the doubts, the opposition, and, not unfrequently,
the ridicule of an incredulous world, until at length, by time and
patience, truth was triumphant, and mankind now gathers the
rich harvest sown by these illustrious labourers.

2. It was about the eighth year of the present century that
Fulton launched the first steamboat on the Hudson. After the
lapse of four years the first European steamboat was established
on the Clyde. From that time the art of steam-navigation, in
the two great maritime and commercial nations, advanced with a
114

INLAND STEAM NAVIGATION.

steady and rapid progress. But it took different directions,
governed by the peculiar geographical and commercial circum-
stances attending these countries. The genius and enterprise of
the United States saw before and around it a vast territory, inter-
sected by navigable rivers of unequalled length, forming lines of
water communication on a colossal scale between its extensive
interior and the sea-board. The Mississippi and its tributaries,
with their sources, lost in distant tracts as yet untrodden by
civilised man, and navigable by large vessels for many thousands
of miles, the Hudson, all but touching upon those magnificent
inland seas that stretch along the northern boundary, and are
almost connected with the Mississippi by the noble stream of the
Illinois, the Delaware, the vast Potomac, and, in fine, a coast
thousands of miles in extent, fringed by innumerable bays and
harbours, and land-locked basins having all the attributes of
lakes, these addressed themselves to the eye of the engineer and
the capitalist, and determined the direction of enterprise. The
application of steam power to inland navigation the construc-
tion of vessels suited to traverse with speed, safety, and economy,
rivers and lakes, harbours, bays, and extensive inlets this was
the task and the vocation of the American engineer, and this the
interest of the capitalist and the merchant.*

3. The problem of steam-navigation, however, presented itself
to the British engineer under other conditions. In a group of
islands intersected by no considerable navigable rivers, and
neither requiring nor admitting any inland navigation save that
of artificial canals, separated, however, from each other and
from the adjacent continent of Europe by straits, channels, gulfs,
and other arms of the sea, it was apparent that if steam power
should become available at all, it must be adapted to the naviga-
tion of these seas and channels it must be adapted to accelerate
and cheapen the intercourse between the British islands, between
port and port upon their coasts, between them and the various
ports on the adjacent coast of Europe, and finally to establish a
communication with the Mediterranean and the coasts of Africa,
Asia, and Europe, which are washed by it. While the American,
therefore, was called on to contrive a steam-vessel adapted to
inland and smooth-water navigation, the British engineer had the
more difficult task, to construct one which should be capable of
meeting and surmounting all the obstructions arising from the
vicissitudes of the deep.

The result of the labour and enterprise of the English nation,
directed to this inquiry, has been the present sea-going steam-ship.

* For a more developed notice of American Steam Navigation, see
Railway Economy, chap, xvi., and Museum, vol. ii. p. 17.

i 2 115

STEAM NAVIGATION.

4. In the quarter of a century which elapsed between 1812
and 1837 steam-navigation made a steady and continuous, but not
a sudden progress. The first lines of steamers were established
naturally between the ports of England and the nearest sea-ports
of Ireland on the one side, and France on the other. The length
of each unbroken passage was then regarded as the great difficulty
of the project. Thus steamers were established between Holyhead
and Dublin, and between Dover and Calais, long before projectors
ventured to try them ietween Dublin and Liverpool, or between
London and the Low Countries.

After some years' experience, however, and the consequent
improvement of the marine engine, passages of greater length
were attempted with success. Lines of steamers were established
first between more distant parts of the United Kingdom ; as, for
example, between London and Edinburgh, and between Dublin,
Liverpool, and Glasgow. At a later period still longer trips
became practicable, and lines of steamers were established between
the United Kingdom and the Mediterranean ; touching, however,
for fuel at the peninsular ports, such as Corunna, Lisbon, and
Gibraltar.

During this period, also, a fleet of steamers was constructed by
government for post-office purposes, and a steam navy was gra-
dually created, among which were found ships of large tonnage
and considerable power.

5. At length, in the year 1836, a project, then considered as a
startling one, was first announced, to supersede the far-famed New
York and Liverpool packet-ships, by a magnificent establishment

Of STEAM-SHIPS.

These vessels were to sustain a constant, regular, and rapid
communication between the New and Old World. They were to
be the great channel for commerce, intelligence, and social inter-
course, between the metropolis of the West and the vast marts of
the United Kingdom ; they were, in a word, to fulfil, not only all
the functions which for half a century had been so admirably dis-
charged by the packet-ships, but to do so with expedition increased
in a threefold proportion at the least. Such an announcement
could not fail to captivate the public. The results to be anti-
cipated were so obvious, so grand, and must be attended with
effects so widely spread, that all persons of every civilised nation
at once felt and acknowledged their importance. The announce-
ment of the project was accordingly hailed with one general shout
of acclamation.

Some, who, being conversant with the actual condition of the
art of steam-engineering as applied to navigation, and aware of
various commercial conditions which must affect the problem, and
116

TRANSATLANTIC STEAMERS.

were enabled to estimate calmly and dispassionately the difficulties
and drawbacks, as well as the advantages, of the undertaking,
entertained doubts which clouded the brightness of their hopes,
and warned the commercial word against the indulgence of too
sanguine anticipations, of the immediate and unqualified realisa-
tion of the project. They counselled caution and reserve against
an improvident investment of extensive capital, in schemes which
could still be only regarded as experimental, and which might
prove its grave. But the voice of remonstrance was drowned
amid the enthusiasm excited, by the promise of an immediate
practical realisation of a scheme so grand. The keel of the Great
Western was laid ; an assurance was given that the seasons would
not twice run through their changes, before she would be followed
by a splendid line of vessels, which should consign the packet-
ships to the care of the historian as " things that were."

6. It cannot be seriously imagined, that any one who had been
conversant with the past history of steam-navigation, could
entertain the least doubt of the abstract practicability of a steam-
vessel making the voyage between Bristol and New York.

A vessel having as her cargo a couple of hundred tons of coals
would, cceteris paribus, be as capable of crossing the Atlantic as a
vessel transporting the same weight of any other cargo. A
steam-vessel of the usual form and construction would, it is true,
labour under comparative disadvantages, owing to obstructions
presented by her paddle-wheels and paddle-boxes; but still it
would have been preposterous to suppose that these impediments
could have rendered her passage to New York impracticable.

7. But, independently of these considerations, it was a well-
known fact, that, long antecedent to the epoch now adverted to,
the Atlantic had actually been crossed by the steamers Savannah
and Cura^oa. Nevertheless a statement was not only widely
circulated, but generally credited, that I had publicly asserted
that a steam voyage across the Atlantic was " a physical impos-
sibility!"

Although this erroneous statement has been again and again
publicly contradicted through various organs of the press, it con-
tinues nevertheless to be repeated. I shall therefore take this
opportunity once more to put on record, what I really did state on
the occasion, on which I am reported to have affirmed that the
Atlantic steam voyage was a physical impossibility.

8. Projects had been started in the year 1836 by two different
and opposing interests, one advocating the establishment of a line
of steamers to ply between the west coast of Ireland and Boston,
touching at Halifax ; and the other a direct line, making an un-
interrupted trip between Bristol and New York. In the year

117

STEAM NAVIGATION.

1836, on the occasion of the meeting of the British Association in
Dublin, I had advocated the former of these projects.

9. On the occasion of the next meeting in 1837 at Bristol, I
again urged its advantages, and by comparison discouraged the
project of a direct line between Bristol and New York. When I
say that I advocated one of these projects, it is needless to add
that the popular rumour, that I had pronounced the Atlantic
voyage impracticable, is utterly destitute of foundation. But I
am enabled to offer mfcre conclusive proofs than this, that, so far
from asserting that the Atlantic voyage by steam was impossible,
/ distinctly affirmed the contrary.

The Times newspaper sent a special reporter to attend the
meeting at Bristol, and more particularly to transmit a report of
tha expected discussion on the Atlantic steam voyage, which at
the moment excited much interest.

10. The meeting took place on '^e 25th, and the report ap-
peared in the Times of the 27th of August. From that report I
extract the following ;

" Dr. Lardner said he would beg of any one, and more espe-
cially of those who had a direct interest in the inquiry, to dismiss
from their minds all previously-formed judgments about it, and
more especially upon this question, to be guarded against the con-
clusions of mere theory, for if ever there was one point in practice
of a commercial nature which, more than another, required to be
founded on experience, it was this one of extending steam-naviga-
tion to voyages of extraordinary length. He was aware that
since the question had arisen, it had been stated that his own
opinion was averse to it. This statement was totally wrong, but
he did feel that great caution should be used in the adoption of
the means of carrying the project into effect. Almost all depended
on the first attempt, for a failure would much retard the ultimate
consummation of the project.

__" Mr. Scott Russell said that he had listened with great deligEt
to the lucid and logical observations they had just heard. He
would add one word. Let them try this experiment, with a view
only to the enterprise itself, but on no account try any new boiler
or other experiment, but to have a combination of the most
approved plans that had yet been adopted.

"After some observations from Messrs. Brunei and Field,
Dr. Lardner, in reply, said, that he considered the voyage prac-
ticable, but he wished to point out that which would remove the
possibility of a doubt, because if the first attempt failed it would
cast a damp upon the enterprise, and prevent a repetition of the
attempt."

118

MISREPRESENTATION OF DR. LARDNER ? S VIEWS.

Such was the report of the Times of the speech in which I
was afterwards, and have ever since been, represented as having-
declared a steam voyage across the Atlantic a mechanical im-
possibility ! *

11. What I did affirm and maintain in 1836-7 was, that the
long sea voyages by steam which were contemplated, could not at
that time be maintained with that regularity and certainty which
are indispensable to commercial success, by any revenue which
could be expected from traffic alone, and that, without a govern-
ment subsidy of a considerable amount, such lines of steamers,
although they might be started, could not be permanently
maintained.

12. Now let us see what has been the practical result.

Eight steam-ships, including the Great Western, were, soon
after the epoch of these debates, placed upon the projected line
between England and New York ; the Sirius, the Royal William,
the Great Liverpool, the United States,'!* the British Q,ueen, the
President, the Great Western, and the Great Britain.

The Sirius was almost immediately withdrawn ; the Royal
William, after a couple of voyages, shared the same fate ; the
Great Liverpool, in a single season, involved her proprietors in a
loss of 6000/., and they were glad to remove her to the Mediter-
ranean station. The proprietors of the British Queen, after
sustaining a loss which is estimated at little less than 100000?.,
sold that ship to the Belgian government. The United States
was soon transferred, like the Great Liverpool, to the Mediter-
ranean trade. The President was lost. The Great Western, as
is well known, after continuing for some time to make the voyage
in the summer months, being laid by during the winter, and after
involving her proprietors in a loss of unknown and unacknow-
ledged amount, was sold. Of the Great Britain, the fate is well
known.

Thus, it appears, in fine, that after the lapse of nearly fourteen
years, notwithstanding the great improvements which took place
in steam navigation, the project advanced at Bristol, and there
pronounced by me to be commercially impracticable, signally failed.

13. Meanwhile another project, based upon the conditions which
I had indicated as essential to the permanence and success of the
enterprise, was started.

Mr. Samuel Cunard, a Canadian, who had extensive experience

* Uotices of this speech, substantially the same, appeared in the
Edinburgh Review, the Monthly Chronicle, and other periodicals of that
date.

t This vessel was not actually placed on the line, but was prepared for
it. She was afterwards called the Oriental.

119

STEAM NAVIGATION.

in maritime affairs, being associated with some large capitalists
who had confidence in .his sagacity and skill, laid before the
British government a project for a line of Post-office steamers, to
ply between [Liverpool and Boston, touching at Halifax. But
Mr. Cunard insisted strongly on the necessity of providing a
considerable fleet of steamers, to ensure that permanence and
regularity which were indispensable to the success of the project.
He demonstrated that the magnitude of the capital it must involve,
and the vast expenditufe attending its maintenance, were such as
could not be covered by any commercial returns to be expected
from it, and that, consequently, it could only be sustained by a
liberal subsidy to be furnished by the government. After much
negotiation, it was agreed to grant him an annual subsidy of
60000/., upon which condition the enterprise was commenced.
Mr. Cunard, however, had hardly embarked in it, before it became
evident that this grant was insufficient, and it was soon increased
to 100000/. per annum. Further experience proved that even
this was insufficient to enable Cunard and his associates to
maintain the communication in a satisfactory and efficient manner,
and the annual subvention was in fine raised to its present amount,
lhat is to say, 145000/. sterling per annum.

14. Thus supported, the communication was in 1851 main-
tained throughout the year. During the four winter months,
December, January, February, and March, there were two de-
partures per month from each side, and' during the eight other
months of the year there was a departure once a week, making a
total of forty-four departures from each side, or forty-four voyages
going and returning.

These voyages make a total distance sailed of 272800 geogra-
phical miles within the year. The subsidy, therefore, amounts to
ten shillings and eightpence per mile sailed.

Since the epoch here referred to, steam-navigation has, as is
well known, undergone great improvements, and its powers have
been proportionally extended. The arrangements of this and
other lines of ocean navigation have accordingly undergone, and
continue to undergo, modifications having the effect of increasing
the frequency and extending the lengths of the trips.

15. Soon after the Cunard line of steamers commenced opera-
tions, it was proposed to establish, with government support, a
transatlantic line of steamers communicating between Great
Britain and its West India colonies. Ultimately the present
"West India Steam-Packet Company was established, and obtained
from the government a subvention greater still in amount than
had been granted to the Cunard Company. The amount of this
annual grant was 240000/.

120

CUNARD LINE.

16. Great as the progress of steam-navigation has been within
the last quarter of a century, much still remains to be accom-
plished, before that vast agent of transport can be regarded as
having been pushed to the limit of its powers. Its superior speed,
regularity, and certainty, comparatively with sailing-vessels, have
naturally first attracted to it passengers, despatches, and certain
descriptions of merchandise to which expedition is important, and
which can bear a high rate of freight. The mechanical conditions
which ensure expedition in long voyages, exclude, to a great
extent, the transport of general merchandise ; for a large part of
the tonnage of the vessel is occupied by the machinery and fuel.
The heavy expenses, therefore, of the construction and mainte-
nance of these vessels, must be defrayed by appropriating the
profitable tonnage to those objects of transport alone which will
bring the highest rate of freight. While the steamer, therefore,
has allured from the sailing-vessel the chief part of the passenger
traffic, the mails altogether, parcels, and some few objects of
general traffic, the latter still continues in undisturbed possession
of the transport business of general commerce.

The next step in the improvement of the art must therefore be
directed to the construction of another class of steam- vessels,
which shall bear to the present steam-ships the same relation
which the goods-trains, on the railway, bear to the passenger-
trains. As in the case of these goods-trains, expedition must be
sacrificed to reduce the cost of transport to the limit which shall
enable the merchandise to bear the freight. If the steamer for
the general purposes of commerce can be made to exceed the
sailing-vessel, in anything approaching to the ratio by which the
goods-train on the railway exceeds the waggon or canal-boat, we
shall soon see the ocean covered with such steamers, and the
sailing-vessel will pass from the hands of the merchant to those
of the historian.

17. To render steamers capable of attaining these ends, it will
be evidently advisable to adopt measures, to combine the qualities
of a sailing-vessel with those of a steamer. The ships must
possess such steaming power as may give them that increased
expedition, regularity, and punctuality, which, in the existing
state of the arts, can only be obtained through that agency ; but
it is also important that they should accomplish this without
robbing them, to any injurious extent, of their present capability
of satisfying the wants of commerce.

18. 'In an early edition of my treatise on the Steam-Engine,
published long before screw steam-vessels had attained the state
of perfection to which they have now arrived, I stated that no ex-
pedient was more likely to accomplish this, than one which would

121

STEAM NAVIGATION.

have for its object the removal of the paddle-wheels now generally
used, and the substitution of some description of subaqueous pro-
peller. A great reduction in the dimensions of the machinery,
and the surrender to the uses of commerce of that invaluable space
which it now occupies within the vessel, are also essential. It is
incumbent on the engineer who assumes the high responsibility of
the superintendence of such a project, to leave the ship in the full
and unimpaired enjoyment of its functions as a sailing-vessel..
Let him combine, in short, the agency of steam with the undi-
minished nautical power of the ship. Let him celebrate the
marriage of the steam-engine with the sailing-vessel. If he
accomplish this with the skill and success of which the project is
susceptible, he may fairly hope that his name will go down to
posterity as a benefactor of mankind, united with those of Fulton
and Watt.

The actual progress of mechanical science encourages us to hope,
that the day is fast approaching when such ideas will be realised
when we shall behold a great highway cut across the wide
Atlantic, not as now, subserving to those limited ends, the
attainment of which will bear a high expense, but answering all
the vast and varied demands of general commerce. Ships which
would serve the purposes we have here shadowed out, can never
compete in mere speed with vessels in which cargo is nothing,
expense disregarded, and expedition everything. Be it so.
Leave to such vessels their proper functions ; let them still enjoy
to some extent the monopoly of the most costly branches of
traffic, subsidised as they are by the British treasury. Let the
commercial steam-ships, securing equal regularity and punctu-
ality, and probably more frequent despatch, be content with
somewhat less expedition. This is consistent with all the analo-
gies of commerce.

There is another consideration which ought not to be omitted.
In all great advances in the arts of life, extensive improvements -
are at first attended with individual loss of greater or less amount.
The displacement of capital is almost inevitably attended with
this disadvantage. It is the duty, therefore, of the scientific
engineer, in the arrangement and adoption of his measures, to
consider how these objects may be best attained with the least
possible injury to existing interests. To accomplish this will not
only be a benefit to the public, but will materially facilitate the
realisation of his own objects, by conciliating in their favour those
large and powerful interests, whose destruction would be other-
wise menaced by them. If, then, in the present case, it is found
practicable with advantage to introduce into the present sailing-
ships, more especially into those most recently constructed, the
122

SCREW STEAMERS.

agency of steam, a very important advantage will be gained for
the public, and the almost unanimous support and countenance of
the commercial community will be secured.

19. To attain the objects here developed, it will be evidently in-
dispensable to remove those impediments, which at once disfigure
the appearance and destroy the efficiency of the sailing qualities of
the ship, by the enormous and unsightly excrescences projecting
from the sides in the shape of paddle-wheels, and the wheel-houses
or paddle-boxes, as they are called. These appendages are attended
with many evils, the least of which is perh ps the impediment
which they present to the progress of the shi^.

But the form, magnitude, and position of the propelling ma-
chinery, is far from being the only obstacle to the full success of
the present steam- vessels, when directed to the general purposes of
commerce. The engines themselves, and the boilers, from which
the moving power proceeds, and the fuel by which they are worked,
occupy the very centre of the vessel, and engross the most valuable
part of the tonnage. The chimney, which gives efficacy to the
furnaces, is also an unsightly excrescence, and no inconsiderable
obstruction.

When long ocean- voyages are contemplated, such as those be-
tween New York and the ports of England, there is another serious
obstacle, which is especially felt in the westward trip, because of
the prevalence of adverse winds. When the vessel starts on its
long voyage, it is necessarily laden with a large stock of fuel,
which is calculated to meet, not merely the average exigencies of
the voyage, but the utmost extremity of adverse circumstances of
wind and weather to which it can by possibility be exposed. This
fuel is gradually consumed upon the voyage ; the vessel is propor-
tionally lightened, and its immersion diminished. If its trim be
so regulated that the immersion of its wheels at starting be such
as to give them complete efficiency, they may, before the end of
the voyage, be almost if not altogether raised out of the water.
If, on the other hand, the efficiency of propulsion in the latter
part of the voyage be aimed at, they must have such a depth at
its commencement as to impair in a serious degree their propelling
effect, and to rob the vessel of its proper speed. Under such cir-
cumstances, there is no expedient left but compromise. The vessel
must start with too great and arrive with too little immersion.
There is no alternative, save to abandon altogether the form and
structure of the present machinery, and to awaken the inventive
genius of the age to supply other mechanical expedients, which
shall not be obnoxious to these objections.

In fine, then, we look to the improvement of auxiliary steam
power, and the extended use of submerged propellers, as the means

123

STEAM NAVIGATION.

which, in the existing state of the art of steam-navigation, are
most likely to extend the benefits of that agent of transport to
general commerce.

20. If the form and structure of paddle-wheel steam-vessels be
obnoxious to these many serious objections, when considered with
reference to the purposes of general commerce, they are still more
objectionable when considered with reference to the purposes of
national defence. It is undoubtedly a great power with which to
invest a vessel of war, ^;o be able to proceed at will, in spite of
the opposition of wind or tide, in any direction which may seem
most fit to its commander. Such a power would have surpassed
the wildest dreams of the most romantic and imaginative naval
commander of the last century. To confer upon the vessels of a
fleet the power immediately, at the bidding of the commander, to
take any position that may be assigned to them relatively to the
enemy, or to run in and out of a hostile port at pleasure, or fly
with the rapidity of the wind past the guns of formidable forts,
before giving them time to take effect upon them are capabilities
which must totally revolutionise all the established principles of
naval tactics. But these powers at present are not conferred upon
steam-ships, without important qualifications and serious draw-
backs. The instruments and machinery from which they are
immediately derived are, unfortunately, exposed in such a manner
as to render the exercise of the powers themselves hazardous in
the extreme. It needs no profound engineering knowledge to
perceive that the paddle-wheels are eminently exposed to shot,
which, taking effect, would altogether disable the vessel, and
leave her at the mercy of the enemy ; and the chimney is even
more exposed, the destruction of which would render the vessel a
prey to the enemy within itself in the shape of fire. But besides
these most obvious sources of exposure in vessels of the present
form intended as a national defence, the engines and boilers
themselves, being more or less above the water line, are exposed
so as to be liable to be disabled by shot.

A war steamer, to be free from these objections, should be pro-
pelled by subaqueous apparatus. Her engines, boilers, and all
other parts of her machinery should be below the water-line. Her
fuel should be hard coal, burning without visible smoke, so that
her approach may not be discoverable from a distance. Her fur-
naces might be worked by blowers, so that the chimney might be
dispensed with, and thus its liability to be carried away by shot
removed.

21. The policy of the British government has been to rely on the
commercial steam navy as a means of national defence, in the
event of the sudden outbreak of war. By the evidence given

124

WAR STEAMERS.

before a committee of the House of Commons in 1850, and the
report founded thereupon, it appeared that commercial steamers
in general are capable of war service, with no other previous
alteration or preparation than such as are easily practicable and
expeditiously executed. It was shown that all steamers of 400
tons and upwards would be capable, with some additional strength-
ening, to carry such pivot guns as are used in war-steamers, and
that there are few mercantile steamers of any size, which might
not carry an armament such as would render them useful in case
of an emergency.

22. The principle on which the steam-engine is applied to the
propulsion of ships is the same as that by which oars act in pro-
pelling boats. In both cases the propelling instruments having a
point or points of reaction on the vessel, are made to drive a mass
of water backwards, and the moving force, or momentum, thus
imparted to the water from stem to stern, is necessarily attended
with a reaction from stern to stem, which, taking effect on the
vessel, gives it a corresponding progressive motion.

By the well-known mechanical principle of the composition and
resolution of force, it can be demonstrated that whatever force
may be imparted to the water by the propeller, such force can be
resolved into two elements, one of which is parallel, and the
other in a plane at right angles to the keel. The former
alone can have a propelling effect, and since the latter is wholly
ineffective, the propeller should always be so constructed that its
whole force, or at least the chief part of it, shall be employed in
driving the water in a direction parallel to the keel from stem to
stern.

23. The mechanical expedients by which the power of steam is
rendered available for the propulsion of vessels are very various,
both as regards the form of the engine which acts upon the pro-
peller, and the form of the propeller itself.

In all cases hitherto reduced to practice, the propeller is awheel
fixed upon a horizontal shaft, to which the engine imparts a
motion of continued rotation. The wheel is so constructed that
when it revolves it imparts to a volume of water, more or less
considerable, a motion either directly backwards, or one whose
principal component has that direction. The greater the pro-
portion which this principal component has to the entire force
exercised by the propeller, the more effective it will be.

24. The propellers hitherto practically applied in steam-naviga-
tion are of two kinds, called, paddle-wheels and screws.

The shaft of the paddle-wheels is fixed horizontally across the
vessel, and consequently at right angles to the direction of the
keel.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

The shaft of the screws is placed horizontally in the vessel
parallel to the keel, and directly above it.

The faces of the paddle-wheels look sideways and are conse-
quently parallel to the keel.

The faces of the screws look sternwards, and are consequently
at right angles to the keel.

25. The paddle-wheels are in pairs one at each side of the vessel
and outside the hull, being supported on the projecting ends of
the paddle-shaft, and covered by large semi-cylindrical drums
called paddle-boxes.

The screws are generally single wheels, within the vessel under
its hull, and placed near the stern.

Only the lower parts of the paddle-wheels are immersed. The
screws are altogether submerged.

26. The paddle-shaft being carried on each side beyond the
timbers of the vessel, the wheels supported by it and revolving
with it, are usually constructed like undershot water-wheels,
having attached to their rims a number of flat boards called
paddle-boards. As the wheels revolve, these paddle-boards strike
the water, driving it in a direction contrary to that in which it is
intended the vessel should be propelled. On the paddle-shaft
two cranks are constructed, similar to the crank on the axle of
the fly-wheel of a stationary engine. These cranks are generally
placed at right angles to each other, so that when either is in its
highest or lowest position the other shall be horizontal. They
are driven by two steam-engines, which are usually placed in the
hull of the vessel below the paddle-shaft. In the earlier steam-
boats a single steam-engine was used, and in that case the unequal
action of the engine on the crank was equalised by a fly-wheel.
This, however, has been long since abandoned in European vessels,
and the use of two engines is now almost universal. By the relative
position of the cranks it will be seen, that when either crank is at
its dead point the other will be in one of the positions most favour-
able to its action, and in all intermediate positions, the relative
efficiency of the cranks will be such as to 'render their combined
action very nearly uniform.

The steam-engines used to impel vessels may be either con-
densing engines, similar to those of "Watt, and such as are used in
manufactures generally, or they may be non-condensing and high-
pressure engines, similar in principle to those used on railways.
Low-pressure condensing engines are, however, universally used for
marine purposes in Europe, and to a great extent in the United
States. In the latter country, however, high-pressure engines are
also used in some of the river steamers.

27. The arrangement of the parts of a marine engine differs in
126

MARINE ENGINES.

some respects from that of a land engine. The limitation of space,
which is unavoidable in a vessel, renders greater compactness
necessary. The paddle-shaft on which the cranks to be driven by
the engine are constructed being very little below the deck of the
vessel, the beam, if there be one, and connecting rod could not be
placed, in the position in which they usually are in land engines,
without carrying the machinery to a considerable elevation above
the deck. This is done in the steam-boat engines used on the
American rivers ; but it would be inadmissible in steam-boats in
general, and more especially in sea-going steamers. The connect-
ing rods, therefore, instead of being presented downwards towards
the cranks which they drive, must, in steam- vessels, be presented
upwards, and the impelling force be received from below. If,
under these circumstances, the beam were in the usual position
above the cylinder and piston-rod, it must necessarily be placed
between the engine and the paddle-shaft. This would require a
depth for the machinery which would be incompatible with the
magnitude of the vessel. The beam, therefore, of marine engines,
instead of being above the cylinder and piston, is placed below
them. To the top of the piston rods, cross-pieces are attached,
of greater length than the diameter of the cylinders, so that their
extremities shall project beyond the cylinders. To the ends of
these cross-pieces are attached by joints the rods of a parallel
motion: these rods are carried downwards, and are connected
with the ends of two beams below the cylinder, and placed on
either side of it. The opposite ends of these beams are con-
nected by another cross-piece, to which is attached a connecting
rod, which is continued upwards to the crank-pin, to which it
is attached, and which it drives. Thus the beam, parallel motion,
and connecting rod of a marine engine, are similar to those of a
land engine, only that they are turned upside down ; and in con-
sequence of the impossibility of placing the beam directly over the
piston rod, two beams and two systems of parallel motion are pro-
vided, one on each side of the engine, acted upon by, and acting
on the piston rod and crank by cross-pieces.*

The proportion of the cylinders differs from that usually ob-
served in land engines for like reasons. The length of the
cylinder of land engines is generally greater than its diameter,
in the proportion of about two to one. The cylinders of marine
engines are, however, commonly constructed with a diameter
greater than their length. In proportion, therefore, to their
power their stroke is shorter, which infers a corresponding short-

* We must assume that the reader of the present Tract has already
rendered himself familiar with the several Tracts on Steam and the Steam
Engine, already published in the Museum.

127

STEAM NAVIGATION.

ness of crank and a greater limitation of play of all the moving 1
parts in the vertical direction. The valves and the gearing by
which they are worked, the air-pump, the condenser and other
parts of the marine engines, do not differ in principle from those
already described in land engines.

These arrangements will be more clearly understood by
reference to fig. 1, in which is represented a longitudinal
section of one of the many varieties of beam engine, with its
boiler as placed in asteam-vessel. The sleepers of oak, sup-
porting the engine, are represented at x, the base of the engine
being secured to these by bolts passing thrgugh them and the
bottom timbers of the vessel ; s is the steam-pipe leading from
the steam-chest in the boiler to the slides c, by which it is
admitted to the top and bottom of the cylinder. The condenser is
represented at B, and the air-pump at E. The hot well is seen at
F, from which the feed is taken for the boiler ; L is the piston-rod
connected by the parallel motion a, with the beam H, working on
a centre K, near the base of the engine. The other end of the
beam i drives the connecting rod M, which extends upwards to
the crank, which it works upon the paddle-shaft o. o, B. is the
framing by which the engine is supported. The beam here exhi-
bited is shown on dotted lines as being on the further side of the
engine. A similar beam similarly placed, and moving on the
same axis, must be understood to be at this side connected with
the cross-head of the piston in like manner by a parallel motion,
and with a cross-piece attached to the lower end of the connecting
rod and to the opposite beam. The eccentric which works the
slides is placed upon the paddle-shaft o, and the connecting arm
which drives the slides may be easily detached when the engine
requires to be stopped. The section of the boiler, grate, and flues
is represented at w u. The safety-valve y is enclosed beneath a
pipe carried up beside the chimney, and is inaccessible to the
engine man ; h are the cocks for blowing the salted water from
the boiler, and 1 1 the feed-pipe.

12S

Fig. 2. KOUM AND POSITION OF THE SCREW.

STEAM NAVIGATION.
CHAPTER II.

28. Arrangement of the engine-room ; governor and other regulating parts
omitted. 29. Flue boilers and tubular boilers. 30. Construction of
flue boilers. 31. Tubular boilers. 32. Indications of engineering
ignorance. 33. Number and dimensions of tubes. 34. Incrustation
produced by sea water. 35. Hydrometric indicators. 37. Thermo-
metric indicators. 38. Seaward's contrivance. 39. Brine-pumps.
40. Blowing out. 41. To detach the scale. 42. Effect of corrosion.
43. Efficiency and economy of fuel. 44. Coating the boiler and
pipes with felt.

28. The general arrangement of the engine-room of a steam-
vessel is represented in fig. 3, page 131.

The nature of the eftect required to he produced hy marine
engines, does not render either necessary or possible that great
regularity of action, which is indispensable in a steam-engine
applied to the purposes of manufacture. The agitation of the
surface of the sea will cause the immersion of the paddle-wheels
to be subject to great variation, and the resistance produced by
the water to the engine will undergo a corresponding change.
The governor, therefore, and other parts of the apparatus, con-
trived for giving to the engine that great regularity required in
manufactures, are omitted in nautical engines, and nothing is
introduced save what is necessary to maintain the machine in its
full working efficiency.

Marine boilers are constructed in forms so infinitely various,
that, in a notice so brief and popular as the present, we can only
indicate some of their more general arrangements, and aid the

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. K 129

No. 122.

MARINE BOILERS.

explanation by figures representing examples of particular classes
of them.

29. To save space, they are constructed so as to produce the
necessary quantity of steam, within the smallest possible dimen-
sions. With this view a more extensive surface in proportion to
the capacity of the boiler is exposed to the action of the tire. The
flues, by which the flame and heated air are conducted to the
chimney, are generally so constructed that the heated air issuing
from the furnaces may be made to pass through the boiler, either

Fig. 3.

by a series of oblong narrow passages with flat sides, called^wes,
or by a multitude of tubes of small diameter, the one and the
other leading from the furnaces to the base of the chimney, and
being everywhere below the level of the water in the boiler. The
former are called^we boilers, and the latter tubular boilers.

30. In the former class of boilers the flues are so formed as to
traverse the boiler backwards and forwards several times before
they terminate in the chimney. Such an arrangement renders the
expense/of the boilers greater than that of common land boilers,
but their steam-producing power is greatly augmented. Experi-
ments made by Mr. Watt, at Birmingham, proved that such boilers
with the same consumption of fuel will produce, as compared with

K2 131

STEAM NAVIGATION.

common land boilers, an increased evaporation in the proportion of
about three to two.

The form and arrangement of the water-spaces and flues in
flue boilers are infinitely various. The sections of such boilers
are exhibited in figs. 4, 5, 6. A section made by a horizontal

Fig. 4.

plane passing through the flues is exhibited in fig. 4. The
furnaces F communicate in pairs with the flues E, the air following
the course through the flues represented by the arrows. The flue E
passes to the back of the boiler, then returns to the front, then

Fig. 5.

132

MARINE BOILERS.

to the back again, and is finally carried back to the front, where
it communicates at c with the curved flue B, represented in the
transverse vertical section, fig. 5. This curved flue B finally
terminates in the chimney A. There are, in this case, three inde-
pendent boilers, each worked by two furnaces communicating with
the same system of flues ; and in the curved flues B, fig. 5, by
which the air is finally conducted through the chimney, are placed
three independent dampers, by means of which the furnace of
each boiler can be regulated independently of the other, and by
which each boiler may be separately detached from communication
with the chimney.

A longitudinal section of the boiler, made by a vertical plane
extending from the front to the back, is given in fig. 6, where F,
as before, is the furnace, G the grate-bars sloping downwards
from the front to the back, H the fire-bridge, c the commencement
of the flues, and A the chimney. An elevation of the front of the

boiler is represented in fig. 7, showing two of the fire-doors closed
and the other two removed, displaying the position of the grate-
bars in front. Small openings are also provided, closed by proper
doors, by which access can be had to the under-side of the flues,
between the foundation timbers of the engine, for the purpose of
cleaning them.

Each of these boilers can be worked independently of the others.
By this means, when at sea, the engine may be worked by any
two of the three boilers, while the third is being cleaned and put
in order.

In the boilers here represented the flues are all upon the same
level, winding backwards and forwards without passing one above
the other. In other boilers, however, the flues, after passing
backwards and forwards near the bottom of the boiler, turn

133

STEAM NAVIGATION.

upwards and pass backwards and forwards through a level of the
water nearer its surface, finally terminating in the chimney. More
heating surface is thus obtained with the same capacity of boiler.
It is found in practice, that the most efficient parts of the flue-
surface for the generation of steam, are those which are horizontal

Fig. 7.

and at the upper parts of the flue, and the least efficient those
which are horizontal and at the lowest part, the efficiency of the
vertical sides being intermediate.

Since the flues are liable occasionally to become choked with
soot and ashes, it is necessary that their magnitude shall be
sufficient to allow a boy to enter them for the purpose of cleaning
them.

31. Tubular marine boilers are constructed on a principle pre-
cisely similar to that of locomotive boilers, described in a former
Tract. The flame and gaseous products of combustion, issuing
from the furnace at a very elevated temperature, pass through a
great number, sometimes several hundred, tubes of iron or brass,
of about three inches diameter, which traverse the boiler below the
level of the water in it, so that before they enter the chimney their
temperature is reduced to a comparatively low point, the heat
they thus lose being taken up by the water surrounding the tubes.

Flue boilers have the advantage over tubular boilers in being
cheaper and more durable. With the same evaporating power
they are however one-third larger and heavier, and consequently
occupy a greater portion of the* tonnage, and produce, other
things being the same, a proportionally greater displacement, the
latter condition augmenting the resistance, and therefore either
diminishing the speed, or increasing the consumption of fuel.
134

MARINE BOILERS.

32. There cannot be a more striking proof of the ignorance of
..general principles which prevails, respecting this branch of steam
engineering, than the endless variety of forms and proportions
which are adopted in the boilers and furnaces which are con-
structed, not only by different engineers but by the same
engineer, for steamers of like power and capacity, and even for
the same steamer at different times. Thus the original boilers
of the Great Western, built for the New York and Bristol or
Liverpool voyage, were of the common flue sort. They were
subsequently taken out and replaced by tubular boilers. The
dimensions and relative proportions of these two sets of boilers,
thus supplied to the same vessel for the same voyage, differing as

completely one from the other as if they had been designed for
different vessels and different voyages.

On contemplating engineering proceedings, such as are exhibited
in the preceding table, it is impossible to deny that practical men
in such cases are groping in the dark, without the slightest benefit
r from the light which they ought to derive, from the present
-advanced state of physical science.

33. Tubular flues have been in many steamers adopted in
preference to the flat and longer flues already described. In the
second set of boilers of the Great Western above mentioned, the
tubes were eight feet in length and three inches in diameter. In
the boilers of the steamer Ocean, which are also tubular, the
following are the principal dimensions :

Boilers :

Number . . 3
Length . . . 14 feet.
Breadth . .194 feet.

Furnaces :

Length . . 9 feet

Diameter . . 3| inches.
Cylinders :

Number . . 2

Diameter . 56 inches.

Number . . . 7 Stroke . . 54 feet.

Length . . 7 feet. ! Pressure of steam above

Breadth . . . 2 T ^ feet. atmosphere . 4 Ibs. per in.

Tubes :

Material . . Iron.
Number 378

Consumption of coal
per hour . .18 cwt.

Among the more recent specifications of the machinery of marine
engines submitted to the Admiralty, are some in which the boilers
,are traversed by nearly 2000 tubes of 3J inches external diameter,
and five feet in length, giving a total heating surface of about
9000 square feet.

34. ( A formidable difficulty in the application of the steam-
engine to sea voyages has arisen from the necessity of supplying
the boiler with sea water instead of fresh water. The sea water
ds injected into the condenser for the purpose of condensing the

135

STEAM NAVIGATION.

steam, and, mixed with the condensed steam, it is thence con-
ducted as feeding water into the boiler.

Sea water holds, as is well known, certain saline and alkaline sub-
stances in solution, the principal of which is muriate of soda, or
common salt. Ten thousand grains of pure sea water contain two
hundred and twenty grains of common salt, the remaining ingre-
dients being thirty-three grains of sulphate of soda, forty-two grains
of muriate of magnesia, and eight grains of muriate of lime. The
heat which converts pure* water into steam does not at the same
time evaporate those salts which the water holds in solution. As
a consequence it follows, that, as the evaporation in the boiler is
continued, the salt, which was held in solution by the water
which has been evaporated, remains in the boiler, and enters into
solution with the water remaining in it. The quantity of salt
contained in sea water being considerably less than that which
water is capable of holding in solution, the process of evaporation
for some time is attended with no other effect, than to render the
water in the boiler a stronger solution of salt. If, however, this
process be continued, the quantity of salt retained in the boiler
having constantly an increasing proportion to the quantity of
water, it must at length render the water in the boiler a saturated
solution ; that is, a solution containing as much salt as, at the
actual temperature, it is capable of holding in solution. If,
therefore, the evaporation be continued beyond this point, the salt
disengaged from the water evaporated, instead of entering into
solution with the water remaining in the boiler, will be precipitated
in the form of sediment ; and if the process be continued in the
same manner, the boiler would at length become a mere salt-pan.

But besides the deposition of salt sediment in a loose form, some
of the constituents of sea water having an attraction for the iron
of the boiler, collect upon it in a scale or crust, in the same manner
as earthy matters, held in solution by spring water, are observed to-
form and become incrusted on the inner surface of land-boilers
and of common culinary vessels.

The coating of the inner surface of a boiler by incrustation, and
the collection of salt sediment in its lower parts, are attended
with effects highly injurious to the materials of the boiler. The
crust and sediment thus formed within the boiler are almost non-
conductors of heat, and placed, as they are, between the water
contained in the boiler and the metallic plates which form it, they
obstruct the passage of heat from the outer surface of the plates
in contact with the fire, to the water. The heat, therefore, accu-
mulating in the boiler-plates so as to give them a much higher
temperature than the water within the boiler, has the effect of
softening them, and by the unequal temperature which will thus
136

EFFECTS OF SEA-WATER.

be imparted to the lower plates which are incrusted, compared
with the higher parts which may not be so, an unequal expansion
is produced, by which the joints and seams of the boiler, are-
loosened and opened, and leaks produced.

These injurious effects can only be prevented by either of two-
methods ; first, by so regulating the feed of the boiler that the
water it contains shall not be suffered to reach the point of
saturation, but shall be so limited in its degree of saltness that no
injurious incrustation or deposit shall be formed; secondly, by
the adoption of some method by which the boiler may be worked
with fresh water. This end can only be attained by condensing
the steam by a jet of fresh water, and working the boiler con-
tinually by the same water, since the supply of fresh water
sufficient for a boiler worked in the ordinary way, could never be
commanded at sea.

The method by which the saltness of the water in the boiler i&
most commonly prevented from exceeding a certain limit, has-
been to discharge from the boiler into the sea a certain quantity
of over-salted water, and to supply its place by sea water intro-
duced into the condenser through the injection-cock, for the
purpose of condensing the steam, this water being mixed with the
steam so condensed, and being, therefore, a weaker solution of
salt than common sea water. To effect this, cocks called blow-
off cocks are usually placed in the lower parts of the boiler, where
the over-salted, and therefore heavier, parts of the water collect.
The pressure of the steam and incumbent weight of the water in
the boiler force the lower strata of water out through these cocks ;
and this process, called blowing out, is, or ought to be practised at
such intervals as will prevent the water from becoming over-
salted. When the salted water has been blown out in this,
manner, the level of the water in the boiler is restored by a feed
of corresponding quantity.

This process of blowing out, on the due and regular observance
of which the preservation and efficiency of the boiler mainly
depend, is too often left at the discretion of the engineer, who is,
in most cases, not even supplied with the proper means of ascer-
taining the extent to which the process should be carried. It is
commonly required that the engineer should blow out a certain
portion of the water in the boiler every two hours, restoring the
level by a feed of equivalent amount ; but it is evident that the
sufficiency of the process, founded on such a rule, must mainly
depend on the supposition, that the evaporation proceeds always at
the same rate, which is far from being the case with marine boilers.

35. An indicator, by which the saltness of the water in the
boiler would always be exhibited, ought to be provided, and the

137

STEAM NAVIGATION.

process of blowing out should be regulated by tlie indications of
that instrument. To blow out more frequently than is necessary-
is attended with a waste of fuel ; for hot water is thus discharged
into the sea while cold water is introduced in its place, and con-
sequently all the heat necessary to produce the difference of the
temperatures of the water blown out, and the feed introduced, is
lost. If, on the other hand, the process of blowing out be observed
less frequently than is necessary, then more or less incrustation
and deposit may beproduced, and the injurious effects already
described ensue.

36. As the specific gravity of water holding salt in solution is
increased with every increase of the strength of the solution, any
form of hydrometer capable of exhibiting a visible indication of
-the specific gravity of the water contained in the boiler, would
rserve the purpose of an indicator, to show when the process of
blowing out is necessary, and when it has been carried to a
sufficient extent. The application of such instruments, however,
would be attended with some practical difficulties in the case of
sea boilers.

37. The temperature at which a solution of salt boils under a
given pressure varies considerably with the strength of the
solution ; the more concentrated the solution is, the higher will
be its boiling temperature under the same pressure. A comparison,
therefore, of a steam-gauge attached to the boiler, and a ther-
mometer immersed in it, showing the pressure and the temperature,
would always indicate the saltness of the water ; and it would
not be difficult so to graduate these instruments as to make them
at once show the degree of saltness.

If the application of the thermometer be considered to be
.attended with practical difficulty, the difference of pressures under
which the salt water of the boiler and fresh water of the same
temperature boil, might be taken as an indication of the saltness
of the water in the boiler, and it would not be difficult to construct
upon this principle a self-registering instrument, which would
not only indicate but record from hour to hour the degree of
saltness of the water. A small vessel of distilled water being
immersed in the water of the boiler would always have the tem-
perature of that water, and the steam produced from it com-
municating with a steam-gauge, the pressure of such steam would
be indicated by that gauge, while the pressure of the steam in
the boiler under which pressure the salted water boils might be
indicated by another gauge. The difference of the pressures
indicated by the two gauges would thus become a test, by which
the saltness of the water in the boiler would be measured. The
two pressures might be made to act on opposite ends of the same
138

REMEDIES.

column of mercury contained in a siphon tube, and the difference
of the levels of the two surfaces of the mercury, would thus
become a measure of the saltness of the water in the boiler. A
self-registering instrument, founded on this principle, formed part
of the self- registering steam-log which I proposed to introduce
into steam- vessels some time since.

38. The Messrs. Seaward of Limehouse adopted, in some of
their engines, a method of indicating the saltness of the water,
and of measuring the quantity of salted water or brine discharged
by blowing out. A glass-gauge, similar in form to that already
described in land engines, is provided, to indicate the position of
the surface of the water in the boiler. In this gauge two hydro-
meter balls are provided, the weight of which in proportion to
their magnitude is such, that they would both sink to the bottom
in a solution of salt of the same strength as common sea water.
When the quantity of salt exceeds ^ parts of the whole weight
of the water, the lighter of the two balls will float to the top ;
and when the strength is further increased until the proportion
of salt exceeds ^ parts of the whole, then the heavier ball will
float to the top. The actual quantity of salt held in solution by
sea water in its ordinary state is ^ part of its whole weight ;
and when by evaporation the proportion of salt in solution has
become ^ parts of the whole, then a deposition of salt commences.
With an indicator such as that above described, the ascent
of the lighter hydrometer ball gives notice of the necessity for
blowing out, and the ascent of the heavier may be considered as
indicating the approach of an injurious state of saltness in the
boiler.

The ordinary method of blowing out the salted water from
a boiler is by a pipe, having a cock in it leading from the boiler
through the bottom of the ship, or at a point low down at its side.
Whenever the engineer considers that the water in the boiler has
become so salted, that the process of blowing out should com -
mence, he opens the cock communicating by this pipe with the
sea, and suffers an indefinite and uncertain quantity of water to
escape. In this way he discharges, ' according to the magnitude
of the boiler, from two to six tons of water, and repeats this at
intervals of from two to four hours, as he may consider to be
sufficient. If, by observing this process, he prevents the boiler
from getting incrusted during the voyage, he considers his duty
to be effectually discharged, forgetting that he may have blown
out'many times more water than is necessary for the preservation
of the boiler, and thereby produced a corresponding and unneces-
sary waste of fuel. In order to limit the quantity of water
discharged, Messrs. Seaward adopted the following method. In

139

STEAM NAVIGATION.

fig. 8 is represented a transverse section of a part of a steam-
vessel ; w is the water-line of the boiler, B is the mouth of a
blow-off pipe, placed near the bottom of the boiler. This pipe
rises to A, and turning in the horizontal direction, A c, is con-
ducted to a tank T, which contains exactly a ton of water. This
pipe communicates with the tank by a cock D, governed by a
lever H. When this lever is moved to D', the cock D is open, and
when it is moved to K, the cock D is closed. From the same tank
there proceeds another*pipe E, which issues from the side of the
vessel into the sea, governed by a cock F, which is likewise put in

Fig. 8.

connection with the lever IT, so that it shall be opened when the
lever H is drawn to the position F', the cock D' being closed in all
positions of the lever between K and F'. Thus, whenever the
cock F communicating with the sea is open, the cock D communi-
cating with the boiler is closed, and vice versa, both cocks being
closed when the lever is in the intermediate position K. By this-
arrangement the boiler cannot, by any neglect in blowing off, be
left in communication with the sea, nor can more than a ton
of water be discharged except by the immediate act of the
140

BRINE-PUMPS.

engineer. The injurious consequences are thus prevented which
sometimes ensue, when the blow-off cocks are left open by any
neglect on the part of the engineer. When it is necessary to blow
off, the engineer moves the lever H to the position D'. The pres-
sure of the steam in the boiler on the surface of the water
forces the salted water or brine up the pipe B A, and through the
open cock c into the tank, and this continues until the tank is
filled : when that takes place, the lever is moved from the posi-
tion D' to the position F', by which the cock D is closed, and the
cock F opened. The water in the tank flows through the pipe E
into the sea, air being admitted through the valve v, placed at
the top of the tank, opening inwards. A second ton of brine
is discharged by moving the lever back to the position D', and
subsequently returning it to the position F' ; and in this way the
brine is discharged ton by ton, until the supply of water from the
feed which replaces it has caused both the balls in the indicator to
sink to the bottom.

39. A different method of preserving the requisite freshness of
the water in the boiler was adopted by Messrs. Maudslay and
Field. Pumps called Irine-pumps are put into communication
with the lower part of the boiler, and so constructed as to draw
the brine therefrom, and drive it into the sea. These brine-
pumps are worked by the engine, and their operation is constant.
The feed-pumps are likewise worked by the engine, and they bear
such a proportion to the brine-pumps that the quantity of salt
discharged in a given time in the brine is equal to the quantity
of salt introduced in solution by the water of the feed-pumps.
By this means the same actual quantity of salt is constantly
maintained in the boiler, and consequently the strength of the
solution remains invariable. If the brine discharged by the
brine-pumps contains ^ parts of salt, while the water introduced
by the feed-pumps contains only i part, then it is evident that
five cubic feet of the feeding- water will contain no more salt than
is contained in one cubic foot of brine. Under such circumstances
the brine-pumps would be so constructed as to discharge | of the
water introduced by the feed-pumps, so that f of all the water
introduced into the boiler would be evaporated, and rendered
available for working the engine.

To save the heat of the brine, a method has been adopted in
the marine engines constructed by Messrs. Maudslay and Field,
similar to one which has been long practised in steam-boilers, and
in various apparatus for the warming of buildings. The current
of heated brine is conducted from the boiler through a tube
which is contained in another, through which the feed is intro-
duced. The warm current of brine, therefore, as it passes out,

141

STEAM NAVIGATION.

imparts a considerable portion of its heat to the cold feed which
comes in ; and it is found that by this expedient the brine discharged
into the sea may be reduced to a temperature of about 100.

This expedient is so effectual, that when the apparatus is pro-
perly constructed, and kept in a state of efficiency, it may be
regarded as nearly a perfect preventive against the incrustation,
and the deposition of salt in the boiler^, and is not attended with
any considerable waste of fuel.

40. It is maintained by some practical men, that the economy
of heat effected by brine-pumps, such as have been just described,
is more than counterbalanced by the risk which attends them, if
not accompanied by proper precautions. The pipes through which
the salted water is discharged are, it is said, apt to get choked, in
which case the pumps will necessarily cease to act, though they
appear to the engineer to do so ; and thus the water in the boiler
may become salted to any extent without the knowledge of the
engineer. "When the process of blowing out is executed in the
ordinary way, without brine-pumps, the engineer looks at his.
water-gauge and keeps the blow-off cock open, until the water
level has fallen to the required point. Under these circumstances
there is a certainty of having discharged from the boiler a certain
quantity of salted water, a certainty which does not exist in the
case of a continuous discharge of water by brine-pumps.

Such expedients, therefore, it is contended, should always be
accompanied by some indicator, which shall show the degree of
saltness of the water in the boiler, such as we shall presently
explain.

41. In practice, if a marine boiler be regularly attended to,
and the salted water be discharged either by the common
method of bio wing-off cocks or by brine-pumps, or any other expe-
dient which shall impose the necessary limit on the degree of con-
centration of water in the boiler, the evil arising from incrustation.
will be quite inconsiderable.

A scale will in all cases be formed on the inner surface of the
boilers, which must be removed from time to time when the vessel
is in port. The best method of effecting this is by lighting some
shavings, or other light and flaming combustible, in the furnaces
when the boilers are empty and the safety-valves open. The
expansion of the metal by the heat thus produced being greater
than that of the matter composing the scale, the latter will be
detached and will fall in pieces to the bottom of the boiler, from
which it can be withdrawn with the water at the man-holes.

In some cases, however, it will be preferable to detach the scale
by the hammer or chisel.

42. It is a great error to suppose that incrustation is either the
142

ECONOMY OF FUEL.

sole or principal cause of the rapid destruction of marine boilers-
If it were so, it would necessarily happen that marine boilers in
which expedients are adopted by which fresh water is used, or
even those in which the process of blowing out has been regularly
observed, and in which the scale is detached before it is allowed
to thicken to an injurious extent, would last as long, or nearly as-
long, as land boilers. It is found, however, that the boilers in
which these expedients are adopted with the greatest effect and
regularity are, nevertheless, less durable in a very large propor-
tion than land boilers. Thus, while a land boiler will last for
twenty years, a marine boiler, similarly constructed, will, even
with the greatest care, be worn out in four or five years.

The cause of this rapid destruction of the boiler is corrosion,,
but how this corrosion is produced is a question which has not
hitherto been satisfactorily answered. It is contended that this
is not to be ascribed to any chemical action of the sea water on,
the iron, inasmuch as the flues of marine boilers rarely show any
deterioration from this cause, and even in worn-out marine boilers
the hammer-marks on the flues are as conspicuous as when they are
fresh from the boiler-maker. The thin film of scale which covers
the interior surface would rather protect the iron from the action
of the water. In fine, the seat of the corrosion is almost never
those parts of the boiler which are in contact with the water. It
is that part of the metal which includes the steam space that
exhibits corrosion ; but even there the effect is so irregular, that
no data can be obtained by which the cause can be satisfactorily
traced. The part which is most rapidly corroded in one boiler is
not at all affected in another ; and in some cases we find one side
of the steam-chest attacked, the other side being untouched.
Sometimes the iron exfoliates in flakes, while in others it appears
as though it were eaten away by an acid.

43. In the application of the steam-engine to the propulsion of
vessels in voyages of great extent, the economy of fuel acquires
an importance greater than that which appertains to it in land
engines, even in localities the most removed from coal-mines, and
where its expense is greatest. The practical limit to steam
voyages being determined by the greatest quantity of coals which
a steam vessel can carry, every expedient by which the efficiency
of the fuel can be increased becomes a means, not merely of a
saving of expense, but of an increased extension of steam-power to
navigation. Much attention has been bestowed on the augmenta-
tion of ,the duty of engines in the mining districts of Cornwall,
where the question of their efficiency is merely a question of
economy ; but far greater care should be given to this subject,
when the practicability of maintaining intercourse by steam

143

STEAM NAVIGATION.

between distant points of the globe, will perhaps depend on the
effect produced by a given quantity of fuel. So long as steain
navigation was confined to river and channel transport and to
coasting voyages, the speed of the vessel was a paramount con-
sideration, at whatever expenditure of fuel it might be obtained ;
but since steam navigation has been extended to ocean voyages,
where coals must be transported sufficient to keep the engine in
operation for a long period of time without a fresh relay, greater
attention has been bestowed upon the means of economising it.

Much of the efficiency of fuel must depend on the management
of the fires, and therefore on the skill and care of the stokers.
Formerly the efficiency of firemen was determined by the abundant
production of steam ; and so long as the steam was evolved in
superabundance, however it might have blown off to waste, the duty
of the stoker was considered as well performed. The regulation of
the fires according to the demands of the engine was not thought
of, and whether much or little steam was wanted, the duty of the
stoker was to urge the fires to their extreme limit.

Since the resistance opposed by the action of the paddle-wheels
of a steam-vessel varies with the state of the weather, the con-
sumption of steam in the cylinders must undergo a corresponding
variation ; and if the production of steam in the boilers be not
proportioned to this, the engines will either work with less effi-
ciency than they might do under the actual circumstances of the
weather, or more steam will be produced in the boilers than the
cylinders can consume, and the surplus will be discharged to waste
through the safety valves. The stokers of a marine engine, there-
fore, to perform their duty with efficiency, and obtain from the fuel
the greatest possible effect, must discharge the functions of a self-
regulating furnace, such as has been already described : they must
regulate the force of the fires by the amount of steam which the
cylinders are capable of consuming, and they must take care that no
unconsumed fuel is allowed to be carried away from the ash-pit.

44. Formerly the heat radiated from every part of the surface
of the boiler was allowed to go to waste, and to produce injurious
effects on those parts of the vessel to which it was transmitted.
This evil, however, has been removed by coating the boilers,
steam-pipes, &c., of steam- vessels with felt, by which the escape
of heat from the surface of the boiler is very nearly, if not alto-
gether, prevented. This felt is attached to the boiler surface by
a thick covering of white and red lead. This expedient was first
applied in the year 1818 to a private steam vessel of Mr. Watt's,
called the Caledonia ; and it was subsequently adopted in anotber
vessel, the machinery of which was constructed at Soho, called
the James Watt.
144

Fig. 10.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

CHAPTEE III.

45. Economy of fuel. 46. Width and depth of furnace. 47. Advantage
of expansive action. 48. Siamese engines. 49. Simplified arrange-
ments. 50. Number and position of cylinders. 51. Proportion of
diameter to stroke. 52. Oscillating engines. 53. Engines of the
Peterhoff. 54. Propellers. 55. The common paddle-wheels. 56.
Feathering paddles. 57. Morgan's paddle-wheel. 58. Field's split
paddles. 59. American paddle-wheel. 60. Practical objections to
feathering paddles. 61. Proportion of marine engines. 62. Sub-
merged propellers. 63. Their disadvantages. 64. Screw-propellers.
65. Pitch and slip. 66. Manner of mounting screw-propellers.
67. Their various forms.

45. XHE economy of fuel depends in a great degree on the
arrangement of the furnaces, and the method of feeding them.
In general, each boiler is worked by two or more furnaces
communicating with the same system of flues. "While the furnace
LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE, L 145

No. 126.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

is fed, the door being open, a stream of cold air rushes in, passing
over the burning fuel and lowering the temperature of the flues :
this is an evil to be avoided. But, on the other hand, if the fur-
naces be fed at distant intervals, each furnace will be unduly
heaped with fuel, a great quantity of smoke will be evolved,
and the combustion of the fuel will be proportionally imperfect.
The process of coking in front of the grate, which would insure a
complete combustion of the fuel, has been already described in our
tract on the Steam Engme. A frequent supply of coals, however,
laid carefully on the front part of the grate, and gradually pushed
backwards as each fresh feed is introduced, would require the fire
door to be frequently opened, and cold air to be admitted. It
would also require greater vigilance on the part of the stokers,
than can generally be obtained in the circumstances in which they
work. In steam-vessels the furnaces are therefore fed less fre-
quently, fuel is introduced in greater quantities, and a less perfect
combustion produced.

When several furnaces are constructed under the same boiler,
communicating with the same system of flues, the process of feed-
ing, and consequently opening one of them, obstructs the due
operation of the others, for the current of cold air which is thus
admitted into the flues checks the draught, and diminishes the
efficiency of the furnaces in operation. It was formerly the practice
in vessels exceeding one hundred horse-power, to place four
furnaces under each boiler, communicating with the same system
of flues. Such an arrangement was found to be attended with a
bad draught in the furnaces, and therefore to require a greater
quantity of heating surface to produce the necessary evaporation.
This entailed upon the machinery the occupation of more space in
the vessel in proportion to its power ; it has therefore been more
recently the practice to give a separate system of flues to each
pair of furnaces, or, at most, to every three furnaces. When three
furnaces communicate with a common flue, two will always be in
operation, while the third is being cleared out ; but if the same
quantity of fire were divided among two furnaces, then the clearing
out of one would throw out of operation half the entire quantity
of fire, and during the process the evaporation would be injuriously
diminished.

46. It is found by experience, that the side plates of furnaces are
liable to more rapid destruction than their roofs, owing, probably,
to a greater liability to deposit. Furnaces, therefore, should not
be made narrower than a certain limit. Great depth from front to
back is also attended with practical inconvenience, as it renders
firing tools of considerable length, and a corresponding extent of
stoking room necessary. It is recommended by those who have had
H6

EXPANSIVE ACTION.

much practical experience in steam-vessels, that furnaces six feet
in depth from front to back should not be less than three feet
in width to afford means of firing with as little injury to the side
plates as possible, and of keeping the fires in the condition
necessary for the production of the greatest effect. The tops of
the furnaces scarcely ever decay, and are seldom subject to an
alteration of figure, unless the level of the water be allowed to
fall below them.

47. The method by which the greatest quantity of practical
effect can be obtained from a given quantity of fuel must, how-
ever, mainly depend on the extended application of the expansive
principle. This has been the means by which an extraordinary
amount of duty has been obtained from the Cornish engines. The
difficulty of the application of this principle in marine engines, has
arisen from the objections entertained in Europe to the use of
steam of high-pressure, under the circumstances in which the
engine must be worked at sea. To apply the expansive principle,
it is necessary that the moving power at the commencement of the
stroke shall considerably exceed the resistance, its force being
gradually attenuated till the completion of the stroke, when it
will at length become less than the resistance. This condition
may, however, be attained with steam of limited pressure, if
the engine be constructed with a sufficient quantity of piston
surface.

48. This method of rendering the expansive principle available at sea,
and compatible with low-pressure steam, was projected and executed by
Messrs. Maudslay and Field. Their improvement consists in adapting
two steam cylinders in one engine, in such a manner that the steam shall
act simultaneously on both pistons, causing them to ascend and descend
together. The piston-rods are both attached to the same horizontal cross-
head, whereby their combined action is applied to one crank by means of a
connecting-rod placed between the pistons.

A section of such an engine (which has been called the Siamese engine),
made by a plane passing through the two piston-rods p p' and cylinders, is
represented in fig. 9. The piston-rods are attached to a cross-head c,
which ascends and descends with them. This cross-head drives upwards
and downwards an axle D, to which the lower end of the connecting-rod
E is attached. The other end of the connecting-rod drives the crank -
pin P, and imparts revolution to the paddle-shaft a. A rod H conveys
motion by means of a beam I to the rod K of the air-pump L.

Engines constructed on this principle were applied in several steamers,
and amongst others in her Majesty's steam-frigate "Retribution."

49. Tyithin the last ten or fifteen years, and especially
since the more general adoption of the screw-propeller, the
marine engine has been greatly simplified in its mechanical

Its bulk has thus been diminished, as well as
L 2 H7

STEAM NAVIGATION.

the cost of construction; and the profitable tonnage of the
vessel has been increased in a corresponding proportion. The
beam and its appendages have been very generally laid aside,
and the piston-rods have been more directly connected with
the cranks.

In some cases the piston-rods are kept in their direction by
guides, and their rectilinear motion is accommodated to the

Fig. 9.

rotation of the cranks by connecting-rods, which consequently
have an oscillation between the extreme points of the play of the
cranks.

In other cases the cylinders themselves receive this oscillation.
In such cases the connecting-rods are dispensed with, and the
ends of the piston-rods are immediately jointed to the cranks.
The oscillation of the piston causes the motion of the valves neces-
sary for the alternate admission and escape of the steam on the
one and the other side of the piston.

50. The number of cylinders varies, being generally two, but
148

OSCILLATING ENGINES.

sometimes three, sometimes four, and sometimes, though very
exceptionally, only one.

The position of the cylinders is subject to great variation.
They are placed with their axes sometimes vertical, sometimes
horizontal, and sometimes oblique.

51. The proportion of the diameter to the stroke is subject to
like variation. The general tendency has been to increase the
relative magnitude of the diameter, which in recently built
engines is sometimes more than twice the stroke, and rarely less
than two-thirds of it. Thus in the engines of the " Niger," con-
structed by Messrs. Maudslay and Field, the cylinders have 48
inches diameter, with only 22 inches stroke ; and in the " Simoom,"
by Boulton and Watt, they have 44 inches diameter, with 30
inches stroke.

The object of shortening the stroke is to diminish the momentum
of the piston, of which the motion requires to be so frequently
reversed.

52. In engines constructed on the oscillating principle, the top
of the piston-rod is coupled with the crank, and the piston-rod
moves backward and forward in the direction of the axis of the
cylinder, while its extremity revolves in a circle with the crank.
It is therefore necessary that the cylinder should oscillate from
side to side, to accommodate the motion of the piston-rod to that
of the crank. For this purpose the cylinder is provided on each
side with a short hollow pivot or trunnion, on which it swings ;
and through one of these trunnions the steam enters the cylinder
from the boiler, while it escapes through the other to the condenser.
The alternate admission and escape of steam on the one side and
the other of the piston, is regulated by a valve attached to the
cylinder and swinging with it. In the larger class of engines,
however, two valves are usually employed for this purpose, and
are so arranged as to balance one another.

Oscillating engines are usually placed immediately under the
cranks, and occupy no greater length in the vessel than the
diameter of the cylinder. On the shaft which connects the
engine, called the intermediate shaft, a crank is forged which
in its revolutions gives motion to the piston of the air-pump.

53. The arrangements generally employed at present in the most
improved vessels propelled by oscillating engines, will be understood by
reference to fig. 10, which represents the transverse section of the steam-
yacht "Peterhoff," constructed for the Emperor of Russia, by Messrs. Rennie,
and fig.' 11, which is a side view of the engines of the same vessel. These
figures are copied with the permission of the publishers and the authors,
from the article on the steam-engine, in the last edition of Brande's
"Dictionary of Science." A, A are the cylinders ; B, B are the piston-rods,
which are connected immediately with the cranks c, c ; D is a crank on

149

STEAM NAVIGATION.

the intermediate shaft for working the piston of the air-pump E ; p, p are

the slide-valves, by which

g> n ' the admission of the steam

to the cylinders is regu-
lated ; G, G are double
eccentrics on the inter-
mediate shaft, whereby
the valves F, F are moved ;
H is a handle, whereby the
engines may be stopped,
started, or reversed ; I, I
are the steam-pipes lead-
ing to the steam -trunnions
K, K, on which, and on
other trunnions, connected
with the pipe M, the cylin-
ders oscillate ; N, N are
pumps, the pistons of
which are attached to the
trunnions, and are worked
by the oscillation of the
cylinders ; o is the waste-
water pipe, through which

the water which has accomplished the function of condensing the steam is
ejected over-board. The same letters refer to the same parts in the two figures.

54. To obtain from the moving power its full amount of mecha-
nical effect in propelling the vessel, it would be necessary that it
should constantly act against the water in a horizontal direction,
and with a motion contrary to the course of the vessel. No system
of propellers has, however, yet been contrived capable of perfectly
accomplishing this. Patents have been granted for many
ingenious mechanical combinations to impart to the propelling
surfaces such angles as appeared to the respective contrivers most
advantageous. In most of these the mechanical complexity has
formed a fatal objection. No part of the machinery of a steam-
vessel is so liable to become deranged at sea as the propellers ;
and, therefore, that simplicity of construction which is compatible
with those repairs which are possible on such emergencies is quite
essential for safe practical use.

55. The ordinary paddle-wheel, as has been already stated, is a wheel
revolving upon a shaft driven by the engine, and carrying upon its cir-
cumference a number of flat boards, called paddle-boards, which are
secured by nuts and braces in a fixed position ; and that position is such
that the planes of the paddle-boards diverge from the centre of the shaft
on which the wheel turns. The consequence of this arrangement is that each
paddle-board can only act in that direction which is most advantageous for
the propulsion of the vessel when it arrives at the lowest point of the wheel.
In fig. 12, let o be the shaft on which the common paddle-wheel revolves ;
the positions of the paddle-boards are represented at A, B, c, &c. ; x T
represents the water-line, the course of the vessel being supposed to be
from x to y ; the arrows represent the direction in which the paddle-wheel

150

COMMON PADDLE-WHEEL.

revolves. The wheel is immersed to the depth of the lowest paddle-board,
since a less degree of immersion would render a portion of the surface of
each paddle-board mechanically useless. In the position A, the whole
force of the paddle-board is efficient for propelling the vessel ; but as the
paddle enters the water in the position H, its action upon the water not
being horizontal, is only partially effective for propulsion : a part of the
force which drives the paddle is expended in depressing the water, and the
remainder in driving it contrary to the course of the vessel, and, therefore,

Fig. 12.

by its re-action producing a certain propelling effect. The tendency, how-
ever, of the paddle entering the water at H is to form a hollow or trough,
which the water, by its ordinary property, has a continual tendency to fill
up. After passing the lowest point A, as the paddle approaches the posi-
tion B, where it emerges from the water, its action again becomes oblique,
a part only having a propelling effect, and the remainder having a tendency
to raise the water, and throw up a wave and spray behind the paddle-
wheel. It is evident that the more deeply the paddle-wheel becomes
immersed, the greater will be the proportion of the propelling power thus
wasted in elevating and depressing the water ; and if the wheel were
immersed to its axis, the whole force of the paddle -boards, on entering and
leaving the water, would be lost, no part of it having a tendency to propel.
If a still deeper immersion take place, the paddle-boards above the axis
would have a tendency to retard the course of the vessel. When the vessel
is, therefore, in proper trim, the immersion should not exceed nor fall
short of the depth of the lowest paddle ; but for various reasons it is
impossible in practice to maintain this fixed immersion : the agitation of the
surface of the sea causing the vessel to roll, will necessarily produce a great
variation in the immersion of the paddle-wheels, one becoming frequently
immerse,d to its axle, while the other is raised altogether out of the Water.
Also the draught of water of the vessel is liable to change, by the variation
in the cargo ; this will necessarily happen in steamers which take long
voyages. At starting they are heavily laden with fuel, which as they
proceed is gradually consumed, whereby the vessel is lightened.

151

STEAM NAVIGATION.

56. To remove this defect, and economise as much as possible the
propelling effect of the paddle-boards, it would be necessary so to
construct them that they may enter and leave the water edgeways,

Fig. 13.

or as nearly so as possible ; such an arrangement would be, in
effect, equivalent to the process called feathering, as applied to
oars. Any mechanism which would perfectly accomplish this
would cause the paddles to work in almost perfect silence, and
would very nearly remove the inconvenient and injurious vibration
which is produced by the action of the common paddles. But the
construction of feathering paddles is attended with great difficulty,
under the peculiar circumstances in which such wheels work.
Any mechanism so complex that it could not be easily repaired
when deranged, with such engineering implements and skill as
can be obtained at sea, would be attended with great objections.

Feathering paddle-boards must necessarily have a motion inde-
pendently of the motion of the wheel, since any fixed position which
could be given to them, though it might be most favourable to
their action in one position, would not be so in their whole course
throiigh the water. Thus the paddle-board when at the lowest
point should be in a vertical position, or so placed that its plane,
if continued upwards, would pass through the axis of the wheel.
In other positions, however, as it passes through the water, it
should present its upper edge, not towards the axle of the wheel,
but towards a point above the highest point of the wheel. The
precise point to which the edge of the paddle-board should be di-
rected is capable of mathematical determination. But it will vary
according to circumstances, which depend on the motion of the
vessel. The progressive motion of the vessel, independently of
the wind or current, must obviously be slower than the motion of
the paddle-boards round the axle of the wheel ; since it is by the
difference of these velocities that the re-action of the water is pro-
duced, by which the vessel is propelled. The proportion, however ,
between the progressive speed of the vessel and the rotative speed
of the paddle-boards is not fixed ; it will vary with the shape and
152

FEATHERING PADDLES.

structure of the vessel, and with its depth of immersion ; never-
theless it is upon this proportion that the manner in which the
paddle-boards should shift their position must he determined. If
the progressive speed of the vessel were nearly equal to the rotative
speed of the paddle-boards, the latter should so shift their position
that their upper edges should be presented to a point very little
above the highest point of the wheel. This is a state of things
which could only take place in the case of a steamer of a small
draught of water, shallop-shaped, and so constructed as to suffer
little resistance from, the fluid. On the other hand, the greater
the depth of immersion, and the less fine the lines of the vessel,
the greater will be the resistance in passing through the water,
and the greater will be the proportion which the rotative speed of
the paddle-boards will bear to the progressive speed of the vessel.
In this latter case the independent motion of the paddle-boards
should be such that their edges, while in the water, shall be pre-
sented towards a point considerably above the highest point of the
paddle-wheel.

A vast number of ingenious mechanical contrivances have been
invented and patented, for accomplishing the objects just explained.
Some of these have failed from the circumstance of their inventors
not clearly understanding what precise motion it was necessary to
impart to the paddle-boards ; others have failed from the com-
plexity of the mechanism by which the desired effect was produced.

57. One of these contrivances of late construction is represented in
fig. 11, being the paddle-wheel of the Russian steamer "Peterhoff."
To convey a general idea of the feathering principle, however, we
have represented in fig. 14 the form of wheel known as Morgan's
paddle-wheel.

This contrivance may be shortly stated to consist in causing the wheel
which bears the paddles to revolve on one centre, and the radial arms
which move the paddles to revolve on another centre. Let ABCDEFGH
i K L be the polygonal circumference of the paddle-wheel, formed of
straight bars, securely connected together at the extremities of the spokes
or radii of the wheel which turns on the shaft which is worked by the
engine ; the centre of this wheel being at o. So far this wheel is similar
to the common paddle-wheel; but the paddle-boards are not, as in the
common wheel, fixed at A B o,.&c., so as to be always directed to the
centre o, but are so placed that they are capable of turning on axles which
are always horizontal, so that they can take any angle with respect to the
water which may be given to them. From the centres, or the line joining
the pivots on which these paddle-boards turn, there proceed short arms K,
firmly fixed to the paddle-boards at an angle of about 120. On a motion
given to this arm K, it will therefore give a corresponding angular motion
to the paddle-board, so as to make it turn on its pivots. At the extremi-
ties of the several arms marked K is a pin or pivot, to which the
extremities of the radial arms L are severally attached, so that the angle
between each radial arm L and the short paddle arm K. is capable of being

153

STEAM NAVIGATION.

changed by any motion imparted to L ; the radial arms are connected at
the other end with a centre, round which they are capable of revolving,
Now, since the points ABC, &c., which are the pivots on which the paddle- 1
boards turn, are moved in the circumference of a circle, of which the centre
is o, they are always at the same distance from that point, consequently they
will continually vary their distance from the other centre P. Thus, when
a paddle-board arrives at that point of its revolution at which the centre

Fig. 14.

round which it revolves lies precisely between it and the centre o, its
distance from the former centre is less than in any other position. As it
departs from that point, its distance from that centre gradually increases
until it arrives at the opposite point of its revolution, where the centre o
is exactly between it and the former centre ; then the distance of the
paddle-board from the former centre is greatest. This constant change of
distance between each paddle-board and the centre p is accommodated by
the variation of the angle between the radial arm L and the short paddle-
board arm K : as the paddle-board approaches the centre P, this gradually
diminishes ; and as the distance of the paddle-board increases, the angle is
likewise augmented. This change in the magnitude of the angle, which
thus accommodates the varying position of the paddle-board with respect
to the centre P, will be observed in the figure. The paddle-board D is
nearest to P ; and it will be observed that the angle contained between L
and K is there very acute ; at E the angle between L and K increases,
154

SPLIT PADDLES.

but is still acute ; at G it increases to a right angle ; at H it becomes
obtuse ; and at K, where it is most distant from the centre p, it becomes
most obtuse. It again diminishes at L, and becomes a right angle between
A and B. Now this continual shifting of the direction of the short arm K
is necessarily accompanied by an equivalent change of position in the
paddle-board to which it is attached ; and the position of the second centre
p is, or may be, so adjusted that this paddle-board, as it enters the water
and emerges from it, shall be such as shall be most advantageous for pro-
pelling the vessel, and therefore attended with less of that vibration which
arises chiefly from the alternate depression and elevation of the water,
owing to the oblique action of the paddle -boards.

58. Field's split paddles. In the year 1833, Mr. Field, of the firm of
Maudslay and Field, constructed a paddle-wheel with fixed paddle-boards,
but each board being divided into several narrow slips arranged one a little
behind the other, as represented in fig. 15. These divided boards he pro-
Fig. 15.

posed to arrange in such cycloidal curves that they must all enter the
water at the same place in immediate succession, avoiding the shock pro-
duced by the entrance of the common board. These split paddle-boai'ds
are as efficient in propelling when at the lowest point as the common
paddle -boards, and, when they emerge, the water escapes simultaneously
from each narrow board, and is not thrown up, as is the case with common
paddle-boards.

The /number of bars, or separate parts into which each paddle-board is
divided, has been very various. When first introduced, each board was
divided into six or seven parts : this was subsequently reduced ; and in
the wheels of this form constructed for the government vessels, the paddle-
boards consist only of two parts, coming as near to the common wheel

155

STEAM NAVIGATION.

as is possible, without altogether abandoning the principle of the split
paddle.

59. The paddle-wheels generally used in American steam -boats are
formed, as if by the combination of two or more common paddle-wheels,
placed one outside the other, on the same axle, but so that the paddle-
boards of each may have an intermediate position between those of the
adjacent one, as represented in fig. 16.

The spokes, which are bolted to cast-iron flanges, are of wood. These

flanges, to which they are so

- ]6 - bolted, are keyed upon the

paddle-shaft. The outer ex-
tremities of the spokes are
attached to circular bands or
hoops of iron, surrounding
the wheel ; and the paddle-
boards, which are formed of
hard wood, are bolted to the
spokes. The wheels, thus
constructed, sometimes con-
sist of three, and not unfre-
quently four, independent cir-
cles of paddle-boards, placed
one beside the other, and so
adjusted in their position,
that the boards of no two
divisions shall correspond.

The great magnitude of the
paddle-wheels, and the cir-
cumstance of the navigation
being carried on, for the most
part, in smooth water, have
rendered unnecessary, in Ame-
rica, the adoption of any of

those expedients for neutralising the effects of the oblique action of the
paddles, which have been tried, but hitherto with so little success, in Europe. *

60. The practical objections to the use of the feathering prin-
ciple in general, go far to balance the advantages attending them.
According to Mr. Bourne, whose skill and experience on this
subject entitle his opinion to the highest respect, all expedients
of this class are expensive, both to make and maintain. The
wear and friction in such a multitude of joints is very consider-
able ; and if any of the arms get adrift, or break, they will be
whirled round like a flail, and may perhaps cut through the
paddle-box, or even the vessel. If the injury be of such a nature
that the wheels cannot be turned round (and this has sometimes
happened), it will follow that the engines will be virtually dis-
abled until the obstruction can be cleared away; and if the
weather be very stormy, or the vessel be in a critical situation,

* For a notice of the inland steam navigation of the United States, see
Railway Economy," chap. xvi. Also "Museum of Science and Art,"

vol. 11. p.
156

17.

PROPORTIONS OF ENGINES.

she may be lost in consequence of her temporary derangement.
Upon the whole, therefore, the application of feathering wheels to
vessels intended to perform long voyages through stormy seas,
appears to be of doubtful propriety. For channel trips, and in
situations where the wheels can be carefully examined at short
intervals, the risk is not so great ; but in that case nearly the
same benefits will be attained by increasing the length of the
paddle-floats, and giving the wheels less dip. There is no mate-
rial difference between the performance of a feathering wheel and
that of a radial wheel, if the two wheels be of the same diameter,
and if they have both a light dip with long narrow floats. And,
as in sea-going vessels, the wheels must necessarily be of con-
siderable diameter, and as there is nothing to prevent the other
circumstances conducive to efficiency from being observed, it
follows that in ocean-vessels radial wheels would be about as
efficient as feathering wheels, but for the circumstance of a vari-
able immersion. It is not necessary, however, that there should
be much variation in the immersion if large vessels be employed,
or if coal is more frequently taken on board during the voyage ;
and as neither of these alternatives is attended with the risk
incident to the use of feathering wheels, they appear to be entitled
to that preference which ultimately they are likely to obtain.

61. In oscillating engines the piston-rod is usually made one-
ninth of the diameter of the cylinder, and the crank -pin is made
about one-seventh of the diameter of the cylinder. The diameter
of the paddle-shaft must have reference not merely to the
diameter of the cylinder, but also to the length of the stroke of
the piston, or, what is the same thing, to the length of the crank.
If the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches be multi-
plied by the length of the crank in inches, and the cube-root of
the product be extracted, then that root multiplied by '242 will
give the diameter proper for the shaft in inches at the smallest
part. The diameter of the trunnions is regulated by the diameter
of the steam and eduction pipes, and these are each usually about
one-fifth of the diameter of the cylinder ; but it is better to make
the steam trunnions a little less, and the eduction trunnions a
little more, than this proportion. The steam and eduction pipes,
where they enter their respective trunnions, are kept tight by a
packing of hemp, which is compressed by a suitable ring or
gland, tightened by screws. In land engines the air-pump and
condenser are each made about one-eighth of the capacity of the
cylinder, but in marine engines they are made somewhat larger.

62. Submerged propellers, whatever be their form, are exempt
from many of the disadvantages which are common to every
species of paddle-wheel. It will be evident that the effect of

157

STEAM NAVIGATION.

such a propeller will be nearly the same, whatever position may
be given to it in the water. However the ship may pitch or roll,
or however unequal the surface of the sea may be, such a pro-
peller will always produce the same backward current without
any variation of effect.

The circumstances which prevent the co-operation of the power
of steam with that of the sails in steam- vessels propelled by the
common paddle-wheels, will not operate with submerged pro-
pellers, inasmuch as tneir effect is altogether independent of the
careejiing of the ship.

63. But though this defect is remedied, the submerged pro-
pellers in general are still subject to objections, to which even the
common paddle-wheel is not obnoxious. Being permanently
submerged and liable to accident, fracture, and derangement from
various causes, they are inaccessible, and cannot be repaired at
sea. But, besides this, when the object in view is to take full
advantage of the power of the sails at times when it is expedient
to suspend the action of the machinery, the submerged propeller
becomes an obstruction, more or less considerable, to the progress
of the vessel. Various expedients have been contrived, and in
some instances practically applied, by which the propeller can be
lifted out of the water when it is not in operation, but hitherto
this has not been found practically convenient, at least for com-
mercial vessels, though sometimes adopted for vessels of war.

64. The screw-propeller is similar in form and mechanical prin-
ciple to the hydraulic machine known as the screw of Archimedes.
A cylinder placed at the bottom of the vessel, and in the direction
of the keel, is surrounded by a spiral blade similar, precisely, to
the thread of a common screw, but projecting from it instead of
being cut into its surface. If such a screw were turned in a
solid, it would move forward through a space equal to the distance
between two contiguous threads in each revolution ; but the water,
not being solid, yields more or less to the re-action of the screw,
and consequently the screw moves forward through a space in each
revolution less than the distance between two contiguous threads.

65. The distance between two contiguous threads is technically
called the pitch of the screw ; a term, however, which is some-
times also used to express the angle formed by the blade of the
screw with its axis, such angle supplying the means of calculating
the distance between such contiguous threads. We shall here, how-
ever, use the term pitch in the former sense. The difference between
the pitch of the screw and the space through which the screw actu-
ally progresses in the water in one revolution is called the slip.

In the first vessels to which screw-propellers were applied, the
screw consisted of a single spiral blade, which made one convo-
153

SCREW-PROPELLERS.

lution only round the cylinder. This arrangement was subse-
quently modified, and two convolutions and a half of a double-
threaded screw were used instead of one complete convolution of a
single-threaded screw. This plan has been occasionally varied, a
smaller fraction of a convolution being sometimes used.

It is found in practice that the amount of the slip in general
varies from one-tenth to one-twentieth of the pitch ; that is to
say, the actual velocity of the screw through the water is from
one- tenth to one- twentieth less than it would be if the screw
worked through a solid, or as an ordinary screw in its nut.

66. The screw-propeller is usually fixed upon an axis parallel
to the keel of the vessel, and mounted in a space in the dead wood
between the stern-post and rudder-post. It is usually suspended
on a short shaft, carried by a metal frame, having a rack on each
side, in which endless screws work, by means of which the frame
supporting the propeller can be lifted out of the water, so that the
screw can be repaired if required or a new one introduced without
putting the vessel into dock.

To enable the water to react in a manner analogous to that in
which the nut reacts upon the common screw, the thread requires
to be much deeper than, if the screw worked in metal or wood,
and the pressing surface to be proportionally larger. Accordingly
screw-propellers are always made with much smaller central bodies,
and a much deeper thread than the common screw. They are also
made as large as possible in diameter, extending generally from
the keel to a point nearly level with the surface of the water. Thus
the diameter of the screw is little less than the draft of the vessel.

67. To convey some idea of the forms of screw-propellers, we
have represented in the annexed figures the forms of some of the
propellers most generally adopted.

In fig. 17 is represented a perspective view of Smith's screw-propeller,
with two threads or blades, as finally adopted in her Majesty's steamer

Fig. 17.

Fig. IS.

Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

"Rattler." This is the form of the screw now most generally adopted in the

159

STEAM NAVIGATION.

British, navy. An end view or an elevation looking against the end of the
shaft is shown in fig. 18. Smith's three-thread screw differs from this
only in having three arms instead of two.

Fig. 21.

Fig. 23.

Strimman's propeller is shown by an end view in fig. 19, and a side
view in fig. 20.

Sunderland's propeller, as applied in the "Rattler," is shown in fig. 21,
consisting of two flat plates, set upon arms, fixed to an axis revolving
beneath the water in the stern. In the "Rattler," this propeller was placed
in the stern in the dead wood, instead of projecting out behind the rudder
as in the Sunderland arrangement.

In fig. 22 is represented Woodcroft's propeller, also applied in the
"Rattler." This has four arms or blades, and the pitch of the screw at its
leading edge is less than the pitch at its terminal edge.

In fig. 23 * is represented, as set in the stern of the vessel, the form
of Hodson's screw, from which excellent results are said to have been
obtained. This form of screw has been much used in France, Holland,
and other countries of the continent ; and in some cases in which the com-
mon screw has been superseded by a screw of this description, an
improvement has been obtained in the speed amounting to about a knot
an hour. Such results will only ensue when the original screw has been
of inadequate dimension, so that the loss by slip has been large in amount,
and the more the slip is reduced, the less will become the advantage of
any deviation from Smith's form of screw with uniform pitch.f

* Figs. 17 to 23 have been taken with the permission of the author
from Mr. Bourne's work "on the Screw-propeller."
t Bourne " on the Screw-propeller," p. 136.

160

CtC WHfflS

Fig. 20.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

CHAPTER IV.

68. Effect of the screw-propeller reaction on the vessel. 69. Their best
practical proportion . 70. Their varying pitch . 71. Relative advantages
of screw and paddle-wheels. 72. Their effects in long sea-voyages.
73. Experiments with the "Rattler" and " Alecto." 74. These
experiments continued. 75. Admiralty experiments. 76. Govern-
ment report. 77. Application of the screw in the commercial marine.
78. Application of screw to mail-vessels. 79. Geared and direct
action. 80. Geared-eugines. 81. Fairbairn's internal gearing. 82.
Subdivision of the power among several cylinders. 83. Protection
from shot. 84. Regulation of slides. 85. Relative speed of screw and
vessel. 86. Engines of the "Great Britain." 87. Engines of the
"Arrogant" and "Encounter." 88. Various forms of screw-engines.
89. Cross action of H. M.'s screw steam-packet "Plumper."
90. Auxiliary steam-power. 91. Effect of screw-vessels head to
wind. 92. Nominal and real horse-power. 93. Official tables of the
strength of the steam-navy.

68. THE screw, whatever be its form or structure, in driving
the water sternwards, sustains a corresponding reaction which takes
effect upon the screw-shaft, and produces an equivalent pressure
on its bearing to its anterior extremity. The force of this forward
thrust of the screw-shaft, combined with its velocity of rotation,
produced, in the earlier screw-vessels, considerable inconvenience
in consequence of the friction attending it, and several cases
LAKDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. M 161

Np. 128.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

occurred where the end of the shaft being rendered white-hot was
actually welded to the steel plate against which it pressed, although
a stream of water was continually running over the surface in
contact. Various expedients have since then been proposed for
remedying this inconvenience. One of these was to let the end of
the shaft enter a tight cylinder of oil in the manner of a piston,
so that it would press against a liquid instead of a solid. Another
was to place a large collar upon the shaft which should press
against a number of balls or small rollers like those of a swivel-
bridge. Neither of these plans, however, appears to have beea
so successful as to get into general use, and one or other of the
following expedients is now generally adopted. The thrust of
the screw-shaft is received either upon a number of collars or a,
series of discs placed at the end of the shaft and resting on a
cistern of oil which is usually cast upon the base plate or some
solid part of the engine, and its end is sufficiently strong to bear
the thrust of the screw. Interposed, however, between the end of
the cistern and that of the shaft are two, three, or more discs of
metal, generally two inches thick, and having diameters equal to-
that of the shaft. A bolt passes through their centre to keep
them in line, but they are each free to revolve in the bolt, andi
where the shaft passes out of the cistern a collar of leather is
applied to prevent the oil from escaping. It will be obvious from
such an arrangement that if the end of the shaft which it presses
upon the discs begins to heat from undue friction, it will revolve
with somewhat more difficulty, and will consequently carry the
first disc round with it. The rubbing surfaces are therefore no-
longer at the end of the shaft, but at the first disc and the second
disc. In fact the rubbing surfaces, instead of being limited to a
single disc, are distributed over several. Those surfaces whiclu
begin to heat, and consequently to stick, will cease to rub, whereby
they will speedily become cool again and their efficiency conse-
quently be restored. (See Mr. Bourne's article on the " Screw-
Propeller " in the Appendix to Brande's " Dictionary of Science
and Art.")

69. According to the same authority the best practical propor-
tion and form of screw-propellers for mercantile vessels are as
follows. Those of three blades are on the whole preferable. The
diameter should be as large as possible. When the area of the
circle described by the extremity of the arms of the screw has one
square foot for every two-and-a-half square feet in the area of
the midship section immersed, a very efficient performance is
obtained. The pitch of the screw should be equal to its diameter,
or perhaps a little exceed it, and the length measured parallel to
its shaft should be about one-sixth of a convolution. Thus, for
162

PHOPORTIONS OF SCREWS.

example, in the case of a screw 12 feet in diameter, the pitch
would be from 12 to 14 feet, and the length about 2 feet.

70. Screws are generally made with one uniform pitch, and
their blades are set at right angles to the shaft. A gradual
increase of pitch towards the leading end of the screw is, how-
ever, recommended. Thus, the pitch of the centre should be
about 10 per cent, less than at the circumference, for the centre
should merely screw through the water, without producing any
reaction or propelling force. The efficient part being near the
circumference, it is also recommended that the blades, instead of
being precisely perpendicular to the shaft, should be inclined a
little sternwards, so as to produce a tendency in the water which,
they drive backwards to converge to a point. It is assumed that
this convergent tendency may balance the divergent tendency due
to the centrifugal force attending the revolution : so that the two
forces being in equilibrium will cause the water to be projected
backwards from the screw in a cylindrical column. In the case
of the ordinary screw, with blades at right angles to the shaft,
the water projected backwards assumes the figure of the frustum
of a cone, and a certain proportion of the power is thereby lost.

71. The relative advantages of screw and paddle-propellers
depend in a great degree upon the immersion. It appeared from
experiments made on a considerable scale with steamers of the
Royal Navy, that in deep immersion the screw has an advantage
over the paddle-wheel of one-and-a-half per cent. ; but that,
with medium immersion, the paddle-wheel had an advantage of
one-and-three- quarters per cent, over the screw, an advantage
which was augmented to four-and-three-quarters per cent, for
light immersions. It appears, therefore, that the screw-propeller
has a certain advantage over the paddle when the vessel is deep
in the water, and that, on the other hand, the paddle gains an
advantage over the screw in proportion as the immersion is less.

72. In long sea voyages, where the immersion is liable to con-
siderable variation by reason of the lightening of the vessel owing
to the consumption of the fuel, the screw will have the advantage
over the paddle in the commencement of the voyage, and the paddle
over the screw towards the end of it. In rough weather, where,
by the rolling and pitching of the vessel, the paddle-wheels are
liable at one time to be deeply plunged in the water, and at another
to be raised out of it, the screw will have an obvious advantage.

73. In his work upon the screw-propeller, Mr. Bourne has
given tbe details of a series of important experiments made with
H. M. steamers " Rattler " and "Alecto," to determine the
relative advantages of screw and paddle-wheels against a head
wind. The result of these experiments seemed to prove, that

M 2 1^3

STEAM NAVIGATION.

under such, conditions the screw is less efficient than the paddle ;
for though both vessels attained the same speed of four knots
against a strong head wind, yet, in the case of the " Alecto," this
performance was attained with a velocity of the engine of 12
strokes per minute, whereas in the " Rattier" it was only attained
with a velocity of the engine of 22 strokes per minute. It follows,
therefore, that a screw-vessel in proceeding head to wind will
require 1*8 times, or nearly twice the quantity of fuel to do the
same amount of work? The screw, in fact, revolves at nearly the
same velocity whether the wind is adverse or favourable, or
whether the vessel is lying at anchor ; and this is a serious defect
in the case of vessels intended to encounter adverse winds. In the
case of vessels, however, which use the screw only as a resource in
calms, or as an auxiliary to the sails, this disadvantage will not be
experienced, since such vessels have no pretensions to the capability
of proceeding in direct opposition to a strong head wind.

74. Among the experiments made with the "Alecto" and
1 1 Rattler," some of the most interesting and important were
directed to the determination of the relative towing powers of the
screw and paddle-wheel. For this purpose the two ships were
lashed stern to stern, and the engines of both were set to work so
as to make them draw the connecting chain in opposite directions.
In these and all other cases where screw and paddle-vessels of
equal power and size have been thus connected, the screw-vessel
has preponderated, and towed the paddle-vessel as soon as the
engines were set to work.

When the "Rattler" and "Alecto" were lashed together in this
manner, the " Alecto' s " engines were set on first, and she was
allowed to tow the " Rattler" at the rate of two knots an hour.
The " Rattler's " engines were then set on. In five minutes the
two vessels became completely stationary. The "Rattler" then
began to move ahead, and towed the " Alecto " against the whole
force of her engines, at the rate of 2-8 knots per hour. In like
manner the " Niger " towed the " Basilisk " astern, in opposition
to the force of her engines at the rate of 1 % 1 knots per hour. The
natural inference from this experiment would be that the screw is
more suitable for towing than the paddle ; yet this inference is not
confirmed by the experiment, for when the " Niger " and
"Basilisk" were each set to tow the other alternately, in the
usual manner in which a steamer tows a ship, it was found that
the " Niger " towed the " Basilisk " at a speed of 5-63 knots, with
593-9 horse-power, and that the "Basilisk" towed the "Niger"
at the rate of 6 knots, with 572-3 horse-power. The paddle-
vessel, therefore, accomplished in towing the largest speed with
the least power. It has also been found that when a paddle
161

ADMIRALTY EXPERIMENTS.

and screw-vessel set stern to stern push one another instead of
pulling one another, the paddle-vessel preponderates, whereas, if
they pull, the screw-vessel preponderates. These circumstances
seem to show that the power of a screw-vessel to tow a paddle-
vessel astern, when the two are tied together, does not arise from
any superior tractive efficacy of the screw itself, hut is due to the
centrifugal action of the screw, which raises the level of the water
at the stern, so that the vessel gravitates down an inclined plane.*

75. The first experiments tried by the Admiralty with the
screw-propeller were made in 1840-41 ; and in the next three
years, 1842-44, eight screw vessels were built. This number was
augmented by twenty-six in 1845. In 1848 there were not less
than forty-five government screw-steamers afloat ; and since that
time, and more especially since the commencement of the war
with Russia, the increase of the screw-steam navy has gone on at
a rate which justifies the conclusion that ere long no vessel of
war, of whatever class, in the British navy will be unprovided
with the power, to a greater or less extent, of steam propulsion.

76. In a government official report of the results of various trials
of the performance of screw-steamers, dated so far back as May
1850, before that propeller had yet reached its present state of
perfection, it is stated as then highly probable that fine sailing
vessels, fitted with auxiliary screw-power, would be found able,
if not to rival, at least to approach, full-powered and expansively
acting steam-ships, in respect of their capability of making a long
voyage with certainty and in a reasonably short time.

"Another application of the screw, although inferior in general
importance to its application as a propeller to ordinary ships,"
says the same report, "is certainly deserving of more attention
than is commonly paid to it, namely, as a manoeuvrer to those
large ships in which engines of considerable power cannot be
placed, or in which it is considered unadvisable to place them.
No doubt can be entertained of the efficiency of such an instru-
ment worked by an engine of even fifty horse-power. The full
extent, however, of its utility cannot perhaps be thoroughly
appreciated until it shall have been extensively used in her
Majesty's navy."

Since the date of this report that experience which was wanted
has been obtained, and the extensive use of the screw has been
adopted, and the results fully confirm all those anticipations.

77. But it is not only in her Majesty's navy, but in the national
commercial marine, and not only as an auxiliary propeller, but as
an independent and most efficient agent of propulsion, that the
screw has been found to answer in practical navigation. In 1849,

* Bourne "on the Screw-propeller," Chap. IV.

165

STEAM NAVIGATION.

before it had yet attained all its present degree of perfection, it
was in extensive operation under the direction of the General
Screw Shipping Company. Seven vessels belonging to that com-
pany were in operation during the twelve months ending 31st
December, 1849, during which time they performed 170 voyages,
being an average of about 24| voyages per vessel. The total dis-
tance run was 110849 geographical miles, being at the average
rate of 15835 miles per^vessel, and about 648 miles per voyage. The
average speed was 8 to 8|- geographical miles per hour, and only one
casualty, and that one in the Thames, occurred during the year.

The speed of the best and most recent of these vessels in still
water, running the measured mile in the long reach of the Thames,
was found to be 9 '68 knots per hour.

78. Practical authorities have suggested, that the greatly in-
creased and rapidly increasing number of screw ships running
between the British and American ports, suggests the expediency
of a revision of the post-office contracts, with a view to public
economy, without any real sacrifice of efficiency. It is considered
that no difference of time worthy of consideration now prevails
between the passages of the mail-packets and the screw- vessels ;
but even admitting a difference, it is certainly not so great as that
which exists between the speed of the mail and that of the
express trains on railways. If then the mail contracts on the
iron lines are sufficiently well performed by the trains of second-
rate speed, why may not the like contracts on the lines of water
be similarly executed, where the difference of cost would be
enormous, and the difference of speed comparatively insignificant.

It is obvious that these observations are applicable not only to
the lines of steamers which carry the United States and Canadian,
but also to the West Indian, and in a word, to all the ocean lines.

79. But when screw propulsion is used, a much greater velocity
of revolution is required to be given to the screw-shaft, a much
greater number of revolutions per minute being necessary, than
the greatest number of strokes per minute made by any steam-
engine of the common construction. It was necessary, therefore,
in adopting screw propulsion, either to provide expedients by which
the velocity of rotation of the screw-shaft shall be greater than
that of the crank-shaft, in the requisite proportion, or to modify
the form and proportions of the steam cylinders and their appen-
dages, so that the number of strokes per minute should be aug-
mented, so as to be equal to the necessary number of revolutions
per minute of the screw- shaft.

Both these contrivances have been adopted by different con-
structors. Engines constructed on the former plan are called geared
engines, and those constructed on the latter direct acting engines.
166

GEARED-ENGINES.

80. In geared engines the cranks are formed on one shaft, and the screw
fixed upon another, the directions of the two shafts being parallel. On the
crank-shaft is fixed a toothed-wheel, which

works in a smaller one, called a pinion, fixed Fig. 24.

on the screw-shaft. Thus in fig. 24, A may
be regarded as the pinion fixed on the screw-
shaft, and B the wheel fixed on the crank-
shaft, the teeth of the one being engaged in A "SSP^^KH^MSf^ &
those of the other at c.

It is evident that the velocity of rotation
of A will be greater than that of c in the
same proportion as that in which the number

of teeth in c is greater than the number of teeth in A. It is always possible,
therefore, with a given speed of the crank-shaft, to impart a speed greater
in any required proportion to the screw-shaft by regulating in a cor-
responding manner the proportion of the teeth in those geared wheels.

81. One of the objections to the use of gearing in sea-going vessels is the
liability of the teeth to rapid wear, and to fracture from sudden shocks in
-a rough sea. In order to diminish the risk of this by distributing the
pressure over a greater number of teeth, Mr. Fairbairn has adopted in
large screw-engines, constructed by him for the Royal Navy, a system of
internal gearing in which the crank-shaft wheel has the teeth on its
internal periphery, the screw-shaft pinion revolving within it, as shown
in fig. 25.

In screw- vessels of war, all the machinery should be placed
below the water-line, so as to be as effectually protected from
shot as the screw itself is.

82. When direct-acting engines without gearing are applied to
screw-propelled vessels, the reciprocating motion of the piston
must be equal to the velocity

of the screw, that is, the
number of strokes per minute
of the piston must be equal
to the number of revolutions
per minute of the screw. Now
to render this compatible with
.a sufficiently moderate recti-
linear motion of the piston, the
length of the stroke must bear
a very small proportion to the
diameter of the cylinder. This
has, in many cases, rendered
it necessary in such vessels to
subdivide the power of the
engines among four smaller cylinders, all the pistons being directly
Attached to cranks on the screw-shaft instead of producing it by
two larger cylinders, in which an unmanageable proportion must
Toe adopted between the diameter and the stroke.

Another advantage derived from this subdivision of power is, that

167

STEAM NAVIGATION.

a number of small cylinders, ranged often in a horizontal position
on either side of the screw-shaft, allow of the play of all the
reciprocating parts within a small height, so as to keep the whole
below the water-line.

83. Another expedient for the protection of the machinery from
shot, is to place the coal-boxes on each side of it, and between it
and the timbers of the vessel, so that before a shot could reach it,
the fuel must be thoroughly penetrated.

84. The efficiency of a marine, like that of a land engine, depends
on the exact regulation of the slides by which the admission and
escape of the steam to and from the cylinder is governed. In all
cases the steam should be admitted at either end of the cylinder a
little before the arrival of the piston there, and at the same
moment the escape to the condenser should be stopped. By this
means the piston, on arriving at the end of the stroke, is received
by the steam just admitted mixed with a small portion of uncon-
densed steam and air, whose escape to the condenser has been
intercepted. These form a sort of air-cushion, against which the
stroke of the piston is broken, an effect which is called by the
practical men, not inappropriately, cushioning the piston. When
the steam is worked expansively, the slides must be capable of
such regulation as to shut it oft' at any required fraction of the
entire stroke, and when not so worked, it ought at all events to
be shut off before the stroke is quite completed, so as to relieve
the piston from its action a little before the termination of the
stroke.

It is easy to conceive that, to accomplish all these points, the
slides require the nicest imaginable adjustment ; and the openings
for the admission and escape of steam, the most exact regulation
both as to magnitude and position.

85. It will be evident on comparing the pitch of the ordinary
screw with the progressive rate at which the vessel moves through
the water, that, to produce the necessary speed, a much greater
velocity of rotation must be imparted to the screw, than is con-
sistent with the ordinary rate at which steam-engines work. It
has been already shown that this great velocity of rotation has
been obtained either by the interposition of gearing so adapted as
to augment the velocity, or by assimilating the engine in its form
and structure to a locomotive.

86. An example of a marine-engine, by which the necessary velocity is
imparted to the screw-shaft, by means of intermediate gearing, is pre-
sented in the case of the screw-engine constructed by Messrs. Penn and
Son, for the " Great Britain" steam-ship. The engines which are represented
in fig. 26, are constructed on the oscillating principle, and are almost
identical with the paddle-wheel engines, built by the same firm for
the "Sphinx."

168

ARROGANT AND ENCOUNTER.

The "Great Britain " is a vessel of 3500 measured tons ; her tonnage by
deplacement being 2970, and her draught 16 feet. The diameter of the
cylinder is 82^ inches ; the length of stroke, 6 feet ; the nominal power,
500 horses ; the diameter of the screw, 154 feet 5 its P itc h, 19 feet > and
its length, 3 feet 2 inches.' The screw has three arms or blades, and its
shaft is connected with the crank-shaft by a pair of toothed -wheels, which
have a multiplying power of 3 to 1, so that for every stroke of the piston,
the screw-shaft revolves three times. The ample proportion of 17A square
feet of heating surface per nominal horse-power, is provided in the boiler.

The crank-shaft, being put in motion by the engine, carries round the
great cog-wheel, or combination of cog-wheels, which are fixed upon it ;
and this wheel acting on smaller ones called pinions, on the screw-shaft,
impart to the latter the threefold velocity of revolution just mentioned.

87. As an example of screw-propelling engines working without gearing,
we give in fig. 27 those constructed by Messrs. Penn and Son for H. M.'s
screw -steamers "Arrogant" and "EncoTinter." In this case the cylinders
are horizontal, and are traversed through the centre by a pipe or trunk, upon
which the piston is cast. This trunk is projected through both ends of the
cylinder the orifices through which it passes being rendered steam-tight
by proper packing. One end of the connecting-rod is attached to the
centre of the trunk, the other end being connected with the crank, which
is formed directly upon the screw-shaft. The air-pump lies in a horizontal
position, is double-acting, and placed within the condenser. A large pipe,
called the eduction pipe, leads from the cylinder to the condenser, where
the condensation is produced by a jet of cold water, and the warm water
resulting from the process is ejected by the air-pump through the Avaste-
pipe, and discharged overboard. In fig. 27 one cylinder and one air-
Fig. 27.

pump only are represented, but it must be understood that there are two,
precisely similar to each other, placed side by side. The valves by which
the water is admitted to the air-pump from the condenser, and those by
which it passes from the air-pump to the hot well and waste-pipe, con-
sist of several discs of caoutchouc kept down by a central bolt, so as to
cover radial slits or orifices in a perforated plate. These valves are found
to operate without noise or shock, notwithstanding the high speed at which
the engine must work, in order to give the necessary velocity to the screw-
shaft without intervening gearing. The diameter of the cylinder of the
"Arrogant" and "Encounter" is 60 inches, and the diameter of the trunk
24 inches ; the latter being deducted from the former, leaves an effective

169

STEAM NAVIGATION.

piston area equal to that of a piston 55 inches in diameter. In the ' 'Arrogant"
the length of stroke is 3 feet, and in the "Encounter" it is 2 feet 3 inches.
The nominal power of both engines is 360 horses ; and the diameter of the
"Arrogant's" screw is 15 feet 6 inches, that of the "Encounter" being 12 feet.
The pitch of both is 15 feet, and the length 2 feet 6 inches. The * 'Arrogant"
Is a vessel of 1872 tons burden, and the "Encounter" of 953 tons. The
whole machinery, including the boilers, is placed below the water line, so
as to be protected from shot.*

88. The forms of screw-propelling engines, whether they act on
the screw-shaft by intermediate gearing or directly, are infinitely
various. Drawings of not less than 15 different forms of geared-
engines, and the like number of direct acting engines, are given
in two large plates prefixed to Mr. Bourne's work on the screw-
propeller, to which we must refer those who require information
of this detailed description. In the vessels of the Royal Marine
generally the cylinders are placed upon the sides, so that, by
diminishing the total height of the machinery above the floor
on which it rests, it may be kept below the water-line. In
commercial vessels a form of engines is frequently employed
resembling the land beam-engines, with the cylinder at one
end of the beam, and the connecting-rod at the other. In such
cases the connecting-rod extends downwards from the end of
the beam to the crank. In either case the cylinder is inverted,
and the connecting-rod proceeds from the end of the piston-rod
to turn the crank, the end of the piston-rod being of course
steadied by suitable guides. According to Mr. Bourne, the con-
struction of the engines described above in the case of the
* 'Arrogant" and " Encounter " is, on the whole, the best for screw-
vessels, but he thinks it might be preferable to put the trunk
into the air-pump instead of the cylinder. He considers also that
the condenser might be dispensed with, and the condensations
performed in the air-pump. In that case the flow of water to
and from the air-pump might be governed by a slide-valve,
similar to that which is employed to regulate the admission and
escape of steam to and from the cylinder. It seems probable that
slide-valves may be brought into general use for pumps of every
sort, but in the case of ordinary ones for raising water these valves
need not be like the common slide-valves, which in fact are not
well adapted to give sufficient area for such purposes, but may
consist of a short wide cylinder with gridiron orifices revolving
slowly at the top and bottom of the air-pump.

89. The general arrangement of the machinery and fuel in screw-
propelled vessels of the Royal Navy is illustrated by the transverse
section of H.M.'s screw steam-packet "Plumper," shown in fig. 28.

* Figs. 26 and 27 are copied, with the permission of the publisher and
the author, from Brande's "Dictionary of Science and Art," to which the
170

IT. M. S. PLUMPER.

STEAM NAVIGATION.

90. The question of auxiliary steam power to be used occa-
sionally, as well for commercial as for war purposes, is one of the
highest importance and interest, and one, moreover, which expe-
rience has not yet enabled us perfectly to understand and
elucidate. For commercial purposes the saving of fuel, when the
vessel has favourable winds, and the adaptation of her structure
to the conditions necessary for a sailing-vessel, is of the highest
importance ; and in naval warfare a propelling power, however
inadequate it may be Tor constant propulsion and the maintenance
of high speeds in long voyages, may nevertheless be all-sufficient
for conducting vessels into action or into hostile ports.

91. It has been already stated on the authority of Mr. Bourne,
and as the result of experiments made on a large scale, that
screw-vessels intended to go head to wind and work against
head-seas, are not as efficient with the same consumption of fuel
as paddle-wheel vessels. Under the combined operation of sails
and steam, however, they are generally as efficient, and, when
deeply laden, more so. A screw-vessel being divested of paddle-
boxes partakes more of the character of a sailing-ship ; neverthe-
less, from the experiments made with the " Niger" and " Basilisk,"
it does not appear that a screw-vessel is more efficient under sails
than a paddle-vessel, though such a result may naturally be
expected. The advantages, therefore, which attend the use of
screw-propelling engines as an auxiliary power, do not result from
any superiority of the screw as a propeller, nor from the increased
facility which it presents for the application of sails, but are to be
ascribed to the late employment in screw-vessels of wind-power
which costs nothing, instead of steam-power which costs much,
and also to the maintenance of lower rates of speed than are
thought necessary in paddle-wheel vessels. The screw is a less
cumbrous propeller than the paddle, and since it permits a much
higher speed of the engine, a greater engine power may be com-
pressed in a smaller compass.

On the whole, therefore, the screw for all the purposes of
auxiliary propulsion is much to be preferred ; nevertheless it must
be understood that its superior eligibility is not so much due to
its greater efficiency, as to the greater convenience in the applica-
tion of auxiliary steam-power which its employment affords.

92. The horse-power of marine engines is either nominal or real.
The nominal power is estimated by assuming a certain average
effective pressure of steam, and a certain average linear velocity

reader is referred for a great mass of important details, for which we
cannot here afford space. Still further information on the same subject
may be found in Mr. Bourne's work " on the Screw-propeller" already
quoted, that gentleman being also the author of the article in Brande.
172

TABLES OF STEAM NAVY.

of the piston. The pressure multiplied by the velocity gives the
effective force of the piston, or, what is the same, of the engine
exerted through a given number of feet per minute ; and since the
force called a horse-power means 33000 Ibs. acting thus one foot
per minute, it follows that the nominal power of the engine will
be found by dividing the effective force exerted by the piston,
multiplied by the number of feet per minute through which it acts,
by 33000.

It is assumed in all Admiralty contracts, and generally also in
those of the commercial marine, that, after deducting from the
total pressure of steam in the boiler that portion which is
neutralised by the gases and uncondensed steam in the condenser,
the friction of the moving parts and all other sources of resistance,
the actual available or effective pressure of steam upon the piston
is at the rate of 7 Ibs. per square inch of piston surface. The
total nominal effective action of the piston in pounds will therefore
be found by multiplying the number of square inches in the area
of the piston by 7.

93. In the following tables, obtained from the government
authorities, will be found a complete statement of the strength of
her Majesty's steam navy up to the 1st of April, 1856.

By Table I. it appears that the number of line-of-battle ships
fitted and fitting with the screw-propeller was then 43, carrying
a total number of 3797 guns, and propelled by engines of the
collective power of 22950 horses. This is at the average rate of
88| guns, and 533 horses per vessel ; the proportion of guns to
horses being about 6 horses per gun.

By Table II. it appears that the number of frigates and
mortar-ships was 24, carrying collectively 889 guns, and propelled
by engines of 10560 horse-power, being at the average rate of
37 guns, and 440 horses per vessel ; the proportion of horses to
guns being about 12 horses per gun.

By Table III. it appears that there were 90 war steamers fitted
with paddle-wheels, carrying the total number of 500 guns, and
propelled by engines having the collective power of 24640 horses,
being at the average rate of 5^ guns, and 274 horses per vessel; the
proportion of horse-power to guns being about 50 horses per gun.

By Table IY. it appears that there were 76 smaller vessels fitted
with screw-propellers, consisting of corvettes, sloops, and despatch
boats, carrying in all 761 guns, and propelled by engines of the
collective power of 16202 horses, being at the average rate of 10
guns 'and 213 horses per vessel; the proportion of horse-power to
guns being therefore about 21 horses per gun.

In Table Y. is given the number and power of the troop and
store-ships, water-tanks, &c. ; in Table YI. a statement of the

173

STEAM NAVIGATION.

steam-propelled gun-boats ; and in Table VII. a general summary
of the entire steam navy.

In Table VIII. is given a statement of the commercial steam
navy in March 1853.

TABLE I.

Line-of-Battle Ships fitted and fitting with the Screw- Propeller in Her
* Majesty's Navy.

Name.

1

II

Name.

O

Horse
Power.

Name.

4
a

6

II

1 Agamemnon .
2Ajax .

91
60

600
450

16

Brought forward
Exmouth . .

1253
90

7500
400

30

Brought forward
Orion . . .

2475
91

14700
600

3 Algiers .

90

450

17

Gibraltar .

100

800

31

Pembroke .

60

200

4 Blenheim .

60

450

18

Hannibal . .

90

450

32

Princess Royal .

91

400

5 Brunswick

80

400

19

Hastings .

60

200

83

Renown

90

800

6 Caesar .

91

400

20

Hawke . . .

60

200

34

Revenge .

90

800

7 Centurion

80

40U

21

Hero .

90

600

35

Royal Albert. .

121

500

8 Colossus

80

400

22

Hogue . . .

60

450

36

Royal George .

102

400

9 Conqueror

100

800

23

Howe

120

1000

37

Royal Sovereign

120

1000

10 Coruwallis .

60

200

24

Irresistible . .

80

400

38

Russell . . .

60

200

11 Cressy .

80

400

25

James Watt

91

600

39

St. Jean d'Acre .

101

600

12 Donegal

100

800

2(\

Majestic . .

80

400

40

Sanspareil .

70

350

13 D. of Wellington

131

700

2'i

Marlborougli

130

800

41

Victor Emanuel.

90

600

14 Edgar .

90

600

2S

Mars . . .

80

400

42

Victoria . .

120

1000

15 Edinburgh .

60

450

29

Nile .

91

500

43

Windsor Castle .

116

800

1253

7500

2475

14700

Total . .

3797

22950

1

TABLE II.

Friyates and Mortar-ships fitted and fitting with the Screw- Propeller
in Her Majesty's Nary.

Name.

1

O

O o

WPH

Name.

|

6

Horse
Power.

Name.

4

s
3

II

Amphiou
Ariadne
Arrogant
Aurora .
Bacchante .
Chesapeake
Curacoa
Dauntless
Diadem

34
30
46
50
50
50
30
33
32

355

300 !
350
360
400 1
600
400
350
580
800

4140

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Bt. forward
Doris
Emerald . .
Eu rotas .
Euryalus . .
Forte
Forth . .
Horatio . .
Impe"rieuse

355
32
50
12
51
50
12
8
51

021

.4140
800
600
200
400
400
200
250
360

7350

18
19
20

21

2-2
23
24

Bt. forward
Liffey . .
San Fiorenzo
Sea-horse .
Shannon
Termagant
Topaz .
Tribune

Total . .

621
50
50
12
51
24
50
31

7350 I
600 !
600
200 |
600 ;
310 i
600
300

889

10560

174

TABLE III. A List of War Steamers in Her Majesty's Service fitted with
Paddle-wheels.

Name.

3

C5

Horse
Power.

Name.

GO

3
o

II

Name.

i

3

w

1

Alecto . .! 5

200i

Bt. forward

112 7560

! Bt. forward 283 15869

'_)

Albany . .

4

100

32

Furious .

16 400

62

Penelope .

16 i 650

s

Ardent .

5

200

33

Fury . . .

515

03

; Porcupine

3

132

4

Antelope . .

Argus .

3
6

200
300

34
35

Geyser .
Gorgon . .

'o

6

280
320

04
65

Prometheus .
'Rhadamanthus

I

200
220

Asp . . .

50

30

Gladiator

6

430

GO

Redpole .

1

160

T

Avon

*8

160

37

Harpy .

1

200

67

Retribution .

28

400

.s

Bann . . .

80

38

Hecate . .

6

240

08

Rosamond

6

280

9

Baushee .

2

350

39 Hecla .

6

240

69

Sampson . .

6

467

10

Bairacouta .

6

300

40 'Hermes

6

220

70

Salamander .

6

220

11

Basilisk .

6

400

41 Hydra .

6

220

71

Scourge . .

6

420

12
13

Black Eagle .
Blood Hound .

'3

260
150

42 (Inflexible .6
43 Jackal . . 4

378
150

7S

j Shearwater .
Sidon . . .

S

22

160
560

14

Brune

(

80

44 Kite . . 3

170

74

Spiteful .

6

280

15
16

Bull Dog . .
Buzzard .

fl

G

500
300

45 Leopard . . 18
46 1 Lightning . 3

560
100

75
76

1 Spitfire . .
Sphinx .

5
6

140

500

17

Caradoc . .

2

350

47

Lizard . .

1

150

77

Stromboli . .

6

280

18

Centaur .

6

540

48

Locust . . 3

100

78

Styx

6

280

19
20

Columbia . .
Comet .

6

100
80

49
50

Lucifer . . s 2 180
Magicienne . 16] 400

79

SO

Tartarus . .
Terrible .

4

21

136
SOO

21

Duckoo . .

'3

100

51

Medea .

6! 350

SI

Trident . .

6

350

22

Cyclops .

6

320

52

Medina . .

4

312

82

Triton .

3

260

23

Dasher . .

100

53

Medusa .

4

312

83

Valorous . .

10

400

24

Dee .

4

200

54

Merlin . .

6

312

84

(Vesuvius

6

280

25

Devastation .

6

4001 i55

Oberoii .

3

260

85

| Virago . .

6

300

20

Dragon .

6

560 j 1 56

Odin . . .

10

560 86

Vulture .

6| 470

27

Dover

90' '57

Osborue .

2

430 1 87

'Weser . .

6, 160

28 1 Driver .

'G

280 i

58

Otter . . .

3 120 88

Widgeon .

90

29
30

Firefly . .
Firebrand

4

G

220
410

59

00

Pigmy .
Polyphemus .

3

5

100189
20090

i Wildfire . .
; Zephyr .

*3

76
100

31

Fire Queen

120; 61

Pluto . . .

4

100

_____

1

Total . .

500 24640

112

7560;

283

15869

j!

1

TABLE IV. Corvettes, Sloops, and Despatch Gun-vessels fitted and
fitting with the Screiv-Propdier in Her Majesty's Service.

Name.

q

z
O

Horse
1 Power.

Name.

3
O

II

1

Name.

09

a

3
O

02 ^

#

1

Alacrity .

200

Bt. forward .

305 ! 5700

Bt. forward .

541

1090

2 Alert " .
3 Ariel . . .

16

9

100 1 27
601 28

Flying Fish .
Fox Hound .

6
4

350
200

52
53

Plumper
Pvlades

9

20

600
350

4

Archer .

14

202 |29

Harrier .

17

100

54] Rattler . \

11

200

5

Arrow . .

4

160

30

Hesperus . .

120

55 Recruit . .

6

160

G

Assurance

4

200

31

Highflyers

21

250

56'Renard .

4

200

7

Beagle . .

4

160

32

Hornet . .

17

100

57

Rifleman . .

S

100

8

Brisk .

14

250

33

Icarus .

58

Ringdove

4

200

9

Cadmus . .

20

400

34

Intrepid . .

6

350

59

Roebuck. . .

6

350

10

Cameleon

16

100

35

Lapwing

4

200

60

Reward .

4

200

11

Challenger

20

400

30

Lynx . . .

4

160

61

Satellite .

20

400

12

Charybdis

20

400

37

Lyra

8

60 i

62 Scout. . .

20

400

13

Clio . . .

20

400

38

Malacca . .

17

200

63iScylla .

20

400

14
15

Conflict .
Coquette . .

8
4

400
200

39
40

Minx .
Miranda . .

3
14

10
250

64! Sharpshooter.
65 Snake . .

8
4

202
160

10

Cordelia .

8

60

41

Mohawk

4

200

66

Sparrowhawk.

4 200

17

Cormorant

4

200

42

Mutine . .

16

100

67

Surprise .

4 200

18

Cossack .

20

250

43

Myrmidon

3i 150

OS

Swallow . .

9 60

19

Cruiser

17

60

44

Niger. . .

14 400

OH

Tartar .

20

250

20

Curlew i .

9

60

45

Nimrod .

6 350 J70

Teazer . .

3

40

21

Desperate . .

8

400

46

Osprey . . .

41 200 |71

Victor .

6

350

22

Encounter

14

360

47

Pearl .

20

400 72

Vigilant

4

200

23

Esk . . .

21

250! 48

Pelican . .

16

100 73 Viper .

4

160

24

Etna . .

14

200 49

Pelorus .

20

400 74! Wanderer .

4

200

25

Falcon

17

100 50

Phoenix .

6 200 75 ; Wasp .

14

100

26 Fawn

128J

51

Pioneer . .

6 350

76

Wrangler . .

4

160

i

305

5700

541 10900 Total . .

701

16202

TABLE V. Trooper, Store-ships, Water-tanks, Flour-mills, Yachts, and
Floating-factories.

Name. !g! g|

IUI

Name. 2

5

III
fil]

Name.

a

s
3

I!

E

1

Abundance . .

100

Bt. forward

1856 1

Bt. forward

11

4076

2

3

Assistance . . .
Advice . . .

400
100

18! Hearty .
1 19 Helen Faucit ..

100.1 34 jProspero .

. . 35 Resistance .

io

144
400

4

Adder

100

20 1 Himalaya .

700

36

Resolute .

400

5

African . . . | .

90

21

Humber . .-.

30

37

Simoom

's

350

G

Bruiser .

100

22

Industry . ' 2

80

3S

Sprightly .

100

7

Buffalo . .

60

'23 Malta

50

39

Supply

'2

80

S

Bustler . .1.

100

24 Megsara . 6

350

40

Sulina

120

9

Chasseur . .

100

25 Monkey .

130

41

Sultana

10

Coufiance

100

2(1 Moslem

120

42

Thais

'so

11

Coromaudel

*>7 Myrtle .

50

43

Torch .

150

12
13

Crescent .
Danube . .

"50

: 28 1 Nimble

29 1'era . .

'so

44

45

Transit .
Urgent

500

450

14

Echo

140

30

Perseverance 2

360

46

Vulcan .

'(,

350

15

Elfin . . .

140

31

Pike . . . .

50

47

Wye .

100

16

Kefirlcss . . *

76

32

Pigeon . . . . 50

17

Fox

200

33

Princess Alice 1 120

Total . .

37

7300

1856

11 4076

TABLE VI.

Statement of the Total Number
and Power of Steam Gun-boats
in the Royal Navy on the 1st
April, 1856.

TABLE VII.

Statement of the Number and Poiver
of Steam Vessels of all classes in
the Royal Navy on the 1st April,
1856.

|

n

3 a

3fl

No.

w

o

a

122

4

60

488

7320

13

4

40

52

520

20

2

20

40

400

155

10

120

580

8240

ll

No.

|

||

6

K

7320

Line-of- Battle Ships

43

3797

22950

Frigates & Mortar-ships.

24

889

10560

520

Paddle-wheel Vessels

90

500

24640

Corvettes, Sloops, &c. .

76

761

16202

400

Troop-ships . . .
Gun -boats ....

,

37
580

7300
8240

3240

435

6564

89892

TABLE VIII. Showing the number of vessels (wood and iron) belonging to
the Mail Contract Steam Packet Companies in March, 1853; also their
Tonnage and Horse Power, from Parliamentary return ordered to be
printed 29<7t June, 1853.

Number of Vessels.

Tonnage.

Horse Power.

belonging.

Wood.

Iron.

Total.

Wood.

Iron.

Total.

Wood.

Iron.

Total.

Peninsula and Oriental

11

22

33

11800

26449 38249

4086

7481

11567

Royal West India . .

19

1

20

32612

2700

35312

8750

800

9550

British and N. American

8

1

9

14991

2500

17491

5690

1000

6690

Pacific ....

8

8

6688

6688

2298

2298

General Screw Steam ^
Shipping . . )

..

8

8

13496

13496

2250

2250

Australian . .

5

5

S600

8600

1800

1800

South Western . .

4

4

1612

1612

677

677

African

4

4

3920

3920

530

590

Total . .' . I 88

13

59403 65965

1S5-.6 16836

Grand total 91

Grand total 12536S

Grand total 358(52

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING, AND THE
AURORA BOREALIS.

1. Atmospheric Electricity. 2. The air generally charged with positive
electricity. 3. Subject to variations and exceptions. 4. Diurnal
variations of electrical intensity. Observations of Quetelet. 5.
Irregular and local variations and exceptions. 6. Variations
dependent on the season and weather. 7. Methods of observing
atmospheric electricity. 8. Methods of ascertaining the electrical
condition of the higher strata. 9. Remarkable experiments ot
Romas, 1757. 10. Electrical charge of clouds varies. 11. Thunder
and lightning. 12. Form and extent of the flash of lightning. 13.
Cause of the rolling of thunder. 14. Affected by the zigzag form of
lightning. 15. Aifected by the varying distance of different parts of
the flash. 16. Affected by echo and by interference. 17. Inductive
action of clouds on the earth. 18. Formation of Fulgurites explained.
19. Accidents of the surface AThich attract lightning. 20. Lightning
follows conductors by preference its effects on buildings. 21. Con-

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. N 177

No. 130.

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

ductors or paratonnerres for the protection of buildings. 22. Effects
of lightning on bodies which it strikes. 23. The Aurora Borealis
the phenomena unexplained. 24. General character of the
meteor. 25. Description of auroras seen in the polar regions by
M. Lottin.

1. THERE is DO part of physical science in which the researches
of modern investigators have been attended with such signal
success, as those which have been directed to the discovery of the
influence of electricity* upon the atmosphere. Indeed it would be
difficult to name any atmospheric change, which is not directly or
indirectly connected with electric- agency. It is true that these
atmospheric phenomena, fugitive and transitory as most of them
are, have not been in all cases traced with clearness and cer-
tainty to their causes, that the relation of some of them to the
agency of electricity is rendered probable, more from general
appearances than by distinct and satisfactory demonstration, and
that some of them, which are evidently of electric origin, have,
nevertheless, remained unexplained by, or not reduced to, any of
the known laws which govern that physical agent. Still there is
much that falls under the general principles of electric science,
and those phenomena which remain with or without any satis-
factory explanation require to be stated, that those who
pursue this part of physical science, with a view to extend its
limits, may be guided to proper subjects of observation and
investigation.

How important the topics embraced under the general head of
atmospheric electricity are, will be understood when it is stated,
that upon the electric condition of the atmosphere, and the
changes incidental to it, depend not only the stupendous phe-
nomena of thunder-storms, but also the whole of that beautiful
and interesting class of phenomena comprised under the general
name of Aurora Borealis.

2. The terrestrial globe which we inhabit is invested with an
ocean of air, the depth of which is about the 200th part of its
diameter. It may, therefore, be conceived by imagining a coat-
ing of air, the tenth of an inch thick, investing a twenty-inch
globe. This aerial ocean, relatively shallow as it is, at the
bottom of which the tribes of organised nature have their
dwelling, is, nevertheless, the theatre of stupendous electrical
phenomena.

It may be stated as a general fact, that the atmosphere which
thus covers the globe is charged with positive electricity, which,
acting by induction on the superficial stratum of the globe on
which it rests, decomposes the natural electricity, attracting the
negative fluid to the surface and repelling the positive fluid to
178

ELECTRIC STATE OP THE AIR.

the inferior strata. The globe and its atmosphere may therefore
ibe not inaptly compared to a Leyden phial, the outer coating of
which being placed in connection with the prime conductor of a
machine, is charged with positive electricity, and the inner coating
being in connection with the ground, is charged by induction with
negative electricity. The outer coating represents the atmosphere,
and the inner the superficial stratum of the globe.

3. This normal state of the general atmospheric ocean is
subject to variations and exceptions, variations of intensity and
exceptions in quality or name. The variations are periodical and
accidental. The exceptions local, patches of the general atmos-
phere in which clouds float being occasionally charged with
negative electricity.

4. The intensity of the electricity with which the atmosphere
is charged, varies, in the course of twenty-four hours, alternately
increasing and decreasing. M. Quetelet found that the first
maximum was manifested about 8 A.M., and the second about
9 P.M. The minimum in the day was at 3 P.M. He found
also that the mean intensity was greatest in January and least
in June.

5. Such are the normal changes which the electrical condition
of the air undergoes when the atmosphere is clear and unclouded.
When, however, the firmament is covered with clouds, the elec-
tricity is subject during the day to frequent and irregular changes
not only in intensity but in name; the electricity being often
negative, owing to the presence of clouds over the place of
observation, charged, some with positive, and some with negative
electricity.

6. The intensity of the electricity of the air is also affected by
the season of the year, and by the prevalent character and
direction of the winds ; it varies also with the elevation of the
strata, being in general greater in the higher than in the lower
regions of the atmosphere. The intensity is generally greater in
winter, and especially in frosty weather, than in summer, and
when the air is calm than when winds prevail.

Atmospheric deposits, such as rain, hail, snow, &c., are some-
times positive and sometimes negative, varying with the direction
of the wind. North winds give positive, and south winds negative
deposits.

7. The electricity of the atmosphere is observed by erecting in
it, to any desired elevation, pointed metallic conductors, from the
lower extremities of which wires are carried to electroscopes of
various forms, according to the intensity of the electricity to be
observed. So immediate is the increase of electrical tension in
rising through the strata of the air, that a gold leaf electroscope,

N 2 .179

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

properly adapted to the purpose, and reduced to its natural state
when placed horizontally on the ground, will show a sensible
divergence when raised to the level of the eyes.

8. To ascertain the electrical condition of strata too elevated
to be reached by a fixed conductor, the extremity of a flexible
wire, to which a metallic point is attached, is connected with a
heavy ball, which is projected into the air by a gun or pistol, or
to an arrow projected by a bow. The projectile, when it attains
the limit of its flighf, detaches the wire from the electroscope,
which then indicates the electrical state of the air at the highest
point attained by the projectile.

9. The vast quantities of electricity with which the clouds are
sometimes charged, were rendered manifest in a striking manner
by the well-known experiments made by means of kites by Romas
in 1757. The kite, carrying a metallic point, was elevated to the
strata in which the electric cloud floated. A wire was connected
with the cord, and carried from the pointed conductor borne by
the kite to a part of the cord at some distance from the lower
extremity, where it was turned aside and brought into connection
with an electroscope, or other experimental means of testing the
quantity and quality of the electricity with which it was charged,
llomas drew from the extremity of this conducting wire not only
strong electric sparks, but blades of fire nine or ten feet in length,
and an inch in thickness, the discharge of which was attended
with a report as loud as that of a pistol. In less time than an
hour, not less than thirty flashes of this magnitude and intensity
were often drawn from the conductor, besides many of six or seven
feet and of less length.

10. It has been shown by means of kites thus applied, that the
clouds are charged some with positive and some with negative
electricity, while some are observed to be in their natural state.
These circumstances serve to explain some phenomena observed
in the motions of the clouds which are manifested in stormy
weather. Clouds which are similarly electrified repel, and those
which are oppositely electrified attract each other. Hence arise
motions among such clouds of the most opposite and complicated
kind. While they are thus reciprocally attracted and repelled in
virtue of the electricity with which they are charged, they are
also transported in various directions by the currents which pre-
vail in the atmospheric strata in which they float, these currents
often having themselves different directions.

11. Such appearances are the sure prognostics of a thunder-
storm. Clouds charged with contrary electricities affect each
other by induction, and mutually attract, whether they float in
the same stratum or in strata at different elevations. When they

180

FORM AND LENGTH OF FLASH.

come within striking distance, the contrary fluids rush to each
other, and an electrical discharge takes place.

The clouds, however, unlike the metallic coatings of the jar,
are very imperfect conductors, and consequently, when discharged
at one part of their vast extent, they preserve elsewhere their
electricity in its original intensity. Thus, the first discharge,
instead of establishing equilibrium, rather disturbs it, for the
part of the cloud which is still charged is alone attracted by the
part of the other cloud in which the fluid has not yet been
neutralised. Hence arise various and complicated motions and
variations of form of the clouds, and a succession of discharges
between the same clouds must take placa before the electrical
equilibrium is established. This is necessarily attended by a corre-
sponding succession of flashes of lightning and claps of thunder.

12. The form of the flash in the case of lightning, like that of
the spark taken from an electrified conductor, is zigzag. The
doublings or acute angles formed at the successive points when
the flash changes its direction vary in number and proximity.
The cause of this zigzag course, whether of the electric spark or
of lightning, has not been explained in any clear or satisfactory
manner.

The length of the flashes of lightning also varies ; in some
cases they have been ascertained to extend to from two-and-a-
half to three miles. It is probable, if not certain, that the line
of light exhibited by flashes of forked lightning are not in reality
one continued line simultaneously luminous, but that on the con-
trary the light is developed successively as the electricity proceeds
in its course, the appearance of a continuous line of light being an
optical effect, analogous to the continuous line of light exhibited
when a lighted stick is moved rapidly in a circle, the same
explanation being applicable to the case of lightning.

13. As the sound of thunder is produced by the passage of the
electric fluid through the air which it suddenly compresses, it is
evolved progressively along the entire space along which the
lightning moves. But since sound moves only at the rate of 1100
feet per second, while the transmission of light is so rapid that
in this case it may be considered as practically instantaneous, the
sound will not reach the ear for an interval greater or less after
the perception of the light, just as the flash of a gun is seen before
the report is heard.

By noting the interval, therefore, which elapses between the
perception of the flash and that of the sound, the distance of
the point where the discharge takes place can be computed
approximately, by allowing 1100 feet for every second in the
interval.

181

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

But since a separate sound is produced at every point through
which the flash passes, and as these points are at distances from
the observer which vary according to the position, length,
direction, and form of the flash, it will follow necessarily that the
sounds produced by the same flash, though practically simul-
taneous, because of the great velocity with which the electricity
moves, arrive at the ear in comparatively slow succession.

The varying loudness of the successive sounds heard in the
rolling of thunder, proceeds in part from the same causes as the
varying intensity of the light of the flash. But it may, perhaps,,
be more satisfactorily explained by the combination of the suc-
cessive discharges of the same cloud, rapidly succeeding each
other, and combining their effects with those arising from the
varying distances of different parts of the same flash.

14. It appears to us that the varying intensity of the rolling of
thunder may also be very clearly and satisfactorily explained by
the zigzag form of the flash, combined with the effect of the
varying distance ; and it seems extraordinary that an explanation
so obvious has not been suggested. Let A, B, c, D (fig. 1), be a

part of a zigzag flash seen by an observer at o. Taking o as a
centre, suppose arcs c c and B & of circles to be drawn, with o c
and o B as radii. It is clear that the points c and c, and B and &,
being respectively equally distant from the observer, the sounds-
produced there will be heard simultaneously, and, supposing
them equal, will produce the perception of a sound twice as loud
as either heard alone would do. All the points on the zigzag-
c B c b are so placed that three of them are equi- distant from o.
Thus, if with o as centre, and m as radius, a circular arc be
described, it will intersect the path of the lightning at three
points m, m', and m", and these three points being, therefore, at
the same distance from o, the sounds produced at them will
reach the observer at the same moment, and if they be equally
intense will produce on the ear the same effect as a single
sound three times as loud. The same will be true for all the
points of the zigzag between c and b. Thus, in this case,
182

CAUSE OF THE ROLLING OF THUNDER.

supposing the intensity of the lightning to be uniform from A to
D, there will be three degrees of loudness in the sound produced,
the least between A and c and between b and D, the greatest
between c and b along the zigzag, and the intermediate at the
points c c and B b.

It is evident, that from the infinite variety of form and position
with relation to the observer, of which the course of the lightning
is susceptible, the variations of intensity of the rolling of thunder
which may be explained in this way have no limit.

15. Since the loudness of a sound diminishes as the square of
the distance of the observer is increased, it is clear that this affords
another means of explaining the varying loudness of the rolling of
thunder.

16. As the rolling of thunder is much more varied and of
longer continuance in mountainous regions than in open plain
countries, it is no doubt also affected by reverberation from every
surface capable of reflecting sound, which it encounters. A
part therefore of the rolling must be in such cases the effect
of echo.

It has been also conjectured that the acoustic effects are
modified by the effects of interference.

17. A cloud charged with electricity, whatever be the quality of
the fluid or the state of the atmosphere around it, exercises by
induction an action on all bodies upon the earth's surface imme-
diately under it. It has a tendency to decompose their natural
electricity, repelling the fluid of the same name, and attracting to
the highest points the fluid of a contrary name. The effects thus
actually produced upon objects exposed to such induction, will
depend on the intensity and quality of the electricity with which
the cloud is charged, its distance, the conductibility of the
materials of which the bodies affected consist, their magnitude,
position, and, above all, their form.

Water being a much better conductor than earth in any state
of aggregation, thunder clouds act with great energy on the sea,
lakes, and other large collections of water. The flash has a
tendency to pass between the cloud and the water, just as the
spark passes between the conductor of an electric machine and the
hand presented to it.

18. This explains the fact that lightning sometimes penetrates
strata of the solid ground, under which subterranean reservoirs of
water are found. The water of such reservoirs is affected by the
inductive action of an electrified cloud, and in its turn reacts
upon the cloud, as one coating of a Ley den jar reacts upon the
other. When this mutual action is sufficiently strong to over-
come the resistance of the subjacent atmosphere, and the strata of

183

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

soil under which the subterranean reservoir lies, a discharge
takes place, and the lightning penetrates the strata, fusing the
materials of which it is composed, and leaving a tubular hole with
a hard vitrified coating.

Tubes thus formed have been called fulgurites, or thunder
tubes.

19. The well known properties of points, edges, and other
projecting parts of conductors, will render easily intelligible the
influence of mountains, peaked hills, projecting rocks, trees,
lofty edifices, and other objects, natural and artificial, which
project upwards from the general surface of the ground.
Lightning never strikes the bottom of deep and close valleys.
In Switzerland, on the slopes of the Alps and Pyrenees, and in
other mountainous countries, multitudes of cultivated valleys are
found, the inhabitants of which know by secular tradition that
they have nothing to fear from thunder-storms. If, however, the
width of the valleys were so great as twenty or thirty times their
depth, clouds would occasionally descend upon them in masses
sufficiently considerable, and lightning would strike.

Solitary hills, or elevated buildings rising in the centre of an
extensive plain, are peculiarly exposed to lightning, since there
are no other projecting objects near them to divert its course.

Trees, especially if they stand singly apart from others, are
likely to be struck. Being from their nature more or less im-
pregnated with sap, which is a conductor of electricity, they
attract the fluid, and are struck.

The effects of such objects are, however, sometimes modified by
the agency of unseen causes below the surface. The condition of
the soil, subsoil, and even the inferior strata, the depth of the
roots and their dimensions, also exercise considerable influence on
the phenomena, so that in the places where there is the greatest
apparent safety there is often the greatest danger. It is, never-
theless, a good general maxim not to take a position in a thunder-
storm either under a tree or close to an elevated building, but to
keep as much as possible in the open plain.

20. Lightning falling upon buildings chooses by preference the
points which are the best conductors. It sometimes strikes and
destroys objects which are non-conductors, but this happens
generally when such bodies lie in its direct course towards con-
ductors. Thus lightning has been found to penetrate a wall
attracted by a mass of metal placed within it.

Metallic roofs, beams, braces, and other parts in buildings, are

liable thus to attract lightning. The heated and rarefied air in

chimneys acquires conductibility. Hence it happens often that

lightning descends chimneys, and thus passes into rooms. It

184

LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR.

Fig. 2.

follows bell- wires, metallic mouldings of walls and furniture, and
fuses gilding.

21. The purpose of paratonnerres or conductors, erected for the
protection of buildings, is not to repel, but
rather to attract lightning, and divert it into
a course in which it will be innoxious.

A paratonnerre is a pointed metallic rod,
the length of which varies with the building
on which it is placed, but which is generally
from thirty to forty feet. It is erected ver-
tically over the object it is intended to pro-
tect. From its base an unbroken series of
metallic bars, soldered or welded together
end to end, are continued to the ground,
where they are buried in moist soil, or,
better still, immersed in water, so as to faci-
litate the escape of the fluid which descends
upon them. If water, or moist soil, cannot be
conveniently found, it should be connected
with a sheet of metal of considerable super-
ficial magnitude, buried in a pit filled with
pounded charcoal, or, better still, with braise.

The parts of a well-constructed paratonnerre
are represented in fig. 2. The rod, which is of
iron, is round at its base, then square, and
decreases gradually in thickness to the summit.
It is composed commonly of three pieces closely
jointed together, and secured by pins passed
transversely through them. In the figure are
represented only the two extremities of the
lowest, and those of the intermediate piece, to
avoid giving inconvenient magnitude to the
diagram. The superior piece, g y is represented
complete. It is a rod of brass or copper,
about two feet in length, terminating in a
platinum point about three inches long, at-
tached to the rod by silver solder, which is
further secured by a brass ferule, which gives
the projecting appearance in the diagram below
the point.

Three of the methods, reputed the most
efficient for attaching the paratonnerre to the
roof, are represented in fig. 3, at p, I, and f.
At p the rod is supported against a vertical piece, to which it
is attached by stirrups ; at I it is bolted upon a diagonal brace ;

185

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

and at f it is simply secured by bolts to a horizontal beam
through which it passes. The last is evidently the least solid

method of fixing it.

Fig. 3.

i

The conductor is continued downwards along the wall of the
edifice, or in any other convenient course, to the ground, either
by bars of iron, round or square, or by a cable of iron or copper
wires, such as is sometimes used for the lighter sort of suspension
bridges. This is attached, at its upper extremity, to the base of
the paratonnerre by a joint, which is hermetically closed, so as to
prevent oxidation, which would produce a dangerous solution of
continuity.

To comprehend the protective influence of this apparatus, it
must be considered that the inductive action of a thunder-cloud
decomposes the natural electricity of the rod, more energetically
than that of surrounding objects, both on account of the material
and the form of the rod. The point becoming surcharged with
the fluid of a contrary name from that of the cloud suspended over
it, discharges this fluid in a jet towards the cloud, where it
combines with and neutralises an equal quantity of the electricity
with which the cloud is charged, and, by the continuance of this
process, ultimately reduces the cloud to its natural state.

It is therefore more correct to say that the paratonnerre draws
electricity from the ground and projects it to the cloud, than that
it draws it from the cloud and transmits it to the earth.

It is evidently desirable that all conducting bodies to be pro-
tected by the paratonnerre, should be placed in metallic connection
with it, since in that case their electricity, decomposed by the
inductive action of the clouds, will necessarily escape by the
conductor either to the earth or to the cloud by the point.
186

EFFECTS OF LIGHTNIKG.

It is considered generally that the range of protection of a
paratonnerre is a circle round its base, whose radius is two or
three times its length.

22. The effects of lightning, like those of electricity evolved
by artificial means, are threefold, physiological, physical, and
mechanical.

When lightning kills, the parts where it has struck bear the
marks of severe burning ; the bones are often broken and crushed
as if they had been subjected to violent mechanical pressure.
When it acts on the system by induction only, which is called the
secondary or indirect shock, it does not immediately kill, but
inflicts nervous shocks so severe as sometimes to leave effect*
which are incurable.

The physical effects of lightning produced upon conductors is-
to raise their temperature. This elevation is sometimes so great
that they are rendered incandescent, fused, and even burned.
This happens occasionally with bell- wires, especially in exposed
and unprotected positions, as in courts or gardens. The drops of
molten metal produced in such cases set fire to any combustible-
matter on which they may chance to fall. Wood, straw, and such
non-conducting bodies are ignited generally by the lightning
drawn through them, by the attraction of other bodies near them
which are good conductors.

The mechanical effects of lightning, the physical cause of which
has not been satisfactorily explained, are very extraordinary..
Enormous masses of metal are torn from their supports, vast
blocks of stone are broken, and massive buildings are razed to the
ground.

23. ETo theory or hypothesis which has commanded general
acceptation, has yet been suggested for the explanation of the
Aurora Borealis. All the appearances which attend the pheno-
menon are, however, electrical ; and its forms, directions, and
positions, though ever varying, always bear a remarkable relation
to the magnetic meridians and poles. Whatever, therefore, be
its physical cause, it is evident that the theatre of its action is the
atmosphere ; and that the agent to which the development is due, is
electricity, influenced in some unascertained manner by terrestrial
magnetism. In the absence of any satisfactory theory for the
explanation of the phenomenon, we shall confine ourselves here to
a short description of it, derived from the most extensive and
exact series of observations which have been made in those
regions, where the meteor has been seen with the most marked
characters and in the greatest splendour.

24. The Aurora Borealis is a luminous phenomenon which
appears in the heavens, and is seen in high latitudes in both

187

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

hemispheres. The term Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights, has
been applied to it, because the opportunities of witnessing it are,
from the geographical character of the globe, much more frequent
in the northern than in the southern hemisphere. The term
aurora polaris would be a more proper designation.

This phenomenon consists of luminous rays of various colours,
issuing from every direction, but converging to the same point,
which appear after sunset generally toward the north, occasionally
toward the west, and* sometimes, but rarely, toward the south.
It frequently appears near the horizon, as a vague and diffused
light, something like the faint streaks which harbinger the rising
sun and form the dawn. Hence the phenomenon has derived its
name, which signifies northern morning. Sometimes, however, it
is presented under the form of a sombre cloud, from which luminous
jets issue, which are often variously coloured, and illuminate the
entire atmosphere.

The more conspicuous auroras commence to be formed soon
after the close of twilight. At first a dark mist or foggy cloud is
perceived in the north, and a little more brightness towards the
west than in the other parts of the heavens. The mist gradually
takes the form of a circular segment, resting at each corner on the
horizon. The visible part of the arc soon becomes surrounded
with a pale light, which is followed by the formation of one or
several luminous arcs. Then come jets and rays of light variously
coloured, which issue from the dark part of the segment, the
continuity of which is broken by bright emanations, indicating a
movement of the mass, which seems agitated by internal shocks,
during the formation of these luminous radiations, that issue from
it as flames do from a conflagration. When this species of fire
has ceased, and the aurora has become extended, a crown is
formed at the zenith, to which these rays converge. From this
time the phenomenon diminishes in its intensity, exhibiting,
nevertheless, from time to time, sometimes on one side of the
heavens and sometimes on another, jets of light, a crown, and
colours more or less vivid. Finally the motion ceases, the light
approaches gradually to the horizon ; and the cloud, quitting the
other parts of the firmament, settles in the north. The dark part
of the segment becomes luminous, its brightness being greatest
near the horizon, and becoming more feeble as the altitude
augments, until it loses its light altogether.

The aurora is sometimes composed of two luminous segments,
which are concentric, and separated from each other by one dark
space, and from the earth by another. Sometimes, though rarely,
there is only one dark segment, which is symmetrically pierced
round its border by openings, through which light or fire is seen.
188

AURORA BOREALIS.

25. One of the most recent and exact descriptions of this meteor
is the following, supplied by M. Lottin, an officer of the French
navy, and a member of the Scientific Commission sent some years
ago to the North Seas. Between September, 1838, and April,
1839, this savant observed nearly 150 meteors of this class. They
were most frequent from the 17th November to the 25th January,
being the interval during which the sun remained constantly
below the horizon. During this period there were sixty-four
auroras visible, besides many which a clouded sky concealed
from the eye, but the presence of which was indicated by the
disturbances they produced upon the magnetic needle.

The succession of appearances and changes presented by these
meteors are thus described by M. Lottin :

Between four and eight o'clock, P.M., a light fog, rising to the
altitude of six degrees, became coloured on its upper edge, being
fringed with the light of the meteor rising behind it. This border
becoming gradually more regular, took the form of an arc, of a
pale yellow colour, the edges of which were diffuse, the extremities
resting on the horizon. This bow swelled slowly upwards, its
vertex being constantly on the magnetic meridian. Blackish
streaks divided regularly the luminous arc, and resolved it into a
system of rays ; these rays were alternately extended and con-
tracted ; sometimes slowly, sometimes instantaneously ; some-
times they would dart out, increasing and diminishing suddenly
in splendour. The inferior parts, or the feet of the rays, pre-
sented always the most vivid light, and formed an arc more or
less regular. The length of these rays was very various, but they
all converged to that point of the heavens, indicated by the direc-
tion of the southern pole of the dipping needle. Sometimes they
were prolonged to the point where their directions intersected, and
formed the summit of an enormous dome of light.

The bow then would continue to ascend toward the zenith : it
would suffer an undulatory motion in its light that is to say,
that from one extremity to the other the brightness of the rays
would increase successively in intensity. This luminous current
would appear several times in quick succession, and it would pass
much more frequently from west to east than in the opposite
direction. Sometimes, but rarely, a retrograde motion would
take place immediately afterward ; and as soon as this wave of
light had run successively over all the rays of the aurora from
west to east, it would return, in the contrary direction, to the
point' of its departure, producing such an effect that it was
impossible to say whether the rays themselves were actually
affected by a motion of translation in a direction nearly hori-
zontal, or if this more vivid light was transferred from ray to ray,

189

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

the system of rays themselves suffering no change of position.
The bow, thus presenting the appearance of an alternate motion
in a direction nearly horizontal, had usually the appearance of the
undulations or folds of a ribbon or nag agitated by the wind.
Sometimes one, and sometimes both of its extremities would
desert the horizon, and then its folds would become more numerous
and marked, the bow would change its character, and assume the
form of a long sheet o^rays returning into itself, and consisting of
several parts forming graceful curves. The brightness of the rays
would vary suddenly, sometimes surpassing in splendour stars of
the first magnitude ; these rays would rapidly dart out, and curves
would be formed and developed like the folds of a serpent ; then
the rays would affect various colours, the base would be red, the
middle green, and the remainder would preserve its clear yellow
hue. Such was the arrangement which the colours always pre-
served ; they were of admirable transparency, the base exhibiting
blood-red, and the green of the middle being that of the pale
emerald ; the brightness would diminish, the colours disappear,
and all be extinguished, sometimes suddenly, and sometimes by
slow degrees. After this disappearance, fragments of the bow
would be reproduced, would continue their upward movement,
and approach the zenith ; the rays, by the effect of perspective,
would be gradually shortened ; the thickness of the arc, which
presented then the appearance of a large zone of parallel rays,
-would be estimated ; then the vertex of the bow would reach the
magnetic zenith, or the point to which the south pole of the
dipping needle is directed. At that moment the rays would be
seen in the direction of their feet. If they were coloured, they
would appear as a large red band, through which the green tints
of their superior parts could be distinguished ; and if the wave of
light above mentioned passed along them, their feet would form a
a long sinuous undulating zone ; while, throughout all these
-changes, the rays would never suffer any oscillation in the direc-
tion of their axis, and would constantly preserve their mutual
parallelisms.

"While these appearances are manifested, new bows are formed,
either commencing in the same diffuse manner, or with vivid and
ready-formed rays : they succeed each other, passing through
nearly the same phases, and arrange themselves at certain,
distances from each other. As many as nine have been counted,
having their ends supported on the earth, and, in their arrange-
ment, resembling the short curtains suspended one behind the
other over the scene of a theatre, and intended to represent the
sky. Sometimes the intervals between these bows diminish, and
two or more of them close upon each other, forming one large zone,
390

AURORA BOREALIS.

traversing the heavens, and disappearing towards the south,
becoming rapidly feeble after passing the zenith. But sometimes,
also, when this zone extends over the summit of the firmament
from east to west, the mass of rays appears suddenly to come from
the south, and to form with those from the north the real boreal
corona, all the rays of which converge to the zenith. This
appearance of a crown, therefore, is doubtless the mere effect of
perspective ; and an observer, placed at the same instant at a
certain distance to the north or to the south, would perceive only
an arc.

The total zone, measuring less in the direction north and south
than in the direction east and west, since it often leans upon the
earth, the corona would be expected to have an elliptical form ;
but that does not always happen : it has been seen circular, the
unequal rays not extending to a greater distance than from eight
to twelve degrees from the zenith, while at other times they reach
the horizon.

Let it, then, be imagined, that all these vivid rays of light
issue forth with splendour, subject to continual and sudden
variations in their length and brightness; that these beautiful
red and green tints colour them at intervals ; that waves of light
undulate over them ; that currents of light succeed each other ;
and, in fine, that the vast firmament presents one immense and
magnificent dome of light, reposing on the snow-covered base
supplied by the ground which itself serves as a dazzling frame
for a sea, calm and black as a pitchy lake and some idea, though
an imperfect one, may be obtained of the splendid spectacle which
presents itself to him who witnesses the aurora from the Bay
of Alten.

The corona, when it is formed, only lasts for some minutes :
it sometimes forms suddenly, without any previous bow. There
are rarely more than two on the same night ; and many of the
auroras are attended with no crown at all.

The corona becomes gradually faint, the whole phenomenon
being to the south of the zenith, forming bows gradually paler,
and generally disappearing before they reach the southern
horizon. All this most commonly takes place in the first half of
the night, after which the aurora appears to have lost its intensity :
the pencils of rays, the bands, and the fragments of bows appear
and disappear at intervals ; then the rays become more and more
diffused, and ultimately merge into the vague and feeble light
which is spread over the heavens, grouped like little clouds, and
designated by the name of auroral plates (plaques aurorales}.
Their milky light frequently undergoes striking changes in its
brightness, like motions of dilatation and contraction, which are

191

THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

propagated reciprocally between the centre and the circumference,
like those which are observed in marine animals called Medusae.
The phenomena become gradually more faint, and generally
disappear altogether on the appearance of twilight. Sometimes,
however, the aurora continues after the commencement of day-
break, when the light is so strong that a printed book may be
read. It then disappears, sometimes suddenly ; but it often
happens that, as the daylight augments, the aurora becomes
gradually vague and undefined, takes a whitish colour, and is
ultimately so mingled with the cirrho-stratus clouds, that it is
impossible to distinguish it from them.

Some of the appearances here described are represented in figs.
4, 5, 6, 7, copied from the memoir of M. Lottin.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

The height of the auroras has not certainly been ascertained ;
but as they are atmospheric phenomena, and scarcely above the
region of the clouds, and as they certainly partake of the diurnal
motion of the earth, it does not seem probable that their elevation
in any case can exceed a few miles.

192

Fig. 2.

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

CHAPTER I.

1. Prospects of improvement in motive power by the application of
electricity. 2. Example of its practical application in the workshop
of Mons. Froment, mathematical instrument maker in Paris. 3.
Mention of it in Catalogue of the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park.
4. Property of electro-magnets. 5. Alternate transmission and
suspension of the current. 6. How this produces a moving power.
7. Voltaic piles used by Mons. Froment. 8. Forms of his electro-

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. o 193

No. 124.

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

motive machines. 9. Details of their construction. 10. Regulator
applied to them. 11. Their application to divide the limbs of philo-
sophical instruments. 12. Their wonderful self-acting power. 13.
Application of electro-motive power to the telegraph by Mons.
Froment. 14. Microscopic writing. 15. Electric clocks.

1. AMO:N-G those who have devoted their thoughts to the applica-
tion of the principles of physical science to the industrial arts, an
anticipation more or Jess sanguine has long been entertained that
the day is not far distant when the mighty power of steam, which
has exercised, and still continues to exercise, so great an influ-
ence upon the well-being of the human race and the progress of
civilisation, will be superseded by other far more efficient
mechanical agents. Science already directs her finger at sources
of inexhaustible power in the phenomena of electricity and mag-
netism. The alternate decomposition and recomposition of water,
by electric action, has too close an analogy to the alternate pro-
cesses of vaporisation and condensation, not to occur at once to
every mind : the development of the gases from solid matter by
the operation of the chemical affinities, and their subsequent
condensation into the liquid form, has already been essayed as a
source of power. In a word, the general state of physical science
at the present moment, the vigour, activity, and sagacity with
which researches in it are prosecuted in every civilised country,
the increasing consideration in which scientific men are held, and
the personal honours and rewards which begin to be conferred
upon them, all justify the expectation that we are on the eve of
mechanical discoveries still greater than any which have yet
appeared ; that the steam engine itself, with its gigantic powers,
will dwindle into insignificance in comparison with the energies
of nature which are still to be revealed ; and that the day will
come when that machine, which is now extending the blessings
of civilisation to the most remote skirts of the globe, will cease to
have existence except in the page of history.

2. It is not, however, generally known, that there exists in Paris
an establishment for the fabrication of philosophical instruments,
or rather of that class of those instruments which in that country
are distinguished as instruments of precision, in which elec-
tro-magnetism is and has been for several years back applied
with complete success, as a moving power on a considerable
scale.

3. In the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, a small modest-looking
stall furnished with theodolites and some models of electro-
magnetic apparatus might have been seen, bearing the inscription
of Gustave Froment ; and in the Great Illustrated and com-
mentated Catalogue there appeared the three following lines :

GUSTAVE FKOMENT. .

"GusxAVE FEOMENT 5 rue Menilmontant, Paris.

11 Scientific Instruments. Theodolite ; and various models of
electro-motive power."

Assuredly brevity could no further go. Never was presented
a more conspicuous example of modest reserve on the part of
artistic genius the most exalted. No effort seems to have been
thought of by the exhibitor, even to call the attention of the com-
mentators of the catalogue, to the claims of these productions of
the highest scientific art ; for, while comment and panegyric have
'been liberally, not to say profusely, accorded to exhibitors, who,
whatever may have been their merits, presented claims immea-
surably below him whose illustrious labours we are about to
notice, not a single word of comment drew the attention of the
general public to objects, the fabrication of which would have
presented the highest attractions, even to the most idle and
incurious of the loungers of the Crystal Palace.

Happily for the cause of science and art, and for that of justice,
the same neglect did not prevail among the eminent persons to
whom the distribution of honours was entrusted. They discerned
and appreciated the titles of M. Froment, and most justly accorded
him, by an unanimous vote, a council medal. The authorities of
his own country added to this the decoration of the Legion of
Honour.

If M. Froment were as ambitious of personal eclat as of the
attainment of perfection in his workmanship, he would have trans-
ported to the Crystal Palace a part of the beautiful machinery of
his Parisian workshop, and would have exhibited, not his theodolite
alone, but the process of its fabrication. Had he done this (and
he might have accomplished it without difficulty), his station in
the Great Exhibition as an object of attraction would have
rivalled even the Koh-i-noor.

The inventions and improvements of M. Froment, in the con-
struction of instruments of precision, and of scientific apparatus
generally, can nowhere be so advantageously seen and appreciated
as in his own workshop in Paris. There may be seen not only the
finished instruments and machines, but their practical application
in the construction of each other ! There may be seen electro-
magnetism applied on a large scale, as a permanent and regular
moving power, in the fabrication of mathematical and optical
instruments.

The electro -motive machines of M. Froment, which are very
various in form, magnitude, and power, derive, nevertheless, their
motive force from one common principle, which is the same that
has been applied in certain forms of electro-magnetic telegraph.

4. The property of the electro-magnet has been already so fully
o 2 " 195

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

explained in our Tract upon the " Electric Telegraph," page 196,
that it will be sufficient briefly to recapitulate the general physical
principles from which this property arises.

If a voltaic current be conducted spirally round a rod of soft
iron, the iron will become magnetic, and will continue magnetic
so long as the current passes round it. Its acquisition of the
magnetic virtue is simultaneous with the transmission of the
current. It is not gradual but instantaneous. The very instant
the current is transmitted, the magnetic virtue is imparted to the
iron, and does not afterwards increase in intensity.

The loss of the magnetic virtue, upon the suspension of the
current, is equally instantaneous and complete. The very instant
the current is discontinued, the iron ceases to be magnetic.

The subtlety of the electric fluid, and the celerity of its pro-
pagation, are such that it is capable of being transmitted and
suspended instantaneously, and, however short the interval may
be between the instants of its transmission and suspension, it will,
during that interval nevertheless, impart to the iron the magnetic
property. So true is this, that it is practically found that the
current may be alternately transmitted and suspended hundreds
or even thousands of time in a single second, and in these short
intervals the iron will alternately acquire and lose the magnetic
virtue.

The manner in which the voltaic current is transmitted spirally
round the iron bar is as follows : The wire upon which the current
is transmitted is wrapped with silk or
cotton thread, which being a non-con-
ductor of electricity, will prevent the
lateral escape of the fluid, which will
therefore pass along the wire within the
coating of thread as water or air would
pass along a tube. The wire thus covered
is coiled spirally round the bar of soft
iron, which may or may not be bent into
the horse-shoe form, as shown in fig. 1.
One end of the wire being put in connection
with the positive, and the other with the negative pole of the voltaic
battery ; the current will be transmitted upon it, and will be pre-
vented from passing from one coil of the wire to the contiguous
one, by the interposition of the silk or cotton thread. So long as
the current is thus continued, the iron, whatever be its form, will
be magnetic, one end having the properties of the north and the
other of the south magnetic pole.

5. By an expedient to which an infinite variety of forms may
be given, the current can be alternately transmitted and suspended
196

.THE ELECTRO-MAGNET.

with any desired degree of rapidity; and, by varying the power of
the battery, the number of coils of the spiral wire, and the mag-
nitude of the iron bar, a magnetic force of any desired intensity
can be produced.

A piece of iron, called an armature, is presented to one or both
of the poles of the magnet towards which it is attracted, while the
current is transmitted with a force proportionate to the intensity of
the magnetism ; and when the current is suspended, the armature
either falls .from the magnet by its own weight, or is withdrawn
from it by the action of a spring, or other mechanical expedient,
provided for the purpose.

The armature may be placed between two magnets, which are
alternately acted upon by the electric current, which is trans-
mitted round each in the intervals [of its suspension round the
other. The armature will then be moved alternately to and fro
between the two magnets.

6. In this manner, by alternately suspending and transmitting
the current on the wire which is coiled round the electro-magnet,
the magnet and its armature receive an alternate motion to and
from each other, similar to that of the piston of a steam-engine,
or the foot of a person who works the treddle of a lathe. This
alternate motion is made to produce one of continued rotation by
the same mechanical expedients as are used in the application of
any other moving power.

The force with ;which the electro -magnet and its armature
attract each other, determines the power of the electro -motive
machine, just as the pressure of steam on the piston determines
the power of a steam-engine. This force depends on the nature
and magnitude of the galvanic pile which is employed.

7. The pile used by M. Froment for the lighter sort of work,
such as that of driving his engines for dividing the limbs of
astronomical and surveying instruments, and microscopic scales,
is that of Daniel, consisting of about twenty-four pairs. Simple
arrangements are made by means of commutators, reometers, and
reotropes, for modifying the current indefinitely in quantity,
intensity, and direction. By merely turning an index or lever in
one direction or another, any desired number of pairs may be
brought into operation, so that a battery of greater or less inten-
sity may be instantty made to act, subject to the major limit of
the number of pairs provided. By another adjustment, the copper
elements of two or more pairs, and at the same time their zinc
elements, may be thrown into connection, and thus the whole pile,
or any portion of it, may be made to act as a single pair, of
enlarged surface. By another adjustment, the direction of the
current can be reversed at pleasure. Other adj ustments, equally

ELECTKO-MOTIVE POWER.

simple and effective, are provided, by which the current can he
turned on any particular machine, or directed into any room in
which it may he required.

The pile used for heavier work, is a modification of Bunsen's
charcoal battery, in which dilute sulphuric acid is used in the
porous porcelain cell containing the charcoal, as well as in the cell
containing the zinc. By this expedient the noxious fumes of the
nitric acid are remove^ and although the strength of the battery
is diminished, sufficient power remains for the purposes to which
it is applied.

8. The forms of electro-motive machines constructed by M.
Eroment are very various. In some the magnet is fixed, and the
armature moveable ; in some both are moveable.

In some there is a single magnet and a single armature. The
power is in this case intermittent, like that of a single-acting
steam-engine, or that of the foot in working the treddle of a lathe,
and the continuance of the action is maintained in the same manner
by the inertia of a fly-wheel.

In other cases two electro-magnets and two armatures are com-
bined, and the current is so regulated, that it is established on
each during the intervals of its suspension on the other. This
machine is analogous in its operation to the double-acting steam-
engine, the operation of the power being continuous. The force
of these machines may be augmented indefinitely, by combining
the action of two or more pairs of magnets.

Another variety of the application of this moving principle,
presents an analogy to the rotatory steam-engine. Electro-
magnets are fixed at equal distances round a wheel, to the
circumference of which the armatures are attached at corre-
sponding intervals. In this case the intervals of action and
intermission of the currents are so regulated, that the magnets
attract the armatures obliquely as the latter approach them, the
current, and consequently the attraction, being suspended the
moment contact takes place. The effect of this is, that all the
magnets exercise forces which tend to turn the wheel on which
the armatures are fixed constantly in the same direction, and the
force with which it is turned is equal to the sum of the forces of
all the electro-magnets which act simultaneously.

This rotatory electro-motive machine is infinitely varied, not
only in its magnitude and proportions, but in its form. Thus in
some the axle is horizontal, and the wheel revolves in a vertical
plane ; in others the axle is vertical, and the wheel revolves in a
horizontal plane. In some the electro-magnets are fixed, and the
armatures moveable with the wheel ; in others both are moveable.
In some the axle of the wheel which carries the armatures is itself
198

ELECTRO-MOTIVE MACHINES.

moveable, being fixed upon a crank or eccentric. In this case the
wheel revolves within another, whose diameter exceeds its own
by twice the length of the crank, and within this circle it has an
hypocycloidal motion.

Each of these varieties of the application of this power, as yet
novel in the practical operations of the engineer and manufacturer,
possesses peculiar advantages or convenience, which render it more
eligible for special purposes.

9. Electro-motive machines. To render this general descrip-
tion of M. Froment's electro-motive machines more clearly under-
stood, we shall add a detailed explanation of two of the most
efficient and useful of them.

In the machine represented in fig. 2, a and b are the two legs
of the electro-magnet ; c d is the transverse piece uniting them,
which replaces the bend of the horse-shoe; ef is the armature
confined by two pins on the summit of the leg a (which prevent
any lateral deviation), the end / being jointed to the lever g h,
which is connected with a short arm projecting from an axis k by
the rod i. When the current passes round the electro-magnet,
the lever f is drawn down by the attraction of the leg 6, and
draws with it the lever g A, by which i and the short lever pro-
jecting from the axis k are also driven down. Attached to the
same axis k is a longer arm w, which acts by a connecting rod n
upon a crank o and a fly-wheel v. When the machine is in
motion, the lever g h and the armature f attached to it recover
their position by the momentum of the fly-wheel, after having
been attracted downwards. When the current is again esta-
blished, the armature / and the lever g h are again attracted
downwards, and the same effects ensue. Thus, during each half-
revolution of the crank o, it is driven by the force of the electro-
magnet acting on f^ and during the other half-revolution it is
carried round by the momentum of the fly-wheel. The current
is suspended at the moment the crank o arrives at the lowest
point of its play, and is re-established when it returns to the
highest point. The crank is therefore impelled by the force of
the magnet in the descending half of its revolu- Fi 3
tion, and by the momentum of the fly-wheel in the
ascending half.

The contrivance called a distributor, by which the
current is alternately established and suspended at
the proper moments, is represented in fig. 3, where
y represents the transverse section of the axis of
the fly-wheel ; r, a spring which is kept in con-
stant contact with it ; x, an eccentric fixed on the same axis
y, and revolving with it and / another spring similar to r,

199

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

which is acted upon by the eccentric, and is thus allowed to
press against the axis y during half the revolution, and removed
from contact with it during the other half-revolution. When
the spring r' presses on the axis y the current is established ;
and when it is removed from it the current is suspended.

It is evident that the action of this machine upon the lever
attached to the axis k is exactly similar to that of the foot on the
treddle of a lathe or a spinning- wheel ; and as in these cases, the
impelling force being "intermittent, the action is unequal, the
velocity being greater during the descending motion of the crank o
than during its ascending motion. Although the inertia of the
fly-wheel diminishes this inequality by absorbing a part of the
moving power in the descending motion, and restoring it to the
crank in the ascending motion, it cannot altogether efface it.

Another electro-motive machine of M. Froment is represented
in elevation in fig. 4, and in plan in fig. 5. This machine has the

advantage of producing a perfectly regular motion of rotation,
which itetains for several hours without sensible change.

A drum, which revolves on a vertical axis x y, carries on its
circumference eight bars of soft iron a placed at equal distances
asunder. These bars are attracted laterally, and always in the
same direction, by the intermitting action of six electro-magnets
6, mounted" in a strong hexagonal frame of cast-iron, within
which the drum revolves. The intervals of action and suspension
200

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION.

of the current upon these magnets are so regulated that it is
established upon each of them at the moment one of the bars of

soft iron a is approaching it, and it is suspended at the moment
the bar begins to depart from it. Thus the attraction accelerates
the motion of the drum upon the approach of the piece a towards
the magnet b, and ceases to act when the piece a arrives in front
of b. The action of each of the six impelling forces upon each of the
eight bars of soft iron attached to the drum is thus intermitting.
During each revolution of the drum, each of the eight bars a
receives six impulses, and therefore the drum itself receives forty-
eight impulses. If we suppose the drum to make one revolution
in four seconds, it will therefore receive a succession of impulses
at intervals of the twelfth part of a second, which is prac-
tically equivalent to a continuous force.

The intervals of intermission of the current are regulated by
a, simple and ingenious apparatus. A metallic disc c is fixed upon
the axis of rotation. Its surface consists of sixteen equal divisions,
the alternate divisions being coated with non-conducting matter,
A metallic roller 7i, which carries the current, presses constantly
on the surface of this disc, to which it imparts the current. Three
other metallic rollers e, f, g press against the edge of the disc, and,
as the disc revolves, come alternately into contact with the con-
ducting and non-conducting divisions of it. When they touch

201

ELECTRO-MOTIVE TOWER.

the conducting divisions, the current is transmitted ; when they
touch the non-conducting divisions, the current is interrupted.

Each of these three rollers e, f, g is connected by a conducting
wire with the conducting wires of two electro-magnets diame-
trically opposed, as is indicated in fig. 5, so that the current is
thus alternately established and suspended on the several electro-
magnets, as the conducting and non-conducting divisions of the
disc pass the rollers e, and g.

10. M. Froment has adapted a regulator to this machine, which
plays the part of the governor of the steam-engine, moderating
the force when the action of the pile becomes too strong, and
augmenting it when it becomes too feeble.

A divided circle in n, fig. 4, has been annexed to the machine
at the suggestion of M. Pouillet, by which various important
physical experiments may be performed.

11. Of all the purposes to which this moving power is applied
in the workshop of M. Froment, the most beautiful is that of
making the divisions on the limbs and scales of astronomical and
geodesical instruments, and of instruments of precision in general.
The machines by which such divisions are engraved are automatic,
each receiving its motion from an electro-motive machine of
proportionate power and magnitude.

The limb to be divided is fixed upon a horizontal table, which
receives a slow and intermitting progressive motion from a fine
screw. This screw itself is urged at intervals by a ratchet-wheel.
The catch or click by which this ratchet-wheel is driven, can be
so adjusted as to take one, two, or several teeth at each stroke,
and therefore to move the table carrying the limb through a
greater or less space, according to the magnitude of the divisions
to be engraved upon the scale. Over the limb to be engraved is
placed the point or edge by which the incision is produced, which
is either hardened steel or diamond. During the progressive
motion of the table carrying the limb, this cutter is elevated, so as
not to touch it. In the intervals during which the motion of the
table is suspended, the cutter descends upon the limb, and, being
pressed upon it with sufficient force, is drawn upon it in a
direction at right angles to the motion of the table, thus engraving
upon it the line which marks the division. Thus the motions of
the limb and the cutter are alternate, each being in action while
the other is at rest. The cutter is fixed upon an arbor which
derives its motion from the same crank which works the ratchet,
but its connection is arranged so as to give them the alternate
action just mentioned.

By an arrangement provided in this arbor, a more extended
motion is imparted to the cutter at every tenth stroke of the
202

DIVIDING MACHINES.

ratchet, the effect of which is, that every tenth division made
upon the limb by the cutter is distinguished by a longer line than
the intermediate divisions.

In some cases both the motions above described are imparted to-
the cutter, the limb upon which the divisions are engraved being-
kept at rest. The cutter is, in that case, alternately impressed
with two motions, one which transfers it from division to division
while it is raised from the limb, and the other in a direction at
right angles to this, while it is pressed upon the limb, and makes
the incision which marks the division.

These dividing instruments vary in form and magnitude accord-
ing to the purposes to which they are applied.

Those which are used for engraving the divisions on the circular
limbs of theodolites and other instruments of the larger class,,
consist of a circular metallic table of solid construction and suit-
able magnitude, to which a motion round its centre in its own.
plane is imparted by means of a finely-constructed worm, which
works in teeth formed on the edge of the circular table itself^
Means are provided by which the circular limb to be divided can
be fixed upon this table, so as to be exactly concentric with it,
and to be moved with it. The cutter is fixed so as to slide upon
a rod which is extended over this table and parallel to it. The
cutter can, by this arrangement, be adjusted at any required dis-
tance from the centre of the table, so as to correspond to a circular
limb of any magnitude not exceeding that of the table.

In the process of engraving the divisions, the worm and the
cutter are moved alternately by self-acting mechanism, deriving
its motion from the electro-motive machine by which all the
apparatus of the workshop is driven. The worm is so adjusted,
that by each action on the table, the limb to be engraved is-
moved under the cutter (which is then elevated so as not to act
upon it), through a space equal to the interval between the
divisions. The worm then stops, and the limb being at rest, the
cutter descends upon it, and is drawn through a space equal to-
the length of the line to be engraved, and the division is accord-
ingly marked upon the limb. The cutter is then again elevated,
and the limb again moved under it by the worm, and so on.

In this case the divisions which mark degrees are distinguished
from the intermediate minutes by larger lines, mechanical arrange-
ments being provided in the wheelwork by which the motion of
the cutter is ,thus affected.

12. All these machines are self-acting. The limb or scale to be
divided being once placed on the table of the dividing engine, no-
further interference of the human hand is needed. The machine
of itself begins its work at an appointed hour, minute, and

203

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWBE.

second, and when the last division of the scale has been engraved,
it not only suspends its own action, but stops that of the electro-
magnetic machine by which it is impelled. These automatic
arrangements must not be regarded as mere mechanical super-
fluities, upon which the boundless fertility of invention which
characterises the genius of M. Froment has been lavished ; they
are of great practical value and importance. It happens, for
example, that in these delicate operations, the tremor of the
ground on which the workshop stands, produced by the movement
of vehicles of transport in the adjoining streets, aft'ects in a
sensible degree the motion of the cutting point. It is therefore
always preferable to execute the most delicate work in the dead
of the night. Now, by the automatic contrivances above men-
tioned, this can be accomplished without imposing on the super-
intendent the necessity of watching. A clock, provided with an
apparatus similar in principle to a common alarum, is put in
mechanical connection with the dividing machine, and is set so as
to start the machine at any desired hour. This being done, and
the limb to be divided being fixed upon the table under the
cutter, the apparatus may be left to itself ; the superintendent
may retire to rest, and at the hour of the night which has been
selected, the electro-motive machine will be started by the clock,
and the dividing engine will commence, continue, and complete
its work with the most admirable certainty and precision, and,
when completed, the electro-motive machine will be stopped, and
all reduced to rest.

The magnitude of the dividing engine for microscopic scales, is
about 8 inches long by 6 inches wide, and 4 inches high. The
magnitude of the electro-motive engine necessary to drive it,
is not more than 4 inches square in its base, and 3 inches
high.

It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the more minute class
of these scales can only be seen by the aid of a microscope of high
magnifying power. This will be easily understood when it is
considered that, in a space measuring a tentli of an inch in
length, there are in the more minute scales, 2500 divisions. Such
is, nevertheless, the precision of the execution, that when looked
at with a sufficiently high magnifying power, the lines exhibit the
most perfect evenness and regularity.

13. Among the inventions of M. Froment, which may be also
seen in operation in his establishment, are two electric telegraphs,
one of which transmits its messages by enabling an operator at
one station to direct an index, which moves upon a dial-plate, to
any desired letter of the alphabet, those letters being engraved
around the dial like the hour-mark upon a clock or watch. The
204

TELEGRAPHIC INSTRUMENTS.

transmitting agent has before him a row of keys, like those of a
piano-forte (fig. 6), upon which the letters of the alphabet are

Fig. G. Fromcnt's Alphabetical Telegraph.

engraved. When he presses down the key upon which any letter
is inscribed, the index of the dial at the distant station with
which he is in communication turns, and stops when it points at
the same letter. In this way, by indicating the successive letters
of the words composing the message, the despatch is transmitted.

The mechanism by which this is accomplished, is fully described
in our Tract on the " Electric Telegraph," par. 205.

Another form of electric telegraph (fig. 7), which writes the
message it transmits, may also be seen in operation in M. Froment's
workshop.

The message is transmitted in this instrument by pressing
down a key successively by the finger, the key being held down a
longer or shorter time, in the same manner as a pianist would
play notes of greater or less length. Varying marks of corre-
sponding lengths are made upon paper by a pencil at the distant
station, the paper being moved under the pencil by suitable
mechanism. For a description of this telegraph see also our
Tract on the "Electric Telegraph," par. 207.

14. Another of the results of the mechanical ingenuity of this
artist, which may be seen at his workshop, which if not the most
useful is assuredly the most astonishing, and to many the most

205

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

incomprehensible, is his microscopic writing, which has been
already noticed in our Tract on Microscopic Drawing and

Fig. 7. Fromcnt's Writing Telegraph.

Engraving. We will here reproduce from that article a specimen
of this miraculous performance. Fig. 8, written in the Crystal
Palace, in 1851, within a circular space, having the diameter
of the 30th of an inch.

The details of the method by which this microscopic writing is
executed have not yet been made public, but we believe the
inventor is preparing a memoir on the subject, to be presented to
the Academy of Sciences.

15. This brief notice of the application of electro-motive power
must not be concluded without mentioning its remarkable appli -
cation to chronometers, examples of which may be seen in many
parts of this country, one of which is presented daily and nightly
in the Strand, near the Electric Telegraph Office.

The general principle of this beautiful application of physical
science to the economy of life is easily explained,

The hand of a clock or watch moves not uniformly, but by a
succession of starts, as may be plainly seen in the case of a
seconds' hand of a watch or clock. The same intermitting motion
affects the minute and hour hands, but their movement from
second to second is so minute that it is imperceptible to the eye.

Now, from what has been already explained, it will be evident
that a similar intermitting motion can be imparted to the contact
piece of an electro-magnet by the alternate transmission and
suspension of the current. If, therefore, by any means the electric

MICROSCOPIC WRITING.

current can be transmitted and suspended alternately with chro-
nometric regularity, so that, for example, the interval of its

F:g. 8, Appearance as seen in the field of the Microscope, the outer circle being only
l-30th of an inch in diameter.

transmission and suspension shall be exactly one second of time,
then the motion to and fro of the contact piece will also be per-
formed with the same chronometric regularity, in intervals of one
second. It is evident, therefore, that if such a contact piece, so
moving, be put in connection with a properly constructed frame of
wheel-work, it may be used to impart motion to the hands of a
timepiece.

It appears also that the same regularly intermitting current
may be transmitted to any number of timepieces, at any distance
whatever from each other, by means of conducting wires similar
to those of the electric telegraph ; and since the length of such
intermediate wires does not affect their power of transmission, it

207

ELECTRO-MOTIVE POWER.

follows that the same current can simultaneously impart a perfectly
regular chronometric motion, to all the clocks dispersed over a
large country.

It remains only to show how the regularity of the intermission
of the current can be obtained. This is accomplished by the
obvious expedient of putting the commutator, by the motion of
which the current is alternately transmitted and interrupted, in
connection with a well-regulated chronometer, the pendulum of
which shall, in that cas%, itself alternately transmit and suspend
the current.

Among the numerous applications of electric power to be seen
in the workshops of M. Froment, are a series of electric clocks
constructed nearly upon the principle above described. The
motion of each clock is in this case maintained by a small weight,
which is alternately raised and lowered upon an appendage of the
pendulum by means of an iron counterweight, which is itself
alternately raised and disengaged by an electro-magnet, each
time that the appendage, by its contact with the weight, opens and
closes the voltaic circuit, or, what is the same, transmits and
suspends the current.

The motion of the clock is maintained by a constant weight,
without friction and without the application of oil, with great
regularity, while the electric current, which is transmitted
through it in the intervals of each oscillation, transmits to a
distance the chronological indications upon a series of dials, the
hands of which are moved by a mechanism, analogous to that
Avhich moves the index of an electric telegraph of the kind used
on the continental railways.

208

LONDON, April, 1856.

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