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THE MUSIC

THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS,

PAUTICULARLY OF THE

ASSYKIANS, EGYPTIANS, AND HEBEEWS;

WITH SrECIAL REFEEENCE TO RECENT DISCOVERIES IN WESTERN ASIA AND IN EGYPT.

By carl ENGEL.

'■ At what time ye hear the sound of tlie cornet, flute, havp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of miisick, ye fall down and worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up." — Dan. iii. 5.

WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

LONDON: JOHN MUERAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1864.

The riaht of Translation is reserveil.

ML 1 1- 1 ■ I' ?7

LOXDOK: PRINTED ET W. CLOWES AKD SONS, STAMFORD STRKF.T, AND CIIARTSO CROSS.

PREFACE.

It is not without hesitation that I offer to the pubhc the present contribution to the history of music. 1 am fully aware that, in having to express myself in a language which is not my mother tongue, I labour under considerable disadvantage. Nevertheless, I ventm-e to hope for the reader's indulgence on this point, for the following reasons.

For years I have taken every opportunity of ascer- taining the distinctive characteristics of the music not only of civilized but also of uncivilized nations. I soon saw that the latter is capable of yielding im- portant suggestions for the science and history of music, just as the languages of savage nations are useful in philological and ethnological inquiries.

As I proceeded, I became more and more convinced that, in order to understand clearly the music ot the various modern nations, it was necessary to extend my researches to the music of ancient nations. Thus my attention was directed to the Assyrian monuments in the British Museum. All the facts which I have been able to gather from them must be considered as a new addition to our history of music, and one by no means unimportant to the musician.

vi PKEFACE.

If from the music of ancient nations important hints may be obtained respecting the music of the various modern nations, on the other hand, an exact acquaintance with the latter greatly facilitates the proper appreciation of the music of any ancient nation, such as the Assyrian.

For these reasons I venture to hope that my book, notwithstanding its shortcomings, may be received with indulgence by those interested in the subject of which it treats.

Should this hope be realized, I purpose soon to publish a work on National Music, on which I have for a considerable time been occupied.

Respecting the illustrations in the present book, I have to add that those relating to Assyrian music, as well as several illustrative of Egyptian music, have been copied from the antiquities in the British Museum. Some, which have been derived_^ from other sources, are specified in the list. Moreover, for drawings of most of the Egyptian musical in- struments, I am indebted to Sir Gardner Wilkinson's ' Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' — a work which deserves the special consideration of all interested in the history of ancient music.

C. E.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE I.

THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC.

Represeutations of musical instruments on ancient sculptures and paintings

— National music applied to ethnology — Monumental records re- ferring to Assyrian music — The ruins of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik — The extent to which the characteristics of Assyrian music can be ascertained from the representations of the instrimients — The gradual development of music from its most primitive state, demon- strated by a comparison of the music of modern nations in different stages of civilization — The earliest musical instruments — Examples of musical scales in use among nations in different stages of civilization

— The earliest development of vocal music — The degree of progress in music attained by the Assyrians — Their accomplishments in other arts Page 1

CHAPTER II.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OP THE ASSYRIANS.

The harp — Traces of the ancient Oriental harp in Europe — The Assyrian lyre and the Nubian kissar — The Assyrian dulcimer and the Persian santir — The asor — The tamboura or guitar — The double-pipe — The trumpet — The drum — Assyrian bronze bells found in the ruins of Nimroud — Tambourine and cymbals — Eemarks on the dancing of the Assyrian musicians — Traces of some other Assyrian instruments — Conjectures on the antiquity of stringed instruments played with a bow — Some peculiar similarities between ancient Asiatic and European instruments — The names of musical instruments 28

viii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES.

Various combinations of musical instruments — Description of the Assyrian bas-reliefs in the British Museum on which musical performers are rei)re- sented — Other representations of Assyrian musicians briefly described

— The characteristics of the performances — Fondness of the Assyrians for music — Their songs — Music employed in their religious worship — Court bands of the kings — Ehythmical character of the music — Oriental music of the present time — Choruses of the dervishes — Call to Prayer of the Muezzin — Character of the Assyrian instrumental accompani- ments — Harmony not entirely unknown to the Assyrians . . Page 89

CHAPTER IV.

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS.

Resemblance of the Assyrian music to that of other ancient Oriental nations

— The peutatonic scale — The present existence of the pentatonic scale in various Asiatic nations evidenced by tunes from China, Siam, Java, Hindoostan, Burmah, and Japan — High antiquity of the pentatonic scale in Asia — The order of intervals in which the Assyrian stringed instruments appear to have been usually tuned — Traces of the penta- tonic scale among the ancient Greeks — The intervals of the Nubian kissar — Subdivisions of the whole tone — Diffusion of the pentatonic scale — The pentatonic scale of the ancient American Indians — Traces of the same scale in the music of the Scotch and other Celtic races — The peculiar character of the Assyrian music — The probable musical notation of the Assyrians 122

CHAPTER V.

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Egyptian instruments — Various harps — Bruce's harps — Egyptian name of the harp — The trigonon — The lyre — The tamboura — Peculiar stringed instruments — Pipes, flutes, double - pipes — Trumpets — Drums and tambourines — Curious instruments of percussion — The sistrum — Crotala, cymbals, bells — Vocal and instrumental perform- ances— The Egyptian musical instruments compared with the Assyrian — Opinions of some musical historians 180

COISTfENTS. ix

CHAPTER VI.

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Gradual development of the Hebrew music — Musical instruments — Diversity of opinion respecting the real nature of some of the Hebrew instruments — Josephus's account — The chatzozerah — The shophar — The magrepha — Nebel and nofre — The Hebrew lyre — Vocal and instrumental performances — Hebrew music of the present day — Literature of Hebrew music — Eastern origin of our own music Page 277

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Procession of Assyrian musicians to meet the conquerors returning

from Battle, From a bas-relief in the British Museum Front ispicce.

Symbol of Baal, the chief divinity of the Assyrians and Babylonians,

who was worshipped with vocal and instrumental music Title-pciije.

FIG. PAGE

3. Assyrian performer on the harp 29

4. Assyrian performer on the harp 31

5. Assyrian performer on the lyre 38

6. Assyrian performer on the lyre with five strings 38

7. Assyrian performer on a lyre with oblique front bar 39

8. Nubian, playing the kissar (from Prisse's OrzVnia/ ^^6»wi) 40

9. Assyrian performer on the dulcimer 44

10. Assyrian performer on the asor 49

11. Tamboura of the modern Egyptians 52

12. Assyrian performer on the tamboura 54

13. Assyrian image with tamboura 55

14. " The good abode," an Egyptian inscription 56

15. An Assyrian, playing the double-pipe 58

16. An Assyrian, blowing the trumpet 61

17. Part of an Assyrian trumpet 62

18. An Assyrian with a small hand-drum 63

19. Assyrian drum, conical shaped 64

20. Assyrian bells (from Lnyard's Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and

Bahtjlon) 65

21. Assyrian musicians, with lyres, tambourine, and cymbals 73

22. Assyrian cymbals 74

23. Pipe from Babylon 76

24. Pipe from Susa 77

25. Assyrian high-priest (from Layard's Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon) 80

26. Head-dress of Assyrian musician 95

27. Ancient Egyptian harp 181

28. Ancient Egyptian harp resting on a stand 182

29. Two ancient Egyptian harps 182

30. Ancient Egyptian harp on a stand 183

31. Tambourine and harp 183

32. Harp with thirteen strings 184

33. Harp with ten strings 190

34. Egyptian harp in the Paris Museum 193

35. The trigonon I95

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi

FIG. PAGE

36. A kind of trigonon 195

37. Instruments of the trigonon kind 195

38. Lyres held horizontally 196

39. Lyre held perpendicularly 197

40. Lyre in the Berlin Museum 197

41. Lyre in the Leyden Museum 198

42. Ancient Egyptian tamboura 204

43. Another tamboura 204

44. Tamboura, supported by a strap 204

45. Tamboura, from an Egyptian obelisk 205

46. An Egyptian bos 207

47. A kind of guifcir 208

48. A kind of harp 210

49. Remains of an Egyptian instrument in the British Museum 210

50. Ancient Egyptian instrument with five strings 210

51. Remains of Egyptian stringed instruments 211

52. A kind of lyre 212

53. A peculiar instrument of the ancient Egyptians 212

54. Egyptian reed-pipes in the British Museum 214

55. Ancient Egyptian flute 214

56. Two singers, two harpers, and a flutist 215

57. Performance on the double-pipe, with a rhythmical accompaniment 216

58. Common trumpet of the ancient Egyptians 217

59. Peculiar trumpet of the ancient Egyptians 218

60. Ancient Egyptian drum 218

61. Drum, carried on the back 218

62. Egyptian drum found at Thebes 219

63. Drumstick in the Berlin Museum 219

64. Three tambourines and a darabukkeli 220

65. The darabukkeh of the modern Egyptians 220

66. The double tambourine 221

67. An instrument of percussion and two harps 222

68. An instrument of percussion 222

69. Two sistra 223

70. Sistra in the Berlin Museum 224

71. Sistra, without the bars, in the British Museum 224

72. Model of a sistrum in the Berlin Museum 224

73. Abyssinian priest with sanasel (from Riippell's Reise in Abijssinien') 225

74. Jlen dancing to the rhythmical sound of crotala 226

75. Egyptian cymbals in the British Museum 227

76. Bells of the ancient Egyptians 228

77. Harps and flutes 238

78. Harp, tamboura, and double-pipe 239

79. Harp, two tambouras, and rhythmical accompaniment with the hands 239

80. Double-pipe, harp, two tambouras, and rhythmical accompaniment with the

hands 240

81. Vocal and instrumental music combined 241

82. A harper and singers 242

xii MS'I' (H'" ILLHS'I'IIATIONS.

I'Ki. I'Antc

h;I. SoiifT (,r Mio llniiHlicrH 24:\

H'l. SltCI'I'd IIMIHic III' till' llllcil'lll, I'l^ryplJiiilM 240

Kri. I 'ri(wl,i>HMi<H with hiHt I'll '247

.W. Militiiiy liiiiiil 248

K7. A tiiiiHii'iil piii'ly III' niicioiii K)(y|iUiinH 240

HH. MiMi iliiiiiiiiK 251

H'.K A iiiiiii iliuii'iii^ nl(iiii< in llin rliyUiiniciil miiiihIh iirrlii|ijiiii^ lln' IimihIh 252

{)(). .li'Hlri'H iJHiii'iii^ 252

1)1. lii'lii'i'W I'liiii ill Mil' Hi'iiriHli MimiMiin 201

O'J. Till' llcliii'w t.iiim|ii'l. riilii'ij iilio|ilmr (hIhIcIiwI f'lom iiml.runioiitH used in Mm

Hyiiii^;iij;iirM) 29.'t

O.'l. Aiirii'iil. Iiiif;|ii|ir rriiiii 'riiiKim (I'ruiii r>iiiiu'r'H ('ilicia <ind ita (loiwrnom) 298

!)'l. Till) Hiipiiimcil lirliii'w lyii' 302

05. (iiiiilivi" iiiiiHii'iniiH Jiliiyiiijj on Kiiin^;iMi iiiKliiiinriilj^, !;u|i|i(imi'i| In liri .(rwM .'!().'<

(((!. Ili'lirrw ciiiiifi wiili iJit- lyri>, in (lio Ilrilisii Miisi'iiin .'tOK

MUSIC

OF

THE MOST ANCIENT NATIONS.

(jiiajtj:u j.

^ririO OLDEST RIOCOKDH ON MUSIC.

ItcprcHcnliitioiiH of muHiciil inHlrumcnts on ancient HciilptiiniH and painUn^H

— National muHi(; ;iji|ili(!(i lo ctlinology — Monuniontal rcconlH rc- ferrinfi; (o AH.syriiUi niUHic — Tiio riiiiiH of Nitnroud, KliorHahad, and Koiiyunjilc — 'I'lii; extent to wiiicli the cliaractcsrlHticH of AH.syrian niMsic can lie jiKcortiiiiied from the reprcHcntationH of tlio iiiHtruincntH — 'I'lie gi'adiiid deveiopMKsnt of inuwic from Hh most |)riniitive Htato, demon- strated liy a e<jmi)ariHon of the mu.sic of modern nationH in different Hla^^cH of civiii/.jition — 'J'lie carlioHt musical instruments — Kxam|)le8 of musical scales in use amon^ nations in different stages of civilization

— The earliest development of vocal music — 'J'he deforce of progress in music attained by tlio Assyrians — Tluiir accomplishments in other arts.

It i'h iinnoccHsaTy for ilio purpoHC of IIiIh work to notice tlie mytliological accounts and logcndw found among different nationw reRpecting tlie. origin and early dcveloprmint of irmsic. Neither necid I trouble the reader witli a reiteration of the oldest records on this art given in Holy Writ. With these I may presume c^very one to be acquainted ; at all events a reference to Burney's ' History of Music,' or any sirniljir work, will at once supply the inrpn'rer with such inlormation. My object is to submit a few obs(U'v:tiioiis whi(;li .'ire not to be found in those books, but which seem to me useful as introductory to tlui following pages, l)ecausc they indicate the

li

2 THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

point of view from which the music of the Assyrians, as an ai't, ought to be considered, in order to be pro- perly understood.

Before proceeding further, it must be observed how much new Kght has been thrown on the state of music of different ancient nations by the various interesting researches and discoveries made in the course of the present century. Not only have we become better acquainted, by means of scul|)tures and paintings, with the musical instruments of several ancient nations, but in some instances the actual instruments have been discovered in tombs or other places, where, protected from the destroying influ- ences of air and damp, they had remained almost unchanged during a marvellously long period. It seems indeed almost incredible, but it is nevertheless a fact, that in one of the famous sepulchres at Thebes an Egyptian harp was found, with catgut strings which, when touched, still emitted sounds, though the instrument had been immured and mute probably about three thousand years.

With the musical instruments of the ancient Egyp- tians especially we have become more intimately acquainted during the present century, by means of sculptures and frescoes, which not only furnish repre- sentations of instruments, but also show us their use in musical performances, and display the peculiar cus- toms of the people among whom music was common.

Besides the music of the ancients, we have become gradually more familiar with that of contemporary nations in every part of the globe ; — at all events, more attention is paid now to national music than formerly, though this subject does not in my opinion yet receive that consideration which it deserves.

Chap. I. STUDY OF NATIONAL MUSIC. 3

Hitherto it has been almost entirely disregarded by musical savants. Sir John Hawkins, in the. preface to his ' History of Music,' says : " The best music of barbarians is said to be hideous and astonishing sounds. Of what importance then can it be to in- quire into a practice that has not its foundation in science or system, or to know what are the sounds that most delight a Hottentot, a wild American, or even a more refined Chinese?" I have transcribed Hawkins's own words, because he precisely expresses the prevailing opinioD, not only of his own day, but also of the present time. I think, however, a few moments' reflection will convince the reader of its fallacy. The study of national music is especially useful to the musician, because it enlarges his musical conception, and secures him from one-sidedness and an unwarranted predilection for any peculiar style or any particular composer.

Many national tunes are delightfully beautiful, and are therefore eminently fitted for improving the taste and preparing it for a higher appreciation and a ju- dicious cultivation of what is refined and beautiful in art. Our best composers, as might be expected, have been fully aware of this ; indeed, they have been the most ardent admirers of national music, and have not unfrequently evinced this by imitations of national tunes, or by adopting them into their works. Han- del's beautiful Pastorale in the ' Messiah ' owes its origin to a song of the Italian Pifferari, — Cala- brian peasants, who, according to an ancient custom, make their appearance in Rome about Christmas, to perform their pastoral melodies before the shrines of the Holy Virgin ; — Mendelssohn also is in- debted for the theme of the admirable Scherzo in his

B 2

4 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

Symphony in A minor to a well-known Scottish melody.

And though the music of some nations may appear to us harsh and rude, it not unfrequently gains upon us when we have, so to say, become reconciled to its unpolished exterior, and are no longer unable to catch its true spirit. This may be said to be the case, for instance, with the music of the Hungarians and Wal- lachians, which, however strange and unsatisfactory it may appear to the ear of those not accustomed to it, has great charms for the initiated.

Moreover, national music which may seem to us entirely devoid of beauty, possesses generally some characteristic peculiarities in rhythm or modulation, which afford valuable hints to the reflecting musician ; so much so, that, when judiciously employed and en- nobled in musical composition, they may be made to produce new and charming effects.

Likewise a knowledge of the nature and construction of the numerous musical instruments used by different nations may be, and indeed has often been, suggestive in inventing and improving our own instruments.

Even if it were true that the music of those nations only which have cultivated this art scientifically, could be considered worthy of being inquired into, it is evi- dent that the contempt with which Hawkins speaks of the music of the Chinese is inconsistent with his own dogma, since they, as well as the Hindoos, Persians, Arabs, and several other nations, all of which are entirely ignored by him, actually jDOSsessed musical systems long before our own was developed.

Again, in an ethnological point of view, an ac- quaintance with national music must be, I should think, interesting. There are sometimes striking re-

Chap. I. STUDY OF NATIONAL MUSIC. 5

semblances in the musical scales, in peculiarly cha- racteristic modulations, or in the construction and employment of the musical instruments, between two different nations, so that the ethnologist may perhaps find therein hints, either affording him additional evidence in substantiating a preconceived theory, or perhaps even suggesting some entirely new investi- gation. Thus, though the remarkable resemblance of the music and musical instruments of the Japanese with those of the Chinese cannot be considered as a sufficient proof that these two nations derived their civilization from the same source, yet in combination with other evidence it may point to a conclusion almost irrefragable.

And as in their songs the people express generally their innermost feelings and aspirations, national music would even on this account alone be highly in- teresting to the intelligent mind, because it exhibits the true character of a nation.

Moreover, a knowledge of it is an especial assistance in investigating the music of ancient nations such as the Assyrians or the Egyptians, and it is for this reason that I have thought it necessary to say thus much on a subject which must otherwise appear irrelevant.

Concerning the music of the Assyrians little or nothing is to be found in our musical literature ; nor could it be otherwise, since the discoveries which give us some insight into its character are of very recent date. These are almost the only sources from which information can be obtained ; and as they are yet very limited, the result of an investigation of them must necessarily be in many points unsatisfactory. However, as regards a nation such as the Assyrians, who played for a long time an important part in the

6 THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

history of the world, and whose power, wealth, enter- prise, and military greatness, as recorded in the Bible, have been, so to say, brought before our eyes through recent discoveries, — any investigation which is likely to assist in throwing additional light upon its state of civilization cannot but be interesting. Besides, through the music of the Assyrians we may also possibly become better acquainted with that of the Hebrews, so often mentioned in the Bible, on which many treatises have been written, but which neverthe- less is so imperfectly understood that even the meaning of frequently-occurring musical terms and expressions, and the nature of some of the most usual Hebrew in- struments, have not been exactly ascertained.

The discovered monuments of the Assyrians, on which the musical instruments are represented, con- sist of bas-reliefs. Most of them are at present de- posited in the British Museum. They have been obtained from three extensive mounds near the river Tigris in Asiatic Turkey. These mounds owe their origin to the natural accumulation of rubbish and earth over the ruins of destroyed edifices. They are known as the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik.

Nimroud, situated about twenty miles to the south of the town of Mosul, was explored in 1847 and 1850 by Mr. Layard, and the discovered bas-reliefs have been transmitted to the British Museum.

Khorsabad, about ten miles to the north-east of Mosul, has been excavated by M. Botta, French Consul at Mosul. Most of the sculptures obtained by him are at present in the Louvre.

The mound of Kouyunjik, which is believed to contain the ruins of tlie ancient city of Nineveh, is

Chap. I. ASSYRIAN INSTEUMENTS. 7

situated in the immediate vicinity of Mosul, on tlie opposite bank of the Tigris. Mr. Lajard, in his * Monuments of Nineveh,' observes that many of the sculptures from this mound were, when discovered, in too advanced a stage of decay to bear removal, and have already perished. A valuable collection was, nevertheless, secured by him, and is now exhi- bited in a separate gallery in the British Museum. Another very interesting series of slabs from Kou- yunjik has recently been obtained, also for the British Museum, by Mr. Hormuzd Eassam, and by Mr. Loftus, who excavated the mound in 1853 and the two following years, under the direction of Sir H. 0. Rawlinson, who resided at that time as British Consul-General in Bagdad.

According to the opinion of the most competent judges on Assyrian history, the period in which these monuments were executed commences about 1000 years B.C. The musical instruments represented thereon must of course be older, and may have existed many centuries before that time. This appears the more probable when we consider that they were used at religious and popular ceremonies, and in re- presentations of historical events of earlier times.

It may perhaps be objected that from the mere representations of the instruments, which moreover are, in not a few instances, imperfectly preserved and partly obliterated, but little reliable information respecting the characteristics of Assyrian music can be gathered. However, it must be borne in mind that musical instruments are often so constructed as to permit only the use of certain intervals or com- binations of sounds. This is the case with several of the Assyrian instruments, as I shall endeavour

8 THE OLDEST RECOKDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

hereafter to explain. Besides, almost all these in- struments are yet in existence in different parts of the East, and are played upon by the people almost precisely in the same manner as we see that they were handled nearly 3000 years ago by the Assy- rians. And it is remarkable also that several of the peculiar customs or ceremonies with which music was connected, according to the representations on the Assyrian sculptures, are yet to be found in the East. I trust a consideration of these facts will make it appear less presumptuous in me if, from an exami- nation of the slabs, in connexion with other sug- gestive hints which will be noticed afterwards, I venture to come to a definite and certain conclusion respecting the nature of the musical system of the Assyrians.

There is another point with reference to our oldest records on music, on which it seems to me necessary to say here a few words. Nothing is more usual than the notion that, in order to trace the art of music from its most primitive state and to observe its gradual development, we must commence our inquiries by penetrating the most remote periods. This, however, is erroneous, as I shall have soon an opportunity of proving. Indeed it will be seen that among the most ancient nations known to us — the Assyrians as well as the ancient Egyptians and Hebrews — music had already attained a degree of perfection considerably higher than we meet with in many nations of our own time.

A clear idea of the gradual development of the art of music, from its most primitive condition to that degree of perfection in which it at present exists among ourselves, may be best obtained by examining

Cbap. I. ASSYRIAN MUSIC. 9

the music of contemporary nations in different stages of civilisation. At the same time it is necessary to compare the music of several nations standing in the same scale of civilisation, because climate, the usual occupations of a people, and other circumstances, are here not without a modifying influence. Thus, in order to ascertain how music reveals itself in its earliest infancy, we ought to observe it not only among the natives of the Fuegian Archipelago, or the Esquimaux, but also among the natives of Aus- tralia, of New Guinea, and others in a similarly low state of civilisation, who are placed in a part of the globe which impels them to pursuits and habits dif- ferent from those which we find among the former.

Some knowledge of this kind seems to me abso- lutely requisite for an unbiassed examination of the music of an ancient nation like the Assyrian. If we were to consider it only from the level of our own highly cultivated music, starting with the assumption that the musical system of the Assyrians must have been similar to our own, though less perfect — that they possessed scales and rhythmical constructions similar to ours, though probably much more incom- plete— that their musical compositions must have been the less good the less they resembled the com- positions of Mozart and Beethoven — if we were to commence our inquiries from this one-sided point of view, we should be led to partial and unsatisfactory conclusions.

The reader will therefore do well to bear in mind the following brief observations, which result from a comparison of the music of the different nations of the present time, as I have just indicated.

Vocal music, regarded historically, takes precedence

10 THE OLDEST RECOEDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

by its antiquity of instrumental music. There exist even at the present time a few savage tribes who, though possessing a number of songs, are almost entirely unacquainted with musical instruments. If they accompany their vocal effusions at all, it is only with the rhythmical sounds produced by clapping of hands, or by beating pieces of wood together. Gene- rally, however, the most uncivilised nations at pre- sent existing employ for this purpose some rhythmical instruments, especially the drum and the rattle. The invention of these instruments is very naturally ac- counted for. Indeed it is not improbable that man was led by the animating effect of the regular accom- panying sounds of his steps, in walking while sing- ing, to invent such instruments to heighten the effect of his songs, especially in processions and dances. At all events it is not surprising that we meet with them at an earlier period than with any others. The variety in construction, shape, and size of the dif- ferent kinds of drums, found in almost every part of the world, is indeed remarkable. It would almost require a separate work to describe them.

A step further, and some rude wind-instruments make their appearance. The pipe, generally made of reed or wood, appears at first without finger-holes, and only capable of emitting one or two notes. Similarly incomplete is the horn or trumpet, usually constructed of the horn of an animal in which a mouth-hole has been cut ; or consisting of pieces of wood fixed tightly together, like the Swiss Alp-horn and the Lure of the Scandinavians ; or made of the tusk of an animal, as the large ivory triunpets of the negroes of Western Africa, which are simply the hollowed tusks of elephants.

Chap. I. EAKLY RUDE INSTRUMENTS. 11

Another step further and we find, in addition to those already mentioned, some rude wind-instruments formed by a combination of a number of pipes, such as the double-pipe and the Pandean-pipe (the syrinx of the ancients). The latter especially is to be found among many savage tribes in different parts of the globe. This instrument is particularly remarkable as being the first producing a series of notes of dif- ferent pitch, and therefore the first on which a melody, or what may be called a tune, could be played. But it must not be supposed that in the rudest instruments of this kind any regular order of succession of notes is observed. On the contrary, the notes succeed each other without any systematical arrangement whatever.

Next we meet with instruments consisting of a series of pieces of sonorous wood, which are made to vibrate by being beaten with a stick or hammer, like our harmonicon. The invention of instruments of this description seems to have suggested itself to many nations at a very early stage of musical pro- gress ; nor is this to be wondered at, considering that sometimes a merely rhythmical instrument like the drum, when made of hard wood or any other particu- larly sonorous substance, will emit a distinct tone in- stead of a confused sound. The effect accidentally pro- duced by a few such drums beaten at the same time must have soon directed man's attention to the in- vention of a united series of wooden slabs of different pitch. It is therefore not surprising that instruments of the harmonicon species should exist in many dif- ferent parts of the world. Some savage tribes possess them at present in a very imperfect state ; but gene- rally we find them improved by the addition of some

12

THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC.

Chap. I,

contrivance for increasing the sound, like our sound- ing-board. The negroes use gourds for this purpose. What I have said of the notes of the syrinx apphes also here. Where these instruments exist in a most primitive condition, no regular succession of intervals is traceable, but the relation of the notes to each other is seemingly quite unpremeditated and acci- dental. However at present there are but few nations so little advanced in music as not to possess some kind of order in the notes produced on their instru- ments, or what might be considered as some approach to a musical scale. The following examples, selected from a number which I obtained by an examination and careful comparison of the instruments to which they appertain, may further elucidate my observa- tions : —

1. Syeinx. — Tonoia Islands.

2. Another.

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Chap. L

EXAMPLES OF EUDE MUSIC. 5. VissANDScHi. — Congo.

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14 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are the notes of three syrinxes from the Friendly or Tonga Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The syrinx No. 1 was brought by Captain Fourneanx from Tongataboo (formerly called the Isle of Amsterdam), and is the same which has been de- scribed in the ' Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,' vol. Ixv. Nos. 2 and 3 are from in- struments in the British Museum : the former consists of nine pipes, and the latter of ten, which, when blown with an unusually strong breath, produce other notes besides those above indicated. No. 2 may be considered as belonging to the diatonic scale of A major, and No. 3 to that of d major. The ar- rangement in the succession of the notes may perhaps have been suggested by the notes of some birds ; at least such is the impression produced upon the hearer when the pipes are sounded in a moderately fast time. Nos. 4, 5, and 6 show the notes of three zanzes. The zanze (in different parts of Africa known also by the names of ambira, marimha, ibeka, vissandsclii, &c.) is a favourite instrument of the negroes, especially of those in Senegambia and in Upper and Lower Guinea. It consists of a wooden box on which a number of sonorous slips of wood, or tongues of iron, are fixed in such a position as to admit of their being made to vibrate by pressing them down with the thumb or with a stick. Of the above instruments No. 4 con- sists of slips of wood or cane ; the others have tongues of iron. They are in the possession of Victor Schcelcher, Esq., who kindly permitted me to ex- amine his interesting collection of musical instru- ments. The succession of the notes in these three instruments a23i3ears, as will be observed in the above examples, to be quite arbitrary.

Chap. I. EXPLANATION OF EXAMPLES. 15

No. 7 shows the intervals of a syrinx, called huayra-puhura, of the ancient Peruvians. Several instruments of this kind, made either of reed or of stone, have been discovered in ancient tombs. The present one, which may be seen in the British Museum, contains a double row of reed-pipes, of which one is open below, and the other closed.

No. 8 shows the intervals of an instrument of the ancient Mexicans, a kind of flageolet with four finger- holes.

No. 9 shows the intervals of the gamhang gangsa, a kind of harmonicon with metal plates, from Java ; and No. 10 the intervals of a Chinese instrument of a similar description, but made entirely of wood. It will be seen that these instruments have the notes of our diatonic scale, with the exception of the intervals of the fourth and seventh. The two semitones of our diatonic scale are consequently wanting, and there are only five different notes in the compass of an octave. On the other hand there are two minor thirds which in our diatonic scale do not occur, viz. from the third to the fifth, and from the sixth to the octave. As I shall have afterwards to refer to this peculiar scale, which is to be found in several Asiatic nations, and which existed evidently in former ages with others where at present only a few traces of its former existence are perceptible, I may add that I have given it, by way of distinction from the dia- tonic scale, the name oipentatonic scale.

It is remarkable that the music of the ancient Inca Peruvians, and of the Aztecs in Mexico, was also founded upon this scale, as will be seen indicated in the notations Nos. 7 and 8, and as I could further prove by corroborative evidence. This fact may be

16 THE OLDEST EECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

suggestive to the ethnologist, as pointing to an early connexion between the American Indians and Asiatic nations.

Nos. 11 and 12 exhibit the intervals appertaining to two halafoes of the negroes of Senegambia. The Mandingoes, from whom the second of these has been obtained, are, it will be remembered, a people widely spread through Western Africa, and somewhat more advanced in civilization than most other negro tribes. The fact that on the balafo, which is a species of harmonicon, we meet with our diatonic scale (and I could point out other nations even less advanced than the Mandingoes who are acquainted with this scale), may tend to the conclusion that this scale naturally suggests itself wherever sufficient progess in music has been made for the adoption of any distinct and regular succession of intervals. Even if we assume that, where we find this scale among uncivilized nations, it must have been derived from Europeans, as is in many instances undoubtedly the case, it proves at all events that there exists very universally a natural susceptibility for it, and that it is therefore a less artificial scale than theorists have frequently declared it to be. However, 1 hope to show that it is not the only scale with which a nation must neces- sarily become acquainted in its musical progress.

After the invention of the syrinx and the har- monicon, the next important step in the development of instrumental music was the discovery that upon a single pipe different notes are producible by means of finger-holes. A great variety exists of such instru- ments, blown with the mouth, or with the nose, as the nose-flutes of the Society and Feejee Islanders, and the poogyee of the Hindoos. I could point out

Chap. I. EARLY STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 17

several nations or tribes who, when first visited by Europeans, possessed such instruments, though they were entirely unacquainted with stringed instruments. There is, however, one stringed instrument which, among some savage nations, is found at a very early stage of musical progress, and before the invention of wind-instruments with finger-holes. This is merely an elastic stick bent with one or two strings, like a bow. Indeed it is very probable that the bow used in the chase and in war suggested this instrument, which in its turn seems to have led to the invention of several others, in which the shape of the bow is more or less discernible. We may then consider this primitive bow-shaped stringed instrument as the great ancestor of the harp, lyre, and other similarly constructed stringed instruments.

In most instances, however, those nations who are only acquainted with one stringed instrument con- struct this by stretching some strings over a hollow piece of wood or a calabash. The strings, usually consisting of the fibre of some plant or the hair of some animal, are played upon either with the hand or with a plectrum made of wood, bone, or any other suitable substance. In a more perfect condition an instrument of this description greatly resembles our dulcimer. It may therefore be considered the parent of the latter, from which again ultimately have sprung the harpsichord, spinet, pianoforte, and all similar instruments.

Important progress in the development of instru- mental music was made by the invention of the finger-board, or neck, by means of which a series of different notes is obtainable on one string, merely by

c

18 THE OLDEST RECOKDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

shortening it more or less, as is the case with the guitar, lute, tamboura, and others.

Stringed instruments played with a bow are the least universal. They are however met with not only throughout Europe, but also among the Chinese, Hindoos, Japanese, and other Asiatic nations.

The invention of keyed instruments, like our piano- forte and organ, is entirely European, and of com- paratively recent date. The rudiments of these in- struments, however, have existed in Asia from a very remote period. The Chinese, as well as the Japanese, possess two distinct instruments wdiich in construction bear a remarkable resemblance to our organ. One of these, the cheng of the Chinese, consists of a box or bowl, into which a number of tubes of different length and pitch are inserted. Each of these tubes contains a small metallic tongue, like the so-called free-reed stops of our organ, or like our accordion. The instrument is made to sound by being blown with the mouth through a kind of spout at the side of the bowl, and the tubes have holes to be played upon with the fingers. In Laos and Siam there is also a species of organ constructed on a principle similar to the cheng, though entirely dissimilar in out- ward appearance.

In indicating the order in which the different kinds of instruments make their appearance in the de- velopment of music, I do not of course intend to im- ply that this order necessarily occurs in every nation, but only that it is the most usual. Extraordinary influences not unfrequently produce exceptions : thus an uncivilized nation coming in contact with a civi- lized one is most likely to adopt the inventions of the

CuAP. I. DEVELOPMENT OF VOCAL MUSIC. 19

latter, without experiencing the gradual degrees of progression which in the course of time led to these inventions. The Hottentots in South Africa — a people particularly ingenious as well as fond of music — having become acquainted with the violin through the Dutch boors who settled among them, soon contrived to construct similar instruments, and learned to play them ; so that at present a rude kind of violin is not uncommon among the Hottentots, and may be considered as one of their national in- struments, although they are unacquainted with several others which have usually preceded the invention of stringed instruments played with a bow.

The earliest development of vocal music is closely connected with that of instrumental music. The melodies of songs are not unfrequently performed by the people on their instruments, and melodies ori- ginally invented on instruments are often adopted as tunes of songs by being wedded to words. Certain characteristics in national songs — as, for instance, a peculiar succession of intervals, a frequent occurrence of certain groups of notes, passages, or modulations — can therefore be frequently traced to some favourite instrument which, from the nature of its construction, suggests or perhaps demands these characteristics. For this reason it is often possible, solely from an exact acquaintance with the musical instruments of a nation, to determine with much certainty the chief characteristics of its vocal music.

The songs of savages in the lowest scale of civiliza- tion are generally confined to the compass of few notes, seldom extending beyond the interval of the fifth. Sometimes, however, a sudden transition into

c 2

20 THE OLDEST KECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap, I.

tlie octave occurs, especially in sudden exclamations, or where a word naturally dictates an emphatic rais- ing of the voice. ThQ fifth especially plays a promi- nent part in primitive vocal music. As far as I have been able to ascertain from an examination of many songs of this description, derived from different nations, it appears that, with respect to their more or less frequent occurrence, the intervals range in the following order : — Prime, fifth, third, second, sicth, octave, fourth, seventh. But it must not be supposed that each interval is distinctly intoned : on the con- trary, in the transition from one interval to another, all the intermediate intervals are slightly touched in a way somewhat similar to a violinist drawing his finger rapidly over the string from one note to an- other to connect them ; and as the intervals them- selves are seldom clearly defined, it will easily be understood how nearly impossible it is to write down such songs in our notation so as to convey a correct idea of their natural effect. In instances where the major third is not distinctly intoned, it sometimes gives the impression of minor ; and I have reason to believe that many songs have been written down in minor by collectors which would have been more pro- perly written in major.

Savages are generally very imitative. Their dances are often representations of the peculiar mo- tions and gambols of certain animals ; and the motivos of their songs have not unfrequently been derived from a similar source, especially from the songs of birds. Sometimes this can be distinctly traced. As an example I shall only mention the Aangitsch songs of the natives of Kamtschatka, which derive their name as well as their origin from a wild duck (^Anas

Chap. I. POWER OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION INNATE. 21

gkicialis) which appears in Kamtschatka at a certain season in large flocks. The notes of this bird are —

W

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but the same pitch is not constant in all birds of this description, some emitting the notes higher, some lower. It may be easily imagined what a variety of melodious sounds must be produced from a whole flock of these birds. This explains also how it hap- pens that the Aangitsch songs, which form a particular class of national songs of the Kamtschadales, are very different from each other, although all have been derived from the same source.

We should however err were we to infer, as some speculators have done, from such facts, that in a primitive stage of the art all vocal compositions consisted only of imitations or adoptions of sounds derived from the animated world. The power of creating an expressive melody is an innate gift which the most primitive savage may possess as fully as the most highly civilized man. Susceptibility for music is, in a greater or less degree, natural to all men, and is not dependent on the state of civilization which has been attained. The savage thus gifted, however little in some respects he may be elevated above the animal, is likely, when influenced by strong emo- tions, to be led by a natural impulse to give vent to his feelings in musical phrases improvised at the moment, without any external aid. If these phrases, or rather melodies, are particularly impressive and pleasing to others, they are soon caught and retained in the memory, and further circulated among the people. Such is usually the origin of national songs.

22 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

which, however, as they mostly are only traditionally preserved, frequently undergo, in the course of time, considerable alterations by additions, extensions, or otherwise.

With respect to the form of vocal music in its in- fancy, I m.ust not omit to notice the usual combina- tion of voices in which two or more sing alternately, or in which a chorus responds to a leader, who is more generally the chief or superior of the party than the superior musician. This mode of singing has been observed in many uncivilized nations. We find it, for instance, among the New Zealanders in dragging their canoes overland ; among the palan- quin-bearers in Hindoostan ; among the negro slaves in Brazil, when employed in carrying heavy burdens ; among the Egyptian boatmen on the Nile. And such is also the oldest form of vocal performance recorded in the Bible. After the miraculous escape of the Jews through the Eed Sea, and the destruction of the pursuing enemy (about 1500 B.C.), "Miriam the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand ; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances. And Miriam answered them, Sing ye to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously ; the horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea" (Exodus xv. 20). Again, about four centuries later, when David returned from the slaughter of the Philistine Goliath, " the women came out of all the cities of Israel, singing and dancing, to meet King Saul, with tabrets, with joy, and with instruments of music. And the women answered one another as they played, and said, Saul has slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands" (1 Sam. xviii. 6). From the construction of some of

Chap. I. EARLY CHORAL MUSIC. 23

the Psalms it appears also that the Jews practised alternate singing of this nature during their religious observances in the Temple. I may cite as an ex- ample the cxxxvi. Psalm, with its regular repeti- tion of the sentence, " for his mercy endureth for ever." Later we find in the Christian Church a similar form, which has been preserved until the present time in our antiphonal responses.

There are so many noteworthy facts relating to the earliest development of the art of music, as ob- served among different nations, that I should gladly have extended my observations on this branch of my subject, w^ere this the proper place for so doing. However, the above sketch, imperfect though it be, will, I believe, be sufficient to prepare the reader for an unbiassed examination of the music of the Assy- rians, Egyptians, and Hebrews, which is the chief object of this book. I may add that those who desire to learn more about national music will find informa- tion and drawings of foreign instruments in a work shortly to be published, in which 1 have endeavoured to show that an acquaintance with the characteristics of the music of different nations may be an assistance in ethnological researches, as well as in the study of musical composition.

The Assyrians, as we learn from their monuments, not only possessed a variety of pulsatile, wind, and stringed instruments, but they also understood how to employ different kinds of stringed instruments in concert, either in mere instrumental performances or in connexion with vocal music. Moreover they were acquainted with the use of the finger-board, by means of which a great number of distinct notes are attain- able on a few strings, like those on the guitar or

24 THE OLDEST RECORDS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

mandoline. We may therefore conclude that their musical acquirements were considerably in advance of those of some nations of the present day.

Progress in music is generally slower than in other arts, because much depends on the auxiliary aid of musical instruments, which require to be invented or improved previous to the music which is performed upon them being advanced. We may therefore con- clude, from the progress which the Assyrians had made in music, that they must also have progressed considerably in other arts, and must have attained a degree of cultivation in taste and social refinement altogether remarkable. This conclusion is corrobo- rated by the accounts of the Assyrians which we find in the Bible, and confirmed by the sculptured bas- reliefs to which I have alluded. The same opinion is held by scholars who have made the history of the Assyrians their special study. Mr. Bonomi, in his interesting work on Nineveh, has given a graphic account of the high state of perfection to which several of their arts had attained. Of sculpture he says, " The most striking facts that j^resent them- selves to our imagination, in contemplating the re- mains of the Assyrian palaces, are the perfection to which the art of sculpture had arrived at so remote a period, and the important evidence they afford of conversance with the most refined arts of life, both indicating a pitch of civilization that we should find it difficult to reconcile with the most extended scheme of chronology, if at the same time we were bound to suppose that the first settlers in the land were in a parallel state of ignorance and degradation with the inhabitants of New South Wales, or with those of the back- woods of America. The Scriptures, however.

Chap. I. ASSYEIAN ART. 25

afford ample evidence of a primitive civilization, especially in the knowledge of the working in metals, and of other refined arts (Gen. iv. 17, 21, 22), even before the Deluge ; and this testimony, we appre- hend, sufficiently accounts for any degree of pro- ficiency we find in the works of art of these remote ages, and for that early civilization of the human family which the contemplation of these sculptures suggests."

Again, with respect to other accomplishments, we are told, " The Assyrians were able to work the hardest as well as the softest substances, with a view to their employment in building or other purposes. This is proved by the jasper or crystal cylinders, and by the bas-reliefs sculptured on gypsum or siliceous basalt. They were acquainted with glass and various kinds of enamels. They could bake clay for bricks or vases, the quality of the clay varying in fineness according to the purpose for which the vases were intended. . . . The Assyrians were also acquainted with the art of founding, of working, and even ham- mering out various metals ; the latter branch of manufactures having acquired great perfection among them, as can be seen by the little statue of the bronze lion, the nails, calf's head, &c. The metal most fre- quently used appears to have been copper, as was the case with all people of antiquity. . . . Among those who traded in ' blue cloths and embroidered work ' with Tyre, Ezekiel (xxvii. 24) enumerates the mer- chants of Asshur, or Assyria. In these stuffs, gold threads (Pliny, viii. 48) were introduced into the woof of many colours, and were no doubt the ' dyed attire and embroidered work' so frequently men- tioned in Scripture as the most costly and splendid

26 THE OLDEST KECORUS ON MUSIC. Chap. I.

garments of kings and princes. The cotton manu- factures were equally celebrated and remarkable, and are mentioned by Pliny as the invention of Semi- ramis, who is stated by many writers of antiquity to have founded large weaving establishments along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. The silken robes of Assyria, the produce chiefly of the looms of Baby- lon, were renowned long after the fall of the Assy- rian empire, and retained their hold of the market even to the time of the Eoman supremacy. Frequent allusions are found in classic authors to the brilliancy and magnificence of the Babylonian carpets, which were embroidered with symbolic figures, together with animals and conventional forms. . . . Copper constantly occurs in their weapons, and most pro- bably a mixture of it was used in the materials of their tools. They had acquired the art of making glass, an invention usually attributed to the Phoe- nicians. Several small bottles or vases of this sub- stance, of an elegant shape, were found at Nimroud and Kouyunjik. The well-known cylinders are a sufficient proof of their skill in engraving gems. Many beautiful specimens of carving in ivory were also discovered — an interesting illustration of a pas- sage in Ezekiel (xxvii. 6), where the company of Assyrians are described as the makers of the ivory benches of the Tyrian galleys : ' The company of the Ashurites have made thy benches of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim.' Some tablets of ivory from Nimroud are richly inlaid with blue opaque glass, lapis lazuli, &c." ^

In concluding these introductory observations, I

' Nincvcli and its Palaces, by Joseph Bononii, London, 1853, p. 323, &c.

Chap. I. ASSYRIAN MUSIC. 27

shall only point out that the music of the Assyrians, though evidently greatly inferior to our own, yet appears to have attained to a degree of perfection which it could have reached only after a long period of cultivation. It is not at all probable that music should have attained such a degree of perfection by cultivation during the existence of one nation, how- ever extended the period of this existence may have been. We are therefore reasonably led to infer that the Assyrians derived their music in an already somewhat advanced state from some other nation or nations unknown to us, and that they only further developed what had been transmitted to them. This view may appear merely conjectural. I trust, how- ever, that a perusal of the following pages will con- vince the reader that it is not advanced without some plausible reason. Moreover the oldest records on music in Holy Writ also tend in some measure to confirm my hypothesis.

28 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

CHAPTER II.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS.

The liarp — Traces of the ancient Oriental harp in Europe — The Assyrian lyre and the Nubian kissar — The Assyrian dulcimer and the Persian santir — The asor — The tamhoura or guitar — The double pipe — The trumpet — The drum — Assyrian bronze bells found in the ruins of Nimroud — Tambourine and cymbals — Remarks on the dancing of the Assyrian musicians — Traces of some other Assyrian instruments — Conjectures on the antiquity of stringed instruments played with a bow — Some peculiar similarities between ancient Asiatic and European instruments — The names of musical instruments.

The Assyrian bas-reliefs chiefly represent historical events, religions ceremonies, and royal entertain- ments. It is therefore very probable that the Assy- rians possessed several popular musical instruments which are not represented on these bas-reliefs, because they were not employed on occasions such as those alluded to. And it may be thus explained how it happens that we do not meet with certain instru- ments which we naturally might expect to find, and of which I shall say a few words presently. Further discoveries may also bring to light some others hither- to unknown. However, those known to us are suffi- ciently numerous and various to afford an insight into the character of Assyrian music. With these I shall now endeavour to make the reader acquainted.

THE HAEP.

The frame of the Assyrian harp was about four feet high. The performer held the instrument before his breast, and played while standing or walking. It

Chap. II.

THE HAEP.

29

must have been light, because women as well as men carried it in processions, while singing, and even while dancing. This is shown in our frontispiece, which represents a procession meeting a conqueror. In this illustration may also be observed some difference in the several harps, which is chiefly oc- casioned by the more or less ornamented tassels which are appended to the lower part of the frame. These appendages make the instrument appear nearly half as large again as it really is. The upper portion of the frame con- tained the sounding-board ; two sounding-holes, some- what in the shape of an hour-glass, are seen on one side. Below them are the screws, or tuning pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings run from these pegs down to the hori- zontal bar of the frame, round which they are fast- ened ; and the tassels al- luded to appear to be united to the strings so as to form a prolongation of them. On some of the harps also the horizontal bar is represented with dots similar to those which show the tuning pegs in the upper portion of the frame.

Fig. 3. Assyrian harp.

30 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

The strings were perhaps made of silk, hke those which the Burmese use at the present time on their harps, or they may have been catgut, which was used by the ancient Egyptians, one of whose harps thus strung, as I have already mentioned, has been ex- humed.

The greatest difference in the construction of the Assyrian harp as compared with our own is that the front pillar, which in our harp serves to resist the tension of the strings, is entirely wanting in the Assyrian harp. It may perhaps be inferred that on this account the frame was not calculated to resist any great tension of the strings, and that conse- quently the sound of the instrument must have been weak and poor. However, some of the Burmese harps, as well as several other instruments similarly constructed, emit, as I can attest, notes far more clear and sonorous than one might be led to expect from their appearance. Moreover, if the Assyrian harp was not made entirely of wood, but partly of metal or ivory, which is very probable, it may have had strength enough to resist a considerable tension of the strings, and to permit of their being screwed up very tightly.

The drawing (fig. 4) represents an eunuch playing the harp. The slab from which it has been sketched is remarkably well preserved, and every part of tl^e instrument appears very distinct. In several points it is, as will be observed, different from the harp represented in fig. 3. The a23pendages seem to consist only of cords, the ends of which are untwisted, or of one row of tassels ; while on the former there are four rows. Also the shape of the frame differs, as well as the number of strings and pegs. The

Chap. II.

THE HARP.

31

manner in which the performer places the little finsrer of his risrht hand under the lowest bar of the frame is peculiar. This was probably done to keep the instrument more steadily in its right position. It must, however, have pre- vented his using the right hand with the same facility as the left.

It is difficult to determine from the bas-reliefs what was the usual number of strings of the Assyrian harp, siuce almost all the representations of it are in too imperfect a state of preservation for the strings to be exactly counted. Besides, the Assyrian sculp- tors may very probably have thought it unimportant to represent scrupulously the right number. This is also proved by the fact that on most harps the number of the tuning pegs is not in accordance with the number of the strings. Of four harps, on which both are sufficiently distinct to be ascertained, I found one with 21 strings

and 15 pegs; another with 21 strings and 12 pegs; a third with 23 strings and 17 pegs; and a fourth with 14 strings and 26 pegs.

Generally the Assyrian sculptors were very exact, even in minute details ; of this the monuments afford

Fig. 4. Assyrian harp.

32 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

ample evidence. We have therefore good reason to apprehend that in all the musical instruments which have only a small number of strings, which are easily discerned, we may accept their representations as reliable in every respect. Thus, an instrument with three strings would certainly not have been repre- sented as having four or five, although they consi- dered it immaterial whether they gave an instrument with 10 or 20 strings a few more or less.

Some harps may probably have been strung differ- ently from others. For reasons which I shall explain when I speak of the musical system of the Assy- rians, I am inclined to believe that they had usually 25 or 26, 20 or 21, 15 or 16, 10 or 11 strings.

The non-existence of the front pillar in the Assy- rian harp is a peculiarity found in all the harps of Asiatic nations. The ancient Egyptians constructed all their harps, of which they possessed a great variety, on the same j)rinciple. As the harp of this construction appertains pre-eminently to Eastern nations, I shall designate it the Oriental harp, for the sake of distinguishing it from the differently con- structed European harp.

At the present time the harp is much less common among Asiatic nations than it was in former ages. It is, however, a favourite instrument in Burmah, and in the countries situated between Hindoostan and China. The Burmese harp, called saun, has thirteen strings of silk. To the ends of the strings are at- tached tasselled cords, which are bound round the curved upper part of the frame in a way which admits of their being pushed up or down. By this means the instrument is tuned, as the tension of the strings can be thus increased or diminished at plea-

Chap. TI. THE HARP. 33

sure. The cords are made to serve also as orna- mental appendages, as in the Assyrian harp. And this mode of tuning was practised by the Assyrians in some of their stringed instruments.

In Persia, where the harp is now but rarely met with, it was formerly a well-known instrument. Sir Robert Ker Porter has given us some careful illus- trations of it in his sketches from the celebrated old sculptures which exist on a stupendous rock, called Tackt-i-Bostan, situated in the vicinity of the town of Kermanshah. These sculptures are said to have been executed during the lifetime of the Persian monarch Khosroo Purviz, towards the end of the sixth century of the Christian era. They form the ornaments of two lofty arches, and consist of repre- sentations of field sports and aquatic amusements. Some boats are filled with women playing upon harps, resembling in construction those of the Assy- rians. As an instance how unreliable communica- tions by travellers respecting music sometimes are, I may mention that in Bunting's ' General Collec- tion of the Ancient Music of Ireland,' vol. i., which is prefaced by an elaborate ' Historical and Cri- tical Dissertation on the Harp,' a drawing of this harp-concert, transmitted to the author by a military officer, " who took a sketch of it on the spot on his return from India," exhibits the harps with the addi- tion of large front pillars. Through such want of exactness, incorrect notions are not unfrequently promulgated.

Interesting engravings of some Persian harps of a more recent date than those just alluded to may be seen in Mr. Lane's edition of ' The Arabian Nights' Entertainments.' The Persian harp, called chang in

34 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

Persian, and junk in Arabic, is now almost entirely fallen into desuetude. Mr. Lane received the two drawings from which his engravings are derived from Sir Gore Ouseley. The harps are about 400 years old, and resemble in the principle of their con- struction all other Oriental harps.

The Oriental harp is now but seldom found out of Asia, The negroes in Western Africa and in Soudan possess, however, an instrument which bears a strong resemblance to it, or rather to some of the harps which we see represented on Egyptian monuments. The negroes in Senegambia and Guinea call it houlou, or omhi, and use strings made from a kind of creeping plant, or from the fibrous root of a tree.

The Oriental harp does not exist among European nations at the present time ; but there are indications of its having been formerly in use, at least among some of them. The Finns preserved it the longest. They called it hantele, or harpu, and it was the instru- ment on which, according to a beautiful old mytholo- gical tradition, the Finnish god Wainiimoinen played, like Orpheus, with such irresistible effect, that men and animals became alike enchanted ; the wildest beasts of the forest lost their ferocity ; the trees did not venture to move their branches; the brook re- tarded its course, and the wind its haste ; even the " mocking echo " approached stealthily and listened with the utmost attention to the heavenly sounds.

According to Herr Neus,^ there existed in Es- thonia up to the beginning of the present century wandering minstrels who accompanied their old songs and improvisations on the hantele. The last popular

^ Ehstni.scbe Volkslieder lierausgegeben von Ncus. Iveval, 1850.

Chap. II. THE HAEP. 35

minstrel, much respected and everywhere heartily welcomed as "the old singer," died in the year 1812, at an advanced age, and with him the Oriental harp of the Finns seems to have become extinct.

To avoid any misunderstanding, I must mention that the Finns have another old national instrument called kantele, consisting of a wooden box, over which five strings are stretched. This kantele is still often met with in Finland, and Dr. Clarke saw it also in the hands of the Laps in Lapland, who belong to the Finnish or Ugrian races.^ It bears, however, no resemblance to the kantele before-mentioned, and is a species of dulcimer rather than a harp.

Considering that the music of some of the Celtic nations possesses peculiarities which remind us of that of Asiatic nations, and that the earliest harps of the Scotch and Irish, with which we are acquainted from old monuments, bear a greater resemblance to the Oriental harp than those of a later date, it appears very probable that the Oriental harp pre- ceded the European, and that the latter has been derived from it. Some facts mentioned in Mr. Con- ran's book on Irish National Music tend to strengthen this impression. For instance, in describing some ancient representations of Irish musical instruments, he mentions one which forms an ornamental com- partment of a sculptured cross near the antique church of Ullard, in the county of Kilkenny, "which," he says, " from the style of its architecture, and the workmanship, is evidently more ancient than the like monument at Monasterboyce, known to have been

3 Travels in various Countries, by E. D. Clarke. London, 1810. Part III., Sec. i., p. 439.

I) 2

36 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

erected prior to 830. In this ornament tlie figure is represented as playing upon a harp which rests on his knee ; and it cannot fail to be regarded with interest, as being the first specimen of a harp without a fore pillar that has been hitherto discovered out of Egypt." * It must be remembered that the Assyrian harp was discovered subsequently to the publication of ' The National Music of Ireland.' Its author might, however, have known the Persian chang, the Burmese saun, and the Finnish kanteh, all of which are specimens of the Oriental harp discovered in other countries besides Egypt.

Such resemblances may be accidental. It is quite possible that two nations may, independently of each other, invent harps which are alike in their principal features. If, however, in addition, the peculiarities of the other instruments, as well as the chief charac- teristics of the music itself, are also somewhat similar in different nations, — as is actually the case in some Celtic and Ugrian nations in relation to some Asiatic nations, — it is almost impossible to regard such resem- blance as merely accidental.

If the reader has carefully examined the harps represented in our frontispiece, he will have observed on the under side of the upper portion of the frame a small semicircular incision, which on the bas-relief has the appearance as if a piece had been accidentally broken out. It occurs, however, on each harp in this representation, always in the same part of the frame, and must therefore have been made pur- posely. In some harps on other slabs it does not appear. Possibly it may have been intended to

The National Music of Ireland, hy Michael Conran. Dublin, 1846, p. 96.

Chap, IT. THE LYRE. 37

indicate a sounding-hole existent in that part of the upper bar.

THE LYEE.

The lyre appears to have been a favourite instru- ment with most ancient nations whose musical in- struments are known to us. By the Greeks and Eomans its invention, as I need perhaps scarcely remind the reader, was ascribed to Mercury, who, according to their mythological traditions, constructed it from the shell of a tortoise which he chanced to pick up on the bank of the Nile.

Of the Assyrian lyre, representations of three kinds occur in the sculptured monuments, differing in shape as well as in the number of strings. The first of these (fig. 5), from a slab forming part of M. Botta's excavations at Khorsabad, is so far corroded as to render the number of its strings uncertain. Eight can be counted, and there is space for about two more, so that we may conjecture the number to have been ten. The performer carries the instru- ment before him by means of a band slung over his right shoulder, and he seems to employ both hands in twanging the strings, marching firmly on at the same time, as if his music were in time with his steps.

A lyre of a very different appearance, though of the same construction as the preceding one, occurs on one of the bas-reliefs from Kouyunjik (fig. 6). It is in the hands of a female ; or perhaps the performer is one of those beardless efi'eminate personages, called eunuchs, who are so frequently rejoresented as at- tendants on Assyrian monarchs in their various pur- suits and entertainments. It has been remarkably well preserved, and its five strings, as well as the

38 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

mode in whicli they were fastened round the front bar of the instrument, are distinctly seen. The front bar is curved, probably for the sake of facilitating

Fig. 5.

Assyrian lyre.

Fig. 6. Assyrian lyre.

the tuning" of the strings. For the same reason the position of the front bar in the lyre fig. 7 is shghtly oblique. The strings were, undoubtedly, tied round the bar so as to allow of their being piTshed upwards or downwards ; in the former case the tension of the strings increases, in consequence of the slanting posi- tion of the front pillar on which they are moved ; the notes become therefore higher. On the other hand, if the strings are pushed lower down, the pitch

CUAP. II.

THE LYRE.

39

of the notes must become deeper. This is similar to the contrivance for tuning some of the lyres which are at present in common use in Nubia, Abyssinia, and one or two other parts of Eastern Africa, and which bear also in other res]3ects a remarkable re- semblance to the Assyrian lyre, as well as to that of the ancient Egyptians.

In most of the Assyrian representations the body of the instrument is not seen, because it rests on the side of the performer furthest from the spec- tator. Its construction was most likely similar to that of the Nubian lyre.

The strings on the lyre fig. 7 are partly oblite- rated and indistinct ; four seems to have been the number. All these lyres were probably played with a small plectrum as well as with the fingers. The performer fig. 6 appears to hold something in his right hand, which undoubtedly is intended to repre- sent a plectrum. Here also part of the body of the instrument is visible, showing it to have been nearly square in form.

The Nubian lyre, called kissar, is made of wood and leather. Its body consists of wood, hoUowed in the form of a bowl, and covered with sheepskin. The

Fig. 7. Assyrian lyre.

40 MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. II.

cover is generally pierced by three sounding-lioles equidistant from eacli other ; sometimes there are more.

The kissar has five strings of catgut, usually made of the intestines of the camel. To prevent their

Fig. 8.

Nubian lyre, called Kissar.

coming in contact with the body of the instrument, a kind of bridge made of wood is placed near the end of the body upon which the strings rest. It is played with a small plectrum, made of a piece of leather or

Chap. II.

THE LYRE.

41

horn, and fastened with a cord to the instrument. The plectrum is held in the right hand, and the strings are struck with it, while the performer twangs some strings with his left hand, using the plectrum and his fingers either alternately or together.

Sometimes the body of the kissar is made square instead of circular. Six or even more strings are also sometimes used ; but five is the usual number. A kissar from Abyssinia, deposited in the East India Company's Museum, is so far different from the common Nubian kissar, that its body is square, with- out sounding-holes, and it has ten strings, which rest upon a large wooden bridge 5 inches long and 2^ inches high. On the bridge are small pieces of leather between the strings, to keep them separate from each other, and to prevent their coming out of their position when twanged. Each string is wound round the front bar, and also at the same time round a small piece of hard wood, about an inch and a half in length, by means of which the tension of the strings can be regulated and maintained, as the pressure of the little pieces of wood on the front bar prevents the unwinding of the strings. A plectrum, made of horn, about 3 inches long, is affixed to the instrument by a leathern thong.^

I shall reserve some additional observations respect- ing the kissar, which is especially interesting on account of its apparently high antiquity and its close resemblance to the Assyrian lyre ; for in our subsequent inquiries they will afford assistance in elucidating the nature of the musical system of the Assyrians.

5 The Abyssiniaus have a tradi- tion, according to which the kissar was introduced into Ethiopia from

Egypt, by Thoth, or Hermes, at a very early period.

42 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

THE DULCIMEE.

This is another of those instruments of which we have positive evidence of their having existed in Asia at very remote times. In Europe it is at pre- sent less common than it used to be about a century or two ago. On the continent we sometimes meet with it among the country people at their rural re- joicings and dances. In Hungary and Transylvania it is employed by the gipsy musicians in their little bands, when they wander from village to village to entertain the people with their favourite national melodies. In Grermany it is called Hackhret, or Cim- hal.^ It consists of a trapeziform or square box, about 4 feet long and 18 inches broad, which con- tains the sounding-board, at the right and left of which are the iron screws for tuning. The compass embraces about three octaves. The strings are of wire, and there are two or three in unison for each tone. It is played with two little sticks having small oval knobs at each end. One side of the knob is covered with soft leather or felt, and is used in piano passages, which produce an agreeable effect, some- what resembling the sounds of the ^olian harp. When played forte, the sound is too confused to be pleasant, as there are no means to stop the vibration of the strings, such as for instance the dampers on our pianoforte.

The English dulcimer seems to be somewhat dif-

" The name must not be mistaken for cymbal, which applies to a cer- tain instrument of percussion. The German davicimhel, now out of use, was a kind of spinet. The French

called it clavecin, and the Italians cembalo. Some of J. S. Bach's ad- mirable concertos are written " a due cembali."

Chap. II. THE DULCIMER. 43

ferent, if we may rely on a description of it in Gras- sineau's * Musical Dictionary' (London, 1740), which is as follows : — " An instrument with wire strings, of a triangular form, strung with about fifty strings, cast over a bridge at each end, and the acuter gra- dually the shorter, the shortest about eighteen inches, and the longest about thirty-six ; struck with little iron rods. The bass strings are doubled, and its sound is not disagreeable. To be played on it is laid on a table before the performer, who with the little iron rod in each hand strikes the strings."

I may add, that I have seen in England dulcimers in form almost exactly like the German Hackbret. The Italians call the dulcimer salterio tedesco, which seems to indicate that they consider it of German origin. The Persians possess, however, a dulcimer called santir, which in construction and in the mode of its treat- ment is almost identical with the German Hackbret. Its high antiquity in Persia is testified to some extent by the representation of a Persian lady playing on the santir, of which Hommaire de Hell, in his ' Voyage en Perse,' has given a sketch taken from an illustra- tion which is known to be very old. And it is re- markable that this oldest santir known to us bears a strong resemblance, even in some minor points, to some of our oldest known dulcimers, such as that, for instance, of which a drawing is given by Luscinius in his ' Musurgia,' published in the year 1536, which Sir John Hawkins has copied in vol. ii. of his ' History of Music'

The Assyrian dulcimer (fig. 9) is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to familiarize us intimately with its construction. The slab representing a pro- cession, in which this instrument occurs, appears to

44 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

have been injured and slightly repaired afterwards ; the defect extended over a portion of the dulcimer, and it cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has been evinced, for it never can have existed as represented. What appears most strange is, that the sculptor seems to have neglected to represent the bridge over which the strings, to

conclude from the delineation, must have run before they took a ver- tical direction. The representation of the strings is also curious ; the fur- ther ones being made to appear in front of those near- est the spectator ; perhaps, however, only because, if the sculptor had faith- fully adhered to nature, he could, as he gives us a side aspect of the instrument, have shown only one string, since they lay all strictly parallel, similar to those on our dulcimer or on the Persian santir. It may have been then the desire to show as much as possible of the instrument which occasioned this odd disregard of perspective.

In the frontispiece this dulcimer is shown, with the imperfection alluded to, exactly as it appears in

Fig. 9.

Assyrian dulcimer.

Chap. II. THE DULCIMER. 45

the bas-relief; while in the woodcut, fig. 9, all the strings are shown as the sculptor evidently would have exhibited them, had not the figure of the pre- ceding performer in the procession been in his way. It seems strange that the strings do not run across the instrument as on our own dulcimer, but appa- rently in a straight line from the player, — in fact, as on a grand piano. The performer, therefore,^ must have struck them sideways with his plectrum.

This, however, we learn with certainty, that the Assyrian dulcimer contained a number of strings — in the present instance ten — which were played with a plectrum ; that the instrument was ornamented with tassels ; and that the performer carried it before him, most likely fastened by a band round his body, holding the plectrum in his right hand. And he seems to use also his left hand in performing, either by twanging the strings, or, perhaps, only for checking any undesirable continued vibration of the strings.

Among the different species of dulcimers at present in use in the East the hanoon must be noticed, which differs from the santir not only in form, but also in the circumstance that the strings are of lamb's-gut, and are twanged with two small plectra, one attached to the fore-finger of each hand ; while the strings of the santir are of wire, and are struck with two little sticks. These instruments appertain especially to the Arabs and Persians. The Chinese and Japanese have also several instruments which may be con- sidered species of dulcimers. The hin or " scholar's lute" of the Chinese, which, according to tradition, was the instrument upon which the great philosopher Confucius and the sages of antiquity used to play,

46 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IT.

and which is consequently held in high esteem, has strings of silk. The yang kin is, however, furnished with brass strings, which are struck with two small hammers, like our dulcimer. Similar to the hin are some kinds of the Japanese instrument called koto. The strings of the koto are generally twanged with small plectra fastened on the fingers of the performer. We meet also in Europe with several old instruments which greatly resemble the dulcimer, though they are not played like it, but rather like the guitar or man- doline. The most remarkable of these are the kantele and the gussli. The kantele, an instrument of the Finns, to which I have already alluded, page 35, has five metal strings, which are played with the fingers, but which cannot be shortened in playing, as those of our guitar or violin, the instrument having, like the dulcimer, no finger-board.

The gussli, an old national instrument of the Rus- sians, is played like the ka7itele, which it also resem- bles in form. At present its wire strings embrace from two to three octaves ; but in former times it possessed only five strings, like the kantele.

In chap. iii. v. 5 of the Book of Daniel the dul- cimer is mentioned among the six instruments which the Babylonians used in their idol-worship. It must, however, be remembered that not much reliance can be placed on the translation of the text, as far as the names of musical instruments are concerned ; the translators, unacquainted with the original instru- ments, would naturally adopt the names of those of our own instruments which they thought most likely to have resembled them, and would j^refer adopting names universally known to obscure ones.

Chap. IT. THE ASOR. 47

THE ASOE.

This instrument differs too much from every instru- ment of our own at present in use for me to compare it to any one of them. I have therefore preferred to apply to it the name of a Hebrew instrument called aso7\ to which it seems to be more nearly related than to any other.

The asor of the Hebrews was, it is generally sup- posed, a species of nehel, of an oblong square or trian- gular shape, mounted with ten strings, which were struck or twanged by means of a plectrum. The in- formation which has been transmitted to us regarding this instrument is, like that regarding most others of the Hebrews, too meagre to convey an exact idea of its construction ; but, as far as it goes, it indi- cates a similarity with the Assyrian instrument in question. If, on such slight grounds, I venture to apply the name of the Hebrew instrument to the Assyrian, the reader should bear in mind that it is rather for want of a more appropriate name, than from a conviction that the two instruments were iden- tical.

The engraving fig. 10 exhibits so faithfully the characteristic features of the Assyrian asor, as to render a minute descrij^tion superfluous. I shall, therefore, only briefly direct the reader's attention to the following facts : —

The strings are placed horizontally one above the other at regular distances. The lowest string is the shortest, producing the highest note, and the upper- most string is the longest, producing the deepest note. From the gradual increase in length of the strings,

48 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

in counting from tlie lowest upwards, we may con- clude that they were tuned in a regular order of in- tervals, or in a certain scale. The performer holds with his right hand a long plectrum, not at one end as is usual, but in the middle. The plectrum was probably of wood or ivory. From the position of the strings, the performer could not have struck them as those of the dulcimer are struck, but he must have twanged them with the plectrum. The left hand seems to have been chiefly occupied in checking the vibration when its discontinuance was considered necessary.

On the front bar of the instrument are seen a number of little dots, which probably represent the screws or pegs round which the strings were fast- ened, and by means of which they were tuned. To the bars are affixed tasselled cords, which hang down considerably below the instrument, and which evi- dently served for no other purpose than as orna- ments.

The front bar is surmounted by a small hand, which may have been of carved ivory, or, perhaps, of metal. In an interesting communication in the Athenceum on the Assyrian sculptures in the British Museum, it is suggested that the hand served as a stand to hold the written music. There is, however, no evidence in support of this supposition.

The asor was supported by a belt passed over the shoulder of the performer, so that he had both hands at his disposal when required for the execution of his music.

The asor seems to have been pre-eminently a favourite instrument with the Assyrians, or, at least, with the higher classes of this nation, because it is

Chap. 11.

THE ASOR.

49

introduced more frequently in their sculptures than any other, and when it occurs it is generally at the entertainments and sacred rites of the monarchs. It never appears in combination with other stringed or wind instruments, and never singly, there being always, at least, two together. On a few of them the strings are suffi- ciently distinct to be counted ; of these some have ten, others nine, one has eight, and one six strings. As the number of the tuning pegs is seldom in accordance with that of the strings, no great reliance can be placed on the re- presentations so far as this point is con- cerned, and my pre- vious observations respecting the indif- ference of the sculp- tors in representing the number of strings of the harp may also apply here. Still, there is reason to conclude, that the six strings of one of them exhibit the exact number which the instrument contained at an early period ; since, from the evident care with which they are indicated, from the smallness of their number, and from the corresponding number of the tassels depending from

E

Fi2. 10.

Assyrian asor.

50 MUSICAL INSTKUMENTS OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. II.

the frame where the strings are fastened, it is not likely that this representation would be inaccurate. The instrument is delineated on a brick obtained from the ruins of Nimroud, and now in the British Museum. As the relics from Nimroud are ascer- tained to be some centuries older than the others^ it may be conjectured — and is, indeed, suggested by the instruments themselves — that the asor had at an early period only six strings, and that, in the course of time, the number was gradually increased to ten, which is the highest hitherto found.

I believe ten to have been the highest number of strings with which the asor was provided ; partly be- cause this is strictly in conformity with those numbers — be they smaller or greater — which most frequently occur on other Assyrian and ancient Asiatic instru- ments, and partly because the Hebrew asor was, as its name implies, a ten-stringed instrument ; and as such it is mentioned in Psalms xxxiii. 2, and cxliv. 9.

The frame of the Assyrian asor certainly appears to have been weak, and but little fitted for resisting any strong tension of the strings. Mr. Layard ob- serves : — "Like the Egyptian harp, it had no cross- piece between the upright bar and the flat board or base ; it is difficult, therefore, to understand how the strings could have been sufficiently tightened to pro- duce notes.' Mr. Bonomi expresses a similar opinion, and suggests, " either the sculptor has altogether omitted the column to resist this tension of the strings, or the angle formed by the body of the instrument and the arm is not faithfully repre-

7 Ninevcli and its Eemains, by Austen Henry Layard, 2 vols., London, 1849, vol. ii. p. 412.

Chap. IT. THE TAMBOURA. 51

sented."^ These impressions seem to have originated in the assumption that the frame of the asor was con- structed of wood. But the portion which constitutes the angle may have been partially, if not entirely, of metal, which would afford great power of resistance.

If the strings were made of silk, like those of the Burmese harp saun^ and the Chinese kin, or scholar's lute, they were, on account of their elasticity, well fitted for being twanged with a plectrum. The em- ployment of silk for strings was probably an inven- tion of a very remote age in Asia, because in nations cultivating the manufacture of silk, like the Assy- rians, its adoption for this purpose must have sug- gested itself very soon, and perhaps earlier than that of catgut or wire. At all events, we find silken strings used in some Asiatic instruments at present in use, which we know to be of high antiquity.

THE TAMBOUEA.

This instrument is at present in use, especially in Persia, Hindoostan, and Asiatic Turkey ; it is also found in Egypt. M. Yilloteau, the intelligent musi- cian, who was a member of the Scientific Expedition which accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte to Egypt, has given us the most circumstantial information of it which we possess. He saw and examined in Egypt not less than five kinds of tambouras, which differed from each other principally in size, in a slight variation in the shape of the body, in the number of their strings, and in a few other similar points.^ But they all have the following characteris-

^ Nine veil and its Palaces, by Jo- seph Bonomi, London, 1853, p. 254. ^ The tamhoura bears no resem-

blance, except in name, to the tambourine, which is, it will be re- membered, a small hand-drum.

E 2

52 MUSICAT. INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

tics in common : — The strings are of wire, and are sounded with a plectrum usually made of tortoise- shell, or of the hard portion of an eagle's or vulture's feather. The neck of the instru- ment is remarkably long, and there are frets or stops on it, as on our guitar. The neck and finger-board are formed of only a single straight bar. Half the tuning pegs are placed in front, and the other half at the right side of the head of the instrument. The oval body is of wood, without sounding-holes, and is often highly ornamented. The instrument here represented (fig. 11), M. Villoteau describes under the name of tanbour houzourk, or "the great Persian tamboura." It has six strings and twenty-five frets, while the tanbour charqy, or " the Oriental tamboura," has five strings and twenty-one frets.

Some elegantly shaped and taste- fully ornamented tambouras were sent from Turkey to the London International Exhibition in 1862. One of these, I found, was 4^ ft. in length, the body one foot, and the neck 3i ft. It had 35 frets and 8 tuning pegs. Another, about 4 ft. in length, had 44 frets and 9 pegs. On this instrument three strings were always tuned together in iniison ; on the other, always two.

Fig. 11. Tamboura bouzourk.

Chap. U. THE TAMDOUEA. 53

The frets are made of catgut cords wound tightly round the neck, generally four times for each fret, and neatly fastened. These frets are arranged at short distances from each other, corresponding to the Arab system of one-third tones.

In Egypt the tamboura is at present not much in use ; it is, in fact, scarcely ever seen in the hands of the Egyptians themselves, but only in those of the Turks, Jews, Greeks, and sometimes of the Arme- nians residing in that country. The ancient Egypt- ians, however, possessed an instrument which greatly resembled it.

We may perhaps acquire a more exact acquaint- ance with the tamboura if I add here Mr. Bonomi's description of a Syrian one which he examined. " The instrument is 3 ft. 9 in. long, and its elegantly shaped sounding-board is 6J in. wide ; it has ten strings of small wire, forty-seven stops, and is inva- riably highly enriched and inlaid with mother-of- pearl. The tamboura is in common use upon the shores of the Euphrates and Tigris."^"

The tamboura of Hindoostan differs chiefly from those described in having no frets, and is generally of an extraordinarily large size ; indeed, the neck is in some instances so long, that it seems impossible for the performer to reach with his hand the highest part without shifting the instrument on his lap. The body is usually formed of a large gourd, lacquered and richly ornamented In the interesting collection of Oriental musical instruments in the East India Company's Museum, London, are several tambouras of this description, remarkable not only on account

Nineveh and its Palaces, by J. Bonomi, Loudon, 1853, p. 231.

54 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

of their enormous size — one of them being about 4|- ft. long, with a body nearly 20 in. in diameter — but also on account of the very tasteful designs in gold and harmonious colours with which they are embellished. So beautiful are some of these designs that they have been copied by artists as patterns for various purposes. The tamboura is used by the Hindoos either as a solo instrument for instrumental performance, or for accompanying the voice. It is chiefly found among the wealthier classes, who are in the habit of displaying it in their rooms like a piece of elegant furniture.

The Assyrian instrument, for which I have adopted the name tamboura, on account of its resemblance to this instrument, occurs only once on the monuments hitherto discovered, and is so indistinct as to show

neither the tuning

pegs nor the strings. Perhaps it had only two strings, to which were affixed the two tassels which are seen (fig. 12) hanging down from the higher part of the neck ; and it was probably play- ed with a plectrum.

This instrument is also represented in the hands of two little images, about 3J in. high, formed of baked clay, of which the

Fig. 12

Assyrian tamboura.

engraving (fig. 13)

Chap. II.

THE TAMBOURA.

55

represents one. Several small figures of a similar

substance have been found, almost all of them in

the ruins of Susa, but without musical instruments.

They are supposed to be

images of the Assyrian

Yenus, Mylitta, or Astarte.

That the little idol with

the tamboura was intended

for Mylitta, as patroness of

the art of music^ is doubtful

but possible.

If we turn to Asiatic countries at a greater dis- tance from that part of Asia where Assyria was situated than those men- tioned, we find there also instruments which differ in some respects from the tamboura, yet not very materially. The most re- markable of these are the san heen of China, and the samsien of Jajoan. These two instruments are almost identical, each having a body without sounding- holes, three strings which are played with a plec- trum, a long neck, and three long tuning pegs. The body of the san heen is round, and the belly consists of the skin of the tan snake. The body of the samsien is square, and this constitutes in fact almost the only difference between the two in- struments. M. Hommaire de Hell saw among the Kalmucks in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea a some- what similar instrument with three strings. This latter instrument may be considered almost identical with the Russian balalaika, an instrument said to be

Fig. 13. Assyrian image.

56 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

of high antiquity, and to have been originally derived from the East/

Among the few European iustruments resembling the Assyrian tamboura must especially be noticed the calascione, found among the peasantry in Southern Italy ; the two catgut strings of which, extending over a long neck with frets, are also played with a plectrum. This is the same instrument as that men- tioned by Dr. Burney in his ' History of Music ' (vol. i. page 196) on account of its resemblance to a certain instrument of the ancient Egyptians, repre- sented on an obelisk.

The high antiquity of the tamboura among the Egyptians is proved by the fact that a figure of it is found among the hieroglyphs, meaning 7wfre, " good ; "^ which also seems to indicate that it was at an early time held in much favour. It occurs in repre- sentations of concerts of the eighteenth dynasty, which dates, according to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, from B.C. 1575 to 1289. Some of the hieroglyphs in which it occurs are^ however, at least 600 years earlier.

The engraving fig. 14 represents the I . I I front of an Egyptian

house with a hiero- glyphic inscription over the door, con- sisting of a tamboura and a bracket, which .2^ signifies " the good " The good abode." abodc." It appears

Fig. 14.

1 Stimmen des russischen Volks in Licdern iind ubersetzt von P. v. Goetze. Stuttgart, 1828, p. 37.

- An Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs, by Samuel Birch, London, li^57, p. 225.

Chap. II. THE DOUBLE-PIPE. 57

to have been the custom with the Egyptians, as it is at the present time in some European countries, to write over the entrance of the house the owner's name, or some significant sentence.

The tamboura affords the best proof that the Assyrians as well as the Egyptians had made con- siderable progress in music at a very early age ; since it shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings, by means of the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were obtainable even on their harps.

THE DOUBLE-PIPE.

This instrument was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and they employed different kinds, some having only one mouth-hole, and others having two, but placed so near together as to enable the performer to blow upon both pipes at the same time. The pipes are either of equal length, or one is shorter than the other. Probably the purpose of one of the pipes was in many cases only to produce an accom- panying tone similar to the drone of the bagpipe, while the other served for the performance of the melody and of passages. At least I have found many double-pipes thus constructed, which are at the present time in use in different parts of the world. As an instance may be noticed the double-reed-pipe, called arghool, of the modern Egyptians, in which one of the tubes is considerably longer than the other, and serves as a drone. The Egyptian boat- men are in the habit of using the zummdrah, another species of double-pipe, in which the tubes are of equal length.

58 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

The ancient Egyptians also possessed a donble- pipe, of which I shall, however, reserve any observa- tions until I proceed to point out the affinity which apparently subsisted between the music of the Egyp- tians and that of the Assyrians.

The accompanying en- graving (fig. 15) repre- sents an Assyrian female playing on a double-pipe, which, from the direction in which the two tubes are placed, seems to have but one single mouth-hole. No finger-holes are seen, but, although they are not dis- cernible on the slab from which the engraving has been derived, they pro- bably existed on the in- strument itself. This we may almost accept as cer- tain, partly on account of the progress which the Assyrians had made in in- strumental music, so evi- dent in the construction of some of the stringed instruments just described, — and partly also because it is ascertained that the Baby- lonians possessed a single pipe with two finger- holes. In the pipes of the ancient Egyptians also finger-holes were used. Judging from certain indi- cations in the representation, the Assyrian pipes and flutes consisted of several pieces fitted together, which could be separated, as is the case with our flute.

Fig. 15. Assyrian double-pipe.

Chap. II. THE TRUMPET. 59

One of the most curious double-pipes at present extant in Asia is the poogyee of the Hindoos ah-eady alkided to, the tubes of which are inserted into a gourd, and are blown with the nose instead of with the mouth. As the use of the nose-flute originated in the religious doctrine of the Brahmins that a person of superior caste is defiled by touching with his mouth anything which has been touched by the mouth of an inferior, this instrument is probably of high antiquity in some parts of Asia. On the Assy- rian sculptures, however, it does not occur.

THE TRUMPET.

This is another instrument which was known, as might be expected, to every ancient nation with whose musical instruments we are acquainted. The tube is, however, not wound in an oval form like that of our trumpet, but is either quite straight or slightly bent, and in shape somewhat resembles the horn of an animal, from which, in fact, such instru- ments in old times were made, as they are at present by some semi-civilised nations.

The Hebrews employed trumpets made of rams' horns. Metal trumpets, however, were also used by them, and we are informed in the Bible (Numbers, chap. X.) that Moses made trumpets of solid silver, on which various signals were blown to call the several ranks and divisions of his people together on certain occasions.

The winding of the tube is said to have been first adopted about four centuries ago. When people began to construct trumpets of greater length, they found it more convenient to double the tube once

60 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

together : thus originated the long trumpets which were formerly used in Germany. They had a kind of wooden bridge inserted between the two parts of the tube, to prevent their pressing together and injuring each other. Sometimes the tube was wound in various directions, in order to make the instrument more handy and manageable. At present the tube is twice doubled, in an oblong shape, and the instru- ment is consequently only half as long as it used to be, and easier to manage. It is pre-eminently a military instrument. In the cavalry service, where it is especially employed for promulgating orders,- the branches of the tube which are in contact are generally protected by a strong cord wound round them, which, with its gay colours and hanging tassel, serves at the same time as an ornament.

With the Assyrians there was no necessity to adopt any such form as that just described, since their trumpet was too small to be inconvenient in a straight shape. In some parts of Asia this shape is retained at the present day, although the tubes are sometimes of an immense length. This applies espe- cially to the enormous trumpets used by the Buddhist priests in Thibet, as well as by the Kalmucks, in their religious performances. With the latter the trumpet usually employed is far too long and too heavy to be held up l3y the performer ; in processions there are usually attendants in front, who carry it before him, while in the temple it rests upon a frame, so that he needs only to raise it slightly when blowing. I have seen also large straight trumpets from Hin- doostan ; they are, however, chiefly used in Nepaul, and a few other mountainous districts in the north, where the people possess robust lungs capable of

Chap. II.

THE TRUMPET.

61

producing the full tone. These trumpets are often wound in different shapes, as, for instance, coiled Kke a serpent, or with the projecting head of a tiger, &c.

It is unnecessary for our present purpose to sub- mit a detailed description of our own trumpet. I shall confine my- self, therefore, to pointing out that its length, if the tube were straight, would be about eight feet. On such a trumpet, without the re- cently introduced auxiliary means of pistons and cylin- ders, only a limit- ed number of in- tervals are obtain- able.

The Assyrian trumpet (fig. 16), judging from its short length, was only suited for pro- ducing three or four notes, aj^pertaining to the Triad, or Common Chord.

The accompanying representation is remarkable for the faint indication of the hell of the trumpet, which must probably be attributed to the imperfect state of preservation of the slab on which the instrument appears. On a portion of a trumpet occurring on another partly corroded slab, the bell is distinctly

Fig. 16.

Assyrian trumpet.

62 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. CiiAr. II.

apparent (fig. 17). This trumpet greatly resembles the trumpet of the ancient Egyptians, as well as that of the Hebrews which is represented on the famous

arch of Titus in Rome.

Small though the com-

pass of the Assyrian trumpet must have been,

Fig. 17. Part of an Assyrian trumpet. it WaS Wcll Suitcd for mi- litary purposes, or for conveying orders where works were executed by a large number of men. On such occasions we find it was actually used ; its few notes were quite sufficient, because by means of various rhythmical arrangements a great number of signals, easily distinguishable, could be j)roduced, each of which would convey a distinct meaning.

THE DEUM.

We meet with various kinds of drums on the Assyrian sculptures, which, however, have this feature in common, that they are covered with skin only on their upper part, and that they are beaten with the hands instead of with drum-sticks.

The woodcut (fig. 18) represents a female with a small drum fastened to her person, whether sus- pended by a band over her shoulder or round her waist is not ascertainable from the sculpture, of which the woodcut is a faithful sketch. She beats the drum with both her hands, much in the same way as such little hand-drums are at the present time played upon by females in the East.

Small drums, more or less similar, are indeed to be found in most Asiatic countries. They may be

Chap. II.

THE DRUM.

63

divided into two classes, viz., those which, like the Assyrian drum, are covered with skin at the top only, and those which are of a barrel-form, covered with skin at both ends. The former kinds are usually designated by the name of tuhla. They are also frequently beaten with sticks instead of with the hands, and sometimes two together are used, one producing a deeper sound than the other. The tabl shamee, or Syrian drum, is used by the modern Egyptians in their wedding processions, and in the processions of Dervishes. It is, according to Mr. Lane, " a kind of kettle-drum, of tinned cojDper, with a parchment face," and is carried, by a band sus- pended round the neck of the performer. The Assyrian tubla may very possibly have been at least partly of metal, and the dots round it near its upper rim may have been the bright and ornamental heads of the nails with which the skin was fastened.

The other class of Oriental small drums consists of those which are of a barrel-form, covered at each end with skin, carried obliquely, and beaten with one hand at each end. Such drums are best known by the name tom-tom. Some of them are almost iden- tical with a drum common among the ancient Egyptians. This is especially the case with the mridang, kJiole, and dholkee of the Hindoos, the

Fig. 18. Assyrian drum.

64 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

berri of the Singhalese, and several others. The pukwauz^ often used by the Hindoo dancing girls at their performances, or nautches, is also of the same description ; but with this difference, that it is sur- rounded with cords, under which are little moveable pieces of wood, by which the sound is regulated. This appears to me worth noticing, because there is evidence that some of the drums of the ancient Egyptians also possessed such a contrivance. It may j^erhaps have exist- ed also in the Assyrian drum (fig. 19), which from its shape was particularly adapted for it. This drum was about three feet in length, and was beaten with the hands, like the other.

A third kind of Assyrian drum ap- pears on the monuments, too indistinct for me to venture to submit a sketch Fio-. 19. of it- Though similar to that carried Assyrhn drum. \^j ^\^q female, fig. 18, it appcars to be of a larger size and somewhat spherical below.

BELLS.

Small Assyrian bells have been found by Mr. Layard, and are exhibited in the British Museum. Mr. Layard gives the following short account of them when describing the various relics which he brought to light from a newly-discovered chamber at Nim- roud : — " The first objects found in this chamber were two plain copper vessels or caldrons, about 2^ feet in diameter, and 3 feet deep, . . . filled with curious relics, I first took out a number of small bronze

Chap. TI.

BELLS.

65

bells with iron tongues, and various small copper ornaments, some suspended to wires. With them were a quantity of tapering bronze rods, bent into a hook, and ending in a kind of lip. The caldrons contained about eighty bells. The largest are 31 inches high, and 2i inches in diameter ; the smallest If inches high, and I3 inch in diameter." ^

Fm. 20.

Assyrian bells, found in the rums of Mound Nimroud.

Most of them have a hole at the top, in which pro- bably the clapper was fastened. This is especially the case with the smaller ones ; and it is remarkable that some of the large bells used at the present day in China are also open at the top. One of the Assyrian bells in the above engraving has a slit from the rim upwards, which was most likely filed after its dis- covery for the purpose of ascertaining the exact com- position of the metal.

Small bells were known also to the Egyptians and Hebrews. The Egyptian bells, which have been dis- covered in tombs, are of bronze, and some of them re- semble those of the Assyrians. In the ancient Egyp- tian necklaces of gold and silver, imitations of bells may be also seen. Among the Hebrews we know

^ Discoveries in the Euins of Nineveh and Babylon, by A. H. Layard, London, 1853, p. 177.

F

66 MUSICAL INSTKUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

from Exod. xxviii. 33, 34, and Ecclus. xlv. 9, that small golden bells were attached to the lower part of the robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministra- tions. In Zech. xiv. 20, " bells of the horses " are mentioned, which probably were fastened on the bridle or upon the forehead of the horses, as we find them at the present time in many countries. In the mountainous and wooded districts of Germany and Switzerland the cattle are provided with bells to pre- vent their straggling.

In several of the bas-reliefs the Assyrian horses are represented wearing on the neck a little bell with a clapper, very similar in shape to those in the above engraving. It appears to have been a usual custom with the Assyrians to decorate their horses in this manner. On one of the Assyrian sculptures in the British Museum, two spirited horses drawing a chariot have each of them about half-a-dozen of these bells, varying in size, affixed to the lower part of their collars.

Eichly caparisoned horses are seen on the Assyrian monuments, having head-stalls ornamented with ap- pendages which, if not intended for short tufted plumes, probably represent those small hollow metal balls enclosing loose pieces of iron, which are called in French grelots, and in Glerman schellen ; and are used in Germany especially on the harness of sledge- horses, to prevent accidents by announcing the prox- imity of the rapid and noiseless sledge, and to con- tribute at the same time with their cheering harmony (being tuned in the triad or common chord) to the hilarity of the drive. Grelots, to conclude, from their similarity with rattles, must be of very high antiquity, probably older than bells. They are at present in use

Chap.it. • BELLS. 67

in different parts of the East. The Japanese instru- ment soezoew consists of a cluster of them attached to a handle. The Copts in Egypt, who are Christians, use the maraoueh in their religious ceremonies. This consists of a disc of silver, round which are attached a number of grelots made of copper, and to which is affixed a long handle. Grelots have also been found in tombs of the ancient Mexicans.

Small bells were used in America before its dis- covery by Europeans, as is proved by a copper bell discovered in one of the tombs of the ancient Peru- vians, and now preserved in the Museum of Antiquities in Lima. The resemblance between this Peruvian bell and the little hand-bell called drilbu, which is used by the Buddhist priests of Ladak in their sacerdotal functions, seems to me worth notice. The drilbu is about 6 inches in height, including the handle. Mr. Cunningham, who has given a drawing of it in his work on Ladak, remarks, " It is represented in the left hand of the great Lama Skyobba Jigten, of the red sect, and it is placed on the throne at the feet of the great Dai Lama Navang Lozang. The bell is formed of a very white brittle-looking metal." * Again, the Brahmins of Hindoostan use a little bell in their reli- gious ceremonies, similarly shaped and as elegantly ornamented, called ghunta.

The invention of our large church bells is gene- rally attributed to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola in Campania, a.d. 400; whence the term "campana" is supposed to be derived. It may be that church bells were first used by Paulinus, and that from Italy

■* Ladak, Physical, Statistical, and Historical, by Alexander Cunningham, London, 1854, p. 373.

F 2

G8 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

they were introduced into other European countries ; but in Asia they appear certainly to have been known, and used for rehgious purposes, long before the Christian era.

In Barrow's * Travels in China' is given a drawing of " the great bell of Canton, 20 feet in diameter, and 16 inches thick;" and Mr. Halloran saw near Ningpo, in a large pagoda, " an enormous bell of a very sweet tone, suspended from the rafters of the roof, having its lower edge curiously scalloped, and its outer surface entirely covered with inscriptions, and ornamented in high relief." ^ Similar large bells are found in other Asiatic countries, especially where the Buddhist religion has been diffused. In Siebold's celebrated work on Japan, drawings of several large elegantly-shaped bells are given ; and Mr. Tronson saw, near one of the Japanese temples, " a belfry with a large bell suspended, deep and heavy, and richly carved." " This," he states, " is struck at different hours of the day with a heavy wooden mallet, and the sound, mellow and sonorous, is heard far away over the water." ® And Mr. Oli- phant, when speaking of " the celebrated temple of Dai Cheenara," about ten miles from Yedo, says, " In the court was a ponderous bell, swinging in a hand- some belfry of carved wood, on a massive pedestal. In Japan the bells never have tongues or clappers, but are always struck from without by a piece of wood conveniently suspended." '' Mr. Winter, in his

* Eisht Months' Journal, by A. L. Halloran, London, 1856, p. 117.

® Personal Narrative of a Voyage to Japan, by J. M. Tronson, Lon- don, 1859, p. 348.

' Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, by L. Oliphant, London, 1859, vol. ii. p. 198.

CuAP. II. BELLS. 69

description of " the Golden Pagoda" at Rangoon, mentions a large Burmese bell, under which, he says, he was able to stand upright with ease. He informs us, " There is, in a pagoda in Maulmain, a great bell suspended in the usual way between two posts ; it has

an inscription in the Burmese character The

bell is suspended in front of the temple ; and when an offering has been made, or some religious duty performed, it is generally struck by the devotee once or twice with a deer's horn, several of which are usually placed near the bell." ^

Large bell-foundries exist in Chinese Tartary. The French missionary, M. Hue, who visited them, ob- serves, " The magnificent statues in bronze and brass, which issue from the great foundries of Tolon- Noor, are celebrated not only throughout Tartary, but in the remotest districts of Thibet. Its immense workshops supply all the countries subject to the wor- ship of Buddha with idols, bells, and vases employed in that idolatry." ^

A further description of these bells is unnecessary, especialty as a Chinese bell from a Buddhist temple near Ningpo may be seen in the ethnological depart- ment of the British Museum. In the official ' Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum' (London, 1856), we are told, " On the top is the imperial dragon, the national emblem of China, crouching, and forming the handle. Beneath this is the orifice where the clapper has been placed." If this really was the case, it must be considered as quite excep- tional, since the lai'ge bells in the Buddhist temples

® Six Months in I'ritish Burmali, i ^ Travels in Tartaiy, Tliibet, and by Christopher Winter, Loudon, China, by M. Hue, vol. i. p. 35. 1858, p. 30. I

70 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

are usually without a clapper, being struck with a wooden hammer or a kind of mallet.

Moreover, bells with clappers are frequently fixed on the outside of the sacred edifices. On the famous " Porcelain Tower" in Nanking (built of white bricks having the appearance of porcelain), a number of such bells were affixed to the projecting corners of its dif- ferent stories. Mr. Halloran describes a Chinese pagoda in the vicinity of Shanghae, octagonal in shape, and consisting of eight stories, each of which " is provided with a covered verandah, having a pro- jecting roof, at the corners of which are hung small bells of different tones ; and as there are sixty-four of them, which are kept in almost constant motion by the wind, the sound they produce is exceedingly pleasing, greatly resembling the wild melody of the ^olian harp." ^

The Chinese declare their bells to be of very high antiquity, and assert that they used them in numbers, arranged according to a certain scale, so far back as more than 2000 years B.C. The oldest Chinese bells known had not, however, the round form of the pre- sent ones, but were nearly square. Sonorous stones were also used, suspended, like the bells, in a large frame. A glance at the drawings of these bells and stones, by Amiot, Laborde, and others, might con- vince us, if there were any doubt on the subject, that a regular succession of intervals, or some kind of scale, was observed in their arrangement, since we see them gradually increasing in size from the highest to the lowest.

Moreover, also, at the present time similar sets of

' Ei-ht Months' Juuinal, by A. L. Halloran, London, IboG, p. 124.

Chap, II. BELLS. 71

bells (as well as sets of gongs) are by no means uncom- mon in Asiatic countries. When Lord Macartney, with his suite, witnessed in Peking the anniversary of the Emperor of China's birthday, a concert was per- formed which consisted principally of " sets of cylin- drical bells, suspended in a line from ornamented frames of wood, and gradually diminishing in size from one extremity to the other, and also triangular pieces of metal arranged in the same order as the bells. To the sound of these instruments a slow and solemn hymn was sung by eunuchs, who had such a command over their voices as to resemble the effect of the musical glasses at a distance." ^ Captain Yule mentions that he saw, near a pagoda in Burmah, a number of attuned bells which were struck by the visitors of the pagoda on the conclusion of their prayers, and which reminded him of the village chimes of England.^

I suppose the few facts which I have stated will be considered sufficient to prove that our large church bells, as well as our sets of bells, or carillons, are not originally European and Christian inventions, as has been often asserted ; but that to Asia must be con- ceded the origin of the bell, and its uses for sacred purposes.

It is true, some travellers and missionaries, struck with the similarity of the ceremonies in the Buddhist temple with those of the Eoman Catholic Church, have thence drawn the conclusion that the former must have been adopted from the latter. The

2 An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, by Sir George Staunton, London, 171)7, vol. ii. p. 255.

2 A Narrative of the Mission sent by the Governor-General of India to the Court of Ava, by Captain Henry Yule, London, 1858, p. 178.

72 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

Buddhist religion is however older than the Chris- tian. At all events it is evident that bells were used in Asia in religious worship long before the Christian era.

It is impossible to determine with certainty the purpose for which the Assyrian bells that have been found were used. Considering that in ancient times bells were specially used in religious ceremonies, it appears probable that this was also the chief use made of them by the Assyrians. The difference in size, varying in a great number, though all were found in the same place, seems to indicate that they were also originally arranged in regular order, in conformity with a certain scale or peculiar succession of intervals. When I examined them in the British Museum I observed that in almost all the clapper was missing. I found, however, one in which it had been preserved, which gave me hope that I should hear at least one Ass;y rian sound — a sound which once per- haps had vibrated in honour of the famous Baal him- self. My hope, however, was not realized ; the clapper, adhering fast to the inner side of the bell, strenuously resisted any attempt of mine to restore it to its former function ; besides, the bell itself was in so corroded a condition as would probably have pre- cluded any response to its clapj^er.

TAMBOUEINE.— CYMBALS.

These two instruments occur in a grouj) of four musicians, given by Mr. Bonomi in his third edition of ' Nineveh and its Palaces,' of which the engraving (fig. 21) is an enlarged copy. As the sculpture from wliieh it lias been deriv^od is not shown in the British

Chap. II.

TAMBOURINE — CYMBALS.

73

Museum, it was probably in too dilapidated a condi- tion to be exhibited. Nevertheless, from Mr. Bonomi's carefulness, we may rely on the strictest fidelity having been observed in sketching the details of the instruments. It is therefore worth noticing that the two lyres of this group are the same in form as two

Fig. 21.

Assyrian musicians, with tambourine, cymbals, &c.

of those previously described. Each has five strings, exactly the number which we had reason to expect.

The tambourine appears to be almost precisely like that now used by us, which was already known to the ancient Egyptians. The cymbals were either flat circular plates of metal, or (although this is not indi- cated in the representation) they may have been con- cave in the middle, like our cymbals, and like those which have been found in Egyptian mummy-cases.

74 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

Tte performers appear to mark the time with their feet. Probably they are dancing to their music, as is the case with several other performers represented on the Assyrian sculptures. In some instances these dancing musicians take part in religious ceremonies, which shows that sacred dances were in use with the Assyrians, as we know them to have been with the ancient Chinese, Egyptians, and Hebrews. Soon after their departure from Egypt the Hebrews per- formed sacred dances before the golden calf, doubtless after the manner of the Egyptians (Exod. xxxii. 19). In Psalms cxlix. and cl. the people are admonished to " praise the name of the Lord in the dance." David himself " danced before the Lord with all his might" (2 Sam. vi. 20), although it would appear from Michal's sarcastic reproach that this manifestation of

religious zeal was con- sidered derogatory to the dignity of a king. Sacred dancing was also admitted in the primi- tive Christian Church, and is still continued in some Roman Catholic countries.

The Assyrians had also a kind of cymbal which was funnel- shaped, resembling the Egyptian darabukkeh drum. It appears pro- bable that there was some contrivance in this pecu- liarly-shaped instrument for increasing the loudness and the rhythmical effect of its sound.

Fig. 22. Assyrian cymbals.

Chap. II. PIPE FEOM BABYLON. 75

Pipe from Babylon. — The instrument next deserving of notice is a little pipe of baked clay which was found by Captain Willock in the ruins of Babylon, Birs-i- Nimroud, and which has been presented by him to the Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society. It is about three inches in length, and has only two finger-holes, situated side by side, and consequently equidistant from the end at which it is blown. The opposite end has no opening : the instrument in this respect resembles a whistle. If both finger-holes are closed, it produces the note c ; if only one of them is closed, it produces e ; and if both are open, it produces G.

Besides these notes, one or two others are obtain- able by some little contrivance : thus, by blowing with unusual force, the interval of a fifth, G, may be raised to that of a sixth, a. But the fixed and natural notes of the instrument are only the tonic, third, and fifth. Moreover it is remarkable that the third which is obtained by closing the left finger-hole is about a quarter-tone lower than the third which is obtained by closing the right finger-hole. Perhaps it was in- tended for the minor third. It may have been ori- ginally more flat, and might perhaps be restored to its former pitch, if it were advisable to submit the pipe to a thorough cleaning.

The accompanying engraving exhibits the instru- ment full size. That it is a genuine Babylonian relic admits, in my opinion, of no doubt. It resembles, in material and workmanship, several other articles known to be of Assyrian manufacture ; and several little idols have been found embedded with it, which

76 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

are similar to those obtained from the Assyrian mounds.

This is, as far as I am aware, the oldest musical instrument hitherto discovered which has preserved

its original condition ; yet it is constructed of so fragile a material that were it to fall from the hand to the ground it would most likely be destroyed for ever. But its notes can- not have been clearer two thousand years ago than they are at the present day. They constitute the intervals of the common chord, either major or minor. No doubt the feeling for musical concord is innate in man, like the feeling for melody. It probably caused the Babylonians to adopt for their little wind-instrument those intervals which together constitute the harmonious Triad, and which, even when heard in succession (arpeggio), produce an effect similar to that most consonant chord.

The shape of this instrument appears to be in- tended to represent the head of an animal. It is sin- gular that the little flageolets and whistles of the ancient American Indians, of which many have been found in tombs, especially in Mexico and in Central America, arc also of pottery formed to represent

Fig. 23.

Pipe from Babylon.

Chap. II.

THE SINGLE PIPE.

77

animals, and bear besides, in other respects, much re- semblance to tlie Babylonian pipe.

Traces of other Instruments. — I have already sug- gested that furtlier discoveries will probably bring to light several other Assyrian instruments. At least there are some which we might have expected to see on the bas-reliefs, but which have not yet been found. The single pipe, for in- stance, seems to have been known to all an- cient nations. There has been discovered in the ruins of Susa a figure in baked clay, representing a female playing upon a pipe (fig. 24). It may possibly be of a more recent date than those yI before described ; there '^^ seems to be even some doubt whether it is really of Assyrian origin, as it bears but little resem- blance to the Assyrian figures. However this may be, there can at

least be no doubt that the pipe was well known to the Assyrians at an early period, especially as they possessed the double pipe, which it must have pre- ceded. Besides, it is a well-known fact that pipes and flutes were in common use in Asia Minor and in Syria. The Gringras flutes used in Caria and in Cyprus, in songs of lamentation in honour of Adonis, are especially famous.

Fig. 24. Pipe from Susa.

78 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

The syrinoc, or Pandean jnpe^ was also known to most ancient nations, and was probably tbe instru- ment whose invention is ascribed in Genesis to Jubal, and which in the English translation is rendered organ. Travellers tell us that it is at present in use in Syria and other Asiatic countries, especially by the lower classes. It may have been also with the Assyrians a popular though perhaps but little esteemed instrument, and this would account for it not appearing on their monuments. We might also expect to meet with an Assyrian trumpet, consisting of the horn of some animal, such as we are informed in the Bible the Hebrews used on certain solemn oc- casions ; and perhaps also the conch-trumpet, called in Hindoostan sanhli — an instrument undoubtedly of high antiquity, and used in the temples of the Brahmins as well as in those of the Buddhists.

The bagpipe is also very universal throughout Asia, though at present not so much in use as it seems to have been in former ages. The earliest evi- dence which we have of its existence in Asia is a representation dating before the Christian era. This curious relic, to which I shall afterwards recur, was discovered in the ruins of Tarsus, Cilicia. A Hindoo bagpipe, called titty, brought from Coimbatoor, may be seen in the East India Museum, London ; and a drawing of a similar instrument is given in Sonnerat's ' Voyage aux Indes Orientales,' where it is called toiirti. Mr. Hill found the bagpipe in the hands of Chinese musicians in Maimatchin, the famous trading- place on the border of Mongolia.* Sir William Ouseley met with it in Persia, where it is called nei

■» Travels in Siberia, by S. S. Hill, Esq., Londou, 1854, vol. ii. p. 64.

Chap. II. BAGPIPE — SISTRUM. 79

miibdnah (from ne'i^ a reed or pipe, and ambdnah, a bag), and where also " it appears to have been more general in former ages than at present." ^ The same may be said of the Egyptian bagpipe, zouqqarah, which is now of but rare occurrence.

In the Persian concert, sketched from a bas-relief of the sixth century of the Christian era (mentioned page 33), one of the musicians plays upon a bag- pipe. Moreover we know that the Romans were ac- quainted with this instrument, and most likely the Greeks also. There may be some reason for sup- posing that it was likewise known to the Assyrians, if we remember that most commentators on Hebrew music are of opinion that it was one of the Hebrew wind-instruments mentioned in Holy Writ. Among the instruments of the ancient Egyptians it has, how- ever, not hitherto appeared.

Again, the sistrum, which we find so frequently in the Egyptian representations, and of the use of which among the Hebrews there are many indications, might likewise be expected to have existed among the Assy- rians. Of the Egyptian sistrum, which was especially used in religious services, and which is seen usually in the hands of females, I shall hereafter say a few words when noticing the Egyptian instruments. The sistrum has not hitherto been found on Assyrian monuments, unless we may surmise that the little in- strument shaped like a sickle, in the right hand of a small statue in hard stone, is intended for one. This statue, which will be remembered by visitors to the Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum, was found

^ Travels in various Countries of I by Sir W. Ouseley, London, 1819, the East, more particularly Persia, | vol. i. p. 241.

80 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

by Mr. Layard in the mound of Nimroud, and is sup- posed, according to the official guide-book of the Mu- seum, to represent Sardanapalus the Great. If this

be so, the instrument may per- haps be an emblem of dominion, like the crook of Osiris, men- tioned by Sir Gardner Wilkin- son,® which it also resembles in shape. Mr. Bonomi, however, describes the statue as that of a high-priest in his sacerdotal dress ; ' and it appears therefore not improbable that the instru- ment is a kind of sistrum which may have been used by the Assyrian priests in their reli- gious processions and dances, as it is at the present time em- ployed by the priests of a Christian sect in Abyssinia. There may be seen, on close examination, about twenty di-

visions in the crook, which

were perhaps so many separate and jingling pieces of metal ; and though the instrument dif- ers essentially in shape from the usual Egyptian sistrum, it must be remembered that the sistrum generally attributed to the Hebrews is also different in appearance. However, far from wishing to

Fig. 25. Assyrian high-priest.

^ The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, by Sir G. Wilkinson, vol. v. p. 267.

7 Nineveh and its Palaces, by J. Bonomi, London, 1853, p. 291.

Chap. II. THE VIOLIN KIND. 81

express a decided opinion, my object is only to suggest the great probability that the sistrum also was one of those hitherto unascertained but nevertheless com- monly used instruments of the A ssyrians.

THE ANTIQUITY OF THE INSTEUMENTS OF THE VIOLIN KIND.

Stringed instruments played with a bow seem to have been unknown to the Assyrians as well as to the Hebrews and Egyptians. It is true some historians mention Hebrew instruments played with a bow, but they have in translating apparently mistaken the plectrum for a bow. On the other hand, there are indications of the existence of a kind of violin in Asia at a very remote period. M. Sonnerat tells us that the Hindoos maintain that the ravanastron, one of their old instruments played with the bow, was in- vented about five thousand years ago by Ravanen, a mighty king in Ceylon.^ The most characteristic instruments of this description at present extant in Asiatic countries are the urh-heen of the Chinese, the hoMu of the Japanese, the sarangi and the sarinda of the Hindoos, the kemangeh and rehah of the Arabs and Persians. It is not at all improbable that some instrument of this species may have been known to the Assyrians also.

In describing the Assyrian instruments I have re- peatedly pointed out some remarkable similarities in form or construction between ancient Asiatic and European instruments at present in use — similarities which, in my opinion, are too peculiar and striking to be accidental, and which therefore indicate a common

^ Voyage aux ludes Orientales, par M. Sonnerat, Paris, 1806, vol. i. p. 182.

G

82 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

origin. The object which I had in view will become evident when I proceed to explain the musical system of the Assyrians. I mention this here because the following observations might otherwise be considered irrelevant.

Among the Hindoo instruments played with a bow, and also among those which are played with a plec- trum, are certain kinds in which the body exhibits on its sides a curved outline, similar to that of our violin and its relations the tenor, violoncello, double-bass, &c. Besides, I have frequently seen instruments from Hindoostan which had a double set of strings, one set above the other, the upper consisting of catgut and the lower of thin wire strings. Now this peculiar contrivance was also formerly applied to several of our own instruments. The viole ctamou7\ for instance, a favourite instrument some centuries ago, was pro- vided with fourteen strings, seven of catgut and seven of wire, the latter placed under the former, and tuned in unison with them, or in octaves. The catgut strings only were played uj^on, and the object in placing the wire strings under them was to increase their sonorousness — it being a well-known fact that if of two sonorous bodies tuned in unison, or in octaves, one is made to sound, the other will also sound with- out being touched. Thus the pitch of the note of a church bell may be ascertained by playing u23on a flute under the bell. As soon as the note which is that of the bell is blown, the bell will begin to vibrate, emitting softly the same note. The Hardanger pea- sants in Norway have at the present day a fiddle with a number of thin wire strings placed under the catgut strings. It is not surprising that the Hindoos should be aware of this sympathising nature of notes of equal

Chap. II. THE VIOLIN KIND. 83

vibrations ; but that they should have appHed it in their stringed instruments precisely in the same way as we have done, seems to me suggestive. In the thro of the Burmese, and the hemangeh roumy of the present Egyptians, the resemblance to our violin is even greater than in the Hindoo instruments above mentioned. I should think no one who is acquainted with the history of our music, and with the music and habits of Asiatic nations, could entertain the opinion that these Oriental instruments have been originally derived from Europe, or must be imitations of Euro- pean instruments. Although the name of the Egyp- tian instrument {hemangeh roumy ^ " a Greek violin ") seems to indicate either that it was introduced into Egypt from Greece, or that in Egypt it is con- sidered as a violin specially belonging to Greece, it must also be remembered that the Greeks possessed at an early period several instruments in common with Asiatic nations ; and although it may be impos- sible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the time when the Hindoo, Burmese, and Egyptian in- struments which I have alluded to were invented, there are sufficient reasons to apprehend that they existed prior to ours.

I must not omit to state that most modern musicians who have written on this subject express an opinion the very opposite to mine. This is, I think, owing to their having followed the well-known ' Resume phi- losophique ' of M. Fetis, prefixed to his ' Biographic Universelle des Musiciens.' I have frequently ob- served instances in our musical literature where the opinion of a theorist of reputation has been adopted and repeated by others without their having ascer- tained that it was well founded.

G 2

84 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

F^tis, in liis * Resume,' asserts that stringed instru- ments of the violin kind are a European invention ; and he beUeves them to have had their origin in the Russian (judok. The following extracts, translated from three different works of this author, will show hett(3r than any explanation that he was but super- ficially ac(puiinted with the music of Eastern nations wlicn he made that assertion.

In the ' Resume philosophique ' ( ' Biographic des M^^siciens,' Bruxelles, 1837, tome i. p. 83) he writes as follows : — " If we have borrowed much from the East, as regards the taste for ornamentation in melody, and with respect to musical insti'uments ; on the other hand, we have made known to the East the class of instruments played with the bow. For the bow originated in the West. Having passed through Italy into Greece, the viol was carried into Asia Minor, and afterwards into Persia and Arabia, where it became the kemangeh roumy, of which several vjii-ictics were afterwards formed, by being invested with an Oriental character. The rehab, a rude imita- tion of the same class of instruments, was long after- wards brought back by the Crusaders to Europe, wliere it received the name of rehebhe ; and, after having luidergone various modifications in form, in the material of its construction, and in the number of sti'ings with which it was mounted, it became the rus- tic fiddle called rebec.'''

In a later treatise on the same subject, contained in ' La Musi que mise k la Portee de tout le Monde,' P>ruxelles, 1830, page 121, M. Fetis points to the Welsh enctJi, instead of the Russian (judoh, as the in- strument from which all others of the violin kind are derived. He says : — " All the researches made with

CiiAi'. II. Til K VIOLIN KIND. 85

;i view to diHCOver whether the iijitloiis ol" :iiili(|iiil,y were acquainted witli instruments played vvilli ilic bow have been fruitless; or rather, ithasl)eeii proved, ahnost to a certaiuty, that they were entii'ely unknown. It is true, a certain statue of Orpheus, holding a violin in one Iiand and a bow in the other, has been (n'ted ; but, on closer examination, the viohn and bow were foruid to have been added by the sculptor wlio re- paired the statue. Passages from Aristoj^hanes, Plu- tarch, Athenoeus, and Lucian have also been (pioted, in which some writers find proofs of the existence of the bow among tlie Greeks ; but the most supei'ficial investigation will suffice to show how little groujid there is for this assumption. There is no doubt that the instruments with a sounding-lxjard, ;\, finger- board, and with strings raised by a bridge, Jind made to vibrate by a bow, originated in the West ; but in what century, and in what part of Europe they were invented, are questions not easily answered. We find in Wales an instrument which has existed there from the earliest times under the name of crwth. It is nearly square in form, has a finger-board, and is played wiili a bow. In England it is regarded as the parent of the different kinds of viol, and of the violin."

Again, in Ji subsequent work, entilk^d 'iVntoinc^ Stradivari, precede do Jiecherches liistoiifjnc^s et cri- tiques sur rOrigine et les Transformations des Instrn- ments a Archet,' Paris, 185G, M. Fctis says :— "iiin- doostan, the C(juntry whence we derive the most ancient monuments (jf a well-developed language, of an advanced civilization, of a j)hilosophy in which all varieties of human thought have their exj)ression, of a poetry eminently rich in all its branches, and of a music in which the extreme sensibility of the natives

86 MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

finds expression — Hindoostan has, it appears, been the birthplace of the instruments played with the bow, and has made them known to other parts of Asia. This does not admit of a moment's doubt, as the instruments are actually in existence, bearing unmistakeable marks of their Indian origin. If we wish to find the instrument played with a bow in its original state, we must take it in its simplest form, where no art has been employed to render it more perfect. Thus we find it in the ravanastron, formed of a cylinder of sycamore wood, partly hollowed." After mentioning two other Hindoo instruments, the ruana and the omerti, both belonging to the violin class, M. Fetis says : — " If we compare the omerti with the Arab instrument called heniangeh a gouz, we at once perceive that the latter took its origin from the former." And further on he observes : — " Truth to say, the rehab is only a modification of the ruana of the Hindoos, the only diiference being in the form of the body of the instrument."

I may now leave it to the reader to form his own opinion as to the value of the statements of M. Fetis. We have already seen that instruments of the violin kind are also known to the Chinese and other Asiatic nations, and I shall presently submit to the reader's judgment some evidence from which it appears highly probable that the musical instruments of the Arabs were originally derived from the Chaldees and Assy- rians.

THE NAMES OF MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS.

The circumstance of many of our European in- struments having nearly the same name in different languages would appear to be to some extent an indi-

Chap. II. THEIE NAMES. 87

cation of their having been derived from the same source. I shall notice a few instances which occur to my mind, and I must leave it to the philologist to explain or to enlarge njoon them. To the musician such investigations would most likely prove useful, and certainly interesting. Thus, it might perhaps be easily ascertained in how many languages the \YOTdipipe, — (aQYViidJi pfeife, YvQiiGhpipeau, Gaelic jf>?6>6, Welsh jy/6, Swedish pij^a, Dutch pijp, &c., — can be re- cognised. Or the word harp, — German harfe, Fin- nish harpu, Icelandic haurpa, Hungarian hdrfa, French harpe, Sj^anish arpa, Anglo-Saxon hearpe or earpe, &c. Of the lute, — German laute:, Italian liuto, French luth, Dutch, luit, Swedish luta, Spanish laud, Arabic el oud, — we know with some certainty that it is the Arabic instrument from which the others have been derived. The guitar is said to have been brought from the East to Spain by the Moors. In Germany it has hardly been known for a century. The in- habitants of some mountainous districts in Germany had, however, from time immemorial, a somewhat similar instrument called zither; in Persia, Hindoo- stan, and other Asiatic countries, we find the sitar ; in Nubia the kissar ; in ancient Greece the kithara ; and might not also the name of the Hebrew instru- ment with which David subdued the " evil spirit " of Saul, the kinnor, be related to these ? This appears less improbable if we remember the similarity of the name of the Hebrew trumpet keren with the Greek keras, the Latin cornu, the French cor, the German horn, the Welsh corn, the Persian karna'i, the Hun- garian kurt, the English horn, &c.

This instrument undoubtedly was originally made of the horn of an animal, and hence the name. In-

88 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. II.

deed, many recurrences of the same names are easily accounted for. Nevertheless, by a closer investiga- tion of them, some new light might probably be thrown on obscure questions relative to the history of music. For instance, in the Hindoo hdrddhi some clue is afforded to the original home of the Celtic hard. We are informed in the * Asiatic Eesearches,' that " the usual name in India for a bard is hhcit. It is not a Sanskrit appellation, though asserted to be derived from it. But the original name, as it was pronounced several hundred years ago, was bdrdcli, or hdrddhi, though some think it a different name ap- plied to the same class of people. . . . The title of hdrddhi is translated ' musician ' by Abul Fazil. His functions, both in the field and at home, were exactly those of the ancient bards of the West,"^ &c. And it is a remarkable fact that the further we extend such inquiries, the more forcibly we are directed to the East as the cradle of our music. It would, however, be out of place to enlarge here upon this subject.

^ An Essay on tlie Sacred Isles, by Captain F. Wilford, Asiatic Researclies, vol. ix. p. 76.

Chap. III. ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. 89

CHAPTEK III.

ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES.

Various combinations of musical instruments — Description of the Assyrian bas-reliefs in the British Museum on which musical performers are represented — Other representations of Assyrian musicians briefly de- scribed — The characteristics of the performances — Fondness of the Assyrians for music — Their songs — Music employed in their religious worship — Court bauds of the kings . — Rhythmical character of the music — Oriental music of the present time — Choruses of the dervislies — Call to prayer of the Muezzin — Character of the Assyrian in- strumental accompaniments — Hamaony not entirely unknown to the Assyrians.

In order to show the combinations of musical in- struments used by the Assyrians in their concerts, and also on what occasions music was specially intro- duced, I purpose now to give a short description of those bas-reliefs in the British Museum which repre- sent musical performances. Most, if not all, of these stony records were originally coloured. On some of them, when discovered, the colours were partially preserved ; and there are even now a few in the British Museum on which a red tint is still distinctly visible, bearing witness to the correctness of the pro- phet's description of the Assyrian palaces, and the "men portrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion." (Ezek. xxiii. 14.) The colours actually found upon the bas-reliefs are, according to Professor Rawlinson, only four, viz., red, blue, black, and white. " The red is a good bright tint, far exceeding in brilliancy that of Egypt. On

90 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

the sculptures of Khorsabad it approaches to vermi- lion, while on those of Nimroud it inclines to crimson or lake tint. It is found alternating with the natural stone on the royal parasol and mitre ; with blue on the crests of helmets, the trappings of horses, on flowers, sandals, and on fillets ; and besides, it occurs, unaccompanied by any other colour, on the stems and branches of trees, on the claws of birds, the shafts of spears and arrows, on bows, belts, fillets, quivers, maces, reins, sandals, flowers, and the fringe of dresses." ^

It is to be regretted that the colours have not been preserved on the musical instruments ; otherwise we might perhaps be enabled to ascertain therefrom whether the frames of the harps and lyres were entirely of wood or partly of metal, — whether the little dots observable on the lower bar of the frame in some of the harps were tuning-pegs or merely ornamental brass buttons, — whether the indentations on the inner side of the upper part of the frame in some of these instruments, noticed page 36, are meant for sounding-holes, or whether they are di- lapidations in the sculptures ; whether the plectra used by the performers were of wood or ivory, and several other such points. Unimportant as any in- formation of this kind may appear, it is sometimes of great assistance in inquiries relating to the music of a nation of antiquity.

Most of the instruments have ornamental appen- dages ; and from the recorded wealth and luxury of the Assyrian monarchs, we may suppose the tassels

1 The Five Great Monarchies of I George Rawlinson, Loudon, 1862, the Ancient Eastern World, by | vol. i. p. 451.

Chap. III. DESCEIPTION OP BAS-EELIEFS. 91

on the harps and other stringed instruments of the musicians playing before the king to have been of rich silk in various splendid colours, interwoven with gold ; and the frames themselves to have been embel- lished with elegant devices, and lacquered, as is the case with the instruments employed at the present day by the higher classes in Persia and Hindoostan.

The following is a description of the most remark- able scenes in which musical performances occur : —

No. 1. Harp and drum. — The king with his queen, at a banquet under a bower of vines, are waited upon by attendants, four of whom are fanning them with fly-flappers, while others hand refreshments. At the further end are two musicians, facing the king ; the first, an eunuch, is playing upon a harp ; the other beating with both hands a sugarloaf-shaped drum, like the one which is represented at page 64 (fig. 19). The dimensions of the slab only allow the hands to be seen. It is therefore possible that other musicians took part in this concert who were represented on another slab which obviously joined this one, and contained additional figures. \_Froin Kouyunjik.']

No. 2. Lyre, harp, and douhle-pi'pe. — The subject of this representation appears to be a religious ceremony. Two personages, perhaps royal chamberlains, each with a long stick in his left hand, which he holds in the middle, are standing before some vessels, probably used in sacrifice. At a first glance, one might sup- pose these men to be indicating the time to the musi- cians ; but this is very unlikely, because it could not be nearly so well done by two as by one alone. There is a greater probability that the sticks were used as rhythmical instruments. They appear each to consist of two pieces united, which may have been loosely

92 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFOKMANCES. Chap. III.

fastened together so as to produce a rattling noise when shaken. However, the manner in which the men liave the right arm placed over the left, tells against this conjecture ; since it was scarcely possible for them in this position to move their sticks, far less to use them for a rhythmical purpose in combination with the musical instruments. Facing these men, on the opposite side of the vessels, stand the musicians. The first plays upon a lyre with five strings, as repre- sented in fig. 6, page 38 ; the second upon a harp ; and of the third only the instrument, a double-pipe, is seen, as the slab does not embrace more of the rej)resentation, which undoubtedly extended to another slab united to the present one, and which may have represented one or two more musicians. \_From Kou- yunjik.~\

No. 3. Two asors. — Return from the bull-hunt. — The king, with a cup in his hand, is standing near a prostrate wild bull, and seems to perform some reli- gious ceremony, by pouring out a libation above the slain animal, or by drinking out of a sacred cup in honour of the gods. He is surrounded by attendants, one of whom shades him with a parasol, while another fans him with a fly-flapper, and a third is approaching him in an attitude of respect. Two performers upon asors celebrate his victories over the wild beasts, or, perhaps, execute a solemn composition appropriate to the sacred ceremony in which he is engaged. They are standing side by side, and each holds the plectrum in his right hand in precisely the same oblique direc- tion over his instrument as if they were going to twang the strings both at the same moment. It is singular that the sculptor has represented the left hand of the second performer as in front of the strings

Chap. III. DESCEIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS. 93

of the instrument of the first performer, undoubtedly with the object of showing it more distinctly than it could possibly have been seen in its proper position behind the strings. Such a disregard to natural truth by the sculptor, in order that no part of any object which he considered as of greater importance than others should be hidden, may be not unfrequently observed in the Assyrian bas-reliefs. The wild bull of Assyria must have been a formidable and noble animal. We see it depicted in deadly strife with the lion ; ^ and the king performed over each the same religious and musical ceremony, when he had been successful in the chase. Neither of these animals is any longer found in the country where, in former times, their figures were adoj)ted as symbols of power and nobleness. [^From Nimroud.']

No. 4. Two asors. — Here the king is represented standing before an altar and pouring a libation over some dead lions, which he probably has just slain in the chase. Two musicians with asors, beardless and juvenile in a2:»pearance, are standing on the opposite side of the altar, and are probably singing a hymn with instrumental accompaniment, in praise of the courageous achievements of the king in his battle with the lions, or in honour of the gods for having protected him in his daring pastime. \_From Kou- yunjik.^

No. 5. Two asors. — Return from the lion-hunt. The king, accompanied by four archers, besides other attendants, with the slain lion at his feet, holds a cup in his right hand, in a similar way, and probably for the same purpose, as indicated in our previous

Sec Layard's Monuments of Nineveh, First Series, Pis. 46 and 48.

94 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

description of tlie return from the bull-chase. The two royal minstrels in the present scene stand side by side, as all the asor-players on the different slabs are represented. However, in the bas-relief before us the instrument of the nearest performer does not exhibit on its fore-pillar the usual imitation of a hand, which has been noticed, p. 48 ; but terminates instead in a human head, which is, as Mr. Bonomi suggests, " probably to indicate that the bearer is the chief musician, or the leader of the chorus ; for we apprehend that the tico in this sculpture, as in all the representations of battles, sieges, hunts, &c., are put for the many." ^ \_Fro7ii Nimroud.~\

No. 6. Two asors and a drum. — Triumphal return of the victors from the battle-field. The king is approaching in his chariot, preceded and followed by soldiers on foot and on horseback. Warriors are carrying the heads of slain enemies ; others are counting them. Three musicians are celebrating the victory with song and instrumental accompaniment. The first two are bearded men, playing upon asors ; while the third, a beardless and juvenile-looking per- son, is beating a drum with his hands. The latter instrument is nearly obliterated, but seems to have been similar in shape to the small drum repre- sented in the wood-engraving, fig. 18, p. 63. \_From Nimroud.']

No. 7. Four asors. — This slab contains nothing but the half-length figures of four performers on the asor, two and two together. Of the first two the instru- ments are incomplete ; they extended aj^parently to an adjoining slab. The head-dress of one of these

3 Nineveh and its Palaces, by J. Bonomi, London, 1853, p. 252.

UnAP. III.

DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS.

95

musicians, shown in the accompanying engraving (fig. 26), is remarkable. In a short description of the slab in the ' Athenjemn' (London, Aiignst 17, 1861), these musicians are sur- mised to be priests : " one has a monstrously ele- vated head-dress, not un- like that remarked by Egyptian antiquaries as characteristic of the people of Upper Egypt, which, when combined with the mitre usual in Lower Egypt, constituted the peculiar crown seen in so many of the Egyp- tian portraits of mo- narchs after the union ■ of the kingdoms."

If I may hazard an opinion, I should con- jecture, from his distinc- tive head-dress and dig

nified attitude, that the „. „.

. . I^'g- 26.

above musician was the

Head-dress of Assyrian musician.

king's chief band-master, or director of music. \_From Kouyunjik^

No. 8. Three lyres. — On this slab four bearded men are seen traversing a mountainous country. On the tops and sides of the hills a few trees are represented to indicate a woody district. Three of the men are playing upon lyres, while the fourth, a warrior, is carrying in his right hand a short stick surmounted by a knob, or a mace ; he is following

96 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Cuap. III.

the musicians, and appears to be their superior. The dress of the men and the shape of the lyres are exactly as shown in the engraving (fig. 7, p. 39). \_From Kouyunjik.~\

No. 9. Two trumpets. — Removal of a colossal bull. — -Whoever has paid a visit to the Assyrian monu- ments in the British Museum will remember the colossal bulls and lions, with human heads and eagles' wings, — expressive symbols of wisdom, power, and swiftness, — which originally were placed on the two sides of the chief entrances of the magnificent palaces of the Assyrian monarchs, and also of the entrances to some of the inner halls.

The slab now under consideration coromemorates the conveyance of a human-headed winged bull to the royal palace, under the superintendence, or at least in the presence, of the king, who is seen standing in his chariot, which has been drawn by the attend- ants to the summit of a mound. Numerous workmen, directed by overseers, are occupied in removing the bull, which has been laid sideways on a kind of sledge. Some officers are standing on it, engaged in giving orders to the workmen by means of clapping their hands and other signs. They are assisted in this operation by two men with trumpets, one of whom is just in the act of transmitting commands to the most distant workmen in front of them. \_From Kouyunjikl]

No. 10. Two trumpets. — Removal of a human- headed winged bull. — The chief features of this representation are similar to the preceding one. The king is, however, not present, and the scene is near a river or lake, which obviously is intended to indi- cate the district of the country from which the bull

Chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF BAS-KELIEFS. 97

was brought to the palace. Workmen with spades, picks, saws, and ropes, are busily engaged in the removal of the heavy mass, under the direction of officers, whose commands are transmitted by signs and trumpet-signals.

I must not omit to mention that in the official ' Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum,' the above trumpets are noticed as "speaking-trum- pets." Such an instrument is however different in appearance from the trumpets here exhibited. It especially requires a large aperture which entirely covers the mouth, and in which the lips can be moved freely, so as to insure a distinct enunciation of every word. An examination of the monuments must convince any one that the Assyrian sculptors took great care to exhibit any characteristic pecu- liarities appertaining to a figure or object which they were representing. I need only notice the great fidelity evinced in representing the muscles in the limbs of bulls and lions. This is also curiously exemplified in the representation of a claw in the tuft at the end of the lion's tail. The existence of such a claw in the tail of the living animal had been repeatedly asserted and doubted, but it has recently been ascertained to be a positive fact. For some interesting information on this and similar subjects, in further corroboration of the conscientious exact- ness observed by the sculptors, I must refer the reader to Mr. Bonomi's book on ' Nineveh and its Palaces.' From such facts the conclusion may be drawn, that if the instruments in question were speaking - trumpets, the sculptors would not have omitted to indicate the large aperture constituting the mouthpiece ; there is, however, not the slightest

H

98 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

trace of it in the representations of any of the trum- pets, although some of the sculptures are in good preservation.

Besides, trumpet signals are better fitted for trans- mitting orders to a great distance, than verbal mes- sages through a speaking-trumpet, because they are more distinctly heard. And it must also be remem- bered that the ancient Egyptians and Hebrews had trumpets like those of the Assyrians ; and that the Hebrews used them for signalling, in the same manner as the Assyrians, is a fact known from Holy Writ. \_Jp^7vm Kouyunjik.']

No. 11. A tamboii7'a. ■ — We have here a scene which may perhaps refer to some peculiar national custom or popular festival. Two mummers, most likely mimes, clothed in lions' skins, and wearing- masks resembling the head of the lion, are dancing to the music of a man who plays upon a tamboura. One of the dancers is carrying a whip in his right hand, which he used, perhaps, to produce a rhythmical accompaniment to the music of the tamboura. Similar customs exist at the present time in European countries. In some of the villages in Germany, for instance, grotesque mummers perform a peculiar dance at Whitsuntide before the houses, to the rhythm pro- duced by the cracking of a number of whips. Three or four men with whips, who may be said to repre- sent the band of musicians, accompany the dancers ; they are generally so well practised together as to perform with much precision, producing a variety of animating rhythmical effects. [_F'rom Nimroud.']

No. 12. Seven harps, one dulcimer, two double-pipes, and a drum. — Procession of instrumental and vocal performers to meet the conquerors on their return

Chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS. 99

from tlie battle-field. — This is the largest and most interesting assemblage of musicians which has been discovered. I have therefore selected it for the frontispiece to this book. It consists of eleven per- formers upon instruments, besides a chorus of singers. The first musician — probably the leader of the band, as he marches alone at the head of the procession — is playing upon a harp. Behind him are two men, one with a dulcimer and the other with a double-pipe ; then follow two more men with harps. Next come six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon harps, while one is blowing a double-pipe, and another is beating a small hand-drum covered only at the top, of the kind described at p. 63. Close behind the instrumental are the vocal performers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They are clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding her hand to her throat, in the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia, and Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day, when producing, on festive occasions, those peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing which have been repeatedly noticed by Oriental travellers. Dr. Clarke says, " They are caused by trilling the tongue against the roof of the mouth, without the utterance of any dis- tinct words. Yet this singular mode of expressing joy is all that constitutes the Alleluia of the ancients. When Lord Hutchinson first entered Cairo, after the capture of the city, he was met by a number of women who greeted him with Alleluia ; they accom- panied him through the streets, clapping their hands, and making this extraordinary noise in a loud and shrill tone. It seems to be a constant repetition

H 2

100 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

of the same syllable al, uttered with the utmost rapidity." * Besides being singularly illustrative of modern Oriental customs, the Assyrian procession under our consideration is also especially interesting on account of the resemblance which it bears to some musical processions of the Hebrews on similar occasions mentioned in the Bible. I shall remind the reader only of David's reception by the women after his victory over the Philistines ; and of that of Jephthah by his daughter and her companions, after his return from the battle against the children of Ammon (Judges xi. 34). Also, on the solemn occa- sion of the conveyance of the ark into the City of David, the procession seems to have been very similar to that of the Assyrians here represented. " David and all Israel played before God with all their might, and with singing, and with harps, and with psal- teries, and with timbrels, and with cymbals, and with trumpets " (1 Chron. xiii. 8) ; and it was on this occasion that " David danced before the Lord with all his might" (2 Samuel vi. 14). \_Froni Kouyunjik.']

In addition to those enumerated I have seen a few other representations of Assyrian musicians, of which a brief notice will suffice. The first is a performer on the harp, engraven on one of those little cylin- drical seals which may be seen in the British Museum.

The second is a procession with instruments of music, in connection with a ceremony apparently sacrificial, before two altars. It occurs on an obelisk in white calcareous stone, which was found near the

* Travels in various Countries, by E. D. Clarke, London, 1810 Part ii. Sect. ii. p. 121.

Chap. III. DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS. 101

centre of the mound of Kouyunjik, and which also is now exhibited in the British Museum. But it is so much dilapidated that I could not distinguish with certainty more of the musical instruments than one or two asors.

The third is an engraving of two performers on lyres, given in M. Botta's work, ' Monuments de Ninive,' from a much corroded slab found in Khor- sabad. The men, who seem to be singing while marching and twanging their lyres, are dressed like soldiers, with an appendage to their tunics, as repre- sented in fig. 5, p. 38, which, according to Mr. Layard, was a kind of ornament somewhat resembling the Highland pkilibeg, and which was only worn by a certain class of soldiers.^

The fourth is a scene in which some singers and drummers are introduced, and of which also I have seen only a drawing, viz. in Mr. Layard's work entitled ' Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon.' It is there described as representing " Assyi'ians cutting down the palm-trees belonging to a captured city." The drums are like those to which I have alluded (p. 64) as a third kind of Assyrian drum. It is worthy of notice that we find rhythmical sounds of the drum here employed apparently for the pur- pose of facilitating the execution of some menial labour.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERFORMANCES.

I shall now state in a few words what may be adduced from a comparison of the different repre-

^ Nineveh and its Remains, by A. H. Layard, London, 1849, vol. ii. p. 336.

102 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

sentations whicli I have described, respecting the characteristics of the Assyrian musical performances. It must be remembered that the monuments are not all of the same age. Thus the king on slab No. 9 is, according to our authorities on Assyrian history, Sennacherib, during whose reign, about 720 B.C., the bas-relief probably was made ; while the king on slab No. 4 is Ashur-bani-pal, the grandson of Sen- nacherib. Again, the sculptures derived from the mound of Nimroud are supposed to be several cen- turies older than those which are from Kouyunjik. If we possessed more ample information on Assyrian music than we do, it might have been of use for the history of music to arrange these stony records according to their age, as far as this is ascertain- able. With our present limited knowledge, however, nothing satisfactory could be gained by such an attempt. I shall therefore consider here the instru- ments only, without further reference to the time to which their existence can be traced in each indivi- dual instance.

We have seen that the Assyrians employed in their musical performances stringed, wind, and pulsatile instruments in combination. Moreover, we find the stringed instruments greatly predominating, and any loud rhythmical instruments but sparingly employed. In this respect their music evidently dilFered from that of the ancient Egyptians, in whose bands various kinds of instruments of percussion are of frequent occurrence. The Hebrews also used, besides loud trumpets, several noisy rhythmical instruments, even in religious ceremonies, which are seldom met with in the Assyrian bands. Their music must conse- quently have been pre-eminently soft and senti-

Chap. III. THEIK CHARACTERISTICS. 103

mental in character, like that of several Asiatic nations at the present time. Captain Yule relates that when the military band of the English Embassy to the Court of Ava was playing European music to the Burmese, " they listened with more curiosity than enjoyment ; the music was too loud for their taste." ^ On the other hand, their own music, as well as that of the Siamese, is described by most travellers as usually soft; and that it must be so, may be also concluded from the nature of their musical instru- ments, with the same certainty that the character of Assyrian music may be determined from the Assyrian instruments.

The stringed instrument most frequently used by the Assyrians was, it appears, the asor ; after this the harp and the lyre seem to have been the most common. It was the custom to use two or more instru- ments of the same kind, probably more for the pur- pose of insuring greater fulness and brilliancy of tone than for the sake of increased loudness. For the same reason we employ a number of violins together in unison in our orchestras, although the music executed may be quite piano.

The Assyrians were obviously very fond of music, and it was probably never wanting at their festivals and public entertainments. The power of music to increase the solemnity and grandeur of any public festivity is, indeed, so great and so universally felt, that it would have been extraordinary if the Assyrians had not, like other nations, made use of it on such occasions. Of the luxury and magnifi-

^ A Narrative of the Mission sent I to the Court of Ava, by Captain H. by the Governor-General of India I Yule, London, 1858, p. 128.

104 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

cence displayed by tliem at festivals, we have some casual records in the Bible and Apocrypha. In the Book of Judith, for instance, it is related that, when the King Nabuchodonosor had conquered tlie King Arphaxad, he celebrated his victory in Nineveh, " and banqueted, both he and his army, an hundred and twenty days" (Judith i. 16). The employment of music at banquets and feastings was also cus- tomary among the Hebrews, as, indeed, it was with all ancient nations. Jesus, the son of Sirach, says : " A concert of musick in a banquet of wine is a signet of carbuncle set in gold. As a signet of an emerald set in a work of gold, so is the melody of musick with pleasant wine" (Ecclus. xxxii. 5, 6). And in praise of Josias he says that the remembrance of him is " sweet as honey in all mouths, and as musick at a banquet of wine." (Ecclus. xlix. 1.)

Isaiah alludes to the fondness of the Babylonians for music, when exclaiming, " Thy pomp is brought down to the grave, and the noise of thy viols : the worm is spread under thee, and the worms cover thee" (Isaiah xvi. 11). And from a passage in Daniel it would appear that in Babylon hymns in praise of the gods were sung at the royal ban- quets. (Dan. V. 4, 23.)

Moreover, there can scarcely be a doubt that the Assyrians had also their funeral songs and lamenta- tions, either entirely vocal, or perhaps with the accompaniment of flutes. The introduction of music by the Hebrews at funerals and on occasions of mourning is often mentioned in the Bible. King David himself composed a dirge upon the death of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 17). From a sentence in St. Matthew ix. 23, — "And when Jesus came into

Chap. Ill, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 105

the ruler's house, aiid saw the minstrels and the people making a noise, he said unto them, Give place: for the maid is not dead but sleepeth," — it would appear that it was a Jewish custom to intro- duce music on such occasions. Forkel mentions that, according to Maimonides, even the poorest Hebrew husband was expected to engage at the funeral of his wife at least two flute-players, and a hired female mourner.''

It would seem from the beautiful Psalm cxxxvii., that the Babylonians must have found pleasure in listening to the music of the Jews : —

'' By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down ; yea, we wept when we remembered Zion.

" We hanged our harps upon the willows in the midst thereof.

" For there they that carried us away captive required of us a song ; and they that wasted us re- quired of us mirth, saying. Sing us one of the songs of Zion.

" How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange land ? "

Bedford, in his ' Temple Musick,' suggests that " the service in the Temple at Jerusalem was regular and orderly, without confusion and disturbance, and where every one knew his part without interrupting another ; and this made the Babylonians so very desirous to hear the same, that, when they had led the Children of Israel captive, they required of them a song, and melody in their heaviness, saying. Sing us one of the songs of Zion." ® It is, however, more

7 Foikel's Geschichte der Musik, I ^ The Temple Musick, by Arthur vol. i. p. 127. I Bedford, Loudon, 1706, p. 37.

106 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PEEFOEMANCES. Chap. III.

probable that they considered their own music quite as good, if not suj)erior to that of the Hebrews ; and their principal motive for inducing their captives to sing, and for encouraging the continual practice of music, was, undoubtedly, as indicated in the psalm, to preserve them in a cheerful and healthy condition through the mighty influence of music, of which influence the Babylonians themselves were fully con- vinced.

Music was especially used by the Assyrians and Babylonians in their idol-worship, and in supersti- tious ceremonies of a religious character. This is obvious from the sculptures, but is also to some extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by command of king Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image, which is supposed to have been Baal : —

" Then an herald cried aloud, To you it is com- manded, 0 people, nations, and languages, that at what time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up." (Dan. iii. 4, 5.)

The kings appear to have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it was to perform secular music at certain times of the day, or on fixed occasions. Of king Darius the Mede we are told that, when he had cast Daniel into the den of lions, he " went to his palace, and passed the night fasting ; neither were instruments of musick brought before him" (Dan. vi. 18); from which we may conclude that his band was in the habit of playing before him in the evening.

A similar custom prevailed also at the Court of

Chap. III. THEIE CHARACTERISTICS. 107'

Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon ; botli of whom appear to have had their royal private bands, besides a large number of singers and in- strumental performers of sacred music, who were engaged in the Temple. When David, in gratitude for services received from Barzillai the Gileadite, invited the old man to go with him to Jerusalem, and to abide there in comfort at the king's expense, Barzillai replied, " I am this day fourscore years old, and can I discern between good and evil ? can thy servant taste what I eat or what I drink ? can I hear any more the voice of singing men and singing women ? wherefore then should thy servant be yet a burden unto my lord the king ? " (2 Sam. xix. 35.) Taking into consideration the circumstances under which this was said, there can scarcely be a doubt that Barzillai here alludes to the royal band ; nor is it surprising that David, with his fondness for music, should have enjoyed musical performances in his palace of a different character from those introduced into divine service.

Solomon himself mentions his private orchestra in his reflections on the vanity of worldly pleasures and luxuries : — "I gat me men singers and women singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts." (Eccles. ii. 8.)

Great as the fondness of the Assyrians for music appears to have been, the practice of this art as a profession can scarcely have been held by them in high estimation, but was more likely considered as unmanly and effeminate, to judge from the represen- tations of musical performances, in which many of the musicians are eunuchs. These personages un-

108 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

doubtedly were singers as well as instrumentalists ; tliis may be concluded from their attitude, and from the nature of their instruments, which in some in- stances could scarcely have been used otherwise than for accompanying the singing. Their soprano voices must have imparted a peculiar brilhancy to their performances. And it may be supposed that some of them greatly excelled and attained renown and riches.

RHYTHM, HAEMONY, AND UNISON.

The questions which, in contemplating the A ssyrian vocal performances with instrumental accompani- ment, would, most likely, first suggest themselves to the musician, are — " How were the songs constituted, and was the accompaniment in harmony or in uni- son ? " On these I shall now submit a few obser- vations.

In nations which have not brought the cultivation of music to so high a degree of development as it has attained with us, it may be observed that in vocal compositions the words are often treated as of greater importance than the music, and the latter appears to be subservient to the former. The songs, therefore, partake more of the nature of a recitative : they cannot be properly divided into bars, because the rhythm is entirely dictated by the accentuation and emphasis demanded by the words. This is usually the case with the vocal music of uncivilized nations, although some of them, natm-ally gifted wdth an extraordinary susceptibility for rhythmical order, have been almost instinctively led to the invention of symmetrically-formed melodies of the nature of our airs or tunes.

Chap. III. RHYTHM, HARMONY, AND UNISON. 109

On the other hand, among nations with whom music has been highly developed as an art, we not nnfreqiiently find the words entirely subordinate, in order that the form of the vocal composition may be worked out freely and unimpeded. In proof I need only mention our fugues and similar compositions, written in a strictly prescribed form, in which the words are generally distorted in a most merciless way. In our operas, especially in those of Italian composers, the words often stand only for so many unmeaning syllables upon which the notes are sung ; and even the prevailing emotion conveyed by the words is not always expressed in the music.

Gluck, the great musical reformer, fully appre- ciated the advantage of regarding poetry in combina- tion with music, as of nearly equal importance ; and thus he treated the words in his immortal operas. Other distinguished musicians have adopted his views, and created master-works. Some recent composers, however, under the notion of extending and im- proving Gluck's principle, have, for the sake of the words, injudiciously neglected the distinctness and beauty of form of the music. Their compositions are indeed, so far as rhythmical construction is con- cerned, not very different from the music of uncivi- lized nations, — consisting merely of various phrases, each perhaps beautiful in itself, but not forming together an entire whole, or, in other words, not con- stituting a work of art producing a distinct total impression.

In Asiatic nations, especially, the songs are gene- rally of a nature which renders it almost impossible to write them down divided into bars of equal dura- tion. It is true that in some of the collections of

110

ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

national airs this is by no means evident. A little closer investigation, however, would show that the tunes have been not unfrequently altered by the European collectors, in order to bring them into conformity with our usual divisions into bars. Hamilton Bird, who had lived for about twenty years in Calcutta when he published his collection of the ' Airs of Hindostan,' candidly states in his pre- face, " It has cost the compiler great pains to bring them into any form as to time." Similar accounts could be given relating to other Oriental countries ; but it will, perhaps, better answer our purpose if I insert instead a few specimens of vocal compositions of the nature alluded to : —

CHOKUS OF THE MEWLEWI DERVISHES.

Maestoso.

V

Hu, Hu, Hu, Hu

.-.^ piu mosso.

^S

¥i

-^

i

r

Hei Dost ! Dscha-ui men Dsclia-

a^^

Hei Jar

Maestoso.

w

:s^

^

- na - ni men ! Kii - teh ne - kii - ned

uicnsi - li ma

il - la Hu, Hu, Hu, Hu

Chap. III.

^

CHORUSES OF DERVISHES.

piu mosso.

Ill

§S^

-M

^^J^I^Z

^ZEZM

-i-e-

W^--

Hei Jar !

Maestoso.

L^^

Hei Dost ! Dsclia-ui men Dscha-

§=^

-=v

-^=ii=l^

^t^^-t^

i

ua - ni men ! Ger A - lim jan dscliumle Ta - bi ban ba-scbed

•3-

-^^^^-

.t:=t2-E=

:^:

W

=F=t^

±^^

Hal - n ne

kii-ned miiscbki-li ma il

la

Hu, Hu, Hu, Hu

2^^« mosso.

-^^

j^^-

» ■ ^ l^^H— 1^— P-^-g-^— 1— i l-H-^—

^i=r

gfe^^

:^

g^^jSa

f-i — I-

=F

^— J:i-

Hei Jar ! Hei Dost ! Dsclia-ni men Dscba-na - ni men !

CHOEUS OF THE MEWLEWI DEKVISHES.

Len to.

-"e-=4

itzit^-

:r^ 1 -f-

W=la^-^--iJ=i^-V^S

:=f5=qs:

zs±

Biscbnew es

nei tscbiin .

hi - kia -

rl-^-^ •'-J-^

^

^

==q^

jet mi

kilned.

-^-

^

Be-li Ja

_^^S3=rf

^^---J=-^^

^

=j=m:j.

Jzi2^

men ! es dscbii - dai - - ha bi - - kia

3

i=P^

^=K-

jet mi

kilned

m

Be ~ li Ja -

112

ASSYKIAN MUSICAL PEKFOEMANCES. Chap. III.

s

:|^

piti mosso.

S^

?^^=^^

i\Mi=J-

\ — -^-

1^33^:

men ! Nei Ha - dis - si Ea - hi piir clum

Lento.

--3-

-a( — l-H — I

^-

i=qt

J^±.

^

:=tac:

mi - kii - ned :

. Wai! kis - sa - ha

^3

=|:

i Asch

3

*=J=

::&

q=fe

:3'^E

:^5=is:

'^

W

z^z

ki Me

dschnuu mi - - ku-ued

"^

-C^-

I^ 1^ J

-»!-•-

:^

Be - li

Ja -

The above two choruses of tlie Mewlewi Dervishes are taken from the Abbe Stadler's rehable collection. They form part of those choruses which are usually performed at the religious dances of the above sect of dervishes in Constantinople. It will be observed that, in order to convey a correct impression of their rhythmical character, several peculiar means have been resorted to in committing the music to paper, — such as the frequent employment of pauses, of dif- ferent kinds of bars, and of indications of change in the time.

In the second chorus, in which a certain phrase is several times repeated, and which greatly resembles a kind of chant used in tlie Jewish synagogues in Germany, it has been found necessary in several instances to extend the duration of the last note of the bar into the following bar, to avoid in the nota- tion a continual change in the time of the several bars.

Chap. III.

MUEZZIN'S CALL TO PRAYER.

113

The following piece is the Mahomedan ' Call to Prayer' of the Muezzin, from the minaret of the mosque, as given in Mr. Lane's 'Manners and Cus- toms of the Modern Egyptians :' —

CALL TO PRAYER OF THE MUEZZIN.

:=t

:=^

S^ii

^■

£=i

Al - - la - - hii ak - bar.

Al

^^3q-^-r=^g£:jEp

la - hu ak - bar.

Al - Id - hu ak - bar.

:s:^:=^=^

^St

g

3:^:

^^3EE

Al-la ------- -huak'

3:^

i^-'F

a^=li^Zit

=^=i

'^S.

-m=r

-iz

3=5:

bar. Ash-ha-du an la i - la - ha il - lal - Idh

:£

s

^E:^

=^"^

^g

Ash - hadu an Id i - Id - ha il - lal - lah.

m

p^=»

?ct"f=^=»cz:S"-*=?^=P

m^

--t=i^

Ash-ha-dii

i

w

5^

:p=i=;i:

-^»-k-

an - na Mohamma - dar rasoo - lu - lah.

Ash-ha-du

:£:5=ir^

'-=^

an-na Mohamma -dar rasoo -lu - lah. .

-^^^

:Ut:t==^

114

ASSYETAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

i

w

--^-

:^-~^

^

1^-==^

=aL— i=

Hei-ya 'alas - sa - lali.

-lah

Hei - ya 'a-las - sa -

.'TV

Hei-ya 'a - las - sa - lah

Hei-ya 'a - lal - fe - Idh.

m.

W=^=^-

:^:

i

W

Al

i

- la - liii i

--X

-A—\^^=^

m

liii ak - bar.

Al - la -

\m. ak

^

izS:

^

itizb

:i:^:

- bar.

La

la - ha il - la - lab.

The ' Blessing of the Priests,' as at present sung in the synagogues of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, is beHeved to be identical with that used some thousand years ago in the Temple of Jerusalem. If this be really the case, undoubtedly it must have undergone considerable change in the course of time. Nevertheless, it bears immistakeable resemblance to Oriental vocal compositions, as is also the case with several other ancient melodies in the collection of Jewish sacred tunes published by De Sola and Aguilar, from which it has been derived : —

Chap. III.

HEBREW ' BLESSING OF PRIESTS.

115

HEBEEW 'BLESSING OF THE PEIESTS.'

Adagio maestoso.

The specimens of ancient melodies in Siilzer's ' Scliir Zion,' wliicL. are used in the synagogues of the German Jews, are of a similar character. More- over, the resemblance of the mode of singing, or rather chanting, in the synagogues, to the vocal performances of the Persians and other Eastern nations, is immistakeahle, and shows, to some extent, how tenaciously the Jews have preserved ancient usages connected with their religious observances. That the singing of the ancient Hebrews, as well as that of the Grreeks and other nations of antiquity, was of a similar nature, is the impression conveyed by the accounts of their music which have been trans- mitted to us.

Such, especially, must have been the songs of the Assyrian minstrels, whom we see entertaining the monarch probably with recitals of historical events and the glorious deeds of his forefathers, or of his own achievements ; particularly as these recitals were, most likely, often extempore performances, like those which are sung at the present time on similar occa- sions in chivalrous nations of the East.

I 2

116 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. HI.

For certain solemnities they may probably have had more measured melodies, consisting mostly of notes of an equal duration, like those which the Chinese and some other Asiatic nations use in their Buddhist worship. The vocal performances of the ancient Hebrews appear also to have been sometimes less chant-like, and more resembling a tune ; we may suppose that they were modified according to the occasion on which the music was employed, as well as to the particular metre of the poetry to which it was wedded.

Respecting the instrumental accompaniment em- ployed by the Assyrians, it may be concluded that it was certainly not always in unison with the voice, but frequently in harmony. To judge from the con- struction of the instruments, the harmony must, how- ever, have been very primitive in comparison with our own.

Harmony is not so artificial an invention as has often been asserted. The susceptibility for it is innate in man, and soon becomes manifest wherever music has been developed to any extent. Children of the tenderest age have been known to evince delight in hearing thirds and other consonant intervals struck on the pianoforte ; and it is a well-ascertained fact that with several savage nations the occasional em- ployment of similar intervals combined did not origin- ate from an acquaintance with European music, but was entirely their own invention. Nor is this sur- prising, if we consider that each single tone of a melody may be said to contain a harmony in itself, a harmony produced by the soft derivative tones or harmonics which are generated with the predominant tone.

Chap. III. KHYTHM, HAKMONY, AND UNISON. 117

If travellers not imfrequently assert that they have not observed any traces of harmony in the mnsic of a nation, it must be remembered how few favourable opportunities they generally have for exact inves- tigations. Moreover, they must naturally oftener meet with opportunities of witnessing vocal perform- ances without instrumental accompaniments, such as simple national songs, or dance-tunes played upon a single instrument only, and accompanied perhaps by instruments of percussion for the purpose of rhyth- mical effects. And from what they thus casually witnessed, many have come to too hasty a conclusion on the characteristics of the music of a whole nation.

Besides, some may, in their inquiries, have been influenced by the preconceived notion that the music of nations in a low state of cultivation must be entirely without harmony. This opinion, originally promulgated by most of our writers on the history of music, who evidently were but little acquainted with the music of any other nations at present existing, but those of some European countries, has been, naturally enough, widely accepted, and repeated without any further investigation into its truth.

The music of Asiatic nations especially is usually described as being exclusively in unison. It is, how- ever, noteworthy that, in some of the accounts in which this opinion is expressed, facts are related which rather tend to prove the contrary. Amiot, for instance, in the ' Memoires concernant les Chinois,' states that the performances of the Chinese are always in u^nison, while in the course of his dissertation it becomes evident that his statement must be received with caution. And this impression is strongly con-

118 ASSYEIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

firmed by the information obtained from some other sources. Tradescant Lay says of the Chinese pepa^ a species of guitar with four strings, " It is often used at festal rites of a rehgious character, and accom- panied by the three-stringed guitar {san lieert) ; so that we see something like music in parts, though of a very humble kind." Of the latter instrument he observes, " The sounds of the san keen are low and dull, which adapt it for the purpose of subduing the shrill sounds of the pepa by something like a bass. Performers do not appear to have anything like a score, — one plays from memory or in learning from notes, while the other accompanies him according to the best ideas of harmony he is master of." Of an- other instrument, the yue kin, or " full-moon guitar," he says, " I once saw a musician at one of the stroll- ing theatres who displayed a great deal of execution upon it, with Yery pleasing effect. On another occa- sion it was used as an accompaniment to the urh keen (a species of fiddle), and, as the musician understood his business, the result had something peculiarly merry and exhilarating about it." The Chinese dul- cimer, yang kin, is furnished with brass strings, which are struck with two small hammers. " When touched by a skilful hand, it yields a very gay and lively combination of harmonious and melodious sounds." ^

A Hindoo morning concert, in which the surinda, a stringed instrument played with a bow ; the cliou- tara, a kind of guitar with four wire strings; the surod, also a kind of guitar, but very different from

* 'i'lie Chinese as They Are, by Tradescant Lay, Esq., Loudon, 1841, pp. 76-83.

Chap. III. EHYTHM, HARMONY, AND UNISON.

119

the preceding one in appearance ; and the dara, a kind of tambourine, were used, is described by Mr. Prinsep as follows : — " The surocl is the leading in- strument, and is sounded with a plectrum, like other native guitars. The surinda plays in unison with it, while the choiitara forms a kind of bass accompani- ment, or rather performs the same office as the drone among wind instruments. The men's voices occa- sionally chime in with the air, and again leave room for some ad libitum movements of the chief per- former, who exerts all his energy in rapid impas sioned execution." ^

Even the bagpipe with its drones, an instrument almost universal, not only in European but also in Asiatic countries, produces a kind of rude harmony, and is unfit for performances in unison. The same may be said of several other wind instruments found in Asia. Of the Chinese cheng, already no- ticed (page 18), Mr. Lay observes, ''By covering the first set of tubes with the forefinger, and breathing softly into the mouth-piece, a most charming con- centus of sweet sounds is heard, with the harmonic divisions of the octave and twelfth, as the impulse is augmented. By stopping the second and third groups respectively, we get harmonies of three and two somids, which are loud and effective." ^

The Assyrians were evidently much more civi- lized, and had made greater progress in music, than many nations of the present time which are not entirely unacquainted with harmony. The construc- tion of their stringed instruments, especially the

^ Benares, illustrated in a series of f Drawings, by James Prinsep, Esq. Calcutta, 1830.

2 The Chinese as They Are, by Tradescant Lay, London, 1841, p. 89.

120 ASSYRIAN MUSICAL PERFORMANCES. Chap. III.

harps, the strings of which they touch with both hands at the same moment at different parts, as well as the use of the double-pipe, indicate that they pro- duced together different notes which appeared to them agreeable in concord. Herein consisted, how- ever, probably, their entire harmony. For a sys- tematic combination of a fixed number of different parts, each having its own individual course and forming a melody by itself, their instruments were too incomplete.

Neither could we expect to find among them a harmony subjected to the same rules as our own, even if they had been considerably further advanced in music than was the case. For our own theory of harmony is by no means so strictly founded upon natural and universal laws, that any other nation must, by a progressive cultivation of music, be ulti- mately led to its adoption as a matter of course. It is, in fact, continually undergoing changes. Scarcely three centuries have elapsed since Monteverde ven- tured to introduce, for the first time, the chord of the seventh on the dominant without preparation into our harmony, which previously consisted only of con- sonant chords, interspersed occasionally with a discord of suspension. The harmony in some of our old madrigals and similar compositions appears to us antiquated and quaint. Modern composers have, not unfrequently with admirable effect, made use of combinations of chords which until recently were considered as incorrect and quite inadmissible. In- stances of this kind occur in Beethoven's instrumental compositions.

I have already noticed the remarkable resemblance of the Nubian kissar to the Assyrian lyre. I shall

Chap. III. RHYTHM, HARMONY, AND UNISON. 121

presently give a few examples of the iisiial accompa- niments on the kissar, from which it will be seen that they consist of certain rhythmical groups of notes, which are repeated during the song. The Assyrian accompaniments on the lyre must have been similar ; not only on account of the likeness in the construction and capability of the two instru- ments, but also because such accompaniments are the easiest to execute, and would most naturally suggest themselves to the performer ; and also because they are similar to some accompaniments which are em- ployed by Asiatic nations on stringed instruments at the present day.

Vocal music in harmony requires more musical experience and efficiency than simple instrumental harmony used as an accompaniment. The execution of the Assyrian choruses was therefore most likely usually in unison, and in octaves, when men, women, and children were singing together ; though it is not improbable that some harmony, consisting of short sequences of thirds, or perhaps even of some con- secutive fifths, may have been now and then intro- duced.

Such combinations of intervals have actually been found in use in several uncivilized nations when Europeans first came in contact with them, — nations whose degree of musical cultivation was far below that to which the Assyrians had evidently attained.

122 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. TV,

CHAPTER IV.

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS.

Resemblance of the Assyrian mnsic to that of other ancient Oriental nations — The pentatonic scale — The present existence of the pentatonic scale in various Asiatic nations evidenced by tunes from China, Siam, Java, Hindoostan, Burmah, and Japan — High antiquity of the pentatonic scale in Asia — The order of intervals in which the Assyrian stringed instruments appear to have been usually tuned — Traces of the penta- tonic scale among the ancient Greeks — The intervals of the Nubian kissar — Subdivisions of the whole tone — Diffusion of the pentatonic scale — The pentatonic scale of the ancient American Indians — Traces of the same scale in the music of the Scotch and other Celtic races — The peculiar character of the Assyrian music — The probable musical notation of the Assyrians.

A CAREFUL examination of tlie evidences relating to Assyrian music, which I have been able to collect, has convinced me that their musical scale must have been similar to that of other ancient Asiatic nations, and, furthermore, that traces of this scale, which dilfers from our own, are even at the present time apparent.

I purpose now to explain first the characteristics which distinguish this scale from the diatonic scale employed in European music ; and aftei'wards to give the reasons from which I deduce that it was used by the Assyrians and other ancient Asiatic nations.

The reader may be assured that I have exercised the utmost caution in admitting in confirmation of any opinion only those musical examples whose genuineness is indisputable. The musician has there-

Chap. IV, DIFFEEENCES IN NATIONAL TUNES. 123

fore an opportunity of drawing his own conclusions from them, should he not concur in those advanced by me. I think this especially desirable, since an independent and unbiassed examination is the surest means of attaining the exact truth, which is my only aim.

It would be a mistake to suppose that the music of the various ancient Asiatic nations was in every respect alike. This is as little the case at the present time as it was formerly, altliough from the accounts of many travellers we might be led to surmise the contrary. The actual fact may best be explained by a reference to our own music as practised in different European countries. The musician seldom finds any difficulty in distinguishing compositions of Italian masters from those of the French, Germans, and others. In the popular folks-music, generally origin- ating with and traditionally preserved by the rural population, the peculiar character of the national music of a civilized country is usually more strongly marked than in the compositions of educated pro- fessional musicians ; because the musicians do not confine their studies to the music of their own country, but learn also from celebrated masters of other countries. The character of their music is consequently often influenced and modified by what they admire in, and perhaps involuntarily adopt from foreign music. Thus it may be explained why, for instance, the Swedish, German, and Hungarian national tunes are more widely different from each other than the works of modern celebrated composers appertaining to Sweden, Germany, and Hungary.

Notwithstanding these differences, the music of most European nations possesses certain distinct cha-

124 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

racteristics in common, which stamp it with a kind of family likeness. The principal features consist in the circmnstance that it is ahnost always founded upon the diatonic scale, and exhibits a symmetrical arrangement of rhythmical notes.

THE PENTATONIC SCALE.

If an intelh'gent Chinese or Hindoo musician, on a cursory visit to Europe, were to hear the music of different European countries, he would in all pro- bability only observe those peculiarities which aj^per- tain to all European music, and which distinguish it from that of his own nation ; and it might take some time before he would be enabled to perceive the differences which exist in the music of various countries.

It is therefore not surprising that many European travellers should have described the music of several Asiatic countries as the same ; since in Asiatic music are to be found certain characteristic traits which convey to it what I have called a family likeness. The most remarkable of these is that the melodies are frequently founded upon a scale differing essen- tially from our own, and consisting of only five tones, wherefore I have given it the name of Pen- tatonic Scale.

Diatonic. Pextatonic.

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3

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Pentatonic.

ir

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Chap. IV. THE PENTATONIC SCALE, 125

In order to sliow exactly the nature of the pen- tatonic scale, I have also written down our diatonic scale, which, it will be remembered, consists of five ivhole tones and two semitones. The two semitones are from the third to the fourth, and from the seventh to the octave^ as indicated in the example by brackets. This scale, which appears here in c major, consists therefore of only seven different intervals, — the octave, which is considered as identical with the prime, has been added merely to show the second semitone before mentioned. The above example exhibits the five in- tervals of the pentatonic scale, assuming c to be the tonic. It differs from the diatonic scale inasmuch as the intervals of the fourth and seventh are wanting. Consequently the two diatonic semitones do not occur : we have instead two minor thirds, as will be seen in the example, in which the pentatonic scale is represented ascending to the octave and descending to the prime.

In the communications of travellers, relating to musical performances, inadvertent indications are now and then met with that the pentatonic scale is in use at the present time in various parts of Asia. Some travellers describe it so distinctly as not to be mis- taken, while others allude merely to some peculiarity in the music which appeared to them a defective scale. The following extracts from some well-known books of travel may serve as instances in proof.

Mr. Tradescant Lay, in describing the Chinese stringed instrument called pepa, observes, " The player generally avoids the half-note. I asked my instructor why he did this, but the question confounded him greatly." ^ Again, Sir George Staunton says that " to

^ The Chinese as They Are, by Tradescant Lay, London, 1841, p. 77.

126

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

Mr. Hiittner, a good judge of music, it appeared that tlie Cliinese gamut was sucli as Europeans would call imperfect, tlieir keys being inconsistent." A little further on the same author distinctly tells us, " The Chinese, in playing on instruments, discovered no knowledge of semitones." ^

The pentatonic scale of the Siamese is described, rather obscurely, in Finlayson's ' Journal ' as follows : — " My friend Captain Dangerfield, himself an adept in musical science, remarks that the music of the Siamese differs from that of all barbarous tribes in being played upon a different key to that, if I under- stand him right, which characterizes the pathetic music of certain European nations." ^ Doctor Kusch- enberger relates that he heard a Siamese minstrel performing an air, " which might have been mistaken for Scotch, had we not been assured that it was Siamese."* Barrow, while in Cochin China, heard on a certain occasion some national airs of that country, of which he remarks, " One in particular attracted our attention, whose slow melancholy move- ment breathed that kind of plaintive softness so pecu- liar to the native airs of the Scotch, to which, indeed, it bore a very close resemblance." ^ Again, the Honourable Mountstuart Elphiustone mentions that in Afghanistan he witnessed performances of the national songs and dances of that country, when " a

2 An Authentic x\ccount of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, by Sir G. Staunton, Bart., Loudon, 1797, vol. ii. p. 262.

2 The Mission to Siam and Cochin- China, from the Journal of the late George Finlayson, Esq., by Sir

Th. Stamford Eaffles, London, 1826, p. 290.

"* Narrative of a Voyage Eound the World, by W. S. W. Euscheu- berger, M.D., vol. ii. 37.

* A Voyage to Cochin-China, by John Barrow, London, 1806, p. 295.

Chap. IV. THE PENT ATONIC SCALE. 127

love-song was sung to an extremely pretty melody, very simple, and not unlike a Scottish air." ^

One other testimony will suffice. It is from a recent traveller in the north of China, whose state- ments are perhaps all the more suggestive because he shows himself incompetent duly to appreciate the works of great musical composers. He says, " None of those grand conceptions bestowed on the world by Mozart, Mendelssohn, Donizetti, Hummel, Handel, or Beethoven, to nearly all of whose masterpieces I have lent my enraptured attention, ever produced in me such unspeakable emotions of tenderness and plaintive melancholy as those which arose as I sat one midnight long ago on the banks of a Highland loch dm-ing the fishing season, when all nature seemed to be lulled to rest under the burnished silvery light of a summer moon." In this lovely place his musings were suddenly interrupted by a Scotch tune, ' Mack- rimmon's Lament,' played on a bagpipe by one of the fishermen in a distant boat. " Though before and since those haj^py days I have been dinned, delighted, and distracted by pibrochs, strathspeys, and all the variations which can be appended to the entire catalogue of Celtic music, the air which threw me into an almost cataleptic state on that night remains preserved in my memory in all its original simplicity and unalloyed genuineness of half-civilized natural impression, as told in pure pathos by a few notes on a simple instrument. Mackrimmon's Lament, ' We return no more,' continually interposes between my judgment and the favourable verdict I might

^ An Account of the Kingdom of I Elphinstone, London, 1839, vol. i. Caubiil, by the Hon. Mountstuart | p. 311.

128 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

give in regard to any modern symphony or elaborate production of a civilized and cultivated mind." Could we have stronger evidence of a close resemblance between Chinese and Scotch popular melodies than the assertion of this enthusiastic admirer of ' Mack- rimmon's Lament,' that he has met with it again, to his great surprise, at a Chinese funeral procession ? He relates : " For many years I had not heard again my melancholy favourite, and little expected to do so until I revisited ' the land of brown heath and shaggy wood ; ' when, one spring afternoon, riding along the banks of the Peiho above Tien-tsin, the old sound suddenly overwhelmed me ; and, though the notes I anxiously sought to catch were not exactly the same, and did not succeed each other in quite the identical rhythmical order, yet the resemblance was sufficiently startling and complete to accomplish the return of the spell." ^

This resemblance to the songs of Scotland, which we find so often alluded to, is quite explicable, as there are also in these unmistakeable traces of the pentatonic scale. I shall afterwards have to say a few words on this subject, which I touch upon here only for the sake of explaining the remarks of the traveller I have quoted.

Similar accounts are not unfrequently met with in descriptions of Asiatic countries and their in- habitants. In order to ascertain how far they are well founded, I collected and compared as many authentic melodies of those countries as I could obtain. I shall now transcribe a few examples from

" Travels on Horseback in Mantchu Tavtary, by G. F. Fleming. Loudon, 18G3.

Chap. IV.

CHINESE AIRS.

129

my collection to show that the impressions of the tra- vellers cited are confirmed by the music itself, which has been transmitted to Europe through different channels.

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The first Chinese air is taken from Du Halde's well-known work on China.^ It was afterwards re- printed in Rousseau's ' Dictionnaire de Musique,' through which it has become more known to the

* Description de I'Empire de la Chine, par le P. J, B. Du Halde. A la Haye, 1736.

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130

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

musical world. However, by some oversight, a wrong note has crept into the copy printed by Rousseau, viz., in the third bar the interval of the seventh, /, occurs. This circumstance has given rise to some curious conjectures among learned musicians. Dr. Burney observes "/ natural comes in so awkwardly as to raise a suspicion that it has been inserted by a mistake of the engraver." ^ Dr. Fink, the late editor of the Leipzic musical journal called ' Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung,' instead of referring to Du Halde's work, where he might have convinced him- self that Burney has conjectured rightly, takes some pains to prove that the introduction of the seventh in the bar where it occurs must be quite in accordance with the rules of modulation in Chinese music ; and he is rather bitter against Burney for having sug- gested the probability of a misprint, where he himself finds just exactly what he would have expected to find.^ I mention this as an instance how learned musicians, when defending a certain theory of their own, are sometimes apt to endorse statements in con- firmation thereof which, with less prejudice, they would see were quite erroneous.

The Chinese air in praise of the flower Moo-lee I have transcribed from Barrow's ' Travels in China,' a work in which several other Chinese melodies are given, all of which are characterized by the penta- tonic scale.

The following song, called Sian Chok, has recently been published in an interesting article on the musical notation of the Chinese, by the Rev. E. W. Syle, in

^ Burney's History of Music, vol. i. p. 31.

' Erste Wandeninfir der a^testen

Tonkunst, von G. W. Fink, 1831, p. 78.

Chap. IV.

CHINESE AIR.

131

the Journal of the China Branch of the Eoyal Asiatic Society, Shanghai, 1859. I insert it here to show that the specimens of Chinese music collected by different persons, and in different parts of the empire, all bear the same characteristics, as far as the scale is concerned.

CHINESE AIE— ' Sian Chok.'

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A number of Siamese tunes, transmitted to Europe by Captain James Low, of the Madras Army, have been published in the ' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,' vol. iv., London, 1837. From these I have selected the following two specimens, to give the reader an idea of the character of Siamese music : —

K 2

132

MUSICAL SYSTEM OP THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

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The King of Siam's March, it will be seen, consists of only four different intervals; but it is evidently founded upon the pentatonic scale, like all the other Siamese melodies in the collection of Captain Low.

In Java, which derived its earliest civilization from India,^ we meet with the same scale, as may be seen

2 The Natural Historv of the Vai-ietios of Man, by R. G. Latham, London, 1850, p. 152.

Chap. IV.

JAVANESE AIE.

133

in Sir Stamford Raffles's ' History of Java,' where some Javanese tmies are given, of which the following is a specimen : —

JAVANESE AIE—' Surung Dayung.'

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A number of Javanese melodies, all, like the above, strictly fomided upon the pentatonic scale, have been published in Crawfurd's ' History of the Indian

134 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

Archipelago.' In this book we find also a letter from Dr. Crotch, referring to a collection of Javanese musical instruments brought to England by Sir Stamford Raffles, in which the writer says, " The instruments are all in the same kind of scale as that produced by the black keys of the pianoforte." These instruments are now deposited in the British Museum, where I have had an opportunity of convincing myself that they are, as Dr. Crotch intimates, tuned in the pentatonic scale, which is, in fact, the order of intervals represented by the black keys on our piano- forte.

With respect to the music of Hindoostan, I must observe that the largest collections of native melodies which we at present possess have been derived from Calcutta and its immediate neighbourhood. They were written down by European musicians who lived in that city as organists and professors of music. I must say that I have found scarcely any traces of the pentatonic scale in these collections. In some instances the cause may perhaps be ascribed to the circumstance that the collectors considered anything which appeared defective to the unaccustomed Euro- pean ear as accidental mistakes of the performers, and they may, therefore, have taken the liberty of making alterations which they deemed improvements when committing the music to paper. Some of them, indeed, indicate this clearly enough in their observa- tions prefacing the collections.

It is also very probable that now and then altera- tions may have been introduced unintentionally. Tradescant Lay remarks, " In my travels I sometimes wrote down the airs that I heard among the natives ; but thougli I took much pains to learn them accu-

Chap. IV. THE TENTATONIG SCALE. 135

rately, I always found they had lost something of their peculiarity when played upon the violin." ^

M. Yilloteau, the French musician before mentioned, relates that during his sojourn at Cairo he took some lessons from an Arab music-master, in order to become thoroughly acquainted with the musical system of the Arabs. While writing down certain melodies which his teacher sang, they appeared to him now and then out of tune, and he therefore took care to rectify in the notation the apparent defects. However, after- wards, when he sang to his teacher what he had written down, he was told that he was singing wrong notes. This led to a dispute between the two musicians, each maintaining that the ear of the other must be at fault. Thus they went on until at last it struck M. Yilloteau that the intervals of the Arabic scale must be different from those of our own, and that therefore they appeared wrong to him ; and he found this to be the case. A less intelligent musician, perhaps, would not have discovered this, and would consequently in his notation have entirely obliterated the character- istics of the music. It is therefore always hazardous to draw conclusions from examples obtained through one or two channels only.

There can, however, be no doubt, as will be seen presently, that our diatonic scale is at the present time found in some parts of Asia, especially where the people have come more in contact with Europeans.

NATIONAL AIE FEOM CHUMBA.

Moderato.

i

— 4 ^ ^ ^—•'\ ^ I I ^ ^=J— ^

The Chinese as They Are, by G. Tradescant Lay, London, 1841, p. 81.

136

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

The above air, from Chumba in the northern part of Hindoostan, is taken from Yigne's Travels.* It is strictly pentatonic. But I ought to mention that in some other tunes, communicated by the same traveller, also from the north of Hindoostan, the pentatonic scale is only partially apparent. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that this scale is used in Hin- doostan at the present time, although perhaps not so universally as formerly. Sir William Ouseley hints at this fact by observing, " Many of the Hindoo melodies (to use the words of an excellent musician) possess the plaintive simplicity of the Scotch and Irish." ^

An interesting collection of Burmese melodies was some years ago presented to the Eoyal Asiatic Society in London by Mr. Fowle, who resided for many years in Rangoon. It contains thirty different pieces, which, according to Mr. Fowle, include all the principal popular tunes of the Burmese : most of them are of considerable length. I shall therefore transcribe only the commencement of the first of them : —

^ Travels in Kashmir, Ladak, 1 Panjab, by G. T. Vigne, London, Iskardo, the Countries adjoining 1842,

the Mountain- Course of the Indus, * Sir W. Ouseley's Oriental Col- and the Himalaya North of the | lections. London, 1797.

Chap, IV.

AIR FROM BURMAH.

137

AIE FEOM BUEMAH.

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138 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS, Chap. IV.

It will be seen that the interval of the seventh occurs several times. In the phrase of bar 12 and 13, which repeatedly occurs in the course of the piece, this interval must, however, be considered as the third, and appertains therefore also to the penta- tonic scale, because the phrase is not in C major, but in G major.

From a letter of Mr. Fowle to the Secretary of the Asiatic Society we learn that these melodies have been arranged for the Burmese thro, a kind of violin which I have already noticed. This may account for the fact that but few traces of the pentatonic scale are perceptible in them. Besides, the manuscript has been written hastily, or by an inexperienced hand, as is proved by the many mistakes and over- sights by which the musician is every moment puzzled. It can therefore be used only with great caution.

The employment of diatonic passages in these Burmese melodies seems to me, however, authentic, as it is not likely that the collector would have allowed himself so great an alteration of the music as their unwarrantable introduction would involve. The same may be said of the choruses of the Dervishes and the ' Call to Prayer ' of the Muezzin, which I have given. There are, however, various indications which I shall notice presently, suggest- ing that the pentatonic scale was at an early period in use in Western as well as in Central Asia.

In Japan also we might expect to meet with this scale, considering the great resemblance of the Japanese musical instruments to those of the Cliinese, as well as the circumstance of these two nations possessing much in common in religion and usages.

Chap. IV.

JAPANESE SONa.

139

Although we have several accounts relating to JajDanese music, scarcely any tunes of reliable authen- ticity have been published. The following one, which appeared a short time ago in * All the Year Round ' (London, May 11th, 1861), has been obtained from the Japanese envoys, who, with a suite of seventy officers and attendants, recently visited the United States of America. A gentleman who had frequent opportunities of hearing the singing of these foreigners, took, as he informs us in the above-mentioned journal, much care to commit several of them faithfully to paper. Of these the following is the only specimen hitherto published : —

JAPANESE SONG.

-^— ^— »— ^-H-a^

Ma-tsu ka za du, .

Ma-tsu ka za • du !

It will be observed that this melody is also con- structed upon the pentatonic scale. It is, however, not in major, like most melodies of this kind, but in minor — -f-sharp being the tonic.

Nothing, in my opinion, could more clearly prove the universal diffusion throughout Asia of the penta-

140 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

tonic scale than the unanimity in the observations of so many different travellers and other persons acquainted with Eastern nations, particularly as most of these gentlemen possessed but little musical know- ledge, and were evidently unable to account for the cause of the peculiarity in the music which they noticed. It seems to me, therefore, unnecessary to add here any more examples of modern Asiatic music, especially as I have mentioned several books in which a number of tunes are given, to which the reader can easily refer, should he desire further proof in con- firmation of my opinion.

Some musicians may possibly object to my desig- nating '^this series of intervals a scale. According to our usual definition of this word, no wider steps than from one ivhole tone to another are admissible ; and such a progression is considered the most natural. It must, however, be remembered that in our scales the steps are not all equidistant from each other. Our diatonic series consists of whole tones and large semitones ; and even in our chromatic scale all the intervals are not exactly equal in succession, some being large semitones and others small semitones. Again, our minor scale is constructed in various ways : some composers employ, as a rule, the major sixth and major seventh in ascending, and the minor seventh and minor sixth in descending ; others j^refer the minor sixth and major seventh both in ascending and descending. In this instance a step is actually introduced which exceeds a ivhole tone. The Walla- chians in their national music employ two such steps (embracing a whole tone and a srnall semitone) in the minor scale, viz., one from the minor third to the superfluous fourth, aiid another from the minor

Chap. IV. ANTIQUITY OF THE PENT ATONIC SCALE. 141

sixth to tlie i^iajor seventh. There is no reason why this succession of intervals also should not be con- sidered as a real scale ; natural it certainly is, as it has been, so to say, adopted instinctively.

Moreover, the difference between the large semitone and the whole tone in our diatonic scale is about equal to the difference between the whole tone and the minor third of the pentatonic scale. The latter scale, there- fore, cannot be considered less irregular than the former. In short, instead of defining the word scale, so as to be applicable to our diatonic and chromatic orders of intervals only, as is often done, it is in my opinion more correct to consider it in a sense which allows of its being applied as well to any other fi:xed series of intervals upon which the music of a nation is founded.

ANTIQUITY OF THE PENTATONIC SCALE.

I shall now endeavour to show that the pentatonic scale was in common use in Asia at a very early period. In truth, we might reasonably expect this to have been the case, considering that it is so widely spread, and that it is more simple than any other scale.

There is no doubt that children, in their first attempts to sing our diatonic scale, will not unfre- quently find a difficulty in producing the semitone from the interval of the third to the fourth, and they are apt to skip from the third at once to the Jifth, omitting the fourth altogether. Now, this is exactly a pentatonic succession of intervals, which impresses itself upon the musically uncultivated mind all the more easily, because it is especially melodious as well as characteristic.

142 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

The tenacity with which Oriental nations adhere to old customs is well known. Indeed, almost everything with them is of high antiquity. On sculptured monuments we see representations of manners and ceremonies which are still in existence, and much light has been thrown upon the Assyrian bas-reliefs by a reference to modern Eastern customs. Music in Asia has been from time immemorial asso- ciated with religious observances and solemn cere- monies ; and any alterations were, of course, con- sidered highly objectionable. It is true the Chinese and Hindoos maintain that their music was in old times in a higher state of perfection than it is at pre- sent. Such a belief, however, exists in many nations, and may be classed with the usual traditional belief in a former period of universal happiness and per- fection.

But granting the music of the Chinese and Hindoos to have been once superior to what it now is, still it was most likely not different in its principal charac- teristics, because it has not been subject to European or other foreign influence. If, therefore, it is at present less perfect, we may conjecture it to be all the better qualified for affording us an idea of what it was originally. These conclusions may ap23ear hazardous, but they are corroborated by several facts which I shall briefly notice.

It must not be supposed that semitones were unknown to the ancient Asiatic nations ; on the contrary, we find in their music even smaller divi- sions than our chromatic scale, at least in theory if not in practice.

Of the early history of Chinese music we possess an account by the French missionary Amiot, who,

Chap. IV. ANTIQUITY OF THE PENTATONIC SCALE.

143

during his abode in Peking, made it part of liis mission to collect as much information on this subject as he could possibly obtain. He consulted a large number of old Chinese treatises on the science and history of music, of which a list is given in the book containing the result of his investigations.^ We learn from them that the ancient Chinese divided the octave into twelve equal parts, like the semitones of our chromatic scale, which were called lu? Their scale, as commonly used, consisted, however, of only five notes, which were called Jcoung, chang, kio, tche, and yu, and which corresponded to our /, g, a, c, d. Koung, or /, was considered to be the normal key, as we consider our c ; and it was from koung that the above order of intervals was transposed to any of the other keys, in a similar way as we change the scale of C major into that of Gr major, F major, &c. The intervals of the fourth and seventh were called pien-koung and pien-tche. The former was identical with our e, and the latter with our h. These two intervals they employed only in exceptional cases, or rather, nearly in the same way as we introduce chromatic intervals into our diatonic scale. Several of the ancient Chinese musical instruments contain only the pentatonic scale, and are purposely thus con- structed. The hiuen, an ancient wind instrument of an oval shape, had five holes through which the notes koung, chang, kio, tche, and gu, were emitted. A similar instrument is still used. The highly esteemed kin, the favourite instrument of the venerated Confu-

^ Memoires concernant I'Histoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les Moeurs, les Usages, etc., des Chinois, par les Missionaires de Pekin, tome sixieme. Paris, 1780.

^ There is, however, this differ- ence, that the twelve Chinese divi- sions were strictly alike, while our chromatic scale consists of large and small semitones.

144 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

cius, was also similarly tuned. Another very ancient one, the ou, in the shape of a crouching tiger, pos- sessed six notes, corresponding to our /, g, a, c, d, /.

Several of these instruments are no longer in use, or have become gradually changed. The Chinese, even at the present time, construct instruments in which they purposely introduce the pentatonic scale only. Of this kind is the one mentioned at p. 15, which is deposited in the Museum of the United Service Institution. The Chinese harmonicon which Dr. Burney saw in Paris, in the possession of the Abbe Arnaud of the French Academy, was of a similar construction, as is evident from the description of it given in Burney's ' History of Music' ^

The following ancient Chinese hymn "in honour of the ancestors," was, according to Amiot, annually performed on a solemn occasion, in presence of the emperor. The ceremony tooji place in a large hall of the imperial palace, in which the portraits of the former emperors were ranged on the walls. Near the entrance, on the right and left, stood the instru- mental performers ; opposite the entrance stood the singers ; in the middle of the hall the dancers, whose office it was to perform at a given signal some sacred evolutions. Upon a table were placed various articles used as offerings and libations. When everything was thus duly prepared, the emperor, amidst the deepest silence, entered the hall. Then at a signal on the large drum, taokou, the hymn, slow and solemnly sung, commenced. During the perform- ance the emperor knelt at assigned places, brought his offerings, and burnt incense in honom^ of his

* Burney's ' History of Music,' vok i. p. 32.

Chap. IV.

ANCIENT CHINESE HYMN.

145

ancestral relations, whose spirits were supposed to be present during the solemn ceremony. All was con- ducted according to strictly prescribed rules, and the three parts of the hymn did not immediately follow each other, but there were intervals of silence be- tween, until a signal directed the recommencement of the music.

ANCIENT CHINESE HYMN IN HONOUR OF THE ANCESTORS.

Grave.

FiKST Part.

b:4:

:z2:

Ds:

22:

i

See hoang sien Tsou,

Yo ling yii Tien,

w

Tizr.

22:

i

Yuen yen tsing lieou, Yeou kao tay hiuen,

w

22:

::22:

icz:

P

Hiuen sun cheou ming, Tchoui yuen ki sien,

:s2:

32:

Ming yn cM tsoung, Y ouan see nien.

Second Part.

'.ZZiZ

~g?:

±

122:

i

Toui yud tcli^ tsing,

Yen jan jou cheng,

ZSZkZ

-^-

w

-<Si-

22:

Ki

ki tchao ming,

Kan ko tsai ting ;

_C2 ,«3

122:

-<Si-

:z2:

Jou kien ki hing.

Jou ouen ki cheng,

146

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

:s2:

:22:

1221

zzjcsr.

Ngai eulh kins; tche,

Fa

liou tclionno; tsin^;.

Third Part.

Yn tsin fan hien,

The Hindoos at a very early time divided their scale into intervals smaller than our semitones, of which there were twenty-two in the compass of an octave. These intervals were called sruti. The notes of the common scale were sa^ ri, ga, ma^ -pa^ dha, ni, which, according to Sir William Jones,^ correspond to om- a, h, c, d, e, f, g, — and, according to Captain Willard,^ to om^ c, d, e, /, g, a, h. From these intervals a great numher of modes are formed, by substituting a different interval for the key-note, or ionic, in much the same way as our old church modes were formed ; and, also — which is more re- markable— by treating certain intervals either as unessential parts of the scale, or by actually omitting them. The following specimens of scales, from Sir

s On the Musical Modes of the Hindus, by Sir William Jones ; Asiatic Eesearches, vol. iii.

^ A Treatise on the Music of Hindoostan, by Captain A. Willard. Calcutta, 1834.

Chap. IV. HINDOO SCALES. 147

William Jones's essay on the musical modes of the Hindoos, will explain this more clearly : —

ASAVERI. BhAIKAVA.

i

w

-^-

Makavi. Dhanyasi.

i

_i2_

w

:c2:

T^E^EE^l

Velavali. Hindola. Desacri.

22:

22:

122:

22-^-

In the above two scales called Asamri and Bhai- rava, the intervals written in black notes are con- sidered merely as additions or ornaments. The other scales, — Maravi, Dhanyasi, Velavali^ Hindola, and Desacri, — are all strictly pentatonic, and do not require further explanation. I might have selected several more of the same stamp, but I consider this unnecessary, as Sir W. Jones's essay is easily ac- cessible to every one.

The rags and raginees are ancient Hindoo melodies, composed upon certain fixed scales. Captain Willard says, ^'Rags and raginees are divided into three classes : first, simipoornu, or those which comprise all the seven notes, in their course, in any determinate succession whatever ; second, khadoo, or such as are composed of six notes ; and third, oodoo, whose extent ranges to but five notes ; and hence it is said that no 7'ag or raginee is confined within limits whose extent is less than five notes." ^ This account requires but little comment, after what we have already seen. Suffice

' A Treatise on the Music of Hindoostan, by Captain A. Willard, p. 56.

L 2

148

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

it to notice that the extension of the pentatonic scale into the octave, which requires a sixth note, is not unusual, as might be expected.

The following old Hindoo melody, called hooly, is a spring song upon the god Krishna. It was commu- nicated to Herr von Dalberg (the German translator of Sir W. Jones's essay on the Modes of the Hindoos) by Richard Johnson of Calcutta, the friend and fellow-labourer of Sir W. Jones : —

HOOLY.'

Allegro.

lEfe

jj — _i— —

Gio - te la - gre lie Adagio.

■^

=1:

m

aan kien me - ra

kal-iia partues bo Allegro.

Ap - pe-nae,

—I m — I-

:^±i^:

^^e2

]^=j^

JnMzi

z3=

^^w^-^i=±

pia che de che - ne Adagio.

ka - ro - ne

ban - de

^

Allegro.

3^z:iz±:^=i*:

put - clie do -

Fu - me - re aus - ser

P

^^i^^^^

^i^

laa ghe ret, Gio sa i^a - pi - a kar - te soor

Adicgio.

fe=l>i=

3

£=^

m

tzfc=js— i

i^f=i==i

WZIM

sab sa ki a - na mel - kar hoo - ra kel - ly

^li^-i

jd^

'm^M

lior - ra

hor - ra

hoo - - - ra.

Chap. IV. SYSTEMS OF PEESIANS AND ARABS. 149

m

w

--=^-

Tu - me - ra ans - ser laa ger - hat.

I do not hold myself responsible for the correctness of the words of any of the songs. I give them as I find them, judging that, although of no importance for our present inquiry, they may nevertheless per- haps be of some interest to the reader.

The characteristics of the music of the Singhalese were formerly, as they are at present, similar to those of the Hindoo music. Mr. Joinville, in his observations on the religion and manners of the people of Ceylon, states that " music appears to have been formerly cultivated in Ceylon, and reduced into principles. There are pieces of music to be seen in regular notes in some of the old books in the Pali tongue."^ The names of the notes are identical with those used in Hindoostan ; but I am unable to say whether any traces of the pentatonic scale have been preserved in the Singhalese popular tunes of the present day.

Of the musical systems employed by the Persians and Arabs we have no earlier satisfactory accounts than those dating from the period soon after the con- quest of Persia and the introduction of the Moham- medan religion by the Arabs, an event which occurred about the middle of the seventh century of the Chris- tian era. As far as we know, the first writers in Persia who treated music as a science were Arabs. The system expounded by them resembles that of the Hindoos, inasmuch as smaller divisions than our semitones are made use of. They divided the com- pass of the octave into seventeen intervals ; there

- Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. p. 399.

150 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

were consequently two intervals between each whole tone. The same system was adhered to by the Per- sians. However, towards the end of the thirteenth century some theorists adopted a system in which the octave was divided into twelve intervals, like the semi- tones of our chromatic scale. Kiesewetter believes this innovation to be of European origin, and to have been adopted from the missionaries, who during the thirteenth century were sent by the Popes to various Asiatic courts.^ This is, however, mere hypothesis, unsupported by any satisfactory proofs, and its cor- rectness will ajopear the more doubtful if we recollect that the Chinese made use of a similar division of intervals at a very early period. Besides, in most instances where we meet with the same usage or invention, both in an Asiatic and in a European nation, we may be sure that it existed previously with the former, and that consequently, if one nation has borrowed it from the other, it must have been the European that was the borrower.

Much interesting information might be obtained on such questions if Oriental scholars would publish translations of some of the most renowned works on music extant in different countries and languages. The translator must, however, possess some musical knowledge, otherwise he is more likely to mislead than to enlighten the musical inquirer. It would be an easy but thankless task to notice instances where, from want of efficient musical knowledge, erroneous notions have been promulgated by men of science.

Amiot gives a list of the titles of about seventy Chinese works on music. In Kiesewetter's disserta-

Die Musik tier Arabcr, von Kiesewetter, Leipzig, 1842, p. 14.

Chap. IV. ANCIENT MUSICAL WORKS. 151

tion before noticed almost as many works of Arabian and Persian authors relating to the music of their countries are mentioned ; and Sir William Jones, as well as other Orientalists, informs us of the existence of a number of old treatises in Sanskrit on the music of the Hindoos. I do not mean to insinuate that the study of such works alone would be sufficient to afford us a clear insight into the character and effect of the music appertaining to those nations. How little do we know of the real character of the music of the ancient Greeks, notwithstanding all the expla- nations which have been transmitted to us ! Besides, the systems put forth in treatises are not unfrequently mere individual theories of the authors, which have never been popular, nor ever adhered to in practice. Sir William Jones states that Soma, the old author from whom principally he drew his in- formation on Hindoo music "exhibits a system of his own." And Captain Willard remarks, " During the earlier ages of Hindoostan, music was cultivated by philosophers and men eminent for polite literature, for whom general directions and rules for composi- tion sufficed, after a course of musical education acquired from living tutors ; indeed, the abhorrence of innovation, and veneration for the established national music, which was firmly believed to be of divine origin, precluded the necessity of any other. But, when from the theory of music a defection took place as to practice, and men of learning confined themselves exclusively to the former, while the latter branch was abandoned entirely to the illiterate, all attempts to elucidate music from rules laid down in books, a science incapable of explanation by mere words, became idle. This is the reason why even so

152

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

able and eminent an Orientalist as Sir William Jones has failed. Books alone are insufficient for this pur- pose,— we must endeavour to j^rocure solutions from living professors, of whom there are several, although grossly illiterate."^ Kiesewetter, the zealous inves- tigator of ancient musical theories, also arrives at the same conclusion, as is evident from the following remark, translated from a dissertation of his on the music of the modern Greeks : —

" Altogether, I have for a long time been unable to repel the impression that the executed music of various ancient and modern Asiatic nations must have been, and still is, something very different from the metaphysical or mathematical music of their phi- losophers, whose theories, the result of mere specula- tion, must always have borne but little relation to the practice. I believe we have generally been in- volved in error, when, from the discovered tracts of the systematists of those nations, we conceive that we have acquired a knowledge of the nature of the music as practised by the people, and when consequently we imagine that we understand the latter. I think, therefore, we ought not to say — the music of the Chinese, Hindoos, Arabs, Persians, &c. ; but rather — the musical systems (or mysteries) of the Chinese, Hindoo, Arabian, or Persian philosophers. Perhaps this applies also to the music of the ancient Greeks." ^ Almost the same may be said of our own music : many of the rules advanced by theorists are seldom, if ever, applied to practice. Supposing, two thou- sand years hence, some musical antiquary should be

* A Treatise on the Music of Hindoostan, by Captain Augustus Willard, Calcutta, 1834, p. vi.

* Ueber die Musik der neueren Griechen, von Kiesewetter, Leipzig, 1838, p. 32.

Chap. IV. EARLY USE OF THE PENTATONIC SCALE. 153

the happy discoverer of any of our present treatises on counterpoint and fugue. How far would his im- pressions on the nature of our ordinary popular music, as derived from his discovery, be in accord- ance with the actual truth ? If, then, we cannot im- plicitly rely upon the written records, it is the more important that we should glean information also from the remains of ancient music which are still extant in Asia, and ascertain by comparison whether, and to what extent, the rules of the theorists appear to have been in practical use.

Although we do not possess the same authentic information on the musical systems of the ancient nations inhabitating the south-western districts of Asia as we have of the Chinese and Hindoo systems, nevertheless, indications are not wanting there of the pentatonic scale having been in use at an early period. This might with some reason be expected, considering that it was the oldest scale known throughout the greater part of Asia ; that the musical instruments and musical performances of the various nations pos- sessed a certain family type, and that the usual num- ber of strings is the most satisfactorily accounted for. Thus the majority of the numbers of strings which have been ascertainable on the Assyrian instruments are exactly suited for the pentatonic scale, but not for our diatonic scale. Instruments like the harp, asor, and lyre we may reasonably suppose to have been usually tuned in the fixed order of intervals which constituted the common scale, because thus they could be much more effectively employed in all kinds of musical performances than would otherwise have been possible. The fact that instruments whose strings produce only one note each, and the pitch of

154 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

which cannot be altered during the performance — as it can on the tamboura — are, if tuned otherwise than in the usual scale, of less practical utility, is so obvious that the Assyrians, with the progress they had made in music, could not but have been aware of it, and have acted upon it. Now, the usual numbers of strings on those instruments appear to have been 5, 10, 20, and such others as represent the number of the pentatonic intervals either once or repeatedly. Sometimes we meet with an additional string to any such number, which probably was the extension of the scale into the octave, which we have already found in other ancient Asiatic music, which is also usual in our diatonic series of intervals, and which suggests itself so naturally, that its adoption must at an early time have occurred in the progressive cultivation of music by the Assyrians.

According to this opinion the compass of the Assyrian harps with twenty-six strings, which I have previously noticed, would have embraced precisely five octaves. Assuming c to have been the tonic, the intervals would have stood as follows : — c, c?, e,g,a\ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c.

The lyre with five strings would have had c, d, e, g, a ; and the lyre with six strings, c, d, e, g, a, c.

If these arguments are well founded, the pentatonic scale must also have been in use with the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, the ancient Egyptians, and most likely too with the ancient Greeks.

Of the Hebrews we know on this point only with certainty, that some of the favourite instruments in the time of David and Solomon had ten strings ; this number, from the description given by Joseplms, appears to have been augmented at a later period.

CiiAP. IV. ANCIENT GREEK INSTRUMENTS. 155

If we could place reliance on the correctness of the frets as they are shown on some tambouras repre- sented in Egyptian frescoes, we might gather some further hints respecting the usual order of intervals in use among the Egyptians ; it is not, however, pro- bable that the painters should have thought it worth while to observe carefully the proper distances of the frets. Still, some unmistakeable indications of the pentatonic scale having been used by the Egyptians as well as by the Greeks are to be fomid in our best histories on music ; among others in Burney's, from which I submit the following extracts, which appear to me all the more convincing, as they are given by Burney not in support of any particular hypothesis of his own, but solely as recording historical facts.

" The Greeks, who lost no merit by neglecting to claim it, unanimously confess that most of their ancient musical instruments were of Egyptian in- vention, as the triangular lyre, the monaulos or single flute, the cymbal, kettle-drum, and the sistrum, an in- strument of sacrifice, which was so multiplied by the priests in religious ceremonies, and in such great fa- vour with the Egyptians in general, that Egypt was often called, in derision, the country of sistrums, as Greece has been said to be governed by the lyre. Herodotus, in tracing the genealogy of the Dorians, one of the most ancient people of Greece, makes them natives of Egypt : ^ and as the three musical modes of highest antiquity among the Greeks are the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian, it is likely that the Egyptian colony, which peopled the Dorian province, brought with them the music and instruments of their native

* Herodotus, Erato.

156 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

country. The profession of music was hereditary among the Egyptians, as was every other profession. This custom was imitated by the Hebrews ; and Herodotus tells us that the Lacedaemonians, who were Dorians, agreed with their progenitors, the Egyptians, in this, that their musicians were all of one family. Their priests, too, like those of Egypt, were at once taught medicine, to play on stringed instruments, and initiated into religious mysteries." Burney cites a long and somewhat obscure passage from Plutarch's ' Dialogue on Music,' from which, however, it is obvious that Olympus, who, we are told, composed his music in the Dorian mode, usually skipped over " the lichanos, or third sound from the bottom of a tetrachord ;" and the old Grecian musi- cians " abstained from the use of trite, or third sound from the top of a tetrachord." Burney concludes this account by observing, " The general fact that these old musicians, composers of the ancient genuine Greek music, which Plato, Aristotle, and all the writers speak of as so excellent and superior to the more modern, did delight to break the diatonic pro- gression, or stride over certain notes in the melody, seems pretty clear : and this surely renders it highly probable that the cast of the old national Greek airs was much like that of the old Scots music. If they had melodies where the lichanos was omitted, they must have been very like ; but even the trite omitted gives still a strong Scottish tincture to an air.

i

^EE*£EEE;

i^

--I-

For if we suppose the key-note to be G instead of E,

Chap. IV. INTERVALS OF THE NUBIAN KISSAR. 157

— a major key instead of a minor, — this omission gives precisely the Scots scale." ^

Moreover, this scale probably remained popular, in some districts at least, long after music had been scientifically cultivated in Greece, and developed in manifold ways ; since it appears still in use and favour in the first century of the Christian era.

THE INTERVALS OF THE NUBIAN KISSAR.

I shall now notice a fact which should perhaps be regarded as less corroborative than it appears to be at the first glance, because striking coincidences are sometimes accidental ; nevertheless, in connection with our former evidences, I believe it to be not without weight.

I have already noticed the close resemblance be- tween the Assyrian and ancient Egyptian lyres and the Nubian kissar. The modern Egyptians call this instrument qytdrah barharyeh, which indicates that it is considered the national instrument of the Barabras or Berbers, who are believed to be descendants of the original inhabitants of Egypt. It occurred to me that therefore the pentatonic scale might still be found on the kissar ; and this appeared the more pro- bable, as the kissar is usually mounted with five strings, while a similar instrument in Abyssinia, the bagana, is ten-stringed. I have found this expecta- tion fully confirmed in a description of these instru- ments by M. Yilloteau, from which I shall translate one or two passages.

Yilloteau, who was unacquainted with the ancient

^ Burney's History of Music, vol. i. pp. 30, 194.

158 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

pentatonic scale, appears to have been greatly puzzled with the order of intervals on the kissar, which he thought so singular that he says " One may well be tempted to take this order for disorder, as I actually did. The first time I had an opportunity of exa- mining this instrument and hearing its notes I found it tuned as follows : —

i

W'

--^-

■-^-

I believed that this could not be really its proper tuning, and that our Ethiopian, not considering this matter of much importance, must have thought it sufficient to tighten the strings in order to give them the elasticity requisite to respond to the touch, and to vibrate and sound distinctly, without concerning himself about regulating the sounds in relation to each other. However, in order to assure myself of this, I resorted to the same experiment that I had employed on a similar occasion with the servant of the Yenetian Consul at Alexandria. I slackened all the strings, to the great annoyance of the Nubian, and asked him to tune them again. I had not told him my motive for doing so, and, as he could not possibly guess it, he was, naturally enough, vexed with my behaviour. ... At last, however, he pro- ceeded to restore the strings to their previous con- dition, tuning each exactly in the same interval as before ; and this convinced me that it was not acci- dent nor caprice which led him to tune the strings as above, but that, on the contrary, the order of the notes was one transmitted and adhered to."

The songs with the kissar accompaniment, of which I shall give a few specimens, are called by the

ClIAP. IV.

NUBIAN GHOUNA.

159

NubiaiiKS ghouna. The performer twangs the strings with his left hand, while he uses the plectrum with his right. Yilloteau remarks, " The words of the first song have, like those of the songs of the Bara- bras, nothing in common with the Arabic language ; but in the following songs are found not only Arabic but also corrupted Italian words." ^

NUBIAN GHOUNA.

Voice.

KiSSAE,

ii:

Accomp. ivitli the fingers of tlie left hand.

:fi:

:^^

iS:

Accomp. with the 'plectrum of the right hand.

r

\f

S^

-^:^Pt,

-±rM.

=r=f

-x:

--r

^^^-li

r-

m

W

i

J^

-F— ^

-M-

:>=ri

Hv-^

^

• 1

E

« r~i-4-W I ul-M Mzi=g=ii- f igiz

Do - Lie do - ble do - ble

p^^s r—1-p^p^ r"i^

— ^ — I — 0 — *!.

-I-

h^H-.

w

r — t — ^

:#!:

i

fe'*«r-/=^

^

FSni

:*^i

V:^

^S^^

i

do - - ble do - bl^ aou - el gan - de

J-

i

i

"^^mi

w

T

t-

t ^

8 Description de I'l^gypte, tome xiii. p. 365, and tome xiv. p. 260.

160 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

—J-

S!

-I -^.« d-

-^\

:±^:

-t^-

ton, do - We clian - de gan - de -

■1 r

3i:J:

w « »-

-f-

i-^-J-U

I

ton.

*i=Q

l^^t^H^Ii^IltJ.

^

t:ti^:i=ti:

S^

-m—-<m — im-

"i*^^=r^^^g^^-= r— £=''^

ANOTHER GHOUNA.

i^ I . 11

Ri^ii^i

r=^

3:-.

p=p=

£=^_1^~- i^ ^_^

R^

Na - - ve na - ve be

-^Z3^:^-X:X^z

^ rr^^i I I

^

'=1-^

^

t— r ^

Chap. IV.

NUBIAN GHOUNA.

161

z^-mr^wir-

— I 1 ^_ 1 —

1^=N:

P

nahaf . . ya seg - uiour el a guid

-^ — I 1 — I — I — I— a) H

^=^^

H — I-.— ^ — I 1 — \ ■ ■

-«>-^-

"■j— I LJ_J '"H!

-^ A l^m-

fc^SE^3g3

ya sig-niour el ha - did.

i

3^:

S=?*:i=S=zt*;

f

tfi ^ ^-1 I -»■

ANOTHER

i£E:

r=B

, — •> — I — I I ^

t3-

3tZC

^^^5:

!|===^

Ta se-rou - an a - giii del koui* fa-res fa-res el ler

t:^

^s

-t:^-

E3==f=^

'51*=^ — r^-^ — r^-

mu:^

-r^-1 r^-

M

162

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

ANOTHEE.

I

i

w

^

^

-t__l — I-

I^t^t

^

%

w

^-=^^

&

-tr-

:it^:

SS^^

0 ya A

1 ' I ■ L

- ly - meh

ya Se -

-^^n-^-^-j-^^i

-^-

S=ri=5:3i:

fctd3:

^

^jti^:

-etc.

ly-meh.

Respecting the hagana, or ten-stringed lyre of Abyssinia, I shall merely add that it has, according to Yilloteau, only five different notes, like the kissar, but each note has its octave.

The peculiar rhythmical kissar accompaniments to the above songs are also interesting, inasmuch as they may give us some idea of the probable Assyrian accompaniments. I have already stated the reasons for concluding that they must have been generally of this kind.

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE WHOLE TONE.

Although, as we have seen, it is highly jDrobable that the musical compositions of the Assyrians were

CiiAP. IV. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE WHOLE TONE. 163

generally founded upon the pentatonic scale, it does not follow that smaller intervals than those which occur in this scale were unknown to them, or were never used by them. On the contrary, there is reason to suppose they sometimes employed intervals even smaller than our semitones. Not only had the Hin- doos such intervals at a very early period, as we know with certainty from some of their old theo- retical works which have come down to us, and from which Sir William Jones, Sir W. Ouseley, and other writers on Hindoo music have principally drawn their information, but also the Persians appear to have made use of similar subdivisions of the whole tone. When the Arabs conquered Persia (a.d. 641) the Persians had already attained a higher degree of civilization than their conquerors. The latter found in Persia the cultivation of music considerably in advance of, and the musical instruments superior to their own. They soon adopted the Persian instru- ments, and there can be no doubt that the musical system exhibited by the earliest Arab writers whose works on the theory of music have been preserved, was based upon an older system of the Persians. In these works the octave is divided into seventeen one- iliird tones, — intervals which are still made use of in the East. Some of the Arabic instruments are con- structed so as to enable the performer to produce these intervals with exactness. The frets on the tamboura, for instance, are regulated with a view to this object.

Again, in the vocal performances of several Eastern nations we meet with a certain disposition to connect two intervals, at some distance from each other, by slightly touching the small intermediate intervals.

M 2

164 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IY.

The singing of tlie Jews in the synagogue is gene- rally of a similar character. Where this taste is developed, it naturally leads to the adoption of quarter-tones or one-third tones.

Likewise the ancient Greeks possessed a succession of intervals, known as the enharmonic scale, in which a quarter-tone, another quarter-tone, and a major third succeeded each other, thus : —

THE ENHAKMONIO SCALE OF THE ANCIENT GKEEKS.

i

3— Ta-;js£s^g^

M 1 :iz^^3zz^.^J^^

ty ^d- -?ri- v^- -^^

i^

;^^^c-i xn=.si=^:

-ri ^ H'»^ A-^ ' — I-

The pentatonic character of this scale is unmistake- able. It is, in fact, the scale of Olympus (noticed at page 156), into which quarter-tones are introduced. Plutarch, who wrote in the first century of the Chris- tian era, mentions that those musicians who performed in the genuine ancient style did not make use of the quarter-tones, which shows that the more simple pen- tatonic order of intervals existed prior to the enhar- monic, as might be expected.

Thus, there can be no doubt of the employment of smaller intervals than semitones by the ancient Hin- doos, Persians, and Greeks.

The Persians were indebted for their early civiliza- tion especially to the Assyrians. Mr. Layard ob- serves that the remains which are still existing among the ruins of Persepolis and Susa " prove beyond a doubt that the Persians, who after the fall of the

Chap. IV. ENHAKMONIC SCALE OF ANCIENT GREEKS. 165

Assyrian and Babylonian empires succeeded to the dominion of tlie East, received from the Assyrians their reHgion, their arts, and their civiHzation, closely copying them in all j)articulars. The hmnan-headed bull of the Nineveh palaces is found faithfully repro- duced at Persepolis. Slabs sculptured with bas- reliefs of processions, and with single-winged figures, line the chambers and the facades ; myths and reli- gious symbols, similar to those found on the monu- ments of Nimroud, are portrayed U23on the walls ; and the cuneiform character was used to record the glory and the titles of the kings. Besides, many details of architectural moulding almost identical have been found in the Assyrian and Persian ruins."

I must leave it now to the reader to decide whether the circumstantial evidence adduced is suf- ficient to warrant the opinion that the Assyrians, in their music, made use of smaller intervals than semitones.

In anticipation of the objection which may perhaps be raised, that to distinguish such minute intervals would require a more refined ear than the Assyrians can be supposed to have possessed, I would remark that those intervals were most likely discriminated with exactness by theorists and accomplished per- formers only, which is, according to Lane and others, also the case with the one-third tones used by the Arabs and modern Egyptians. The simple and popular music probably contained the pentatonic intervals only. Something analogous may be ob- served in our own music : the German and English popular tunes being usually fomided upon our diatonic scale, without the admixture of chromatic intervals.

166 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

DIFFUSION OF THE PENTATONIO SCALE.

The existence of tlie pentatonic scale at a very early period througlaout so large a portion of the world as Asia, and also in Egypt, is a curious fact, not without importance in the history of music, and, moreover, leading the inquirer to various specula- tions. To conjecture that all the different nations have derived it from one source must appear bold indeed. One might rather surmise it to be an*order of intervals so deeply founded upon natural laws as to suggest itself instinctively wherever a certain stage of musical progress has been attained. However, if this were the case, we might expect to meet with it in most nations, or at least in many other nations besides those before specified, which we do not. Let us, for instance, turn to Africa : none of the instru- ments of the Negroes and Kaffres exhibit any traces of it ; neither have I detected any in the national airs of these peoples with which I have become ac- quainted.®

To investigate this phenomenon minutely is not requisite for the aim of the present work ; I content myself, therefore, with stating in a few words how, in my opinion, it may probably be accounted for.

Evidences of a former connection between several Oriental nations at a very early period are not

^ It is true that, among half-a-dozen balafoes wliicli I have seen, one had the eight intervals, to which it was limited, in the following order : —

P

^

It:

But this may have arisen accidentally, as the instrument was in a dilapi- dated condition. All the others had the diatonic series.

Chap. IV. DIFFUSION OF PENTATONIC SCALE.

167

wanting. Philologists inform us of the close rela- tionship existing between several Eastern languages. History records great military exploits at the remotest time, — as, for instance, the invasion of Hindoostan by the Assyrian queen Semiramis, about B.C. 2000, and the conquest of a great part of Asia by the Egyptian Pharaoh Sesostris, about B.C. 1500. Certain rehgious opinions and ceremonies appear to have been at an early period disseminated throughout various Eastern countries. The Buddhist religion is professed at pre- sent by many nations, extending from the western to the extreme eastern part of Asia. Captain Turner says that in Thibet " there is no religious edifice but what is adorned with the head of the lion at every angle, having bells pendant from his lower jaw, and the same figure is equally common at every projec- tion of the palace walls." ^° As there are no lions to be found in Thibet, the representations of these animals point to a former connection with southern countries. Chinese antiquities have been discovered in the Assyrian ruins, and also in ancient Egyptian tombs. Mr. Halloran observes, " It is remarkable, as showing the high antiquity of Chinese customs, that the vases in front of their ancient temples are very much like, both in shape and position, to some figures which appear in the representations of the ancient temples of Khorsabad, as given by Bonomi in his work entitled ' Nineveh and its Palaces.' Bonomi supposes these vases to have been employed for holding water for purification." ^

In the Nineveh Gallery of the British Museum

^° An Account of the Embassy to the Court of Teshoo Lama, in Tibet, by Captain S. Turner, London,

1800, p. 288.

1 Eight Months' Journal, by A, L. Halloran, London, 1856, p. 53.

168 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYKIANS. Chap. IV.

there are, Mr. Sharpe informs us, " several pieces of sculptured ivory, which, if not made by Egyptian workmen, are, at least, copied from Egyptian scul2> tures, and show how much Assyria was indebted to Egypt for its knowledge of art. One is the figiu-e of the goddess Athor, or of a queen holding a lotus- flower in her left hand, and with the winged sun over her head. Another is an ivory box, on one side of which is an oval ring, crowned with two ostrich- feathers, and within it is written the name of Aobeno- Ea, which would seem to be the Asiatic way of spelling Amim-Ra. On each side of this name is seated the figure of a queen with one hand raised as if in prayer to the god, and the other hand holding the sacred staff of the Egyptian priests, which has on the top of it a dog's head, and a fork at the lower end. Several flat cups or dishes of copper, also brought from Assyria, are ornamented with Egyptian figures, partly chased and partly engraved. One bears the winged sphinx wearing' the double crown of Egypt, and the winged sun, together with the scarabaeus with outstretched wings, and the ball between its front feet. These were probably divining- cups, used for the purpose of looking into the future, and they remind us of Joseph's divining-cup, which was found in Benjamin's sack."^ (See Genesis xliv.) Again, in some ceremonies or amusements, with which music is generally associated, we meet with the same characteristics throughout the East. For instance, the manner of dancing, described by Sir S. Raffles as consisting in " graceful attitudes of the body, and in the slow movement of the arms and

2 Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum, described by 8amuel Sharpe, London, 1862, p. IDO.

Chap. IV. DIFFUSION OF PENTATONIC SCALE. 169

legs, particularly of the former, even to the distinct motion of the hand and fingers,"^ is very much the same all over Asia, and may be witnessed even in Japan, as we are informed by Meijlan, Sherard Osborne, and others.

Whatever may be thought of the value of such facts, if considered as evidences of a former affinity or intercourse between the nations to which they refer, we may learn from them at least that the hypothesis of the pentatonic scale having been ori- ginally derived from one common source is by no means so unsupported as it at first appears to be. Indeed, the more we inquire into the subject, the more we are forced to accept this hypothesis as pro- bably the most correct.

We have already seen that the pentatonic scale was in use among the ancient American Indians. It is true, in the specimens of old Peruvian songs, called haravi, given in Eivero and Tschudi's ' Peruvian Antiquities,' no indications of it are traceable. How- ever, any musician at all acquainted with Spanish national music will perceive at once that these arrangements too closely resemble the Spanish Sequi- dilla and Bolero for any reliance to be placed on their genuineness. The themes are, perhaps, what they profess to be — ancient Indian melodies, collected by the first Spanish visitors to the western hemi- sphere ; they have, however, been written down so carelessly and incorrectly, — as is evident from the many mistakes in the added accompaniment, — and so greatly modified to make them more pleasing to the Spanish taste, that we cannot be surprised if we

3 The History of Java, by T. Stamford Raffles, London, 1817, vol. i. p. 340.

170

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYEIANS. Chap. IV.

do not find retained in tliem what must have appeared most foreign and distasteful to the arranger. The musical instruments preserved in museums afford sufficient evidence of the former existence of the pen- tatonic scale in America, because we find in them the intervals of the fourth and seventh intentionally omitted.

Now, it may be objected — if this scale was used by the ancient American Indians, and in Europe by the Scotch, and if these nations invented it inde- pendently, why should not every Oriental nation also have done the same ? In reply to this plausible objection I would direct the reader's attention to the following facts : —

Most historians and ethnologists believe the American Indians to have originally migrated to America from Asia. Humboldt says, " A long struggle between two religious sects — the Brahmans and Buddhists — termi- nated by the emigration of the Chamans to Thibet, Mon- golia, China, and Japan. If tribes of the Tartar race have passed over to the north-west coast of America, and thence to the south and the east, towards the banks of the Gila and those of the Missouri, as etymological researches seem to indicate, we should be less sur- prised at finding among the semi-barbarous nations of the new continent idols and monuments of architecture, a hieroglyphical writing, an exact knowledge of the duration of the year, and traditions respecting the first state of the world, recalling to our minds the sciences, the arts, and the religious opinions of the Asiatic nations."^

^ Eesearclies concerning the In- stitutions and Monnments of the Ancient Inhabitants of America, by

Alexander von Humboldt ; trans- lated by H. M, Williams; London, 1814, vol. i. p. 146.

Chap. IV.

SCOTTISH AIR.

171

Scottish music is too well known in England to require a detailed description here. I shall therefore confine myself to inserting one specimen only, for the sake of comparison with the Asiatic tunes : —

SCOTTISH ATE.

Larghetto.

:^5

:ii-=Mz

I've heard them lilt - ius; at the ewe milk - iug,

:p:

;— N:

U

^^z

*rz=-^:

Las - ses a lilt - ing be - - fore dawn of day.

535

Sees

-9i-9)-

itnt

-»—^—^

Now there's a moan - iug on il - ka green loan - ing, The

i^^

9

'-W='^-

:^ \^-t

^-

:^:

^-

flow'rs of the fo - rest are a' wede a - - way.

This song, known as ' The Flowers of the Forest,' is transcribed from the 'Ancient Scottish Melodies from a Manuscript of the Reign of King James VI., published by Wilham Dauney, Esq.' The words are more modern than the melody, which is strictly pen- tatonic, with the exception of the fifth bar, where the minor seventh, /, occurs, through which the melody modulates from G major into C major. Similar occa- sional introductions of semitones into the pentatonic scale occur also in Asiatic music, as we have already seen.

Traces of the pentatonic scale are perceptible also in Irish national tunes, although to a less extent than in Scottish. The following Irish melody was.

172

MUSICAL SYSTEM OP THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

according to Mr. Walker, the author of * Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards,' written down by a friend of his in the county of Roscommon, from oral communication. The major seventh, f-sharp, occurs therein twice, but it does not constitute an essential note of the melody ; in fact, it rather gives the impression of having accidentally crept in from care- lessly drawing the voice over from the sixth to the octave : —

i^;

:4=^

lEISH AIE, CALLED ' Speic Seoach.'

^

Sc

^s.

^

■f-^— L

rtitTJj.

i^tei

-m-^-im-

:p=^=S

w

Mr. Walker remarks, " In no part of Ireland do our old melodies so much abound as in Connaufrht; that province may be said to be vocal mtli tliem."^ We have therefore an additional reason for consi-

* Historical Memoirs of the Irish Bards, by J, C. Wcilker, Loudon, 1786 ; Appendix.

Chap. IV. DIFFUSION OF PENTATONIC SCALE. 173

dering the above melody as a faithful example of Irish music.

These characteristics of the Scottish and Irish music have been the cause of various conjectures. They have been especially attributed to the influence of ecclesiastical music. Mr. Conran, for instance, ob- serves : " If we compare some of our national original melodies vdth those scales [viz. the ancient eccle- siastical modes], we shall perceive, I am inclined to think, that much of the originality and peculiar con- struction of those airs may be ascribed to their being com^^osed in scales or modes corresponding with some of these modes here given ; and I should therefore conclude that the practice of this species of eccle- siastical music being well calculated to make strong impressions on the feelings, much of its pathetic cha- racter would naturally be imparted to national music during the progress of its development in Ireland."^ Mr. Dauney, on the other hand, more judiciously observes : " Although it has been truly said that nothing has a greater influence on the music of a nation than the music of its church, the use of the Catholic Ritual in Scotland cannot altogether account for the predilection which the Scots have never ceased to entertain for their peculiar style of melody ; for if such an argument were to be admitted, it might naturally be asked why the same results have not taken place in Italy, Spain, France, and other coun- tries which were subject to the same regulations, and under the influence of the Roman Church to a greater extent than either Scotland or Ireland. Indeed, the same marked similitude is not to be traced even

® The National Music of Ireland, by Michael Conran, Dublin, 1846, p. 59.

174

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IY.

in the ancient music of England. Another view militates strongly against the adoption of any theory which would ascribe the invention of the Scottish music to the See of Rome, and trace its pedigree to no other source than the Ambrosian Chant, intro- duced about the year 600. A national music is not one of those things which a people is much disposed to receive at second-hand, or to put off or on at the bidding either of their spiritual or their temporal masters. It is among the oldest and the most lasting of their relics. Carried down from father to son, like an heirloom in a family, it is not likely either to be lost or bartered even for articles of higher quality or value." ^

Again, musicians have endeavoured to explain those characteristics in music from the imperfect or peculiar construction of the old Scottish and Irish musical instruments. Now, the principal popular instruments were the harp and the bagpipe, both of which are also in use in Asia. It will be remembered, we have found the Oriental harp in Ireland ; and the construction of the Persian bagpipe must be nearly identical with that of the Scottish, since Sir William Ouseley relates that a Scotch gentleman " played on it several tunes of his own country, in a very pleasing manner, without any previous practice." ^

Mr. Gunn gives us at the end of his book entitled ' An Historical Enquiry respecting the Performance on the Harp in the Highlands of Scotland,' London, 1807, a prospectus of 'An Enquiry into the antiquity of the harp, and into the Oriental extraction and

'' The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. vi. London, 1841.

® Travels in various Countries of the East, by Sir W. Ouseley, Lon- don, 1819, vol. i. p. 241.

Chap. IV. PREVALENCE OF THE MAJOR KEY. 175

ancient history of the Caledonian Scots, demonstrat- ing, from the language, ancient religion, supersti- tious rites, their kalendar and festivals, their remark- able traditions, manners, and customs, and from other documents and monuments still existing in Asia, France, Great Britain, and Ireland, that they brought the harp, together with other arts of civilized life, from Armenia and the western coast of Asia, into the southern parts of England, prior to the era at which our writers commence the history of Great Britain,' &c. The book has never been published that I am aware of, and this is the less to be re- gretted, since, to conclude from the circumstantial prospectus of which I have quoted the commence- ment, the author proves himself too superficially acquainted with Oriental music for the successful execution of his projected task.

Moreover, a somewhat similar book has been pub- lished by Fink, in which the aim of the author is to show that the pentatonic scale was originally brought over by the Celts from Asia, and that it was preserved longer in Scotland than elsewhere on account of the isolated position of that country, and of similar cir- cumstances.^

PEEVALENCE OF THE MAJOK KEY.

Another question remains for consideration, viz., whether in Assyrian music the major or the minor key was the prevailing one. In my opinion it was the former, for the following reasons : —

Most national music is in major ; of this I have had ample opportunity of convincing myself by care-

8 Erste Wanderung der altesten Tonkunst, von G. W. Fink, Essen, 1831.

176 MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

fully examining all accessible collections of tunes from every part of the world. The generally maintained opinion that the popular songs of a nation are usually in minor is altogether erroneous. There are but few nations possessing more songs and other melodies in minor than in major, while in the music of most nations the major key decidedly predominates. Nor is this surprising, since the major key appears to be the most natural of the two, to conclude from the prin- cipal harmonics which are softly emitted with any smgle tone, and which produce together the major chord.

In the Oriental pentatonic scale the interval of the third consists generally of tivo whole tones, as in our major scale, and not of a whole tone and a large semi- tone, as in our minor scale. A reference to the examples of Chinese, Hindoo, Burmese, Japanese, and other tunes previously given, all of which have been selected without any reference to the present question, will convince the reader that only a few of them are in minor. In the East, however, we meet not unfrequently with melodies which neither begin nor end with the tonic, and in which, in fact, the key- note is not easily ascertainable. Such melodies have generally been considered by Europeans, from the preconceived notion before mentioned, as being in minor, and have been harmonized accordingly.

It is altogether a hazardous proceeding to har- monize any music of this kind according to our own usual rules ; the result must necessarily be unsatisfac- tory on account of the two semitones of our diatonic scale being wanting. The peculiar characteristics of the music are thereby obliterated without anything beautiful being gained. Many of the well-known expressive Scottish airs have in this way been sadly tampered with.

Chap. IV. PREVALENCE OP THE MAJOR KEY. 177

Moreover, altlioiigli we may suppose Assyrian, like other Asiatic music, to have been principally in major, it must have possessed a certain plaintiveness, such as pre-eminently appertains to our music in minor ; since the two steps of a minor third, which occur in the pentatonic scale, would impart to it that character. It will be remembered, that we now use in our minor scale two different orders of intervals, viz., we raise the sixth as well as the seventh in ascending, or we raise the seventh alone. In the latter case the step from the minor sixth to the major seventh — a step of a superfluous second — is, in effect at least, identical with the pentatonic steps of a minor third just pointed out. And most likely it may be also partly on this account that the music of Asiatic nations has been described by superficial observers as being generally in minor.

From the nature of the Assyrian instruments we have been led to surmise that the music of the Assy- rians must have been especially sentimental and sooth- ing ; this is also indicated by the pentatonic scale, which consists of a succession of intervals remarkably melodious and impressive. In proof, we need only refer to the universally admired old Scottish melodies composed in this scale. The Oriental melodies strike us as too strange in construction to convey directly an agreeable impression. After, however, becoming thoroughly acquainted with them, we are sure to dis- cover that they possess peculiar beauties. Of this every one may convince himself by learning one of these mielodies by heart, and familiarising himself as much with it as with any of his favourite Scotch tunes, for which purpose I would recommend the Chinese ' Sian Oliok,' page 131, or the Javanese

N

178

MUSICAL SYSTEM OF THE ASSYRIANS. Chap. IV.

' Surung Dayimg,' i^age 133, on account of their melodiousness.

They are certainly in many respects different from the Scotch melodies ; which shows that, although the character of the pentatonic scale is remarkably dis- tinctive, this scale is nevertheless not unfitted for the expression of a variety of emotions. Besides, the character of a musical composition is not exclusively determined by the key and scale, but quite as much by the time, temj^o, modulation, rhythmical construc- tion, employment of different degrees of loudness, and other conditions. The effect of the Assyrian music may therefore have been widely different from that of the Scotch, notwithstanding the identity of the scale.

NOTATION.

With respect to the question whether the Assyrians possessed a musical notation, we can judge only from analogy, since no evidences of it have hitherto been discovered. Most nations advanced in music, as the Assyrians were, employ some rude means to assist in recalling their musical compositions to memory. The Chinese, for instance, have distinctive characters, which they slightly alter in different octaves. Of the Japanese we are told by Saris, whose account dates as far back as the year 1611, that " their tunes were pricked ; " ^ and Captain Turner was informed by the Buddhist priests in Thibet that " their music was written down in characters which they learnt." ^

' A General Collection of Voyages and Travels, printed for Thomas Astley, London, 1745, vol. i. p. 481.

'^ An Account of an Embassy to the Court of the Tcshoo Lama in Thibet, by Captain Samuel Turner, London, 1800, p. 343.

Chap. IV. NOTATION. 179

Even the North American Indians, much less ad- vanced in music, sometimes employ signs written upon birch-bark to assist in remembering their songs, of which examples are given in Kohl's ' Kitchi-Gami,' and in Catlin's ' Illustrations of the Manners and Customs of the North American Indians.' And as we know that the Greeks and other ancient nations possessed some kind of notation, we may conjecture that the Assyrians also, as well as the Egyptians and Hebrews, were not without such a contrivance. Per- haps further discoveries may throw some light on this and other obscure questions relating to Assyrian music, which it would be at present premature to discuss. Some hope of this is held out in the follow- ing observation of Max Miiller : —

"In a letter, dated April, 1853, Sir Henry Raw- linson wrote : ' On the clay tablets which we have found at Nineveh, and which now are to be counted by thousands, there are explanatory treatises on almost every subject under the sun ; the art of writ- ing, grammars and dictionaries, notation, weights and measures, divisions of time, chronology, astronomy, geography, history, mythology, geology, botany, &;c. In fact, we have now at our disposal a perfect cyclo- paedia of Assyrian science.' Considering what has been achieved in deciphering one class of cuneiform inscriptions, the Persian, there is no reason to doubt that the whole of that cyclopsedia will some day be read with the same ease with wliich we read the moimtain records of Darius." ^

^ Lectures on the Science of Language, by Mas Miiller, London, 1862, p. 280.

N 2

180 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

CHAPTER V.

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Egyptian instruments — Various harps — Bruce's harps — Egyptian name of the harp — The trigonon — The lyre — The tamboura — Peculiar stringed instruments — Pipes, flutes, double-pipes — Trumpets — Drums and tambourines — Curious instruments of percussion — The sistrum — Crotala, cymbals, bells — Vocal and instrumental perform- ances— The Egyptian musical instruments compared with the Assyrian — Opinions of some musical historians.

In the preceding inquiry we have repeatedly had occasion to observe the affinity of the ancient Egyptian music with the Assyrian. I purpose now submitting a short account of the music of the former nation, which will more fully confirm what we have already found indicated. Here, also, I shall adhere to the plan hitherto pursued of avoiding as much as possible a repetition of any information on the same subject already given in Forkel's and Burney's Histories of Music, and in similar works, noticing especially those facts which have not hitherto received that considera- tion which, in my opinion, they deserve.

We have become gradually more exactly acquainted with the Egyptian instruments through the discoveries of a variety of representations of them in sculptures and paintings, as well as of fragments, and even of nearly perfectly-preserved specimens of harps, lyres, and other stringed instruments, pipes, flutes, sistra, cymbals, bells, &c.

The following pages contain representations of all

Chap. V.

THE HARP.

181

the diiferent Egyptian instruments which have been found.

THE HAEP.

The Egyptian harps greatly varied in shape, size, and ornamentation. Fig. 27 represents one of the more simple kind. It is mounted with ten strings, and played on by a female.

The harp repre- sented in fig. 28, which has twenty strings, is more high- ly ornamented with carving, and more brilliantly coloured, than the preceding. It rests on a low stand, while the per- former is seated on ^ the ground.

A similar harp, but much more plain, and raised on a higher stand or leg, is shown

in fig. 29. It has seven strings and eight tuning - pegs ; while another in the same engraving has only four strings and six pegs.

Such inequalities

182

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 28. A harp on a stand, a man beating time, and a player on the t;imboura.

in the nrnnber of the pegs and strings not imfre- qnently occur, and must probably be attributed to the negligence of the painters or sculptors. We ought,

Fig. 29.

Two liarps.

Chap. V.

THE HARP

183

therefore, not to place niucli reliance on the correct- ness of the number of the strings, unless we frequently meet with the same number on several I % instruments, and un- less they are at the same time in con- formity with the number of pegs.

Stands of various fonns were used for the smaller harps, which enabled the performer to play on the instnunent while standing be- fore it, as is shown in the engraving fig. 31, which re- presents a small kind of harp with nine strings.

The Egyptian harps most remark- able for elegance of form and elaborate decoration are the two which were first noticed by the well-known travel- ler Bruce, who found them painted in fresco on the wall of an ancient sepulchre at Thebes, which is supposed to be the tomb of

Fig. 30. A harp on a stand.

Fig, 31.

Tambourine and hai-p.

184

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

Rameses III., who reigned about 1250 B.C. Bruce's discovery first became known to the musical world

Fio;, 32.

Harp with thirteen strings.

tbrougli a letter addressed by him to Dr. Burney, which, accompanied by a drawing of one of these harps, without the figure of the performer, was pub- lished in the first volume of Burney's ' History of Music' Soon afterwards engravings of both instru-

Chap. V. THE HARP. 185

ments appeared in Bruce's ' Travels,' vol. i. This discovery created a great sensation among musicians. The fact that at so remote an age the Egyptians should have possessed harps which vie with our own in elegance and beauty of form, appeared to some so incredible that the correctness of Bruce's representa- tions was greatly doubted ; in fact, they were received with a distrust somewhat similar to that with which several other communications by this traveller were at first viewed, which have afterwards been proved to be authentic. Sketches of the same harps, taken sub- sequently and at different times from the frescoes, have been published in ' Description de I'J^gypte,' in Eosellini's ' I Monumenti dell' Egitto,' in Champol- lion's ' Monuments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie,' and in Sir Gr. Wilkinson's ' Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' all of which differ more or less from each other in appearance and in the number of strings. The engravings fig. 32 and 33 represent " Bruce's harps," as they appear in the last-mentioned work — the first with thirteen and the second with ten strings.

I notice these discrepancies in the hope that some Eastern traveller may set the matter at rest by having a strictly accurate copy, even to the most minute de- tails, made from the frescoes which are still in exist- ence. This would be the only way to render these interesting representations really valuable in musical investigations.

Bruce's letter to Burney has been often quoted, and is well known. The publicity which it has ob- tained may perhaps be the very cause why the account of the discovery of those harjDS given by Bruce in his ' Travels,' which contains some interesting addi-

186 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

tional information, has not received that attention from musical historians to which, in my opinion, it is entitled. I shall, therefore, not apologize for inserting here that portion of it which more immediately refers to our present subject.

Speaking of the tomb of Rameses, Bruce says : " Farther forward, on the right hand of the entry, the panels or compartments were still formed in stucco, but, in place of figures in relief, they were painted in fresco. I dare say this was the case on the left hand of the passage as well as the right. But the first dis- covery was so unexpected, and I had flattered myself that I should be so far master of my own time as to see the whole at my leisure, that I was riveted, as it were, to the spot by the first sight of these paintings, and I could proceed no further. In one panel were several musical instruments strewed upon the ground, chiefly of the hautboy kind, with a mouth-piece of reed. There were also some simple pipes or flutes. With them were several jars, apparently of potter- ware, which, having their mouths covered with parch- ment or skin, and being braced on their sides like a drum, were probably the instruments called tabor or tabret (Glen. xxxi. 27 ; Isaiah xxx. 32), beat upon by the hands, coupled in earliest ages with the harp, and preserved still in Abyssinia, though its companion is no longer known there. In three following panels were painted in fresco three harps, which merited the utmost attention, whether we consider the elegance of these instruments in their form, and the detail of their parts as they are here clearly expressed, or confine ourselves to the reflection that necessarily follows, to how great perfection music must have arrived before an artist could have produced so complete an instru-

Chap. V. THE HAKP. 187

ment as either of these. As the first harp seemed to be the most perfect and least spoiled, I immediately attached myself to this, and desired my clerk to take upon him the charge of the second. In this way, by sketching exactly and loosely, I hoped to have made myself master of all the paintings in that cave, perhaps to have extended my researches to others — thongh, in the sequel, I found myself miserably deceived. My first drawing was that of a man playing npon a harp ; he was standing, and the instrmnent, being broad and flat at the base, probably for that purpose, supported itself easily with a very little inclination upon his arm. His head is close shaved, his eyebrows black, without beard or mustachios. He has on him a loose shirt, like what they wear at this day in Nubia (only it is not blue), with loose sleeves, and arms and neck bare. It seemed to be thick muslin, or cotton cloth, and longways through it is a crimson stripe about one-eighth of an inch broad — a proof, if this is Egyptian manufacture, that they understood at that time how to dye cotton crimson, an art found out in Britain only a very few years ago. If this is the fabric of India, still it proves the antiquity of the commerce between the two countries, and the intro- duction of Indian manufactures into Egypt. It reached down to his ankle ; his feet are without sandals. He seems to be a corpulent man of about sixty years of age, and of a complexion rather dark for an Egyptian. To guess by the detail of the figure, the painter seems to have had the same degree of merit with a good sign-painter in Europe at this day. If we allow this harper's stature to be five feet ten inches, then we may compute the harp in its extreme length to be something less than six feet and a half, This instrument is of a

188 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

mucli more advantageous form than the triangular Grecian harp. It has thirteen strings, but wants the fore-piece of the frame opposite to the longest string. The back part is the sounding- board, composed of four thin pieces of wood, joined together in form of a cone — that is, growing wider towards the bottom ; so that, as the length of the string increases, the square of the corresponding space in the sounding-board in which the sound was to undulate always increases in pro- portion. The whole principles on which this harp is constructed are rational and ingenious, and the orna- mental parts are executed in the very best manner. The bottom and sides of the frame seem to be ve- neered and inlaid, probably with ivory, tortoise-shell, and mother-of-pearl, the ordinary produce of the neighbouring seas and deserts. It would be even now impossible either to construct or to finish a harp of any form with more taste and elegance. Besides the proportions of its outw^ard form, we must observe likewise how near it approached to a perfect instru- ment, for it wanted only two strings of having two complete octaves. That these were purposely omitted, not from defect of taste or science, must appear be- yond contradiction when we consider the harp that follows. I had no sooner finished the harp which I had taken in hand, than I went to my assistant to see what progress he had made in the drawing in which he was engaged. I found, to my great surprise, that this harp differed essentially in form and distribution of its parts from the one I had drawn, without having lost any of its elegance ; on the contrary, that it was finished with still more attention than the other. It seemed to be veneered with the same materials, ivory and tortoise-shell, but they were differently disposed ;

Chap V. THE HARP. 189

the ends of the three longest strings, where thej^^ joined to the sounding-board below, were defaced by a hole dug in the wall, Several of the strings in different parts had been scraped as with a knife ; for the rest, it was very perfect. It had eighteen strings. A man, who seemed to be still older than the former, but in habit perfectly the same, barefooted, close shaved, and of the same complexion, stood playing with both his hands near the middle of the har]?, in a manner seemingly less agitated than in the other. I went back to my first harp, verified and examined my

drawing in all its parts There still remained

a third harp of ten strings. Its precise form I do not well remember, for I had seen it but once when I first entered the cave, and was now preparing to copy that likewise. I do not recollect that there was any man playing upon this one ; I think it was rather resting upon a wall, with some kind of drajoery upon one end of it, and was the smallest of the three. But I am not at all so certain of particulars concerning this as to venture any description of it. What I have said of the other two may be absolutely depended upon. I look upon these harps, then, as the Theban harps in use in the time of Sesostris, who did not re- build, but decorate ancient Thebes. I consider them as affording an incontestable proof, were they the only monuments remaining, that every art necessary to the construction, ornament, and use of this instrument was in the highest perfection ; and if so, all the others must have probably attained to the same degree. . . . These harps, in my opinion, overturn all the accounts hitherto given of the earliest state of music and musical instruments in the East, and are altogether, in their form, ornaments, and compass, an incontestable

190

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

proof, stronger than a thousand Greek quotations, that geometry, drawing, mechanics, and music were at the greatest perfection when this instrument was made, and that ilio period from which we date the invention of these arts was only the beginning of

£i^

Fig. 33.

Harp with teu strings.

the era of their restoration. This was the sentiment of Solomon, a writer who lived at the time when this

Chap. V. THE flARP. 191

harp was painted. ' Is there,' says Solomon, ' any- thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new ? It has been abeady of old time, which was before ns ' (Eccles. chap. i. v. 10)."^

From Brace's remark that the harp with thirteen strings " wanted only two strings of having two com- plete octaves," it is evident he took it for granted that the Egyptians tuned their harps in onr diatonic order of intervals. Sir Gardner Wilkinson entertains the same opinion. He says that the harps " are seldom represented in the scul23tnres with more than two octaves " ^ — a statement which implies that he must be acquainted with the intervals in which they were tuned. There is, however, no further indication in Sir Gr. Wilkinson's work of his having really made so interesting a discovery.

Dr. Burney, in speaking of the harp with thirteen strings, expresses himself cautiously, as might be ex- pected from an experienced musician. He says, " With respect to the number of strings upon this harp, if conjectures may be allowed concerning the manner of tuning them, two might be offered to the reader's choice : the first idea that presented itself at the sight of thirteen strings was, that they would furnish all the semitones to be found in modern instru- ments, within the compass of an octave, as from C to c, D to d, or E to e. The second idea is more Grecian, and conformable to antiquity, which is, that if the longest string represented Proslambanomenos, or D, the remaining twelve strings would more than sup- ply all the tones, semitones, and quarter-tones of the

^ Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, by James Bruce, of Kinnaird, London, 1790, vol. i. p. 127.

^ The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 282.

192 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Diatonic, Clironiatic, and Enharmonic genera of the ancients, within the compass of an octave ; but, for my part, I should rather incline to the first arrange- ment, as it is more natural, and more conformable to the structure of our organs, than the second ; for, with respect to the genera of the Grreeks, though no certain historic testimony can be produced concerning the invention of the Diatonic and Chromatic, yet ancient writers are unanimous in ascribing to Olympus, the Mysian, the first use of the Enharmonic ; and though in the beginning the melody of this genus was so simple and natural as to resemble the wild notes and rude essays of a people not quite emerged from bar- barism, yet in aftertimes it became overcharged with finical fopperies and fanciful beauties, arising from such minute divisions of the scale as had no other merit than the difficulty of forming them. Another conjecture concerning the tuning of the thirteen strings of the Theban harp is, that they furnished the four tetrachords, Hypaton, Meson, Synemmenon, and Diezeugmenon, with Proslamhanornenos at the bottom. Thus:

~am —

— <^—

J2«_ij^_

.«. A

► -^-

^•=

_^_

_«-

-«-

Z227

-^—

—

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13." ^ "

Burney's determination of the thirteen intervals in accordance with the Greek system might be correct if the harp dated from the time of the Ptolemies ; but it is a thousand years older. At that early period the pentatonic series was, as we have seen, most likely the usual one in Egypt. Even the scale of Olympus

■'' Burney's ' History of Music,' vol. i. p. 216.

Chap. V.

THE HARP.

193

of Mysias, to which Biirney alludes, was of a similar stamp. To determine with accuracy how the intervals on the harp with thirteen strings were ordered, is impossible. Perhaps the lowest two may have con- sisted of the tonic and dominant ; thus, supposing the deepest note to have been c —

c, g \ c, d, e, g, a \ c, d, e, g, a \ c.

Or two of the strings may have been tuned in inter- vals foreign to the pentatonic scale — i.e. in semitones or even smaller divisions. The occasional introduc- tion of intervals foreign to the usual scale appears probable from the fact of one or two strings on some of the harps be- ing coloured, or placed more dis- tant from the rest. The Theban harp with ten strings had most likely the pentatonic se- ries repeated in the octave.

A kind of harp with twenty-one strings, repre- sented in the en- graving fig. 34, was discovered in a well-preserved condition, and is now deposited in the Paris Museum. In the engraving is also shown the manner in which the strings are fastened on this instrument.

All these harps, however different they are from

o

Fig. 34. Egyptian harp in the Paris Museum.

194

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. Y.

each other in form, have one pecuharity in common — the absence of the fore-pillar.

The name of the harp was bu7i% or heni. In ' De- scription de I'Egypte ' it is called tehouni ; hut the first syllable is only the article prefixed to the substantive, te-huni. The name may possibly have been used to designate stringed instruments in general. It has no resemblance to our word harp, which may be traced in the languages of almost all European nations. The Celtic races, however, have a different word for it. In Welsh the harp is called teylin, and in Irish clai^- seth. Conran asserts, however, that the Welsh name teylin is derived from the Irish language.*

In the Egyptian paintings the words sek an hen, " scraper on tfte harp," have been found written in hieroglyphs over the figure of a harper.*

THE TKIGONON.

The instrument J fig. 35, is most likely the trigonon, or triangular harp, mentioned by several classical authors. Burney, in his ' History of Music,' gives a drawing of a trigonon with ten strings. He observes that it is called by Sophocles a Phrygian instrument, and that a certain musician of the name of Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it, that when exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the greatest /wrore. Burney further remarks : " The per- former being a native of Alexandria, as his name implies, makes it probable it was an Egyptian instru- ment upon which he gained his reputation at Rome,"^

* The National Music of Ireland, by Michael Conran, Dublin, 1848, p. 97.

* Introduction to the Study of the

Egyptian Hieroglvphs, by Samuel Birch, London, 1857, p. 269.

^ Burney 's History of Music, vol. i. plate V. fig. 5.

Chap. V.

THE TRIGONON.

195

— an opinion wliicli is corroborated by the discovery of the instrument shown in our engraving. The trigonon ought, however, more properly to be classed

Fig. 35. Trigonon.

Fig. 36. Kind of trigonon.

with the lyre than with the harp, because it partakes more of the character of the former instrument. A similar stringed instrument is the harp represented on the old Persian sculptures described by Sir Robert Ker Porter, which I have already noticed.

Fig. 37.

Instruments of the trigonon kind.

A curious stringed instrument of a semicircular shape (see fig. 37,) was discovered in the year 1823

o 2

196

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

at Thebes. It was mounted with twenty strings of catgut, which still emitted sound when made to vibrate. Its wooden frame was covered with red leather. It had no tuning-pegs ; the strings were affixed to the upper part of the frame, and were tuned by being wound round a rod which was inserted into the lower part of the frame.

Some of the representations of the Grecian trigonon which we find in our Histories of Music exhibit the instrument in the shape of a Greek Delta with three bars. In the ancient Egyptian instruments of this class, however, the front bar, which would complete the triangle, is wanting.

THE LYEE. The lyre of the ancient Egyptians also varies much in shape and in the number of strings. Some greatly

Fig. 38. Lyres held horizontally.

resemble the Assyrian lyre ; others are of a different shape, and are held perpendicularly instead of hori-

Chap. V.

THE LYEE.

197

zontally. The frame was not unfreqiiently ornamented with the carved head of the horse, gazelle, or other favourite animal. Some lyres, like that represented in the engraving fig. 39, have been found in a re- markably perfect state of preservation, and are now in the Museums of Berlin and Ley den. That in the Berlin Museum (fig. 40) is 2 feet high; its body is about 10 inches high and about 15 inches broad. It ap- pears to have had thirteen strings instead of ten, like that shown in fig. 39. The lyre in the Leyden Museum is simi- lar, but smaller. These lyres are entirely of wood, and the frame, as in the Assyrian lyres, is made longer on one side than on the other, for the purpose of tuning the in- strument by sliding the strings upwards or down- wards to obtain the pitch required. The strings of the six holes which form the lower row on the lyre in the Berlin Museum contained, probably, the principal

Fig-. 39. Lyre held perpendiculai-Iy.

Fig. 40. Lyre in the Berlin Museum.

198

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

intervals, consisting of the pentatonic scale extended to the octave ; while the strings of the upper row were tuned in the intermediate semitones, or other small subdivisions.

In the engraving, fig. 41, is shown also the under part of the instru- ment.

The lyres, as well as the harps, appear gene- rally to have been tuned in the pentatonic order, without the addition of any foreign intervals. The most usual number of strings on the harps represented in the paint- ings is, according to Sir Gr. Wilkinson, seven — this number " being found in seven out of twenty -one harps." ^ There is, however, no reason to suppose the seven strings to have been tuned in the seven intervals of our diatonic scale ; because in this scale the octave is so imperatively demanded by the seventh, that the impression is very unsatisfactory if the scale is re- stricted to seven intervals instead of eight — a fact which is so universally felt wherever the diatonic scale is in use, that we do not meet with instru- ments, even among savage nations, in which it is made to stop short at the seventh. Moreover, we

Fig, 41, Lyre in the Leyden Museum.

Athenasum, April 14, 1860.

Chap. V. THE LYEE. 199

have already seen that in such matters not much reHance can be placed on the fidelity of the painted and sculptured records. Of the before-mentioned actual instruments discovered, the small harp with twenty strings, found at Thebes, appears to have had the pentatonic scale running through four octaves ; and the harp with twenty-one strings, in the Paris Museum, had probably the same order of intervals, with the addition of the key-note at the top.

Still, it may be suggested, is it not probable, from the fact of seven strings occurring most frequently, that the Egyptians tuned their harps in the same diatonic series of intervals which the Greeks formed by two conjunct tetrachords ?

The Greek tetrachord consisted of a semitone and two whole tones, like

-i=M:

i=i=l= or, ^S^,=?^|

3EE3=-J=^=E or, ^Fi-J=i^

The tetrachords were combined in two different ways, viz., either as disjunct tetrachords, constituting a dia- tonic series of eight notes ; or as conjunct tetrachords, containing only seven notes.

Disjunct Tetrachords. Conjunct Tetrachords.

Ei^^

*-(!?:

f^B^^^5^

A — -H — al — • — ^-

:it=it

It will be seen from the above example that in the conjunct tetrachords the highest note of the first tetra- chord is also the lowest note of the second.

Now, there is a prevailing opinion among musical historians, that the Greeks derived their musical system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras, and other

200 MUSIC OP THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

philosophers and theorists, are said to have studied niusic in Egypt. I believe, however, that the Egyptian influence upon Greece, as far as regards music, has been greatly overrated. Not only do the more per- fect Egyptian instruments, such as the larger harps, the tamboura, and others, appear never to have been much in favour with the Greeks ; but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed are stated to have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo (book x., c. 3) says : " Those who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated to Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of the present music. One author speaks of ' striking forcibly the Asiatic kithara,' another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sam- buka, Barbiton, Magadis, and many others."

We know at present little more of these instruments than that they were in use in Greece. Concerning their form and construction there prevails much diversity of opinion. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfac- torily ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument. The other three are known to have been stringed instruments. But they cannot have been such universal favourites as the lyre, since this instru- ment, and perhaps the trigonon, an inferior kind of harp, are almost the only stringed instruments repre- sented in the Greek paintings on pottery and other monumental records. If, as might perhaps be sug- gested, their taste for beauty of form induced the Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to other stringed instruments, we might at least expect to meet with the harp — an instrument which equals, if it does not surpass, the lyre in elegance of form.

Chap. V. THE LYRE. 201

The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a splendid Greek vase now in the Munich Museum, may be noted as an exceptional instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the Great. A drawing of it is given in * Elite des Monuments Ceramographiques, par Ch. Lenormant et J. de Witte' (Paris: 1846), vol. ii. plate 86. The instrument is, in construction as well as in shape, exactly like the Assyrian harp. It has thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in her lap. Even the little tuning-jDegs, which in number are not in accordance with the strings, are placed on the sounding-board at the upper part of the frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If, then, we have here the Greek harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek instrmnents appear to be of Asiatic origin.

Again, it is remarkable that many of the Greek musicians whose fame is recorded in history were natives of Asia Minor, or of some island adjacent to it. Marsyas, for instance, was a Phrygian ; Ter- pander, Arion, Sappho, were natives of the island of Lesbos. Olympus, recorded as the inventor of the old enharmonic scale, was a native of Mysias, also in Asia. This Olympus, who lived about 1250 years before Christ, was a celebrated composer as well as performer on the flute. The invention of the old enharmonic scale, which is, as we have seen, the same as the pentatonic, was probably in later times attri- buted to him, because he composed beautiful melodies founded on this scale, which were still known and

202 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

admired at the time of Plato, Aristotle, and even as late as Plutarch. For a more detailed account of this musician, who must not be mistaken for another dis- tinguished Grreek performer on the flute of the same name, who flourished about four centuries later, I must refer the reader to Burney's ' History of Music,' vol. i. p. 280.

Further, it ought to be borne in mind that the theories of Greek musicians and philosoj^hers, which have been preserved to us, date from a period about a thousand years later than the time of Olympus of Mysias — the oldest of these treatises being one by Aristoxenus, written not much earlier than three hundred years before the Christian era. The Greeks were a remarkably enterprising and progressive nation ; whatever they borrowed from other nations they soon further developed and expanded. The Egyptians, on the other hand, considered it unlawful to introduce any reforms. If, then, the musical systems of the Greeks and Egyptians were identical, this was much more likely the case at the time of Olympus than at the time of those theorists whose speculations have been transmitted to us.

Terpander (b.c. 650) is said to have been the first of the Greek musicians who used seven strings on the lyre, which, before his time, was usually strung with four or five strings. The order of intervals in which he tuned his instrument is recorded to have been the following : —

Some historians mention Orpheus (b.c. 1300) as the musician who first employed seven strings on the lyre.

Chap. V. THE TAMBOURA. 203

However this may be, thus much is evident, that the arrangement of the intervals on Terpander's instru- ment nearly approaches the scale of Olympus, who lived about six centuries before Terpander ; and that the further we go back towards the earliest period, the more traces we find of the pentatonic scale. Pythagoras (b.c. 550) is recorded to have added an eighth string to the lyre, and to have introduced a diatonic order of intervals, consisting of two disjunct tetrachords. Ashe is said to have acquired his know- ledge in Egypt, some writers have precipitately con- cluded therefrom that his innovation on the lyre was an introduction from Egypt. All evidence, however, in support of this opinion is wanting, while every ascertainable fact tends, as we have seen, to the oppo- site conclusion.

After these statements, I leave it to the reader to decide whether those seven-stringed Egyptian harps, dating from a very early period, were not more likely tuned according to the pentatonic order of intervals, than in two conjunct tetrachords like the heptachord of the Greeks.

THE TAMBOUEA.

The body of the Egyptian tamboura was either oval, or with the sides slightly incurved, somewhat like our guitar or violin. We find the latter shape also in some of the Hindoo instruments. The tmiing- pegs of the Egyptian tambouras are not indicated in the paintings ; perhaps because they were situated at the back of the neck, as they are on some Hindoo instruments of a similar class ; or the artist may have omitted them through carelessness. In the figure of

204

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

the tamboura, occurring in the hieroglyphics to which I have alluded, they are distinctly indicated. In the

Fig;. 42. Tamboura.

Fig. 43. Tamboura.

earlier writings the instrument is made with four pegs, thus — 1^, and in the later ones it has only two.

i

thus-

i

If we suppose the

pegs to have been pushed through holes so far as to stick out on the opposite side of the neck — as from the representa- tions appears probable — the former could have had but two pegs and the latter only one.

On a tamboura sculptured on

an ancient obelisk now in Rome,

dating from about 1500 B.C., of

ramboura surportod by a strap, which a dcscription is given in

Fiff. 44

Chap. V. THE TAMBOURA. 205

Burney's History, accompanied by a drawing of the instrument, from which fig. 45 is a reduced copy, there are tuning-pegs for four strings, or for two only. It is probable that the number of strings varied ; three is believed to have been the usual number. They were perhaps tuned in the tonic, fifl^^i ^^^ octave, like some modern Oriental instru- ments of a similar kind.

The tamboura was played with a plectrum, and appears to have been sometimes, if not always, provided with frets. In the British Museum is a fragment of a fresco, obtained from a tomb in the Western Hills of Thebes, on which two female performers on the tamboura are represented. The painter has distinctly indicated the frets. On one of the instruments they are limited to the upper half of the neck ; on the other they ex- tend down the neck as far as to the body of the instrument. There is also in the British Museum a small Egyptian vase in terra-cotta, from Thebes, 8^ inches high, which re- presents a female standing and play- p. ^^ •^mtoiua from ing a tamboura, whereon the frets an Egyptian obelisk. are distinctly marked over the whole neck, even where it extends over the body. If this be a faithful representation of the finger-board — and there is no reason to doubt its fidehty — a great number of strictly defined intervals must have been obtainable upon each string. Dr. Birch, of the British Museum,

206 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

describes this finely-modelled and well-preserved vase as made of a peculiar red ware, which " was probably the oldest of all Egyptian pottery." Of the figure he says, " Her eyebrows and the accessories of her dress are touched up in black paint. This elegant speci- men cannot be much later than the eighteenth or nineteenth dynasty. The orifice consists of a short cylindrical neck, and the interior contains a viscous fluid."

I may remark here that among the ancient Egyp- tian figures of pottery are several others with musical instruments. These figures are small, seldom above 6 inches high. Of those which represent deities Dr. Birch mentions "the lion-headed goddesses Pasht- Merienptah, Bast, and Tafne, wearing the sun's disc, a disc and plumes, a serpent, and seated upon a

throne, holding a sistrum A very common

type is a grotesque leonine pigmean deity, the sup- posed Baal or Typhon, either standing or kneeling, holding a sword, or playing on the tambourine. On his head are feathers or plumes, and a lion's skin is thrown across his back." ^

It has been mentioned in a previous chapter that the Egyptian name of the tamboura was nofre, and that its figure in the hieroglyphics signifies " good." Further proof of this instrument having been held in high estimation may be found in the fact of its figure occurring as an ornament on vases and boxes. On the upper part of the body of the tamboura appear to have been usually four or more sounding-holes. Of the two instruments before mentioned in the British

^ History of Ancient Pottery, by Samuel Birch, London, 1858, vol. i. pp. 58, 86.

Chap. V.

THE TAMBOURA.

207

Museum, the painter has made one with four, and the other with six holes, placed in a different order on each. Sounding - holes would have been of comparatively little use had the upper part of the body been of parch- ment ; we may therefore sup- pose it to have been of wood, as on our guitar or violin. Still, in some instances parch- ment may have been employed. The Egyptians evidently had a variety of tambouras, as may be gathered from the different shapes of the body, the distri- bution or the absence of sound- ing-holes, and other peculiarities observable in the representa- tions of this instrument.

All the Egyptian instruments which have hitherto been found with the strings preserved had them of catgut. If wire strings were known to the Egyptians they were probably used on the tamboura, which at the pre- sent day is mounted with wire strings by the Arabs and other Eastern nations.

The Egyptians possessed also a tamboura with a comparatively short neck, resembling our guitar, or rather the Arabian oud. It appears to have been less common than the tamboura before described. The instrument shown in fig. 47 is, I believe, the only one of the kind hitherto discovered. It was

Fig. 46. An Egyptian box. (Berlin Museum.)

208 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

found at Thebes in a dilapidated condition, without tuning-pegs, or indications of its ever having had any. The upper part of the body was of parchment.

The Arabian oud has no frets. Its fourteen strings are of lamb's-gut. Two are always tuned together in unison ; consequently there are seven different intervals produced by the open strings.

I must not leave unnoticed a painting of an instrument from an ancient Eo;yptian

Fig. 47. Kind of guitar. , , • j1 t> ?• ii/r

tomb, now m the Berlin Mu- seum, described by Drieberg as a guitar. From the evident care with which it has been executed, it is be- lieved to be a faithful representation in all its details. According to the drawing in Drieberg's ' Worterbuch der griechischen Musik,' it has seven frets. The per- former was therefore enabled to produce eight different intervals on each string. The frets are placed at equal distances from each other, and the spaces between them are painted in various colours. The discovery is, how- ever, in my opinion, not so important as some musi- cians are inclined to consider it. The instrument is, in fact, no other than the common tamboura, except that the neck is rather shorter than usual. Neither is its accuracy beyond question. The eight intervals could certainly not have been what has been sup- posed— a diatonic series, either like the two disjunct tetrachords of Pythagoras, or like our diatonic scale. In order to produce such a series of intervals, the distances for the semitones ought to be smaller than those for the whole tones. Besides, the frets would

Chap. V. PECULIAR STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. 209

require to be nearer together at the lower part of the neck than at the iipper part. Supposing the distance of a whole tone, from the top of the neck to the first fret, to have been 4 inches, the distances of the other frets, in order to be in conformity with the diatonic scale, would have been nearly as follows : — 1 — 2. Whole tone .... 4 inches.

2—3. Whole tone . .	. . 3i
3 — 4. Semitone . . .	. . H
4—5. Whole tone . .	. . 2f
5—6. Whole tone . .	. . 2J
6—7. Whole tone . .	. . 2i
7 — 8. Semitone . . .	. . 1

If, on the other hand, the frets were equidistant, as they are represented, only the step from the open string to the first fret would have constituted a whole tone ; the step from the first fret to the second would have exceeded a whole tone ; and each following step would have produced a larger interval than the pre- ceding one, so that the lowest would have embraced several whole tones. It seems surprising that these simple facts could have been overlooked by those inquirers who place implicit reliance on the correct- ness of the representation in question.

PECULIAE STKINGED INSTEUMENTS.

Some of the stringed instruments of the ancient Egyptians differ too much from our own of the present day to be classed with any of them. One of these, when played upon, was borne upon the shoulder of the performer. In shape this curious instrument is not very unlike some of the small Egyptian harps with which we have already become acquainted. Some portions of such instruments may be seen in the

p

210

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap, V.

Britisli Museum. The best preserved of these, shown in the accompanying engraving (fig. 49), is about 3 feet in length and 16 inches in height. It

i 5

Fig. 48.

Kind of harp.

Fig. 50.

Instrument with five strings.

is entirely of wood, except that the body is covered with parch- ment. The tuning-pegs show that, ^ like the preceding one, it must ^ have been mounted with four ^ strings. In the great French work, ' Description de I'Egypte,' there is a drawing of one of these instrmnents, in which five strings are given to it.

Chap. V, PECULIAR STRINGED INSTRUMENTS.

211

Another curious instrument of the ancient Egyp- tians (fig. 50) resembles in construction the sancho, a small stringed instrument of the negroes of Guinea.** It likewise bears a resemblance to the valga, found in Senegambia, Guinea, and other districts of Western Africa — an instrument which is also known by other names, as wambee, kissumba, &c. The only difference in construction between the above Egyptian instrument and the valga is that the neck of the latter consists of several canes, generally five. These are stuck into holes in the under part of the body of the instrument, and can be pushed in or drawn out independently of each other. As each string is affixed to the extreme end of one of the canes, it can be tightened or slack- ened by drawing the cane further out, or pushing it deeper in ; in this way it is tuned. The strings are apparently made of the fibre of a creeping plant. Some travellers describe them as derived from the fibrous root of a tree.

Eemains of the Egyptian instrument under our notice have been discovered in tombs, in the condi-

Fig. 51. Remains of Egyptian stringed instruments.

^ Hen- V. Heuglin has recently met with the same instrument among the negro tribes inhabiting districts west of the Bahr-el-Abiad. See Dr. Peter- raann's ' Mittheilungen iiber wichtige

neue Erforschungen auf dem Ge- sammtgebiete der Geographie,' Gotha, 1863 ; where a drawing of the in- strument is given.

p 2

212

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

tion shown in fig. 51. Two of these are in the British Museum ; and the smallest one, with five, pegs, is in the Berlin Museum.

The next instrument to be noticed is a kind of lyre, about 6 ft. high, which stood on the ground, and, like the harp, was played upon with both hands, one on each side of the instrument. From its close resemblance to some Greek lyres (see Forkel's ' Ges- chichte der Musik,' vol. i. tab. ii. 21 ; Hawkins's ' History of Music,' vol. i. plate ii. 8 ; Burney's

Fig. 52. Kind of lyre.

Fiff. 53. Peculiar instrument.

' History of Music, vol. i. plate v. 8), and from the number of the strings — eight being an unusual number on the instruments of the ancient Egyptians — as well as from its rare occurrence among the Egyptian instruments, it appears to date from a later period than the others, and to have been, perhaps, introduced from Greece.

The instrument fig. 53 is too indistinct to reveal its real nature. The performer might just as well be

Chap. V. THE PIPE. 213

taken for a man poking a burning faggot, as for a musician j^roducing sweet sounds. Possibly the instrument — for a musical instrument undoubtedly it is, because it has been found rej^resented as a com- panion to the lyre — may be a kind of dulcimer. Or, even more likely, it may be a harmonicou, constructed of a series of metallic bars, or of wooden slabs, arranged according to a certain order of intervals. Instruments of this description are at the present day common in several countries of Asia and Africa. Yarious kinds of them are found, especially in Java, Siam, and Burmah. Also the halafo, a favourite instrument of the negroes in Africa, belongs to the same class. Indeed, the construction of the harmo- nicon suggests itself so naturally wherever fondness for music and some ingenuity are combined, that it is scarcely likely the Egyptians should have been unac- quainted with it, especially as they evidently were more advanced in music than some of the nations which possess this instrument.

Although they are all constructed on the same principle, there is a wonderful variety in the appear- ance, character of tone, and degree of completeness of the harmonicons fomid in different parts of the world. Those of the Egyptians may therefore have been in many respects different from any in use at present.

THE PIPE.

Small pipes of the ancient Egyptians have repeat- edly been discovered, made of reed, usually with four finger-holes, but sometimes with three, five, or more. Above a dozen of them may be seen in the Leyden Museum. There are also examples in the British Museum, one of which has seven holes burnt in at the

214 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

side. Two straws were found with it, of nearly the same length as the pipe, which is about one foot long. In some other pipes pieces of a kind of thick straw, or similar material, have also been found inserted into the tube, obviously serving for a similar purpose as the so-called reed in our oboe or clarionet. The pipes

16

Fig. 54. Reed pipes in the British JMuseum.

in the British Museum are in too imperfect a condi- tion to enable us to ascertain from actual sounds whether the Egyptian pipes with four finger-holes possessed the same pentatonic order of intervals that we find in the pipes of the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians.

THE FLUTE.

The common Egyptian flute was of considerable length ; and the performer, who was either standing or sitting on the ground, appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost at full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole.

We are informed that the word sehi has been found repeatedly in the hieroglyphics with the representation of the flute, a word which is the Coptic name of this instrument. And, Fig. 55. as it is also the name of the leg-bone,

Ancient Egyptian flute. -,.-, .-, x .• .'!•

like the Latin tibia, we may suppose that the Egyptian flute, or schi, was originally made of bone. Those, however, which have been found are of wood or reed. Judging from the representations.

Chap. V.

THE FLUTE.

215

the flute and the single-pipe were played almost exclu- sively by men. The double-pipe, however, we find in the hands of females also, as was the case among the Assyrians.

The Egyptians evi- dently had various kinds of flutes, differing in dimension and in the number of finger-holes, •q^ Similar varieties exist also among the flutes at present in use in Egypt, called nay. It must be c=~i» remembered that most of =^ ^ > the instruments of the *^- modern Egyptians have been derived from the Arabs. Still, some kinds of nay appear to be near- ly identical with the long flute anciently in use in Egypt. The most com- mon nay of the modern Egyptians, known as the " Dervish flute " — be- cause it is played by the Dervishes to accompany the songs at their reli- gious dances, called zikrs — consists, according to Lane, of "a simple reed, about eighteen inches in length, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter at the upper extremity, and three-quarters of an inch at the lower. It is pierced

216 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

with six holes in front, and generally with another

hole at the back The sounds are produced

by blowing through a very small aperture of the lips against the edge of the orifice of the tube, and directing the wind chiefly within the tube. By blowing with more or less force, sounds are produced an octave higher or lower. In the hands of a good performer the nay yields fine mellow tones, but it requires much practice to sound it well." ^"

THE DOUBLE-PIPE.

The double-pipe must have been a favourite instru- ment with the ancient Egyptians, because it occurs frequently in the representations of musical perform- ances. Its name was mam.

On a fragment of an Egyptian fresco-painting in the British Museum, representing an entertainment.

Fig. 57. PerfoiTnance on the double-pipe, with a rhythmical accomjjaniment.

one female is playing on the double-pipe, others are clapping their hands in rhythmical accompaniment, and are probably singing, while two are dancing to

1" An Account of the Manners and I by Edward William Lane, 5tli edi- Customs of the Modern Egyptians, | tion, London, 1860, p. 362.

Chap. V. THE TRUMPET. 217

the music. The foregoing representation (fig. 57) is of a similar nature.

The Greeks and Eomans, who were as famihar witli the double-pipe as were the Egyptians, occasionally inserted little pegs or tubes into some of the finger- holes, apparently for the purpose of regulating the order of intervals, or the mode in which they intended to perform. A drawing of the instrument, with the pegs, is given in Burney's ' History of Music,' vol. i. plate 6. On the representations of the Egyptian double-pipe such a contrivance is not indicated.

THE TRUMPET.

The Egyptian trumpet appears to have been usually of brass, and of about the same length as the Assyrian. The instrument of an unusual shape (fig. 59), appa- rently a kind of trumpet, occurs, as far as I am aware, only once in the representations. If this in- strument was made of brass, we may suppose the person kneeling before the performer, and hold- ing his hand to his head, to be shielding his ear from the blast. In another group of figures, shown in the same plate of Rosellini's ^\- ss. Common trumpet

1 . 1 • 1 , 1 • , , of the ancient Ecryptians.

work m which this trumpet occurs, is a listener before a performer on the harp, repre- sented in exactly the same posture and with the same expression as the former. The sounds of the harp must have been soft, and the listener is evidently intended to express delight at the music.

This trumpet was therefore probably made of wood,

218

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

or even of some softer substance, producing soimds less loud and harsh, than brass.

Fis. 59.

Peculiar trumpet of the ancient Egyjjtians.

THE DEUM.

Of the ancient Egyptian drum we are acquainted with three different kinds. The first much resembles a small hand-drum at present in use in several Asiatic countries.

Fig. 60. The chum.

Fig. 61. Drum Ciirriod on the back.

Chap. V.

THE DRUM.

219

It was from two to three feet in length, covered with parchment at both ends, and braced by cords. The performer carried it before him, generally by means of a band over his shoulder, while he was beating with his hands on both ends.

The other kind of drum (fig. 62) does not appear in any of the paintings and sculptures with which we are acquainted, but there has been found an actual speci- men in the excavations made in the year 1823 at Thebes.

It was Ih ft. high, and 2 ft. broad. Like the small drum before mentioned, it had cords for bracing it. A piece of cat- gut encircled each end of the drum, being wound round each cord, by means of which the cords could be tightened or slackened at plea- sure, by pushing the two bands of catgut towards or from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks slightly bent. The Egyptians had also straight drum- sticks with a handle, and a knob at the end. The Berlin Museum possesses some of these.

Fig. 62. Egyptian drum found at Thebes.

Fisc. (33.

Drumstick in the Berlin Museum.

The third kind of drum is almost identical with the darabukkeh of the modern Egyptians.

The modern Egyptians have two kinds of this drum. One of these is the earthen darabukkeh, principally employed by the boatmen of the Nile, as an accompa- niment to the zummdrah, a double reed-pipe, as well as by some inferior story-tellers and such like persons. It

220

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 64. Three tambourines and a darabukkeh drun of the aucieat Egyptians.

is from 1^ ft. to 2 ft. in length. The other is described by Lane as being made of wood, inlaid with mother-of- pearl and tortoise-shell, " covered with a piece of fish's

Fig, 65.

The darabukkeh of the modern ligyptians.

skin at the larger extremity, and open at the smaller," and about 15 in. in length. This drmn is especially used in the hareems, and appears to be the most like that which we see in the hands of the female, the first in the above procession (fig. G4), who probably accom- panies her song with its rhythmical sound.

Chap. V.

THE TAMBOURINE,

221

THE TAMBOUEINE.

The Egyptian tambourine was either round, Hke that which is at the present time in use in Europe as well as in the East, and which, as we have seen, was also known to the Assyrians ; or it was of an oblong square shape, slightly in- curved on the four sides, and entirely different from our own tambourine. Two instruments of this description, and one of the common kind, are represented in the engraving fig. 64. Sometimes the square tambou- rine had a bar across the mid- dle, which divided the parchment into two equal parts, so that it was, in fact, a double tambourine. Women appear to have played the tambourine more usually than men.

222

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Doff, or deff] is the name given by the Arabs to a square tambourine still in use, especially in the Bar- bary States. A parchment of sheepskin is stretched on a square frame, and four catgut cords are strung over the inside to increase the vibration. This deff may have been the toph of the Hebrews, as well as the square tambourine of the ancient Egyptians.

TWO PECULIAK INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION.

The instrument held with the left hand by a man, accompanying the performance of two harpers, is

Fi^. 67.

An iustrumeut ot pei'cussion and two harps.

Fig. G8. Instrument of niptal.

most likely a kind of gong, which was beaten with a piece of ivory or wood. In the above engraving is also shown the manner in which the strings of the harps were wound round the tuning- pegs.

Chap. V.

THE SISTRUM.

223

The instrument fig. 68 was most likely constructed of metal, to emit, wLen beaten or shaken, a sound like a gong or bell ; and, perhaps, some loose pieces of metal were attached to it, to produce a jingling noise like that of the sistrum.

THE SISTRUM.

The sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze or brass, into which three or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a jingling noise when the instrument was shaken. The bars were often made in the form of snakes, or they ter- minated in the head of a goose, as is the case with some sistra in the British Museum. Not unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase the noise ; and the top of the frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a ^ cat. The smallest sistra which have been found are about 9 inches in length, and the largest about 18 Fig. 69. Two sistra. inches.

The sistrum was principally used by females in religious performances ; and it is remarkable that even at the present time we find it made use of in a similar way by the priests of a Christian sect in Abyssinia, where it is called scmasel. Its sound is supposed by the priests to drive away the evil spirits, and it was especially employed by the ancient Egyp- tians for the same purpose. Its Egyptian name was seshesh. The designation for instruments of percus- sion in general appears to have been kemkem, which

224 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 70.

Sistra in the Berlin Museum.

Fio-. 71. Sistra without the bars. '^' In'the Britisli Museum.

FiiT. 72. Model of a sistrum. Berlin Museum.

Chap. V.

THE CROTALA.

225

is the Coptic name of the tambourine. Villoteaii, on

the authority of Jablonski, beHeves cencen to have

been the common name

of tlie sistrum ; and he

suggests that its present

Ethiopian name, sanasel

(tzenacel, or cenacel), and

also the Hebrew tzeltzelim,

may have been derived

from the same word.

CEOTALA.

lan

Another curious Egypt- instrument, serving merely for the production of rhythmical effects, like the crotala of the Greeks, or our castanets, consisted of two balls or knobs, some- times made to represent human heads, probably of metal, and hollow, to which were affixed handles, either straight or slightly curved. One of these was held by the performer in each hand, and the heads were struck together, to mark the time in instrumental performances or in dances.

In the engraving fig. 74 a double handle is sm^- mounted by a double head, which may have contained some loose pieces of metal to increase the effect.

Crotala, clappers, or castanets, were made use of by most ancient nations in religious performances, and are

Q

Fig. 73. Abyssinian priest with sanasel.

226

MUSTC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

still thus used, even in the Christian Church. The Roman Catholics in Santo Domingo repair on Easter Eve to the cathedral, provided with the pata, a wooden

Fis. V4-.

Men dancing to the rhythmical sound of crotala.

clapper. During the service, at the moment when the darkness of the place is dispelled by the sudden admis- sion of many lights, the people hail the commence- ment of Easter by clattering with their clappers, and dancing and jumping about in the church. Similar customs prevail in other Roman Catholic countries. In Spain these instruments were made usually of chesnut (castaiia) ; hence the name Castanet.

CYMBALS.

The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape. There are two pairs of them in the British Museum. One pair is, according to the Museum Catalogue, 5|- in. in diameter, and the cymbals are united by a band of linen.

Chap. V.

CYMBALS — BELLS.

227

The other pair was found in a coffin enclosing the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician, and is deposited in the same case with the mummy and

Fig. 75.

Egyptian cymbals in the British Museum.

coffin. In the Catalogue these cymbals are described as being of bronze ; but it is probable that brass also, and even an admixture of silver, was sometimes used in the fabrication of such instruments.

BELLS.

Among the Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum are also some small bells of bronze, of which four are represented in the woodcut fig. 76. The largest is 2i in. in height, and the smallest three- quarters of an inch.

The face with the protruding tongue on the largest represents Typhon, the evil spirit of the ancient Egyptians. All the bells appear to have had clap- pers, and some of them have a small hole at the side near the top wherein the clapper was fastened, as is actually the case with the lowest of the two small ones shown in the engraving, in which the clapper

Q 2

228

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

still exists. This bell is remarkably well preserved, and its tinkling can scarcely have been more clear some thousand years ago than it is at present.

Fig. 76.

Small bells of the ancient Egyptians.

Besides these bells there is another in the same collection, in a more corroded condition, on which also the head of Typhon is exhibited. It therefore appears probable that the bells were employed in religions observances for a somewhat similar purpose as the sistrum.

VOCAL AND INSTEUMENTAL PEEFOEMANCES.

The information on the music of the Egyptians obtainable from the works of ancient writers is, in- deed, but scanty ; nevertheless, in connection with the representations depicted on the monuments, it is not without importance. Herodotus, Plato, Diodorus Siculus, and Strabo, each visited Egypt, and most probably ascertained personally what they record. Their accounts are on some points at variance; this may, however, be accounted for by the circumstance

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 229

of nearly five binidred years intervening between the time when Herodotus visited Egypt and Strabo's travelhns: there; or from one historian alludino- especially to sacred, and another to secular music, or to music in general.

Herodotus (born 484 B.C.) relates that among the several festivals celebrated by the Egjrptians during the year, in different towns, in honour of their gods, one of the most important was the festival held in the city of Bubastis for the worship of Diana. On this occasion "men and women embark together in great numbers. During the voyage some of the women beat upon small drums, while some of the men play on the flute. The rest of the people, of both sexes, sing, clapping their hands together at the same time."

Further Herodotus relates : " Among other me- morable customs the Egyptians sing the song of Linus, like that which is sung in PhcBnicia, Cyprus, and other countries, where, however, it bears a different name. But the person they praise in this song is evidently the same whom the Glreeks cele- brate under the name of Linus. Among the many wonderful things I have met with in Egypt this one astonishes me especially, whence they can have obtained the song of Linus; for they seem to have celebrated him thus from time immemorial. The Egyptians call him Maneros, and they say that he was the only son of the first king of Egypt. Happen- ing to die in the prime of life, he is lamented by the people in this dirge, which is the only song of the kind they possess in Egypt."

In explaining the character of the Egyptian god Osiris, who was put to death by Typhon, but returned

230 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

to life again, though not upon earth, Mr. Sharpe observes : " The death of Osiris was piously lamented by Isis and her sister Nephthys ; and once a year the Egyptians joined their priests in a melancholy pro- cession through the streets, singing a doleful ditty called the ' Maneros,' or ' Song of Love,' which was to console the goddess for the death of her husband. .... This story the Greeks copied, and have given us in the form of the loves and lamentations of Yenus, a goddess, for Adonis, who was a mortal. The boar which killed Adonis is no other than the hippopotamus Typhon."^

However this may be, there is at least no doubt that the song of Linus was introduced on joyful occasions also. Homer mentions its being sung at a vintage : —

To this one pathway gently winding leads, Where march a train with baskets on their heads (Fair maids and blooming youths), that smiling bear The purple product of the autumnal year. To these a youth awakes the warbling strings, Whose tender lay the fate of Linus sings ; In measured dance behind him move the train, Tune soft the voice, and answer to the strain.

(Pope's ' Iliad,' xviii. 650.)

A similar air appears at the present day to be sung on festive occasions in the north of Persia. Mr. Alexander Chodzko states that in Ghilan it is the custom on New Year's Day for boys to sing felicitations before the doors of the people. " It is remarkable that amongst these joyous songs there is a sad one on the death of some foreigner. Its doleful, lengthened tune draws forth a reluctant tear even from the eyes of an indifferent hearer ; and the

^ Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity, by Samuel Sharpe, London, 1863, p. 10.

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 231

impression is the more touching as all around is joy- ful. On hearing it, one is put in mind of the coffin which the ancient Egyptians carried around the tables at their gayest banquets. Their song ' Maneros ' must have been something like the one here alluded to." ^

In one or two European countries also we meet with similar performances. The vocero of the country- people in Corsica, for instance, is a dirge lamenting the death of a beloved brother or friend. Grego- rovius relates that during his stay at Calvi he was one night awakened by hearing a vocero sung in the street by some young men, which was intended as a serenade for a young girl, an inmate of the house in which he resided. He says : " Singular that a young girl should be serenaded with dirges ; and the proper serenade itself, with which they com- menced, was as mournful as a vocero. It is impos- sible to tell how overpoweringly touching is the solemn melancholy of this music in the stillness of the night — the tones are so wailing, so monotonous, and long drawn out. The first voice sang solo, then the second joined, and the third, and at last the whole band. They sang in recitativo, as they sing in Italy the ritornello. In the ritornello, too, senti- ments not meant to be melancholy are sung in an almost plaintive strain ; but when this in itself melancholy kind of music is applied to the vocero, the whole soul is thrilled with sadness. ... I shall never forget the dirges of that night in Calvi." ^

" Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia, by Alexander Chodzko, Esq., Loudon, 1842, p. 467.

^ Wanderings in Corsica, translated

from the German of F. Gregorovius, by A. Muir, Edinburgh, 1855, vol. ii. p. 31.

232 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Considering tliat Corsica, as well as Sardinia, was, at an early period, colonized by the Phoenicians, it is not improbable that the vocero may originally have been the Maneros which, according to Hero- dotus, was popular among the Phoenicians also. Superstitions and usages, apparently of Phoenician origin, are said to be still existent in Corsica and Sardinia. A detailed account of those of the Sardes is given by Bresciani in his work entitled ' Dei Cos- tumi deir Isola di Sardegna, comparate cogli anti- chissimi Populi Orientali,' published at Naples in 1850. The national musical instrument of the Sardes, the lionedda, is a kind of double pipe, which bears a greater resemblance to the instruments of this class which were in use among the ancient Eastern nations than to any instrument at present found in other European countries. But, even independently of these facts, the observation of Herodotus respecting the far-spread popularity of the song of Linus is very suggestive, and deserves the especial consideration of musical historians.

On another occasion he mentions that at the fes- tival of Osiris, the Bacchus of the Egyptians, they had processions, the women singing and carrying the images, preceded by a player on the flute. ^ And in describing the customs of the Lacedaemonians, he observes : " In this respect they resemble the Egyp- tians : their heralds, musicians, and cooks succeed to the professions of their fathers ; thus a musician is the son of a musician, a cook of a cook, and a herald of a herald. Neither may others on account of the fine quality of their voice apply themselves to the

^ lltTudoliis, Euterpe.

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTKUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 233

profession of music, but each adheres to the profession of his father." ^

The division of the people into castes must have greatly impeded the development of music as an art. There is nothing, except a physical disqualification, to prevent the children of a cook or of a smith be- coming as expert in their vocation as their father. But in an art like music, where talent and genius are required, it is very different. These gifts, like mental powers, are rarely transmitted from father to son. It is true we meet with a few instances in the history of our music where a family has produced talented musicians through several generations. This was the case with the Bach family, and also with the Mozarts. Leopold Mozart, the father of the great Mozart, was a distinguished musician ; and Wolfgang Amadeus, the youngest son of the great Mozart, has written compositions which might have made him celebrated if his name had not been Mozart. But these instances are quite exceptional : on the other hand, many could be cited where the children of dis- tinguished composers and performers have proved entirely devoid of any talent, and even capacity for music. If, as Herodotus says, the possession of a fine voice did not entitle a person not belonging to the caste of musicians to dedicate himself to the art, good professional singers must indeed have been scarce in Egypt, since they are by no means nume- rous even in countries where such restriction does not exist.

Plato lived about 400 years B.C. As he is said to have sojourned in Egypt thirteen years, and as he

Herudolus, Erato.

234 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

appears to have studied music scientifically, his infor- mation must be considered especially accurate and valuable. In the second book of the ' Laws,' written in the form of a dialogue, he remarks on the subject as follows : —

" Athenian Guest. — The plan which we have been laying down for the education of youth was known long ago to the Egyptians, that nothing but beautiful forms and fine music should be permitted to enter into the assemblies of young people. Having settled what those forms and what that music should be, they exhibited them in their temples ; nor was it allowable for painters or other imitative artists to innovate or invent any forms different from what were established ; nor is it now lawful, either in painting, statuary, or any of the branches of music, to make any alteration. Upon examining, therefore, you will find that the pictures and statues made ten thousand years ago are in no one particular better or worse than what they make at the present day.

" Clinias. — You say what is wonderful.

^\Athen. — Yes, it is in the true spirit of legislation and policy. Other things practised among that people may perhaps be blameable, but what they ordained about music is right ; and it deserves con- sideration that they were able to make laws about things of this kind, firmly establishing such melody as was fitted to rectify the perverseness of Nature. This must have been the work of the Deity, or of some divine man ; as, in fact, they say in Egypt that the music which has been so long preserved was composed by Isis, and the poetry likewise."

From these observations it is evident not only that the Egyptians considered some kind of music capable

CuAP. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 235

of corrupting the morals of the people, but also that iu Plato's time the character of the Egyptian music was different from that of the Greek, and that Plato admired it greatly.

Diodorus, who visited Egypt about 60 years B.C., mentions the invention of the lyre, by Hermes, and that the god adopted three strings for this instrument in allusion to the three seasons of the year. The highest of the three different sounds produced by the strings represented Summer ; the lowest. Winter ; and the intermediate one. Spring. He also tells us of the universal mournings of the Egyptians on the death of a king. On such an occasion the temples were closed, and all feasts and solemnities forbidden, for the period of seventy-two days. Men and women, sometimes several hundred together, walked about, twice a day, throwing dust upon their heads, and singing mournful songs in praise of the deceased monarch. Diodorus observes also that it was not customary for the Egyptians to practise music, be- cause they considered it effeminate and undesirable — a statement which probably refers only to a certain class of secular music, since we have in the repre- sentations ample evidence of the estimation in which this art was universally held by them. Strabo, who wrote his Geography about the time of Christ, states that vocal and instrmnental performances were usually admitted in the worship of the gods, espe- cially at the commencement of the ceremonies, except in the temple of Osiris, where neither singers nor players on the flute or on the lyre were permitted to perform.^

^ Strabo, book xvii,, Egypt.

236 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

I fear, however, I should tire the reader were I to notice all the passages bearing upon the subject found in subsequent writers, as Dion Cassius, Clemens Alexandrinus, who wrote about a.d. 200, and others. I shall therefore substitute a short extract from Dr. Birch's ' Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs,' which contains some interesting in- formation relating to music condensed from those writers : —

" The existence of a considerable number of works in the native language was not unknown to the Greeks, with whom they passed under the name of those of Hermes» Hence Clement mentions two books of Hermes on music — one containing a series of hymns to the gods, the other the institutes of the life of the king ; four others upon astronomy — one containing a list of the fixed stars, a second on the phenomena of the sun and moon ; the two others were on the rising of the stars. Another contained a cosmography and geography, the course of the sun, moon, and the five planets, the chorography of Egypt and scheme of the Nile, an account of the supplies of the temples and the lands apportioned to them, touching on measures and the requisites of sacred things. Another of the works referred to the sealing of victims and the instruction of youth ; ten others to the honours to be rendered to the gods and other actions of Egyptian piety, as sacrifices, first-fruits, vows, ceremonies, feasts, and similar things. Ten more books embraced the laws of the country and of the gods, and the instruction of the priests. Alto- gether there were forty-two of these works — thirty- six embracing the philosophical notions of the Egyptians, and the other six medicine The

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERI^ORMANCES. 237

false Hermetic books mention the secret hymns and the hymns taught by Isis to Horns. Plato, better informed, speaks of the hymns of Isis, which were apparently in the form of colloquies. Certain books, which passed imder the name of those of Horns and Isis, are spoken of by Lncian. There were also ancient lyrical poems, containing the praises of the gods and ancient heroes, and sung at ceremonies and entertainments, and deaths, when threnes, or funeral dirges, composed in rhythm, were chanted for the deceased. Among the encomiastic odes is mentioned one in honour of Sesostris, which differed from the historical accounts. Hymns were also addressed to the rising and the setting sun, and to Ammon, to obtain his oracular responses in the Oasis. Of these the most important were the Tlirene, i. e. the dirge or lament for Maneros; another addressed to Saturn ; and a chant called the Genethlia, or Birth of Horus." '

Taking all these facts into consideration, there can scarcely be a doubt that the Egyptians, like the Greeks, possessed written dissertations on the theory of music. But it may well be doubted whether from any such work, had it been preserved, we could have obtained so accm'ate an insight into the character of the Egyptian music as the various representations of the performances afford. Not only the form and construction of the instruments have thus become more familiar to us than they would have been from mere description, but we are also enabled to ascertain how the instruments were usually combined so as to

'' Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs, by Samuel Birch, London, 1857, p. 185.

238

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

form small bands or orchestras. With some of these we have al- ready become ac- quainted through the previous engravings. One of them, for in- stance, exhibits a con- cert of performers on the harp, tamboura, lyre, double pipe, and tambourine. Another shows us a group of females with different kinds of instruments of I percussion, evidently S accompanying their S vocal performances by I the rhytlunical sounds of tambourines and of the darabukkeh — like Miriam the prophet- ess, when she and the women of Israel went out in* procession, ex- ulting over the de- struction of Pharaoh's host.

It may perhaps in- terest the reader to know that the hiero- glyphics in the en- graving fig. 77 desig- t^ nate the names of the

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 239

Fig. 78.

Harp, tamboura, and double-pipe.

instruments — those over the harpers being the word huni, " harp," and those before the players on the flute being sehi, " flute."

The combination of two stringed instruments, the harp and tamboura, with the double pipe (fig. 78), is

Fig. 79. Harp, two tambouras, and rhythmical accompaniment with the hands.

240 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

suitable for compositions of a sentimental character, in which the pipe probably sustained the melody,

while the stringed instruments ac- companied, with a primitive kind of harmony, such as has been de- scribed in the chapter on Assy- rian musical per- formances.

If any further proofs were re- quired to confute the opinion usu- ally expressed by musical historians i that the perform- ances of the Egyptians were always in unison, these small bands might afford

them. In one of them a harp with ten strings, and a tamboura on which at least three times as many intervals must have been producible, occur in union with a lyre of only five strings. Other representations show combinations

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES, 241

similarly suggestive that the performance of a melody in imison, as well as in what is called unison in octaves^ was almost impossible.

The employment of two tamboui-as, either alone or in concert with the harp, appears to have been not imusual. In the present group (fig. 80) a double pipe is added, and the effect must have been fine, if it bore any resemblance to that which we are able to produce by blending the sounds of a harp, two guitars, and a flute.

Fis. 81.

Vocal anil instrumental music combined.

The instrumental accompaniment to the singing of men and women (fig. 81), consisting of a lyre — in shape similar to those before mentioned which are in the Berlin and Leyden Museums, but mounted with an unusually large number of strings — and of a harp and double pipe, is certainly peculiar. In this respect it is, however, far surpassed by a concert of eight musicians shown in the splendid Prussian work on Egyptian Antiquities, edited by Lepsius. These mu- sicians are all playing on flutes. Three of them, one behind the other, are kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the same manner. Facing these are three others, in a precisely similar position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to the left of the six, with his

R

242

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

back turned towards tliem, but also in the act of blow- ing his flute, like the others. An eighth is standing at the right side of the group, with his face turned towards them, holding his flute before him with both

hands, as if he were going to put it to his mouth, or had just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others have only a narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the director of this sin- r. gular band, or the f solo performer, who I is waitins: for the i termination of the \ tutti before renew- ing his part of the performance. And does not the divi- sion of the players into two sets, facing each other, suggest the possibility that the instruments ; were classed some- '? what like the first and second violins, or the flautoprimo ^nd/lauto secondo, of our orchestras ? The occasional employment of a third or fifth, as accom- paniment to the melody, is not unusual, even with na- tions less advanced in music than were the Egyptians.

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 243

This representation of a flute-concert is from one of the tombs in the Pyramids of Gizeh, and dates, according to Lepsius, from the Fifth Dynasty. It must, therefore, be earher than 2000 B.C.

In the same plate of the above work where this concert occurs,^ we also meet with the figure of the tamboura as one of the hieroglyphic signs of that remote period.

There are in the history of music few facts so remarkable and suggestive as the existence of an instrument of the guitar kind 4000 years ago, evi- dencing a stage of musical progress in Egypt which some nations of the present time have not yet attained.

In order to enable the reader to form his own opinion concerning the euphony, and the suitable- ness for vocal music, of the Egyptian Ian- 0 guage, I shall insert ^^ here, in the original as well as in translation, the song of the thrash- ers to the oxen treading r ■> o out the corn. This soup:, *© ^^^^ ^"^ A^ i one 01 the oldest metrical // • • ' 1 i 1 *- poems of the Egyptians >v^/vw^^ ^. which has been found, was written in hiero- glyphics over a repre- sentation of oxen so • « « i"^- ~ 1 1 1

employed. Fig. 83. Song of the thrashers.

rr^ ^ A/?

III I I I LV A

/VVWWV I I I

I I 1

A/«A<V\A/W

* Denkmaeler aus ^gypten und iEthiopien heraiisgegeben, von C. R. Lepsius, Zweite Abth., Blatt 74.

R 2

244 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Hi ten en ten Thrasli ye for yourselves,

Hi ten en ten auii Thrash ye I'or yourselves, 0 oxen,

Hi ten en ten Thrash ye for yourselves,

Hi ten en ten Thrash ye for yourselves,

Teha er amu The straw which is yours,

Khau en nehii ten. The corn which is your master's.

Dr. Birch, whose translation is here given, remarks : " Yerses of four and six syllables are used. There are other parts of this song thus sung by the men engaged in the operations, but the lines are not so distinctly marked." ^

We have previously had under our notice a group of Assyrians engaged in cutting down palm-trees, stimulated by the music of singers and drummers. Others we have found carrying on their work to the sound of the trumpet. An Egyptian painting from a grotto at El Bersheh exhibits a scene very similar to the removal of the Assyrian sculjDtured bull. It is, however, considerably older, and is believed to be of the time of King Osirtasen II., who reigned about the year 1600 before the Christian era. A colossal statue, resting on a sledge, is being transported from the quarries by a great number of labourers. Sir Gr. Wilkinson observes : " On the knee of the figure stands a man who claps his hands to the measured cadence of a song, to mark the time and ensure their simultaneous draught ; for it is evident that, in order that the whole power might be applied at the same instant, a sign of this kind was necessary ; and the custom of singing at their work was common to every occupation among the Egyptians, as it is now in that country, in India, and many other places. Nor is it found a disadvantage among the modern sailors of

" Introduction to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs, by Samuel Birch, p. 266.

CriAP. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 245

Europe when engaged in pulling a rope, or in any- labour which requires a simultaneous effort," '

Representations such as the above suggest the origin of some of the ancient myths which attribute to music the power of moving stones. Amphion, who is said to have built the walls of Thebes by the sound of his lyre, might be represented similarly to the Assyrian king superintending the removal of the colossus. The traveller Clarke has given a rational ex- planation of the wonderful power ascribed to Amphion, which I shall here quote, inserting one or two words in brackets for the sake of musical accuracy : —

" In the harmonious adjust of those masses which remain belonging to the ancient walls, we saw enough to convince us that the story of Amphion was not a fable ; for it was a very ancient custom to carry on immense labour by an accompaniment of [instru- mental] music and singing. The custom indeed still exists both in Egypt and in Greece. It might there- fore be said, that the walls of Thebes were built at the sound of the only [the principal] musical instrument in use, because, according to the custom of the country, the lyre was necessary for the accomplishment of the work." ^

Moreover, the Greeks had, as is well known, special songs suited to their different trades and rural occupa- tions. Homer describes Calypso weaving and singing :

She sate and sung ; the rocks resound her lays : The cave was brighten'd with a rising blaze : Cedar and frankincense, an odorous pile, Flamed on the hearth, and wide perfumed the isle ; While she with work and song the time divides, And through the loom the golden shuttle guides.

(Pope's ' Odyssey,' v. 70.)

^ The Manners and Customs of the I - Clarke's Travels, part ii. sect. 3, Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 326. | p. 06.

246

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Again, when the companions of Ulysses approached the palace of Circe : —

Now on the threshold of the dome they stood, And heard a voice resounding through the wood : Placed at her loom within, the goddess sung ; The vaulted roofs and solid pavement rung. O'er the fair web the rising figures shine. Immortal laboui* ! worthy hands divine.

(Pope's ' Odyssey,' x. 250.)

Moreover, the different kinds of songs used by the ancient Egyptians at their various occupations may be supposed to have been more markedly distinguished from each other than those of most other nations of antiquity ; since the division of the Egyptians into castes must have restricted the use of certain kinds of songs almost exclusively to certain classes of the people ; and this must have had the effect of insuring to each kind its own distinctive characteristics.

Fis. 84.

Sacred music.

The band of musicians (fig. 84), consisting of a harper, a player on the tamboura, and two flutists, is evidently performing sacred music, while a priest is offering incense. Almost all the various

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 247

^Bwj^oTi-iirrz-

instruments with wliicli we have become acquainted appear to have been employed in sacred as well as in secular music. Among stringed instruments, the harp seems to have been considered pre-emi- nently suitable for music used in re- ligious ceremonies. The Egyptians had " minstrels of the gods," or sacred mu- sicians, whose func- tions were connect- ed with the religious observances in the temples.

The sistrum, which was usually employed in reli- gious worship, ap- pears to have been appropriated to priestesses "holy women," who were sometimes of the highest rank. The two females with the high head- dresses in the en- graving fig. 85 are, according to Sir Grardner Wilkinson, the Queens of Ramesis the Great ; the others are the mother, daughter, and sister of a priest.

and ^^

248

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

As a specimen of religions poetry, which nndoiibt- etlly was sung or chanted by the Egyptians, the first stanza of a hymn to the Nile (taken from a papyrus in the British Museum) may serve : —

Sha en Hapi. Nether ek Hapi Shem em ta an' Or sankhu kam Amen sam kek em hru

Hes nn seni

An shau ammeli

Kam am Ra

Er sankh hu abu neb

S'hur set bu tern

Nau pe liaa

Mer en tufa kherp nefra

S'hut tel)a en Phah !

A Hymn to the Nile, Incline thy face, O Nile, Coming safe out of the land, Vivifying Egypt, Hiding his dark sources from the

ligh\ Ordering his sonrces ; The streams of his bed Are made by the sun To give life to all animals, To water the lands which are destitute, Coming all along the heaven, Loving fragrance, offering grain, liendering verdant every sacred place

of Phtha ! 3

Fig. 86.

Military band.

In martial music principally instruments of percus- sion, as indeed might be expected, appear to have been employed by the Egyptians. The military band (fig. 86) consists of only five musicians, viz. a trumpeter, a drummer, a performer on an instrument

■'' Birch, Introduction p. 268.

to the Study of the Egyptian Hieroglyphs,

Chap. V. VOCAL AND INSTRUMENTAL PERFORMANCES. 249

which is so much obhterated that its real character cannot be determined, but which, to judge from its form and size, must have been of importance in a

mihtary band, — and two persons who are clash- ing together each a pair of cylindrical maces or crotala.

250 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

The representation of a musical party in a gentle- man's house, taken from a fresco now in the British Museum, will be found especially interesting, if com- pared with our own entertainments of a similar kind. Mr. Sharpe has described it thus : " A number of guests, men and women, are seated on chairs, while women-servants are handing wine to them, and female musicians, sitting on the ground, play to them, and women dance before them. Many of the guests hold a lotus-flower, and one man a handkerchief, as a mark of refinement. The servants and dancers are un- clothed, with the exception of a slight band." *

The Egyptians evidently were fond of dancing. Their dances were not always restricted to slow and graceful attitudes, which, as we have seen, generally characterize the dances of Eastern nations ; but lively figures, rapid evolutions, and even the pirouette (see fig. 88), were sometimes introduced. From the repre- sentations it is evident that various dances were in use, difi'ering considerably in character, according to the class of persons by whom they were performed, and the occasions on which they were admitted. Sometimes both sexes joined in the dance ; sometimes, especially in spirited and vehement dances, only men engaged, bouncing about in wonderful order, v^dthout the assistance of music, or perhaps to the rhythmical sounds produced by clapping the hands and snapping the fingers. Again, on some occasions, only women, lightly clad, danced to the sounds of soft instruments before a party of admiring spectators.

The jesters or buffoons (fig. 90) are of interest

'' Egyptian Antiquities in the British Museum, described by Samuel Sharpe, London, 1862, p. 49.

?(«^

252 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Fig. 89. A mau dancing jilone to the rhythmical sounds of clapping the hands.

chiefly in so far as they remind us of the Assyrian mummers described at page 98. They may be natives of some district in the interior of Africa ; but it is quite as likely they are jesters of the lowest caste, who blackened themselves, like the so-called Ethiopian Serenaders of our day, and wandered from place to place to exhibit their antics and low jokes, inter- spersed with comic songs.

Fig. 90.

.Ti'ster?

Chap. V. ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 253

In short, through the monumental representations we are now in possession of irrefragable evidences in proof that the ancient Egyptians, highly susceptible of music, employed it to increase the solemnity of their religious worship, to enhance the pleasures of their social entertainments, to inspire and encourage their warriors, to heighten the rhythmical and panto- mimic effects of their dances, and to delight the people in their public festivities, celebrations, and processions.

THE EGYPTIAN MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS COMPARED WITH THE ASSYRIAN.

I now subjoin, for the sake of comparison, a brief enumeration of the Egyptian and Assyrian instru- ments with which we are more or less acquainted.

Ancient Egyptian Instruments.

1. The harp, varying iu shape and construction.

2. The trigonon.

3. The lyre ; various kinds.

4. The tamboura. A kind of lute or guitar.

5. A four-stringed instrument, borne on the shoulder

when played upon.

6. A five-stringed instrument, resembling the sanclio

and valga of the negroes.

7. The single pipe.

8. The double pipe.

9. The flute.

10. The trumpet; two kmds.

11. The tambourine ; three kinds.

12. The drum ; three kinds.

13. Two peculiar instruments of percussion.

14. The sistrum.

15. A kind of crotalum.

16. Cymbals.

17. Bells.

254 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Assyrian Instruments.

1. The harp, varying more in ornamentation than in

construction.

2. The lyre ; three different forms.

3. The dulcimer.

4. The asor.

5. The tamboura.

6. The single pipe.

7. The double pipe.

8. The trumpet.

9. The tambourine.

10. The drum ; three kinds.

11. Cymbals; two kinds.

12. Bells.

The dulcimer, one of the most important instru- ments of antiquity, occurs only in the Assyrian list. On the other hand, the Egyptian list contains five more instruments than the Assyrian, and especially a greater variety of stringed instruments. The Egyptian harp was superior in construction ; its sounding-board extended in a curve from the upper part to the bottom of the frame, whereby greater power and sonorousness of tone were obtained than on the Assyrian harp. Besides being acoustically superior, it excelled the Assyrian harp in elegance of shape and ornamenta- tion. Instruments so tastefully formed and embel- lished as the harps discovered by Bruce, and as some of the Egyptian lyres, do not occur on the Assyi'ian monuments. The Assyrian harp had, however, the greatest number of strings.

Costly materials were sometimes employed by na- tions of antiquity in the construction of their favourite instruments. Homer mentions a phorminx (a kind of lyre called "harp" in Pope's translation), made of silver : —

Chap. V. ASSYEIAN AND EGYrTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 255

And now, arrived where on the sandy bay The Myrmidouian tents and vessels lay ; Amused at ease, the godlike man they found, Pleased with the solemn harp's harmonious sound. The well-wrought harp from conquer'd 'l'heha3 came ; Of polish'd silver was its costly frame.

(Pope's ' Iliad,' is. 240.)

As peace and prosperity are especially favourable to the cultivation of music, the ancient Egyptians — a people less warlike than the Assyrians — were the most likely to attain a high degree of proficiency in this art. Hence the superiority of their instruments.

The following observation of Professor Eawlinson, however, does not support this view, but rather tends to point to the Assyrians as most advanced in music. Professor Rawlinson says : " Fully to appreciate the Assyrians, we should compare them with the much-lauded Egyptians, who in all important points are very decidedly their inferiors. The spirit and progressive character of their art oifers the strongest contrast to the stift", lifeless, and unchanging conven- tionalism of the dwellers on the Nile. Their lan- guage and alphabet are confessedly in advance of the Egyptian. Their religion is more earnest and less degraded. In courage and military genius their superiority is very striking; for the Egyptians are essentially an un warlike people. The one point of advantage to which Egypt may fairly lay claim is the grandeur and durabihty of her architecture. The Assyrian palaces, magnificent as they undoubtedly were, must yield the palm to the vast structures of Egyptian Thebes. No nation, not even Rome, has equalled Egypt in the size and solenm grandeur of its buildings. But, except in this one respect, the great African kingdom must be regarded as inferior to her

256 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Asiatic rival, which was indeed ' a cedar in Lehanon, exalted above all the trees of the field, fair in great- ness and in the length of his branches, so that all the trees that were in the garden of God envied him, and not one was like unto him in his beauty ' (Ezek. xxxi. 3-9)."^

Respecting the music of the modern Egyptians, there is reason to surmise it to be more nearly related to the music of the Assyrians and Chaldseans than to that of the ancient Egyptians. It must be remem- bered that most of the present inhabitants of Egypt are Muslim-Egyptians (also called Arab-Egyptians), a mixed race^ principally descended from the Arabs. After the conquest of Egypt by the followers of Ma- homed, in the seventh century of the Christian era, the arts and customs of the Arabs were transmitted to Egypt with their religion. We have already traced the affinity of the Arabic music with the Assyrian through the Persian. I shall now submit to the consideration of the reader an interesting ob- servation of Professor Rawlinson, from which it would appear that the music of the Assyrians was. closely allied to the Chaldsean : —

" The leaven which was to spread by degrees through the Asiatic peoples was first deposited on the shores of the Persian Grulf at the mouth of the ' Great River' (Gen. xv. 18; Deut. i. 7; Josh. i. 4), and hence civilisation, science, letters, art, extended them- selves northward, and eastward, and westward. As- syria, Media, Semitic Babylonia, Persia, as they

5 The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient EaKstcrn World, by George Rawlinson, London, 1862, vol. i. p. 308.

Chap. V. ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 257

derived from Chaldaia the character of their writing, so were they indebted to the same country for their general notions of government and administration, for their architecture, their decorative art, and still more for their science and literature. Each people no doubt modified in some measure the boon received, adding more or less of its own to the common inherit- ance. But Chaldsea stands forth as the great parent and original inventress of Asiatic civilisation, without any rival that can reasonably dispute her claims." ^

I must now leave it to the reader to decide whether the music of the modern Egyptians is not likely to be more intimately related with the Chaldsean and Assyrian than with the ancient Egyptian music.

Still, there are a few remains of the original Egyptian musical instruments and performances ex- tant, which have been preserved intact from the influence of the Arabs. I have already mentioned several instruments, such as the kissar, the darabukkeh, the sistrum, &c. The last-named is, however, at the present day only found in Abyssinia. The tamboura and most other instruments have undergone modi- fications according to the musical system of the Arabs.

In describing the Grhawdzee, or common dancing girls of the modern Egyptians, Mr. Lane says : " The Ghawazee being distinguished in general by a cast of countenance differing, though slightly, from the rest of the Egyptians, we can hardly doubt that they are,

as they themselves assert, a distinct race In

many of the tombs of the ancient Egyptians we find

^ The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, by G'. Rawlinson, London, 1862, vol. i. p. 216,

S

258

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

representations of females dancing at private enter- tainments to the sounds of various instruments, in a manner similar to the modern Ghawdzee, but even more licentious, one or more of these performers being generally depicted in a state of perfect nudity, though in the presence of men and women of high stations.' This mode of dancing we find from the monuments here alluded to, most of which bear the names of kings which prove their age, to have been common in Egypt in very remote times, even before the Exodus, of the Israehtes. It is possible, therefore, that it has continued without interruption ; and perhaps the modern Ghawazee are descended from the class of female dancers who amused the Egyptians in the times of the early Pharaohs." ^

Again, if the black buffoons, shown in the woodcut fig. 90, were Abyssinians, which is not at all unlikely, they may be the wattas of the present day, described by Mr. Mansfield Parkyns as " musicians and buffoons, sometimes attached to the courts of the chiefs of Abyssinia, but also frequently itinerant in their habits, making professional tours, something after the man- ner of ballad-singers." ^ True, the Abyssinians are not black ; but it appears to have been the custom with the ancient Egyptians to paint the human figure of any African black, except their own, for which they used the red colour.

Of the modern Egyptian professional singing-girls, Mr. Lane says : " These are called ' Awdlim ; in the

' Sir G. Wilkinson says that this was not in reality the case, but ap- pears only so from the outline of the transparent robe being effaced. (A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. i. p. 138.)

^ An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by E. W. Lane, London, 18G0, p. 379.

* Life in Abyssinia, by Mansfield Parkyns, London, 1853, vol. i. p. 2G8.

Chap. V. ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN INSTRUMENTS. 259

singular, Almeh, or Alimeh ; an appellation, as an Arabic word, literally signifying ' a learned female,' but, as applied to these female singers, evidently, I think, derived from the Hebrew or Phoenician word *almdh, signifying ' a girl ' and * a virgin,' and par- ticularly ' a singing-girl.' 'Al-aldmoth sheei\ the title of Psalm xlvi., and nehdlim ' al- aldmoth, in 1 Chron. XV. 20, should, I doubt not, be rendered * A song ' and * harps,' or the like, ' adapted to 'almdhs,' — that is, ' singing-girls.' And as Jerome says that alma in the Punic language signified ' a virgin,' it seems to be probable that, in old times, the most celebrated of the singing-girls in Egypt were Phoenicians." ^

Such conjectures may, on a cursory view, appear but little to our purpose ; but I must say that I have repeatedly found by experience that, in investigations like the present, the conjectures of eminent travellers, ethnologists, and historians are frequently of greater assistance in arriving at the truth than the confident assertions of musical theorists. These are often indi- vidual views only, based on facts appertaining entirely to our own modern music.

After what has been said respecting the music of the modern Egyptians, some specimens of their popu- lar melodies may perhaps interest the reader. A considerable number of these melodies have been collected and brought to Europe by travellers. The singing of the sailors on the Nile, especially, has fre- quently been noticed and described. This usually consists of alternate solo and chorus in short phrases, and varies with the nature of the occupation in which

^ An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by E. W. I^ne, London, 1860, p. 355.

S 2

260

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

the men happen to be engaged. Thus, one particular air is sung when they shift the sails ; another when the boat has struck on a sandy bank, and they are working to set it afloat again ; a third when the wind is favourable, and they give themselves up to singing con amove ; a fourth when approaching a village ; and

so on.

MODERN EGYPTIAN LOVE-SONG.

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SONG OF THE ALATEEYEH, or Male Professional

Musicians.

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[S^E^H

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Chap. V.

EGYPTIAN SONGS.

261

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3^:^

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SAILOES ON THE NILE, when arriving at a Village.

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262

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

l/i'^'	-T-'f: -^--	•	fi-
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He Li - sa !

If any genuine remains of ancient Egyptian vocal music had been preserved, they would, most likely, be found among the Copts of Upper Egypt. It will be remembered that the Copts are descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the country. They are a Christian sect, dispersed throughout parts of Egypt, but in Upper Egypt whole villages are inhabited ex- clusively by them. The Coptic language is no longer spoken, but used in religious observances, like the Latin in the Roman Catholic Church. Through this language a clue has been obtained to the study of the language of the ancient Egyptians, as read from their hieroglyphic inscriptions.

Mr. Lane says, " With respect to the personal characteristics, we observe some striking points of resemblance, and yet, upon the whole, a considerable difference, between the Copts and the ancient Egypt- ians, judging of the latter from the paintings and sculptures in their tombs and temples. The difference is, however, easily accounted for by the fact of the intermarriages of the ancestors of the modern Copts with foreigners above mentioned [Greeks, Nubians, Abyssinians]. The people who bear the greatest resemblance to the ancient Egyptians at present are the Noobeh (or more genuine Nubians), and next to these the Abyssinians and the Copts, who are, not- withstanding, much unlike each other. The Copts

Chap. V.

HALLELUJAH OF THE COPTS.

263

differ but little from the generality of their Muslim countrymen, the latter being chiefly descended fi'om Arabs and from Copts who have embraced the faith of the Arabs, and having thus become assimilated to the Copts in features." ^

Yilloteau, who witnessed some of the Coptic reli- gious ceremonies, expresses himself as by no means edified with the interspersed vocal music, which con- sisted of a Hallelujah, in which the same word was repeated over and over again, occasionally with as large a group of notes upon one syllable as we find attached to this word in some of our older oratorios. On account of the great length of this composition, written down by Yilloteau after hearing it repeatedly performed, I shall here insert only that part with which it commences.

HALLELUJAH OF THE COPTS.

Lento

. i ji yi

2 An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by E. W. Lane, London, 1860, p. 530.

264

MUSIC OP THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

Chap. V.

i-i^-

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:^=:]-

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ouo ouo euo.

Althougli the Copts no longer possess the kissar and the si strum, Hke their neighbours the Nubians and Abyssinians, they make use in their rehgious ceremonies of the maraoueh, which appears to be a modification of the sistrum. This curious instrument I have already described (page 67).

The music employed in acts of worship is perhaps less subjected to change than any other. As, how- ever, the Copts are a Christian sect, it appears impro- bable that even in their most ancient religious music there should be remains left of the music of their heathen forefathers.

Somewhat similar to the relation of the Copts with the ancient Egyptians, appears to be that of the Yezidis, or devil-worshippers, in Kurdistan, with the Chaldseans and the Assyrians. The language of the Yezidis is a Kurdish dialect, but their religious chants and hymns are in Arabic — a language which is understood only by the priests and chiefs. Their religious vocal performances are usually accompanied by the Kawals, an order of priests, with flutes and tambourines. These instruments are looked upon as sacred. Mr. Layard saw the Kawals before and after

Chap. V, THE YEZIDIS. 265

the performance kissing the tambourine, and inviting the people to do so Hkewise. The music he describes as on some occasions solemn and impressive, and on others wild and harsh.

It must be remembered that the devil is held by the Yezidis in the greatest awe and reverence. He is only spoken of as Melik el Taus, "the Mighty Angel," or Sheikh Mazem, " Great Chief; " his proper name, Shaitan (Satan) they dread to pronounce.

Mr. Layard observes : " The Yezidis have a tradi- tion that they originally came from Busrah, and from the country watered by the lower part of the Euphrates ; that after their emigration they first settled in Syria, and subsequently took possession of the Sinjar Hill and the districts they now inhabit in Kurdistan. This tradition, with the peculiar nature of their tenets and ceremonies, j^oints to a Sabsean or Chaldaean origin. With the scanty materials which we possess regarding their history, and owing to the ignorance prevailing amongst the people themselves, — for I believe that even the priests, including Sheikh Nasr [the high priest], have but a very vague idea of what they profess, and of the meaning of their reli- gious forms, — it is difficult to come to any conclusion as to the source of their peculiar opinions and ob- servances. There is in them a strange mixture of Sabseanism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism, with a tincture of the doctrines of the Gnostics and Mani- chasans. Sabseanism appears to be the prevailing feature ; and it is not improbable that the sect may be a remnant of the ancient Chaldees, who have at various times outwardly adopted the forms and tenets of the ruling people to save themselves from perse- cution and oppression, and have gradually, through

266

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

ignorance, confounded them with their own belief and mode of worship." ^

A German traveller, Herr Wagner, who visited the Yezidis, and who has described their religious observ- ances, relates that during his journey he met with the well-known Bokhara traveller, the missionary Joseph Wolf, who told him he had seen Yezidi pilgrims on the ruins of Babylon, engaged by moonlight in ghastly religious rites, performing strange dances, with peculiar gesticulations, to doleful songs. The missionary added that he recognized in it the literal fulfilment of the words of the prophet Isaiah (ch. xiii. V. 21) : "Wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures, and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there."

Mr. Layard, in his work entitled ' Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon,' has published a few specimens of Yezidi music. I shall insert here two of them, which are songs — or perhaps, more properly speaking, chants — of the priests.

CHANT OF THE YEZIDI PRIESTS.

J. iL Adagio. O "7- O

.^Z5

:[=:

vibrato.

11^^^^^

"tr

r^

fej^Tfg^^^i^filgp

^ Nineveh and its Ruius, by A. H. Layard, London, 1849, vol. i. j). 306.

Chap. V. CHANT OF THE YEZIDI PRIESTS.

267

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268

MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

ANOTHER CHANT OP THE YEZIDI PRIESTS.

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To seek among the Yezidis for actual remains of Assyrian music would undoubtedly be as futile as to seek for remains of ancient Egyptian music among the Copts, or even more so. Nevertheless, these specimens of songs from Kurdistan and Egypt are interesting, as they in some measure illustrate the present state of music in countries where, at the earliest period, we have found this art cultivated to a considerable degree of development.

Chap. V. OPINIONS OF MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 269

OPINIONS OF SOME MUSICAL HISTORIANS.

Most of our principal works on the history of music contain some account of the ancient Egyptian music. Forkel's dissertation, in his ' Geschichte der Musik,' deserves especial notice from the care with which all the facts are stated so far as they had been ascertained in his time. Forkel, it must be remembered, wrote subsequently to Printz, Kircher, Martini, Burney, Hawkins, and other musical historians, and thus had the advantage of consulting their works.

The information on this subject contained in Kircher's ' (Edipus ^gyptiacus' (Romce, 1652) is more curious than instructive. More deserving of attention is the Abbe Eoussier's ' Memoire sur la Mu- sique des Anciens, ou Ton expose le Principe des Proportions authentiques, dites de Pythagore, et de divers Systemes de Musique chez les Grecs, les Chi- nois, et les Egyptiens. Avec un Parallele entre le Systeme des Egyptiens et celui des Modernes ' (Paris, 1770). The Abbe' believes the Greek musical system to have been founded on the Egyptian, and his con- clusions respecting the characteristics of the latter are principally drawn from the former. De Laborde says, in his ' Essai sur la Musique ' (tome iii. page 678), that the Abbe Roussier, at twenty-five years of age, did not know even a note of music, but that five years later he was one of the first theorists of his century. The work alluded to certainly contains much interest- ing information, and has been made use of by most of the later historians.

270 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

Some interesting remarks bearing on our subject are also to be found in Rollins ' Histoire ancienne des Egyptiens, des Carthaginois, des Assyriens, des Baby- loniens, des Medes et des Perses, des Macedoniens, des Grecs' (Paris, 1730), and in Goguet's ' De I'Ori- gine des Loix, des Arts, et des Sciences ; et de leur Progres chez les anciens Peuples' (Paris, 1758). During the eighteenth century France was richer in literature relating to the music of antiquity than any other country. De Guignes's arguments, in his * Me- moire dans lequel on prouve que les Chinois sont ime Colonic l^gyptienne,' were soon refuted by Leroux Deshautesrayes, Pauw, and others. Had the Chinese, according to the hypothesis of De Guignes, been Egyptian colonists, settled in China about 1100 years B.C., we might perhaps have found a clue to the fact that the Chinese use the pentatonic scale, which, as we have seen, the ancient Egyptians also appear to have used. We might, with some good reason, expect so conservative a people as the Chinese to have pre- served nearly intact the musical system of the Egyptians. Cornelius von Pauw, in his ' Recherches philosophiques sur les Egyptiens et sur les Chinois ' (Berlin, 1773), the aim of which is to disprove the theory of De Guignes, treats also of the Chinese and Egyptian music, expressing an opinion by no means favourable to either.

Two interesting essays, written by Yilloteau — the first headed, ' Dissertation sur les diverses especes d'Instrumens de Musique que Ton remarque parmi les Sculptures qui de'corent les antiques Monumens de I'Egypte, et sur les noms que leur donnerent, en leur langue propre, les premiers peuples de ce pays ; ' and the other, ' Memoire sur la Musique de I'antique

Chap. V. OPINIONS OP MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 271

Egypte ' — have both been pubHshed in ' Description de I'Egypte.' *

M. Fetis beheves he has made an important dis- covery, which I shall here briefly notice. " I have not the least doubt," he says, " that this musical nota- tion [used in ecclesiastical music by the modern Greeks] belonged to ancient Egypt. I have in sup- port of my opinion the resemblance borne by the signs in this notation, erroneously attributed to St. John of Damascus, to those of the demotic, or popular characters of the ancient Egyptians. In the system of musical notation in use in the Greek Church there are no notes, properly so called— that is to say, signs arranged to represent each a certain sound in the scale — for the Greeks do not accept a fixed diapason, or a normal sound to which all the others are referred. It is true that there is a certain point of departure for all the songs, which may be considered as the prin- cipal note in every kind of vocal music, and according to which all the progressions of the voice are regu- lated ; but the singer takes this note as he finds it most convenient, according to the high or low pitch of his voice. The sound which serves as the point of departure in any melody, and which, as all Greek writers say, is the beginning, the middle, and the end of all music, is represented by a sign which has the name of ison. Then, the sign of this sound has an exact resemblance with that sign in the ancient de- motic alphabet of Egypt which corresponds to the delta of the Greeks. The sign oligon, which expresses

* In the octavo edition of Descrip- 1 than the folio edition, these two essays tion de I'Egypte, which is less scarce \ will be found in vols. vi. and viii.

272 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

an ascension of the voice by an interval of one tone, commencing from the ison, is one of the characters of the letter N in demotic writing. The oxeia, a sign expressing ascension of a sound higher than the ison, is nothing more than one of the characters, R, in the same writing. The kouphisma, the sign for pro- gression from the third to the fourth tone, is one of the characters representing the letter B. ThQpetasthe, the sign of ascension from the fourth to the fifth tone, occurs also in several characters representing the letter T in the demotic alphabet. The pelasthon, which ex- presses the ascending progression from the fifth to the sixth tone, exactly resembles one of the many cha- racters which in i\\Q papyri correspond to the sigma of the Greeks. The double kentema, or double spirit, which occurs in many signs in the demotic writing, expresses an ascending progression from the sixth to the seventh tone. The sign for a progression ascend- ing in thirds is the simple kentema, which is, in fact, a fragment of the characters in the demotic aljDhabet corresponding to the eta, the iota, and the sigma of the Greeks. The progression of the voice in descending from the ison, or tonic, to the third below, is expressed by the aporrhoe, which in this alphabet corresponds to the letter E. The sign of descending progression from the same tone to the fifth below was one of the characters representing the letter B."

After having pointed out the resemblance existing between several signs employed by the modern Greeks to determine the duration of notes, and cer- tain characters of the demotic alphabet, M. Fetis con- tinues :

" After this detailed analysis of the system of nota-

Chap. V. OPINIONS OF MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 273

tion employed in the music of the Greek Church, and after comparing its signs with those of the demotic character in use among the Egyptians, can we for a moment doubt that the invention of this notation is to be ascribed to that ancient people, and not to St. John of Damascus ? No doubt, I think, will be entertained on this point. Both the Greeks and the Romans employed the characters of the alphabet, arranged in various ways, for musical notation ; and this was also the case during part of the middle ages. The nota- tion of the singing-books used in the churches of Ethiopia, and by the priests of Abyssinia, is to this day in characters of the Amara language, as, in all probability, it has been since the earliest days of Christianity ; why may we not then conclude that the ancient Egyptians turned to account the rich varieties of their demotic alphabet for the notation of their melodies ? and that this notation was preserved in the music of the first Eastern Christians ? Besides, since it has been proved that St. John of Damascus was not the inventor of the characters of the musical notation of the Greek Church, what probability is there that in the eighth century — when the old demotic alphabet of Egypt had disappeared, to give place to the Coptic alphabet, derived from the Greek — what probability, I say, is there that, with no special inducement, he sought in an obsolete alphabet for the signs of a nota- tion till then hardly known? I fully believe that this notation was never lost, but that it was intro- duced into the music of the Greeks long before his time. Let us remark the great importance of the discovery of this ancient notation. Since it can- not possibly be applied except to music overladen

T

274 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

with embellishments, and requiring great flexibility of voice, as we find it at present in the Greek Church and among some African nations, it gives us an exact idea of the music of ancient Egypt." ^

I need perhaps scarcely point out the fallacy of M. Fetis's conclusion, that, if the modern Greeks employ a musical notation derived from the demotic alphabet, the characteristics of the Egyptian music must have been preserved in the Greek. We might as well conclude that the English language must resemble the Latin, because it is written in Roman letters. Nevertheless, his discovery, if well-founded, would be very interesting, and might possibly lead to other useful discoveries in the history of music. I have therefore carefully examined the two principal sources mentioned by him in testimony of the correct- ness of his assertions. They are the Greek notation as shown in tome xiv. of ' Description de I'Egypte,' and the characters of the demotic alphabet in Cham- pollion's ' Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens.'

There are 125 signs in this alphabet, wliich consist mostly of lines, curves, hooks, right and acute angles, and other simple figures, placed in varied positions. The signs of the Greek musical notation are equally simple. Might we not then naturally expect to find a close resemblance between half a dozen of these, and some of the 125 demotic letters? Besides, even among those pointed out by M. Fetis, several cannot be identified without some stretch of the imagination.

^ BiograpMe Universelle des Musi- j Musiquc, par F. J. Fetis, Bruxelles, ciens et Bibliographie G^n^rale de la | 1837, tome i. p. Ixxi.

Chap. V. OPINIONS OF MUSICAL HISTORIANS. 275

I thought it probable that the shape of the Greek signs might have altered somewhat in the course of time, and thus have become less recognizable in the demotic characters. But if this had been the case, we should find the Grreek notation as it existed about a thousand years ago — of which, among other musical writers, Burney has given specimens in his * History of Music,' vol. ii. p. 50 — more resembling the demotic characters than it does at present. It is, however, even less like. M. Fe'tis's assumed discovery must therefore, in my opinion, be considered as a state- ment unsupported by sufficient proofs.

Indeed, the French writers seem to have surpassed all others in the boldness of their conclusions on such questions. M. Lenormant, after pointing out that the two harpers from the tomb of Ramesis III. (known as " Bruce's Harpers") are performing sacred music before two deities, says : " It is remarkable that the heads which adorn the base of these harps are sur- mounted, one by the sign of the upper region [of Egypt], the other by that of the lower region ; whence we may infer the existence of two different modes or systems of modulation." ®

Of the more recent Glerman works containing in- formation on the music of ancient Egypt, I shall only notice Kiesewetter's dissertation, ' Ueber die Musik der neueren Griechen,' which, though valuable for its many acute observations, contains several assertions which subsequent discoveries have proved to be erroneous.

^ Musee des Antiquites Egyptiennes, par Charles Lenormant, Paris, 1841, planche xiii.

T 2

276 MUSIC OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chap. V.

It would be useless to notice here every book in which this subject has been treated. The more im- portant ones I have already mentioned. The best sources for information are the splendid drawings of musical performances in the valuable works of Rosel- lini, ChampoUion, Lepsius^ and others.

Chap. VI. MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. 277

CHAPTEE VI.

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Gradual development of the Hebrew music — Musical instruments — Di- versity of opinion respecting the real nature of some of the Hebrew- instruments — Josephus's account — The chatzozerah — The shophar — The magrepha — Nebel and nofre — The Hebrew lyre — Vocal and instramental performances — Hebrew music of the present day — Lite- rature of Hebrew music — Eastern origin of our own music.

Scanty as our information is on Hebrew music, this is at least evident, that it was closely related to the music of the Egyptians and Assyrians. Moses him- self, who had been brought up by Pharaoh's daughter, "was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians" (Acts vii. 22) ; and the singing of the children of Israel before the golden calf after their departure from Egypt (Exodus xxxii. 18) was in the Egyptian manner. The Assyrians were their neighbours, with whom they frequently came in close contact ; in fact, both nations were of the same descent, had nearly the same language, and their political condition was also in many respects similar. During the Babylonian captivity, although the Hebrews adopted the Chal- deean language, their music does not appear to have undergone any important modification through fo- reign influence ; so that, after their return to Jeru- salem, about seventy years later, a fresh generation was enabled to re-establish at once in the temple the

278 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

musical performances of their forefathers. (Nehem. xii.)

I do not intend to imply by these remarks that the music of the Hebrews has not, in the course of a thou- sand years, experienced considerable modifications. Indeed, there are, as I shall presently endeavour to show, distinct indications of this having been the case. At the earliest period after the Exodus it was un- doubtedly almost identical with the Egyptian music. When Joseph's brethren with their families settled in Egypt, they found the music of that country already developed to a considerable degree. Whatever their own musical acquirements may have been, we can hardly suppose that their descendants did not, in the course of time, adopt the superior music of the Egyp- tians. Some musical historians, however, express an opposite opinion. Saalschiitz, one of the best writers on Hebrew music, conjectures that the Jews, during their sojourn in Egypt, where, from a few families, they gradually became a nation, had preserved to some extent their own music. His reasons for this surmise are embodied in the following interesting remarks : —

" The Hebrews descend from a family in which both vocal and instrumental music were not only known, but also appreciated, and considered as a necessary embellishment in their festivals (Gen. xxxi. 26, 27). Consequently, they possessed a knowledge of this art when they came to Egypt. Again, imme- diately upon leaving this country, we also find them in the full practice of music. (Exod. xv. 20.) Can there be any doubt, then, that they occupied themselves with music while in Egypt ? How otherwise could it

Chap. VI. THEIR EARLY KNOWLEDGE OF THE ART. 279

liave occurred to them, or how could it have been possible for them to celebrate with music the happy- termination of the great peril at the beginning of their wanderings ? But, did not the circumstance of their being in a state of slavery in Egypt prevent their cul- tivating music ? A moment's attention will show that this question cannot be answered otherwise than negatively. First, it must be remembered that the Jews, during the longest period of their sojourn in Egypt, were a free people. They abode 430 years in that country. Diu-ing only the last 80 years of this time were they living under oppression ; in the pre- ceding 350 years they enjoyed full liberty. (See Jahn's ' Archaeology,' Th. ii. B. 1.) During this time they even carried on wars of their own with Oanaan- itish tribes (1 Chron. iv. 22 ; vii. 21, 24). They were also artificers (1 Chron. iv. 21, 23), in which capacity some of them were even in the service of the king, as we may infer from the passage in Chronicles just noticed. Altogether they appear to have stood in very good relation with the Egyptians, for in 1 Chron. iv. 1 8 we even find an instance recorded of a Hebrew having married the daughter of a Pharaoh. Now, as the Egyptians cultivated music, is it likely that the Hebrews, with the Egyptian example before them, should have neglected an art which was domesticated in their families ? Even the eighty years of bondage cannot have prevented this. The women, it may be supposed, did not participate in the daily task ; neither did the Hebrews of rank. Thus we are told in Exod. iv. 27 of Aaron undertaking a journey into a foreign country ; and in verse 2 9 of the same chapter a con- vocation is mentioned, to which all the elders of the

280 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

Hebrews were summoned. This indicates that the elders, at least, were masters of their own time, that the old patriarchal state of society continued, and that their family life, in which every Hebrew, after his day's toil, had his time at his own disposal, was not infringed. The labour became especially oppressive only after the mission of Moses (Exod. v. 6). Again, the Hebrews, even during the years of their servi- tude, had considerable herds (Exod. ix. 6, 7 ; x. 9) ; there must consequently have been persons in every family who tended the cattle. At all events, the compulsory service cannot have engaged them to such an extent as to prevent every one of them from occu- pying himself in other ways." ^

Moreover, there can scarcely be a doubt that, after the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt, their music acquired in the course of time certain characteristics which distinguished it from the Egyptian music, and which originated in the religious views and observ- ances of the Jews, as well as from their intercourse with Asiatic nations, and from other circumstances.

HEBEEW INSTKUMENTS.

There are no representations of Hebrew musical instruments, the correctness of which is indisputable. Still, from our acquaintance with the Egyptian and Assyrian instruments, as well as with those used in the East at the present day, we are enabled to ap- proach very near the truth in forming an opinion

^ Geschiclilc uuci Wurdiguug tier Musik bei den Hcbiacrn, von Dr. J. L. Saalscliiitz, Berlin, 1829, p. 67.

Chap. VI. THEIK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 281

respecting tlie construction and shape of the Hebrew instruments mentioned in the Bible. Besides those enumerated in the following list, some others pro- bably were in use with which we are entirely unac- quainted.

Some of the instruments mentioned in the Book of Daniel may have been synonymous with some which occur in other parts of the Bible, under Hebrew names • — the names given in Daniel being Chaldgean. But mth these also the Jews were probably familiar at a later period. Max Miiller remarks : " The name of Chaldee has been given to the language adopted by the Jews during the Babylonian captivity. Though the Jews always retained a knowledge of their sacred language, they soon began to adopt the dialect of their conquerors, not for conversation only, but also for literary composition. The Book of Ezra contains fragments of Chaldee contemporaneous with the cunei- form inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes ; and several of the apocryphal books, though preserved to us in Greek only, were most likely composed originally in Chaldee, and not in Hebrew."^

1. The Harp. — There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews

possessed the harp, seeing that it was a common instru- ment among the Assyrians and Egyptians. But it is uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the stringed instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the harp.

2. The Dulcimer. — Some writers on Hebrew music con-

sider the 7iehel to have been a kind of dulcimer ; others conjecture the same of the psanterin mentioned in the

- Lectures on the Science of Language, by Max Miiller, London, 1802, p. 277.

282 MUSIC OP THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

Book of Daniel, — a name which appears to be synony- mous with the psalterimi of the Greeks, and from which also that of the present Oriental dulcimer, santir, may have been derived.

3. The AsoPw — This was a ten-stringed instrument, played

with the plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some resemblance to the nebel. It is therefore probable that it was in appearance similar to the Assyrian instrument to which I have applied the name asor.

4. The Lyre. — This instrument is represented on a Hebrew

coin, generally supposed to be of the time of the high- priest Simon Maccabseus. The kinnor, the favourite instrument of King David, was most likely a lyre, if not a small harp like the trigonon mentioned page 194.

5. The Tambouea, or Guitar. — Minnim, machalath, and

7iehel are usually supposed to be the names of instru- ments of the guitar or lute kind.

6. The Pipe. — CJialil and neheh were the names of the

Hebrew pipes or flutes.

7. The Double Pipe. — Probably the misJirohitha men-

tioned in Daniel.

8. The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe. — Probably the ugah,

which in the English authorized version of the Bible is rendered organ.

9. The Bagpipe. — The word sumplionia, which occurs in

the book of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. It is remarkable that at the pre- sent day the bagpipe is called by the Italian peasantry zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the magrepha, generally described as a small organ, was more likely only a kind of bagpipe.

10. The Trumpet. — Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz., the Jceren, the shophar, and the chatzozerah. The first two were more or less curved, and might properly

Chap. VI. THEIR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 283

be considered as horns. The chatzozerah was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was sometimes made of silver (Numb. x. 2).

11. The Drum. — There can be no doubt that the Hebrews

had several kinds of drums, as well as the Assyrians and Egyptians. We know, however, only of the topJi, which appears to have been a tambourine, or a small hand-drum, like the Egyptian darabukkeh, noticed page 219. In the English version of the Bible it is rendered timbrel or tahret. This instrument was specially used in processions, on occasions of rejoicing, and frequently by females. We find it in the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with the Israelitish women in songs of joy the destruction of Pharaoh's host (Exod. xv. 20) ; and in the hands of Jephtha's daughter, when she went out to welcome her father (Judges xi. 34). There exists at the present time in the East a small hand-drum, called by the Arabians doff or adufe, — a name which appears to be synonymous with the Hebrew toph. Compare also the description of the square tambou- rine (page 221).

12. The Sistrum. — Winer, Saalschiitz, and several other

commentators, are of opinion that the menaaneim^ men- tioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the sistrum. In the English Bible the word is rendered cymbals.

13. Cymbals. — The tzeltzelim, metzilloth, and metzilthaim,

appear to have been cymbals, or similar metallic instru- ments of percussion, differing in shape and sound.

14. Bells. — The little bells on the robe of the high-priest

have been already noticed. They were called phaamon and are mentioned in Exod. xxvin. 33 and xxxix. 25. The Jews have, at the present day, in their synagogues, small bells attached to the '' rolls of the law," containing the Pentateuch,— a kind of ornamentation which is supposed to have been in use from time immemorial. No other Hebrew bells are known. We read, however,

284 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

in Zech. xiv. 20 of "bells of the horses," and it is highly probable that the Hebrews possessed bronze bells like those of the Assyrians and Egyptians.

The places in the Old Testament where these in- struments are mentioned are the following : —

KiNNOR.— Gen. iv. 21 ; xxxi. 27.— 1 Sam. x, 5 ; xvi. 16, 23 2 Sam. VI. 5.— 1 Kings x. 12.— 1 Chron. xiii. 8 ; XY 21, 28 ; XVI. 5 ; xxv. 1, 3, 6.-2 Chron. v. 12 ; ix. 11 XX. 28 ; XXIX. 25.— Nehem. xii. 27.— Job xxi. 12 XXX. 31. — Psalms xxxiii. 2 ; XLiii. 4 ; xlix. 4 ; lvii 8 ; Lxxi. 22 ; lxxxi. 2 ; xcii. 3 ; xcviii. 5 ; cviii. 2 cxxxvii. 2 ; cxLix. 3 ; cl. 3. — Isaiah v. 12 ; xvi. 11 xxiii. 16 ; XXIV. 8 ; xxx. 32. — Ezek. xxvi. 13.

Nebel. — 1 Sam. x. 5. — 2 Sam. vi. 5 — 1 Kings x. 12. — 1 Chron. xiii. 8 ; xv. 16, 20, 28 ; xvi. 5 ; xxv. 1, 6.-2 Chron. v. 12 ; ix. 11 ; xx. 28 ; xxix. 25. — Nehem. xii. 27.— Psalms xxxiii. 2 ; lvii. 8 ; lxxi. 22 ; lxxxi. 2 ; xcii. 3 ; cviii. 2 ; cxliv. 9 ; cl. 3. — Isaiah v. 12 ; xiv. 11. — Amos V. 23; VL 5.

AsOE.— Psalms xxxiii. 2 ; xcii. 3 ; cxliv. 9.

Ugab. — Gen. iv. 21. — Psalms cl. 4. — Job xxi. 12 ; xxx. 31.

Shophae. — Exod. XIX. 16, 19; xx. 18, — Lev. xxv. 9. — Jos.

VI. 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 13, 16, 20.— Judg. m. 27; vi. 34;

VII. 8, 16, 18, 19, 20.-1 Sam. xiii. 3.-2 Sam. ii. 28 ; VL 15 ; XV. 10; xviii. 16; xx. 1, 22.-1 Kings l 34, 39, 41.— 2 Kings ix. 13.-1 Chron. xv. 28.-2 Chron. XV. 14.— Nehem. iv. 18, 20.— Job. xxxix. 24, 25.— Psalms XLVii. 5 ; lxxxi. 3 ; xcviii. 6 ; cl. 3. — Isaiah xviii. 3 ; xxvii. 13 ; lviii. 1. — Jerem. iv. 5, 19, 21 ; VL 1, 17 ; XLiL 14 ; li. 27.— Ezek. xxxin. 3, 4, 5, 6.— Hos. V. 8; viiL 1.— Joel IL 1, 15. — Amos n. 2; iiL 6. — Zeph. I. 16.— Zech. ix. 14.

Chatzozerah.— Numb. x. 2, 8, 9, 10. — 2 Kings xl 14 ; xn. 13.— 1 Chron. xv. 24, 28; xvi. 6, 42.-2 Chron. V. 12, 13; xiii. 12, 14; xv. 14; xx. 28.; xxiiL 13; xxix.

Chap. VL THEIR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 285

26, 27, 28.— Ezra in. 10.— Nehem. xii. 35, 41.— Psalms xcviii. 6. — Hos. v. 8.

Chalil. — 1 Sam. x. 5. — 1 Kings i. 40. — Isaiali v. 12 ; xxx. 29. — Jerem. xlviii. 36.

Keken. — Josh. VT. 5. — 1 Chron. xxv. 5. — Dan. in. 5, 7, 10, 15.

Nekeb. — Ezek. xxyiii. 13.

ToPH.— Gen. xxxi. 27.— Exod. xv. 20.— Judg. xi. 34.— 1 Sam. X. 5 ; xviii. 6. — 2 Sam. vi. 5. — 1 Chron. xiii. 8. — Job XXI. 12. — Psalms cxlix. 3 ; cl. 4. — Isaiah v. 12 ; XXIV. 8 ; xxx. 32. — Jerem. xxxi. 4.

TzELTZELiM, Metzilloth. — 2 Sam. vi. 5. — 1 Chron. xiii. 8 ; XV. 16, 19, 28 ; xvi. 42 ; xxv. 6.-2 Chron. v. 12 ; XXIX. 25. — Ezra iii. 10. — Nehem. xii. 27. — Psalms CL. 5.

Menaaneim. — 2 Sam. vi. 5.

Shalishim. — 1 Sam. xviii. 6.

MiNNiM. — Psalms xlv. 8 ; cl. 4.

Sabeka. — Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 15.

PsANTERiN. — Dan. iiL 5, 7, 10, 15.

SuMPHONiA. — Dan. iii. 5, 10, 15.

MisHROKiTHA. — Dan. in. 5, 7, 10, 15.

Most commentators are of opinion that the kereri — a horn or trumpet, made of ram's horn — was almost identical with the shophar ; the only difference being, that the latter was more curved than the former. Thus are these instruments usually represented in the drawings given in our dissertations on Hebrew music. There appears, however, to be no satisfactory reason for making this distinction. The shophar used at the present day in the synagogue has not the curved shape given to it in those drawings. As this instrument

286 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

may assist us in forming a correct idea respecting the ancient Hebrew trumpet, I shall presently give a short description of it.

Johel (Exod. xix. 13; Jos. vi. 4, 5, 6, 8, 13) is by some commentators classed with the triunpets ; but is by others believed to designate a loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions. If Johel (from which jubilare is supposed to be derived) is identical with the name Juhal, the inventor of musical instruments, it would appear that the He- brews appreciated pre-eminently its exhilarating power.

Shalishim is supposed to denote a triangle. Minnim appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general than any particular instrument.

The Chaldaean saheka is believed to have been iden- tical with the Grreek samhuka. Too little, however, is known of the latter instrument to afford us much assistance in forming an opinion respecting the con- struction of the former. The Greek samhuha is de- scribed by some writers as of a triangular shape, and mounted with four short strings only ; according to others it was boat-shaped. Drieberg believes it to have been a kind of guitar.

The mishrohitha is represented in the drawings ol our Histories of Music as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes placed in a box, with a mouthpiece for blowing. It is not improbable that some instrument of the kind was known to the Hebrews and to the Assyrians. The cheng of the Chinese, a similar instrument, is asserted to have been in use several centuries before the Christian era. But the shape of the pipes and of the box, as well as the row of keys

Chap. VI, THEIR MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 287

for tlie fingers, exliibited in the representation of the mislirohitha, have too much of the European type not to suggest that they are probably merely a product of the imagination.

Nechiloth, gittith, and machalath, which occur in the headings of Psalms v., viii., liii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv., Ixxxviii., are also by some commentators sujDposed to be names of musical instruments. Nechiloth is said to have been a flute, and gittith and machalath to have been stringed instruments. Again, others maintain that the words denote peculiar modes of performance, or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms were directed to be sung, or chanted.

Machol (Exod. xv. 20; xxxii. 19. Judg. xi. 34; xxi. 21. 1 Kings iv. 31. Psalms xxx. 11 ; cxlix. 3 ; cl. 4. Song of Sol. vii. 1 . Jerem. xxxi. 4, 13. Lament. V. 15) is, in the opinion of some writers, a kind of flute, especially used for accompanying dances ; but is more generally believed to signify the dance itself.

Forkel observes that, according to the records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon possessed thirty-six different musical instru- ments. In the Bible, however, only about half that number are mentioned. Although it is highly pro- bable that at least some of them were almost identical with those of the Assyrians known to us from the bas-reliefs, it would be hazardous to identify them with any of the latter, on account of the very slight information transmitted to us respecting their form and construction. In fact, from our most reliable source, the Bible, scarcely more can be gathered con- cerning them than their Hebrew names. The diver-

288 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

sity of opinion among Hebrew scholars about the real nature of most of them is evident even in the first record on music, where Jubal is mentioned as the inventor of the kinnor and ugab (Gen. iv. 21). In the English authorized version the passage is ren- dered : " He was the father of all such as handle the harp and organ." In Luther's German translation we read : " Yon dem sind hergekommen die Geiger und Pfeifer" (i. e. the performers on stringed instru- ments played with a how, and on pipes). The Yulgate has " cithara et organo ;" the French translation, " la harpe et les orgues ;" the Italian, " la cetera e r organo," &c.

Respecting the illustrations of Hebrew instruments which usually accompany commentaries on the Bible and historical treatises on music, it ought to be borne in mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the Rabbins.

Equally unreliable are the conclusions drawn solely from etymological inquiries. For instance, it has been suggested that the trumpet called shophar must have been constructed of brass or silver, because shophar means "to be bright." Is it not, however, quite as probable, if not more so, that the meaning of the word refers not to the outward appearance of the instru- ment, but to the brightness of its sound ?

The most reliable illustrations of Hebrew musical instruments are perhaps those which have been copied from the sculptures on the Arch of Titus at Rome. But it must be remembered that the arch, in com- memoration of the conquest of Jerusalem, was not erected until some time after the death of Titus, and

Chap. VI. THEIll MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 289

•

that we cannot be sure that the sculptor was actually acquainted with the Hebrew instruments ; or, being acquainted with them, that he did not consider it more incumbent on him to please the eye by intro- ducing modifications of the forms, than to adhere strictly to the truth. At all events, before admitting such monumental records as evidences, more caution ought to be exercised than is usually the case ; and it would be well to bear in mind Burney's remark on a certain statue of Handel, erected in Yauxhall Grardens in the reign of George the Second : " The musician is represented playing upon a lyre. Now, if this statue should be preserved from the ravages of time and accident twelve or fourteen hundred years, the anti- quaries will naturally conclude that the instrument upon which Handel acquired his reputation was the lyre, though we are at present certain that he never played on, or even saw, a lyre, except in wood or stone." ^

Supposing the figures on the Arch of Titus to be authentic, they may probably be different from the instruments which were in use about a thousand years earlier, at the time of David and Solomon, when the art of music with the Hebrews was in its zenith. If we compare our own music with that of our ancestors a thousand years ago, we are surprised at the won- derful change it has undergone. In semi-civilized nations the arts are undoubtedly for a considerable time almost stationary ; and several Oriental nations are notorious for the tenacity with which they cling to what has been transmitted to them from time imme-

2 Burney's History of Music, i. 493.

290 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

morial. Nevertheless, it is not likely that the instru- ments of the Hebrews — indeed their music altogether — should have remained entirely michanged during a period of many centuries. Some modifications were likely to occur even from accidental causes ; such, for instance, as the unpremeditated invention of some instrument, or the influence of neighbouring nations, as the Assyrians, when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them. Thus also may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given by Josephus, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, are not in exact accordance with those in the Bible.

Josephus has been frequently cited as an authority on matters relating to Hebrew music ; but it would seem that, whatever confidence he may deserve on other questions, his statements on the subject of music ought to be received with much caution. Let us take, for instance, his account of the preparations for the musical performances at the dedication of the temple. Solomon, he tells us, had made on this occasion two himdred thousand trumpets according to the direc- tions of Moses, and two hundred thousand dresses for the Levite singers, and forty thousand stringed instru- ments of bright and precious metal for accompanying the voice ; all of which he ordered to be kept in the temple with the treasures.*

In comparison with such an enormous combination of vocal and instrumental music, our most powerful bands dwindle into insignificance. It throws into shade even the monster orchestra of which Berlioz

See Flavins Josei)lius, Antiqu., lib. viii. caji. 3.

Chap. VI. THE CHATZOZERAH. 291

speaks with prophetic rapture as the ne plus ultra ill our music of the future, and of which he says, " Its repose would be majestic as the slumber of ocean ; its agitations would recall the tempest of the tropics ; its explosions, the outbursts of volcanos!" &c.^ It is a pity that Josephus has omitted to inform us how the performers, besides the people, found accommodation within the temple : " The length thereof," we read in 1 Kings vi. 2, " was threescore cubits, and the breadth thereof twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty cubits." The supposition of some writers that the two hundred thousand trumpets were not intended to be used at the inauguration of the temple, but to be deposited in its vaults, is likewise too much in contra- diction to the recorded wisdom of Solomon to be seriously entertained.

THE CHATZOZERAH.

Some Jewish literati are of opinion that a certain small figure, occurring on some coins of the time of Simon Maccabseus, is meant to represent the trumpet, chatzozerah. There are always on the coins two of these figures together.

If they really are intended to represent musical instruments, and not pillars, they may as likely be drums, somewhat similar to the Assyrian sugarloaf drum, but still more resem- bling a kind of darahukkeh found at the present time

* A Treatise upon Modem Instru- | Berlioz, translated from the French, mentation and Orchestration, by H. | London, 1856, p. 244.

u 2

292 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

among several Oriental nations, and also among the negroes in some parts of Africa, where it was intro- duced by the Arabs. The above engraving is sketched from a small silver coin in the British Museum. There appears, however, to be a doubt whether it really dates from the time of Simon Maccab^eus, or whether it ought to be attributed to Simon Barcho- chebas, a.d. 132.

THE SHOPHAE.

The shophar is especially remarkable as being the only Hebrew instrument which has been preserved to the present day in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown, as in time of old, at the Jewish New Year's festival, according to the command of Moses. (Numb. xxix. 1.)

In fig. 92 are shown four of these instruments. Those marked a and h are from a synagogue in Germany. They have been copied from drawings published by Saalschiitz, who remarks that the first represents a shophar made of a ram's horn, and the second, one made of the horn of a cow.® The other two (marked c and d) are from the principal syna- gogues in London, where I have been permitted to examine them. The first of these (c), from the syna- gogue of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, Bevis Marks, is one foot in length. The other (cZ), from \hQ Great Synagogue, St. James's Place, Aldgate, is twenty-one inches in length. Both are entirely of

" Von dcr Form der hebraischen I die Miisik der Hebriier, von J. L. Poesie, nebst einer Abhandlung uber | Saalschiitz, Kbnigsberg, 1825.

Chap. VI.

THE SHOPHAR.

293

horn. The latter differs especially from the former, in so far as its tube is not romid, but compressed, so

Fiy;. 92,

The shophar used in Jewish synagogues.

that the cavity is of a long oval shape. There are, besides this, other shophars in the Great Synagogue, which are smaller, and in shape somewhat different from each other ; but that which is here represented is the one generally used. On some of them short appropriate sentences in Hebrew are engraved. One, for instance, had the verse from Psalm Ixxxi., which in the English translation is rendered " Blow up the trumpet in the new moon, in the time appointed, on our solemn feast day." The psalm in question forms part of the service for the New Year's festival, at which the shophar is blown.

294 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

David Levi says : " The reason of the trumpet being made of a ram's horn is in remembrance of Abraham oifering his son Isaac, when the angel of the Lord called to him out of heaven, and said, ' Lay not thine hand upon the lad, neither do thou anything unto him ; for now I know that thou fearest God, seeing that thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son, from me. And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and looked, and behold behind him a ram caught in a thicket by his horns : and Abraham went and took the ram, and offered him up for a burnt-offering in the stead of his son' (Gren. xxii. 12, 13) ; — which our re- ceived tradition informs us was on this day ; and therefore we make use of a trumpet made of a ram's horn, beseeching the Almighty to be propitious to us, in remembrance and through the merits of that great event ; and as it is mentioned in Numb. x. 10, — ' Also in the day of your gladness, and in your solemn days, and in the beginnings of your months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt-offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace-offerings ; that they may be to you for a memorial before your God : I am the Lord your God.' " ''

The signals blown on the shophar are said to be the same, at least rhythmically, as those which were used more than three thousand years ago. This is the more probable because they are strictly prescribed and adhered to ; they are simple, characteristic, and easily preserved traditionally ; and they are very much the same in all the synagogues. The liturgy

■? A Succinct Account of the Kites and Ceremouies of the Jews, by David Levi, Loudon, 1783, p. 78.

CiiAP. VI. THE SHOPHAE. 295

of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, known as the Sej)hardic Liturgy, is different from that of the Ger- man and Polish Jews. The fact of their signals being nearly the same ftn^nishes a strong proof of their having been in use anterior to the settlement of the Jews in the Spanish Peninsula, and in northern Africa, which took place at the time of the Mohammedan con- quests. And as the signals have been preserved intact, notwithstanding the subsequent persecutions and ex- pulsion of the Jews from the Peninsula, it is not at all improbable that they may have been likewise pre- served through many centuries before the dispersion of the Jews throughout the world, when the Jews formed a large community, and when a strict ad- herence to their ancient religious usages was therefore comparatively easy. In the following examples we have the three principal signals of the shophar : —

SIGNALS IN THE SYNAGOGUE OF THE GEEMAN

JEWS.

Teeuha. Tekiha. Shebarim.

HESS^

i^^e^ess^

-F-

:^^i?W^-

=EEEF

SIGNALS IN THE SEPHAKDIC SYNAGOGUE.

Teuuha. Tekiha. Shebarim.

The terulia consists of rapid repetitions of the 7>r»?i(?, with a conclusion in the fifth. The tekiha consists of

296 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

a figure of two intervals, the lower being of longer duration than the higher. This is several times re- peated. The sheharim is the slowest signal, each note being sustained as indicated in the above examples by the pauses. The extension of the tekiha and sheharim into the octave, in the first example, is on some small shophars not easily executed ; this may be the reason why these signals are also usual as given in the second example ; rhythmically they are exactly the same in both instances.

THE MAGEEPHA.

The magreplia is not mentioned in the Bible, but is described in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been a powerful organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was capable of emitting ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes, or some similar contrivance : thus one hundred different sounds could be produced on this instrument. Further, the magrepha is said to have been provided with two pairs of bellcrws, and with ten keys, by means of which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, according to the Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an in- credibly long distance from the temple. Drawings of this wonderful instrument, probably originally made after the description of the Rabbins, are to be found in several of our older treatises on Hebrew music. They are all like that given in Hawkins's 'History of Music,' vol. i. p, 256, which has been copied from

Chap. VI.

THE MAGKEPHA.

297

Sina:- und Klinff-Kunst,

von Wolfgang

Caspar

Printz,' Dresden, 1G90.

Pfeiffer, one of our best authorities on Hebrew music, is of opinion that the magrepha was not an organ at all, but that it was a large kettle-drum which stood between the porch of the temple and the altar, and which was struck to assemble the priests to prayer, and the Levites to the performance of sacred songs, as well as to announce the approach of lepers for purification.^ Saalschiitz, another careful inquirer, declares this to be an error, which he supposes to have arisen from Pfeiifer having been misled by the name magrepha being also applied to another instru- ment, likewise used in the temple.^ This, however, was not a musical instrument at all, but a large fire- shovel used in removing the cinders and ashes from the altar and temple. In the Talmud, tract Thamid, it is stated that it was the custom for the Levite, at a fixed time, after having used the shovel, to throw it down between the altar and the porch ; thereby pro- ducing a loud noise, which was heard at a great distance from the temple, and served to inform the people who approached how far the religious observ- ances had proceeded.

In short, it appears uncertain whether the much- lauded magrepha was an organ, a kettle-drum, or a fire-shovel. Still, if this question could be decided by a majority of voices, no doubt would remain that there actually was a kind of organ, called magrepha^ in the temple.

8 Ueber die Musik der alten He- br'aer, von A. F. Pfeiffer, Erlangeu, 1779, p. 52.

^ Geschichte und Wurdigung der Musik bei den Hebraern, von J. L. Saalbcbutz, Berlin, 1829, p. 131.

298

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

Of the real nature of this instrument, and the Assy- rian mmplionia, perhaps some idea may be formed from a kind of bagpipe, — a syrinx with bellows (fig. 93), — which has been found represented on one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in Tarsus, Asia Minor, by Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker. These remains are believed to be about 2000 years old, judging from the figures upon them, and from coins struck about

200 years B.C. having been found embedded with them. We have therefore before us probably the oldest representation of a bagpipe hitherto dis- covered. " The in- strument," Mr. Bar- ker says, " consists of a vertical row of pijjes, the length unknown, as the lower portion is want- ing ; they are inserted into a small air-chest, which appears inflated in the middle part. The right hand is operating upon it with a kind of cushion or compress, by which the player forces the air into the pipes, and which he seems to apply to different parts at will. There appears to have been a prolongation of the central part of the instrument across the left arm : the loss of this is much to be lamented, as that would have shown us more of its construction, and also how the left hand was employed in playing it. It is firmly fixed to the body ; but the upper ends of the reeds are too low for the performer to blow into them with his mouth. The openings in the tops of

Fig. 93. Ancient bagpipe from Tarsus, Cilicia.

CuAP. VI. NEBEL AND NOFEE. 299

the reeds are all perfect ; nothing is deficient at that end. This may be looked upon as the very first ap- plication of a pneumatic chest to the Pandean organ, which still retains its place on the breast of the player, though he no longer operates upon it with his mouth. It is most desirable to restore this figure ; we should then see whether the left hand or the foot was em- ployed to blow the air into the machine." ^

NEBEL AND NOFEE.

A change of the liquid consonants r and l^ one into the other, is by no means uncommon, and occurs in the English language, for instance, in the word colonel. Philologists have ascertained that in one of the Coptic dialects, called Bashmuric, the letter r was pronounced as I. The change of h into v or /, and vice versa, is yet more usual. Even without these known facts, we may rely on the opinion of Dr. Birch, who has in- formed me that the word nehel, or nehle, is identical with the word nofre of the ancient Egyptians. Now, with the nofre we are well acquainted. We know that it was a kind of guitar, closely resembling the modern tamboura of the East. It would thus appear that the Hebrews derived the nehel originally from Egypt, and that those commentators on the Hebrew text of the Bible, who surmise this instrument to have been a kind of guitar, are most likely right.

One objection, however, may be raised against this opinion. We find in Psalms xxxiii. 2 and cxliv. 9,

' Cilicia and its Governors, by W. B. Barker, London, 1853, p. 260.

300 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

the asor mentioned as a ten-stringed nebel. Such a number of strings, however, could not have been placed on the nofre, or on any other instrument resem- bling the tamboura, on account of the narrowness of the neck.

I have already pointed out the impossibility of de- ciding upon the nature of unknown musical instru- ments from their names only. Supposing we were unacquainted with the trumpet marine, formerly a favourite instrument of the sailors, should we not, from its name, be led to conjecture that it must have been a kind of trumpet ? It was, however, a stringed instrument played with a bow, on which sounds could be produced resembling those of the trumpet. Again, the Jew's harp (jaw's harp ?) has no resemblance whatever to the harp. In German it is called Maul- trommel, from which might be conjectured that it must be a kind of drum. Thus also the nehel asor may have been an instrument widely different from the nofre.

I am anxious to point out these uncertainties and doubts, because they have often been lost sight of in inquiries like the present. It is, however, only by considering them that we can hope to arrive at the truth.

THE HEBEEW LYRE.

There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the time of Joseph (about 1800 B.C.) is repre- sented on an ancient Egyptian painting, discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan — which is the name of cer- tain grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir

Chap. VI, THE LYKE. 301

Gardner Wilkinson observes : " If, when we become better acquainted with the interpretation of hiero- glyphics, the ' strangers ' at Beni Hassan should prove to be the arrival of Jacob's family in Egypt, we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian artist. That this event took place about the period when the inmate of the tomb lived is highly probable — at least, if I am correct in con- sidering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron of Joseph ; and it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement in the number of persons here intro- duced— thirty-seven being written over them in hiero- glyphics— is a sufficient objection to their identity. It will not be foreign to the present subject to intro- duce those figures, which are curious, if only con- sidered as illustrative of ancient customs at that early period, and which will be looked upon with un- bounded interest should they ever be found to refer to the Jews. The first figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival to a person seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the prin- cipal officers of the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into his presence ; and two advance, bringing presents, the wild goat or ibex, and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which two children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women ; and, last of all, another ass laden, and two men — one holding a bow and club, the other a lyre, which he plays with the plectrum. All the men have beards, contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general in the East at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized nations throughout their sculp-

302

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

tures. The men have sandals, the women a sort of boot reaching to the ankle — both which were worn by many Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs a little in form from those generally used in Egypt." ^

The accompanying figure is a copy of the player on the lyre, as represented in the engraving of the group of strangers, to which the description of Sir Gr. Wilkinson refers.

Again, the three bearded men with lyres in the Assyrian bas-relief described page 95 are by some

authorities on such questions supposed to represent Jewish captives. They certainly are in appearance and dress al- most exactly like those figures on another Assyrian sculpture which Mr. Layard describes as Jewish Captives.^ If further researches should confirm this opinion, the lyre in our en- graving fig. 7 must be re- garded not as an Assyrian, but as a Hebrew instrument. It belongs, however, to a period about a thousand years later than the lyre before mentioned. How interesting the scene represented in woodcut fig. 95 will become, not only to the musician, but also to the archaeologist, and indeed to every reflect-

Fig. 94. The supposed Hebrew lyre.

^ Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, London, 1847, vol. ii. p. 296.

3 Discoveries in the Ruins of Ni- neveh and Babylon, by A. H. Layard, London, 1853, p. 152.

ClIAP. VI.

THE LYRE.

303

ing reader of Scripture, should further investigation reveal to a certainty the captive minstrels before us to be Hebrews ! How forcibly they present to our

Fig. 95. Captive Musicians playing on stringed instruments, supposed to be Jews. (From a bas-relief in the British Museum.)

mind the dejected captives who by the waters of Babylon, having hung their kinnors on the willows, sat down and gave vent to their grief!

The cross-bar of these lyres terminates in the head of a goose or duck. The bow of the warrior who

304 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

guards the captives is also ornamented in this way. In fact, the head of an aquatic bird must have been a common ornament with the Assyrians, since we find it not unfrequently on implements and on chariots represented in the bas-reliefs. Still it would be pre- cipitate to conclude therefrom that these lyres must be Assyrian instruments. The sculptor may not im- probably have applied to the Hebrew instrument the favourite ornament of his country ; or the Hebrews may actually have used the same ornament, as also the Egyptians did on their stringed instruments. It occurs, for instance, in the Egyptian trigonon, as seen in woodcut fig. 35.

These lyres appear to have had four strings — a number which, it will be remembered, was also usual on the most ancient lyres of the Greeks. Burney has endeavoured to show that the latter were tuned in the following order of intervals : —

fe

W

thus forming a tetrachord.* Other historians believe the intervals to have been as follows : —

f_j~^=l

They are led to this conclusion principally by some remarks of Boethius. This series is certainly more likely to have been in use than that mentioned by

■* See Burney's History of Music, vol. i. p. 278.

Chap. VI. THE LYRE. 305

Burney ; for the lyre, if thus tuned, could be em- ployed most effectually for accompanying the voice. Besides, at the present day, the four-stringed instru- ments met with among different nations are generally tuned in fifths or in fourths.

True, such an arrangement of intervals on the lyre appears to be incompatible with the pentatonic scale ; but it should be borne in mind that the lowest string on instruments of this class does not necessarily repre- sent the key-note or tonic. On the four-stringed lyre the second interval may very probably have been usually the tonic of the songs for accompanying which the instrument was chiefly used. If this were the case, the lowest note would have stood to the tonic in a relation equivalent to that of the

fifth.

W==^ — j—'-=^

This view is much strengthened by facts met with among various nations whose degree of musical culti- vation at the present day is nearly on a par with that attained by most of the ancient nations. On the Nubian lyre, for instance, the first string is tuned a fifth from the second string, which has the principal interval or tonic of the songs. (See the musical nota- tion, page 158.) The Arabs have at present a system of intervals in which not the first note, d, but the fourth, g, is the principal one.

Diatonic Scale of the Arabs.

— I il>_i ^ •-.

— I \— — iiH ^ *■

306

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

Further, it is worthy of consideration that such a series of fourths or of fifths as we know with cer- tainty to have been in use among ancient nations — the Chinese, for instance, according to Amiot, had adopted at a very early period a system of fifths, and the Greeks had, as is well known, com- binations of tetrachords — that such a series of fourths or of fifths exhibits at first the intervals of the pentatonic scale, and after these those of the diatonic scale.

Pentatonic Scale.

CJ -»^ *

■^^.

:=]:

Succession of Fifths.

P

;!

=|:

-1=-

w

?J:

Diatonic Scale.

_ «.^ 1*-

J* ffi 1 —

Pentatonic Scale.

5i^

t

:t

i^^

Succession of Foubths.

%

W=^

K

£:

Diatonic Scale.

'W ^

EE

Chap. VI.

THE LYRE.

307

Even the two intervals of a fourth on the four- stringed lyre, which are in the compass of two dis- junct tetrachords —

^:

=1;^

t-

lead, if continued in the same order, first to the intervals of the pentatonic scale : —

Pentatonic Scale.

i^^

^^

Disjunct Fourths.

m^

wi h

1^^

w

:P^-^=^=^

Diatonic Scale.

fe

=]===1"-

f*=:

These facts are pointed out partly with the object of showing the probability that the Greek system of tetrachords also was an offspring of the pentatonic system ; but more especially because they afford, in my opinion, additional indications of the closest affinity having originally existed between the dif- ferent musical systems of the Eastern nations.

Further, we have a representation of the lyre on some Hebrew coins generally ascribed to Simon Maccabaeus, who lived in the second century before the Christian era. There are five of them in the

X 2

308

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

British Museum; two are of silver, and the others of cojoper. On three of them are lyres with three strings ; another has one with five, and another one

Fig. 96.

Hebrew coins vvitli the lyre.

with six strings. The body of the lyre appears in two different shapes, as shown in the engraving fig. 96, which exhibits the three copper coins which are in the British Musemn.

The arrangement of intervals on the five-stringed and six-stringed lyre does not require, after what has been already ascertained, any further explanation. The two sides of the frame appear to have been made of the horns of animals, or they may have been of wood formed in imitation of two horns, which ori- ginally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still found in Abyssinia. The traveller Bruce states that formerly they were made of the horns of a kind of goat called Agazan, about the size of a small cow, and common in the province of Tigre. He saw in that country several of these lyres "elegantly made of such horns, which nature seems to have shaped on purpose." He says : " After fire-arms became com- mon in the province of Tigre, and the woods were cut down, this animal being more scarce, the lyre has been made of a light red wood. However, it is always cut into a spiral twisted form, in imitation of

Chap. VL THE LYRE. 309

the ancient materials of which the lyre was com- posed." ®

This shape is also usual in the representations of the various Grreek lyres ; and it may be recognised in a fragment of the actual instrument deposited in the British Museum. This interesting relic was found in a tomb near Athens. The two pieces consti- tuting the frame are of wood. Their length is about 18 inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top is about 9 inches. The instrument is, however, in a condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any essential use to the musical inquirer.

The three-stringed lyre was most probably tuned in the following order of intervals : —

i

w^^^^^^==^

These notes are the lowest of the harmonics emitted by a vibrating string, and the first of the natural tones produced on a tube like the trumpet or horn. Besides, they are especially suited for accompanying songs or recitations — an object for which the three- stringed lyre must have been principally employed, since it was too limited in the number of its tones to be of material use as a solo-instrument.

Almost all the three-stringed and two-stringed instruments still found in the East are tuned either in fifths or in fourths. It ought to be remembered that these two intervals are nearly related, in so far as the fourth is an inverted fifth, and the fifth an inverted

' Burney's History of Music, vol. i. p. 209.

310

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

fourth. The two strings of the Arabian kemangeh are tuned thus —

m.

The Chinese two-stringed fiddle, urh-heen, is tuned in the interval of a Jifth. The three strings of the Chinese guitar, san-heen, are, according to Tradescant Lay, " tuned as fourths to each other." The Japanese samsien, a kind of guitar with three strings, is tuned, according to Meijlan, as follows : —

All these instruments have a neck by means of which the intermediate notes can be produced. In- struments with only three unalterable strings, like the above Hebrew lyre, are no longer in use in the East.

The reasons which can be given in support of the opinion that kinnor denotes the Hebrew lyre are certainly far from conclusive ; still, they appear to be deserving of consideration. The lyre was evidently an universally-known and favoured instrument among ancient Eastern nations. Being much more simj^le in construction than most other stringed instruments, it undoubtedly preceded them in antiquity. The kinnor is mentioned in the Bible as the oldest stringed instrument, and as the invention of Jubal. Even if the name of one particular stringed instrument is here used for stringed instruments in general, which

CiiAP. VI. SACRED MUSIC. 311

may possibly be the case, it is only reasonable to suppose that tlie oldest and most universally-known stringed instrument would be mentioned as a repre- sentative of the whole class rather than any other. Besides, the kinnor was a light and very portable instrument : King David, according to the Kabbinic records, used to suspend it during the night over his pillow. All its uses mentioned in the Bible are espe- cially applicable to the lyre. And the resemblance of the word kinnor to kithara^ kissar, and similar names known to denote the lyre, also tends to con- firm the opinion that it refers to this instrument or to a kind of trigonon.

VOCAL AND INSTEUMENTAL PERFOEMANCES.

With the nature of the Hebrew musical per- formances we are more accurately acquainted than with the instruments. Moreover, it is evident from the Biblical records that the Hebrews had various kinds of sacred and secular musical compositions, differing according to the occasions on which they were employed. To enter into a detailed description of them would transgress the limits prescribed by the object of the present essay. The following short summary will suffice for our purpose.

Sacred Music in Divine Worship was evidently re- garded as of the highest importance by the Hebrews. The number of musicians engaged in the Temple in the reign of King David is stated to have been four thousand : " And four thousand praised the Lord with instruments which I made, said David, to praise

31 2 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

therewith " (1 Chron. xxiii. 5). An enumeration of the whole band is given 1 Chron. xxv., from which we learn that it consisted of two hundred and eighty- eight well-practised members, described as " cmming " in their profession ; the rest, making up the number of four thousand, appear to have been pupils and occasional assistants of the former.

In the solemn musical performances in the proces- sions conveying the ark, the three principal con- ductors of the band, Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, " were appointed to sound with cymbals of brass " (1 Chron. XV. 19). These "cymbals" (metzilthaim) were most likely a kind of castanets, perhaps resem- bling the crotala of the ancient Egyptians before mentioned, with the rhythmical sounds of which the leaders indicated the time and directed the per- formance.

In 2 Sam. vi. 5 we read : " And David and all the house of Israel played before the Lord on all manner of instruments made of fir-wood, even on harps, and on psalteries, and on timbrels, and on cornets, and on cymbals." The occasion on which this combination of instruments was employed was the conveyance of the ark. The same band is de- scribed somewhat differently in 1 Chron. xiii. 8, where singing is mentioned with the accompaniment of harps, psalteries, timbrels, cymbals, and trumpets. This suggests the probability that in some of the descriptions of Hebrew bands occurring in the Bible, some instruments — perhaps those which were con- sidered as of minor importance — may have been left entirely unnoticed, and that therefore the bands, on some occasions, consisted of a greater number

CHAP. VI. SACRED MUSIC. 313

of different instruments than would appear from the accounts.

Grand, but to our ears painfully loud, must have been the performance which assisted at the solemn dedication of Solomon's Temple : " Also the Levites which were the singers, all of them of Asaph, of Heman, of Jeduthun, with their sons and their brethren, being arrayed in white linen, having cym- bals, and psalteries, and harps, stood at the east end of the altar, and with them an hundred and twenty priests sounding with trumpets : It came even to pass, as the trumpeters and singers were as one, to make one sound to be heard in praising and thanking the Lord ; and when they lifted up their voice with the trumpets and cymbals and instruments of music, and praised the Lord, saying. For he is good ; for his mercy endureth for ever : that then the house was filled with a cloud, even the house of the Lord : so that the priests could not stand to minister by reason of the cloud ; for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of God" (2 Chron. v. 12, 13, 14).

Sacred Songs and instrumental compositions, which probably were performed also in family circles, are alluded to in the Bible in a few instances only : " Ye shall have a song, as in the night when a holy solemnity is kept ; and gladness of heart, as when one goeth with a pipe to come into the mountain of the Lord, to the miglity One of Israel " (Isaiah xxx, 29). " Though ye offer me burnt offerings and your meat offerings, I will not accept them : neither will I regard the peace offerings of your fat beasts. Take thou away from me the noise of thy songs, for I will not hear the melody of thy viols " (Amos v. 22, 23).

314 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

" Is any among you afflicted ? let him pray. Is any merry ? let him sing psalms " (James v. 13).

Military Music, sacred as well as secular, was evi- dently considered a necessary requisite in warlike exploits. When Jehoshaphat went to battle against the hosts of Ammon, Moab, and Seir, he placed a choir of singers in the front of his army : " And when he had consulted with the people he appointed singers unto the Lord, that should praise the beauty of holiness, as they went out before the army, and to say, Praise the Lord ; for his mercy endureth for ever" (2 Chron. xx. 21).

An instance of the powerful effect of the trumpet upon the Hebrews, in encouraging them on the battle-field, is recorded 2 Chron. xiii. 12, 14 ; and a peculiar use made of this instrument in war occurs on occasion of the capture of Jericho : " And seven priests shall bear before the ark seven trumpets of rams' horns : and the seventh day ye shall compass the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with the trmnpets. And it shall come to pass that when they make a long blast with the ram's horn, and when ye hear the sound of the trumpet, all the people shall shout with a great shout " (Josh. vi. 4, 5). Another peculiar employment of the trumpet in war occurs in the stratagem of Gideon (Judg. vii.), in which three hundred trumpets were used by the warriors.

Triwrnplial Songs, as well as instrumental perform- ances, usually of a sacred character, celebrating a victory over the enemy, are also frequently alluded to in the Biblical records. Such, for instance, were the song of Moses and Miriam, in which the children

Chap. VL TRIUMPHAL SONGS. 315

of Israel joined in chorus (Exod. xv.), and the song of Deborah and Barak (Judg. v.). True, we do not find it recorded that the last-mentioned song was per- formed with instrumental accompaniments and dances, like other songs of the same description ; still, there can scarcely be a doubt that this was the case. David, after his retm-n from the slaughter of the Philistine, was greeted with vocal and instrumental music (1 Sam. xviii. 6) ; and musical performances of a similar character are those of Jephthah's daughter and her companions (Judg. xi. 34) ; of Jehoshaphat and his people, on returning from a successful expe- dition to Jerusalem (2 Chron. xx. 27, 28) ; and of Judith and the women, after the death of Holofernes and the defeat of the Assyrians. The description of the last-mentioned musical performance, occurring in one of the apocryphal books, is remarkably illustrative of Eastern customs, and reminds one forcibly of some of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian representa- tions of such performances : — " Then all the women of Israel ran together to see her [Judith], and blessed her, and made a dance among them for her : and she took branches in her hand, and gave also to the women that were with her. And they put a garland of olive upon her and her maid that was with her, and she went before all the people in the dance, leading all the women : and all the men of Israel followed in their armour with garlands, and with songs in their mouths. Then Judith began to sing this thanksgiving in all Israel, and all the people sang after her this song of praise. And Judith said. Begin unto my God with timbrels, sing unto my Lord with cymbals : tmie unto him a new psalm :

316 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

exalt him, and call upon his name," &:c. (Judith xv. 12, 13; xvi. 1, 2).

Erotic Songs diTQ alluded to in the title of Psalm xlv., " To the chief musician upon Shoshannim, for the sons of Korah, Maschil, a Song of Loves ; " and in Isaiah v. 1, " Now will I sing to my wellbeloved a song of my beloved touching his vineyard."

Music at bridal processions w?i^ probably as usual as it is at the present day in the East. The prophet Jeremiah alludes to it in the following passage : — " Then will I cause to cease from the cities of Judah, and from the streets of Jerusalem, the voice of mirth, and the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom, and the voice of the bride : for the land shall be desolate" (Jerem. vii. 34).

Funeral Songs and instrumental performances of doleful music at funerals, combined with lamentations, processions in the streets, and characteristic wailings, were also evidently as common as they are at this day in Asia Minor and in Egypt. Compare, for instance, the following passages : —

" And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah ; and all the singing men and the singing women spoke of Josiah in their lamentations to this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel : and behold they are written in the Lamentations" (2 Chron. xxxv. 25).

" Man goeth to his long home, and the mourners go about the streets" (Eccl. xii. 5).

" Yet hear the word of the Lord, 0 ye women, and let your ear receive the word of liis mouth, and teach your daughters wailing, and every one her neighbour lamentation " (Jerem. ix. 20).

" Therefore the Lord, the God of hosts, the Lord,

Chap. VT. POrULAR SONGS. .317

saitli thus : Wailing shall he in all streets, and they shall say in the highways, Alas ! alas ! and they shall call the husbandman to mourning, and such as are skilful of lamentation to wailing" (Amos v. IG). Compare also St. Matt. ix. 23.

When king Saul and his son Jonathan, David's friend, had fallen in battle, David vented his grief in a touching elegy (2 Sam. i. 19), in which occurs three times the sentence, " How are the mighty fallen ! " which suggests the probability that these words were combined with a certain melodious phrase of the nature of the refrain in some of our songs.

Popular Secula?' Songs are found in every nation, whatever may be its stage of musical development. There can therefore be no doubt that the Hebrews must have jDossessed this kind of music also. Allu- sion is made in Isaiah xvi. 10 to the songs of the vintners : " And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field ; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there be shouting : the treaders shall tread out no wine in their press ; I have made their vintage shouting to cease." Com- pare also Jerem. xlviii. 33.

Convivial Songs, as well as instrumental perform- ances and dances, entertained the guests at banquets and other social festivities. They are alluded to in Isaiah xxiv. 8, 9 : — " The mirth of tabrets ceaseth, the noise of them that rejoice endeth, the joy of the harp ceaseth. They shall not drink wine with a song." The injunction to the master of an entertainment, " Pour not out words where there is a musician, and show not forth wisdom out of time " (Ecclus. xxxii.

318 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

1, 4), would indicate that nmsic was at least as much esteemed as at the present time, where this rule is not always observed. The custom of celebrating a happy event with music and feasting is alluded to in the parable of the Prodigal Son (St. Luke xv. 25).

In denouncing the debaucheries into which the feasts sometimes degenerated, the prophets also inveigh against the misuse of music on such occa- sions. " Woe unto them," exclaims Isaiah, " that rise up early in the morning, that they may follow strong drink ; that continue until night, till wine inflame them ! And the harp, and the viol, the tabret, and pipe, and wine, are in their feasts" (Isaiah v. 11, 12). The prophet Amos censures the ignoble use made of music by voluptuaries " that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their couches, and eat the lambs of the flock, and the calves out of the midst of the stall ; that chant to the sound of the viol, and invent to themselves instruments of music, like David" (Amos vi. 4, 5).

Performances of itinerant musicians were probably common in the streets of the towns. Female musi- cians are mentioned by Isaiah as performing in the streets, and, perhaps, more frequently in houses for the entertainment of parties, like those seen in some of the ancient Egyptian representations, or like the Hindoo Bayaderes, and the Almeh girls of modern Egypt ; but their musical accomplishments, whatever they may have been, appear, unfortunately, to have been superior to their moral character. " And it shall come to pass in that day that Tyre shall be forgotten seventy years, according to the days of one king : after the end of seventy years shall Tyre sing as an

Chap. VI. ITS POWER. 319

harlot. Take an harp, go about the city, thou harlot that hast been forgotten ; make sweet melody, sing many songs, that thou mayest be remembered" (Isaiah xxiii. 15, 16). Such a class of musicians must Jesus the son of Sirach have had in his thought when he gave the advice, " Use not much the com- pany of a woman that is a singer, lest thou be taken with her attempts" (Ecclus. ix. 4).

Two historical facts are specially remarkable as showing the power of Hebrew music, and how fully it was appreciated. These are, its application as a cure in nervous disorders, and its employment as a means of stimulating the inspirations of the prophets. When King Saul became afflicted with attacks of a nervous malady, his attendants suggested to him, " Let our lord now command thy servants which are before thee, to seek out a man who is a cunning player on a harp : and it shall come to pass, when the evil spirit from God is upon thee, that he shall play with his hand, and thou shalt be well." And we know that the anticij)ated effect was realised : " And it came to pass, when the evil spirit from Grod was upon Saul, that David took an harp, and played with his hand : so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him (1 Sam. xvi. 16, 23). And this was repeated until Saul's affliction became too severe to yield any longer to the bene- ficial influence of music.

Eeferring to the power of prophesying evoked by music, several instances might be cited ; one, however, will be sufficient. Elisha being required by the kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom, to prophesy before them, his request was for a musician : " But now

320 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass when the minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon him. And he said, Thus saith the Lord, Make this valley full of ditches," &c. (2 Kings iii. 15).

Although we possess no such records of the power of Assyrian and ancient Egyptian music, there can scarcely be a doubt that it was similarly effective. Indeed, the fact of musical performances being con- sidered essential requisites in important and solemn celebrations, as is evident from the monumental repre- sentations, in some measure proves this. Neither can there be a doubt that the effect of music upon the human heart must have been in ancient times quite as powerful as it is in our own day.

I have stated already the reasons which tend to the conclusion that the ancient nations were not so entirely unacquainted with harmony as is generally supposed. True, we read in 2 Chron. v. 13, of a musical per- formance on a certain occasion in the Temple of Jeru- salem : "It came even to pass as the trumpeters and singers were as one, to make one sound to be heard in praising and thanking the Lord." This passage is usually cited in support of the opinion that the musi- cal performances of the Hebrews must have been in unison. Might not, however, rather the 023posite conclusion be drawn from it? Taking for granted that a performance in unison is here really meant, is it at all likely that it would have been specially recorded if no other mode of combining the voices and instruments had been known ?

Some hints respecting the character of the musical performances of other nations adjacent to the Hebrews, besides the Assyrians, are also transmitted to us in

Chap. VI. ACQUAINTED WITH HARMONY. 321

the Bible. Laban reproaches Jacob : " Wherefore didst thou flee away secretly, and steal away from me ; and didst not tell me, that I might have sent thee away with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp?" (Gen. xxxi. 27). Laban, who lived about B.C. 1700, was a Syrian. Again, in the book of Job, who is supposed to have dwelt in Arabia B.C. 1500, mention is made of three different instruments in combination, rendered in the English authorized version, " They take the timbrel and harp, and rejoice at the sound of the organ" (Job xxi. 12), The " organ " is the Hebrew ugab, which, as we have seen, appears to have been nothing more than a kind of Pandean pipe.

The prophet Ezekiel, while threatening Tyre with destruction, adverts incidentally to the music of the Phoenicians: "And I will cause the noise of thy songs to cease ; and the sound of the harps shall be no more heard" (Ezek. xxvi. 13). Perhaps also the passage in Isaiah xxiii. 15, 16, which has already been quoted, may refer especially to certain musi- cal performances common among the Phoenicians. Further, it must be remembered that some of the ancient writers ascribe to the Phoenicians the inven- tion of the kinnor, the trigonon, and several other of the most remarkable instruments of antiquity.

All that can be gathered from such scanty records tends to strengthen the conclusion previously arrived at, that the principal characteristics of the music in all those nations must have been very much the same. In the ten-stringed instruments mentioned in the Bible we have additional indications of the penta- tonic scale at the time of David. Combinations of

322 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Chap. VI.

various instruments, in performances like those of the Hebrew and Assyrian, undoubtedly were in use in Phoenicia and in other countries of Western Asia, also at an early period. In reference to the antiquity of the Egyptian bands, Sir Gardner Wilkinson observes : " In the earliest sculptures, which are those in the tomb of an individual behind the Great Pyramid, between three and four thousand years old, is a concert of vocal and instrumental music, consisting of two harps, a pipe, a flute, and several voices ; and during the reigns of the Pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty, other combinations frequently occur." ^ The Hebrew performances, though similar to these, were apparently more rude ; noisy instruments of percus- sion and loud wind-instruments, such as the small trumpet, being usually employed, often in great numbers, even in Divine worship. The rudeness of the Hebrew performances at the time of Moses is indicated in the conversation between Joshua and Moses, when the former mistook them for a " noise of war in the camp ; " so that Moses found it necessary to inform him, " It is not the voice of them that shout for mastery, neither is it the voice of them that cry for being overcome : but the noise of them that sing do I hear" (Exod. xxxii. 18). The Hebrews evidently retained their predilection for loud and noisy perform- ances, even after they had made considerable progress in the cultivation of music.

Considering that it was the vocation of the Levites to engage in the musical portion of the religious ser-

^ The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, by Sir G. Wilkinson, London, 1847, vol. ii. p. 30G.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 323

vices, and that they evidently had ample leisure for the cultivation of music, it appears highly probable that they studied this art scientifically as well as practically. We may therefore suppose that the Hebrews possessed written treatises on the theory of music, as well as institutions for the practice of the different branches of vocal and instrumental music. They had, as the Bible informs us, schools of the prophets in various places, in which music appears to have been taught systematically. One of these establishments it would appear was at Bethel (1 Sam. X. 5) ; another at Naioth, in Eamah (1 Sam. xix. 19, 20, 21) ; a third at Jericho (2 Kings ii. 5, 7) ; a fourth at Gilgal (2 Kings iv. 38) ; and there was most likely also one at Jerusalem (vide 2 Kings xxii. 14). King Solomon himself was a musical composer, who undoubtedly had systematically studied the art (1 Kings iv. 32).

HEBEEW MUSIC OF THE PEESENT DAY.

Although the modern Jews cannot be said to possess a national music of their own, they have retained several characteristics in their musical performances which unmistakeably indicate their Eastern origin. This would scarcely have been possible imder the circumstance of their being so widely and thinly dispersed among other nations, were it not for the strictness with which they have always upheld their prescribed religious rites and ceremonies in which music is employed. They have, as we have seen, even preserved one of their old Hebrew musical

Y 2

324

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

instruments, the shophar. Moreover, the Jews in Grermany possess several hymn-tunes undoubtedly of very high antiquity. Among these is a Penitential Hymn, with respect to which a tradition exists that it was composed by King David. The circumstance of its being somewhat differently sung in the syna- gogues of Northern Germany, from what it is in those of Southern Germany, speaks more in favour of, than against its antiquity. I shall insert here two readings of this melody ; the first is my own notation from hearing it sung in Hamburg, and the second is transcribed from the collection ' Schir Zion,' used in the synagogues of Vienna : —

PENITENTIAL HYMN

fe

AS SUNG IN THE SYNAGOGUES AT HAMBURG.

Qrave.

t^.

:*

1

a

4— ^1— rj

:2±.

-»-m)-

:^

AS SUNG IN THE SYNAGOGUES AT VIENNA.

^^^

3

-* — m-

W-

-^-=W-

P^

Chap. VI.

BLESSING OF THE PRIESTS.

325

:=5-

:t:

:^:

^— f*^^-

:^=q:

^

-ei-

-<s)

WEE3

zi:

S

^z

J^Z

:E^

* Scliir Zion ' contains, besides compositions of com- paratively modern origin, thirty-six ancient melodies ; whicli, however sceptical we may be with respect to their asserted ancient Hebrew origin, are certainly in construction closely allied to the songs of the Arabs and Persians.

The ancient melody to the ' Blessing of the Priests ' has been already noticed, page 114. De Sola ob- serves : " A tradition exists with respect to the melody of the ' Blessing of the Priests,' that it is identical with that sung in the Temple, where, as it is known, the priestly choirs were daily wont to bless the people, agreeably to the command to them in Numbers vi. 22-26. That this tradition is supported by great probability, almost amounting to direct proof, will appear from the following considerations : First, that this duty devolved exclusively on the priests — who were a numerous class — who executed it with religious awe and attention, and who, as

326 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

a privilege peculiar to themselves, scrupulously trans- mitted it to their sons. It is therefore highly impro- bable that, on the restoration of public Divine service, the priests should have used, or the people would have permitted them to introduce, any other melody except the venerated one of the Temple, especially as the blessing of the people was the only act of ministra- tion remaining to the priests after the destruction of the sanctuary. Secondly, we find that, with slight alteration, this blessing is sung to the same melody in every Sephardic congregation. And though our brethren, following the German Liturgy, have more than one melody for it, they seem to be of compara- tively modern introduction ; and one of them, said to be the most ancient, contains unmistakeable traces of this, which we must consider to be the original melody. Its simplicity and the repetition of the same melody for all the words of the Blessing (fifteen in number), are circumstances which will have due weight, and will be accepted as additional and corro- borative evidence for its antiquity by the musical archaeologist and critic." ^

Another favourite melody of the Jews, the ' Song of Moses,' is asserted to be the same which Miriam and her companions sang after the deliverance from Pharaoh's host. De Sola gives the following argu- ments in favour of this opinion : — " According to a very ancient Spanish work (printed, if I recollect rightly, in Portugal), ' Some have affirmed that what we now sing to the Song of Moses is the same

^ The Ancient Melodies of the Li- I Jews, by E. Aguilar and by the Kev. tiirgy of the Spanish and rortuguese | D. A. De Sola, London, 1857, p. 15,

Chap. VI.

SONG OF MOSES.

327

melody which Miriam and her companions sung,' &c. This legend would not merit any serious consideration here, except that it undoubtedly proves that the know- ledge of the origin of the melody was already long lost when this ancient Spanish book was written. And here, again, the acute remark of Dr. Sachs is applicable, that ' Fable soon occupies itself to speak where history is silent.' It is therefore highly pro- bable that this melody belongs to a period anterior to the regular settlement of the Jews in Spain. The general adoption thereof by every congregation of the Sephardic Liturgy furnishes also a strong proof in favour of the high antiquity of its origin :"^ —

THE SONG OF MOSES.

Andantino

ya - sliir Mo - she lib -

yis ra

_J^-_]S_-^

-« — P-

:&

^f^gJ — ^--_^--^-^±:

-g— pi-i h

-I*— i — I — I — ^

i

- el

1=

et ha • shi - ra ha - zot

-9'—] — 0>-

:^^

m

la - do

w

i^:

^

nai . . va yo - me - ru le - mor. A - do

m

:t::

^t

:t=t^=

zi:

t-

nai ish mil cha - ma A - do - nai

^ The Ancient Melodies of the I guese Jews, by the Rev. D. A. De Liturgy of the Spanish and Porta- j Sola, London, 1857, p. IG.

328

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap, VI.

i

f

*

^^Tj_j^_±^^

^-

3=1=

mo mar- ke - Lot Parno;lao ve « clie - lo

ya

i

w

=&t:

-— — ;^— #— ^— =— «-

^^

ba

yam

u - mib - char .

sha - li -

shav

tu - bens; - u

be - yam suf.

This melody is, however, so modern in construction, that, if we are inclined to accept Mr. De Sola's views, we must yet remember that it has probably, in the course of time, undergone a transformation suffi- cient to make it appear almost another tune. The same remark applies, in my oj^inion, to all the me- lodies which are asserted to have been in use in the Temple at Jerusalem. Indeed, it may be doubted whether the ancient Hebrews, could they hear them, would now recognise any of them as their own.

Very different is it, however, with the musical per- formances in the synagogue. These, undoubtedly, have preserved the Oriental type. Thus the charac- teristic manner of singing, or rather chanting, with the introduction of embellishments — in short, the kind of singing which musicians call cantillation, and which may be heard in every synagogue — bears a close resemblance to certain vocal performances of the Arabs and Persians. A Chief Rabbi related to Dr. Burney, that, " being at Petersburgh some years since, the Grand Caliph of Persia was there likewise

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY.

329

on an embassy, and had the service of his rehgion regularly performed in a kind of mosque fitted up in the Czar's palace for his use. That when he first heard this service performed he found the singing so like that in the German synagogues that he thought it had been done in derision of the Jews, and on that account soon left it. But, upon inquiry, finding it to be nothing more than the manner of singing common in Persia, he concluded that the Persians had bor- rowed this kind of chant from the ancient Oriental Jews." ^

Even the peculiar swinging motion of the body, usually accompanying the singing of the Jews in the synagogue, which gradually increases with the in- creasing fervour of the singers, reminds us of the East. In Egypt, Mr. Lane states, " all the boys, in learning to read, recite or chant their lessons aloud, at the same time rocking their heads or bodies incessantly backwards and forwards ; which practice is observed by almost all persons in reciting the ' Km^an/ being thought to assist the memory." ^

If we were exactly acquainted with the musical performances in the religious observances of the various Jewish communities in different parts of the world, we should probably be in a position to deter- mine how much has been preserved since the dispersion of the Jews after the destruction of the second temple. Dr. Pickering, the ethnologist attached to the United States Exploring Expedition, who divides the whole Jewish family, as it exists at the present day, into four classes, — viz., the Syrian, Indian, Arabian, and

' Buraey's Hialory of Music, i. 256.

* An Account of the Manners and

Customs of the Modern Egyptians, by E. W. Lane, London, 1860, p. 60.

330 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

European, — observes that the Arabian Jews at Aden have preserved more of the primitive Hebrew cus- toms than any of their brethren elsewhere. Further, ethnologists describe the Jews in China, Tartary, and Hindoostan as having spread from early times through these and other countries of Central and Eastern Asia. Then, there is in Cochin, Malabar coast, a colony of so-called White Jews, or Jeru- salem Jews, which arrived in that country at a later date than those of a dark complexion, known as the Black Jews.^ What interesting results might the musical historian deduce from a comparison of the sacred musical performances of the former with those of the latter !

Respecting the Black Jews, a recent traveller says : " Some few of them have a Hebrew cast of countenance, but by far the greater number are indis- tinguishable from the natives around. They are considered by the White Jews as an inferior race, and not of ^9z^rt^ caste, and intermarriage between them consequently never takes place. Their customs, forms of prayer, songs, &c., are the same as those of the White Jews, but they do not observe the same strict Levitical ceremonies, and, having no legitimate relationship with Hebrews in other lands, they are looked upon, and pride themselves upon being, a distinct sect."

Respecting the White Jews, the same writer says : " Their costume does not at all resemble that of the natives of India ; and as the Jews say that it is the same as that of their ancestors, there is reason to

- See The Natural History of Man, by J. C. Pricliard, edited by Edwin Norris, London, 1855, p. 131.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 331

imagine, therefore, that it affords a correct idea of the dress of their sect at the commencenient of the Christian era." The Feast of Tabernacles is cele- brated by them with great solemnity. The women are in a screened gallery over the entrance of the synagogue. " The service commences with a chant and jDrayer ; a portion of Scripture is read, or rather intoned, by the officiating Eabbi (who wears the Tallith or veil over his turban) ; and the impressive silent prayer follows. The people stand in groups facing the Books of the Law, and, with a constant flexion of the body and an occasional low prostration, hum the petitions very rapidly, and apparently with deep consideration. After some minutes the Eabbi gives the initiative, and they burst forth into a tumult- uous, if not irreverent, chant, in performing which they distort their faces with zeal to make themselves heard. After a further pause the men proceed by turns to the end of the building, and with much show of respect kiss the silver cases enclosing the Books, and then the women descend and go through the same ceremony with most touching solemnity."^

In Jerusalem there are at the present day several distinct Jewish communities. Among these, the Se- phardic, or that of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, consisting of about 4000 in number, constitutes the largest. The Aschkenasim community consists of Jews from Grermany, Holland, Russia, Poland, Bohe- mia, and other parts of Europe. They all understand the German language, of which they have created a

3 British and Native Cochin, by C. A, L., Cochin, printed at tlie ' Courier ' Press, l)y B. Fernandcs, 1860, p. 121.

332 MUSIC OP THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

strange dialect ; while the Sephardic Jews, principally derived from Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco, Algiers, India, and Persia, use the Spanish language. Besides these, there are in Jerusalem some smaller separate Hehrew communities, of which the Karaites must be noticed from their having been resident in Jerusalem, according to their own account, ever since the de- struction of the Temple. Dr. Frankl, who had ample opportunity to witness the religious observances of the Jews in this city, found the singing of the Sephar- dic Jews closely allied to that of the Arabs, " more rhythmical than melodious, shrill rather than soft, and closely bordering on snuffling." Still, he pre- ferred it to the singing of the Aschkenasim Jews, consisting of a kind of cantillation, which is usually called Polish singing.

The same traveller gives an account of the sum- mons of the Jews in Jerusalem to morning prayer : " When the oldest rabbi in the institution Beth-el, in which the Talmud is studied the whole night, observes the first dawn of early morn, he despatches a messen- ger to the roof of the institution, which commands an extensive view towards the east. There he announces in a loud voice, like the muezzin of the Mohammedans from the minarets, that it is the hour for prayer. The commencement of the Sabbath is announced to the Sephardim by the cry, ' Ascender ' (' Light up '), and immediately thousands of windows are illumi- nated, and from the synagogue is heard the fervent salutation, Lecho Daiidi, likras halo / " *

'' The Jews in the East, translated from the German of Dr. Frankl, by the Kev. P. Beaton, London, 1859, vol. ii. p. 62.

CiiAP. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY. 333

Dr. Frankl, having been invited, during his stay in Jerusalem, to a Jewish wedding, was, on his arrival, entertained with the musical performance of some young Jewesses, who were singing an Arab song, striking at the same time tambourines, to which bells were attached. In the course of the entertainment, several young girls performed dances to their own singing, while the admiring male spectators produced a rhythmical accompaniment by clapping their hands. The girls never formed a group ; each danced singly. When a Jewish marriage procession passes through the streets of Jerusalem, the chanting of the men is at intervals accompanied by the shrill Zaghareet of the young Jewesses who escort the bride.

i

w

It::

I 2ag - - - ha - reet.

During the procession of a Jewish funeral in Jeru- salem, Dr. Frankl heard the bearers sing the Psalm, " He that dwelleth in the sacred place of the Most High shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty." On the roof of the house out of which the body had been removed stood female mourners covered with long white veils, and singing. As they stretched out their hands towards heaven, they looked, says Dr. Frankl, " like the dead risen from their graves in their white winding-sheets, and chanting a death-song in wild unearthly chorus." Another peculiar cere- mony is the wailing at the wall which formerly surrounded the Temple at Jerusalem, part of which

334 MUSIC OP THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

is yet standing. Here the Jews assemble every Friday to express in prayers and songs their affliction for the destruction of the Sanctuary. Dr. Frankl relates : " The Jews have a firman from the Sultan, which, in return for a small tax, ensures them the right of entrance for all time to come. The road con- ducted us to several streets, till, entering a narrow, crooked lane, we reached the wall, which has been often described. There can be no doubt but the lower part of it is a real memorial of the days of Solo- mon, which, in the language of Flavins Josephus, is ' immoveable for all time.' Its Cyclopic proportions produce the positive conviction that it will last as long as the strong places of the earth. Before we reached the wall we heard a sort of howling melody, a passion- ate shrieking, a heartrending wailing, like a chorus, from which the words came sobbing forth, ' How long yet, O Grod ? ' Several hundreds of Jews, Turkish and Polish costumes, were assembled, and, with their faces turned towards the wall, were bending and bowing as they offered up the evening prayer. He who led their devotions was a young man in a Polish talar, who seemed to be worn out with passion and disease. The words were those of the well-known Mincha prayer, but drawled, torn, shrieked, and mum- bled in such a way that the piercing sound resembled rather the raging frenzy of chained madmen, or the roaring of a cataract, than the worship of rational beino-s. At a considerable distance from the men stood about a hundred women, all in long white robes, the folds of which covered the head and the whole figure — white doves, which, weary of flight, had perched upon the ruins. When it was their turn to

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY.

335

offer up the usual passages of the prayer, they joined the men's tumultuous chorus, and raised their arms aloft, which, with their wide robes, looked like wings with which they were about to soar aloft into the open sky ; and then they struck their foreheads on the square stones of the wall of the temple. Meanwhile, if the leader of their prayers grew weary, and leaned his head against the wall in silent tears, for a moment there was a death-like silence. I happened to be near him, and I could mark the sincerity of his agitated soul. He gave a rapid glance at me, and, without stopping short in his prayer, said to me, ' Mokem Kodesch ' ii. e. ' holy place '), and pointed to my covered feet. My guide had forgotten to inform me that I must take off my shoes. I now did so, and was drawn into the vortex of raging sorrow and lamentation." ^

The Hon. Robert Curzon, while in Jerusalem, went on the morning of the day of the Passover into the synagogue under the walls of the Temple. He found a numerous congregation, standing up, with large white shawls over their heads, reading the Psalms. He says : " After I had been there a short time, all the people began to hop about and to shake their heads and limbs in a most extraordinary manner ; the whole congregation was in motion, from the priest who was standing in the reading-desk to the porter who capered at the door. All this was in consequence of a verse in the 35th Psalm, which says, ' All my bones shall say. Lord, who is like unto thee v ' " «

12.

* The Jews in the East, vol. ii. p. 2. ® Visits to Monasteries in the

Levant, by the Hon. Robert Curzon, London, 1850, p. 172.

336 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

The traveller Burckliardt, in speaking of the Jews of Tabaria, or Tiberias, in Palestine, who constitute about one-fourth of the population of that town, says : " They observe a singular custom here in praying. While the Rabbin recites the Psalms of David, or the prayers extracted from them, the congregation fre- quently imitate by their voice or gestures the meaning of some remarkable passages ; for example, when the Rabbin pronounces, ' Praise the Lord with the sound of the trumpet,' they imitate the sound of the trumpet through their closed fists. When a ' horrible tempest ' occurs, they puff and blow to represent a storm ; or should he mention ' the cries of the righteous in dis- tress,' they all set up a loud screaming ; and it not unfrequently happens that, while some are still blow- ing the storm, others have already begun the cries of the righteous, thus forming a concert which it is difficult for any but a zealous Hebrew to hear with gravity." "^

Alexander Russell mentions that in Aleppo it is the custom of the Jews on their Sabbath to remain a considerable time at table singing in chorus, very much in the same manner as they chant the Psalms in the synagogue.^ Also, the Jews in Poland and Galicia appear to adapt their sacred chants, at ban- quets, to secular words. The traveller Kohl, when strolling at midnight through the streets of Stanis- lawow, a small town in Gralicia, was surprised to hear from a wine-house a chorus of male voices, which

■^ Travels in Syria and the Ploly Land, by the late J. L. Biu-ckhardt, London, 1822, p. 326.

* The Natural History of Aleppo, by Alex. Russell, London, 1794, vol. i. p. G3.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY. 337

appeared to him exactly like the usual chanting of the Psalms of David in the services of the synagogue. Having entered the wine-house, he found a picturesque- looking company of Jews, with fine black beards, dressed in long black silk talars, who were drinking and singing with all their might. ^

With the music of the Jews in Syria we are but superficially acquainted. Dr. Frankl, during his sojourn in Damascus, was invited to a feast given by Rafael Stambini, the wealthiest Jew in that place, in honour of Baron Alphonso von Eothschild, who had come on a visit from Jerusalem. On this occasion, as soon as four instrumental performers, playing a kind of hautbois called zourna^ the drum, the tam- bourine, and cymbals, had concluded their extraordi- nary quartetto^ the musical entertainment was continued by a vocal performance in the manner which. Dr. Frankl observes, " is often scoffed at in the synagogues of the West as Polish flourishing and snufiling." And thus, also, was the singing of profane as well as reli- gious songs in Hebrew, Arabic, and Spanish, which Dr. Frankl heard on a Sabbath in the house of Mr. Angelo Schemaja, another rich Jew, and the patron of singers and musicians, in Damascus.^

In Egypt there are, according to Villoteau, two different sects of Jews, strongly opposed to each other in some of their religious doctrines and rites. The Rahhanym follow the Rabbinical doctrine, while the Karaym reject the authority of the Rabbins. Never-

^ Reisen im Innern von Russland und Polen, von J. G. Kohl, Dresden, 1841, vol. iii, p. 51.

' The Jews in the East, vol. i. p. 275.

338 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

tlieless, tlicir sacred music is the same — a fact which affords additional proof of the reverence with which the Jews have preserved the music of their forefathers. The chants of the Egyptian Jews are principally based on the minor scale, with the introduction of a super- fluous second, —

and it is remarkable that some of the ancient melodies preserved by the German Jews, as given in ' Scliir Zion,' exhibit the same peculiarity, of which I shall have to speak presently.

Yilloteau gives the compass of the notes to which the songs of the Egyptian Jews, which he heard, were limited, as follows : —

m=^^=^^E^^^^^^

It will be seen that if the lowest note, g, was the tonic, the melody had a step of a superfluous second from the third to the fourth — an order of intervals which, as we shall presently see, is by no means un- common in Eastern music of the present day. It is, however, evident, to judge from the above examjDle, as well as from well-known theoretical laws, that the interval d in the series must be usually taken as the tonic of the melodies.

The Falashas, a kind of Hebrew sect in Abyssinia,

Chap. Vh HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY, 339

appear to have retained less of the ancient musical religious performances than their brethren in any other country. Even the blowing of the shophar at the Feast of Trumpets is not observed by them.^ There appears, however, to be some doubt whether they can properly be considered as professing the Jewish faith. Dr. Latham observes : " The extent to which the Falashas exhibit a variety of customs common to themselves and the Jews has long been recognised. It by no means, however, follows that they are a result of Jewish influence. The criticism that applies to the Grhas [a negro tribe, Cape Coast, of well-marked Jewish characters in their religious and other ceremonies] applies here. Many of the so-called Jewish peculiarities are African as well, irrespective of intercourse and independent of imitation." ^

The Jews in the Barbary States have undoubtedly adopted much from the Arabic music. The Eev. J. W. Blakesley mentions a Jewish custom, observed at Tunis on the 1 st of May, on which occasion a kind of bower, composed of flowers and wax candles, is car- ried in procession to the synagogue, the people all the while chanting, and the females uttering the peculiar sound of ly-ly-ly, in the manner of the Mahommedan women at wedding and funeral processions. After the arrival of the singers at the synagogue, the whole building is decorated with flowers and the wax-tapers are lighted. The same traveller visited a synagogue in Algiers, and was surprised to find that " the air to

2 Wandei'ings among the Fala- shas in Abyssinia, by the Rev. H. A. Stern, London, 1862, p. 190.

3 The Natural History of the Varieties of Man, by R. G. Latham, London, 1850, p. 500.

z 2

340

MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS.

Chap. VI.

which the Psalms were chanted coincided almost exactly with one of the Grregorian tones." The ritual was in Hebrew, as in other countries, but the Rabbins preached sometimes in Arabic. In the town of Constantine he heard the chanting of the Psalms in the synagogue occasionally accom- panied by the ejaculation of ly-ly-ly of the women, which reminded him of similar vocal performances of the Libyan women mentioned by Herodotus, and which appears, as we have seen, to have been also an Assyrian custom.*

In Tangier, Mr. J. Cayley, being invited to a Jewish wedding, found a company, including about thirty-six young Jewesses, singing, clapping hands, and danc- ing to the sound of a kemangeh, played upon by the Chief Rabbin, an old man with a long white beard. In the course of this entertainment a curious ceremony was introduced : the bridegroom, having been placed in a chair in the middle of the room, was shaved in the presence of the assemblage.^ The Rev. T. Debary relates that he witnessed at Tangier the festival of the circumcision of a little Jew boy. During the time of the ceremony Psalms were chanted. After its con- clusion wine was offered to the company, and sprays of myrtle were thrown among the people for smelling.^

The Jews in Turkey also are divided into different sects. In Constantinople, Dr. Frankl on a Sabbath

■* Four Months in Algeria, by the Rev. J. W. Blakesley, Cam- bridgo, 1859, p. 36.

* Lasalforjas, by G. J. Cayley, London, 1853, vol. i. p. 238.

*■ Notes of a Residence in the Canary Islands, the South of Spain, and Algiers, by the Rav. Thomas Debary, London, 1851, ]). 254.

CiiAP. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE I'KESENT DAY. 341

visited tlie synagogue Bene Hamikra, belonging to the Karaites. " A handsome boy, about twelve years of age, in a green caftan, with a red fez and yellow slippers, walked up to the elevated table covered with a beautiful carpet, which was brought into the middle of the synagogue. He fell down on his knees, and, like a Mussulman at prayers, touched the pavement with his forehead, and then stood up and sang with a beautiful clear voice a song of praise to God ; the congregation sang the concluding verse as a chorus. The boy sang a similar song between the customary bending of the knees and the head after the thora, a book of parchment (there are no rolls among the Karaites), had been read." ''

The traveller Clarke witnessed in the town of Simferopol (or Acmetchet), in the Crimea, a Jewish wedding festival, which lasted several days, music and dancing forming the principal entertainment. On the day of marriage the bride was blindfolded, and led by the priest, accompanied by her relations, to a river in the neighbourhood of the town, and plunged three times into the water. " After this, being again dressed, she was led, blindfolded as before, to the house of her parents, accompanied by all her friends, who were singing, dancing, and performing music before her. In the evening her intended husband was brought to her ; but as long as the feast continued she remained with her eyes bound." ^

Another curious ceremony, witnessed at the wed-

7 The Jews in the East, vol. i. p. 153.

8 Travels in Various Countries,

by E. D. Clarke, London, 1810, part i. p. 547.

342 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

ding of a rich Jew in tlie province of Podolia in Russia, is related in the Leipzic ' Musikahsche Zeitnng-.' The band consisted of four Hebrews, playing on two vio- lins, a dulcimer, and a violoncello. They commenced the performance with a soft and sentimental adagio, and gradually went on to louder and more passionate music ; the object being so to touch the heart of the bridegroom as to make him cry before the whole com- pany ; since, according to an old custom, the bride- groom must have exhibited contrition for his former sins before he is permitted to marry. As soon as the musicians, assisted by the relations of the bridegroom, who implored him to endeavour to cry, had succeeded in moving him to tears, the whole company formed a procession to escort the happy pair to the nuptial ceremony.^

Blanchini, and after him other writers, have given, among the drawings of various Hebrew musical instru- ments, a small wooden mallet, which is still used in the synagogue at the Feast of Purim, instituted in commemoration of the deliverance of the Jews from the designs of Haman. On this occasion the book of Esther is chanted. Whenever the name of Haman occurs, the congregation exclaim in a chanting tone, " May his name perish ! " at the same time striking the walls and benches with their wooden mallets ; which, David Levi says, is done " as a memorial that they should endeavour to destroy the whole seed of Amalek." This ceremony, however, is gradually being discontinued in England, and observed in the

" Allgemeine Musikaliscbe Zeitung, Jahrgang IV., Leipzig, 1802, p. 316.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 343

synagogue by children only/ The hammer being- classed with the musical instruments, suggests the probability that formerly a rhythmical accompaniment to the voice was produced with it, in a like manner as with musical instruments of percussion.

Padre Martini has published, in his ' Storia della Musica,' a nmnber of chants from sjoiagogues in dif- ferent European countries. Some of these must be at least three hundred years old, because the Padre copied them from a MS. collection made in the year 1599 by Ercole Bottrigari, a musical theorist of some renown. The specimens given by Burney, Forkel, and other historians, are most of them transcribed from Martini's work. Again, some interesting speci- mens of chants and tunes used in the synagogues of England are given in Nathan's ' Essay on the His- tory and Theory of Music,' and in a collection recently published by Salaman and Yerrinder, entitled, ' The Music used in the Services of the West London Syna- gogue of British Jews.'

A large and interesting collection of chants and songs, as performed in the synagogues of Konigs- berg in Prussia, entitled ' Schire Beth Adonai,' has recently been published, edited by H. Weintraub. It contains, besides modern compositions, several melodies which are said to be of high antiquity.

Mr. Weintraub observes, that the oldest and most universally used chants are generally in the Phrygian and Mixolydian Modes ; and as the popular melodies of the Arabs, Turks, and some other Eastern nations of

' A Succinct Account of the Rites and Ceremonies of the Jews, by David Levi, London, 1783, p. 126.

344

MUSIC OP THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

the present day are frequently based upon similar orders of intervals, he concludes that these chants must have originated in the East. He points this out as affording strong evidence in support of the traditional belief of the Jews, that their old chants are the identical ones which were in use at the time when the Israelites sojourned in the Promised Land. I shall insert here one of them, — more for the purpose of showing their peculiarities, than with the expectation of gratifying the musical taste of the reader. This chant is considered by Mr. Weintraub as founded upon the Phrygian Mode. It concludes with a Chorus, which is sung in strict time, while the chant itself, which is in- tended for a tenor voice, partakes of the character of the Recitative : —

Chant from the Synagogue in Konigsberg. Soh. ^ T ^

gte^gpl

SsteE

o -

- d' cho

i^JEJg^

ki a ni -

Iffi

i

#rf

S?^^^^£^f:bp=r-

--^--

-f^-

wat t'hi

^^^==A^

1

Chap. VI. HEBEEW MUSIC OF THE PEESENT DAY. 345

wat

SI

hi

wat t' hi

^

:p:^-

li - schu .

o li - schu

§ii

i

Chorus.

w

'^^r^^^-

:&

^

-(• *■

^-

Wat

^

t'hi I

'-rr

tffiSEEEE

li

I at

^

li . . . schu . .

H'

li

5rzrJ=z^:

:^zii ^ =1=1

:p==z3:

346 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

Most of tliese Chants are interspersed with short melodious phrases for the Chorus, in four-part har- mony or in unison. It is to be regretted that the compilers of the collections do not indicate with exactness how much they have altered and added. By far the greater number of the Solos and Choruses appear to be their own compositions.

Dr. Burney relates that, when he was in Amster- dam, he betook himself to the synagogue of the Ger- man Jews, in order to ascertain how far the musical performances differed from those which he had heard, during his travels on the Continent, in the synagogues of other towns. " At my first entrance one of the priests was chanting part of the service in a kind of ancient canto fermo, and responses were made by the congregation, in a manner which resembled the hum of bees. After this, three of the sweet singers of Israel, which, it seems, are famous here, and much attended to by Christians as well as Jews, began singing a kind of jolly modern melody, sometimes in unison, and sometimes in parts, to a kind of tol de rol, instead of words, which to me seemed very farcical. One of these voices was a falset, more like the upper part of a bad vox liumana stop in an organ than a natural voice. I remember seeing an advertisement in an English newspaper, of a barber who undertook to dress hair in such a manner as exactly to resemble a peruque ; and this singer might equally boast of having the art, not of singing like a human creature, but of making his voice like a very bad imitation of one. Of much the same kind is the merit of such singers who, in execution, degrade the voice into a flute or fiddle, forgetting that they should not receive

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY. 347

law from instruments, but give instruments law. The second of these voices was a very vulgar tenor, and the third a baritono. This last imitated, in his accom- ]3animent of the falset, a bad bassoon — sometimes con- tinued one note as a drone base ; at others, divided it into triplets and semiquavers iterated on the same tone. But though the tone of the falset was very disagreeable, and he forced his voice very frequently in an outrageous manner, yet this man had certainly heard good music and good singing. He had a facility of running divisions, and now and then mixed them with passages of taste, which were far superior to the rest. At the end of each strain the whole congrega- tion set up such a kind of cry as a pack of hounds when a fox breaks cover. It was a confused clamour and riotous noise, more than song or prayer. How- ever, this is a description, not a censure, of Hebrew music in religious ceremonies. It is impossible for me to divine what ideas the Jews themselves annex to this vociferation ; I shall, therefore, neither pro- nounce it to be good nor bad in itself; I shall only say that it is very unlike what we Christians are used to in Divine service." ^

The same remark may still be applied to the vocal performances in many synagogues. In not a few instances, however, considerable reforms have been introduced. Indeed, some of the Eabbins have endea- voured to discontinue the cantiUation altogether, and to adopt simple hymn tunes and part-singing instead. This, for instance, has been the aim of Dr. Abraham

'^ The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, &c., by Charles Burncy, Loudon, 1775, vol. ii, p. 299.

348

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

Wolff, in Copenhagen, as early as the beginning of this century.^ Even the venerable tunes of the Pro- testant Church, the Chorales, have been made use of,* and are sung in some synagogues to the accompani- ment of an organ — innovations which, on the Conti- nent, have contributed to divide the Jews into two parties, the reforming and conservative. The latter has all the more strictly adhered to the ancient mode of singing since the schism.

It is remarkable that the great susceptibility and fondness for music which the ancient Hebrews evi- dently possessed have been preserved by their race until the present day. Many of our distinguished musicians, composers as well as virtuosi, are Jews, or of Jewish extraction. It would be easy to make out a long list of them ; but I shall men- tion only three celebrated composers — HaleVy, Meyerbeer, and Mendelssolm.

The Jews, it must be remembered, are limited in their choice of occupation for gaining a subsistence, by their religious laws, as well as, in many countries, by civil laws. This may in some measure account for their so often choosing the art of music as a pro- fession and means of livelihood. Their innate dili- gence and perseverance in carrying out any fixed 23lan would, however, not be sufficient for the attainment of those accomplishments in music by which they often distinguish themselves, did they not also possess ex- traordinary talent for this art. Some of them exhibit

3 See Agende zum Gebrauche buim Israelitischcn Gottcsdicnstc, von A. A. Wolff, Copenhagen, 1839.

■* See Melodien zii dem Israelit- iyclicn Gesangbuchc lieraiisgcgeben, von Dr. Kley, Hamburg, 1846.

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY.

349

in their compositions peculiarities which remind lis of the synagogue. This is, in my opinion, also the case in the music of Mendelssohn, who, though a Christian, was of Hebrew origin. These peculiarities are more easily felt than described. They consist especially in the employment and frequent repetition of short melo- dious phrases, and passages of a peculiar rhythmical effect, frequently in Minor, and of a certain monotony, which Mendelssohn, however, knew how to render highly interesting by a skilful harmony. I shall insert here two examples of this kind, the first from Mendelssohn's ' Lieder ohne Worte,' book iii. No. 2 ; and the second from his Pianoforte Concerto in D Minor.

From Mendelssohn's Lieder ohne Worte.

Allegro non troppo

*

=^^.

I

350

MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS.

Chap. VI.

From Mendelssohn's Concerto in D Minor.

Allegro appassionato, ^m^'

I 1 l-r^ — ~-»-^ 1 — ]-

:?=^:

^^S^

-•L^:

-idi^iSzi: >-Si-^V d:

] J

^:

.-e^i

:=l:

m

l-J— 4-

i-s^:=r.=:^"

^:^:

3-

.4— -,-.

.S3

:*-iz:;^=S^nt

— 1-

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»-1

-•—*—• — i:^-^ ^ -^ — — '^

' ^.

:=1:

£fel2^-i

2^- -•-•-#-•-

.i

S

:[=-:'

#- ^.*-

,b^-

g

g^=E

r~ — i - A- M- 4

ste'

:^:

Chap. VI.

HEBREW MUSIC OP THE PRESENT DAY.

351

The following characteristic Hebrew song, con- sisting of solo and chorus^ is taken from De Sola's Collection of the Melodies used in the synagogue of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, harmonized by Aguilar. This fine composition might easily pass for Mendelssohn's, so much are his style and man- nerism in accordance with it : —

Ana Bekorenu.

^^^^^''^•SOLO.

Chorus. ^

i^LtM

do - nai si

=^=

E3:

352

MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS.

Chap. VI.

ie

Chorus. , w

« — ^ ^—± _H^ ^ — : ^_

e - - nu, A - do - nai

la

■ — !•:

5=^

-m-^-m-

w=^w=^—

cha.

-F

Solo.

^

:d:

Chorus.

*

=^^E

De - - ba - rim la -

kacla -

- ti,

She

^

i

Solo.

a

-^

^P=?=^

— I 1? — tr

- maug A - do - nai, Ve

ig- -t . :^ _-

4^^ — --S"-^— j^-gtf

- diet

- bo yu -

Chorus.

SESEElf

3==t=

- cliam

Se - lach

PP

A - do

335

nai a -

«_j£l:_S^_J

^^t

i

w

--P^-

g!

^=P

Jai

- na

?P=:^

be - kor

kol J-

sliav

Chap. VI. HEBREW MUSIC OF THE PRESENT DAY. 353

:S^

e:t

nu A - do - nai she - mang - a a

SSS:

T--

"I* 1 —

:9^:

:S

:&

:8=:^

^-^

!^

be

ra - cha

4=:

cha

von

bits

_•>_

£

t:

i3=^

3:

i^

=^=

A - do

la

ill

cha.

i«!=^^

EE^::

Mendelssohn has made use also of the pentatonic scale ; and this he has done not only where he has adopted or imitated Scotch national melodies, but on other occasions. Thus, for instance, the introduction to ' (Edipus at Colonos ' he commences as follows : —

Andante.

-J^-.

iSEe^EE

Ss

-^-

=i

z^±

:ci:

-^

f-'-r

m

cres.

r-^

-^-

:^.

2 A

354 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chat>. VI.

This example may also serve as a proof how well the pentatonic series of intervals is suited to the expression of simple dignity and solemnity. If Mendelssohn was unaware of its early use among the nations of antiquity, and if he did not purposely con- template using it, which is quite possible, the fact of his commencing with it the introductory chorus to a classical work by Sophocles is to be considered per- haps all the more as a stroke of genius.

LITERATURE OF HEBREW MUSIC.

An enumeration of all the books which have been written on Hebrew music would alone fill a large chapter. Forkel has published in his ' Geschichte der Musik,' vol. i. pp. 173 to 184, a list of the principal ones printed before the year 1788. This list he has extended in his ' Allgemeine Literatur der Musik,' Leipzig, 1792, where he has adopted a classification as follows : — Works treating on Hebrew music in all its branches — on the musical instruments of the Hebrews — on the headings of the Psalms, and on the terms relating to music which occur in the Psalms — on the Hebrew accents considered as musical nota- tion— on the music of the Temple — miscellaneous works treating especially of Hebrew music,

Forkel points out that Le Long, in his ' Bibliotheca Sacra,' published in the year 1723, has mentioned as many as 1213 commentators on the Psalms alone; and he thinks it probable that, during the sixty-five years which had elapsed since the publication of Le

Chap. VL ITS LITERATURE. 355

Long's work, the number of these writers must liave increased to at least 1500. As nearly a century has passed since Forkel made this observation, the reader may judge how extensive our literature on this subject must be at the present time.

Another list of the books published on Hebrew music is to be found in ' Dizionario e Bibliografia della Musica, del Dottore Pietro Lichtenthal,' Milano, 1824 ; and there is another in ' Systematisch chrono- logische Darstellung der musikalischen Literatur,' von C. F. Becker, Leipzig, 1836. To this work an Ap- pendix was published by Becker in the year 1839. Still it is very incomplete, and the compiler appears to have been unacquainted with many of the books which he notices, and merely to have copied the titles fi'om Forkel, since both writers coincide in several errors, such, for instance, as the misspelling of the names of certain authors.

That among so many treatises, essays, and disserta- tions on Hebrew music there should be some in which curious theories are advanced, is no more than might be expected. Of these I shall notice two, on account of the discoveries which the authors believe they have made. Speidel, a German divine, published, in 1 740, a dissertation entitled ' Unverwerfliche Spuren der alten Davidschen Singkunst,' in which he endeavours to prove that the Hebrews were acquainted with part- singing, and that they called the notes by the names of their vowels. The book is scarce, and I have hitherto not succeeded in obtaining a sight of it. But Forkel (' Geschi elite der Musik,' i. 156) has given a detailed account of its contents, with some of the curious compositions in four parts which Speidel

2 A 2

356 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

believes he has discovered. Strangely enough, the ancient Egyptians also are by some historians said to have used the vowels for designating their notes. If this was really the case, it would supply an additional proof of their having possessed the pentatonic scale, since it would show that they required five names only for their notes. The statement of Clemens Alexandrinus (' Strom.' vi.), that the Hebrew songs were founded on the Dorian scale, is not in contradic- tion to this opinion, but rather confirmatory of it, since we find that the old enharmonic scale of Olympus was likewise considered as a Dorian scale. Neither is it surprising that Herodotus should have been struck with the close resemblance of the song of Maneros in Egypt with the ancient song of Linus in Greece, and with a similar composition in popular use in Asia Minor.

In a carefully written essay, entitled ' Yersuch die Melodic und Harmonic der alten hebraischen Gresitnge und Tonstlicke zu entzifiern ' (published in * Neues Repertorium fiir biblische und morgenliindische Lite- ratur, herausgegeben von H. E. Gr. Paulus,' Jena, 1790), the writer, Gottlob Anton, professes to have brought to light some genuine specimens of Hebrew music as it was performed in the Temple of Jerusalem in the days of David and Solomon. He deciphers them from the Hebrew accents, which he maintains constitute a musical notation like our own. And he ingeniously endeavours to prove that the Hebrews employed harmony, differing from our own in so far only as no other chords but concords were made use of. His arguments are accompanied by specimens of melodies and harmonies obtained from the accents.

Chap. VI. EASTERN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 357

The largest and most important collection of disser- tations on Hebrew music, published together, is con- tained in the thirty-second volume of Blasius Ugolino's valuable work, entitled, ' Thesaurus antiquitatum sacrarum, etc.,' published in the year 1767. Among the modern writers who touch more or less upon this subject, the German scholars Gesenius, Winer, Joel Lowe, Jahn, and Saalschiitz, especially deserve notice.

EASTERN OEIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC.

In the course of the preceding chapters I have several times had occasion to allude to the affinity which exists between the music of European and Asiatic nations. To enter fully into this subject would require much space, and does not come within the plan of the present dissertation. It is, how- ever, so intimately connected with the preceding investigation, that I hope the following remarks, in conclusion, will not be without some interest to the reader.

The ancient Egyptians must properly be classed with the Asiatic nations ; their customs were in many respects similar to those of the latter, and their lan- guage was a branch of the Semitic, as was also the Hebrew and the Assyrian. Besides, the ancients themselves regarded the Egyptians as an Asiatic nation.

We have an instance of the transmission, at an early period, of Asiatic music into Europe, in that of the ancient Greeks. Most Greek musical instruments

358 MUSIC OF THE HEBKEWS. Chap. VI.

were nearly identical with Asiatic ones; and the names of the oldest and principal Greek modes — the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, -^Eolian, and Ionian — also support the assertion of ancient historians, that the musical knowledge of the Greeks was originally obtained from Asia Minor and Egypt. Whether these five modes were originally founded on the five inter- vals of the pentatonic scale is uncertain ; but, from what we have seen, it appears probable. Again, in other European countries we have found traces of the Oriental harp, and surprising similarities in the pecu- liar construction and form of old instruments with those of Asiatic countries. And among them we have met with five-stringed instruments of such kinds as, from their nature, we may reasonably surmise to have been tuned in the order of intervals constituting a scale, and which suggest the former existence of the pentatonic scale. Besides the old Russian gussli and the Finnish kantele already noticed, several others might be pointed out, as, for instance, the Anglo- Saxon harp with five strings, the old Irish coinar cruit with ten strings, &c.

We have seen that the pentatonic scale actually exists at present in Europe in the music of some Celtic nations. We have found several names of our musical instruments to be of Asiatic origin. Further, in our Christian Church the intoning, chanting, and antiphonal singing are, in all probability, remains of the ancient Hebrew mode of performing in the Temple. The apostles were Hebrews, accustomed from their childhood to the usages of their nation, and must have been practised in the music which they had been in the habit of using in worship before they became

Chap. VI. EASTERN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 359

Christians. And it is not likely that the primitive Christians would have adopted in their worship the musical performances of idolators to which they were naturally averse.

The Romans derived most of their musical instru- ments from Greece, and afterwards carried them from Italy into other European countries of which they were the conquerors and masters. In Spain the Moors have, at a later period, introduced the Arabic music, of which unmistakeable traces are still recog- nisable in the popular songs and instruments of the country. The Crusaders also are said to have brought fi'om Asia some instruments previously unknown in Europe.

The Gipsies, dispersed like the Jews throughout almost every European country, were formerly sup- posed to be an Egyptian race ; but eminent modern ethnologists tell us that they originally migrated from Hindoostan. The musical talent of these interesting vagrants is well known. As professional musicians we meet with them in most European countries, generally in small bands roving from place to place, and entertaining the people with the national melodies of the country. Thus we find them everywhere, espe- cially in Spain, in Russia, in Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and even in South America. In the northern part of Russia they excel as vocal per- formers ; in the Ukraine, in the Danubian Princi- palities, and in Hungary they are almost exclusively instrumentalists. It cannot exactly be said that they have preserved anywhere a national music of their own. They have adopted in every country the music of the people among whom they live. Still, there, is

360 MUSIC OF THE HEBREWS. Chap. VI.

much in their performances which they appear to have traditionally preserved from their Asiatic fore- fathers. It is impossible to convey by words an. accurate idea of the peculiarities of instrumental music so strange and spirited as that of the Gipsies. Some of its characteristics are a strongly-marked and effec- tive rhythm, the frequent employment of superfluous seconds^ and the introduction of various kinds of embellishments. When the Gipsies in Hungary perform a favourite national melody, it becomes a va- riation, or rather a fantasia, founded upon the simple tune. The introduced passages, graces, turns, shakes, appoggiaturas are, however, frequently so original, tasteful, and effective, that these peculiar performances have obtained a well-merited renown. The same mode of treating a melody in extempore performances prevails in Hindoostan, the original home of the Gipsies. This is evident from the accounts of tra- vellers. Captain Willard, for instance, says : " The peculiar nature of the melody of Hindoostan not only permits, but enjoins the singer, if he has the least pretension to excel in it, not to sing a song through- out more than once in its naked form ; but on its repetition, which is a natural consequence, occasioned by the brevity of the pieces in general, to break off sometimes at the conclusion, at other times at the commencement, middle, or any certain part of a mea- sure, and fall into a rhapsodical embellishment called Alap, and, after going through a variety oi ad libitum passages, rejoin the melody with as much grace as if it had never been disunited, the musical accompani- ment all the while keeping time. These passages are not reckoned essential to the melodv, but are con-

Chap. Vr. EASTERN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 361

sidered only as grace-notes, introduced according to the fancy of the singer, where the only limitations by which the performer is bound are the notes peculiar to that particular melody, and a strict regard to time." ^

The employment of two superfluous seconds in the diatonic scale is usual in Turkey, as well as in Walla- chia, Moldavia, Hungary, and Transylvania.

-ih-

i

w

-trf-

-^ s^--|^:

:^:

:J=

There can be, in my opinion, no doubt that this scale also emanated from Asia, like the races themselves among whom we find it. The predilection of modern Eastern nations for the superfluous second is clearly evident from its frequent occurrence in their popular songs. Instances of its employment we liave had in some of our previous examples, for instance, in the cborus of the Mewlewi Dervishes, page 110 ; in the Egyptian boatmen's song, page 261 ; in the old melodies of the Jewish. Synagogue, noticed at page 338, &c. Though evidences are wanting to prove that the scale with two superfluous seconds is a direct offspring of the pentatonic scale, this appears not at all unlikely, considering the close resemblance which the two scales bear to each other, A superfluous second may, in sound at least, be taken as identical with a

^ A Treatise on tlie Music of Hindoostau, by Captain Augustus Willard, Calcutta, 1834, p. 34.

362

MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS.

Chap. VI.

minor third. Even in our highly developed music both intervals are generally used, in practical per- formance, indiscriminately. The two superfluous seconds correspond, therefore, with the two minor thirds of the pentatonic scale. It is true that this scale occurs also with two major thirds, namely, when it resembles our minor scale ; in this form, however, it is comparatively but little used.

Here I must draw the reader's attention to a suggestive fact. Most of the ancient scales known to us possess two steps of a third in the compass of an octave. In the scales, or genera, as they are more usually termed, of the ancient Grreeks, this is the case with three out of four. The diatonic genus is the only one in which no larger steps than whole tones occur. The chromatic genus has two steps of a minor third ; the enharmonic, two of a major third ; and the old enharmonic of Olympus, two of a major third. In order to facilitate a comparison between the scales exhibiting this peculiarity I shall insert them here together, and shall indicate the largest steps with black notes : —

Pentatonic Scale with Progressions in Minor Thirds.

3^^^3^

f^=q:

Pentatonic Scale with Progressions in Major Thirds.

§

t:r.

Chap. VI. EASTEEN OEIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC.

363

Cheomatic Genus.

B^E^E^^^^f^f^

%y -^ ^:^ -s.-

1^:

W

:^:

:^E

i

i

Enhakmonic Genus.

W^^^

i3z=3==3— ^=22^^

x^- ■•-.

1^^=^^:

Scale of Olympus.

3:

i

8cALE WITH Superfluous Seconds.

:=S;

>-

f

13^:

z:]=ci

Indeed, most of our musical inventions and con- trivances appear to have been in use, though less perfect, among ancient Asiatic nations. No doubt the coincidences are in many cases accidental, or rather the natural result of human ingenuity applied

364 MUSIC OF THE HEBEEWS. Cuap. VI.

to the cultivation of music. Guido d'Arezzo (a.d. 1000) is said to have invented the sohnisation, i. e. the employment of the six monosyllables, ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, taken from the words of an old Latin hymn. The Hindoos had long before his time the monosyllables sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, also obtained from words, " three of which," as Sir William Jones observes, " are, by a singular concur- rence, exactly the same, though not all in the same place, with three of those invented by David Mostare as a substitute for the troublesome gamut used in his time, and which he arranged thus : bo, ce, di, ga, lo, ma, ni.'" ^ The employment of different colours to dis- tinguish the intervals is more remarkable. Yilloteau describes an ancient Egyptian harp with five blue, six yellow, and ten red strings. The ancient Chinese stringed instrument kin had, Amiot informs us, twenty-five bridges, of which five were blue, five red, five yellow, five white, and five black.'' The contrivances are similar on some of our own instru- ments. On the key-board of our pianoforte, for instance, the intervals of the diatonic scale of C major are all of one colour, but the chromatic scale requires the introduction of intervals of another colour. And hence, probably, its name, from chroma, colour. The ancient Greek chromatic scale appears, however, to have borne less resemblance to our present one than to the pentatonic scale.

Agaii], the invention of the so-called harmonic hand.

*■ On the Musical Modes of the Hindus, Asiatic Ecsearches, vol. iii., Calcutta, 1792. '' Mdmoires concernant I'Histoire, etc., des Cliinois, tome sixi^mc, \}. 59.

Chap. VI. EASTEEN ORIGIN OF OUR OWN MUSIC. 365

of whicli a description is given in Burney's ' History of Music ' (vol. ii. p. 90), is also usually ascribed to Guido d'Arezzo. According to Amiot, the ancient Chinese made use of the harmonic hand, and in his ' Memoires ' before mentioned a drawing and descrij)- tion of it will be found. The Chinese also considered the triple time the complete, and the common time the in- complete one, just as our theorists did formerly. They were also acquainted with the circle of fifths , by which we demonstrate the relation of the keys towards each other. Their two-stringed fiddle, urh-heen, is tuned in a fifth ; the Japanese samsien, in the fifth and octave ; and a similar ancient stringed instrument of the Hindoos, the dwitantri, described by Sir William Jones in his essay on Hindoo Music, is also tuned in the same intervals as most of our own instruments of a similar kind.

Such coincidences, of which more might be cited, in whatever manner they may be explained, reveal a closer affinity between ancient Asiatic music and our own than is usually supposed to exist. It will be remembered that the Phoenicians — also a branch of the Semitic race — held at an early period trading intercourse with Western nations in distant parts of the world. Should we by fresh archaeological disco- veries ever become acquainted with their music to the same extent as with that of the Assyrians — of which there appears to be some probability — we may hope to be in possession of further corroborative evidence in support of the opinions advanced in this work.

INDEX.

AAKGITSCH.	BALAFO.
	Assyrians, their proficiency in va-
A.	rious arts, 24.
	, the character of their music,
Aakgitsch songs of Kamtschatka,	177.
20.	, representations of their musical
Abyssinian priest, 225.	instruments, 28, 89.
Accompaniments, instrumental, 10.	, their proficiency in music, 23.
Adonis, songs of lamentation in	, their favourite musical instru-
honour of, 77, 230.	ments, 103.
Adufe, an Oriental drum, 283.	, their vocal performances, 107)
Aleppo, singing of the Jews in that	120.
place, 336.	, their instrumental perform-
Alexander Alesandrinus, 194	ances, 101.
Alleluia of the Copts, 263.	, their musical system, 122.
in the East, 99.	Astarte, image of, 55.
Alphora of the Swiss, 10.	Awdlim, singing girls in Egypt, 258.
Ambira, a negro instrument, 14.	Aztecs, their musical scale, 15, 169.
Amiot, his account of Chinese music.
70, 117, 144.	B.
Anas glacialis, the notes of this bird,
20.	Baal, Assyrian divinity, 106.
Antiphonal responses, 23, 338.	Babylonian captivity, 105, 277, 302.
Arabian music, 149, 163, 305.	pipe, 75.
Arghool, a double-pipe, 57.	Babylonians, their fondness for mu-
Aristoxenus, 202.	sic, 104.
Arpa, 87.	; their susceptibility for musical
Arrangements of national airs, 176.	concord, 76.
Aschkenasim Jews, 331.	Bagana, Abyssinian lyre, 162.
Asor, an instrument of the Hebrews,	Bagpipe, its antiquity, 78.
282.	, in Cilicia, 298.
of the Assyrians, 47.	, Hebrew, 282, 298.
Assyrian sculptures in the British	, Persian, 78.
Museum, 6, 89.	■, modern Egyptian, 79.
winged bull, 96.	Balafo, a negro instrument, 13, 16,
mummers with masks, 98.	166.

368

INDEX,

BALALAIKA.

Balalaika, a Russian instrument, 55. Band-master, Assyrian, 95. Barbiton, a Greelc instrument, 200. Barker, Mr. W. Burckhardt, his de- scription of an ancient bagpipe, 298. Bards in Hindoostan, 88. Bas-reliefs, Assyrian, 89. Bedford, Eev. Arthur, his conjectures

on Hebrew music, 105. Bell, its antiquity, 67.

, Assyrian, 64.

, Burmese, 69.

, Chinese, 68, 69, 70.

, ancient Egyptian, 65, 227.

, Hebrew, 65, 283.

■, Japanese, 68.

, used in Buddhist worship, 67.

, Christian church, 67.

of the Inca Peruvians, 67.

Beni Hassan, a painting from, 300. Berri, a drum of the Singhalese, 64, Bhdt, a bard, 88. Birch, Dr. Samuel, description of a

figure with a tamboura, 205. on ancient Egyptian music,

236. Bird, Mr. Hamilton, his remarks on

Hindoo music, 110. Birds, the notes of, 20, Birs-i-Nimroud, 75, Blessing of the priests, 115, 325,

Bonomi, Mr, Joseph, his account of

Assyrian arts, 24. , his description of a Syrian

tamboura, 53.

Botta, M., his discoveries, 6.

Boulou, a harp of the negroes, 34.

Bow-shaped stringed instruments, 17.

Brazil, singing of the slaves in that country, 22.

Bruce, his description of the Egyp- tian harps discovered by him, 184.

Buddhist worship, 67, 71.

COINAR.

Buni, harp of the ancient Egyptians, 194.

Bunting, his history of the harp, 33.

Burmah, stringed instruments from, 32, 83, 136.

, music of, 136, 137, 138.

bells, 69.

Burney, Dr., his remarks on the scale of Olympus, 156.

, his conjectures on the inter- vals on an Egyptian harp, 191.

, his notice of a trigonon, 194,

, his observations on the singing

of the Persians, 328.

c.

Calascione, an Italian instrument, 56.

Cantillation of the Jews, 328, 332.

Carillons, 71,

Castanets, 226.

Celtic nations, their music, 175.

Cembalo, 42.

Ceylon, national music of, 149.

Chaldaaan names of Hebrew instru- ments, 281, 285.

Chalil, a Hebrew flute, 282, 285.

Chang, a Persian harp, 33.

Chanting of Eastern nations, 108.

Chatzozerah, a Hebrew trumpet, 282, 284, 291.

Chensj, a kind of Chinese organ, 18, 119.

Chinese, their musical scale, 143.

tunes, 129, 131, 145.

Choruses of the negroes, 22.

Choutara, a Hindoo instrument, 119.

Church bells, 67.

Cilicia, ancient instrument from, 298.

Cimbal, a dulcimer, 42.

Clarke, on Amphion's lyre, 245,

Clavecin, 42.

Clavicimbal, 42.

Cochin, Malabar coast, Jews in, 330.

Coinar cruit, 358,

INDEX.

369

COINS.

Coins, Hebrew, 291, 308.

Colours on the Assyrian bas-reliefs,

89. Concerts, Assyi'ian, 106.

, Hindoo, 118.

, Persian, 33, 79.

, Hebrew, 107.

Concli trumpet, 78.

Conran, Mr., on the Irish harp, 35.

, his conjectures on Irish music,

173. Constantinople, music in a synagogue

of that city, 340. Convivial songs of the Hebrews, 317.

at the present day, 336.

Copts, their music, 262. Cormi, horn, 87. Corsica, national songs in, 231. Crotala of the ancient Greeks, 225.

of the ancient Egyptians, 225.

Crwth, a "Welsh instrument, 84, 85. Cymbals, Assyrian, 72.

, ancient Egyptian, 226.

, Hebrew, 283.

D.

Damascus, Hebrew music in, 337. Dancing of Eastern nations, 168.

of the Assyrians, 74.

of King David, 74.

of the ancient Egyptians, 250.

of the Hebrews, 74, 315.

in the Christian church, 74.

Daniel, mention of Babylonian and

Assyrian instruments, 46, 281. Dara, a Hindoo drum, 119. Darabukkeh, an Egyptian drum,

219, 220. David, hymn of, 324.

, his royal band, 107.

Dauney, Mr. William, his collection

of Scotch melodies, 171. , his conjectures on national

music, 173.

EGYPTIANS.

Dervishes, their choruses, 110.

Dholkee, a Hindoo drum, 63.

Diana, festival of, 229.

Diodorus Siculus, his remarks on Egyptian music, 235.

Discoveries, the most recent, relating to ancient music, 2.

, Assyrian, 6.

Doff, an Oriental drum, 222, 283.

Double-pipe of the Assyrians, 57.

of the ancient Egyptians, 216.

of the modern Egyptians, 57.

of the Hebrews, 282.

of the Greeks and Romans,

57.

Drieberg, F. v., description of an ancient Egyptian guitar, 208.

Drilbu, a bell used in Buddhist wor- ship, 67.

Drum, Assyrian, 62.

, ancient Egyptian, 218.

, modern Egyptian, 63.

, Hebrew, 283.

, various kinds, 10, 63, 218, 283.

Dulcimer, an instrument, 17.

, Assyrian, 42.

, German, 42.

, Hebrew, 281.

, Persian, 43.

E.

Earpe, 87.

Egyptians, ancient, their concerts, 228.

, their hieroglyphics, 56, 243.

, their musical instruments,

180.

, their peculiar stringed instru- ments, 209.

, their peculiar instruments of

percussion, 222.

, their secular musical perform- ances, 248.

, their sacred musical perform- ances, 246.

2 B

370

INDEX.

EROTIC.

Erotic songs of the Hebrews, 316. Ethnology and national music, 4. Eunuchs, Assyrian, 107. European music, its affinity with the Asiatic, 357.

P.

Falashas, a Hebrew sect in Abyssi- nia, 338. Fetis, his conjectures respecting the

origin of instruments played with

a bow, 83. , his assumed discovery from

the demotic characters of the

ancient Egyptians, 271. Fiddle of the Arabs and Persians, 81.

of the Burmese, 83, 136.

of the Chinese, 81, 310.

of the modern Egyptians, 83.

of the Hindoos, 81.

of the Japanese, 81.

of the Norwegian peasants, 82.

Fink, his conjectures respecting the

modulation of a Chinese melody,

130. ■ , on the derivation of the Scotch

music from the East, 175. Finns, their ancient harp, 34.

, their kantele, 34, 46.

Flageolet of the Mexicans, 15, 76. Flute of the Assyrians, 77.

of the ancient Egyptians, 214.

of the Hebrews, 282.

concert, ancient Egyptian, of

eight performers, 241. Frankl, Dr., account of the singing

of the Jews in Jerusalem, 332. Funeral songs of the Hebrews, 105,

316.

G.

Galicia, singing of the Jews in that country, 336.

HARMONY.

Gambang gangsa, an instrument from Java, 13, 15.

Ghawazee girls in Egypt, 257.

Ghouna, a Nubian song, 159.

Ghunta, a bell of the Brahmins, 67.

Gingras, 77.

Gipsies, 42, 359.

Gittith of the Hebrews, 287.

Gluck, his vocal compositions, 109.

Gong, kind of, of the ancient Egyp- tians, 222.

Goudok, a Eussian instrument, 84.

Greeks, ancient, their oldest scale, 155.

, their instruments, 200.

, their harp, 201.

, their lyre, 304, 309.

, their musical system, 199, 304.

— '■ — , their treatises on music, 152, 202.

', modern, their musical nota- tion in church-music, 271.

Grelots, 66.

Guitar, 87, 208.

, of the ancient Egyptians, 208.

, of the Hebrews, 282.

Gunn, Mr. John, his remarks on the har]i, 174.

Gussli, a Russian instrument, 46.

H.

Hackbret, the German dulcimer, 4S Hallelujah of the Copts, 263. Handel, his Pastorale, 3.

, his statue, 289.

Haravi, old Peruvian songs, 169.

Harfe, 87.

Harmonicon instrument, 11.

, Chinese, 13, 15.

Harmonized national airs, 176. Harmony, and unison, 116. of the Hebrews, 320.

INDEX.

371

HARP,

Harp of the Assyrians, 28.

of the Burmese, 32, 51.

of the ancient Egyptians, 181.

, Egyptian, with seven strings,

198.

of the Finns, 34.

of the Greeks, 201.

of the Hebrews, 281.

of the Irish, 35.

of the Negroes, 34.

of the Persians, 33.

discovered at Thebes, 2.

Harpu,an instrument of the Finns, 34.

Haurpa, 87.

Hawkins, Sir John, his estimation

of national music, 3, 4. Hearpe, 87.

Hebrews, their music, 277. , their vocal and instrumental

performances, 311, 322.

, their sacred music, 311.

' , the affinity of their music with

the Assyrian and Egyptian music,

277.

, their instniments, 280.

, their ancient melodies, 324,

328, 344.

, their military music, 314.

, their secular songs, 31G, 317,

318.

, their funeral songs, 316.

, their schools for music, 323.

— — , treatises written on their

music, 354. Hermes, 41, 235.

Hermetic books of the ancient Egyp- tians, 236. Herodotus, his account of Egyptian

music, 229. Hieroglyphic inscriptions, 56, 238,

243. High-priest, Assyrian, 80. Hindoo scales, 147.

melodies, 135, 148.

musical performances, 118.

INSTRUMENTS.

Historians, musical, their conjectures on the system of music of the an- cient Egyptians, 269.

Homer, quotations from, 230, 245, 246, 255.

Hormuzd Eassam, his Assyrian dis- coveries, 7.

Horn, its name in several languages, 87.

Horse-bells, 66, 284.

Hottentot violin, 19.

Huayra-puhura, an instrument of the ancient American Indians, 15.

Hue, M., his account of bell-foun- dries in Tartary, 69.

Humboldt, Alex, v., his remarks on the emigration of the ancient American Indians, 170.

Hymn, ancient Chinese, 145.

, Egyptian, 248.

, Hebrew, 324.

, Hindoo, 148.

Hymns of the modern Jews, 324, 327, 351.

I.

Ibeka, a negro instrument, 14. Inca Peruvians, their musical scale,

15, 196. Indians, American, their musical

notation, 179. , their ancient instruments, 13,

170. Inscriptions in hieroglyi^hics, 56,

243. Instruments of music, Assyrian, 7,

28.

, ancient Egyptian, 2, 180.

, Hebrew, 280.

, Assyrian and Egyptian, com- pared, 253. , similarities between Asiatic

and European, 81.

, their names, 86, 194.

■ , modern Asiatic, 8.

372

INDEX.

INSTRUMENTS.

Instruments, of the violin kind, their

antiquity, 81.

J of uncivilised nations, 10.

.^ found in tonahs, 2.

, keyed, 18.

of percussion, 10.

, peculiar ones of the ancient

Egyptians, 222.

, peculiar stringed, 209.

Intervals, on musical instruments,

12. . , .

.of the Assyrian strmged m-

struments, 32,

. of the Nubian kissar, 157.

Intervals, of the pentatonic scale,

124.

smaller than semitones, 1C2.

Irish national music, 171. Itinerant Hebrew musicians, 318.

J.

KOKIU.

K.

Jephtha's daughter, 315. Jews, their chanting, 328.

. in China and Hindoostan, 330.

. in Jerusalem, 331.

in Egypt, 337.

in the Barbary States, 339.

. in Germany, 348.

Jews represented in ancient sculp- tures and paintings, 302, 303.

in Cochin, the Black Jews and

the White Jews, 330.

J songs of the women, 315.

Jew's harp, 300.

Jerusalem, musical performances of

the Jews in that city, 331. Jobel of the Hebrews, 286. Jones, Sir William, his treatise on

Hindoo music, 151. Josephus, his accounts of Hebrew

musical performances, 290. Jubal, inventor of wind and stringed

instruments, 286. Junk, an Oriental harp, 34.

Kalmucks, their trumpets, 60. Kanoon, an Arabian kind of dulci- mer, 45. Kantele, an instrument of the Finns,

34, 46. Karaites, Jews, 332. Karnai, a Persian horn, 87. Kemangeh, an instrument of the

Arabs and Persians, 81, 310. Keraangeh a gouz, 86. Kemangeh roumy, a kind of violin,

83, 84. Kemkem, instrument of percussion,

223. Keras, 87. Keren, a Hebrew trumpet or cornet,

87, 282, 285. Keyed instruments, 18. Kiesewetter, his remarks on musical

treatises, 152. , on the musical scale of the Per- sians, loO.

. ^ on the music of the ancient

Egyptians, 275. Kin, a Chinese instrument, 45, 364. Kinnor, a Hebrew stringed instru- ment, 282, 284, 310.

and guitar, 87.

^ the favourite instrument of

King David, 310.

represented on an Assyrian

bas-relief, 303. Kithara, a lyre of the ancient Greeks,

87. Kissar, a Nubian lyre, 39, 157.

^ songs with the accompaniment

of the, "159.

, its intervals, 158, 305.

-, in Abyssinia, 41.

Khol^, a Hindoo drum, 63, Khorsabad, mound of, 6.

', sculptures from, 101,

1 Kokiu, a Japanese instrument, 81.

INDEX.

373

KOTO.	MILITARY.
Koto, a Japanese instrument, 46.	Lyre, ancient Egyptian, 196.
Kouyunjik, mound of, 6.	, Greek, in the British Mu-
• , sculptures from, 91, 92, 93,	seum, 309.
95, 96, 98, 100.	, Hebrew, 282.
Krishna, liymn in honour of, 148.	, Nubian, 39, 157.
Klirt, a hom, 87.	, Abyssinian, 39, 308.
	, Hebrew, from the tomb at
	Beni Hassan, 301.
L.	, Hebrew, on an Assyrian bas-
	relief, 303.
Lane, Mr. E. W., his account of
modern Egyptian musicians, 257, 258.	M.
, his description of the Dervish	MaccabfBUs, Simon, musical instru-
flute, 215.	ments represented on coins of his
, his remarks on the Copts, 262.	time, 282, 291, 307.
Laos, instrument from, 18,	Machalath, a Hebrew instrument,
Laute, 87.	282, 287.
Lay, Mr. Tradescant, his descrip-	Machol, of the Hebrews, 287.
tion of Chinese instruments, 118,	Magadis, a musical instrument, 200.
119.	Magrepha, an instrument formerly
Layard, Mr. Austen H., his disco-	in the Temple of Jerusalem, 282,
veries, 6.	296.
, his remarks on the arts of the	Major and minor keys, 175.
Persians, 164.	Mara, double-pipe of the ancient
, his description of Assyrian	Egyptians, 216.
bells, 64.	Maneros, song of, 229.
, remarks on the music of the	Maraoueh, an instrument of the
Yezidis, 265.	Copts, 67, 264.
Laps, a musical instrument of the.	Marimba, a negro instrument, 14.
35.	Maultrommel, 300.
Levites, their musical culture, 322.	Melik el Taus, 265.
Levy, David, on the blowing of the	Menaaneim, a Hebrew instrument.
trumpets of ram's-horn, 294.	283, 285.
, on the Feast of Purim, 342.	Mendelssohn, his Scherzo, 3.
Linus, song of, 229.	, peculiar characteristic of his
, mentioned by Homer, 230.	style, 349.
Lionedda, national instruments of	Mercury, 37.
the Sardes, 232.	Metzilloth, a Hebrew instrument,
Literature of Egyptian music, 269.	283, 285.
, of Hebrew music, 354.	Metzilthaim, a Hebrew instrument.
Loftus, Mr. W. K., his Assyrian	283.
excavations, 7.	Mewlewi Dervishes, 110.
Lure, a Scandinavian instrument, 10.	Mexico, ancient instrument from, 13.
Lute, 87.	Military music of the Assyrians,
Lyre, Assyrian, 37.	104, 106, 115.

374

INDEX.

MILITARY.

Military music of the ancient Egyp- tians, 248.

of the Hebrews, 314.

Minnim, a Hebrew instrument, 282. Miriam's song, 22, 326. Mishrohitha, a musical instrument,

282, 285, 286. Modes, ecclesiastical, their supposed influence upon national music, 173.

of the Hindoos, 147.

Monteverde, 120.

Monuments, Assyiian, 6.

Moses, his Egyptian education, 277.

, his song, 326.

Mridang, a Hindoo drum, 63. Muezzin, his call to prayer, 113. Miiller, Max, Professor, on the Chaldajan language, 281.

, on Assyrian treatises, 179.

Mummy of an Egyptian musician,

227. Music, ancient Asiatic, its effect, 103, 106, 320.

, its gradual development, 8.

Musical notation, 178.

of the modern Greeks, 271.

of the ancient Greeks, 179.

of the North American In- dians, 179.

of the priests in Thibet, 178.

of the Chinese and Japanese,

178. Musical party of ancient Egyptians,

249. Musical performances, Assyrian, 89.

, ancient Egyptian, 228.

, Hebrew, 311.

Mylitta, Assyrian divinity, 55.

N.

Nabla of the Greeks, 200.

Nay, flute of the modern Egyptians, 215.

National music, modern and an- cient, 2.

ORGAN.

National music, its beauties, 3.

, applied to ethnology, 4.

, its use to the musician, 2.

Nebel, a Hebrew instrument, 281,

282, 284. Nebel asor, 300. Nebel and Nofre, 299. Nebuchadnezzar, 104, 106. Nechiloth of the Hebrews, 287. Negroes, their most remarkable mu- sical instruments, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16, 34, 166, 211.

in Brazil, their singing, 22.

Nei ambanah, an Oriental bagpipe,

78. Nekeb, a Hebrew flute, 282, 285. New Zealanders, their singing, 22. Nile, hymn to the, of ancient Egyp- tians, 248.

, songs of boatmen on the, 22,

259, 261. Nimroud, mound of, 6.

, sculptures from, 93, 94, 98.

Nineveh, ruins of, 6.

Nofre, an instrument of the ancient

Egyptians, 56, 206, 299. Nose-fiute, 16. Notation of music, 178.

of the American Indians, 179.

of the modern Greek Church

music, 271.

of Asiatic nations, 178.

Nubian kissar, 40. son2:s, 159.

0.

Olympus of Mysias, his scale, 156,

192, 201. Ombi, a negro harp, 34. Omerti, 86. Organ, its antiquity, 18.

, kind of Chinese, 18.

of Laos and Siam, 18.

INDEX.

375

ORGAN.

Organ, ancient Hebrew, 296.

from Cilioia, 298.

Oriental harp, 32.

in Ireland, 35.

Orpheus, represented with a violin,

85.

of the Finns, 34,

Osiris, 229.

Oud, a musical instrument of the

Arabs, 87, 207. Ouseley, Sir William, his notice of a

Persian bagpipe, 78, 174.

P.

Pandean pipe, 11, 78.

, Hebrew, 282.

Pata, used by the Roman Catholics in Santo Domingo, 226.

Pentatonic scale, 15, 124, 305.

of modern Asiatic nations, 124.

of the Assyrians, 124.

of the Egyptians and Hebrews,

154.

in Burmah, 136, 137, 138.

in Hindoostan, 134, 135, 136,

146.

of the ancient Greeks, 154, 155.

of the Chinese, 125, 127, 129,

143.

of the ancient Indians in Ame- rica, 13, 169.

of the Japanese, 138, 139.

in Java, 133, 134.

on the Nubian kissar, 158.

of the Scotch and Irish, 127,

128, 171, 172, 173.

in Siam, 126, 132.

, its antiquity, 141.

, diifusion of, 166.

, its impressiveness, 177.

Pepa, a Chinese instrument, 118.

Performances, musical, of the Assy- rians, 89.

, of the ancient Egyptians, 228.

PUKWAUZ.

Performances, musical, of the He- brews, 311.

Persian music, 163, 164.

bagpipe, 78.

■ harp, 33.

Peruvians, ancient instrument of, 13.

Pfeife, 87.

Phaamon, Hebrew bells, 283.

Phcenicians, their music, 232, 259.

Phorminx, a kind of lyre, 254.

Pib, 87.

Pifferari, Italian musicians, 3.

Pijp, 87.

Pipa, 87.

Pipe, 10, 87.

, Assyrian, 77.

from the ruins of Babylon, 75.

, ancient Egyptian, 213.

, Hebrew, 282.

from Susa, 77.

of savage nations, 10.

Pipeau, 87.

Plato, his observations on Egyptian music, 233.

Plectnmi, 17.

used by the ancient nations, 39.

Plutarch, 156, 164.

Podolia, a Jewish festival in, 342.

Polish singing of the Jews, 332, 337.

Polyhymnia, represented with a harp, 201.

Poogj^ee, a Hindoo nose-flute, 16, 59.

Porter, Sir Robert Ker, his sketches of old Persian musical perform- ances, 33, 79.

Priestesses, ancient Egyptian, with sistra, 247.

Prophets, their musical culture, 319, 322.

Psalterion, a musical instrument, 282.

Psanterin, a musical instrument, 281.

Pukwauz, a Hindoo drum, 64.

376

INDEX.

PURIM.

Purim, feast of, 342. Pythagoras, 203.

Q.

Quong, or koung, the principal in- terval of the Chinese, 143.

R.

Eag and Raginees of the Hindoos,

147. Rattle, 10. Ravanastron, musical instrument,

its antiquity, 81. Rawlinson, Professor, his comparison of the ancient Egyptians with the Assyrians, 255.

, his remarks on the influence

of the Chaldseans on the Assy- rians, 256. , Sir Henry, his letter on Assy- rian records, 179. Rebah, an Arabic instrument, 81. Rebec, a European instrument, 84. Recitative, 108, 115. Records, the oldest on music, 1, 27. Representations of Assyrian musical

instruments, 28. of ancient Egyptian instru- ments, 180.

of Hebrew instruments, 280.

Rhythm in national songs, 108. Rhythmical effects, 101. Royal bands of Assyrian and He- brew kings, 106. Ruana, 86.

S.

Saalschiitz, on the cultivation of music by the Hebrews in Egypt, 278.

Sabeka, a musical instrument, 285.

SCALE.

Sacred music of the Assyrians, 106.

of the ancient Egyptians, 246.

of the Hebrews, 311.

Sacred dances of the Assyrians, 74.

of the Chinese, 144.

of the Hebrews, 74, 315.

in the Christian Church, 74.

Salterio tedesco, a dulcimer, 43. Sambuka of the Greeks, 286. Samsien, a Japanese instrument,

55, 310. Sanasel of the priests in Abyssinia,

223, 325. Sancho, a negro instrument, 211. San been, a Chinese instrument, 55,

310. Sankh, a conch trumpet, 78. Sanskrit, musical treatises in, 151. Santir, an Oriental dulcimer, 43,

282. Sarangi, a Hindoo instrument, 81. Sarinda, a Hindoo instrument, 81. Saul, his nervous malady alleviated

by music, 319. Saim, a Burmese harp, 32, 51. Savages, their songs, 20. Scale, definition of, 140.

, chromatic, 143.

, diatonic, 124.

with two superfluous seconds,

361, 363.

, enharmonic, 362.

, old enharmonic, 363.

, pentatonic, 15, 124, 141, 362.

, enharmonic of the ancient

Greeks, 164, 363.

, chromatic of the ancient

Greeks, 363.

. of Olympus, 156, 192, 201.

of Terpander, 202.

, major and minor, 175.

on instruments of uncivilized

nations, 12.

of the Chinese, 143.

of the Hindoos, 146.

INDEX.

377

SCALE.

Scale of the Arabs and Persians, 149.

Schellen, small bells, 66.

ScLire BethAdonai, 343.

Schir Ziou, 324.

Scottish music, 171.

Sculptm-es, Assyrian, with musical

performers, 28, 89.

• , Persian, 33, 79.

Sebi, flute of the ancient Egyptians,

214. Semitones of the diatonic scale, 124.

of the Chinese, 125, 143.

of the Persians, 150.

Sennacherib, 102. Sephardic Liturgy, 295, 326. Seshesh, an Egyptian instrument,

223. Shalishim, a Hebrew instrument,

285. Sharpe, Mr. Samuel, on Assyrian

antiquities in the British Museum,

168. , his remarks on the song of

Linus, 230. Shebarim, a signal on the shophar,

295. Shophar, a Hebrew trumpet, 282,

284, 285. in the synagogue of the present

Jews, 292.

, signals of the, 294.

Siam, kind of organ from, 18.

Siamese tunes, 132.

Simferopol, musical performances at

a Jewish wedding in that place,

341. Sistrum, probably known to the

Assyrians, 79.

of the ancient Egyptians, 223.

of the Hebrews, 283.

of the Abyssinians, 223.

, its Egyptian name, 223.

Sitar, an Oriental instrument, 87. Soezoew, a Japanese instrument,. G7. Sola, De, his collection of Hebrew

songs, 114.

SUBDIVISIONS.

Sola, De, his opinion respecting the antiquity of some Hebrew melo- dies, 325.

Solmisation, 364.

Solomon, king, his private orchestra, 107.

Songs, Assyrian, 104.

, Burmese, 137.

of the thrashers, ancient Egyp- tians, 243.

, Chinese, 129, 131, 145.

- — - of the Copts, 263.

■ of the Dervishes, 110, 111.

, Egyptian, from hieroglyphics>

243, 248.

, Hebrew, 311.

, Hindoo, 135, 148.

, Japanese, 139.

- — -, Javanese, 133.

of Kamtschatka, 20.

, national, 5, 19.

■ of the boatmen on the Nile,

261.

of the Peravians, 169.

of savages, 19.

• , Siamese, 132.

of the Yezidis, 266.

Sruti, intervals of the Hindoos, 146.

Strabo, his observation respecting the origin of Greek instruments, 200.

on Egyptian music, 235.

Stringed instruments, 17.

played with a bow, 18, 19.

, their antiquity, 81.

Strings of the Assyrian instruments, 32.

of the Hebrew instruments,

321.

of the Egyptian instruments,

198.

of modern Eastern iustniments,

51, 52.

Subdivisions of the Whole Tone, 162.

2 c

378

INDEX.

Sulzer, his collection of Hebrew

chants and songs, 115. Sumphonia, a musical instrumentj

282, 285. Superfluous Second, an interval in

the music of Eastern nations, 338,

361. Surod, a Hindoo musical mstrument,

119. Synagogue, musical performances in

the, 329. Syrian drum, 63.

tamboura, 53.

Syrinx, 11, 78.

, its antiquity, 78.

of the Hebrews, 282.

of the Tonga Islanders, 12.

System, musical, of the Arabs, 149.

of the Assyrians, 122, 153.

of the Chinese, 142.

of the ancient Egyptians, 155.

of the Greeks, 155.

of the Hebrews, 154.

of the Hindoos, 146.

of the Persians, 149.

T.

Tabl shamee, a drum, 63.

Tabret, an instrument of jDcrcussion,

283. Tamboura, Assyrian, 51.

, ancient Egyptian, 203.

, modern, 51.

, Hebrew, 282.

, Hindoo, 53.

, Syrian, 53.

, Turkish, 52.

represented on an obelisk, 205.

in hieroglyphics, 56, 204.

Tambourine, Assyrian, 72.

, ancient Egyptian, 221.

, Hebrew, 283.

Tambour bouzourk, 52. Terpandcr, 202,

TZELTZELIM.

Tekiha, a signal on the shophar,

295. • Teruha, a signal on the shophar,

295. Tetrachords of the Greeks, 199, 304.

, disjunct and conjunct, 199.

Theory at variance with practice,

151. Thibet, bells in, 167. Thirds, intervals of the pentatonic

scale, 177, 362.

ol the most ancient scales, 362.

Thoth, or Hermes, 41.

Thro, a Burmese kind of violin, 83,

138. Timbrel, an instrument of percus- sion, 283. Titty, an instrument, 78. Titus, Arch of, 288. Tom-tom, a drum, 63. Tonga Islands, instruments from,

12, 14. TojA, a Hebrew instrument of per- cussion, 222, 283. Tourti, a bagpipe of the Hindoos,

78. Trigonon, a musical instrument,

194. Triumphal songs of the Hebrews,

314. Trumpet, Assyrian, 59.

, ancient Egyptian, 217.

, Hebrew, 282.

of the Negroes, 10.

in Thibet, 60.

, marine, 300.

Tubla, an Oriental dram, 03. Turkey, Jews in that country, 340. Turkish musical instruments, 52.

musical scale, 52, 343.

Typhon, 230.

, represented on Egyptian bells,

227.

, figure of, 20(5.

Tzeltzelim, a Hebrew instrument,

225, 283, 285.

INDEX.

379

UGAB.	ZUMMA'RAH.
	Wattas, musicians of Abyssinia,
u.	258.
	Weintraub, 343.
Ugab, a Hebrew wnd-instrument,	Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, his account
282, 284, 288.	of ancient Egyptian concerts, 322.
Unison in the musical performances	, his description of an Egyptian
of Eastern nations, 117, 320,	painting from El Bersheh, 244.
in national music, 116.	, his description of an Egyptian
Urh-heen, a Chinese fiddle, 81, 310.	painting from Beni Hassan, 300.
	, his opinion on the intervals
	on ancient Egyptian harps, 191,
V.	198.
	Willard, his remarks on the music
Valga, a musical instrument, 211.	of the Hindoos, 151.
Villoteau, M., his account of Arabian	Wind instruments, 10.
music, 135.	Works on music written in Oriental
, his dissertation on the music	languages, 150.
of the ancient Egyptians, 270.
, his description of the modern
tamboura, 51.	X.
on the intervals of the Nubian
kissar, 157.	Xerxes and the Book of Ezra, 281.
on the Egyptian sistrum, 225.
on the sacred music of the
Copts, 263.	Y.
Viole d'amour, a musical instru-
ment, 82.	Yang kin, a Chinese instrament, 46.
Viohn, 81.	Yezidis, their music, 264.
Vissandschi, a negro instrument.	, their sacred chants, 266.
13, 14.	Yu, a Chinese interval of the scale.
Vocal music, its development, 9, 19.	143.
Vocal performances of the Assyrians,	Yue kin, a Chinese instrument, 118.
107, 121.
of the ancient Egyptians, 228.	Z.
of the Hebrews, 311, 314.
Vocero, 231.	Zaghareet, 333.
	Zampogna, an ItaUan bagpipe, 282.
W.	Zanze, a negro instrument, 12, 13. 14.
	Zither, a German instrument, 87.
Wainamoinen, a divinity of the	Zouqqarah, a bagpipe of the modern
ancient Finns, 34.	Egyptians, 79.
Walker, Mr. Joseph, his remarks on	Zummarah, a double-pipe of the
old Irish melodies, 172.	modern Egyptians, 57.

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