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ANNOUNCEMENT.

THE present Volume completes this Series of Tracts on Phy-
sical Science, and its applications. In bringing the Work thus
to a close, the purpose of the Author and Publishers has been to
confine the collection within such a limit of bulk and price as
may be compatible with the leisure and the means of the great
majority of its Subscribers. The whole series is now comprised
in the moderate limits of twelve single volumes, in ornamental
boards, at 18s., cr six double volumes, in cloth, lettered, at 21s.

A desire having been generally expressed that the Series
should have been continued, the Publishers state with pleasure
that they have made arrangements for the publication of
another popular "Work for ' general circulation by the same
Author, of which full particulars will be hereafter announced.

This New Series will be commenced as soon as Dr. Lardner
has completed some other works which he has undertaken.

EDITED BY

DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L.,

Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London.

ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

VOL. XII.

LONDON:
WALTON AND MABERLY,

UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
1856.

LOAN STAOf

LONDON t
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, \VU1TEFRIARS..

L37

CONTENTS.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

PAGE

CHAP. I. — 186. Interest of the subject. — 187. Recapitulation. —
188. Original division of the land and water. — 189. Uniform
temperature at all latitudes. — 190. This temperature at first
too elevated for organic life. — 191. Its gradual reduction. —
192. Series of convulsions. — 193. Depositions of organic remains.
— 194. First organic creation after the fourth convulsion. —
195. The latest catastrophe of this kind.— 196. Method of
determining the age of mountains. — 197. Ranges of similar
date parallel.— 198. Their nomenclature.— 199. Method of
ascertaining the outlines of land and water at each geological
epoch. — 200. M. Elie de Beaumont's seventeen mountain
systems. — 201. Their directions and denominations. — 202.
Manner in which they are grouped. — 203. Plan of these
systems in Europe. — 204. Their geological dates. — 205. System
of Vendee.— 206. System of Finistere.— 207. System of Long-
mynd. — 208. System of Morbihan. — 209. System of Hundsruck.
—210. System of the Ballons.— 211. System of the North of
England.— 212. System of Hainault.— 213. System of the Rhine.
— 214. System of Thuringerwald. . . . . . 1

CHAP. II. — 215. Elie de Beaumont's mountain systems continued:
System of Cote d' Or. — 216. System of Monte Viso. — 217. System
of the Pyrenees. — 218. System of Corsica. — 219. System of the
Western Alps.— 220. System of the Principal Alps.— 221.—
System of Tsenarus. — 222. Principal effects of this convulsion.
— 223. Extension of De Beaumont's system by analogy to the
remainder of the globe ; general plan of mountain systems. —
224. Geological horizon explained ; mineralogical characters in-
sufficient to identify it. — 225. Indications supplied by fossili-
ferous deposits. — 226. Twenty-nine fossiliferous strata. — 227.
Zoological stratification. — 228. Method of determining outlines
of land and water twofold : mineralogical and zoological. — 229.
The mineralogical tests uncertain. — 230. The zoological tests clear
and definite. — 231. Organic remains which characterise the
bottom of deep seas. — 232. Organic remains which determine
the shores of seas. — 233. Others which determine the bottoms of
shallow seas. — 234. Others which indicate the embouchures of
rivers and estuaries. — 235. Conventional terms. — 236. Successive

38G

vi CONTENTS.

creations. — 237. Geological periods and stages. — 238. Six great
formations. — 239. Resolution of the earth's crust into 29 stages.
— 240. Six geological ages. — 241. Succession of geological periods.
— 242. Zoological terms : four principal divisions of animals. —
243. Subordinate nomenclature. — 244. Table of the classes of
animals. — 245. Zoological characters of the principal divisions. . 17

CHAP. III. — 246. Derivations of the names. — 247. Examples of the
classes. — 248. Number of fossil species. — 249. Their distribution
in 29 stages. — 250. These stages correspond to 29 periods. — 251.
Successive manifestations of creative power. — 252. First crea-
tion of organised beings. — 253. General view of the series of
catastrophes. — 254. The Palaeozoic age : Murchison's section
of the corresp( nding stages. — 255. How these are manifested in
different parts of the world. — 256. Stratigraphical evidence of
the distinction of the stages. — 257. Five stages of the Palaeozoic
formation. — 258. Vegetable kingdom of the Palaeozoic age. —
259. FIRST PALAEOZOIC PERIOD : 260. Extent and limits of the
seas. — 261. Character of the fauna. — 262. Of the flora. —
263. Tropical climate universal. — 264. No terrestrial animals.
|^-265. Inhabitants of the seas. — 266. Synopsis of the animal
kingdom. — 267. Examples.— 268. Duration of this period. —
269. SECOND PALEOZOIC PERIOD : 270. Synopsis of the animal
kingdom. — 271. Genera created and revived. — 272. General
character of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. — 273. Outlines
of land and water. — 274. Elie de Beaumont's Silurian map of
Western Europe. — THIRD PALAEOZOIC PERIOD : 275. Mineral
character of the strata. — 276. Table of the Fauna. — 277. Mol-
lusca and Radiata.— 278. Outlines of land and water. — 279.
Extent of the seas. — FOURTH PALAEOZOIC PERIOD : 280. Table
of the fauna. — 281. Fossil Crustacea. — 282. Mollusca and
Radiata . 33

CHAP. IV. — 283. Outlines of land and water. — 284. The vegetable
kingdom. — 285. Coal deposits. — 286. Convulsions which termi-
nated the period. — FIFTH PALEOZOIC PERIOD :. 287. Composition
of the strata — 288. Destruction of the fauna and flora of preced-
ing period. — 289. The new animal kingdom. — 290. Outlines of
land and water. — 291. Changes of the continents. — 292.
Character of the fauna. — 293. Absence of land animals —
uniformity of climate. — 294. Geological convulsions. — RETROSPECT
AND RECAPITULATION OF THE PALEOZOIC AGE : 295. Commence-
ment of animalisation. — 296. Prevailing forms. — 297. Trilobites.
— 298. Characteristics of the carboniferous stage. — 299. Car-
bonised vegetables. — 300. Fossil vegetable species. — 301. Their
prevailing characters. — 302. Contrasted with the present vege-
table kingdom in the same localities. — 303. Radiata of the
carboniferous period. — 304. Crustacea and insects. — 305. Fossil
scorpions. — 306. Fishes of the carboniferous period. — 307.
Fossil fishes discovered by M. Agassiz. Triassic Age. —
308. Triassic formation lies over the Palaeozoic. — 309.
Geographical configuration — Map of France in Triassic age. —
310. Vegetation. FIRST TRIASSIC PERIOD : 311. Outlines of

CONTENTS. vii

PAGE

land and water — character of animal kingdom. — 312. Chelonian.
reptiles (tortoises). — 313. Foot-tracks of birds. — 314. Synopsis
of animal kingdom. SECOND TRIASSIC PERIOD : 315. Mineral
character of this stage — animal genera created and revived. —
316. Outlines of land and water — animal kingdom. — 317.
Generic synopsis. . . . . . . . .49

CHAP. V. — 318. Convulsion which closed the age. Jurassic Age.
— 319. Division of Jurassic formations into ten stages by
M. D'Orbigny. — 320. Nomenclature and thickness of the stages.
— 321. Section of the strata from the Vosges towards Paris. —
322. State of the earth in the Jurassic age. — 323. Jurassic age
zoologically distinguished from the Triassic. — 324. Distribution
of the species into ten stages. — 325. General inference respecting
the distribution of specific forms. — 326. Geography of Europe in
Jurassic age — D'Orbigny's map. — 327. The Anglo-Parisian basin.
— 328. The Pyrenean basin. — 329. The Mediterranean basin. —
330. Variation of the shores of these seas from period to period.
— 331. Discordances and isolation of the strata. — 332. Corre-
sponding observations on the organic deposits — 333. Variations of
the outlines of land during this age. — 334. Change of condition
of land between Toulon and Inrispruck. — 335. Accurate know-
ledge of the Jurassic geography. — 336. Elie de Beaumont's
Jurassic map. — 337. Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, and Ptero-
dactyle.— 338. Other animals of the Jurassic age.— 339. Coral
reefs. — 340. Insects.— 341. The vegetable kingdom. FIRST
JURASSIC PERIOD : 342. Convulsion that closed the Triassic age.
— 343. First Jurassic stage determined by discordances and
isolation of stratification. — 344. Extent of the seas in Western
Europe — remarkable discordances of stratification on the Alps. —
345. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 346. Reptiles, fishes
and insects. — 347. Convulsion which closed the period. SECOND
JURASSIC PERIOD : 348. Mineral character of this stage.— 349.
Synopsis of animal kingdom. — 350. Marine fauna. — 351. No
traces of terrestrial fauna. — 352. Vegetation of the period . . 65

CHAP. VI. — THIRD JURASSIC PERIOD : 353. Mineral character of this
stage. — 354. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 355. Outlines of
land and Avater. — 356. Land animals and vegetation. FOURTH
JURASSIC PERIOD : 357. Mineral character of the stage. — 358.
Synopsis of the animal kingdom; — 359. Land fauna. FIFTH
JURASSIC PERIOD: 360. Mineral character of the stage. — 361.
Synopsis of the animal kingdom.— 362. Examples of the fauna.
— 363. Traces of land fauna — Phascolotherium and Thylaco-
therium. — 364. Examples of the flora. — 365. Convulsion which
closed the period. SIXTH JURASSIC PERIOD : 366. Mineral cha-
racter of the stage. — 367. Synopsis of the animal kingdom —
disappearance of the Ichthyosauri. — 368. Remarkable changes
in the outlines of land and water. — 369. Extent of the Medi-
terranean basin — submersion of the great Russian continent.
SEVENTH JURASSIC PERIOD : 370. Mineral character of this
stage. — 371. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 372. Creation
of several orders of insects. — 373. Specific forms of Mollusca

viii CONTENTS.

PAGE

and Annulata. — 374. Outlines of land and water. — 375. Marine
flora. — 376. Land animals. — 377. Surprising perfection of the
fossil forms — observations of Buckland and Lyell. — 378. Further
proofs of the suddenness of the catastrophe which terminated
this period. — 379. Indication of the general prevalence of tropical
climate. EIGHTH JURASSIC PERIOD : 380. Mineral character of
the stage. — 381. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 382.
Elevation of RussRi above the waters. — 383. Character of the
fauna. — 384. Land flora and fauna. — 385. Close of the period.
NINTH JURASSIC PERIOD : 386. Mineral character of the stage.
— 387. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 388. General character
of the fauna. — 389. Marine genera. — 390. Land animals.
TENTH JURASSIC PERIOD : 391. Mineral character of the stage.
— 392. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 393. Outlines of land
and water — marine fauna. — 394. Close of the period. The
Cretaceous Age. — 395. Mineral character of the Cretaceous
formation. — 396. Section of the strata between the Vosges and
Paris. — 397. Resolution of the formation into seven stages. —
398. Nomenclature and thickness of the stages. — 399. Dis-
cordance and isolation of the stages , . . . . .81

CHAP. VII. — 400. Zoological character of the Cretaceous age. — 401.
Distribution of the species among the stages. — 402. General con-
clusions.— 403. Changes of the outlines of land and water. — 404.
Elie de Beaumont's map of Western and Central Europe — great
geographical changes. — 405. The Pyrenean basin. — 406. Outlines
of sea and land in Central Europe. — 407. Site of the Alps. —
408. Cretaceous geography of France and England — D'Orbigny's
map. — 409. Anglo-Parisian basin. — 410. The changes incidental
to it from period to period. — 411. Outlines of the basin in
England. — 412. Pyrenean basin — Mediterranean basin. — 413.
Animal kingdom — uniform tropical climate at all latitudes. —
414. Prevalence of undulations of the surface — seven violent
perturbations. FIRST CRETACEOUS PERIOD : 415. Dimensions
and mineral composition of the stage — synopsis of animal
kingdom. — 416. Reptiles of this period — Iguanodon and Hylseo-
saurus. — 417. Flora of this period. SECOND CRETACEOUS
PERIOD : 418. Mineral character of the stage. — 419. Synopsis
of animal kingdom. — 420. Outlines of land and water. — 421.
Marine fauna. — 422. Vegetable kingdom. — 423. Uniform
tropical climate. — 424. Close of the period. — THIRD CRETACEOUS
PERIOD : 425. Mineral character of the stage. — 426. Synopsis of
the animal kingdom. — 427. Outlines of land and water. — 428.
Marine and terrestrial fauna. — 429. Close of the period. —
FOURTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD : 430. Mineral character of the
stage. — 431. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 432. Outlines of
land and water. — 433. Marine fauna. — 434. Marine flora.—
435. Undulations of the ground. — 436. Close of the period.
FIFTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD : 437. Mineral character of the stage.
— 438. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 439. Outlines of land
and water. — 440. Rich vegetation. — 441. Great extent of land
in Russia, South America, and India — termination of the period.
SIXTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD : 442. Mineral character of the
stage. — 443. Synopsis of the animal kingdom . . . .97

CONTENTS. ix

PAGE.

CHAP. VIII. — 444. First appearance of fishes similar to the salmon
and perch — specific forms of Mollusca and Radiata. — 445. Great
duration of the sixth Cretaceous period. — 446. Great changes
in the outlines of land and water. — 447. Specimens of the
fauna. — 448. Flora and land animals — the Mosasaurus. — 449.
Close of tlie period. SEVENTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD : 450.
Mineral character of the stage. — 451. Synopsis of the animal
kingdom. — 452. Examples of the fauna. Tertiary Age.- —
453. Origin of the name. — 454. Classification of the strata — five
stages — their nomenclature and thickness. — 455. Complete series
not found. — 456. Section of the formation between the Vosges
and Paris — discordances and isolation. — 457. Palaeontologies 1
distinction between the Tertiary and inferior formations. — 458.
The number of species in the Tertiary age. — 459. — Distribution
of the species among the stages. — 460. General conclusions. —
461. Outlines of land and water — D'Orbigny's map of France
and England. — 462. Great geographical changes from period to
period. — 463. Character of the fauna — great development of
Mammifers. — 464. Uniform prevalence of tropical climate. —
465. Gradual and violent undulations of the land. FIRST
TERTIARY PERIOD : 466. Mineral character of the stage. —
467. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 468. Great development
of fishes. — 469. Vast increase of land animals, including those
of which the rhinoceros, otter, dog, ferret, and squirrel are
types. — 470. Creation of flat-fish. — 471. The Mollusca — num-
mulites. — 472. Whole mountains formed of these animals. — 473-.
Vast duration of the period. — 474. Terrestrial flora. — 475.
Outlines of land and water — Anglo-Parisian basin — form of
its shores in France and England. — 476. Pyrenean basin. — 477.
Mediterranean basin. — 478. Its great extent towards the east. —
479. Fresh-water lakes. — 480. Close of the period. SECOND-
TERTIARY PERIOD : 481. Elevation of the Pyrenees — elevation
of the tract of Bray in France, and of the Wealden in England. —
482. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 483. Specific forms of
Mollusca and Radiata. — 484. Creation of Cetacea, or whale
forms. — 485. Prodigious numbers of Miliolse, of which the stone
quarries of Paris are formed. — 486. Marine flora — land animals,
including the generic forms of which apes, bats, gallinaceous,
predaceous, and climbing birds, serpents, rattle-snakes, baboons,
and opossums are types. — 487. Crocodiles and land tortoises
— belemnites and nautili — terrestrial flora. — 488. Outlines of
land and water — division of Anglo-Parisian basin into two seas .11

CHAP. IX.— 489 — 490. Great change in the Pyrenean and Mediterra-
nean basins. — 491. Land and water in the United States. — 492.
Effect of the elevation of the Pyrenees. — 493. General prevalence
of tropical climate. — 494. Great change in the Mediterranean
basin. — 495. Sketch of part of Western Europe by Elie de Beau-
mont. THIRD TERTIARY PERIOD : 496. Mineral character of
the stage. — 497. Convulsion which preceded the period. — 498.
Outlines of land and water. — 499. Marine fauna and specific
forms of Mollusca and Radiata. FOURTH TERTIARY PERIOD :
500. Mineral character of the stage. — 501. Synopsis of animal

CONTENTS.

PAGE

kingdom. — 502. Specific forms of Mollusca and Radiata. — 503.
Convulsion which preceded the period — Disappearance of Anglo-
Parisian sea — Ligerian basin. — 504. Pyrenean basin. — 505.
Marine fauna. — 506. Enormous increase of land animals, in-
cluding the generic forms of the bear, the cat, the weasel, the
seal, the mouse, the beaver, the rhinoceros, the tapir, and the
stag. — 507. Great increase of reptiles and fishes, including
snakes, frogs, salajpanders, perch, herring, and carp. — 508.
Flora, including the generic forms of various conifers : birch,
alder, oak, beech, elm, fig, plantain, poplar, laurel, sloe-tree,
maple, red jasmin, madder. — 509. Uniform tropical climate.
FIFTH TERTIARY PERIOD : 510. Mineral character of the stage.
— 511. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 512. Outlines of land
and water. — 513. Elevation of the Western Alps — its effects. —
514. Map of France by M. Elie de Beaumont. — 515. Marine
animals, including the generic forms of gudgeon, pike, loach,
blay, and tench. — 516. Terrestrial fauna, including the mega-
therium, megalonyx, mylodon, and mastodon, and the generic
forms of the elephant, hippopotamus, camel, giraffe, and stag. —
517. Birds of the generic forms of the vulture, eagle, swallow,
woodpecker, chat, anabate, lark, motlihunter, cuckoo, parrot,
pheasant, common fowl, guinea fowl, flamingo, horned owl, rail,
corncrake, goose, loon, duck, gull, &c. — 518. Fossil salamander
of (Eningen. — 519. Floi-a, including generic forms of liquidamber,
willow, myrtle, anemone, plum-tree, magnolia, holly, rhododen-
dron, and azalea. — 520. Large numbers of Mammifers. — 521.
— Bone caves — cave of Gaylenreuth. — 522. Retrospect. — 523.
Was creation at each period simultaneous. — 524. Proofs in the
affirmative. — 525. Was there a progressively increasing perfection
of organisation. — 526. Number of orders in the respective strata.
— 527. Of genera in the orders. — 528. Increase and dew-ease of
genera in the orders. — 529. Orders in which the decrease took
place.— 530. Orders of fishes 129

CHAP. X. — 531. Examination of orders. — 532. Relative numerical
proportion. — 533. No progression discoverable in these. — 534.
Examination of generic development. — 535. Similar result. —
536. In the Radiata and Mollusca. — 537. Annulata.— 538.
Vertebrata. — 539. No progress indicated. — 540. Organs of
ancient animals. — 541. Examination in relation to respiratory
organs. — 542. Lower divisions. — 543. Branchial respiration. — 544.
No essential change. — 545. No progression observable. — 546.
Tracheal respiration. — 547. Pulmonary respiration. — 548. Com-
position of atmosphere unchanged. — 549. General conclusions. —
550. Persistence of genera. — 551. Useful geological test. Tne
Contemporaneous Age.— HUMAN PERIOD. 552. Elevation
of the great Alps — total destruction of the fauna and flora of the
last period. — 553. Great change of form in Europe. — 554.
Secondary effects — vast rivers and lakes producing alluvial
deposits. — 555. Creation of a new fauna and flora. — 556. Tabular
view of the existing and past animal kingdoms. — 557. General
inferences from this. — 558. Number of species of Mollusca and
Radiata, and their distribution.— 559. Total number of species.

CONTENTS. xi

PAGE

— 5GO. Creation of mankind. — 561. First appearance of climato-
logical zones. — 562. Unsuccessful attempts to explain the uniform
distribution of species in former ages. — 563. The formation of
downs — littoral deposits and the filling of lagoons and deltas
supply chronological data of the present age. — 564. Consistency
of the Mosaic history with geological facts. — 565. The future of
the earth. — 5 S3 6. Accordance of the narrative in Genesis with
geological facts. — 567. Figurative use of the word day in
accordance with common custom. — 568. The division of the land
from the water. — 569. The creation of the vegetable world. — 570.
First creation of marine tribes and birds. — 571. A similar order
observed in geological phenomena. — 572. Creation of Mammifers.
— 573. Correspondence with the Tertiary age. — 574. Creation
of the human race in the actual age.— 575. Accordance of
Scripture with geological discovery. — 576. Conclusion . .145

ECLIPSES.

CHAP. I. — 1. Mutual interposition of celestial objects. — 2. Their
mutual obscuration. — 3. Eclipses, transits, and occultations. — 4.
Solar eclipse. — -5. Lunar eclipse. — 6. Transit of a planet. — 7.
Occultation of a fixed star. — 8. Appearance produced by transit
of an inferior planet. SOLAR ECLIPSES : 9. Effects of the
relative magnitude of the discs of the sun and moon. — 10. Con-
ditions which determine eclipses. — 11. Conditions under which
an eclipse does not take place. — 12. Condition of external con-
tact.— 13. Condition of partial eclipse — determination of its
magnitude. — 14. Internal contact. — 15. Annular eclipse. — 16.
Total eclipse. — 17. Greatest possible duration of a total eclipse.
— 18. Condition of annular eclipses. — 19. Greatest possible
duration of annular eclipses. — 20. Solar eclipses can only occur
at or near a new moon. — 21. Effects of parallax. — 22. Data
which determine the circumstances of eclipses. — 23. Solar ecliptic
limits. — 24. Anecdote of Columbus. — 25. Baily's beads. — 26.
These appearances produced by lunar mountains. — 27. Flame-
like protuberances round the dark disc of the moon. — 28. Solar
eclipse of 1851. — 29. Observations of the Astronomer Royal
upon it. — 30. Observations of Messrs. Dunkin and Humphreys
upon it. — 31. Observations of Mr. W. Gray upon it. — 32.
Observations of Messrs. Stephenson and Andrews at Fredrichs-
vaarn. — 33. Observations of Mr. Lassell at Trollhattan Falls. —
34. Observations of Mr. Hind at liavelsborg, near Engelholm . 161

CHAP. II. — 35. Observations of Mr. Dawes near Engelholm. —
36. Effects of total obscuration on surrounding objects and
sceneiy. — 37. Evidence of a solar atmosphere. — 38. Probable
causes of the red emanations in solar eclipses. LUNAR ECLIPSES :
39. The earth's conical shadow. — 40. Its section may be regarded
as a dark disc moving on the firmament. — 41. Conditions which
determine lunar eclipses. — 42. Lunar ecliptic limits. — 43.
Greatest duration of total lunar eclipses. — 44. Effects of the
earth's penumbra. — 45. Effects of refraction of the earth's atmos-
phere in total lunar eclipse. — 46. Lunar disc visible during total
obscuration . . . . . . . . . .177

xii CONTENTS.

SOUND.

PAGE

1. Definition. — 2. Air the conductor. — 3. Sound progressive. — 4.
Breadth of sonorous waves. — 5. Musical sounds, how charac-
terised.— 6. Pitch. — 7. Loudness. — 8. Timbre.— 9. Velocity. —
10. Distances measured by sound. — 11. Density of air affects
loudness. — 12. Effect of atmospheric agitation. — 13. Sound
conveyed through liquids. — 14. Solids. — -15. Effects of elasticity
of air. — 16. CWadni's experiments. — 17. Monochord. — 18.
Vibration of musical strings. — 19. Cause of harmony shown . 185

The numbers of the paragraphs and figures of tlie " PRE-ADAMITE
EARTH," are continuous with those of the " CRUST OP THE EARTH," in-
-volume XI., of which subject the "PRE- ADAMITE EARTH" is the con-
tinuation and development. This statement will explain what might
otherwise seem incorrect in the numbering of the paragraphs and fgures.

ERRATA.

Pre- Adamite Earth, page 85, paragraph 362, line 2, for "160," read " 163."
„ „ page 86, line 10, for " Equitaceae," read " Equisetaceai."

Fig. 101.— ILLUSTRATION OF THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOMS
DURING THE JURASSIC AGE.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTEK I.

186. Interest of the subject. — 187. Recapitulation. — 188. Original
division of the land and water. — 189. Uniform temperature at all
latitudes. — 190. This temperature at first too elevated for organic
life. — 191. Its gradual reduction. — 192. Series of convulsions. —
193. Depositions of organic remains. — 194. First organic creation
after the fourth convulsion. — 195. The latest catastrophe of this
kind. — 196. Method of determining the age of mountains. — 197.
Ranges of similar date parallel. — 198. Their nomenclature. — 199.
Method of ascertaining the outlines of land and water at each geological
epoch. — 200. M. Elie de Beaumont's seventeen mountain systems. —
201. Their directions and denominations. — 202. Manner in whicli
they are grouped. — 203. Plan of these systems in Europe. — 204.
Their geological dates. — 205. System of Vendee. — 206. System of
Finistere. — 207. System of Longmynd. — 208. System of Morbihan. —
209. System of Hundsruck. — 210. System of the Ballons. — 211.
System of the North of England.— 212. System of Hainault.— 213.
System of the Rhine.— 214. System of Thuringerwald.

186. THE history of our planet before it was clothed with that
variety of vegetation which now adorns it, and became the
LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. B 1

No. 144.

THE PRE- ADAMITE EARTH.

habitation of man and the contemporaneous tribes of animals,
cannot fail to be a subject of interest the most exciting and
profound. In our Tract on the " Crust of the ^Earth," some
glimpses of this pre-Adamite chronology were disclosed. "We
purpose at present to resume the subject with more system and
detail, assuming that our readers have already rendered them-
selves familiar with 4he facts, phenomena, and principles which
were there stated and explained.

187. Before we enter upon this curious narrative, however, it
will be useful to recapitulate the great facts which will be
brought in more detail before the reader.

The globe, consisting originally of matter in a state of igneous
fusion, being put in a state of rotation, assumed, as a necessary
mechanical consequence of that motion, the form which it still
retains, called in geometry that of an oblate spheroid, flattened at
the poles and bulging out at the equator; the sections made
by planes passing through the axis of rotation being therefore
ellipses, the longer axes of which are diameters of the equator.
We have shown in former Tracts that the eccentricity or degree
of the oval shape which characterises these ellipses depends imme-
diately upon the velocity of rotation, so much so that, by mere
mathematical calculation, the form of the ellipse has been deduced
d priori from that velocity, and the form thus calculated has been
found to correspond with the actual shape of the earth.

By the gradual process of cooling produced by radiation the
surface of the ear.th became solidified, a thin skin of solid matter
being first formed upon it, which, as the cooling continued, became
gradually thicker, the increase of thickness being produced by
more and more solidified matter collected on its inner surface.
This thickness may be said therefore to have increased from
the outside inwards. At first the temperature was necessarily
such that water could not exist upon it in the liquid state,
but according as the temperature of the surface became gradually
lower, the aqueous vapour till then sustained in the atmosphere
was more or less condensed and precipitated, forming upon it an
ocean of uniform depth extending over the entire surface.

188. If no convulsion had taken place the earth would have
continued in this state. It would have been one universal ocean
undi versified by land, and the human race could never have
existed upon it. It follows, therefore, that before terrestrial tribes
were created the globe must have been of necessity the theatre of
various catastrophes, by which the land was raised above the
waters, and by which a state of things was established, more or
less analogous to that which geography now presents to us. It
was necessary, in a word, that the "dry land should appear."
2

RECAPITULATION.

Extensive observation on the condition of the crust of the earth
proves that such forms were not assumed definitely and per-
manently at once, but that they underwent a long succession of
changes, in the course of which the outlines of land and water
were frequently varied : what was land at one time became the
bottom of the ocean at another, and what was the bottom of the
ocean at one time, rising to the surface, assumed the forms of
continents and islands at another.

It would be easy to show, by an^analysis of the effects produced
by such a succession of catastrophes, that they all tended to one
definite end ; namely, the final adaptation of the earth for the
dwelling-place of the human race, and its contemporaneous tribes.

After the superficial temperature had fallen sufficiently low to
allow of the deposition of water upon the surface, and the forma-
tion of an universal ocean, a series of convulsions commenced,
each of which was produced by the agency of the matter in
igneous fusion contained within the solid shell of the earth. This
matter acting unequally against the inner surface of the shell
cracked it from time to time, producing fissures, through which
the igneous pasty matter issued, 'cooling and solidifying when
exposed to the external atmosphere. Each convulsion necessarily
changed the relative levels of different parts of the solid surface,
and this was attended with a corresponding change in the dis-
tribution of the waters of the ocean. Upon the occurrence of
each phenomenon, these waters would rush with furious impetuosity
over such parts of the land as would fall to a lower level, while
at other places the solid bottom of the ocean would rise above the
surface of the waters, forming new continents and islands. Such
catastrophes must not be regarded as either conjectural or
imaginary. They have, on the contrary, left on the earth visible
traces by which their occurrence has not only been demon-
strated, but even their dates have been geologically ascertained,
so that we are enabled to state the order in which they occurred.

189. For a long period of time, during which these cata-
strophes were developed at intervals, the superficial temperature
depended infinitely more upon the internal heat transmitted
to the surface through the crust, than upon the effects of
solar radiation. It must be remembered, that, so far as the
superficial temperature would depend upon the heat received
from the interior through the crust, the temperature would
be everywhere the same. Thus it would affect the poles and
the equator equally, and would be equally diffused over all
latitudes ; but, on the contrary, so far as the temperature would
depend on solar radiation, it would vary with the latitude, as it
does at present, being greatest between the tropics, and least

B 2 3

THE PEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

within the polar circles. But, as has been just observed, during
the early periods of the history of the earth, to which we now
refer, the influence of internal heat predominating enormously
over that of solar radiation, the effects of the latter were wholly
effaced, and, consequently, the superficial temperature was uniform
at all latitudes.

190. For a long period after the commencement of superficial
solidification, this temperature was far above the limit compatible
with the existence of any form of organic life, animal or
vegetable ; and, consequently, during this interval the globe
was a mere waste, unanimated by life and unadorned by vegeta-
tion. Meanwhile, nevertheless, a succession of changes took
place, the effects of which have remained so visibly traced upon
the earth to the present day, that geologists have been enabled
to pronounce not only their existence but their order. Four
times the solid crust was cracked, and the internal fluid matter
issued through the fissures, forming four systems of mountain-
ranges, which still exist to attest these remarkable facts in
the primitive history of our planet.

191. At length the temperature being reduced to a point com-
patible with organised life, creative power began to be manifested.
The earth was peopled with animals and clothed with vegetation,
but these animals and this vegetation differed altogether from
those which now animate and cover the globe. They were,
however, adapted by divine wisdom to the then condition of
the earth, the temperature being not only greater than any
which prevails at present, but, as has been stated, uniform at
all latitudes.

192. After this, a like succession of convulsions took place, long
intervals of time intervening, by each of which the relative levels
of the land were changed, and consequently the distribution of
the waters of the ocean completely altered. Such changes implied
universal inundations, which involved the destruction of all
animated nature, animal as well as vegetable. In short, a suc-
cession of deluges must have attended such convulsions, each
deluge destroying all the tribes of animals and plants which
existed on the globe at the time of the catastrophe.

193. After each of these convulsions, the waters at first turbid,
and holding in suspension great quantities of matter washed
away and eroded from the former land, as well as enormous
quantities of the remains of the animals and plants previously
existing, would, after a time, become tranquil, and then a
process of vast importance to the preservation of the history of
the globe would take place. The organic remains of animals and
plants suspended in the waters would be deposited at the bottom

4

GRADUAL REDUCTION OF TEMPERATURE.

of the ocean, and over them would subside also the solid matter
sustained in a state of comminution in the waters. The remains
would thus be buried in strata sensibly horizontal, and, being
covered up by the earthy and mineral matter which would subside
from the waters, they would be protected from the destructive
action of air and water thereafter, and would thus be preserved
to future generations as records of the past history of the earth.

In the interval of tranquillity following each such deluge,
creative power was again brought into operation, and the earth
was repeopled with animated creatures, and reclothed with vegeta-
tion ; but in all cases the animals and plants composing the new
kingdoms of nature, though agreeing with those recently destroyed
in their classes and generic characters, differed from them alto-
gether in their species. In short, a new kingdom of nature was
produced, but constructed upon the same general principles.

194. By researches made in the crust of the earth, and careful
analyses of the constitution of its strata and of the animal remains
contained in them, geologists have ascertained, with a high degree
of probability, if not with absolute moral certainty, that subse-
quently to the first appearance of the forms of animal life, which,
as has been stated, took place after the fourth great convulsion of
the globe, there were at least twenty-eight successive convulsions
of a like nature, each of which was attended with the complete
destruction of the animals and plants which existed upon the
globe, their remains being buried in the manner already stated
under the sedimentary deposits made by the new oceans which
followed the crisis.

The actual occurrence of these several convulsions, and of the
existence of the successive animal and vegetable kingdoms,
differing one from another in the species of which they were
constituted, has been proved by geologists by two species of
evidence, one depending on the condition of the stratification, by
which it has been shown that many of these catastrophes were
attended with the elevation of systems of mountains which still
exist upon the surface of the earth, while others, though not
indicated by mountain ranges, are rendered evident by certain
discordances and disturbances in the state of the strata. These
catastrophes have also been indicated by the discovery of the
buried remains of each of the several animal and vegetable
kingdoms here mentioned.

195. In fine, after the latest of the catastrophes, when the last
strata of the tertiary formation were deposited, the most recent
exertion of creative power took place, and the globe was peopled
with the tribes which now inhabit it, including the human
race.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAKTH.

Such is a brief and rapid sketch of the phenomena which
form the subject of the pre- Adamite history of the globe, which
it is our present purpose briefly to sketch.

196. The manner in which the geological age of mountain-
ranges is determined by the state of the strata observed upon their
slopes has been already explained, but this is so important an
element in our present inquiry, that it may be useful to
recapitulate it and present it to our readers under another
aspect.

When we see anywhere the sedimentary strata composing the
crust of the earth inclined, we can pronounce with certainty that
they have been disturbed from their original position which was
horizontal, and that, in short, an elevation has taken place by a
force acting from beneath. So far as relates to the strata thus
inclined, the epoch of the catastrophes would be undetermined, but
if at the foot of the mountains we find other strata a 6 c, fig. 112,

Fig. 112. Fig. 113.

horizontal, it becomes evident that the elevation of the former
must have taken place before the deposition of the lowest of the
latter, since the latter are in the position in which they
naturally subsided from the waters.

The geological date of the elevation in this case would be between
the period of the strata, which are elevated and inclined, and the
lowest, a, of the horizontal strata. In the case of all mountain-
ranges, data of this kind, determining the geological epochs of the
disruption which produced them, are supplied. In some places
we see for example the stratum a, heaved upwards, and b
horizontal, fig. 113. In such cases the date of the catastrophe is
posterior to the deposition of a, and anterior to that of b.

Fig. 114. Fig. 115.

In other cases, both a and b, fig. 114, are uplifted and inclined,,
but c is horizontal, and it is accordingly inferred, that the date
6

AGE OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

of the catastrophe was between the deposition of the strata b
and c.

In like manner if it be found that while the strata a, b, and c
are all uplifted and inclined, d is horizontal, fig. 115, it is
inferred that the date of the catastrophe was between the periods
of the deposition of d and c, and so on.

It will be evident that we have here assumed that the strata
a, &, c, d, &c. are in the natural succession of strata, in the order
of geological time, found in any complete section of the earth's
crust, in which no strata are deficient.

197. It must also be observed that the direction of the inclina-
tion of the strata thus uplifted, corresponds with and determines
the direction of the ridge of mountains upon the flanks of which
they lie, and it has resulted from the extensive and profound
researches of M. Elie de Beaumont, that the chains of mountains
in general whose directions are parallel have the same geological
date, as is proved by the strata inclined upon their sides and
horizontal at their base. Mountain ranges, therefore, which
until the discovery of this important law were regarded as
geologically distinct and independent, are now brought into the
same system. Each mountain system, therefore, must be
regarded not as a single chain, but as a number of parallel chains
which may be near or distant from each other within any as-
signable limits. It. may also be observed, that the parts even of
the same chain are not always continuous, but may be broken by
intervals along which, as it were, the crust sinks to the level of
the surrounding plain.

198. The systems of mountains which have thus been grouped
according to their geological dates have usually received denomi-
nations from some remarkable locality in which their prevalence
is most conspicuous. Thus one is called the system of the
Pyrenees, another the system of the principal Alps, another the
system of the western Alps, and so on.

The different convulsions which have taken place upon the
surface of the globe, and which have produced the several
mountain systems, seem to have been always sudden. In effect
at some distance from the place where the discordance of the
stratification manifests former convulsions, the same strata are
found concordant and horizontal, from whence it follows, that in
such cases the sedimentary deposition has not been suspended,
the disturbance of the crust has been local, and the interval
during which it has prevailed has necessarily been short.

199. During each successive geological period, the earth has
been differently divided into land and water, the continents and
islands of one period being submerged during another, and the

7

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

parts submerged becoming dry land. During each period the
deposition of strata corresponding to it, has been of course con-
fined to such parts of the earth only as were covered by water,
and hence we are able to trace the geographical limits of sea and
land, by tracing the limits of the deposits characteristic of each
stratum.

Thus, during the Silurian period, the Silurian strata have been
deposited only on those parts of the globe which were during that
period covered by water, but not on those which formed the
land. When we use the expression, therefore, the Silurian sea,
we must be understood to mean that portion of the globe which,
during the Silurian period, was covered by water, and those
portions must necessarily be co-extensive with and limited by
Silurian deposits. In the same manner during the Cretaceous
period, the globe, as before, consisting of land and water, the
cretaceous deposit was made only in those parts which were then
covered by water, and formed the bottom of what is called the
Cretaceous sea ; the other parts of the earth, which at that epoch
formed the land, being consequently destitute of the cretaceous
strata.

In the same sense is to be understood the expressions, the Tri-
assic sea, Jurassic sea, Tertiary sea, and so on.

The absence, therefore, of any particular deposit in an extent
more or less considerable of the crust of the earth, indicates that
the subjacent deposit was above the level of the sea, and formed
an island or continent more or less elevated during the period in
which the absent deposit was made. Thus, for example, an
extensive plateau in the centre of France must have been dry
land from the most remote geological epochs ; and at the epoch
of the formation of the deposit which constitutes the present Paris
basin, the greatest part of Europe must have been dry land,
while Paris and a large tract surrounding it, as well as Bordeaux
and the surrounding regions, were covered by the sea, as will be
more fully explained hereafter.

But it happens also that the parts which thus prove to have
been dry land at a certain geological epoch, have been afterwards
covered by more modern sediments ; from whence it follows that
they must have subsequently sunk beneath the ocean, so as to
receive these new deposits. It is by such subsidences of the land
that some of the geological convulsions, whose traces will be
hereafter noticed, have been explained.

200. According to the results obtained from the researches of
M. Elie de Beaumont, it appears from a comparison of the various
mountain ranges of Europe, and from an examination of the
strata upon their slopes and at their bases, that since the solidifi-

ELIE DE BEAUMONTS SYSTEMS.

cation of its crust this part of the globe has undergone at least
seventeen distinct convulsions, each of which has produced a
mountain system, the mean direction of which has been ascer-
tained, and is characteristic of it. These seventeen systems have
received denominations, as already mentioned, from some locali-
ties in which their prevalence is most conspicuous, and the
directions which characterise them are indicated in the following
diagram.

Fig. 116.— Directions of the principal Mountain-systems.

201. The order in which these several systems have been
elevated is indicated by the numbers placed at one extremity of
the lines indicating their direction, and these directions are
expressed with more numerical precision in the following table,
where W. 21° S. means a point 21° south of west; N. 23° E., a
point 23° east of north ; W. 38° N., a point 38° north of west,
and so on. The places indicated in the second column are
those from which the system takes its name, and those indi-

THE PRE-ADAM1TE EARTH.

cated on the fourth column those at which its direction has been
determined.

1st

Vendee

. N. N. W.

Vannes.

2nd

Finistere

. W. 21° S.

Brest.

3rd

Longmynd .

. N. 23° E.

Yaiines.

4th

Morbihan

. W. 38° N.

Vannes.

5th

Hundsruck . .

. W. 31° S.

Bingerloch.

6th

Ballons .

. W. 15° N.

Ballons.

7th

North of England .

. N. 5° W.

North of England.

8th

Hainault

. W. 5° S.

Netherlands.

9th

Rhine .

. N. 21° E.

Upper Rhine.

10th

Thuringerwald

. W. 40° N.

Thuringerwald.

llth

Cote d'Or .

. W. 40° S.

Cote d'Or.

12th

Monte Yiso

. N. N. W.

Monte Viso.

13th

Pyrenees

. W. 18° N.

Pyrenees.

14th

Corsica

. N.

15th

Western Alps

. N. 26° E.

Alps of Dauphine.

16th

Principal Alps

. W. 16° S.

Alps of the Yaluis.

17th

Tsenarus

Greece.

202. In laying down upon the map the directions of the several
systems, their divisions into such as run between N.W. and S.E.,
and between N.E. and S.W., becomes very apparent, as will
appear by reference to fig. 117, in which the several systems are
indicated by peculiar marks as follows : —

Vendee.
Finistere.
Longmynd.
Morbihan.
Hundsruck.
Ballons.
North of England.
Hainault.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Rhine.
Thuringerwald.
Cote-d'Or.
Monte Viso.
Pyrenees.
Corsica.
Western Alps.
Principal Alps.
Tsenarus.

*+••*••*•»••*

o-ooooo*

.O'0-O-O'O'O

203. The systems directed between the N.W. and S.E. run from
the Rhine towards Provence and Brittany, and those between
the N.E. and S.AV. from Normandy, Brittany, and the Pyrenees
towards the Apennines.

204. The geological dates of these several systems of elevation,
determined, as will presently appear by the position of the strata
on their flanks and at their bases, are as follows : —

I. System of Vendee raised before the deposition of the Cumbrian

group.
II. System of Finistere raised between the Cumbrian and the green

slate of Longmynd.
10

MAP OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

III. System of Longmynd raised between the Longmynd slate and the

Bala limestone.

IV. System of Morbihan raised between Bala limestone and the

Silurian deposit.

V. System of Hundsruck raised between the Silurian and Devonian.

VI. System of Ballons raised between the Devonian and carboniferous.

VII. System of North of England raised between the carboniferous and

Permian.

VIII. System of Hainault raised between the Permian and Vosges sand-
stone.

IX. System of Rhine raised between the Vosges sandstone and Triassic.
X. System of Thuringerwald raised between the Triassic and Jurassic.
XL System of Cote d'Or raised between the Jurassic and lower

cretaceous.
XII. System of Monte Viso raised between the lower and upper

Cretaceous.

XIII. System of Pyrenees raised between the upper Cretaceous and lower
Tertiary.

Fig. 117. — Map of France, showing the prevailing direction of the principal
systems of mountains.

XIV. System of Corsica raised between the lower and middle Tertiary.
XV. System of Western Alps raised between the middle and upper

Tertiary.
XVI. System of principal Alps raised between the upper Tertiary and

Diluvial.

XVII System of Tsenarus raised between the Diluvial and Alluvial.

11

THE TEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

205. We shall now briefly explain the stratigraphical charac-
ters by which these several dates have been ascertained.

I. SYSTEM or VENDEE. — In the earlier researches of M. Elie
de Beaumont, the Hundsruck system, the elevation of which
appeared to precede immediately the Silurian period, was assumed
to be the earliest catastrophe of that kind of which the crust of
the earth afforded any ^evidence. Observations more multiplied
and exact, and a more elaborate discussion of the phenomena,
discovered by his own labours and those of other geologists, have,
however, conducted him to the conclusion that four of the exist-
ing mountain systems were produced at much earlier epochs.
The first of these, to which the French province of La Vendee

has given its name, is repre-
sented with the Cumbrian

Cambrian j> i? Sea. beds horizontal at its base, in

the section fig. 118, where
a represents the mountain
range, and b the Cumbrian
deposit.

We may therefore imagine b to be the sea of the epoch, which
succeeded this elevation, in the bottom of which the Cumbrian
formation was deposited. It is in this sense that the Cumbrian
sea is to be understood, and a like form of expression will be
used in a corresponding sense in other cases.

The date of the catastrophe by which the Vendee system was
pushed up, must therefore be prior to the deposition of the
Cumbrian strata.

This mountain system has hitherto been but little studied.
Traces of it are shown by M. de Beaumont to exist in schists of
Belle-Isle, of the embouchure of the river Villeine, in the mica-
schists or gneiss on the banks of the river Blavet (dep. Morbihan),
in Beaupreau, and Bourbon- Vendee.

206. II. SYSTEM OF FINISTERE.— By the catastrophe which

produced this system, the
Cumbrian formation &, fig. 119,

Fig. 119. •§ « was uplifted, and in the period

Green-' £« slate Sea. Of tranquillity which followed,

the waters deposited the strata
of green slate of Longmynd
in Wales. These last, c, are
accordingly seen in horizontal
strata along the base of the system.

The date of the catastrophe is therefore posterior to the deposi-
tion of the Cumbrian formation, and anterior to that of the green
slate of Longmynd and Westmoreland.
12

AGES OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

Traces of this system exist in the gneiss and mica-schists of
Brest, the Cumbrian schists between Pontivy and Falaise, the
chloritic schists of Cherbourg, the Cumberland ranges, and at
Gotheburg and Upsal in Sweden, whence it is continued into the
southern part of Finland. It is also seen in the Pyrenees and in
Catalonia.

207. III. SYSTEM OF LONGMYND. — The green slate deposits
•were forced up and inclined by this convulsion, and in the tranquil
period which ensued, the Bala

lime-stone beds, d, fig. 120,

were deposited by the ocean

on their flanks, where these Bala 3 * Sea.

strata are still seen in the

same horizontal position.

The date of the catastrophe
is therefore posterior to tVu c b ad

lime-stone.

In Brittany the green slate does not appear between the Bala
limestone d and the Cumbrian strata b, which shows that that
part of Europe was dry land while the Bala sea was making its
deposits.

The stratification due to the Longmynd system has been traced
in Limousin in France, in the mountains of Morocco, in the Serra
da Estrella in Portugal, in the Erzgebirge in Saxony, in the gneiss
mountains of Moravia, and of those parts of Bohemia bordering on
Austria, on the north-east of the Wenner lake in Sweden, along
the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia in Finland, and along that of
Wiborg on the other side.

208. IY. SYSTEM OF MOEBIHAX. — The convulsion which produced
this system upheaved the Bala

formation d, fig. 121, throw-
ing its strata, previously hori-

zontal, into an inclined posi- n Sea-

tion. In the tranquil period

which ensued, the mountains

thus formed were washed by deb a

an ocean and seas in which were deposited the Silurian formation/,

which is still horizontal, on the flanks of this system.

This convulsion, therefore, immediately preceded the Silurian
period, and was posterior to the deposition of the Bala
limestone.

The system of Morbihan is very extensive ; it is traced in the
mica-schists and gneiss of the Loire Inferieure, in the islands which
terminate the south-west coast of Brittany, in the granitic plateau
which extends along that coast beyond Parthenay, and over part

13

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

of the Limousin, where traces of it appear between Tulle and
Nontron. It is found also in the north-eastern part of Brittany
and in the Bocage of Normandy. Traces of it are found in the
mica-schists and gneiss of Messina, in the Erzgebirge, in Boehmer-
waldgebirge, in the granitic steppes which extend from Volhynia
towards the Don, in Labrador and in Canada.

209. V. SYSTEM or JIUNDSEUCK. — The catastrophe which pro-
duced this system coincided with the commencement of animal
and vegetable life upon the earth. The strata deposited by the
waters of the Silurian sea which preceded it, were uplifted from
their horizontal position so as to form the mountain ranges to
which M. Elie de Beaumont h-as given the name of Hundsruck,
from a mountainous region of Germany extending over the southern
part of Rhenish Prussia and Rhenish Bavaria, where it is con-
nected with the chain of the
Vosges. Its geological date
is fixed by the fact that the

Sea Devonian strata are found in
a horizontal position upon its
flank, as shown in fig. 122.
The catastrophe must, there-
9 f d c b a fore> have followed the Silu-

rian, and preceded the Devonian period.

This system is traced through France, in Brittany, in the de-
partment of thellle-et-Vilain, in the strata which cover Cape Finis-
tore, in Mayenne, and in the department of the Orne and the
Manche. It appears also in the slate formation of the Ardennes,
of the Eiffel, in the mountains of Hundsruck and the Taurus.
It is also found in the Hartz mountains, in the Erzgebirge,
in Bohemia, in the island of Gothland, in Finland and Lapland.
In England it is traced in Cornwall, Westmoreland, and the
Grampians.

210. VI. SYSTEM OF THE BALLOTS. — This system originated in a
convulsion by which the Devonian strata, «/, were uplifted and

thrown into an inclined
Fig 123 II position, as shown in fig.

Carboniferous seas «£ and lakes. 123. The waters of the

globe, when tranquillity
ensued, deposited the car-
boniferous beds in hori-
h g f d c b a zontal strata, h, in the

bottom of seas, oceans, and lakes, the latter being at more elevated
levels than the former, as shown in the figure.

The date of the catastrophe is, therefore, antecedent to the car-
boniferous, and posterior to the Devonian period. This system is
14

AGES OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

traced in France in the anthracite schistous beds on the banks of
the Loire and of the Brest canal. It is also seen in the depart-
ment of Mayenne, in the south-east of Laval, in the southern
part of the Vosges, in the chains of Lozdre, Margeride, and the
Corr^ze.

In England the system is directed from Cornwall to the Gram-
pians, in Belgium from Avesnes to Lidge, and in Germany in the
Hartz mountains, which probably have received from it their pecu-
liar form.

It may also be traced in Bohemia, Saxony, Sweden, Russia,
Siberia, in the Altai range, in North America, along the line of
the Alleghanies, and in southern Asia.

211. VII. SYSTEM or THE NOBTH OF ENGLAND. — The con-
vulsion which produced this system dislocated the coal formation,
h, fig. 124, and in the ^

tranquil period which suc-
ceeded the waters of the Iff
ocean deposited thePermian
strata, i.

Its date, therefore, was
prior to the Permian and
subsequent to the carboni-
ferous period. This system
is characterised by lines

Fig. 124.
Permian sea.

g f

c b

of summit which extend from the parallel of Derby to the frontiers
of Scotland, through Yorkshire, and between Cumberland and
Northumberland. Traces of it are also found in the neighbour-
hood of Bristol, as well as in the south of Ireland. It is traced also
both in Norway and Sweden, upon the crests of the southern chains.
212. VIII. SYSTEM OF HAINATTLT. — The catastrophe which pro-
duced this system has been manifested less by any elevated ridges
than by a series of dislocations and compressions which are seen
in England, between Pembrokeshire and Mansfield, and which
also traverse the Netherlands, running nearly east and west. All
the existing strata, and par-
ticularly the coal measures,
h, fig. 125, and the Permian
strata, *, exhibit these effects.
The strata of Vosgian sand-
stone are, however, undis- __

turbed and horizontal as they

were deposited from the waters, k r, f d c b <

showing that the date of this catastrophe was anterior to their
deposition and posterior to the Permian period. These positions
of the Vosgian strata are apparent at Sarrebruck.

15

Fig. 125.
Vosgiau sea.

THE PRE -ADAMITE EARTH.

Traces of this system are found between Liege and Lille, in the
direction of certain granitic islets, in the coal basin of Brittany,
and from Laval towards Quimper.

213. IX. SYSTEM OF THE RHINE.— This system is manifested
chiefly upon the cliffs of the Rhine, between Bale and Mentz, with

0 a- various other parallel

Fi 1C(5 . escarpments, indicating

Triassiifsea. faults which have affected

all the strata, including
the Vosgian sandstone, k,
fig- 126, patches of which
they have pushed up to
different heights, without

disturbing their horizontal position. Hence have resulted islands
in the seas of this epoch, around which the Triassic group has
been deposited at a lower level, as shown in fig. 126.

214. X. SYSTEM OF THIIEINGERWALD. — The mountains to
which this system has given its name, and of which the Bcemher-

2 waldgebirge is the continuation,

£ . constitute the natural frontiers

f>J which divide Bavaria, Saxony,

Fi 127 and Bohemia. The most re-

Jurassicsea. /.• £ markable effects of this

catastrophe are manifested be-
tween Cassel and Linz, where
the Triassic strata, /, are up-

»* l i h gfdcb a lifted and overlaid by the
Jurassic deposits, m, in level strata, fig. 127.

Some traces of this system are seen in the south-western part
of the Yosges, where the Triassic strata (gres ligarre] are raised
considerably above the general level, an effect probably produced
by the masses of serpentine which protrude in that region.
Between Avallon and Autun some granitic islets and dislocated
Triassic strata have also the north-west direction, and are sur-
rounded by the Jurassic limestone in level strata. The date of the
catastrophe is, therefore, anterior to the Jurassic period, but
posterior to the Triassic.

1C

Fig. 14o. — FOSSIL SCORPION (CVCLOPHTHALMUS BUCKI.ANIUl).

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTEE II.

215. Elie de Beaumont's mountain systems continued : System of Cote d'Or.
— 216. System of Monte Viso. — 217. System of the Pyrenees — 218.
System of Corsica.— 219. System of the Western Alps.— 220. System
of the Principal Alps. — 221. System of Tsenarus. — 222. Principal
effects of this convulsion. — 223. Extension of De Beaumont's system
by analogy to the remainder of the globe ; general plan of mountain
systems. — 224. Geological horizon explained ; mineralogical characters
insufficient to identify it. — 225. Indications supplied by fossiliferous
deposits. — 226. Twenty-nine fossiliferous strata. — 227. Zoological
stratification. — 228. Method of determining outlines of land and water
twofold : mineralogical and zoological. — 229. The mineralogical tests
uncertain. — 230. The zoological tests clear and definite. — 231. Organic
remains which characterise the bottom of deep seas. — 232. Organic
remains which determine the shores of seas. — 233. Others which deter-
mine the bottoms of shallow seas. — 234. Others which indicate the
embouchures of rivers and estuaries. — 235. Conventional terms. — 236.
Successive creations. — 237. Geological periods and stages. — 238. Six
great formations. — 239. Resolution of the earth's crust into 29 stages.
— 240. Six geological ages. — 241. Succession of geological periods. —

LARDNER'S MUSEUM or SCIENCE.
No. 145.

17

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

g f d c b a

242. Zoological terms : four principal divisions of animals. — 243.
Subordinate nomenclature. — 244. Table of the classes of animals. —
245. Zoological characters of the principal divisions.

215. XI. SYSTEM OF COTE D'OR. — This system in its direction is
nearly at right angles to the preceding, see fig. 116. The Jurassic

deposits, m, fig. 128, are pushed
up, and the lower cretaceous
strata, n, ranged horizontally
upon them, as shown in fig.
128. This system may be
traced without interruption
from Luxembourg to Roehelle,
and in all the crests of the
Jura. It was by this cata-
strophe that the eastern border of the central plateau of France
was raised and dislocated after the formation of the Juras-
sic group, which is there considerably elevated ; while the
other borders have suffered no derangement : which indicates that
this plateau, in the chief part of its extent, has undergone no
change since the Jurassic period. Traces of this catastrophe are
also manifested in several other parts of France — north and
south ; in several parts of Germany ; and especially in the
Erzgebirge, which, though divested of the Jurassic limestone, has
the lower cretaceous strata in horizontal beds at its foot.

The date of this catastrophe is, therefore, between the period of
the deposition of the lower cretaceous strata and that of the
Jurassic group.

216. XII. SYSTEM OF MONTE Viso. — The dislocation of the
lower cretaceous deposits, n, fig. 129, by this catastrophe, and the

presence of the upper cre-
taceous deposits in their
horizontal position, are
distinctly manifested in
the Alps of Dauphine,
showing that the date of
the catastrophe is between
the periods at which the
upper and lower cretaceous
deposits were made.
The upper cretaceous strata, represented by beds of nummulites,
and sometimes, but very rarely, by grey and compact limestone,
are alone found to be horizontal, as may be seen on the Col de
Bayard and the Col Maurin. Indications of this system may
also be traced at the south of Grenoble, in the north of Dauphine,
18

Fig. 129.

g fdcba

sea.

AGES OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

in the mountains which connect the Alps with the Jura, as far as
the Pont d'Ain and Lons-le-Saulnier. It was this catastrophe
which determined the principal direction of the coasts of Italy, as
well as that of a system of elevated ridges in Greece, of which
Pindarus forms part.

217. XIII. SYSTEM OF THE PYRENEES.— By this catastrophe
the upper cretaceous strata,
o, fig. 130, were raised and rig. iso.

dislocated. Lower tertiary

The lower tertiary strata,
p, being horizontal, show
that the date of the cata-
strophe is between that of
the lower tertiary and the ? ° » ™ » h gfdcba

upper cretaceous periods. By this disturbance the upper creta-
ceous strata have been elevated to a considerable height, forming
lofty cliffs, especially along the Spanish frontier.

The calcareous strata of the Paris basin, usually considered as
the lowest of the tertiary strata, having but little extent over the
surface of France, or even of Europe, it follows that at the epoch
of the formation of the Pyrenean system, the chief part of the
continent of Europe was suddenly raised above the waters and
rendered dry land.

Not only the whole chain of the Pyrenees, as well in France as
in the Asturias, belongs to this epoch, but also that of the
Apennines, the Julian Alps, the Carpathians, the Balkans, and
the mountains of Greece. The same direction is discovered in
numerous dislocations and denudations in Germany, in the north
of France, and in the Wealden of England ; from whence it
appears that this catastrophe must have had a vast extent,
affecting certainly the entire surface of Europe and probably of
the world.

218. XIY. SYSTEM OF COESICA. — This catastrophe, unlike the
former ones, is not marked by an elevation of the strata, which
were formed under the water. After the preceding elevation, the
Parisian lime-stone, which would then be found, is completely
absent in those places where the new catastrophe was manifested.

The absence of this deposit signifies that the ground over the
whole of Europe at that epoch was raised above the level of the
sea ; but as observation shows us that in this same place other
marine deposits were made at a later period, it must be concluded
that those parts which were first elevated above the ocean sunk
below it at a subsequent period, so as to receive the superjacent
deposits now found upon them. This must in fact have happened
to part of the Paris basin, to Touraine, the chief part of Gascony,

c 2 19

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

all Switzerland, the valley of the Rhone from Lyons to the sea,
as well as to several parts of Italy, Corsica, and Sardinia, which,
not exhibiting any of the Parisian deposits, must have been
brought above the level of the waters by the Pyrenean elevation,
which produced the thirteenth system, and must have afterwards
sunk to receive the subsequent deposits.

The Corsican system is manifested also by elevations and dis-
memberments, which have given their ultimate form to the
mountains, which rising between the valleys of the Saone, the
Loire, and the Allier, have directions from north to south. In
these countries all the secondary strata are disturbed, and around
them are formed the fresh- water deposits of Auvergne and the
Loire. It was along the direction of this disturbance that were
subsequently placed all the volcanic cones of the chain of
the Puys.

Traces of this Corsican system are found in the mountains which
connect the Alps with the Jura, in spite of the dismemberments
which the succeeding catastrophes produced. There exists also a
great number of chains having the same direction in the eastern
and southern parts of Europe, in Tuscany, the Papal States,
Istria, Albania, Greece, and so on. The islands of Corsica and
Sardinia are also arranged from north to south, and present
along the coast tertiary deposits in horizontal strata of the same
age as those which are found in all the parts of France above
mentioned.

219. XV. SYSTEM OF WESTERN ALPS. — If the Swiss Alps and
those of Savoy and Dauphine present traces of catastrophes which
took place since the elevation of the system of Cote d'Or, it is not
less evident that the actual profile of the chain has a date much
more recent. In fact the middle strata of the tertiary system,
which were only raised above the waters after the date of the
Corsican system, are now elevated sometimes to vast altitudes, as
well as the Jurassic and cretaceous formations beneath them. The
only strata found horizontal are the upper tertiary. Thus it
follows that this chain of mountains, which includes the most
lofty in Europe, were not raised to their present elevation from
the common level of the continent until after the deposition of the
middle tertiary strata.

The matter which broke through the crust of the earth in this
catastrophe, was the particular species of granite of which Mont
Blanc and Monte Rosa are formed. A multitude of granitic
islands in different parts of the continent are also formed of it,
on the flanks of which appear inclined the tertiary, cretaceous,
and Jurassic strata. These granites at an early epoch in the pro-
gress of the science, when the principles which determine the
20

AGES OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

dates of mountain ranges were less understood, being regarded
as dating from the earliest geological periods, received the name
of Protogyne. It is now known, however, that they did not
break through the terrestrial crust until after the deposition of
the middle tertiary system, seen in the strata around the Paris
basin.

The relative position of the strata, determined by the elevation
of the Western Alps, is illustrated in fig. 131, where the same
letters are Used to indicate

the several strata, as in rig. 131. js

the former figures. The
sea, which subsequently
deposited in horizontal
strata the upper tertiary
system, is indicated in the
figure.

mL . .. i v aponmihgfdcba,

This catastrophe pro-
duced not only the lofty chains of Savoy and Dauphine, but
extended its influence over Europe north and south. On the one
side Nova Zembla and the whole Scandinavian Peninsula were
affected by it, and on the other it produced a series of disloca-
tions which are seen from Narbonne to Catalonia, determining
the position of the whole Mediterranean coast of Spain. Its
influence was felt south of the Mediterranean, producing the
mountains of Morocco as well as those of the regency of Tunis.

220. XVI. SYSTEM OF PKIXCIPAL ALPS. — This catastrophe
has produced the grandest features of relief upon the European
continent. The lacustrine deposits, formed after the elevation of
the Western Alps, were themselves dislocated by it, and along
the foot of the chain there are no other horizontal strata than
the diluvial deposits of the present epoch. The matter pressed up
from the inner regions of the globe by this catastrophe were the
different varieties of melaphyres, the sienites, the euphotides and
serpentines, which forced up all the tertiary deposits of Piedmont
and Provence, as well as the granitic rocks which constitute the
most elevated summits of the principal chains of the Alps.

Not only were all the mountains which extend from the Yalais
and St. Gothard into Austria raised on this occasion, but the
greater part of the surface of Europe shared in the movement.
In fact the surface of the continent was lifted into a gentle
acclivity, directed towards the line of summit of this great chain.
It is thus for example that the plains of Bavaria rise slowly in a
direction a little east of south, and those of Lombardy in an
opposite direction. In the south of France, in like manner, the
tertiary formation rises from the south towards the north, from

21

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

the borders of the Mediterranean to Saint- Yallier, and on the
other side the inclination is in the opposite direction. From the
borders of the Loire the surface rises gently on the one side in
the direction N.N.W., and on the other in the direction S.S.E., as
far as the valleys of Auvergne. At the foot of the Pyrenees, the
ophites, as well as the gypsums and the saliferous masses con-
nected with them, form a tract whose direction is parallel to the
chain of the principal Alps, and resemble the arrangement of the
serpentines of the valley of Aosta.

221. XVII. SYSTEM OF TJENARTJS. — This is the last and most
recent great catastrophe of which Europe has been the theatre.
It took place at an epoch when our seas were peopled by the
tribes which now inhabit them, and when possibly the human
race had already appeared, so that the result might not inaptly be
called the post- Adamite system.

After the diluvial deposits which surrounded the principal
Alps in horizontal strata had been made, the surface of Tuscany
underwent a dislocation parallel to a great circle, directed nearly
N.W. and S.E. The deposits raised at this epoch include nothing
but shells, similar to those of the existing seas, as may be
shown by an examination of the tufa of the Phlegra)an fields, a
district on the shore of the Bay of Baise, near Naples, and of the
Somma of the island of Ischia. The sedimentary deposits of
Sardinia, where M. de la Marmora discovered the remains of
infant arts, appear also to have shared in this movement, which
must therefore have been one of extremely modern date com-
pared with all those already described.

222. It is to this catastrophe that must be ascribed the ele-
vation of the Somma, of Stromboli, and of Etna, all of which
would have been totally deranged if they had existed before
the catastrophe of the principal Alps, by which so many
ravages have been produced in all directions. To the same
movement are probably also due the volcanic formation of
Auvergne and the Vivarais, the ejections from which have issued
from fractures and fissures produced by some of the antecedent
catastrophes.

The system of elevation, the traces of which are seen in
Provence, near Nice, in Sardinia, in Sicily, and in the Phlegrtean
fields, is parallel to the modern system, which Messrs. Boblaye
and Virlet have indicated at the southern part of the Morea, and
which they have called Tcenarus, from the adjacent cape of that
name.

223. Such then, according to the remarkably able and per-
spicuous analysis of M. Elie de Beaumont, is the history of the
principal changes which the surface of the globe has undergone

22

AGES OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

from the first consolidation of its external crust to the present
epoch. Since it has been found in Europe (the only part of the
world which has hitherto undergone sufficiently accurate geological
survey), that the various ridges which have the same or parallel
directions belong to the same epoch of elevation, analogy would
justify a similar inference respecting all parts of the globe, and
we should naturally conclude that parallel lines of direction and
contemporaneity of formation are interchangeable principles. It
is at least interesting to examine from this point of view the
principal chains which are known in different parts of the earth.

To show how far the results of these observations in Europe
may be generalised by such analogies, M. Elie de Beaumont
designed for M. Beudant the plan which, by their permission,
we have reproduced in fig. 132, showing the generalisation of the
classification of mountain systems according to their dates, as
above explained.

It will be seen upon this chart that the direction of the system
of the Pyrenees extends from the Alleghanies in North America
to the Indian Peninsula by the Carpathians, Mount Caucasus, the
mountains of Persia, and the Ghauts in India. To the south of
this line there are several parallel ridges, such as those which run
from Cape Ortegal in the Asturias to Cape Creux in Catalonia.
Also the little range of Grenada, the mountains which surround
the southern side of the desert of Sahara, intersecting the direction
of the Atlas, and, in fine, the Apennines, the Julian Alps, and the
mountains of Croatia and Ptoumelia, extending to those of the
Morea.

The system of the Ballons, so closely related in direction to that
of the Pyrenees, is also represented in the Alleghanies.

The direction of the system of the "Western Alps is observed
from Morocco to New Zealand, passing along the eastern coast of
Spain, the south of France, and a great part of the Scandinavian
peninsula. Parallel ridges are found in the Cordilleras of Brazil,
in the regency of Tunis, in Sicily, at the point of Italy, and in
Asia Minor. All the littoral range of the old continent, from the
northern cape of Lapland to Cape Blanco in Africa, partakes of
this direction.

The direction of the principal Alps is in accordance with
numerous other ridges. Chains parallel to this direction are
found in the Atlas, in Spain, and across the old continent to the
China Sea, including Mount Olympus, the Balkans, the Taurus,
the central chain of the Caucasus between the Black Sea and the
Caspian ; in the long series of mountains which extend through
Persia and Cabul, including the Parapamisan mountains in
Afghanistan and eastern Persia, the range of the Hindoo Koosh,

23

PLAN OF MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

and, in fine, the Himalayas, which include the most lofty moun-
tains in the world.

Parallel to the Corsican system are the chains of Syria and Pal-
estine. Parallel to that of Monte Yiso, those of Pindus. Parallel
to the Thuringenwald are the mountains of Attica and Negropont.
Parallel to the C6te d'Or, or perhaps the Hundsruck, are the Altai
range, and so on.

224. In all that has been hitherto explained the mineralogical
components of the succession of strata are the only indications
which have been given to determine each geological horizon, — a
term to be understood as indicating that layer of the crust
extending generally over the whole globe, which was contempora-
neously deposited. If the waters of the oceans and seas of each
epoch deposited everywhere a stratum composed of the same ma-
terials, and if the waters of no epoch anterior or posterior deposited
like strata, then the mineralogical character of each stratum would
supply certain indications of its date. But this has not been the
case : on the contrary, strata which were incontestably deposited
at the same epoch, are often composed in different places of different
mineralogical constituents, while, on the other hand, strata of
different epochs of deposition are sometimes found to consist of the
same mineralogical components. Although, therefore, in a certain
general sense, the mineralogical character of the strata, as has
been explained, indicates the date of its deposition, yet when we
come to define more exactly the successive geological horizons,
these mineral characters cease to afford the necessary tests.

225. The indications which the mineralogical constituents of the
strata have thus failed to supply, have happily been obtained from
their fossiliferous deposits. From extensive observations, made
both in the old and new world, it has been ascertained that in
descending from stratum to stratum downwards, a succession of
layers of organic remains have been found lodged within definite
limits of geological level, the species found in each being almost
totally distinct from those found in those above and below it. So, that
wherever we find the same organic remains, however different the
strata in which they are lodged may be in their mineralogical
character, we may conclude with certainty that they are of con-
temporaneous deposition.

226. Each fossiliferous stratum is distinguished from those above
and below it, not only by the specific characters of its organic
remains but also by its stratigraphic position, and, as we shall
presently show, there are clear indications that the deposition of
each such stratum, followed the destruction of the organic world
by one of those violent convulsions which have been already
described. Of these distinct fossiliferous strata twenty -nine

25

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

have been enumerated and connected with indications of as many
geological convulsions, the result of each of which was the complete
destruction of animal and vegetable life upon the globe, the fossil
deposits of the next strata of the series in ascending, being the
remains of the animal and vegetable tribes which re-peopled and
re-clothed the earth after the ensuing period of tranquillity.

227. The organic femains, deposited in the successive layers of
the terrestrial crust, show the character of the animal and vegetable
world during the periods of tranquillity which followed the several
convulsions which thus devastated the globe. It is, however,
a problem of not less high interest to determine the geographical
character of the surface, as denned by the relative extent and
outlines of land and water, during each of these periods. The
solution of this problem would be attended with no difficulty, if
we possessed a perfect knowledge of the condition of the sedi-
mentary strata in all parts of the earth. But not to mention our
want of all knowledge of the state of that large portion of the
earth's surface, which is at present covered with water, we have
as yet been able to effect only a very limited and imperfect survey
even of that lesser part which forms the land. Nevertheless, the
positive knowledge, small as it is, which the labours and re-
searches of geologists have supplied, aided by obvious analogies
on which conclusions are based, having, if not in all cases moral
certainty, at least a high degree of probability, has afforded a
close approximation to the series of geographical changes which
that part of the earth, at present composing the land, has under-
gone since the earliest geological epochs.

228. The means whereby the outlines of land and water at any
proposed geological period are determined are twofold, one method
depending on the mineralogical character of the strata, and the
other upon that of its organic deposits.

To explain these methods, let us suppose, for example, that it
is required to determine the outlines of land and water, upon those
parts of the globe of which we possess sufficient geological know-
ledge, during the Silurian epoch. The first point will be, in that
case, to determine the extent and limits of that class of strata to
which the name Silurian has been given. Let us imagine that all
the strata of more modern date arc removed, and the Silurian
strata laid bare. These strata were deposited during the Silurian
period at the bottom of the seas and oceans which then partially
covered the globe, and whose outlines and limits are the imme-
diate subject of inquiry. The land during this period consisted
of those parts of the globe alone upon which the Silurian deposit
was not made. If, therefore, we possess the means of discovering
the exact extent and outline of the Silurian deposit, we possess
26

ZOOLOGICAL STRATIFICATION.

all that is necessary for the solution of the proposed question.
The outlines of this deposit are, in fact, identical with the outlines
of land and water during the Silurian period. The land con-
sisted, of course, of those strata which, being more ancient than
the Silurian, were pushed above the level of the waters by the
convulsion which preceded the period of tranquillity during which
the Silurian strata were deposited.

229. If, therefore, the extent and limits of the Silurian deposit
could be certainly and definitely ascertained, the problem would
be solved ; but independently of the knowledge, more or less
imperfect, which direct observation has supplied as to the extent
and limits of this deposit, some uncertainty attends the identi-
fication of the various strata to which the name Silurian is
properly given, by their mere mineralogical characters. It has
been already explained, that strata of simultaneous deposition
vary in their mineralogical characters from place to place, those
which have been deposited in one part of the world consisting of
mineral constituents wholly different from those which have been
deposited at the same epoch elsewhere.

230. The doubt which this raises, however, has been removed
by the light thrown upon geology by fossil zoology and botany.
If the mineralogical characters of contemporaneous strata be
doubtful, there can be no uncertainty as to the zoological
character of their fossil contents.

Although it be true that many of the genera of animals and
plants, deposited in strata of different dates are common, this is
not the case with the species which, with very rare exceptions,
are peculiar to each period. If, therefore, the observer, guided
merely by the mineralogical character of the strata under examina-
tion, be uncertain as to its date, his doubts will disappear upon
a due examination of its organic deposits. !Xo other than the
strata of one particular epoch can contain the same combination
of species of animals and plants.

231. But the aid afforded by the organic deposits is not limited
merely to the determination of the date of the strata. They also
supply the means of determining, with much greater precision
than can be obtained from the mere mineralogical constituents,
the outlines of land and water. It is known that certain genera
of animals can live only in the tranquil bottoms of deep seas ;
there they live and there they die, and there their remains are
buried in the strata deposited by such waters. Where such
remains, therefore, are found in the strata of the crust of the
earth, such strata must have been at the epoch of its deposition
at the bottom of a deep sea or ocean.

232. The bodies of certain animals when dead and not dis-

27

THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

membered, will float upon water. The remains of such would
necessarily be washed upon the shore, and cast upon the coasts
between high and low water-mark. There, upon the successive
returns of the tide, they would be gradually covered with sand or
mud, and would thus be buried in the strata to become future
fossils. Where such remains are found, therefore, the strata
must have been upon the very limits of land and water, upon the
strand or coast surrounding continents or islands. If the floating
bodies of such animals be dismembered, either by incidental
fracture or by the voracious attacks of other living animals,
their dismembered parts being, bulk for bulk, heavier than water,
would sink, and in such cases would be deposited at the bottom
of the sea. It must, therefore, be expected that such dis-
membered remains would be sometimes found in the fossil state,
in juxtapositioa with the complete remains of animals which live
exclusively in the bottoms of deep seas ; and such, in fact, is
found to be the case. But from these indications, rightly under-
stood, no doubt can arise, since in no case is the entire body of
such an animal found in such a position.

233. Other marine animals live not on the very coasts of the
sea, nor yet in very deep waters, but frequent the littoral parts of
seas and oceans, and in the bottom of these their remains are
accordingly found.

Without going, with any degree of tedious minuteness, into
the zoological characteristics of the several marine tribes, it will,
therefore, be understood, that the deposition of the complete
remains of certain species can only take place on the coasts of
seas and oceans between high and low water-mark, the deposition
of others on the littoral parts, and of others again in the bottoms
of deep seas.

Thus, according to the varying zoological characteristics of the
organic remains, the geologist is enabled to pronounce in a definite
manner upon the outlines of land and water.

234. The bodies of dead animals and uprooted vegetables are
carried by the currents of rivers to their embouchures, and are
there deposited, mixed with certain species of marine animals.
Thus, the combination of fresh- water shells, land animals, and
plants, with the remains of marine animals, are the sure indi-
cations of the embouchures of rivers and estuaries.

235. Having explained the indications by which the outlines of
sea and land and the animal and vegetable kingdoms correspond-
ing to them at each epoch of geological time can be determined,
with more or less approximation, we shall proceed to relate the
history of the earth, from the first appearance of animated nature
upon it to the present epoch. It will, however, be convenient

28

ZOOLOGICAL TESTS.

previously to fix the sense .of certain conventional terms necessary
to be used in such a narrative, by which the effects of the
succession of terrestrial convulsions, and the intervals of geological
time will be expressed.

236. As has been already stated, the earth we inhabit has
undergone a long series of convulsions, affecting its entire sur-
face, each of which has been succeeded by a long interval of
tranquillity, during which, the waters, in a state of equilibrium
and quiescence, deposited the solid matter suspended in them in a
series of layers, and in each of these intervals the author of
nature called into existence an animal and vegetable kingdom,
resembling more or less the present.

237. The intervals of time which elapsed thus between convul-
sion and convulsion, we shall call geological periods, and the
mineral strata deposited by the waters during such periods, we
shall call geological stages.

Unlike historic, geological time is therefore not measured by
years and centuries. Its units are much more vast. Each of
them is a period, that is an interval of time, whose exact length
is unascertained, but which must be considered as having an
analogy, more or less close, to the interval which will have elapsed
between the creation of the present animal kingdom and the epoch,
whenever it may arrive, at which, it, like all those which pre-
existed, shall be swept away.

238. An analysis of the strata composing the crust of the earth
has presented certain features, upon which geologists have founded
a classification of the stages just mentioned. According to this
classification, the stages, from the igneous rocks to the latest
deposits, which immediately preceded the appearance of the present
state of things, have been resolved into six groups, denominated
as follows : —

1. Azoic formation.

2. Palaeozoic formation.

3. Triassic formation.

4. Jurassic formation.

5. Cretaceous formation.

6. Tertiary formation.

239. The Azoic formation consists of groups of strata, the lowest
of which reposes upon the igneous rocks. The Palaeozoic formation
rests upon the uppermost strata of the Azoic group, and in it, as its
name implies, are found the first traces of organic life. The general
stratigraphic characters of the other groups may be seen by
reference to the tabular sections of the Earth's Crust, given in
§47.

The Palaeozoic formation consists of five distinct stages, each

29

THE PEE-ADAMITE EAETH.

containing its own peculiar organic deposits. In like manner, the
Triassic formation consists of two such stages, the Jurassic of ten,
the Cretaceous of seven, and, in fine, the Tertiary of five; so that the
whole fossiliferous portion of the earth's crust may be considered
as consisting of twenty-nine stages, each stage being a catacomb
in which the remains of the preceding creation are buried.

240. The intervals 0f time during which each of these six for-
mations were deposited, we shall call geological ages. Thus, that
in which the Azoic formation was deposited we shall call the Azoic
aye,' that in which the Palaeozoic formation was deposited we shall
call the Paleozoic age, and so on.

241. The lesser intervals during which the several stages com-
posing each geological formation were deposited, and during
which, as already stated, an animated world was created, lived,,
and was destroyed, we shall call geological periods. Thus the Palaeo-
zoic age consisted of five periods, denominated in their numerical
order, from the earliest or lowest to the latest or uppermost, the
first Palaeozoic period, the second Palceozoic period, and so on. In
the same manner, the Triassic age consisted of two periods, the

Jirst and the second. The Jurassic of ten counted from the lowest,
or most ancient, to the highest or most modern, and the like of the
other formations.

242. Since it will be necessary to make frequent reference to
the various forms of animal life, which from period to period pre-
vailed upon the earth ; and such references must occasionally
necessitate the use of certain technical zoological terms, it will be
convenient for those readers who are not already familiar with
the elements of zoology, to give a general outline of the classifi-
cation of animals which we shall adopt.

Naturalists have classed all the various forms of animal life
into four primary divisions, denominated from their peculiar
structure: 1. VERTEBRATA; 2. ANNTTLATA ; 3. MOLLTJSCA; and
4. EADIATA.*

243. Each of these primary divisions is resolved into a certain
number of CLASSES; each class is again resolved into a certain
number of ORDERS ; each order is resolved into a certain number
of GENERA ;t each genus is resolved into a certain number of
SPECIES, and each species consists of certain VARIETIES.

Here the classification terminates, the varieties being composed
of individuals. Thus, if it be required to determine the zoological
character of any individual animal, it is first necessary to state

* Much confusion prevails among the classifications adopted by natural-
ists ; we stall, however, generally adhere to that of Cuvier.

f By an intermediate step, the orders are sometimes first grouped in
families, and the families subdivided into genera.
30

CLASSIFICATION OP ANIMALS.

the variety to which it belongs, then the species of which this is
a variety, then the genus of the species, then the order of the
genus, then the class of the order, and, in fine, the great primary
division to which this class belongs.

244. The four primary divisions above mentioned are resolved
into classes, as follows: — The Vertebrata into four, the Annulate
into six, the Mollusca into five, and the Radiate into Jive, making
altogether twenty classes, as shown in the following table.

CLASSIFATION OF ANIMALS.

CLASSES.

EXAMPLES.

id

• • i

H

"Mammifers
Birds ... . *.
Reptiles ....
.Fishes ....

Man, ass, dog, horse, whale.
Eagle, sparrow, cock, ostrich, duck.
Tortoise, lizard, snake, frog.
Perch, carp, eel, skate, shark.

ANNULATA.

Myriapods
Arachnides
Crustacea . . .
Cirrhipeds

^Annelides . . . .

Scolopendra, lulus. Figs. 133, 134.
Spider, scorpion, mite.
Crab, lobster, shrimp.
Anatifa (animals which attach them-
selves to ships' bottoms.) Fig. 135.
Earth-worm, leech.

MOLLUSCA.

' Cephalopocls .
Gastropods . . .
Lamellibranchia (acephala).
Brachiopods . . .

Bryozoa

Octopus, cuttle-fish, nautilus. Figs. 9,
Snail, whelk. [10, 11, p. 62.
Oyster, mussel.
Lingula, terebratula, pentamerus.
Figs. 18, 19, p. 66.
Reticulipora. Figs. 20 to 23, p. 67.

EADIATA.

Echinodermata .
Polyparia, or Zoophytes .
Foraminifera .
Amorphozoa . . .
Infusoria

Star-fish, sea-urchin. Fig. 136.
Coral, astrea. Fig. 137.
1 Figs. 104, 105, 106.
Sponges, fungi. Figs. 138, 139, 140.
Fig. 107.

245. The Vertebrate division is characterised by an internal
skeleton and a cerebro- spinal nervous system. It takes its name
from the vertebral or spinal column, to which all the subordinate
parts of the skeleton are attached.

The Annulata have no internal skeleton, but in its stead a tegu-
mentary covering, composed of movable rings, which gives them
their characteristic form. Their nervous system consists of two long
cords running longitudinally through the abdomen, twisted at inter-
vals into knots called ganglions. The tegumentary covering, which
is always annular, is sometimes hard and calcareous, as in the lobster
and shrimp, and sometimes soft, as in the earth-worm and leech.

31

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

The Mollusca have neither internal skeleton nor articulated
envelope. Their bodies are sometimes naked, but often protected
by a shell.

The Radiata, including the lowest forms of organic life, is a
group consisting of classes so heterogeneous, that many naturalists,
not following Cuvier, have differently resolved them. They have
in general no articu^ted skeleton, either internal or external, and
scarcely exhibit the rudiments of a nervous system. Those to
which the name Radiata is more properly applied are composed
of organs disposed radially around a centre or axis.

Some naturalists have given to this division the name of
ZOOPHYTES, from a Greek word, signifying the link between
animals and vegetables ; while others have confined this latter
term to the Polyparia.

32

Fig. 182. — ILLUSTRATION OF THE ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE KINGDOMS DURING THE
TERTIARY AGE.

a. Palseotherium magnum.

b. Palseotherium minus.

c. Auoplotherium commune.

d. Crocodile.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTEE III.

246. Derivations of the names. — 247. Examples of the classes. — 248.
Number of fossil species. — 249. Their distribution in 29 stages. — 250.
These stages correspond to 29 periods. — 251. Successive manifestations
of creative power. — 252. First creation of organised beings. — 253.
General view of the series of catastrophes. — 254. The Palaeozoic
age: Murchison's section of the corresponding stages. — 255. How
these are manifested in different parts of the world. — 256. Stratigra-
phical evidence of the distinction of the stages. — 257. Five stages of
the Palaeozoic formation. — 258. Vegetable kingdom of the Palaeozoic
age. — 259. FIRST PALJEOZOIC PERIOD. — 260. Extent and limits of the
seas. — 261. Character of the Fauna.— 262. Of the Flora.— 263.
Tropical climate universal. — 264. No terrestrial animals. — 265.
Inhabitants of the seas. — 266. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. —
267. Examples, — 268. Duration1 of this period. — 269. SECOND
PALAEOZOIC PERIOD. — 270. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 271.
Genera created and revived. — 272. General character of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. — 273. Outlines of land and water. — 274.
Elie de Beaumont's Silurian map of Western Europe. — THIRD
PALEOZOIC PERIOD : 275. Mineral character of the strata. — 276.
Table of the Fauna. — 277. Mollusca and Radiata.— 278. Outlines of
land and v/ater. — 279. Extent of the seas. — FOURTH PALEOZOIC
PERIOD: 280. Table of the fauna. — 281. Fossil Crustacea. — 282.
Mollusca and Radiate.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE.
No. 146.

33

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAHTH.

246. SINCE the technical names of several of the classes into
which the principal divisions are resolved will not be familiar to
some of the readers of this tract, it may be useful to indicate the
origins from which they are severally derived.

Mammifers is from a Latin word, signifying the bearers of
breasts or paps, and consequently is applicable to animals which
suckle their young.

Reptile comes from £ne Latin word repto, I creep or crawl.

Insects are so called from a Latin word, signifying the division
of its body into segments.

Myriapods is a Greek word, signifying thousands of feet,
figs. 133, 134.

Fig. 133.— The Scolopendra. —Example of the class Myriapods.

Arachnida is taken from a Greek word, (apdxv-n, arachne,)
signifying a spider's web.

Crustacea is taken from a Latin word (crusta), signifying a hard
covering or crust.

Cirrhipeds, or Cirrhopods as it is sometimes written, take their

Fig. 134. — The lulus. Example of the class Myriapods.

name from a Latin word (cirrhus), signifying hair, the compound
signifying hair-footed animals ; that is, whose members of loco-
motion are hairs, fig. 135.

Annelides, as well as Annulata, is taken from a Latin word
(annulus), signifying a ring.

Cephalopods is a Greek compound, signifying head-footed, or
animals whose organs of locomotion are upon their heads, figs. 9,
10, 11.

Gastropods is likewise a Greek compound, signifying lelly-
34

EXAMPLES OF CLASSES.

footed, or animals whose organs of locomotion are attached to
their bellies.

Lamellibranchia is compounded of two Latin words, (lamella, a

Fig. 135. — The Auatifa (animals which attach themselves to ships' bottoms).
Example of the class Cirrhipeds.

plate or leaf ; and branchia, a ffill,} the class including those
animals which have gills or branchia placed by pairs along the
body, of a lamellated form.

Acephala is also a Greek compound, signifying absence of head.

Brachiopods is a Greek compound, signifying arm-footed, or
animals whose members of prehension are also those of locomotion,
figs. 18, 19, § 71.

Bryozoa, from the Greek word Ppvov, a mossy sea-weed, figs. 20
to 23, § 73.

Echinodermata is a Greek compound, signifying spiny-skinned,
fig. 136.

Polyparia is another Greek compound, signifying produced by
polypes or corals, fig. 137.

Foraminifera is a Latin compound, implying the existence of
foramina, or openings in the partitions of the shells, figs. 100
to 106.

Amorphozoa is a Greek compound, signifying living things
destitute of definite form, figs. 138, 139, 140.

D 2 35

THE PRE- ADAMITE EARTH.

Infusoria is a Latin name, implying the existence of this class
of animals in vegetable and other infusions, fig. 107.

247. Since many of the names of the genera and species of
animals and plants would be unintelligible to a large portion of

Fig. 136.— The Holothuria. Example of the class Echinodermata.

our readers, while a full explanation of them would be incom-
patible with the objects and limits of the present tract, we shall
generally adopt the expedient of giving a specific example of each

Fig. 137. — Polypes of the genus Asteroides. Example of the class Polyparia.

in a parenthesis after its technical name. In many cases, how-
ever, even this mode of illustration is not possible, since none of
the species or genera of certain orders are familiar objects, and in.
many cases those which we shall have to mention have ceased to
36

CLASSIFICATION OP ANIMALS.

exist, so that no analogous example can be found among the
living classes. In such cases we shall endeavour, as often as
convenient, to accompany the technical name with a figured

Fig. 138. Fig. 139. Fig. 140.

Examples of Amorphozoa.

Fig. 138.— Clioua Duvernoyi (fossil). Fig. ] 3d.— Cribrospongia reticulata

Fig. 140.— A part magnified.

representation of some species of the object. In the preceding
table we have accordingly given some familiar examples, and we
now annex figured illustrations of those objects which may be
supposed to be the least familiar to ordinary readers. The
references to the figures are given in the table.*

248. Geologists have ascertained the existence of the organic
remains of about twenty-four thousand species of the different
orders of animals, which they have assigned to upwards of
fourteen hundred and seventy genera. Of these numerous
species none survive ; but we find in the existing animal king-
dom about five hundred and fifty of the genera, the remainder
being extinct.

249. Until very recently, it was considered by geologists that
those twenty-four thousand fossil species were distributed through
the strata of the crust of the earth, in such a manner that the
great majority of them should be common to strata of very
different dates of deposition, and that comparatively few were
exclusively found in strata of a particular date ; these few being
consequently called characteristic species, inasmuch as they
supplied to geologists certain tests, by which the dates of strata
left uncertain from their mineral ogical character could be fixed.
The elaborate researches of M. D'Orbigny, who has catalogued,

* We must warn the reader that he must not understand that the
example given in the parenthesis is in every case an individual of the
species, or even of the genus, of the object to be illustrated. It will be
more generally a specimen of the class or order. This is the only expe-
dient that I can devise to popularise this part of our subject.

87

THE PUE- ADAMITE EARTH.

described, and located on the earth's crust, above eighteen thousand
species of Mollusca and lladiata alone, have demonstrated that all
the species found in strata of the same date, with extremely rare
exceptions, are characteristic of these strata, being found there
exclusively, and in no other strata of anterior or posterior
deposition ; so that, instead of a few species only being cha-
racteristic, it would Appear that all the species are so, with
exceptions so rare as to be altogether insignificant.

It appears, therefore, that on the crust of the earth there is a
sort of organic stratification, consisting of a series of superposed
layers of animal remains, each of which contains a distinct
collection of species, no two such layers having any species in
common, save in very rare and exceptional cases, and that even
these exceptions may be satisfactorily explained as arising from
accidental causes.

250. Since twenty-nine such organic stages have been de-
termined, it must be inferred that during the geological period
corresponding to each of them, the earth was peopled by a
collection of animals which had no previous or subsequent
existence, and which constituted a distinct and independent
creation. This inference is fully confirmed by the fact, that on
comparing stage with stage, we do not find the successive faunas
passing one into the other by slow and imperceptible degrees ; but,
on the contrary, we find between those of every two successive
stages, a distinct and unmistakeable line of separation. In the
superior layers of each stage, the fauna peculiar to it totally dis-
appears, as though it were annihilated by some universally
destructive agency ; and it is not until we arrive at the lowest or
first layer of the succeeding stage, that the next fauna appears
not gradually and successively, but suddenly and simultaneously
over the whole extent of the globe, so far as geological observation
has extended, and everywhere, from the equator to the poles, the
same species are found in it.

251. Hereupon two questions necessarily arise : What are the
physical causes which produced the total destruction of the fauna
of the inferior stage, and the creation of that of the superior ? To
the former a satisfactory answer is obtained, as we shall presently
show, by the geological convulsions, the devastating effects of
which have been already frequently noticed in these pages. But
when we seek the agency which twenty-nine times successively
called into existence a new animal kingdom to replace that which
was previously destroyed, we are compelled to acknowledge the
limits of our intellectual powers, and to prostrate ourselves in reve-
rence before that Omnipotence to whose agency alone these great
creative acts can be assigned. There are limits which the human

38

DESTRUCTION AND CREATION.

mind cannot overleap, circumstances before which the march of
intellectual research must be arrested, and ultimate facts which
must be admitted without any human power of explaining them.

252. When the temperature of the earth had cooled down to a
point compatible with the maintenance of organised life, and its
•crust had thickened so as to give it comparative stability and
permanence, it pleased the Omnipotent to call into existence the
animal and vegetable kingdom, that continued to live upon the
earth during the Cambrian period, and was destroyed by the
convulsion which closed that period, the remains of the species
composing it being deposited in its strata.

253. After this complete destruction of animal and vegetable
life a period of repose ensued, after which the same Almighty
Power at the commencement of the second Palaeozoic or Silurian
period, called into existence another and different animal king-
dom ; different, at least, so far as regarded species, many of
the genera being common to that of the previous period. The
close of the Silurian period was signalised by a like catas-
trophe, this second animal kingdom being similarly swept away
and the earth again left unpeopled and destitute of vegetation.
Another period of repose ensued, after which, at the commence-
ment of the third Paleozoic or Devonian period, a third animal and
vegetable kingdom was called into existence, and continued upon
the earth during the Devonian period, at the close of which, in
like manner, another destruction ensued, followed by another
creation at the commencement of the fourth Palaeozoic or Carboni-
ferous period, and so on destruction following destruction, and
creation following creation, during all the succeeding periods to
that which immediately preceded the human epoch. The latest
or fifth Tertiary period terminated like the others in a convulsion
which swept from the earth all animal and vegetable life existing
upon it, burying the remains in the highest layers of its crust.
After a final period of repose, the present animal kingdom, in-
cluding the human race, were called into existence, and the world
as we see it commenced.

The Palaeozoic Age.

254. The Palaeozoic formation, whether it be examined in
reference to its mineralogical strata or the organic remains depo-
sited in it, is resolved into five distinct stages. The researches of
Murchison in England and Russia, those of M. D'Orbigny in
South America, those of several eminent geologists in the United
States, and the observations of M. de Yerneuil in France, all
concur in establishing this division.

39

THE PKE-ADAM1TE EARTH.

The stratification from the superior limit of the Azoic rocks
upon which the Palaeozoic formation rests, to the upper limit
Fig. 141. of the Carboniferous stage, delineated in

section by Sir R. Murchison, is shown in
tig. 141, as it is presented on the surface of the
earth in strata variously inclined. The five
divisions into which the whole formation is
resolved are denominated, proceeding from the
lowest upwards, the Cambrian (sometimes
called the Lower Silurian), the Silurian, the
Devonian, the Carboniferous, and the Permian.

255. In the geological map of England by
Sir K. Murchison, the stages succeed each
other regularly throughout Wales and the
western parts of England, where they appear
in some places in concordant, and in others in

I discordant, stratification. They are traced
scarcely less distinctly in Germany. The same
regular succession of five superposed stages
is seen in Russia and in Sweden from west
to east, and extending in the same order
to Central Russia. Along the slopes of the
Ural, the stages being tilted upwards, are
found, as may be expected, in a contrary order,
the lowest being the most eastward, and the

"" uppermost the most westward. M. D'Orbigny
found the same regularity in South America.

256. The complete distinction of the stages,
and the geological evidence of the convulsions

' by which they were rendered separate and
independent, are found in the fact that in some
places particular stages are absent. Thus we
see in the United States the three first stages
only existing in concordant stratification for

— • hundreds of leagues, the lowest being absent.
The same is observable in the department of
Sarthe and the Manche in France. Elsewhere
the Carboniferous and Devonian stages alone
are found; as, for example, in the Pas de Calais,
and in certain parts of Spain, or one only of
them, as in Norway, Sweden, Russia, France,
and some other countries.

257. Upon a general view of the Pal&ozoic
formation and its component stages, there is
evidence, founded on the indications which

•- *y

FIRST PALAEOZOIC PERIOD.

have been already explained, that during each of the five suc-
cessive periods the earth consisted, as at present, of continents
and seas ; that the continents were clothed with vegetation ; that
the seas were peopled by various marine tribes, some living at
parts of great depth, some near the coasts, and others upon the
shores between high and low water-mark ; and that even the
crust of the earth was subject to the same gradual oscillations
which are observed to exist at present in the north of Europe
and in other parts of the globe.

258. The existence of a vegetable kingdom in each of the five
Palaeozoic periods is proved by the presence of coal in all the
stages. That mineral is worked in Portugal in the Silurian
stage. In Spain its richest mines are in the Devonian stage,
and in Saxony it is worked in the Permian stage. These facts
show, that though the coal-fields are by far most prevalent in
the Carboniferous, the other Palaeozoic stages furnish their share
of that mineral to industry and the arts.

Having thus taken a general view of the Palaeozoic age, con-
sidering its periods collectively, we shall now briefly notice the
most remarkable circumstances attending these periods severally.

FIEST PALAEOZOIC PERIOD.

259. The first Palaeozoic stage includes the group of strata of
which the Cambrian system of Sedgwick and the lower Silurian
system of Murchison are composed. It appears from an exami-
nation of the strata, more especially those observed in North and
South America and Bohemia, that a considerable time must have
elapsed between the epoch at which this stage began to be
deposited on the subjacent Azoic rocks, and the commencement of
the animalisation of the globe. Strata of immense thickness are
everywhere found between the superior surface of the Azoic rocks
and the first layers of organic remains, the formation of which,
according to all the known laws of sedimentary deposits, must have
occupied a great lapse of time. That these were deposited from
waters which had a temperature too elevated to allow of organic
life, is in the highest degree probable ; and it must be inferred
that the creation of an animal and vegetable kingdom, or a fauna
and flora, as they are called, was postponed until the temperature
of the globe had fallen to a point not much above that of the
present tropics.

260. During this first Palaeozoic or Cambrian period the waters
of the ocean covered all that part of Europe extending from Spain
to the Ural mountains, as well as a great part of North and
South America. The shores of these seas can be traced, by the

41

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

means already explained, in the strata of England, Sweden, and
Russia, and in those of the State of New York. The organic
deposits show that, like the present seas, they were inhahited by
the various classes of marine animals which are peculiar, some to
shores within the play of the tides, others to littoral regions more
removed, and others to the great depths of the ocean.

261. The only Vertebrate animals of this period which have
left their traces are some placoid fishes, which belong to the family
of Cestracions, of which the shark presents a living example. Of
articulated animals there lived a great number of Trilobites
(fig. 6, § 62), an order which at a period a little later became
extinct. The forms of life, however, which most abounded
belonged to the Molluscous and Radiated divisions. Tentaculi-
ferous cephalopods swarmed in the seas, the genera of some of
which did not survive the period, and those of many disappeared
before the close of the Palaeozoic age.

Molluscous brachiopods, marine gastropods, lamellibranchia
(oyster and mussel), and bryozoa, existed in numbers more or
less considerable.

Of the Radiata there prevailed cchinodermata, asteroids, and
numerous crinoids, a great number of polyparia or zoophytes, and
some amorphozoa.

262. The remains of vegetation consist chiefly of some marine
plants peculiar to the State of New York, described and figured by
Mr. Hall. Coal of this epoch, which can only consist of vegetable
remains, is worked at Vallongo in Portugal.

The remains of vegetation, as well as the visual organs of
animals, show that light and air existed then as now. We have
already noticed the structure of the eyes of Trilobites, and shown
their analogy to those of insects and other Annulata.

263. It is certain, that not only at this first period, but at all
succeeding periods, until that which immediately preceded the
present creation, the heat proceeding from the interior pre-
dominated over the influence of solar radiation, in a sufficient
degree to efface all isothermal lines, and to equalise the climate at
all latitudes from the equator to the poles. Proofs of this will
appear in the analysis of the fauna and flora of all the stages,
since the same tropical genera and families will be found de-
posited in the strata at the line and within the; polar circle, as
well as at all intermediate latitudes.

264. In this first period no terrestrial animals existed, although
the land was clothed with a luxurious vegetation; at least no
remains of such are found. The perishable nature of the insects,
and many other Annulata, might have caused their disappearance ;
but, notwithstanding this, traces of such tribes are found in later

42

FIEST PAL/EOZOIC PERIOD.

deposits, and it is probable that if land Vertebrates had existed,
remains of them would be found.

265. The seas, however, abounded with life, including animals
of all the principal divisions, Vertebrata, Annulata, Mollusca, and
Radiata.

In the following table we have given the genera of the animal
kingdom during this period, exclusive of the Annulata.

266. Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) in the
First Palaeozoic Period.

GEVERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • (Mammifers . .

0

0

0

0

0

££] Birds . . . .

0

0

o

0

0

g £ 1 Reptiles . . .

o -

0

0

0

0

> « I Fishes ....

1

1

< f'Cephalopods
g j Gastropods
j < Lamellibranchia.

12
12
11

12

12
11

0
0
0

2
0

1

2
0
1

£ | Brachiopods
J§ ^Bryozoa . .

14

8

14
8

0
0

4
3

4
3

£ (Echinodermata .

11

11

0

c

5

i IPolyparia . . .
5 1 Foraminifera

0

7 0
0 0

8
0

3
0

.5 (.Amorphozoa

2

2 0

1

1

78

78 | 0 19

19

267. Eighteen genera of Trilobites existed in the first Palaeozoic
period, of which seven never re-appeared in any future period,
and are consequently characteristic of the Cambrian stage. Some
individual examples of other Annulata have been found, one of
the most remarkable of which is the Nereites Cambriensis, fig. 5,
§ 36. The number of species of the Mollusca and Radiata alone,
exclusive of the other divisions, which are ascertained to have
lived in this period, is 426. These have been catalogued and
described by M. d'Orbigny,*

268. The duration of this first world of animal and vegetable
life may be estimated with some degree of approximation by
the thickness of the deposits produced in its seas, which has
been found in many places so much as 13000 feet.

Its close is marked by the discordances of stratification which
prevail between the Cambrian and the Silurian strata, and it is pro-
bable that the convulsion by which it was terminated, was that
which raised the Morbihan system of mountains of M. Elie de
Beaumont (208).

Prodrome de Paleontologie, vol. i. p. 1 — 26.

43

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

SECOND PALEOZOIC PERIOD.

269. The convulsion which closed the preceding period was suc-
ceeded by an interval of tranquillity of greater or less duration ; after
which, it pleased the Omnipotent, by a second great act of creation,
to clothe the land with vegetation, and re-people the earth.

270. In the following table we have given, as in the former
case, a synopsis of the generic forms of this new creation.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Anmdata) in the
Second Palceozoic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

' • /Mammifers .
H £ J Birds . . .
£ 3 ] Reptiles . .
> « ^Fishes . . .

0
0
0

8

0
0
0

r

0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

« /Cephalopoda
g 1 Gastropods
2 -{ Lamellibranchia
g Brachiopods
% ^Bryozoa

11
10
8
17
10

2
2
2

7

5

9
8
6
10

c

3

0
0

1
1

0
0
0

0

1

^ /Echinodermata
5 ! Polyparia . .
Q ] Foraminifera
£ ^Amorphozoa

15
20
0
1

12
16
0
0

3

4
0
1

s

3
0
0

6
3
0
0

100

53

47

16

10

As before, the only important traces of the Annulata of this
period which remain, are the Trilobites, of which nineteen genera
have been found. Of these, eleven are identical with genera which
existed in the previous period, and eight are new.

The total number of species of Mollusca and Radiata which have
been ascertained to have existed in this period is 418, which have
been described and catalogued.*

271. The only class of Vertebrates yet created were fishes, of
which eight genera existed in this period, all of the placoid
family (shark). One of these had existed in the previous period,
the other seven being new.

272. The remains of the vegetation consist of some genera of
marine plants, found in the state of New York, and figured by Mr.
Hall. That the continents generally were covered with vegetation
is proved by the traces of coal found in this stage at St. Sauveur.

As in the former period, the animal remains are analogous to

44

* Prodrome, p. 27—35.

THIRD PALEOZOIC PERIOD.

those of the tropics at present, and were uniformly distributed
over all latitudes to which geological observations have been
extended, from the line to latitude 69°, from which it is inferred,
that during this period the temperature of the earth was every-
where tropical, and everywhere uniform.

273. The outlines of land and water were not materially dif-
ferent from those of the first period. It is probable, however,
that the seas retired from a portion of the central part of Brittany,
and advanced eastward, as well in Wales as in Cumberland,
leaving in the west a larger portion of uncovered land. They
extended, probably without interruption, from Europe to America,
covered a great part of North and South America, as well as all
that part of Europe which extended from Spain to the line of
direction now occupied by the Ural mountains.

274. An examination of the Silurian strata has enabled
M. Elie de Beaumont to trace an approximate sketch of the
outlines of land and water in Western Europe, from which the
map given in fig. 142 was drawn.

It appears from this, that there existed at this time two granitic
tracts, one between Brest and St. Malo, and the other between
Brest and Poitiers; the former having the direction of the
Finistere, and the latter of the Horbihan system, a neck of land
connecting them having the direction of the Longmynd system.
These probably, therefore, owed their elevation to the three con-
vulsions which produced these ranges severally. Other tracts of
land existed in Cornwall, in Scotland, and in Sweden, as shown
in the map, having the direction of the systems of Finistdre and
Longmynd. The granitic plateaux which include the Limousin
and Auvergne were also then above the waters, and were con-
nected with a much larger tract, extending from Toulon to
Innspruck. This second Palaeozoic period appears to have been
terminated by the effects of the geological disruption which
produced the Hundsruck system of M. Elie de Beaumont (209).

THIRD PALEOZOIC PERIOD.

275. After an interval of tranquillity as before — the land being
divided from the waters — the earth was repeopled with new tribes
and clothed with new vegetation. The strata deposited during
this third palaeozoic period have been denominated by Sir R.
Murchison, Devonian, from the circumstance of their prevalence
in that county. The principal mineralogical characteristic of the
Devonian stage is the old red sandstone.

276. The animal world, now called into life, consisted, so far as

45

THE PftE-ADAMITE EARTH.

appears by its organic remains of 156 genera (exclusive of the
Annulata), of which 75 were new and 81 revived, having existed
in the former periods. It appears from the following table that
in this period the vertebrate animals were still limited to fishes,
but their number was considerably increased, having consisted of
only 8 genera in the preceding period, and of 26 in the present.
This period was also signalised by the first appearance of reptiles ,
of which, however, one genus only, called the Sauropterus, was

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Third Palceozoic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

j, • /"Mammifers .
H H J Birds . . .
a £'} Reptiles . .
> « ^Fishes - . -

0
0
1
20

0
0
1
26

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
13

0
0
0
IS

£ /Cephalopoda .
g Gastropods .
ij •< Lamellibrancliia
£ Brachiopods .
g VBryozoa . .

H

22

is

20
10

5

9
7
3
4

8
13
11
17
6

6
1
0
4
3

2
0
0
2
2

< /Echiuodermata
< I Polyparia . .
E | Foraminifera
£ ^Amorphozoa.

18
20
0
2

11
8
0
1

7
18

?

22
10
0
0

8
5
0
0

156

75

81

59

32

created, being a large marine animal. Among the Annulata some
genera of Tubicolous Annelidans appeared — so called from having
lived in tubes. Among the Crustacea as before, were some genera
of Trilobites, but the period took its prominent character from the
vast numbers of cephalopods, gastropods, lamellibranchia, bra-
chiopods, crinoids, and polyparia, which swarmed in the seas.

277. The total number of species of mollusca and radiata alone,
which existed in this period, as ascertained by the organic
remains deposited in the stage, was 1198. These have been
catalogued and described.*

The seas nourished marine plants, the discovery of many of
which is due to Mr. Hall, of the United States. The continents
were covered with a luxuriant vegetation, as appears from the
rich deposits of coal found in the great basin of Sabero in Spain,
which were long considered to have belonged to the succeeding
period. The uniformity of temperature over the whole surface of

* Prodrome d'Orbigny, 52—109.

46

FOURTH PALEOZOIC PERIOD.

the globe, is proved by the existence of the same animal and
vegetable remains in this stage, in all localities to which geological
researches have been extended.

278. The configuration of land and water in this period has
been determined on the principles already explained. The Hunds-
ruck system of Elie de Beaumont, directed W. 31° S., having
raised up the Silurian stage, increased the magnitude of the
islands which existed in the previous period, created new ones,
and gave to their coast its own prevailing direction. This will
appear by reference to the map (fig. 144) sketched by M. Elie de
Beaumont, showing the probable outlines of land and sea in
"Western Europe in the succeeding period. A tract of land arose
above the waters on the west of Frankfort, and another on the
S.W. of Strasbourg, which was united with the former continent.
The central plateau of France was extended to the Pyrenees.
The space included between the two islands of Brittany, which
previously existed, was now filled up, and being united with the
land round Cherbourg formed one continuous tract, which was
connected on the one side with the southern part of England, and
on the other with the Limousin by Poitiers. The land constitut-
ing the Scandinavian peninsula was also considerably increased.
Upon several parts of this tract the Silurian deposits have never
been since disturbed.

279. The seas of this period covered Asia Minor, Spain,
Belgium, Germany, and Russia, as far as the Ural chain. The
land which now forms the shores of the Frozen Ocean was also
covered by these seas. In the east they extended from Asia
Minor to China ; in South America they covered all the tropical
regions of Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, and probably extended as
far as the Falkland Islands, as is proved by the organic deposits
found in all these regions. In North America they covered all
the land which extends frqm Alabama to the state of New York.
They also covered New Holland and Yan Diemen's Land. Thus
it appears that the Devonian sea extended in the Southern Hemi-
sphere to 52° of latitude, and in the northern to the polar circle.

FOURTH PAUEOZOIC TEKIOD.

280. The convulsion which terminated the previous period
destroyed 59 generic animal forms, which never again reappeared
upon the earth, as well as 1198 species of Mollusca and Eadiata,
besides all the species of the other classes. After an interval of
tranquillity the earth was again repeopled, and once more clothed
with rich vegetation. The new animal kingdom called into

47

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

existence is shown in the following table, exclusive as before of
the Annulata.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Fourth Palceozoic Period.

GENERA.

fotal.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

jV, j /Mammifers
F- H J Birds . .
E 5 1 Reptiles .
> 5 ^Fishes . .

0
0
1

46

0
0
1
33

0
0
0
13

0
0

1
37

0
0
1

27

< ^Cephalopoda
v* 1 Gastropods
5 -j Lamellibraiicliia
^ Brachiopods .
jg ^Bryozoa . .

11

26
19
13
14

3

I

0
6

8
20
15
13
8

6
6

4
2

5

2
1
1
0

rj /Echiuodermata
! j Polyparia . .
S ] Foramiiiifera
^ V Amorphozoa .

18
20
1
1

0

1
0

7
14
0
1

17
19

1
0

10
6
1

0

170

71

99

98

54

281. It appears that of former genera 99 were revived, while
71 new ones were created, making the total number of genera
then existing on the earth 170. Besides these, however, there
were at least 3 genera of Crustacea. This period was also
signalised by the first unequivocal appearance of insects and
Arachnida (scorpions) (fig. 143), the organic remains including
besides Arachnida three orders of insects — the Coleoptera (beetles),
the Orthoptera (crickets, locusts, grasshoppers), and the Neuro-
ptera (dragon-flies).

282. Exclusive of the remains of animals of the other divisions,
the number of species of Mollusca and lladiata alone ascertained
to exist in this period, is 1047, which have been catalogued and
described by M. D'Orbigny.*

* Prodrome, p. 110—162.

. 43

Fig. 142. — Configuration and relative extent of land and water in "Western
Europe duriug the Silurian period. *

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTEE IV.

283. Outlines of land and water.— 284. The vegetable kingdom. —285.
Coal deposits. — 286. Convulsions which terminated the period. —
FIFTH PALEOZOIC PERIOD : 237. Composition of the strata — 288.
Destruction of the fauna and flora of preceding period. — 289. The
new animal kingdom. — 290. Outlines of land and water. — 291.

The dark parts are supposed to represent land. This map is repro-
duced, with the permission of the author and publisher, from the Traite
de Geologic of M. Beudant.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE.
No. 147.

49

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAETH.

Changes of the continents. — 292. Character of the fauna. — 293.
Absence of land animals — uniformity of climate. — 294. Geological
convulsions. — RETROSPECT AND RECAPITULATION OF THE PALAEOZOIC
AGE : 295. Commencement of animalisation. — 296. Prevailing forms.
— 297. Trilobites. — 298. Characteristics of the carboniferous stage.
— 299. Carbonised vegetables.— 300. Fossil vegetable species. — 301.
Their prevailing characters. — 302. Contrasted with the present vege-
table kingdom in the same localities. — 303. Radiata of the carbon-
iferous period. — 304. Crustacea and insects. — 305. Fossil scorpions.
— 306. Fishes of the carboniferous period. — 307. Fossil fishes dis-
covered by M. Agassiz. Triassic Age. — 308. Triassic formation
lies over the Palaeozoic. — 309. Geographical configuration — Map of
France in Triassic age. — 310. Vegetation. FIRST TRIASSIC PERIOD:

311. Outlines of land and water — character of animal kingdom. —

312. Chelonian reptiles (tortoises). — 313. Foot-tracks of birds. —
314. Synopsis of animal kingdom. SECOND TRIASSIC PERIOD : 315.
Mineral character of this stage — animal genera created and revived.
— 316. Outlines of land and water — animal kingdom. — 317. Generic
synopsis.

283. THE convulsions which produced M. Elie de Beaumont's
system of the Ballons, pushed up certain parts of the Devonian
stage, modifying the outlines of land and water, and augmenting
the extent of the land. The map (fig. 144) represents approxi-
matively the seas and lakes of this period as they existed in
Western Europe.

284. Arborescent ferns, with their beautiful lace-like foliage;
slender Lepidodendrons, fig. 145 ; Lycopodiaceao (club-mosses),
with leaves as varied and beautiful as the ferns ; and gigantic
Sigillaria, emulating the magnitude of the Conifers, abounded.

Assuredly no scenery upon the 'earth at present can convey an
adequate idea of vegetation so luxuriant. Some of the moun-
tainous regions of the torrid zone may convey a faint notion of it ;
but at the period to which we now refer, this magnificent flora
covered the whole surface of the land from the tropics to Melville
Island, now the regions of eternal frost.

285. By a dispensation of Providence, which cannot fail to
excite sentiments of admiration and gratitude, this luxuriant
vegetation of a remote epoch of the earth, flourishing countless
ages before the creation of the human race, was destined to
become for that race one of the most powerful agents of industry
and civilisation. Buried in the earth by a long series of geo-
logical convulsions, it was submitted to the process of carbonisation,
and converted into those vast beds of mineral combustible which
now supply the materials out of which art and science have
educed not only the means of artificial light and heat, but also a
mechanical agent whose influence upon the condition of mankind
is incalculable. To these precious deposits of the carboniferous

50

FOKMATION" OF COAL.

period are, in short, due the physical agencies by which the art
of gas illumination, all the industries depending on the production

r

Fig. 144.— Map of Westeni Europe iu the Carboniferous period, sketched
by M. Elie de Beaumont.*

of artificial heat, and all the -wonders effected by the steam-
engine are due.

286. It is to the close of this fourth Paleozoic or Carboniferous
period, and before the commencement of the Permian deposits,

* This map is reproduced from the Geology of M. Beudant, with the
permission of the author and publisher.

E2 51

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

that' Sir R. Murchison assigns the date of the disruption of the
earth's crust, which produced the Ural chain of mountains.

Fig. 145.— Lepidodendron Sternbergii.

M. Elie de Beaumont assigns to the same epoch the convulsions
which produced the system which he has designated that of the
North of England (211), the prevailing direction of which is
52

FIFTH PALEOZOIC PERIOD.

N. 5° W., and S. 5° E. M. d'Orbigny assigns to the same
epoch the convulsion which produced the Chiquitean system of
mountains in Bolivian Peru ; and to the disturbance produced by
one or all of these simultaneous convulsions, may be ascribed the
destruction of the whole animal and vegetable kingdom which
closed this fourth Palceozoic period.

FIFTH PALEOZOIC PEEIOD.

287. The strata which, in the regular series lie over the
Carboniferous stage, have received the name of the Permian,
from the Russian province of Perm, on the confines of Europe and
Asia, which is traversed by the Ural mountains, this being the
region in which the geological characteristics of this stage were
first studied and determined by Sir R. Murchison. The com-
ponent strata are commonly known to geologists as those of
the magnesian limestone and new red sandstone, in contra-
distinction to the old red sandstone of the third Palaeozoic or
Devonian stage. That this stage has been separated from the
carboniferous by a geological convulsion is rendered manifest by
the discordance of the stratification in some places, and by the
isolation of the stages in others, the Permian stage being found
in some places without the Carboniferous under it, showing that
it was there deposited in parts of the earth's surface which were
dry land during the Carboniferous period.

288. The convulsion which terminated the Carboniferous period
buried beneath its ruins nearly a hundred genera which never
again appeared. Of the Mollusca and Radiata alone, exclusive
of the other classes, 1047 species were destroyed by this catas-
trophe. All the vast forests which covered the extensive tracts
of land were similarly buried, and form, as already explained, the
coal-fields now found in the Carboniferous strata. This catas-
trophe was probably followed, as in the former case, by a period
of tranquillity, during which a suspension of all animal and
vegetable life took place. The seas, meanwhile, returning into
their beds, the land was again divided from the waters, and the
outlines of the new continents and islands became defined. The
earth being thus gradually prepared, Omnipotence once more
exerted its creative power, re-peopled the world, and clothed the
land with vegetation.

289. The new animal kingdom, as far as its remains inform us,
consisted of eleven new, and forty-five revived genera, making a
total of fifty-six. Two of these belonged to the class of reptiles,
twelve to that of fishes, and the remainder to the inferior
divisions of the animal kingdom, as shown in the following

53

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAETH.

synoptical table — exclusive, however, of the Annulata, whose
numbers cannot be so certainly ascertained.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata} during the
Fifth PalcEozoic Peiiod.

•

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

/. : /Mammifers
g H 1 Birds . .
• Jf 1 Reptiles .
> « ^Fishes . .

0
0
2

12

0
0
1

5

0
0
1

7

0
0
1
6

0
0
1
3

g /Cephalopoda
g Gastropods
S •< Lamellibranchi;
o 1 Brachiopods .
g VBryozou • •

2
5
13
11
8

0
0
3
0
1

2
5
10
11

0
1
0
3
4

0
0
0
0
1

•< /Echinodermata
! 1 Polyparia . .
5 j Foraminifera
«J» VAmorphozoa .

1
2
0
0

0
1
0
0

1
1

0
0

0
2
0
0

0
1

0
0

56

11

45

IT

6 1

290. The seas during this period covered most probably the
space occupied by the chain of the Yosges mountains in Europe,
extending in a direction nearly N.N.E., through Rhenish
Bavaria and the Grand Duchy of Baden, into Saxony and
Silesia. The identity of the species of organic remains found in
these deposits in Silesia, England, and Russia, proves that the
seas of this period which covered the central part of England,
from Glamorganshire to Durham; communicated with those of
Russia, where they extended in the direction N.N.W. between
the Ural chain and Novogorod, from the 48° of latitude to the
Frozen Ocean.

They also covered Tasmania, in the Southern Ocean ; and pro-
bably, therefore, extended over the entire surface of the earth
from the 43° of south to the 80° of north latitude.

In the western part of continental Europe the outlines of
land and water did not undergo any remarkable change. The
great central plateau of France formed a large island, which
extended to the south as far as the Pyrenees, as is indicated by the
terrestrial plants now found in the deposits of Lod^ve, in the
department of Herault, in France. The remainder of continental
Europe consisted chiefly of a tract of land in Brittany. In
England, besides parts of Devonshire and Wales, which were
previously raised above the level of the ocean, a vast island was
formed, extending N. 5° "W. and S. 5° E., consisting of land forced
54

RETROSPECT OF PALEOZOIC AGE.

above the Carboniferous seas, and surrounded east and west by
the waters of the Permian seas.

291. The Ural chain was also further heaved upwards, so as
to form the series of mountains which now exist. In South
America the continents were also considerably increased in extent
in the west. The Chiquitean chain extended over some hundred
leagues, from Brazil to the eastern extremity of the Andes.
South America appears then to have had the form of a vast tri-
angle, the length of which, from north to south, extended over
35° of latitude.

While the land underwent but little change in France, it was
enlarged both in England and Russia, towards the east, by a
considerable portion of the Carboniferous stage not covered by
the waters of the Permian sea.

292. The fauna of this period were almost exclusively marine,
a few, perhaps, being fluviatile. The two genera of reptiles were
both fluviatile and marine. The fishes belonged to the Placoid
and Ganoid families, of which the shark and sturgeon are living
examples. Among the Mollusca, certain species of oysters first
appeared in this period.

293. Although the organic remains present no traces of land
animals, it is nevertheless probable that they prevailed upon the
continents at least as extensively as in the previous period.
M. Brongniart considers the vegetable fossils of this period to hold
an intermediate place between those of the previous and succeed-
ing periods. The marine fauna found in the Old and New World
from the line to the 80° of latitude being identical in its character,
demonstrates that central heat still neutralised the effects of solar
radiation, so as to efface all isothermal lines, and that over the
entire globe a tropical climate prevailed.

294. This period, like the others, was tormented by geological
convulsions, of which the traces are found in the discordance of
the stratification and the increased elevation of the immense
surface constituting the Permian formation in Russia, in the
dislocation which produced the Netherlaiid range of mountains
and those of South Wales. The effects of these geological pertur-
bations are altogether in accordance with the superior limits of
the fauna and flora of the Permian stage.

RETROSPECT AND RECAPITULATION OF THE PAL2EOZOIC AGE.

295. With the Permian period was closed the Palaeozoic age. The
first assemblage of animated beings which peopled the earth in-
cluded types of all the principal divisions of animal forms, but those
of the lowest class most abounded. Thus, three animal and vege-

55

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH,

table kingdoms were called successively into existence, permitted
successively to live, and were destroyed successively before any
vertebrate animals superior to fishes existed, and even these were
limited to the Placoid and Ganoid orders. No land animals had yet
appeared. Reptiles made their first appearance in the fourth
period, where they were represented, however, only by a single
genus ; and even in the*fifth and last period, no more than two
genera existed, one of which had been revived from the preceding
period. During the entire age, not more than sixty- seven
genera of fishes existed, and two of reptiles. Of the superior
orders of birds and mammifers none were yet created.

296. The animal forms which most abounded were those of
Tentaculiferous Cephalopods, Marine Gastropods, and Lamelli-
branchia, Brachiopods, Bryozoa, Echinodermata, and Polyparia,
commonly known as zoophytes. Of the divisions of Annulata in
this age but little is known, owing, no doubt, to the perishable
nature of their structure. One family, however, of Crustacea,
Trilobites, appeared during the first and succeeding periods in
such numbers, as to confer upon the epochs a distinct organic
character. These fossils have been long known in England under
the local and erroneous name of Dudley insects or locusts, from
their having been found in that district in such immense numbers.
This remarkable family of Crustaceans did not survive the fourth
Palaeozoic or Carboniferous period, their principal development
being in the Silurian and Devonian periods, which literally teemed
with them. These crustaceans have no existing type, that which
most resembles them being the Bopyrus, a small parasitical
animal which attaches itself to the prawn, causing a large swelling
in its body.

297. The fossil trilobites are generally from one to six inches
in length, attaining, nevertheless, in exceptional cases to two
feet. They were protected by a crustaceous shell or case, com-
posed of annular segments, jointed one upon the other like those
of the lobster's tail. This testaceous covering seems to have had
a contractile power like that of the armadillo, since the animal is
sometimes found more or less expanded, and sometimes coiled up.
Owing to the absence of all traces of antennae or feet, it is sup-
posed that these animals adhered to rocks like fuci, or collected
together in masses, forming conglomerations. Some naturalists,
however, assume that they had locomotive power in water, either
by soft paddles which have disappeared, or by skulling forward
by means of the flexible extremity of their bodies. From the
peculiar structure of the mouth it has been inferred that they
were carnivorous, preying on naked mollusca or annulata, with
which their remains are sometimes associated.

56

KETROSPECT OF PALEOZOIC AGE.

The curious and interesting structure of the eyes of the trilobite
have been already noticed (62).

298. The most striking and imposing feature of the fourth or
Carboniferous period of the Palaeozoic age, consists in the numerous
accumulations of vegetable remains which are presented in the
coal deposits in all parts of the world. As the science of Com-
parative Anatomy has enabled the geologist to reproduce the forms
and determine the habits and functions of the animal tribes
which peopled the earth at these remote periods — in like manner
the principles of Botanical Science have enabled him, basing his
conclusion upon the visible structure of vegetable remains found
in the coal beds, to reproduce, as it were, the vast forests of
palms and arborescent ferns, the groves of conifers, and all the
exuberant vegetation which flourished during the second, third,
and fourth Pakeozoic periods.

299. The layers of pure coal consist altogether of carbonised
vegetables ; and when it is considered that these strata are some-
times sixty feet in thickness, it seems difficult to explain how an
accumulation of wood, plants, and foliage could ever be produced
in such enormous quantity. Though the vegetable remains are
always in a carbonised state, the leaves often possess such tenacity
as to be separable from the stone. These and the seed-vessels
which are found in iron-stone, have in many cases undergone
metallic impregnation, which has in no degree impaired the
delicacy of their structure. The coal plants have been deter-
mined to the number of nearly a thousand species, two-thirds of
which are related to the ferns and the higher tribes of Crypto-
gamia, the remainder consisting of conifers and some flowering
monocotyledonous (having only one seed lobe), and dicotyledonous
(having two seed lobes) trees ; numerous species, however, are
still undescribed, and new forms are continually discovered.

300. More than two hundred species of plants have been dis-
covered in the British coal-mines, but far greater numbers are
found in the Carboniferous deposits of Europe, America, Australia,
and even Greenland ; and it is worthy of note, that in the coal-
field on the shores of Lake Breton, fossil plants have been dis-
covered identical with those found in the coal-mines of Northum-
berland, though these deposits have been made in opposite sides
of the earth.

301. The prominent character of the vegetable kingdom during
the Carboniferous period was the immense predominance of the
vascular and higher tribes of Cryptogamic plants, with which
were associated in a much less number, palms, conifers, cicadeee,
and other plants approaching to the character of Cactese and
Euphorbiacese. Plants analogous to the tribes of Ductulosse

57

THE PEE -ADAMITE EARTH.

abounded, differing, however, both, in genera and species from
those which at present exist. Thus fossil Calamites, related to
the equisetum or mare's-tail, are found, which measure eighteen
inches in circumference and thirty or forty feet in height, while
the recent analogous species seldom exteeed an inch in diameter
and two feet in height. The fossil arborescent ferns called
Sigillaria, measure somefimes fifty feet in height, having their
summits covered with a splendid canopy of foliage. The foliage
of the herbaceous species is extremely elegant, presenting endless
varieties in their forms and in the skeletons of their leaves. The
fossil arborescent club-mosses, called Lepidodendra (from a Greek
compound signifying scaly tree), attain frequently an elevation of
from sixty to seventy feet. Some of these trees have been found
entire from their roots to their topmost branches. Their foliage
consisted of simple linear leaves, spirally arranged round the
stem. These leaves, in many cases, had been shed from the tree,
the marks of their points of attachment never having been
obliterated. In their external forms, the mode of ramification
and the disposition of their foliage, they closely resemble the
existing Lycopodiacese, or club-mosses. Notwithstanding the
enormous disparity of magnitude between these latter and the
fossil Lepidodendra, Brongniart has shown that both belong to
the same family. The fossils were in fact nothing more than
arborescent Lycopodiaceee, analogous in magnitude to the largest
existing pines, and forming extensive forests during the Car-
boniferous period, beneath whose shade flourished the lesser
ferns and associated plants now found with them in the same
coal strata.

302. The contrast which such a flora presents with that
afforded by the woods and forests which now grow on the sur-
face of the carboniferous districts of England is as striking as the
discrepancy between the zoology of the Palaeozoic formation and
that of the present day.

303. Among the Radiata of the Carboniferous period are enor-
mous quantities of corals denominated, according to their several
forms, tubipora, syringopora, catanepora, &c. Of the Echino-
dermata, crinoids swarmed in such infinite numbers that entire
strata are composed of their petrified remains. These species
have also received names indicative of their forms, such as
actinocrinus, cyathocrinus, and so on.

Among the shells of the Carboniferous period are found innu-
merable Foraminifera, which are detected in slices of Yorkshire
limestone with the microscope. The upper strata of the moun-
tain limestone of the lower Yolga in Russia consist of masses of a
minute species of fusulina, resembling grains of wheat. Entire
58

RETROSPECT OF PALEOZOIC AGE.

beds of mountain limestone or conglomerates are formed of shells
of Brachiopods, such as spirifers, leptsense, &c.

304. The Crustacea and Insects of the Carboniferous period
have been less accurately ascertained than the other divisions of
the animal kingdom. A few species of the fluviatile crustaceans,
the Cyprides, are found in the coal deposits. Small crustaceans
are also found in the iron-stone, which are referable to the
limulus or king-crab, a genus which abounds in the seas of India
and America. Dr. Mantell found in the iron-stone of Colebrook
Dale several fossil beetles resembling the curculio or diamond
beetle ; he also discovered the wing of a large neuropterous insect
closely resembling a species of the living Corydalis of Carolina.

305. With the insects imbedded in the coal strata are found the
remains of those animals, to which they served as food. The fossil
scorpion (fig. 143) already mentioned is an example of this. This-
fossil, which measures about two and a half inches in length, is
embedded in coal-shale, with leaves and fruit; the legs, claws,
jaws and teeth, skin, hair, and even a portion of the trachea, or
breathing apparatus, are severally preserved. It had twelve-
eyes, the sockets of which remain. One of the small eyes and
the left large eye retain their forms, and have the cornea or
outer skin preserved in a corrugated or shrivelled state. The
hairy covering of the animal is also preserved, being neither car-
bonised nor decomposed ; the substance of which it consists,
electrine, has resisted decomposition and mineralisation .

306. Among the fishes which lived during the Carboniferous
period, and which, as already stated, are exclusively of the
Placoid and Ganoid families, some genera are worthy of note.

Of the Sauroid fishes, two genera, one called the Megalichthys,
is covered with enamelled smooth quadrangular scales, very
thick, and nearly an inch wide. The head is protected by strong
armour of enamelled plates. The teeth are large striated hollow
cones. This fish was from three to four feet in length.

Another called the Holoptychius, attained in some instances the
length of thirty feet. The scales were thin and circular, varying
from one to five inches in diameter. The head is surrounded
with a sort of shagreen helmet, having a surface irregularly
ridged. It has large teeth of great density, some conical and
others long and slender.

307. M. Agassiz has discovered about a hundred species of fossil
fishes of the Devonian and third Palaeozoic period, of which the
most remarkable are the Cephalaspis, Pterichthys, and Coccosteus.

The Cephalaspis — a Greek compound, signifying buckler-head —
received its name from the head being protected by a buckler or
shield. The plates which cover it are united in a single osseous

59

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

case. The body is covered with scales, those of the head being
highly ornamented.

The Pterichthys takes its name from two wings or lateral
appendages, which, like the spines of the common bull-head,
were weapons of defence. The head and fore part of the body
are protected by large angular escutcheons — two eyes are placed
in front of the lateral spines. The species of these which occur
in the British strata are from eight to ten inches in length, but
specimens of still greater length were found in Russia by Sir R.
Murchison.

Triassic Age.

308. Above the Palaeozoic formation a group of strata has been
deposited, called the Triassic formation (47), consisting of the new
red sandstone, muschelkalk, and variegated marls, or marnes
irisees of the French. This formation has been generally con-
sidered as consisting of three stages. A scrupulous analysis of
its composition, as well with relation to its fossils as to the condi-
tions of its stratification, shows that, between the sandstone and the
muschelkalk, there is no real distinction either geological or zoolo-
gical. We shall, therefore, here, following D'Orbigny, consider the
Triassic formation as consisting of two stages only ; the first, or
lower, called the Conchiferous ; and the second, or upper, the
Saliferous, from the prevalence of salt-mines in it ; such, for ex-
ample, as those of Salins, Lons-le-Saulnier, and Salzbourg.

309. The configuration of the land in this, as in the former age,
is traced bj- observing the outlines of the strata, and the distinc-
tion of their organic remains. The convulsion which elevated the
system of the Rhine (213) produced a general deluge, which de-
vastated the earth, destroying altogether the vegetation which
clothed it, and the races which peopled it in the last period of the
preceding age. When the seas had retired to their new beds, and
tranquillity was re-established, the outlines of land and water were
defined. A great island seems then to have extended from the
west of England across France to Austria, including Brittany, the
Limousin, and Forez, throwing out two peninsulas, one towards the
Pyrenees, and the other across the province of Burgundy (fig. 146).

Another island coincided in position with Belgium, throwing
out a peninsula to the south, which extended over the Yosges and
the Grand Duchy of Baden, its direction being parallel to the
range of the Black Forest. The land previously uncovered in
England, extending from Cornwall through Wales to Cumberland,
was probably increased by a large surface, extending from Derby-
shire to Durham. With these exceptions, the land seems to have
remained generally as it was in the Carboniferous and Permian
60

FIRST TRIASSIC PERIOD.

periods. Since the Permian stage in Russia is not overlaid by the
Triassic, it follows that the Swedo-Russian continent, at the com-
mencement of the Tri-
assic age, extended over
all northern Russia,
from the Baltic to the
Ural Mountains, and
from the shores of the
Frozen Ocean to the
government of Saratov.
310. A great change
was produced in the
character of the vege-
tation compared with
that of the former pe-
riods. The arborescent
ferns and tall equise-
tacean trees which pre-
vailed in such lavish

profusion in the latter Fig. 146.— Map of France in the Triassic age.

periods of the Palaeozoic

age, now existed in greatly diminished numbers, while the conifers
and plants, analogous to thezamias and the cycadese, figs. 147, 148,
formed an important feature of the flora, preluding the immense de-
velopment which these classes underwent in the succeeding periods.

FIRST TRIASSIC PERIOD.

311. By the catastrophe which terminated the Palaeozoic age,
ninety- one species of Mollusca and Radiata, besides all the
existing species of the superior classes, were destroyed, never to
re-appear upon the earth. Seventeen generic forms also became
extinct. When tranquillity was re-established, and land and
water again became fitted for the maintenance of organised life,
Almighty Power called into existence thirty-six new generic animal
forms, and revived thirty-three, which formerly lived, making a
total number of sixty-nine genera in the new animal kingdom.
Independently of the species of the higher classes of animals, not
so exactly ascertained, the genera of Mollusca and Radiata alone
consisted of 107 species, * which have been catalogued and described.

The marine littoral and fluviatile deposits have supplied the
means of tracing the shores of the seas of this period, and prove
them to have been subject to the same atmospheric and tidal
influences as those which afiect the seas and oceans of the present

* "Prodrome d'Orbigny," vol. i. pp. 171—173.

61

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

epoch. Among the remains of this period are eleven genera of
saurian reptiles, of most singular forms, among which are in-
cluded the Labyrinthodon, the restoration of which by Professor
Owen is given in fig. 109.

312. Chelonian reptiles (tortoises) now appeared for the first
time, together with six new genera of Ganoid fishes. Crustaceous
decapods, as well as acatabuliferous cephalopods (fig. 149), also

Fig. 149. — Ceratitcs uodosus (Fossil).

appeared for the first time, besides numerous lamellibranchia
and echinoderms.

The Chelonians of this period are only known by the traces of
their footsteps, which remain upon the rocks, figs. 108, 150.

Fig. 150. — Foot-print of the Chirotherium, a chelouian, or tortoise.

313. Numerous birds probably existed in this period; but, like
62

FIKST TKIASSIC PERIOD.

the chelonians, they have only left traces of their foot-prints (fig.
110). In fig. 151, are the imprints of the three fore phalanges of a

Fig. 151. — Foot-prints and murks of Rain-drops.

"bird, accompanied by the curious incidental impressions of rain-
drops which happened to fall at the moment the bird passed the spot.

314. Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata)
during the First Trlassic Period.

GKNERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

.j. ; f Mammifers .
H 5 1 Birds .
g 2 1 Reptiles . .
> « 1 Fishes . . .

0

v

14
13

0

13

6

0

9
1

7

0

9

10

7

0

9

9
4

< fCephalopods .
02 Gastropods .
2 \ Lamellibranchia
g 1 Brachiopods . .
g (.Bryozoa . . .

?.

o

17
3

2

2
2
5
0

1

1
7
12
3

1

0
0
0
0

1

0
0
0
0
0

< fEchinodermata.
< j Polyparia . . .
Q 1 Foraminifera
.2 ( Amorphozoa . .

6
1
0
1

5
1
0
1

1
0
0
0

2
0
0
0

0
0
0

60

3fi

38

20

15

63

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

SECOND TRIASSIC PERIOD.

315. The mineral character of this stage has been variously
denominated, red marl, keuper sandstone, and variegated marls.

The effects of the perturbation which closed the Conchiferous
period are visible in the discordances of stratification, as well as
by the marked distinction* between the fauna and flora.

The termination of the Conchiferous period was marked by the
destruction of all the existing species, animal and vegetable, of
which there were 107 species of Mollusca and Radiata alone.
With that period twenty genera ceased to' exist (314). The
next act of creation was signalised by the appearance of thirty-
five new generic forms, and the revival of fifty-nine, which pre-
viously existed.

316. The outlines of land and water continued to be nearly
the same, but the seas were peopled with tribes different from
those of the preceding period. Three new genera of reptiles, all
of which were probably fluviatile, appeared. The seas possessed
two new genera of fishes and ammonites, and various other
Mollusca were now first called into existence, giving a special
character to the new fauna, which, with that of the first Triassic
period, seems to constitute a transition system from the Palaeozoic
to the Jurassic age.

No remains of the terrestrial animals of this period have been
found ; but the land was certainly clothed with a luxuriant
vegetation, of which numerous species have been preserved, as
already mentioned, figs. 146, 147.

317. Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata)

during the Second Triassic Period.

1

GENERA.

1

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• . f Mammifers . .

0

0

0

0

0

5 £ I Birds ....

0

0

0

0

0

3 £ 1 Reptiles . . .

4

o

1

4

3

> « I Fishes ....

6

2

4

1

0

£ f Cephalopoda . .
ro Gastropods . .

8
20

i

4

7
16

5

2

0
0

2 \ Lamellibranchia

"2-2

5

IT

1

0

g Brachiooods . .
3 [Bryozoa . . .

7
i

0
0

7
1

4
0

0
0

^ f Echinodermata .

4

2

2

1

0

5 1 Polyparia . . .
S 1 Foraminifera .

12
0

11
0

1
0

2

0

2
0

£ I Amorphozoa . .

10

7

3

1

0

94

35

59 | 21

5

64

Fig. 147.— Zamia pimgens.

Fig. 148.— Cycas revoluta.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTEE V.

318. Convulsion which closed the age. Jurassic Age. — 319. Division
of Jurassic formations into ten stages by M. D'Orbigny. — 320. Nomen-
clature and thickness of the stages. — 321. Section of the strata from
the Vosges towards Paris. — 322. State of the earth in the Jurassic
age. — 323. Jurassic age zoologically distinguished from the Triassic.
— 324. Distribution of the species into ten stages. — 325. General
inference respecting the distribution of specific forms. — 326. Geography
of Europe in Jurassic age — D'Orbigny's map. — 327. The Anglo-
Parisian basin. — 328. The Pyrenean basin. — 329. The Mediterranean
basin. — 330. Variation of the shores of these seas from period to
period. — 331. Discordances and isolation of the strata. — 332. Cor-
responding observations on the organic deposits — 333. Variations of
the outlines of land during this age. — 334. Change of condition of
land between Toulon and Innspruck. — 335. Accurate knowledge of the
Jurassic geography. — 336. Elie de Beaumont's Jurassic map. — 337.
Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus, and Pterodactyle. — 338. Other animals
of the Jurassic age. — 339. Coral reefs. — 340. Insects.— 341. The
vegetable kingdom. FIRST JURASSIC PERIOD. 342. Convulsion that
closed the Triassic age. — 343. First Jurassic stage determined by
discordances and isolation of stratification. — 344. Extent of the seas
in Western Europe — remarkable, discordances of stratification on the
Alps. — 345. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 346. Reptiles, fishes
and insects. — 347. Convulsion which closed the period. SECOND
JURASSIC PERIOD. 348. Mineral character of this stage. — 349.
Synopsis of animal kingdom. — 350. Marine fauna, — 351. No traces
of terrestrial fauna. — 3 5 2. Vegetation of the period.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. F 65

No. 148.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

318. THE close of the Triassic age is identified with the convul-
sion to which M. Elie de Beaumont ascribes the elevation of the
Thuringerwald system of mountains, including the Bcehmerwald-
Gebirge, and the Morven ranges, the prevailing direction of which
is W. 40° N. and E. 40° S. M. D'Orbigny assigns to the same date
and cause the increased elevation of all the eastern part of the
Andes, included between* the 5° and 20° lat. S., and having the
direction W. 50° N. and E. 50° S. By combining with these dis-
locations the numerous discordances of stratification which are
observed, we shall find causes abundantly adequate to the expla-
nation of the total and sudden disappearance of the flora and
fauna of the Triassic age, to give place to the new creations of the
succeeding one.

The Jurassic Age.

319. Upon the Triassic formation the Jurassic has been depo-
sited, and is therefore the result of the next geological age. Many-
divisions of the strata composing this great formation have been
proposed, some based upon the mineralogical characters of the
strata, derived, however, in general, from observations more or
less local, and others from an imperfect generalisation of prevailing
fossils. We shall here adopt the analysis of this formation pro-
posed by M. D'Orbigny. " After many years of laborious obser-
vation," says that eminent palaeontologist, "during which we have
only advanced from confirmation to confirmation, without encoun-
tering any inconsistent facts, we have arrived at the conclusion
that the Jurassic formation consists of ten stages, or superposed
zones, limited and defined by their several fauna as distinctly as
by their stratigraphical characters. In tracing them one after the
other around various geological basins, we have ascertained that
they are nowhere confounded, and that they represent clearly ten
distinct epochs, one succeeding another in a constant and regular
order. We have ascertained that the same succession takes place
in the same order at all parts of the earth which have been sub-
mitted to exact observation, and that they are therefore the indi-
cations of the series of great geological phenomena which have
been manifested during the Jurassic age." H

320. M. D'Orbigny has given to these ten stages names taken
chiefly from the places, where their mineralogical characters have
been most developed and observed. To avoid encumbering the
reader with a nomenclature so complex, we shall here designate
the stages according to their order of superposition, or what is
the same, their dates of deposition, beginning from the lowermost

* D'Orbigny, Paleontologie, vol. ii. p. 419.
66

THE JURASSIC AGE.

or earliest, and proceeding upwards to the uppermost or latest.
It may, nevertheless, be useful to indicate the names given to
them in the works of M. D'Orbigny and other French geologists,
annexing the estimated average thickness of the stages.

Stage.

Name.

Origin.

Thickness.
Feet.

X.,

Portlandian

Portland oolite and limestone

200

IX.
VIII.

Kimmeridgian
Coralline

Kimmeridge clay
Coral rag ....

500
1000

VII.
VI.

Oxfordian
Callovian .

Oxford clay
Kelloway's rock .

500
500

V.

Bathoniau

Bath oolite

200

IV.

Bajocian

Bayeux

200

III.

Toarcian .

Thouars ....

500

II.

Liasian

Lias

500

I.

Sinemurian

Semur ....

1000

Total thickness . . .

5100

These approximate estimates of mean thickness are much below
the real measures on the slopes of the Alps, the western declivity
of the Yosges, and through all the series from Avallon to
Tonnerre.

321. In fig. 152 is presented a section of the Triassic and
Jurassic formations extending from the Yosges to Sommevoire
(Haute Marne), directed towards Paris,* where the series of strata
is complete, the successive stages of each formation being marked
with the Roman numerals.

322. From an elaborate examination of the strata composing
these ten stages in various countries and in different parts of the
globe, it appears, that during the Jurassic age, the earth was
subject to all the physical vicissitudes which are at present inci-
dental to it. During each of the ten periods there were conti-
nents and oceans. As at present, peculiar classes of marine
animals inhabited the coasts, the deeper littoral parts, and the
still greater depths of the ocean. Then, as now, there were sub-
marine currents, waveworn shores, sheltered gulfs and tranquil
bays. The condition of the strata proves that during this age slow
undulations of the crust, such as those which are now manifested
in the Scandinavian peninsula (118), were frequent. This is espe-
cially manifested by the state of the strata composing the 3rd,
4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th stages, at Chaudon, in the department of
the Basses Alpes in France.

323. The Jurassic age is distinguished zoologically from the
Triassic age by the absence of forty-two genera, which became

* For the continuation of this section to Paris, see

i 2

396 and § 456.
67

THE FRE-ADAMITE EARTH,
extinct in the latter, and from the succeeding ages of the world

Sommevoire-en-Der . .
Doulevant

Cirey .
Blaise

Fonteno}'

Fijr. 152.— Section of the strata from the Vosgcs towards Paris.

by the absence of thiity-two orders of animals which had not yet
appeared upon the earth, consisting of

63

THE JURASSIC AGE.

Mammifers .

Birds

Beptiles

Fishes

Crustacea

Insects

Mollusca and Radiata

Orders.
11
6
2
3
2
1
7

32

During this age nearly 300 new generic forms were called into
existence, of which about 180 did not survive the age. This
fauna consisted of about 4000 species, which were distributed
among the ten periods, so that, save in very exceptional cases, no
species are common to any two periods. Each period, therefore,
had its own peculiar and characteristic animal kingdom.

324. To illustrate this remarkable principle, which seems to
have been adhered to in all the operations of creative power from
the first animalisation of the globe to the present period, we here
subjoin a tabular synopsis, showing the number of species
Mollusca and Radiata found in each of the ten stages, and also th
number common to two or more stages.

Stages.

Species common
to two or three
stages.

Species limited
to each stage.

Totals.

I.

1

173

174

II.

1

300

301

III.

0

288

288

IV.

7

596

603

V.

11

535

546

VI.

26

255

281

VII.

37

702

739

VIII.

27

628

655

IX.

16

183

199

X.

3

57

60

129

3717

3846

But in the second column the same species is frequently
repeated. Allowing for this, the total number of species which
are found in more than one stage is only 56, or about 1^ per cent,
of the entire number, a proportion which is altogether insig-
nificant, and which cannot be considered as impairing the general
law that each period had its own specific fauna.

325. From a general analysis of the facts, the following con-
clusions may be deduced : —

1st. That during the Jurassic age of the world about 4000
specific animal forms lived, different from any which existed at
any antecedent or posterior epoch.

2nd. That this total number consisted of ten distinct groups,

69

THE PKE-ADAMITE EARTH.

which existed severally during the ten. periods of the Jurassic
age, their remains being deposited in the ten superposed stages
which compose the Jurassic formation.

3rd. That each period, therefore, had its own special fauna,
having nothing in common with the preceding or succeeding
period.

4th. That the specifli which, owing to accidental causes or
erroneous designations, have been found in two or more stages,
the number of which has been greatly overrated, do not in
reality exceed 1| per cent, of the total number of species dis-
covered.*

326. The geography of Europe in the Jurassic age has been
traced and mapped with considerable precision by Messrs. Elie de
Beaumont and D'Orbigny. The Jurassic formation, which has
been well observed, and its limits determined, shows the 'extent
and configuration of the seas, and consequently the outlines of
the land. The Jurassic seas in Western Europe formed three
principal basins, extending over certain parts of France and the
eastern and southern parts of England. The form and limits of
these are shown on the map (fig. 153), drawn by M. D'Orbigny,
here reproduced with the permission of the author and publisher,
which does not differ in any essential points from that of M. Elie
de Beaumont (fig. 154), as will presently appear.

327. The Anglo-Parisian basin covering the north-west of
France and the eastern division of England, was limited in
England by a line directed N.N.E. from Somersetshire to Durham,
passing therefore through the counties of Gloucester, Worcester,
Stafford, Derby, and York ; all that part of England to the east
of this line being then covered by the sea.

On the other side of the Channel, the western shores of this
basin passed across Normandy from St. Lo southwards to Angers
on the Loire. It skirted the northern limit of the central plateau
from Angouleme to Autun. On the north its shores were directed
from Calais by Arras to Metz and Yerdun, where they turned
southwards to Chaumont. This basin communicated with the other
two by two straits, one of which extended from La Rochelle to the
eastern part of Angouleme, marked in the map as the Breton
Strait, and the other from Chaumont to Autun, marked as the
Belgi- Yosgian Strait. All that part of the channel east of Devon-
shire constituted part of this Anglo-Parisian basin or sea. The
entire province of Brittany in France was at this epoch dry land.

328. The Pyrenean basin was limited on the north by the
Breton Strait, and on the north-east by the central plateau,

* D'Orbigny, Paleontologie, vol. ii. p. 426.
70

THE JURASSIC AGE.

Fig. 153.*— Map showing the outlines of land and water in Western Europe in
the Jurassic age. By M. D'Orbigny.

""' In this map the dark shadiig, corresponding with the shades marked

71

THE PEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

which had been above the waters from the earliest geological
dates. The southern limits of this basin are not so well ascer-
tained, but it is certain that it covered all that part of
southern Europe, from the surface of which the chain of the
Pyrenees burst upwards at a later epoch, and extended far into
the Spanish peninsula.

329. The third great ^European sea, called the Mediterranean
basin, skirted the eastern side of the central plateau from the
southern limit of the Vosgian Strait to Montpelier, where it was
probably connected with the Pyrenean basin by another strait
extending from Montpelier to Perpignan. This ancient sea
extended in all probability ito a considerable distance east and
north-east, covering Provence and Dauphin6, all that part of
Europe from which the chain of the Alps arose at a much later
epoch, and all Piedmont, Switzerland, and Italy, with the excep-
tion of an island in the department of the Yar in the south of
France, which was already dry land in the preceding age, and
continued so.

330. At each succeeding period of the Jurassic age, the shores
of these seas retired from point to point within their preceding
limits, so that their successive outlines formed a series of con-
centric lines, one included within the other, the seas retaining
their form, but contracting their dimensions. This series of
changes is especially remarkable in the case of the Anglo-Parisian
basin, where it is indicated on the map (fig. 153) by the alternate
shadings in two different tints around the borders of the basin.
The limits during the first Jurassic period are those marked 7,
the second 8, the third 9, and so on, the last or innermost
being 16.

It appears, therefore, that each of the disturbances or disloca-
tions, which terminated the successive periods, was attended with
the effect of contracting the dimensions of these seas, either by
the elevation of the surrounding land, or the depression of that
which formed the bottom of the sea. The entire breadth of the
zone of land, which being covered by the seas of the first Jurassic
period was left uncovered by those of the last period of that age,
is found to have been about a degree on the western declivity of
the Yosges. It is a singular geological fact, that a succession
of ten dislocations, each of which was sufficient to destroy the
existing fauna and flora, should nevertheless leave unimpaired
the general form of the seas, and that none of the more recent
and more violent convulsions of the succeeding ages should have

7 to 14 inclusive, are to be understood as indicating water, and the other
parts land.
72

THE JUKASSIC AGE.

effaced the traces, by which the outlines of the land and water
during these successive periods have been determined.

331. It will be seen by reference to the section (fig. 152), that
the series of stages from the Vosges towards Paris are still in
concordant superposition, being very nearly parallel and hori-
zontal, or if they dip it is always towards the middle of the
basin, as strata do when deposited at present in tranquil waters.
Except some occasional faults, there are no violently inclined
or disrupted strata either in the Anglo-Parisian basin or north of
the Pyrenean.

When, however, the state of the stratification of these stages
on the slopes of the Alps are examined, a very different state of
things is encountered. There we find them broken, and thrown
into all inclinations, from the vertical to the horizontal ; the
obvious effects of the catastrophe, which in forcing up the great
chain of the Alps burst through the Jurassic formation, disrupting
its stages, and throwing them upon the declivities into all incli-
nations. On examining the sections of the strata as they are
ranged upon the slopes of the Alps, we find, notwithstanding the
violence to which they have been submitted, the same regular
succession of ten stages occurring in the same order as around the
Anglo-Parisian basin, where they were deposited successively,
and in a state of comparative tranquillity. All this indicates
that for long intervals of time previous to the elevation of the
chains of the Alps and Pyrenees, the region on which they now
stand was covered by the Jurassic seas, upon the bottom of which
the strata of the Jurassic formation were deposited, and that it
was long after the consolidation of these strata, that the violent
action of the fluid matter of the internal parts of the earth,
breaking the crust, forced the igneous rocks which now form the
Alps and Pyrenees through the disrupted Jurassic stages.

332. Observations made upon the organic deposits of the
Jurassic strata fully confirm these views. The shore lines of the
Anglo -Parisian and other basins, those outlines marked on the
map by the differently tinted shadings, are characterised by those
shells which are deposited on the very borders of seas within the
play of the tides. The deposits within these are those which take
place in the deeper littoral regions, but those which are found
upon the section of the strata disrupted upon the slopes of the
Alps and Pyrenees, are the classes known to live only in the
depths of the ocean. With the exception, therefore, of certain
points giving coast indications, the Alps, or rather the space on
which they stand, were in the midst of the Jurassic ocean.

333. During this age the island of the Yar, already mentioned,
was considerably increased. The land of the Vosges and the

73

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Black Forest were also augmented, as well to the west in the
direction of Lorraine, as to the east in the direction of Germany,
where several islands, left separate in the Triassic age, became
united so as to form a single island or continent of considerable
magnitude. But while in some places the land was thus in-
creased, in others it was submerged. Thus the continental tract,
which in the Palseozoi* age extended over France, between
St. Malo and Lyons (see map of the Carboniferous period, fig. 148),
was in this age submerged by the Breton Strait which connected
the Anglo-Parisian and Pyrenean basins. Thus Poitiers and the
surrounding region were alternately dry land and submerged by
the sea, being submerged in the Silurian, dry in the Carboniferous
period, again submerged during the Jurassic age, and finally
raised to their present level.

334. It will be also apparent by inspecting the charts of
M. Elie de Beaumont and D'Orbigny, that the tract between
Toulon and Innspruck, which in the Palaeozoic age was dry
land, was completely submerged by the Mediterranean basin
in the Jurassic age, being subsequently raised to its present
elevation.

335. Owing to the extent of the Jurassic deposits in Europe,
and the clearness with which they are distinguishable from those
which lie below them, the outlines of land and water during that
age can be traced with nearly as much precision as the geogra-
phical form of the existing continents.

336. The Jurassic geography of central Europe will be further
elucidated by the map of M. Elie de Beaumont, fig. 154, here
reproduced by permission from the work of M. Beudant.

The great Belgivosgian continent, a part of which only is
included in the map of M. D'Orbigny, fig. 153, is here more fully
represented. It appears that it extended on the north of the
Mediterranean basin from Calais and Dunkirk to Cracow east and
west, and from Wesel and Leipsic to Basle and Salzbourg north and
south. By reference to fig. 142, 144, it will be seen that in the
Silurian and Carboniferous periods Saxony and Bohemia formed a
large island, and that another extended from Frankfort to Arras.
In the Jurassic age these became united by the upheaving of the
land, and formed the Belgivosgian continent shown in figs. 153
and 154. A well-defined coast then extended from Dunkirk
to Metz, which, after passing round the two peninsulas, the
Yosges and the Black Forest, reached Hatisbon, Yienna, and
Cracow, where it was intersected by a strait directed N.W.
and S.E.

An island existed between Toulon and Nice, and Corsica was
raised above the waters.
74

THE JURASSIC AGE.

Fig. 154.*— M. Elie de Beaumont's map of Western Em-ope in the Jurassic Age.

The Scandinavian peninsula remained unchanged since the
Carboniferous period.

337. The marine animals of the Jurassic age presented cha-
racters strikingly different from those of the preceding epochs.
The seas were now inhabited by monstrous animals endowed with
vast powers of aquatic locomotion called Ichthyosauri, fig. 7, and

* The dark shading represents land.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAETH.
Plesiosauri, fig. 155, whose oar-like feet resembled those of the

Fig. 155.— The Plesiosaums.

present sea-tortoise. These animals replaced the sauroid fishes
of the Devonian period which long before had disappeared. It
was also this age which was signalised by those flying saurians
to which palaeontologists have given the name Pterodactyles (fig.
156), or wing-fingered. All these monstrous tribes became corn-

Fig. 156.— The Pterodactyle

pletely extinct at the close of the Jurassic age. Tn fig. 161 (p. 1)
we have reproduced, after Dr. Buckland, an illustration of the
zoology and botany of this age.

338. The producti had altogether, and the spirifers nearly, dis-
appeared, but numerous terebratulse of other species took their
places. The family of ammonites (fig. 8) which had commenced
to appear sparingly in the Triassic age now abounded.

This age was also signalised by the appearance for the first
76

FIRST JURASSIC PERIOD.

time of the family of Calmars, which include the Belemnites
and various new bivalve Molluscs.

339. In the seas existed also madreporic reefs or islands similar
to those which exist at present in intertropical regions (fig. 202).
Lakes were numerous and were inhabited by tribes of fresh
water Testacea, whose remains are now found in the Portland beds
and elsewhere.

340. Insects of the orders Diptera (flies, gnats), Hymenoptera
(bees, ants), and Hemiptera (bugs, water scorpions, plant lice),
Crustaceous Isopods (sow bugs), Tectibranche-Molluscs, Cirride-
Brachiopods, free Crinoids, severally appeared in this age for the
first time upon the earth.

341. The vegetable kingdom presented none of the character-
istics of the preceding. The colossal ferns and lycopodiacere
had disappeared, and had been replaced by new species of the
same families. Conifers were abundant in the Lias period, with
new species of CicadeEe. The fruit of a species of palm is found
in the same deposit, as well as carbonaceous strata, altogether
different from those of the carboniferous period. The difference
of the quantity as well as the quality of these vegetable deposits
indicate in a striking manner the difference of the extent of the
continents of the two periods.

This general account of the Jurassic age will render necessary
only a very brief notice of its successive periods.

FIRST JURASSIC PERIOD.

342. The geological convulsion which closed the Triassic age
having destroyed the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and the
tumult having been followed by a period of tranquillity, the seas,
subsiding within their limits, deposited the strata which form the
first Jurassic stage. These deposits, called by D'Orbigny the
Sinemurian stage, from the circumstance of their great develop-
ment in the neighbourhood of the town of Semur (Sinemurium),
correspond with the lower lias of British geologists, the gryphite
limestone of Dufresnoy, Elie de Beaumont, and Roemer, and
the quadersandstein of other German geologists.

The parts of Europe where this stage appears at the surface
round the great Jurassic basins are shown upon the map (fig. 153),
by the shading marked 7, being the external boundary of the
series of concentric lines surrounding these basins. In England
this stage is seen in a continuous zone, extending N.N.E. from
Lyme Regis, through the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Gloucester,
"Worcester, Warwick, Leicester, Nottingham, and Lincoln. It

77

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

forms a semicircle in Yorkshire, directing its course to the Tees
and "Whitby. It will he apparent from the map that the course
of this stage in England is only the continuation of its direction
in Normandy.

343. This stage is distinguished from the succeeding one by
many and evident discordances, and more especially by the isola-
tion of strata, the superidr stage being in many places present
without the inferior. An example of this is presented at Fontaine-
Etoupe-Four, in the department of Calvados in France, where
the second, third, and fourth stages rest in concordant stratifica-
tion on Silurian rocks, without the interposition of this first

344. The seas of this period covered all the southern part of
"Western Europe from France to Sicily, and deposited their first
stage upon the region on which the Alps and Pyrenees now stand,
After the lapse of a long interval posterior to their consolidation,
as well as that of many other stages subsequently deposited, the
Alps and Pyrenees were forced by an internal pressure through
the crust, which being broken, these with other strata were
disrupted and thrown into various inclinations, some being
rendered vertical, while others being compressed horizontally
were bent into the form of undulations.

Examples of these effects are numerous. One showing the
first Jurassic stage thrown into a vertical position occurs at
Gevaudan in the department of the Basses Alpes (fig. 158), and
one showing the undulating form produced by horizontal com-
pression occurs at Chaudon a Digne in the same department
(fig. 159).

Fig. 158.— Section of first Jurassic
stage at Gevaudan.

Fig. 159.— Section of first Jurassic
stage at Chaudon.

345. After tranquillity was re-established, another fauna and
flora was called into existence, a synopsis of which (excepting
the annulata) is given in the following table : —

78

SECOND JURASSIC PERIOD.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
First Jurassic Period.

• • fMammifers . .
EH g ! Birds ....
gf 3 1 Reptiles . . .
> S [Fishes ....

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

0
0
1
1

4
9
20
6
1

3
3
0
0

0
0
0
1

3
1

4
2
0

1
2
0
0

0
0
1
0

1
8
16
4
1

2
1
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0

2
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0

1

0
0

£ C Cephalopoda . .
^ | Gastropods . .
5 -{ Lam ellibran chia
o | Brachiopods . .
g [Bryozoa . . .

< ( Echiuodermata .
•4 ! Polyparia . . .
H | Foraminifera
.5 |_ Amorphozoa

48

14

34

3

1

The 46 genera of Mollusca and Radiata composing this fauna,
so far as they are known, consisted of 174 species.

346. Among the reptiles which lived in these seas were the
Ichthyosauri or great fish-lizards, already mentioned (fig. 7),
which rivalled in magnitude the largest whales of the present
seas. Fishes of new species animated the coasts, and Ammonites
(fig. 8), Belemnites and Turrillites abounded. So many new
forms signalised the commencement of a new era in animalisation.

The order of Dipterous insects appeared for the first time.
A new flora adorned the continents in which new species of
Cicadese and ferns predominated.

347. The convulsion which terminated this period arose pro-
bably from a subsidence of the beds of the seas, which, after the
re-establishment of equilibrium, caused them to recover their
former outline, their shores being only contracted within their
former limits.

SECOND JURASSIC PERIOD.

348. The deposits made by the seas of this period, called by
D'Orbigny the Liasian stage, correspond with the middle lias or
marlstone of British geologists, and the Belemniten-schichte of
the Germans. The regions of its appearance are nearly the same
as those of the preceding stage.

349. When tranquillity was re-established, a new creation was
called into being, a synopsis of the chief part of which is pre-
sented in the following table : —

y

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAKTH.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom, (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Second Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

JL • fMammifers . .

0

0

0

0

0

$2 1 Birds . . . .

0

0

0

0

0

B 3 1 Reptiles . . .

3

1

2

0

0

>« [pishes . . . .

29

22

7

10

9

£ f Cephalopods . .
g Gastropods . .
5 \ Lamellibranchia

3
16

25

0
2
3

3
14

22

0
0

1

1

0
0

£ | Brachiopods . .

3

0

3

0

0

g [Bryozoa . . .

0

0

0

0

0

^ f Echinodennata .

6

4

2

0

0

5 i Polyparia . . .
H I Foraminifera .
3 [Amorphozoa

2
6
0

1
6
0

1

0
0

0
0
0

0
0
0

93

39 54

11

10 ,

The genera of Mollusca and Radiata alone consisted of at
least 300 species.

350. The seas swarmed with enormous Saurians in greater
numbers than ever, including new varieties of the Ichthyosauri
and Plesiosauri. The former had a fishlike form, and the latter a
neck of enormous length, by means of which it could dart its
mouth at a distant prey, its body still being immersed in the
water (fig. 155). "With these were associated the singular flying
reptiles, called Pterodactyles (fig. 156). A vast variety of new
species of fishes disputed the seas with swarms of Ammonites
(fig. 8), Nautili, and Belemnites ; while the coasts abounded in
endless varieties of shells, such as Pterocera, Ditremaria, Inocer-
amus, with Asteria, Ophiuri, Echinodermata (fig. 160), and
Foraminifera.

351. Although all traces of terrestrial fauna have disappeared,
in the remains of this period there can be little doubt that insects
and other Annulata existed. Of Crustacea only [one genus, Coleta,
has been found.

352. The land was richly clothed with vegetation, consisting
chiefly of ferns, cicadese, and conifers of elegant foliage, of which
65 species are known.

80

Fig. 166.— FOSSILE DRAGON-FLY (LIBELLULA).

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTER VI.

THIRD JURASSIC PERIOD. 353. Mineral character of this stage. — 354.
Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 355. Outlines of land and water.
— 356. Land animals and vegetation. FOURTH JURASSIC PERIOD.
357. Mineral character of the stage. — 358. Synopsis of the animal
kingdom. — 359. Land fauna. FIFTH JURASSIC PERIOD. 360. Mineral
character of the stage. — 361. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. —
362. Examples of the fauna.— 363. Traces of land fauna— Phas-
colotherium and Thylacotherium. — 364. Examples of the flora. — 365.
Convulsion which closed the period. SIXTH JURASSIC PERIOD. 366.
Mineral character of the stage. — 367. Synopsis of the animal kingdom
— disappearance of the Ichthyosauri. — 368. Remarkable changes in
the outlines of land and water. — 369. Extent of the Mediterranean
basin — submersion of the great Russian continent. SEVENTH
JURASSIC PERIOD. 370. Mineral character of this stage. — 371.
Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 372. Creation of several orders of
insects. — 373. Specific forms of Mollusca and Annulata. — 374. Out-
lines of land and water. — 375. Marine flora. — 376. Land animals. —
377. Surprising perfection of the fossil forms— observations of Buckland
and Lyell. — 378. Further proofs of the suddenness of the catastrophe
which terminated this period. — 379. Indication of the general pre-
valence of tropical climate. EIGHTH JURASSIC PERIOD. 380. Mineral
character of the stage. — 381. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 382.
Elevation of Russia above the waters. — 383. Character of the fauna.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. 81

No, 149.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAETH.

— 384. Land flora and fauna. — 385. Close of the period. NINTH
JURASSIC PERIOD. 386. Mineral character of the stage. — 387. Synop-
sis of the animal kingdom. — 388. General character of the fauna. —
389. Marine genera. — 390. Land animals. TENTH JURASSIC PERIOD.
391. Mineral character of the stage. — 392. Synopsis of the animal
kingdom. — 393. Outlines of land and water — marine fauna. — 394.
Close of the period. The Cretaceous Age. 395. Mineral char-
acter of the Cretaceous formation. — 396. Section of the strata between
the Vosges and Paris. — 397. Resolution of the formation into seven
stages. — 398. Nomenclature and thickness of the stages. — 399. Dis-
cordance and isolation of the stages.

THIRD JURASSIC PERIOD.

353. THE traces from which a convulsion closing the preceding
period has been inferred, differ in nothing from those mentioned
in the former period.

The strata deposited by the seas of this period, called by
D'Orbigny the Toarcian stage, from the town of Thouars
(Toarcium), in France, correspond with the upper Lias of British
geologists, the Brauner Jura, and Opalinusthon of the Germans.
Its extent can be traced on the map (fig. 153), by the shading
marked 9.

354. The new creation, exclusive of the Annulata, is shown in
the following table : —

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Third Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• : { Mammifers . .

0

0

0

0

0

g * 1 Birds ....

0

0

0

0

0

g J§ 1 Reptiles . . .

6

3

3

3

3

> » ( Fishes ....

11

2

9

1

1

< f Cephalopods . .

7

4

3

3

3

g Gastropods . .
n •} Lamellibraiichia

17
29

0

2

17

27

1

0

0
0

g 1 Brachiopods . .
*£ iBryozoa . . .

4
0

0
0

4
0

1

0

0
0

< { Echinodermata .

2

0

2

0

0

: 1 Polyparia . . .
5 1 Foraminifera

3
3

2

2

1

1

2

0

2
0

^ [ Arnorphozoa

2

0

2

0

0

84

15

69

10

9

The Mollusca and Eadiata consisted of 288 species.

355. The outlines of land and water did not suffer any con-
siderable change. Besides the genera of marine reptiles already
mentioned, the strange forms of the Mistriosauri and Macrospondili

THIRD JUEASSIC PERIOD.

now roamed along the coasts, besides various new forms of
Mollusca and Radiata.

Fig. 100. — Pentacrinus fasciculosus (Echinodcrm.)

356. Scarcely a trace of land animals remains, and those of
plants but few and rare. Some conifers and cryptogamous plants
however are found.

G 2 83

THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

FOUETH JURASSIC PERIOD.

357. The strata deposited in this period, called by D'Orbigny
the Bajocian stage, from the French town of Bayeux (Bajoce),
correspond with the inferior Oolite of British geologists. Its
course on the surface is indicated on the map (fig. 153) by the
shading number 10.

358. The animal kingdom of this period is shown in the
following table : — •

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Fourth Jurassic Period.

-

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

A • f Mammifers
g J5 j Birds . .
3 2 1 Reptiles .
> « [ Fishes . .

0
0
0
5

0

0
0
2

0
0
0
3

0

0
0

1

0
0
0
1

< fCephalopods
« 1 Gastropods
^ -1 Lamellibranchia
£ 1 Brachiopods
g [ Bryozoa .

6
21
40
5
8

3

4
6
1

8

3
17
34

0

0

1

1

0

1

0
0
0
0
1

< fEchinodermata
5 J Polyparin . .
3 1 Foraminifem
,5 LAmorphozoa

14

18
o

10

10
7
1
3

4
11
1

7

1
1

0
0

0

1

0
0

129

45

84

6

3

359. Of the terrestrial fauna of this period nothing is known,
and a few plants only, consisting of Cicadea) and doubtful
Monocotyledons remain.

FIFTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

360. This stage, the Bathonian of D'Orbigny and D'Halloy,
corresponds with the great Bath oolite, Forest marble, and Stones-
field slate of British geologists.

361. When tranquillity was re-established after the catastrophe
which terminated the fourth period, a new creation appeared on
the earth, of which the chief part is shown in the following
table :—

FIFTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Fifth Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

A j f Mammifers . .

— !" <)

2

0

2

2

| H J Birds ....

0

0

0

0

0

§ 3 } Reptiles . . .

6

4

1

1

1

> « 1 Fishes ....

21

5

16

5

3

< f Cephalopods . .
g | Gastropods . .

5
25

0
6

5

19

0
0

0
0

^ -j Lamellibranchia

38

4

34

0

0

o 1 Brachiopods . .
^ tBryozoa . .

6
19

0
9

6
10

0
2

0
1

•< [ Echinodermata .

20

0

14

1

0

3 j Polyparia . . .
o 1 Foramiiiifera

19
5

8
0

11

5

4

1

3
0

3 [Amorphozoa

10

1

9

1

1

175

45

130

17

11

362. An example of the polyparia of this period is shown in
figs. 160, 161*, 162.

Fig. 161*.

Upper surface. Lower surface.

Anabacia orbulites (Polyparia).

Together with new species of Pterodactyles, fig. 156, there
lived in the seas of this period not less strange reptile forms, to
which the names Poecilopleuron, Teleosaurus, and Megalosaurus

have been given.

85

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

363. A terrestrial fauna at length left traces of itsTexistence.
Mammifers now presented their first traces. Two land monsters,
referred to this class, found in this stage, have been called
Phascolotherium and Thylacotherium. Specimens of the lower
jaw of the former were found in the oolitic limestone of Stones-
field. It is a small animal allied to the Marsupial family, and
takes its name from the ^hascolomys of New South Wales.

364. A great variety of species of ferns, Cicadece, and conifers
have been found among the remains of this period, with a few
Marsileacese, Lycopodiaceoe, and Equitacea}.

Fig. 164.— Phleboptcris Phillip.sii.

365. One of the causes which are assigned to the catastrophe
which closed this fifth Jurassic period, is the sudden sinking of
the continent, which was elevated at the close of the palaeozoic
age, and which extended over Central and Northern Russia. This
vast tract was submerged during the sixth Jurassic period, and
the ocean at the same time flowed over the entire province of
Cutch in India. The sea also covered the department of the
Sarthe in France. Effects of this disturbance are traced in
France, even where no disturbance of strata exists by the state of
the superposed littoral deposits. Its effects are also seen in the
polishing of the superior strata at Lyons, showing the result of a
long- continued action of the waters. In fine, these indications
are confirmed by the complete destruction of the fauna and flora
of the period.
86

SIXTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

SIXTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

366. This stage, called the Callovian, corresponds to the
Oxford clay and Kelloway Rocks of the British geologists, from
the latter of which it takes its designation.

367. The animal generic forms which lived in this period,
exclusive of the Annulata, are enumerated in the following
table :—

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Sixth Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• fMammifers .
| H 1 Birds . . .
g £ ] Reptiles . .
> « [ Fishes . . .

0
0

2

2

0
0
1
?

0
0
1

2

0
0
1
?

0
0
0

£ f Cephalopods .
3 Gastropods .
^ I Lamellibranchia
o 1 Brachiopods .
g [Bryozoa . .

6
15

31
3
2

2
0
0
0
0

4
15
31
3
2

1
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0
0

< f Echinodermata
3 I Polyparia . .
H 1 Foraminifera
^ [ Amorphozoa

11
1
0
0

0
0
0
0

11
1
0

0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

73

3

70

2

1

It appears, therefore, that of the 73 genera which existed,
only three were new, two of which were generic forms of Cephalo-
pods, called Rhychoteuthis and Paleeoteuthis. This period was

Fig. 165. — Ammonite — Jason.

remarkable for the prevalence of Ammonites, denominated Limula,
Athleta, Jason (fig. 165), as well as the Trigonia elongata, Plica-
tula peregrina, Astrea dilatata, and Terebratula Diphya.

The Ichthyosaurus appeared for the last time in this period.

368. The outlines of sea and land during this period under-
went some remarkable changes. The convulsions which ter-

87

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

minated the fifth period raised the bottoms of the Breton and
Yosgian Straits, so as to separate completely the Anglo-Parisian
from the Pyrenean and Mediterranean basins, and thus to connect
Brittany on the one side, and the Yosgian continent on the other,
by two isthmuses.

369. The Mediterranean basin extended across the Tyrol, and
into Switzerland, as far»as Soleure, and probably even to the
Crimea. But the greatest change produced by this convulsion
was the subsidence of the great Russian continent, which had
continued above the sea since the close of the palaeozoic age, and
the consequent extension of the seas of this sixth period over all
Russia, from the 48th degree of latitude to the Frozen Ocean. It
appears also from the organic remains of Mollusca and Radiata,
that these seas extended on the south, without interruption, to
the 9th degree of latitude, thus covering the entire extent of
Asia, from the province of Cutch to the polar circle.

SEVENTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

370. The deposits of this period, called by D'Orbigny the
Oxfordian stage, correspond with the upper strata of the Oxford
clay, or the dark-blue clay of Oxfordshire and the Midland
counties, the thickness of which in England, according to Lyell,
is sometimes 500 feet. In the south-west of France, and in the
Alps, it measures from 320 to 500 feet.

371. In the following table we give a synopsis of the generic
forms of this period, excepting the Annulata : —

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Seventh Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

i • /Mammifers . .

0

0

0

0

0

5 H J Birds ....

0

0

0

0

0

g^1 Reptiles . . .
> « ^Fishes ....

11

23

10
14

1
14

9
18

9
13

^ /"Cephalopoda .
jo Gastropods .
3 \ Lamellibranchi

9

21
41

5

0

2

4
21
39

2
0
1

2
0
1

g Brachiopods .

g VBryozoa

8

4

0
0

8

4

0
0

0
0

< f Echinodermata

22

9

13

8

7

* I Polvparia . .

22

6

16

4

3

3 1 Foraminifera

0

0

0

0

0

jjS L Amorphozoa

16

5

11

3

2

182

51

131

45

37

S3

SEVENTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

Of Crustacea 31 were created, all of which became extinct at
the close of the period, so that the total number of generic forms
ascertained to have lived is 213, of which 82 were created, and
131 revived, exclusive of other Annulata, the existence of which
has been determined but their numbers unascertained.

372. This period is signalised by the first appearance of insects,
of the orders Hemiptera (bugs, water- scorpions, plant-lice),
Hymenoptera (bees, ants), and Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths),
and of Isopodous Crustacea, and the prevalence of testaceous spon-
gearia, pterodactyles, pycnodide fishes, and decapod Crustacea.

373. Of Mollusca and Annulata of this period, 729 species
have been catalogued, and

the total number of species
of all classes could not have
amounted to less than 800.
In fig. 166 is shown a
specimen of the insects of
this period, and in fig. 167,
one of the Annelids.

374. The seas retained
their former limits ; those
of the Parisian and Pyre-
nean basins, however, re •
tiring as before stated, so
as to leave a new band
of surrounding coast un-
covered. They extended
over the same parts of
Europe, and were continu-
ous on the one side to Asia
Minor, and on the other
into Russia, as is proved
by the prevalence of the

J Fig. 167.— Serpula flagellum.

same marine species in the

strata. The Breton and Vosgian Straits were still replaced by
isthmuses.

375. Adolphe Brongniart has enumerated a considerable as-
semblage of marine plants of this period, consisting chiefly of
Cryptogamous Algse.

376. The continents were not less animated than the seas.
Besides several orders of insects, and the generic reptile forms of
the preceding periods, 10 new reptile genera were called into
existence, including the Gnathosaurus, Pleurosaurus, Greosaurus,
and Spondylosaurus, which, as well as new species of ptero-
dactyles, abounded. M. Brongniart has also given a list of the

89

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

terrestrial flora of this period, which consisted in a great degree of
doubtful monocotyledons.

377. The sudden character of the catastrophes, by which from
period to period the successive faunas and floras were destroyed,
is strikingly illustrated by the perfect state in which the remains
of many of the saurians have been found. Of those which were
deposited in these strati, many must, as Sir C. Lyell observes,
have met with sudden death and immediate burial, and the same
indications are observable in the case of all the other stages.
" Sometimes," says Dr. Buckland, " scarcely a single bone has
been removed from the place it occupied during life, which could
not have happened had the uncovered bodies of these saurians
been left, even for a few hours, exposed to putrefaction, and to
the attacks of fishes and other small animals at the bottom of the
sea." ^ Not only are the skeletons of the Ichthyosauri entire,
but sometimes the contents of their stomachs still remain
between their ribs, so that we can discover the species of fish on
which they lived, and the form of their excrements. Not un-
frequently there are layers of these coprolites (fossilised excre-
ments) at different depths in the lias at a distance from any
entire skeletons of those marine lizards, from which they were
derived, as if the muddy bottom of the sea received small sudden
accessions of matter from time to time, covering up the coprolites
and other exuviae, which had accumulated during the intervals.
It is further stated, that at Lyme Regis, those surfaces only
of the coprolites, which lay uppermost at the bottom of the sea,
have suffered partial decay from the action of the water, before
they were covered and protected by the muddy sediment that had
afterwards permanently enveloped them.f

378. The remains of cephalopods give like indications of
sudden death. Numerous specimens of the Calamary, or pen-
and-ink fish (Geotenthis Bollensis), have also been met with in
these strata at Lyme, with the ink-bags still distended, con-
taining the ink in a dried state, chiefly composed of carbon and
but slightly impregnated with carbonate of lime. These, like the
Saurians, must therefore have been promptly buried, for if long
exposed after death, the membrane containing the ink would have
been decayed. J

379. The identity of the specific forms of the fauna of this
period, in all latitudes, from 40° to the Frozen Ocean, shows that

* Bridg. Treat, p. 125.

t Lyell's Manual, p. 327 ; De la Beche, Geol. Res., p. 334 ; Buckland,
Bridg. Treat., p. 307.
J Buckland, Bridg. Treat., p. 307.
90

EIGHTH 'JURASSIC PERIOD.

no difference of climates such as the present then existed,
had the intertropical character.

All

EIGHTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

380. The strata deposited during this period, called by
D'Orbigny the Coralline stage, correspond to coral rag of British-
and German geologists.

381. Exclusive of annulata, the following table represents the
fauna of this period.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Eirjhtli Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • f Mamrnifers .

0

0

0

0

0

H H j Birds . . .

0

0

0

0

0

g 2 I Reptiles . .

0

0

0

0

0

> « [ Fishes . . .

1

0

1

0

0

£ ("Cephalopods
3 1 Gastropods .
_: <| Lamellibranchia

3

28
41

0
2

2

3

26
39

0
2
2

0
0
1

g 1 Brachiopods

4

0

4

0

0

g LBryozoa . .

3

0

3

0

0

< f Echiuodermata
! J Polyparia

24
48

5

26

19

22

11
25

3
19

S | Foraminifera

3

1

2

1

1

^ L Amorphozoa

6

0

6

0

0

161

36

125

36

24

382. In Russia, all that tract which extended to the Frozen
Ocean, and which had been submerged during the seventh period,
was now again raised above the waters, and became land. In
England, France, and Germany the general forms of the land
remained the same, but their extent was augmented by the
general retirement of the shores of the seas.

383. The fauna of this period was remarkable for numerous
polyparia of the coral class, by which reefs were formed similar
to those which exist in the present seas. It was at this epoch
that the Diceras, Nerinea, Purpurina, Hemicidaris (figs. 168,
169), Acrocidaris, Mijlecrinus, and Apiocrinus attained their
greatest specific development.

384. In the total absence of all organic remains of a terrestrial
fauna, we must infer by analogy that the fauna of this must have
been related to that of the antecedent periods. The flora,
according to the observations of M. Brongniart, consisted of ferns,
cicadeae, and conifers of peculiar species.

91

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

385. Although it is probable that the close of this stage was
the result of a convulsion which originated at some point distant

Fig.

Fig. 16S.

Hemicidaris crenularis.

from the range of geological observation, there are indications
of some disturbance by the absence of the superior strata in the
Alps, from Grasse to Gap, which may probably be connected
with the catastrophe which closed this eighth period.

NINTH JUEA.SSIC PEEIOD.

386. The deposits of this period correspond with the Kimme-
ridge clay of the British geologists.

387. A general view of the fauna, with the usual exceptions, is
presented in the following table.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) during the
Ninth Jurassic Period.

GENEKA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • ( Mammifers
H 3 Birds . .
g £ 1 Reptiles .
> « t Fishes . .

0
0

7
7

0
0
4
v

0
0
3

7?

0
0
4
3

0
0
1

?

g f Cephalopoda
g | Gastropods
S \ Lamellibranchi.-i
g Brachiopods
g [Bryozoa . . .

3
15
31
3
1

0
0
0
0
0

3
15
31
3
1

0
0
3
0
0

0

0

o

0

o

< ( Echinodermata .
< \ Polyparia . . .
j j Foraminifera
3 I Amorphozoa

10
1
0
1

0
0
0
0

10
1
0
1

1

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

73

4

75

11

1

TENTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

388. The close of the last period was marked by the final
extinction of at least 36 generic forms. The four generic forms
of reptiles which appear for the first time in this ninth period
are the Stenosaurus, Streptospondylus, Emys, and Platemys, of
which the Stenosaurus is peculiar to the period and characteristic
of it, not re-appearing in the next or any subsequent period. Of
the reptile genera of former periods, those which re-appear in the
present, and finally became extinct at its close, are the Plesio-
saurus, Teleosaurus, and Pliosaurus.

Independently of the species of the other classes which lived in
this period, 186 species of mollusca and radiata have been cata-
logued and described by M. D'Orbigny.

389. The seas were circumscribed by nearly the same limits,
retiring nevertheless a little within their former shores. They
were inhabited by nearly the same assemblage of genera, the
species being, however, altogether different. The cephalopods
were not numerous, the prevailing marine genera consisting of
gastropods, and lamellibranchia.

390. The land, independently of some revived genera, was
inhabited by the saurian reptiles Stenosaurus and Streptosaurus,
and by the tortoise forms, denominated Emys and Platemys, all
of which were probably amphibious.

No vegetable remains of this period have been found.

TENTH JURASSIC PERIOD.

391. The deposits of this period correspond with the Portland
beds. They lie generally upon the Kimmeridge strata of the
preceding period.

392. A general view of the fauna, with the previous exceptions,
is given in the table on the next page.

Of the mollusca and radiata 63 species have been described.

393. The seas of this period, like those of the former, preserved
the general configuration of their outlines, still retiring a little
within their former shores. The marine fauna among fishes was
increased by the Meristodon, and among mollusca by the Cyclas.
The principal saurians of the last period disappeared from the
coasts, and were replaced by the Cetiosaurus. This marine reptile
must have rivalled the existing whale in magnitude, some speci-
mens indicating a total length of 40 to 50 feet. The bones found
in some strata in England, of somewhat more recent date, may
have been carried up from the sea along the bed of a river by the
tide, or the animal when living, as is often at present the case
with existing cetaceans, may have wandered up the river, and
dying, have been deposited in its bed.

93

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of the Annulata) d-wriny the
Tenth Jurassic Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created. Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• : f Mamrnifers .
£ 5 j Birds . . .
g 3 1 Reptiles . .
> 3 [ Fishes . . .

<> .
0
2

6

0 0
0 0
1 1
1 5

0
0
0
2

0
0
0

1

g f Cephalopods
g 1 Gastropods .
j •{ Lamellibranchia
g Brachiopods .
g IBryozoa . .

6
16
0

0

0 3
0 6
1 15
0 0
0 0

0
1
0
0
0

0
0

0
0
0

rj f Echinodermata
5 1 Polyparia . .
p 1 Foramiuifera
;2 [Amorphozoa

2
1
0

0

0 2
0 1
0 0
0 0

0

0
0
0

0
0
0

0

36

.8 33

3

1

394. The close of this period, which marks the termination of
the Jurassic age, is distinctly indicated by numerous dislocations
and isolations of the strata, denoting upheavings and depressions
in many regions. These phenomena demonstrate the complete
separation of the last stages of the Jurassic from the first of the
succeeding age. M. Elie de Beaumont considers the catastrophe
which raised the mountain systems of the Cote d'Or (215), of
Monte Pila, and the Erzgebirge, the prevailing direction of
which is W. 40° S. and E. 40° N., as that which terminated the
Jurassic age.

The Cretaceous Age.

395. The group of strata to which geologists have given the
name of the Cretaceous or chalk formation, being deposited upon
the Jurassic group, must have been the result of the succeeding
geological age. Its stratigraphical limits, as we shall here con-
sider it, are the Purbeck beds below, and the Maestricht beds
above. Some British geologists, including Sir C. Lyell, place the
former as the uppermost strata of the Oolitic formation; while
others, including Sir H. de la Beche, give it to the Cretaceous
group. By reference to the tabular section (47), it will be seen
that the title given to this Cretaceous group must not be under-
stood as implying that chalk is the exclusive character of the
strata.

The superior strata of this formation are not present in
England, and hence they take their name from Maestricht,
where they are most developed.
94

CEETACEOUS AGE.

396. The complete series of strata of the Cretaceous for-
mation, are found succeeding each other in their proper order in
the continuation of the section given in fig. 152. This conti-
nuation, 'extending from Sommevoire and Yassy to Yertus, is
given in fig. 170. The Cretaceous group terminates a little to the
west of Yertus, and the Tertiary or succeeding formation appears
from that point to Paris. We shall refer to this latter part of the
section when we come to notice the Tertiary age.

CRETACEOUS FORMATION.

1 1

Fig. 170.— Section from Vassy to Vertus, being part of the great section
from the Vosges to Paris.

397. Proceeding upon observations and reasoning similar to
those explained in reference to the Jurassic formation (322), M.
D'Orbigny resolves the Cretaceous formation into seven stages, to
which names are given, derived from the localities severally where
the strata are most exposed at the surface, and where therefore
they have been most observed. To avoid encumbering the
memory of the reader with a nomenclature so complex, we shall
here, as in the former cases, designate the stages by their nume-
rical order, proceeding from the lowest upwards, and the periods
of their deposition into which the Cretaceous age is resolved, also
by their numerical order, proceeding from the earliest to the
latest.

398. It will be convenient, however, as in the former case, to
indicate the names given to the stages and their approximate
mean thickness severally.

95

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

No. of

stage.

Name.

Origin.

Thickness.
Feet.

VII.

Danian

Denmark

50

VI.

Senonian .

Seu (Senoncs) . . .

1000

V.

Turouian

Touraine

700

IV.

Cenomauiau

Mans (Cenomanum)

1600

III.

Albian .

Aube (Alba) .

150

II.
I.

Aptian
Neocomian

Apt (Apta Julia) . .
Neufchatel (Neocomum)

TOO
8000

Total .

12200

So that the total thickness of the formation is above 12000 feet,
or 2g miles, the chief part being occupied by the first or lowest stage.
The mineral composition of these stages will be stated when we
come to notice them separately.

399. While at some points these seven stages are found in
regular superposition, in others particular stages are absent.
Thus, while on the northern and eastern border of the Anglo-
Parisian basin the series is complete, in other localities great dis-
cordances of stratification are observed, as well by the varying
dips of the contiguous strata as by the absence of one or several
stages of the series. These are the grounds upon which the entire
Cretaceous formation is stratigraphically set apart from the
Jurassic, and upon which the seven stages into which it is resolved
are inferred to be independent, and those conclusions are con-
firmed by observations made upon the arrangement of the depo-
sition of the organic remains, which appear to be distributed in
seven distinct layers, corresponding with the stratigraphical
limits of the stages.

Fig. 202. — CORAL BEEF.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTEE VII.

400. Zoological character of the Cretaceous age. — 401. Distribution of the
species among the stages. — 402. General conclusions. — 403. Changes
of the outlines of laud and water. — 404. Elie de Beaumont's map of
Western and Central Europe — great geographical changes. — 405. The
Pyrenean basin. — 406. Outlines of sea and land in Central Europe.
—407. Site of the Alps.— 408. Cretaceous geography of France
and England — D'Orbigny's map. — 409. Anglo- Parisian basin. —
410. The changes incidental to it from period to period. — 411. Out-
lines of the basin in England. — 412. Pyrenean basin — Mediterranean
basin. — 413. Animal kingdom — uniform tropical climate at all
latitudes. — 414. Prevalence of undulations of the surface— seven
violent perturbations. FIRST CRETACEOUS PERIOD. 415. Dimensions
and mineral composition of the stage — synopsis of animal kingdom.
416. Reptiles of this period — Iguanodon and Hylaeosaurus. — 417.
Flora of this period. SECOND CRETACEOUS PERIOD. 418. Mineral
character of the stage. — 419. Synopsis of animal kingdom.— 420.
Outlines of land and water. — 421. Marine fauna. —422. Vegetable
kingdom. — 423. Uniform tropical climate. — 424. Close of the period.
— THIRD CRETACEOUS PERIOD : 425. Mineral character of the stage.
— 426. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 427. Outlines of land and
water.— 428. Marine and terrestrial fauna. — 429. Close of the
period. — FOURTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD. 430. Mineral character of
the stage. — 431. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 432. Outlines of
land and water. — 433. Marine fauna. — 434. Marine flora. — 435.
Undulations of the ground. — 436. Close of the period. FIFTH
CRETACEOUS PERIOD. 437. Minei-al character of the stage." — 438.

LAKDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. H 97

No. 150.

THE PEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 439. Outlines of land and water.
— 440. Rich, vegetation. — 441. Great extent of land in Russia, South
America, and India — termination of the period. SIXTH CRETACEOUS
PERIOD. 442. Mineral character of the stage. — 443. Synopsis of
the animal kingdom.

400. THE Cretaceous age is zoologically distinguished from the
Jurassic by the absence of upwards of 180 generic forms which,
existed in the previous age, and from the succeeding age by the
absence of upwards of 500 genera not created until the succeeding
one — these 500 genera consisting of 24 orders of animals, as
follows :

Mammifers .

Birds

Beptiles

Fishes .

Crustacea

Insects .

Mollusca and Radiata

Orders.
. 11
5

Total

24

401. During this age about 270 genera were created, but it is
by the specific forms that its fauna can be more distinctly cha-
racterised. These consisted of about 5000 species, of which, about
700 belonged to the vertebrata and annulata. The manner in
which the species of mollusca and radiata are distributed among
the stages is as follows : —

Stages.

No. in two or
more species.

Xo. limited to
each stage.

Totals.

I.

7

S44

851

II.

s

148

156

III.

8

402

410

IV.

S

841

849

V.

3

377

3SO

vr.

5

1574

1579

VII.

a

63

63

42

4249

4291

The same species being repeated in the second column, a corre-
sponding deduction from the total number of common species must
be made, which will reduce the actual number of such common
species to 21, being only a half per cent, of the total number.

402. From a general analysis of the facts, the following
conclusions may be inferred : —

1° That there existed in the Cretaceous age above 5000 species
of animals altogether distinct from those of the preceding and
98

CRETACEOUS AGE.

following ages, and which, therefore are characteristic of the
Cretaceous age.

2° That this total number consisted of seven distinct groups,
which existed successively during the seven periods of the Cre-
taceous age, their remains being deposited in the seven superposed
stages which compose the Cretaceous formation.

3° That each period therefore had its own special fauna,
having nothing in common with those of the preceding or suc-
ceeding periods.

4° That the species which, owing to accidental causes or erro-
neous designations, have been found in two or more stages, the
number of which has been greatly overrated, do not in reality
exceed a half per cent, of the total number of species discovered.

403. When tranquillity had been re- established after the cata-
strophe which closed the Jurassic age, the changes which had
taken place in the levels of the solid surface of the earth caused the
waters to settle into new beds, and gave a modified outline to land
and sea. The contours of the seas of this period are now shown
by the forms and limits of the Cretaceous strata, subsequently
raised above the waters.

404. The outlines of land and water in "Western and Central
Europe, in the Cretaceous age, as sketched by M. Elie de Beau-
mont, are shown in the map (fig. 171).

The three great islands of the Jurassic age which appear in the
map (fig. 154), were now connected, and their coast-lines com-
pletely changed. The northern part of Belgium was submerged,
and Brussels, which in the former age was inland, was now on the
coast. Arras, Calais, and Dunkirk, which were on or near the
coast, were now at the bottom of a large gulf, in the midst of
which was Paris, and at the southern part Tours. The town of
Poitiers, which was situate in a strait, was now on the coast of
the southern extremity of this gulf, which the reader will readily
identify with the Anglo-Parisian basin so often referred to.
London and Cambridge were at the bottom of this sea, the shores
of which, bending westward, formed a bay, which might be called
the gulf of Exeter, that city being at its westward limit. Oxford
was on the coast of England, which, after jutting out eastward to
a point near the site of Cambridge, turned northwards to
Edinburgh. Holland and a large part of Prussia and Poland,
including the cities of Amsterdam, Hamburg, Berlin, and
Warsaw, were altogether submerged.

An isthmus connected the central tract of France with Brittany,
at that time part of a continent, which, extending across the
channel, was continued to the extreme north of Scotland, being
there probably united with the Hebrides.

H 2 99

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Fig. 171.*— Map of western and central Europe in the Cretaceous Age, sketched by
M. Elie de Beaumont.

405. The Pyrenean basin, as will presently appear, did not exist
at the commencement of the Cretaceous age, but subsequently to
its third period reappeared, its waters covering the greater part of
Spain, including Madrid, Burgos, and other towns, as shown on
the map. Marseilles and Perpignan were at;the bottom of a strait
which bounded the southern part of the great central tract. A large

100

* The dark shading represents land.

CRETACEOUS AGE.

island extended in the direction N.N.E. and S.S.W. from Brian-
gon to Innspruck, separated from the main tract by a strait which
covered that part of Europe now occupied by Switzerland and
the chain of the Swiss Alps. A local sinking of the land between
Dresden, Prague, and Briinn, in the middle of Germany, produced
an extensive lake in that country, which in the Jurassic age was
an uninterrupted tract of land. See map, fig. 154.

406. The Vosges Mountains, previously washed by the ocean,
were now completely enclosed by the continental tract which con-
nected Bohemia with the central plateau, of France. The sea,
which covered so large a part of these countries, now retired,
leaving Langres, Nevers, Autun, and Lyons within the land. The
south-eastern coast of the great central continent extended from
Cracow a little to the north of Vienna and Munich, both of which
were covered by the Mediterranean basin, following Strasburg,
Bale, and Lyons, to Carcassonne, where the Pyrenean and Medi-
terranean basins were connected by a strait between Perpignan
and Bayonne. Bordeaux on the west and Avignon on the east
were at the bottom of the sea.

407. The future base of the chain of the great Alps was then
marked by the island already mentioned, which appears on the
map between Salsburg and Briangon, on which Turin, Trente,
and Innspruck are now placed. Toulon was on an island to the
south of this, and Corsica already formed an island further south.
The chief part of Italy was at the bottom of the Mediterranean
basin. The Scandinavian peninsula had remained nearly as in
the Jurassic age.

408. The geography of France and England during the
Cretaceous age is shown upon a large scale and' with more detail
in the map (fig. 172), drawn by M. D'Orbigny and reproduced
here by permission. In this map the seas are marked with the dark
shading, and those parts which in previous ages were submerged
are shown by three tints, indicated at the top of the map. The
deposits of six of the successive periods of the Cretaceous age are
marked as follows : —

I 17 III 19 V 21

II 18 IV 20 VI 22

409. It will be seen that the borders of the Anglo-Parisian basin
on the south-east were, as in the former age, gradually contracted
from period to period, that of the first period (17) being outermost,
the next (18) within it, and so on, one being within the other until
the last period. This regular succession of deposits is observable
to a certain point of the border near Nevers, on the map, beyond
which on south and west the exterior band of deposit is not, as

101

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

EB.K.A.I:

FALEOZOIQVES. IBIASIPUES. Jnwtssiouis.

Fig. 1T2. — Map of France and England in the Ci'etaceous Age, drawn by
M. D'Orbigny.

102

CRETACEOUS AGE.

before, that of the first, but that of the fourth Cretaceous period
(20).

410. The interpretation of this fact is evidently a change of
relative level of the land along this border during the first four
periods of the Cretaceous age. In the first, second, and third
periods the border was subject to a gradually increasing depression,
which after each period caused the shore of the sea to advance
outwards, the shore of the second period (18) being outside that
of the first (17), that of the third (19) outside that of the second
(18), and in fine that of the fourth (20) being outside that of the
third (19). The consequence of this is, that the fourth stage of
the Cretaceous formation along this part of the coast lies over
and conceals the previous deposits forming the first (17), second
(18), and third (19) stages. But after the fourth period the
relative levels must have undergone a contrary change, causing
the borders of the sea to have retired inwards, or eastwards, from
period to period, so that between the fourth and fifth period a
band of deposit of the fourth stage (20) remained uncovered, and
after the next period another (21), and so on to the end of the
Cretaceous age.

411. The irregularity indicated above, as having taken
place on the western side of the Paris basin, might have been
expected to have continued across the channel, and to reappear
along the English, border of the same basin. Such, however, is
not found to be the case ; for, as indicated in the map, the suc-
cessive stages of the Cretaceous period from the first (17) to the
last appear along the northern border of the basin from Dorset-
shire to Yorkshire, succeeding each other in the same regular
order as in the southern border in France. It would, therefore,
appear that the undulation which produced the irregularity
observable along the western border adjoining Brittany must
have been littoral ; that is, in a direction at right angles to the
N.W. and S.E. borders of the basin.

412. An examination of the Pyrenean basin discloses a singu-
lar state of things in accordance with that observed in the western
border of the Parisian basin. The first three stages of the Cre-
taceous formation are altogether absent from the Pyrenean basin,
which only received the deposits of the four last periods. M.
D'Orbigny has inferred from this that during the first three
periods of the Cretaceous age, the ground upon which the Pyre-
nean basin is placed was raised above the level of the sea, but
that the convulsion which closed the third Cretaceous period
caused it again to sink so as to be covered by the sea, and that it
thus remained submerged during the last four Cretaceous periods.
The border retiring from period to period is indicated on the map,

103

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

so as to leave band after band of the successive deposits eacli
uncovered by the other along its NE. border.

In the Mediterranean basin all the stages are presented, though
in an irregular and dislocated state.

413. The animal kingdom during the Cretaceous age was de-
stroyed and reappeared »in each of the seven periods. To the
terrestrial animals, such as birds, reptiles, and insects, and the
marine animals included in the class of fishes, inollusca, echino-
dermata, polyparia, foraminifera, and amorphozoa, which pre-
viously existed, must be joined for this age cycloid and ctenoid
fishes (salmon and perch), and various forms of foraminifera
hitherto unknown. This age was also signalised by the prevalence
of cirridated brachiopods, bryozoa and testaceous spongiaria.
Ammonite shells also, of the most elegant and various forms,
abounded, which disappeared for ever after this epoch.

The presence during the entire Cretaceous age of the same genera
and species of animals, from the line to the 56° of latitude on both
sides of the world, prove that these regions, so entirely different
in their climate at present, had a uniform temperature, proceeding
evidently from the neutralising effect of the central heat of the
earth, and which temperature was tropical.

414. Throughout the whole of this age, all that part of the
earth to which geological research has been directed, was subject
to the same slow and gradual undulations, as have been observed
during the human period on the Scandinaviau peninsula and
elsewhere.

On seven different occasions, however, more violent geological
perturbations took place, which swept from the earth and seas
every living thing ; and after these great catastrophes, when
nature was tranquillised, Almighty power once more repeopled
the land and the water, clothing the former with new vegetation.

FIRST CRETACEOUS I'ERIOD.

415. The great thickness of this stage, amounting at a mean
estimate to 8000 feet, or above a mile and a half, shows that the
duration of the period must have been considerable.

The composition of the stage includes the Purbeck beds, Has-
tings sand, Weald clay, and lower green sand of De la Beche, the
Tilgate and Ashburnham beds of Mantell, and the Wealden or
loth group of Lyell.

The fauna, exclusive of Annulata, is presented in the following
table:

104

FIRST CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annul ata) during the
First Cretaceous Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • f Mammifers . .

0

0

000

H H 1 Birds ....

41

2

022

u £ | Reptiles . . .

11

5

0 9

5

> » [ Fisb.es ....

14

1

13 4

0

£ f Cephnlopods
:« 1 Gastropods . .

15

SO

7
9

S
21

1

0

1

0

3 "1 Lamellibranchia

50

Q

41

0

0

o 1 Brachiopods .
^ ^Bryozoa . . .

11

19

8

6
10

0

1

0
0

^ f Ecbiuodermata .

21 10

11

3

2

< I Polyparia . .
5 ] Foraminifera

?r '*

15

0

i>
0

^ [ Amorphozoa

s y

542

21,°- 70 143

31 18

One genus of Crustacea (Archcconiscus) being added, gives the
total number of genera known as composing tke fauna 214, of
which 70 had not existed in any previous period.

The two genera of birds called Paleoornis and Cimoliornis were
webfooted, and were the first of the order which had yet appeared.
The Archseoniscus was of the order o i isopodous Crustacea.

Independently of the other classes, the number of species of
mollusca and radiata alone catalogued and described is 851. An
example of the mollusca is given in fig. 15.

416. Among the reptiles of this period were two of monstrous
size, the Iguanodon and Hylteosaurus. The former, which has
taken its name from some remote resemblance to the Iguana, a
land-lizard of intertropical countries, had a body as massive as
that of the elephant, measuring, when full grown, about 30 feet
in length. It was herbivorous, feeding on the foliage of the fern?,
cicadere, and conifers, which constituted the flora of the period.

The Hyloeosaurus, scarcely less in magnitude, was also an
herbivorous reptile.*

Besides these, the coasts abounded in tortoises ; and reptiles of
nine other generic forms, including the last of that strange class
of flying reptiles, the Pterodactyle, which never reappeared on the
earth after this period.

417. The land was richly clothed with vegetation. A catalogue
of the plants has been published by M. Brongniart, who observes
that the generic vegetable forms were nearly the same as in the

Mantell — Wonders of Geology — p. 437.

105

THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Jurassic age, the cicadeee, however, being less numerous in relation
to the ferns. The flora consisted principally of cryptogamous acro-
genous plants, such as the arborescent ferns, the marsileaceous,
and equisetaceous classes ; of dicotyledonous gymnosperms, such
as cicadese and conifers, and of many of doubtful classes.

SECOND CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

418. The composition of the second stage of the Cretaceous for-
mation corresponds nearly with the 14th group of Lyell, including
the Speeton clay of Yorkshire.

419. A generic summary of the fauna (excepting the Annulata),
is given in the following table :

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata') during the
Second Cretaceous Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • fMammifers . . 0
H H 1 Birds .... 0
g 3 1 Reptiles . . . ' 0
> « I Fishes .... 3

0

0
0

1

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

< ("Cephalopoda . 10
» 1 Gastropods . .! 12
3 < Latnellibrunchia 31
£ 1 Brachiopods :-;
g [Bryozoa • • , 3

1
1

0
0
0

9
11
31

<>

9

2
0

I
•

1

0
0
0
0

< f Echinodermata 2
•< J Polyparia . . 4
p | Foraininifera 0
^ tAmorphozoa 1

1

2
0
0

2
0
1

0
2
0
0

0
2
0
0

6l>

6

63

5

3

420. The outlines of sea and land in Europe did not differ
much from their configuration in the preceding period. An island
was formed on the present site of the Alps, extending from Castel-
lane near Digue, in the department of the Basses- Alpes, to the
department of the Hautes- Alpes, See map, fig. 172.

421. The marine fauna differed but little from that of the pre-
ceding period, consisting of numerous cephalopods of singular
forms (fig. 173, 174).

422. That the land was clothed with vegetation is proved by
the numerous remains of wood found in the strata. M. Brongniart
has described a pine of this period, the cone of which measured
ten inches in length, and an inch and three quarters in diameter,
found in the bed of the Marne near St. Didier.

106

THIRD CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

423. The identity of the tropical species found in extremely
diiferent latitudes, as, for example, in France and at Magellan's
straits, lead to the same inference, as in former periods, of the
general prevalence of an equatorial climate at all parts of the globe.

Fig. 173. — Ancyloceras Matheroniauus.

424. The convulsion which closed this period was, according to
M. D'Orbigny, that by which the Fuegian chain of mountains in
South America, the direction of which was N. 30°. W. and S. 30° E.,
was raised.

THIRD CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

425. The deposit of this period corresponds with the 13th or
gault group of Lyell, including the dark blue marl of Kent, the
Folkestone marl or clay, and Blackdown beds and green sand and
chert of Devon.

426. A view of the generic forms of the fauna is given in the
following table :

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during the
Tliird Cretaceous Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • ( Mammifers .
H £ J Birds . . .
g £ 1 Reptiles . .
> « [ Fishes . . .

0
0
0
1

0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

< [Cephalopoda
3 j Gastropods .
j -j Lamellibranchia
o 1 Brachiopods
g [ Bryozoa . .

11
27
38
0
9

0
3
2
0
3

11

24

3G
G
G

1
1
0
0

1

0
1
0
0

1

< ( Echinodermata
* J Poiyparia . .
p 1 Foraminifera
£ LAmorphozoa

16

0

4

6
0
2
1

10

7

9
1

0
0

1

()
0
0

123

18

105

6

3

107

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Adding- two genera of Crustacea), the total number of generic
forms in this period hitherto discovered amounts to 125, of which
20 were new, and 105 revived.

427. The outlines of land and sea were similar to those of the
last period, except on the borders of the Anglo -Parisian basin
between the departments of the Haute-Marne and Pas de Calais
in France, which, hithert(f uninvaded by the waters, were now
submerged, which shows that the waters had advanced to the
north in consequence of a subsidence of the ground in that
quarter. The sea also extended to certain parts of the Eastern
Pyrenees and the Var not previously submerged.

On the other hand, certain parts previously submerged were
now dry land, as, for example, in the department of Vaucluse and
along the line of the Alps from Escragnolles in the Var to
Grenoble, all of which were covered by the sea of the previous
period.

428. The seas were inhabited by fishes, Crustacea, and Mollusca,

Fig. 175. — Cyathiua Bowcrbankli.

of numerous forms previously unknown. One of the Polyparia
of this period is shown in figs. 175, 176.
108

FOURTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

No remains of terrestrial animals of this period have been found,
and the only traces of vegetation are the remains of wood "on the
borders of the basins, with a few plants found at Lyme Regis
and elsewhere.

429. Discordances in the strata indicate the convulsion which
closed this period.

rOUETn CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

430. The fourth stage of the Cretaceous formation, called by
M. D'Orbigny the Cenomanian, corresponds very nearly with the
twelfth group, or upper green sand-stone of Lyell, including the
Merstham fire-stone and the marly-stone, with chert of the Isle of
Wight.

431. The generic forms of the fauna were as follow :—

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata] during the
Fourth Cretaceous Period.

GKNERA.

Total. : Created.

Revived. Extinct. Juristic"

' j f Mammifers . . 0 0

0

0 0

H H j Birds .... 0

0

0

y o

3 2 I Reptiles . . .

0

1

1

i

1

> « I Fishes ....

3

1

2

0

0

< f Cephalopods
2 | Gastropods . .
2 -j Lamellibranchia

10

37
50

1

4
4

9

4(5

i

2

0
0
0

g j Brachiopods
^ (.Bryozoa . . .

11

24

1

s

10
1(5

o
5

0

•< { Echinodermata .

25

5

20

5

• 3

•< i Polyparia . . . ; "2'J

11)

13

7

5

3 "I Foraininifera . i 14

7

7

3

3

3 lArnorphozoa . 18 0

12

2 1

223

54

109

20 1-5

Among these a new genus of reptiles called the Haphiosaurus,
and one of fishes called Otodus, were included.

432. The shores of the seas of this period underwent some
changes, owing probably to a subsidence of the ground. They
advanced in Belgium as far as Tournay. They covered also
that extensive surface included between Fecamp and Tours, and
between Tours and Bourges, submerging ground which had re-
mained dry land since the close of the Jurassic age. They
covered also the whole extent of the Pyrenean basin, from the
department of the Loire Inferieure to that of the Lot, and from

109

. THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

thence to Spain and Portugal, which had hitherto remained dry
land. "In the Mediterranean basin the waters were limited to
certain points, and from the prevalence of identical species of
organic remains, it is probable that they extended in one
direction without interruption to Mount Lebanon in Syria, and
in the other into Germany, extending over Westphalia, Saxony,
Silesia, and Bohemia.

The continents were somewhat extended on some of the borders
of the basins, especially on the east of the Anglo-Paris basin in
France, and upon its west in England ; but they lost extent by the
advancement of the sea, as already explained, in Belgium. The
land was also diminished by the submersion of a large tract in
the west of France, extending from the Loire to Havre.

433. The seas were animated by numerous fauna, consisting
of fishes, new forms of Mollusca among the Gastropods and
Lamellibranchia, and a great quantity of Brachiopods which
formed extensive submarine banks. There were also innumerable
varieties of Bryozoa, Echinodermata, and above all, of Poly-
paria. Of all the Cretaceous periods this was perhaps the most
animated.

434. The shores of the seas were furnished with great varieties
of marine plants — a catalogue of which with a description is due
to M. Brongniart.

The terrestrial flora consisted principally of ferns, palms,
cicadese, conifers, and dicotyledonous plants of uncertain fami-
lies.

435. From what has been stated, it will be apparent that slow
and local undulations of the ground, similar to what prevail at
present in different parts of the earth, were common.

436. The convulsion which closed this period was that to
which M. Elie de Beaumont ascribes the elevation of the system
of Monte Yiso (216), the direction of which is ET.N.W. and S.S.E.

FIFTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

437. The fifth Cretaceous stage denominated Turonian by
D'Orbigny, is identical with the eleventh or lower white chalk
group of Lyell, including chalk without flints and chalk-marl.
It is identical also with the upper planerkalk of Saxony, and also
with the chalk formation of Mantell.

438. The principal generic forms of the fauna of this period are
shown in the following table : —

110

FIFTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during the
Fifth Cretaceous Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

< \ Mammifers . .
H 1 Birds ....
§ 1 Reptiles .
> [Fishes . . . .

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
.0
0

0
0
0
0

Cephalopods
Gastropods . .
• Lamellibranchia
£ Brachiopods
^ Bryozoa . . .

5
18
35
9
3

0
3
0
3
0

5

15
35
6
3

1
0
0

0

0
0
0
1
0

- f Echinodermata .
J Polyparia . . .
1 Foraniiuifera
p [ Amorphozoa

11

-46
4

4

1

20
3
1

10
26
1
3

4
20
0
1

0
9
0

1

135

31

104

28

11

439. The outlines of the seas were nearly the same as in the
former period ; the shores, however, retired at several points, and
especially in the Pyrenean hasin, from the Loire Inferieure to
La Vendee in the Mediterranean basin, upon all the known
points, and in the chain of the Alps from La Malle in the depart-
ment of the Var to Switzerland.

The continents underwent a corresponding change. The seas
were very animated, as is evident from the vast number of
Mollusca (fig. 14), and Echinodermata found upon the shores. They
were also remarkable for numerous submarine reefs.

440. It would appear, from the fossil woods so frequently found,
that the land was clothed with splendid vegetation, but owing to
the destructive effects of the geological convulsion which followed,
no complete remains either of plants or terrestrial animals have
been found.

441. From the local absence of this fifth Cretaceous stage,
it appears, that independently of several isolated points of
land in France and Prussia during this period, a surface of
dry land existed in Russia extending over 40° of longitude;
another in North America measuring 30° ; and others in South
America and in India, which must have been above the surface of
the waters, since no deposit corresponding with this stage appears
there. Since all these regions were submerged in the succeeding
period, it must be inferred that subsidence of the land over a
great extent took place. This subsidence, according to M.
D'Orbigny, extended from the torrid zone in the southern hemi-
sphere to the 34° of latitude, and in the northern hemisphere to

111

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

the 56°, or over the immense extent of 90° of latitude, being a
quarter of the terrestrial globe. In longitude this subsidence
was not less extensive, and is assigned by M. D'Orbigny as the
immediate cause which terminated the fifth Cretaceous period.

SIXTH CllETACEOL'S PEKIOD.

442. The sixth Cretaceous stage corresponds with the tenth or
upper white-chalk group of Lyell, including the white chalk with
flints of the north and south downs. It is identical with the
strata called by the Italians la Scaglia.

443. A generic summary of the fauna is given in the following
table :—

Synopsis of the Animal Kinr/dom (exclusive of Annul at a) during the
Sixth Cretaceous Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revi%'cd.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

• • { Mammiters . .

0

0

0

0

0

H 2 1 Birds ....

1

1

0

0

0

g 3 i Reptiles . . .
> « ( Fishes ....

41

3
24

2
17

1

22

1
15

< 1 Cephalopods
' 1 Gastropods . .

. 12
4-2

0

91

10
8

0
0

3 •{ Lamellibranchia

61

o

51

g

0

o | Brachiopods

14

;;

11

6

g [Bryozoa . . .

31

7

24

9

2

^ f Echinodermata .

34

11

23

19

6

5 1 Polyparia . .
o j Foramiuifera

23

7
13

1(3

12

12

5
4

* t. Amorpho/oa

24

7

17

21

6

:303

81

222

120

41

Adding two genera of Crustacea not included in this table,' it
appears that the fauna hitherto discovered consisted of 305
genera, of which 81 were new,
periods.

and 224 revived from former

112

Pig. 184.— PLATAX ALTISSIMDS.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.
CHAPTER VIII

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. ! 119

No. 151.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

— the Mosasaurus. — 449. Close of t'»e period. SEVENTH CRETACEOUS
PERIOD: 450. Mineral character of the stage. — 451. Synopsis of the
animal kingdom. — 452. Examples of the fauna. — Tertiary Age.
453. Origin of the name. — 454. Classification of the strata — five stages
— their nomenclature and thickness. — 455. Complete series not found.
— 456. Section of the formation between the Vofeges and Paris — dis-
cordances and isolatio^. — 457. Palaeontologies 1 distinction between
1he Tertiary and inferior formations. — 458. The number of species
in the Tertiary age. — 459. — Distribution of t'>e species among the
stages. — 460. General conclusions — 461. Outlines of land aud water
— D'Orbigny's map of France and England. — 462. Great geographical
changes from period to period. — 46 -. Character of the fauna — great
development of Mammifers. — 464. Uniform prevalence of tropical
climate. — 4H5. Gradual and violent undulations of the laud! FIRST
TERTIARY PERIOD. 466. Mineral character of the stage. — 467.
Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 468. Great development of fishes.
— 469. Vast increase of land animals, including those of which the
rhinoceros, otter, dog, ferret, and squirrel are types — 470. Creation
of flat-fish.— 471. The Mollusca— numnmlites.— 472. Whole moun-
tains formed of these animals. — 473. Vast duration of the period. —
474. Terrestrial flora. — 475. Outlines of land and water — Anglo-
Parisian basin — form of its shores iu France and England. — 476.
Pyrenean basin. — 477. Mediterranean basiii. — 478. Its great extent
towards the east. — 479. Fresh-water lakes. — 480. Close of the period.
SECOND TERTIARY PERIOD. 481. Elevation of the Pyrenees — elevation
of the tract of Bray in France, and of the Wealdeu in England. — 482.
Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 483. Specific forms of Mollusca
and Radiata. — 484. Creation of Cetacea, or whale forms. — 485.
Prodigious numbers of Miliolse, of which the stone quarries of Paris
are formed. — 486. Marine flora — land animals, including the generic
forms of which apes, bats, gallinaceous, predaceous, and climbing birds,
serpents, rattle -snakes, baboons, and opossums are types. — 487.
Crocodiles and land tortoises — belemnites and nautili — terrestrial
flora. — 488. Outlines of land and water — division of Anglo -Parisian
basin into two seas.

444. THIS period was signalised by the first appearance of
fishes of the Cycloid and Ctenoid orders (salmon and perch),
and also by numerous genera of Foraiuinifera. The number
of species of Mollusca and Hadiata alone which entered into
the composition of this fauna was 1577, all of which were new
to animated nature, and all of which disappeared at the close of
this period.

445. The great thickness of the stage, measuring, as we have
seen, 1000 feet, and the great number of species found in it, lead
to the conclusion that this sixth period was one of the longest of
the Cretaceous age.

446. The seas of this period underwent considerable changes
both in France and England. In some parts their shores retired,
leaving increased tracts of dry land, while in others, as in the
department of La Manche in France, tracts hitherto dry were

114

SIXTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

submerged. Great changes were also produced at other points. Thus
it was at the commencement of this period, that in consequence of
a considerable subsidence of the land, the sea flowed over all
Belgium as far as Maestricht, cover-
ing land which had remained dry
since the close of the Palaeozoic age.
It was also during this period that
the sea extended its limits from
Snowdon to the Ural Mountains, over
an extent of 40° of longitude. It
al>o covered a surface of 30° upon the
southern coast of South America. It
covered also Chili in the western
continent, and Pondicherry in the
eastern. From the identity of the
marine deposits, it may be inferred
that the sea of this period extended
without interruption from France to

all those distant points and from the tropics to the 56D north, and
the 3i° of south latitude.

Fig. 177. — Spondylus spinosus.

Fig. 178.— Reticulopora obliqua.

The land underwent changes corresponding with those of the
seas, being everywhere augmented where the seas retired, and
diminished where they advanced.

447. The Cycloid and Ganoid fishes prevailed in great numbers
i 2 115

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

in the seas, which were also animated by an infinite variety of
Mollusca — Gastropods, Brachiopods, Lamellibranchia (fig. 177),
and Bryozoa (fig. 178).

448. The shores of the seas were abundantly furnished with
marine vegetables. Of terrestrial animals, one genus of birds,
called Scolopax, has been |ound : and of land reptiles, two genera,
Leidon and Mosasaurus. The jaws of the latter are shown in
fig. 179.

449. The geological convulsion which terminated this period,

Fig. 179. — Mosasaurus Camperi.

according to M. D'Orbigny, was that which raised the chain of
the Cordilleras of Chili, the direction of which is N. 5°. E. and
8. 5°. W.

SEVENTH CRETACEOUS PERIOD.

450. In every point of view, this is the least important of the
periods, being the last stage of the decadence of the Cretaceous
age. This stage has no representative in the British strata. It
is identified by Sir C. Lyell with the Maestricht Jbeds, a group of
strata observed near that city, on the banks of the Metise, having
the thickness of about 100 feet. It rests upon the ordinary white
chalk and flints, which form the sixth Cretaceous stage, and
contains fossils, which, according to Sir C. Lyell, are, on the
whole, very peculiar, and all distinct from those of the Tertiary
age, which immediately succeeded it.

451. The following is a general view of the fauna of this period,
so far as the fossil remains show it.

116

TERTIARY AGE.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during the
Seventh Cretaceous Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

VERTE-

BRATA.

r Mammifers .
Birds . . .
Reptiles . .
.Fishes . . .

0
0
1

0
0
0

0
0
1

9

0
0
1

9

0
0
0

MOLLUSCA.

' Cephalopods
Gastropods .
Lamellibran chia
Brachiopods .
Bryozoa . .

2
17
11

2
0

0
1
0
0
0

2
16
11
2
0

1

0
0

1
0

00000

RADIATA.

Echinodermata
Polyparia
Foraminifcra
Amorphozoa

4
8
0
1

1

0
0
0

3
8
0
1

1

5
0
0

0
0
0
0

46

2

44

9

0

452, Independently of some Saurians, fishes, Crustacea and
Annelides, found among the fossils, sixty-six species of Mollusca
and Radiata have been catalogued by M. D'Orbigny, of which
only two are common to this and the preceding period. Of
these, a considerable number, including the Nautilus Danicus
(figs. 9, 10, 11), are found in this stage in Sweden as well as in
France, and may be regarded as more especially characteristic
of the closing period of the Cretaceous age.

The Tertiary Age.

453. At an early date in the progress of the science, the strata
below the Jurassic formation were called primary, and the
Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, taken together, were denomi-
nated secondary, having been obviously deposited from the seas
of that era upon the former. Hence the most recently deposited
group of strata resting upon the Cretaceous formation, and im-
mediately subjacent to the diluvial and alluvial deposits of the
human period, received the name of Tertiary, which, by general
consent, they have retained, although subsequent discoveries have
shown that the preceding deposits, instead of being resolved into
two, are much more properly regarded as consisting of a greater
number of distinct groups.

454. The strata composing the Tertiary formation have been
very variously classed, and grouped in geological works. Sir
Charles Lyell has divided them into three principal groups, which

117

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

he calls Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. He divides the first into
three, and the last into two subordinate groups, thus making the
whole formation consist of six stages. M. D'Orbigny finds that
a division into five stages is more in accordance with the distri >u-
tion of the organic remains. The following are the names which
he lias given to the five atrata, with their origin, and their esti-
mated average thickness : —

No. of

stage.

Name.

Origin.

Thickness.

V.
IV.
III.

Sub- A pennine
Kalunian . .
Tongrian .

Apennines
Falun (couchiferous crag)
Tongres ....

Feet 2000
1000
3*0

II.

Parisian

Paris

3300

M

Suessonian or )
Nummulitic . )

Soissons ....

3300

Total . . .

9930

Although these estimates of thickness must he regarded as mere
approximations, they will, nevertheless, be useful as exponents of
the relative duration of the five periods into which the Tertiary
age is divided. The total average thickness of this Tertiary
formation would appear to be about 10000 feet, or two miles, the
chief parts being occupied by the two lowest stages.

455. The complete series of stages can scarcely be found in
any single locality, but, partially united, their order can be easily
determined by comparing sections made in different places.

456. Fig. 180 represents a section from Vertus to Paris, being
the continuation of the general section of the country from the
Vosges to Paris, the first three divisions of which, commencing
from the Vosges, have been already given in figs. 141, 152, and
170. In this section, the first three only of the stages, proceeding
upwards, are included, being numbered 24, 25, and 26.

As in the preceding formations, the single stages are distin-
guished one from another, partly by discordance of stratification,
but much more by what geologists call discordances of isolation ;
that is, by the appearance of certain stages, and the absence of
.others. For example, while round the Anglo-Parisian basin
the first of the Tertiary stages is deposited immediately upon
the last of the Cretaceous ; in other places many intermediate
st iges are wanting. Thus, near Orgon, in France, the first Ter-
tiary stage is deposited upon the first Cretaceous, all the other
six stages of the Cretaceous formation being absent. In like
nianner, in the department of the Aude, the first Tertiary stage
is deposited upon the Palaeozoic formation ; and in the department
of the Var and the Lower Alps upon the Jurassic formation. In
118

TERTIARY AGE.

like manner, throughout the province of Touraine, the first and
second Tertiary stages are absent, the third being deposited in
different localities upon the Azoic, Palaeozoic, the Jurassic, or the
Cretaceous formations.

457. Palaeontological considerations supply other distinctions
between the Tertiary and inferior formations. Nearly 230

Fig. 180.

Vertus.

. . Montmirail.

.Montmartre.
. . . Paris.

. . Clermont.

II

generic forms extinct at the close of the Cretaceous age, and
not appearing in the Tertiary age, constitute a distinguishing
characteristic between the two epochs. In like manner, at the
commencement of the human period, 1324 new generic forms were
created which had no previous existence, and which, not being
present in the Tertiary age, supply a distinction between it and
the human epoch.

119

THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

458. The number of species of plants and animals of every
order which, lived in the Tertiary age, greatly exceeds that of
any former period. The number of vegetable species found in
the Tertiary strata exceeds 600, and that of Yertebrata and Annu-
lata amounts to nearly 1500, while the number of Mollusca and
Hadiata, catalogued an<£ described as belonging to this age,
amounts to 6042.*

459. The proportion in which this vast number of specific forms
of Mollusca and Radiata are distributed through the five Tertiary
stages is as follows : —

Stages.

No. in two or

more stages.

No. limited to
each stage.

Totals.

I.

8

670

678

II.

8

1568

1576

in.

0

428

423

IV.

28

2726

2754

V.

83

523

606

1*27

5915

6042

The same species being repeated in the second column, a cor-
responding deduction of the total number from the common
species must be made, which will reduce the actual number of
the common species to ninety-one, which is equivalent to 1 J per
cent, of the total number.

460. From this and other observations made upon the strata
composing the Tertiary formation, the following conclusions have
been adduced : —

1°. That there existed in the Tertiary age above 8000 species
of animals, altogether distinct from those of the preceding and
following ages, and which, therefore, are characteristic of the
Tertiary age.

2°. That this total number consisted of five distinct groups,
which existed severally during the five periods of the Tertiary
age, their remains being deposited in the five superposed stages
composing the Tertiary formation.

3°. That each period therefore had its own special fauna,
having nothing in common with those of the preceding or succeed-
ing periods.

4°. That the species which, owing to accidental causes or
erroneous designations, have been found in two or more stages, the
number of which has been greatly overrated, do not in reality
exceed 1| per cent, of the total number of species discovered.

461. The seas of this age in Western Europe consisted of four,

120

Prodrome D'OrbSgny, vols. ii. and iii.

TERTIARY AGE.

three of which, the Anglo-Parisian, the Pyrenean, and the
Mediterranean basins correspond with those of former epochs.

Fig 181 —Map of France and England in the Tertiary Age. By M. D'Orbigny.

121

THE PRE- ADAMITE EARTH.

The fourth, to which the name of Ligerian basin has been given,
covered part of the western provinces of France, as indicated
upon the map (fig. 181).

462. It must not be understood, however, that during the
whole continuance of the Tertiary age, or even during any two
periods of it, these seas jnaintained the same circumscription or
corresponded exactly with the outlines given in this map. On
the contrary, the geological convulsions which took place between
period and period, produced such changes of level in the land as
completely to derange the outlines of land and water. Thus the
Anglo -Parisian basin not only changed its form and limits in
diiferent periods, but in one totally disappeared, while in the first
periods of the Tertiary age the Ligerian basin had no existence.
Previously to the convulsion in which the chain of the Pyrenees
was elevated, the Pyrenean basin covered the ground upon which
that r mge afterwards stood, but after their elevation its shores
were driven northwards and its dimensions considerably reduced.
These changes of the outlines of land and water will, however,
be more clearly explained in the account we shall give of the
successive periods of this age.

463. The most striking characteristic of the fauna of the
Tertiary age, was the extraordinary development which took place
among vertebrated animals. It was then indeed that the land
was first peopled by those inammifers so remarkable for their
proportions and characters, such as the Anthracotheriums, the
Palceotheriums, the Anoplotheriums (fig. 182), the Dinotheriums,
the Toxodons, the Mastodons, the Sinilodons, the Grlyptodons
(fig. 183), the Megatheriums, the Megalonix, and many others.
It was then also that the continents were first peopled by birds
which would be pronounced colossal even beside the ostrich, and
with salamanders as large as the present crocodile. Around this
stupendous fauna was collected a floi a on a proportionate scale.
The seas were peopled by marine classes in a corresponding pro-
portion, and almost as varied as in our own day.

464. The generic animal forms, peculiar to present tropical
climates, being found distributed indifferently in all latitudes, it is
inferred that a general tropical temperature, as in former periods,
prevailed, and that consequently no isothermal lines or climatolo-
gical distinctions existed upon the earth until the present period.

465. Numerous indications are also found among the geological
phenomena, of the prevalence during this age of those slow and
gradual undulations of the earth's crust which are still in progress
in the north of Europe and elsewhere, independently of the more
violent class of convulsions by which period was divided from
period, fauna from fauna, and flora from flora.

122

FIRST TERTIARY PERIOD.

FIRST TERTIARY PERIOD.

466. The first Tertiary stage in its mineralogical characters
corresponds with the lower part of the Eocene group of Lyell, the
Nummulitic formation of Grras and other geologists, the Plastic
clay of Dufresnoy, Elie de Beaumont, and Mantell, and the
Woolwich sands of Morris.

467. After the general agitation produced by the geological
convulsion which closed the Cretaceous age had subsided, a new
fauna and flora were called into existence to people and clothe the
earth. A generic synopsis of the former is produced in the
following table : —

is of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during the
First Tertiary Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

' ^ 1 Mammifers . .

fi

6

0

0

0

f- H 1 Birds ....

1

1

0

1

1

« g i Reptiles . . .

f>

0

2

0

0

> « ( Fishes ....

91

83

8

34

34

•< j Cephalopoda . .
to J Gastropods . .
S 1 Lamellibranchia

3
70
35

2
34
5

1
36
30

0
0

0
0
1

g Bracliiopods . .

2

0

2

0

0

g "-Bryozoa . . .

10

0

10

1

0

£ (Echinodermata,.
: j Polyparia. . .
5 j Foraminifera

23
17
8

13
8
3

10
9
5

A

3
0

3
1
0

.*; lAmorphozoa

1

0

1

1

0

269

155

114

45

40

With the addition of one genera of Crustacea (squilla), the
total summary of the generic forms of animal lite in this period
will then be 270, of which 156 were now first created, and the
remaining 114 revived from former periods.

468. This period was remarkable for the great development of
fishes, of which 83 new genera were created. Of the Mollusca,
the Gastropods were most developed, 34 new genera having
appeared. The total number of species of Mollusca and Radiata
described in this period amounts to 678, which, however numerous,
are inferior in number to the same divisions in some former
periods. Before the Tertiary age, some few traces of the existence
of Mammifers were found, but with the exception of a few
isolated bones, such traces everywhere consisted of foot-tracks.

469, The commencement of the Tertiary age was, however,
more especially signalised by a prodigious accession to this highest

123

THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

branch of the animal kingdom, six genera being created and
named as follows : —

Anthracotherium, a genera of Pachydermatous animals, found
in the lignite or brown coal in Italy, the name being a Greek
compound, signifying coal beast.

Lophiodon, another Pachydermatous animal, allied to the
Rhinoceros or Tapir, taking its name from a Greek compound,
signifying teeth, formed like the hairs of a mane.

Lutra, a generic form of which the otter is the type.

Cams, a generic form of which the dog is the type.

Viverra, a generic form of which the ferret is the type.

Sciurus, a generic form of which the squirrel is the type.

470. The seas were enriched with a great number of animals
hitherto unknown. The shores were animated by innumerable
fishes, including many Pleuronectoids, or flat fish, which now
appeared for the first time (fig. 184).

471. Among the multitude of Mollusca new to the world at
this epoch, may be mentioned the Beloptera, Oliva, Tritons,
Terebratulse, &c. The Zoophytes and Foraminifera abounded,
compensating by their prodigious numbers for the minuteness of
their dimensions ; but the class from which the period took its
most prominent character was that of the Nummulites, an animal
of a round flat form, resembling that of a coin, from which the
name of the class is taken (figs. 185, 186, 187). These animals
are technically described as chambered spiral univalve shells.

Fig. 185. Pip- 186. Fig. 187.

Kummulites planulata.

These Nummulites lived far from the coast, and their shells
were deposited in layers of prodigious thickness upon the deepest
bottoms of the seas.

472. At subsequent periods geological convulsions occurred, by
which the conchiferous strata thus formed were forced upwards,
so as to form mountain ranges. An example of such chains is
presented in the Pyrenees, where entire mountains are found
consisting of little else than the fossilised remains of these minute
animals. It is a striking fact also, that it was of like materials
that the Pyramids of Egypt were built.
124

FIRST TERTIARY PERIOD.

473. The great duration of this first Tertiary period may be
judged from the fact, that these nummulitic strata have in some
localities a thickness of several hundred yards. The marine
flora of this period consisted chiefly of Cryptogamous Ainphigenes,
Alga3, and monocotyledonous Naiads.

474. The terrestrial flora consisted of Cryptogamous Acrogenes,
such as Hepaticce, ferns, Equisetacete or mares' tails, Characeae,
Palms, Conifers, and Taxinese.

475. In comparing the geography of this period with that of the
preceding, it will be seen that, while at some parts the seas are
limited by the same shores, at others their outline is completely
changed. Upon the northern and southern borders of the Anglo-
Parisian basin, the shores lie within those of the Cretaceous age,
leaving a band of ground, previously submerged, uncovered. On
the south, the shores have retired still further, no traces of the
deposits of this stage being found beyond the line which would
pass through Montereau, Melun, Paris, Houdan, and Louviers.
This basin extended in England, in an irregular direction S.W.
and N.E., from Dorchester to Wells, passing through Dorset-
shire, Wiltshire, Surrey, Berkshire, and Hertfordshire, in a
direction which probably extended much further to the north
over the ground now covered by the German Ocean.

476. In the Pyrenean basin the northern limits of the sea were
nearly the same as in the Cretaceous period. It extended probably
from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean, covering all the
space upon which the Pyrenees now stand as well as part of Spain.

477. In the Mediterranean basin the sea entirely changed its
place : Provence, which it formerly covered, was now occupied
by fresh-water lakes, but the sea appeared above Grasse, in the
department of the Yar ; its western shore extended W.N.W. to
Castellane, and seemed to follow the line now occupied by the chain
of the Alps to Annecy, and beyond that to Grlaris.

478. Beyond these limits this sea extended to the east, over
Sardinia, Italy, the Tyrol, part of Switzerland, and communicated
probably with Egypt, the Crimea, the Caucasus, and from the
slopes of the Ural to India. Corresponding changes took place on
the land, a fresh-water lake existed at Hilly la Montaigne. On the
north of the Pyrenean basin the land was uninterrupted from the
Ocean to the Mediterranean.

479. A fresh-water lake covered the part of Provence between
Orgon, Martignes, and Aix. These and other details may be easily
followed on M. d'Orbigny's map (fig. 181), where the seas of
this period are distinguished by the shading number 24.

480. The changes which took place in the outlines of land and
water in consequence of the convulsion which closed the Cretaceous

125

THE PRE- ADAMITE EARTH.

age, and which preceded the first Tertiary period, will be clearly
perceived by comparing those parts of the map (fig. 181), which
we have here indicated, with the parts of the map (tig. 172,
numbered 22.)

SECO:Nf> TEETIAEY PEKIOD.

481. The animal and vegetable world of the first period was
swept awny by the convulsion produced by the elevation of the
chain of the Pyrenees, which was attended with a general per-
turbation of the whole surface of the globe. The date of this
convulsion is identified with the first Tertiary period by the fact
of the nummulitic strata which were deposited during that period
being found dislocated along the entire extent of the Pyrenean
range. The same dislocation elevated the tract of Bray in France
and the country round Boulogne, both of which were submerged
by the Anglo-Parisian sea. Parts of Surrey and Sussex in Eng-
land, including the Wealden, were raised at the same time.

The second Tertiary stage includes the London clay of English
geologists, the fresh- water and marine formation of Morris, a
part of the eocene of Lyell, the blue clay of Bracldesham, the
arenaceous limestone of Bognor of Mantell, and the calcareo-arena-
ceous system of Galeotti.

482. The following is the generic synopsis of this period :

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during the
Second Tertiary Period.

GENERA.

Total. Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

K •<
> «

f Mammifers .
Birds . . . .
Reptiles .' . .
1 Fishes . . . .

21 17
11 10

G 2

. a«> 20

J

4
19

8
2

0
14

7
2
0
10

|

1

Cephalopods
Gastn >pods . .
Lamellibranchia
Brachiopods . .
. Bryozoa . . .

4 0

7S 7
57 9
2 0
14 1

4
71
4S

13

1
6
3

0

2

0

1

3
0
1

11

Kchinodermata .
Polyparia .
Foraminifera
Amorphozoa

13 5
45 28
31 13
1 0

13
17
18

6
20
5
0

3
16
3
0

327 ! 112

215

67

46

With the addition of five genera of Crustacea, the total number
of genera ascertained to have existed in this period was, therefore,
332, of which 116 appeared for the first time in the world.
126

SECOND TERTIARY PERIOD.

483. Independently of several hundred species of Vertebrata
and Annulata, the fauna of this period included 1576 species of
Mollusca and Radiata, which have been enumerated and described
by D'Orbigny.

484. A great number of new animals abounded in the seas, the
chief part of which consisted of^new genera of fishes and Poly-
paria or Zoophytes. It was in this period that the class of Cetacea
or marine mammifers first appeared in the geneia oi the Dolphin
and the Balcenodon. Among the Crustacea the generic forms of
crabs were first presented.

485. Of the Zoophytes and Foraminifera, the Miliola3, charac-
terised by its multilocular shell, and taking its name from milium,
the Latin word for millet seed, prevailed in numbers so enormous,
as to f.»rm those strata of stoire of which nearly the whole of the
city of Paris is built. It is a curious circumstance, therefore, that
one of the greatest cities of the world should owe its fabrication to
the original industry of minute animals which lived countless ages
before the creation of man. The prodigious multitude of these
minute beings, which must have existed to produce the quarries of
Paris alone, not to mention similar ones which exist elsewhere, may
be imagined when it is stated that, taking into account the weight of
these shells, it has been calculated that a cubic inch of stone must
be composed of not less than two thousand millions of them.

486. The marine flora of this period was generically similar to
that of the last, differing, however, altogether in the species.
Numerous land animals appeared for the first time, among which
may be mentioned the following, — mammifers, apes and bats ;
birds (fig. 188), predaceous climbers and gallinaceous ; reptiles,

Fig. 188.— Fossil in the Gypsum of Montmam-e.

127

THE PRE-ADAM1TE EARTH.

serpents. The forests of France and England abounded in generic
forms, of which baboons, rattlesnakes, and opossums are the living
types.

The plains nourished Pachydermatous animals, called Paleo-
therium, Anaplotherium, &c. (fig. 189).

Fig. 189. — Common Auaplotheriurn.

487. The gigantic saurians of former periods had altogether
disappeared in the Cretaceous age, but a large race of crocodiles
and land and sea tortoises succeeded them. The Belemnites and
their chambered shells had disappeared from the seas, the Nautilus
alone remaining.

The cicadece totally disappeared from the flora, and new conifers,
with dicotyledonous plants and palms, appeared in the centre of
Europe,— -plants which at present have receded into Africa, show-
ing that the mean temperature of the continent then corresponded
to that which at present prevails in Lower Egypt.

488. The outlines of land and water underwent important
changes in consequence of the convulsions which preceded this
period. The Anglo-Parisian basin was divided into two gulfs,
completely separated, by a tract passing through its middle in a
direction nearly east and west. The two separate basins thus
formed are marked on the map by the shading 25. The northern
basin in France covered part of Belgium, including Brussels and
Ghent, with an angle of France, which included Dunkirk. In
England it included London and the mouths of the Thames.

The southern basin was limited in France on the north by Laon,
and extended east and west between Havre and Epernay, being
bounded by an irregular line. It may be considered as highly
probable, if not certain, that the northern gulfs in England and
France communicated with each other by a tract of water included
within the dotted lines on the map, and that in like manner the
southern gulfs were united by a tract of water extending from
Havre to the Isle of Wight.
128

Fig. 183. — GLYPTODON CLAVIPES.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTER IX.

439 — 490. Great change in the Pyrenean and Mediterranean basins. —
491. Land and water in the United States. — 492. Effect of the eleva-
tion of the Pyrenees. — 493. General prevalence of tropical climate —
494. Great change in the Mediterranean basin. — 495. Sketch of part
of Western Europe by Elie de Beaumont. THIRD TKRTIARY PERIOD.
49»5. Mineral character of the stage. — 497. Convulsion which pre-
ceded the period. — 498. Outlines of land and water. — 499. Marine
fauna and specific forms of Mollusca and Radiata. FOURTH TERTIARY
PERIOD. 500. Mineral character of the stage. — 501. Synopsis of
animal kingdom. — 502. Specific forms of Mollusca and Radiata. —
503. Convulsion which preceded the period — Disappearance of Anglo-
Parisian sea — Ligerian basin. — 504. Pyrenean basin. — 505. Marine
fauna. — 506. Enormous increase of land animals, including the
generic forms of the bear, the cat, the weasel, the seal, the mouse, the
beaver, the rhinoceros, the tapir, and the stag. — 507. Great increase
of reptiles and fishes, including snakes, frogs, salamanders, perch,
herring, and carp. — 508. Flora, including the generic forms of various
conifers ; birch, alder, oak, beech, elm, fig, plantain, poplar, laurel,
sloe-tree, maple, red jasmin, madder. — 509. Uniform tropical
climate. FIFTH TERTIARY PERIOD. 510. Mineral character of the
stage. — 511. Synopsis of the animal kingdom. — 512. Outlines of
land and water. — 513. Elevation of the Western Alps — its effects. —
514. Map of France by M. Elie de Beaumont. — 515. Marine
animals, including the generic forms of gudgeon, pike, loach, Way,
and tench. — 516. Terrestrial fauna including the megatherium,
megalonyx, mylodon, and mastodon, and the generic forms of the
elephant, hippopotamus, camel, giraffe, and stag. — 517. Birds of the
generic forms of the vulture, eagle, swallow, woodpecker, chat,
anabate, lark, mothhunter, cuckoo, parrot, pheasant, common fowl,

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. K 129

Nc. 152.

THE PEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

guinea fowl, flamingo, horned owl, rail, corncrake, goose, loon, duck,
gull, &c. — 518. Fossil salamander of (Eningen. — 519. Flora, including
generic forms of liquidamber, willow, myrtle, anemone, plum-tree,
magnolia, holly, rhododendron, and azalea. — 520. Large numbers of
Mammifers. — 521. Bone caves — cave of Gaylenreuth. — 522. Re-
trospect. — 523. Was creation at each period simultaneous. —
524. Proofs in the affirmative. — 525. Was there a progressively
increasing perfection of organisation. — 526. Number of orders in the
respective strata. — 527. Of genera in the orders. — 528. Increase and
decrease of genera in the orders. — 529. Orders in which the decrease
took place. — 530. Orders of fishes.

489. GREATER changes still were produced, as indeed might
be expected, in the Pyrenean basin. While its northern
shores remained nearly the same, the southern limits were
altogether changed. The sea, which in the preceding period
covered all the ground upon which, the Pyrenees stand, ex-
tending over part of Spain, was now driven back to the north,
and occupied only a very small basin near Bordeaux, marked 25
on the map.

490. The same cause produced a considerable change in the shores
of the Mediterranean basin, which no longer communicated with
the Pyrenean basin, its western shores being driven back towards
the east. It is probable that its western shores commenced near
Nice, passing near Faudon and St. Bonnet, the site of the High
Alps, from which, however, that chain had not yet arisen. From
thence the shores of this sea were continued to Bex in Switzerland,
where all traces of them are lost.

491. During this period, a considerable tract of the United
States, extending from 31° to 39° lat., which had been raised
above the waters since the end of the Cretaceous age, became
submerged, so that the sea probably extended without interrup-
tion from Paris to the southern part of North America.

492. Corresponding changes took place in the land by the
elevation of the chain of the Pyrenees, which presented a barrier
to the progress of the ocean, and which left high and dry not
only the mountain range itself, but also the interval included
between that and the central plateau of France, so that Languedoc
and Provence, and the surrounding country, formed one great
continent.

493. The appearance of marine species identical with those
deposited in the Anglo -Parisian basin in the seas by which the
southern states of America were submerged, and the discovery
of apes, rattlesnakes, and generic forms of marine animals
and plants, proper to warm climates in all parts of Europe, and
in the Isle of Sheppey, in England, prove that, at this epoch,

130

SECOND TERTIAKY PERIOD.

the temperature of the present equatorial regions prevailed gene-
rally throughout Europe.

494. During this period, the Mediterranean basin was reduced
to some small patches of water, which appeared in the Savoy,
and in the region upon which the French Alps now stand. These
are marked upon the map by the number 25.

495. Before the geology of Western Europe, in relation to this
age, was submitted to the elaborate analysis of M. D'Orbigny,
from which the details explained above have resulted, M. Elie
de Beaumont published a map of its geography during this
period, of which we give a reduction in fig. 190.

It will be seen that, according to this, the Anglo-Parisian

Zfa^^^^^ \"^° ^^

JlAteral^ 5 -*1WMI*» Niet

V mt»^M£,

^«'^J • *&"*'

^~ ^S»^~~

MctUrM

50

45

5 0 5 10

Fig. 190. — Map of Western Eui-ope during the Second Tertiary Period.

basin was not inferred to be divided into two separate gulfs, as
above described, but an insular tract was supposed to be formed
around the country of Bray in France, and another around the
Wealden in England.

The basin was assumed by M. Elie de Beaumont to extend
between Paris and the Lizard Point, Cambridge and Maestricht.
The Pyrenean basin is represented as limited between Bordeaux
and Dax. It is probable, however, that the more recent

K 2 131

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

geological researches in these regions have supplied data which
have rendered the map of M. D'Orbigny the more exact.

THIRD TERTIARY PERIOD.

496. The strata deposited during this period, according to
M. D'Orbigny, correspond with the middle terrain tertiaire and
gres de Fontainebleau of MM. Dufresnoy and Elie de Beaumont,
the Tongrian, Rupelian, and Bolderberg strata of M. Dumont, the
Molasse of Switzerland, the Faluns bleus of M. Grataloup, and,
in fine, with the fifth group of M. D'Archiac.

497. The second Tertiary period was closed by the convulsion
which raised the system of Corsica and Sardinia of M. Elie
de Beaumont. Upon the re-establishment of tranquillity, a
new fauna was created, consisting of 428 species of Mollusca
and Radiata, independently of the vertebrated and annulated
classes.

498. The outlines of land and sea underwent several changes,
the results of which will be seen on the map, the seas during this
period being indicated by the shading marked 26a, fig. 181. The
Paris basin was limited to a space round Paris, between Provins
and Evreux, east and west. The Pyrenean basin covered the space
similarly indicated and shaded, a tract of dry land, however,
remaining to the N.W. of Blay. In Belgium, the seas ad-
vanced to the N.E,, as far as Limbourg, in the neighbourhood of
Maestricht.

499. The marine animals of this period, though generically
identical with those of the succeeding one, were, nevertheless,
specifically distinguished from them. This distinction has not,
however, been clearly indicated, except in the case of the Mol-
lusca and Radiata, 428 species of which M. D'Orbigny has iden-
tified with the deposits of this period. The flora included nearly
the same generic forms as in the preceding epoch.

FOURTH TERTIARY PERIOD.

500. The strata deposited in this period, according to D'Orbigny,
include part of the middle Tertiary and Falunian of MM. Dufresnoy
and De Beaumont, the Molasse, Falunian and Crag of M.
Cordier, the superior order of Conybeare, and the Miocene and
Suffolk and Norfolk Crag of Sir C. Lyell.

501. The following is the generic summary of the fauna, which,
however, includes a certain number of genera of the Vertebrates
peculiar to the third stage.

132

FOURTH TERTIARY PERIOD.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during the
Fourth Tertiary Period.

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

A • (Mammifers . .
gS 1 Birds . .

57

7

47 10
4 3

27
0

23

o

£ £ 1 Reptiles . . .

13

7

fi

3

2

!> « [ Fishes ....

'28

7

21

1

1

3 ( Cephalopods
t» [ Gastropods . .

3

97

1

20

2

77

2

1

1

1

3 •< Lamellibranchia

64

6

58

2

o

£ 1 Brachiopods

8

1

7

0

0

g [ Bryozoa . . .

20

5

15

3

2

< { Echiuodermata .

23

6

17

2

1

< 1 Polyparia . .

45

15

30

16

6

2 | Foramiuifera

42

14

28

3

2

£J (. Amoi-phozoa

1

0

1

0

0

408

133

275

00

39

With the addition of fourteen genera of Crustacea, it
appears, therefore, that this fauna consisted of 422 genera, of
which 133 were new, and the remainder revived from preceding
periods.

502. Independently of several hundred species of Vertebrata
and Annulata, 2754 species of Mollusca and Radiata proper to
this period have been catalogued and described.*

503. The third period was closed, and the present preceded by
the dislocation which produced the system of the Isle of Wight,
of the Tatra, of the Rilodagh, and of Mount Haemus, as shown by
M. Elie de Beaumont. After the re-establishment of tranquillity,
the outlines of sea and land had undergone considerable changes.
The water by which the Anglo-Parisian basin had never ceased
to be submerged since the Triasaic age, retired, and left all that
region dry land. A new sea, however, was formed in the west of
France, to which the name of the Ligerian basin has been given
by M. D'Orbigny, and the limits of which are indicated on the
map by the shading marked 26 b, fig. 181. The deposit left by this
basin was, however, by a subsequent convulsion, broken into
patches, so that, at the present time, it does not present one con-
tinuous stratum.

504. The Pyrenean basin was contracted within the limits
marked on the map 26 b, fig. 181. The Mediterranean basin under-

Frodrome D'Orbigny, vol. iii. p. 25 ct scq.

133

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

went a complete change of form. It now submerged a vast surf ace r
which was previously dry land, included between Montpelier and
a tract to the west of Marseilles, extending on the north into
the departments of the Gard and the Drome. It extended also
to the N.E. as far as the tract upon which the Lower Alps
stand. Another arm of*this sea turned to the N.N.E., cover-
ing part of Savoy and Switzerland, and extending probably
to Vienna and still further in that direction, Thus three seas
were still found in the west of Europe — the Ligerian basin
taking the place of the Anglo- Parisian basin. In England,
the Anglo-Parisian basin was limited to Suffolk and Norfolk,
where it covered the whole coast, and it probably extended
from thence across the Channel into Belgium, covering the land
around Antwerp.

505. The seas during this period were peopled by numerous
animals unknown to any anterior epoch. Not less than 89
marine genera appeared for the first time, among which the
Gastropods amounted to 20, and the Foraminifera to 15.
Among the Crustacea which now first appeared in the seas, were
included the generic forms of which the Hermit crab and the
Lobster are types.

506. But it was by its land animals that this period, compared
with all former ones, was more especially remarkable. It appears
by the table, that of the 57 genera of Mammifers ascertained
to have lived in this period, 47 had never before existed. Of
these genera a great number, remarkable either for their magni-
tude or their peculiar forms, have become extinct, among which
may be mentioned Palaeomys, Macrotherium, Dinotherium,
fig. 191, Toxodon, and Mastodon. Among the forms which

Fig. 191. — Diuotherium gigaiiteum.

have survived, we find living types in the bear, the cat, the
weasel, the seal, the mouse, the beaver, the rhinoceros, the tapir,
and the stag.
134

FIFTH TEliTIAEY PERIOD.

507. Among the reptiles which now* appeared for the first time
were generic forms, whose types are snakes, frogs, and sala-
manders, and among the fishes, those of which the types are the
perch, the herring, and the carp, fig. 192.

508. The flora of this period included Amphigamous crypto-
gamia (Algte and mushrooms), Acrogenous cryptogamia (Mosses
and ferns), Monocotyledons, Dicotyledonous gymnosperms
(numerous conifers), Dicotyledonous angiosperms (birch, alder,
oak, beech, elm, fig, plantain, poplar, laurel, rose-tree, acacia,
sumach, nut-tree, sloe-tree, maple, red-jasmine, madder.)

509. The presence in all the European seas of species, both

Fig. 192.— Lebias Cephalotes. Cyprin (Carp).

animal and vegetable, now peculiar to the Torrid Zone, proves
that there prevailed, in this period as in the former, in France,
England, and Germany, and probably in all other parts of the
globe, a uniform temperature similar to that which now charac-
terises the tropics. Climatological lines had not therefore yet
existed.

FIFTH TERTIARY PERIOD.

510. The strata deposited in this period corresponded with the
older Pleiocene of Sir C. Lyell.

511. The following is a generic synopsis of the fauna, with the
xception of three genera of Crustacea.

135

THE FEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

Synopsis of the Animal Kingdom (exclusive of Annulata) during tlu
Fifth Tertiary Period.

•

GENERA.

Total.

Created.

Revived.

Extinct.

Charac-
teristic.

VERTE-

BRATA.

[Mammifers .
Birds . . . .
Reptiles . . .
Fishes ....

29
14
16

42
26
7
8

30
3
7
8

33
1
5
3

25
1
5
1

*

Cephalopoda
Gastropods . .
Lamellibranchia
Brachiopods
Bryozoa . . .

1
64
46
4

8

1
2
2
0
0

0
62
44
4
8

0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
0

J

Echinodermata .
Polyparia . .
Foramiiiifera
Amorphozoa

14
8
29
0

0
0
3
0

14

8
26
0

4
3
1
0

0
0
0
0

305

91

214

51

32

Of the Mollusca and Annulata alone 606 species have been
catalogued and described. The fourth or Falunian period, as
M. D'Orbigny has named it, was closed, and the fifth or sub-
Apennine preceded by the geological convulsion, in which the
"Western Alps burst through the terrestrial crust and were elevated
to their present relief.

512. The seas had again completely changed their beds in
Europe, and especially in France. The three seas, which in the
preceding period submerged the Ligerian, Pyrenean, and Medi-
terranean basins were now completely dried up, none remaining
except small patches of water on the borders of the Mediterranean,
in the departments, in the East Pyrenees, and in the Herault,
near Montpelier. It appears, therefore, that in France land and
water now assumed very nearly the forms which they possess at
present, but in Piedmont the province of Asti was still sub-
merged, as well as part of Italy, a tract round Vienna, and a
great part of Eastern Europe.

513. Corresponding changes took place in the land. Switzer-
land, Savoy, the French departments of the Jura, the Ain, the
Isere, the Higher Alps, the Lower Alps, the Drome, Vaucluse, and
the Bouches du Rhone, which had been severally to a greater or
lesser extent submerged, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous
ages, and during the previous periods of the Tertiary age, were
now raised above the waters, and formed part of the general
continent.

136

.FIFTH TERTIA11Y PERIOD.

Fig>

50

514. Although the western part of Europe, including France
and part of Switzerland, were no longer submerged by the sea,
sheets of fresh water existed in certain places. Thus, according
to M. Beudant, a lake existed in France, extending north and
south from Langres to Valence, fig. 193, and a similar one in
Provence, between Sisteron and Verdon. The channel of Alsace,
also, according to this geo-

legist, still communicated
with the ocean, and that
of Piedmont, commencing
from 2fice and Genoa, was
connected with the seas
which washed the Apen-
nines.

515. The seas of this
period were peopled with
the same generic forms as
in the preceding, with the
addition, however, of some
new genera of fishes, such
as the Gobius (gudgeon),
Esox (pike), Cobitis (loach),
Aspius (Way), and Tinea
(tench).

516. The terrestrial fauna included a vast variety of forms,
remarkable by their proportions and characters. Among the
Mammifers were the Glyptodon, fig. 183, Megatherium, fig. 194,
Megalonyx, Mylodon, fig. 195, and Mastodon, all of which are
extinct. Among the genera which have since reappeared under
other specific forms were elephants, fig. 196, hippopotami, camels,
giraffes, horses, stags, fig. 197, p. 145, armadilloes, fig-. 198, and
sloths.

517. Among the birds were included genera of which the
following are types, the vulture, eagle, swallow, woodpecker,
chat, annabate, lark, moth-hunter, cuckoo, parrot, pheasant,
common fowl, guinea-fowl, flamingo, horned-owl (hibou), rail,
corncrake, goose, loon, duck, gull, grabe.

518. Among the reptiles of this period must especially be
noticed the celebrated gigantic Salamander, fig. 199, found in. the
lacustrine limestone of OEningen. The first specimen of this
fossil which was discovered obtained much notoriety from having
been described as a human skeleton, under the fanciful name of
Homo diluvii testis—a, man who was witness of the deluge.
Cuvier examined this specimen, and ascertained it to be the
remains of a species of aquatic salamander. Other specimens of

1ST

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

the same fossil have been found which measured nearly five feet
in length.

Fig. 194.— Megatherium Cuvieri.

519. To nourish the enormous herbivorous animals, which
covered the land in such numbers from Italy to the Frozen

Fig. 19D. — Mylodon robustus.

Ocean, and which at present are found only in those tropical
138

FIFTH TERTIARY PERIOD.

regions clothed with the richest vegetation, nature presented
everywhere during this period the most varied and exuberant
flora, which included nearly all the vegetable forms enumerated in

S r

the preceding period, with the addition of numerous others, among
which may be mentioned liquidamber, willow, myrtle, anemone,
plum-tree, magnolia, holly, rhododendron, azalea, &c.

139

• THE PEE -ADAMITE EARTH.

520, It is to this geological period, that the prodigious numbers
of Mammifers found in the strata of the Pampas of Buenos Ayres,
and in the caves which are scattered in such vast numbers over
the continents of Europe and America, and even in Australia, are
ascribed. In the Brazils are numerous bone-caverns, which
contain genera still inhabiting the South American continent,
though differing from the living species. It is worthy of especial
notice, observes Dr. Mantell, that the bones of a species of horse

Fig. 198.— Armadillo.

occur in these accumulations, for when the Spaniards invaded
the country, horses were wholly unknown to the inhabitants,
who, on seeing a Spaniard on horseback, supposed that the man
and horse composed a single animal. It is a marvellous event
in the history of the world, that a native species should have dis-
appeared, and should have been succeeded in after ages by count-
less herds of the same genus introduced by man's intervention.

521. One of the first bone-caves which attracted attention was
that of Gaylenreuth in Franconia, a section of which is shown
in fig. 200.

The entrance of this cave, about seven feet in height, is placed
on the face of a perpendicular rock, and leads to a series of
chambers from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and several
hundred feet in extent, in a deep chasm. The cavern is perfectly
dark, and the icicles and pillars of stalactite reflected by the
torches present a highly picturesque effect. The floor is literally
paved with bones and fossil teeth, and the pillars and corbels of
stalactite also contain osseous remains. Cuvier showed that three-
fourths of the remains in this and like caverns were those of
bears, the remainder consisting of bones of hyenas, tigers, wolves,
foxes, gluttons, weasels, and other Carnivora.

140

. FIFTH TERTIARY PERIOD.

Fig. 199. — Fossil Salamander (Andrias Sfchcuclizeri).

141

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

142

RETROSPECT OF PRE-ADAMITE AGES.

RETROSPECT OF THE PRE-ADAMITE AGES.

522. Upon a review of the history of the earth previous to the
appearance of the human race and its contemporary fauna and
flora, as briefly sketched in the preceding pages, several con-
siderations of high interest respecting the progressive development
of organic life upon it present themselves.

Naturalists have grouped the animal world into the 20 classes
indicated in the table given in (244), and have subdivided these
classes into 77 orders. Each of these 77 orders is again resolved
into a certain number of generic forms.

It will be matter of obvious interest to inquire in what manner
the author of nature has proceeded in the work of creation, first,
in considering each act of creation in itself, and independently
of the others ; and secondly, in comparing one with another the
successive creations described in the preceding pages.

523. Were all the forms of organic life, which existed upon
the earth at any one epoch, called simultaneously into being ?
The habits and economy of animals answer this question. In
relation to their modes of nourishment they may be resolved into
two classes : the first, herbivora, consisting of those which feed
on vegetables ; and the second, carnivora, of those which feed
either partially or exclusively on other animals.

It is clear, then, that the creation of the vegetable world must,
in each case, have either preceded or have been simultaneous with
that of the herbivora, since a class of animals could not be created
without a provision of a food of suitable quality.

For a like reason the creation of herbivora must either have
preceded or been simultaneous with that of carnivora.

524. That all parts of the earth were simultaneously peopled,
not only at the first creation which took place upon it, but at all
succeeding ones, is proved by the fact that the same animal and
vegetable forms are found deposited in the same strata in all parts
of the earth. The animal forms, for example, preserved in the
Palaeozoic strata of Europe are identical with those found in the
corresponding formation in all parts of the world, however
distant from each other, and the same is true of the Triassic,
the Jurassic, and all the other groups of strata.

525. The second question, whether creative power manifested
itself by a progressive development of organised forms, may be
considered either with relation to orders or generic forms.

Of the seventy-seven orders of animals, an obviously increasing
progression of development will be apparent on comparing age
with age.

143

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

526. The number of orders of which examples are found depo-
sited in the strata are as follows : —

Palaeozoic formation . 31
Triassic . . . . 21
Jurassic 41

Cretaceous . . . 41
Tertiary . . .71
Existing period . . . 77

These figures show that tfie orders of animals are in constantly
increasing progression. The exception presented by the Triassic
group may probably be explained by the want of sufficient
observation of its organic remains.

527. This constant increase does not prevail with the genera.
In each period each order consisted of a certain definite number
of genera. Now, on comparing the number of genera of which
each of these orders consisted, from period to period, it will be
found that while some continually increased, others having in-
creased up to a certain date, attained their maximum, and then
decreased, and that the decrease has continued to the present
time.

528. Of the seventy-seven orders, it has been found by com-
parison of the organic remains of the successive periods, that sixty-
three have had a continually increasing number of genera from
their first appearance to the present epoch, but that the numbers
of the genera of the other fourteen respectively after increasing to
a certain period, then decreased, and that this decrease continued.

529. Six of these fourteen orders acquired their greatest gene-
ric development in the Palaeozoic period. These six consisted
of two orders of Fishes, one of Crustacea, two of Mollusca, and
one of Hadiata.

530. The two orders of Fishes are those denominated by
naturalists the placoids and the ganoids. Of the former the shark
and the ray, and of the latter the sturgeon, are living examples.

144

Fig. 197. — CERVUS MEGACEROS CUVIERI.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

CHAPTER X.

531. Examination of orders. — 532. Relative numerical proportion. — 533.
No progression discoverable in these. — 534. Examination of generic
development. — 535. Similar result. — 536. In the Kadiata and Mol-
lusca. — 537. Annulata. — 538. Vertebrata. — 539. No progress in-
dicated.— 540. Organs of ancient animals. — 541. Examination in
relation to respiratory organs. — 542. Lower divisions. — 543. Bran-
chial respiration. — 544. No essential change. — 545. No progression
observable. — 546. Tracheal respiration. — 547. Pulmonary respira-
tion.— 548. Composition of atmosphere unchanged. — 549. General

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. L 145

No. 153.

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

conclusions.— 550. Persistence of genera. — 551. Useful geological test.
The Contemporaneous Age. — HUMAN PERIOD. 552. Elevation
of the great Alps — total destruction of the fauna and flora of the
last period. — 553. Great change of form in Europe. —554. Secondary
effects — vast rivers and lakes producing alluvial deposits. — 555.
Creation of a new fauna and flora. — 556. Tabular view of the
existing and past animal kingdoms. — 557. General inferences from
this. — 558. Number of species of Mollusca and Radiata, and their
distribution. — 559. Total number of species. — 560. Creation of man-
kind.— 561. First appearance of climatological zones. — 562. Un-
successful attempts to explain the uniform distribution of species in
former ages. — 563. The formation of downs — littoral deposits and
the filling of lagoons and deltas supply chronological data of the
present age. — 564. Consistency of the Mosaic history with geological
facts. — 5b'5. The future of the earth. — 566. Accordance of the
narrative in Genesis with geological facts. — 567. Figurative use of
the word day in accordance with common custom. — 568. The divi-
sion of the land from the water. — 569. The creation of the vegetable
world. — 570. First creation of marine tribes and birds. — 571. A
similar order observed in geological phenomena. — 572. Creation of
Mamtdlfe'rs. — 573. Correspondence with the Tertiary age. — 574.
Creation of the Imman race in the actual age. — 575. Accordance
of Scripture with geological discovery. — 576. Conclusion.

531. THE order of Crustacea was that of the Trilobites, those of
the Mollusca the Tentaculiferous Cephalopods, and the Brachio-
pods ; and that of the Radiata the fixed Crinoids. Two had their
greatest number of genera in the Jurassic period. These were
the Saurian reptiles and the Free Crinoids. Four had their
greatest number in the Cretaceous period, of which two were
Mollusca and two Iladiata. In five, two had their greatest
generic development in the Tertiary period, both being Mam-
malia, one Pachyclcrmata, and the other Edentata. The elephant
is a living example of the former, and the sloth of the latter.

From what has been stated, it appears that of the seventy-
seven orders of animals, thirty-one were called into existence
during the Paleozoic period. These were distributed among the
four principal divisions of animal forms, as follows : —

Yertebrata 3

Annulate, . . . ... 11

Mollusca 9

Radiate . 8

31

532. Thus the four principal divisions of animal forms were re-
presented at the first moment of creation, in a relative numerical
proportion not very different from that in which they still exist.
This result is completely incompatible with a notion which has
been long prevalent, that creative power manifested itself by
140

NO PROGRESSIVE ORGANISATION.

a gradually increasing degree of organic perfection from one
geological period to another, from the first appearance of animal
life upon the globe to the human period.

The only facts which have given colour to this supposition, are
the lateness of the period at which the Yertehrated animals of
the highest order of organisation, Mammifers and Birds, appeared
in any considerable numbers upon the globe, and more especially
the fact, that the human race did not appear until after the close
of the Tertiary age.

5133. That the conclusion thus deduced is a premature gene-
ralisation, will appear from an examination of the classes and
genera which have prevailed, during all the successive ages from
the Palaeozoic to the human.

If the supposition of progressive improvement in organisation
were well founded, it must naturally be expected that in the
earliest period of the Palaeozoic, the lowest orders only of organi-
sation would appear, and that consequently the Radiata alone
would be found there, while on ascending through the succeeding
periods of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary ages we
should find gradually appearing the more perfect orders of Mol-
lusca, Annulata, and Vertebrata. On the contrary, it appears,
from what has been stated, that in the Palaeozoic age animals of
all the orders from the lowest to the highest were created in a
proportion not very different from that in which they now exist.

534. It will be interesting, however, to consider the characteris-
tics of the organisation of the genera composing each of the orders
existing at each successive period ; for although no progressive
increase of perfection might be manifested with regard to the
orders, such progression might nevertheless appear in the yensra
of these orders created from period to period.

535. A due examination, however, of the genera of the several
orders existing at each period will show that no such pro-
gressive increase of perfection in the organisation has been
manifested.

536. Of the Radiata eight orders were called into being in the
Palaeozoic age, and none of superior organisation in the succeed-
ing ages. Indeed a rigorous examination of the succession of
fauna of this division leads to the contrary conclusion, showing that
the most perfect prevailed in greatest numbers at the earliest ages.

A similar examination of the division of Mollusca gives a like
result, no gradually increasing perfection of organisation being
discoverable.

537. In like manner the supposition of progressively improved
organisation from age to age would lead us to expect in Annu-
lated animals all the orders of the less perfect organisation in the

L2 147

THE TEE-ADAMITE EARTH.

first ages, and those of the more perfect in the later ones. As in
the former cases, however, the actual results of observation are
altogether opposed to this. Of the eleven orders of Annulata
called into existence during the Palaeozoic age there are three
orders of insects — the C<t>leoptera, Orthoptera, and Neuroptera ;
one of the Arachnida, four of Crustacea, one of Cirrhipeds, and
two of Annalids. Thus, as in the former case, all the classes are
fairly represented. But we find further in these classes, among
the three orders of Insects and four of Crustacea, the most per-
fectly organised of each class. We have therefore, in the case of
the Annulata, the same results as were obtained in reference to
the other two great divisions of the animal kingdom — the most
perfectly organised being produced in the earliest ages ; and not
only was this the case, but they even there obtained their greatest
development.

538. Although, as we have already stated, the Vertebrata present
striking facts in favour of the supposition of progressive improve-
ment already mentioned, a due examination of all the circum-
stances attending their gradual development, will show that no
real progressive organisation has been manifested in them.
If the supposition of progressively improving organisation
were well founded, it must be expected that the Vertebrate
animals of less complete organisation alone would appear in
the Palaeozoic age. We find on the contrary among the three
orders of Vertebrata which appeared in that age, the Saurian
reptiles and the Placoid and Ganoid fishes. Now, although
mammifers and birds did not appear, the reptiles which did
appear have a superior organisation to other orders which
appeared later, such as serpents and Amphibia. The fishes of this
epoch also are evidently superior in their organisation to many
of the orders which appeared later. Although, therefore, only two
of the four classes of the Vertebrata appeared during this age,
of these two the most perfect specimens appeared the earliest,
in contradiction to the supposition of progressively increasing
perfection of organisation.

The Triassic age presented traces of the existence of the order
of birds called Waders, and of Chelonian reptiles (tortoises). It is
curious here to find at an epoch so remote in the history of
the globe, birds the most perfect of the aerial Vertebrata, and the
Chelonian reptiles, the most perfect of their class.

The Jurassic age presented no new orders of Vertebrata. The
Cretaceous age presented one order of birds, the Web-footed ;
two of fishes, the Cycloids and Ctenoids, both less perfect than
those of the Palaeozoic age.

It was only, therefore, during the Tertiary age that the other
148

PROGRESSIVE AMMALISATION".

orders of Vertebrata appeared. The orders of birds which,
appeared at this most recent epoch were not more perfect in their
organisation than the waders of the Triassic age, while the orders
of reptiles, including the serpents and Amphibia, were certainly the
lowest in organisation of this class.

539. It appears, therefore, that of the four classes of Vertebrata,
which appeared from the earliest geological age to the present
time, two, the reptiles and fishes, instead of proceeding according
to the supposition of progressively improving organisation,
showed a series of changes of a directly opposite character, the
most perfect being the earliest, and the least perfect the most
recent ; while the class of birds, with reference to their organi-
sation only, and without reference to their number, remained
stationary from the Triassic to the actual period.

540. A question of high philosophical interest arises in reference
to the progressive animalisation of the globe, which admits of solu-
tion by a due examination of the organic remains deposited in
the strata of the earth. This question is that of determining if
the various organs of the most ancient animals have remained the
same from the commencement of the world, or if they have been
modified in consequence of the changes which may have taken
place in the external conditions of their existence.

541. Of all the organs, those of respiration are most intimately
connected with this question. The several modes of animal
respiration are as follows : —

1. Cutaneous respiration, made by the whole surface of the body,

and not by any special organ appropriated to that function.

2. Aquatic respiration, made by means of branchia, or gills ; a

special organ adapted to disengage the oxygen of the air
from the water and appropriate it to the vital functions.

3. Tracheal respiration, with which animals are endowed which

live in the atmosphere, and appropriate its oxygen to the vital
functions by means of trachea).

4. Pulmonary respiration, which is performed by lungs, as in the

case of Mammalia generally.

Marine animals respire either without any special organ and
by means of the whole surface of their bodies, or by branchia
(gills).

542. The animals which respire without any special organ, are
those of the lowest degree of organisation. Of these all the four
classes of Eehinoderinata, Polyparia, Foraminifera, and Amor-
phozoa, appeared on the earth in the Palaeozoic age in various
degrees of perfection. We have therefore here, in the first epoch
of creation, all the forms of cutaneous respiration.

543. The animals which have aquatic respiration by means of

149

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAKTH.

branchia (gills), include nearly all the Mollusca ; among the
Annulata they include the Crustacea, the Annalids, and the
Cirrhipeds ; and among the Vertehrata, all the fishes. "We find
all these represented in the Palaeozoic age ; and, on ascending
from age to age, no modification of the respiratory apparatus is
manifested. The living Species which have branchial respiration
belong to the same class as those which exercised like functions
during the Palaeozoic age.

544. All these circumstances lead, therefore, to the conclusion
that the external conditions in which animals exist have undergone
no essential change since the Palaeozoic age, inasmuch as the organs
of respiration have remained the same, a conclusion which is still
further confirmed when, descending from the orders, the genera
are examined.

545. In fine, to the question whether the marine animals have un-
dergone any change in their structure since the first animalisation
of the globe, or if they have greatly improved in their organisation,
we may answer without hesitation by an absolute negative ; for
these primitive genera, or those most closely allied to them, which
still represent them on the earth, prove that they had from the
first the organic characters which they still preserve — that they
have undergone no gradual improvement in organisation — that
the medium in which they lived at the earliest epoch of the
creation was the same as at present— that, therefore, no great
change has taken place as to the conditions of vitality of these
beings, and that the seas in which they then existed are essentially
similar to those which they now inhabit.

546. All the terrestrial animals, whether of land or water, which
breathe otherwise then by branchia, belong to the two classes
which breathe either by trachea or lungs.

Less perfect than pulmonary, tracheal respiration is peculiar to
the class of insects and some Arachnida. -We find this function
perfectly represented in the animals of the Palaeozoic epoch. As
has been already stated, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, and Neuroptera,
all of tracheal respiration, have been discovered in the Palaeozoic
strata. As these insects belong to the same or analogous genera with
those which now exist, we must assume that they were endowed
with the same respiratory organs. "We arrive, therefore, at the
conclusion, as well for terrestrial animals which breathe by
trachea, as for marine animals, that the respiratory organs have not
undergone any progressive improvement, and that this class in
the cradle of nature was what it still is ; in fine, that the medium
of its terrestrial existence has always been the same, since the
first animalisation of the globe to the present time.

547. Pulmonary respiration prevails in three of the principal
150

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

divisions of the animal kingdom, the Vertebrata, Annulata, and
the Mollusca.

The Annulata of early geological epochs, which had pulmonary
respiration, belonged to the order of Arachnida. We find, in
the Carboniferous strata, one of the Palaeozoic group, the remains
of an Arachnid (281, fig. 143), already mentioned, closely allied
to the scorpion, which it is impossible to doubt had the same
organisation as scorpions of the present day, and must, therefore,
have lived under like conditions of animal existence.

548. Considered in relation to their geological date, Vertebrata
breathing by true lungs are found during the Palaeozoic age in
the form of Saurians, the most perfect of reptiles. During the
Triassic age tortoises and birds appear, which of all animals have
the pulmonary system the most developed. It must, therefore,
be inferred, that at these remote epochs, the medium in which
birds and reptiles breathing the air by lungs lived, was little if
at all different from the medium in which similar classes now
live, which leads to the conclusion that, at this early period in the
history of the globe, the composition of the atmosphere must have
been nearly the same as at present.

549. All these considerations lead to the following general con-
clusions : —

First. If the supposition of a gradually increasing perfection of
organisation were admitted, we ought to find all the animals
endowed with mere cutaneous respiration in the first stages of the
world, and the others, proceeding successively from age to age,
endowed with branchial, tracheal, and pulmonary respiration,
whereas, on the contrary, we find in the very first epoch of the
animalisation of the globe, all the modes of respiration manifested
at once — a conclusion entirely at variance with the supposition of
progressively improving organisation.

Secondly. Whether we compare together the increasing or de-
creasing development of zoological forms, or the dates of the
appearance of the orders of animals with the perfection of their
organs ; or take for the basis of our comparative researches
the physiological conclusion deduced from the mode of respiration
by animals, we uniformly arrive at the same negative results
relatively to the supposition of progressive improvement of animal
organisation. We must, therefore, accept it as proved, that no
such progressive improvement has existed.

Thirdly. No appreciable modification being found in the organs
of respiration of animals from the most ancient epoch to the
present, a great number of genera having always existed with the
same characters since the first animalisation of the globe, it must
be inferred that the vital elements have not changed, and that

151

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

the media in which animals existed, whether it be air or water,
have remained the same both on land and sea.

Fourthly. The media of existence being always the same, no
change in these media can be Adduced as a cause for the succes-
sive extinctions and reproductions of the fauna of the earth,
which have been manifested by geological phenomena as taking
place during the successive geological periods, a conclusion of
immense importance in the history of the globe.

Fifthly. All the researches which have been made in the fossil
fauna, deposited in the strata of the earth, lead to a conclu-
sion of high geological importance, that, until the epoch which
immediately preceded the appearance of the human race and its
contemporaneous tribes upon the globe, all that part of the earth
which has undergone a close and accurate geological survey,
including France, England, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain,
Portugal, part of Russia, and the adjacent seas, were inhabited by
a fauna altogether tropical, and such as is at present found only
under the torrid zone. We are forced, therefore, to the conclusion
that, until the present period, the isothermal zones now observed
had no existence.

550. Of 1473 fossil genera hitherto discovered, 16 only are found
to exist in all the stages without exception. The remaining 1457
are distributed in different proportions throughout the stages.
In some cases it is seen that certain genera are only found in a
single stage ; in others they prevail in two stages ; in others in
three or more ; but, save in rare and exceptional cases, when
they prevail in two or more stages, these stages are in regular
geological succession. This persistence of the genera is a very
important geological and paleeontological fact. The exceptions to
it do not exceed 3 per cent, of the entire number of fossil genera,
and may, therefore, be regarded as arising from some accidental
cause.

551. This peculiar distribution of generic forms of the
fossils, supplies to the geologist most useful stratigraphical
tests. Thus, if a genus known to exist only in one peculiar
geological stage, be found in any part of the crust of the earth
whose structure has not been previously well ascertained, its
presence may be taken as a certain indication of the character
and position of the stage in which it is deposited.

The Contemporaneous Age.

HUMAN PERIOD.

552. The disruption of the -earth's crust, extending W. 16° S.,
and E. 16° N., through which the chain of the great Alps was

152

HUMAN PERIOD.

forced up to its present elevation (220), which, according to
M. D'Orbigny, was simultaneous with that which forced up the
Chilian Andes, a chain which extends over a length of 3000
miles of the Western Continent, terminated the Tertiary age, and
preceded immediately the creation of the human race and its
concomitant tribes. The waters of the seas and oceans, lifted
from their heds by this immense perturbation, swept over the
continents with irresistible force, destroying instantaneously the
entire fauna aiid flora of the last Tertiary period, and burying its
ruins in the sedimentary deposits which ensued.

553. By this dislocation, Europe underwent a complete change
of form. Among the most remarkable effects were the separation
of the British Isles from the mainland by the subsidence of the
land between Brittany and Normandy on the one side, and Corn-
wall and Devon on the other, and the consequent irruption of the
sea. The Mediterranean, separated from the ocean, enlarged its
limits by submerging a tract south of Marseille, which had
remained dry since the commencement of the Tertiary age.
Europe in general took its present form and relief, with the ex-
ception of some alluvial tracts, which at a more recent period
were raised above the waters, either by the disruption which
produced the system of Tsenarus (221) and raised Etna, Vesuvius,
and Santorini, or by other local disturbances of less importance,
such as partial earthquakes.

554. Secondary effects followed, which have left their traces on
every part of the earth's surface. Rivers of immense magnitude
poured their streams from all the elevated summits over the sub-
jacent plains, spreading out from point to point of their course into
extensive lakes, on the bottoms of which they deposited those
alluvial strata of which so many examples are presented in the
valleys, plains, and provinces of all the great continents. In
Europe such deposits are seen in the valleys of the Rhine, the
Rhone, and other great rivers, on the great plain of Crau, in the
south of France, having an extent of fifty square leagues, on the
plain of Bavaria, and that which spreads itself out at the foot of
the Alps over the state of Lombardy and Venice.

555. When the seas had settled into their new beds, and the
outlines of the land were permanently defined, the latest and
greatest act of creation was accomplished by clothing the earth
with the vegetation which now covers it, peopling the land and
water with the animal tribes which now exist, and calling into
being the human race, appointed to preside over all living things,
and to manifest the glory of the Creator by the development of
attributes so exalted, as to be described by the inspired author of
Genesis as rendering man in a certain sense the image of his Maker.

153

THE PEE -ADAMITE EARTH.

556. To convey an approximate estimate of this fauna, we have
collected and arranged, from the data supplied by M. D'Orbigny,
in the following table a synopsis of the total number of generic
forms of each class.

Synopsis of the generic forms included in all the fauna (exclusive of
the Annulata), from the first animalisation of the earth to the human
period inclusively.

ll

LIVING.

FOSSIL.

S^

"•* S3

I

1

•.

-8

.£

1

,

'>

£|

£

£

1

X

W

3

&

Mammifers . . .

27£

164

47

211

68

47 115

Birds

300

256

38

294

6

38 44

Reptiles

200

133

13

146

54

13 67

638

360

79

439

199

79 278

Crustacea

268

168

32

200

68

32 100

Cephalopods, acetabuliferous

33

15

5

20

13

5

Ib

,, teutaculiferous

36

1

1

1

36

Gastropods, terrestrial and fluviatile .

22

"5

16

21

1

16

17

,, marine ....
Lamellibranchia, fluviatile .

146
11

25
6

90
5

115
11

31

90

121

„ marine ....

101

9

67

76

25

67

92

Brachiopods ......

41

9

9

32

9

41

Bryozoa

87

'is

21

39

48

21

69

Echinodermata, echinoids

92

21

22

43

49

22

71

,, crinoids . . .

59

1

2

3

56

2

58

,, asteroids .

20

14

3

17

8

3

6

„ ophiuroids

20

10

1

11

9

1

10

Zoophytes
Foi-aminifera

309
87

93
14

38
50

131

64

178
23

38
50

21(5
73

Amorphozoa, testaceous ....

36

1

1

35

35

,, corneous . •

16

14

"l

15

••

"l

1

2800

1327

540

1867

933

5401473

557. It appears from this, that so far as observation has supplied
data for such an estimate, the total number of generic animal
forms which have been called into being, since the first animalisa-
tion of the earth to the present time, has been 2800. Of this
number, 1327, or nearly the half, were created at the commence-
ment of the human period, a large proportion for one period out
of thirty. It must be observed, however, that it is extremely
improbable that the number of genera in past periods is as well
ascertained as in the present. In the one case we have the living
creation to count from ; in the other we have nothing but the
buried remains of the fauna of each period.

Of the number of genera, 1473, that lived in previous ages,
only 540 have reappeared. There are therefore 933 generic forms
unknown to the present fauna. These, as we have seen, however,
154

NUMBER OF GENERIC FORMS CREATED.

were not simultaneously extinguished, a certain number dis-
appearing for ever at the close of each period.

558. The specific forms are far more numerous, and not so
exactly ascertained. Those of fossil Mollusca and Radiata have
been elaborately described and catalogued by M. D'Orbigny, who,
as we have already stated, has shown that each successive period
had its own assemblage of species. In the following table,
compiled from the Prodrome de Pal6ontologie of that eminent
naturalist, we have given a synopsis of the distribution of species
in the successive ages and periods.

Table showing the number of species of Mollusca and Radiata ly the
fossil remains that have lived during the successive geological epochs
and periods.

Number of Species.

TERTIARY j

AGE.

Fifth period .
Third and fourth period . .
Secoud period .

606
3182
1576

. . 6042

\

First ,, ....

678

i

Seventh period
Sixth

6(5
1579

iCRETACEODS.

Fifth ....
Fourth ....

380
849

. . 4291

Third .

410

Second

156

First ....

851

(

Tenth period .

60]

Ninth ....

199

Eighth ....

655

•Seventh

739

JURASSIC •{

Sixth ....
Fifth ....

281 ,
546 |

. . 3846

Fourth

603

Third ....

288

Second ....

301

I

First ....

174 J

TRIASSIC J

AGE. (

Second period .
First „

792 \
135)

. . 927

PALAEOZOIC J

AGE.

Fifth period ....
Fourth .,
Third „
Second .,

91 \
1047
1198 -
418

. . 3180

1

First „

426 j

Total

Ib286

1S2S6

559. Since the date of the publication of this table, the number
of ascertained species of fossil Mollusca and Radiata has been
increased by farther discovery, and now amounts to 21000, to
which 3000 fossil species of Vertebrata and Annulata being added,
gives a total number of fossil specific forms, amounting to 24000.

560. The most conspicuous condition which distinguishes the

155

THE PRE-ADAMITE EAETH.

present from all past periods, is the existence of the human
race among its fauna, the attributes of which are so peculiar as
to place it out of all analogy with the other classes of animals.

561. Another striking physical difference between the present
and all former period*, consists in the different divisions of
the earth's surface into climatological zones, each zone having
its peculiar fauna and flora. In all former ages and periods,
including those which immediately preceded the present, no traces
of climatic distinctions have been found. It has been already
shown that the fossil fauna and flora of latitudes the most
different, are analogous to the fauna and flora of warm climates.
Now since this uniform temperature can only be ascribed to
the great predominance of the effects of the central heat of the
earth over those of solar radiation, it might naturally be supposed
that the change would have been gradual, and that as the surface
of the earth would have cooled down by degrees, climates would
have been gradually manifested, the first differing but slightly in
temperature, and then from period to period the difference
increasing, until at length the earth would arrive at its present
condition, exhibiting the extremes and means of the torrid
temperate, and frigid zones.

Observation nevertheless has not as yet supplied any facts to
confirm such theoretical views. On the contrary, in the fifth
Tertiary period, which immediately preceded the present epoch,
it is certain that the higher latitudes had a climate similar
to that which now prevails towards the Line. Plants, now
limited to southern latitudes, flourished in Europe. The palms,
for example, which vegetated there, have completely disap-
peared, having retired to warmer regions. The elephant, rhino-
ceros, panther, and other tropical animals which abounded in
high latitudes, have also wholly disappeared there, and are limited
to those latitudes where a temperature prevails conformable to
their organisation. The bear still lives in Europe, but not the
species which is found entombed in the strata.

562. To render the fossil fauna compatible with the existence
of isothermal lines, it has been supposed that the remains of
animals and plants, peculiar to warm climates, which are
deposited in the strata of high latitudes, may have been trans-
ported there by ocean currents. That such an hypothesis is
inadequate and inadmissible, is demonstrated by the universality
of the tropical fauna of all periods. The remains, especially of
land animals and vegetables, which could by any possibility
have been transported by such means, must necessarily have been
few and local, and would appear merely as exceptions and
anomalies among the fauna and flora proper to the climatic loca-

156

CLIMATOLOGICAL ZONES.

lity. No such condition of fossil deposits, however, is observed,
those of the highest latitudes being as decidedly tropical as those
of the lowest.

563. The formation of downs, littoral deposits, the filling up of
lagoons, and the conversion of deltas into tracts of land, are
severally contemporaneous geological phenomena, which serve, by
the rate of their progress, and by their cumulative effects, as a
sort of natural chronometers, by which the age of the human
race, and its contemporary fauna, may be approximately esti-
mated ; and it is as remarkable as it is satisfactory, that the
results are in no degree of discordance with the dates of Creation
supplied by chronology, based on tradition and revelation. By
the general accordance of such facts, it appears that the present
period has now continued for not more than six or seven thousand
years.

564. After all that has been explained of the series of convul-
sions which terminated the succession of periods in the history of
the earth, it will be evident that the Mosaic narrative of the
Deluge contains nothing incompatible with that course of events,
which may be said, without exaggeration, to have been of
habitual occurrence on our planet. Whether the Deluge be
identified with the catastrophe which produced the system of
Tamarus or be ascribed to other convulsions, such as extensive
earthquakes, is immaterial, so far as respects the mere credibility of
the narrative. It is worthy of remark also, that the Mosaic narrative
is in accordance with national tradition among various peoples.

565. As to the future, all inference must be based upon analogy
with the past. During a succession of eight or nine and twenty
periods, we have seen that creation after creation has taken place.
Assemblage after assemblage of animated beings have peopled
the earth, which has been clothed and re-clothed with vegetation
for their well-being. Upon the close of period after period, it
has pleased the Most High, in his inscrutable wisdom, to doom
such animated worlds to sudden destruction, attaining His purpose
by the secondary agency of geological convulsions. The existing
animated world presents nothing which can take it out of the cate-
gory of the past, or exempt it from the ultimate fate which an
inexorable law has prescribed to all former creations. The earth is
still subject to the same local oscillations of its crust, whether con-
tinual and gradual, or violent and sudden, as heretofore. Volcanic
phenomena declare, in unequivocal language, that the heaving* of
the internal fluid and incandescent matter have lost none of their
terrific energy. Not only, therefore, does nothing justify the
supposition that the convulsion which raised the chain of the
great Alps, and destroyed the fauna and flora of the fifth

157

THE PKE-ADAMITE EARTH. §

Tertiary period, was the last to which the earth would be sub-
jected, but every probability, based upon analogy to the past,
points to the very opposite conclusion. When we affirm, there-
fore, that a moment must arrive when what we call the present
world will be destroyed* when man, and all his monuments, will
be involved in one common destruction, when

" The cloud-capt towers, the gorgeous palaces,
The solemn temples, the great globe itself,
Yea, all that it inherits shall dissolve ;
And, like an unsubstantial pageant faded,
Leave not a rack behind,"

we declare no more than all the analogies of the past history of the
Earth confirm.

But such finality will not, as Shakspeare implies, involve the
" great globe itself." The law of periodicity which characterises
in a manner so remarkable all the other phenomena of nature,
reappears in the acts of creation itself, and pronounces in terms
not to be misunderstood the future fate of the present tenants of
the earth, and shadows forth its future destination. The con-
vulsion which will sweep away man and his works, and the
tribes of animals and vegetables created for his use, and will
entomb their remains, will be followed by a calm of nature,
after which, if we are to trust in the permanency of the play of
those creative laws which have hitherto characterised the opera-
tions of Divine power, a new assemblage of organised beings will
be called into life, and a new flora will clothe the earth. Intel-
ligences will preside over this new world with faculties as much
exalted above those with which man in all his pride is endowed,
as the understanding of man himself is above that of the apes,
monkeys, and baboons which were at the head of the population
of the last period of the Tertiary age.

566. The short account of the Creation given in the first chapter
of Genesis is in accordance with the results of geological discovery,
in as complete a manner as would be possible in so brief a summary,
destined, not to instruct the world in geology, but, without
violating truth, to convey a general notion of the work of Omni-
potence in the process of creation. Light was first created, that
is, the universally diffused ether, by whose properties not only
light, but heat and probably electricity and magnetism, if not
gravity itself, severally exist. The firmament was next made,
that is, space and the stars in countless numbers which occupy it,
each of which is a centre of attraction to a group of surrounding
bodies, and among these stars the sun.

567. According to Genesis, the organic creation was produced
in four successive intervals of time, figuratively called Days, as

158

ORDER OF CREATION.

we now apply that term to any period during which a certain
succession of phenomena are manifested. Thus we speak of the
morning and the evening of life.

" 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore,
For coming events cast their shadows before."

568. The first epoch was preceded by the formation of the
outlines of land and water. The rupture of the incipient crust of
the earth, as already explained (100), by throwing the solid
surface into different levels, divided the earth into oceans, seas,
continents, and islands: This is stated briefly but distinctly
enough in Gen. i. 9, 10 : "And God said, Let the waters under
the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry
land appear, and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth,
and the gathering of the waters calk*d he Seas : and God saw that
it was good."

569. The surface of the land was now clothed with vegetation.
Verses 11, 12 : " And God said, Let the earfch bring forth grass,
the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his
kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth : and it was so. And
the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his
kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after
his kind : and God saw that it was good;"

570. The second epoch of organic creation was signalised by
the production of animal life in its lowest forms, being limited to
marine tribes included under the general and familiar name of
Fishes. Yerse 20: "And God said, Let the waters bring forth
abundantly after their kind." This was succeeded by the crea-
tion of Birds : " And every winged fowl after his kind : and God
saw that it was good. And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful,
and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply
in the earth."

571. In complete accordance with this account geological re-
searches show, that in the stages which immediately rest upon
the azoic formation beds of coal are found, proving that the
first land was clothed with vegetation. The animal remains
found in the same deposits, consist almost exclusively of marine
tribes. Some foot-tracks of birds, as we have shown, are also
found in these formations. No traces of land animals yet appear.
Thus in accordance with Genesis, geology announces that the first
acts of creation were the production of " the grass, the herb
yielding seed, and the tree yielding fruit after its kind," and
that then the Creator caused the "waters to bring forth abun-
dantly after their kind," and called into existence every winged
fowl after its kind.

159

THE PRE-ADAMITE EARTH.

572. The third epoch of creation was signalised by the pro-
duction of Mammifers and of land animals generally (ver. 24) :
"And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature
after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth
after his kind : and it ^as so. And God made the beast of the
earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing
that creepeth upon the earth after his kind : and God saw that it
was good."

573. The later geological ages, and especially the Tertiary, are
here indicated, in which, as has been shown, the tribes mentioned
in this short and popular statement were created.

574. The fourth, last, and latest great act of Omnipotence
was the creation of the human race. On the last day or
epoch of creation, " God said, Let us make man in our own
image, after our likeness : ^and let them have dominion over
the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the
cattle of the field, and over all the earth, and over every creeping
thing that creepeth* upon the earth. So God created man in
his own image, in the image of God created he him ; male and
female created he them."

575. It is perhaps in this last part of the Mosaic narrative that
the most striking and interesting accordance with geological
science is observable. According to Genesis, the last epoch of
creation was exclusively given to the creation of the human race.
Naturalists have reduced animal forms to seventy-eight orders,
in one of which man stands alone. It appears from the researches
of palaeontologists that of these seventy-eight, all but one, — that
including man, — were created before the close of the Tertiary
period, and that in the creation which followed that period, man
was the only animal order added to those of former creations.

576. I have thought it right to develope these points at some
length, inasmuch as many consciences have felt alarm at the
supposed discordance between Scriptural history and geological
discovery. It will, however, be seen, from what I have here
stated, that not only no such discordance exists, but that making
such allowances for the latitude of language, as are indispensable
in the interpretation of so brief and popular a description, designed
not for the scientific but for the mass of mankind, as that given in
Genesis, there is the most remarkable and satisfactory accordance
with natural phenomena.

160

Fig. 13.

ECLIPSES.

CHAPTER I.

Mutual interposition of celestial objects. — 2. Their mutual obscuration.
— 3. Eclipses, transits, and occultations. — 4. Solar eclipse. — 5. Lunar
eclipse. — 6. Transit of a planet. — 7. Occultation of a fixed star. — 8.
Appearance produced by transit of an inferior planet. SOLAR ECLIPSES :

9. Effects of the relative magnitude of the discs of the sun and moon. —

10. Conditions which determine eclipses. — 11 . Conditions under which
an eclipse does not take place. — 12. Condition of external contact. — 13.
Condition of partial eclipse — determination of its magnitude. — 14. In-
ternal contact. — 15. Annular eclipse. — 36. Total eclipse. — 17. Greatest
possible duration of a total eclipse. — 18. Condition of annular
eclipses. — 19. Greatest possible duration of annular eclipses. — "20.
Solar eclipses can only occur at or near a new moon. — 21. Effects of
parallax. — 22. Data which determine the circumstances of eclipses. —
23. Solar ecliptic limits. — 24. Anecdote of Columbus. — 25. Baily's
beads. — 26. These appearances produced by lunar mountains. —
27. Flame-like protuberances round the dark disc of the moon. —

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE. M 161

No. 154.

ECLIPSES.

28. Solar eclipse of 1851. — 29. Observations of the Astronomer
Royal upon it. — 30. Observations of Messrs. Dunkin and Humphreys
upon it. — 31. Observations of Mr. W. Gray upon it. — 32. Ob-
servations of Messrs. Stephenson and Andrews at Fredrichsvaarn.
— 33. Observations of Mr. Lassell at Trollhattan Falls. — 34.
Observations of Mr. IJind at Ravelsborg, near Engelholm.

1. OF the objects which in such countless numbers are scattered
over the firmament, all those which constitute the solar system,
except the sun itself, are in motion; and it must necessarily
happen, occasionally, that some of them will assume a position
between others and the eye of the observer placed upon the
earth. When such an event happens the nearer of the two will
intercept wholly or partially the view of the more distant. If
the apparent magnitude of the nearer be greater than the more
distant, such an obstruction may be total, but if less it can only
be partial.

2. Since all the bodies of the solar system are illuminated by
the sun, and when deprived of the sun's light are obscured and
cease to be visible, it may also happen that some on e of the bodies
composing the system may intervene between the sun and another
body, so as to deprive the latter of the light which it receives
from that luminary. In such a case the object deprived of light
will be rendered wholly or partially invisible, according to the
relative magnitude of the two bodies, the one intercepting the
light and the other being obscured.

3. Such conjunctions produce a class of occasional astronomical
phenomena, which are invested with a high popular as well as a
profound scientific interest. The rareness with which some of
them are presented, their sudden and, to the vulgar mass, un-
expected appearance, and the singular phenomena which often
attend them, strike the popular mind with awe and terror. To
the astronomer, geographer, and navigator, they subserve im-
portant uses, among which the determination of terrestrial
longitudes, the more exact estimation of the sun's distance
from the earth (which is the standard and modulus of all dis-
tances in the celestial spaces), and, in fine, the discovery of
the mobility of light, and the measure of its velocity, hold
foremost places.

The phenomena resulting from such contingencies of position
and direction are variously denominated ECLIPSES, TKA^SITS, and
OCCTJLTATIONS, according to the relative apparent magnitudes of
the interposing and obscured bodies, and according to the circum-
stances which attend them.

4. When the disc of the moon passes between an observer and
the disc of the sun, it intercepts in this manner more or less

162

SOLAR ECLIPSES,
of the latter, and produces the phenomenon called a solar

5. When the globe of the earth intervenes between the moon
and the sun, it intercepts the light of the latter from a greater or
lesser part of the moon's disc, and produces the phenomenon
called a lunar eclipse.

6. When a satellite of a planet passes into such a position that
the globe of the planet intervenes between the satellite and the
sun, the latter is eclipsed.

7. When the disc of the moon or of a planet passes between
the eye of an observer and a fixed star, the star suddenly
•disappears, and the phenomenon is called an occultation of the
star.

8. When a planet passes between an observer and the sun's
disc there is seen projected upon the latter a small black circular
spot, and in virtue of the relative motion of the sun and planet
this black spot appears to pass across the disc of the sun from east
to west, producing the phenomenon called a transit of the planet.
Since at the period of a transit the planet must be between the
sun and the earth, and therefore nearer to the sun than the earth,
this phenomenon can only happen with an inferior planet. The
only planets, therefore, of which there can be transits are Yenus
and Mercury.

SOLAR ECLIPSES.

9. The discs of the sun and moon, though nearly equal, are
not exactly so, each being subject to a variation of magnitude
confined within certain narrow limits; and, in consequence,
the disc of the moon is sometimes a little greater, and some-
times a little less, than that of the sun. Their centres move
in two apparent circles on the firmament; that of the sun
in the ecliptic, and that of the moon in a circle inclined to the
ecliptic at a small angle of about 5°. These circles intersect at
two opposite points of the firmament, called the moon's nodes.
In consequence of the very small obliquity of the moon's orbit to
the ecliptic, the distance between these paths, even at a consider-
able distance at either side of the node, is necessarily small.
Now, since the centres of the discs of the sun and moon must
«ach of them pass once in each revolution through each node, it
will necessarily happen from time to time that they will be both
at the same moment either at the node itself, or at some points of
their respective paths so near it, that their apparent distance
asunder will be less than the sum of their apparent semi-

M 2 163

ECLIPSES.

diameters, and either total or partial interposition must take
place, according to the relative magnitudes of their discs, and to
the distance between the points of their respective paths at which
their centres are simultaneously found.

10. This will be easilywendered intelligible. Let A, fig. 1, be
the disc of the object eclipsed, and a be that of the interposing
object which eclipses it. So long as the distance between the
centres of the two discs is greater than the sum of their semi-
diameters, it is evident that the one disc will lie altogether out-
side the other, so as not to intercept the view of any part of it,
This will be apparent from an inspection of fig. 1.

1 1 . This may be briefly explained thus : If E be the semi-
diameter of A, and r that of a, and D be the distance between the
two centres, then the one disc will lie altogether outside the other
so long as D is greater than n -f r.

Fig 1. Fig. 2.

'•©•

12. If the distance between the centres be equal to the sum of
the two semi-diameters, then the two discs will touch each other,
without either actually intercepting a part of the other. This
case is shown in fig. 2, and is briefly explained thus: If
D = R + r, the two discs will touch without encroaching one
upon the other. This position of the discs is called external
contact.

13. If the distance between the centres of the two discs be less
than the sum of the two semi- diameters, then one of the discs
will necessarily encroach upon the other and a partial eclipse will
take place. This case, is shown in fig. 3. The breadth of the

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

part of the disc A obscured by a is evidently equal to the
difference between the sum of the semi-diameters of the two discs
and the distance between their centres, which is briefly expressed
thus : If E, + r be greater than D, then the one disc will encroach
upon the other, and the breadth of the part intercepted will be

E + r — D.
14. If the distance between the centres of the two discs be

364

SOLAR ECLIPSES.

equal to the difference of the semi-diameters, then the one disc
will lie within the other, just touching it, as shown in fig. 4.
This position of the disc is called that of internal contact, which
therefore takes place when

D = it — r.

1 5. If the distance between the centres be less than the sum of
the semi-diameters, but greater than their difference, then a
partial interposition will take place, as shown in fig. 3. If the
interposing disc be less than the obscured disc, and the distance
between their centres be less than the difference between the
semi-diameters, then the interposing disc will lie within the
obscured disc, leaving a round ring of illuminated surface, not
intercepted, as shown in fig. 5. If, in this case, the centres of

Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

the two discs coincide, the surrounding ring of light will be of
uniform breadth.

Such phenomena are called annular eclipses, and when the
centres coincide they are said to be centrical and annular.

16. If the interposing disc be greater than the intercepted one,
and at the same time the distance between the centres less than
the difference of the semi-diameters, then the interposing disc
will cover completely the other, and a total eclipse will take
place, as shown in fig. 6. If in this case the centres of the two
discs coincide, the eclipse is said to be total and central. In the
case of the sun and moon the magnitude of eclipses are expressed
by what are called digits. If the diameter of the eclipsed object,
be it sun or moon, be supposed to be divided into twelve parts,
each of which is called a digit, the eclipse is said to measure as
many digits as there are such parts in the greatest breadth
of the obscured part, that is, in the difference between the sum
of the semi-diameter of the sun and moon and the distance
between their centres. To produce a total solar eclipse, it
is therefore necessary, 1st, that the apparent diameter of the
moon should be equal to or greater than that of the sun ;
and, 2ndly, that the apparent places of their centres should
approach each other within a distance not greater than the differ-
ence of their apparent semi-diameters. When these conditions
are fulfilled, and so long as they continue to be fulfilled, the
eclipse will be total.

165

ECLIPSES.

17. The greatest value of the apparent semi-diameter of the
moon being 1006", and the least value of that of the sun being
945", we shall have for the difference of their semi-diameters 61".
The greatest possible duration, therefore, of a total solar eclipse
will be the time necessary for the centre of the moon to gain upon
that of the sun 61" X 2 = 122". But since the mean synodic
motion of the moon is at the rate of 30" per minute, it follows
that the duration of a total solar eclipse can never exceed four
minutes.

18. When the apparent diameter of the moon is less than that
of the sun, its disc will not cover that of the sun, even when
concentrical with it. In this case, a ring of light would be
apparent round the dark disc of the moon, the breadth of which
would be equal to the difference of the apparent semi-diameters,
as represented in fig. 5. When the discs are not absolutely con-
centrical, the distance between their centres being, however, less
than the difference of their apparent semi-diameters, the dark
disc of the moon will still be within that of the sun, and will
appear surrounded by a luminous annulus, but in this case the
ring will vary in breadth, the thinnest part being at the point
nearest to the moon's centre ; and when the distance between
the centres is reduced to exact equality with the difference
of the apparent semi-diameters, the ring becomes a very thin
crescent, the points of the horns of which unite, as represented
in fig. 4.

The greatest breadth of the crescent will be in this case
equal to the difference of the apparent diameters of the sun and
moon.

The greatest apparent semi-diameter of the sun being 16' 18",
and the least apparent semi-diameter of the moon being 14' 44",
the greatest possible breadth of the annulus when the eclipse is
centrical will be

16' 18" — 14' 44" = V 34" = 94",

which is about the 20th part of the mean apparent diameter of
the sun.

19. The greatest interval during which the eclipse can continue
annular is the time necessary for the centre of the moon to move
synodically over 94" X 2 = 188", and, since the mean synodic
motion is at the rate of 30" per minute, this interval will be about

1 9^

• = 6'26 minutes, or about six minutes and a quarter.

oU

20. Solar eclipses can only occur at or near a new moon. This
166

SOLAR ECLIPSES.

is evident, because the condition which limits the apparent distance
between the centres of the discs to the sum of the apparent semi-
diameters, involves the consequence that this distance cannot much
exceed 30', and as the difference of longitudes must be still less
than this, it follows that the eclipse can only take place within
less than half a degree in apparent distance, and within less than
two hours of the epoch of conjunction.

21. Since the visual directions of the centres of the discs of
the sun and moon vary more or less with the position of the
observer upon the earth's surface, the conditions which determine
the occurrence of an eclipse, and if it occur, those which deter-
mine its character and magnitude, are necessarily different in
different parts of the earth. "While in some places none of the
conditions are fulfilled, and no eclipse occurs, in others an
eclipse is witnessed which varies from one place to another in
its magnitude, and in some may be total while it is partial in
others.

If the change of position of the observer upon the earth's surface
affected the visual directions of the centres of the two discs
equally, which would be the case if they were equally distant,
or nearly so, no change in the apparent distance between them
would be produced, and in that case the eclipse would have the
same appearance exactly to all observers in every part of the
earth. But the sun being about 400 times more distant than the
moon, the visual direction o'f the centre of its disc is affected by
any difference of position of the observers, to an extent 400 times
less than that of the moon's centre.

22. The relative positions of the discs of the sun and moon in
the firmament, their apparent motions, and the effect produced
upon their apparent positions by the varying positions of the
observer upon the earth, being all known, the circumstances which
determine the magnitude from minute to minute of the distance
between their centres, are all given ; and the problem to determine
the beginning of the eclipse, or the moment at which the distance
between the centres becomes equal to the sum of their apparent
diameters ; and the end of the eclipse, or the moment when, after
diminishing and then increasing, it again becomes equal to the
sum of their apparent diameters, is a matter of easy arithmetical
calculation, although the practical details of such processes would
not be suitable to the readers of this Tract.

23. The moon's orbit being inclined to the ecliptic at an angle
of 5°, and, consequently, the distance of the moon's centre from
the ecliptic varying in each month from 0° to 5°, while the
interposition of the moon between any place on the earth and the
sun, requires that the apparent distance of their centres should

167

ECLIPSES.

not exceed the sum of their apparent semi-diameters, which
never much exceeds half a degree, it is clear that an eclipse can
never happen except when, at the time of conjunction, the appa-
rent distance of the moon's centre from the ecliptic is within
that limit, a condition which can only be fulfilled within certain
small distances of the moon's nodes.

There is a certain distance from the moon's node, beyond which
a solar eclipse is impossible, and a certain lesser distance, within
which that phenomenon is inevitable. These distances are called
the solar ecliptic limits.

24. Columbus is said to have availed himself of his acquaint-
ance with practical astronomy to predict a solar eclipse, and used
the prediction as a means of establishing his authority over the
crews of his vessels, who showed indications of mutinous dis-
obedience.

The spectacle presented during a total eclipse is always most
imposing. The darkness is sometimes so intense as to render the
brighter stars and planets visible. A sudden fall of temperature
is sensible in the air. Vegetables and animals comport them-
selves as they are wont to do after sunset. Flowers close, and
birds go to roost. Nevertheless, the darkness is different from
the natural nocturnal darkness, and is attended with a certain
indescribable unearthly light, which throws upon surrounding
objects a faint hue, sometimes reddish, and sometimes cada-
verously green.

Many interesting narratives have been published by scientific
observers who have been so fortunate as to witness these
phenomena.

25. When the disc of the moon, advancing over that of the
sun, has reduced the latter to a thin crescent, it was observed by
Mr. Francis Baily, that immediately before the beginning, or after
the end of complete obscuration, the crescent appeared as a band
of brilliant points separated by dark spaces, so as to give to it the
appearance of a string of brilliant " beads." The phenomenon,
which has since been frequently re-observed, thence acquired the
name of " Baily' s beads."

Further observation showed, that, before the formation of the
"beads, "the horns'of the crescent were sometimes interrupted
and broken by black streaks thrown across them.

These phenomena are roughly sketched in figs. 7, 8.

Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, are taken from the original sketches of Mr.
Baily, representing the progressive disappearance of the beads
after the termination of the complete obscuration.

26. These phenomena arise from the projections of the edge of
the moon's disc, serrated by numerous inequalities of the surface,

168

DAILY 8 BEADS.

approaching so close to the external edge of the sun's disc, that
the points of the projections extend to the latter, while the

Fie.

Fig. 8.

169

ECLIPSES,

intermediate spaces remain uncovered. This may be very appro-
priately illustrated by laying the blade of a circular saw, having
finely cut teeth, over a white circle of nearly equal diameter upon
a black ground. The white parts between the teeth will appear
like a necklace of white pearls.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

27. Immediately after the commencement of the total obscura-
tion, red protuberances, resembling flames, appear to issue from
the edge of the moon's disc. These appearances, which were
first noticed by Yassenius, on the occasion of the total solar
eclipse which was visible at Gottenberg on the 3rd of May, 1733,
have been re-observed on the occurrence of every total solar
eclipse which has taken place since that time, and constitute one
of the most curious and interesting effects attending this class of
phenomena.

28. A total eclipse of the sun took place on the 28th of July,
170

ECLIPSE OF 1851.

1851, which became a subject of systematic observation by the
most eminent astronomers of the present day. A considerable
number of English observers, aided by several foreigners, dis-
tributed themselves in parties at different points along the path
of the shadow, so that the chances of the impediments that might
arise from unfavourable conditions of the atmosphere might be
diminished. The reports and drawings of these various observers
have been collected by the Royal Astronomical Society, and
published in their transactions.

The Astronomer Royal, with two assistants, Messrs. Dunkin and
Humphreys, authorised by the Board of Admiralty, selected certain
parts of Sweden and Denmark as the most eligible stations.
Professor Airy observed at Gottenberg, Mr. Dunkin at Christiana,
and Mr. Humphreys, assisted by Mr. Miland, at Christianstad.

29. The weather on the whole proved favourable at Gottenberg.
"We take from the report of the Astronomer Royal the following
highly interesting particulars of the progress of the phenomenon.

t( The approach of the totality, was accompanied with that
indescribably mysterious and gloomy appearance of the whole
surrounding prospect, which I have seen on a former occasion. A
patch of clear blue sky in the zenith became purple-black while I
was gazing at it. I took off the higher power, with which I had
scrutinised the sun, and put on the lowest power (magnifying
about 34 times). With this I saw the mountains of the moon
perfectly well. I watched carefully the approach of the moon's
limb to the sun's limb, which my graduated dark glass enabled
me to see in great perfection ; I saw both limbs perfectly well
denned to the last, and saw the line becoming narrower and the
cusps becoming sharper without any distortion or prolongation of
the limbs. I saw the moon's serrated limb advance up to the
sun's, and the light of the sun glimmering through the hollows-
between the mountain peaks, and saw these glimmering spots
extinguished one after another in extremely rapid succession, but
without any of the appearances which Mr. Baily has described.
I saw the sun covered, and immediately slipping off the dark
glass, instantly saw the appearances represented at a b c df
fig. 13 (p. 161).

" Before alluding more minutely to these, I must advert to the
darkness. I have no means of ascertaining whether the darkness
really was greater in the eclipse of 1842 ; I am inclined to think
that in the wonderful, and I may say appalling, obscurity, I saw
the grey granite hills within sight of Hvalas more distinctly than
the darker country surrounding the Superga. But whether
because in 1851 the sky was much less clouded than in 1842 (so
that the transition was from a more luminous state of sky to a

171

ECLIPSES.

darkness nearly equal in both cases), or from whatever cause, the
suddenness of the darkness in 1851 appeared to me much more
striking than in 1842. My friends who were on the upper rock,
to which the path was very good, had great difficulty in de-
scending. A candle had been lighted in a lantern about a quarter
of an hour before the totality ; Mr. Haselgren was unable to
read the minutes of the chronometer-face without having the
lantern held close to the chronometer.

" The corona was far broader than that which I saw in 1842 :
roughly speaking, its breadth was little less than the moon's
diameter ; but its outline was very irregular. I did not remark
any beams projecting from it which deserved notice as much more
conspicuous than the others ; but the whole was beamy, radiated
in structure, and terminated (though very indefinitely) in a way
which reminded me of the ornament frequently placed round a
mariner's compass. Its colour was white, or resembling that of
Venus. I saw no nickering or unsteadiness of light. It was not
separated from the moon by any dark ring, nor had it any
annular structure ; it looked like a radiating luminous cloud
behind the moon.

" The form of the prominences was most remarkable. That
which I have marked a reminded me of a bomerang. Its colour
for at least two-thirds of its breadth, from the convexity towards
the concavity, was full lake-red, the remainder was nearly white.
The most brilliant part of it was the swell farthest from the
moon's limb ; this was distinctly seen by my friends and myself
with the naked eye. I did not measure its height; but judging
generally by its proportion to the moon's diameter, it must have
been 3'. This estimation perhaps belongs to a later period of the
eclipse. The prominence b was a pale white semi-circle based on
the moon's limb. That marked c was a red detached cloud, or
balloon, of nearly circular form, separated from the moon's limb
by a space (differing in no way from the rest of the corona) of
nearly its own breadth. That marked d was a small triangular
or conical red mountain, perhaps a little white in the interior.
These were the appearances seen instantly after the formation of
the totality.

" I employed myself in an attempt to delineate roughly the
appearances on the western limb, and I took a hasty view of the
country ; and I then examined the moon a second time. I
believe (but I did not carefully remark) that the prominences
a b c had increased in height ; but d had now disappeared, and a
new one e had risen up. It was impossible to see this change
without feeling the conviction that the prominences belonged to
the sun and not to the moon.
172

ECLIPSE OF 1851.

"I again looked round, when I saw a scene of unexpected
beauty. The southern part of the sky, as I have said, was
covered with uniform white cloud ; but in the northern part
were detached clouds upon a ground of clear sky. This clear
sky was now strongly illuminated, to the height of 30° or 35°,
and through almost 90° of azimuth, with rosy-red light shining
through the intervals between the clouds. I went to the telescope,
with the hope that I might be able to make the polarisation -
observation, (which, as my apparatus was ready to my grasp,
might have been done in three or four seconds,) when I saw that
the sierra, or rugged line of projections, shown at /, had arisen.
This sierra was more brilliant than the other prominences, and its
colour was nearly scarlet. The other prominences had perhaps
increased in height, but no additional new ones had arisen. The
appearance of this sierra, nearly in the place where I expected
the appearance of the sun, warned me that I ought not now to
attempt any other physical observation. In a short time the
white sun burst forth, and the corona and every prominence
vanished.

" I withdrew from the telescope and looked round. The
country seemed, though rapidly, yet half unwillingly, to be
recovering its usual cheerfulness. My eye, however, was caught
by a duskiness in the south-east, and I immediately perceived
that it was the eclipse-shadow in the air travelling away in the
direction of the shadow's path. For at least six seconds this
shadow remained in sight, far more conspicuous to the eye than
I had anticipated."

30. Owing to the unfavourable state of the atmosphere, the
observations of the other members of the Admiralty party were
not so satisfactory as those of its chief. Nevertheless, both
observers saw the red prominences, though imperfectly, as com-
pared with the results of the observations of the Astronomer
Royal. Baily's beads were seen by Mr. Dunkin, as well before as
after the total obscuration. Their appearance was of intense
brilliancy, compared by the observer to a diamond necklace.
Their effect on the observer was "quite overpowering," being
unprepared for a sight so magnificent.

At Christianstad, the planets Yenus, Mercury, and Jupiter,
and the stars Arcturus and Yega, were visible during the totality
of the eclipse.

31. Mr. W. Gray, stationed at Tune, near Sarpsborg, saw the
beads, both before and after the total obscuration. He saw four
of the red projections, three of which are represented in fig. 14,
the fourth resembling c and d in form, and diametrically opposite
to a in position on the moon's limb.

173

ECLIPSES.

During the totality, the light seemed like that of an evening in
August at an hour and a half after sunset.

32. Messrs. Stephenson and Andrews, at Fredrichsvaarn, saw
Baily's beads both before and after the total obscuration. The

Fig. 14.

Fi*. 15.

crescent, before disappearing, was seen as a fine thread of light,
which broke up into fragments, and when it re-appeared, it gave
the idea of globules of mercury rushing amongst each other along
the edge of the moon. In a second or two after the disap-
pearance of the crescent, a rose-coloured flame shot out from the
limb of the moon, which in form resembled a sickle (see fig. 15).
It increased rapidly, and then two other rose-coloured promi-
nences, above and below it, started out, differing in shape, but
evidently of the same character. Besides these, there were,
as well between them as elsewhere, around the moon's edge other
lurid points and other indistinct lines. The height of the prin-
cipal prominence was estimated at about the
twentieth of the moon's diameter, that is,
fe^^. about 1|'. The chief prominences looked like

^T;?;--^^* burning volcanoes, and the lurid points and

^ ^^ lines reminded the observers of dull streams of
^ B? cooling lava.

B 33. Mr. Lassell, at Trollhattan Falls, having
• heard the red prominences seen in former total
:,; eclipses described as faint appearances, saw
• ^f with astonishment around the dark disc of the

! ; ,^K^ moon, after the commencement of total obscura-
~ Vx tion, prominences of the most brilliant lake

!BP^ colour, — a splendid pink, quite defined and

hard, fig. 16. They appeared not to be abso-
lutely quiescent. The observer judged from their appearance that
they belonged to the sun, and not to the moon.
174

ECLIPSE OF 1851.

34. Mr. Hind, at Ravelsborg, near Engelholm, saw the beads,
both before and after the total obscuration, in such a manner as
to leave no doubt of their cause being that already explained.
In five seconds after the commencement of the total obscuration,
the corona or glory around the moon's disc was seen. Its colour
seemed to be that of tarnished silver, brightest next the moon's
limb, and gradually fading to a distance equal to one-third of her
diameter, where it became confounded with the general tint of
the heavens. Appearances of radiation are mentioned, similar to
those described by Professor Airy.

11 On first viewing the sun," says Mr. Hind, " without the dark
glass after the commencement of totality, the rose-coloured
prominences immediately caught my eye, and others were seen a
few seconds later (fig. 17, p. 177). The largest and most remark-
able of them was situate about 5° north of the parallel of declina-
tion, on the western limit of the moon ; it was straight through
two-thirds of its length, but curved like a sabre near the extremity,
the concave edge being towards the horizon. The edges were of a
full rose-pink, the central parts plainer, though still pink.

" Twenty seconds, or thereabouts, after the disappearance of
the sun, I estimated its length at 45" of arc, and on attentively
watching it towards the end of totality, I saw it materially
lengthened (probably to« 2'), the moon having apparently left
more and more of it visible as she travelled across the sun. It
was always curved, and I did not remark any change of form,
nor the slightest motion during the time the sun was hidden. I
saw this extraordinary prominence four seconds after the end of
totality, but at this time it appeared detached from the sun's
limb, the strong white light of the corona intervening between
the limb and the base of the prominence.

" About 10° south of the above object I saw, during the totality,
a detached triangular spot of the same rose colour, suspended, as
it were, in the light of the corona, which gradually receded from
the moon's dark limb, as she moved onwards, and was, therefore,
clearly connected with the sun. Its form and position, with
respect to the large prominence, continued exactly the same so
long as I observed it. On the south limb of the moon appeared
a long range of rose-coloured flames, which seemed to be affected
with a tremulous motion, though not to any great extent.

11 The bright rose-red of the tops of these projections gradually
faded towards their bases, and along the moon's limb appeared a
bright narrow line of a deep violet tint : not far fro m the western
extremity of this long range of red flames was an isolated pro-
minence, about 40" in altitude, and another of similar size and
form, at an angle of 145° from the north towards the east : the

175

ECLIPSES.

moon was decidedly reddish purple at the beginning of totality,
but the reddish tinge disappeared before its termination, and the
disc assumed a dull purple colour. A bright glow, like that of
twilight, indicated the position where the sun was about to
emerge, and three or four seconds later the beads again formed,
this time instantaneously, but less numerous, and even more
irregular, than before. In five seconds more the sun reappeared
as a very fine crescent on the sudden extinction of the beads."

176

Fig. 17. Fig. 18.

ECLIPSES.

CHAPTER II.

35. Observations of Mr. Dawes near Engelholm. — 36. Effects of total obscura-
tion on surrounding objects and scenery. — 37. Evidence of a solar
atmosphere. — 38. Probable causes of the red emanations in solar
eclipses. LUNAR ECLIPSES : 39. The earth's conical shadow. — 40. Its
section may be regarded as a dark disc moving on the firmament. —
41. Conditions which determine lunar eclipses. — 42. Lunar ecliptic
limits. — 43. Greatest duration of total lunar eclipses. — 44. Effects
of the earth's penumbra. — 45. Effects of refraction of the earth's
atmosphere in total lunar eclipse. — 46. Lunar disc visible during
total obscuration.

35. MR. DAWES near Engelholm observed the beads, and found
all the circumstances attending their appearance, such as to leave
no doubt as to the truth of the cause generally assigned to them.
He observed the corona, a few seconds after the commencement of
the totality, and estimated its extreme breadth at half the moon's
diameter, the brightness being greatest near the moon's limb, and
gradually decreasing outwards. The phenomena of the red pro-
tuberances, witnessed by Mr. Dawes, are so clearly and satisfac-
torily described by him, that we think it best here to give the
account of them in his own words : —

" Throughout the whole of the quadrant, from north to east,
there was no visible protuberance, the corona being uniform and
uninterrupted. Between the east and south points, and at an
angle of about 170° from the north point, appeared a large red
prominence of a very regular conical form, fig. 18. When first
seen, it might be about \\' in altitude from the edge of the moon,
but its length diminished as the moon advanced.

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE. N 177

No. 155.

ECLIPSES.

" The position of this protuberance may be inaccurate to a few
degrees, being more hastily noticed than the others. It was of a
deep rose colour, and rather paler near the middle than at the

11 Proceeding southward, at about 145° from the north point
commenced a low ridge of red prominences, resembling in outline
the tops of a very irregular range of hills. The highest of these
probably did not exceed 40". This ridge extended through 50°
or 55°, and reached, therefore, to about 197° from the north point,
its base being throughout formed by the sharply- defined edge of
the moon. The irregularities at the top of the ridge seemed to bo
permanent, but they certainly appeared to undulate from the west
towards the east ; probably an atmospheric phenomenon, as the
wind was in the west.

" At about 220° commenced another low ridge of the same cha-
racter, and extending to about 250°, less elevated than the other,
and also less irregular in outline, except that at about 225° a very
remarkable protuberance rose from it to an altitude of H', or more.
The tint of the low ridge was a rather pale pink ; the colour of the
more elevated prominence was decidedly deeper, and its brightness
much more vivid. In form it resembled a dog's tusk, the convex
side being northwards, and the concave to the south. The apex
was somewhat acute. This protuberance, and the low ridge con-
nected with it, were observed and estimated in height towards
the end of the totality.

" A small double -pointed prominence was noticed at about
255°, and another low one with a broad base, at about 263°.
These were also of the rose-coloured tint, but rather paler than
the large one at 225°.

" Almost directly preceding, or at 270°, appeared a bluntly tri-
angular pink body, suspended, as it were, in the corona. This
was separated from the moon's edge when first seen, and the
separation increased as the moon advanced. It had the appear-
ance of a large conical protuberance, whose base was hidden by
some intervening soft and ill-defined substance, like the upper-
part of a conical mountain, the lower portion of which was obscured
by clouds or thick mist. I think the apex of this object must
have been at least 1' in altitude from the moon's limb when first
seen, and more than 1^' towards the end of total obscuration. Its
colour was pink, and I thought it paler in the middle.

" To the north of this, at about 280° or 285°, appeared the most
wonderful phenomenon of the whole. A red protuberance, of
vivid brightness and very deep tint, arose to a height of, perhaps,
1^' when first seen, and increased in length to 2', or more, as the
moon's progress revealed it more completely. In shape it some-
178

ECLIPSE OF 1851.

what resembled a Turkish cimeter, the northern edge being con--
vex, and the southern concave. Towards the apex it bent suddenly
to the south, or upwards, as seen in the telescope. Its northern
edge was well defined, and of a deeper colour than the rest, espe-
cially towards its base. I should call it a rich carmine. The
southern edge was less distinctly denned, and decidedly paler.
It gave me the impression of a somewhat conical protuberance,
partly hidden on its southern side by some intervening substance
of a soft or flocculent character. The apex of this protuberance
was paler than the base, and of a purplish tinge, and it certainly
had a nickering motion. Its base was, from first to last, sharply
bounded by the edge of the moon. To my great astonishment,
this marvellous object continued visible for about five seconds, as
nearly as I could judge, after the sun began to reappear, which
took place many degrees to the south of the situation it occupied
on the moon's circumference. It then rapidly faded away, but it
did not vanish instantaneously. From its extraordinary size,
curious form, deep colour, and vivid brightness, this protuberance
absorbed much of my attention ; and I am, therefore, unable to
state precisely what changes occurred in the other phenomena
towards the end of the total obscuration.

" The arc, from about 283° to the north point, was entirely free
from prominences, and also from any roseate tint."

36. Although the different parties of observers scattered over
the path of the moon's shadow were not equally fortunate in having
a clear unclouded sky, they were all enabled to observe and record
the effects of the total obscuration upon the surrounding objects
and country. Dr. Robertson of Edinburgh, Dr. Robinson of
Armagh, and some others, witnessed the eclipse from an island
off the coast of Norway, in lat. 61° 21', at a point in the path of
the axis of the shadow. The precursory phenomena corresponded
with those described by other observers. The atmosphere was,
however, obscured by clouds, which appeared to rush down in
streams from the place of the sun. The sea-fowl flocked to their
customary places of rest and shelter in the rooks. The darkness
at the moment of total obscuration was sudden, but not absolute ;
for the clouds had left an open strip of the sky, which assumed a
dark lurid orange, which changed to greenish colour in another
direction, and shed upon persons and objects a faint and unearthly
light. Lamps and candles, seen at fifty or sixty yards' distance,
were as visible as in a dark night, and the redness of their light
presented a strange contrast with the general green hue of every-
thing around them. " The appearance of the country," says Dr.
Robertson, "seen through the lurid opening under the clouds,
was most appalling. The distant peaks of the Tostedals and

N 2 379

ECLIPSES.

Dorieffeld mountains were seen still illuminated by the sun,
while we were in utter darkness. Never before have we observed
all the lights of heaven and earth so entirely confined to one
narrow stripe along the horizon, — never that peculiar greenish
hue, and never that appearance of outer darkness in the place of
observation, and of excessive distance in the verge of the horizon,
caused in this case by the hills there being more highly illumi-
nated as they receded, by a less and less eclipsed sun."

Mr. Hind says, that during the obscuration " the entire laud-
scape was overspread with an unnatural gloom ; persons around
him assumed an unearthly cadaverous aspect ; the distant sea
appeared of a lurid red ; the southern heavens had a sombre
purple hue, the place of the sun being indicated only by the
COEONA; the northern heavens had an intense violet hue, and
appeared very near. On the east and west of the northern
meridian, bands of light of a yellowish crimson colour were
seen, which gradually faded away into the unnatural purple of
the sky at greater altitudes, producing an effect that can never
be effaced from the memory, though no description could give a
just idea of its awful grandeur."

At several places in Prussia, where the heavens were unclouded
during the total obscuration, a great number of the more con-
spicuous stars, as well as the planets Jupiter, Venus, and Mercury,
were visible. Several flowering plants were observed to close their
blossoms, birds which had been previously flying about disap-
peared, and domestic fowls went to roost.

37. Many of the phenomena attending total solar eclipses afford
strong corroboratory evidence of the existence of a solar atmo-
sphere, extending to a vast height above the luminous coating of
the sun.

The corona, or bright ray or glory, surrounding the dark disc of
the moon where it covers the sun, is observed to be concentric with
the moon only at the moment when the latter is concentric with
the sun. In other positions of the moon's disc, it appears to be
concentric with the sun. This would be the effect produced by a
solar non-luminous atmosphere faintly reflecting the sun's light.

38. It appears to be agreed generally among astronomers that
the red emanations above described are solar, and not lunar.
If they be admitted then to be solar, it is scarcely possible to
imagine them to be solid matter, notwithstanding the apparent
constancy of their form in the brief interval during which at any
one time they are visible, for the entire duration of their visibility
has never yet been so much as four minutes. To admit the
possibility of their being solar mountains projecting above the
luminous atmosphere surrounding the sun, and rising to the height

180

LUNAR ECLIPSES.

in the exterior and non-luminous atmosphere forming the corona
necessary to explain their appearance, we must suppose their
height to amount to nearly a twentieth part of the sun's diameter,
that is to 44000 miles.

The fact that they are gaseous and not solid matter appears,
therefore, to be conclusively established by their enormous mag-
nitude, the great height above the surface of the sun at which
they are placed, their faint degree of illumination,
and the circumstances of their being sometimes
detached at their base from the visible limb of
the sun. These circumstances render it probable
that these remarkable appearances are produced
by cloudy masses of extreme tenuity, supported,
and probably produced in an extensive spherical
shell of non-luminous gaseous matter, surrounding
and rising above the luminous surface of the sun
to a great altitude.

Fig. 19.

LUNAR ECLIPSES.

39. As the earth moves in its orbit round
the sun it projects behind it a conical shadow,
the axis of which is always directed to that
point of the heavens which is in immediate
opposition to the centre of the sun. A section
of the sun s, and the earth e, and of the conical
shadow made by a plane passing through the
centres of the sun and earth, is shown in fig. 19.

It will be evident whenever the globe of the
moon or any part of it enters within the limits of
the conical shadow a f a', it will be deprived of
the sun's light, and will consequently be eclipsed ;
the circumstances, therefore, which determine
lunar eclipses will depend upon the transverse
section of the shadow at the moon's distance from
the earth, this distance being about one-third of
the total length of the conical shadow.

It is found by calculation that its greatest appa-
rent diameter, as seen from the earth, is 45' 42",
and its least 37' 49". Its mean magnitude is,
therefore, 41' 45".

40. The section of the shadow may, therefore, be regarded as a
dark disc, whose apparent semi-diameter varies between 37' 49"
and 45' 42", and the true place of whose centre is a point on the
ecliptic 180° behind the centre of the sun. A lunar eclipse is

181

ECLIPSES.

produced by the superposition, partial or total, of this disc on
that of the moon, and the circumstances and conditions which
determine such an eclipse are investigated upon the principles
already explained.

41. By the solar tabtes, the apparent position of the centre of the
sun, from hour to hour, may be ascertained, and the position of
the centre of the section of the shadow may thence be inferred.
From the lunar tables, the position of the moon's centre being in
like manner determined, the distance between the centres of the
section of the shadow and the moon's disc can be ascertained.

The magnitude of the eclipse is measured by the difference
between the sum of the semi-diameters and the distance between
the centres.

42. That a lunar eclipse may take place, it is necessary that the
moon, when in opposition, should approach the ecliptic within a
distance less than the sum of the apparent semi-diameters of the
moon and the section of the shadow.

When the distance from the node at opposition is greater than
5° 44' 21", a total eclipse cannot, and when less than 3° 54' 5", it
must, take place. Between these limits it may or may not occur,
according to the magnitude of the parallaxes and apparent
diameters.

43. The duration of a total eclipse depends on the distance
over which the centre of the moon's disc moves relatively to the
shadow, while passing from the first to the last internal contact.
This may vary from 0, to twice the greatest possible distance of
the moon's centre from the centre of the shadow, at the moment
of internal contact.

44. Long before the moon enters within the sides of the cone
of the shadow it enters the penumbra, and is partially deprived
of the sun's light, so as to render the illumination of its surface
sensibly more faint. When once it passes within the line a' p',
fig. 19, forming the external limit of the penumbra, it ceases to
receive light from that part of the sun which is near the limb b.
As it advances closer to a'f, the edge of the true shadow, more
and more of the solar rays are intercepted by the earth ; and
when it approaches the edge, it is only illuminated by a thin
crescent of the sun, visible from the moon over the edge of the
earth at a'. It might be thus inferred, that the obscuration of
the moon is so extremely gradual, that it would be impossible to
perceive the limitation of the shadow and penumbra. Neverthe-
less, such is the splendour of the solar light, that the thinnest
crescent of the sun, to which the part of the moon's surface near
the edge of the earth's shadow is exposed, produces a degree of
illumination which contrasts so strongly with the shadow as to

182

LUNAR ECLIPSES.

render the boundary of the latter so distinct, that the phenomenon
presents one of the most striking evidences of the rotundity of the
earth, the form of the shadow being accurately that which one
globe would project upon another.

45. If the earth were not surrounded with an atmosphere
capable of refracting the sun's light, the disc of the moon would
be absolutely invisible after entering within the
edge of the shadow. For the same reason, how-
ever, that we continue to see the sun's disc, and
receive its rays after it has really descended
below the horizon, an observer placed upon the
moon, and therefore the surface of the moon
itself, must continue to receive the sun's rays
after the interposition of the edge of the earth's
disc as seen from the moon. This refracted light
falling upon the moon after it has entered within
the limits of the shadow, produces upon it a
peculiar illumination, corresponding in faintness
and colour to the rays thus transmitted through
the earth's atmosphere.

To render this more clear, let e e', fig. 20,
represent a diameter of the earth at right angles
to the axis cf of the shadow, and let a a' repre-
sent the limits of the atmosphere. Let s e f be
the ray proceeding from the edge of the sun, and
forming therefore the boundary of the shadow,
considered without reference to the atmosphere.
But the solar rays in passing through the convex
shell of air, between a and e, are affected as
they would be by a convex lens composed of a
transparent refracting medium, and are therefore
rendered convergent, so that the ray s e, instead
of passing directly to m, will be bent inwards
towards m', while the ray which really passes
from e to / is one which comes in the direction
s' e, and therefore from a point within the
sun's disc. The moon's disc, therefore, or any point of it which
is within the angle m e m', will receive this refracted light,
and will be illuminated by it in accordance with its colour and
intensity.

The deflection which a solar ray suffers in passing through the
atmosphere towards e on the side of the sun, is equal to the hori-
zontal refraction ; and as, according to the principles of optics,
it suffers an equal refraction in passing out on the other side, the
total deflection, which is measured by the angle m e m't is twice

183

ECLIPSES.

the horizontal refraction. But the mean value of the horizontal
refraction being 33', the mean value of the angle m e m' will
be 66'. But since the greatest value of m e o is 45' 42", it follows
that the refracted ray e m' will fall upon the section of the shadow
at a point beyond its Centre ; and since the same will take place
at all points round the shadow, it follows that the entire section
will be more or less illuminated by the light thus refracted : the
intensity of such illumination increases from the centre towards
the borders.

46. When the moon's limb first enters the shadow at wi, the
contrast and glare of the part of the disc still enlightened by the
direct rays of the sun render the eye insensible to the more feeble
illumination produced upon the eclipsed part of the disc by the
refracted rays. As, however, the eclipse proceeds, and the
magnitude of the part of the disc directly enlightened decreases,
the eye, partly relieved from the excessive glare, begins to
perceive very faintly the eclipsed limb, which is nevertheless
visible from the beginning in a telescope, in which it appears
with a dark grey hue. When the entire disc has passed into
the shadow, it becomes distinctly visible, showing a gradation of
tints from a bluish or greenish on the outside to a gradually
increasing red, which, further in, changes to a colour resembling
that of incandescent iron when at a dull red heat. As the lunar
disc approaches the centre of the shadow, this red line is spread
all over it. Its illumination in this position is sometimes so
strong as to throw a sensible shadow, and to render distinctly
visible in the telescope the lineaments of light and shadow
upon its surface.

These effects are altogether similar to the succession of tints
developed in our atmosphere at sunset, and arise, in fact, from
the same cause, operating, however, with a two-fold intensity.
The solar rays traversing twice the thickness of air, the blue and
green lights are more effectually absorbed, and a still more
intense red is imparted to the tints transmitted. Without
pursuing these consequences further here, the student will find
no difficulty in tracing them in the effects of sunset and of
sunrise, and of evening and morning twilight.

184

Fig. 2. — A aiONOCHOKi), OR SONOMETER.

SOUND.

1. Definition. — 2. Air the conductor. — 3. Sound progressive. — 4. Breadth
of sonorous waves. — 5. Musical sounds, how characterised. — 6. Pitch.
— 7. Loudness. — 8. Timbre. — 9, 10. Velocity. — 11. Distances measured
by sound. — 12. Density of air affects loudness. — 13. Effect of atmo-
spheric agitation. — 14. Sound conveyed through liquids. — 15. Solids.
— 16. Effects of Elasticity of air. — 17. Chladni's experiments. — 18.
Monochoi-d. — 19. Vibration of musical strings. — 20. Cause of har-
mony shown.

1. SOTJJTD is the sensation produced in the organs of hearing
when they are affected by undulations transmitted to them
through the atmosphere. These undulations are subject to an
infinite variety of physical conditions, and each variety is followed
by a different sensation.

2. That the presence of air or other conducting medium is
indispensable for the production of sound, is proved by the fol-
lowing experiment.

Let a small apparatus (fig. 1, p. 186) called an alarum, con-
sisting of a bell a, which is struck by a hammer 6, moved by
clockwork, be placed under the receiver of an air-pump, through
the top of which a rod slides, air-tight, the end of the rod being
connected with a detent which governs the motion of the clock-
work connected with the hammer. This rod can, by a handle
placed putside the receiver, be made to disengage the detent, so
as to make the bell ring whenever it is desired.

185

SOUND.

This arrangement being made, and the alarum being placed

within the receiver, upon a
soft cushion of wool e, so as
to prevent the vibration from
being communicated to the
pump-plate, let the receiver
be exhausted in the usual
way. When the air has been
withdrawn, let the bell be
made to ring by means of the
sliding- rod. No sound will
be heard, although the per-
cussion of the tongue upon
the bell, and the vibration of
the bell itself, are visible.
Now if a little air be ad-
mitted into the receiver, a
faint sound will begin to be
heard, and this sound will
become gradually louder in
proportion as the air is gra-
dually readmitted.

In this case the vibrations
which directly act upon the
ear are not those of the air
contained in the receiver.
These latter act upon the re-
ceiver itself and the pump-
plate, producing in them sympathetic vibration; and those
vibrations impart vibrations to the external air which are trans-
mitted to the ear.

If in the preceding experiment a cushion had not been inter-
posed between the alarum and the pump-plate, the sound of the
bell would have been audible, notwithstanding the absence of air
from the receiver. The vibration in this case would have been
propagated, first from the bell to the pump-plate and to the bodies
in contact with it, and thence to the external air.

3. Since the propagation of undulations through the atmosphere
is progressive, an interval of time, more or less, must elapse
between the vibration of the sounding body and the perception of
the sound by a hearer, and such interval will be proportionate to
the distance of the hearer from the sounding body, and to the
velocity with which sound is propagated through the intervening
medium. This progressive propagation of sound can be directly
proved by experiment.
186

SONOROUS WAVES.

%

Let a series of observers, A, B, c, D, &c., be placed in a line, at
distances of about 1000 feet asunder, and let a pistol be discharged
at P, about 1000 feet from the first observer.

This observer will see the flash of the pistol about one second
before he hears the report. The observer B will hear the report
one second after it has been heard by A, and about two seconds
after he sees the flash. In the same manner, the third observer
at c will hear the report one second after it has been heard by the
observer at B, and two seconds after it has been heard by the ob-
server at A, and three seconds after he perceives the flash. In
the same way, the fourth observer at D will hear the report one
second later than it was heard by the third observer at c, and
three seconds later than it was heard by the observer at A, and
four seconds after he perceives the flash.

Now it must be observed, that at the moment the report is
heard by the second observer at B, it has ceased to be audible
to the first observer at A; and when it is heard by the third
observer at c, it has ceased to be heard by the second observer at
B, and so forth. It follows, therefore, from this, that sound
passes through the air, not instantaneously, but progressively, and
at a uniform rate.

4. As the sensation of sound is produced by the wave of air
impinging on the tympanum of the ear, exactly as the momentum
of a wave of the sea would strike the shore, it follows that the
interval between the production of sound and its sensation, is the
time which such a wave would take to pass through the air from
the sounding body to the ear ; and since these waves are propa-
gated through the air in regular succession, one following another
without overlaying each other, the breadth of a wave may always
be determined if we take the number of vibrations which the
sounding body makes in a second, and the velocity with which
the sound passes through the air. If, for example, it be known
that in a second a musical string makes 500 vibrations, and that
the sound of this string takes a second to reach the ear of a person
at a distance of 1000 feet, there are 500 waves in the distance of
1000 feet, and consequently each wave measures two feet.

The velocity of the sound, therefore, and the rate of vibration,
are always sufficient data by which the length of a sonorous wave
can be computed.

5. It has not been ascertained, with any clearness or certainty,
by what physical distinctions vibrations which produce common
sounds or noises are distinguished from such as produce musical

187

SOUND.

sounds. It is nevertheless certain, that all vibrations, in pro-
portion as they are regular, uniform, and equal, produce sounds
proportionably more agreeable and musical.

Sounds are distinguished from each other by their pitch or
tone, in virtue of which»they are high or low ; by their intensity,
in virtue of which they are loud or soft ; and by a property ex-
pressed in French by the word timbre, which we shall here adopt
in the absence of any English equivalent.

6. The pitch or tone of a sound is grave or acute. In the
former case it is low, and in the latter high, in the musical scale.

The more rapid the vibrations are, the more acute will be the
sound. A bass note is produced by vibrations much less rapid
than a note in the treble.

All vibrations which are performed at the same rate produce
waves of equal length and sounds of the same pitch.

7. The intensity of a sound, or its degree of loudness, depends on
the force with which the vibrations of the sounding body are made.

8. The timbre of a sound is not easily explained, and still less
easily can the physical conditions on which it depends be ascer-
tained. If we hear the same musical note produced with the
same degree of loudness in an adjacent room successively upon a
flute, a clarionet, and a hautboy, we shall, without the least
hesitation, distinguish the one instrument from the other. Now
this distinction is made by observing some peculiarity in the notes
produced, yet the notes shall be the same, and be produced with
equal loudness.

9. It is manifest from the absence of all confusion in the effects
of music, at whatever distance it may be heard, that in the same
medium all sounds have the same velocity. If the different
notes simultaneously produced by the various instruments of
an orchestra moved with different velocities through the air,
they would be heard by a distant auditor at different moments,
the consequence of which would be, that a musical performance
would, to the auditors, save those in immediate proximity
with the performers, produce the most intolerable confusion
and cacophony ; for different notes produced simultaneously, and
which, when heard together, form harmony, would at a distance
be heard in succession ; and sounds produced in succession would
be heard as if produced together, according to the different velo-
cities with which each note would pass through the air.

1 0. The velocity of sound varies with the elasticity of the medium
by which it is propagated. Its velocity, therefore, through the air
will vary, more or less, with the barometer and thermometer.

The experimental methods which have been adopted to ascertain
the velocity of sound are similar in principle to those which have
188

VELOCITY OF SOUND.

been briefly noticed by way of illustration. The most extensive
and accurate system of experiments which have been made with
this object, were those made at Paris by the Board of Longitude
in the year 1822. The sounding bodies used on this occasion,
were pieces of artillery charged with from two to three pounds of
powder, which were placed at Villejuif and Montlhery. The ex-
periments were made at midnight, in order that the flash might
be more easily and accurately noticed. They were conducted by
MM. Prony, Arago, Mathieu, Humboldt, Gay Lussac, and Bouvard.
The result of these experiments was, that when the barometer was
at 29 -8 inches, and the thermometer at 61°, the velocity of sound
was 1118*4 feet per second.

According to the theory of Laplace, the velocity of sound in-
creases at the rate of I'll feet per second for every degree in the
rise, and Decreases at the same rate for each degree in the fall of
the thermometer. Hence it appears that the velocity of sound at 32°
is 1086-2 feet per second. For all practical purposes, it is sufficiently
exact to take 1120 feet as the velocity of sound at 62°, and allow
thirteen inches for every variation of a degree in temperature.

11. The production of sound is in many cases attended with the
evolution of light, as, for example, in fire-arms and explosions
generally, and in the case of atmospheric electricity. In these
cases, by noting the interval between the flash and the report,
and multiplying the number of seconds in each interval by the
number of feet per second in the velocity of sound, the distance
can be ascertained with great precision. Thus, if a flash of lightning
be seen ten seconds before the thunder which attends it is heard,
and the atmosphere be in such condition that the velocity of sound
is 1120 feet per second, it is evident that the distance of the
cloud in which the electricity is evolved must be 11200 feet.

12. The same sounding body will produce a louder or lower
sound, according as the density of the air which surrounds it is
increased or diminished. In the experiment already explained,
in which the alarum was placed under an exhausted receiver, the
sound increased in loudness as more and more air was admitted
within the receiver. If the alarum had been placed under a
condenser, and highly compressed air collected round it, the
sound would be still further increased.

When persons descend to any considerable depth in a diving-
bell, the atmosphere around them is compressed by the weight of
the column of water above them. In such circumstances a
whisper is almost as loud as the common voice in the open air,
and when one speaks with the ordinary force it produces an effect
so loud as to be painful.

On the summit of lofty mountains, where the barometric column

189

SOUND.

falls to one-half its usual elevation, and where therefore the air
is highly rarefied, sounds are greatly diminished in intensity.
Persons who ascend in balloons find it necessary to speak with
much greater exertion, and, as would be said, louder, in order to
render themselves audible. When Saussure ascended Mont
Blanc, he found that the report of a pistol was not louder than a
common cracker.

13. Violent winds and .other atmospheric agitations affect the
transmission of sound. When a strong wind blows from the
hearer towards the sounding body, a sound often ceases to be
heard which would be distinctly audible in a calm. A tranquil
and frosty atmosphere placed over a smooth and level surface is
favourable to the transmission of sound. Lieutenant Forster held
a conversation with a person on the opposite side of the harbour of
Port Bowen, in the third polar expedition of Sir Edward Parry,
the distance between the speakers being more than a mile.

It is said that the sound of the cannon at the battle of Waterloo
was heard at Dover, and that the cannon in naval engagements
in the Channel have been heard in the centre of England.

14. Liquids are also capable of propagating sound. Divers
can render themselves audible at the surface of the water ; and
stones or other objects struck together at the bottom produce a
sound audible at the surface.

It appears from the experiments of M. Colladon, made at
Geneva, that sounds are transmitted through water to great
distances with greater force than through air. A blow struck
under the water of the Lake of Geneva was distinctly heard
across the whole breadth of the lake, a distance of nine miles.

Solid bodies, such as walls or buildings interposed between the
sounding body and the hearer, dimmish the loudness of the
sound, but do not obstruct it when the sound is made in air ; but
it appears from the experiments of M. Colladon, that the inter-
position of such obstacles almost destroys the transmission of
sound in water.

1 5. Solids which possess elasticity have likewise the power of
propagating sound. If the end of a beam composed of any solid
possessing elasticity be lightly scratched or rubbed , the sound will
be distinct to an ear placed at the other end, although the same
sound would not be audible to the ear of the person who produces
it, and who is contiguous to the place of its origin.

The earth itself conducts sound, so as to render it sensible to
the ear when the air fails to do so. It is well known, that the
approach of a troop of horse can be heard at a distance by putting
the ear to the ground. In volcanic countries, it is said that the
rumbling noise which is usually the prognostic of an eruption is
190

MONOCHORD.

first heard by the beasts of the field, because their ears are gene-
rally near the ground, and they then by their agitation and
alarm give warning to the inhabitants of the approaching cata-
strophe. Savage tribes practise this method of ascertaining the
approach of persons from a great distance.

16. The velocity with which sound is transmitted through the
air varies with its elasticity ; and where different strata are ren-
dered differently elastic by the unequal radiation of heat, the
agency of electricity, or other causes, the transmission of sound
will be irregular. In passing from stratum to stratum differing
in elasticity, the speed with which sound is propagated is not
only varied, but the force of the intensity of the undulations is-
diminished by the combined effects of reflection and interference,
so that the sound, on reaching the ear, after passing through
such varying media, is often very much diminished.

The fact, that distant sounds are more distinctly heard by night
than by day, may be in part accounted for by this circumstance,
the strata of the atmosphere being during the day exposed to
vicissitudes of temperature more varying than during the night.

17. The solids composing the body of an animal are capable of
transmitting the sonorous undulations to the organ of hearing,
even though the air surrounding that organ be excluded from
communicating with the origin of the sound.

Chladni showed that two persons stopping their ears could
converse with each other by holding the same stick between their
teeth, or by resting their teeth upon the same solid. The same
effect was produced when the stick was pressed against the breast
or the throat, and other parts of the body.

If a person speak, directing his mouth into a vessel composed
of any vibratory substance, such as glass or porcelain, the other
stopping his ears, and touching such vessel with a stick held
between his teeth, he will hear the words spoken.

The same effect will take place with vessels composed of metal
or wood.

If two persons hold between their teeth the same thread, stop-
ping their ears, they will hear each other speak, provided the
thread be stretched tight.

18. Of the various forms of apparatus which have been con-
trived for the production of musical sounds, with a view to the
experimental illustration of their theory, that which is best
adapted for this purpose, called a monochord or sonometer
(fig. 2) consists of a string of catgut or wire attached to a
fixed point, carried over a pulley, and stretched by a known
weight. Under the string is a hollow box or sounding-
board, to the frame of which the pulley is attached. The string

191

SOUND.

rests upon two bridges, one of which is fixed, and the other can
be moved with a sliding motion to and fro, so as to vary at
pleasure the length of the part of the string included between the
two bridges.

A divided scale is picked under them, so that the length of the
vibrating part of the string may be regulated at pleasure. By
varying the weight, the tension of the string may be increased or
diminished in any desired proportion. This may be accomplished
with facility by circular weights which are provided for the pur-
pose, and which may be slipped upon the stem of the weight.
By means of this apparatus, the relation between the various
notes of the musical scale and the rate of vibration by which they
are respectively produced have been ascertained.

19. The rate of vibration of a string such as that of the mono-
chord is inversely as its length, other things being the same.
Thus, if its length be halved, its rate of vibration is doubled ; if
its length be diminished or increased in a threefold proportion,
its rate of vibration will be increased or diminished in the same
proportion ; and so forth.

Let the bridges be placed at a distance from each other as
great as the apparatus admits, and let the weight which stretches
the string be so adjusted, that the note produced by vibrating the
string shall correspond with any proposed note of the musical

scale ; such, for example, as fo , the low c of the treble clef.

*J -O-

This being done, let the movable bridge be moved towards the
fixed bridge, continually sounding the string until it produces the
octave above the note first sounded, that is, until it produces the

middle c fc^ °^ the treble.

If the length of the string be now ascertained by reference to
the scale of the monochord, it will be found to be precisely one-
half its original length

20. Hence it follows, that the same string will sound an octave
higher if the length is halved. But the rate of vibration will be
doubled when the length of the string is halved. Hence it
follows, that two sounds, one of which is an octave higher than
the other, will be produced by vibrations, the rate of which will
be in the proportion of 2 to 1 ; and, consequently, the length of
the undulation producing the lower note will be double that of
the undulation producing the higher note.

By like experiments it is shown that the more frequent the
coincident vibrations are the more perfect is the harmony, and
the less frequent they are the more discordant are the notes.

192

GENERAL INDEX.

ABERRATION, ix. 109

Acarus exulcerans, or mange insect of

horses, vi. 96-8

Accidents on railways, i. 165 ; iv. 81
Achromatic lens, vii. 115 ; ix. 9
Achromatism of the eye, v. 53
Acoustics, i. 195
Actinometer, iii. 84 ; ib. 112
Adams and Leverrier, vi. 178
Admiralty, The, x. 165
Mgos potamos, i. 133
Aerolites, i. 131
Africa, ix. 155

Agricultural products, iii. 4 ; x. 97
Air, ii. 2 ; ib. 13 ; iii. 77 ; v. 105 ;

ix. 183 ; xi. 117
Air pump, v. 32 ; ib. 110
Air thermometer, vi. 158
Alcohol thermometer, ib.
Aldebaran, vii. 164
Algol, vii. 197
Alleghanies, ix. 153
Almanack, vii. 2
Alpine marmot, viii. 125
Alps, ix. 187 ; xii. 136
Amazons, ix. 162
American telegraphs, iii. 139 ; iv. 9 ;

ib. 41 ; ib. 74 ; ib. 82
Amici's camera, viii. 189
Ammonites, their distribution, xi.

62

Andes, iv. 172 ; ix. 152
Anglo-Parisian basin, xii. 70

sea, ib. 133

Angular magnitude, ix. 61
Animalcules, vi. 201
Anno mundi, vii. 55
Annual parallax, vii. 175
Ants, viii. 140 ; ix. 205
Ant-lion, viii. 119

LARDNER'S MUSEUM OP SCIENCE.
No. 156.

Aplanatic lens, vii. 109
Apparatus for raising water, v. 182
Apparent magnitude of an object,

v. 61

Apparent motion, v. 72
Applegath & Cowper, xi. 15
Aqueous humour, v. 52
Arago, M., i. 70
Arbor in watches, vi. 24
Archipelago, ix. 141
Argo, viii. 47
Aristomachus, x. 3
Aristophanes, v. 158
Aristotle, ib.
Arrest, de, M., xi. 116
Art, iv. 188
Artesian wells, iv. 165
Artificial light, ix. 46
Asia, ix. 146
Asteroids, vi. 169
Asteea, vi. 166
Astronomers, vi. 168 ; vii. 6
Astronomical observations, iv. 98
Astronomy, viii. 198
Atlantic steamers, x. 116
Atlantis, xi. 90
Atmosphere, iii. 41 ; ib. 135 ; v. 97 ;

vii. 27 ; x. 177
Atoms, vi. 205
Audubon, viii. 149
Auriga, vii. 157
Aurora borealis, x. 187
Australia, ix. 148
Austro- Germanic telegraph union, iv.

142

Autograph telegraph, iv. 55
Autumnal equinox, v. 166
Axis of the eye, v. 52
Azof, sea of, ix. 142
Azores, xi. 96

o 193

GENEEAL INDEX.

BAHIA, meteoric stone of, i. 133

Bailey's beads, xii. 168

Bain's chemical telegraph, iv. 46

Baking pottery, ii. 189

Balance-wheel in watches, vi. 26

Balearic Isles, pottery in tke, ii. 133

Ball signal at Greenwich, i. 112

Ballons, system of, xii. 14

Balloons, ii. 107

Barometer, i. 70 ; iv. 178 ; v. 42

Barren island, xi. 112

Basalts, xi. 176

Batteries used for English telegraphs,

iii. 130-3
Bavarian manufacture of porcelain,

ii. 158

Baya, nest of the, viii. 148
Bear, the, viii. 167
Beaver, the, viii. 149
Bee, the, viii. 140; x. 87
Beetle, vi. 81 ; ix. 203
Bekker, Paul, ii. 157
Belgian cable, iii. 168

railways, i. 169 ; vi. 135

telegraphs, iv. 31 ; ib. 133-9

Bellows, v. 106

Bells, ii. 29 ; iii. 204

Belts of Jupiter, i. 37

Bevelled wheels, vi. 20

Biela's comet, i. 68 ; ii. 95

Bigranulosa Murchisonia, xi. 63

Binary stars, viii. 1

Binocular parallax, xi. 138

Birds, viii. 152 ; xi. 135

Births, i. 123 ; viii. 69

Bishop, vi. 166

Bisque firing, ii. 186

Bissextile years, v. 160

Black sea, ix. 142

Bladder glass, v. 98

Blainplan, M., xi. 171

Blast-pipe, vi. ] 23

Blindness, v. 194

Blood of insects, vi. 78

Bode, Professor, i. 57 ; vi. 163

Boiling point, ii. 99 ; vi. 153

Bombay, telegi'aphic connection of

with Alexandria, iii. 162
Bond, Professor, i. 55
Bone cave, xii. 140
Bones in infancy, viii. 71
Bononio's researches, vi. 98
Boston telegraph, iv. 132
Bottger, J. F., ii. 151

194

Bourguignon, Dr., vi. 98

Bouvard, i. 77 ; vi. 175

Bow, porcelain manufactory at, ii. 165

Brain, viii. 50

Brakes for stopping trains, i. 173

Brazil, i. 119

Breguet's telegraph, iv. 15

Brett's printing telegraph, iv. 59

Brewster, Sir D., v. 80 : vii. 78 ;

xi. 141
Bridges, meaning of the term with

respect to earthquakes, iv. 163
Bright, iii. 147
Brine pumps, x, 141
British America, telegraphic lines in,

iv. 129

• India, ix. 146

Isles, ix. 140

Brongniart, M., anecdote of, ii. 154
Brougham, Lord, iii. 15
Brorsen, M., xi. 166 ; ib. 184
Buckland, Dr., xi. 60 ; xii. 90
Buffon, viii. 115
Burnens, see Huber
Butter, vi. 106

CABLES, submarine, iii. 151

Caesar's comet, ii. 91

Calabria, earthquake of, ii. 85 ; iv.

154
Calendar, v. 152

month, vii. 1

California, projected telegraph to,

iv. 127

Camel, the, vi. 102
Camera lucida, v. 94 ; ix. 56
obscura, viii. 203

Campania, ii. 120

Campbell, Thomas, ix. 204

Canals, ii. 18

Candle, explanation of the burning

of, ii. 205

Canis major, vii. 38
Carbon, ii. 194
Carbonic acid, ii. 11 ; iv. 197
Carburetted hydrogen, ii. 198
Carcel lamp, ii. 206
Caribbean sea, ix. 151
Carnivorous animals, viii. 148
Carpenter bee, viii. 143 ; x. 21
Carrier pigeons, viii. 173
Caspian sea, ix. 142
Cassiopeia's chair, vii, 156

GENERAL INDEX.

Castalia, fountain of, iv. 167
Cat, the, ii. 78 ; viii. 167
Catacombs of Thebes, ii. 117
Caterpillars, viii. 124
Cattle, transport of, iii. 7
Caucasian, viii. 84
Celestial bodies, vii. 27

globe, vii. 166

phenomena, ii. 65

poles, vii. 149

Centering of lenses, ix. 20

Centigrade thermometer, vi. 155

Central America, ix. 150

Centrifugal force, iii. 60

Century, vii. 6

Ceramic museum of Dresden, ii. 147

Ceratites nodosus, xi. 68

Ceres, vi. 163

Cetus and Perseus, vii. 197

Chacornac's discovery of planets,

vi. 167

Chain pump, v. 191
Chaldini, i. 131 ; xii. 191
Chanvallon's experiments, i. 119
Characters, telegraphic table of, iv. 42
Charcoal, experiments with, ii. 11 ;

ib. 195 ; iii. 124
Charlemagne, hailstones in his reign,

iii. 96
Charles II., iii. 25

V., ii. 136

Chevalier, Charles, viii. Ill ; ix. 72

Chimneys, ii. 202

Chimpanzee, viii. 62

China clay, analysis of, ii. 130

Chinese porcelain, ii. 124-8

Chippewayan and Rocky Mountains,

ix. 151

Chirotherium, xii. 62
Chloride of silver, i. 121
Choke-damp, ii. 13
Cholera, ii. 85

Choroid coat of the eye, v. 52
Christ, comet signalising the birth of,

ii. 82

Christian era, vii. 5
Chronologists and astronomers, vii. 6
Chronometers, i. 109 ; vi. 44
Ciliary processes of the eye, v. 52
Ciphers, iv. 93

Circulation of the blood, vi. 103
Circumpolar region, vii. 147
Civil time, v. 121
Civilisation, v. 2

Clack pump valve, v. 183
Clairaut and Lalande, xi. 179
Classic springs, iv. 167
Cleavage, plane of, vi. 205
Clepsydra, or water-clock, vi. 4
Climate, iii. 69 ; ix. 165
Climatology, xi. 5

Clock, v. 73 ; vi. 5 ; ib. 30 ; vii. 34
Clouds, i. 19 ; iii. 37 ; ix. 182 ;

x. 180

Clyde, steamers on, x. 114
Coal, iv. 168 ; ib. 197 ; vi. 144 ; xi.

125

Coal-fire, ii. 200
Cocoons, x. 45
Coddington lens, viii. 107
Cold water pump of steam-engine, v.

32

Coleridge and Wedgewood, ii. 143
Colours, i. 85 ; ib. 203 ; ii. 84 ; v.

74 ; vii. 73 ; ib. 109
Columbus, xii. 168
Coma, ii. 69

Combustion, ii. 10 ; ib. 194
Comets, i. 163 ; ii. 68, 93 ; xi. 147-

196

Common Prayer-book, vii. 10
- year, vii. 21

Commutator, iii. 178 ; ib. 186; iv. 18
Compensation of forces in watche?,

vi. 26

Compositor, xi. 5
Compressor, ix. 40
Concave reflector, vii. 87
Concavo-convex lens, v. 201
Condensation of vapour, ii. 105
Condenser, viii. 97
Condensing engines, v. 30 ; iv. 205
Conduction of heat, vi. 148
Conductors, lightning, iii. 120; x. 184
Cones, volcanic, iv. 172
Confusion, year of, v. 162
Congelation ty radiation of heat, vi.

146

Constellations, vii. 151
Contemporaneous period, xii. 152
Continental railways, vi. 141

roads, iii. 22 ; iv. 119

Continents, average height of, ix. 188

Convex lens, viii. 100

Convulsion of the earth's surface, iv.

149
Cooper, Mr., his charts of 45,000

stars, vi. 167

2 195

GENERAL INDEX.

Copper, its advantages for steam-
boilers, v. 3 ; vi. 203

Coral reefs, xii. 77

Cornea, v. 51 ; vi. 60

Cornish China-clay, ii. 166

engines, iv. 207 •

Corpuscular theory of light, i. 195

Correspondents of journals, iii. 15

Corrosion of marine boilers, x. 143

Corsica, system of, xii. 19

Cote d'Or, xii. 18

Cotopaxi, iv. 173

Cotton, transport of, iii. 3

Counter-steam contrived by Watt, v.
48

Coupled wheels of locomotives, vi.
119

Craters of elevation, iv. 170 ; ib. 174 ;
xi. 106

Creative power, xi. 38 ; ib. 56

Creosoted deal troughing, iii. 146

Cretaceous age, xii. 94

Cricket, Shakspeare's allusion to the,

ix. 202

Crime, iv. 82 ; viii. 95
Crowded rooms poisonous, ii. 14 ; ib.

204

Crown-wheels, vi. 20
Crusades, the, iii. 22
Crust of the earth, iv. 148
Crustaceous animalculae, ix. 93
Cryophorous, Herschel's experiment

of the, iii. 40
Crystalline humour, v. 52
Crystals of salt, vi. 204
Cuban railways, ii. 62
Cunard steamers, x. 119
Cupping, ii. 5
Current, electric, iii. 122

voltaic, ix. 41

Curves, expedient for passing railway,

ii. 47

Cuttle-fish, v. 80
Cuvier, viii. 117 ; xi. 137
Cyclops minutus, ix. 26
Cyprsea elegans, xi. 64
Gyrene, potters of, ii. 123

DAGUERREOTYPE, microscopic, vi. 99
Dalton, Dr., i. 86 ; v. 96
Damper in steam-furnace, v. 18
Daniel's constant battery, iii. 126
Dardanelles arid Bosphorus, ix. 141
196

Darnet, Mde., ii. 105

Darwin, Dr., viii. 138

Davy, Sir H., iv. 188

Dawes', Mr., observations on Saturn's
rings, i. 56

Day, i. 34 ; v. 118 ; ib. 140 ; vi. 75

De Luc's balloon ascent, iv. 185

Dead plates of steam-engine, v. 12

points in action of steam-engine,

vi. 116

Decimal reckoning for time desirable,
v. 118

Declension, the sun's, i. 104

Degeer's examples of instinct in ani-
mals, viii. 133

Deluge, the, ii. 90

De Morgan, Prof., vii. 18

Densities of the planets, i. 35

Density of water, iii. 77 ; iv. 184

Derby porcelain, ii. 165

Descartes, viii. 115

Desk, metallic, iv 47

Despatches, telegraphic, iv. 77

Detonations, subterranean, iv. 172

Dew, iii. 91

Diagonal barometer, iv. 182

Dial, iii. 204

Diamonds, iii. 116 ; vii. 108

Diaphragms, ix. 31

Diathermous bodies, vi. 148

Differential thermometer, vi. 159

Diffraction, i. 205 ; ix. 45

Dilation and contraction by variation
of heat, vi. 146

Diligences, iii. 12

Diluvium, xi. 46

Dionysius Exiguus, vii. 5

Discordant stratification, xi. 73

Diseases, i. 125 ; ii. 77

Dispersive power, vii. Ill

Dissolving views, viii. 198

Distillation, ii. 104

Diurnal parallax, vii. 175

rotation of heavens, v. 123

Divine wisdom, vi. 194

Divisibility of matter, vi. 197 : ib.

204

Dog, the, vii. 91 ; viii. 157 ; ix. 193
Dog-days, vii. 38 ; ix. 169
Dog-star, vii. 191

Domesticity and tameness, viii. 173
Donne, Dr., vi. 99

Double action, of forcing pump, vi.
189

GENERAL INDEX.

Double refractiug crystals, ix. 68

stars, i. 86 ; vii. 203

Doublets, viii. 108

Dragon-fly, ix. 89

Drawings and engravings, vi. 51

Drebbel's air thermometer, vi. 159

Dresden porcelain, ii. 155

Driving wheels, vi. 118

Drone, the, x. 9, 11, 33, 52, 75

Dry fogs, ii. 82

— steam, v. 5

Drying processes, ii. 100

Dubosc, M., viii. 201

Duhamel du Monceau's experiments,
i. 118

Duplex escapement, vi. 37

Dureaux de la Mai on hawks and fal-
cons, viii. 166

EAGLE, the, viii. 167

Earth, the, i. 10 ; ii. 73 ; iii. 41 ;

vi. 195; ix. 130 ; xi. 33
Earthlight at the moon, iii. 42
Earthquakes and volcanoes, iv. 150 ;

xi. 83

Easter, vii. 9

Eastern continent, ix. 157
Ecclesiastical moon, vii. 11
Eclipses, xii. 162
Ecliptic, vii. 43
Egypt, pyramids of, iv. 207
— — roads, iii. 10

months or years, v. 148 ; ib. 155

Ehrenberg, M., xi. 131 ; ib. 168

Electric current, iii. 118

telegraph, i. 179 ; iii. 14 ;

ib. 116 ; iv. 31
Electricity, iii. 118

lectro-chemical pen, iv. 47
Electro-magnet, iii. 197 ; x. 196
Electro-motive power, x. 193
Elements, the ; ideas of the ancients,

ii. 9

Elephant, the, viii. 157
Elers, Messrs., their pottery, ii. 140
Elie de Beaumont, M., xi. 82 ; xii. 22'
Encke's comet, ii. 67 ; xi. 195
Engines, high and low pressure, v. 29
England, iii. 24 ; iv. 141 ; xi. 124
Ensenheim, meteoric stone at, i. 139
Eutrecolles, Father, ii. 150
Epact, vii. 14
Epidemics, iL 77

Equation of time, v. 133

Equator, i. 98 ; iii. 57

Equatorial and polar waters, inter-
change of, iii. 78

Equinoctial points, v. 166

Equinox, the day of, v. 165 ; vii. 30

Equinoxes, precession of the, v. 167

Eras, vii. 24 ; ib. 55

Erie canal, ii. 19

Eruptions, ii. 79 ; iv. 172

Escapement wheel, vi. 18 ; ib. 34

Ether, i. 195

Ethiopian, viii. 85

Etna, Mount, xi. 108

Etruria, in Staffordshire, ii. 142

Europe, outlines of, ix. 140

European and American Telegraph
Company, iv. 118 ; vi. 143

Evaporation, ii. 99 ; iii. 89 ; iv. 200

Evening star, vii. 44

Explosion of steam-boilers, ii. 25

Eye, the, i. 9 ; ib. 85 ; v. 50 ; viii. 71

Eye-piece of microscope, ix. 25

FACIAL angle, viii. 54

Factory engine, v. 34

Facules and Lucules, iii. 108

Fahrenheit's thermometer, vi. 155

Fairbairn, W., x. 167

Fan, i. 94

Faye, M., xi. 165

Feathering paddles, x. 156

February, v. 150

Filaments of wool, silk, and fur, vi. 200

Filtering-paper, ii. 102

Fingal's cave, xi. 79

Finisterre, system of, xii. 12

Fire, ii. 193 ; iv. 132

balls, i. 133 ; ib. 150

damp, ii. 199 ; iv. 188

engine, v. 191

syringe, i. 136

works, i. 86

wells in China, iv. 168

Firmament, iii. 55 ; v. 73 ; vii. 146
Fishes, iv. 174 ; vi. 76 ; viii. 157
Flame, ii. 198 ; iv. 189
Flaugergue's observations on the baro-
meter, i. 76
Flannel, i. 94
Flaxman, Mr., ii. 143
Flies, v. 106
Floral clock of Linnaeus, i. 11

197

GENERAL INDEX.

Florida, peninsula of, ix. 155

Flourens, M., viii. 164

Fluids, ii. 4

Fluted wire, vi. 19

Fly-wheel, v. 41

Focal length and principal focus, vii.

98

Focussing, ix. 27
Fog signals, i. 174
Fogs, ii. 82 ; iii. 94
Foot of man, viii. 60
Forbes, Prof., xi. 94
Forcing pump, v. 188
Fore and after milk, vi. 3
Forest, American, xi. 93
Forked lightning, v. 74
Fossils, different, xi. 59, 63 ; ib.

130-4 ; ib. 136 ; ib. xii. 35
Foucault, M., iii. 58
Foundlings, viii. 82
Fractional magnitude, vii. 184
France, iii. 4 ; ix. 140 ; xii. 60
Franklin, Dr., viii. 140
Freezing by radiation of heat, i. 116
Freezing point and boiling point, vi.

183

Frog's tongue, v. 65
Froment, M.,;iv. 38 ; ib. 46 ; vi. 53 ;

x. 195, 205-7-8
Frozen sea, iii. 75
Fruits, tropical, transport of, iii. 9
Fuel, iv. 205 ; v. 15, 143
Fulgurites, x. 183
Full moon, vii. 49
Fumarolles, xi. 116
Fusee in time-pieces, vi. 24
Fusion by heat, vi. 146

GAD-PLY, viii. 134

Galactic circle, viii. 11

Galen, viii. 67

Galileo, i. 43 ; iii. 54 ; v. 102 ;

vi. 7

Gaile, i. 55 ; vi. 180
Galvanic battery, iii. 120
Galvanometer, iii. 194
Garden watering pumps, v. 191
Gases, ii. 9

Gasparis' discovery of planets,, vi. 168
Gauge, steam, v. 9 ; ib. 44
Gay Lussac, iv. 185
Gearings, x. 166
Geography, ix. 130 ; xi. 34

19.8

Geological horizon, xii. 25

periods, ib. 29

phenomena, xi. 121

Geology, viii. 105 ; xi. 6
Geometrical problem of the globe,

x. 31
German pottery, ii. 138

sepulchres, ii. 122

Germany, iv. 26 ; iii. 14

Geysers, xi. 116

Giant's Causeway, xi. 78

Glasgow Saturday journals, iv. 85

Glazing, potter's, ii. 184

Globe, the, xi. 53

Globules of blood, vi. 100

Glow-worm, ix. 203

Gnat, the, ii. 90

Gneiss, xi. 41

Gold, vi. 198

Golden number, the, v. 158 ; vii. 14

Goniometers, ix. 58

Goring, Dr., vi. 75 ; ix. 13

Graham's discovery of the planet

Metis, vi. 168
Grain, i. 119
Granite, xi. 39
Grates, ii. 202
Gravitation, iii. 103
Great Britain steamer, x. 169
Greece, iii. 19 ; ix. 141
Greek months, v. 148
Greenland, ix. 155; xi. 92
Greenwich, i. 100 ; iv. 101
Gregorian calendar, v. 170
Grove's battery, iii. 127
Growth, its effects, viii. 79
Guacamayo, volcano of, iv. 172
Gulf of Mexico, ix. 151
Gymnopleurus pilularius, viii. 138

HADLEY'S sextant, i. 105
Hail, iii. 95

Hainault, system of, xii. 15
Hale du Bivouac, i. 122
Halley's comet, ii. 69 ; xi. 175
Hamster, the, viii. 57
Hand, the, viii. 57
Hannonsr, Paul, ii. 164
Harmattan of Africa, ii. 85
Harmony, xii. 192
Hawk, the, viii. 166
Heat, i. 7 ; iii. 66 j vi. 145 ; ix.
181 ; x. 46

GENERAL INDEX.

Heavens, the, i. Ill ; vii. 146

Hebrew Scriptures, x. 2

Hecla, Mount, ii. 85

Hegira, era of the Mahometans, vii.
56

Hellenic peninsula, ix. 156

Hemispheres, iii. 57

Henderson's observations at the Cape,
vii. 181

Henley's magnetic telegraph, iv. 58

Herculaneum and Pompeii, xi. 100

Hermes Trismegistos, v. 155

Herschel, Sir J., i. 57 ; ib. 67 ; xi.
205

Sir W., i. 206 ; vi. 57

Highton's improvements in tele-
graphs, iii. 135

Himalayas, the, v. 105; ix. 181

Hind, Mr., vi. 166 ; vii. 202

Historical dates, v. 164

Hive, bee, x. 25

Hoar-frost, iii. 93

Homer, ii. 116 ; ib. 120

Horological commutator, iii. 188 ; iv.
96

Horse, the, viii. 157

Horseshoe magnet, iii. 208 ; iv. 2

Horsley, Bishop, i. 73

Hour-glass, vi. 4

Hours, v. 118

Huber, x. 4 ; ib. 45

Hudson, steam navigation on the, ii.
21 ; x. 114

Human body, the, i. 93 ; viii. 83

knowledge, iii. 59

race, viii. 83

Humble bees, x. 44

Humboldt, iv. 153

Hundsruck, xi. 5

Hurricanes, iii. 77

Huygen, M., on Saturn, i. 51

Hyades and the Pleiades, vii. 164

Hyaloid capsule, v. 53

Hydrogen, ii. 194

Hydrometer, vi. 108

Hydrometric indicator, x. 137

Hygienic conditions, viii. 76

Hylseosaurus, the, xi. 61

ICE, artificial, iii. 93
Icebergs, iii. 78
Ice-fields, iii. 78
Iceland, vi. 155

Ichneumon, viii. 135

Ichthyosaurus, xi. 61 ; xii. 75

Ides, v. 153

Ignis fatuus, ii. 199

Iguanodon, the, xi. 61

Illumination, ii. 201 ; v. 64 ; ix. 47

Imposing, xi. 7

Incandescence, vi. 147

Incubation, i. 123

India, iii. 173 ; ix. 156 ; xi. 92

Indiction, vii. 20

Infantile organs, viii. 71

Ink-bottle, pneumatic, v. 107

Insects, vi. 62 ; x. 5, 86, 131

Instinct, viii. 114

Intelligence, viii. 117

Inventions, neglect of, iv. 9

Iris, the, v. 52

Irregular reflection, vii. 60

Islands, volcanic, iv. 175

Isochronism of the pendulum, vi. 9

Isothermal lines, iii. 68

Italian pottery, ii. 133

time, v. 120

Itch insect, the, vi. 95

JACK O'LANTHORN, ii. 199
Jamaica, earthquake at, iv. 162
Januarius, St., v. 173
January, v. 150
Jet d'eau, near Calais, iv. 168
Johnston's physical Maps, ix. 185
Journalism, iii. 15
Julian calendar, v. 159

period, vii. 24 ,

Julius Caesar and Napoleon, v. 160
Juno, Harding's discovery of, vi. 165
Jupiter, L 28 ; ib. 37 ; ii. 68

Serapis, xi. 93

Jurassic age, xii. 66
period, xii. 7 7

KALEIDOSCOPE, v. 205
Kaolin, ii. 130 ; ib. 165
Kase, grotto of Bertrich, xi. 79
Kater, Captain, vi. 5
Kepler, ii. 67
Key commutator, iii. 187
Knuckles, the, v. 153

199

GENERAL INDEX.

LABOUR AND REST, i. 10

Lactoscope, vi. 109

Lady-day, v. 175

Lamellicornes, or Gymnopleurus pi-

lularius, viii. 138
Lampadias, ii. 91
Lamps, ii. 206
Land and water, ix. 130 ; xii. 2-7

spouts, iii. 88

Language, via, 171

Laplace, ii. 94 ; xi. 167

Lardner, Dr., iii. 115 ; ib. 117 ; iv.

50 ; v. 202 ; x. 118
Larva of the moth, viii. 124
LasseU, Mr., vi. 187
Latent heat, iv. 201 ; vi. 146
Latitude, i. 99 ; iii. 53
Lava, iv. 170

dykes, xi. 115

Leap years, v. 164

Leg and foot, vii. 60

Lens, v. 198 ; vii. 93 ; ix. 13

Leroy, M., viii. 164

Leverrier, iii. 117

Lewenhoeck, M., ix. 51

Lexell, M., xi. 167

Lieberkuhn, ix. 45

Life, viii. 81

Ligerian basin, xii. 133

Light, i. 46 ; ib. 195-205 ; v. 68 ;

vii. 60 ; ix. 44

Lightning, iii. 115 ; ib. 142 ; x. 187
Lima, earthquake at, ii. 78 ; iv. 156
Linceus sphericus, ix. 92
Linnaeus, i. 11
Lioness, the, viii. 174
Liparis chrysorrhea, viii. 133
Lisbon, earthquake at, iv. 160
Llanos of Orinoco, ix. 153
Locomotive, the, vi. 113
Log ships, vi. 4

London and N. W. Railway, vi. 141
Longevity, viii. 80
Longitude, i. 100 ;• ib. Ill ; iv. 95
Longmynd, xii. 13
Looking-glass, viii. 120
Lottin, M., x. 189
London's Gardening, i. 67
Lough Neagh, xi. 95
Low Sunday, vii. 19
Luminous undulations, i. 204
Lunar attractions, i. 70

changes, vii. 46

cycle, vii. 13

200

Lunar eclipses, xii. 182

influence, i. 114-125

month, vii. 1

mountains, iii. 46

Lunation, v. 146
Lurco or glutton, ix. 93
Luther, vi. 167
Lyell, M., xii. 90

MACLEAN'S observations at the Cape,

vii. 181

Maclear and Smith, xi. 206
Madagascar, ix. 142
Madler, Mr., i. 40
Magdeburg hemispheres, v. 99
Magic lanthorn, viii. 193
Magnet, iii. 192
Magnetic Telegraph Company, iii.

145 ; iv. 117
Magnifying glasses,
Majolica, ii. 133 ; viii. 97
Major planets, i. 35
Maki, viii. 62
Malay, viii. 85
Malus, Mr., i. 206
Man, viii. 49 ; xi. 58 ; xii. 156
Mandl, Dr., vi. 96
Mantell, Dr., xi. 68
Map of telegraphic network, iv. 136
Marble, vi. 197
Marbles, iv. 169
March moon, vii. 53
Marinoni, M., xi. 24
Market gardeners, v. 180
Marks, Professor, and Dr. McCaul,

ix. 208

Marriage, viii. 82
Mars, i. 3
Marseilles, iii. 22
Marth, Mr., vi. 166
Materialism, viii. 89
Matter, vi. 207
Maury, Lieut., iii. 168
Mean time, v. 135
Mediterranean, ix. 139

basin, xii. 72

Meissen, royal manufactory at, ii. 154
Memory, vii. 147
Mercedonius, v. 154
Mercurial thermometer, vi. 149
Mercury, i. 13; vi. 155; iv. 180 ;xi. 162
Meridian, terrestrial, v. 124 ; iii. 57 ;
ib. 62 ; vii. 147

GENERAL INDEX.

Metals, vi. 147
Meteoric cycle, i. 77

masses, i. 133 ; ii. 78

Meteorology, xi. 5

Meteors, i. 142

Meton and Metonic cycle, v. 157

Mexico, iv. 162

Micrometers, ix. 53

Micrometer screw, vi. 53

Micrometric apparatus, iv. 190; ix. 51

Micropolariscope, ix. 65

Microscope, vi. 62 ; ix. 2

Microscopic objects, vi. 52 ; ix. 63

Middle ages, iii. 21

Midsummer, vii. 38

Migration, viii. 126

Mileage, i. 164 ; vi. 136

Milk, vi. 106

teeth, viii. 73

Milky Way, viii. 12
Mineral springs, ii. 102

• veins, xi. 84

Mines, v. 192

Mirrors, vii. 123

Missing stars, vii. 203

Mississippi, ii. 30 ; ix. 162

Mithridates, ii. 82

Mollusca, xii. 113

Mongol, viii. 85

Monkeys, viii. 128

Monochord, the, xii. 191

Monte Nuovo, xi. 96

Month, the, v. 143 ; ix. 173

Moon, the, i. 29 ; iii. 34 ; v. 144 j

vii. 9 ; ib. 11

stars, i. 60

Moore, T., ix. 197, ib. 198, ib. 201

—203

Moore's Almanack, vii. 4
Moors, the, ii. 133
Morbihan, xii. 13
Morning stars, vii. 44
Morpho Menelaus, vi. 55
Morse's telegraph, iv. 41
Mosaic deluge, ii. 91

history, xii. 157

Motion, v. 73

Mountains, ii. 9 ; iii. 52 ; iv. 170 ;

vi. 195 ; ix. 185 ; xi. 74; xii. 6.
Mountebanks, i. 96
Mud volcanoes, iv. 169
Multiplier, magnetic, iii. 194
Mungo Park, x. 110
Murchison, Sir R., xi. 70 ; xii. 40

Murphy's Almanack, i. 69
Muscles, the, viii. 79
Music, iii. 200 ; iv. 71
Musical strings, xii. 192
Mygale, the, viii. 123

NANKIN pagoda, ii. 148
Naples, ii. 120

Narni, meteoric stone at, i. 134
Nautical Almanack, i. Ill
Neap tides, vii. 135
Near-sightedness, v. 56
Nebulae, vi. 56-58 ; viii. 24
Needle, electric, iii. 194

instruments, iv. 10

Neptune, vi. 171
Nervous system, viii. 50
Netherlands, the, iv. 143
Newall & Company, iii. 152
Newspapers, iv. 90 ; xi. 29
News-rooms, iv. 85
Newton, vii. 66 ; xi. 1 74
Nicene Council, vii. 9
Night-travelling, i. 192
Nobert's test-plates, vi. 67
Nones, v. 152

North of England system, xii. 15
American peninsula, ix. 154

Northern hemisphere, ix. 167
Northumberland coal, ii. 200 ; xi. 125
Norway and Sweden, ix. 140
Numa, v. 150
Number, i. 88
Nymph of bee, x. 54
of white ant, ix. 100

OBSERVATORIES, iv. 98
Oceans and seas, xi. 34
Ocular spectra, v. 77
Odd numbers, v. 151
Odours, i. 88
OZningen, xii. 137
Ohio, the, ix. 160
Olber, M., i. 127 ; vi. 164
Old style, v. 173
Olefiant gas, ii. 199
Opacity, vii. 58
Ophthalmometer, v. 202
Optic nerve, v. 53
Optical images, vii. 81
Orbits, cometary, xi. 146
Organic remains, xi. 45 ; xii. 27

201

GENEKAL INDEX.

Organs of animals, xii. 147
Orinoco, ix. 163
Orion, vii. 159
O'Shaughnessy, Dr., iii. 174
Ourang-outang, viii. 159
Ovens, potter's, ii. 189
Oxydation of metals, iii. 124
Oxygen gas, ii. 10 ; ib, 107

PACHYDERMATA, viii. 158

Paddle-wheels, x. 126

Pairs, elements, and poles, iii. 132

Paleozoic periods, xii. 41

Palissy, Bernard, ii. 136

Pallas, vi. 163

Palm Sunday, vii. 19

Palina, island of, xi. 107

Pampas, the, ix. 153

Paper, iv. 6

Parallax, vii. 173;; xii. 167

Paris, rain at, iii. 94

Parliament, iv. 86

Pascal, v. 100

Paschal moon, vii. 16

Passover, vii. 9

Patterns for carpets, v. 207

Pecari, viii. 158

Pegasus and Andromeda, vii. 156

Pen, electro-chemical, iv. 47

Pendulum, iii. 59 ; vi. 6

Peninsulas, ix. 154

Pentamerus, the, xi. 66

Pentecost, vii. 20

Penumbra, earth's, xii. 182

Periodic stars, vii. 197

Periscopic spectacles, v. 201

Perseus, vii. 157

Personal identity, viii. 88

Peru, iv. 166

Peter hoff steamer, x. 149

Petung-tse, ii. 130

Phantasmagoria, i. 89 ; viii. 196

Philiscus, x. 3

Philosophical instruments, x. 202

Phosphorus, ii. 11

Photography, vi. 11 ; ib. 99 ; viii.

207

Photometer, vii. 189
Pigeons, viii. 149
Pigott's comet, xi. 171
Pilgrim, M., i. 72
Pilot engines, iv. 80
Pinion wheel, vi. 19

202

132

Pirene, fountain of, iv. 167
Pit coal, ii. 201
Plague of London, ii. 78
Plane reflector, vii. 83
Planetoids, i. 64
Planets, i. 3; vi. 161-3
Plants, i. 10
Pliny, i. 119
Plutarch, iii. 167
Podura or spring tail, vi. 63
Poisson, M., i. 137
Polar ice, iii. 369, 380

star, i. 102

voyages, i. 12

Polarised ray, ix. 60
Poles, the, i. 98 ; iii. 57 ; il
Polynesia, ix. 148
Pompilides, viii. 143

Pons' comet, xi. 171

Pontiffs, mistake of, v. 163

Population, iii. 4

Porcelain, Chinese, ii. 125

Portland dirt bed, xi. 122

Potosi, ix. 152

Potteries, ii. 113

Pouillet, M., iii. 126

Pou-sa, ii. 150

Prairies, ix. 153

Precession of the equinoxes, v. 167

Pressure of steam, v. 9

Primogeniture, x. 58

Primum mobile, iii. 55

Principal Alps, system of, xii. 21

Printing, ii. 165 ; xi. 1

machines, xi. 11-16

telegraph, iv. 56

Prism, vii. 69

Prismatic spectrum, vii. 67

Pritchard, M., ix. 47

Probabilities, ii. 73

Procyon and Sirius, i. 120 ; vii. 162

Propellers submerged, x. 157

Pterocera oceani, xi. 64

Ptolemaic system, vii. 174

Puberty, viii. 78

Pulsations of light, i. 203

of electric current, iii. 188;

iv. 18
Putrefaction, i. 122
Pyrenean basin, xii. 70
Pyrenees, the, ix. 187

system of, xii. 19

Pyrheliometer, iii. 83
Pyrometers, vi. 147

GENERAL INDEX.

QtiADBANT, the, i. 105
Quadrats, xi. 5
Quadragesima, vii. 19
Quadratures, vii. 44
Quadrumana, viii. 62
Queen's ware, ii. 142
Queen bee, x. 179
Querenne's hydrometer, vi. 108
Quinquagesima Sunday, vii. 19
Quintilis, v. 150

RADIATION of heat, vi. 148

Railways, ii. 37 ; iii. 6

Rain, i. 74 ; iii. 94

Rain- water, ii. 103

Raphael, ii. 135

Reading and correcting, xi. 7

Reaumur, vi. 155 ; viii. 133

Reflector, vii. 121 ; ix. 34

Refracting power, vii. 101

Refraction, vii. 89

Relay magnets, iv. 7

Reoscope, or Reometer, iii. 195

Reporters, xi. 30

Reporting, rapid, iv. 94

Republican bird, viii. 152

Respiration, xii. 149

Resurrection, vii. 9

Reticulipora, xi. 67

Retina, the, i. 89 ; ib. 203 ; v. 52

Rhine, system of the, xii. 16

Ring, mountains of the moon, iii. 47

Riobamba, iv. 153

River-navigation, ii. 20

River-water, ii. 103

Rivers, ii. 44 ; ix. 136

Roads, iii. 18

Robbia, Lucca della, ii. 133

Robinson Crusoe, v. 116

Rock-salt, xi. 85

Rocks, xi. 117; ib. 42-6

Roemer, i. 197

Rogation, vii. 19

Roman time. v. 149 ; vi. 4

Romas, x. 180

Rome, vii. 6

Romulus, v. 149

Rooms, ventilation of, ii. 15

Rosse, Lord, vi. 57

Rotifer, animalcule called, vi. 201

Russia, iii. 19 ; v. 173 ; xii. 91

Rutherford's thermometer, vi. 157

SAFETY-LAMP, iv. 188
Saggers, ii. 132
Saints' days, vii. 4
Salmon and perch, xii. 113
Salses, xi. 115
Salt, vi. 202

glaze, ii. 140

Samos, ii. 120

Sanctorius, i. 123

Sanguineous corpuscles, vi. 100

Santorin, isle of, xi. 104

Satellites, i. 63

Saturn, i. 30

Satyr, ix. 91

Sauer, M., i. 117

Savannahs, the, ix. 117

Scales, microscopic, vi. 52

Scavenging, iii. 5

Schmidt, M., i. 53

Schnorr's white earth, ii. 153

Schiibler, M., i. 74

Science, iv. 146 ; ix. 193

Scientific discovery, iv. 208

Scotland, travelling in, iii. 25

Screw-propellers, x. 158 ; ib. 165

Sea, the, xi. 118

Seasons, the, i. 5 ; v. 153 ; vii. 7

Seaward's slides, v. 26

Seleno-graphical discoveries, iii. 46

Semiramis, iii. 19

Septuagesima Sunday, vii. 19

Seven, number, v. 143

Sevres, ii. 159

Sewers, iii. 5

Sexagesima Sunday, vii. 19

Sexes, proportion of the, viii. 70

Sextilis, v. 150

Sexton beetle, viii. 136

Sforza II., ii. 82

Shaffner, M., iv. 126

Shakspeare, iii. 118 ; ix. 203

Shell of the earth, iv.147

Shell-fish, i. 123

Shooting stars, i. 141

Short sight, v. 198

Shortest day, ix. 170

Sidereal day, v. 127

Siemen's instrument, iv. 26

Sight, v. 94

Silica, ii. 141

Silurian period, xi. 76

Silver fish or silver lady, vi. 62

Silvia sutoria, viii. 148

Simplonj Mount, iii. 23

203

GENERAL INDEX.

Sinumbral lamp, ii. 207

Siphon barometer, iv. 182

Sirius, vii. 162

Skin, the human, vi. 95

Small-pox, ii. 86

Smeathman, Mr., ix. 119 *

Smell, i. 87; ib. 195

Smoke, v. 16

Sneezing, ii. 80

Snow, i. 18 ; iii. 71 ; ib. 95

Soap bubbles, vi. 200

Soft iron, iii. 196

Solar eclipse, xii. 163

light, vii. 68

microscope, viii. 178

system, i. 5 ; vii. 169

: time, v. 139

Solon's months, v. 149

Solstices, vii. 37

Sothic period, v. 156

Sounds and colours, i. 203

South American peninsula, ix. 154 ;

xi. 92

Spain and Portugal, ix. 141
Spectacles, v. 193
Spectra, optical, i. 85 : v. 77 ; vii.

73
Spherical aberration, vii. 102

distortion, vii. 105

Spider's nest, viii. 121

web, vi. 202

Spondylus, xi. 66
Spring equinox, ix. 166

tides, vii. 135

Squirrel, the, viii. 121

Staffordshire potteries, ii. 139

Stage coaches, i. 169

Standard thermometer, vi. 1 56

Stanhope press, the, xi. 8

Stars, i. 88 ; iii. 86 ; v. 67; vii. 148 ;

viii. 11

Statuary porcelain, ii. 168
Stature, human, viii. 77
Steam, iv. 168 ; v. 19

boilers, vi. 121 ; x. 136

engines, iv. 204 ; v. 2 ; vi. 120

navigation, ii. 22 ; iii. 9 ; x. 113

navy, x. 174

power, iv. 195

Stereoscope, the, xi. 137
Stewart, Dugald, v. 96
Stone-ware, ii. 166
Strabo, xi. 99
Strata, xi. 46 ; ib. 52

204

Stromboli, xi. 114

volcano of, iv. 171

Strychnine, vi. 203
Stuve, M., viii. 12 ; xi. 195
Style, old and new, v. 175
Sun, the, i. 8 ; iii. 97; v. 62 ; t&.

vii. 29 ; ix. 167
Sun-dials, vi. 2
Sun-stones, i. 160
Swedish peninsula, xi. 91
Syringes, v. 108

T^INARUS, xii. 22

Taming animals, methods of, viii. 174

Taste, i. 87

Teapot-lid, reason for perforating, v.

107

Teeth, viii. 173
Telegraph cables, iii. 157
electric, iii. 115 ; iv. 8, 14,

78

Telegraphists, iv. 60
Telescope, the, v. 126 ; vii. 192
Telescopic nests, vi. 56
Temperature, i. 90 ; iii. 67 ; iv. 148 ;

vi. 147 ; ix. 167 ; xii. 3
Termes embia, ix. 97
fatalis, ix. 97

Tertiary period, xii. 123
Thames water, ii. 103
Thaumatrope, the, v. 75
Thawing, iii. 76
Thermal equator, iii. 68
- springs, iv. 166

Thermometer, i. 70 ; vi. 147

Thorley, M., x. Ill

Thunder and lightning, iv. 156 ;

x. 177

Thuringerwald, system of, xii. 16
Tides, vii. 129
Timbre, xii. 188
Time, i. 109 ; v. 114 ; vi. 1, 5
Time-pieces, v. 137
"Times, the," xi. 17-23
Torricelli, v. 102
Torrid zone, ix. 174
Touch, organ of, i. 87
Toulon and Innspruck, xii. 74
Toys, optical, i. 89
Trachytic mountains, xi. 80
Trade winds, i. 36
Transit instrument, v. 125
Transparency, vii. 58

GENERAL INDEX.

Treuille mine, xL 126
Triassic period, xii. 61
Trilobites, xi. 59 ; xii. 56

ULTIMATE atoms, vi. 206
United States, ii. 56 ; iv. 89
Universe, the, iii. 55
Uranography of Saturn, i. 61
Uranus, i. 31 ; vi. 162 ; xi. 180
Ursa major et minor, vii. 152-5

VAGUE year, v. 156

Val de Bove, xi. 109

Valleys of elevation, xi. 116

Valve, safety, v. 9 ; ib. 182 ; vi. 146

Vapour, ii. 105; iii. 87

Vases, ii. 120

Ventilation, ii. 13 ; ib. 204

Venus, i. 3

Vernal equinox, v. 166

Vesta, discovery of, vi. 165

Vibration of musical strings, iii. 201

of pendulum, vi. 8

Vico, de, xi. 166
Vienna porcelain, ii. 156
Virgil, x. 3
Visconti, J. GK, ii. 82
Vision, i. 83 ; v. 49 ; ix. 60
Visual magnitude, viii. 98
Vital air, ii. 14

Vitreous humour of the eye, v. 52
Voice in infancy, viii. 71
Volcanic theories, iv. 175
Volcanoes, ii. 79 ; iv. 170 ; xi. 98
Voltaic battery, iii. 119

• current, ii. 110

• pile, iii. 132

Voluta elongata, xi. 64
Vulcanisation, iii. 149

WALKER, Mr., iii. 142

War-horse, the, ix. 207

War- vessels, x. 124

Ware, common, ii. 172

Wasps, viii. 153

Watch, the, vi. 28

Water, ii. 98 ; iii. 74 j v. 177

beetle, vi. 86

clock, vi. 4

Water devil, vi. 82
fly, ix.

panic in London, i. 68

spouts, iii. 88

Watt, iv. 195 ; v. 41
Waves, sonorous, xii. 187
Weaksightedness, v. 56
Wealden, the, xi. 61
Weather, the, i. 73 ; iv. 186
Wedgewood, Josiah, ii. 142
Week, the, v. 139
West Indian Archipelago, ix. 154
Western Alps, system of, xii. 20

or New Continent, ix. 149

Westphal, M., xi. 184

Whales, iii. 80

Wheatstone, Professor, iii. 176 ; xi.

140

Whewell, Dr., vii. 138
Whiston on the Deluge, ii. 90
Whit Sunday, vii. 20
White ants, ix. 98

sea, ix. 140

Whitworth's telegraphic report, iv.

129

Will-o'-the-Wisp, ii. 199
Winds, the, i. 20, 76 ; iii. 86
Wine -making, i. 119
Winter, ix. 170

Wire, iii. 141, 195 ; iv. 189 ; vi. 199
Wolf, the, viii. 164
Wollaston, Dr., iii. 125 ; v. 201
Wolverhampton, xi. 126
Woman's milk, vi. 107
Women, average height of, viii. 76
Wood fuel, ii. 201
Worcester porcelain, ii. 165
World, age of the, vii. 55

YEAR, planetary, i. 36 ; v. 147
Young, Mr., i. 205

ZENITH, i. 102

Zetland, Lady, i. 190

Zig-zag, iii. 203

Zinc and copper tattery, iii. 123

Zodiac, signs of the, vii. 41

Zodiacal light explained, i. 157

Zoological stratification, xii. 26

205

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