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USA
VOLUME XXXI
^^-^^/iC^
JAN —JUNE, 1917
&:^
The NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZI
INDEX
January to June, 1917
Volume XXXI
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL "WA-SHINGTON, D.C.
mm
■ACOP^
\AJi
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON. D. C.
O. H. TITTMANN PRESIDENT
GILBERT H.GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR O. p. AUSTIN SECRETARY
JOHNE.PILLSBURY vice-president
JOHN JOY EDSON .... TREASURER GEORGE W. HUTCHISON. ASSISTANT secretary WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . ASSISTANT EDITOR
1915-1917
Charles J. Bell
President Amerioin Security and Trust Company
John Joy Edson
President Washington Loan & Trust Company
David Fairchild
In Charse of Agricultural Ex- plorations. Dept. of Asric.
C. Hart Merriam
Member National Academy of Sciences
O. p. Austin
Statistician
George R. Putnam
Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lishthouses
George Shiras, 3d
Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Paunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photosrapher
Grant Squires
New York
BOARD OF MANAGERS 1916-1918
Franklin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Henry F. Blount
Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company
C. M. Chester
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory
Frederick v. Coville
Formerly l-residentof Wash- i ngton Academy of Sciences
John E. Pillsbury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation
Rudolph Kauffmann
Manasins Editor The Evening Star
T. L. Macdonald
M. D., F. A. C. S.
S. N. D. North
Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census
1917-1919
Alexander Graham Bell
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howard Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The Geo. Washington Univ.
A. W. Greely
Arctic Explorer, Major Qen'l U. S. Army
Gilbert H. Grosvenor
Editor of National Geographic Magazine
George Otis Smith
Director of U. S. Geological Survey
O. H. TiTTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey
Henry White
Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc.
John M. Wilson
Brigadier General U. S. Army. Formerly Chief of Engineers
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, "the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,'' the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed :
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. EDITOR
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
A. W. Greely C. Hart Merriam
O. H. TiTTMANN
Robert Hollister Chapman Walter T. Swingle
Alexander Graham Bell David Fairchild Hugh M. Smith N. H. Darton Frank M. Chapman
Copyright, 1917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved
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« 'Mention the Geographic— It identifies yon.*'
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COLUMBIA
BARRIBNTOS
THE new-found treasure-voice of the Metropolitan Opera— the world's greatest coloratura soprano — can now be heard on Columbia Records exclusively.
All the exquisite art of Barrientos is reflected in her first Columbia recordings of ''Silence O'er All" and the ''Mad Scene'' from "Lucia/' and the "Valse" from Gounod's "Mireille/'
Columbia Records are living reflections of the art of the greatest singers of opera. They have the voice, the interpretation, the persojialtty of such world-famed artists as Lazaro, Fremstad, Sembach, Barrientos, Bonci, Gates, Macbeth.
Hear these records at your dealer's today — and you will have heard the artists the?nsehes! "Hearing is believing!''
New Colombia Records on sale the 20th of every month
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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For 7-passenger Six — 48 h. p. 127-inch Whcelbase.
$1460
<t 1 1 C A ^°^ Mitchell Junior— 40 h. p. ^1 lOU 120-inch Whcelbase Six.
Both Prices f. o. b. Racine
Mr, Bate's New Extras
Every dollar we save by John W. Bate's efficiency methods goes into the Mitchell car.
In this model factory — covering 45 acres — we are building a fine car for less than anyone else. For at least one-fifth less than anyone else could build it. The result shows in Mitchell extras.
24% Extra Luxury
This year we build our own bodijps, open and enclosed. Every penny of that saving goes into added luxury. It en- ables us to add 24 per cent to the cost of finish, upholstery and trimming. The result is a car which stands out clearly as the handsomest car in its class.
31 Extra Features
This year'3 Mitch- ell embodies 31 extra
TWO SIZES
l^l'i'r^liAll'^ roomy, T-pasteneer jyiirCneii six, with 127-liich wheel- base. A hiffh speed, economical 48-faor8e- power motor. Diaappearinv extra seats and 31 extra features included.
Price S1460^ /. o. b. Racine
Mitchell Junior-slltlir^fiS
lines with 120-inch ^firheelbase. A40-horse- power motor— K-inch smaller bore than larser MitchelL
Price SllSO, f. a. b. Racine Also all styles of enclosed and convert* ible bodies. Also demountable tops.
features, all paid for by factory saving:s. These are features which other cars omit because of their added cost. They cost us this year about $4,000,000.
100% Over-Strength
This year we announce, for the first time, double strength in every Mitchell part. It has taken three years to attain it Now every part which gets a strain is twice as strong as need be.
All this — to attain a lifetime car — is paid for by factory savings.
We urge you to see these results of eflGi- ciency .They are found in no other high- grade car. You will want these extras — all of them. Only the Mitchell has them.
They mean 20 per cent extra value.
MITCHELL MOTORS
COMPANY, Inc. Racine, Wis., U. S. A.
'* Mention the Geographic— It identifies yon.*
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Any Weather Is Billiard
\\7 J.L. I ^^ ^y Home Has Room
W ea.tner : For a BRUNSWICK Table
Carom and Pocket Billiards are a captivating All reproduced in actual colors in our de luxe
sport, and nowadays the Brunswick Home Table catalog. Write for free copy today, is the family playground. IVken school Ms
out it quickens home-bound footsteps. Lo^ PricCS— Free Trial
Soon then the chckmg balls proclaim that
eager eyes are training to debate dad*8 mastery Test any Brunswick 30 days at home 9J\Apay
when he arrives from work. while you play^ if you keep the table. Prices
This manly love of skillful achievement is are low because we are selling to thousands,
builtright into these scientific Bninswicks. They Balls, Cues, Expert Book of 33 games, etc.,
are packed full of health, they are wrapped with given free with each table,
tense moments, and Mail This
7alght^r ^"^^ ^"^ ^SlvVJ^O fVXv^l\^ Learn how our
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Many professionals g^aa^^^MaaaM^aa^aa^MMMi and put in a closet when
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arch cushions give them | '^^ to receive a copy of your color-catalog | j^id color-pictures of ta-
expert playing qualities. l " Billiard*— Th« Hoin« Magn«t" | bles in our latest catalog
Fine oak and hand- - ■ —Billiards- "The Home
somely fieured mahog- ■ ^<^»^ Magnet." The coupon
any, richly inlaid and | ... I brings a copy free by
built to last a lifetime. | ^^ I return mail. Send today.
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* Mention the aeographic— It identifies yon."
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No Other Six Resembles Hudson Super-Six
Don't Be Misled — ^It is a Hudson Invention
Sixes have come into renewed popularity since the Super- Six won the top place. But the Super-Six invention- controlled by our patents— added 80 per cent to. the six-type efficiency. And that 80 per cent is what gave it supremacy, when the V-types threatened to displace the Six,
Late in 1913, remember, the Six was a waning type. .Even the Light Six, which Hudson gave first rank, had revealed some vital engineering limitations.
It had not solved the problem of motor vibra- tion. It bad not minimized friction and wear. Its endurance had proved disappointing.
Sizes at that time held hardly a single record. They were mostly held by Fours.
And leading engineers, including the Hud- son, were seeking a remedy in Eights and Twelves. At that time the Six, for high- grade cars, seemed verging on diplacement.
What Saved the Day
It was the Super-Six invention, remember, which then saved the day for the Six.
Hudson engineers discovered the short- cominq. By a basic invention they corrected the fault. They ended nearly all the vibration. They doubled the motor's endurance. Thus they created a motor which has since won all the worth-while records.
But that doesn't mean that the old-type Six is any better than it was.
' Tivas the Super-Six That Won
The Super-Six, in a hundred tests, has out- performed all other motor types. It has not merely broken records. It has made new records which, a year ago, no man considered possible.
It broke the 24-hour endurance record by 52 per cent. ^ It broke the transcontinental record twice in one round trip. A Super- Six touring car went from San Francisco to New York and back in 1 0 days and 2 1 hours.
It beat twenty famous rivals up Pike's Peak. It broke all stock-car speed records, and all for quick acceleration.
Then,^ after 7,000 record-breaking miles, it showed itself in new condition. Not a part or bearing showed evidence of wear.
No other motor ever built has shown any- where near such endurance.
All By Saving Waste
The Super-Six develops no more power than other like-size motors. It simply de- livers more. It almost eliminates motor fric- tion and wear by ending nearly all the vibration.
That vibration, which wasted power, was the great fault of the Six. It is that which led to the Ejght and Twelve as a possible solution. Any motor in which that fault remains can't compare with the Super-Six.
A New Gasoline Saver
The Hudson Super-Six, in endurance and performance, stands foremost in the world. The new style bodies which we have created make the car look its supremacy. A new exclusive feature — a gasoline saver — gives it this year another advantage.
It now outsells any other front-rank car. It has 25,000 enthusiastic owners, who knbw that no rival can match them.
You can prove in one hour, at any Hudson showroom, that this car deserves its place. And that no other car, at any price, can be classed with it. Do that before the spring • demand overwhelms us.
Phaeton, T-passenffer . $1650 Roadster, l-paaaenffer . 1650 Cabriolet, S-passenffer . 1950
Tourins Sedan .... $2175 Town Car $2925
Limousine 2^25 Town Car Landaulet . 3025
{AllPricmmf, o. 6. Dmtroit) Limousine Landaulet . 3025
HUDSON MOTOR CAR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICfflGAN
''Mention the Geographic-— It identifies you.**
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Eood Value-Always Browing Greater
As the improvements are made in Dodge Brothers car nothing is said to Dodge Brothers dealers, or to the pubhc, about them. This is in pursuance of a policy in- augurated by Dodge Brothers at the very outset.
They look upon the progressive improvement of the car as a matter of cfourse.
It is a plain duty they owe to them- selves and to the public. There is no necessity of heralding these improvements in advance. The public finds out about them in due time, and expresses appre- ciation and approval. And so, while the process of better- ment goes on every day, nothing is scud of it until after it is accomplished. The car is basically the same car as it was two years ago. Yet there isn't a bit of doubt but that it is a better car. The car of today is worth more money than the car of Jtwo years ago. The price is the same, but the car is a better car. ^
Not because the costs of materials have increased — although they have. But especially because the standards of construction have been steadily raised — the shop practice made steadily finer.
And still, the buyers of the first cars, and every subseqyent car, re- ceived full value.
That is proven by the fact that all of the cars, no matter how long ago they were built, are giving good ser- vice today.
It is still further proven by the high price they command when sold at second hand.
Any car built by Dodge Brothers com- mands a high price — whether it was built twenty-two months, or twelve months, or two months ago.
This high valuation on any car bearing Dodge Brothers* name has been fixed, not by them, but by the public.
Dodge Brothers have had few market problems to bother them» and practi- cally nothing to do but make the car better.
They are their own severest critics, and they will never wait for the public to ask for a better car from them.
They try to anticipate— to travel ahead— to give even more than is expected.
No materii^l, no part, and no acces- sory is barred from Dodge Brothers car because it is too high priced.
.The only question asked, the only proof demanded, is of its goodness.
When the car was designed, its parts were charted and chosen according to quality, and with a total disregard of price.
That policy still prevails, only it has been intensified.
No source of supply can have too high a standard for Dodge Brothers — nothing too good can be offered for Dodge Brothers car.
That policy, plus a process of research, test, refinement and proof, make for continuous progress.
That is why it is still the same car, and yet a much finer car.
That is why it is worth more money than ever, though still sold at the same price.
That is why its value is always grow- ing greater.
Touring Car or Roadster, $785. In Canada, $1 100 Winter Touring Car or Roadster. $950. In Canada. $ 1 335 Sedan. $1185. In Canada. $1685 A II prices f. o. b. Detroit
DooGE Brothers, Detroit
•Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
Oigitized by
The Hours W Don't Forgei
The Same Good-Nights for a Hundred Years Will be Said Over Dishes of Puffed Grains
The little ones in countless homes will tonight float Puffed Grains in their bowls of milk —
Puffed Wheat, Puffed Rice or Corn Puffs.
In times to come, their children's children will do the same, no doubt. For no man can ever make from wheat, rice or corn a better food than these.
The Pinnacle Foods Forever
Hundreds of foods have been made from these grains. But Puffed Grains mark the apex. They can never be excelled.
Prof. Anderson' s process takes whole wheat or rice and makes every atom digestible. Every food cell is exploded. Every granule is fitted to feed. No one can ever go further.
These grains are sealed in guns. For an hour they are rolled in 550 degrees of heat. The moisture in each food cell is changed to steam. The guns are shot and that steam explodes.
There occur in each grain a hundred million explosions — one for every food cell. The grains are puffed to eight times normal size. They come out airy, flaky bubbles, as you see.
No other cooking process breaks more than half of the food cells. None can ever break more. So these must forever remain the sovereign foods produced from wheat, rice or corn.
|
Puffed |
Puffed |
|
Wheat |
Rice |
|
and Corn Puffs |
|
|
Each 15c Except in |
Far West |
These are not mere morning dainties. They are all-day foods. Folks use them like nuts in candy-making, or as garnish for ice cream. They serve them as wafers in soup. Between meals they eat them dry. And no other morsels are so ideal for serving in bowls of milk.
Serve a different one each day.
The Quaker Qats Ompany
Sole Makers (1452)
•'Mention the Geograpliic— It Identifies you."
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Higher Mileage
from both oil and gasoline follows lubricating efficiency
THE careful motorist to- day wants high mileage from his lubricating oil. For high mileage is significant in many ways.
Higher mileage from an oil means more work, less waste.
Higher mileage results from a more complete piston-ring seal. That means practically elimi- nating oil working into the combustion chambers. It means cutting down the gasoline waste past the piston rings. It means sealing-in the power, which then acts with full force on thepistons.
And a higher mileage oil must naturally be one which withstands the intense working- heat in the cylinders.
The high mileage from Gargoyle Mobiloils is causing a marked reduction in many an- nual oil bills. But, much more important, it points plainly to greater lubricating efficiency.
A Massachusetts garage man writes us: "Some motorists say Gargoyle Mobiloils go J to^ further. In our seven livery cars we get 20 to 25 miles more per quart than with anything else on the job."
A prominent manufacturer of motor trucks and tractors found that Gargoyle Mobiloils cut gasoline consumption 28% when compared with one oil and 41% when com- pared with another.
We constantly hear of such ex- periences.
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Frequently two friends own the same make and model of car.
Both are satisfied with gas and oil mile- age until they compare results. Then comes a surprise to one of them.
We recommend that you compare re- sults on your own car, as follows :
An Economical Demonstration
It will probably cost you less than $i.oo to fill your reservoir with the grade of Gargoyle Mobiloils specified for your car. The garage or dealer you trade with has it, or can promptly secure it for you.
Ask him to empty your reservoir of its present oil and fill it with the correct grade of Gargoyle Mobiloils. You can then judge for your- self the results in gasoline economy and reduced oil consumption, to say nothing of reduced carbon deposit. If your car is not listed in the partial chart to the right, a copy of our "Correct Lubri- cation" booklet containing the complete Chart will be sent you on request.
cf^Spf
Mobiloils
A grade for each type of motor
The four grades of Garjroyle Mobiloils for gasoline motor lubrication, purified to remove free carbon,
are:
Gargoyle Mobiloil <'A'* Gargoyle MobOoil ''B'* Gargoyle MobUoU <*£** Gargoyle Mobiloil "Arctic"
Eltdtdc V«Mcies — For motor bearings and enclosed chains use Gargoyle Mobiloil *'A" the year 'round. For open chains and differential use Gargoyle Mobiloil "C" the year 'round. £ccip(ioir— For fuinUr lubrication of pleasure cars use Gargoyle Mobiloil "Arctic" for worm drive and Gargoyle Mobiloil "A" for bevel gear drive. In buying Gargoyle Mobiloils from your dealer, it is safest lo purchase in original packages. Look for the red Gargoyle on the container. For information, kindly address any inquiry to our neaurest o£Sce.
VACUUM OIL COMPANY
Rochester, N. Y., U. S. A.
Specialists in the mmaiilactureof high grad* lubricaiits for every class of machinenr. Obtainable eTerywhere in the world.
n «j^ Detroit ChicsTO Minneapolis
* "'^— Philadelphia IMttsburch
Kansas City, Kan,
Correct Automobile Lubrication
ExpJoiMitiM: In the Chart below, the letter oppohiie tlie car indicates the grade of Gar- goyle Mobiloils that should be used. For example," A" means Gargoyle Mobiloil" A." "Arc" means Gargoyle Mobiloil •Arctic" etc. The recommendations cover all models of both pleasure and commercial vehicles unless otherwise noted.
IndJ
De« Moines
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lEXAMPLE NO. 31
Ui
Pec^y^^ Cypress Used as Interior Trim !
on one of the most artistic of America's great estates.
VO. 3 in SERIES SHOfTIffG "PECKr* CYPRESS IN MR. HENRY FORD'S NEIT RESIDENCE.
Another Corner in the "Fisuy* Room-. Estate op Henry Ford. Esq., Dearborn, Michioan. Mr, W. H. Van Tine, Architect, Detroit.
Remarkably skillful artistic use of the LOWEST GRADE of Cypress, **the Wood Etemar* is shown above. The architect deliberately sougfht the parts of the Cypress logs which retain the visible evidence of ATTACKS BY ROT- GERMS and their COMPLETE DEFEAT. This is the confirmation, to the most cynical, of the longevity of Cypress. Mr. Van Tine writes as follows:
** April 19, 1916. — My object in using Cypress is the fact that I get better quality of wood for many purposes than other kinds and grades of lumber. The object of this room (the one shown above) was to produce an old, quaint effect .... The selection of the worm-eaten and old wood ("Pecky") has taken on a very important factor in the room. I have found Cypress a very satisfactorv material and RELIABLE for OUTSIDE and INSIDE work, and take pleasure in making this statement." (Signed) W. H. VAN TINE.
JUST IVRITE FOR VOL. 2—irS A FASCINATOR AS WELL AS A MONEY-SAVER.
( * ^Pecl^ • • Cypress is the Lowest Grade of Cypress ^ * Uhe Wood Etemar ' — but it ^s fine for ivhat it's good for, )
Let our "ALL-ROUND HELPS DEPARTMENT" hdp YOU. Our entire resources are at your senricc with Reliable CounseL
SOUTHERN CYPRESS MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION
1224Hi1>eniia Bank Buildins, New Orleans, La., or 1224 Heard National Bank Bldg., Jackaonville, Fla.
INSIST ON CYPRESS AT YOUR LOCAL LUMBER DEALER'S. IF HE HASN'T IT. LET US KNOW IMMEDIATELY.
* 'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
Oigitized by
Wanted-A ^50.000 Man
THE response to this advertisement, run by a big Boston corporation, was enormous. Hundreds of applicants presented them- selves, but one by one they were turned down. Their training and knowledge of business princi- ples were not broad enough to fit them for the position. What was wanted was a man with a trained mind— a man who knew the great funda- mental principles upon which all business is built.
There are many big positions waiting, right now, for men who are prepared to fill them. Yet qualified men are seldom found. There is a dearth of good material, a famine in the market. In almost every big business there are $10,000— and even $15,000— positions open waiting for the right men to step in.
The big fundamental principles behind your work
You feel and know that you have the capacity for sreater success. But conscientious work alone will not fit you to get ahead. You mufit be prepared before you can hope to rise much above your present position. You must master the bitr fundamental ttrincibles behind the 7vork you are now doing and which underlie the job ahead of you.
It is this broad grasp of the fundamentals of business that the Alexander Hamilton Institute is teaching to more than 50.000 men in America today.
Based upon the actual experience of thousands
of successful business men
The Institute collects, classifies, and transmits to you, thru the Modern Business Course and Service, the best thought and practice in modern business. It will give you a thoro and sound training in the fundamental principles
underlying all departments of business-it will give you a knowledge that could otherwise be obtained only by years of bitter experience— if at all.
Advisory Council
Both business and educational authority of the highest standing are represented in the Advisory Council of the Alexander Hamilton I nstitute. This Council i ncludes Frank A. Vanderlip, President of the National City Bank of New York; Judge E. H. Gary, head of the U. S. Steel Corpora- tion ; John Hays Hammond, the eminent engineer ; Joseph French Johnson. Dean of the New York University School of Commerce; and Jeremiah W. Jenks. the statistician and economist.
The kind of men enrolled
Presidents of big corporations are often enrolled for this Course and Service along with ambitious young clerks in their employ. Among the 50,000 subscribers are such men as: H. C. Osborn, President. American Multigraph Sales Co.; Melville W. Mix, President of the Dodge Mfg. Co.: George M. Verity, President of the American Rolling Mills; William H.IngersoU, Marketing Manager of the big- gest watch company in the world ; N. A. Hawkins, General Sales Manager of the Ford Motor Co.— and scores of others equally prominent.
In the Standard Oil Co. 242 men are enrolled with the Alexander Hamilton Institute; in the U. S. Steel Corpora- tion, 450; fn the National Cash Register Co., 194: in the General Electric Co., 282; in the Pennsylvania Railroad, 87;-and so on down the list of the biggest concerns in America.
*• Forging Ahead in Business **
A careful reading of this 135-page book, "Forging Ahead in Business." copy of which we will send you free, will re- pay you many times over. It will help measure what you know— what you don't know, and what you should know- to make success sure. This Course and Service will fit you to grasp the opportunities that are bound to come to those who are prepared.
561 Astor Place Alexander Hamilton Institute New York, n. y. «-- ^
Send me '* Forging: Ahead in Business **— FREE
Name - ^ -
Business Address Business Position -
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Digitized by
"Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you." . C^OOCjIp
ard equipment. Frice, »l.;i50 1. o. h. Uctroit.
There Is a Strong Public Belief In the Superiority of Saixon "Six"
At last it has dawned upon motor-car buyers in general that, strictly speaking, there is no rivalry between a car of less than six cylinders and Saxon "Six.**
Why this is true is easily grasped.
With less than six cylinders propelling the car, there are bound to be slight intervals between explosions.
With six cylinders, as in Saxon "Six,** these intervals between impulses are elimi- nated and the power- stream produced is of practically perfect continuity.
Necessarily, then, in the "less than six,*' with fewer impulses at any given time, the force of each impulse must be more severe upon all moving parts.
In Saxon "Six,** for in- stance, as compared with one of the best known "less than six-
cylinder*' cars of like price, there is nearly 98% more impulses per minute at 20 miles per hour.
So naturally each impulse at any given time is far less severe upon moving parts.
A gradual awakening to the disadvantages of the "less than six** has incited buyers to a more careful investigation before pur- chasing.
And investigation has usually terminated in the same clear-cut conclusion — that Saxon "Six" is un- matched by any less-than- six-cylinder motor of like price.
So that public preference has swung strongly toward
SAXON "SIX"
A BIO TOURING CAR FOR FIVE PBOFLE
Saxon Motor Car Corporation, Detroit
* 'Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you.'*
Saxon "Six" as the best car at less than $1,200.
To such an extent that produc- tion has never proved quite great enough to satisfy the demand.
This in the face of the fact that each year has seen double the number of Saxon "Sixes** built.
Saxon **Six,** of course, has other very material advantages.
For one, it accelerates with un- usual rapidity, going from stand- ing start to 45 miles per hour in 23 seconds. That is 22% faster than the time of the best "less- than-six** we know of.
For another is the tremendous speed and power of Saxon **Six.** There is a greater amount than you are ever likely to require. It is there, so that no set of road conditions can ever balk you.
And another is the economy of Saxon **Six" in the matter of re- pairs and gasoline, too. 206 stock model Saxon "Sixes** in a 300- mile none-stop run established an average of 23.5 miles per gallon of gasoline.
Saxon "Six- is $865.00 f. o. b. Detroit. (709)
Digitized by
This Is Oxir Work
T^ULFILLING the ^ vision of its founder, this institution serves and will continue to serve its double func- tion in providing safe investments for the funds of the public and the upbuilding of this nation's permanent prosperity.
PROMOTING thrift, -*■ encouraging sys- tematic accumulations, providing for such ac- cumulations a form of investment unimpeach- ably conservative; and giving to each investor, large or small, a real, vital and profitable part in the material improv- ing of this nation's great cities : This is our work.
B«tat>-
lished
1882
&Co.
, Incor-
'•- po rated 1905
NEW YORK CHICAGO
150 Broadway Straus Bldg.
DETROIT MINNEAPOLIS
Penobscot Bldg. Loeb Arcade Bldg.
SAN FRANCISCO CINCINNATI Crocker Bldg. MercantileLibraryBldg.
35 years without loss to any investor
A Comparison of Yields
Income from Municipal Bonds which we are now offering compared with that of similar bonds in January, 1901 :
|
1901 |
1916 |
|
|
Buffalo, N. Y. |
3.15% |
3.70% |
|
Philadelphia, Pa. |
2.90% |
3.78% |
|
South Carolina |
3.70% |
3.80% |
|
St. Paul, Minn. |
3.20% |
3.82% |
|
Lackawanna Co., Pa. |
3.10% |
3.82% |
|
Baltimore, Md. |
3.35% |
3.90% |
|
Hudson County, N. J. |
3.25% |
3.85 C^ |
|
New York City |
3.00% |
4.00% |
|
Lakewood, Ohio |
4.00% |
4.20% |
The Federal Income Tax Law of 1914 and the Postal Savings Act of 1910 (both revised in 1916) are factors to be considered in pui^ chasing Municipal Bonds.
Send for Municipal U»t AN.54.
The National City Company
National City Bank Building New York
rt5»6u»HEDw«iaiiiiimiiii
All Essential Features of a Sound Investment
Nionefy
1. Fixed Security ample to safeg^uard the loan;
2. Net earning^ of sufficient size and stability to assure prompt payment of interest and principal;
3. Such excellent quality that marketability imder ordinary conditions is certain ;
4. The obligation of an old, established, uniformly prosperous Company;
5. Offered and recommended by bankers with years of experience and success in this particular form of investment;
6. Attractive interest return— 6% ;
arc combined in an issue of first mortgage bonds described in our Circular No. 961-D, which will be sent promptly upon request,
Peabo%; HonglLteling&€o.
(Established 1865) 10 South La Salle Street, Chicago
'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.'
■iimmnimnmiiiiif mtasushed laegamiiiimmimiifliB
Oigitized by
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We Invest Our Own Money in i Municipals Before We Offer Them to You
Before we invest in Municipal Bonds we have a corps of experts in our Buying Department investigate every detail of the transaction. This means when these bonds are offcTred to you they have measured up to our high standard.
^ ' ' *ng the safety and absolute depend- [unicipal Bonds, no securities offer a better yield. Twenty-seven years' experience has demon- strated this to us. 1
To thousands of experienced investors all over the country the on Company stands first in conserva- tism, safety and service. We would like to serve you.
A Few of Our Attractive Municipal Issues:
Rate Due YieU About
State of California. Direct Obligations 4^ 1985-Option 1950) 3.751^
City of New York. Direct Obligations A\i 1966 4.10^
City of El Paso, Texas. School Bonds Si 1954-55 4.20^
Lawrence Co., Tenn.,Rds. Direct Obligations 5^ 1936-56 4.50^ Haskell Co., Okla. Township Direct Obli- gations bi 1941 5.00^ i
Cypress Creek Drainage, District of Ark. SH 1935-46 5.05^ §
We offer Municipal Bonds in glOOO, $5,00, and $100 amounts netting Ai to Shi>, Send today to our nearest office for our Free Booklet, N 1, **The Premier Investment," and large list of offerings.
\A/llliam R^fprnpton fpmpany
New York ii>f • • i o j ^^' ^^"'s m
14 Wall Street Municipal Bonds 433 OUve street I
Chicago "^''' ^ ^"^'''^'' ^''"^"'-y '■" ^" ^««w.." Cincinnati %
W5 S. La Salle Street 102 Union Trust BIdg,
m^:^Wy,mf;^'<mmM^'^z'Mmmmmi^,
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." ^^ ^
Digitized by VjOOQIC
THE charm of the Colonial is the in- spiration for many of the most beau- tiful homes of today. Fortunately the return to white and mahogany comes at a time when almost every housekeeper knows the easy, successful way to take care of finely finished woodwork and furniture.
Like most other articles that cannot be cleaned safely or satisfactorily by ordi- nary methods, enameled wood trim and choice pieces of cabinet work require only the judicious application of Ivory Soap to look their beist.
Ivory Soap removes the dirt without harming the finish. Its mild, white, pure, neutral lather does nothing but cleanse.
Being free from alkali and all harsh ma- terials, it is perfectly safe. Being free from unsaponified oil, it leaves no greasy fihn.
Just the usual care which common sense suggests when applying water to a fin- ished wood surface — lukewarm suds, dampening only a small part at a time, prompt drying with a chamois skin — insures success with Ivory Soap.
Directions for deanins over a hun- dred articles not ordictarily washed with soap and water are included in this booklet, "Unusual Uses of Ivory Soap'*. Thousands of wo- men have found it very helpful. You should have a copv. It is free. Address The Procter tt Gamble Co., Dept. 23-A, Cincinnati, O.
f
IVORY SOAP
If Pi
99^0^ PURE
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yoiu^^
Digitized by
Vol. XXXI, No. 1
WASHINGTON
January, 1917
THE
MATflONAL GEOGIRAPMHC \AQAZl
OUR BIG TREES SAVED
IN THE scenic heart of the Sequoia National Park, the only section of the magnificent 160,000 -acre play- ground situated in California which is at the present time accessible to motor- driven and horse-drawn vehicles, stands a group of trees, the Sequoia washing- toniana, known as the Giant Forest, and in this forest grow the loftiest and most venerable living things that Nature has produced.
The Sequoia National Park was con- stituted a government preserve to safe- guard these very trees, some of which were 2,000 years old when the Christian era dawned. But it was a preservation that did not protect, for the very acres upon which grew the finest specimens of the Sequoia washing toniana remained in the possession of private parties to whom they had been patented before the park was created.
Some months ago the Department of the Interior, realizing that the constantly increasing value of timber had become a rapidly growing temptation to these owners to convert the trees into lumber, secured from Congress an appropriation of $50,000 to purchase the coveted land. When the effort was made to buy the holdings, however, it was discovered that the owners could not fairly part with their sequoia trees except on condition that adjacent property be purchased also, the supplementary lands bringing the price up to $70,000.
After learning from their expert ap- praisers that the actual market value of the timber standing on these holdings amounted to $156,000, and that the price
of $70,000 was, therefore, most reason- able, showing that the owners wished to cooperate in their preservation, the de- partment secured an option on the land for six months.
With the expiration of the option only three weeks off, and with no prospect of being able to secure the necessary additional appropriation of ^0,000 from Congress during its pre-holiday session, the Department of the Interior had prac- tically lost all hope of saving these most highly prized of all trees for the Ameri- can people.
In this predicament one of the officials of the department recalled the splendid work which has been done for a number of years by the National Geographic So- ciety in stimulating public interest in the preservation of the nation's playgrounds and in safeguarding our song birds and wild lifie. Why not appeal to this Society, whose more than half a million members represent every State in the Union, and who would be deeply interested, individu- ally as well as collectively, in the preser- vation of this forest wonderland? The suggestion was adopted and the appeal was submitted to the Society's Board of Managers.
As was so earnestly hoped, the So- ciety's governing body immediately appre- ciated the exceptional opportunity which was about to be lost to the American people, and at a meeting attended by every member of the Board excepting two, who were out of town, gladly ap- propriated the necessary $20,000. And thus was accomplished a unique coopera- tion of a great national scientific society
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Photograph by ,V. K. Moore
A 25-FOOT SAW USED FOR FKIXING BIG TREES
While wedges are required to keep the tree from "pinching'* the saw, and a good supply of axle grease or other lubricant is necessary to overcome friction, elbow grease in liberal quantities is the lirst essential in handling one of these big blades.
with the national government, whereby one of the country's noblest scenic re- sources has been presented to the Ameri- can people for their perpetual enjoyment.
When one recalls that the Giant Forest is the largest intact body of trees of this species in existence, with the General Sherman as its king — a wonderful speci- men 103 feet in circumference, 280 feet tall, as high as the dome of the National Capitol* — our hearts thrill that these masterpieces of nature have been rescued from the axe.
.\ thousand years may not bring them to their full stature, but a few days may wipe them out forever. Unafraid of wreck and change, untouched even by **tinie's remorseless doom," they have come down to us through centuries — aye, through millenniums ; and now will live on through other centuries, a link to bind the future with the past.
Whoever has stood beneath these tow-
*A photogravure of this magnificent tree, 23 x8j 2 inches, was published in the April, 1916, number of the Geographic Magazink.
ering giants of the forest feels a rever- ent love for these grizzled patriarchs! The oldest living thing! There is not a nation on the face of the earth today but what was born, mayhap, a thousand years after they reached their maturity.
Nations have risen, reached their prime, and passed on to the decay and oblivion that is the ultimate fate of all things temporal, and other nations have succeeded them, in their turn to be fol- lowed by still others, since the great trees began their existence. World powers have arisen, run their course, and disap- peared— meteors, as it were — in the sky of history, and the big trees still live on !
Who could replace them? Not man, for never yet in all his existence has he had contintiity of purpose enough to plan 2,000 years ahead. The mutations of time in twenty centuries leave only here and there a silent monument to speak of the past, and even these have been the prey of generations coming after their builders. Some of the most magnificent marbles in Athens and Rome w^ere burnt
Digitized by
Photograph by A. R. Moore
A CALIFORNIA SEQUOIA WASHINGTONIANA LOG, 26 FEKT IN DIAMETER
A thousand years scarcely serve to bring a sequoia to its maturity, and it may be hale and hearty still when three thousand summer suns have looked down upon it; but a day ipay lay it low forever.
into lime for agricultural purposes, and even the Pyramids have served as quar- ries to the indifferent successors of those who raised them.
Yet when unnumbered thousands of Egyptian slaves were laboriously trans- porting the stones for Cheops across the Nile Valley and hoisting them into posi- tion, these hoary old veterans of the Cali- fornia mountains were sturdy saplings.
The human progress they must have witnessed ! In their early youth the chil- dren of Israel were wandering through the Wilderness of Sin. When the Star of Bethlehem shone down over that lowly manger in Judea, proclaiming the second deliverance of mankind, who knows but that these monarchs of the California forest which have just been rescued from the woodman's axe joined in singing "Glory to the Highest," as the winds of the East swept over the West !
The very race that has risen up to save them was perhaps overrunning Europe, wrapped in skins, living by the chase, and
using the bow and arrow, when they were taking root. Instead of medicine, men were resorting to amulets and charms. The most complicated piece of machinery that had yet been invented was the hand- loom. There was not a screw, a bolt, or a nut in existence. There was no printing press, no steam-engine, no microscope, no telescope, no telegraph, no telephone. The tallow dip was the only method of lighting;- the caravan, the sail and row boat, and the runner were the only means of international communication.
As a hunter keeps a record of the bears he has killed by the notches in his gun- stock, so the big tree keeps an account of the years it has lived by rings concealed within its trunk. Every year that it lives it grows in girth a tiny bit — in youth faster, in age slower, in fat years more and in lean ones less. But it never fails to add its ring with each passing year. Examine the next pine stump you come to and you will see how these rings start out from the center like those on the
Digitized by
A CALIFORNIA LOGGING SCENE
Photograph by A. R. Moore
In estimating the age of a standing tree the rings on the end of a log of a fallen one are counted, and the number of years required for an inch of average circumferential growth determined. If the fallen tree is in the immediate neighborhood and of approximately the same diameter of the one whose age is to be estimated, the remainder of the problem ^ simply one of determining this diameter in inches and multiplying it by the average number of rings to the inch.
water of a pond where a pebble falls. Count them and you can know to a cer- tainty the age of the tree.
The purchase was completed and the title to the Big Trees passed to the U. S. Government on January 17, 191 7.
By direction of the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society, the official correspondence on the subject is published below.
National Geographic Society, November ii, 191 6. Dear Secretary Lane:
I have much pleasure in advising you that the Board of Managers of the Na- tional Geographic Society, being informed of your efforts to enable the United States Government to secure possession of the Giant Forest in the Sequoia Na- tional Park, and of the urgent necessity of $20,000 being made immediately avail- able for the purchase (in addition to the $50,000 appropriated by Congress for the
purpose), at a meeting yesterday unani- mously adopted the following resolution :
''Resolved, That the Board of Mana- gers of the National Geographic Society authorizes the expenditure of not exceed- ing $20,000 for the purchase of private lands in the Sequoia National Park, to be donated to the National Government for park purposes, in accordance with the provisions of the Act of Congress, July I, 1916, Public 132, 39 Stat., 308, and that this sum shall be paid from the Research Fund of 1916; and that there is given to the President, the Director and Editor, and the Chairman of the Fi- nance Committee, as representatives of the Society, authority to arrange with the Secretary of the Interior the details of the purchase and donation."
The National Geographic Society has watched with keen interest the rapid de- velopment of our national parks by the Department of the Interior and heartily
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;• ^ , Photograph by A. R. Moore
A GIANT SKOUOIA THAT SPLIT IN FALLING
John Muir counted four thousand rings from the heart out of one fallen giant. That tree was a thriftv sapling when Abraham went into Egypt. It was already a seed-hearer when Sodom and' Gomorrah were destroyed. It was as old as American civilization when Joseph was sold into Egvpt. It was nearly a thousand years old when David slew Goliath. And it was older when Christ was born than the Christian religion is today.
congratulates you upon the work which you have done in safeguarding these great national playgrounds for the coming gen- erations and in making them accessible to visitors.
Assuring you that the National Geo- graphic Society, through its Board of Managers, is very glad to have the privi- lege of cooperating with the government in preserving these priceless natural treasures to posterity, I am, Yours very sincerely,
Gilbert H. Grosvenor.
The Secretary of the Interior, November 20, 1916. My Dear Mr. Grosvenor:
I beg to acknowledge your favor set- ting forth the resolution of the National Geographic Society by which it is made possible for us to secure, on behalf of the government, certain of the private lands in the Giant Forest of the Sequoia National Park.
This act on the part of your vSociety I know will meet with the. highest com- mendation from its great iliembership, because thereby you render to the (^jOv- ernment of the United States and to all of its people a lasting service and in a sense create a monument to the honor of your Society itself.
The trees which your money, together with that appropriated by Congress, en- able us to purchase are the ohlest living things uj)on this continent. They are the original ])i oncers. To have them fall be- fore the axe of the woodman would have been a lasting crime, reflecting seriously upon the people of our country.
It will be many centuries before they die, and throughout their life I hope it may be known that they were kept alive by the generosity and foresight of your people. We will be pleased to have placed on one of the trees of the grove a tablet of commemoration.
Cordially yours, (Signed) Franklin K. Lane.
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Photograph by Lindley Kddy
ONE OF god's First ticmplks, in the giant forp:st
Dead indeed must be the soul of the man whose heart is not quickened, whose spirit is not moved to reverence, whose thoughts do not reach out and beyond, and whose inmost being does not look up through Nature to Nature's God, amid such surroundings as these!
10 Digitized by
Photograph h^ I^indley Eddy
IN THE HEART OF THE GIANT FOREST
''The big tree is Nature's masterpiece. It has a strange air of other days about it, a thoroughbred look inherited from the long ago — the auld lang syne of trees. ... As far as man is concerned, it is the same yesterday, today, and forever — emblem of permanence." — John Muir.
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THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
National Geographic Society Explorations in the Katmai District of Alaska
By Robert F. Griggs, of the Ohio State University Leader of the Society's Mount Katmai Expeditions of 1915 and 1916
THE eruption of Mount Katmai in June, 1912, was one of the most tremendous volcanic explosions ever recorded. A mass of ash and pum- ice whose volume has been estimated at nearly five cubic miles was thrown into the air. In its fall this material buried an area as large as the State of Con- necticut to a depth varying from 10 inches to over 10 feet, while small amounts of ash fell as much as 900 miles away.
Great quantities of very fine dust were thrown into the higher regions of the atmosphere and quickly distributed over the whole world, so as to have a profound effect on the weather, being responsible for the notoriously cold, wet summer of that year.
The comparative magnitude of the eruption can be better realized if one should imagine a similar eruption of Vesuvius. Such an eruption would bury Naples under 15 feet of ash ; Rome would be covered nearly a foot deep ; the sound would be heard at Paris ; dust from the crater would fall in Brussels and Berlin, and the fumes would be noticeable far beyond Christiania, Norway.
Readers of The Geographic will re- member the accounts of the eruption by Capt. K. M. Perry and Dr. Geo. C. Mar- tin, which appeared in the magazine for August, 1912, and February, 1913, re- spectively.
Fortunately the volcano is situated in a country so sparsely inhabited that the damage caused by the eruption was in- significant— very much less than in many relatively small eruptions in populous districts, such as that of Vesuvius, which destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Indeed, so remote and little known is the
volcano that there were not any witnesses near enough to see the eruption, and il was not until the National Geographic Society's expeditions explored the district that it was settled definitely which of several near-by volcanoes was really the seat of the disturbance.
The most important settlement in the devastated district is Kodiak, which, al- though a hundred miles from the volcano, was buried nearly a foot deep in ash. This ashy blanket transformed the "Green Kodiak" of other days into a gray desert of sand, whose redemption and revege- tation seemed utterly hopeless. When I first visited it, a year later, it presented an appearance barren and desolate. It seemed to every one there that it must be many years before it could recover its original condition.
the eruption was the best thing that EVER happened to kodiak
What, then, was my surprise on re- turning after an interval of only two years to find the ash-laden hillsides cov- ered with verdure. Despite the reports I had received, I could not believe my eyes. Where before had been barren ash was now rich grass as high as one's head.
Every one agrees that the eruption was "the best thing that ever happened to Kodiak." In the words of our hotel keeper, "Never was any such grass known before, so high or so early. No one ever believed the country could grow so many berries, nor so large, before the ash."
Were the title not preempted, Kodiak might have been called the "Emerald Isle" quite as well as Ireland. Its situ- ation in the Pacific is indeed very similar to that of Ireland in the Atlantic, for it
13
Digitized by
THE TOWN OF KODIAK, ALASKA, AFTKR TIIK ERUPTION OF KATMAI
The town is loo miles from the volcano. Note the heavy deposits of white ashes covering hillsides and town. Dust fell as far away as Juneau. Ketchikan, and the Yukon \ alley, distant 750, 900, and 600 miles, respectively, from the volcano.
owes its climate, as does Ireland, to the tropical ocean current which bathes its shores. It is indeed a hundred and fifty miles farther north than Ireland, but this is more than counterbalanced by the pro- tection from the Arctic Ocean aflforded by the mainland.
Many people will no doubt be aston- ished to learn that the winter of Boston is far more severe than that of Kodiak, which more nearly resembles that of Washington, D. C. Indeed, an old lady, who had lived all her Hfe in Kansas, found on returning there after two or three winters in Kodiak that the climate was almost unbearable and has been anx-
ious ever since to return to the mild climate of Kodiak.
The eastern half of the island is occu- pied by a dense forest of spruce, whose trees reach a great size. Beyond the for- est it is covered by a luxuriant grass land, which, in the abundance and fine quahty of its hay and forage, surpasses any grazing lands in the United States proper and finds a parallel only ni the "guinea- grass" pastures of the tropics.
At present this country is lying almost entirely neglected, but as Alaska passes from the stage of exploitation to that of development, these lands are destined to be much sought after for stock-raising.
14
Digitized by
IMioloKrapli by R. 1'. driggs
KODIAK FROM THE SAME) POSITION FOUR YEARS LATER, AUGUST 25, 1916
Kodiak enjoys the unique distinction of having been benefited by a volcanic eruption. The grass has come through the ash better than ever before. The whole hillside has come up to grass as abundantly as the foreground.
The eruption, of course, destroyed these pastures, so that the live stock nearly perished from starvation. The herd of the Government Experiment Sta- tion was shipped back to the States until it could be determined whether it might be i)ossible to grow forage enough to support them on the ash-covered land. When they were shipped there was scant hope that they could ever be brought back again ; but at the end of only two years the pastures had so far recovered that they were returned with full assur- ance that they could be maintained with- out difficulty (see page 22).
Places which three years ago were sand plains, with hardly a green leaf, have now come up into luxuriant meadows of blue-top grass. In some places the grass is still in scattered bunches, but in others it covers the whole ground in pure stands six or seven feet high. Where the mead- ows are com])letely grown up, the grass is finer than ever before (see page 18).
Of the berries, the most important is the salmon or "]\Iohna" berry (Rubns spectabilis), which is allied to our black- berries and raspberries, but somewhat in- termediate between them, having much the shape and appearance of a blackberry, but coming loose from the receptacle like a raspberry.
Salmon-berries were of course com- mon before the eruption, but the ash pro- vided such greatly improved conditions for them that the plants have made un- usually vigorous growth (see page 24).
The ash also smothered and weeded out the smaller plants which formerly competed with the berries and apparently acts somewhat like a mulch, protecting the soil from excessive evaporation, for the berries did not sufTer in the unprece- dented drouth of 191 5 as they are said to have done in less dry seasons before the eruption.
]>ut although the country is in places clothed with vegetation as richly as be-
Digitized by
Photograph by D. B, Church A PLOWED FIELD, PART OF WHICH WAS CULTIVATED JUST BEFORE THE ERUPTION
The line between cultivated and fallow ground remains perfectly distinct after four years. Cultivation just before the eruption destroyed most of the weeds and no new ones have been able to start. The uncultivated land has grown a mass of fireweed, whose bloom is conspicuous for miles — illustrating the importance of residual vegetation.
fore, it must not be supposed that the old order of things has completely returned. The new vegetation is not altogether the same as that which was destroyed. It is true that the species are the same as those dominant before the eruption, but the smaller species which formerly grew with the dominant plants were unable to pierce the ash blanket and were smothered. This is particularly true in the bogs or tundras, which formerly covered consid- erable areas. Even four or five inches of the ash was fatal to the bog plants, whose extermination was so nearly complete that it is difficult to find even individual survivors.
Thus while the salmon-berries and high-bush blueberries are finer than ever, the low-bush blueberries and cranberries are entirely lacking.
The exposed mountain tops were for- merly covered with an alpine heath con- taining many of the same species that grew in the bogs, and to them the erup- tion was similarly fatal. While the sides
of the mountains are covered with ver- dure, their tops are largely barren wastes covered with ash drifts and the skeletons of the former vegetation.
THE NEW VEGETATION CAME FROM OLD ROOTS
One would have supposed from the appearance of the country at the end of the first season after the eruption that practically all plants except the trees and bushes had been destroyed, and that re- vegetation must be due to new seedlings started on the ash. Such, however, is not the case. Excavation of the root sys- tems of the new plants shows that they are old perennials which have come through the ash from the old soil.
Where cultivation destroyed the weeds, the land is still absolutely bare except for an occasional weed which escaped de- struction by the plow. The fallow ground, on the other hand, is a mass of fireweed whose bloom is conspicuous for miles (see the picture above).
\6
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Photograph by D. B. Church
A DUNE OF WIND-BLOWN ASH : WOMEN's PENINSULA, NEAR KODIAK
This blowing ash lodges behind any obstruction, like snow. Among the weeds at the edge of cultivated fields and along the fence rows drifts two feet deep have been formed. On mountain tops and in other places wherfe there is no vegetation to catch the blowing ash it forms dunes like those on a seashore.
THE SAND BLAST
While these weeds protect the surface of the fallow ground, ash from the bare surface is picked up in clouds by every wind, forming a sand blast which is very hard on the few plants that have per- sisted. All of them are lopped over be- fore the wind, and their lower leaves are cut to pieces by the sharp sand or are buried beneath it.
The particles of ash are all very sharp, sharper than ordinary sand. Indeed, vol- canic ash forms the basis of such scour- ing agents as "Old Dutch Cleanser.'* The ash is also finer and much lighter than shore sand, so that it is more easily carried by the wind. Consequently this sand blast is a very different thing from the sand drift common among beach dunes. Standing before it is like facing a blast of "Old Dutch Cleanser" in one's face and is at times exceedingly unpleas- ant (see also page 2'j),
One might suppose that the frequent
rains which characterize the climate of the region would have the effect of check- ing the sand blast, but it is surprising how quickly it starts up again after the rain stops. We found once, for example, after a day of soaking rain, that the sand was blowing early the next morning, al- though only the very surface had dried off.
It was of the utmost importance for the welfare of the country that the ground be covered with vegetation, re- gardless of the value of the plants making the cover. Of all the native plants, the one which could grow through the deep- est ash and, once through, could spread most rapidly on the bare surface was the field horsetail {Eqiiisctum anrnse). This is a common weed of railway embank- ments and such places with us. In Ko- diak scattered individuals were frequent before the eruption, though they formed no noticeable element in the landscape. But it has come up everywhere through
17
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20
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the ash and spread out on the surface, forming in many places a beautiful greensward, where hardly anything else can come through.
Its present abundance contrasts so greatly with its former state that, accord- ing to Mr. Snodgrass of the Experiment Station, some of the natives thought that it must have "come with the ash," and could only be convinced of the contrary when he dug out the rootstocks and showed that they originated in the old soil beneath the ash. While a deposit of ID or 12 inches would have been fatal to most plants, the horsetail in many places came through from 30 to 36 inches of ash.
CONTRAST BETWEEN K0DI.\K AND THE MAINLAND
Nothing could oflfer greater contrast to the rehabilitation of Kodiak than the con- dition of the country on the mainland near the volcano. The village of Katmai, whjch was the nearest settlement affected, is in an altogether different state from Kodiak. While Kodiak is rejoicing in the prospect of a prosperity beyond that of former days, Katmai is sinking deeper into desolation.
In fear of their lives, the people of Kodiak deserted their town for a few days; but the natives of Katmai, w^ho, fortunately, were away fishing at the time of the eruption, w^ere never allowed to return to their homes, but were re- moved in a body and settled in a new town built for them by the government. The grass has returned to cover the hill- sides of Kodiak as richly as ever before, but the former luxuriance of Katmai Valley is replaced by a barren waste, whose few spots of green serve only to heighten the weird effect.
OUR TRIP TO THE MAINLAND
It IS not to be supposed that Katmai village was at all near the crater, how- ever. Situated at a distance of 25 miles, it was five times as far from the volcano as was Pompeii from Vesuvius or St. Pierre from Mt. Pelee. More important still, Katmai village w^as not in the main track of destruction, but lay at one side, near the edge of the ash fall.
To make the trip to Katmai, we se- cured the services of Mr. Albert Johnson,
of Uyak, who undertook to land us at Katmai and- come and take us off again when we had finished our exploration. Mr. Johnson proved himself not only trustworthy, but a first-class seaman and a man of very good judgment as well, all of which qualities are essential in one w^ho would successfully navigate the dan- gerous waters of Shelikof Strait, which lies between Kodiak Island and the main- land, for it has justly acquired the repu- tation of being one of the most treacher- ous pieces of water in the world. There were three of us in the party: Mr. B. B. Fulton, Entomologist of the New York Experiment Station, who accompanied me throughout the summer, a most effi- cient and loyal assistant, and Mr. Lucius G. Folsom, manual-training teacher of Wood Island, near Kodiak, who by his resourcefulness and never- failing opti- mism helped to carry the expedition by many an obstacle which might otherwise have turned us back.
A WEIRD, FANTASTIC SCENE
The scene which met our eyes as we entered Katmai Bay was fantastic and weird in the extreme. Quantities of fresh pumice were floating about as though thrown out by a recent eruption. The sun was shining brightly, but the sky was filled with haze from the volcanic dust in the air, which increased the ghastly and mysterious appearance of the desert land- scape and veiled the upper reaches of the valley and the volcanoes we hoped to visit.
As soon as we landed, we began to see evidences of the great flood, which was to be the source of much concern to us. The flats were everywhere covered ankle deep with soft, sticky mud. We were unable to find any place to pitch our camp between the precipitous mountain sides and the flooded flats, except a mound of avalanche detritus, which we felt was too dangerous, for boulders and small ava- lanches were rolling down the mountain sides all around us every few minutes. We finally reached a bed of pumice which had been floated into place in a grove of poplars. Although there w^as very wet mud only a few inches below it, the sur- face was fairly dry. We were in con-
Digitized by
Photograph by R. F. Griggs ROLLING HAY DOWN THE MOUNTAIN SIDE AT KODIAK
The native method of harvesting hay is certainly one of the most curious bits of agri- cultural practice to be found anywhere. The hay is cut high up on the mountain side, done up into bundles in fish nets, and sent tumbling end over end to the bottom, there to be picked up and carried home, oftentimes in boats.
Digitized by
SHEEP FOR STOCKING A SETTLERS RANCH BEING LANDED ON KODIAK ISLAND
At present this country is lying almost neglected, but as Alaska passes from the stage of exploitation to that of development, these lands are destined to be much sought after for stock-raising.
Photographs by R. F. Griggs
SLEEK GALLOWAY CATTLE BELONGING TO THE EXPERIMENT STATION AT KODIAK
After the eruption the station herd had to be taken to "the States" for the first two years; but their pastures made such a remarkable recovery that they were soon returned. A stranger would hardly suspect that this country was buried under a foot of ash only four years ago.
Digitized by
SKETCH MAP OF KATMAI VOLCANO AND VICINITY
stant fear, however, that the water would suddenly rise in the night and drive us out.
The desolation of the country beggars description. All of the trees had per- ished except such as were favored by some special circumstance, such as prox- imity to the protecting mountain sides. In one way the trees and bushes suffered more seriously than the herbage, for wherever the ground had been swept bare of ash the old roots of the herbage sent up new shoots, so that in a few for- tunate spots flowers were blooming in their pristine profusion.
But where the ash remained to the depth of a foot or more, the ground under the dead trees was absolutely bare. Xo vegetation had come through cracks, as at Kodiak, and indeed such cracks may not have been formed because the deposit here is much coarser grained.
Under the mountain sides, where a few remnants of the forest remained alive, different species had suffered in different ways. The only large trees were the bal- sam poplars. All of the growing parts and ordinary buds of these had been killed, but some of the dormant buds, buried deep in the bark, had survived and grown out into short, bushy branches which gave the trees a most bizarre ap- pearance.
The alder, which is the most character- istic Alaskan bush, everywhere was sim- ply exterminated. For our purposes this was somewhat fortunate, for it was easy to break our way through the branches of the dead thickets, which otherwise would have made traveling difficult. Not a single live sprig of alder was seen until after we had explored considerable coun- try, and then only two or three very small
23
Digitized by
Photograph by M. G. Dickman A BRANCH OF SALMON-BERRIES, INDICATING THE PROFUSION OF WILD BERRIES AT
KODIAK SINCE THE ERUPTION
These berries are somewhat like the persimmon, in that they have an astringent taste that disappears only when they are dead ripe. They have, however, a distinctive and extremely delicate flavor, and when served with sugar and cream equal or surpass any other berry with which the author is acquainted.
shoots were seen coming up from the roots.
When we arrived at the village, the magnitude of the flood was impressed on us as it could not be in the brush-covered dunes. The church where the people had worshiped undisturbed for years was standing in a sea of liquid mud. The high-water mark could be plainly seen across the front about five feet and a half from the ground.
Some of the native houses were filled solid full to the eaves with pumice. Some had been completely submerged, as might be seen by the stranded pumice which had floated onto their roofs. The roof of one had been floated away from the body of tlie house and lay at a little dis- tance. The church had evidently floated free from its foundation, for the high- water marks across it were somewhat diagonal (see opposite page).
A RIVER FIVE MILES WIDE AND FIVE INCHES DEEP
The river, whose former bed was close by the houses, had subsided from the flood condition enough to show its char- acter. Where formerly was deep water was now a maze of quicksands and inter- twining streams. So much material had been dumped into it that the level of its bottom was several feet above its former channel. We could see no indication of the farther bank. Somewhere out be- yond the range of our vision were one or more main channels in which a formida- ble volume of water was running, as we later found to our cost. But except for these shifting main channels it could be described as five miles wide and five inches deep.
We ventured far out from shore to see whether it would be possible to cross, but
24
Digitized by
THE GREEK CHURCH AT KATMAI VILLAGE STANDING IN THE MUD AND WRECKAGE
LEFT BY THE GREAT FLOOD
This part of Alaska is still "Russian America." Russian is the language of the common people, and the Greek Church is the only religious institution.
Photographs by D. 6. Church
A "baRABARA" buried by the pumice brought DOWN BY THE GREAT FLOOD!
KATMAI VILLAGE
These huts, comparable to the sod-houses of the plains, are well adapted to afford protection
from the intense gales of winter
25 Digitized by
Photograph by R. F. Griggs A FOX CUB DRINKING CONDENSED MILK: KODIAK
Foxes are abundant in this region, and it was not intended to establish a precedent by feeding this one condensed milk, especially during these days of the high cost of living. Other foxes must continue to ''rustle their own grub."
soon found ourselves miring in the quick- sands, so that we were glad to hurry back to terra firma.
The condition of this river is undoubt- edly the most serious obstacle to the ex- ploration of the district. While the bot- tom is too treacherous to travel afoot, especially under a pack, the greater part of it could be easily traversed with snow- shoes or some similar contrivance, which, however, would be a fatal encumbrance in the swift currents of the deeper chan- nels. A boat might be used were it not for the fact that the current is too strong for rowing, the bottom is too uncertain for poling, and there is no place to land.
MYSTERIOUS SOURCE OF FLOOD
Conditions at the village greatly in- creased our respect for the magnitude of the flood, but failed to enlighten us as to its cause. The volume of water had been tremendous, considering the size of the watershed, for although the main stream is less than forty miles long and has a
steep gradient through much of its course, the water had filled the whole valley, six miles wide, many feet deep. We knew of no general storm which could have caused any such unusual quantity of rain.
Our first thought was that the spring tides, which had just passed, had over- whelmed the land ; but a little examina- tion showed that the high water had been far above any tide-mark. We then thought of volcanic rains up the valley, for we had no knowledge of the condi- tion of the volcanoes.
But the examination of the village was reassuring in one respect : Although there could be no doubt but that the flood had culminated only a day or two before our landing, everything indicated that it was a very exceptional event.
EXPLORING IN A DUST-STORM
When we awoke the next morning we found that a westerly gale which had started during the night had picked up the fine dust from the mountains until it
26
Digitized by
Photograph by R. F. Griggs
LANDING ON KATMAI BEACH
Only in perfectly calm weather can the landing be undertaken, the water being normally
very rough
had changed the haze of previous days into a terrific dust-storm. The dust was so thick that it obliterated everything be- yond the immediate vicinity. It per- meated everything about our camp. We were extremely worried lest it should get into our cameras and ruin all our films.
It matted our hair so that we could not comb it for days. The sharp particles caused acute discomfort in our eyes, and at first we were afraid that it might do us permanent injury ; but after a time the irritation stimulated an increased flow from the tear glands, which helped to keep the eyes washed out.
During this day of dust-storm we ex- plored the valley as far as Soluka Creek. The dust heightened the already weird character of the landscape, giving it an indescribably unearthly appearance. The effect was much like that of a heavy snow- storm. This was increased by the out- lines of the bare trees. Indeed, so keen were the visual sensations .of a snow- storm that every little while I would realize with a start of surprise that I was not cold (see also page 17).
About noon we fell to speculating on the state of the weather above the dust- storm and were surprised on searching the sky at being able to find the sun, whose disc was just visible, a pale white, something like the moon in daytime, but fainter.
It would be quite impossible adequately to describe our feelings on this day, as we groped our way forward into new country, utterly different from any we had ever seen before. Fortunately the loose sandy surface of the ash every- where held our tracks, so that even with- out our compass we could hardly have become lost.
FOLLOWING A BEAR TRAIL
We followed all the way a well-worn bear trail which skirted the foot of the mountain, finding that the bears had se- lected the easiest going to be had. It was very noticeable that the bear trails, except for an occasional side branch into the mountains, all ran lengthwise up and down the valley. They had made no attempt to cross the river. Apparently
27
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Photograph by R. F. Griggs
A KODIAK BEAR SKIN
Although by no means a large skin, as Kodiak bears go, comparison with the mountain-lion skin to the right shows how much larger the bear is than the panther
they had learned by experience not to try that.
Ever}'^vhere we kept a sharp lookout for bears, but, although we found a great many tracks belonging to at least a half- dozen sizes of bears, we did not see any of them. At first we were rather con- cerned for fear that we should come upon one suddenly, for in such a barren country we could not but believe that they must be hungry, and in any event a she bear with cubs is an ugly customer to settle with on short notice. The bears of this region are only slightly inferior in size to the Kodiak bear, which is the largest carnivorous animal in the world, so large as to make a full-grown grizzly look like a cub by comparison.
Later, after we had traveled many days without seeing one, we began to be as much concerned for fear we should not see a bear as we had been at first for fear we should.
They doubtless saw us many times, but were shy and kept out of our way. In- deed, once we thought a mother and cubs
who had been advancing toward us had turned and retreated on our approach, for we found where their tracks, appar- ently just made, suddenly reversed and turned up the valley. We often found on returning over one of our trails that a bear out of curiosity had tracked us for some distance, and when we saw be- side our own footprints enormous bear tracks measuring nine by fourteen inches we could not avoid having somewhat of a creepy feeling. Some of the bear tracks were so clear that we could see the marks of the creases in their soles, and had we been palmists doubtless we could have read the fortune of the possessor or at least have learned his disposition.
OTHER SIGNS OF ANIMAL LIFE
Besides bears, foxes were very abun- dant, and we could frequently get their scent as we traveled along. Wolverines were also frequent travelers along the trails we used. .One of the latter must have passed close beside us one day as we climbed a mountain, for we found his
29
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30 Digitized by CjOOQIC
Photograph by R. F. Griggs
FLOATING ROCK — LUMPS OF PUMICE PICKED UP ON THE BEACH : KATMAI BAY
The foot rule gives the scale. The violence of the explosion was so great that all the pumice was blown to small bits. There were few pieces more than six inches in diameter from Mount Katmai. These came from one of the subordinate vents in the Valley of the Ten Thousand Smokes.
fresh tracks on the pass at the top, and on returning followed his trail across our own. How he managed to hide from us in a country so destitute of cover is not clear, but probably he had ample notice of our approach and secreted himself somewhere behind a rock. Of the smaller mammals we saw not a sign, although the surface of the ash preserves tracks to a remarkable degree.
We were surprised to find a few small fish like minnows in the river, for with the ash fall all the streams were entirely filled up for a time, and even the wver must have been nearly choked. There was no evidence, however, anywhere of salmon, which must have formerly en- tered the river in large numbers.
The means of subsistence of so many large animals was very much of a mys- tery to us; yet they must have found something to eat, for they were evidently at home and not merely passing through. Moreover, if they had not found food they could easily have migrated, for a journey of 20 miles to the westward
would have taken them into a country rich in berries, mice, ground-squirrels, and marmots, besides large game such as caribou, and, most important of all, in the summer, salmon in the streams. The only evidence we could secure in this matter beyond our own conjectures was obtained from the character of the bear droppings, which much resembled horse dung, as though the animals had been living on grass. The quantity of grass obtainable, however, seemed entirely in- adequate to feed even one bear.
FIRST VIEW OF THE VOLCANOES
On the 1 6th, having previously broken the trail as far as Soluka Creek, we packed up our outfit and as much food as we could carry and started up the valley for the volcanoes. Our remaining provisions, together with everything not essential to our work, were left in the base camp. Although we had made things as snug as we could, it was not without considerable trepidation that we tiprned our back on our supplies ; for in
31
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THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SxMOKES
33
such a desert country we were absolutely dependent on our provisions, and if a bear or wolverine should take it into his head to wreck our camp in our absence we should have been in a bad way.
Three or four miles up the valley we came out into the open, where we could see the distant mountains of the main range. Standing square across the head of the valley stood Mount Mageik, its magnificent three-peaked snow-cap bril- liant in the sunshine. From a small crater east of the central peak issued a column of steam, which, although clearly visible for 50 miles out to sea, appeared diminutive in comparison with the bulk of the-mountain (see page 30).
Mount Katmai itself was concealed be- yond the bend of the valley, so that we were to have no glimpse of it until we -encamped at its foot.
A NEW VOLCANO NAMED FOR DR. MARTIN
But to the west of Mageik, in a posi- tion where no volcano is indicated on the maps, was rising from a comparatively low mountain a tremendous cokmin of steam a thousand feet in diameter and more than a mile high.
Comparison with Horner's picture showed at once that this was the moun- tain he photographed as "Mt. Katmai," when he penetrated to the upper valley in 191 3. It was clear enough from its loca- tion that it could not be the mountain called Katmai on the maps, which is east of Mageik. Even from our position it was evident that this was at present the most active volcano of the district.
And it was not at all certain but that this, rather than Katmai, had been the seat of the great eruption whose eflfects we were studying ; for, curiously enough, there has never been any very positive evidence, beyond the statements of a few natives who saw the beginning of the eruption, that it was Katmai, rather than some other volcano in the vicinity, which exploded. Indeed, there was one well- informed marl in Kodiak who assured us that he had climbed the mountains back of Amalik Bay and taken bearings which fixed the location of the vent nearer the coast, in a position which he indicated by a cross on my chart (see map, page 23).
Fortunately we were able later to ob- tain evidence which fixed the seat of the great eruption beyond question. In the first place, we found that the deposits became progressively deeper as we ap- proached ]Mt. Katmai, while the volcano of Hesse and Horner's photographs was near the edge of the ash fall. Thus the deposits on the lower slopes of Katmai are 15 feet deep on the level ; but 10 miles farther south, near the other volcano, their depth is to be measured by as many inches, and only a mile or two beyond the country is covered with vegetation, so rapidly do the deposits thin out in that direction.
Moreover, great as is the activity of this volcano, its crater, in comparison with the great caldera, which we later found in Mount Katmai, is relatively di- minutive and quite too small to have thrown out such a tremendous quantity of ash and pumice in so short a time. Further, great as must have been the changes wrought in the landscape in the sudden opening of a vent a thousand feet in diameter, they were relatively insig- nificant beside the tremendous change we found in Mount Katmai itself. There can be no question therefore that the eruption was from Mount Katmai and not from any other vent.
But if we were convinced that the vol- cano of Hesse and Horner's photographs was not Katmai, we were equally uncer- tain of what it was, for none of the maps show any volcano near its location nor give any name to the mountain, and there appears to be neither record nor tradition of any volcano in that quarter.
There is every reason to believe, there- fore, that this new volcano sprung into being at the time of the great explosion.
But tremendous as is the phenomenon of the opening of such a gigantic vent through a mountain, we were to find later other accompaniments of the great erup- tion of even greater magnitude.
In order to discuss the new volcano, it is necessary to give it some designation. It seemed to us as we watched the new "steamer" that no name could be more appropriate than one commemorating the work of Dr. George C. Martin, whose explorations and report for the National
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Photograph by D. B. Church A CAMP SITE OF I915: TRKES ALL KILLED BY BLAST FROM THB) VOLCANO
On our first expedition our camp stood on the bank of Fickle Creek, whose channel, six feet deep, occupied the foreground of the present picture. During the year the channel completely rilled up, so evenly that the location of the former bank could not be detected, and a new channel has been dug a thousand feet away. Yet so gently was this filling accom- plished that the embers of our camp-fire, on the same level and only a few feet away, were not disturbed. Compare the picture on the opposite page.
Geographic Society will always stand as the first authoritative account of the great eruption of Blount Katmai. We there- fore suggest that this new volcano be called Mount ^lartin.
We were not able to determine the po- sition or altitude of this new volcano with precision, but have located it approxi- mately on the map given on page 23. Although situated in the main range, it is considerably lower than the neighboring mountains. Its altitude is approximately 5,000 feet.
ASII SLIDES MORE THAN A THOUSAND FEET HIGH
When we reached Soluka Creek we found it much more formidable than our reconnoiters in the dust storm had indi- cated. Leaving the others on the bank, I dropped my pack and waded out through the dead forest for half a mile in the icy
water. From that distance it looked wider, deeper and swifter than from the starting point. I therefore decided it was impracticable to attempt to cross under our heavy packs, so we camped that night in the dead forest on the flat near by.
Next morning, starting to hunt for a practicable ford, we climbed up on to the shoulder of a mountain where we could get a bird's-eye view of the creek below and select the likeliest place to try.
Here we found a new experience in climbing the great ash slides with which the lower slopes are covered. Wherever the mountains were precipitous and too steep for the ash to slick, it slid down into the valleys, covering tiie lower slopes with great fans of sand, which stand at the critical angle ready to slide down at the slightest provocation. Some of these ash slopes are more tlian a thousand feet high. Their surface is loose, rolling sand,
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Photograph by R. F. Griggs THE DKD or FICKLE CRKEK IN I916: IT HAD SHIFTED A THOUSAND FEET IN THE YEAR
into which one sinks to his ankles, while new sand continually slides down on to him.
Often the whole slide ahove one will begin to move and then he is placed in a tread-mill, where he must keep moving or sHde to the bottom- (see page 2^7) * Such climbing was of course hard work, and we soon cut up our finger-nails and wore the tips of our fingers down to the quick in the sharp sand by using our hands to help us in climbing.
rORDIXG A MILE OF OnCKSAXD
When we descended to the ford we found that the bottom was a continuous quicksand clear across.
Sometimes the surface would hold like the crust of a snowdrift; but we were in constant fear of going down, for on sounding with our alpenstock we discov- ered that the whole length of the stick went down into the sand anywhere with- out finding bottom. Often our footing gave way and we found ourselves floun- dering up to our middle in quicksand.
With all our crossings in the two ex- peditions no one ever got in so deep that he could not get out alone. But there was the ever-present knowledge that we never tx)uched the bottom and the fear of what might happen next time.
Besides this the labor of carrying a
pack through such mire is so great as to defy description. It must be experienced to be appreciated. Every step takes all one's strength and soon one's weary mus- cles ache from the strain. But once in, there is no chance to rest until one reaches the farther shore, for there is no place to lie down or sit down, and if one even stands still he immediately begins to sink. Even the strongest man is well- nigh exhausted after a mile of such work.
The condition of streams choked with ash and pumice is peculiar in the ex- treme. They spread out over their whole floodplain, wandering this way and that through the dead forest in a most fan- tastic way, changing their courses con- tinually, so tliat the stream is never the same for half an hour at a time. The whole bottom is rapidly traveling down- stream, its continuous, steady motion re- sembling one of the moving platforms which are sometimes used to transport passengers.
One stream near our camp had cut clear through the accumulated mass of ash just below a fall, forming a bluff some 70 feet high. A hundred yards downstream, however, the slope, though still very steep, was less, and the stream had been completely overcome by the enormous quantity of pumice in its way.
It was ludicrous to watch the struggles
35
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Photograph by R. F. Griggs ASH SLIDKS IN UPPER KATMAI VAhU\Y
"Wherever the mountains were precipitous and too steep for the ash to stick, it sHd down into the valley, covering the lower slopes with great fans of sand" (see text, page 34)
of this stream as it wrestled with the pumice in its bed. Dammed up in the failure of a previous attempt, it would gradually accumulate enough energy for a new effort. Then suddenly breaking loose from its bonds, it would rush for- ward down the slope, pushing a pile of pumice before it, as though to engulf the onlooker, writhing this way and that hke a live thing, picking up pieces of pumice and floating them along as it came. Be- fore it had gone far, however, its new load would literally choke it, and it would give up the struggle in a hiss of grating pumice stones.
It was quite a problem to secure water from such streams. The water always carried such quantities of large angular pumice fragments, not to speak of sand and mud, that it was out of the question to attempt to wash in the brooks. If we tried, the pumice would so grind into our flesh as to prohibit any further efforts at cleanliness. But while washing is a mat- ter of choice, one must drink whether or jio. We were obliged everywhere to
strain our water through one of our food- bags. Often we would have to strain a quart of pumice to get a pint of water. The stream changed so rapidly that we sometimes had to move before we could fill a bucket. Straining, of course, re- moved only the coarser grit.
At one of the camps our water was so full of mud that Mr. Folsom refused to wash his face for three days, because he "did not want to dirty it with the water we had to drink."
CAVKRNS FORMED BY SNOW MELTING BENEATH THE ASH
The day after crossing Soluka Creek we climbed the mountain to the west in hopes of seeing the volcano, for we feared lest the fine weather which had favored us would come to an end before we should attain our object. Our quest, however, was vain, for when we reached the summit we found that another sum- mit, not marked on our map, cut off our view so that we could not see Mount Kat- mai. This we called Barrier Mountain.
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Photogrrapli by R. F. Griggs
AN ASH SLIDE: SOLUKA CREEK
Some of these slides spread out into gigantic fans more than a thousand feet high. Standing at the critical angle, their slopes are very hard climbing. We soon ground our finger-nails to the quick in the sharp sand of these slides.
We tried to cross the pass to reach a position where we could see the condi- tion of the volcano, but were balked by a new kind of difficulty. On the way up one of us, sticking his staff, into the ground harder than usual, discovered that it went through into a cavern beneath. Examination showed that we were sup- ported on an arch of ash a foot thick, spanning a deep hole.
We found that the mountains every- where were deeply covered with snow, which was concealed by a mantle of ash and pumice blown over it by the wind. The snow beneath was rapidly melting out in the warm weather, leaving the ash surface standing as smooth as ever above the cavity.
Such small holes as the one into which we had accidentally broken were, of course, of no consequence; but as we looked down one of the side valleys, we could see great cave-ins in an apparently smooth ash field, where a stream burrow- ing through the snowdrifts beneath had undermined the surface. For half a mile or so the tunnel thus made had caved in, and then for another half mile it was still intact, giving no indication of its presence to an unwary traveler (see page 41).
Reflecting on the significance of such
phenomena for us, we carefully chose a path free from all appearance. of buried snowdrifts. We had not gone a hundred yards, however, when I happened to stamp my foot and was astonished to hear the ground beneath me ring hollow. We quickly retreated, spread out, and tried another place. We had not gone far when all three of us at once, though 50 feet apart, detected a cavern beneath us. We had absolutely no means of judging whether the hole was 5 feet deep or 50, nor of estimating the strength of the roof. The danger of such a situation was altogether too great to undertake, so we reluctantly turned back, with as yet no view of the volcano.
AN AWE-INSPIRING VALI.EY OF DEATH
The following day we started to en- circle the mountains into upper Katmai Valley. As we proceeded the country became progressively more desert. Small birds which were common in the lower valley were absent here. The stillness of the dead forest was oppressive. One could travel all day without hearing a sound but his own footfalls and the plunge of rushing water. The bear trails persisted until we turned the corner into the upper valley, but there they disap-
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Photograph by O. It. Church
THE GLOOMY STRETCIIKS OF SOLUKA CRKEK : TREKS ALL DEAD
I must confess that even after many crossings of this sinister stream without mishap I could never plunge in without a shudder of dread. So wide that from the middle we could see neither shore, its swift current everywhere churning the quicksand, it presents a formidable obstacle to a man carrying a pack. I was in constant fear lest some member of the party would be mired in its depths, for, although we seldom sank below our knees, we could plunge the full length of our alpenstock into the quicksand anywhere without finding bottom (see text, page 35).
peared. Beyond that point there were no signs of animal life, except a pair of bald eagles, which rccoiuioitered ptir camp the lirst night, a few mosquitos, and, curi- otisly enough, a humming-bird moth, which seemed strangely out of place in such a valley of death.
Clouds hung so low that everything above a thousand feet was obscured, but as we pushed up into the valley a feeling of tremendous awe possessed us. We had quite exhausted our stock of super- latives in the lower valley and found our- selves altogether withotit means of ex- pressing the feelings that arose in us or of describing the scene before us.
MORE EVIDENCE OF A TREMENDOUS FLOOD
As we proceeded, evidences of flood damage rapidly increased ; but we noticed that none of the tributary streams had
been aflected, and when we reached the forks of the river we found that the whole flood had come down from under the volcano itself, wreaking havoc in its way. A deep channel had been eroded in the pumice deposits. Part of the way it had washed out all of the pumice and had cut into its original bed besides.
For miles where thick forests had stood the trees were sheared off at the surface of the ash (see picture on page 42, taken a year later, after the stream had cut away the pumice, exposing the stumps). The few trees which remained were bent, twisted, splintered, and broken in every describable manner. In places, sheltered from the extreme fury of the waters, the trees were piled high with driftwood.
The volume of water had been enor- mous. We found high- water marks 25 feet above the bed of the stream where the valley was two miles wide.
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Photograph by B. B. Fulton
THE AUTHOR STRUGGLING THROUGH THE QUICKSAND OF KATMAI RIVER
The swift water running over the ash and pumice packs the surface, giving it a crust which sometimes holds a man and sometimes breaks under his weight. Crossing these flats is somewhat like traveling in snow with a weak crust. One will go along easily ankle deep for a few steps and then suddenly drop down to his waist. The labor involved in such travel cannot be described, but must be experienced to be appreciated (see text, page 41).
As we gradually came fully to compre- hend what a tremendous catastrophe this flood had been, we were more and more thankful for the good luck which had delayed our expedition until after it had passed. If we had landed a week earlier, we would certainly have been over- whelmed, unless by chance we had hap- pened to be on high ground, out of the valley, at the time of the disaster.
We had finally penetrated as far as we could up the valley and camped, as we hoped, about opposite Mount Katmai; but we could not be sure of our position, for the clouds hung low.
A FLOW OF BRIGHT RED MUD MORE THAN TWO MILES LONG
Here we beheld a formation quite dif- ferent from anything else we had seen. A ravine which branched off from the main valley behind a spur of the moun- tain was filled by what looked like a great glacier, except that its color was a bright
terra-cotta red. In every detail of its form except for its crevasses it was ex- actly like a glacier: beginning at a con- siderable elevation, where the ravine was narrow, it sloped evenly down to the valley level, widening as it descended, so as to assume a triangular form.
If the color had not been so different from everything else in the landscape, we would have been quite sure it was a glacier covered with dirt. But in such a situation no glacier could have escaped without a thick covering of the omni- present ash. \\'e concluded, therefore, that it must be a mass of mud which had run down off the volcano.
Later, when we visited it, its structure confirmed this theory. As it lay on top of the ash, it had evidently been formed since the eruption. Although it was hard and firm, so as to be easy walking, both its structure and its form showed clearly that it had reached its position in a semi- fluid condition. Like a glacier, it had a
39
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RESTING ON THE TRAIL
Photograph by 1,. G. Folsom
relatively steep front and was convex, highest in the middle, so as to turn the drainage off to the edges, along each of which a deep canyon had been cut.
But despite the indications that it had once been fluid, we saw no mud-cracks or other evidence of shrinkage upon dry- ing out, such as one would have expected to find in a mud-flow. Its length we estimated by our pedometer at 2j^ miles. Its highest part attained an elevation of nearly i,ooo feet, from which point it sloped to about 300 feet at the base. We were not so well able to estimate its thick- ness. But along the edges where it was cut into by the streams a section about 50 feet thick was exposed. In the middle it may have been much thicker, both on account of the convexity of the surface and the greater depth of the valley floor.
Under erosion, this and other similar mud-flows, later found, develop very striking bad-land topography, so that on a bright day one might almost imagine himself to be in western North Dakota if it were not for the streams trickling everywhere from the melting snows. When the mud dries it becomes hard and holds its shape, so that the sides of the
gullies remain vertical, as they are cut by the streams, and do not crumble away as would softer soil.
LAVA ALL BLOWN TO FRAGMENTS
We were very much surprised at the character of the ejecta close to the crater. Post-cards are current in Alaska show- ing great rocks which are said to have been "hurled from the volcano," and we ourselves had expected to find something of the sort.
The fact is, however, that the violence of the explosions was so great that every- thing which came out of the crater was blown to "smithereens." Pieces of pum- ice six inches in diameter were hard to find, and the very largest piece we could discover near Mount Katmai was less than nine inches in its longest dimension.
Nowhere was there any flow of lava in connection with the recent eruption. This is due to the fact that the lava as it rose through the throat of the volcano was so heavily charged with gases, mostly steam, under enormous pressure, that on reaching the surface it was either blown into a froth of pumice by the sudden ex-
40
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Photograph by D. B. Church
A SNOWDRIFT COVERED BY TWO FEET OF WIND-BLOWN ASH, NEAR KATMAI VILLAGE,
AT SEA-LEVEL, JULY 1 5
Thus protected from the sun, melting of the snow is so retarded that in many places formerly uncovered early in the season the snow now fails to melt away and is accumulating year by year.
pansion of the included gas or exploded and was completely disrupted, forming ashes and dust.
On first thought one is apt to be more awed by a force that could hurl great rocks through the air than one which merely throws up ashes and dust. But when one reflects that ash and pumice are rock blown to fragments by the violence of the explosion, he realizes that much mightier forces are involved than would be required to toss boulders about.
CROSSING THE RIVER
In spite of the desolation of the valley, even in the shadow of the volcano, some few remnants of plants persisted in shel- tered nooks on the steep mountain side. In our climb we found living plants of devil-club, lady-fern, salmon-berries, a willow, a sedge, and a bedstraw. The leaves of most of these were injured around the margins, and in general they appeared more dead than alive, though,
of course, still retaining the possibility of later becoming the means of revegetating the country.
Our next venture was to try to cross the river to examine the lower slopes of the volcano and the mud-flow. This we found a very formidable undertaking. Although the stream was divided into- many channels, none of which was deep, it was so swift as almost to carry us away. Indeed, both Fulton and I went down under its current and succeeded in getting out only with difficulty. We did not mind the ducking, even though the water was icy cold, but we were in fear of wetting our precious cameras (see
page 39)-
A SECOND NEW VOLCANO — THE TRIDENT
After two days of waiting, the sky cleared, and when we woke we beheld the whole range. Off to the westward was a steady column of steam rising from Mount Martin, which was concealed be-
41
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Photograph by R. F. Griggs
THE GREAT ASH SLIDE OF SLIDE MOUNTAIN
Our experience in taking this picture furnished an amusing example of our inability, even accustomed to stupendous dimensions as we were, to form any real conception of the size of the wonders by which we were surrounded. Desiring to have a scale by which the size of the slide could be gauged, I sent one of the men up on it for that purpose; but, to my astonishment, when he emerged from the forest and began to climb up the slope I could barely make him out, much less find him in the resulting picture. Our triangulation gave it a height of nearly 1,900 feet (see text, page 34).
hind a foothill, which, from its position, we named Observation Mountain. Next were the three peaks of Mount Mageik (see page 32), covered with newly fallen snow. Across its northwestern slopes formerly ran the trail to Bering Sea, across Katmai Pass, which, though re- puted difficult and dangerous, looked very easy from our position.
On the northeast side the pass is flanked by a lofty three-peaked volcano, which we called The Trident (see page 65). Its three peaks are arranged in semicircular fashion, leaving between them an amphitheater open toward Kat- mai Valley, which looks somewhat like an ancient crater breached on one side. The highest peak appears from the valley like an almost perfect cone, truncated at the top as though by a crater. Its height as given by the chart is 6,790 feet.
The present crater is a fissure at the
base of this peak (altitude about 3,500 feet), from which issued, somewhat in- termittently, a column of steam. Al- though the volume of this steam was quite small in comparison with that of Mageik and Martin, it sometimes as- sumed quite respectable proportions, ris- ing 3,000 feet or more. There is good reason to believe that this vent also ap- peared in connection with the great eruption.
OUR FIRST SIGHT OF MOUNT KATMAI
Next in line beyond a wide pass stood Mount Katmai itself. This was quiescent during our visit and at first sight pre- sented a rather disappointing appearance, for its glaciers and snowfields were so covered with ash as to make it suffer from comparison with Mount Mageik. As we studied it, however, we saw that its great bulk reduced its apparent height.
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The crest, as seen from the valley, forms a great arc some three miles in length, high- est at the ends, and broken in the middle by a sharp, tooth-like rock, which stands up out of the lowest place in the rim. Even from the valley the edges of this curv- ing rim are so sharp as to give the top a hollow appearance, in- dicative of the great crater within (p. 48).
MOUNT KATMAI IS NOW MKRELV A STUB OF ITS FORMER BULK
Although Mount Katmai was seen by many white men be- fore the eruption, there is no record of any photograph or de- scription of it ; so that there is no very defi- nite means of deter- mining the configura- tion of the mountain before the explosion. It was higher than Mageik. however, and originally must have quite overshadowed the latter, because, though much less con- spicuously placed in the valley, it gave its name to both river and town. The Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey's chart of the district shows a three- peaked mountain with an elevation of 7.500 feet. The highest peak was to the south, while the middle one was 7,360 feet and the north 7,260 feet high re- spectively.
From the contours of the chart I have made a diagram of the mountain before the eruption for comparison with its pres- ent condition (see page 49). But even without the information given by the chart, it is evident that the present motm- tain is merely a stub of a much greater peak of former days.
Coming back into the lower valley after the total desolation of the country in the
Photograph by R. F. Griggs A ROCK WHICH ROLLED OFF THE MOUNTAIN SIDE ACROSS OUR TRAIL WHILE WE WERE UP THE VALLEY
shadow of the volcanoes was like regain- ing the earth after a visit to the inferno. How green the trees looked ! How the birds sang! How beautiful the green mountains ! And this was the country on which we had exhausted our superlatives of devastation in an effort to compare it with Kodiak! We ourselves had not fully realized the awful devastation near the volcano until we felt the relief from its contemplation in the comparative ver- dure of the vicinity of the ruined village.
We were much relieved to find our base camp intact. Although a wolverine had been prowling around, he had evi- dently been suspicious of such fresh signs of man and had not disturbed anything.
On July 29 we began to look for Mr.
43
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Photograph by B. B. Fulton AN ASH ACCUMULATION ON A TRIBUTARY OF SOLUKA CREEK
The streams covered their beds with many feet of ash after the eruption. Later they began to remove the ash, sometimes cutting deep canyons, as in this scene, where the human figure indicates the tremendous depth of the ash fall.
44
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Photograph by R. F. Griggs
ON THE TRAIL IN THE UPPER VAU.EY
Since the country was completely devastated, it was necessary to carry everything we had; if any essential thing had been forgotten the expedition would have been stumped
Johnson to come to take us back to Kodiak, according to appointment. We learned later that he tried to reach us T>oth that day and the next, but was un- able to land. On the 31st, however, the weather was clear and calm, so that he was able to get ashore.
We were rejoicing in the prospect of a speedy return to Kodiak, but soon found that our troubles were not over, for before he could get us off a "north- easter" blew up, so that he had to aban- don us hastily on the beach and make for his boat with the word "Back at the first chance." The sea rose so quickly that he had difficulty in regaining the sloop and reaching a place of safety. It was not for three days that he was able to return, -and then, although there was considerable surf running, we lost no time in getting aboard (see page 2'j),
ORGANIZING THE EXPEDITION OF I916
The expedition of 191 6 was carried out on substantially the same lines as that of the preceding year, except that it was possible to organize the work more thor-
oughly and to provide against various contingencies which could not have been foreseen without the experience of the previous year. The party consisted of Mr. Folsom, Mr. D. B. Church, as pho- tographer, and myself. The experience of the previous year showed the necessity of the employment of a packer also.
Here we met one of our most difficult problems, for we found that the natives were afraid of the volcano and could not be induced to go to the mainland. When we broached the matter to the chief, he said at once very positively, "]\le no Kat- mai," and we learned later that he had advised his followers, "Life is better than money."
The problem was most happily met, however, when we thought of Walter Matroken, the celebrated one - handed bear hunter of Kodiak. He agreed to go without any hesitation and stuck to his promise, although, as we found after- ward, the other natives used all sorts of arguments to dissuade him.
Already a hero among his fellows be- cause of his many exploits as a hunter.
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he was doubly so when he returned safely, having actually looked into "The Hole" out of which had come the devastating blast. Even Walter, how- ever, was very nerv- ous on the crater rim, keeping sheltered be- hind a rock a good share of the time and shifting about uneasily as he watched us work, finally remark- ing when he thought we had overstayed our time. **Can't make nothing up here."
THE BEAR HUNTER OF KODIAK
Walter was one of those strong char- acters whom one finds among all classes, who stand out superior to their fellows. De- prived of his right hand by a hunting ac- cident in his youth, he has so overcome the handicap that with his one hand he can accomplish more than most men with two. We found nothing he could not do, even to tying knots and roll- ing cigarettes.
But -when there came a place where we needed some one to handle a boat I supposed that finally I had found his limit, for I could not imagine how any man could handle two oars in one hand. Not so, however, for in a flash he had somehow lashed one oar to his stub and was rowing along as well as anybody.
The general appearance of the country was much the same as it had been the year before ; but the mountains were greener, and even on the flat seedlings were beginning to start. When we began to examine old landmarks, however, we found that while the general appearances were unaltered, there had been great changes in detail.
Photograph by R. F. Griggs DEAD INSECTS UNDER A SOLITARY TUFT OF HERBAGE IN THE UPPER VALLEY
Under these plants was half a teacupful of dead insects of many species (seen as black spots on the ground), which had been at- tracted by the isolated herbage and come thither in a vain search for food. Perhaps the most striking change in the upper valley observed in 1916 was the great abundance of insects, where there had been practically none the year before.
The site of our camp of the previous year we found buried under 20 inches of fresh pumice, washed oflf the mountain side, while a stream had cut its bed across the place where our tent had stood. The year before this stream had been 50 yards distant and we never dreamed that it might come our way. As we journeyed up the valley, we found other similar changes, but the general conditions were but little different.
Soluka Creek was the same maze of quicksands that had almost turned us back the year before. I must confess that as many times as we crossed Soluka Creek I never got used to it. Although we
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ORIGINAL MOUNTAIN
AN ILLUSTRATION OF MOUNT KATMAI AS IT WAS AND IS
Showing the original mountain reconstructed, the present crater rim, and the crater with ns boihng lake. .The Woolworth Building, drawn to the same scale, gives an idea of the depth of the crater.
never had an accident, I never could free myself from the dread of the crossing and the fear that the next time it would **get" one of us.
GRAND VIEW CAMP
When we arrived at the head of the flat we picked our camp site so as to command a view of the surrounding mountains. The marks of the great flood were no longer fresh on the ground and it was evident that there had been no similar catastrophe during the year that had elapsed. We therefore had no fear of a repetition of the flood and did not hesitate to camp out in the open, choos- ing, in fact, an island in the river, which, although being cut away by the swift water at the rate of several yards a day, was safe enough for the period of our visit.
I never expect to be privileged to have a camp site surrounded by grander scen- ery than was this island. On the east side of the valley was the waterfall that we christened Fulton's Fall, nearly a mile away, but the more impressive for its distance, framed in between the bril- liant orange and green slopes of two mountains, which we called Slide Moun- tain and Avalanche Mountain, and backed by the rich red precipices of Barrier Mountain. The latter, though in reality several miles away, at the head of a val- ley, appeared set just a few hundred feet back of the fall, which has the majestic sweep attained only by falls of much greater height than breadth.
Farther up at the head of the valley stood the 1,500-foot cliffs which guard the entrance to the inner canyon of Kat- mai River, while towering aloft over in- accessible precipices the summits of Slide and Avalanche Mountains themselves presented fine enough spectacles to com- mand attention in any other setting. But here they were eclipsed, for on the other side of the valley we could see the whole chain of glacier-covered volcanoes of the main range in continuous series, broken only by Katmai Pass, whose 2,700 feet looked low indeed by comparison.
From north to south were Katmai, Trident, Mageik — partly hidden behind Observation Mountain, and finally the distant steam from Martin (map, p. 23).
It was evident that the activity of all the vents was somewhat greater than the year before: There could be no longer any doubt but that considerable steam was rising from Katmai, whereas the year before we could not be certain of any activity. The column from Mageik was larger, and there was a small column rising from a point well down on the slope of Martin which we had not seen before.
INDICATIONS OF ACTIVITY ON TIII^ BERING SEA SIDE OF THE RANGE
In addition to these vents, every time it was clear we saw very definite indica- tions of more volcanoes on the other side of the range. Through Katmai Pass we could see two large clouds when every-
49
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THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
51
where else all was clear except the "steamers." Over the isthmus connect- ing Katmai and Trident we saw, as we had in 191 5, similar signs of activity.
These were, however, very puzzling, elusive, uncertain^-quite different from the steady columns rising from Mageik and Martin ; for they were not only in- constant and variable in volume, but equally uncertain in position, appearing now at one point and now at another (see page 65).
STARTING FOR THE FIRST ASCENT
On finding the sky clear and bright the morning after our arrival, July 19, we decided to see how the river was and to reconnoiter the volcano with a view to picking our path for the climb when the proper time should come.
\\Tien we started we had little idea of making the ascent, expecting to content ourselves with reconnoitering the lower slopes. But as we went on we became more and more anxious to try the climb. So, leaving the mud-flow at about 800 feet, we started up the long ridge which runs out parallel with the canyon. This was easy going, with a gentle ascent up to 2,000 feet, when we suddenly came into sight of the upper valley of Katmai River.
THE TREMENDOUS FLOOD EXPLAINED
We found that the canyon was only as long as Mount Katmai itself, while far- ther on, the valley tttrhed to the east and expanded again into a flat, in which we discovered three large lakes, blue as the sky, in strong and grateful contrast to the gray land.
But what especially surprised us was suddenly to discover the origin of the flood which had so sorely puzzled our party the year before (see pages 20 and 38). A stream flowing between Katmai Volcano and its neighbor had piled up an immense dam across its valley. Be- hind this darri a vast lake had accumu- lated until the pressure of the impounded water became irresistible, when the dam burst and the torrent, like a Johnstown flood, rushed seaward, fortunately with- out human toll.
Turning from the lakes with the hope
that we might be able to return and ex- plore them, we roped ourselves together and decided to have a try at the slopes above.
We were on dangerous ground from the outset. The surface was covered by many feet of ash overlying snow, which, melting out from beneath, made the sur- face slump away and crack open in all directions, while at intervals boiling tor- rents issued from the cavernous depths. No experience with snow bridges could give any precedent for judging the strength of such ash bridges and we had no means of knowing what to expect.
It was with fear and trembling that I ventured out across the first and, as it proved, the worst of these bridges. It was only a few feet wide, with perpen- dicular edges 30 feet high, while from beneath came a roaring torrent, which divided just below, part going down be- hind the arrete we had come up and part tumbling directly down the face of the mountain.
CLIMBING THE MUD-PLASTERED SLOPES
The slopes were all plastered with mud of varied colors — ^gray, yellow, chocolate, red, black, and blue — the results of the last spasms of the great eruption.
At the lower levels the mud was dry and hard, making easy going ; but as we ascended, it soon became slippery, and a little higher soft and sticky. Most of the way it was about ankle deep, but in spots we went in nearly to our knees ; and at times it required all our strength to ex- tricate ourselves (see page 53). Un- pleasant and laborious as walking through deep mud is under any circumstances, we found traveling up the slope very hard work indeed.
Above 4,000 feet the way was mostly through soft snow, with only occasional mud patches, and the slope became steeper as w^e advanced.
As we reached the higher levels the scenery became superb. We could see Kodiak Island across the strait over the tops of the nearer mountains, which pre- sented a magnificent mass of sharp peaks and intervening snow-fields.
But finer than these was the canyon of Katmai River, which lay stretched below us. Flanked by the multicolored mud-
Digitized by
Photograph by R. F. Griggs STEAM RISI^X FROM MOUNT KATMAI : VIEW FROM PROSPECT POINT
The ash slides of the recent eruption contrast with the massive ancient lava flows. At the right are two fine waterfalls. The summit stands about a mile above the observer (see text, page 55).
C2
^ Digitized by
. .. /
all to do over again tomorrow. perpendicular and great masses of snow
As it began to cloud up, we were afraid and mud were cracked off from the
we would not be able to see anything if edges, ready to fall in ; so that I did not
we did reach the rim. All the other sum- dare to look over the edge, even though
mits as far as we could see were clear, anchored by the rope, until I could find a
" Digitized by
Photograph by R. F. Griggs AX ASH-COVERED SNOW RRTDGK SPANNING A STREAM WHICH CUT ITS WAY THROUGH
BENEATH
The caving in of such bridges, which are often concealed, constitutes one of the most serious dangers to which the explorer is subject
place which looked safer. Then we ap- proached the edge. Nothing could be seen through the rising steam.
But, as we looked, there came a little rift and we could see something blue far below us. Then the steam cut us off again and we waited. Again it blew away and we were struck speechless by the scene, for the whole crater lay below us. It was of immense size and seemed of an infinite depth.
A VITRKOLIC LAKE
About half of the bottom was occu- pied by a wonderful blue and green vit- reolic lake, with the crescent-shaped re- mains of an ash cone near the middle. In the larger end was a circle of lighter- colored water which was in continual ebullition.
Around the margin were a thousand jets of steam of all sizes, issuing from every crevice with a roar like a great locomotive when the safety valve lets go. On the far side, close to the water, were two large, bright yellow spots of sulphur, while in two angles of less activity there were snow-fields.
The perpendicular sides near us were comi)osed entirely of frozen mud and fragments of various sorts of ejecta, and
nowhere in the whole ascent did we en- counter bedrock. On the opposite side of the crater we could see that the greater part of the wall was composed of lava and tufa, the successive flows giving it a roughly stratified appearance.
\\'e were powerless to form any real estimate of the size of this stupendous hole. It was clear, however, that it oc- cupied all of the area within the rim, which from below appears three miles long. As to the depth, the best I could do was to look in and then try to carry the same level to the slope up which we had come. Thus estimated, the depth was apparently about 1,500 feet. This estimate wc subsequently had to enlarge.
All this we took in almost at a glance. Before we could get our tripod set up tlie cloud closed in again and we waited amid a thunderous roar of escaping steam. Were we to be cheated of the coveted i)ictures after all? Finally the cloud lifted a little and frantically we made our exposures.
I had planned to take bearings and measurements which would permit more accurate determination of the depth and size, but we were vouchsafed so few clear moments that we could not make
54
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them. We had reached the rim at 5.05 p. m. The mo- ment we stopped mov- ing we beo^n to suffer so from our cold, wet feet that waiting was torture; but we lin- gered on the edge for 50 minutes hoping for better views, but as the clear intervals be- came less and less fre- quent we had to give it up and descend. None of us fully real- ized, I think, how far we had come till we found how long the return journey was, but we reached our camp safely at 10.20 p. m.
Next day I was up at 5.30 to take pic- tures of the moun- tains, for practically the only opportunities to get good pictures of the volcanoes came early in the morning. The sky was clear ex- cept for a few very delicate cirrus clouds above the mountains to the east. They were long combed out and lay in horizontal Hues, drifting slowly toward Katmai.
rhi)t()3raph by L,. C. Folsom THE ASCENT OVER MUD-COVERED SNOW
The climbers are within a few hundred feet of the crater rirn (see text, page 51)
THE WONDERFUL SCENERY OF THE CANYON
Our distant view from the mountain of the second Katmai \'alley, with its lakes, and especially the dam, which had caused the great flood, made us anxious to penetrate the canyon and examine the upper valley in detail. But we found it impossible to penetrate beyond the mouth of the canyon, being stopped on the brink of a 500- foot precipice, which we named Prospect Point.
The magnificence of the view from this point was simply beyond description.
It is like the Grand Canyon and the Ca- nadian Rockies all put together and then
the volcanoes added. The desert land- scape, covered with the many-colored muds from the volcano, together with the fine colors of the rock walls, recall the Oand Canyon. But the upper slopes, with their sharp summits occupied by snow-fields and glaciers, remind one of the Canadian Rockies, in particular of such places as the "Valley of the Ten Peaks."
Down the sides pour numerous water- falls, some of which are of great beauty. ( )pposite Prospect Point is ore whose thin, misty streams drop 1,500 feet from the top of the inner canyon clear to the bottom (see page 61). Two more, each several hundred feet high, may be seen on the slopes of Katmai (see page 52).
Digitized by
Photograph by I^. G. Folsom PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRATER, SECOND ASCENT
The two sides of the canyon show very different rock structure. The east wall is a 1, 500- foot cliff, of delicate ^reen sed- imentaries, but little metamorphosed, al- though shot through by numerous dikes of igneous rock, also pale green. But on the west the river is hemmed in by great mahogany - colored lava flows, whose massive cliffs rise 2,000 to 2,500 feet be- fore giving way to the gentler slopes of the plateau. At least three successive flows may be made out lying superposed one on the other. All appear to have come from Katmai itself, but none of them is recent.
In the more exposed situations the wind has often cut through the different layers of ash, leaving the hillsides marked with rpany bands and circles, where de- posits of different colors have been alter- nately uncovered.
EXPERIENCES IN A TERRIFIC GALE
Where the unprotected positions were occupied by birches, their dead trunks often bear evidence of the power of wind erosion ; for on the northwest side their bark has been all cut away, and in many cases the wood deeply abraded by pieces of ash and pumice flying before the wind (see page 66).
But even such evidences of the power of the wind could not have given us any conception of the terrific violence of the
gales if we had not had the misfortune to experience one. For 48 hours it blew with such fury that we were in constant fear lest our tent should be torn to shreds. I would never have supposed that any tent could have stood up under the strain. We had it double-guyed at each end with our Alpine rope, but were not able to keep the pegs from pulling Out at the bottom. We could not have held it down without the floor. Several times we held it in place by lying on the floor until the pegs could be driven in again around the bottom (see also pages 17 and 26).
Only less noisy was the bombardment of the sand-blast, which drove against the tent like showers of hail. The power of the wind was such that pieces of pumice even an inch in diameter were picked up and carried away, while others twice as big went rolling along the slopes.
The wind was so fierce that we could not keep a fire, nor could we have cooked anything if we had. for we no sooner put on a kettle of water than it began to fill with sand, so that it could not be used.
THE SECOND. ASCENT
On July 30, for the first time since our arrival in the valley, the steam from ^Nlageik rose straight up into a cloudless sky (see page 30). We therefore decided the conditions auspicious to try for a second view into the crater. This time
$6
Digitized by
Photograph by R. F. Criggs
LOOKING DOWN INTO KATMAl'S CRATER
At the right is the main column of steam, 3,000 feet high. Little jets may also be seen rising from the surface of the boiling lake. Curiously enough, the heat does not melt the snow, which may be seen stretching close up to the escaping steam, its surface grooved by the innumerable rolling-stones which fall in from the cliffs where we stood (see text, page 54).
57 Digitized by
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THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
59
I chose a path over the lava plateau from near the base of the mud-flow. From the valley the ground did not seem especially favorable, and we were by no means sure of reaching the rim when we started; but I was anxious to examine the Trident at close range, and especially to see what might be behind the isthmus connecting it with Katmai, because of our suspicions of activity in that direction.
We got a fine view of Trident, whose crater proved to be a simple fissure, out of which steam was continually issuing in a comparatively small volume (see page 65). But we were disappointed in our hopes of seeing anything over the divide between Trident and Katmai.
Ahhough we traversed the whole length of the nearly level neve at an alti- tude of about 4,200 feet, we could see no. indications of volcanic activity beyond. There were several jagged minor sum- mits, but no large mountain and no clouds; so that we quite dismissed the idea of a volcano in that quarter.
How greatly in error I was in this con- clusion I was to find only the next day.
For a good share of the way beyond 2,000 feet our path this time lay across the lines of drainage, which had gashed the level surface of the ash with innumer- able gullies anywhere from two to ten feet deep. On our first ascent we had followed straight up a single ridge, and so avoided the necessity of crossing the gul- lies. This time we soon found that con- tinued jumping across or scrambling up and down the sides of these ravines is very fatiguing and were thoroughly tired of the job long before we got through them.
For the last 1,500 feet our way led across much - crevassed snowfields and glaciers, which, while easier going for the most part, kept us in constant fear of cave-ins on account of the uncertain conditions introduced by the ash- fall. In places we traversed as nasty a series of seracs as one would care to find.
We found that the glacial seracs ex- tended clear up to the very rim of the crater, above whose depths the loose blocks hung with a precarious hold.
We did not dare to approach the edge over such ground and had to make our
way around, descending somewhat until we finally reached the rim at the lowest notch, at an altitude of 5,200 feet, beside the rock which breaks the regularity of the arc at that point (see page 56).
This from the valley appears as a small tooth-like projection. Near at hand it is seen to be a great neck of jointed col- umnar basalt two or three hundred feet high, which evidently owes its preserva- tion to its superior hardness, which en- abled it to resist the force of the explo- sion that blew away the softer rock all around it. Its position and structure in- dicate that it was formerly a vent filled with liquid lava which, cooling in place, formed the massive neck that remains.
IN.\BIUTY TO JUDGE HEIGHT OR DISTANCE
From our position directly under it, its perpendicular cliffs, though insignificant from the valley, appeared immeasurably high! Frequently in this land of stu- pendous dimensions we had occasion to realize how little conception we could really form of the true sizes of the fea- tures around us.
When one stands directly beneath ' a cliff or at its brink and looks up or down, 200 feet appears as an immeasurably great height. Ten times as much appears no greater unless there are trees, houses, or some such familiar objects beyond, by which one can form an independent judg- ment of their distance. In a desert coun- try without such objects, we were fre- quently unable to form any estimate at all of the size of the various features which met our view.
We had an amusing instance of this when, sending a man to climb the great ash slide to serve as a scale for a picture, I found that he was hardly visible to the naked eye and utterly lost in the picture (see page 42). We nearly always found that our estimates were too small rather than too large, and throughout the pres- ent paper I have endeavored to scale down my statements of size, so that any errors should be in the direction of min- imizing rather than of exaggerating the things we have to report.
Standing on the edge of the crater, we recognized our total inability to form any judgment of its depth by the ordinary
Digitized by
irnoiograpa oy u. u. v,iiurcii
CROSSING ONE OF THE CHANNELS OF THE KATMAI RIVER
While the lower reaches of this river are full of quicksand, farther up it is a rushing mountain torrent, so swift that it was hard to cross even supported on a rope (see text, page 41).
methods one uses in estimating such things. But, using the shape of the vol- cano as a whole and such differences in altitude of the parts of the crater rim as we could see from the valley for our guide, we concluded that our former es- timate must be too small, and that it must be at least 2,000 feet in depth.
THE SECOND VIEW OF THE CRATER
Both the weather conditions and our position were much more favorable for observation of the crater this time than on our first ascent. The sun shone brightly, and it became evident why we had had so much trouble with the steam on the first ascent, for we found that the point which we had reached the first time stood directly above a prominent fissure extending in an easterly direction from the edge of the lake to the crater wall. Its direction was significant in connection with what we were to discover the next day.
The boiling lake this time was all cov- ered with little (so they appeared from
our position) wisps of steam curling up everywhere from its surface. The vapor thus given off condensed into a hazy cloud, which hung in the mouth of the crater, so that the part of the rim op- posite us was veiled. This haze made it impossible to secure as clear photo- graphs of the crater as we would have wished.
At the northeast angle we could see another low notch in the rim of about the same altitude as the one where we stood. But this one was occupied by a wall of ice which rose perpendicular, flush with the crater walls, as though it had been sheared off by the explosion. It was in- deed curious that a moving glacier, how- ever it might have been affected by the eruption, should remain in such a posi- tion. It is probably to be accounted for by the falling away of the crater rim, which continually exposes a new section of the ice cliff. As we had made the summit by 3 o'clock, this time we were not so late in getting back, reaching camp again at 8.30.
60
Digitized by
Photograph by D. B. Church
ACROSS KATMAI CANYON FROM TlIIv LOWKR SLOPES OF MOUNT KATMAI
The scale may be judged by the man, who may barely be made out on the trail near the center of the picture. The waterfall is 1,500 feet high.
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THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
63
The next day, July 31, dawned as clear and bright as the former; but the cloud from ilageik this time drifted off to the northwest, and small clouds were begin- ning to gather on the west side of the valley, so that I knew it was to be the last day of good weather.
A MUD-FLOW COVERING TEN SQUARE MILES 80 FEET DEEP
I had hoped to take a two-days' trip across the pass to see if we could find the source of the clouds which had aroused our suspicions. But remember- ing the bad name given Katmai Pass by Spurr, who states that it was the most difficult pass crossed by his party in their long and adventurous journey in 1898, I had no desire to be caught short of provisions on the wrong side, and so gave up the projected trip and decided to reconnoiter instead. Planning to make an easy day of it, for we were tired after our ascent of Katmai the day before, we climbed around the shoulder of Obser- vation Mountain and descended into the upper valley of Mageik Creek, where we found the largest and most striking ac- cumulation of ash observed anywhere.
The whole flat, occupying a triangular space five miles on a side, was filled many feet in depth by the ash, which had slumped off the mountain sides. One section we traversed was no less than 125 feet thick, and two others 80 feet.
ASCENT TO KATMAI PASS
Having stopped a little while to exam- ine the character of the Mageik mud- flow and to eat our lunch, we made our way forward across the bad lands toward the pass, following now the ridges of the mud-flow% now the bottom of the canyon, which rose in a gentle slope.
As we ascended the valley past the highest peak of Trident, we came into view of the hollow between it and the next peak, from which I had thought several times I saw clear indications of rising steam. The sun was shining into it brightlv, so that I could see it all clearly. There was not the smallest puff of steam anywhere to be seen. We were up now to 2,500 feet and could see a long
way through the pass, and there was no steam to be seen there either.
So again I concluded, as I had the day before, that we had seen nothing more than the ordinary clouds which gather so easily around the summits of all high mountains.
Church, jaded from thfe continual hard work, had given out and we left him be- hind with the 'packs, much against his wishes, several hundred feet below, while Ifolsoip and I went forward a little far- ther to see what we could discover. We were both tired from our hard climb the day before, ^nd traveling transversely across the sflillied "bad lands" of the mud-flow, <\\^nich was necessitated by the condition of the canyon below, was very laborious; so that I was ready to turn back satisfied with having seen through the pass and, as I believed, having laid another ghost.
THE FIRST FUMAROLE
But ju^t as I was about to suggest turning back to Folsom I caught sight of a tiny puff of vapor in the floor of the pass. I rubbed my eyes and looked again. Yes, there it was, a miniature volcano sending up a little jet of steam right in the pass. When I saw this I decided that we must go on to investigate, because the very smallness of this steam jet made it of as much interest as a large volcano.
For one of the most striking features of the eruption of Katmai — one which was without parallel in other great erup- tions— was the absence of subordinate manifestations of vulcanism outside the main theater of action. I had been con- tinually surprised at the absence of para- sitic cones, fumaroles, mud craters, hot springs, and the like in so great an erup- tion.
Earlier in the day we had found the stream from the hot springs near the pass, mapped by Spurr; but aside from that, this fumarole was the first thing of its sort to be observed. When we reached the pass we found its floor all shot through with cracks and small fissures, from which issued half a dozen good- sized jets of steam and perhaps a hun- dred small ones.
Digitized by
Photograph by L. G. Folsom
WARMING MY HANDS AT ONE OF THE LITTLE FUMAROLES IN THE PASS
The ground was encrusted with bright-colored sublimations from the escaping gases (see
text below)
With some trepidation we approached over the fissured surface and discovered that most of the steam issued from small openings a few inches in diameter, whence it came with considerable veloc- ity, giving forth a low, roaring sound.
We could come quite close and warmed our hands in the steam, which, though very hot as it emerged, soon cooled like the vapor from a tea-kettle.
Coming oiT with the steam were vari- ous other substances, which gave rise to curious evil-smelling odors and precipi- tated a highly colored crust on the ground. Prominent among these was the "rotten-egg" smell of hydrogen sulphide and of sulphur dioxide, while crystals of sulphur gave a yellow tinge to the parti- colored sublimations of the crust.
I was anxious to return to Church, for we had already been gone much longer than we had expected when we left him. So, starting to return, I had reached a little eminence, for the fumaroles were just over the pass, when, turning around to urge Folsom to hasten, I saw far down the valley, over the top of some rising ground beyond us, a puff of steam. This had not been there when we came over the pass and was evidently considerably larger than the jets we had been examin-
ing, and as the obstructing hill was not far away I decided, late as it was, to go forward and have a look.
THE VALLEY OF THE TEN THOUSAND .SMOKES
I can never forget my sensations at the sight which met my eyes as I surmounted the hillock and looked down the valley; for there, stretching as far as the eye could reach, till the valley turned behind a blue mountain in the distance, were hundreds — no, thousands — of little vol- canoes like those we had just examined. They were not so little, either; for at such a distance anything so small as the little fumaroles at which we had been warming our hands would not be no- ticed.
]\Iany of them were sending up col- umns of steam which rose a thousand feet before dissolving. After a careful estimate, we judged there must be a thou- sand whose columns would exceed 500 feet (see page 62).
It was as though all the steam-engines in the world, assembled together, had popped their safety-valves at once and were letting off surplus steam in concert. Some were closely grouped in lines along a common fissure; others stood apart.
64
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Photograph by R. F. Griggs
THK TRIDENT FROM THK ISLAND CAMP
The conspicuous column of steam rising behind Trident comes from the "Valley of the Ten
Thousand Smokes"
The biggest of all, whose steam had first caught my eye, stood well up on the mountain side, in a nest of fissures which looked like the crevasses of a glacier, and were big enough to be plainly visible, though more than five miles away.
Fortunately a strong wind was blow- ing across the pass, carrying the fumes all down the valley and away from us, or we might not have dared to go on. In addition to the active fissures, there were thousands more that were quiescent at the time of our visit, but which had en- crusted the ground round about with col- ored deposits like the others. If all of these vents were to be counted, their numbers would undoubtedly reach into tens of thousands.
CHARACTER OP THE VENTS
In some cases the orifice from which the steam issued was a large, deep hole ; in others there was no opening at all, the steam simply escaping through the inter- stices of the soil particles. There was no relation between the size of the vent and
its output. Some of the largest had no visible opening at all, while from some cavernous holes issued only faint breaths of steam. In many cases steam issued from the sides of the gullies cut by water from the melting snow on the mountain sides where it did not break through the more compact surface layer of mud.
In some places the ground was warm beneath our feet, and had we not been solicitous for our shoe leather doubtless we could have found places as hot as we might have desired.
Although there is every reason to sup- pose that the vigor of the action is vari- able, there was in most cases no evidence of explosive action, such as remnants of ejecta around the vent. Most of the steam jets came out of cracks in the level mud floor of the valley. But some, on the contrary, had built up small cones around themselves or formed a small- sized crater by hurling away the ground around the vent.
I wish my vocabulary were adequate to describe the curious mixture of foul
65
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Photograph by D. B. Church
BIRCHES WITH TIIF. BARK CUT OFF BV SAND BLAST
But even such testimony can give one no idea of the terrible seventy of the northwest gales. For forty-eight hours one of them bombarded our camp. Every moment we expected the tent to be torn to shreds. We could never have kept it in place had it not been for the floor, which we weighted down when the pegs pulled out. For two nights sleep was impossible, and during the day we could cook no food (see text, page 56).
odors which they gave forth. ]\Iixed with the omnipresent sulphurous gases were others which had a strangely or- ganic smell, recalling at once burning wool, the musky smell of a fox den, and the odors of decay.
We could not tell to what extent, if any, odorless asphyxiating gases, such as carbon dioxide, might be present in the complex. We did not notice any ill- efTects from the fumes, but we took good care to keep to windward most of the time.
BRANCH VALLEYS ALSO FULL OF STEAM JETS
Three or four miles down the valley, beyond the mountains next to the pass, we came to a place where lateral valleys come in from both sides at once. Here new wonders awaited us. The southern branch, leading off in the direction of Mount Martin, was full of fumaroles and looked like the main valley. We did not
go far enough to see what might lie fur- ther up, because of the evident interest of the opposite branch which bore off to the northeast toward Mount Katmai, whose jagged crater walls appeared in full view in the distance.
TWO MORE NEW VOLCANOES OF THE FIRST MAGNITUDE
Up this valley was a prodigious column of steam. As we drew nearer we saw that the main body of this steam was rising from a central mass of rock, sur- rounded by a comparatively low ring of cinders, the whole extending across the valley and blocking further progress. This I interpret as a plug of lava being slowly pushed up through a vent which was formerly rather violently explosive; so that instead of building a high cinder cone, most of the ejecta were scattered far and wide and only a small ring was formed around the vent.
The surface of the cooling lava plug
66
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THE VALLEY OF TEX THOUSAND SMOKES
67
was covered in most fantastic fashion with sharp irregular cinders, the result of the too sudden cooling of the molten magma, much in the same way that a piece of melted glass fragments if sud- denly plunged into cold water.
Farther on up the valley, on the back side of the isthmus between Katmai and Trident, was another volcano, with a crescent-shaped summit, the side of the crater toward us being open. From this also a considerable body of steam was rising, evidently furnishing part, at least, of the clouds which had excited our sus- picions from the other side of the range. Beyond this there may have been yet an- other volcano, but the rising column of steam from the lava near us obscured the view to such an extent that we could not see clearly.
AN INTERPRETATION OF THE VALLEY OF THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
Even the hurried observations we had been able to make were sufficient to bring out distinctly, in its larger outlines, the significance of the phenomenon. It was evident that the valley of the ten thousand smokes is underlain by a great fissure extending northwest from Katmai Pass along the line of the old trail toward Naknek Lake. This might be appropri- ately denominated the "Naknek Fissure." It is evident that the steam issuing from this fissure and seeping through the mass of accumulations from recent eruptions finds its vent in the myriad fumaroles in a similar fashion to the many small leaks one finds on the surface of an old bicycle tire when there is a single puncture of the inner layer of rubber.
While the main line of this fissure ex- tends up to Mageik, the lateral fissures branch oflf toward Martin and Katmai. Katmai stands, therefore, like Krakatoa, at the junction of two lines of fissures: one, the Aleutian fissure, which finds its vent in the long line of volcanoes reach- ing down the Alaska Peninsula and out into the Aleutian Islands, has been long known as one of the greatest lines of volcanic activity on the globe ; the other, this newly discovered Naknek fissure, has never been previously recognized and
perhaps did not exist before the great eruption of 1912.
That there were no signs of volcanic activity in this direction as recently as 1898 is evident from Spurr's narrative of his journey across the Alaska Pen- insula from Naknek to Katmai, which is the only description of the country ever published.
This remarkable valley, like the other volcanic activities of the district, there- fore, probably burst forth at the time of the great eruption.
THE RETURN JOURNEfcT
We had now seen as much as could be observed without extended exploration, so we turned our steps homeward and hurried to rejoin Church, who had shiv- ered for five hours, even with the extra clothes of all three of us. Once across the gullies, which were hiore than ever a terror to us, now that -We were nearly exhausted, we made good speed back to camp, which we reached a little after 10 o'clock.
Here we found that the river, showing the eflfects of the warm weather on the snow-fields, was beginning to rise so rap- idly that we were afraid of being caught miserably on the wrong side. How we wished we could have returned and ex- plored the wonderful valley we had dis- covered ! But we were not equipped for such an undertaking and it was better to get back with what we had than to risk it all for the sake of more. So, hoping that we might be permitted to return and finish the job, we decided on a riiove, and before 5 the next morning we were up and breaking camp. The event proved that we had lost nothing, for, although the boat to take us back to Kodiak did not come for ten days,' only once in that time did the clouds break away again.
Looking back at the work after one has had time to forget the excitement and labor of the daily routine and take a calmer survey of results, the one thing which stands out is the great magfnitude of the emotion. Evident from the first reports, this has grown with increasing knowledge. No one, not even those of us who have lived in the desolation of
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68
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the thing, can form any adequate concep- tion of the stupendous catyclasm that occurred.
This explosion is easily to be ranked among the first dozen known within his- toric times. Previously Krakatoa has held first place in the minds of most, but the quantity of material thrown out by Katmai was so much greater as to put it into an altogether different class. In- deed, the whole island of Krakatoa could be dropped into the crater of Katmai.
We so- inevitably estimate the magni- tude of natural phenomena by their effect on human affairs that an eruption like this in an uninhabited district seems un- important in corriparison, for example, with that of Pelee, with its great loss of life. Yet there may have been in the present case tornadoes of hot gas greater than that which overwhelmed St. Pierre and killed 25,000 people ; but the destruc- tion by other agencies was so great as to leave little evidence of them if they oc- curred.
IMAGINE KATMAI'S KRUPTION OCCURRING IN NEW YORK
The magnitude of the eruption can perhaps be best realized if one could imagine a similar outburst centered in
New York City. In such a catastrophe all of Greater New York would be buried under ten to fifteen feet of ash and sub- jected to unknown horrors from hot gases. The column of steam and ashes would be plainly visible beyond Albany, but the continued activity of the volcano would probably prevent any one from approaching for several months to view the ruins nearer than Patterson, N. J.
Philadelphia would be covered by a foot of gray ash and would grope in total darkness for sixty hours. Wash- ington and Buffalo would receive a quar- ter of an inch, with a shorter period of darkness. Small quantities of ash would fall over all of the Eastern States as far as the gulf coast.
The sounds of the explosions would be heard as far as Atlanta and St. Louis. The fumes would be noticed as far as Denver, San Antonio, and Jamaica.
Not even the most vivid imagination could picture the destruction of life and property which would result from such an eruption in a thickly populated coun- try. We may be profoundly grateful that we have had vouchsafed us such a wonderful opportunity to study the phe- nomena of volcanoes without any of the horrors usually attendant on their action.
TN VIEW of the extraordinary conditions of the Katmai region^ unparalleled anytvhere in the world, the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society has made a further grant of $12,000 for explorations of Katmai during the summer of 1917, the expedition to he in charge of Prof. Robert F. Griggs, who was the leader of the Society^s 1915 and 1916 ex- peditions.
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A GAME COUNTRY WITHOUT RIVAL
IN AMERICA
The Proposed Mount McKinley National Park
By Stephen R. Capps, of the U. S. Geological Survey
IN THE spring of 1916 a bill was presented to Congress to establish in Alaska the Mount McKinley Na- tional Park. This bill was passed by the Senate during the summer, and its final enactment into law now requires favor- able action by the House and the Presi- dent. Before this article is published the necessary legislation may have been com- pleted and the dream of this new park have become a reality ; but in any event every one of us who loves outdoor life should realize what a wonderful coun- try— 3. country of impressive mountain scenery and big game — we have in that northern territory, and how seriously the wild life of that region is menaced.
Two parties from the U. S. Geological Survey were detailed to a part of the proposed park in 1916. We proceeded into interior Alaska by the usual route down Yukon River, and disembarked at the new town of Nenana, at which place construction on the new government rail- road is in progress.
The 55-mile trip over a little-used trail up Nenana River was eventful enough.. We had only a badly damaged and leaky boat to cross that swollen and turbulent stream, and for the better part of a day the horses refused to swim the icy tor- rent. Then, too, in the forested lowlands the mosquitos surrounded us in clouds. We could protect ourselves with gloves
Photograph by J. S. Sterling
69
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OUTLINE MAP OF THE PROPOSED MOUNT MC KINLEY NATIONAL PARK, FROM SURVEYS
BY THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
and head nets, but the horses were con- stantly covered with the insects, so that all of them — white, bay, and black — took on the dirty gray color of the mosquitos themselves.
We began our surveys at Nenana River, east of the park, and extended them westward over several thousand square miles.
We had spent only a short time in the field when we discovered that the park had been laid out in a most admirable way. It is true that there is fairly abun- dant big game and much country of great scenic beauty outside the boundaries, but we entered a game paradise and a land of unrivaled scenery when we crossed the park line. Singularly enough, too, when we were once within the high mountains of the park we left behind us most of the mosquitos, and for a month were almost free from the exasperating attacks of these annoying pests.
When, in the spring, we had first learned of the proposal to establish this park and had plotted its outline on the map, w^e wondered at its curious shape. Once we were on the ground, the reason
for this shape became evident. The long dimension follows the general course of the Alaska Range from Mount Russell to Muldrow Glacier, the park including all the main range from its northwest face to and beyond the summit. East of Muldrow Glacier the range widens to- ward the north and consists of a number of parallel mountain ridges separated by broad, open basins.
THE HIGHEST CLIMB ABOVE SNOW-LINE IN THE WORLD
There, at the headwaters of Toklat and Teklanika rivers, sheep and caribou range in greatest abundance, and the northern part of the park includes the best of the game country. The reentrant angle in the park line north of Muldrov/ Glacier was so placed as to exclude the Kantishna mining district and the hunting ground from which the miners obtain their sup- ply of meat. The total area of this great playground is about 2,200 square miles.
In scenic grandeur the stupendous mass of which Mount McKinley is the culmi- nating peak has no rival. The snow-line here lies at about 7,000 feet, and above
71
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that elevation only a few sharp crags and
^ seemingly perpendicular clifts are free
1 g from the glistening white mantle. From ^ g the valley of McKinley Fork, which is at ^ ^ the north base of the mountain and lies
at an elevation of only 1,500 feet, the
bare rocks of the lower mountains extend
^ ^ upward for about 5,500 feet, and above
2 2 them Mount McKinley rises in majestic g g whiteness to a height of 20,300 feet— the
W loftiest peak on the continent.
^ The upper 13,000 feet of the mountain
^^ IS clad in glaciers and perpetual snows,
^ thus offering to the mountaineer the high-
g est climb above snow-line in the world.
;^ The rise of 18,000 feet from the lower
^ end of Peters Glacier, north of the moun-
^ tain, to the highest peak is made in a dis-
< tance of only 13 miles. In no other ^ mountain mass do we find so great a Q vertical ascent in so short a distance. ^ The peaks of the Colorado Rockies, :- though wonderful, rise from a high pla- ^ teau, so that at most points from which ^ they can be seen they stand only 7,000 D g or, at most, 8,coo feet above the observer. S 5^ Mount St. EHas, an i8,ooo-foot moun- ^ 2 tain, may be seen from sea-level, but the ^ « peak stands 35 miles from the coast, and g 2 so loses in height to the eye by the dis- 2 w tance from which it must be viewed.
;; o Similarly the high volcanic peaks of
ui < Mexico and South America and the
< world's loftiest mountains in the Hima- 1< layas rise from high plateaus, which di- ^ minish by their own elevation the visible g magnitude and towering height of their g culminating peaks.
^ THE artist's color BOX IS SURPASSED
H Southwest of Mount McKinley, 15
u, miles away from it, stands Mount For-
^ aker, only 3,300 feet lower and almost
< equally imposing. If it stood alone, a Alount Foraker would be famous in* its « own right as a mighty peak, having few P equals; but in the presence of its giant ^ neighbor it is reduced to secondary rank. g These two dominating peaks, standing ^ side by side and known to the interior ^ natives as Denali and Denali's Wife, far ^ outrank the flanking mountains to the B northeast and southwest, among which, § however, there are a score of other peaks S that rise to heights between 7,000 and ^ 14,000 feet, well above snow-line, and
that are the gathering ground for many glaciers.
w
72
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Photograph by S. R. Capps THE MASSES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, NOW STANDING VERTICAL, GIVE A HINT OF THE TITAN FORCES THAT BUILT THE RANGE
Of the glaciers that the tourist will visit in the park, the largest and most accessible is Muldrow Glacier. This ice- tongue, 39 miles long, flows from the summit of Mount McKinley and makes a great fish-hook curve to the northeast and north.
Not the least impressive feature of this part of the Alaska Range is the tremen- dous scale upon which the foundations of the earth are exposed to view. Espe- cially in the valley heads, where vegeta- tion is sparse or lacking, the high moun- tain ridges, cut by deep valleys, offer im- pressive sections for the study of the earth's structure.
Here great lava flows and volcanic in- trusions, in vivid shades of red, purple, brown, and green, will tax the color box of the artist. Masses of sedimentary rocks, first deposited as flat-lying beds, but now standing vertical or twisted into giant folds, give a hint of the Titan forces that build a mountain range.
And near the eastern border of the park, at the Nenana coal field, the trav- eler can see how Nature, by her generous placing and preservation of coal within the rocks, makes possible the industrial prosperity of our nation by furnishing the fuel needed for its manufactures.
OUR LAST CHANCE
The Mount McKinley region now offers a last chance for the people of the United States to preserve, untouched by'civiliza- tion, a great primeval park in its natural beauty. Historically this country is new It was not until 1897 that W. A. Dickey, after having explored in the upper Su- sitna basin the previous summer, pub- lished a description of Mount McKinley. made his remarkably accurate estimate of 20,000 feet as the height of the mountain, and gave it the name it now bears. In 1898 the first actual survey in the neigh- borhood of the park was made near its east side by George H. Eldridge and Rob- ert Muldrow, of the United States Geo- logical Survey. In 1899 an army expedi- tion, in charge of Capt. Joseph S. Herron, explored a part of the area near the southwestern boundary of the park.
In 1902 the first surveying party that actually reached the vicinity of Mount McKinley was conducted by Alfred H. Brooks and D. L. Raebum, of the Geo- logical Survey. This party entered the park at its southwest border and trav- ersed it from end to end, bringing out the first authentic information in regard to an unexplored area of many thousand
73
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COAL BEDS NEAR THE EASTERN END OF THE PARK
"At the Nenana coal field the traveler can see how nature, by her generous placing and preservation of coal within the rocks, makes possible the industrial prosperity of our nation by furnishing the fuel needed for its manufactures" (see text, page 73).
square miles and determining the posi- tion, height, and best route of approach to the base of Mount McKinley.
Inspired by the information furnished by the Brooks party, the first attempt to climb this great mountain was made in the summer of 1903 by James Wicker- sham, now delegate to Congress from Alaska and sponsor for the pending bill to create this great national park. Judge Wickersham's party succeeded in reach- ing an elevation of 10,000 feet, but a lack of proper equipment and sufficient pro- visions prevented them from climbing to the summit.
The highest peak remained uncon- quered until 1913, when, on ]\Iarch 17, Archdeacon Hudson Stuck, Harry Kar- stens, and two companions left the mouth of Nenana River, traveled by dog sled to the Kantishna district to pick up supplies landed there by boat in the fall of 19 12, and proceeded to the basin of Clearwater Folk, at the north base of Mount Mc-
Kinley. After preparing their own pem- mican from wild meat obtained near camp, they began the actual ascent about the middle of April and reached the peak on June 7, 191 3. Thus the mountain summit was scaled seventeen years after its first adequate description was pub- lished.
A BIG-GAM IC PARADISE
As a game refuge the new park in- cludes an area that is unique on this con- tinent, and few regions in the world can vie with it. Many parts of Alaska are famous for big game, and hunters have come half around the world to that terri- tory to obtain trophies of their skill. It has been my good fortune to visit several of the choicest game ranges in Alaska, notably that east of Nenana River, adja- cent to the Mount McKinley district, and the much praised White River country. Both of these regions are well stocked with game, but for abundant sheep, cari- bou, and moose over wide areas neither
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A GA^IE COUNTRY WITHOUT RIVAL IN AMERICA
77
of them compares with the area within the limits of the new game preserve.
The mountains at the head of Toklat and Teklanika rivers literally swarm with the magnificent white bighorn sheep, which are elsewhere extremely wary and difficult to approach, but which in sum- mer are here so little disturbed that they move off only when one comes to close range. A day's travel along one of these valleys will usually afford the casual trav- eler a view of many bands of sheep. The sheep range on the lower slopes of the mountains, especially in the upper reaches of the streams, near the glaciers at the valley heads, or even in the valley bottoms.
I have counted over 300 in a single day's journey of 10 miles along the river bars, and doubtless as many more were unobserved in the tributary valleys be- yond my view. From a single point at my tent door one evening I counted nine bands of sheep, containing in all 171 ani- mals.
The bighorn sheep prefers the slopes of high, rough mountains for its range, and may be found only in the mountains, within easy reach of rugged crags, to which it may retreat for safety from its enemies. Its range, therefore, lies be- tween timber-line and the level of per- petual snow. It is difficult to make an accurate estimate of the number of sheep within the new park, but in the part that w^e visited there are easily 5,000 sheep, their range extending westward through- out the mountainous portion of the park.
THOUSANDS OF CARIBOU EVERYWHERE
I remember well my first big day for caribou. The pack-train had gone ahead to pitch camp at a prearranged spot near the last spruce timber on the main Tok- lat, and I was examining the rocks a few miles east of the camping place. Herds of sheep were scattered along the ridges, some feeding on the tender grasses, some sleeping in the sun. I was far above timber-line and my view was unob- structed for miles in all directions. With my glass I had already counted half a dozen solitary caribou, all young bulls, grazing among the stunted willows of the stream flats.
Soon my attention was attracted by a sight unusual in this district — a fright- ened caribou bull, which was running from the direction in which my pack- train had gone. Soon two yearlings came rushing from the same quarter; then a cow and a young calf in full flight, the cow •with tongue out and sides heaving and the calf following closely, but in no apparent distress. Then more came, singly or in twos and threes. Soon a lone calf, lost from its mother, passed close to me, uttering plaintive grunts. As I ap- proached the main river valley from which the frightened animals came, I met the main herd, twenty-five or more, walk- ing slowly up a narrow gulch a hundred yards from me, and apparently urrwor- ried by the presence of strangers on their range.
During the next few days I saw more caribou than I dreamed existed in any one locality, including a herd of 200 which was viewed at close range on the Toklat bars. In the pass between Toklat and Stony rivers the two pack-trains and eight men stood in the midst of a vast herd, scattered for miles in all directions.
CARIBOU AVOID THE MOSQUITO PLAINS
We counted with the naked eye over a thousand within half a mile of us, and hundreds of others could be seen too far away for accurate count. In order not to exaggerate, even to ourselves, we esti- mated the number in sight at one time as 1,500, and I believe that this is an under- statement of the number actually there. Most of them were cows and calves or yearlings, but there were a few old bulls, conspicuous for their towering horns. During the following week we constantly saw herds of caribou, some of them num- bering hundreds.
Most of these herds were on the bare gravel bars, where the strong winds af- ford some relief from the attacks by flies and mosquitos. Other herds were high on rugged mountain ridges, and several large droves were observed far up on the glaciers, well toward snow-line, seeking a little respite from insect pests.
In other parts of Alaska caribou at times appear in huge droves as they mi- grate from place to place, but they stay
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Photograph from Dora Keen
SIX-roOT YUKON SNOW-SHOES
For breaking a trail or crossing wide crevasses they are the ideal type, but for climbing steep slopes or traveling where they have to be carried considerable distances they are too long and cumbersome.
only a short time in any one locality. In the Toklat basin and in the vicinity of Muldrow Glacier, however, the caribou are at home, and they remain there throughout the summer to rear their young.
DIFFERENCES IN ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
There is abundant indication that this is a permanent range. Deeply worn trails form a veritable labyrinth along the stream flats, and bedding grounds, old and new, occur everywhere. The miners
from the Kantishna report that caribou may always be seen in great numbers on this range.
There is a striking difference between the actions of caribou and those of the big- horn sheep when sur- prised by man. A sheep, once aroused, knows exactly where he wants to go, and usually starts, with- out a moment's hesi- tation, on the shortest route to some rugged mountain mass. He may stop to look around and appraise the danger, but he is sure to follow the route he first chose.
By contrast, the caribou appears a foolish animal; he seems at a loss to de- cide whether it is nec- essary to run away at all. Then, when con- vinced that danger threatens, he has diffi- culty in making up his mind which way to run. He has sharp eyes for any moving obicct, but evidently reJFuses to trust his sight until his nose confirms his sense of danger.
I have many times seen a caribou, after he has discovered me at a distance of no more than lOO yards, stand and look, snort, lower his head half a dozen times, then run wildly off for a short distance, turn back toward me, re- peat the same maneuvers, and make sev- eral false, zigzag sprints, all within easy gunshot, before he finally ran to leeward, got the man scent, and started off for good in great panic. In this region, with proper caution and a favoring wind, one can approach within 200 yards or less of a band of caribou, even in the open, be- fore they take alarm and move away.
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MOOSe ARE WARY ANIMALS
Moose are very plentiful in certain parts of the new park, but are not so commonly seen as sheep and caribou. As their food supply consists of willow and birch twigs and leaves and the succulent roots of water plants, they stay much of the time in timbered and brushy areas, where they are inconspicuous. By na- ture, too, the moose is a wary animal and permits much less familiarity than the caribou.
The best moose country in this region lies in the lowlands north of the main Alaska Range, outside of the boundaries of the proposed park; but some moose were seen within the park lines, and doubtless more of them will take refuge in this game preserve when they are more vigorously hunted in the neighboring re- gions. It is said that there is an excellent moose range within the park, in the area southwest of that which we visited.
There are some black, brown, and grizzly bears in this district, but the bear hunter has a much better chance of ob- taining a hide in other parts of Alaska than he has here. All told, only eight bears were seen by the members of the two survey parties during the last sum- mer, and bear sign was so little noted in this region that it cannot be considered an especially good bear country.
The park contains good trapping grounds for the fur hunter, and a num- ber of trappers spend part of each winter there. Foxes are plentiful, and an un- usually large proportion of the pehs taken are Of silver gray or black fox. One trapper told me that in Toklat basin the winter's catch for a number of years has yielded one silver gray fox skin for every eight foxes caught, and of the re- maining seven, several are likely to be good cross-fox. We saw a good many foxes and found two dens around which young ones were playing. Lynx are also plentiful, and numerous mink, marten, and ermine have been taken.
MANY AND BUSY BEAVERS
Beaver were seen in the park, but are exceptionally abundant in the marshy lowlands north of it. On our trip down Bearpaw River, in the fall, while we were on our way to Tanana, we saw every- where along the banks signs of beaver.
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A PAGE FROM THE AUTHOR S DIARY, SHOW- ING GAME SEEN IN AND NEAR TlfE PROPOSED PARK (see TEXT)
Freshly cut cottonwood and willow trees lie along the shores, and the trails used by the beaver to bring sections of trees down the banks were seen at short in- tervals.
Night after night we would hear the sharp splash of the swimming animals as they whacked their tails upon the surface of the stream. Beaver are protected by law until 1920, and under this protection have greatly increased in numbers. In the lowlands they have so much ob- structed all the smaller streams with their dams that foot travel overland is impos- sible until ice forms.
In order to give the reader an idea of the abundance and variety of game to be seen by the traveler in the Mount McKin- ley Park, I am showing above a photo- graph of a page taken from my diary, in which I each day made record of the big- game animals I saw. In making my
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Photograph by R. B. Murray
A trapper's reuef cabin up in the hills: alaska
"Every one of us who loves out-of-door life should realize what a wonderful country — a country of impressive mountain scenery and big game — we have in the northern territory, and how seriously the wild life of that region is now menaced" (see text, page 69).
count I was perhaps ovcrmoderate, for if in a trip up a valley I saw 90 sheep, and on my return by the same route I saw the same number, I added nothing to my count, presuming that the sheep last seen were the same as those counted earlier in the day. Thus while traveling among herds of animals that were in constant movement from one feeding ground to another I may have failed to make record of many new herds that came into sight, because I was not sure they were new herds. The same practice was followed in counting caribou.
GAMELESS DAYS ARE RARE
An examination of that diary or rec- ord, which was ma^le from day to day in the field, shows how wisely the park lines were estabhshed so as to include the best game ranges. Until July 8 we wert out- side the park, and although we were in a good game country, we saw compara- tively few animals on any one day, and on some days none. Our crossing of the park line was coincident with a remark-
able increase in the number of animals seen, and afterward there was a steady succession of days in which game was sighted.
The decrease in numbers on July 26, 2^, and 28 was due not to a paucity of game in that part of the park, but to a violent rain-storm that kept us in camp. Even then we had only one gameless day, for our record was kept almost unbroken by caribou that passed close to our tents on two of the three bad days.
I have tried to make plain the fact that the area within the proposed national park is a game country without rival in America. That is certainly true today, but unless this game refuge is immedi- ately reserved a few years may see these great herds destroyed beyond hope of re- establishment. .Even today the encroach- ments of the market hunter are serious. True, there are game laws in Alaska, but they are by no means everywhere strictly enforced, and many sled-loads of wild meat are carried into the towns during the winter. The town of Fairbanks,
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IN A TRAPPER S CAMP: ALASKA
Part of a winter's catch, consisting of 74 lynxes (hung in bunches), eight foxes (one silver, four cross, three red) ; also (hung in center) 54 rabbits, shot in 45 minutes by three rifles while driving through the willows on an island during the winter.
about 100 miles away from the new park, and the largest settlement in the interior, is the destination of most of the wild meat killed on the north side of the Alaska Range. The mountains just south of Fairbanks and east of Nenana River offered a convenient field for the market hunter, and for years large numbers of mountain sheep were killed there for the Fairbanks market.
THE POT-HUXTERS' DESTRUCTIVE TOLL
Within the last few years, however, the sheep herds in the nearer mountains have become so depleted that the hunter has been forced to go constantly farther from his market, and now f\n<ls the most satis- factory hunting ground within the limits of the proposed reserve.
I talked with several men who take sheep meat to Fairbanks for sale, and one of them estimated that each winter for the last three years from 1,500 to 2,000 sheep have been taken from the basin of Toklat and Teklanika rivers. Only a part of these reaches Fairbanks, for the
sled dogs must be fed during the hunt and on the trail, and some hunters leave behind all but the choicest hind quarters.
It can be readily seen that slaughter on such a scale can last only a short time, until the game here, too, has been nearly exterminated. The sheep, being of choicest flavor, are taken first, but the moose and caribou will not escape after the sheep become harder to get.
The absence of a supply of wild meat in Fairbanks and other interior towns will work no hardship on the residents, for there is already a well-established trade in refrigerated domestic meat, and the dealers will readily supply all the fresh meat for which there is a demand, and at a cost little, if any, above that charged by the market hunters for game.
A BIG-GAME PARADISE 1 5 MILES FROM A RAILROAD
Such are the conditions today, even in a region so difficult of access. How^ much more rapidly will the game disappear when the railroad is completed to a point
81
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Photograph by Thomas Riggs
HEADED FOR THE ANNUAL CARIBOU HUNT
Charley Blackfox and family off for the hills. The poles are tent poles, as the hunting will probably be well above timber-line. Note the packs on the dogs.
within IS miles of this game paradise! The establishment of a town at Nenatia, where the railroad crosses Tanana River, has even now brought a market for game some so miles nearer the sheep hills of the Toklat.
Already homesteads have been taken up along the railroad, and in a few years this untouched wilderness will hear the sound of the mower and the clatter of railroad trains. If the park is established now, the game can be saved and will re- main for other generations to enjoy. If action is postponed a few years, the mar- ket hunter and sportsman will have done their work and the game will have gone forever.
Most of the larger streams of the park, heading as they do in glaciers, are so muddy that fish will not live in them. All of the smaller tributary creeks that carry clear water, however, are stocked with grayling and furnish excellent fishing. The grayling, a relative of the trout, is a game fish, rises well to the fly, and af- fords excellent sport. In texture and
flavor it compares well with the trout and is a welcome addition to the menu of the camper.
As will be seen from the photographs, the new park lies almost entirely above timber-line. Trees grow along the val- leys of the main streams to an elevation of about 3,000 feet above sea-level, but the timbered areas comprise only a small fraction of the whole. The only trees of importance are the spruce, birch, and Cottonwood, and none of these are large. The best patches of trees afford logs big enough for making log cabins, but there is no merchantable timber in the park. Willow brush and some alders grow somewhat farther up the valleys than the trees and enable the camper to find fuel for his fire in some areas where trees are lacking.
THE PARK IS EASILY ACCESSIBLE
On the completion of the new govern- ment railroad, now under construction* the park will immediately become acces- sible. The railroad line runs within 15
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miles of the east park line. On leaving Seattle one can then plan to reach Sew- ard or Anchorage within a week, spend a single day on the railroad to the park station, and in another day or two, by saddle-horse, penetrate well into the park and into the midst of its game herd^.
With a completed wagon road built from the railway, it should be an easy half day's journey of 80 miles by auto- mobile from the railroad to the center of the park, the whole route traversing mountains of wonderful scenic beauty and teeming with big game.
At the western terminus of the wagon road there will some day be a hotel for the accommodation of tourists and moun- tain climbers. There, below the terminus of Muldrow Glacier, in constant view of the mighty snow-clad monarchs to the south, one will be able to find complete rest in the grandest of natural surround- ings, or will have close at hand tasks of mountain-climbing that will tax the re- sources of the sturdiest. Few regions offer the inducements to the mountaineer that can be found here.
The highest point of Mount McKinley, the lord of the range, has been scaled but once, and only one route on that vast ice- dome has been explored. Mount Fora- ker, only less majestic than McKinley and I7,cxx) feet in elevation, is still uncon- quered, and associated with Foraker and McKinley there are many peaks that rise from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above the line of perpetual snow (see pictures, page 70).
All this great group of noble moun- tains, until now so remote as to be im- possible of attack except by elaborately prepared expeditions, will be easily acr cessible to even the modestly equipped explorer. The main highway of travel through the park will pass within 20 or 30 miles of the highest mountains. Thus that bugbear of the climber in so many regions — the task of getting within strik- ing distance of his chosen peak — is here a matter of no great difficulty.
So much for the park itself — its mar- velous advantages as a national reserve, its unequaled scenic beauty, and its abun- dance of big game. I have tried to tell something of what is there for the people of the United States, to be had merely for the taking. The question may be asked, "How necessary is it that this park
Photograph by Curtis & Miller AN EDUCATED BEAR AT ST. MICHAEI.
should be reserved immediately, rather than at some indefinite date in the future? Is there any danger that the park will not keep, even if not reserved?"
The answer is plain and admits of no argument. The scenery will keep indefi- nitely, but the game will not, and it must be protected soon or it will have been de- stroyed.
WILI. IT PAY?
Considered as a purely business meas- ure, without taking account of the es- thetic value of such a permanent national reserve in its influence on the develop- ment of the American people, the Mount McKinley National Park will be a tre- mendous financial asset to the territory of Alaska and to the United States as a whole.
Prodigal as nature has been in endow- ing us with unrivaled scenery, we have until recent years been blind to the money value of this resource. Other nations not so blessed with fertile soils, vast forests, and mines of almost fabulous value have
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84
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
widely advertised their natural beauties in a way to attract the tourist, so that for years American travelers have spent abroad millions of dollars that might have yielded them no less pleasure if they had spent it in seeing America first. The good roads, well-equipped hotels, and beautiful mountains of the Swiss and Italian Alps attract the traveler like a magnet. Even our nearer neighbor on the north, by judicious advertising and careful attention to the comfort of the traveler, attracts great numbers of our people to her western mountains.
If the United States wishes to share in the profits of the tourist business it may readily do so, for any well-chosen expenditure made in building good roads and ^hotels in our national parks will return large dividends not only in dol- lars and cents, but in the health, enjoy- ment, and education of our people. And the traveling public will soon learn that one of the grandest of our parks, one of those most worth visiting, is that which, let us hope, is soon to be es- tablished in the Mount McKinley re- gion.
ONE HUNDRED BRITISH SEAPORTS
WITH a deadline of i,6oo nau- tical miles to guard, measured from headland to headland, 20 miles oflFshore ; with 1 19 ports, large and small, to seal up, 80 of which, even at low tide, are open to vessels that can navigate 14 feet of water; with a larger number of bays and other navigable indentations to watch than are to be found anywhere else in the world in the same length of straightaway shorelines, Germany's plan to blockade the British Isles seems as near a proposal to accomplish the impos- sible as anything to which any nation hitherto has committed itself.
Indeed, undertaking to combat at once the sinuosities of a shoreline lending it- self better to defense against blockade than any other of equal length in the world and the greatest navy civilization has ever seen, it is difficult to imagine how success could even be hoped for by those putting the plan into execution.
Something of the extraordinary inden- tations of the shoreline of the United Kingdom may be gathered from the map on page 85.
England is so deeply indented that no part is more than 75 miles from the sea, while Scotland has the most rambling coastline of any country in the world.
Ireland is not as deeply indented as England and Scotland ; but with all that it has shores that make the way of the blockader difficult.
The vast proportions of the British
shipping industry which the German sub- marine blockade is attempting to destroy defies our comprehension. In normal years an average of 214 ships arrive at United Kingdom ports from foreign waters every day in the year. In addi- tion to that, there are 780 arrivals from home ports every day in the year of ships in the coastwise trade.
British merchant ships have a greater aggregate tonnage than those of all the other countries of the world together. The merchant marine of that nation in- cludes nearly 12,000 ships of all kinds. Oi these, about 2.800 are sailing ships and 5,300 steam vessels employed in the home trade. There are approximately 4,000 ships engaged in sailing between British and foreign ports. These latter have an average capacity of more than 2,500 net register tons.
How rapidly Oreat Britain has been replacing the losses sustained by her shipping as a result of Germany's sub- marine attacks is disclosed by the fact that at the end of 1916 there were 465 steam vessels under construction in Brit- ish shipyards, more than half of them being ships of more than 5,000 tons bur- den. The aggregate capacity of these ships is 1,788,000 tons, so that both in tonnage and in number the new craft are replacing those sunk by the enemy.
Few countries in the world are so de- pendent on the importation of foodstuffs as the. United Kingdom, and for her not
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SKETCH MAP INDICATING THE MULTITUDE OF BRITISH HARBORS
The United Kingdom and Ireland contain 119 seaports, of which 80, even at low tide, are open to vessels drawing 14 feet of water. At average tide they will admit vessels requiring much greater depths. The seas surrounding the islands are very shallow, making it easy to anchor mines to destroy shipping and also to moor nets to trap submarines. If the waters of Dover Strait were to subside 100 feet, an isthmus would connect England and Holland. If the waters subsided 300 feet, Ireland and the whole of the British Islands would once more be connected to Continental Europe.
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Photograph by A. :W. Cutler
A RURAL CONVERSATION IN THE HEART Oi^ RUSTIC WORCESTERSHIRE ,
This primitive old place, by the way, is the post-office at Grafton Flyford. Snuff has never
lost its devotees here. Note the sign.
^ Digitized by
Photograph by Emil P. Albrecht TOO OIJ5 TO GO TO THE FISHING GROUNDS, BUT STURDY STILI* AND FUI,LY COMPETENT TO MOOR NETS TO TRAP SUBMARINES
To the seas which surround them, the British Islands are indebted for the mildness of their climate, their security from invasion, their commerce, and the wealth yielded by pro- ductive fisheries.
to possess the strongest navy in the world would be to leave her of all nations per- haps the most vulnerable. Probably 90 per cent of all the food her 45,000,000 people consume is brought in by ships engaged in foreign trade.
On the other hand, the splendid coal deposits and the abundant supplies of iron make British industries largely free from blockade dangers. Producing one- fourth of the world's coal, the United Kingdom has little to fear from a coal shortage, no matter what the character of a blockade around her.
The port of London handles approxi- mately one-third of all the exports and
imports of. the United Kingdom. The ships of the whole world visit it in nor- mal times, and there is scarcely a mer- chant flag that civilization knows that is missing in the Thames in other than war times.
Liverpool has some of the most modern docks in the world. Flanking the Mer- sey River for a distance of -seven miles, the 60 docks, having 26 miles of quay and covering 428 acres of ground, are equipped with every aid known to indus- try for the rapid handling of the immense quantities of merchandise.
Cardiff is far down the list in the num- ber of ships arriving, but ranks third in
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• Photograph by A. W. Cutler
"fish cottages": blocklky, Worcestershire
Here for 70 years Mrs. Keyte lived with her family. Close by is a trout pond. One of the fish became so tame that it would eat worms from its mistress' hand. The cottage is over 300 years old (see next page).
90 Digitized by GOOglC
Aberdeen, with the largest fishing fleets They generally can carry a most limited
in existence; Newlyn and Brixham, number of torpedoes, without which they
homes of the mackerel fisheries, and Mil- are ineffective, and in addition they are
ford and Fleetwood, the ports the hake severely handicapped by the very nature
has made famous, are all places full of of their operations.
91 Digitized by VjOOQIC
Photograph by A. W. Cvitler
A REMINDER OP "ye GOODE OLD DAYS" I STOCKS AND WHIPPING-POST
Situated, as was the custom, opposite the church at Rock, Worcestershire. The supremely contented expression on the face of the gentleman on the right may be accounted for by the fact that he knew he would receive one shilling upon being released from the stocks.
Photograph by A, W. Cutler THIS IS A CURIOUS ACCIDF.NT THAT OCCURRED RECENTLY ON THE LONDON ROAD
These two young men were bringing this car into Worcester for repairs, when suddenly, without warning, the machine burst into flames. There were three two-gallon tins of gasoline in the automobile, and it did not take those two young men long to get out of the car. Buckets of water thrown on the burning mass proved unavailing. Traffic on either side was tied up for over an hour, expecting every moment that the petrol would explode. Strange to say. it didn't! The car, a Panhard, was totally destroyed — a loss of $1,500.
92 Digitized by Google
Photograph by A. W. Cutler THE PICTURESQUI; SUN-DIAL HOUSE: HOLM WOOD, SURREY
The ordinary blockade is not subject to these limitations. A blockade established upon the surface of the ocean can main- ■ tain a constant lookout over a wide ex- panse of the sea. By use of search- lights, it can be carried on at night as well as by day. Cruisers may be coaled at sea and provided with ammunition openly. The submarine may not. With- out a base or a hovering fleet of "mother ships," the submarine cannot do continu- ous duty on blockade or otherwise.
If it is planned to operate the subma- rine blockade of the British Isles in re- lays, the number of ships on duty at a given port will be thereby halved, to the detriment of the blockade's effectiveness. Two submarines to a port could hardly maintain a blockade in the condition which the ordinary interpretation of in- ternational law has required to give it recognition among neutrals.
British domination of the sea has not come about by chance. England's geo- graphic limitations have compelled her to keep the avenues of ocean traffic open
through constant readiness to render na- val protection to her carrying trade ; and it is the result of her insular position that her activities have developed on sea and land.
What Nature has always done for the children of the wild by rendering them adaptable, through habit and through equipment, to the environment in which they are placed, the English people have done for themselves. Cribbed, cabined, and confined upon a group of islands lim- ited in area and capable of inadequate productiveness, even with the most inten- sive of cultivation, they were forced, first, to command the avenues of supply for themselves and, in order to meet the in- creasing expense of such necessity, sec- ond, to develop their manufacturing re- sources to the highest degree.
To this they owe the great number of ports which they now possess and which, by their very numbers, render a blockade, however attempted, a herculean task. A clearer example of how nations are lim- ited or advanced by their geographic en- vironment could hardly be found.
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Photograph by A. W. Cutler
"wEivCOME HOME, grand-dad": a glimpse of rural life at elmley castle,
WORCESTERSHIRE
With sons at the front the path to the village post-office is a beaten track for this aged couple and thousands like them. And, alas» only too often does the weary trip bring the news from "Somewhere in France" that death has been the soldier's crown !
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IVajru Strttt Hill. Dttnh — /r9m an actual fhtUgraph
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The administrati've center of the Affterican Republic— the National Capitol^ Washington, D. C,
All That Tires Can
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"KODAK"
Is our Registered and common- law Trade-Mark and cannot be rightfully applied except to goods of our manufacture.
If a dealer tries to sell you, under the Kodak name, a camera or films, or other goods not of our manufacture, you can be sure that he has an inferior article that he is trying to market on the Kodak reputation.
If it isn't an Eastman, it isn't a Kodak,
EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY,
ROCHESTER, N. Y., T/ie Kodak City.
'Meiitlon tbe Ctoographio— It Identifles yon.**
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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characteristic of Italian Renaissance FRENCH GOTHIC
(OAK) 7 feet 6 inches long and 6 feet 3 inches high
f^ery early XVI Century^ illustrating tAi
parchment panel in its best form
•Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you."
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UnSTORlC CABINETS %^S:^00^ and dcrmi
V^WSICS Kg'-CB^AllCm^ IN HAND MADE CABINETS REPRODUCED FROM OLD l^^RLD MASTERPIECES FOR
5^c NEW EDISON
'^ the phonograph "with a soul''
enius and $3,000,000 familiar kinds of talking machine cabinets as the New ly spent in research Edison is superior, in a musical sense, to all other de- :o the world an instru- vices for the reproduction of musical sounds. A corn- forms of music. To petition was held among designers and two master Lappold, Anna Case, craftsmen were selected, who have produced what are ther great artists have not alone the finest phonograph cabinets in the world, d sung in direct com- but also deserve to take place with the finest furniture their voices. Three of any description to be found in America. The illus- ve heard these aston- trations on these pages give but a faint idea of these the music critics of wonderful cases. Licensed dealers will show you large principal newspapers, prints in colors.
[qualification that the In addition to the historic hand made cabinets pictured
artist's voice cannot on these pages the New Edison is supplied in other
Instrumentalists have period models at $100 to $375. There is no Edison
ults. Edison has ac- cabinet which will not appeal to sophisticated taste,
s Re-Creation. and there is an artistic type for every setting. You
lould be a demand for will oblige us if you will write for a booklet depicting
furniture sense, to the less expensive models in colors.
THAT WE MAKE THE FOLLOWING ANNOUNCEMENT:
**Those who are concerned solely in obtaining pensive models. It is in fact the model we have used
the best musical result need not pay more than $250, m the public comparisons at Carnegie Hall and else-
as the Official Laboratory Model, which sells at where between the living voice and our Re-Creation
^250, is equal in a musical sense to the most ex- of it."
zr rArTTDrcrm t\t T'e/p TESTS TO fFHICH
THE BOOKLET ''fTHAT THE CRITICS SAY'' IS if you intend to attempt to play them on any other instrument ! true musical quality of Edison Re-Creations. Furthermore, n on an ordinary phonograph or talking machine.
., Dept. 1501, Orange, N. J.
Chintu motifs, a form ^f
tmbtllithment much in
favor at that time
'Mention the Oeographic — ^It identifies you."
Digitized by
'Mention the Gheographic — It identifies you."
Digitized by
Digitized by
This line shows sets of the Britannica already sold
This line shows the few remaining sets of the Britannica printed on genuine
India paper
Digitized by
€ Digitized by
Digitized by
long-distance service such as we have here was not to be had in Europe, e war, at any price. And exchange service in Europe, despite its inferior ore in actual money than here.
is the criterion for all the world, and the Bell organization is the most well as the most efficient servant of the people.
American Telephone and Telegraph Company
And Associated Companies
One Policy One System Universal Service
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
Digitized by
The Long Arm of
Westinghouse
Service
No matter where in the United States they may be, owners of Westinghouse-Equipped motor cars are always in the zone of West- inghouse Service.
For Westinghouse Service follows the car from coast to coast and from the Red River to the Rio Grande. Its long arm reaches into every State.
Westinghouse Service Stations are main- tained in 90 cities, and if the car-owner is not in immediate reach of a service station, he can get the attention his equipment requires by communicating with the nearest one.
Every Westinirhouse Service man, moreover, has been trained In the Westinrhousc plant or by Westinebouse experts so that he can give advice and assistance based on tborouch knowledfe of the equipment.
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC 4 MFG. CO.
Autemtbilt Equipment Drpartmmt Shadysidk Works. Pittsburgh. Pa.
J T.TrtMTTMO ^^ A IGKITION EQUIPMENT
^ ,J. UGHTING
•Mention the Oeographlc— It Identifles you."
Oigitized by
From Napkins Plus to Napkins Minus
HE HAD an overshipment of ness,$S07.20. Sales cost, seven-tenths
400,000 paper napkins to of one per cent. -.
dispose of or return to the Will M. Ross, Statesan, Wisconsin,
mill. Which course should js the man who accomplished this
he take? result.
Beside his desk was a Multigraph Will is a good salesman. This per-
Junior— and he knew its possibihties. formance proves that. The Multi-*
Aletter was written, Multigraphed, graph Junior is a good sales assistant.
and eighty copies were mailed to in-. This performance proves that. Put
stitutions— sanatorium s and the like, a good salesman and the Multigraph
The postage was a dollar sixty, together and the combination will
Other costs— a few hours time for sell paper napkins, automobiles, life
setting up, running and distributing insurance, or anything else — mer-
the ^pe; envelopes and letter-heads, chandise or service.
Four dollars — three and three-quarter If you haven't looked into your
cents apiece— would cover the total sales possibilities— as they are widened
cost and leave enough for the with the Multigraph — Senior or
movies. Junior — maybe this little account
Result— one week later— the 400,- f^om the experience of just one user
000 napkins sold— additional orders ^^^y prompt you to investigate,
for 80,000 more — side orders for The coupon won't start you in the
$60.80 for other goods— and four napkin business, but it may be the
new accounts opened. The napkin means of changing some of your sales
business was $446.40. The total busi- minuses to pluses. Clip— sign— mail.
^^ M Bx)duccs real printing and /orm-fypewn'ting^rapfdii
\. M economicaJ/y. privatefy, in your omr estabiishment A
You can^t buy a Multigraph . unless you need it.
The Multigraph, 1821 East 40th Street, Cleveland, Ohio
Tell me more about using the Multigraph in sales work.
Name ^ ■
Official Position .
Firm ■ .
Street Address ^
Town State
^ , _ , ,. I am interested particularly in * — ^^ — — (
Iniltigraph Junior— An efficient nand-operated machme for ^
high-^n^c f orm typewriting and simpleoffice printing. Price,
complete, $200.00. Easy payments. -
'Mention the .Geographic — It identifies you."
Oigitized by
Rurpee's
SSVS AIR MOISTENER
\
Fill with water, iiang on bacic off any radiator out off sigiit
Converts dry indoor air into a moist, wholesome, healthful atmosphere.
IT WILL SAVE "^
Your Health.
Furniture from shrinking. Piano from warping. Palntkiaa from oraoklng. Wall Paper from peeling. Book Bindings breaking. House Plants from dying. i Whole family from coMs. TlirMSIzn-S2.00. S1.75. and S1.00. Vrila f w Free BMklet.
SaVo Manuffacturing Company
31 S Ww Yorfc lift Bulldm Chlcip. Illl-lt
In spite of the great rise in the cost of raw materials, there has been no change in the quality of the ingfredients entering into the composition of
SPRATT'S
Dog Cakes and Puppy Biscuits
Remember that a dog fed on SPRATT'S is al- ways a credit to his master.
Sent/ stamp for catalogue,
SPRATT'S PATENT, LIMITED
NEWARK, N. J.
Water- Works Systems
Put your water-supply problems up to our engineering department. Let us work out the most effective and economical system that will meet your requirements.
We have filled over 1 $.000 orders for tanks, towers, and water-supply systems of every kind— from our pneumatic simplex system, furnished complete as low as S42 for country homes, to plants such as are required by country estates, railroads, municipalities, or factories. State your needs and ask for special circular Na US.
The Baltimore Co., Baltc, Md.
''Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.'
Digitized by
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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South Sea Islands
Fascinatine new tour, far from the beaten trade to the wonderlands off the great South Pacific including Hawaii. Samoa. I^ii. New Zealand. Australia, Tasmania. Rarotoneat and TabitL Leaving San Frandsco Mardi 7 and Mardi 13.
South America
Delightful tours of this wonderful continent cave Fcfo. 10. 24 and
Mar. 14. Small parties. LeisurdytraveL Experienced tour Managers.
Also Tours to California and Hnw^aii, Japan and
China, and Cruises to tlie West Indies.
Send for booklet desired
RAYMOND & WHITCOMB CO.
Dept. 7, 17 Temple PL, Boston, Mass. NewToric Pliiladelpliia aicaco SaaFnuMdsco LMAofdes
No. 23, Wren No
** America First*' is all right, but Conserva- tion of Bird Life should come a close second. Make a start by sending $1.25 for one or $3.50 for the three Rustic Cedar Bird Houses.
Booklet, ^Bird Architecture^ free mjith enjery order.
Crescent Company, Toms River, N. J.
JUDD & DETWEILER, Inc.
Master Printers
420422 Eleventli Street N.W.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
What 15 cts.X You 'r Nation's Capital
The little matter of 15c in stamps or coin will bring yon the Pathfinder for 13 weeks on trial. The Pathfinder is an illustrated ■weekly, pob- Usbed at the Nation's Cantar, for the Nation; a paper that prints all the news of the world and that tells the truth and only the truth; now in its 23d year. This paper fills the bill without emptying the purse; it costs but $1 a year. If you want to keep posted on what is goins on In the world, at the least expense of time or money, this is your means. If you want a paper in your home which is sincere, reliable, entertaining, wholesome, the Pathfinder is yours. If you would appreciate a paper which puts everything clearly, fairly, briefly— here it Is.
Send 15c to show that you might like such a paper, and we will send the Pathfinder on probation 13 weeks. The 15c does not repay us, but we are glad to invest in New Friends. THE PATHFINDER PUBLISHING CO.» Box 88, WA8HINQTON. D. G.
Digitize^d by Google
For nearly three centuries this unpainted house has stood exposed to the weather. ' Continuously occupied and still almost perfectly preserved, it offers convincing proof of the enduring qualities of
White Pine
Ever since the Pilgrims landed, White Pine has been universally recognized as the wood preferred above all others in home-building. And figuring value in terms of service, it is the most economicaL
White Pine does not shrink, swell, crack, twist, warp or rot; and once in place it "stays put,*' after years of exposure, even in the closest fitting mitres and in delicate mouldings and carvings. It takes paints and stains perfectly.
Investigation of the merits of White Pine will well repay anyone seeking a wise choice of building materials.
Send today for our free booklet, "White Pine in Home-Building." It is beautifully illus- trated and full of valuable information and suggestions on home-building. If there are children in your home, send also for "The Helen Specr Book of Children's White Pine Toys and Fur- niture," a fascinating plan book, from which a child may build itis own toys and toy furniture.
Repr^endng WhITE PiNE BuREAU, . .
The Northern Pin. Manu&cturen' 1123 MERCHANTS BanK BuILDING, St. PaUL, MiNN>;
Asaocution or Minnesota, Wisconsin ' '
and Michigan, and The Assodeted White Pine Manufacturers of Idaho
'Mention the Geographic — J\r identifies yon.'*
Digitized by
NEW-YORK LIFE
INSURANCE COMPANY
346 AND 348 BROADWAY . NEW YORK CITY
TO THE POLICY-HOLDERS AND THE PUBLIC ;
A brief of the chief activities of this Company during 1916 runs as follows:
New Paid Business $263,048,300.00
Of this total $239,090,873 was secured in the United States.
Total Income $138,559,395.79
Total Payments to Policy-holders . . $81,415,138.36
Of this total $19,551,361 was paid in dividends.
Invested During the Year in Bonds and Mortgage Loans, $70,717,602.17
To pay 5.26%
Added to Legal Reserves ^124,676,393.00
Market Value of Assets, Dec. 31, 1916 $866,988,841.57
Legal Liabilities $728,226,426.34
Reserved for Dividends and Contingencies $138,762,415.23
Outstanding Insurance $2,511,607,274.00
Represented by 1,228,601 policies.
The actual mortality of the Company, expressed in the per cent which it bears to the expected death losses according to the tables of mortality adopted by the State for valuation purposes through a period of years, is as follows :
1912 Actual death losses 76% of the ** expected"
1913 Actual death losses 73% of the ** expected "
1914 Actual death losses 73 % of the ** expected " (5 mos. of war)
1915 Actual death losses 73% of the ** expected " (12 mos. of war)
1916 Actual death losses 71% of the ** expected " (12 mos. of war)
Significant Facts:
Mortality Rate reduced; Expense Rate reduced; Interest Rate increased; New Business increased.
The Seventy-second Annual Statement of the Company will be filed at once with the Department of Commerce in Washington and with each State of the United States and each country where we do business. A brief of that statement will be sent gratis to any person asking for it.
DARWIN P. KINGSLEY,
President,
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon.*' ^-^ ^
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Within your reach? YES!
The very same stone that has been used for manv years in the finest build- ings, tNDth public and private, in every State in the Union—a natural stone so remarkable that if you are about to build or interested in building, you should certainly know a// about it The U. S. Government is one of the biggest users of this "Aristocrat of Building Materials," Yet it is even more reasonable in price than artificial materials.
You are familiar with buildings built of Indiana Limestone, but probably do not know it by name. Most likely it has never occurred to you that this beautiful material is quarried in such quantities that the price is wittiin your easy reach.
You do know that nothing in the world gives the impression of dignity, costliness, refinement and beauty like natural stone, the genuine handi- work of nature, and we want you to know about Indiana Limestone, "The Aristocrat of Building Materials." to hold apiece in your hand, and to de- cide for yourself about the new building. (See FREE OFFER below.)
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TES— Indiana |
YES— Whether |
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Limestone is a |
for the whole or for |
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badge of dis- tinguished taste as shown by hundreds of the finest houses, great and smalL |
trinmiing Indiana Limestone denotes the "class" that pays cash on your rent roll |
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FOR ANY BUILDING YOU EXPECT |
TO LIFE |
IN, |
TO LOOK UP ro^ |
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OR LOVE-^INDIANA LIMESTONE^ |
NOTHING SURPASSES IT. |
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YES— Nothing better expresses the high function of the church edifice than Indiana Limestone the product of Na- ture's wonder- processes. |
li 1 1 i |
YES— You may pattern by the Grand Central Ter- minal (N. Y.) and himdreds of fine buildings from sky- scrapers to smart little stores. |
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YOUR BOY WILL BE INTERESTED IN |
THE |
frONDERl |
^UL FOSSIL SHELL |
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FORMATION |
OF INDIANA LIMESTONE |
AS |
TOLl |
[), IN OUR BOOK. |
Handsome paperweight of Indiana Umestone showing sev- I era! finishes, with a handsomely illustrated interesting book.
Sen J fir them tot/ay,
INDIANA LIMESTONE QUARRYMEN'S ASS'N.S?; BEDFORD. IND.
"Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies yon."
Digitized by
irf11CRO(3S4nfV^
IJiSMVBSC0L0RPHaro6R»PHi
IF you thoroughly understood how inexpensive and easy it now is to take color photo- graphs without the need of a special camera, but with any camera you already have, you and every trav- eler, scientist, professional and ama- teur photographer would specialize in color photography at once.
The Hiblock
a pack of two sensitized blue and red plates with a green film inter- posed, bound together as one, which fits into any camera in a special holder which we furnish, makes this possible. One exposure is all that is necessary. And you use your own camera. Send for booklet
H£ss-IvES Corporation
1201 Race Street
Philadelphia
The Manor
Albemark Park
ASHEVILLE, N. C
A charming English Inn set in a blossomlns^ park on a Iifllsfde, 2500 feet elevation. Offers real Southern hospitality, clear, dry. life-invinir atmos* phere of the "Land of the Sky." Unusual -facilities for all outdoor sport* and pastimes the year round. PERFECT GOLF IN A PERFECT ClAMATU—lS-hcies—ttir/trretMS, Write for booklet.
RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP
in the
National Geographic Society
The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine
DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membenhip 'abroad. $3.00; Canada. $2.50; life memberahip. $30. Please make remittances payable to National Geoaraphic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft.
postal or express order.
Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary
_/9/
^o the Secretary, National Geographic Society,
SixleenthanJMSlrcela NoHhicest.
Washington, D, C. :
I nominate- Address-
for membership in the Society.
(Write your a'ldrcss)
'Mention the GeograpMc — ^It identifies you.**
Digitized by
THE LOVE OF FLOWERS IS UNIVERSAL
Twenty-six years devoted to originating and specializing in CrlRYSANTnLMUMS speaks for Itself.
Our products are known in every land where Chrysanthemums are grown.
You should have our CATALOGUE; it Is authentic, fully illustrated, and includes all the best.
IT IS FREE ELMER D. SMITH & CO., Adrian, Mich. write today
The only firm In America growing Chrysanthemunrw exclusively.
Ittl^
tpE GAMlf^N mw:
U ^
r. ^l
m DROMEDARY DATES
~lring the Blue-Birds ^foT Happiness!
A Dodsen Hooae, bnTU by the "man the birds lore,*' wiU brinf a family of these "bappinMB" birds to live in your
frard. Mr. Dodion baa apent 2S years earnias bow to baild boosea that tba ' btrd» like. Bird Lodse, bis beautiful borne, is thronred with d«IIt6 birds. IVrens, blue-birds, martins, each mnsft hare a special style boose. Prices range from $1.60 to $13. Buy now and let your houses "weather." The birds like them better. Bird Book Free-Send for Mr. Dod-
eon's book which tells how to win bird
$5 For Thie 4-Sooai friends to jroor cardeB.]>escribes booses,
Sloe^Bird BoHM birds, baths, winter feeding devices.
Solid Oak. Cypress SblBflee, 2S f ^!f!!;«Vn\ wX?^^^
JOSEPH H. DODBON, of Bird Lodge
INrector, American Audobon Society
Copper Coping. Bluebirds raise 8 or 8 broods a year— but nerer in the same nest. Ihey move from room to room in this 4«
room Dodson House.
[10] 702 Harrlaon Ato. Kankakee* ni.
You can have apples, pears, cher- ries, peaches, grapes in your own yard. Don't buy them when you can grow them. Send today for our
New Fruit Tree Book
which tells hoiv you can have fruits, flowers,
yegetables. and what varieties we consider best. For 63 /^f>. ^ years we have sold the highest quality stock direct to the planter— we have do agents. Write today for catalogue. J^^
The Storrs & Harrison Co. (J * A^ Box 331, PainesviMe, Ohio J^V^
High School Course in Two Years
LEARN in your own home. Here is a thorougrh and . aimplifled hitrh echool course that you can complete in 2 ^ years. AfMte eoUege entrance rtquirementa. Prepared by leamng members of faculties of oniversities and academies.
Study in Your Own Home
This course was prepared especially for home train- inir. What if you did not get a high school education? You can make up for lost time now. Idle eveninsrs can be apent in pleas- ant reading that wdl give yon a thorough high school tnuning.
WHie ior Our Booklet!
Send your name and address today for our booklet and fnU partieolars. No obligaUons whatever. Wnte NOW I
Amoi-lean Schc>Q.I of Correspondence. Cr
Da»f. PfSSI
»hicBgo,
DOl
usTa
Elec'tric
The DIM-A-LITC ^ivesydu soft, electric twilight. Fine for bath room, sick room, nursery, hall. Turns electric lights up and down like gas.
DIM«A-|.ITE AttachmMic
DIM-A-LITE Portable wuh C..4 ».d piua
Ask «ny dealer, or by (Rail, postpaid. Write for "Facts on paving of Current.
WIRT COMPANY 5518 Lena St.. Phllad'a. Pa.
D I IVI '' ^ "^iiS^Itf^ES
ygIgJLD©G<nr
Lantern Slides
from
Photographs in
National Geographic Magazine
0 MANY REQUESTS are being con-
1 stnntly received regarding lantern slides from the copyright photographs
ill the Geographic that arrangements have been completed to supply them to members of the Society. Slides n re not Ivept in stock, each order being made up as received, and will be delivered within two weeks after receipt of order, unless otherwise advised. The copyright notice must appear on each slide. The purchase of lantern slides does not carry with it the authority to publish the pictures and they cannot be used for advertising purposes.
Slides cannot be sent upon approval and a remittance must accompany each order. The slides will be carefully packed and sent by express collect. Prices in the United States (standard size), black and white, 75 cents each; colored, $1.50. Address,
Dept. L, National Geographic Magazine WASHINGTON. D. C. ,
"Mention the Geographic — It Identifies you."
Oigitized by
ing, MAZDA Service se- lects for the makers of MAZDA Lamps, only those developments in design, materials and methods that will im- prove the light you enjoy
-The Meaning of MAZDA-
MAZDA la the trademark ofa world-wide Mrrioe to certaio lamp MAZDA Servieeia oeoterad in llie ReacarchtaLw atwiea of the
naBollM^imeiB, Ita pnrpoae ia to collect and acJect adentific and Geneial Electrio Compaaj at Scheaectadr* Mew York* Tlie
practical iufmuialion cooceraing progicaa and derelopmenta in — rfc-MA7.riA«^ii>p|i— yrti*lyrtiiUwipawhiAmw»tK«»— MMla>J«
the art oflnfamliiajffnf lamp ■wi«i»f«*Hiiriiig«inl t^jlitriKwt** thu of MAZDA Serrice^ It ia tnua an aaanranoe of cmalitj. Thia
iiiftwiiialiiiw to the mmpanint cnlilled to racaivo thia Serrioe. trademark ia the properly of the General Electric Omipany.
RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
Digitized by
Digitized by
All Aboard the Magic Carpet
The magic carpet, famed in Arabian Nights, carried its fortunate owner safely and conveniently Tvherever his heart desired.
"A. B. A." Cheques have been likened to a "modem magic carpet" because they are the form of funds on which the modem tourist can safely and conveniently travel all over the globe.
The safety of "A.B. A." Cheques lies chiefly in their not being usable until the owner coimtersigns them, and in the possibility of replacing them in case of loss.
"A.B.A.
yj
American
Bankers
AsscKiiation
Cheques
Their convenience is manifold. An '*A.B.A/' Cheque does not need to be cashed; in a very real sense it is cash, both domestic and foreign, because it is accepted just as if it ^vere the actual currency of whatever country the traveler happens to be in.
When you are in America your "A. B. A." Cheque spells dollars; when in Russia it spells rubles; in Italy, lire; in France, francs; in Germany, marks; in Great Britain and her Colonies, pounds and shillings, and so on.
You pay for your tickets and hotel service in San Francisco^ or New York, or Paris, or in some remote little town, with "A.B.A." Cheques; you pay for ivories in Peldn, for tea- house refreshments in Tokyo, for laces in Venice, for rugs in Tabriz; for most anything, most anywhere— with *'A. B. A." Cheques.
You can obtain "A. B. A.*' Cheques in denominations of $10, $20, $50, and $100 at almost any bank.
Write to Bankers Trust Company, New York, for information as to where in your vicinity you can obtain these cheques.
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.*'
Oigitized by
* 'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
Digitized by VjOOQIC
VOLUME XXXI
^i^M,
NUMBER TWO
The NATIONAL
EOG
lie
MAGAZI I
FEBRUARY, 1917
+
CONTENTS 16 Pages of Photogravure Our Foreign-Born Citizens
39 lUiMtrationa
Prizes for the Inventor— Some Problems Awaiting Solution
7 lUustntions ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Little Citizens of the World
16 Photogravure Illustrations
Bohemia and the Czechs
With 35 lUustrations
ALES HRDLICKA
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON. D. C.
O. H. TITTMANN . . PRESIDENT
GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR O. P. AUSTIN SECRETARY
JOHN E. PILLSBURY VICE-PRESIDENT
JOHN JOY EDSON .... TREASURER GEORGE W. HUTCHISON. ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILUAM J. SHOWALTER . ASSISTANT EDITOR
1915-1917 Charles J. Bbll
President American Security and Trust Company
John Joy Edson
President Washinston Loan & Trust Company
David Fairchild
In Charse of Asricultural Ex- plorations. Dept. of Asric.
C. Hart Mbrriam
Member National Academy of Sciences
O. p. Austin
Statistician
Georob R. Putnam
Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses
Georoe Shiras, 3d
Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress. Paunal Naturalist, and Wild-Oame Photographer
Grant Squires
New York
BOARD OF MANAGERS 1916-1918
Franklin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Henry F. Blount
Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company
C. M. Chester
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Su|»t. U. S. Naval Observatory
Frederick V. Covillb
Formerly Presldentof Wash- i nston Academy of Sciences
John E. Pillsbury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Chief Bureau of Navisation
Rudolph Kauffmann
Managlns Editor The Evening Star
T. L. Macdonald
M. D.. F. a. C S.
S. N. D. North
Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census
1917-1919
Alexander Graham Bell
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howard Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics. The Oeo. Washington Univ.
A. W. Greely
Arctic Explorer. Major Qen'l U. S. Army
Gilbert H. Grosvbnor
Editor of National Qeosraphic Magazine
George Otis Smith
Director of U. S. Geological Survey
O. H. TiTTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U . S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey
Henry White
Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France. Italy, etc
John M. Wilson
Brigadier General U. S. Army. Formerly Chief of Engineers
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty- eight years ago, namely, ''the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge/' the National Qeogr&phic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed :
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. EDITOR
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
A. W. Greely C. Hart Mbrriam
O. H. TiTTMANN
Robert Hollister Chapman Walter T. Swingle
Alexander Graham Bell David Fairchild HuoH M. Smith N. H. Darton Frank M. Chapman
Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C, as Second-Class Mail Matter Cop3rright, 1917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C All rights reserve^ -_
Digitized by VjOOQIC
m;i
I^^IkJ:
Yes, a Monopoly
IN HUDSON SUPER-SIX
But Note How We Employ It
It is true, as some say» that the Super-Six motor constitutes a Hudson monopoly. We control it by basic patents. One must buy a Hudson to get it. But note how far the Super-Six unde^ells many cars which it out-performs.
We must expect that every possible argument will be used against the Super- Six.
The arguments used a year ago have all been disproved and abandoned. Over 28»000 Super-Six owners have proved every suspicion baseless.
Now some say, *' We also have an im- proved Six.** Some argue Eights and Twelves. And some reflect on the Super- Six monopoly.
Mark the Hudson Value
But remember that Hudson has won by performance the pinnacle place in Motor- dom.
The Super-Six motor has added 80 per cent to the car*8 efficiency.
It has proved an endurance which is yet beyond measure — probably a doubled endurance.
Against all other t3rpe8, however costly, it has won all the worth-while stock-car records.
And a year has been spent to make this car, in every detail, worthy of its front- rank place.
Yet note now many rivals — all without the Super-Six motor — sell above the Hud- son price. Every buyer of the Hudson Super-Six gets a value of performance which can*t be matched.
Why Another Type?
Then why consider another type of motor in bu3ring a high-grade car?
Not because of performance. The rec- ords of the Super- Six prove it supreme in that.
Not because of endurance. The Super- Six excelled — as high as 32 per cent — in the feats which prove that.
Not because of smoothness. The whole Super-Six supremacy comes through mini- mized vibration.
Not because of anything. If any other motor type were better, don't you know that Hudson would adopt it? Rival types are not controlled by patents.
The Friction Question
The only question is. What motor best reduces friction ? For that is the aim of all.
It is motor friction that wastes power, that limits performance, and that causes wear.
Friction was the limitation of the old- type Six. Friction caused the trend to- ward Eights and Twelves. And the solution of this problem is what stopped that trend. The Super-Six invention, by reducing friction almost to nil, gave the crown to a new-type Six.
It isn't speed, or power, or hill-climbing ability which makes the Super-Six su- preme. It is endurance, due to lack of friction. That is what won those records. If that is important, the Super-Six is im- portant.
A New Gasoline Saver
The latest Hudsons haite a new gasoline saver which adds greatly to their economy. They have bodies which show our final attainment in beauty, finish, and luxury.
To own a Hudson Super-Six means to rule the road. And this car, in any crowd, looks the monarch that it is.
Phaeton, Z-passeofirer . $1650 Cabrio1et.3-pa88enser . 1950 Touring Sedan 2175
Limousine $2925
Pricma f, o. b. Dmtroit
Town Car $2925
Town Car Landaulet . 3025 Limousine Landaulet . 3025
HUDSON MOTOR CAR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICHIGAN
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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$1150
F.o.b. Racine
Mitchell Junior-a40b. p. Six 129-inch Wheelbase
SIXES
JP 1 4 6 0 Racine
7-Pa88enger— 48 Horsepower
127-inch Wheelbase
Now An $1150 Model, Too
This year we bring out Mitchell Junior — a smaller Mitchell Six. But not too small. The wheelbase is 120 inches — the motor 40 horsepower. So all the ad- vantages of Mitchell efficiency can now be had in two sizes of cars, at two prices.
More Extras
Both of the Mitchells embody hundreds of extras, paid for by factory savings. They give you at least 20 per cent extra value over other cars in their class. All because John W. Bate, the great efficiency expert, has cut our factory costs in two.
There are 31 extra features — things which other cars omit. On this year's output, these extras alone will cost us about iWjOOO, 000.
Our new body plant means another big fac- tory saving.
Out of this saving, we add 24 per cent to the
TWO SIZES
lYlllUICil ^ith i27.inch wheellMse. A iiigfa-speed. economical. 48-lioreepower motor. Disappearing extra seats and 31 extra features included.
Price SI 460, /. o. b.. Racine
Mitchell Junionj^^-rjgjjjj
lines with IJ^toth wheelbase. A 40-horse-
B»wer motor— M •inch smaller bore than larger itchell.
Price $1150, /. o. b. Racine
Also an styles of enclosed and convertible Also demounubie tops.
cost of finish, upholstery and trimming. And now, for the first time, we an- nounce double strength in every important part. Our margins of safety — once 50 per cent — are increased to 100 per cent.
See. the Results
We urge you to see the extra values our factory efficiency gives you.
They are numbered by the hundreds. They show the result of John W. Bate's methods, which cut our factory cost in two. No other high-grade car offers any- where near such value. You can easily prove that. And the factis win- ning tens of thousands to this Bate-built car. There is not a single Mitchell extra which you don't want in a car.
MITCHELL MOTORS
COMPANY, Inc., Racine, Wis., U. S. A.
'Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you.
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tiuiiara Jtiour" is best. Thea fathers and mothers gather with their happy brood around the Brunswick Carom or Pocket Table, now the life of thousands of homes.
starts, ana sportis iung uii oea ume comes.
For parties, holidays and leisure hours — for health and happiness — your home needs billiards!
-BRUNSWICFl,
HOME BILLIARD TABLSS
Live cushions, true angles, fast ever- level bed — on Brunswick Tables your skill will triumph most.
A Size for Every Home
"Quick Demountables" can be setup easily anywhere and folded away in a closet when not in use,
**Baby Grand" and "Reg^ilation Grand" for hon:tes with space to spare for a table.
Beautifully built of mahogany and oak. Cues, Balls, Markers, etc.— com- plete playing outfit included free!
Illlllllllllllli
Write for Color-Catalog
Low prices, easy terms and home trial oflPer all explained in our handsome billiard book and catalog— "Billiards— Tho Home Magrnet."
Get this book by return mail free. Send today.
The Bmnsvrick-Balke-CoIIender Co. Dept.46J 623-633 S. Wabash Ave. Chicaco
Send Your Address For Catalog
The Bnmtfrirk-Balke-Collender Co.
Dept. 46 J, 623-633 S. Wabash Ave., Chicaco
Send free, postpaid, a copy of your billiard book and color catalo«r-"BILLIARDS-THE HOME MAGNET*
and tell about your home trial offer.
Nanu — -
Address.. ■
* Mention the Cteograpliic — It identifies you,»
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Bubb
Puffed Wheat and Rice are
times normal size.
Before we explode them they an So they seem like nut meats m
If you ate them with your eyes shi
They are
But don't treat them like confectior These are whole-grain foods. By P
every atom of the whole g^rain feeds. Don't be too sparing of these daint
form those elements are all made availah
Don't confine them to breakfast, bowls of milk.
Between meals, when children get h the grains dry, or doused with melted bu
Let Puffed Grains displace sweetme just as delightful. And which one can <
Not one child in ten ever gets enoug
Puff Whc
at
Each 11
Here are three grains— wheat, rice, steam-exploded. Every granule is fitted
Elach has a different flavor. Each a an endless variety. And all are fascinati
Puffed Rice excels in nut-like flav excels as a food.
Keep all three on hand.
TheQual
"Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.'*
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In the Wake of
Weed
Tire Chains
In any Big American City
They start with a steel-forged safety guarantee on the wheels - Weed Chairw.
W
A safe split- second stop
Safely over slippery car tracks.
Safel^arrivin^aMhei^estinoti^^
TATCH — over there— that pulsing, hovering hawk of the streets — the taxi. A door- man's shrill whistle — the hawk swoops — a fare— the door slams— and they're off. Through a bewildering traffic web— crowding every inch. Suddenly the brakes grind and the chains grip without a slip for a safe split-second stop.
Again the slurring over slippery car tracks— whip- ping swiftly along on the sleek, wet asphalt— with Assurance behind the wheel because there is Insurance on the wheels— Weed Tire Chains.
When the public demanded "Safety First", the better taxicab companies immediately safeguarded their interests. Now — at the first indication of slippery going— you will find their cars carrying a steel-forged safety guarantee. They are equipped with Weed Tire Chains.
Taxi drivers have the reputation of being an efficient, hard-driving lot Upon their reputation depends their job. They know the penalty of the menacing skid — the utter foolhardiness of gam- bling with chainless tires.
And if they won't gamble— you can't afford to. The great joss Luck does not play favorites— consistently.
IVeeJ Chains are recommended and sold hjf dealers everywhere for all sizes of tires tvith their hundred and more "fanqj tread designs* "
AMERICAN CHAIN COMPANY, Inc.
SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF WEED CHAINS
Bridgeport \c / Connecticut
In Canada — Dominion Cbain Co. Ltd., Niagara Fall*, Ontario
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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X-Ray Reflectors are corrugated and j/Zoer coated. The corrugations break up the light rays and completely diffuse them. The silver coating reflects all the light. Thus in X-Ray Lighting there are neither eye-blind- ing bright spots nor deep shadows. Rooms are flooded widi beautiful light By actual test X-Ray Lighting
Tires Eyes Less Than Direct or Semi-Direct Light
You can work or read bv it without the slightest stalled by men who know. Investigation will satisfy
eye-strain. Its absence or glare keeps the pupil of you that X-Ray Lighting means 100 per cent light
the eye relaxed. The eyes do not tire. And it costs no more — 10 per cent less to maintttiru
In offices, schools, churches, public buildings, stores. Ask your Architect or have the nearest X-Ray
homes — people eoeryvfhere are installing X-Ray Light- Dealer show you. Their lighting knowledge will
ing — the only engineered lighting — planned and in- prove valuable.
* 'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
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This Great Car Leads All Sixes Because of Its Marvelous Motor
THOUSANDS of men and women who would pay hundreds of dollars more for an automobile, if paying more would get them more, choose the Chandler. They are not seekers after alow price. They desire the best six-cylinder motor, regardless of price. They desire a Six because time has shown that a six-cylinder motor, cor- rectly desijrned, gives all the power and all t\ic flexibility of power that any motor can give; that such a motor has the life and snap and "go" they desire; that such a motor is genuinely economical in cost of operation.
So these devotees of the Six choose the Chandler, because through four years of intelligent, conscientious manufacturing effort, and without radical or experimental changes of design, the Chandler motorhas been developed to a point approximating perfection.
Chandler Loiv Price is Important.^ Too
While with so many the question of price is of sec- ondary consideration, still Chandler leads in price today quite as distinctly as it has always led.
In the face of advanced cost of all materials and labor, the Chandler price is but $100 higher than two years ago. And the car is finer than then. Not a feature has been cut out of it. Much has been added.
And other cars in the Chandler field ha^ve ad'vanced as much as three hundred dollars the past year^ either because of necessity or opportunity.
The Chandler Company has not been willing to take advantage of a situation which would have permitted price inflation.
And this year we shall probably build and sell more cars than any other manufacturer building a car of even similar quality.
Wide Choice of Beautiful Bodies
. You who demand such a motor as the Chandler demand grace of body design, also, and richness of finish. Chandler offers you five beautiful types of body, each mounted on the one standard Chandler chassis.
Seten-Passenger Touring Car, $1395
Four-Passenger Roadster^ $1395 Senjen-Passenger Con^oertible Sedan, $1995
Four-Passenger Con'vertible Coupe, $1995 Limousine, $2695
All prices f o. b. Cleveland
DEALERS IN HUNDREDS OF TOWNS AND CITIES
Catalogue Mailed Upon Request. Address Dept. O
CHANDLER MOTOR CAR COMPANY
CLEVELAND, OHIO New York City Office, 1790 Broadway Cable Address:
'Chanmotor"
CHANDLER SIX $(395
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Read This Eleventh Hour Warning
We would like to impress upon you one very important fact, and that is that the few sets we have left of The Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Handy Volume" issue, printed on India paper, are the last that can be had.
We simply cannot get any more because the publishers cannot get any more India paper; the war has ruined that industry as far as this country is concerned. You have not yet bought the Britannica. It may be because you have forgotten; it may be that you have simply put off the matter thinking that you could buy it at any time.
(Please understand that this latter supposition is V entirely wrong. If you are going to purchase The Encyclopaedia m Britannica, printed on India paper, you will have to do so I immediately. m
India paper has enabled the Britannica to do what the telephone and the automobile have done— to broaden the outlook of every man who possesses one of these three utilities. Make up your mind now that you do want the Britannica or that you don't. But if you make up your mind that you do want the Britannica, take our advice and act at once,
SEARS, ROEBUCK AND CO. Chicago, February 10, 1917.
ling an index of 500,000 facts) is a lutKoritative, most modern, most ; authoritative because its 4 1 ,000 ation; most modern because its St men and women of the present appeals alike to college professor
ow all about everything. But the ix civilization are such that each note and more every day. And where to find out about what we
» where the Britannica serves its atest utilitarian purpose — it is a never-failing store-house of infor- mation. Not merely a book to
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Here are the Facts—
The stock of India the Britannica is m
When the last rei more can be offer
India paper makes the Britannica as light and easy to handle as this magazine.
War has completely stopped the import of the flax fibre for the making of the genuine India paper. No more can be made — the unsold sets of the Britannica on this superb paper are the last. Act immediately.
Coupon on next page will bring you a book giving all information about the Britannica and its practical value to you
be read as literature, or for its absorbing stories of men and nations; but also a practical book to be used in connection with your every-day work, whether you are engaged in manufacturing or business or scientific pursuit.
To an extent never before realized, the Britannica is cosmopolitan. Each article was written by the highest authority available, irrespective of where he happened to live. The contributors included 214 American scientists, engineers, economists, historians, university presidents, manufacturers, and business men.
One of the most convincing evidences of the practical value of the Britannica is the fact that it is owned and used daily by I 70,000 Americans— including 100,000 business men and women. These include captains of in-
dustry, great merchants, leading financiers, famous scholars and scientists, and thousands of others who are still in the ranks.
The Britannica never has been published solely as a commercial venture, but rather for the wider diffusion of knowledge. In the splendid "Handy Volume" form, printed on genuine India Paper (selling for about 60^ less than the "rich manes'* Cambridge Issue) it is within the reach of every one.
And you can obtain the entire set (29 volumes) for a first payment of only $1, the balance payable in small monthly amounts. But you must act at once. Act to-day— NOW.
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Enters a new business a nOOlOOO a year
The Board of Directors of a gigantic wholesale grocery concern had gathered to select a new president.
A keen, broad-minded director arose and said : *'l know the man we want. * * He named one of the officers of a great National Bank.
"What!" cried one astonished director, "What does a banker know about our business.^"
"This man knows more than just banking/' was the answer. "Banking, like wholesaling, is only one phase of business. This man is not limited to any one field. He knows all the departments of business — finance, economics, organization, sell- ing, accounting." They discussed the matter from all standpoints. Finally they unanimously agreed to get him if they could.
The banker accepted the presidency of the wholesale grocery concern at a salary of $100,000.
He knew business fundamentals
In a surprisingly short time he had completely reorganized the whole concern.
New, well-planned office short cuts replaced the old, roundabout methods. Means of shipment and distribution were completely revolutionized.
Today the company is reaping the benefits of these changes. Dividends have been increased by many thousands of dollars.
The inspiring success of this banker, in a busi- ness totally new to him, was the result of his broad business training. His greatness lay in his knowledge of business fundamentals. Each move, each decision he made was backed up by a clear, intelligent grasp of the why and the how of the problem he had to solve.
It is this broad grasp of the fundamentals of business that the Alexander Hamilton Institute is giving to more than 50,000 business men today.
The Modern Business Course and Service of the Institute gives you a logical foundation on which to build your future business knowledge
and experience. All departments of business are covered and presented to you in interesting, prac- tical form.
The kind of men enrolled
Presidents of big corporations are often en- rolled in the Alexander Hamilton Institute along with ambitious clerks in their employ. Among the 50,000 subscribers are such men as : H. C. Osborn, President, American Multigraph Sales Co.; Mel- ville W. Mix, President of the Dodge Mfg. Co.; Geo. M. Verity, President of the American Rolling Mills; Wm. H. Ingeisoll, Marketing Manager of the biggest watch company in the world; N. A. Hawkins, General Sales Manager of the Ford Motor Co. — and scores of others equally promi- nent.
Advisory Council
Business and educational authority of the high- est standing are represented in the Advisory Coun- cil of the Alexander Hamilton Institute. This Council includes Frank A. Vanderlip, President of the National City Bank of New York; Judge E. H. Gary, head of the U. S. Steel Corporation; John Hays Hammond, the eminent engineer; Joseph French Johnson, Dean of the New York University School of Commerce, and Jeremiah W. Jenks, the statistician and economist.
''Forging Ahead in Business"
A careful reading of this 135-page book, "Forging Ahead in Business," copy of which we will send you free^ ' will repay you many times over. It will help measure what you know — what you don't know, and what you should know — to make success sure. If you feel uncer- tain of yourself, if you long for bigger responsibilities, power, influence, money — this Course and Service will fit you to grasp the opportunities that arc bound to come to those who are prepared.
ALEXANDER HAMILTON INSTITUTE
562 ASTOR PLACE, NEW YORK, N. Y.
Send me **Forging Ahead in Business"— FREE
Name
Business Address
Business Position
DaOil!KIIlllllIll!llIilIll!!IIHI!'lli;ii;ilJi;!l!lli!^
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B E E MAN'S
PEPSIN CHEWING GUM
Many Illnesses can be traced to Indigestion
It is the lack of a sufficient quantity of the gastric juices of the mouth that causes many cases of indigestion.
Improperly digested food, as everyone knows, interferes seriously with the functions of all the vital organs, and frequently leads to serious illnesses.
The chewing of Beeman's Pepsin Gum, into which I have put pure chicle and pepsin in nicely balanced proportions, releases the gastric juices of the mouth which make up largely for what was lacking when the food causing the indigestion was eaten.
VU/ft%CU9^
Doctor E. E. B
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"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.**
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** Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.*'
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BUILT by the Bossert Logical, Permanent Method of Construction, it is sturdier than any other type of frame construction, and yet it can be unassembled and put up again any number of times without damage or deterioration. This house is not painted, but stained a beautiful brown color with creosote, which not only pre-
5r Camp
VR in a house
like this next
imer, far from
city's dust and
se. You can have
n the shore of a
untain lake, on
the banks of
your favorite
trout stream.
serves the wood, but brings out beautifully the natural grain.
It contains three bed-rooms, a 12x15 living room, and a 6x9 kitchen in extension.
Economies in the Bossert method of construc- tion enable us to offer this camp complete at Five Hundred Dollars f. o. b. Brooklyn.
Send 12 cents today for catalog show- ing details of Bossert construction.
LOUIS BOSSERT & SONS, INC., 1313 Grand St, Brooklyn, N. Y.
"Mention the Geographic— It identifies you.**
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A Car Whose Quality Lifts It Above the Level of Its Price
Though priced at less than $1000, Saxon "Six" has forced—actually compelled — people to think of it in the terms of costly cars.
No other car we know of has ever accomplished this feat
Can you think of any car in any other price class whose superiority is as dis- tinct and pronounced as that of Saxon "Six/* among cars costing less than $1200?
The answer, of course, is in the motor— the famous Saxon "Six" high-speed motor.
Its performance today is probably as nearly perfect as has ever been attained.
of similar price and good reputation.
At a speed of twenty miles per hour this "less-than- six" under test developed 1,512.73 power impulses per minute.
Saxon "Six" showed 2,993,- 923 impulses per minute.
It is quickly apparent that the **less-than-six" motor leaves much to be desired.
For the less the number of impulses per minute the less smooth is the power- flow^ and the greater is the vibration.
you kno'VNT, the fiercest foe a motor car has to face.
Now you will see just how much advantage accrues from the 98% smoother power- flow^ of Saxon "Six.-
This well-known car of less-than- six cylinders, previously men- tioned, in repeated trials required 30 seconds to reach a 43 miles per hour speed from a stock-still stand.
Under the same conditions Saxon "Six" time and again duplicated this feat in 23 seconds.
This shows 22% faster pick-up in favor of Saxon ** Six."
This instance pictures with fair- ness, we believe, the inherent superiority of Saxon '* Six " over any other at less than $1200.
And vibration induces fric- tion, which is, as of course
Consider, if you will, a certain car of "less- than-six cylinders'*
Saxon "Six" is $865; "Six" Sedan, $1250; "Four" Roadster, $495, f. o. b. Detroit. CanadiaH prices: "Six" Touring Car, $1175; "Six"Sedan. $1675; "Four" Roadster, $665. Prices of special export A BIG TOURING CAR FOR FIVE FBOFLB models— "Six," $915;
"Four," $495. All prices are f. o. b. Detroit. (79^)
SAXON "SIX"
Saxon Motor Car Corporation, Detroit
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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rcSTABuaMED .aas:aiimiiinmillllin
Investments Secured by Farms
• Farm mortgages or farm mortgage bonds should be secured by properties in established localities with good climatic conditions, ample rainfall, sufficient supply of experienced labor, good transportation facilities, and proximity to market
6% Farm Land Bonds
secured by property in high cultivation in a section which has never known a crop failure. Conservative valua- tion of security over twice entire issue and net income largely in excess of all requirements.
Send for Circular No. 944 D
Peabo^, Hdnghleling&Co.
(Established 1865) 10 South La Salle Street, Chicago
«« Mention the Oeographlc— It identifies yon.'
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New York
14 Wan Street
Chicago
ItfS. La SaUe Street
Invest Your Surplus Funds in
MUNICIPAL BONDS
For business houses and individuals there is no investment so safe, so good in yield, so convenient, so readily marketable as Municipal Bonds.
Municipals are the only securities^ besides Government bonds, accepted by the . United States Government to secure Postal Saving^ Deposits.
Confidence of our cHents in us and the Ser*vtce we give them, have created a most extensive business and enviable reputation for the William R. Compton Company. We shall be pleased to serve you.
Our Free Booklet N2 ,**The Premier Investment,'* gives com- plete information about Municipal Bonds. Write for it t<>-day. We offer Municipal Bonds in $1,000, $500 and $100 amounts netting 4% to Syi% and free from Federal Income Tax.
\A^lliam R,fompton fpmpany
Municipal Bonds
**Omr a QwnrUr Ctntmry in TkU Bwinwm**
St. Louis
416 OUve Street
Cincinnati
112 Union Trust Bldff .
i
i
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Continued |
Safe 51^% |
|
Investment Buying |
Bonds |
|
is steadily diminishing the supply of standard |
Complete safety of principal. Prompt payment in cask. |
|
Railroad Bonds |
Choice of maturities— two to ten years. |
|
Widest diversification. |
|
|
available at attrac- tive prices. |
Stability in value. Reasonable assurance of market |
|
Upon request for Cir- cidw- AN.55, we shall |
These are among the merits of the first |
|
mortgage 3 j fo serial bonds, underwritten and |
|
|
be pleased to send our list of Railroad Bonds yielding |
safeguarded in accordance with the Straus Plan. Write for |
|
4.00% to 6.03% |
|
|
SM^STRAUS & CO. |
|
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The National City |
Founded 16S2 Incorporated 1905 |
|
Company |
150 Broadway Straua Building NEWYORK CHICAGO |
|
National City Bank Building |
Detroit Cincinnati Minneapolis San Francisco |
|
New York |
35 years without loss to any investor. |
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.*'
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I hard game is the bath that follows it. For when you realize for the first time how warm that the cooling, soothing, refreshing qualities
It feels grateful to the sweating skin and tired mder the rushing water removes every particle eaves the body aglow with health, and muscles
ly without irritation to the skin that makes letes. In it quality and purity combine to ectly luider every conceivable condition.
Wort
IT FLOATS
i!
1
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Vol. XXXI, No. 2
February, 1917
THE
NATflONAL GEOGRAIPHflG AGAZH
OUR FOREIGN-BORN CITIZENS
ALTHOUGH the immigrants who /\ have flocked to our shores sinqe 1 \ 1776 have mingled their blood with pre - Revolution strains until the American of unadulterated colonial an- cestry is the exception and not the rule; although a great political party was formed and the presidential campaign of 1856 was fought with the immigration question as practically the paramount issue; although the coming of the Irish and of the eastern European each in turn stirred the nation, there never has been a time when the subject of our foreign-born population occupied such a deep place in the minds of the people as it does today. Should we have departed from our time-honored custom of making America a homeland for whoever loves freedom for himself and craves liberty for his children, whether he be literate or illit- erate? Would our polyglot population be a menace in war time, or would it, as we have proudly thought in the past, be fused into one liberty-loving, flag-defend- ing race ? And when the war is over and the world escapes from the horrible night- mare of blood and carnage and hate, will the consequent burdens drive hordes of people to America, as did the potato fam- ine in Ireland, the social and political un- rest in Germany in the decade preceding our Civil War, and other economic hard- ships in continental countries?
TH^ MOST FREQUENTLY VETOED MEASURE IN AMERICAN HISTORY
Never in the history of the American people has a measure been passed by
Congress as often and vetoed by the President as many times as the immigra- tion bill recently enacted into law. Three Presidents of the United States have felt so keenly that the founders of the gov- ernment and their successors were right in holding that the lack of opportunity to learn to read and write should not bar an alien from freedom's shores, that they have overridden the will of four Con- gresses and have interposed their veto between the congressional purpose and the unlettered immigrant's desire.
But Congress was strong enough at last to override the presidential veto, and so the immigration doctrines of a century and a quarter are changed and the prac- tices of generations are to be made over. Hereafter no one above the age of i6 who cannot read and write may enter.
The efi"ect of the literacy test applied to the immigration of the future may be shown by a few figures. More than one- fourth of all the immigrants admitted to the United States in the past two dec- ades who were over 14 could neither read nor write. Out of 8,398,000 ad- mitted in the ten years ending with 1910, 2,238,000 were illiterate. And yet so rap- idly does illiteracy melt away that, add- ing to this number all the illiterates here before these came, there were only 1,600,000 illiterate foreigners in the United States when the census of lOio was taken.
Under a literacy test we will turn back one-fourth of the Armenians, two-fifths of the Serbians, Bulgarians, and Monte-
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SCOTCH CHILDREN
Photograph from Frederic C. Howe
Taunted with the fact that in England oats were fed to horses and in Scotland to men, a famous Scot replied that England was famous for its horses and Scotland for its men. America knows how much it is indebted to Scotland and the Scotch-Irish. Nearly half of our Presiaents have been either Scotch or Scotch-Irish.
negrins, more than a fourth of the Jews and Greeks, more than half of the South Italians, more than a third of the Poles and Russians, and a fourth of the Slo- vaks.
Who can estimate our debt to immigra- tion? Thirty-three million people have
made the long voyage from alien shores to our own since it was proclaimed that all men are born free and equal, and lib- erty's eternal fire was kindled first on American soil ! It is as if half the Ger- man Empire should embark for America, or all of England except the county of
97
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98
Digitized by
Photograph from Frederic C. Howe FOUR LITTLE DUTCH KIDDIES JUST ARRIVED
Generations of careful living such as is always necessary in a country of narrow bound- aries and expanding population has developed in the Dutch a frugality and a contentment with simple pleasures that cannot be excelled.
Kent. It is as if all of the population of all of the States of the United States west of the Alississippi, plus that of Alabama, should have come bodily to America.
History records no similar movement of population which in rapidity or vol- ume can equal this. Compared to it, the hordes that invaded Europe from Asia,
great and enormous as they were, were insignificant.
Of the 33,000,000 who have come more than 14,000,000 still live among us, and their children and children's children are now in good truth bone of our bone and blood of our blood.
Not lone: aero America crossed the hun-
99
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dred-million line in the number of its citizens, and it is interesting to note the composition of that population.
To begin with, there are 11,000,000 col- ored people, including negroes, Indians, Chinese, etc. Then there are 14,500,000 people of foreign birth among us. In ad- dition to these, there are 14,000,000 chil- dren of foreign-bom fathers and mothers and 6,500,000 children of foreign-born fathers and native mothers, or vice versa. When all of these have been deducted from the 100,000,000, only 54,000,000 remain of full white native ancestry.
NOTABLE PEOPLE OF FOREIGN STOCK
Yet the 35,000,000 American people who are of foreign stock — that is, foreign bom or the children of a foreign-bom parent — include some of the most illus- trious citizens of our Republic. Even the President of the United States him- self has only one ancestor who was born in America, and the list is long and nota- ble of statesmen, captains of industry, leaders of finance, inventors, makers of literature and progress, who have strains of blood not more than one generation on this side of the sea.
An examination of the statistics of American immigration shows that since the foundation of our government the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland have contributed 8,400,000 of her people and Germany more than six mil- lion. Ireland, with more than four mil- lion ; Great Britain, with a little less than four million, and Scandinavia, with some- thing less than two million, have, to- gether with Germany, contributed more than half of the total immigration to our shores since the beginning of the Revo- lutionary War.
When we take the German immigra- tion of the United States between 1776 and 1890 and compare it with that from other countries, a somewhat startling re- sult, and one usually unsuspected, is dis- closed. The total arrivals of aliens in those 114 years aggregated 15,689,000, of whom more than 6,000,000 were British and Irish and 5,125,000 were Germans, which shows that one alien out of every three arriving in America during more than a century of our existence was a German. Only the United Kingdom shows a greater proportion.
Photograph from Frederic C. Howe TTPICAI, HEAD-DRESS OF ITALIAN WOMEN
Since 1890 the trend has been very dif- ferent. With more than 17,000,000 im- migrant arrivals since that date, only 1,023,000 have been Germans. If from this number a proper deduction is made for those who returned to their homeland and those who have died since their ar- rival, it will be seen that there are fewer than a million former subjects of the Kaiser in this country who have not been here more than twenty-six years. Of more than 8,000,000 people of German birth and immediate ancestry among us, less than i ,000,000 fail to have the back- ground of birth or long residence in America behind them.
Ireland's gift to America
It is interesting to note the other for- eign elements that have entered into the make-up of American population since 1776. What a wealth of blood that won- derful little island, Ireland, has given us ! More Irish people have crossed the seas to become part of us than have remained
101
Digitized by
Photographs trom Frederic C Howe A RUSSIAN VEGKTARIAX A BAVARIAN PEASANT
behind. It is remarkable that so small an island — smaller, indeed, than the State of Maine — could in a century and a half send us enough people to duplicate the present population of eleven of our States having an aggregate area as large as the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary together.
Austria-Hungary stands next on the list of contributors to the immigrant stream that has flowed from Europe to America. Although Austro-Hungarians began to immigrate in considerable num- bers only when the arrivals from western
Europe had begun to fall off, sufficient have coTne from the dual monarchy to populate the State of Texas to its present density. Italy has sent us enough of her people to duplicate the population of Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Oregon, Ne- vada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, while England's and Scotland's contribution, 3,889,000 in all, together with Ireland's 4.500,000, gives a total of 8,389,000, or plenty to populate all of the States lying west of Texas and the Da- kotas. The Russians who have come to our shores number 3,419,000. They could
102
Digitized by
Photograph from Frederic C. Howe CHILDREN FROM THE BALKAN STATES
"Such pretty dollies as they do have in America! 'Course I'll have my picture taken if you
let me hold that sweet Httle dollie!"
replace one-half of the population of New England.
Although the people of foreign birth constitute only one-seventh of the coun- try's population, they contribute nearly one-fourth (22 per cent) of the arm- bearing strength of the nation. At the last census many of the States had a greater number of foreign-born men of arm-bearing age than they had of native- ancestry citizens, among them Massachu-
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Minne- sota, and North Dakota. Taking the States where those of foreign birth and their sons together constitute a major portion of the men between the ages of 18 and 44, it will be found that the list includes the above States and the fol- lowing: New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Michigan, South Dakota, Nebraska, Mon- tana, Idaho, Arizona, Utah, Nevada^
103
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104 Digitized by
Washington, and California — in all 20 States. We have considerably over 20,- 000,000 men of military age in the United States.
the: immigrant's preferhxcc i^or city
LIFE
Another striking fact of our immigra- tion situation is the unusual preference of the foreign born and their children for the cities. Of the 35,000,000 foreign- stock whites Hving in the United States, approximately 23,000,000 live in the cities. In only 14 of the 50 leading cities of the country do the whites of full na- tive parentage constitute as much as half of the total population. Only one-fifth of the population of New York and Chi- cago is of native white ancestry. Less than a third of the populations of Bos- ton, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Buf- falo, San Francisco, Milwaukee, New- ark, Minneapolis, Jersey City, Provi- dence, St. Paul, Worcester, Scranton, Paterson, Fall River, Lowell, Cambridge, and Bridgeport are of native ancestry.
Conditions have played some curious pranks in the distribution of the immi- grant population in the United States. More than two-thirds of the Germans live between the Hudson and the Missis- sippi and north of the Ohio. The same is true of the Austrians, the Belgians, the Hungarians, the Italians, the Dutch, the Russians, and the Welsh.
New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey have 47 per cent of the Austrians, 34 per cent of the English, 30 per cent of the Germans, 54 pef cent of the Hun- garians, 45 per cent of the Irish, 58 per cent of the Italians, 56 per cent of the Russians, 34 per cent of the Dutch, and 46 per cent of the Welsh in the United States.
NINETEEN-TWENTIETHS OF OUR FOREIGN BORN CAME FROM COUNTRIES AT WAR
An examination of the data at hand shows that nearly nineteen-twentieths of our foreign-born population come from the countries in Europe now at war. With such a surprising number of people among us who first beheld the light of day under flags now flying over Europe's battlefields, does it not speak well for our country's adopted children that there have been no more evidences of hyphen-
photograph from Frederic C. Howe IN MATTERS OF COSTUME AMERICANIZA- TION OFTEN PROCEEDS ALI. BUT TOO RAPIDLY
ism than the past thirty months have dis- closed ?
The war in Europe has largely closed the gates of that continent to the emi- grant. But three short years ago Ellis Island, the greatest immigrant gateway in the world, was one of the busiest places on the face of the earth. The wheels of the great machine that carried the incoming alien through the doors of America turned fast and long. Morning, noon, and night, the men who manned
105
Digitized by
Photographs from Frederic C. Howe A TURKISH BANK GUARD EVEN ALGERIA SENDS ITS QUOTA TO
AMERICA
this wonderful mechanism labored as sel- dom men have to work in order to keep the machine moving fast enough to take care of the vast flood of humanity pre- senting itself there for inspection and adoption.
Now all is different. Military neces- sity must be served, and hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, of those who would have come to man our ever-ex- panding industries are now on the battle- fields of Europe, some still surviving the awful avalanche of fire and steel, and
others, alas, asleep in those last trenches where the unending truce of death has stilled the enmities of life! And so Ellis Island is a somewhat lonesome place to- day. The twelve hundred thousand who came in 191 4 are followed by the three hundred thousand of 1916.
THE war's RELATION TO IMMIGRATION
But what of the morrow of American immigration ? Will the war, whose mili- tary necessities all but stopped the immi- grant tide from Europe, be followed by a
106
Digitized by
IMMIGRANTS IN RAILWAY WAITING-ROOM
Photograph by A. F. Sherman ELLIS ISLAND
Having passed muster with the doctor and the inspector at the nation's gate, it has swung open to these new arrivals, and now they are in free America, ready to journey unhindered to their respective destinations.
peace whose economic opportunities will have the same effect ?
One searches the pages of history in vain for a satisfactory answer. The his- tory of past wars throws no certain light upon it. After our own Civil War, the South, burdened with debts, wanted a million things. But empty pocketbooks and poor credit form a combination that has httle buying power. And so the South, unable to solve its economic diffi- culties at once, had to sit by and see thou- sands of its people go into the North and West to start over again. The end of the Russo-Japanese War brought great hordes of Russians to our shores, eco- nomic necessity impelling them to leave their homelands.
The Franco - Prussian War, on the other hand, sent only a normal number of French people to America as one of its aftermaths, and all the people who left Europe following the Napoleonic wars were fewer in number than those coming
here in a single three-months* period of our normal immigration history.
There are those who say that the rea- son the South could not rebuild after the Civil War was because it did not get the support of the Federal Government — a support which the governments of Eu- rope will give their people. They point out that none of the warring nations, however much they may owe, have bor- rowed as near to the margin of their credit as many Latin- American countries, and that people who would not buy their war bonds will take their peace obliga- tions readily. They point to the experi- ence of Baltimore and San Francisco to show how new prosperity and fresh re- sources can arise out of the ashes of calamity.
SIX PANAMA CANALS A YEAR INTEREST CHARGE
But the difference between an isolated city and practically a whole continent is too great for such an analogy to be sig-
107
Digitized by
QtlRMANY
THOUSANDS 99S
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THIS ILLUSTRATION SHOWS IRELAND,
Courtesy of U. S. Census Bureau WHERE OUR IMMIGRANTS FROM GERMANY, SCANDINAVIA, AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY HAVE SETTLED
I08
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RUSSIA AND FINLAND
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Courtesy o£ U. S. Census Bureau THIS ILLUSTRATION SHOWS WHERE OUR IMMIGRANTS FROM RUSSIA, ITALY, CANADA, AND GREAT BRITAIN HAVE SETTLED
109
Digitized by
Photograph from Frederic C. Howe A LAPLAND WOMx\N
nificant. Furthermore, no State, no na- tion, no continent has ever before stag- gered under under such an overwhelm- ing debt. If the war were to end now, its financial obligations alone, to say nothing of the devastation, would reach a total of $60,000,000,000. Think of a continent, with much of the flower of its brains and brawn either dead or maimed, and vast areas of its productive territory in ruins, facing a debt whose interest charges alone annually will equal the cost of six Panama canals ! And that conti- nent one which, before the war, sent us a million of its people every year because living was hard at home !
Whoever has stood at the gate at Ellis Island and watched the human tide surge through, and whoever has traveled among the peasants of Europe must realize how narrow before the war was the margin between their total income and their nec- essary outgo. Against these things must be matched the efficiency that the war has forced upon the people and the na- tions and the spirit of self-sacrifice it has engendered.
America has always been a polyglot nation, although all tongues do finally melt into hers. It is said that twenty
years after Hudson discovered Manhat- tan fourteen languages were spoken in New Amsterdam. The religious wars in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sent thousands and tens of thousands of French Huguenots, German Protestants, and English Puritans to our shores. One American-built vessel is said to have made 116 round trips between New York and Liverpool in nineteen years, during which time it brought 30,000 immigrants to America.
A MAN VALUED AT FIFTY DOLLARS
The first colonial charter granted by England for the purposes of new settle- ment was conditioned on homage and rent. This was the Virginia charter for the land extending from Cape Fear to Halifax, the rent of which was to be one- fifth of the net produce of gold, silver, and copper. The land aristocracy was promoted by the provision that a planter might add fifty additional acres of land for every person he would transport into A^irginia at his own cost. When the Pil- grims were outfitting, each immigrant was rated at a capital of ten pounds. No divisions of profits was to be made for seven years.
In the early days the people who came were largely of the sturdy pioneer type. A great many of them could neither read nor write, while most of those who could were able to do so only in a limited way. The transpositions in many names in America came from the carelessness or inability of public officials in spelling men's names straight in deeds, wills, and other documents.
GOVERNOR BERKELEY OPPOSED THE PRINTING PRESS
In 1718 three hundred and nineteen Scotch-Irish empowered their agent to negotiate terms with the Governor of ^Massachusetts for their settlement in that colony. Ninety-six per cent of the whole number wrote their names out in full. It has been said that at that time in no other part of the British Empire could such a proportion of men miscellaneously se- lected have written their names. Twenty- six per cent of the German male immi- grants above sixteen years of age who came to America in the first half of the eighteenth century made their marks.
Digitized by
OUR FORRIGX-BORX CITIZENS
111
Different communities took different views as to education in those early times. In Connecticut every town that did not keep school for at least three months in the year was liable to be fined. In X'irginia, Governor P>erkeley thanked God that there were no free schools, nor printing presses, and expressed the hope that they would not arrive during his century, since he believed that learning brought disobedience, heresy, and sects into the world, and printing developed them. At one time in Virginia, out of 12,455 male adults who signed deeds and depositions, 40 per cent made their marks.
Immigration to the United States was not large in the early history of the coun- try. Europe did not look upon the young republic with any favor, and the people of that continent did not regard America as offering attraction for the ambitious home-seeker. Between 1776 and 1820, a period of 44 years, less than 250,000 immigrants are believed to have arrived in the United States — an average of fewer than 6,000 a year.
The students of immigration differenti- ate between the immigrants from north- western Europe and those from southern and eastern Europe by calling them "old" and "new" respectively. The "old" im- migrant arrived with his family and came with a desire to make America their home. Only sixteen out of every hun- dred of the "old" immigrants returned to Europe, and more than two-fifths of those who came were females. On the other hand, thirty-eight out of every hun- dred of the "new" immigrants return to » their native lands, while only one-fourth of those who come are females. It will be seen from this that proportionately more than twice as many of the "new" immigrants return to Europe as of the "old," while the number of women among the "new" is vastly smaller.
labor's dert to immigratiox
Northwestern Europe has given us 17.000,000 immigrants, where southern and eastern Europe have sent us 15,000,- 000.
The labor supply which immigrants have brought to the nation constitutes an
incalculable debt. Seven out of every ten of those who work in our iron and steel industries are drawn from this class ; seven out of ten of our bituminous coal miners belong to it. Three out of four of those who work in packing towns were born abroad, or are children of those who were born abroad ; four out of five of those who make our silk goods, seven out of eight of those employed in our woolen mills, nine out of ten of those who refine our petroleum, and nineteen out of twenty of those who manufacture our sugar are immigrants or children of immigrants.
The story of Calumet, in the northern part of Michigan, shows how much of a monopoly the immigrant has in the min- ing industry in America. It is a city of 45,000, who live and work in the copper mines under Lake Superior. Twenty dif- ferent races share in its population, and not even Babel heard more tongues. Sixteen nationalities are represented on its school-teaching force. In New York the foreigners colonize, as on the East Side ; in Calumet it is the native popula- tion that colonizes, the American colony there being known as Houghton.
Americans sometimes are inclined to complain about the lowering of wage standards through the advent of the "new" immigrant. Where once the na- tive citizen and the home-builder from northwestern Europe had to engage in ditch digging and in dirty and dangerous occupations, the coming of the "new" stream of humanity has released them from such task and has permitted them to take higher positions in the industrial world. The Irish, German, Welsh, and Scandinavian within our gates, along with the native American working-man, are now able to give their time almost wholly to work in the field of skilled labor, and as overseer for the "new" im- migrant in the industrial centers. The latter has been the ladder on which his predecessor has climbed.
MOVING INTO BETTER QUARTERS
Go to New York or any other principal city, and you will find that the quarters that were once occupied by the Germans, the Irish, the Enghsh, and the Scandina-
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MONTENEGRINS IN THEIR NATIVE COSTUMES
Mountaineers by birth and environment, the people of Montenegro are a tall, upstanding, sinewy race. Physical perfection must be inherited, but education may be acquired, and the Montenegrin bequeaths the one and a desire for the other to his American-born posterity.
vians are now occupied by the Italians, the Slavs, and the immigrant Jew. Their coming has permitted the foreign born who came in earlier decades to command better positions and to live under better conditions than they otherwise could have done.
From whatever country the immigrant comes, lie is, as a rule, above the average of the working classes in his community ; for money is scarce in southern and east- em Europe, and the peasant who can ac- cumulate enough to bring him to the United States must have some purpose in
life, a fair share of ambition, and no little ability to practice self-denial. The great majority have come from the small vil- lages in the rural districts.
That the alien's children are less illit- erate than he is; that they commit less crime than he does, and have less ten- dency to insanity than he is shown by the statistics gathered by the United States^ Bureau of the Census and by the Immi- gration Commission of 1911.
Furthermore, these statistics prove that, his grandchildren are about as free from illiteracy as the American child of na-
113
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Photograph by Frederic C. Howe
CHILDREN OF ALL NATIONS ON FXLIS ISLAND ROOF GARDEN
Many of the poor little boys and girls who arrive at Ellis Island do not know how American kiddies play, but the roof-garden romps one may see every fair day show that they are apt at learning.
tive lineage, and even less disposed to in- sanity than the child whose ancestry may be traced to colonial times. In everything that goes to show good citizenship the grandchild of the immigrant stands the statistical test as well as the child of na- tive parentage. How many immigrants we shall receive in the future no one can say. But, assuming that we have no im- migration, and that the United States will ^row as fast during the three centuries
ahead of us as Europe grew from 1812 to 191 2, we \y'\\\ have a population of nearly 500,000,000 in 2217, or approxi- mately 166 to the square mile.
Agricultural students have declared that the soil of the United States has a sustaining power of 500 to the square mile. Assuming that one-third of the country is occupied by waste land, we have room on this basis for 900,000,000 people.
114
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Photograph from Frederic C. Ilowe
NORWEGIAN CIULDRKN IN PEASANT COSTUME
Of all the countries of the earth, only Ireland has contributed a greater proportion of ner sons and daughters to the development of America than Norway. We now have one- third as many Norwegians and their children as the homeland itself.
115
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Photograph from Frederic C. Howe
A FINNISH FAMILY
There are about six thousand Finns in the United States. Hardy, self-reliant, industrious, they make good citizens of the type that Scandinavia sends us.
ii6
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Photograph from Frederic C. Howe
KOUMAXIAN SUCPIIERDS
Three-fifths of all the Roumanians who have come to America were farm laborers in the old country ; yet it is rare, indeed, that one is found in the United States elsewhere than in the factory, the mine, and the railroad construction gang.
117
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Photograph from Frederic C. Howe
A SLOVAK MOTHER AND CHILDREN
The Slovaks are an agricultural people, occupying all of northern Hungary except Ruthenian territory. Nearly a half million of them have come to America, though many return to Europe. They came^so rapidly in the years before the war that whole villages were all but depopulated, and wages increased loo per cent in many places as a result of their departure for America.
Ii8 Digitized by Google
Photograph from Frederic C, Howe A RUSSIAN MOTHER AND HER FLOCK '*No, I was not sleeping. I just couldn't help sneezing when the camera shutter clicked.'
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Photograph from Frederic C. Howe A GREKK SOLDII-R OF THE ROYAL GUARD
The Greek shoe-shining emporium and the Greek popular-priced restaurants have served to distribute the Hellenic immigrants better than almost any other race of the "new" immigra- tion; and distribution is solving the problem of their assimilation.
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Pliotogra|)h from Frederic C. Howe AN ITALIAN BOV DRESSED AS A SOLDIER
Who knows but that the blood of a Caesar, an Anthony, or a Seneca may course through the veins of this little future American?
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TIIREK COSSACKS AT ELLIS ISLAND
These warriors of the Russian plain make sturdy Americans — as industrious in peace as
they were intrepid in battle
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Photograph from Frederic C. Howe
A RUSSIAN GIANT, SEVEN FEET NINE INCHES TALL, WITH TWO MEN OF NORMAL SIZE
The Russians who come to America are a sturdy, hardy, seasoned race, but not all of them are as large as this giant, who can look down upon 99.9999 per cent of all mankind
130
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PRIZES FOR THE INVENTORY
Some of the Problems Awaiting Solution By Alexander Graham Bell
WHAT a glorious thing it is to be young and have a future be- fore you. To the graduates, especially, of a scientific technical school like the McKinley Manual Training School the outlook for the future looks bright and promising.
When I was a young man the institu- tions of learning, the higher schools and colleges, paid a great deal more attention to the teaching of Latin and Greek than to the study of science ; they made schol- ars rather than scientists.
The war has changed all that, and the man of science will be appreciated in the future as he never has been in the past. Knowledge is power ; and we now realize that the nation that fosters science be- comes so powerful that other nations must, if only in self-defense, adopt the same plan. It is safe to say that scien- tific men and technical experts are des- tined in the future to occupy distin- guished and honorable positions in all the countries of the world. Your future is assured.
WE PROORKSS FROM CANDLES TO ELEC- TRICITY IN ONE LIFETIME
I said it was a glorious thing to be young; but it is also a glorious thing to be old and look back upon the progress of the world during one's own lifetime.
Now, I don't mean to insinuate that I am old, by any means ! I had in mind an old lady, who is now living in Baltimore, at the age of one hundred and seven- she is now in her one hundred and eighth year — with mental faculties unimpaired. Possessed of a bright and active mind, she is able, from her own personal recol-
♦An address to the graduating class of the McKinley Manual Training School, Washing- ton, D. C, February i, 1917, revised for the National Geographic Magazine.
lections, to look back upon a whole cen- tury of progress of the world.
She was born in England and came over to America when quite young; and it is rather interesting to know what brought the family here. The father was a wholesale candlemaker in London and his business was ruined by the introduc- tion of gas !
Gas as an illuminant is now being re- placed by electric lighting ; and there are many people in this room who saw the first electric lights. \
I, myself, am not so very old yet, but I can remember the days when there were no telephones.
I remember, too, very, distinctly when there were no automobiles hero. There were thousands of horses,' and Washing- ton, in the summer-time, smelled like a stable. There were plenty of flies, and the death rate was high.
Now, it is very interesting and instruc- tive to look back over the various changes that have occurred and trace the evolu- tion of the present from the past. By projecting these lines of advance into the future, you can forecast the future, to a certain extent, and recognize some of the fields of usefulness that are opening up for you.
Here we have one line of advance from candles and oil lamps to gas, and from gas to electricity: and we can recognize many other threads of advance all con- verging upon electricity. We produce heat and light by electricity. We trans- mit intelligence by the telegraph and tele- phone, and we use electricity as a motive power. In fact, we have fairly entered upon an electrical age, and it is obvious that the electrical engineer will be much in demand in the future. Those of you who devote yourselves to electrical sub- jects will certainly find a place and room to work.
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FROM THE "hobby-horse" TO THE MOTOR-CYCLE OF I30 MILES SPEED
Then there is that other line of ad- vance typified by the substitution of au- tomobiles for horse-drawn vehicles. In line with this is the history of the bicycle. First, we had the old French "hobby- horse," the ancestor of all our bicycles and motor-cycles. Upon this you rode astride, with your feet touching the ground, and propelled the machine by the action of walking. Then came the old "bone-racker," in which your feet were applied to pedals attached to a crank- shaft on the front wheel of the machine.
This was superseded by a bicycle with an enormous front wheel, about six feet in height, with a little one behind — a most graceful machine, in which the rider ap- peared to great advantage. There was none of that slouchy attitude to which we are so accustomed now. The rider presented a graceful and dignified ap- pearance, for he had perforce to sit up- right, and even lean a little backward, to avoid the possibility of a header! The large wheel also appeared behind and the small one in front, and a tumble over backward was felt to be less disasti;ous than a header forward. It was much safer to alight upon your feet behind than to be thrown out forward upon your head.
Then came the "safety bicycle" — a re- turn to the form of the old "hobby- horse," but not a "bone-racker," because provided with rubber tires. In this ma- chine the power was transmitted from the feet to the wheels by means of gear- ing. This is still the form of the modern bicycle; but a gasoline motor has been added to do the work of the feet, giving us the power of g6ing faster than rail- road trains, on the xgmmon roads of the country, and without any physical exer- tion at all. I believe the speed record upon race-tracks stands at about 137 miles an hour.
MANY CHANCES FOR THE INVENTOR
On every hand we see the substitution of machinery and artificial motive power for animal and man power. There will therefore be plenty of openings in the
future for young, bright mechanical en- gineers working in this direction.
There is, however, one obstacle to fur- ther advance, in the increasing price of the fuel necessary to work machinery. Coal and oil are going up and are strictly limited in quantity. We can take coal out of a mine, but we can never put it back. We can draw oil from subterra- nean reservoirs, but we can never refill them again. We are spendthrifts in the matter of fuel and are using our capital for our running expenses.
In relation to coal and oil, the world's annual consumption has become so enor- mous that we are now actually within measurable distance of the end of the supply. What shall we do when we have no more coal pr oil !
, Apart from water power (which is strictly limited) and tidal and wave power (which we have not yet learned to util- ize), an,d the employment of the sun's rays directly as a source of power, we have little left, excepting wood, and it takes at least /twenty-five years to grow a crop of trees, ^.^ ^
POSSIBIL'iXlES OH ALCOHOL
There is, however, one other source of fuel supply which may perhaps solve this problem of the future. Alcohol makes a beautiful, clean, and efficient fuel, and, where not intended for consumption by human beings, can be manufactured very cheaply in an indigestible or even poison- ous form. Wood alcohol, for example, can be employed as a fuel, and we can make alcohol from sawdust, a waste product of our mills.
Alcohol can also be manufactured from corn stalks, and in fact from almost any vegetable matter capable of fermentation. Our growing crops and even weeds can be used. The waste products of our farms are available for this purpose and even the garbage from our cities. We need never fear the exhaustion of our present fuel supplies so long as we can produce an annual crop of alcohol to any extent desired.
The world w^ill probably depend upon alcohol more and more as time goes on, and a great field of usefulness is opening up for the engineer who will modify our
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machinery to enable alcohol to be used as the source of power.
Evolution in science has not always been accomplished by a series of gradual changes, each small in itself, but cumu- lative in effect. There have also been sudden "mutations" followed by advances of knowledge by leaps and bounds in a new direction, and the establishment of new and useful arts never before even dreamed of by man.
Although Clerk - Maxwell and others had long ago enunciated the theory that light and electricity were vibratory move- ments of the so-called "ether" or lumi- niferous medium of space, differing chiefly in frequency from one another, the world was not prepared for the ex- periments of Hertz, who demonstrated the reality of the conception and actually measured the wave-length of electrical discharges. Still less was it prepared for the discovery that brick walls and other apparently opaque objects were as trans- parent to the Hertzian waves as glass is to light. These experiments formed the basis for numerous other startling dis- coveries and practical applications for the benefit of man.
WE CAN SEE OUR OWN HEARTS BE.\T
Flesh proved to be transparent to the Roentgen rays, and the world was fairly startled by the first X-ray photographs of the bones in the living human hand. Now physicians and surgeons use X-ray lamps to enable them to see bullets and other objects imbedded in flesh, and have even devised means of observing the beating of the heart and the movements of other internal organs without pain to their patients.
Other developments of the Hertzian waves have resulted in the creation of the new art of wireless telegraphy. Most of us, I think, can remember the first S.O.S. signals sent out by a ship in distress and the instant response from distant vessels equipped with the Marconi apparatus. Then came the rush of vessels to the scene of disaster and the rescue of the passengers and crew.
Developments of wireless telegraphy are proceeding with great rapidity, and no man can predict what startling discov-
eries and applications may appear in the near future. Here may be an opening for some of you, and I know of no more promising field of exploration to recom- mend to your notice.
HONOLULU EAVESDROPS WHILE WASHING- TON TALKS TO PARIS
Already privacy of communication has been secured by wireless transmitters and receivers "tuned," so to speak, to respond to electrical vibrations of certain fre- quencies alone. They are sensitive only to electrical impulses of definite wave- length. The principle of sympathetic vi- bration operating tuned wireless receivers has also been applied to the control of machinery from a distance and the steer- ing of boats without a man on board. The possibilities of development in this direction are practically illimitable, and we shall probably be able to perform at a distance by wireless almost any mechan- ical operation that can be done at hand.
Still more recently wireless telegraphy has given birth »to another new art, and wireless telephony has appeared. Only a short time ago a man in Arlington, Va., at the wireless station there, talked by word of mouth to a man on the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France. Not only that, but a man in Honolulu overheard the conversation ! The distance from Hono- lulu to the Eiffel Tower must be 8,goo miles at least — one-third the distance around the globe — and this achievement surely foreshadows the time when we may be able to talk with a man in any part of the world by telephone and with- out wires.
OUR MOST CHERISHED THEORIES UPSET BY A WOMAN
The above illustrations exhibit what we might call ''mutations" of science; but the greatest of all these mutations was the discovery that opened the twentieth century, and I may add for the encour- agement of our young lady graduates that it was made by a woman. I allude to the discovery of radium by Madame Curie of Paris.
Radium has recently upset our most cherished theories of matter and force. The whole subject of chemistry has to be
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rewritten and our ideas of the constitu- tion of matter entirely changed. Here is a substance which emits light and heat and electricity continuously without any apparent source of supply. It emits light in. the dark, and in a cool room maintains itself constantly at a higher temperature than its environment.
It emits the Roentgen rays without any -electrical machinery to produce them, and we have now discovered emanating from that substance several different kinds of rays of the unknown or X-ray variety; and we now recognize the Alpha, Beta, and Gamma rays as distinct varieties, having different properties.
Though radium behaves like an ele- mentary substance, it is found in process of time to disintegrate into other elemen- tary substances quite different from the •original radium itself. Helium is one of its products, and, after several transmu- tations, it apparently turns into lead!
Our forefathers believed firmly in the transmutation of metals, one into the other, and vainly sought a means of transmuting the baser metals into gold. ' Radium shows that there is some foun- -dation for the transmutation theory, and that at least some of the so-called ele- ments originate by a process of evolution from other elements quite distinct from themselves. Where this line of develop- ment is going to lead is a problem indeed, and radium still remains the great puzzle of the twentieth century.
DYING OF THIRST IN A FOG
I cannot hope to bring to your atten- tion all of the problems that are awaiting solution, but I think it may be interesting to you to hear of a few upon which I myself have been working. What inter- -ests me will probably interest you, and perhaps some of you may carry out the experiments to a further point than I have done.
You know that although I am a lover of Washington, yet, when the summer- time comes, I go just as far away from Washington as I can in the direction of the North Pole. I have a summer place in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, ivhere I can always be sure of cool, fresh
breezes, while you poor people are broil- ing here in Washington.
A good many of the people on Cape Breton Island are fishermen, who make their living on the Banks of Newfound- land ; and one of the men employed upon my place had two uncles who were fisher- men on the Banks. One day they left their vessel in a dory to look after their nets, and while they were gone a fog came up and they were unable to find their way back. The dory drifted about in the ocean for many days and was then picked up with their dead bodies on board ; they had perished from exposure and thirst.
Now it is not a very unusual thing on the Banks of Newfoundland for fisher- men to be separated from their vessels by fog. Every year dories are picked up at sea, and the occupants are often found to be suffering terribly from thirst. They have found "water, water, everywhere, but not a drop to drink." Now, it seemed to me that it was really a reflection upon the intelligence of man that people should die of thirst in the midst of water.
There is the salt water of the sea, and all you have to do is to separate the salt from the water and drink the water. That is one problem.
CONDENSING THE WATER VAPOR IN TH^ HUMAN BREATH
But there is also the fog which pre- vents you from reaching your vessel, and what is fog but fresh water in the form of cloud. Therefore all you have to do is to condense the fog arid drink it. That is another problem.
But there is still another alternative. Water vapor exists in your breath. Why not condense your breath and drink it? This problem is easily solved; just breathe into an empty tumbler and at once you have a condensation of moisture on the inside. If you have the patience to continue the process for a few min- utes, you will soon find clear water at the bottom of the tumbler.
I took a bucket of cool salt water from the sea, put it down in the bottom of a boat between my knees, and then put into it a large empty bottle the size of a beer bottle, which floated in the water with
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the neck of the bottle resting on the edge of the bucket. Then I took a long glass tube, over a meter in length, and put one end into the bottle and the other end in my mouth. I sat back comfortably in a chair with the tube between my lips and inhaled through the nostrils and blew down through the tube. This process was so easily performed that I found I could read a book while it was going on.
I therefore continued the experiment for over two hours, and then I found a considerable amount of water in the bot- . tie, quite enough for a moderate drink. It might not be very much for us, but if you were dying of thirst on the open sea you would be glad enough to get what was there. I tasted the water and found it quite fresh, although I must confess it did not have a very palatable taste ; in fact, the water condensed from my breath had a taste of — of tobacco ! But I don't suppose that would have mattered much to a man wtio was dying of thirst.
I have also made experiments to con- dense drinking water from fog. A large pickle jar was provided and two long glass tubes were let down through the cork. The jar was then submerged at the wharf, with the two pipes sticking up above the surface. The experiment was then made to pump fog down through one of the pipes, the other serving as a vent. This was accomplished by means of a pair of bellows provided with a spiral spring between the handles to keep them apart. This apparatus was fastened on top of the wharf. A heavy log of wood was floated upon the water below, connected by means of a string with the upper handle of the bellows.
THE CORK THAT FAILED
The waves moved this log up and down and worked the bellows. The nozzle was connected to one of the pipes leading to the submerged empty jar and at once the bellows began to pump the fog into the jar. It continued pumping all night, and I let it go on pumping all of the next day, because there was to be a meeting of men on my place the next evening, and I thought it would be interesting to open the jar at the men's meeting. With great ceremony the jar was removed to the
warehouse and was found to be nearly full of beautiful clear water. A British naval officer was present and offered to be the first to taste the water condensed from fog. He took a good mouthful of it, while the men gathered around in great excitement and shouted, "Fresh or salt ?"
He did not reply, but made a face. He then rushed for the window, spat the water out, and exclaimed, "Salt!" Now, this failure did not by any means prove that the process was wrong, but simply showed that it might be advisable in the future, if you use a cork, to employ one that fits tightly and does not leak. The one I used had a hole in it, I found out afterward.
An involuntary experiment relating to the condensation of fresh water from the sea was made in Cape Breton. A man fell overboard and was rescued, with his clothes wringing wet with sea-water. There was a cold wind blowing and he took refuge in a little cabin on the boat covered with a tarpaulin awning. In a little time he began to steam. The heat of his body warmed the sea-water in his clothes, and there actually arose a cloud of steam which condensed on the cold tarpaulin and ran down the sides. It was fresh water, and if it had been collected in a jar there would have been quite enough for a drink.
"we do not boil the sea"
On large ocean steamers all the drink- ing water used is condensed from the sea; and we somehow or other have the idea that it is necessary to boil the sea- water, or at least have it very hot, and then condense it by means of ice or some- thing very cold. Now, that is not neces- sary at all. Just think of this: All the fresh water upon the globe comes from the sea, and we do not boil the sea. Water vapor is given off by the sea everywhere and at all temperatures ; it is even evap- orated from ice and snow. Of course, the warmer the sea-water is, the greater is the amount of water vapor thrown out ; but water vapor is everywhere pres- ent, and the main point in condensation IS that it is removed from the surface by the action of the wind and carried to cooler places, where condensation occurs
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BRINGING INTO SAN DIEGO HARBOR A LOG RAFT CONTAINING 5,000,000 FlvET
The raft has journeyed down the coast from Portland, Oregon, where this type of raft was
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in the form of cloud or rain. No great amount of heat is required to produce evaporation and no great amount of cold is necessary to effect condensation.
Such considerations as these may lead to some cheap industrial process for the manufacture of fresh water from the sea. All that is necessary is a current of air over your salt water to remove the water vapor collected there, and then the carry- ing of this confined current into a cool reservoir where the water may condense.
TlII^ TIIKRMOS-BOTTLE IDKA APPLIED TO A WATER TANK
As little or no artificial heating is re- quired, a great saving can be effected in the matter of fuel. It is extraordinary how wasteful we are in our means of producing heat and in retaining it after it has been produced. It is safe to say that a great deal mor.e heat goes up the chimney than we utilize from a fire. Then when we cook our -dinner or boil water, we allow the heat to escape by radiation and the things soon *cool.
A cosy for our teapot, a'fireless cooker for our dinner, and a thermos bottle for our heated liquids show how much heat may be conserved by simply taking pre- cautions to prevent radiation. Our hot- water boilers are not protected by cover- ings of asbestos paper or other insulating material, so that the water gets too cool for a warm bath very soon after the fire is put out.
I have made experiments to ascertain whether some of the heat wasted by radi- ation could not be conserved by insulat- ing materials, with rather astonishing re- sults. A large tank of zinc was made which would hold a great deal of water. This was inclosed in a box very much larger than itself, leaving a space of about three or four inches all around, which was filled with wool. I then found that hot water put into that tank cooled al- most as slowly as if it had been a thermos bottle.
I then attempted to save and utilize some of the heat given off by a student's lamp. A couple of pipes were led out of this insulated tank and placed in a hood over the lamp. Thus a circulation of water was effected. The water heated by
the lamp found its way up into the tank and produced a sensible rise of tempera- ture there. Next day when the lamp was again lighted it was found that the water in the tank still felt slightly warm. It had not lost all of the heat it had received at the former heating. When the lamp was again put out, the temperature of the tank was considerably higher than on the former occasion.
This process of heating was continued for a number of days, and it became ob- vious that a cumulative effect was pro- duced, until at last the water in the tank became too hot to hold the hand in, and it was determined to see how long it would hold its heat. The temperature was observed from time to time, and more than a week after the lamp had been put out the water was still so warm that I used it for a bath.
CUTTING DOWN THE CHIMNEY TAX
Since then this insulated tank has been taken up to the attic of my house in Nova Scotia and has been installed there as a permanent feature. I have the habit of working at night and like to take a warm bath .somewhere about 2 o'clock in the morning. Unfortunately the heating ar- ratigenients in the house have given out long before that hour and only cold water comes 'from the kitchen boilers. I con- nected the insulated tank with an iron pipe let down my study chimney in the hope of savings and utilizing some por- tion of the heat that escaped up the chim- ney every time the fire was lighted.
I have had this apparatus in use for over a year, and find that at any time of the day or night I am always sure of a wariyi bath from the heat that used to be \vasted in going up the chimney. In this case there was only one straight pipe, so that the amount of heat recovered bears only a small proportion to that still wasted. A coil of pipe in the chimney or special apparatus there would, of course, be much more efficient.
I think that all the hot water required for the use of a household, and even for warming a house, could be obtained with- out special expenditure for fuel by utili- zation of the waste heat produced from
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the kitchen fire and the heat given off by the illumipants employed.
Of course, water can only be heated to the boiling temperature; but there are many liquids that can be heated to a very much higher temperature than this with- out boiling. I took a tumbler of olive oil and heated it by means of a thin iron wire connected with a voltaic battery. I placed in the tumbler of oil a test-tube filled with water. In a short time the water was boiling, but the oil remained perfectly quiescent. If you store up hot oil instead of water you will have at your command a source of heat able to do all your cooking, and even produce steam power to work machinery.
We have plenty of heat going to waste in Washington during the summer-time, for the sun's rays are very powerful, and we do not use the roofs of our buildings except to keep off the rain. What wide expanses of roof are available in all our large cities for the utilization of the sun's rays! Simple pipes laid up on the roof and containing oil or some other liquid would soon become heated by the sun's rays. The hot oil could be carried into an insulated tank and stored. You could thus not only conserve and utilize the heat that falls upon the tops of your houses, but effect some cooling of the houses themselves by the abstraction of this heat.
THE REASON WE CANNOT KEEP OUR HOUSES COOL
I was once obliged, very much against my will, I can assure you, to remain in Washington right in the midst of the summer, and the thought kept constantly recurring to my mind, If man has the intelligence to heat his house in the win- ter-time, why does he not cool it in the summer ? We go up to the Arctic regions and heat our houses and live. We go down to the Tropics and die. In India the white children have to be sent home to England in order to live, and all on account of the heat. The problem of cooling houses is one that I would recom- mend to your notice, not only on account of your own comfort, but on account of the public health as well.
Now, I have found one radical defect
in the construction of our houses that absolutely precludes the possibility of cooling them to any great degree. You will readily understand the difficulty when you remember that cold air is spe- cifically heavier than warm air. You can take a bucket of cold air, for example, and carry it about in the summer-time and not spill a drop ; but if you make a hole in the bottom of your bucket, then, of course, the cold air will all run out.
Now, if you look at the typical tropical houses, you will find that they are all open on the ground floor. Supposing it were possible to turn on a veritable Ni- agara of cold air into a tropical house, it wouldn't stay there five minutes. It would all come pouring out through the open places below and through the win- dows and doors. If you want to find your leakage places, just fill your house with water and see where the water squirts out!
I began to think that it might be pos- sible to apply the bucket principle to at least one room in my Washington home, and thus secure a place of retreat in the summer-time. It seemed to be advisable to close up all openings near the bottom of the room to prevent the escape of cold air and open the windows at the top to let out the heated air of the room.
MY OWN EXPERIMENTS
Now, it so happens that I have in the basement of my house a swimming tank, and it occurred to me that since this tank holds water, it should certainly hold cold air; so I turned the water out to study the situation. The tank seemed to be damp and the sides felt wet and slimy.
I reflected, however, that the condensa- tion of moisture resulted from the fact that the sides of the tank w^ere cooler than the air admitted. Water vapor will not condense on anything that is warmer than itself, and it occurred to me that if I introduced air that was very much colder than I wanted to use, then it would be warming up in the tank and becoming dryer all the time. It would not deposit moisture on the sides and would actually absorb the moisture there.
I therefore provided a refrigerator, in which were placed large blocks of ice
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covered with salt. This was placed in another room at a higher elevation than the tank, and a pipe covered with asbestos paper was employed to lead the cold air into the tank^
The first effect was the drying of the walls, and then I felt the level of the cold air gradually rising. At last it came over my head. The tank was full, and I found myself immersed in cool air. I felt so cool and comfortable that it seemed difficult to believe that Washing- ton stood sizzling outside. I climbed up the ladder in the swimming tank until my head was above the surface, and then found myself breathing a hot, damp, muggy atmosphere. I therefore speedily retreated into the tank, where I was per- fectly cool and comfortable.
Guided by this experience, I tried an- other experiment in my house. I put the refrigerator in the attic and led the cold air downward through a pipe covered with asbestos into one of the rooms of the house. The doors were kept shut and the windows were opened at the top. The temperature in that room was per- fectly comfortable, about 65 degrees.
At that time the papers were speaking of some ice plant that had been installed in the White House and congratulated the President upon a temperature of only 80 degrees when the thermometer showed 100 degrees outside. At this very time I enjoyed in my house a temperature of 65 degrees (the ideal temperature), with a delicious feeling of freshness in the air. Even when the air had risen to the same temperature as the rest of the house, as measured by a thermometer, the room still felt cool, because the air was drier, thus promoting perspiration that cooled the skin.
SELLING COLD AIR IN PARIS
In this connection I may say that there is a very interesting cooling plant in Paris, France, run by the Societe de TAir Comprime. Very many of the cafes and restaurants in Paris have cold rooms for the storage of perishable provisions, and these rooms are cooled by compressed air supplied by this company.
The plant consists of large pipes laid down under the streets of Paris, with
small branch pipes leading into the cafes and restaurants. At a central station steam-engines pump air into the pipes and keep up a continuous pressure of from four tQ five atmospheres. As there are several hundred kilometers of these pipes under the streets of Paris, they form a huge reservoir of compressed air at the ground temperature.
In the cooling room of a cafe they simply turn a little cock and admit the compressed air into the room. A gas meter measures the amount of air ad- mitted and charges are made accordingly.
The compressed air, by its expansion, produces great cold, and the cooling effect is still further increased by allowing the air to do work during the process of ex- pansion. Dumb-waiters, elevators, and even sewing-machines are thus run very economically in connection with the sys- tem by means of compressed-air engines.
WILL OUR CITIES BE ARTIFICIALLY COOLED?
Now, it appears to me that this process might very easily be developed into a plan for the cooling of a whole city* You would simply have to turn a cock in your room to admit the fresh air ; and if you then take precautions to prevent the cold air from running away by having your room tight at the bottom and open at the top, you could keep your room cool in the hottest summer weather.
I must confess that there is one other subject upon which I would like to say a few words before closing.
One of the great evils attending our civilization is the extreme congestion of the population into the larger cities, and one of the great problems of the future is how to spread the population more equally over the land.
The congestion is caused by difficulties of transportation ; for, of course, it costs much more to send a person to a distant place than to one near at hand.
But did you ever think of this : that it also costs more to send a letter to a dis- tant place than to one near at hand, and yet a two-cent stamp will carry your letter anywhere within the limits of the United States, and even beyond.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
COUIyD POSTAGE STAMPS BE USED IN TRANSPORTATION OF PERSONS?
So many more letters are sent to places near at hand than to the remoter parts of the country that an average rate of post- age very slightly in excess of the cost for short distances pays for the deficit on the longer routes. Now, the thought that I would like to put into your minds is this : Why could not the postage stamp princi- ple be applied to the transportation of persons and goods? Why should it not be possible to charge an average rate for transportation instead of a rate increas- ing with the distance traveled ?
We have already begun to apply this principle in municipalities. We no longer charge by distance in our large cities, and a five-cent fare will carry you anywhere you want to go within the limits of the municipality Involved. As a consequence we find in these cities the poorer people abandoning tenement houses and going out into the country to live, where their children have room to grow. This relief of congestion pervades all classes of the community, and you see homes springing up everywhere in the suburbs of our great cities.
The benefits resulting from a uniform rate of transportation increase in geo- metrical proportion to the distance trav- eled, and the possible radius of travel should therefore be extended to the great- est practicable degree. - It may well be doubted whether it will ever be possible to buy a ticket for any- where in the United States at an .average
rate ; but it might be practicable to apply the principle to some at least of the smaller States. A citizen of Rhode Island, for example, might for a very small amount be enabled to travel any- where within the limits of that State.
It would certainly be advisable to re- duce our charges for transportation to the minimum amount possible. This can be done, first, by adopting the principle of an average rate, and, secondly, by re- ducing the actual cost of the transporta- tion itself.
WILL AERIAL LOCOMOTION SOLVE THE ROAD QUESTION?
Now, it is noteworthy that the main element of cost resides not so much in the vehicles and locomotives employed as in the cost of the roads on which they have to run; it is this element that in- creases with the distance.
The railroads, for example, have to ex- pend millions of dollars in the construc- tion of railroad tracks; and what would the automobile be worth without a good road on which to travel? Water trans- portation is much cheaper than railroad transportation, chiefly because we do not have to build roads in the sea for our ships.
I will conclude with this thought : that a possible solution of the problem over land may lie in the development of aerial locomotion. However much money we may invest in the construction of huge aerial machines carrying many passen- gers, we don't have to build a road.
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PhoCoffraph by Hany F. Blanchard
THE APPLE OF DISCARD Nature's gift to the world's small boy is an appetite all out of proportion to his capacity. This "future president" evidently has repaired to the apple cellar and made inroads upon the wmter s supply of pippins. From the expression on his face, preliminary pangs in the region of his waistband are inducmg solemn reflection upon the enormity of his offense.
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Photograph by Hufo firehm*
A "CHILD OF SORROW AND WOE": MEXICO Without t tqutre metl, t soft bed or a clean suit, what wonder that the bright tun of the Mexican highlands and the multi-hued birdt and flowen cannot ditpel the darkness of distress, or drive out the woe-begone look from the peon child's eye?
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Plwtofraph by A. W. Cntlcr
OF COURSE GRANDPA DOESNT KNOW WHO The old-ftthioned gtme of '* Guest Who" it tt univeftti at childhood ittelf. Thit typical old Eng- lith fanner wat probably thinking about cutting hit clover on the morrow, when a pair of little handt were clapped over hit eyet and a well-known little voice piped, "Who it it, granddad?"
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THE LIGHT AND SHADE OF THE DESERT: BISKRA, ALGERIA Eveiy day like the preceding one, every yetr a duplicate of the one that went before, every century no different from the one it succeeded; the world may move elsewhere, but who can say that it moves in Biskra?
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A SAHARA JACK HORNER c,p,rH,h. b, d«-m »... u.*
When told that hit picture wtt to visit the tix hundred thousand homes of the American boys _irls who love the Geographic, he tried to look as dignlfieif solemn as a priest. And somehow he seems to have succeeded.
and girls who love the G^graphic, he tried to look as dignified as a judge, as wise as a lawgiver, and as eno
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LITTLE CHIEF PACK-A-BACK GRAVELY INSPECTS THE CAMERA This little scion of the Ojibwav tribe, who lives up in northern Minnesou, will some day be t *'bis chief" of his people, but now he is onlv a small papoose who travels on his mother's back. In his restricted position, tightly wrapped to prevent his squirming out, he can move only his head and crane his neck to see the strange "paleface" with a queer black box on three legs — the camera which takes his picture.
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"WELL BACK" IN SOUTH AMERICA The younff Venezuelan attride the hind quarters of hit patient palfrey guides his mount with one rein of rope. The sleepy appearance of the charger indicates that not much restraint is necessary and suggests that in order to be guided he must first be surted.
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Photoffttph by Chariet Martin
LOOK OUT, OR OFF GOES YOUR HEAD! This youthful hetdhunter of the Philippine Itltndt is a son of t chief of the warlike Ilongote tribe, and he lives in the mountains of northern Luzon. The greater part of his costume is worn upon Kis head, and the little omamenu that look like trout flies are really tassels of white horsehair, fiighly prizea by these people. Indeed, strands of horsehair are often more desirable than money in these mountain fastnesses, and burden carriers who have earned a dollar by swinsing along difficult trails under a load of eighty pounds for three days have been known to refuse coins in favor of horsehairs.
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"FEEDING THE MOTHERLESS LAMB" This little Auttritn bojr, who lives ftr up in the Tyi^l^^n Alps, has his cosset in fond embrtce. It looks like "forcible feeding," but perhaps the supply of milk is to be conserved for another meal and there is difficulty in retrieving the bottle.
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BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS
By Ales Hrdlicka Curator op Physicai. Anthropology in the U. S. National Museum
IN THEIR memorable answer to the President of the United States on the conditions under which they would conclude peace with Germany, the AlHes announced, as one of these condi- tions, the liberation of the Czecho-Slo- vaks from Austria-Hungary.
This introduces on the international forum a most interesting new factor, of which relatively little has been heard dur- ing the war and which in consequence has largely escaped, in this country at least, the attention which it deserves.
The same natural law of preservation that rules over individuals rules also over nations^-only the strongest survive the struggle for existence. Not the strongest in numbers, nor even physically, but the richest in that healthy virginal life-cur- rent which suffers under defeat, but is never crushed ; which may be suppressed to the limit, yet wd\s up again stronger and fresher than ever, the moment the pressure relaxes.
One such nation is surely, it seems, that of the Czechs or Bohemians. A 1 ,500-year-long li f e-and-death struggle with the race who surround it from the north, west, and south, with a near-burial within the Austrian Empire for the last three centuries, have failed to destroy the little nation or break its spirit.
As President Wilson has said: "At least two among these many races [of Austria], moreover, are strenuously, restlessly, persistently devoted to inde- pendence. No lapse of time, no defeat of hopes, seems sufficient to reconcile the Czechs of Bohemia to incorporation with Austria. Pride of race and the memories of a notable and distinguished history keep them always at odds with the Ger- mans within their gates and with the gov- ernment set over their heads. They de- sire at least the same degree of autonomy that has been granted to Hungary." *
*The State, by Woodrow Wilson, revised edition, 1911, page 740.
The Czechs are now more numerous, more accomplished, more patriotic than ever before, and the day is inevitably ap- proaching when the shackles will fall and the nation take its place again at the council of free nations.
WHO ARE THE BOHEMIANS
The Czechs* are the westernmost branch of the Slavs, their name being de- rived, according to tradition, from that of a noted ancestral chief. The term Bo- hemia was applied to the country prob- ably during the Roman times and was derived, like that of Bavaria, from the Boii, who for some time before the Chris- tian era occupied or claimed parts of these regions.
Nature has favored Bohemia perhaps more than any other part of Europe. Its soil is so fertile and climate so favorable that more than half of the country is cul- tivated and produces richly. In its moun- tains almost every useful metal and min- eral, except salt, is to be* found. It is the geographical center of the European con- tinent, equally distant from the Baltic, Adriatic, and North seas, and, though in- closed by mountains, is so easily accessi- ble, because of the valleys of the Danube and the Elbe rivers, that it served, since known in history as the avenue of many armies.
Beside Bohemia, the Czechs occupy Moravia and adjacent territory in Silesia. The Slovaks, who show merely dialectic differences from the Czechs, extend from Moravia eastward over most of northern Hungary.!
The advent of the Czechs is lost in an- tiquity; it is known, however, that they cremated their dead, and cremation bur- ials in northeastern Bohemia and in Mo- ravia antedate 500 B. C. Their invasions or spread southwestward, so far as re-
♦The Cz pronounced like ch in cherry. t See "Map of Europe," published by the Geographic Magazine, August, 1915.
163
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Photograph from Francis P. Marchant the: famous astronomical clock of THH: old town hall of PRAGUE, DATING
FROM 1490 A. D.
In front of the town hall, during the fierce reprisals of Ferdinand II, after the heroic efforts of the Bohemians had been foiled at the battle of White Mountain, forty-eight promi- nent nobles and citizens of Prague met torture and the block with great fortitude. The astronomical clock at the entrance, with figures of our Lord and the Apostles, is one of the oldest in Europe. Inside the building are the dungeons where the patriots were confined before execution.
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BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS
165
corded in tradition or history, were of a peaceful nature, following the desolation and abandonment of the land through wars.
Like all people at a corresponding stage of development, they were subdivided into numerous tribes which settled differ- ent parts of the country, and the names of some of these clans, with remnants of dialectic, dress, and other characteristic differences, persist even to this day.
Their documentary history begins in the seventh century, at which time they al- ready extend as far south as the Danube. They are agricultural and pastoral peo- ple, of patriarchal organization. Their government is almost republican, under a chief, elected by an assembly of repre- sentatives of the main classes of the peo- ple. Later this office develops into that of hereditary kings, whose assumption of the throne must nevertheless be in every instance ratified by the national diet. The nation possesses a code of formal supreme laws, and the people are noted for their physical prowess, free spirit, love of poetry, and passionate jealousy of independence.
CHRISTIANITY ACCEPTED
In the ninth century the pagan Czechs accept Christianity, with Slav liturgy, which becomes at once one of their most cherished endowments, as well as a source of much future hostility from Rome. The various tribes become united under the Premysl Dynasty, begun by the national heroine Libussa, with her plow- man husband, and lasting in the male line until the first part of the fourteenth cen- tury.
Under their kings the Czechs reach an important position among the European nations. They rule, in turn, over large parts of what are now Austrian prov- inces, and briefly even over Hungary, Poland, and Galicia. But their fortune varies. From the time of Charlemagne they struggle, often for their very exist- ence, with their neighbors, irritated by their presence, their racial diversity, and their riches.
The first recorded war with the Ger- mans dates from* 630, when the Frank
Dagobert endeavors by force of arms to impose vassalage on the Czechs, but suf- fers defeat; and from this time on the Bohemian history is replete with records of fighting with the Germans. How the nation escaped annihilation must remain a marvel of history. It is sometimes re- duced to almost a German vassal ; yet it is never entirely overcome, and rises again and again to assert its individuality and independence.
GERMANS COLONIZE BOHEMIA
Some of the Bohemian kings, under political and other influences, permit, and even invite, settlements of Germans on the outskirts of Bohemia. This is the origin of the German population of the country, which has played and still plays such a large part in its politics.
The latter part of the thirteenth cen- tury is a most critical period of Bohemia. Under Otakar II, one of its ablest kings, the country has reached the acme of its power. It extends from Saxony to the Adriatic, and Vienna is its second capital. Many of the German principalities are its allies and the king comes near to being called to head the Holy Empire.
But Rudolph of Habsburg is elected to this office, and from the moment of the advent of the house of Habsburg com- mence Bohemia's greatest misfortunes. The only offense of the Bohemian king is that he is Slav, but that, with the jealousy of his power, the democratic institutions, and the wealth of his country, which con- tains the richest mines of silver in Eu- rope, is sufficient. Great armies, German and Hungarian, are raised against him; finally he is treacherously slain in battle, his kingdom torn apart, and Bohemia is ravished and reduced almost to a "pos- session" or a fief of the Empire.
Yet the wound is not mortal, the nation IS too strong ; it rises again, and within a few decades, under Otakar's son, regains Its independence and much of its former power. In 1306, however, the last Bo- hemian king of the great Premysl family is slain by an assassin, and there begins a long period of dynastic difficulties, which become in time the main cause of Bohemia's downfall.
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A GODSEND TO HIS COUNTRY
The next Bohemian ruler of some note is John of Luxembourg, married to Eliza- beth, the last princess of the Premysl house, and killed, fighting for France, at the battle of Crecy, on the Somme (1346). The knightly John does little for Bohemia, but he gives it Karel (Charles IV), his and Elizabeth's son, who proved a god-send to the country.
In Bohemian history he is known as "the father of his country." Under his long, wholesome, patriotic, and peace- ful reign (1347-1378) the whole nation revives and strengthens. Independence of the country, except for the honorable connection with the Roman Empire, is fully reestablished. Education, art, and architecture thrive. The University of Prague is founded (1348) on the basis of the high seat of learning established a century before by Otakar. The medicinal waters of Karlovy Vary (Carlsbad) are discovered and the city of the same name rises on the site ; and Prague, as well as other cities, are beautified.
Charles is elected Emperor of the Ro- mans in 1348, and Bohemia stands "first in the world in power, wealth, progress, and liberty." The excellent relations of the country with England culminate in 1382 in the marriage of Richard II with Anne of Bohemia.
THE MARTYRDOM OF JOHN HUSS
But Charles is succeeded by a weak son, and it is not long before Bohemia suflFers again from its old enemies.
A great national and religious leader arises in the person of John Huss. But Rome excommunicates John Huss and accuses him of heresy. He is called to report to the Council at Constance and leaves with a written guarantee of safe conduct from Sigismund, the king and emperor, which, however, proves a "scrap of paper." Huss is not permitted to ade- quately defend the truth, nor to return ; he is thrown in prison ; his teachings are condemned; and July 6, 141 5, he is mar- tyred by being burnt at the stake. The very ashes are ordered collected and cast into the Rhine, lest even they become dangerous.
The shock of the death of Huss and of his fellow-reformer, Jeronym, burnt a little later, fire Bohemia with religious and patriotic zeal and lead to one of the most wonderful chapters in its and the world's history, the Hussite Wars. A military genius arises in Jan Zizka, and after him another in Prokop Holy; a new system of warfare is developed, includ- ing the use of some frightful weapons and of movable fortifications formed of armored cars ; and for fifteen years wave after wave of armies and crusaders from all Europe, operating under the direction of Rome, Germany, Austria, and Hun- gary, are broken and destroyed, until re- ligious and national freedom seem more secure.
As an eventual result and after many serious internal difficulties of religious nature, another glorious period follows for Bohemia, both politically and cultur- ally, under the king George Podiebrad (1458-1471). One of their enemies of this period. Pope Pius II (^neas Syl- vius) cannot help but say of them: "The Bohemians have in our times by them- selves gained more victories than many other nations have been able to win in all their history." And their many other enemies find but little more against them.
Xo Inquisition, no evil of humanity, has ever originated in Bohemia. The ut- most reproach they receive, outside of the honorable "heretic," is "the hard heads" and "peasants." Few nations can boast of as clean a record.
Bohemia's fatefui. hour
The fateful period for Bohemia comes in the sixteenth century. The people are weakened by wars, by internal religious strifes. A fearful new danger threatens central Europe — the Turks. In 1526 the Bohemian king, Ludvik, is killed in a bat- tle with the Turks, assisting Hungary; and as there is no male descendant, the elective diet at Prague is influenced to oflfer the crown of Bohemia, under strict guarantees of all its rights, to the hus- band of Ludvik's daughter, Ferdinand of Habsburg, archduke of Austria.
Hungary, too, joins the union, and the beginning of the eventual empire of
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Photograph by EJrdelyi A SLOVAK BRID^ AND GROOM
Some peasant women wear huge boots like the Wellington pattern, doubtless comfortable and protective against weather, but lacking in the grace traditionally expected in feminine footgear.
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Photograph by Kdgar K. Frank
POWDER TOWER, AT PRAGUE, BOHEMIA
There was a time when Shakespeare's shipwreck on the shores of Bohemia, described in '^Winter's Tale," was a possibility, as the dominions of King Premysl Ottokar were washed by the Baltic and the Adriatic seas. A stone thrown at Prague, it has often been said, carries a fragment of history (see page 165).
169 Digitized by
Photograph by D. W. Iddings, Keystone \'iew Co. GENI-RAL VIEW O^ PRAGUE FROM THE PETRTN HILL
Austria has been effected. Continuous wars with the Turks and a terrible plague further weaken the Czechs.
Ferdinand proves a scourge. Rehgious persecution and then general oppression of Bohemia follow. The freely chosen king becomes tyrant and before long the greatest enemy of Bohemia. Backed by the rest of his dominion, by Rome and Spain, he tramples over the privileges of Bohemia ; depletes its man-power as well as treasury ; by subterfuge or treachery occupies Prague and other cities, and follows w^ith bloody reprisals and con- fiscations, which lead to an era of ruth- lessness and suffering such as the coun- try has not experienced in its history. The weakened state of the country allows
of no effective protest, and of its former allies or friends none arc strong enough to offer effective help.
THE TVKAXXV OF FIIRDINAXD
Yet even worse was to come from the Mabsburgs, the association with whom for Bohemia was from the beginning of the greatest misfortune. During the reign of Ferdinand's immediate succes- sors there is a breathing spell for the Czechs; but in 1616 another Ilabsburg, Ferdinand II, again under force of cir- cumstances, is elected king of Bohemia, only to prove its greatest tyrant. Within two years the I>ohemians are in open revolt, and in another year the king is deposed.
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Photograph from R. D. Szalatnay
A BOHEMIAN PEASANT GIRL WORKING ON A PIECE OF EMBROIDERY
Many of the Czech as well as Slovak embroideries are ethnological documents as well as
most interesting works of art
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The stranger elected in his place, Frederick of the Palatinate, son-in-law of the King of England, however, proves an incompetent weakling. The Czech armies are disorganized, and November 8, 1620, the main force of 20,000 is de- feated at Bila Hora, near Prague, by an army of Germans, Spaniards, Walloons, Poles, Cossacks, and Bavarians.
The following part of the Bohemian history should be read in detail by all its friends — ^by all friends of humanity. It is a most instructive, though most grue- some, part of the history, not merely of Bohemia, but of Europe, of civilization. In Bohemia itself it is a period of con- centrated fiendishness under the banner of religion, and of suffering, of thirty years duration. Beginning with whole- sale executions, it progresses to the forced exile of over 30,000 of the best families of the country, with confiscation of their property, and to orgies of de- struction of property and life.
Under the leadership of fanatics, every house, every nook, is searched for books and writings, and these are burned in the public squares "to eradicate the devil" of reformation. Rapine reigns, until there is nothing more to burn, nothing to take, and until three-quarters of the population have gone or perished — a dreary monu- ment to the Habsburg dynasty, to the status of mankind in the 17th century.
Had not Germany itself been ravaged by the religious wars thus kindled, this period would probably have been the last of the Czechs ; as it was, there were not enough Germans left for colonizing other countries. Yet many came in the course of time, as settlers. German becomes the language of commerce, of courts, of all public transactions; the university is German, and in schools the native tongue finds barely space in the lowest grades.
Books have been burnt, educated pa- triotic men and women driven from the country, memories perverted. It would surely seem that the light of the nation would now, if ever, become extinct. And it becomes obscured for generations — yet is not extinguished. The roots of the stock prove too strong and healthy.
The people sleep for 150 years, but it is a sleep of rest, not death — a sleep heal-
ing wounds and allowing of a slow gath- ering of new forces.
BOHEMIA REAWAKENED
Toward the end of the eighteenth cen- tury the Czech language is almost wholly that of the untutored peasant. But the time of quickening approaches. First one cell, one nerv^e, one limb of the pros- trate body revives ; then others. The his- tory of the nation is resurrected and proves an elixir of life; to learn it is to a Czech enough for a complete awak- ening. But the awakening period be- comes one of constant struggle against all the old forces that would keep him down ; yet step by step he advances, over prisons and gallows.
Literature, science, art arise again; journalism begins to develop. The uni- versity is regained ; Prague, the "mother" of Bohemian cities, is Tegained, and others follow. Education reaches a higher level ultimately than anywhere else in Austria. A great national society of So- kols (*' falcons") is formed to elevate the people physically, intellectually, and mor- ally.
Bohemian literature, music, art, science come against all obstacles to occupy again an honorable position among those of other nations.
Agricultural and techhical training progresses until the country is once more the richest part of the empire. Finally journalism has developed until, just be- fore the war, there are hundreds of Czech periodicals. The Czech language is again heard in the courts, in high circles, in the Austrian Reichstag itself; and, though still crippled, there is again a Bohemian Diet.
Where after the Thirty Years' War there were but a few hundred thousands of Czechs left, there are now in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia alone seven mil- lions; besides which there are over two million Slovaks in the adjacent area under Hungary.
Such is the very brief and imperfect abstract of the history of the Czech peo- ple, who see once more before them the dawn of liberty which they so long cher- ished.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
WHAT HAVE THE BOHEMIANS ACCOM- PUSHED AS A. NATIONALITY?
It may be well to quote on this subject a paragraph from an American author, Robert H. Vickers (History of Bohemia, 8% Chicago, 1894, p. 319) :* "The fixed rights, the firm institutions, and the un- failing gallantry of Bohemia during eight hundred years had constituted a strong barrier against the anarchy of the darkest ages. The manly independence and the solicitude for individual political rights always exhibited by the Bohemian people have rendered them the teachers of nations; and their principles and parlia- mentary constitution have gradually pen- etrated into every country under heaven.
"They protected and preserved the rights of men during long ages when those rights were elsewhere unknown or trampled down. Bohemia has been the birthplace and the shelter of the modern politics of freedom."
But Bohemia has also been for centu- ries the culture center of central Europe. Its university, founded in 1348, at once for the Czechs, Poles, and Germans, not only antedated all those in Germany and Austria, but up to the Hussite wars was, with that of Paris, the most important of the continent. In 1409, when the Ger- man contingent of the university, failing in its efforts at controlling the institution, left Prague to found a true German uni- versity at Leipzig, the estimates of the number of students, instructors, and at- tendants who departed average over 10,000.
WYCLIEFE ENCOURAGES THE CZECHS
Sigismund, the emperor and deposed king of Bohemia, in writing of it, in 1416, to the Council of Constance, says : "That splendid University of Prague was counted among the rarest jewels of our realm. . . . Into it flowed, from all parts of Germany, youths and men of mature years alike, through love of vir- tue and study, who, seeking the treasures of knowledge and philosophy, found them there in abundance."
Last, but not least, Bohemia led in the
*See also W. S. Monroe, Bohemia and the Czechs, Boston, 1910.
great struggle for freedom of thought, religious reformation. Encouraged by the writings of WycliflFe, in England, and by such meager sympathy from conti- nental Europe as they could obtain in those dark times, the Czech puritans, re- gardless of the dire consequences which they knew must follow, rose in open, bold opposition to the intellectual slavery in which nearly the whole of Europe was then held. They paid for this with their blood, and almost with the existence of the nation; but Luther and a thousand other reformers arose in other lands to continue on the road of liberation.
For a small nation, not without the usual human faults, and distracted by unending struggles for its very existence, the above contributions to the world dur- ing the dark age of its rising civilization, would seem sufficient for an honorable place in history.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OE THE CZECHS
As to the modern achievements of the nation, they follow largely in the foot- steps of the old. Notwithstanding the most bitter struggle for every right of their own, the Czechs have extended a helpful hand to all other branches of the Slavs, in whose intellectual advance and solidarity they see the best guarantee of a peaceful future. They have eittended their great organization Sokol, which stands for national discipline, with phys- ical and mental soundness, among all the Slavic nations, and they are sending freely their teachers over the Slav world, and this while still under the Habsburgs.
To attempt to define the characteristics of a whole people is a matter of difficulty and serious responsibility even for one descended from and well acquainted with that people. Moreover, under modern conditions of intercourse of men and na- tions, with the inevitable admixtures of blood, the characteristics of individual groups or strains of the race tend to be- come weaker and obscured.
Thus the Czech of today is not wholly the Czech of the fifteenth century, and to a casual observer may appear to differ but little from his neighbors. Yet he differs, and under modern polish and the more or less perceptible effects of cen-
Digitized by
Photograph from Francis P. Marchant
THE TYN CHURCH OF PRAGUE (FORMERLY HUSSITE CHURCH)
Prague is also known as "the city of hundred towers (or steeples)"; but the towers are now lifeless; their great sonorous bells have been confiscated for Austrian cannon
177
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Photograph by A. W. Cutler
SLOVAKS AT POSTYEN ATTENDING A CELEBRATION OF MASS ON SUNDAY MORNING
Thero being no room in the church, these devout people take part in the services outside; even when the ground is wet and muddy they kneel thereon
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BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS
179
turies of oppression, is still in a large measure the Czech of the old.
He is kind and with a stock of native humor. He is musical, loves songs, poetry, art, nature, fellowship, the other sex. He is an intent thinker and restless seeker of truth, of learning, but no apt schemer. He is ambitious, and covetous of freedom in the broadest sense, but tendencies to domineering, oppression, power by force over others, are foreign to his nature. He ardently searches for God and is inclined to be deeply religious, but is impatient of dogma, as of all other undue restraint.
He may be opinionated, stubborn, but is happy to accept facts and recognize true superiority. He is easily hurt and does not forget the injury ; will fight, but is not lastingly revengeful or vicious. He is not cold, calculating, thin-lipped, nor again as inflammable as the Pole or the southern Slav, but is sympathetic and full of trust, and through this often open to imposition.
His endurance and bravery in war for a cause which he approved were prover- bial, as was also his hospitality in peace.
He is often highly capable in lan- guages, science, literary and technical education, and is inventive, as well as in- dustrial, but not commercial. Imagina- tive, artistic, creative, rather than frigidly practical. Inclined at times to melan- choly, brooding, pessimism, he is yet deep at heart for ever buoyant, optimistic, hopeful — hopeful not of possessions or power, but of human happiness, and of the freedom and future golden age of not merely his own, but all people.
COMENIUS — OXK OF THE GREAT MEN OF ALL TIME
Every nation has its local heroes, local geniuses, but these mean little for the rest of the world. Bohemia had a due share of such among its kings, reformers, gen- erals, and especially writers; but it also gave the world many a son whose work was of importance for humanity in gen- eral and whose fame is international. Not a few of these were exiles or erpi- grants from the country of their birth, who, having settled permanently abroad, are only too readily credited to the coun-
try that gave them asylum. Germany and Austria, as the nearest geographic- ally and with a language that the Czech youth were forced to learn, received most of such accessions; but some reached Holland, France, England, and even America.
One of the most honored names in the universal history of pedagogy is that of the Czech patriot and exile, Jan Amos Komensky, or Comenius (1592-1671), the last bishop of the Bohemian Brethren.
Driven away, in 1624, after all his books and manuscripts were taken and burnt, he settles for a time in Poland, then in Holland. His pedagogical writings con- stitute the foundations of modern educa- tion. His best-known works in this con- nection are Janua linguariim reserata (1631), Labyrinth of the World (1631), Opera didactica magna (1657), and Orhis pictus (1658). This latter work is the first children's picture-book. He con- demns the system of mere memorizing in school, then in use, and urges that the scholar be taught to think. Teaching should be, as far as possible, demonstra- tive, directed to nature, and develop habits of individual observation.
All children, mithout exception — rich or poor, noble or common — should re- ceive schooling, and all should learn to the limits of their possibilities. "They should learn to observe all things of hn- portance, to reflect on the cause of their being as they are, and on their interrela- tions and utility; for the children are destined to be not merely spectators in this world, but active participants."
"Languages should be taught, like the mother tongue, by conversation on ordi- nary topics; pictures, object lessons, should be used ; teaching should go hand in hand with a happy life. In his course he included singing, economy, politics, world history, geography, and the arts and handicrafts. He was one of the first to advocate teaching science in schools."
The child should "learn to do by do- ing.** Education should be made pleas- ant ; the parents should be friends of the teachers ; the school-room should be spa- cious, and each school should have a good place for play and recreation.
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Photographs from R. D. Szalatnay GENERAL VIEW OF THE OLD CITY OF PRAGUE AND THE RIVER VLTAVA, WHICH THE COMPOSER DVORAK IMMORTALIZED IN A MUSICAL POEM
180
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THK HUNDRED-TOWERED PRAGUE
Besides Prague, other notable cities of Bohemia and Moravia are: Carlsbad, whose healthful springs, magnificent pine forests, and picturesque setting have delighted thousands of Americans; Pilsen (Plzen), Budweis (Budejovice), Briinn (Brno), and Olomoric
Such were, during one of the darkest periods of European history and when schooling was so debased, the notions of this great exile whose life-long desire was to return to Bohemia; he was not permitted to do so and died at Amster- dam, Holland, predicting the fall of the Habsburgs and the future freedom of his country.
For a century and a half following the debacle of Bila Hora (see page 175) the exhausted, ravaged nation produces no men of more than local reputation; but
in 1773 there is some feform of schools, and the development of a whole series of eminent men, not a few of whom reach international reputation, promptly fol- lows.
SOME OF THE MEN BOHEMIA HAS PRODUCED IN RECENT TIMES
The year 1798 sees the birth of the greatest Bohemian historian, Frantisek Palacky (1798-1876). Writing in Czech, as well as German, he edits the Bohemian Archives, publishes what has been saved
181
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BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS
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in Europe from the old Bohemian his- torians. His historical works, as well as his statesmanship and other important activities, bring him the name of the "father of the nation." He is regarded as the foremost Bohemian of the nine- teenth century; and his monument in Prague is one of the most remarkable works of art in Europe.
In the line • of invention this earlier period gives Prokop Divis (1696- 1765), the discoverer of the lightning rod (1754), and Josef Ressl (1793- 1857), the inventor of the screw propeller.
In science and medicine there stand foremost Jan Evang. Purkinje (1787- 1869), founder of the first physiological institute in Germany and father of ex- perimental physiology ; Karel Rokytanski (1804-1878), the most deserving pioneer of pathological anatomy; Josef Skoda (1805-1881), the founder of modern methods of physical diagnosis of disease ; Edward Albert (1841-1912), the great surgeon of the Vienna University; Ant. Fric (1832-1913), the noted paleontolo- gist.
BOHEMIAN COMPOSERS AND MUSICIANS
The Bohemian pantheon is particularly rich in composers and musicians. Of the former one of the best known to the world is Bedfich Smetana (1824-1884), the founder of the modern school of Bo- hemian music and the composer, among many other exquisite works, of the **Pro- dana Nevesta" (The Bartered Bride), a national opera which has appeared re- peatedly within the last few years at the Metropolitan Opera Plouse, New York. The great cycle, "!Vly Country," with the "Libuse" and **Dalibor," are a few other of his compositions.
Anton Dvorak (1841-1904) was ad- mittedly the greatest composer of his time. His "Slavonic Dances" and his symphonies are known everywhere. In- vited to this country, he was for several years director of the National Conserva- tory of Music in New York City, during whicli time he made an effort to develop purely American music based on native, and especially Indian, motives.
Among musicians the name of Jan
Kubelik ( 1880- . . . . ) and Kocian are too well known in this country to need any introduction, and the same is true of the operatic stars Slezak and Emmy Destin.
Of poets the two greatest are Svatopluk Cech (1846-1910) and Jaroslav Vrch- licky (1853-1912). They are not as well known in foreign lands as the Bohemian composers and musicians only because of the almost unsurmountable difficulties w^hich attend the translation of their works. In novelists and other writers, of both sexes, Bohemia is rich, but as yet translations of their works are few in number and they remain comparatively unknown to the world at large.
The above brief notes, which do but meager justice to the subject, would be incomplete without a brief reference to a few of the most noted Bohemian jour- nalists and statesmen of more than local renown. Of the former at least two need to be mentioned — Karel Havlicek (1821- 1856), martyred by Austria, and Julius Greger (1831-1896), the founder of the Narodni Listy, the most influential of Bohemian journals.
The most prominent modern statesmen of Bohemia are Karel Kramaf (1860- ....), since the beginning of the war in Austrian prison, and Thos. G. Masaryk
(1850- ), since the war a fugitive
from Austrian persecution, now at Ox- ford University, England. The sister of the latter is well known in this country and her recent liberation from a prison in Vienna was in no small measure due to the intervention of her American friends.*
BOHEMIANS IN THE UNITED STATES
It seems a far cry from Bohemia to this country, yet their relations are both of some import and ancient. The man who made the first maps of Maryland and Virginia, introduced the cultivation of tobacco into the latter State, and for these and other services became the lord of the "Bohemia Manor" in Maryland, was the
♦Those who may be more closely interested in the more recent and still living men of note of Bohemia should consult Narodni (National) Album, Prague, 1899, which contains over 1,30a. portraits, with biographies.
Digitized by
Photograph by A. W. Cutler A SLOVAK PEASANT FAMILY IN EVERY-DAY DRESS
Note the Norman arch; it is typical of Slovak homes. Note the fringe at bottom of trousers, which are pretty wide when compared with English or American trousers, but positively skin-tight in comparison with the trousers of a Hungarian peasant. They are a highly respectable, hard-working community and may be seen in large numbers throughout the Vag Valley.
exiled Bohemian Jan Herman, as were the parents of Philip, lord of the Philip's Manor on the Hudson, one of whose de- scendants came so near becoming the bride of Washington. Not a few of the Czechs came into this country with the Moravian brethren; and Comenius (see page 179) was once invited to become the President of Harvard University.*
The immigration of the Czechs into
♦"The Bohemians," E. F. Chase, N. Y., 1914.
this country dates very largely from near the middle of the last century, when, fol- lowing the revolutionary movements of 1848, from which Bohemia was not spared, persecution drove many into for- eign lands. During our Civil War many Czechs fought bravely in the armies of the North.
The total number of Czechs now liv- ing, exclusive of Slovaks, is estimated at 9,000,000, of whom 7,000,000 are under Austria-Hungary; in the United States
184
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Photograph by Erdelyi YOUNG SLOVAK BEAUX
In the background are highland cottages. Note the embroidered trousers and shoes.
there are about 500,000, of whom one- half were born in this country.
They are found in practically every State of the Union, though the majority live in the Central States. Many are in- dependent farmers or artisans, and it is only fair to say that they are everywhere regarded as desirable citizens. They take active part in the political and public life of the country. Two United States Con-
gressmen, a number of members of State legislatures, and numerous other public officials are of Czech descent.
DISTINGUISHED CZECH-AMERICANS
In American science the names of men like Novy (Ann Arbor), Shimek (Iowa University), or Zeleny (University of Minnesota) are well known and honored, while the number of university students
185
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Photograph by A. W. Cutler SLOVAK MOTHER AND CHILD, SHOWING QUAINT CRADLES USED
Granny, who stands behind, is wearing a very comfortable coat, made of sheepskin; the wool is inside. It fits well and looks well, and granny knows it.
i86
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BOHEMIA AND THE CZECHS
187
of Bohemian parentage is exemplified by the "Federation of Komensky (Comc- nius) Educational Clubs," with its many branches, and by the fact that the Bohe- mian language is now taught at the Uni- versity of Nebraska and several other in- stitutions of higher learning.
The true Bohemian here and elsewhere, as can easily be understood, has nothing but the bitterest feelings toward Austria, the stranger and usurper, who, since the war started, is once more in the full swing of his persecutions. The Czech sympathies are wholly with Belgium, Russia, Serbia, France, and Great Brit- ain. And what is true of the Czechs is also true of the Slovaks, who suffer even more under Magyar oppression.
The Czechs and Slovaks in Austria- Hungary fight only under compulsion; their unwilling regiments were deci- mated ; their political and national leaders fill the Austrian and Hungarian prisons. Thousands of Bohemian and Slovak vol- unteers are fighting enthusiastically under the banners of France and Great Britain, and there are whole regiments of them attached to the Russian army.
Here in the United States the very word of Austria sounds strange and unnatural to the Bohemian. They have found here their permanent home, and while hoping and even working for the eventual free- dom of Bohemia, and proud of their de- scent from the Czech people, they are, citizens or not yet citizens, all loyal Americans.
FRAUDULENT SOLICITORS
THE ATTENTION OF THE MEMBERS of the National Geographic Society is invited to the fact that we are receiving reports of the activities of many fraudulent agents who are operating in various sections of the country, representing them- selves to be authorized "agents" of the National Geographic Society. We are advised that these persons solicit membership in the Society and subscription to the Magazine at a reduced price.
Many complaints have been received from persons who have paid in advance for maps and other publications of the Society which, of course, they have never received, since no knowledge of the transactions ever came to us.
The National Geographic Society has no authorized agents and employs no solicitors in the field. Therefore it is suggested that members of the Society send direct to the Society all orders, remittances, or communications of any kind.
Should you hear of any person claiming to be an authorized representative of the Society and soliciting orders, you will render a great service it you will imme- diately telegraph the facts to the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C.
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A CITIZEN OF BAGDAD
For descriptions of Mesopotamia and Bagdad, the City of the Caliphs, recently captured "by the British forces, see "The Cradle of Civilization," by James Baikie, and "Pushing Back History's Horizon," by Albert T. Clay, Nation ai. Geographic Magazine, February, 1916; and "Where Adam and Eve Lived" and "Mystic Nedjef," by Margaret and Frederick Simpich, Nationai, Geographic Magazine, December, 1914.
*^ Digitized by
Photograph from George L. Robinson
Abraham's oak, near hebron, preserved by the Russian orthodox church
Abraham, wandering slowly with his possessions of cattle, sheep, and goats, made his headquarters for a long time at the oak of Mamre. Here it was that Sarah died, and Abraham went to Ephron, the Hittite, and bargained for the cave of Machpelah for a burial place.
For articles on the Holy Land in the Nationai, Geographic Magazine, see "From Jerusalem to Aleppo," January, 1913; "Village Life in the Holy Land," March, 1914; "Jerusa- lem's Locust Plague," December, 1915 — all by John D. Whiting.
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Straight as the bee flies and quick as though caught by lightning the voice in the telephone carries near and far over this Nation.
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t^iir
No. 60. Robin No. 61. Wren No. 62. Bluebird
Back-to-Natnre movement among the Birds
— Birds, as well as persons of good taste, like these g^den fixings to be Rustic.
«1.25 each. 3 for #3.50. Booklet. "Bird Architecture," free with every order.
CRESCENT CO., **BirdTme," TOMS RIVER, N. J.
JUDD & DETWEILER, he
Master Printers
420422 Eleventh Street N.W.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
FIRE INSURANCE
JEtna Insurance Company
HARTFORD, CONN.
What 15 cts. B^. You 'r Nation's Capital
The little matter of ISc in stamps or coin will bring you the Pathfinder for 13 weeks on (rial. The Pathfinder is an illustrated Iweelcly, pub- lished at tiM Nation's Centar, for the Nation; a paper that prints all the news of the world and that tells the truth and only the truth; now in its 23d year. This paper fills the bill without emptying the purse; it costs but $1 a year. If you want to keep posted on what is golnc on in the world, at the least expense of time or money, this is your means. If you want a paper in your home which is sincere, reliable* entertaining, wholesome, the Pathfinder is yours. If you would appreciate a paper which puts everything clearly, fairly, briefly— here it b. Send ISc to show that you might like such a paper, and we will send the Pathfinder on probation 13 weeks. The 15c does not repay to. but we are glad to invest in New Friends. THE PATHFINDER PUBUSHING CO., Box 33» WASHINGTON. D. £
Digitized by
LaAe Shore Concrete Road Near Kenosha^ Wis., Built for thu State Highiuay Department by G. /e. IVade, oj Kenosha, in 1915
Good Roads Saved Paris
An English general, when asked what he thought was the greatest feat in the present war, replied: **The way General Joffre saved Paris by comman- deering 20,000 autos and motor busses and moving an army overnight against Von Kluck* s flank. " Without a great number of automobiles and every road good, this couldn't have been done.
In 1915 there were 122,000 automobiles in France. There are now three million in the United States. We have the - automobiles, but mighty few good roads for them to run on.
Concrete has been in satisfactory use for many years and the mileage is increasing by leaps and bounds — 17,000,000 square yards in 1915 and 25,000,000 in 1916. Clean— even— gritty— it is comfortable and safe every day in the year.
The materials are the same as those used in such important structures as the Panama Canal and big railroad bridges. Portland cement is a staple product, on sale everywhere. Sand and broken stone, or pebbles, are equally available. Common labor under skilled supervision can do the work.
It is easy for you to find out about this important subject. A free copy of ''Concrete Facts About Concrete Roads'* will be sent on request. Ask for Bulletin No. 136. One of our Road Engineers will gladly call on you and discuss means of financing and building a system of concrete roads in your community. He will also help you to get your neighbors and road officials interested.
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION
ATLANTA
Hurt Buildins DENVER
Ideal Bttflding NEW YORK
101 Park Arenue SALT LAKE CITY
Keanis Buildins
Offices at CHICAGO
1 1 1 ^ est Washington St. INDIANAPOUS
Merchants Bank Building PARKERSBURG
Union Trust Building SAN FRANCISCO
Rialto Building
DALLAS Southwestern Life Building
KANSAS crrv
Commerce BuOdmg PITTSBURGH
Farmers Bank Bmklmg SEATTLE
Northern Bank &Tnist Bldg.
CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Meehan's Mallow Marvels
These absolutely hardy perennials, originated by us, are of such surpass- ing beauty that they are considered the sensation of the plant world today.
From mid-summer until frost, when the sturdy bushes are covered with their gorgeous blossoms, the effect is really dazzling.
Even a single specimen, while in bloom, is the most conspicuously beautiful feature of the lawn or yard, and, used in masses, they domi- nate the entire srounds. No flower-lover can afford to be witnout them.
Our 1917 Hand Book
ffives details and prices of Meehan^s Mallow Marvels and hundreds of other specially choice, well-grown trees, shrubs, ana hardy flowering plants. Write for it today. Mailed Free.
THOMAS MEEHAN & SONS
6705 Chew St., Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.
Chinese Woolflower
id by us three years zgo is now ac- icd to be the irreatest new garden It is a success everywhere, plants 2 to 3 feet, a pyramid of color, its inches bearine ereat baDs of wool- jtance and most intense crimson
rs develop in June and none fade 06t{ ever brilliant and showy be- ief S«edpcrpkt.iac.,3far2Sc. kttodoB P«D^«. For immense nderful colors and vigor they are
Sccdperpkt. 10c, SforiSc. »looHiaf Sweet WillaB,a startling blooming in 60 days from seed, I g all the season, and every sea- son being hardy. Flowers large, colors ejiquisttc— pkt. 18c.
TkcM 3 great Novelties. wHk two aore (S ) , f or only 20 cts. See Catalog for colored plates, culture, etc.
Ov Big Catalog of Flower and Veirctnlilp Seeds, Bulbs. Plants and rare new fruits free. We arelhc ljrsres.1 uro^ers in the world of Gladiolus, Cannas, Dahlias, Lilies. Iris, etc,
JOHN LEWIS CHILDS, Inc., Floral Park, N. Y.
'Mention the (Geographic — It identifies you.'*
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3ul Coal Cost $ 50.00
if^
IVirfA a £Teaf deal more Comfort into the Bargain!
Open space all around this big lO-room house. And in a part of the country where the mercury tries to drop clear through the glass in winter. Makes no difference to the Williamson UNDERFEED, though. A fifty dollar coal-saving and more comfort in spite of it all. Read the letter:
"Mine is a ten-room house, and always cost me over $100 to heat with the old boiler* This Winter cost $50 with the UNDERFEED, and we had a great deal more comfort^72 or over in the coldest weather, A fuel-sacer, time-saver, and dirt-saver,
(Signed) DR. W, /. MORGAN, Mineral P6int, Wiu
WnilAMSON Ondereeed S^oTiV?:
Cut Coal Bills Vi to Vi Guaranteed
Please let this fact sink in: A H to ^ saving in coal co6t is actually guaranteed with the Williamson UNDERFEED, whether yoa beat with warm air. hot water, steam, or vapor.
That h panly because the UNDERFEED burns the cheaper erades of coal as efiectively as others burn the costlier grades. That's a bi£ sarinr at the very outset— money you save by keeping it i n your pockeL Another reason is the scientific principle of combosdon. In the UNDERFEED coal is fed from below. Tlie hot. clean fire is always on top — never smothered or chilled by fresh coal being dumped on. All smoke, sooc. and gas must pass up through the fire and so be transformed into dean, usable, effective heat.
No waste whatever. No clinkers. No partly burned coaL No soot-encrusted pipes.
Money-Saving Book Free
And a boy of twelve can operate the UNDER- FEED successfully. No stooping. All done from a standing position.
There's an interesting book, "From Overfed to UNDERFEED." which pktures and describes it all. Free for the asking. Simply send coupon. It wUl save you many a dollar when yoa come to i mail that new beating system. Remember, ^ to ^ coal cost actually guaranteed whh a Williamson Underfeed. Send the coupon now.
THE WILLIAMSON HEATER CO. 28 Fifth Avenue Cincinnati, O.
r
THE WILLIAMSON HEATER CO.
28 Fiftli Avenue, Cincinnati, O. Tell me how to cut my coal bills from- ^ to JJ with a Williamson UNDERFEED.
Steam or Hot Water —
(Mark X after System interested In)
Name-
Address .
My Heating Contractor's Name is..
Heating Contractors: Let us tell you about the WnUamson UNDER- FEED and our new proposition. Both are winners.
'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies yon,
Digitized by
In Your Home
The Silent Si-wel-do •
Place the Silent Si-wel-do and any other closet side by side — ^the difference in ap- pearance does not disclose to you the mechanical superiority or silence of oper- ation of one over the other.
You cannot tell which will clog and foul under use or which set of fittings will get out of order first and make an expensive plumbing job.
body's word for it.
>ilent Si-wcl-cio, by reason of years ion of the merits of different closets, u expert advice in closet installation
roN POTTERIES ca
CLOSET
H^riie fitr **Bathnoms of Char- acter." You will find it instruc- tive in planning your bathrooms. Ask for Booklet P-27
lanical features a water closet should
raordinary quiet operation. One is
me owner as the other. Why disturb the feeling of security fix>m
itaining or installing an old-time, noisy closet?
el-do is your protection against dissatisfaction. The name is t so you cannot be deceived. In fact, it will pay you to see that 1 the Circle" trade-fnark appears on all your plumbing fixtures.
TON POTTERIES COMPANY
BENTON, NEW JERSEY, U. S. A.
RGEST MAKERS OF ALL-CLAY PLUMBING FDCTURBS
1916-BOUND VOLUMES— 1916
OF THE
National Geographic Magazine
Nowhere else can be found such a wealth of pbotoirraphic reproduction, not only in black and white, but scores of paces of four- and eight-color work, pbotofrairures, panoramas, and maps which vitalize the authoritatitre articles specially prepared by the foremost scientists, explorers, and trarelera in the world.
A limited number of volumes for 1916. with index, have been beautifully bound in half morocco, containing 1,400 paces of text, with 1.200 pagea of illustrations, indudinir color work, photocravure, maps, etc. Bound in two volumes (6 months each). Price for both. S6.00 Sent prepaid in the United Sutes. Address, Dept. B.
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
Digitized by
You and a Thousand Times You
SUPPOSE a day had thirty-six hours in- stead of twenty-four — and you had four hands instead of two — and you could be two places at the same time instead of one — You'd be a superman, wouldn't you? But it hasn't, and you haven't, and you can't!
There is only one You. If you could give a thousand men your knowledge of the busi- ness—^^«r ambition — your personality — then
It would, and you would, and you could !
The thing that makes you you isn't the way you comb your hair or wear your clothes. It isn't your person — but your personality.
Put that personality into a thousand Multi- graphed letters and you can accomplish thirty- six hour results in twenty-four hour time — do the work of four hands (or more) instead of two — be two places (or more) at the same time instead of one.
That's one Multigraph accomplish- ment— to carry your message — ^your person- ality— ^you — ^into all parts of your business world.
Think of the possibilities when you, plus a thousand times you, work together in carrying out your plans.
Or, make it ten thousand or a hundred thou- sand times you — for it's all one and the same to the Multigraph.
Are you confined, restricted, tied down to you, twenty-four hours, two hands and one place? Expand, man, expand, and take your business along with you !
The Multigraph is the easiest way — the cou- pon the quickest route.
The Multigraph Senior
ELECTRICALLY driven and completely equipped for high-grade printing — with printers' ink, type, or elec- trotypes; or for producing type- written letters in quantities.
Prices, ;g670 to g720. Hand- driven models, S200 up. Easy payments.
You can't buy a Multigraph unless you need it
Name
The
Multigraph,
1821 E. 40tk St.. Official Position
CIcTcland,
Ohio. Firm
Show me how I street Addrcsa can expand mu penonality and my business.
Town
'* Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.
Digitized by
The Manor
15 Albemarle Park
asheville; n. c.
'*Ia The Land of the Sky"
IN AMERICA • AN ENGLISH INN
PBIFECT 60LF M A PERFECT CUMTE
/* holes— Turf greens Famous the year round for its South- ern hospitality. Most delii^htftil in Lite Winter and early Sprint;. Write for Booklet. Make reservations.
HOT SPRINGS
ARKANSAS
Creatm»t Hmalth and Plmaaurm RmMort in thm World Ownmd by thm
U. S. Government
The curative pfbperties of the waters of Arkansas Hot Sprines are known the world over. Their use is endorsed and regulated by the GovemmenL The climate is bracing, scenery beautiful; social life and sport in abundance.
For information, iiiastratmd frooA/«f* mtc. , writm
Department of the Interior
Waahington, D, C,
This ad\'ertisement inserted by the Arlington-Eastman Hotels.
RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP
in the
National Geographic Society
The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine
DUES: Annual membership in U. S.. $2.00; annual membership abroad. $3.00; Canada. $2.50; life membership. $50. Please make remittances payable to. National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft.
postal or express order.
Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary
_/9/
*Tjo the Secretary, National Geographic Society,
Sixteenth and M Sireeis Northwest,
Washington, D. C. ;
/ nominate- Address
for membership in the Society.
(Write your address)
* Mention the Geogrsplilc-^It identifies you. ' '
Digitized by
1.&5S-IVES COLOR PHOTOGRKPHI
MAKE your spring campaign with the camera a color campaign. 'With your own camera you can now take photo- graphs in color by using
The Hiblock
This is a pack of t^vo sensitized blue and red plates with a green film in- terposed, bound together as one. It fits into your own camera, whether a film Kodak with a combination plate back, or any other that will take a plateholder, so that you may take color photographs when you like — as many reproductions as you like — or use your camera for black and white work as heretofore. Let us tell you about this most notable development in color photography. Send for booklet.
Hess-Ives Corporation
1201 Race Street
Philadelphia
DENBY
TRUCKS
Much of the
rapidly-growing preference for in- ternal-gear driven trucks is due to the performance of the Denby, a pioneer in this field.
Denby Motor Truck Company
Dept- M Detroit, Midu
Heatherhome Seed
AND
Plant 5ook
A MASTERPIECE OF GARDEN CATALOGUES
Tells just tKe iKtngs;^ ^vTutt to know. 356 pages, antique VSP^lt DOun<i in Heatherhome olue, in a box. FkEE. A beautiful, fascinating book. We guarantre your pleasure in it just as we guarantre to gro^. an<i to be as described, even? seed and plant that comes from the "Home of Heather." Write for it nrw.
KNIGHT & STRUCK CO.
PLANTSMEN - SEEDSMEN 360 FIFTH AVENUE. NEW YORK
'Mention the GKeographic — ^It identifies yon."
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"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
Digitized by VjOOQIC
VOLUME XXXI
NUMBER THREE
S
The NATIONAL
-EOG MAGAZI
lie
MARCH, 1917
+
CONTENTS 16 Pages in Four Colors What Great Britain Is Doing
7 Illustrations SYDNEY BROOKS
Russia's Democrats
24 Illustrations
MONTGOMERY SCHUYLER
Republics— the Ladder to Liberty
7 Illustrations DAVID JAYNE HILL
War, Patriotism, and the Food Supply
FREDERICK V. COVILLE
Soldiers of the Soil
The Ties That Bind
Illustrated
DAVID F. HOUSTON
JOHN SHARP WILLIAMS
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS. WASHINGTON. D. C.
O. H. TITTMANN PRESIDENT
GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. director AND editor JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . associate editor
O. P. AUSTIN . SECRETARY
JOHN E. PILLSBURY VICE-PRESIDENT
JOHN JOY EDSON .... TREASURER GEORGE W. HUTCHISON. ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . ASSISTANT EDITOR
1915-1917 Charles J. Bell
President American Security and Trust Company
John Joy Edson
President Washinston Loan & Trust Company
David Pairchild
In Charxe of Agricultural Ex- plorations. Dept. of Asric.
C. Hart Merriam
Member National Academy of Sciences
O. P. Austin
SUtistidan
Georob R. Putnam
Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses
George Shiras, 3d
Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Oame Photographer
Grant Squires
■New York
BOARD OF MANAGERS
1916-1918 Franklin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Henry F. Blount
Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company
C. M. Chester
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory
Frederick V. Coville
Formerly President of Wash- i ngton Academy of Sciences
John E. Pillsbury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation
Rudolph Kauppmann
Manasins Editor The Evenins Star
T. L. Macdonald
M. D., F. A. C. S.
S. N. D. North
Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census
1917-1919
AlexanderGraham Bell
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howard Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics. The Ceo. Washinston Univ.
A. W. Greely
Arctic Explorer, Major Gen'l U. S. Army
Gilbert H. Grosvenor
Editor of National Oeosraphic Masazine
George Otis Smith
Director of U. S. Qeolosical Survey
O. H. TiTTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U . S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey
Henry White
Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc
John M. Wilson
Bricadier General U. S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, **the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed :
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. Editor
A. W, Greely C. Hart Merriam
O. H. TiTTMANN
Robert Hollister Chapman Walter T. Swingle
contributing editors
Alexander Graham Bell David Pairchild Hugh M. Smith N. H. Darton Frank M. Chapman
Bntered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C, aa Second-Class Mail Matter Copyright, 1917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C All rights reserved
Digitized by
'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you."
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"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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Digitized by
Two chains, one on each rear wheel, are absolutely necessary —
One 18 rather a detriment and in most cases is even inclined to accentuate the skid and throw the car out of balance,
h it any uHmder the differential looka pained €ind worried yrhen inexperienced motor- isto insist upon working it overtime 7
Do you know the purpose of the differential and how it operates ?
Without it no motor car would be able to turn a comer evenly and smoothly.
Power is supposed to be transmitted evenly to both driving wheels. When either of these wheels meet with resistance, the ever watchful differential transmits that power to the other where there is less resistance.
Now, what is the result when a chain is used on only one wheel?
A certain amount of resistance or gripping. So the power naturally goes to the other wheel and as this has no gripping surface it spins.
The specific purpose of the chain is thwarted, worse still, it has a natural tendency to accentu- ate the skid.
Furthermore, can't you see this spinning will unnecessarily wear the tire and throw your whole car out of alignment ?
Suppose one of your brake rods smashed and only one remained effective. What vrould happen when you applied the one brake >
Your car would swerve, of course. An added uneven strain would be thrown upon the whole mechanism, doing probably irreparable damage.
The conditions are eimUar,
The necessity for brakes for both wheels and chains for both wheels is obvious and clearly defined.
I f one chain would do the work, why use more?
But motorists and mechanics who are well posted gaxe with pity at the men who foolishly drives with only one chain when two are abso- lutely necessary on the rear wheels and two on the front wheels are an added precaution.
Weed Chains for a//5(y/e3 and Sizes of Tires are sold ij? Dealers Everywhere.
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.
Digitized by
The Good Things
Some Boys Get
In homes that serve Puffed Wheat and Rice, boys carry the grains at play.
Sometimes they are simply salted — sometimes doused with melted butter. And these bub- ble-like grains, toasted, flavory, crisp, and flaky, form real food confections.
Those Boys Say This:
Boys with Puffed Grains always treat other boys. And they say something like
this:
' Why, we have Puffed Grains every day in our house. ** I get them sometimes for supper, in a bowl of milk.
I get a dish every morning. Sister uses them in candy- making. And I get them like this after school.
Sometimes it is Puffed Wheat, sometimes Puffed Rice, and sometimes it is Corn Puffs. But one is as good as another. * '
Children who get PufFed Grains talk about them. And children who don*t, envy the rest.
For these are the foods that taste like nuts. That are airy and thin and flimsy. And that seem like confections served by the dishful.
Children who don't get Puffed Grains get nothing else that's like them. There is no other way to make whole grains into such inviting morsels.
|
Puffed |
Puffed |
|
Wheat |
Rice |
|
and Corn Puffs |
|
|
Each 15c Except in |
Far West |
The purpose of puffing^, by Prof. Anderson's process, is to make whole grains wholly digestible. By terrific heat and shooting from guns, every food cell is exploded.
What cooking does in a partial way, this process does completely. Thus every element is made available, and every atom feeds.
People need whole-grain foods. But they need them so the whole grain will digest. Puffed Wheat and Rice supply them. So every dainty tidbit forms a perfect food. Let children eat all they will.
PieQuakerOa^&0>inpany
Sole Makers
(1540)
'Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you."
Digitized by
GlacierNAtion<\l P^rk
C. W. PITTS
AmL GenermI Paasenger Agent
210 South Clark Street
Chicago
S.LOUNSBERY
General Agent, Passenger Dept.
1184 Broadway
New York
C. E. STONE. Pass. TrafRc Mgr., Great Northern Ry.. i
Dept. K, St. Paul, Minn. : j
Please send roe Aeroplane map folder and descriptive Glacier ■
National Park and Lake Cbelan literature free. |
Sam* I
j4ddr,ss J
City Staff ■
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
Digitized by
i|i|iiWTfW iilililiUilillilili
fWfTm
ffWffWM
M
M
ii'i'!'i!i!i;
■■ni|MMi-|;!t-|i'i] illihIiliBJillil ''
The statements in this advertisement referring to performances of Hudson Super-Sizes in certified trials and in competition are approved as to facts.
Richard Kennerdell, Chairman Conksl Board, Jlmtrican Jiutomohik JlsaodaHon.
The Long-Life Record HUDSON SUPER-SIX
Will Hold First Place Forever, We Believe
One year of the Super-Six seems to mark it the permanent lead- ing tjrpe. Many other sensations had their day and departed. But the Super-Six gains prestige every month. And it comes too dose to a perfect motor to ever be far excelled.
For your own sake, don't get a wrong The Super-Six principle gets from that
conception of the Hudson Super-Six. size all of this extra efficiency. It does it
It is a Six, but not like other Sixes. by saving friction. Would you have less
This basic invention, controlled by our speed, less power in a motor, because of
patents, added 80 per cent to our six-type more friction and wear?
* vtT^% in a better, simpler way, what To Doubls Endurance
we attempted in our Eights and Twelves. The Super-Six was invented to double For we built those types for testing, as indurance. That it makes the car a record- did others, when the seeming trend was breaker is simply incidental, that way. The records we value most are long- T^» D Lt c t J distance records. Under sanction of the This Problem Solved Contest Board of the American Automo-
_, ^ ^. , bile Association, the Super-Six broke the
The Super-Six gete its wondrous power. 24-hour stock chassis record by 328 miles,
speed, and endurance by mimmmng And in the famous non-stock Pike's Peak
fnction. Hill Climb, sanctioned by the Contest
That 8 what every type attempted. 3^^^^ ^f ^^ American Automobile As- Thats why men once thought that V-types .ociation. a Super-Six Special made the would supersede the Six. Vibration best time through endurance, causes fnction, and fnction causes wear. ^ Super-Six Touring Car twice broke And the type which brings vibration the Transcontinental record in one con- lowest will hold first place forever, just as tinuous JOOOmile round trip. All Super- ^^X^' « o. . 1 r^ Six speed records have been made be-
The Super-Six is that type. Every cause of endurance,
block test proves It. And a hundred road w r\rr x^
records confirm it. It now holds every it Offers YoU This
worth-while record of endurance and It offers you a car which, by a hundred
speed for a stock car. records, is the most capable car in the
world.
Another Possible Error J* offers you endurance, far beyond any
previous attainment.
Some men still tell Hudson dealers It offers you pride of ownership— the
that our records show qualities not wanted, feeling that you rule the road. The knowl-
They cannot use such speed, such power, edge that ^ours is the greatest car in per-
"And other cars are good enough hill- formance that's built,
climbers.*' It offers you beauty and luxury which
But vou must presume we know that. make the car look its supremacy.
We have not increased our motor size. It offers you. in our latest models, a
We are using a small, light Six — exactly wonderful gasoline saver,
the size we used before this invention. Will you want a car which offers less
And a size now very common. when you buy a car to keepP
Phaeton, 7-pas8enffer $16M Town Car Landaulet $2925
kMiirMriMiQV Cabriolet. 3-pas8ensrer .... 1950 Limousine 2925
^^iSS/m Tourini? Sedan 2175 Limousine Landaulet 3025
TmW '^®^" ^■«' 2925 iAli Prices f. o. 6. Detroit)
HUDSON MOTOR CAR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICHIGAN
l'lil-''!l!|1l1t|l'':'l''Ptfl'l|ir|
^'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies yon."
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**War Loans
and the
United Slates''
The Story of War Financing and Its Bearing on National Growth
HISTORY proves that the sacrifices and discipline of War have served to increase thrift, create efficiency and develop resources. The financial record of American Wars is one of patriotism and vision. War obligations have been readily met and economic progress made.
For the first time in its history, the United States has now become a creditor nation, and by meeting the needs of other nations is able to strengthen its own financial and commercial position.
Every citizen is concerned in the situation presented and its relation to his own affairs.
How American Wars since 1776 have been financed and these War debts discharged ; the economic effect of War loans in this country and in Europe; lessons taught by experience and the opportunities offered for the future are described in a booklet entitled "War Loans and the United States'', issued and sent upon request by the
Guaranty Trust Company of New York
140 Broadway Capital and Surplus • • • • • $40,000,000 Resources more than .... $500,000,000
"Mention the GKeographlc— It identifies you."
Digitized by
Btiilds city of 75X)00
There is a busy town in the Middle West The knowledge he finally gained in this way was the
that has been described as being literally intoxi- «- ^o^^6,.^^.t^^^^^oc^ ^^6 -ery^big^buri-
cated with an all-pervading prosperity. learning. Unlike this man. most of us need to have
In a short time its population has increased l**?* principles crystallized and set down in writing
r.^..^ « « ^^^ 1. m.^ ^^-. T4. t. i. r a oetorc we can aosorD tnem.
from 13,000 to 75,000. It boasts of 182 men t* • au- u • 1 1 j xf ^ n* j
,.ri,^ i,«* ^ ^^aL t^^4,„^^^ t^ -T ^.^Z."Z. It »s this business knowledge, this crystallized ex
Who have made fortunes from $100,000 to pcrience of thousands of America's most successful
$D,000|000. men, that the Alexander Hamilton Institute is giving
. This boom-thlS city and fortune building- '" '"^'^ *^"" ^cooo business men today.
is the work of one man. Yet, big as this work Based on the actual experience of thousands
is. it is only one phase of this man's gigantic of successful business men
enterprises. The Institute collects, classifies, and transmits to
Today he is the directing head of several P" It*"" ^J?* Modern Business Course and Service the
:^A,.^t.^:^^ -««-«« «.• 1 ^ ^ £ •'cst thought and practice in modern business. It will
industries representing an annual output of give you a thoro and sound training in the fundamental
$200,000,000, employing 36,500 men. principles underlying all departments of business — it
This man started in a humble way as an employee "*;!". ^^^^^^ ^^k* >^o^»«^8e Jhat could otherwise be
in a lumber mill. At twenty-one he said he had mw- o^tamed only by years of bitter expenence-if at all.
tered the business and was ready for something else j^^ j^jn^ ^f n,en enrolled
A number of industries required bolstering. He
gave them new life. The town water-works were in a Presidents of big corporations are often enrolled for
bad way. He put them on a sound basis. this Course and Service along with ambitious young
Later he organized a carriage company. Then a "»«" in their emplov. Among the 50,000 subscribers
motor-car company. In ten years he was a multi-mil- ^J^^.^uch men as H. C. Osborn, President American
lionairc and was building fortunes for other men. Multigraph Sales Co.; Melville W. Mix, President of
the Dodge Mf^. Co.; Geo. M. Verity, President of the
He knew the underlying principles of American RollmK Mills; William H. Ingersoll, Market-
hu«in»<« «iirr^«ft >ng Manager of the biggest watch company in the
DUSiness success ^»^,^. p^ ^ Hawkins, General Sales Manager of the
Some men will tell you his success was due to a Ford Motor Company, and scores of others equally
series of "lucky breaks. Others will say he is one of prominent.
the men who get all the opportunities. «i? «^ au ^ 1 d • »»
But the fact is. this man sterted at scratch— he was Forging Ahead in Business
born with nothing more than most of us are born with. j^ ^^eful reading of this uspage book, "Forging
The laws of business success do not vary ^^^^^ ».", Business.' a copy of which we will send you
This man had to master the laws of business before measure what you know, what you don't know, and
he could become a success. His text-book of business what you should know to make success sure. Every
knowledge was the experience of others and the facts business man with either a business or a career to
of his own daily experience. He was able to crystallize G[uide to bigger, surer success should read this book,
these experiences into working principles. Simply fill out and send the coupon below.
ALEXANDER HAMILTON INSTITUTE, 663 Astor Place, New York, N. Y.
Send me ''Forging Aliead in Business'' — FREE
Name •
Business
Address
Business
Position
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Hoiue on Fresh Pond Parkway ^ Cambridge ^ Mass, Charles R» Greco, JrchiUct, Boston, Mass,
"White Pine io Hoiii«-Baildinc'*i8 beau- tifully illustrated and full of valuable information and suggestions on home- building. Send today for this booklet — free to all prospective home-builders. "The Heleo Spe«r Book of Ouldrea's White Pino Toja and Furniture"— a fas- cinating children's plan^ book, from which a child may build its own toys and toy furniture. Prepared by Helen Speer, the toy expert. If there are chil- dren in your home, sent free on request.
ALL woods have certain uses for which IJL they are especially adapted by reason of the peculiar qualities and characteristics which nature has given them; and on their proper selection for these uses, hinges the whole problem of economy in wood construction.
Three centuries of experience in this country have demonstrated that no other wood lasts as long or gives such satisfactory service as
White Pine
for outside finish lumber — siding and corner boards; wndow sash, frames and casings; outside doors, door frames and casings; outside blinds; all exposed porch and balcony lumber; cornice boards, brackets, ornaments and mouldings; and other outside requirements, not includ- ing shingles.
If your lumber dealer is unable to supply White Pine, we should appreciate the opportunity of being helpful to you in securing it.
Address White Pine Bureau,
1323 Merchants Bank Building, St. Paul, Minn.
Represendns The Northern Pine Manufacturers* AModadon 6f Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, and The Associated White Pine Manufiuxurers of Idaho
*' Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you.
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$1150
Mitchell Junior--a40 h. p. Six 120-incli Wheelbase
F.o.b. Racine
$1460
SIXES
F. o.b. Racine
7-Pa88encer— 48 Horsepower 127-iiich Wheelbase
$4,000,000 In Extras
You will find in Mitchells many extras not found in other cars. Hun- dreds of them which, on this year's out- put, cost us $4,000,000. 31 unique features— 24 per cent added luxury^ 100 per cent over-strength.
These things are paid for by factory savings, due to John W. Bate. He has built and equipped this mammoth plant to build this one type economi- cally— way below what this car would cost elsewhere.
His methods save us the $4,000,000, which pays for these added attractions. Our new body plant this year brings another big saving, which pays for this added luxury — 24 per cent.
One result is a com- plete car— no wanted feature lacking.
Another is such luxury and beauty as you rarely see.
TWO SIZES
MitcheU-s,rr.h°&i:ar;3Sis:
base and a hifflily - developed 48 • horse- power motor.
Frice S1460, f. o. 6. Racine
Mitchell Junior2ll??2SIE
lines, with 120^inch wheelbase and a 40-
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Frice SI ISO, f. o. 6. Racine
Alsosix styles of enclosed and convert* ible bodies. Also new CInb Roadster.
But the greatest result is a lifetime car, due to this double strength. We have doubled our margins of safety.
Over 440 parts are built of toughened steel. All safety parts are vastly over- size. All parts which get a major strain are built of Chrome- Vanadium. Several Bate-built Mitchells have already exceeded 200,000 miles. In two years not a single Bate cantilever spring has broken.
New $1150 Size
There are now two sizes — Mitchell
and Mitchell Junior. But the smaller
size has 120-inch wheelbase. See
whith size you like
besf , whibh . b o d y-
style, which price.
Compare these cars with cars which lack these extras. You are bound to choose the Mitchell car, if you do that.
MITCHELL MOTORS
COMPANY, Inc. Racine, Wis., U. S. A.
"Mention the Geographic— It identifies you***
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IMPORTANT NOTICE to LUMBER USERS:
THE SOUTHERN CYPRESS MANUFACTURERS: ASSOCIATION HEREBr INFORMS rOUTHATALL CYPRESS NOWJND HEREAFTER SHIPPED Br MILLS WHICH ARE MEMBERS OF THE ASSOCIATION WILL BE
IDENTIFIED BY THIS MARK
ThAOE Mauk Reg. U.S.PAr.OrncB This registered trade-mark will be, henceforth,
rOUR INSURANCE POLICY OF QUALITY.
It will appear stamped (mechanically and ineradicably) on one end, or both ends, of EVERY board and timber of
CYPRESS
'TBE WOOD ETERNAL.**
CYPRESS FLOORING. SIDING, MOULDING AND SHINGLES, which come in bundles, will bear the same mark on EVERY BUNDLE.
The legal right to apply this epoch-making symbol of strict
RESPONSIBILITY IN LUMBER MAKING AND SELLING
is, of conrse, restricted to those Cypress mills which, by their membership in the Southern Cypress Manufacturers' Association, attest their devotion to its Principles of Sbrvicb to the CoNSUMBR and their f oresighted appreciation of its open and progressive educational methods.
Only mills cutting * 'Tide-water*' Cypress are eligible for membership. (Cypress which grows too far inland is not equally noted for the * 'Eternal,'* or decay-resisting, quality.)
Only mills which subscribe to the Association's standard of scrupulous care in methods of MANUFACTURE, INTEGRITY OP GRADING and ACCURACY OF COUNT can belong to the Association. These responsible "A-1" mills the Association now licenses to
CERTIFY THEIR CYPRESS l^,
appiytaMT the
TuM Hau Rcc U.SPk'^O'nct
BY THIS MARK YOU KNOW THAT IT'S CYPRESS, "THE WOOD ETER- NAL," AND WORTHY OF YOUR FAITH. rr IS WELL TO INSIST ON SEEING THIS TRADE -MARK ON EVERY BOARD OFFERED AS "CYPRESS."
'PuM Ham Rk. U.$^|¥|:OvnGi
Let our ALL-BOUND HELPS DBPABTMENTlMlpTOUJlfORff. Oar entire t
■ are at sroor ewiee with BeUeble OoobmI.
Southern Cypress Maniifactiirers' Association
1224 HIBEEinA BANK BLDG.. NEVT OBLEANS. LA., er 1224 HEABD NATIONAL BANK BLOC, JACKS0NVI11B» fU. INSIST ON TBADB-MABKBD CYPRESS AT TOUR LOCAL LUMBER DEALER'S. IF HE HASN'T rr, LET US KNOW.
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G>n8ider This Certain and Positive Proof of Saxon "Six^^ Supremacy
Let U8 dispense with fine phrases and seek facts.
For facts alone form a stable basis upon which to ad- judge nxotor-car values.
First of all, turn your atten- tion to the Saxon "Six" motor.
Compare it with the car of less than six cylinders that stands highest in your esti- mation.
TTiough that "less-than-six** may be developed to the full limit of its possibilities, you still will find lapses between its power impulses.
These lapses, you know, produce the vibration and friction that are the bane of motor life. And they exert considerable in- jurious effect upon the p€Uts, too.
Acceleration slows up and pulling power lessens.
Finally we see them re- vealed in growing repair and replacement bills. And shortly the car has reached the end of its usefulness long before it should.
On the other hand, the Saxon motor, with its six cylinders, de- velops a continuous flow of power. Vibration has been re- duced to a minimum. Uniform torque, the ambition of all motor designers, is attained.
Take, for example, a certain' well- known car of less than six cyl- inders, tested under the same pre- vailing conditions as Saxon "Six/*
At a speed of 20 miles per hour the Saxon "Six** motor developed 98% more impulses per minute than did the "less-than-six.**
This 98% greater percentage of impulses is' vitally significant.
Gear-shiftingbecomes more and more fre- quently a necessity.
And its significance is concretely expressed in the fact that when this '* less-than-six '* and Saxon "Six" were tested for accelera- tion, Saxon *'Six'* revealed 22% faster pick-up.
Nor is it in acceleration alone that this smoother power- flow gives the advantage to Saxon "Six.**
In every phase of performance Saxon "Six** must be considered supreme among cars costing less than $1,200.
Under the most drastic and gruel- ling conditions of public and private tests it has earned top place.
Probably you may never feel the inclination or necessity to call upon Saxon *' Six *' to the full limit of its speed and power.
Nevertheless it is reassuring to know that should the time come you have the extra speed and power at your command.
Saxon "Six** is $865; "Six**Sedan, $1,250; "Four** Roadster, $495, f. o. b. Detroit Canadian prices: "Six** Touring Car, $ 1.1 75; ySix **Sedan, $ 1 .675; "Four** Roadster, $665. Price of special export
models: "Six,** $915;
"Four,** $495, f. o. b. De. Saxon Motor Car Corporation, Detroit troit. (910)
SAXON "SIX"
A BtO TOURING CAR FOR FIVE PEOPLB
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* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
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Vol, XXXI, No. 3
GTON
March, 1917
WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING
By Sydney Brooks
THERE was a very striking pas- sage in the speech which Mr. Lloyd-George recently delivered at the Guildhall soon after his return from the Allied conference at Rome. "There is one thing," he said, "that struck me and that strikes me more and more each time I attend these conferences and visit the Continent — I mean the increasing ex- tent to which the Allied peoples are look- ing to Great Britain. They are trusting her rugged strength and great resources more and more. She is to them like a great tower in the deep. She is becom- ing more and more the hope of the* op- pressed and the despair of the oppressor, and I feel confident that we shall not fail the people who have put their trust in us."
It would be singularly unbecoming on the part of any British subject to seek to exalt the contribution that his own coun- try is making to the common cause above that of any of the Allies. We can never forget our obligation to Belgium's heroic stand in crucial days, to the impassable wall of steel maintained by unselfish France until we could raise, train, and equip our armies, and to the brave and effective efforts of Russia in the east and united Italy to the south.
If we are now in a position to do rather more than any of them, it is because we have suffered less, because we have been spared the well-nigh mortal blow of an invasion of our territory, and because time has been vouchsafed to us in which
to develop and organize our power. But there need be nothing vainglorious — nothing, indeed, but a sober recognition of f^ts and their responsibilities — in sub- scribing to Mr. Lloyd-George's estimate of the present situation.
Those who looked at the war with dis- cerning eyes knew from its very begin- ning that Great Britain was, and could not help being, the linch-pin of the whole alliance. It has taken curiously long for that elementary fact to sink into the gen- eral consciousness. America, I should say, is only just beginning to realize it. No doubt it is largely our own fault.
If we had even one-tenth of the Ger- man genius for self-advertisement, the world would long ago have understood that without British power the Allies could never have withstood the Prussian onset, and that with British power an Allied victory — complete, smashing, and final — is as certain as the rising of to- morrow's sun.
As it is, Americans in general seem even now to have but an imperfect idea of what Great Britain has accomplished in this war. It is not, in my judgment, that they do not wish to know. It is mainly, I think, that they have been de- luded by our old and deceptive trick of taking what we do well for granted and saying nothing about it, while we shriek our blunders from the housetops.
We are by all odds the worst adver- tisers in the world. We are the most in- veterate self-detractors in the world. We
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WHAT GREAT BRITAIN IS DOING
195
are the most persistent grumblers in the world. Nothing that other people say about Englishmen can ever hope to equal what Englishmen say about themselves.
And, being a strong, rebellious, self- sufficient people, tirelessly given to speak- ing out, we have naturally found in the dislocations and drama and surprises of the war an endless theme for self -de- preciation.
Mr. Dooley once accused us of doing our national housecleaning by sweeping things under the sofa and sprinkling the walls with eau de cologne. There has been none of that in this war. We have published every blunder, we have exposed every shortcoming, we have taken every opportunity of informing our rulers in the plainest possible language just what we thought of them.
THE WAV OF DEMOCRATIC PEOPLES
Compared with the silence of Prus- sia— a silence never deeper than when concealing some untoward incident, some prodigious miscalculation — our British turmoil has seemed a token of confusion and inefficiency ; but in reality it has been just the rough, wholesome, Anglo-Amer- ican, democratic way of doing things. That is how all self-governing peoples who are used to free speech and who are not used to the discipline of universal military service must inevitably act when caught in a great crisis and obliged to shift the whole basis of public and pri- vate life in order to strip themselves for a fight for existence.
The Prussians from the first day of the war have shown themselves consummate masters of the art of magnifying all their successes and minimizing all their fail- ures. Mirabeau more than a hundred years ago declared, and declared truly, that war was the national industry of Prussia. But Prussia since then has sup- plemented that industry with another — the manufacture of opinion, and not merely German opinion, but foreign opin- ion. The submissive intelligence of her own people she can, of course, mould as she pleases; but it is astonishing how often she succeeds in imposing upon dis- passionate and even hostile onlookers in neutral lands.
At this game of words and appearances and making out a case she leaves every one of the Allies, and indeed all of them combined, very far in the rear.
Take, for instance, the Roumanian campaign of last fall. It was unques- tionably a German military success. But it was nothing like the success that head- quarters in Berlin tried to make out and that Americans were very largely induced to believe.
All those tales that came clicking over the wireless of the capture of huge stores of grain and oil were fables out of whole cloth. The Allies set fire to the oil wells one by one as the Roumanians retreated and removed or destroyed just as sys- tematically almost the whole supply of foodstuflfs.
The present position is that while the great bulk of Roumania has been over- run, from one-half to two-thirds of the Roumanian army is still intact, is being reformed and rearmed for the coming offensive, and that the Germans have to maintain an extra 300 miles of front that would not have been added to their com- mitments had Roumania remained neu- tral. From the standpoint of the war as a whole, we have, for the time being, but I agree quite unnecessarily, and as the result of some bad bungling somewhere, lost a pawn, and a pawn that, if em- ployed in another direction, might and should have been extremely useful.
But Prussia has gained nothing ex- cept a barren kudos ; the Roumanian ter- ritories she occupies are a liability and not an asset ; to defend them she has to draw upon her swiftly diminishing re- sources of man-power; a few more such victories and she would be undone. Yet she has undoubtedly managed to fill the unthinking public in more than one neu- tral land with the idea that her successes in Roumania were in some sort a turning point in the war. I have read I know not how many articles in the American press gravely admonishing us to give up the Balkans as a bad job and withdraw our forces around Saloniki.
EXAGGERATIONS ARE AVOIDED
And in the same way it has been very noticeable how skilfully the Prussians be-
Digitized by
196
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
littled and how carefully the British and the French refrained from exaggerating the significance of the great retreat from the Somme.
. The moral to be drawn is, I think, this : that you can cut all Prussian boastings and all British lamentations in half, and that when the Prussians are silent it is a sign of failure and when the British are silent it is a proof that all is going well. One could easily multiply instances of this.
Take, for example, our intelligence serv- ice. You never hear anything of it. It works as a secret service ought to work — in secret. It enjoys not one-half of the reputation, it attracts not one-tenth of the notoriety, of the German intelligence service. Yet those who are at all behind the scenes know very well that there is precious little hidden from it in any part of the world where it is at work and, least of all, at the front. \\'hat our men do not find out about the numbers, dis- tribution, equipment, and morale of the German troops along the Somme may safely be left out of the reckoning.
Similarly, without saying much about it, we quietly at the beginning, or, rather, before the beginning, of the war, rounded up all the Prussian spies in the British Isles, and have so handled matters that none of their successors, to the best of my knowledge and belief, has done us any appreciable harm.
This policy of leaving what we do well to speak for itself has been closely fol- lowed in the case of our flying corps and our submarines. We have no aviation heroes. In fact, we rather make a point of having as few heroes of any kind as possible. There are at least a dozen of our flying men whose records in bringing down enemy machines would compare quite favorably with those of the much- trumpeted German champions — Immel- mann and Boelcke.
But we never hear of them. Their doings are merged in the general record of our armies at the front, where divi- sions are very rarely named, regiments and battalions scarcely at all, and indi- viduals practically never. Instead of the flashy prominence of a few men here and there, we are quite content to shelter be-
hind the anonymous but incontestable superiority of our flying . corps as a whole — a superiority so great that during the latter months of the battle of the Somme the Germans were virtually fight- ing blindfold.
PRUSSIAN SUnMARINES INEFFECTIVE
And just as we never advertise the feats of our armies, so we allow the world to think that the Prussians are hav- ing it pretty much their own way with their submarines. As a matter of fact, the German submarines have scored very few legitimate successes — by which I mean successes that conform to the usages of civilized warfare. It must be nearly two years since they sank any British men-of-war of any importance.
As pirates preying upon fishing smacks, trawlers, Atlantic liners, and the mer- chantmen of all nations, they have added a new and infamous chapter to naval his- tory. Otherwise it is, I believe, the opin- ion of most naval men that in German hands the submarine has proved disap- pointingly ineffective.
What tlie British submarines have ac- complished in the Dardanelles, in the Sea of Marmora, and in the Baltic has been far more remarkable, though far less known, than the exploits of the German U-boats.
Moreover, it has to be remembered that the Germans have something like a hun- dred chances to our one; that our fleets are constantly cruising in the North Sea, where the German dreadnoughts and cruisers very rarely venture ; and that if our submarines had been offered any- thing like the opportunities we are cease- lessly dangling before the Germans, and if by now they had not sent several Ger- man battleships to the bottom of the sea, the world would have justly said that they had bungled their business.
People, I remember, were thrown into a state of quite unbalanced admiration when the Deutschland appeared in Amer- ican waters. It was spoken of as one of the most remarkable achievements of the war. Few stopped to remember — even indeed if they ever knew — that the war was only a few months old when ten British submarines crossed the Atlantic
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CASTING THIRTY TONS OF MOLTEN STEEL IN ONE OF CANADA'S LARGE STEEL PLANTS
"The rally of the Empire to the side of the motherland has, indeed, been one of the most marvelous and one of the most momentous episodes of the war. . . . When the storm gathered, the Dominions said with one voice : 'Whatever happens, we are with you.* When it burst, they said : 'Everything we have is yours.' "
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from Halifax to the British Isles — the first submarines in naval history to make the journey under their own power.
We could, of course, if we liked, if we were given to that kind of grand-stand play, arrange for a succession of British submarines to pop up with the most dra- matic effect in every single one of the American east coast harbors. But as we prefer the realities of sea-power to its tinsel, the inducement to any such theat- ricalities is largely lacking.
THE SILENT VOICE
Similarly, while we publish a list of all the vessels sunk by Prussian submarines, we say ript a word about the U-boats whose careers are brought to a sudden stop. For myself, I honestly do not know how many of them we have caught, sunk, or destroyed. It may be i8o; it may be 200; it may be 220. They come out and they do not return, and there is no one in Germany, and perhaps not half a dozen people in England, who know what be- cor4p§ of them.
rhe reasons for our secrecy must be tolerably obvious to any one who thinks the matter over. All that the Germans are able to infer from the failure of any given U-boat to return to port is that somehow or other it has been lost. . But how or where they cannot tell.
It may have been through some error of structure or design — a thought to send a chill down the spine of every admiralty official. It may have been through a mis- take in navigation. It may have been throijgh one or other of the endless and constantly changing devices that British ingenuity has evolved and brought into play against the new piracy. It may, too, have happened near the German coast or after the U-boat had reached its ap- pointed station. They cannot tell.
They are faced with a blank wall of pos- sibilities that they have no means of veri- fying. Weeks must often elapse before they can be sure that a submarine which they thougtit was operating in a certain area had really perished, and that another boat should be dispatched to take its place.
And from another point of view the reasons for reticence are not less urgent. The British admiralty is frequently un-
able itself to decide from the reports of the naval officers who have come to grips with the submarines whether the enemy vessel was actually destroyed. Some cases are clear ; in many there is a margin of doubt; and there can be no question that it is better to say nothing at all than to put forward official claims which can- not be substantiated and which the enemy may be in a position to disprove.
Sometimes, however, the veil of mys- tery is partially lifted. Sometimes a Ger- man U-boat is towed up the Thames, moored to the embankment, and from $75,000 to $100,000 collected for some naval charity by throwing it open to the public. Sometimes if you are dining with a naval officer you will hear wondrous tales of submarines netted, bombed by aeroplanes even when they are well below the surface, hunted and caught by de- stroyers, induced by one ruse after an- other to show themselves where they can be got at.
Sometimes, too, in a British port the men of the merchant marine will tell you of Homeric combats that would have warmed the heart of Nelson and Parra- gut and made Drake and Probisher gasp and stare.
But these are mere haphazard personal gleanings. No one knows the full extent of the harvest or how it has been gath- ered in. But we do know enough — or at anyn rate we think' we do — to feel fairly confident that the Germans can attempt nothing^ and can invent nothing that we canpot find the means of countering; and that confidence has be^n rather more than justified by all that l^as happened since Pebruary i.
With the Prussians succeeding in sink- ing only about one in every hundred ships that enter or leave the British ports ; with three-fourths of all our mer- chantment that are armed successfully resisting destruction ; with the speeding up of shipbuilding and the multiplication of means of defense; with both imports and exports not merely not falling off, but steadily and positively increasing — with these as the first fruits of the in- tensified submarine campaign, we feel that while there may be cause for appre- hension, there is little or none for alarm.
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TH^ REASONS OF BRITAIN'S POWER
But unquestionably our habit of not talking except when things are going awry has led to some curious misunder- standings and underestimates of the scope and character of the British effort ; and I can well imagine that Mr. Lloyd- George's statement, with which I opened this article — his statement about the in- creasing dependence of all the Allies upon Great Britain and about the main burden of the war falling on our shoulders — must have been received by many Americans with something like incredulity.
It is worth while, therefore, to examine it more closely and to inquire in some detail what it is that has given Great Britain in this immeasurable cataclysm her extraordinary position as the axle on which all else depends.
It is, first, her naval power; it is, sec- ondly, her wealth ; thirdly, it is her indus- trial resources ; fourthly, it is that serene and silent doggedness in the national character which in two and a half years
has converted an unarmed, commercial, and f^thtr easy-going nation into a mili- tary power of the very first rank, and that animates all the Allies with the knowledge that Great Britain can be re- lied upon to the uttermost.
THE BRITISH FLEET
I like to think of some future Mahan using the history of this war to point the deadly realities of sea-power. He will need no other example. Everything that naval supremacy meailS or can ever mean has been taught in the past 32 months in a fashion that he who runs may read.
Suppose Great Britain had remained neutral and the British navy had never moved. What would have happened? The German and Austrian dreadnoughts, with a five-to-one preponderance over the combined dreadnought strength of France and Russia, would have held an easy command over the sea. Germany could then have supplemented her land attack by disembarking troops on both
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the Russian and the French coasts in the rear of the Russian and French armies ; she would have shut off all the French oversea trade; she would have captured or destroyed or driven into port practi- cally the whole of the French and Rus- sian merchant marine; France would have been blockaded; with her chief in- dustrial provinces in German occupation, she would have been prevented from im- porting any food, any raw material, any munitions; while Germany would have been free to draw on the resources of the entire world. In less than six months, for all her magnificent valor, France could not but have succumbed.
That was the Prussian calculation and it was a perfectly sound one ; but it fell like a house of cards when Great Britain intervened. Instead of securing at once the command of the sea, Germany lost it at once. Everything that she had hoped to inflict upon France and Russia by maritime supremacy was in fact inflicted upon herself. What has made it possible for us to land some 2,000,000 men on the Continent of Europe, equipped with every single item in the infinitely varied para- phernalia of modern war?
AN UDIOUITOUS AND UNSHAKABLE POWER
How have we been able to conduct simultaneous campaigns in Egypt, East Africa, the Cameroons, Southwest Af- rica, the Balkans, and the Pacific ? There are Russian troops fighting at this mo- ment in France and round Saloniki. How did they get there ?
From all the ends of the earth British subjects in hundreds upon hundreds of thousands have flocked to the central battlefield. What agency convoyed them ? What power protected them ?
The United States has built up with the Allies a trade that throws all previous American experience of foreign com- merce into the shade. But how many Americans, I wonder, stop to ask them- selves how it is that this vast volume of merchandise has crossed the Atlantic in the midst of the greatest war in all his- tory almost as swiftly and securely as in the days of prof oundest peace ?
One by one Germany's colonies have been torn from her grasp — those over-
sea possessions the children of so many hopes, the scenes of such unremitting labor, the nursing plots of such vast am- bitions; and not a single blow has been struck in defense of them by the father- land itself. One and all have had to rely on their own isolated and local efforts.
They have looked in vain to Germany. Germany — paralyzed by what power? held down in helplessness by what mys- terious spell? — has impotently watched her beginnings of a world-wide empire shattered beneath her eyes.
How is it, again, that the Belgian army has been rearmed, reconstituted, and re- equipped? How is it that the Serbian forces have similarly been rescued and remade ? How is it that Russia has been remunitioned, that Italy has been enabled to overcome her natural deficiencies, that France, in spite of the loss of some of her most highly industrialized districts, is still, for purposes both of war and of commerce, a great manufacturing nation, and that all the Allies can import freely what they need from the neutral world ?
To what ubiquitous and unshakable power, stretching from Iceland to the Equator and back again, guarding all oceans, girdling the whole world, are these miracles due? They are due to just one thing — the British navy. Be- cause of the British navy, Germany is a beleagured garrison, her strength stead- ily, ceaselessly sapping away ; her people languishing physically under the stress of the blockade, and financially and econom- ically under the total loss of her foreign trade.
IT SUPPORTS THE EDIFICE
Defeat the British navy and the war is over in six weeks. There lies Germany's nearest road, not only to peace, but to full and final victory. Take away from the Grand Alliance the support of the British navy and the whole structure col- lapses into nothingness.
Some Americans may have wondered why Prussia last fall should have begun to squeal for peace and why, on failing to get it, she should have renewed, even in face of the almost certain prospect of uniting nearly the whole neutral world against her, her campaign of murder on the high seas.
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But the answer is very simple. It is because the British navy is preying upon her vitals; because the pressure of our naval thumb upon her windpipe is never relaxed for one moment ; because all tri- umphs on land are illusory and untenable, with privation and discontent mounting up at home ; because by commanding the seas we hold the master key to all eco- nomic vitality and to all strategic mo- bility.
Germany has really had no option but to. use her submarines for all they are worth. Her one chance of staving off defeat is to raise the British blockade, to break British sea-power, to starve Brit- ain into surrender. It is a ten or a twenty to one chance against success. But what does that matter when it is her only chance ?
She sees and sees correctly that our con- trol of the oceans is not a mere adjunct to the strength of the Alliance. It is its basis. It supports the whole edifice. Without it all that the Allies have built up would crumble to pieces. With it they can erect, as on a rock, the instruments of certain victory.
But sea-power is not the only, though it is by far the greatest, of the contribu- tions that make Great Britain the main- stay of the Alliance. We are its bankers, as well as its guardians on the sea. By now we must have advanced to our Allies not less than $4,000,000,000. \'irtually we have taken on our shoulders the re- sponsibility for the credit of the Alliance abroad.
Britain's war finances
And at the same time that we are ren- dering this service we are spending more in a month than the United States Gov- ernment, not by any means the most economical in the world, has been com- pelled to spend in the whole of the last year; our weekly outlay averages some $200,000,000; we have raised on credit over $25,000,000,000, or about five times the generally accepted estimate of the cost of the entire Civil War; our yearly revenue, •about four-fifths of which is. raised by direct taxation — there are many men in Great Britain at this moment who are paying out to the State more than
half their income — amounts to some $2,- 500,000,000.
And as for the unstinted outpouring of private generosity, let this one fact suf- fice: that a single London newspaper, acting on behalf of a single fund, has raised nearly as much money as all the American people, the whole hundred millions of them — and they most cer- tainly have not been behindhand in their generosity — have given to all the war charities combined. I should judge that by now the British people must have sub- scribed for their own sufferers by the war and for their Allies at least $500,- 000,000.
But besides placing our purse and our fleets at the service of the Alliance we are also its main arsenal and workshop. To Great Britain all who are fighting with her turn as to an inexhaustible treasure- house and rarely turn in vain. Is it ships, or provisions, or clothing, or raw ma- terial, or coal, or guns, or shells, or any other item in the endless catalogue of war? At once and unhesitatingly, for whatever they may happen to need, the Allies with one accord come to us; and it is our proud privilege to satisfy, as far as we can, every one of their demands.
A NATION REWROUGIIT INDUSTRIALLY
I am not sure that in this country there is much more than a very hazy concep- tion of the industrial revolution that has been wrought by the war in Great Britain. It is not merely that we have scrapped old machinery with a more than Amer- ican ruthlessness. It is not merely that some of the best and most scientific brains in the Kingdom are now giving their attention, and with astounding re- sults, to the problems of manufacture, or that capital and labor were never work- ing more harmoniously together, or that trade-union practices which interfered with the maximum production have been done away with.
It is not merely that over 4,500 firms, not one of which before the war even dreamed of making munitions, are now engaged on nothing else, or that we have erected over 100 colossal government fac- tories for turning out shells, guns, pow- der, and the implements of trench war-
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A POPULAR DEMONSTRATION BY THE NEI.SON COLUMN IN TRAFALGAR SQUARE,
LONDON, ON NELSON DAY
fare ; or that we have trained and organ- ized and are now employing on war work some 3,500,000 people; or that we have discovered and utilized the immense, the hitherto unused, industrial capacities of women.
It is not merely that the government is branching out in a hundred helpful direc- tions and backing up our merchants and manufacturers with all the resources at its command. It is not merely that our biggest firms are everywhere getting to- gether and organizing the trades to which they belong as they have never been or- ganized before.
Nor is it merely that questions of in- dustrial welfare and efficiency and the whole economy of production are being studied with incomparable zeal, and that nothing since the introduction of the steam-engine has so renovated, sent such a stir through all branches of British in- dustry, as this war.
These are not the things that matter. What matters is that Britain is work-
ing ; has taken off her coat ; has ceased to be a land of leisure, and has become a land of infinite labor. And to what ef- fect she is working may be judged by the fact that in spite of the vast exodus from industry to the army and navy, and in spite of the concentration of the main la- bor force upon munitions, her exports of ordinary commercial commodities reached last year a value only once exceeded in the most prosperous times of peace.
A MIRACLE OF ACHIEVEMENT
Talk of German efficiency and German organization ! I know of nothing in Ger- many's conduct of the war that for sheer genius and flexibility surpasses the indus- trial transformation that the past thirty months have produced in Great Britain.
How we have worked up our output of high explosive shells to a point where it leaves the German factories far be- hind— and less than two years ago Ger- many was turning out a hundred times as many of these shells as we were ; how we
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have grappled with and solved pretty nearly every one of the technical prob- lems that the war has sprung upon us, and how in doing so we have had to turn all our industrial arrangements upside down and to create what is nothing less than a new industrial order — all this it would need a volume, and a very fasci- nating one, to describe.
We were set what seemed a hopelessly impossible task and we have accomplished it; and our present independence of America in the supply of munitions and the fighting throughout the latter half of 19 16 on the Somme front are more elo- quent than any statistics could be of the magnitude of our effort.
But I should just like to say a word or two as to the services that in this way we have been able to render the Allies. I suppose that we must have placed at their disposal not less than 500 British ships. There are special factories in Great Brit- ain solely devoted to meeting the arma- ment needs of Russia, of France, and of Belgium. Shells, field howitzers, heavy guns, grenades, machine-guns, and small arms leave British ports in immense quantities day after day for the use of our Allies.
THESK WOXDERFUL FEATS MADE POSSIBLE BY WOMEN
One-third of our total production of shell steel goes to France. That fact alone, to those who understand the char- acter of this war, is an epitome of Great Britain's industrial contributions to the common cause. Three-fourths of the steel-producing districts of France are occupied by the enemy, and our ally ab- solutely depends on us and on our com- mand of the sea to procure the essential basis of all modern warfare.
It is the same with other metals — with copper, for instance, antimony, lead, tin, spelter, tungsten, mercury, high - speed steel, and other less vital substances. All these we are manufacturing in Great Britain or in other parts of the Empire, or purchasing in neutral lands and deliv- ering "to our Allies, under the protection of the British navy, to the value of over $30,000,000 a month.
Millions of tons of coal and coke reach
them from our shores every week; one- fifth of our total production of machine tools is set aside for them, and huge car- goes of explosives and machinery are daily dispatched to their address.
It was with the products of British workshops, rushed to the Mediterranean in British ships and guarded by the Brit- ish navy, that the Italians were able to push back the Austrian offensive of last May ; and the shells and guns which we had manufactured for and transported to Russia were the real starting point of Brusiloff's triumphant sweep through Galicia.
The immensity of productive effort re- quired to meet these demands could never have been sustained had it. not been for the women. They have entered pretty nearly every trade and occupation, how- ever arduous and dangerous, in the in- tensity of their desire to "do their bit," and it is one of the compensations of the war that it should have revealed to us - the full splendor of British. womanhood.
Nor could we have borne our unique burden without organizing powers of the highest efficiency. There is a legend abroad, which we are much too busy and also much too lazy to refute, that Great Britain in this war is following her nor- mal habit of "muddling through." As a matter of fact, she owes her present pre- dominance precisely to. the efficiency which the struggle has surprised out of her.
PROPHETIC MEASURES
In almost all the big commercial and administrative undertakings that are in- separable from war, and without which victory cannot be achieved, the British Government has come off with flying colors. Its statesmanship, for instsuice, in the early days of the war saved the fabric of international credit from what might have been irreparable ruin.
The measures by which it assumed control of the railways and has since di- rected them were so well thought out that scarcely a life, or an hour of time, or a ton of stores or equipment has been lost in the whole tremendous business of transporting and supplying our armies overseas.
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A SAMPLE OF CANADA S CONTRIBUTION TO THE BRITISH FORCES
One might recall, again, how its scheme for insuring cargoes and hulls gave in- stant confidence to the shipping world and went far toward maintaining that regularity of our food supplies which so far has been one of the wonders of the war.
One might recall, too, how it bought up some $90,000,000 worth of sugar and succeeded for a long while in keeping that essential commodity cheaper in Eng- land, which has to import it, than in Ger- many, which produces it.
Similarly, it got a not less effective con- trol of the refrigerated meat trade; it made enormous purchases of wheat and oats without any one, even in the Chicago pit, suspecting that the British Govern- ment was the buyer; it bought up the whole of the Norwegian fish supply; it has regulated the price of coal ; it has overridden not less successfully the ordi- nary laws of supply and demand in the case of wool, flax, and jute, to the im- mense benefit of the State, of the textile trades, and of our Allies.
It is now, under Mr. Lloyd-George's
leadership, branching out into a far more minute scheme for controlling the pro- duction and distribution of the food of the entire country. It is taking over the shipping trade, the mining industry, and most of the liquor trade.
It is feeling its way toward a system of compulsory civil service as a comple- ment to compulsory military service, so that every man not wanted in the army — and every woman, too — may be set to work where his or her labor can be most useful to the State.
There is not the smallest doubt that it will prove as efficient in these as it has in all its other business enterprises — as it proved, for instance, in devising and in inducing Holland, Norway, and Denmark to accept its plan for rationing those countries more or less in accordance with their ante-bellum needs ; and as it also proved in the very complicated arrange- ments that have to be made with the cot- ton, metal, and textile trades in the United States.
Even our press censorship, for all its stupidities in the opening months of the
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war, has triumphantly fulfilled its main purpose, that of preventing the publica- tion of any news which might be of use to the enemy; and if Americans will quietly sit down and imagine the entire American press muzzled into a similar innocuousness they will begin to appre- ciate at least one of the many hundred problems that the British Government has had to solve. The censorship of the mails is another masterpiece of organization.
Certainly the civilian, English or Amer- ican, who visits the British front these days and who realizes that every man and every ounce of stores and every pound of equipment, and, indeed, the whole army and all it eats and wears and uses, and the weapons wherewith it fights, have been brought there after two railway journeys and one sea journey, involving at least four and possibly six changes and transshipments, becomes just a little tired when he hears the British accused of inefficiency. And the longer he ex- plores the bases and takes in the perfec- tion of all the arrangements for feeding, supplying, and nursing these tremendous hosts and for making good the casualties to material, the more he perceives that Great Britain is winning this war by the rapidity and completeness with which she has thrown overboard all the slouchy standards of peace.
"evhrvtiiixg we havk is yours"
And when I say Great Britain I mean, of course, not the men and women of the United Kingdom only, but all British sub- jects everywhere. The rally of the Em- pire to the side of the motherland has, indeed, been one of the most marv'elous and one of the most momentous episodes of the war.
Wherever the British flag waves, in places the ordinary Englishman has barely heard of, among peoples of whom he knows next to nothing there is today, as there has been since the war began, but one impulse and one resolve. From the 450,000,000 British subjects, infinitely varied in speech and creed and color, in habits and geographical distribution, in economic circumstances and pursuits, there breathes the single intense determi-
nation to persist in this struggle till vic- tory has crowned our united arms.
The world has never seen anything like it. The Crusades bore but the faintest resemblance to this spontaneous rising of the free communities, scattered over the seven seas, on behalf of a cause that pas- sionately appeals to their sense of right. The poet's prayer has been answered. "In the day of Armageddon, at the last great fight of all," it has been proved that "our house stands together and the pillars do not fall." The Prussians always knew that at the touch of war the British Em- pire would rise. They were quite right. It has risen. But not precisely in the way they expected.
When the storm gathered, the Domin- ions said with one voice : "Whatever hap- pens, we are with you." When it burst, they said : "Everything we have is yours."
Canada proposed sending an expedi- tionary force two days before war was declared. Australia put the Australian navy and 20,000 men at the complete dis- posal of the home government. New Zealand, five days before the war broke out, declared her intention to send her utmost quota of help in support of the Empire. South Africa at once assumed, and very brilliantly carried out, full re- sponsibility for her own defense. New- foundland engaged on the spot to meet all the local expenses of raising 1,000 men for the naval reserve.
MARVELOUS GIFTS FROM IXDIA
As for India, a veritable tidal wave of loyalty and sacrifice swept from the Him- alayas to Cape Comorin. The rulers of the native States, nearly 700 in all, of- fered the King-Emperor their personal services and their local resources. There are 2^ States in India that maintain Im- perial service troops. One and all of these corps were literally flung at the head of the Viceroy.
Money, jewelry, horses and camels and men poured in upon the government. The Dalai Lama of Tibet, oflfered 1,000 troops. The chiefs of the frontier tribes pressed their services. Sir Pertab Singh, though in his seventieth year, would take no denial, and his spirit was the spirit of all the diverse millions in the dependency.
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A vast competition ensued to see which State, which prince, could do most for the Empire. Faction ceased; grievances were put on one side ; discontent was smothered. When the news came that the King-Emperor would use the valor of his Indian subjects, the whole penin- sula rang with joy.
All this in the first month of the war. Soon the stream became a mighty tor- rent fed from every corner of the Em- pire. All the fruits of the earth, all the products of the factory, all the resources of public treasures and private purses, all the accessories of war that individual generosity could furnish, were lavished without stint upon the government in London.
Time and again the Colonial office had to refuse gifts that it felt would be put- ting too great a strain on the donors. From the seamstresses and market- women of the Bahamas, with their offer- ings of two or three shillings, to the Ni- zam of Hyderabad, with his initial gift of $2,000,000; from East African chiefs, with their contributions of bullocks and goats, to the millions forwarded in money and goods from the self-governing do- minions— one common passion to give and spend swept through the Empire.
If it had been confined to men and women of British blood and origin, it would still have been wonderful enough ; but what gave and gives it — for the tide still runs flood high — its preeminent sig- nificance is that the native rulers and peo- ples have been everywhere foremost in words and deeds. They hastened as one man to show their gratitude for what British justice and British government had done for them; and the more they knew of Prussian rule the more quickly they hastened.
Not in a thousand years could the Ho- henzollerns earn such touching and un- forced tributes of loyalty and affection as Sir Hugh Clifford on the Gold Coast and Sir Frederic D. Lugard in Nigeria — to mention but two instances — have been privileged to receive.
And what have the men of the domin- ions and of India achieved in the war? They have seized the German possessions in the Pacific ; they have conquered Togo-
land and German Southwest Africa and the Cameroons; they hold virtually the whole of German East Africa in their grip ; they made an end of the Emden; in Flanders and the Dardanelles, at the head of the Persian Gulf, in Egypt, in Arabia, and along the course of the Tigris and Euphrates, Indians and New Zealanders, Australians and Canadians, have shed their bravest blood.
Before the war is ended the Empire overseas will have thrown into the strug- gle well over 1,000,000 men, unsurpassed the world over in physique, intelligence, and the qualities of daring initiative.
It is a superb record. No Britisher can even think of it without a feeling of awe mingling with his pride. Far beyond any material strengthening, it has brought to the motherland the inspiration of the real sense of oneness that underlies all the peoples of the Empire.
This war will change many things ; on the structure and machinery of the Brit- ish Empire its mark will be indelible. No one after the experience of the first two and a half years can think it possible to maintain much longer the arrangement by which policies that affect the govern- ments and peoples of the entire Empire and involve them in unlooked-for perils, sacrifices, and responsibilities are decided in London by the leaders of a single Brit- ish political party, without any consulta- tion whatever with the statesmen of the dominions. That is an anomaly which will have to go. But to uproot it means not merely to alter, but to revolutionize, the constitution of the British Empire.
AS IP AMERICA SHOULD RAISE 11,500,000 TROOPS
Meanwhile to make the rounds of any of the British fronts at any of the thea- ters of war is to view a microcosm of the Empire. It is, indeed, the climax to all our other services and achievements that we should have turned ourselves into a military power of the first order. People talk of Great Britain being slow to wake up to the realities of the war. So we were in some ways. But 2,000,000 men enlisted in the first year of the war, which seems to show a certain conscious- ness that at any rate something unusual
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was going on. And before conscription came into force in May of last year — that is, before the war was two years old — 5,000,000 men, or more than 1 1 per cent of the total population of the British Isles, had volunteered.
If Americans will imagine themselves raising a volunteer army of 11,500,000 men — ^which is what they would have to do to parallel the British achievement — they will get some idea of the magnitude of what has been accomplished. Alto- gether . it seems probable that at least 6,500,000, and possibly 7,000,000, men of the United Kingdom will have served with the colors before the war is over.
Our old army that formed the expedi- tionary force to France ; that covered it- self with credit during the retreat from Mons; that helped to save the French forces from being outflanked, and that barred the way to Calais against a Ger- man army that outnumbered it by more than four to one, was, I suppose, one of the most wonderful military instruments that has ever been fashioned.
A DEMOCRATIC ARMY
But it was a profession, a caste, apart. The new armies, however, are not a caste ; they are the nation itself. They are drawn from every class and trade and profession in the Kingdom, and they proved conclusively on the Somme that they could beat the Germans at their own game.
They gave the German army such a mauling as seldom any army has ever re- ceived since warfare first began. The battle of the Somme was not only by far the biggest battle of the war; in duration, in the numbers engaged, and in the in- tensity of the artillery fire it was the big- gest battle the world has yet seen. Some 750,000 of the enemy were put out of action before it ended. Our troops cap- tured position after position, each one stronger than any the Germans have taken since the beginning of the war.
They made "the blood bath of the Somme" a name of terror throus^hout the fatherland, charged 'with horror no less deep than that of Verdun. They com- pelled the greatest retreat that it has so far fallen upon the German troops to
execute. They pounded the heart out of them, and they have followed the enemy to his new lines with a definite conviction that they have at last the upper hand.
But our men who are thus helpino: to wear down the most formidable foe that has ever assaulted the freedom of Eu- rope, who have captured Bagdad, and are contributing to end Turkish rule in Asia Minor ; who have mopped up the German colonies, while preserving intact the in- tegrity of all British possessions, and who are holding up their end in the difficult warfare of the Balkans — these men are something more than the backbone of Britain during the struggle. They will be its backbone also in the hardly less anxious years of peace. They will be the pivot of the new England that is being forged in the furnace of the war.
LESSONS OF THE WAR
And that new England is a very dif- ferent country from the old one. A po- litical democracy we have long been. A social democracy before the war we were not. But we are now. Some six or seven million men, as I have said, have mingled with one another ; have learned to under- stand and sympathize with one another in the new armies ; have been trained into an equal brotherhood in the severest school of courage, efficiency, and disci- pline ; have had most of the nonsense of social distinctions knocked out of them.
Gone is the vicious consideration that wealth has always claimed and received in the plump security of the British Isles. Duke's son and cook's son are fighting shoulder to shoulder ; great ladies do the waiting in the soldiers* refreshment buf- fets ; work like sewing maids in the Red Cross arsenals ; like factory hands in the munition works; a shop walker and a grocer's assistant wear the Victoria Cross — the new patent of nobility; for the convalescent wounded there is a boundless outpouring of hospitality and aflFection, free from the remotest tinge of condescension; the impulse to succor, to link hands, to know and understand one another, is universal.
We have learned from this war, and perhaps nothing else could have taught us, the nobility of sacrifice and of work.
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We have learned the full meaning of citi- zenship. We are going through an ordeal that has called into play every faculty we possess, and that will leave us facing life sanely, distinguishing very sharply be- tween its realities and its solemn plausi- bilities and a hundred times more efficient than we were for meeting all its emer- gencies.
You must not think of England as de- pressed. She is^ facing her task, she is bearing her titanic load, with a tenacity that is wonderfully serene. She is serene not only because she is confident of her power, but because she knows she is fight- ing for the noblest causes that ever sum- moned a nation to arms, and because she knows, with an equally passionate cer- tainty of conviction, that honor and duty left her no alternative.
A NATION IN transition"
Although nowadays in England there is httle social life — people have no time in which to see anybody — and little travel, and practically no sport, and few oppor- tunities and less inclination for amuse- ment, and although we have to get along as best we can without servants, or with very few of them, without letters — every- body is too busy to write except to the men at the front — without motoring, without lights in the towns after dark,
and without Paris fashions and dinner parties and balls, and although every morning there stares us in the face the ghastly list of the fallen and the wound- ed, still we are buoyed up by the knowl- edge that the cause, the great cause, is worth all sacrifices and all privations.
That is why we have gladly surren- dered our most cherished liberties, turned our parliamentary system inside out, and submitted to a multitude of restrictions and inconveniences any one of which in the little days of peace would have started a rebellion.
Great Britain, that seemed so fixed, is now in transition ; the foundations of its whole scheme of life are shifting, even if they are not breaking; habits and preju- dices and old instinctive attitudes of mind are in process of dissolution; economic conditions that one thought were rooted in the deeps are made plastic and ad- justable; and from this welter of re- newal there is springing up an England strengthened by enormous sacrifices for great ideals, ennobled by poverty, disci- plined without losing her characteristic flexibility and self - reliance, knowing more than a little of the true faith of social equality, and proud to have played once more, and not without honor, her historic role as the defender of the lib- erties of Europe.
RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS
By Montgomery Schuyler
THERE is nothing new under the sun. Recent events in Russia have not introduced an entirely new system of government into that great empire, but the revolution of the past few weeks, as we hastily but inaccurately call it, is in truth a reversal to an earlier form of democratic government in which the Russian people centuries ago had made great progress and in which they stood in the forefront of the European nations.
The leaders of thought in Russia today have not evolved a novelty, nor are they
experimenting with a novelty ; they have simply brought back to life the centuries old popular saying of the people in Rus- sia: "If the prince is bad, into the mud with him."
We must admit, of course, that it has not been exactly the custom in the past few hundred years to act upon this say- ing in the case of rulers who had made themselves disliked by their subjects, but the underlying spirit was always there, waiting with infinite Russian patience for the men and the hour.
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Copyright II. C. White Company, 1916 THE MONUMENT OF FAME: PETROGRAD r
In the square to the east of the Trinity Cathedral towers this cast-iron shaft surmounted by a bronze figure of Victory. The monument was erected in 1886 to commemorate the events of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Five rows of captured Turkish cannon form the flutes of the Corinthian column and ten captured guns decorate the base. The adjacent cathedral occupies the site of the wooden chapel in which tradition says Peter the Great was married on a November night in 1707 to Catherine, the future empress.
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The whole social fabric of the early Slav was of a communal kind, but of a communism very different from that which afterward grew up embracing comm.on property. Collectively the Slavs tilled the soil and carried on other occu- pations and collectively they lived in large timber houses.
It was an excellent system for the de- velopment of certain features of self- government; but in the troublous times in which it started, it was not sufficient to give any one collection of people a preponderance over other groups, and it was not suited to any great advance in, civilization.
In time it was realized that some stronger and more centralized form of control was needed for the piio^ection of the Slavs from their more warlike neigh- bors, the Asiatic tribes, by whom they were surrounded.
They took, then, voluntarily one of the most remarkable steps recorded by his- tory, or at least vouched for by legend: they themselves called in to govern them two Scandinavian princes and a prin- cess— Rurik, Igor, and Olga — and said to them, according to the story: "Our country is wide and fertile, but there is no order. Come and govern us."
Eventually these princes and their fol- lowers became the new aristocracy of the time, very much as happened in England with the Normans, who were, if we be- lieve tradition, the same race of people.
The union of the two elements gave the people what they lacked and formed the beginnings of the Russian Empire of today, with their mixture of democratic ideas with perfunctory obedience to es- tablished rulers.
In the early days princes could not ex- act obedience against the wish of the peo- ple. Unpopular rulers were dismissed with scant ceremony in medieval Russia and, especially in the palmy days of Nov- gorod "the Great," there was a real self- governing republic in the heart of Russia.
THE TATAR CURSE
In spite of the new blood thus ac- quired and the traditions of democracy which were rapidly and widely develop- ing from these factors, the geography of
the country once more showed its power in influencing history. The Russian com- munities were spreading and scattering all over the plain, and while they were laying the foundations for future great- ness of empire there was not sufficient cohesion among them to develop the broad unity of purpose which was to be found so necessary if these little States were to resist invasion.
For along with the growth of the prin- cipalities came the great vital fact which stands out and dominates everything else in the history of medieval Russia, name- ly, the later Tatar invasions and the grad- ,AX^\ subjugation by them of the Russian jpriiices. In another country the inhabit- -i^nts could have retreated to mountain \and desert regions and held off the new- ''comers for centuries.
But the peaceful and peace-loving Rus- sians were in no condition to resist these formidable barbarians, who, under the celebrated Genghiz Khan and other lead- ers, rapidly overran Russia and in a com- paratively short space of time had brought the whole country under their rule. The very nature of the loose and highly localized government of the princes was their undoing and they suffered by it for centuries, and in fact until they took a leaf from the conquerors' book and themselves built up the central power they needed.
We must therefore, I think, regard the Mongol invasions as the underlying cause of the development of the autocratic prin- ciple in Russia. They built up a super- structure of Oriental despotism and au- tocracy, which, in one form or another, has lasted in Russia until the present time. Even in far-away times the Russian peasant was impatient of too much con- trol over his personal liberty and his property, and when he was not strong enough to resist or powerful enough to drive out the offending prince he did the next best thing — disappeared himself, with all his belongings, and founded a new settlement elsewhere. This fact must be kept constantly in mind in any study of the reasons why the Tatars obtained and kept for so long such a hold upon the Russian principalities ; the people and their rulers were not united by bonds
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
sufficiently strong to make them fight against the invaders.
The peasants were originally holders of land and members of rural communes ; they were constantly trying to maintain their rights of freedom of domicile and movement, but the princes and nobles were as constantly attempting to limit and nullify these rights, so that they might not be deprived of the services of the peasants on their lands.
In the reigns succeeding that of the terrible Ivan, the principles of autocracy replaced whatever forms of popular gov- ernment there had been. The state of the small farmers and peasants slowly became worse and they degenerated into thie position of appanages of the land on which they lived.
THE FIRST ROMANOFF WAS ELECTED, TSAR BY AN ASSEMBLY
. It is a curious fact, and one little ap- preciated now, that after some years- of trouble and rebellion, Michael RomanoflF, first Tsar of that. name, was elected by an assembly. He did not succeed to the throne, nor had he any particular, right to be chosen.
Once more for a time the Tatar teach- ings were forgotten in Russia to some ex- tent and there was a partial retitrrt to the older methods.
The fact that Michael had been -elected limited to some extent his autocratic powers, the more so as his election was the result of several compromises be- tween the diflferent factions of the no- bles and courtiers, and he did not feel strong enough in the support of any one group to oppose the will of other cliques.
He, therefore, returned to the system of obtaining counsel and support from the people by means of "zemskii sobory," which were not exactly parliaments, but assemblies representing diflferent districts and classes of society. In these conven- tions the greatest part ^as taken by the representatives of the middle classes. One result of these assemblies was the production of a new code of laws.
But Michael's successor, Alexis, sup- pressed them and put autocracy firmly on its feet, there to remain until the present day.
ABSOLUTISM WA^ THEN NEEDED
However much we may regret -the dis- appearance of popular .government from Russia under the early Romanoflf emper- ors, we must admit that it was necessary for the growth and expansion of the Em- pire. The Tatars probably never would have been driven out when they were under the old system of petty multitudes of principalities, each jealous of the other and intriguing against it at the court of the khanS. .
Absolutism at that Aage of the world's development was n^ded for the firm control of an^enormobs territory such as was the Russiaji plain, which of itself formed no obstatt^ lo. foreign invasion and which tended to produce a uniformity of race and government. ' Peter the Great could not have done what he did in bringing his country into the ranks of modem Stdtes^f he had not had an autocratic form of government. He realized fully the influence of the army in establishing him firmly in the new absolutism, and in 1716, in his mili- tary statutes, he declared : "His Majesty is sovereign and autocrat. He is account- able to no one in the world."
From the time of Ivan the Terrible it was autocracy which, more than anything else, contributed to the long history of territorial extensions of Russia and her prestige, such as it was, abroad. In an endless cycle, territorial expansion led to political extension of this doctrine, and this to new territorial growth.
By the end of the reign of Peter an autocratic emperor was head of the na- tion, the church, and the army, and held absolutely in his own hands all spiritual and temporal power.
THE RESTORATION OF SELF-GOVERNMENT BEGUN
The famous Emancipation Act of the Emperor Alexander II in 1861 suddenly altered the status of the peasants and from a condition of practical slavery made them freemen once more.
It was soon found necessary to give them a certain share in local self-govern- ment and a somewhat complicated adjust- ment of this matter was arranged. There
Digitized by
© Underwood and Underwood RUSSIAN OFFICERS TAKING TEA IN THEIR CASINO
When, by imperial rescript, Nicholas II put an end to the manufacture and sale of vodka, the national alcoholic beverage, there was much groaning among the 120,000,000 white Russians, but the effect was miraculously salutary, both upon the civilian population and the soldiers.
was a village council called the volost; this was composed solely of peasants and was a sort of development historically of the ancient mir, or commune, a survival of the old family rule. The volost, how- ever, was soon seen to be inadequate and a larger unit, the zemstvo, was created by an imperial decree in 1864.
The best English translation of this word, perhaps, is "county council." It is an assembly of deputies from the volosts, to which are added a certain number of nobles, so that peasants and proprietors are seated together. Above the district zemstvo again are the provincial councils, consisting of chosen representatives of the lower councils.
This system worked fairly satisfac- torily for a number of years and had made the beginning of self-government in parliamentary fashion once more in current use in Russia. In 1889, how- ever, the government decided to have its own direct officers in each rural district,
and for that purpose appointed zemski iiGtchalniki, or rural overseers, to live in each district.
As these petty officials were appointed not by the people, but by the central ad- ministration, their presence was not wel- come, and their interference with local affairs and their constant surveillance of the people brought about many conflicts with the local authorities. They were designed to be a sort of guardian for the peasants, on the theory that the latter were unfit to govern themselves, but in reality, of course, they were spies.
The legal economic status of the peas- antry, it must be remembered, is that of a minor not fully competent as yet to man- age his own business or private affairs.
The decision, however, that the peas- ants of Russia were not capable of self- government, even in the ordinary affairs of the community, while convenient for the bureaucracy, was not very successful as a way out of the practical difficulties
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RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS
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arising from the making of freemen out of serfs in such enormous numbers.
BUT THE people's GREATEST NEED — EDUCATION — WAS DENIED
What the great mass of the Russian people needed and what should have been put into execution as soon as the emanci- pation of the serfs was effected was a system of popular education embracing the whole people, in the course of which they should have received the instruction necessary for their first attempts to re- sume any self-government on the new scale.
Had this course been at once followed and continued until the present time, it is very doubtful if Russia would have had on her hands the terrible tragedies which followed the emancipation.
The government seemed to be afraid to give the common people any education, even to the extent of allowing them to read and write. It thought, apparently, that with education would come dissatis- faction with the existing form of govern- ment, and that with dissatisfaction would come some attempt to bring about re- forms.
So the bureaucracy adopted the old expedient of burying its head in the sand and in refusing knowledge to the people. This was naturally only partially success- ful. Education in schools might be lack- ing, but it was impossible to keep a hun- dred and fifty million human beings per- manently in the dark and without knowl- edge as to how the rest of the world was living and progressing.
The Russian peasants may be illiterate, as, indeed, according to statistics, about 70 per cent of them are, but they have the shrewd intelligence of the peasant all over the world, and their sturdy common sense makes up for lack of schooling to a great extent.
Thus, in spite of all opposition, the rural and urban assemblies retained the germ of local government, and in spite of the dual control, as the result of which much of their influence was nullified, they did have a certain value in airing abuses and suggesting improvements. Their existence was often threatened, but never entirely stopped.
Note, however, that there was no na- tional congress or assembly of any kind from the eighteenth century down to the foundation of the new Imperial Duma, in 1906.
THE FIRST NATIONAL CONGRESS IN 280 YEARS
The members of this body were to be chosen by electors from all over the coun- try. The new law gave the suffrage to every man over 25 years of age who had a fixed domicile and a certain property qualification. In rural districts those peasants had votes who were fathers of families, together with the rural land- owners, nobles, merchants, and members of the clergy ; in the cities, State officials, members of the public services, and pro- prietors with certain qualifications. In- dustrial workers who could prove six months' continuous labor in establish- ments having at least fifty employees could also vote.
The Duma could express views, but was nearly helpless in carrying into effect any reforms. But it had a certain influ- ence for good in its very existence, and after a succession of abortive sessions, the later assemblies developed a courage which was truly remarkable when the forces opposed to it are considered.
It is not too much to say, in the light of recent events, that the Duma and what it stands for is responsible directly and primarily for the overthrow of the Ro- manoff dynasty and the establishment of a new form of government in Russia.
The reason for the failure of the revo- lutionary movement which convulsed Russia in the years immediately succeed- ing the Russo-Japanese War is that the methods were too radical and too remi- niscent of the old nihilism to be popular, even with the milder groups of revolu- tionists.
The arguments of that time consisted in bombs thrown at unpopular ministers or officials who, although not disliked personally, were supposed to embody the principles of the autocratic regime too closely. It is doubtful if these enthusi- asts ever had the support of any large element of the Russian population out-
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RUSSIA'S DEMOCRATS
223
side of the acknowledged "advanced" visionaries.
The leaders of the movements of 1905 and the succeeding years were men whose abilities and whose methods in no way held the confidence either of the middle classes or the peasants.
In fact, what with the devotion of the peasant to the "Little Father" as typify- ing the supreme head of Church and State, and his innate distrust of all strangers, it had never been possible for the revolutionists to get any wide sup- port among the low^er classes. In many cases the transplanted peasants who made up the industrial classes in the cities had quite openly taken that side, but indus- trialism as opposed to agriculture had never enough votaries to make their sup- port effective.
The riots and general disturbances of 1905 were largely confined to the cities and to workers on the various railways who had been in sufficiently close touch with urban life to make them quicker to feel the need of change and progress.
THE PRESENT LEADERS ARE FAR-SIGHTED
The leaders of the new movement, however, have learned their less.on. In- stead of sporadic instances of terrorism, followed by violence, they have entered upon a campaign of education, carried out systematically and with restraint, for the purpose of having all the people with them when the opportune time to strike should come.
They eagerly seized the opportunity of the war and its consequent needs to illus- trate in a practical way how much better they could manage things if given the power, and the Russian, who may be slow, but who is not dull, has learned the lesson so graphically put before him.
It is, of course, too soon after the stir- ring events of the last few weeks to esti- mate with any degree of accuracy just what result the overthrowing of abso- lutism will have on the future of the Russian people. The peasants — that is, of course, the vast majority of the in- habitants of the Empire — have, since the emancipation, been singularly indifferent to their government except in the way of interest in the whole agrarian question.
If the dynasty and the bureaucracy had seen fit to give the peasants a satisfactory solution of the problems arising from land ownership, as they so easily could have done, I doubt greatly if there would have been any revolution at the present time.
Even a fairly good rule would have satisfied these simple people. The lim- ited amount of self-government they en- joyed in the rural assemblies, hampered though it was, was enough for the most pressing questions of local interest.
These assemblies, however, naturally had no authority to dig down to the root of the peasants' grievances — the unequal distribution of land and the lack of any just system for adjusting complaints thereon — and could not on that account be considered satisfactory.
What undoubtedly had more effect than anything else in influencing the peas- ant favorably toward the new govern- ment and against the old was the fact that shortly after the beginning of the present war it was seen that the regular commissariat department of the War Of- fice was quite unequal to carrying out the tasks imposed by the mobilization of the millions of men called to the colors in Russia, namely, of provisioning, clothing, and transporting the men according to requirements.
ASSOCIATIONS OF THE PE0PI.E
The first mobilization was carried out in 1 9 14, in the summer-time, and did not entail any great amount of physical hard- ship on the recruits. When the winter of that year had arrived, however, and the cold had made transportation difficult, the suffering was great.
In many cases troops had to be sent several weeks' journey by rail in unheated freight cars, without any conveniences, and if it had not been for the splendid work of the zemstvo committees thou- sands would have frozen and starved.
Each local assembly, both in city and country, formed special committees, as they had done in the Japanese war, and, working with that perfect spirit of co- operation which distinguishes Russians of every walk in life when interested in any common object, they rapidly and
Digitized by
Photograph trom J. C, Grew
THE BIGGEST MONOLITH OF OUR TIMES — THE ALEXANDER COLUMN: PETROGRAD
In the center of the Dvortzovaya Square, before the Winter Palace, towers this huge pillar of polished red Finnish granite, nearly ico feet high and 13 feet in diameter. The height of the whole monument, including the bronze angel clasping a 20-foot cross, is 153^2 feet. It was erected in 1834 hy Tsar Nicholas I to the memory of his brother, Alexander I. On the side facing the Winter Palace is the inscription, "Grateful Russia to Alexander I."
energetically took over practically the whole task of providing food and other needed supplies for the soldiers.
Booths were established at railway sta- tions where the men could get bread and hot tea on the arrival of the troop trains ; nurses and doctors were on hand to look after any who might need their services, and a whole system of first aid was soon in effect.
Soon it was found necessary for these committees to take up the question of
buying supplies in quantity and in trans- porting these supplies to where they were needed. This was followed by the organ- ization of boot and clothing factories, help in munition works, and gradually, but steadily, the zemstva took over prac- tically every function of the quartermas- ter's department of the army and navy.
THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE DRUNKARD
Another phase, and one perhaps as im- portant, if not more so, than the develop-
224
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Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor A STREET SCENE IN MOSCOW, RUSSIA
The low-hung, single-passenger vehicle, with its ponderously yoked horse, is as typical of Russia as is the howdah-equipped elephant of India or the man-power jinrikisha of Japan. Carriages for infant Russia are not in universal use, however, as evidenced by the little mother in the picture with her arms full of baby.
225 Digitized by GoOglC
AFTERNOON TEA IN RUSSIA
The popularity of the cup which cheers but does not inebriate has increased enormously since vodka went out of fashion. Another favorite table beverage of the Russians is kvass, the liquor drawn off soaked black bread or white bread.
ment of popular aid to the military forces of the country, is the immense expansion of the already existing cooperative socie- ties since the beginning of the war. This growth is very closely connected with the abolition of vodka and the consequent entire sobriety of the whole nation for a period which is already of nearly three years' duration.
Strong drink had always been the one absolutely essential thing for the peasant. Whatever else he lacked, he must have his drunken spree once in so often, and no obligation, no duty, and no work ever interfered with the far more important task of periodically getting drunk.
As each spree took at least three days' time — one day to get drunk, one to lie drunk, and one to recover his senses — the working time of the average peasant was greatly diminished. To this was added the due observance of all State and Church holidays and anniversaries,
and also bad weather, so that in all prob- ability 150 days would be a large labor average for a year.
When the Emperor "by a stroke of the pen," as is so often said, wiped out the great curse of drink from the people, he not only added greatly to their economic forces, but to their military fitness. It is now widely felt that one of the most po- tent reasons for the ill-success of the Russian arms in the Japanese war was the constant state of intoxication of so many of the officers and men.
With the ending of vodka, however, a great deal of spare time was thrown on the people. Drinking was one of the chief amusements of millions of men who could neither read nor write, and if dis- orders, if the mischief which Satan al- ways finds for idle hands, was to be avoided, something must be substituted in the way of clean and healthful recrea- tion.
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C) Underwood & Underwood SIBERIAN HIDES AND VILLAGE OF THE TATARS: NIZHNI- NOVGOROD, RUSSIA
Live-stock breeding is second to agriculture as a pursuit among the inhabitants of Siberia, a region one and a half times as large as all Europe and forty times larger than the British Isles.
It must be remembered that, as a result of the dislike of the authorities for all assemblies of people, no matter of how innocent a character, there had been prac- tically no lectures, concerts, theaters, or other forms of pastime, if we except the excellent military band concerts in the public parks on summer evenings.
One of the first cares of the coopera- tive societies, with their millions of mem- bers, after the abolition of drink was to get up diversions for the neighborhood, which were usually held in the lofts over the cooperative stores or warehouses in the villages. Cinematographs, amateur
theatricals, concerts, and other commu- nity activities were started and had great success.
The money once spent for drink now stays in the peasants* pockets or is put in the rural branches of the government savings bank, and the total deposits of that institution have swelled incredibly in the past two years.
GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE'S ASSOCIATIONS IS PHENOMENAL
The growth of these cooperative socie- ties has been phenomenal. For instance, in one district alone the number has been
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
increased from 50 to 302. The societies for wholesale purchase have increased from 40 to 400.
There are now 60 credit unions work- ing, with some 10,000 separate coopera- tive credit societies. In IMoscow there has been organized a Central Cooperative Credit Bank, which in 191 5 did a busi- ness of $140,000,000.
It is impossible to imagine how wide- spread have become the ramifications of these unions and societies. There are now building or in operation flour mills, oil works, starch works, paper and sugar plants, and machine shops. In one town we have an electric-light plant, giving people light for a dollar a year.
There is no doubt that in thus helping their members to the number of millions these societies have in no small degree contributed to the military successes of Russia, for in every instance they can be found working in close harmony with the committees of the zemstvbs engaged in the buying and furnishing of the enor- mous quantities of supplies needed by the armies.
Under the leadership of devoted and able administrators, the numberless com- mittees appointed by the various zemstvos have been untiring in reaching out for new fields of activity, and only the sus- picion and jealousy of the official classes has prevented them from turning Russia into one great communistic settlement.
The catalogue of the work undertaken and carried to success by these commit- tees would be long and meaningless. Some of the more interesting of these phases, however, may properly be touched upon.
Let us take, for example, almost any point on any railroad leading from the interior to the fighting front of Russia at the present time. As you emerge from your railroad car at the station, you prob- ably see on a switch in the yard a long train of cars painted gray, with big, red crosses on the sides, and, on looking closer, you can read, '^Hospital train for active army service of the . . . Zems- tvo." Into this train stretcher-bearers are carrying wounded men from motor am- bulances outside the station, similarly marked, which have just come in from
the temporary hospitals established by the same committee just behind the lines of trenches.
IN COOPER.ATIVE EF'FORT RUSSIA CAN TEACH US MUCH
Nurses, orderlies, doctors, medicines, and dressings — all are provided by these same units and without expense to the government. In each city, town, and vil- lage women are organized into groups — sewing, making bandages, knitting warm sleeping things, or doing something else useful — much as they are in all the other belligerent countries, but with a far greater degree of coordination and less of confusion and duplication of effort than is to be found anywhere else.
In a country so singularly inefficient as Russia is in many ways, there is yet much for us to learn in the way of cooperative effort and aid.
One of the most interesting private in- stitutions, which works along the same lines as do the committees just de- scribed, is what is known as "Purushke- vitch Points.'' Mr. Purushkevitch has been a member of several of the Dumas, and at the beginning of the war organ- ized at his own expense a number of "points.'*
I visited and made a thorough inspec- tion of a "point,'' situated not far from the city of Dvinsk, on the northern front of Russia. We started out in a fast American automobile and, after going as far as was thought safe for the car to- ward the front-line trenches, we left it and proceeded on foot to the point. This was a settlement some couple of miles behind the front trenches.
A Sister of Mercy was in general charge of the whole work. Under her were three doctors — ^men too old for the active work at the front, but quite ready to perform any minor operations or give any necessary dressings or other aid. They had a well-equipped hospital in a tent surmounted by a large Red Cross flag.
Other tents were dining, dressing, and sleeping rooms, and still others contained supplies and quarters for the large staff of orderlies and attendants.
The sister in charge told me that there
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Photograph from Boston Photo News Company THE GEORGIAN MILITARY ROAD OVER THE CAUCASUS
This great highway, over which motor omnibuses are operated regularly in peace times for six months of the year (April 15 to October 15), is one of the most beautiful mountain roads in the world. It ascends ihe valley of the Tcrck and crosses the Krestovaya Pass at an elevation of 7,800 feet, then descends to the famous city of Tiflis. It was under con- struction for more than half a century, being completed in 1864. For a distance of eight miles the road runs through an awe-inspiring gorge, flanked by precipitous walls of rock more than a mile high.
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Photograph by C. S. Alden
SAFETY RAZORS HAVK NEVER DEEN POPULAR IN RUSSIA. AS BEARDS ARE THE FASHION
Only about one-half the land of the province of central Russia known as Nizhni-Nov- gorod is suitable for agricultural pursuits, and of this three-fifths is owned by noblemen and only about one-sixth by the hardy peasantry. Although much of the land is the fertile "valley black earth," the yield of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and potatoes is frequently insufficient for the population, so that nearly every year more than ioo,oco persons leave their villages in quest of tcmnorary work in neighboring provinces, or "governments,'' as the more than one hundred subdivisions of the empire are called. Owing to the efforts of the Nizhni-Novgorod zemstvo, there has been more progress in education in this district than in many of the other governments.
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had formerly been three sisters there, but that the cold and dampness had been too much for the others, who had been forced to go home to re- cover their health. She showed me a new hut which was being built for her under the shelter of a near-by hill, which it was hoped would be drier and more comfort- able than the tent she had.
There are about 25 of these "points" scattered at various places along the front, and the inten- tion at each one of them is that anybody who comes along shall be taken in, whether pris- oner, officer, visitor, gen- eral, or private, and given whatever he may be in need of.
Facilities are provided for hot baths and clean suits of underwear for tired soldiers; good and bountiful meals are sup- plied smoking hot for any one who is hungry; beds are there for as long a stay as may be found necessary, and in no case are ques- tions asked.
I enjoyed a very good dinner during my visit. The fittings were of the sim- plest, but everything was clean and good. I peeked into the bath-house and found there some half dozen soldiers thoroughly enjoying a steaming vapor bath. They had just been allowed to come from the trenches and were shortly going back. Other groups of soldiers were lying about at rest, enjoying a smoke and perhaps a game of some kind.
This work is the nearest approach to what would be called Young Men's Chris- tian Association effort in this country which I found anywhere on the Russian front. In general the men simply lie around their barracks when they are not working, unless they are attending church or playing some game in the open.
Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor FKATIIERED FORTUNE-TELLER AND IIIS KEEPER AT THE FAMOUS NIZHNI-NOVGOROD FAIR
THE GRATITUDE OF THE SOLDIERS
All of this work was at first greatly resented by the officials who should have done it themselves, but before long even they realized what was being done in this quiet, inconspicuous way, and today the whole army realizes that without this splendid service the war, so far as Rus- sia is concerned, would have been over long ago.
Under these circumstances the defects of bureaucracy and the good work of the unofficial organizations became more of a reality to the peasant soldier than they could otherwfse have been, and his grati- tude, while silent, was none the less sin- cere.
The zemstvo assemblies, which have long been the most liberal influences at work in Russia, have now become the most popular. They have unbounded in-
237
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Photograph by C. S. Alden RUSSIAN PEASANTS AT THE FAIR! NIZHNI- NOVGOROD
Situated on the River Volga, the great artery of Russian trade, Nizhni-Novgorod is world-famous for its fair, held each year from July 29 to September 10, during which time the value of goods sold and ordered sometimes amounts to nearly $200,000,000. Cotton, woolen, linen and silk stuflFs, furs, iron ware, pottery, salt, fish, wines, teas, and leather are important articles of barter. As the capital of the government of the same name, the city ordinarily has a population of 100,000, but during the fair it is visited by 400,000 people from all parts of Russia and many points in Asia. The importance of the trading center dates almost from its founding, in 1221, as a barrier against the inroads of the Mordvins and Bulgarians.
fluence on the people, and under the able and devoted leadership of such men as Prince Lvoff, President of the Associa- tion of Zemstvo Committees, and other patriots, they have, more than anything else, contributed toward the present changes in Russia.
The Liberal element, under the leader- ship of men like Paul Milyukoff, now Minister for Foreign Affairs ; Alexander Guchkoff, President of the Third Duma, and a small group of far-seeing men, has had to contend, on the one hand, with the old regime, the dynasty, and the bu- reaucracy, and on the other with that far larger number of men and women who in their desire for a new and free gov- ernment have not stopped at any means to attain their ends, and whose preaching and carrying out of the doctrines of an-
archy and terrorism have retarded by so many years the establishment of free and representative government throughout the length and breadth of the great Rus- sian Empire.
Russia's strength
What will be the result of the revolu- tion on the present war? That is the question now uppermost in the minds not only of Allied statesmen, but of every one in the United States as well. Cer- tainly, in a general way, this is not diffi- cult of answer.
If the new leaders can succeed in bring- ing actively to their side, without foolish opposition from the more radical ele- ments, the vast majority of the people and the rank and file of the army, they will have no trouble in bringing, or rather
238
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Photograph from Boston Photo News Company THE CHURCH OF THE IMPERIAL, PALACE OF PETERHOF
Eighteen miles from Petrograd is the town of Peterhof, founded by Peter the Great in l/ii. The imperial palace is built in imitation of Versailles, the main building being in three stories and connected with the wings by galleries. It was built by Peter the Great in 1720 and enlarged 30 years later for the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. This church, with its five gilt cupolas, is the work of Rastrelli.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
keeping, Russia in the war, in a position of greatly increased strength and vigor.
The mere fact that in the course of a long and bloody war Russia has been able at the same time to fight her foes at home and abroad proves most strongly her in- nate strength and steadfastness.
I have often been asked why Russia has not done better in this war ; why, with her millions of man-power, she has seemed to have had victory time and time again in her grasp only to lose it by some mis- take.
It has been impossible to make people realize what Russia was fighting — two foes at once, more than any of the other nations engaged in the war has had to contend against. We shall probably not know for long, if ever, what a struggle has been carried on within Russia against the forces which souorht to deliver her
helpless and bound to her enemies abroad. Up to now the news has all seemed to favor the probability that the new Russia will succeed in forming a stable and pow- erful government on the ruins of the old, and in doing so she will have the earnest good wishes of all her allies and all her friends, and in the latter category may now be placed for the first time the whole of the United States.
For it must be admitted that in this country one of the strongest reasons for not entering the war, either actively or passively, on the side of the Allies has been the thought that in so doing we were backing Russian absolutism,. the antithe- sis of everything for which our own form of government stands, the symbol of absolutism and terrorism, of autocracy against democracy, of darkness against light.
REPUBLICS-THE LADDER TO LIBERTY
By David Jayne Hill
Formerly U. S. Minister to Switzerland, to the Netherlands^ and Formerly Ambassador to Germany
IF WE spread out a map of the world, for the purpose of comparing the territorial extent of the different kinds of government existing at the pres- ent time, we find that the area covered by "republics" occupies approximately 30,250,000 square miles, or considerably more than one-half the habitable surface of the globe.
If we add the area of the British Em- pire, the spirit of whose government is now entirely democratic, and whose "au- tonomous colonies," as the Dominions are now called, are virtually republics, the area of free government reaches the enormous total of about 41,500,000 square miles, or about four-fifths of the inhab- ited earth.
Turning now to the proportions of the population of the globe under the "re- publics" and other forms of government, we find that of the total inhabitants of the earth, estimated at 1,600,000,000, more than 850,000,000 are living under
nominal republics ; and if we add the pop- ulation of the British Empire, which may be called a commonwealth of republics, the total would be about 1,250,000,000, or more than three-fourths of the human race.
If to these areas and populations we add those under constitutional govern- ments, excluding all those under avow- edly absolutist rule, we find only a small fraction of the globe still adhering to a system which only a centtjry and a half ago was practically universal (see maps, pages 242 and 243).
FEW republics in 1776
These facts are the more astonishing if we consider what the result of such an examination would have been if made, let us say, in the year of our Declaration of Independence, 1776. At that time there would have been found upon the map of the world, apart from a few iso- lated so-called "free cities" — like Ham-
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REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY
in
burg, Liibeck, Bremen, and Geneva — only three or four little patches of color to which the name "republics" could properly be applied — the United Nether- lands, the Swiss Confederation, the Re- public of Venice, and the Republic of Genoa.
At an earlier time there would have been found on the map of Europe a num- ber of Italian city-states, like Florence, Padua, and others, that were called "re- publics," and one great area marked on the map as Poland, which was also called a republic; but in 1776 the Italian repub- lics, with the exception of Venice, had totally lost what liberties they had pre- viously been able to maintain and had become hereditary despotisms, while Po- land, after having been partly partitioned between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, had sought refuge from utter dissolution by becoming in effect a protectorate of Russia.
With these examples before us, it would be extremely difficult to frame a definition of the word "republic," ex- pressed in positive terms, that would fit all of them ; for no two of them were in all respects alike. Not one possessed a written constitution in the modern sense. Not one admitted universal suflfrage. The one common characteristic was the negative quality of repudiating an over- lord.
They were not, as the national mon- archies— with the exception of Britain — at that time were, the private possessions of dynastic rulers, who regarded the ter- ritory over which they ruled as. crown estates and their inhabitants as subjects, to be transmitted by heredity from gen- eration to generation or acquired by mar- riage, like ordinary private property.
In the commonwealths called "repub- lics" the res publica was considered as vested in the community as a whole, espe- cially with regard to legislation and ad- ministration ; and yet the relation of the individual to the State was not very pre- cisely defined in any one of them.
The prominence of negative over posi- tive attributes in these eighteenth-century republics is explained by the fact that they were all brought into being by revolt against some form of arbitrary power.
They were monuments of protest rather than embodiments of a constructive idea.
VENICI^ A REPUBUC IN NAME ONLY
Venice, the oldest of these four at- tempts at self-government, was founded by refugees from the Italian mainland, who in the fifth century had sought ref- uge from the power of Attila in the islands of the lagoons at the head of the Adriatic. For self-preservation the islanders united, elected a leader, or doge, and formed a new State. This com- munity was long considered as a depend- ency of the Eastern Empirq, from which it did not become wholly independent until the tenth century.
In perpetual conflict with the imperial pretensions of the East or the West, \^en- ice became through commerce and con- quest a great maritime power, dominat- ing not only the Adriatic and the lands bordering upon it, but also many of the ports of Greece, and possessing even a portion of Constantinople, which it held until the capture of that city by the Turks, in 1453, to whom it continued to offer a long and courageous resistance. At the end of the fifteenth century it had become the first maritime power of Eu- rope, an ascendency which it did not en- tirely lose until the discovery of the sea route to India by the Cape dealt its com- merce a death blow by making the Atlan- tic the main highway for Eastern trade.
Venice was never in reality a democ- racy. The doge, elected for life, in con- junction with the Senate, the Council of Ten, and other aristocratic bodies, ruled at times with almost absolute authority.
Although the Venetian republic was in no sense a democracy, it is interesting to trace the development of its safeguards of liberty. The perils to which the re- public was exposed required both unity and continuity in the direction of its af- fairs. This use of centralized power was confided to the doge, but it was intended that he should never become a monarch.
Living, he was subject to the advice of the councils and the restraint of many legal limitations; and, even when dead, his administration was open to review by an examining body, and in case of con- demnation reparation was exacted of his
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heirs. Although elected for life, the av- erage service of a doge did not in fact exceed sixteen years, only men of middle age being regarded as eligible to the office.
The oath of the doge involved an ex- plicit renunciation of sovereign rights. He was required to promise not only to execute the laws and decrees of the coun- cils, but not to correspond directly with foreign powers, or to open letters ad- dressed to him, even by Venetians, with- out the presence of a councillor. He could hold no property outside the terri- tory of Venice ; he could not intervene in any judgment, either of fact or of law; none of his relatives could be appointed by him to any civil, military, or ecclesi- astical office ; he was prohibited from per- mitting any citizen to kneel before him or kiss his hand. But as a symbol of the State he was clothed with magnificence, and stood before the world as the out- ward representative of supreme power.
GENOA WAS I.IKE VENICE
Like Venice, Genoa, which was founded as a city in the eighth century B. C., in the tenth century of our era threw off the imperial yoke and became an independ- ent republic. Like Venice, it also devel- oped into a great maritime and commer- cial power, extended its territory by con- quest, and was the possessor of valuable colonies. Subjected to French rule in the fourteenth century, it afterward regained its independence, but in 1746 fell for a time under the power of Austria. By 1776 it had lost most of its colonies, hav- ing been obliged in 1768 to cede Corsica to France.
Internal discord had completely deliv- ered the republic into the hands of the aristocratic party. Four hundred and sixty-five families of the nobiHty were in- scribed in the "Golden Book" and divided among themselves all the public powers, honors, and offices, to the exclusion of the middle class and the common people. A Council of 400 members chose the Sen- ate ; the Senate chose the eight governors who formed the Executive Council, and this body chose from its own number the doge, who represented the nation.
THE SWISS REPUBI^IC IS VERY OLD
Altogether different in form and struc- ture was the Swiss Confederation. It, too, came into being through a revolt against external authority. The three ^'Forest Cantons" — Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden — comprised in the duchy of Suabia had fallen under the rule of the counts of Hapsburg. Upon the death of Rudolf, in 1291, **in view of the malice of the time," these cantons formed a de- fensive league and resolved to recognize no chief who was not of the country, and to maintain the peace and their rights by their own armed force.
The parchment upon which their com- pact was written is still preserved, and bears as seals the cross of Schwyz, the bull's head of Uri, and the key of Unter- walden.
This document was not a declaration of independence and retained a trace of feudalism; for it enjoined that "who- ever hath a lord let him obey him, ac- cording to his bounden duty." But it was a declaration of rights and a firm resolu- tion that they should never J^e taken away by the power of a usurper. The efforts of the Hapsburg emperors to reduce the cantons to subjection gave repeated op- portunities for the fulfillment of this pledge.
In 1 513 the Confederation had grown to thirteen cantons, Berne, Zurich, Lu- cerne, Friburg, Zug, Claris, Bale, So- leure, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell hav- ing united with the **Forest Cantons" ; but this expansion had entirely transformed the original league. Subject territories, added by conquest, now formed part of the republic. The cities had contributed decisive elements of change, for they were less democratic than the "Forest Cantons." In truth, in some instances, the cities had developed the attributes of ambitious and oppressive oligarchies.
t.A CHILD OF BLOOD AND HEROISM
Like the Venetian and the Swiss re- publics, the United Netherlands was a child of revolution, but of a far more dramatic kind. In November, 1565, twenty confederates met at Brussels to form a league to resist the Spanish In-
Digitized by
Photograph by Edwin I^evick
THE STATUE OE LIBERTY IN NEW YORK HARBOR
This glorious symbol of freedom, towering 300 feet above the waters of New York harbor, was purchased by popular subscription and presented to the United States by the people of France in commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence and in token of the undying bond of sympathy and friendship that exists between the citizens of the two great republics — a love which Lafayette and Rochambeau brought into being more than a century ago. The statue itself is 151 feet in height from base to torch, and is the work of the eminent French sculptor, Bartholdi.
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REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY
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quisition, and in the following year a wave of popular indignation against the royal edicts, which condemned to be burned fifty or sixty thousand persons, swept over the Netherlands.
The Duke of Alba was sent to execute the orders which the Prince of Orange refused to obey and to exterminate the heretics. A reign of terror followed, during which the Prince of Orange raised armies, which he led with consummate military genius ; but they steadily melted away before the Duke's superior power, until heresy and patriotism seemed fatally crushed.
With unfaltering faith, however, the Prince of Orange pursued his resistance, steadily demanding the withdrawal of the Spaniards from the Netherlands, the free exercise of religion, and the restoration of the ancient rights and liberties of the land. By the Union of Delft, in 1576, he had federated Holland and Zeeland. In 1579, by the Union of Utrecht, Hol- land, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Fries- land, Overyssel, and Gronigen united to sustain the freedom of religion and re- nounce allegiance to the King of Spain.
These seven provinces, presided over by the Prince of Orange as elective Stadt- holder, formed a confederation with a central legislative body called the States General ; but so jealous of all central au- thority were the provinces that no laws or engagements could become effective without the sanction of a majority of the separate provincial assemblies. In 1650 the anti-monarchical sentiment was so strong that even the elective stadtholder- ate was abolished; to be restored, how- ever, in 1672, and made hereditary in 1674.
Like Venice, the Dutch Republic be- came a maritime power of great impor- tance, waged war on land and sea, and acquired by conquest valuable colonies.
FREEDOM HAS ALWAYS BEEN A DELICATE ELOWER TO KEEP ALIVE
All these republics, as we have seen, were primarily based jpon the repudia- tion of autocratic po\/er ; but no perma- nent political organization can bi sus- tained by a mere negation. At the basis of republicanism in every form is a con-
ception of liberty united with a sense of social solidarity.
The positive element in the conception of a republic is the freedom of the indi- vidual, which rests upon the conviction that there are in the nature of man cer- tain innate qualities that may justly claim the right of expression, and which, there- fore, ought not to be suppressed by arbi- trary power.
The chief problem for a republic has always been the organization of liberty in such a manner as to render it perma- nently secure. In this no one of the republics of antiquity had ever entirely succeeded. The Greek city-states — like Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Argos — wavered between aristocratic and demo- cratic control ; but the existence of slavery and a subject class rendered all of them to some extent oligarchical.
The Roman city-republic was sub- merged by its own internal expansion of power and its external growth of respon- sibility, which created conditions that no democracy could satisfy or control. The later Italian city-states were either ab- sorbed by more powerful neighbors or in their efforts at self-preservation from foreign intrusion degenerated into tyran- nies, as the Greek republics often had before them.
Freedom has always proved a delicate flower to keep alive. Oligarchy has tended to narrow the depositories of power until it became the possession of a single master; while democracy, on the other hand, recognizing in emergencies the weakness of divided counsels, has tended to confide its power to the hands of a dictator.
REPUBLICS THAT HAVE FAILED
In no form of government is equilib- rium so unstable as in a republic, which is essentially a balance of forces, any one of which, if exaggerated, is capable of consummating its destruction. In addi- tion to this inherent internal instability, upon which the demagogue skilfully plays for the accomplishment of his selfish designs, a republic is always peculiarly exposed to the intrusion of foreign influences and to the peril of foreign attack.
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For this reason, republics have usually sought to find a safeguard in federation, through which alone the republics of the eighteenth century were able to survive. Those which failed to avail themselves of this principle have been short-lived.
It was owing to this failure on the part of the Greek republics that Macedonian supremacy was finally established over the whole of Greece. A different foreign poHcy on the part of Athens, which might have united the rest of the Greek cities for common defense, would, in the opin- ion of historians, have saved the Greek republics from extinction ; but democra- cies have usually been short-sighted in matters of foreign policy.
For obvious reasons, republics have as a rule possessed but a limited territorial extent ; but magnitude alone is not a source of strength. Before the first par- tition, in 1772, Poland covered a larger area of territory than Spain, or France, or all the States of Germany put together.
A turbulent nobility had completely throttkd the elective monarchy. It was the triumph of an oligarchy of landed proprietors whose anarchy was balanced by no industrial and commercial middle class, and which failed to evolve a leader sufficiently pow^erful to impose unity of action upon the nation.
By the libernm veto, adopted in 1650, a single member of the Polish Diet could, from that time onward, nullify the reso- lutions of the entire assembly, thus para- lyzing every policy for the conservation of the republic.
THI; LOVE OF IJBERTV SPRE-\DS IX FRANCE
Between 1776 and 1806 profound causes of change were introduced into the European system, some of them from within and others from without, which at first greatly promoted the development of republics and afterw^ard nearly de- stroyed them altogether.
It is important to note that in 1776 there was no expectation that a revolu- tion would occur in France such as, fif- teen years later, w^as to shake the conti- nent of Europe to its foundations and in- stitute, for a time at least, a wholly new order of things. No contemporary could possibly have foreseen this process of
political evolution, for the causes of it were not confined to Europe.
The accession of the young king, Louis XVI, to the throne of France, in 1772, had aroused the hope that the evils brought upon Europe by the age of abso- lutism were likely to be remedied by a better administration of public affairs.
In 1776 there was not the slightest sign of the general upheaval that came to Eu- rope during the young monarch's reign. There had been, it is true, much radical speculation regarding the nature of gov- ernment. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Dide- rot, Mably, and Rousseau had spoken out boldly for greater liberty. In fact, their work of iconoclasm was already finished, so far as mere discussion was concerned. Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws, in which he extolled the English system of government as the most perfect guaran- tee of freedom that had ever been de- vised, had been published a whole gener- ation earlier, in 1748. Young men who had read Rousseau's Social Contract in its first edition, in 1762, had passed into middle life.
OUR FIRST AND GREATEST AMERICAN INVENTION
Although the sovereignty of the people and the right of the majority to rule, ad- vocated by Rousseau, were theoretically hostile to the "old regime," they had pro- duced in 1776 no actual fruit. Not one of the philosophers of the enlightenment had propounded a concrete program of political reconstruction.
Such literature as theirs might have existed forever without producing a revo- lution; and, in 1789, when the earliest tokens of a real revolutionary movement in France were perceptible, no definite proposition had been offered by any of the philosophical writers that could be of practical utility in guiding the nation in its desire to abolish the abuses of power from which France was then suflFering; yet a whole generation had come to man- hood since Rousseau's eulogy of democ- racy had appeared.
But in the meantime something of great import had happened. In America thirteen British colonies had, in 1776, de- clared their independence and had repu-
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Photograph by James F. lluges Co.
WASHINGTON MONUMENT AT MOUNT VERNON PLACE, BALTIMORE
This was the first monument ever reared to the memory of the Father of his Country — a country whose principles of justice and whose economic opportunities have drawn more people to its shores than ever journeyed to any other.
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•REPUBLICS— THE LADDER TO LIBERTY
251
dialed the Crown and the Parliament. Thirteen little republics had been created and federated. They possessed written constitutions which Franklin had trans- lated, distributed, and expounded in France. The French armies that had aided in the War for Independence had returned to France full of enthusiasm. The Constitution of the United States had just been adopted. Lafayette was demanding the convocation of the long- forgotten States General, in order that France also might have a constitution.
The innovation in government intro- duced by the United States of America, an invention as essentially American as the telegraph and the telephone, was to revolutionize the governments of the world as completely as the telegraph and the telephone have changed our methods of communication.
It is not necessary here to follow in detail the development of the French Revolution. The circumstances of the time demanded a change, and the specu- lations of the philosophers had justified it, but it was the American example that marked out a pathway to effective action.
THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC
Unfortunately, however, it was not the guarantees of the American constitu- tions, but the unrestrained democracy ad- vocated by Rousseau that took possession of the French mind. The Constitution of the United States, as finally adopted, unlike any other that had ever existed, while securing the rights of the citizens, placed limits on the powers of govern- ment. The French Constitution, on the contrary, simply transferred absolute power from one government to another. What was most original in the unique American invention was entirely over- looked.
The Revolution, which in its early stages promised to be a new organization of Hberty, soon became a new form of despotism.
Then began the titanic struggle of ab- solute popular sovereignty with the es- tablished power of royal absolutism — the general war of French democracy upon all kings — which brought a young
Corsican officer to the surface, and at last carried him, in the guise of an apos- tle and protagonist of liberty, to the im- perial throne of France. Unbridled de- mocracy demanded and found, first, a servant and then a master.
It is not difficult to comprehend how the conservative eighteenth century re- publics were swept off their feet by the flood-tide of a larger liberty. They were not entirely unwilling victims of con- quest. Everywhere the doctrines of the Revolution preceded its armies and pre- pared the way for them. The Declara- tion of the Rijhts of Man and the Citizen announced the approach of a liberator. Even in the republics, the people had their grievances, which the new order of things that the French Directory pro- claimed promised to abolish. Republics sprang up like mushrooms under the pro- tection of the French armies.
As a result of the obstinacy and trea- son of Louis XV^I, the French Republic had come into being on September 21, 1792. By the end of January, 1795, the United Provinces were in the possession of the French army, and the Batavian Republic was proclaimed on the model of the French Republic. In the meantime the Polish patriots, under the leadership of Kosciuszko, who had received a wel- come in France, endeavored to restore the Polish Republic, but without success, and the final partition was arranged by Prussia, Austria, and Russia in 1795.
Bonaparte was sent to Italy as a con- queror, but his conquests were made in the name of liberty. Outwardly the obe- dient servant of the Directory, even then he meant to be in due time the master of France and of all that the Republic might acquire.
First of all, however, there was neces- sary the conquest of men's minds, which could only be made in the name of free- dom ; and freedom was, therefore, Bona- parte's constant watchword.
But his vision of his goal was from the first perfectly clear. Speaking to Miot, the French ambassador at Florence, he said in 1797 of the destinies of France: "What is needed is a chief illustrious by glory and not by theories of govern- ment— ^the mere phrases and discourses
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of ideologues — of which the country understands nothing."
And, turning to Melzi, one of his Milanese adjutants, he continued: "As to your country, it has still less than France the elements of republicanism, and it is necessary to make less ado about it than with any other. We shall do what you wish, but the time has not arrived. We must yield to the fever of the moment. We shall arrange here for one or two re- publics in our own fashion."
THE CARDIIOUSE OF REPUBLICS
"The fever oi the moment" was the orders of the Directory, which had re- solved to impose the French constitution on all the conquered States of Europe. Bonaparte understood the expediency of obedience, but, referring to himself as conquerer, he said to Miot: "I wish to quit Italy only to play in France a role similar to that I play here, but the mo- ment is not yet come. The pear is not ripe!"
, At Venice, where he was received with honor and his wife Josephine was loaded with ornaments, -the consummate diplo- macy which had in so many emergencies averted calamity failed to maintain the independence of the Republic. Austria coveted its maritime advantages, while France wanted a free hand at Milan and the Rhine frontier, which Austria could accord. Accordingly, by the treaty of Campo-Formio that bargain was made and the Venetian Republic was delivered into the hands of Austria.
The remainder of Italy was promptly republicanized, partly to its liking and partly against its will. In rapid succes- sion, in 1797-1798, the territories of Milan and the Lombard plain, at first intended to be divided into two, were constituted into the Cisalpine Republic. Genoa and the neighboring coast were transformed into the Ligurian Republic. Rome and the States of the Church, from which the Pope was expelled, were erected into the Roman Republic. Finally, Naples and the other continental provinces of the King- dom of the Two Sicilies were taken from King Ferdinand and became the Parthe- nopean Republic.
Even the Swiss Confederation did not
escape from the hand of the conqueror. Most of the cantons were feudal and oligarchical. Catching from France the contagion of revolution, in 1798 the peo- ple of the Pays de Vaud rose in rebellion against the Canton of Berne. In other cantons insurrection broke out; appeal was made by the peasants for aid from France; Switzerland was invaded by a French army ; a constituent assembly was summoned, and the Helvetian Republic was proclaimed with a constitution on the French model.
But the Swiss found it inconvenient to be reformed by strangers. The "Forest Cantons" — Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwal- den — revolted, and in the end the French were as cordially detested as they had at first been cordially welcomed by the Swiss people, whose problem then was how to regain their independence.
In 1804 this whole card-house of re- publics fell, and Napoleon I was pro-"" claimed "Emperor of the French and King of Italy."
Then followed the grand distribution of crowns. Joseph Bonaparte was made King of Naples and afterward of Spain; Louis, King of Holland; Jerome, King of Westphalia ; Murat, a brother-in-law, King of Naples after Joseph was sent to Spain ; Prince Borghese, another brother- in-law, Duke of Guastalla; Eugene de Beauharnais, a stepson. Viceroy of Italy. More than thirty of Napoleon's marshals and generals were made princes or dukes.
In 1806 there was only one republic on the map of Europe — the Swiss Confed- eration !
THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNITED STATES INCALCULABLE
All the more wonderful, in view of these events, is the fact of the present vast extension of the republican form of government in every part of the world. What has brought it about? Undoubt- edly the spread of democratic ideas throughout Europe during the Revolu- tion of 1789 greatly promoted the con- stitutional movement between the Peace of Vienna and the Revolution of 1848, which made France a republic for the second time and caused great gains for constitutionalism everywhere.
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Photograph by Rau Art Studios
THE LIBERTY BELL IN INDEPENDENCE HALL: PHILADELPHIA
Until Freedom's tocsin called to arms a people in defense of their unalienable rights to Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness, the **music of the spheres" was deemed a Pytha- goran fancy. But the defiance to oppression which throbbed from the throat of Liberty Bell in 1776 will go ringing down the centuries as a paean of praise from liberated mankind and an anthem of aspiration for those peoples still struggling toward the goal of self-government.
But it should not be overlooked that the continuous, unbroken development of the United States of America under a republican constitution has been an in- fluence of incalculable consequence. The whole South and Central American de- velopment has found its inspiration in
this influence, and a close study of the growth of the constitutional idea shows that there has been no instance of its adoption where this influence has not operated to some degree.
It has often resulted in a compromise, involving the retention of the monarchical
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tradition under constitutional limitations ; but its logical outcome is the practical abolition of royal authority, which has been almost everywhere displaced by the authority of the people. It has been the chief cause of the gradual triumph of democracy.
ALL THE PEOPLE UNLIKELY TO GO WRONG AT THE SAME TIME
The strength of republicanism lies in the fact that all the people are not likely to go wrong at the same time. A mon- archy or an oligarchy is liable to that calamity. Men may, however, go wrong in a republic also, and even a majority may sometimes do so.
There is for that reason need of con- stitutional limitations in a democracy as well as in other forms of government. Liberty can be secured only by restric- tions upon the power of government, no matter what its form may be. These re- strictions consist in the division of pub- lic powers, in deliberation of procedure, and the application of general principles of justice to all particular cases.
Herein lies the chief value of a consti- tution, and it is the combination of these qualities that gives to the Constitution of the United States its unique excellence. It renders possible the free selection of the wisest legislators. This is representa- tive government. It divides by law the powers of government. This defines and
limits official authority. It declares cer- tain rights to be beyond the power of government to take away. This furnishes guarantees for life, liberty, and property. Finally, it places private rights under the protection of the judiciary. This insures that the citizen shall not be divested of his rights without due process of law.
But the supreme merit of such a con- stitution, united with the principle of federation, is that it applies to a great area and a great population, as well as to a small one, to which democracy was al- ways before supposed to be necessarily confined.
But there is, in fact, no limit as respects territory or population to which the re- publican system may not bet extended, provided it retains its truly constitutional character as just described. It is as good for 48 States as for 13. It may be as good for China or for Russia as for the original American colonies.
But an absolute democracy, a democ- racy that sets no bounds to its own arbi- trary will, a democracy that is based on impulse and appetite, and not on reason and justice, is for any community of men an illusion and a danger. Any nation that is capable in the full sense of realizing this truth is ripe for self-government. A nation that does not realize it, no matter how glorious its past, is falling into decay and will not long survive as a free and independent republic.
WAR, PATRIOTISM, AND THE FOOD SUPPLY
By Frederick V. Coville Of the United States Department of Agriculture
A HUNDRED milHon Americans are searching heart and mind to determine in what way each can contribute most to the success of his country in the war. We are remote from the battle line, and few of us, relatively, can take part in the actual fighting. It is everywhere recognized that our financial and industrial cooperation with the Allies will have a far greater effect in hastening
the conclusion of the war than would the equipment and sending of a great Amer- ican army to Europe.
In the industries fundamental to the manufacture of munitions we are in a position to wield an immense influence. So widely is this appreciated that the pro- posal to exempt from direct military serv- ice the skilled workmen of the munition industries meets with general approval.
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WAR, PATRIOTISM, AND THE FOOD SUPPLY
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The people of the United States, how- ever, have not yet come to appreciate fully that our most important duty in this war lies in still another direction, indi- cated also by our economic and geo- graphic position. I refer to the mainte- nance of an adequate food supply for the British and the French.
The armies of France and the British Empire must be well nourished. The British and French industrial workers who supply those armies with munitions must be well nourished also. Within the last few weeks Argentina has declared an embargo on the export of wheat. More than ever before, therefore, is it Incum- bent on us to maintain a wide and con- stant stream of food supplies to France, Great Britain, and to Italy also. If we fail to do so
But we shall not fail. Our duty is clear. The task is large. Understand- ing and organization will enable us to ac- complish it. Understanding and organi- zation are at work upon it. The United States Department of Agriculture, State agencies and county agencies, all are car- rying the message to every farmer in the country.
OUR DEMANDS FOR FOOD ARE INCREASING
MUCH MORE RAPIDLY THAN OUR
PRODUCTION
There are limitations, however, to the amount of food that can be grown on American farms, and none of these lim- itations is more potent than the scarcity of farm labor. Even in normal times the supply of efficient agricultural labor is, in general, inadequate. More land is avail- able than can be farmed effectively. The town outbids the farmer for his labor by higher wages, or shorter hours, or fan- cied superiority of recreation, or by all these combined.
In war times the attraction of agricul- tural labor away from the farm becomes greater than ever. ^Military service, mu- nitions manufacture, and the other indus- tries of war all tend to take their quota from the farm. The establishment of an ammunition factory near the city of Washington has combed the labor from the farms, either directly or by progres- sive replacement in other pursuits, for
miles around. The suburbs of many other cities where munition plants exist are having similar experiences.
As long ago as 1898 it was contended by Sir William Crookes, and the conten- tion was sustained by one of our fore- most agricultural statisticians, that by the year 193 1 the increasing population of America was likely to consume all the wheat we raised.
We are already more than half way on the road to that destination. Increased acreage and improved agricultural meth- ods have, it is true, intervened to increase our crops ; but our consumption of food has also increased enormously, and the difference between what we raise and what we eat is shrinking year by year.
PRODUCE SOME FOOD IF YOU POSSIDLV CAN
One does not question that the Amer- ican farmer will do his duty, or that the wide-spread movement for city gardening will contribute somewhat to the extension of our food surplus ; but there remains a large class of our population favorably situated for food production and well able to take part in it, whose contribution is only a small fraction of what it might be made. I refer to the man whose busi- ness ordinarily is in town, but whose resi- dence in the country gives him access to an area of ground varying in size from a small garden to an ample farm, used, however, only in small part or not at all for gardening or farming purposes.
Usually such country dwellers have the equipment for gardening or for farming, but make only such limited use of it as suits their convenience or their demands for recreation.
The time is now at hand when every non-farmer who has unemployed farm- ing or gardening land, and every summer resident in the country, can contribute patriotically to the welfare of his country and the progress of liberty by producing all the fruit and all the vegetables he con- sumes, and in some cases also the eggs and poultry that he needs. And I mean not merely the fruits and vegetables that he uses in summer, but those he will re- quire in the following winter.
Our grandmothers knew how to pre- serve fruit for winter use by drying it
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and by canning it, but they did not know how to can vegetables. Modern science has found out how to do this, and now the girls in the department of domestic science in every agricultural college and every agricultural high school in the country are taught how to take vegetables at the time when their flavor is most de- licious and their texture the most tender and put them up in glass jars for winter use.
Such preserved vegetables are far supe- rior to those we ordinarily buy in tin cans, for they receive a care in selection and preparation that commercial can- neries seldom give.
Every poimd of food grown and used in this way is a contribution of just that amount to the great stream of supplies that we are passing on to the British and the French soldier at the front, for what- ever each of us consumes he must take from that stream unless he produces it himself.
THE WORK IS NOT SO DIFFICULT AS OF OLD
In modern gardening the backache- breeding hoe and weeder of a generation ago have been replaced by those wonder- ful little implements set on wheels and pushed in front of one .by two handles like a plow. The heavy plowing and planting of spring is still a man's task; but these little hand cultivators make the later care of a garden a happy outdoor task for women and half -grown children. It brings the bronzed cheek of summer and the elastic step and clear mind of the winter that follows.
The congestion of freight traffic dur- ing the last year was due primarily to the scarcity of ships for the oversea trade, the consequent filling up of warehouses at the seaboard, and the delay of loaded freight cars waiting their turn to deliver their freight. The congestion was greatly increased, however, through an agricul- tural practice that has been growing up in the United States for many years : the raising of a special crop in that particular part of the country in which it can be
grown most economically or in the great- est perfection and its shipment very long distances by rail to the consumer.
In times like the present every ton of food that can be grown where it is con- sumed, or not far from its place of con- sumption, will relieve our railroads of just that much space needed for the ur- gent transportation demands of war.
IT WILL HELP THE BELGIANS
Because I suggest to the country dweller that in growing his own supplies he will be practising sounder economy and will have better food, better health, and the gladness of heart that comes from a pa- triotic act, let no one lose sight of the fact that the suggestion is made not primarily for those reasons, but for the sake of that gallant soldier who fights under the ban- ner of "liberty, equality, fraternity," and that other soldier who carries grimly in his heart the message written in stone in Trafalgar Square: "No price can be too high when honor and freedom are at stake.''
And the Belgians. What of them? When in schoolboy days we used to read the words, *'Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae/' we did not fully grasp their meaning; but after Liege and Namur, when Belgium stood broken and bleed- ing, but still fighting and unafraid, the spirit of the phrase burst upon us. "The bravest of all these are the Belgians," the very words that Julius Caesar wrote two thousand years ago.
No service in this war appeals to Amer- ica more than to carry food to the Bel- gians, in order to keep from hunger that little nation which, single-handed, de- fended the gateway of liberty.
But first we must furnish food to the British, the French, and the Italians. In doing so we shall have the added satis- faction of knowing that in spirit, if not indeed in physical fact, we are taking it also to the people of Belgium.
Let each of us do his share toward bearing bread to the Belgians.
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A SPANISH GYPSY This beautiful girl of Granada represents the highest type of the aristocracy of gypsydom. She would lose caste at once if she were to work, but it is perfectly all right for her to beg or steal — your heart.
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A GARDEN IN THE HOLY LAND In days gone by, many of the city houses of the more prosperous residents of Jerusalem were built around an open court so that the Moslem women, although secluded, could have a garden, thus affording a measure of outdoor life. This is now the home of an American.
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AN AUTOMOBILE OF THE ORIENT The donkey is the patient burden-bearer of Northern Africa just as he is in many other parts of the world. He has carried heavy loads from time immemorial — both passengers and freight — and makes no protest until the accumulation of trouble swells his heart and he seeks relief through an impassioned bray.
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THE ABANDONED COTTON MARKET, JERUSALEM One of the entrances to the temple area within which stands the Mosque of Omar. There is a biblical atmosphere about this old passageway, the cobbles of which have been worn smooth by the weary feet of the ancients.
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A DESERT FLOWER •* Somewhere in the Sahara " lived this child of the Desert until she came to Biskra, the ** Garden of Allah," to earn her dowry as a dancer. One would imagine thatsheis dreaming of some turbaned knight left behind and counting the days until she may return to her natal tent.
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A DAUGHTER OF ARABY
** Full many a flower is born to blush unseen.
And waste its sweetness on the desert air."
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A MINSTREL OF THE ORIENT This old beggar of Tangier, Morocco, is singing a monotonous, wailing chant to attract the attention of the passers-by. He is a cheerful soul, however, and a pleasant contrast to some of the members of his brotherhood who capitalize their deformities
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NIGHT IN TETUAN, MOROCCO Even in daylight one is impressed with the mysterious atmosphere pervading the quiet streets in the old Moorish quarter of Tetuan. Here one is among a strange and alien people, widely differ- ent in religion and custom. The eerie quality of the streets is accentuated at night, and the soft radiance of the moonlight and even an occasional flickering lamp are welcome to the wayfarer.
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'*AN ARAB SHOD WITH FIRE" She is a dancer of Algeria and the slow, throbbing music of the Orient is just as necessary for her happiness as the jewels and coins with which she adorns herself.
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SPANISH GYPSY GIRLS Picturesque in their rags, the girls and women ** tell fortunes," and to those who refuse to have their fortune told is flung this quaint curse : ** May you be made to carry the mail and have sore feet."
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THE PATIO IN THE HOUSE OF THE DUKE OF ALBA, SEVILLE, SPAIN A fitting companion of the beautiful Alcazar, Seville's rival of Granada's splendid Alhambra in beauty and in historical renown, is the magnificent palace of the Dukes of Alba. Dating from the fifteenth century, this palace, in its architecture, combines the soft lines of Moorish ideals and the sharp ones of Gothic conceptions, and is a fine example of the blending of the two.
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A DANCER OF THE CAFES, ALGERIA Their faces clouded with a dark paint to increase the natural effect of the desert sun on their skin, their nails darkened with henna, and their cheeks faintly tattooed in blue to show their caste, these beauties of the Ouled Nail tribe furnish much local color in the crowded cafes of Northern Africa. Their costumes are gorgeous and their heavy ornaments are largely of gold and silver coins.
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FROM THE THRONE ROOM OF THE MOORS One of the embrasures, or window alcoves, of the Hall of the Ambassadors in the Alhambra at Granada, Spain. In this room met the last assembly of the Moors, summoned by Boabdil to consider the surrender of Granada to the Spanish King Ferdinand just before Columbus dis- covered America. The visitor is impressed with the fact that the depiction of living things is avoided in Moorish architecture and that the decoration is accomplished with geometrical designs which are astonishingly beautiful.
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A BEDOUIN BEAUTY
** Around her shone The nameless charms unmarked by her alone, The light of love, the purity of grace." — Byron,
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SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL Our Food Crops Must Be Greatly Increased
By David F. Houston
United States Secretary of Agriculture
THE importance to the nation of a generously adequate food supply for the coming year cannot be overemphasized, in view of the economic problems which may arise as a result of the entrance of the United States into the war. Every eflfort should be made to produce more crops than are needed for our own use.
Many millions of people across the seas, as well as our own people, must rely in large part upon the products of our fields and ranges. This situation will con- tinue to exist even though hostilities should end unexpectedly soon, since Eu- ropean production cannot be restored im- mediately to its normal basis.
It is obvious that the greatest and most important service that is required of our agriculture under existing conditions is an enlarged production of the staple food crops. Because of the shortage of such crops practically throughout the world, there is no risk in the near future of ex- cessive production such as sometimes has resulted in unremunerative prices to pro- ducers. This is particularly true of the cereals and of peas, beans, cow-peas, soy- beans, and buckwheat.
there is xo dancer of overprodlxtiox
In view of the world scarcity of food, there is hardly a possibility that the pro- duction of these crops by the farmers of the United States can be too great this year, and there is abundant reason to ex- pect generous price returns for all avail- able surplus.
The most effective step that may be taken to increase the production of these crops is to enlarge the acreage devoted to them in the regions where they are grown habitually. This expansion of acreage should be to the limit permitted by avail- able good seed, labor, and equipment.
The placing of too great emphasis on production in new regions is inadvisable, since the introduction into a farm opera- tion of a crop not usually grown fre- quently involves practical difficulties not easily foreseen nor quickly surmountable.
Taking the winter-wheat territory as a whole, winter killing has occurred to an extent very much greater than usual. This, obviously, if not compensated for in some way, will mean a material reduc- tion in the supplies of our most impor- tant bread cereal. Where winter wheat has been damaged sufficiently to justify the abandonment of fields, it should by all means be replaced by spring-planted food crops, preferably small grains or com.
The condition of our winter wheat, as shown by the Department in its report of April 7, is more than 25 per cent below the average "condition April i" for the past ten years. This condition forecasts a production this year nearly 243,000,000 bushels less than the crop of 191 5 and 52,000,000 bushels less than that of 1916, when our harvest of winter wheat was also poor.
What this loss means will be appre- ciated from the statement that one bushel of wheat contains sufficient energy to support the average working man for 15 days. By producing 240,000,000 bushels of winter wheat less in 191 5 we have lost enough flour energy to support 10,000,- 000 people for one year. But as no man lives on bread alone, this shortage repre- sents wheat sufficient for the needs of 20,000,000 men for a year.
THE USEFULNESS OF OATS AND BARLEY
If land intended for spring wheat can- not be put into good condition early enough for seeding, oats or barley can be substituted to good advantage in the sec-
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tions where these crops are known to do well. Barley can be relied on in the proved areas of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, and Montana, while oats have a much wider -range.
The ease with which barley may be substituted directly for wheat in human food and its usefulness to replace wheat milling by-products as feed in the pro- duction of the milk supply render its abundant production important. Barley, where it succeeds, yields a larger weight of feed per acre than any other small grain crop.
With an abundance of oats and barley available, much closer milling of wheat than at present could be practiced, if nec- essary, without endangering the milk sup- ply, which constitutes so important an element in the dietary of consumers.
The place of rye under present condi- tions IS an important one. The crop this year should be harvested and utilized with more than the usual care. Consid- erable acreage is planted in some sections for plowing under in the spring for green manure. Where conditions are suitable, part of this acreage might well be held for harvesting, and followed with a suit- able summer or fall crop for plowing in later.
Buckwheat may be planted later than any similar crop, and often does well on old meadows or waste land that can be broken after the more exacting crops are planted.
In some sections, where experience has demonstrated that the cereals, except rye, cannot be relied on, buckwheat is a crop of considerable importance. The acreage could well be increased, especially in por- tions of New York, Pennsylvania, and New England, where the crop now is grown to a considerable extent.
Rice at present prices provides more food value for the money than most of the other cereals. Fuller appreciation of its value should stimulate production quickly in Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and California to an extent that would increase the total food supply greatly.
EXPAND THE CORN ACREAGE
Corn is the leading food and feed crop of the United States in geographic range
of production, acreage, and quantity of product. The vital importance of a large acreage of this crop, properly cared for, therefore, is obvious. Because of the prices obtained for the last crop and the world demand for this grain, its profit- ableness to the American farmer during the approaching season is clear. The ip5»954»ooo acres planted to corn in 1916 yielded 2,583,000,000 bushels, or more than 400,000,000 bushels less than the large crop of 1915, and considerably less than the five-year average — 2,732,457,000 bushels.
Conditions now warrant the planting of the largest acreage of this crop which it is possible to handle effectively.
Although fall is the proper time for breaking sod for corn, there are many unproductive and foul meadows and in- different pastures in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and the Middle Atlantic and North- eastern States that, under existing condi- tions, can be broken and planted now to advantage. The resulting reduction of hay and pasture would be more than re- placed by the com stover, ensilage, and grain produced.
Earliness of maturity, other factors be- ing equal, is advantageous in the case of practically all grain crops. Relatively early maturing varieties should be se- lected where possible, and the planting should be done at the earliest suitable date. With the small grains an advance of three or four days in stage of maturity frequently saves a crop from serious damage by rusts. With corn a similar ad- vantage is obtained by early maturity, when severe droughts are encountered and when killing frosts occur toward the end of the season.
COW-PEAS AND SOY-BEANS VAI,UABI,E FOR FOOD
The usefulness of cow-peas and soy- beans as human food has been recognized only recently in this country. Existing conditions warrant the planting of all the available seed of varieties known to do well in the several sections. The soy- bean, in particular, has proved sufficiently resistant to cold in spring and to adverse weather during summer to warrant heavy
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SOLDIERS OF THE SOIL
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planting, especially throughout the South. The value of the beans for oil produc- tion, as well as for human food, has be- come recognized so quickly and so gen- erally during the past year that the crop has acquired a commercial standing far in excess of its previous status.
The high food value of field beans and the shortage of supply due to the light yields of 1915 and 1916 render them of great importance in the regions to which they are adapted. This is especially the case in portions of the New England States, New York, Michigan, and Cali- fornia, where the chief supply has been grown for many years, and in sections of Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, and other Western States where beans have at- tained importance recently.
The seed supply, while high in price, is well distributed.
RESERVE SUFFICIENT HAY, FORAGE, AND PASTURE lyAND
A deficiency of hay and forage for the next winter would jeopardize the future meat and dairy supplies of the country and result in a shortage of roughage for military draft and saddle animals.
In regions where dairying dominates, the full acreage of clover, alfalfa, and the grasses that is in productive condi- tion should be maintained. Under the conditions prevailing in most dairying sections, these crops can be carried with less man-power than that required for tilled crops.
The older, thinner, and less productive grass lands, however, frequently can be made to produce much larger yields of feed in corn than if left, as they are, in unproductive grass. The seeding down of small grain fields for next year's mow- ing should by no means be neglected, for the maintenance of effective rotations of crops will be found as important in the future as in the past.
For the Gulf States, perhaps no forage crop of which the available seed supply is relatively abundant exceeds the velvet bean in potential value. This legume pos- sesses also' the ability to make a crop when planted relatively late.
Seed potatoes should be conserved by
planting on the best lands available for them and planning for thorough tillage and protection of the crop against disease and insect pests.
POTATOES AND VEGETABLES '
Potatoes can be grown most advanta- geously near the centers of population in the Northern States, where transporta- tion cost may be reduced to a minimum. This crop is capable of quick and large increase of production when conditions are favorable.
There is, however, considerable risk of unprofitable production of potatoes when they are grown at long distances from the consuming markets, owing to their dis- proportionate weight and bulk in com- parison with the cereals.
Such vegetable crops as carrots, ruta- baga turnips, onions, and cabbage are worthy of much more attention than they generally receive, especially in the east- ern United States. All these crops are capable of large production on suitable land, under intensive culture, throughout the more densely populated portions of the country. The supply of seed is am- ple and their culture comparatively simple.
The holding of these vegetables for the winter food supply is relatively easy where suitable, inexpensive pits, cellars, or lofts are' prepared in time.
THE OLD PRACTICE OF DRYING VEGETABLES IS REVIVED
The practicability of quickly drying vegetables for longer preservation was demonstrated on a large scale last year in western New York, where quantities were dried in the available apple evap- orators and in rapidly constructed dry- kilns, for export as army supplies.
This was a repetition of the experience of the Civil War period, when desiccated vegetables assumed considerable impor- tance in the army ration, and the equip- ment required for their preparation proved the forerunner of our present fruit-drying equipment. Existing condi- tions warrant heavier planting than usual of staple winter vegetables in the sections where canneries and fruit evaporators exist, and probably in some sections
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where the provision of such facilities later in the season may be justified.
In the southern half of the country perhaps no crop has larger possibilities for quick increase of production of food for both men and animals than the sweet potato. Methods of handling and stor- ing this product, demonstrated and advo- cated by the Department workers for several years, make possible much fuller utilization of it than has occurred gen- erally in the past.
The peanut, in many sections of the South, also is capable of greatly enlarged production, with little risk of oversupply, as it is in demand for oil and peanut- butter manufacture, as well as for direct use as food, both for man and hogs.
increase; farm production of vege- tables AND poultry
The high prices for foodstuffs that have prevailed during the last few months have stimulated interest in the increase of home supplies of vegetables, poultry, and dairy products on farms.
This interest has been quickened most noticeably in the South, where for several years this Department and the States, through their extension workers, have urged such an increase as necessary for economic reasons, even under normal conditions. Other parts of the country have responded to these appeals, but emphasis on this feature should be con- tinued by all agencies in position to op- erate effectively.
Through increased attention to poultry on farms, it is possible to add quickly and materially to the food supply. Because of the importance of an increased supply of eggs, under present exigencies, far- mers should not market hens of the egg breeds, such as the leghorns, which are less than three years old, or of the larger breeds which are less than two years old.
By the immediate preservation of eggs for home consumption through the use of water glass or lime water, larger supplies of fresh eggs may be made available for marketing later in the season, when pro- duction is less and prices higher.^
Every person who raises chickens, from the novice to the poultry husbandman,
should see that infertile eggs are pro- duced and all surplus marketed promptly, so as to eliminate waste through spoilage.
When conditions render it feasible, small flocks of poultry should be kept by families in villages, towns, and especially in the suburbs of large cities. The need for this extension of poultry-raising is particularly great where consumption ex- ceeds production, as in the Northeastern States.
Through utilization of table waste, scraps, and other refuse as poultry feed, much wholesome food in the form of eggs and poultry for home use may be produced at relatively low cost.
Many families in the villages and on the outskirts of cities also should con- sider the advisability of keeping a pig, if sanitary regulations permit. In most cases, however, it will be profitable to keep a pig only when a sufficient surplus from the household and the garden is available to furnish a considerable por- tion of the pig's food.
Consumers living in villages and in the suburbs of cities do not appreciate suffi- ciently the possibility of adding materially to their food supply by utilizing suitable idle soil in yards, vacant lots, and unused outlying fields. The total contribution to the food supply of families and communi- ties which can be brought about through such activities is great.
Gardening is peculiarly an activity in which the family and the community may share with resultant mutual helpfulness and benefit.
The duty of the individual farmer, at this time, is to increase his production, particularly of food crops. If he has control of tillable land not in use, or money lying idle, or labor unemployed, he should extend his operations so as to employ those resources to the fullest extent.
This does not mean that he should rob his land, waste his capital, or expend his labor fruitlessly, but that by wise plan- ning and earnest effort he should turn out a greater quantity of food crops than ever before. He will not lose by it, and he will perform an important service in supporting his country in the task that lies before it.
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THE TIES THAT BIND
Our Natural Sympathy with English Traditions, the French Republic, and the Russian Outburst for Liberty*
By Senator John Sharp Williams
I JOIN the President in having no hostility to the German people. I spent two and a half years of my life with them and I love them — a whole lot of them. The man w^ho inhabits the bor- ders of the Rhine, the man who inhabits Bavaria and Wurttemberg — easily moved to tears, and easily moved to laughter, and easily moved to rage — is a man whom I have learned to love ; and I have always believed that this war in Europe, brought on by the obstinate refusal of the Kaiser to leave either to a tribunal of arbitration or to a concert of Eur6pe the question at issue between Austria and Serbia, and inspiring Austria to refusal, is a proof of the truth of the adage, "Whom the gods would destroy, they first make mad."
I am a little tired, Mr. President, of utterances like that of the Senator in de- nouncing the Entente powers. Who are the Entente powers? France, "La Belle France," "Sunny France," sweet France — the most companionable people on the surface of the earth ; the country of La- fayette and Rochambeau and De Grasse ; the country of Victor Hugo and Moliere and Racine ; the country of the men who imitated our American example when they flung to the breeze banners with "Liberty, equality, fraternity" inscribed upon them, although they carried the banner to a bloody end that was not justi- fied— to a Reign of Terror against those whom they deemed traitors at home — which has been exceeded by the German Reign of Terror in Belgium, greater in atrocity and less provoked.
Then the gentleman undertakes to "twist the British lion's tail." We have had a whole lot of demagogues who habit- ually do that. It started soon after the
♦An address to the U. S. Senate April 4, 1917, specially revised by Senator Williams for the National Geographic Magazine
Revolution, but not with those of us whose forefathers fought under George Washington in the Continental line to es- tablish American independence.
The War of Independence was really carried on against the will of the English people by the German king, who happened to be then the King of Great Britain, with hired Hessians, who were also Germans, against the leadership of that greatest Englishman that America ever pro- duced— George .Washington.
Edmund Burke, the eider Pitt, who was then Lord Chatham, and Charles James Fox came much nearer representing real English sentiment than the Hanoverian King George IIL
OUR DKBT TO ENGLAND
I have a hearty contempt for the man who does not know his environment and his kindred and his friends and his coun- try. It may be narrow, but I love my plantation better than any other planta- tion, my county better than any other county, my State better than any other State in the Union, and my country better than any other country in the world, and my race — the English - speaking race — better than any other race.
Whence do we get our laws ? Whence do we get our literature ? Whence do we get our ethical philosophy? Whence do we get our general ideas of religion? From the people who sired our fathers before they came here.
I am tired of men telling me — Welsh- man, Scotchman, Englishman in blood, as I am — that "the hereditary enemy of the United States is England" or Wales or Scotland — that it is Great Britain. Magna Charta, the Declaration of Rights, the Bill of Rights included in the Consti- tution in its first ten amendments — the very principles embodied in the Constitu-
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MESSENGERS OF THE AIR: THE FRENCH ARMY AUTO AT THE FRONT FOR
CARRIER-PIGEONS
tion derived from colonial experience under English rule — all come from Brit- ain, a country whose high priest was John Milton, whose sweet singer was Burns, whose great intellect was Shakespeare, whose great warriors for liberty were Hampden and Sidney and Simon de Montfort.
I would rather have heard the Senator eulogize the best offshoots of that branch, and those offshoots right here in Canada and Australia and in South Africa, than to have heard his eulogy of Prussia. They are the branches of the old stock that had the courage to leave their neigh- borhood and environment and seek out a new habitat and adapt themselves to it, and who won the American fight for lib- erty and equal opportunity — who, like our ancestors, plowed the field with the rifle on their shoulder, while they held the plow with the other hand. They were English and Scotch and Welsh and Irish.
GEORGE WASHINGTON WAS ENGLISH
It was an Englishman of the English- men, as far as his blood is concerned — George Washington, of Mount Vernon — who would have preferred to have the
people speak of him as "George Wash- ington of Mount Vernon," his plantation name, rather than by some other name — who led the American forces that fought against the dictates of a German-blooded king, backed up by Hessian hirelings. George Washington warned against en- tangling alliances and warned against an- other thing — an infuriate and insensate hatred of some particular people — be- cause a man with that poison in his blood is incapable of being a real, good Amer- ican citizen in a country where the melt- ing pot will finally operate.
I do not like the arraignment which the Senator made of the English people or the English Government, even more dem- ocratic than our own. I do not like it because it was not correct historically, because it was not true in sentiment, and because it was an insult to the gentlemen from whose loins I sprang, when they themselves fought against people of like blood who wanted to oppress them. What did they fight for? They fought for this — Thomas Jefferson and old Samuel Adams were pretty nearly the only ones of them who then had a larger vision — George Washington and Lincoln and
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THE AUTOMOBILE SEARCHLIGHTS WHICH ARE MOST EFFECTIVE IN SEARCHING OUT THE ENEMY^S ZEPPELINS, THUS AIDING IN BRINGING THEM DOWN
Greene and the balance of them fought for "the inherited rights of Englishmen, belonging/* as they contended, "to Eng- lishmen in America as well as to Eng- lishmen in England." Those "inherited rights of Englishmen" were expressed in the Constitution of the United States.
Thomas Jefferson and Samuel Adams had a bit broader vision and view; they went a bit farther; and Thomas Jeffer- son's vision went into the Declaration of Independence, which includes not only the rights of Englishmen, but "the rights of man," which were later embodied in the Declaration of the French Republic.
OUR DISLIKE OF ARROGANCE
Somebody said to me the other day, "You seem to be angry and in a passion about this German question," and 1 said, "I am." Next to the indignation of God is the righteous indignation of a true man with a soul in him and red blood, instead of bluish milk, in his veins, against the German assumption of German superi- ority and arrogance and injury and in- sult ; but, above all, insult.
I know it will sound to a lot of you curious, but the thing I believe that I re- sent most is what Germany said to us about painting our ships like the display window of a barber shop, when we could go, by her allowance, once a week into one port in one country, more than I do even the sinking of our ships and the drowning of our citizens. I think nearly every gentleman resents insult more than he resents injury. A man who comes upon my place and goes through a path- way that is not a public highway, or who incidentally destroys some property that is growing, I can forgive; but one who comes up to me and tells me that he is going to do it whenever he pleases, be- cause he is stronger than I am, is a man whom I cannot forgive.
Germany thought she was stronger than we; and she is right just now. These ready nations assume a great deal in connection with the unready nations. We two branches of the English-speak- ing race — across the sea and here — have always been unready for war, thank God, and shall remain so, because we think it
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
is better to call out the full power of the people when the emergency comes than it is to keep them weighted down for 20 years in order to do one year's fighting. As a rule, people do one year's fighting out of each 20 years of their actual ex- istence. We have done less, of course.
Which would you rather do — fight Prussia now, with France and England and Russia to help you, or fight her later, when she is foot-loose, by ourselves? You have got to do one or the other.
A whole lot of people tell me that the nations of the Entente are bound to win the war in Europe. I tell you they are not. I tell you that with that line, almost like a right-angle triangle, with a salient here, with Robert E. Lee behind that line, with a capacity to reinforce one part of it from the other, while the enemy has to go all around, he would win that war.
I tell you, furthermore, that the Italian barrier cannot be protected if there are enough German people put in, and when once it is broken France will be attacked upon the south — unfortified and unde- fended— on the Italian side.
I tell you, moreover, that if Germany does win that fight upon the Continent of Europe — with Belgium already a vassal State, Holland to become one, France likewise, by defeat — with all their forts and naval stations and shipyards open as well as her own, she will begin to get ready to whip us, unless England's fleet prevents it.
Now, Great Britain can, by sea-power, defend herself almost indefinitely — de- fend herself long enough for us to get ready to help her defend us. You can put it in your pipe and smoke it — this fact : whether you are going to fight Prus- sia now, with assistance, or whether you are going to fight her later, when we have no assistance, you have got to fight her.
THE OTHER NEUTRAL NATIONS
Then the Senator says that "the other neutral nations are not taking the course that we are taking." No; they are not. But why ? There is Norway, the land of the free and the brave, and the true coun- try whence the Normans came and whence almost all the blue blood of Eu- rope's rulers came. Why does not Nor- way resent these insults ? Oh, Mr. Presi-
dent, it is a sad and tragic thing; but Norway is too weak. Why does not Denmark act? Because her very hands are in the mouth of the mad dog.
Why does not Holland act? Again, because she dares not. German troops are lined across her border, ready to walk over her prostrate body as they walked over the body of Belgium ; to shoot her civilians -if they express sympathy for themselves against the German enerny ; to burn down her schools, her libraries, and her cathedrals, as the Germans burned down those in Belgium. Holland is cowed.
A brave race are the Dutch. They faced Spain in its pride and power, with the help of England. They fought and died for liberty to speak and to worship. But, Mr. President, almost any people in the world, no matter how brave, now and then can be cowed and for a time act like whipped slaves. It is the most tragic and pathetic thing in all history when that happens either to a man or to a nation.
I have spoken of France ; I have spoken of Great Britain. How about Russia? Up to a short time ago, so far as Russia is concerned, any animadversions that the Senator chose to make would have met with a good deal of sympathy upon my part ; but once more I see a people throw- ing off their shackles, who have at last "declared" that they are free. Time will test the question whether they can prove that they are worthy to be free or not; but they have at least expressed the desire and the intention to be free, and, as a rule, where the desire and the intention go, the fact exists.
We have got to go into this war now, and we are going into it for all we are worth, for all our capital is worth, for all our bodies are worth, for all that we have and all that we are ; and I, for one, hope that we will never make peace until the universal decree of the civilized world has gone forth to the effect that the Hapsburgers and the Hohenzollerns have ceased to reign.
The Hohenzollerns have been able; they have been efficient : they have been all that; but a race infected with the poisonous idea that it is ruling by divine ordinance is crazv.
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"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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fe^»fii!ir^«ifiir^i^iiMj!fi»Mi» s
PI
Q
Do your floors need refinishing?
Have they lost their soft gleaming lustre and their unmarred smoothness? Are they beginning to collect dust or getting a bit dingy?
Then they need refinishing. Not ordinary "doing over'' — but refinishing with a varnish that will keep them looking like new. No ordinary varnish will serve — you need good varnish and good work.
Murphy Transparent Floor Varnish
" fhe varnish that lasts longest "
will keep your floors at their best all the time. It reveals all the beauty of the wood and covers it with a protective coating that resists wear and can easily be kept immacu- late with a damp cloth. It lasts much longer than ordinary varnish and saves the expense of refinishing.
Your painter or dealer can supply Murphy Transparent Floor Varnish and any of these Murphy finishes for beautifying your home.
Murphy Transparent Interior Varnish Murphy Univernish Murphy Transparent Spar Varnish Murphy White Enamel
Send for illustrated book, "The House that Found Itself".
Murphy Varnish Company
Franklin Murphy y jr,. President
Newark New Jersey
Chicago Illinois
Dougall Varnish Co., Ltd., Montreal, Canadian Associate
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'Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you.'
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CORD TIRE
'Mention the (Geographic — It Identifies you."
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Onl:? tKe most expert mechanics arc employed, aiuj
practically every labor-sa-Oind device known to modem
sKop practice Has been installed to insure economic pro-
duction. TKe Paige Car is superbly built. For that reason it is a
glutton for Ward 'work and constant service. The Paige Car is superbly designed. For that reason it is
uni-Oersallp; recognized as "The Most Beautiful Car in
America.
Stratford, "Six-51." 7-passenger - $1495 f.o.b. Detroit
Fairfield. " Six-46, * 7-passenger - $1375 f.o.b. Dcttoit
Lin^ood, ']Six-39." 5-passenger - $1175 f.o.b. Detroit
Dartmoor. "Six-39,"p or 3 -passenger, $1175 f.o.b. Detroit
Brooklands, "Six-51," 4-passenger - $1695 f.o.b. Detroit A complete line of enclosed cars
Paige-Detroit Motor Car Company, Detroit, Mickif an
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CHANDLER SIX $(393
THOUSANDS of men choose the Chandler because of its mechanical superiority, which to them is so obvious, while other thousands choose it for its beauty of design, its grace of line, its roominess and its comfort.
All who choose the Chandler have reason for pride in their possession. For this splendid car combines, in an unusual degree, good taste, style and dependability. If one Chandler feature predominates over all others, it is doubtless the exclusive Chandler motor, now commonly called **The Mar- velous Motor, '* refined throughout four years of conscientious manufacture, without radical or experimental changes, to a point approximating per- fection.
Seven- Passenger Touring Car^ $1395
Four-Passenger Roadster ^ $1395 Seven-Passenger Connjertible Sedan, $2095
Four-Passenger Convertible Coupe, $1995 Limousine, $2695
AH pacts F. 0. B. Cltvtland
Dealers in Hundreds of Towns and Cities. Catalog Mailed upon Request. Address Dept. O
CHANDLER MOTOR CAR COMPANY
New York Office: 1790 Broadway CLEVELAND, OHIO Cable Address: **Clianmotor"
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The Fruits of Understanding
Throughout the vast area of this country prevails a commoi^ tongue. The whole of Europe hardly exceeds our territory, yet Europe has more than a score of nationcJities and many dif- ferent languages.
In the United States the telephone, as exemplified by Bell System, renders a matchless service in its mastery of distsuice and in encouraging the use of a universal leuiguage. This accom- plishment is in spite of the great influx of population from every country in the world.
In Europe the independent coun- tries, sepsurated by bsurriers of language.
and lacking efficient telephone service^ suffer from inadequate facilities for inter-communication.
We now talk from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific, and eliminate more than three thoussmd miles. In Europe, contending with a babel of Voices and unrelated telephone sys- tems, a bare quarter of that distance has been bridged with difficulty.
The ideal of the Bell System has been day by day to extend its service in the interest of all telephone users. Its efforts have resulted in providing the facilities to unite cities and rural districts in true American democracy.
American Telephone and Telegraph Company And Associated Companies ^^^^ One Policy One System Universal Service
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"Mention the Geographic — It Identifies yon.*'
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"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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nVESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC
%
Making Men Who Know
All over the United States Westinghouse men are constantly traveling for you.
These men are instructors, experts, super- visors. They establish service stations, train service men, and help keep present stations up to Westinghouse standards, so that at home or on tour you may be sure of satisfactory assistance in any emergency affecting your car's electrical system.
To be satisfactory, such assistance must be g^ven by men who know, as the electrical units— rugged though they be— demand ex- pert knowledge and skill for proper adjust- ment and repair.
Thaf s why at the 90 or more Westincbouse Automobile Equipment Service Stations you will find men who have been trained in the Westinehouse plant orby We«tinehouse experts. They know the two essentials of £ood service— how to locate troubles and how to remedy them— promptly.
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC A MFG. CO.
jluttmobilt Etid$mnU Dtfartmmt Shaoysidb Works Pittsdurgh. Pa.
tin^Riflse
UGHTING C7& IGNITION EQUIPMENT
«»^w. UGHTING
TOWNSEND'S TRIPLEX
Floats Over the Uneven Ground as a Ship Rides the Waves.
One mower may be climbing a knoll, the second skimming a level, while the third pares a hollow. Drawn by one horse and operated by one man, the TRIPLEX will mow more lawn in a day than the best motor mower ever made ; cut it better and at a fraction of the cost.
Drawn by one horse and operated by one man, it will mow more lawn in a day than any three ordinary horse-drawn mowers with three horses and three men.
Dors not smash the grass to earth and plaster it in the mud in sprin^ime, neither dors it crush the life out of the erass between hot rollers and hard, hot ground in summer, as does the motor mower.
The public is warned not to purchase mowers infringing the Townscnd Patent, No. 1.209.519, December 19ih. 1916.
ffriu for catalog iUustratinz all typts of Lawn Movoers.
S. p. TOWNSEND & CO. 27 Central Avenue Orange, New Jersey
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!««ffi^
^^SSmSmSeSSSSSi
>iiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiii»uiiiiiiiiuiiiiui
Save a day! When printers say **tomorrow'' to your call for hurry-up forms, letters, price-lists or
bulletins, just tell your secretary to have them mimeographed — "ri^ht now'' — five thousand in an hour! No waits for typesetting, cut making, "OK's," or presses — and probably you'll feet a better looking job of printing. No overtime to pay for — no promiscuous "handling of confidential proofs. Independence! With the mimeograph, not only typewriting but lon^and and line illustrations are immediately — flawlessly — du- plicated, in your own office. It's easily operated by a typist — and the ways it will serve you are multifold. It makes office duplicat- ing proof afeainst printers* delays — and wonderfully economical. Write for booklet "D." A. B. Dick Co., Chica&o— and New York.
nm&iw^Arh
IM
ml II
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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Hot Pace and Cooling Heels
COOLING Heels tra He's better knov than sanctum sanctc
Jones believes neither in j nor home-office follow-u] know Cooling Heels men for somebody/' Both he and his line are a nonen- tity.
Hot Pace travels for Smith.
He's better known in sanctum sanctorums than outer offices.
Buyers give him the glad hand, because they know when he is coming and what he has to sell. To them he is * ' Hot Pace, of Smith." Both he and his line are established.
Exaggerated? No!
Every salesman who has traveled with a Multigraph introduction and left behind him a Multi- graph follow-up knows the difference between the hot pace and the cooling heels —
Knows how smooth the road to the man who is expecting you; how easy the order when he knows the line —
Knows the **open sesame" that goes with Multigraph letters, folders, mailing cards before and after the call —
Knows how easy it is to set a hot pace on a Multigraph trail.
What pace do your men set on the trail of your business ?
Have you Cooling Heels or Hot Paces representing you ?
Think — act — mail the coupon !
Perhaps you've yet to strike the real stride in your business.
Tbe Name
Multigraph,
1821 E. 40Ck St., Official Position
Clerdaiid,
Ohio. Firm
Show me how I street Addrggn eantetahot '
pace in my _
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Oil Economy
GARGOYLK MOBILOIL
MORC
GARGOYLC
MOBILOIL
This motorist pays a fair price for scientific lubrication.
CHCAP OIL
.^^fcAA
MORC
CHEAP
OIL
Ql^!^m
This motorist pays less per gallon — but more per year.
YOU no doubt can tell about how much you paid for oil last year. And you know there is a cost difference per gallon between ordinary and scientific lubrication — Gargoyle Mobiloils.
But do you know this: Ordinary oil frequently costs far more by the year than Gargoyle Mobiloils.
Why?
Because poor lubri- cation immediately im- poses two cash penalties:
(i) More oil per mile (fre- quently twice as much.)
(2) More gasoline per mile (frequently 10% to 20%.)
These two losses make oil which is cheap by the gallon — expensive by the yean
In effect you then pay the price of high-grade lu- brication but secure only low-grade protection.
•'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
Digitized by
An Economical Demonstration
It will probably cost you less than $ I .GO to fill your reservoir with the grade of Gargoyle Mobiloils specified for your car. The garage or dealer you trade with has it, or can promptly secure it for you.
Ask him to empty your reservoir of its present oil and fill it with the correct grade of Gargoyle Mobiloils.
You can then judge for yourself the results in gasoline economy and reduced oil consumption, to say nothing of re- duced carbon deposit.
If your car is not listed in the partial Chart to the right, a copy of our " Correct Lubrication" booklet containing the com- plete Chart will be sent you on request
o>*^^
Mobiloils
A grade for each type of motor
The four grades of Garpoyle Mobiloils for ji^asoline motor lubrication, purified to remove free carbon, are:
Gargoyle Mobiloil "A"
Gargoyle MobiloU ''B''
Gargoyle MobiloU <"£''
Gargoyle Mobiloil '^Arctic'*
Uattnc VieJUda— For motor bearinjrs and enclosed chains use Gargoyle Mobiloil "A" the year 'round. For open chains and differential use Gargoyle Mobiloil **C** the year 'round, fjrccptibii— For winUr btbrication of pleasure cars use Gargoyle Mobiloil "Arctic" for worm drive and Gargoyle Mobiloil "A" for bevel gear drive. In ba3ring Gargoyle Mobiloils from your dealer, it is safest to purchase in original packages. Look for the red Gargoyle on the container. For information, kindly address any inquiry to our nearest office.
VACUUM OIL COMPANY Rochester, N.Y., U.S.A.
Sp«cialisla in th* manufacture of hish-grada lubricants for every class of machinery. Obtainable everywhere in the world.
BnmAa:
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Detroit |
Chicago |
Minneapolis |
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Boston |
Philadelphia |
Pittsbur^'h |
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New York |
Iudianai>olis |
Kansas City. Kan |
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Oes Moines |
Correct Automobile Lubricatioii
Explanal&ons In the Chart below, the letter opposite the car indicates the grade of Gar- goyle Mobiloils that should be used. For example/'A" means Gargoyle MobiloU" A." "Arc** means Gargovle MobiloU '"Arctic." etc. The recommendations cover all models of both pleasure and commercial vehicles unless otherwise noted.
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Manufacturen of the famous " Miller Standard " line of Druggists' SundHes, Surgeon's Gloves, Balloons, Novelties, Etc. "Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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I
''Mention the Geographic— It identifies you.'
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History of the Republic
The discovery of the Prodium Process of compounding: rubber is as momentous as was Republic* s invention of the non-skid tire.
R£PUoI#IC PROCESS I11C£S
Prodium Process makes rubber wondrously tough, with much greater resistance to wear. It increases strength, A strip of Prodium Rubber one inch square will support 3400 pounds.
It puts longer life into Republic Tires. Even after the Staprgard studs are worn smooth, thousands of miles of service remain in the tire.
Send for a sample of Pr&dium Rubber
Republic Black'Line Red Inner Tubes have a record free frbm trouble
HARRISON MEMORIALS of CHARACTER
Offices in principal cities. Write for Booklet 3.
HARRISON GRANITE COMPANY
200 Fiftli ATCBve, New York CHy Work? : Barre. Vt.
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^3
One Word from a Woman's Lips
How it gave to this country its finest watch
O ACK in the days when our grandmothers ^^ were girls, Romance began working changes in the watch making industry of this country.
Sailing over the sea came Dietrich Gruen, a brilliant young horologist, to visit a brother in America.
And here he fell in love. The word he won from his sweetheart's lips changed all his plans and made him decide upon America instead of Switzerland as the place to carry out his lifelong ambition to be a watch manu- facturer.
A business built on ideals
Dietrich Gruen started his business with the ideal of giving America a watch of ex- ceptional merit. But for its production his thoughts turned naturally to Switzerland, where from time out of mind the finest watches have been made.
There he gathered together a group of the finest craftsmen, and established his first fac- tory for the production of watch movements, importing these movements and adjusting them to their cases in America.
About 1874 Dietrich Gruen conceived the idea of reducing the size of watches. He suc- ceeded in producing the i6-size. For many years thereafter this was the popular size watch, and is the size made today by all watch manufacturers for railroad use, so that Dietrich Gruen may be said to have been the first railroad watch manufacturer in Amer-
A new ideal
QRU
Gruen saw that all VBR-ITHINl watches were not only
too large, but too thick. He determined that the Gruen watch should be the pioneer thin watch, as it had been the pioneer i6-size watch.
He began then a series of experiments to-
ward that end, trying for a new principle that would enable him to secure watch thin- ness without cutting down the size and strength of parts.
The eldest of Gruen's three sons had grown up and been traihed, here and abroad, in the watch-making skill of his race. This eldest son, Fred, now took up with his father the latter's ambition, and together they worked to realize it.
How they at last accomplished it is shown by the wheel train illustration below. In Europe and America the Gruen Verithin im- mediately took the lead as the thinnest accu- rate watch made — a position it has held ever since.
With cunning fingers the watchmakers of Madre-Biel, Switzerland, adjust and finish the machine-made parts by hand after the original model. In Cincinnati, located on "Time Hill," is the beautiful American Serv- ice Plant and Gold Case Factory^ where the gold cases are made and the watches receive their final adjustments. Here, too, duplicate parts are kept always on hand.
The demand for these ivatches during the past se'ven years being greater than the production^ obliges us to limit their sale through about 1^200 jetueler agencies, but those nvho n.vant a nvatch for long ser^ice^ a mjatch in whose accuracy and beauty they imill ahvays take pride ^ luill find among the best je^velers in e^very locality one or t<wo <who are proud to display the Gruen agency signsj as shoivn here.
Fixed PricM : #27.50 toS200; Ultra-thiii«,«165to S250; Diet- rich Gruenx. S300 to S6$0. Hiebcst perfection attainable in irrades marked "Precision.'* If your jeweler cannot supply you. write us, naming model you are interested in. and we will ar- range for you to see it. THE GRUEN WATCH MANUFAC- TURING CO.,Depi. D."Time Hill." Cincinnati. Ohio. **Maiert of thtfamms Gruen Watthts sintt J874.''* Factories: Cincinnati and Madre-Biel, Switzerland. Canadian Branch, Toronto, Canada.
WATCH
de the J'frithin fossihle
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Plant Specialties
17o«>a>'o This new edition
Farr S contains 112 pages
.. I f^m of text matter, with
Hardy Plant S'Vlf^n^S:
and is more com- plete and helpful than any of its predecessors. It is a book that no reader of the National Geographic Magazine will wish to be without.
Some Special Features
In the Iris section there are many of my own seedlings, including the Panama-Pacific Gold Medal Collection ; also notable new introduc- tions from Europe.
AmonKthePeoniesareanumber of rare varie- ties which I have been unable to offer before, owing to limited stock. The fortunate pur- chase in France of a noted collection of Tree Peonies enables me to offer a unique assort- ment of over 300 varieties. Lemoine's complete collection of Lilacs, Phil- adelphus, and Deutzias, with many of the new Chinese Barberries. Cotoneasters, and other introductions of Mr. E. H. Wilson, add to the value of this book.
If you arm intmrm^tmd in gardening and ufoald iikm a copy, it will bm mailmd to you on TOQUoat
3ERTRAND H. FARR
Wyomiaaing Nuraeriea Co. 110 Garfield Ave. WyomininK, Penna.
JUDD & DETWEILER, Inc.
Master Printers
420-422 Eleyenth Street N.W.
WASHINGTON, D. C
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loiier will greauy neip lo preserve ine aeiicaie lexiure ana coloring or me complexion far beyond the time when most women lose them.
Even if the skin is alretidy in bad condition with pimples, redness or roughness,
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5r Camp
' the man who ss the great out- ers this camp has in especially de- led. It offers [i(ort,durability, and harmony with its sur- roundings.
THIS camp is of single wall construction, unlike the all year round larger Bossert- built houses. It is not painted, but stained a beautiful brown color with creosote, which not only preserves the wood, l^ut .brings out beautifully the natural grain.
Five Hundred Dollars f. o. b. Brooklyn
Send 12 cents today for catalog showing details of Bossert construction
LOUIS BOSSERT & SONS, INC, 1313 Grand St, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Contains three bed-rooms, a 12x15 living room, and a 6x9 kitchen in extension. Vital economies effected by the Bossert method of buying and construction enable us to offer this camp at
RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP
in the
National Geographic Society
The. Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine
DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad. $3.00; Canada, $2.50: life membership. $50. Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or express order.
Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary
_/9/
^o the Secretary, National Geographic Society,
Sixteenth and M Streets Northioest,
Washington, D. C :
/ nominate- jJJJress
for membership in the Society,
( Write your address)
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Write it on the film — at the time.
Make every negative more interesting, more valuable by permanently recording at the time of exposure the all important — who, when, where. It's a simple and almost instantaneous process with an
Autographic Kodak
Ask your dealer or write -us for catalogue.
EASTMAN KODAK CO., Rochester. N. Y., The Kodak City.
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CAMP PENN
Valcour Island, Lake Champlain, N. Y.
llth Season
One of the finest campe in the East for &oim c/ from 9 to 16 years, indvaioe
Camp Penn will appral to thoufhful parents who wish for their sons a real *'woodsy'* camp, which will bring out the best that is in them, with carefully chosen companionship and under expert super- vision. We would be pleased to send yoo our booklet and make clear not only what we do for our boys, but, which ia infinitely more important, what our boys do for themselves i Camp Penn ia a very real kind of camp, with just a touch of the military in iL
Five hundred acres of woods and meadow, resident phjrsician, exclusive dairy, a splendid record for health and lack of aoddenU and a moderate amount of military drill, thorousbly fiven.
CHARLES K. TAYLOR, M. A., Director St. Martins, Philadelphia, Pa.
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When You Have Brushed Your Teeth
your mouth toilet is only one-half complete. The other, and more im- portant half, is
To Clean the Mouth
To clean the mouth thoroughly — to keep it in such a healthy condition that disease germs cannot thrive in it — use
Di
{a teaspoonful in a quarter glass of water) mornino' and evenine^. as a mouth
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Two Cars Crashed. One Turned Over. Fire!
Three children pinned beneath the wreckage !
I grabbed Psrrene from our car and put out the fire before anybody was burned.
Think what a tragedy there wouM have been without Psrrene ! The fine car burned to a skeleton. The chil- dren, imprisoned; held like rats in a trap..
What if they were your children!
Imagine yourself tugging, straining, frantk, unable to lift that 3000
pound car one inch. Your wife— dumb with horror.
Every hour you put off getting Pjrrene for your automobile and Pyrene for your home is a monstrous gamble.
Sold by hardware and auto supply dealers.
Saves 15% on auto insurance cosL
* Saves money as well as life.
Pjrrene Manufacturing Co., New York Every Appliance for Fire Protection
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DENBY
TRUCKS
FOR TRAfL ORMV£M£Nr
1 HE internal- gear axle as used in the Denby is one of the vital factors of a truck which we believe to be the most efficient ever pro- duced.
Denby Motor Trudk Company
Detroit^ Michigan
You can get this most delightful of soaps at your favorite department store or dniffffist.
And once used, you will realize why for over sixty years women of refine- ment in every civilized land have made it their all-lime choice.
^§)%rcerii^Sp
Pure and transparent as choicest materials and skill can make It, No. 4711 White Rose Glycerine Soap ifives a skin clear and velvety. Delicately per- fumed, its rich, abundant lather makes each day's use a fresh delight.
For the sample cake, send 2c. stamp; or for 10c. In stamps we wnll send you a package containing a sample cake of No, 4711 White Rose Glycerine Soap, a sample bottle of No. 4711 Bath Salts, and a sample bottle of No. 4711 hau de Colotrne.
MULHENS & KROPFF, D«pt. IS. 2S Wwt iSth Street. New York
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LANTERN SLIDES
from Photographs in National Geographic Magazine
SO MANY REQUESTS are being constantly received regarding lantern slides from the copyright photographs in the Geographic that arrangements have been com- pleted to supply them to members of the Society. Slides are not kept in stock, each order being made up as received, and will be delivered within two weeks after receipt of order, unless otherwise advised. The copyright notice must appear on each slide. The purchase of lantern slides does not carry with it the authority to publish the pictures and they cannot be used for advertising purposes.
Slides cannot be sent upon approval and a remittance must accompany each order. The slides will be carefully packed and sent by express collect. Prices in the United States (standard size), black and white, 75 cents each; colored, $1.50. Address,
Dept. L., National Geographic Magazine WASHINGTON, D. C.
$157,000,000.00 PAID FOR LOSSBS
TELL YOUR AGENT YOU MUST HAVE THE
Aetna (Fire) Insurance Company of Hartford, Conn.
Incorporated in 1819
VlfEBSTERS NEW ^^^^^^^ your quesfiom^be ii fhe pronunciation of a new term; the spelling of a puzzling word me location of Nigeria* iKe nr%eanin|S of l^l^yMyaQY ESa tractor, wKHecoal eic. •-this New Creation l#l V 1 1 VllllK I ^ contains a clear, accurate, final answer.
G.&C.MERRIAM CO.,SPRINGFIELD«MA5S.
INTERNATIONAL
Ple»«« amnd m« •P«ci-f ig amp
I mmn p»^*s and < n«lri6»- —
>REE POCKET MAPS I ADDRESS..
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May we send postpaid
t
f\
New Catalog
XT IS a fascinating book, filled with
illustrations — many in actual colors— of the quaint and curious objects of art and jutihty collected by the Vantine rep- resentatives in Japan, China, Persia, and other Oriental countries.
As a reader of xht National Geographic KA^^.^:^^ «.-. *--i «,,g yQ^j yf]]i be
antine Catalog ises geographic
:ins or dcficribins the il creations of the a rti- inds beyond the seas.
and address on a pos- it obli ration we shall is delisrbtful book of dress Dept. N.
ne & Co.» Inc. e. and 39th St swYork
=c^
1201 Race Street
jnCROGRAKIY
EVERY camera is a color camera, now. Remember this in looking forward to your Spring photographic campaign. You can slip a
Hiblock
into your own camera, make your exposure and obtain as many re- productions as you wish. You'll want to take a supply of Hiblocks on your next trip. A pack of two sen- sitized plates and one film, bound to- gether as one, the Hiblock slips into your own camera like an ordinary plate. Only one exposure is neces- sary. Let us tell you more about this invention that at last brings color photography within your reach without entailing the purchase of a special camera. Send for booklet
Hess-Ives Corporation
Philadelphia
AVfidi- rirt \Jir£i Itr^drfe R^r
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HOT SPRINGS
ARKANSAS
Grmatmmt Health andPleoBarm Rmaort in the World Owned by the
U. 5. Government
The cnrative propeniec of the waten of Arloinns Hoc Sprines are known the world over. Their lue is endorsed and reeuUted by the Govemnient. The dinute is bracing, scenery beantiful; social life and spoit in abundance.
For information, iilaatratmd booklet, etc, • write
Department of the Interior
Washington, D. C.
This advertisement Inserted by the Iron Mountain Route.
HODGSON
Portable HOUSES
Are yoa thinldnff of erecting a small bnildlng? If it's anything from a bird house to a cottasre— listen. There are Hodsson bungalows, garages, play houses, screen houses, chicken houses, dog houses and every other kind of houses imaginable. Get a catalog and you'll see them alL
They can be quickly and easily erected by unskiUed workmen. They with- stand all kinds of weather.
Here is the best way to buy. By paying 2Si( of the price of your house we will prepare and hold it until wanted. This saves you money and insures prompt de- livery. Our Catalog is illustrated with photographs— and prices, too. Send for it
E. F. HODGSON COMPANY
24<,II6Waafcii«tMStiMt,BwlM,lla«. < East 39lk StiwC. New Totk Gly
(he Hou aLetlerWrifcn an tfdVerlisingiMan^a College Sbdeniallser of English?
Here ft a neW book made ^nteei^your needs - a Meiricun -Webster DicUonory—
HcCOLLEGIATE
THIRD EDITION, JUST ISSUED
^bridaedfromfhefomoua NEW INTERNATIONAL. AnsWers oil kinds of quesiions likeV 4o come up in your Work.
100,000 Words. ITOOniusirafions. 1248 Paaea. Scofiish Gloasary, GaxaHeer, Vocabulary of Rimes, E4c
REGULAR AND THIN-PAPBR EDITIONS. il^REE I
Order from your Bookseller or from the publishers. | . ^.
G.& C. MERRIAM C0.,SPRINGFIELD»MASS. j IVi9es lAddress
I Noma
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[f
=^
Wanderlust! Already the days are lon^ — and winter-weary folk have be^un to respond to the call of tantalizing Spring
Green ma^c of the open! Is it yours — now that the youn^ years exhilarating wine fires the blood with crav^ ing for new, wide horizons?
A better car this season — a car that will give the ut- most, demand the least, and leave more freedom for the stimulating joys of the road!
Why not?
All the miles you can crowd into the day — all the
speed the highway will per- mit— all the power any road condition can demand — and the confidence that you ride in the best of form without excessive cost — are yours if you drive a Twin-six.
A Packard exactly to your liking — now! You'll want the particular design you want — this Spring.
The days are long — and the time for action is short.
A.sJi the man who ovi/ns one
Twenty distinctive styles of Twin-six motor carriages. Prices, open cars, $3050 and $3500, at Detroit. Packard dealers in all important cities
Packard Motor Car Company — Detroit
TWIN-6
di
j^
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VOLUME XXXI
T/jr^
NUMBER FOUR
rTHENATlONAO
-EOG MAGAZI
lie
APRIL, 1917
+
CONTENTS
8 Pages in Four Colors
Do Your Bit for America woodrow wilson
A Tribute to America Herbert henry asquith
Friends of Our Forests
With Color Illustrations HENRY W. HENSHAW
The Burden France Has Borne
With 19 Illustrations GRANVILLE FORTESCUE
The Gail to the Colors
With 17 Illustrations
The Outspeaking of a Great Democracy
ALEXANDER RIBOT-RENE VIVIANI-PAUL DECHANEL
The Oldest of the Free Assemblies
ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR
The Russian Situation and Its Significance to America
With 10 niustrations STANLEY WASHBURN
PUBLISHED BY THE •
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETTY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHIKGTON, D.C.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
^ HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL
SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS. WASHINGTON. D. C.
O. H. TITTMANN PRESIDENT
GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. director and EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR O. P. AUSTIN .... SECRETARY
JOHN E. PILLSBURY VICE-PRESIDENT
JOHN JOY EDSON . . TREASURER
GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY
WILLIAM J. SHO WALTER . assistant EDITOR
1915-1917
Charles J. Bell
President American Security and Trust Company
John Joy Edson
President Washinston Loan & Trust Company
David Fairchild
In Charge of Agricultural Ex- plorations, Dept. of Asric
C. Hart Mbrriam
Member National Academy of Sciences
O. P. AUSTIN
Statistician
Georcb R. Putnam
Commissioner U.S. Bureau of Lighthouses
George Shiras, 3d
Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress. Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Qame Photosrapher
Grant Squires
New York
BOARD OF MANAGERS 1916-1918
Franklin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Henry F. Blount
Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company
C. M. Chester
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory
Frederick V. Coville
Formerly President of Wash- inston Academy of Sciences
John E. Pillsbury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Chief Bureau of Navlsation
Rudolph Kauppmann
Manasins Editor The Evenins Star
T. L. Macdonald M. D.. F. a. C. S.
S. N. D. North
Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census
1917-1919
Alexander Graham Bell
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howard Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematiqs, The Geo. Washinston Univ.
A. W. Greely
Arctic Explorer, Major Oen'l U. S. Army
Gilbert H. Grosvenor
Editor of National Oeosraphic Masazine
George Otis Smith
Director of U. S. Oeolosical Survey
O. H. TiTTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey
Henry White
Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France. Italy, etc
John M. Wilson
Brisadier General U. S. Army. Formerly Chief of Ensineers
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, ''the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,'* the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed :
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. EDITOR
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
A. W. Greely C. Hart Merriam
O. H. TiTTMANN
Robert Hollister Chapman Walter T. Swingle
Alexander Graham Bell David Fairchild Hugh M. Smith N. H. Darton Frank M. Chapman
Entered at the Post -Office at Washington, D. C, as Second-Class Mail Matter Copyright, 1917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All right«,.reserved j
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Medium Sto
npH AT term, me "^^ stout, is the clothing men des< such a figure as young men, or oldei They think th( "hard-to-fit" and p tailor big prices to f it.
We make clothes desig] fit such figures; they do fit label means satisfaction g teed; a small thing to loc a big thing to find.
Hart SchaflFner & T
Good Clothes Makers
CApyright Hart Schaflaer & Mant
.^ A. -*^ -».-...
. ^ -• ^
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iiJiiliiiiJiliiiialiiiililiih^
$1150
F.o.b. Racine
Mitchell Junior—a 40 h. p. Six 120-inch Wheelbase
$1460
jTT|i|:|ini|iii:'|jr |n':^:ii:|rp]i:i'[i!tinip'|'|r!|',r;i'':';in \.'\
F.o.b. Racine 7-Passenser— 48 Horsepower SIXES 127-inch Wheelbase
Plus 31 Extras
In the Mitchell there are 31 extras added to the usual type of fine car. Each is something you will want.
These extras will cost us, on this year's out- put, about $4,000,000. They cost you nothing, because they are paid for by factory efficiency.
The Mitchell now offers, in every vital part, 100 per cent over-strength. That is twice our old margin of safety.
This means a lifetime car. Several Mitchells have been run over 200,000 miles each. It means a safe car, a car of low upkeep. Over 440 parts are built of tough- ened steel.
Due to John W. Bate
The Mitchell extra values are due to John W. Bate. He built and equipped this 45-acre plant to build this one type economically. His methods have cut our fac- tory cost in two.
TWO SIZES
li/ittnVki^} 1 •"• 7-pa«8enger Six with lYUiUieU 127-inch wheelbase and __ jloped 48" 31 extra features.
Price SI 460, f, o. h. Racine
Mitchell Junior 7*r sS^S;
lH^inch wheelbase and a 4Mor8epower motor. 26 extra features.
Price SI ISO, f. o. h. Racine
Also six styles of enclosed and convert- ible bodies. Also new Club Roadster.
This year our new body plant brings an- other big saving. And from it we've added 24 per cent to the cost of finish, upholstery and trimming. The Mitchell is now the beauty car of its class.
They Are Unique
Mitchells are unique in over-strength, in beauty and equipment. The body styles are exclusive— designed by our artists, built by our own craftsmen. No attraction is omitted.
Mr. Bate has traveled half the world to gain ideas for Mitchells. In 1913 he spent a year in Europe. He has 'forked out more than 700 improve- ments.
Go see the results of his methods. See what a Six $1150 buys in the Mitchell Junior. See the many fea- tures in the larger Mitchell, which other cars omit. The difference will amaze you.
MITCHELL MOTORS
COMPANY, Inc. Racine, Wis., U. S. A.
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Help Us Focus the Condemning Light of Public Opinion on
THE SLIP-SHOD DRIVER— n^ Greatest Enemy of Motoring
The 5/1^-shod driver is one who leaves tire chains in the locker when
careful drivers put them on their wheels. Driving with chainless
tires over wet-slippery-skiddy streets he gambles with
the lives and property of everyone in his path.
Only two things can reach the slip-sYiod driver- fear of the law and the mightier power of public opinion. So, we ask you to help us arouse and concentrate a public opinion that will compel the //(^-shod driver to. use intelli- gence and judgment that will safeguard
all of us against all preventable
accidents.
Concentrate your light of condemnation on every driver who cuts comers ; who does not signal when stopping or turning ; who does not grive a warning signal of his approach \ who ex- ceeds a safe speed limit ; who does not inspect his brakes and stearing gear, and who does not stop to put on tire chains at the first indi- cation of wet, slippery, skiddy streets.
Help Us Insure Motoring Safety for Everyone.
AMERICAN CHAIN COMPANY, Incorporated SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF WEED CHAINS
Bridgeport, \^X Connecticut.
In Canada ; Dominion Chain Company, Ltd., Niagara Falls, Ontario.
Th* €ibove advertisement was sugi^ested by a car OTvner who has the best interests 0/ motoring at heart. Please show it to all slipshod drivers you meet and ask them to spread its doctrines to others iu their class. Help forge an endless chain camMign to imnre motoring safety for everyone.
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j!|ii!lilt!iti^i||!|ij
TOfflf
f!Wiif
m
How Hudson Solved the
GasoUne Problem
Now Furnished on the New Light Super-Six
The gasoline saver is one more new We made those records of endurance
invention of the Hudson Super-Six. for acceleration and speed with cars of
It was shown for the first time at the the earlier production. No one has yet
New York Automobile Show in January. equaled anything we have done with stock
Now most all Hudson dealers are showing Super-Six cars. And yet the cars we
the new cars equipped with thU and ten turn out today are infinitely better because
other important new features. The gaso- ff ^^ increased skill and experience
line saver is the only new feature shown Hudson workmen have acquired m build-
on automobiles at this year s shows. J"8 ^« 25.000 cars that were produced
last year.
Overcomes the Poor Gasoline Think What a Year
Hard starting and wasteful gasoline con- HaS ShoWn
sumptionduetocoldweatheranddielow- Remember what was claimed for the
grade gasolme are overcome Radiator guper-Six one year ago. Then we had
and hood covers are not needed on the ^^, ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ show-records
new Hudson Super-Sixes, even m the proving the Hudson Super-Six the fastest
coldest weather. ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^
This device has been m use on hundreds We then had established only the 100-
of Hudson Super-Sixes during the coldest mile and the one-hour records for a f uUy
winter weather. Its effectiveness has been equipped stock touring car. But since we
proved. It is as easily operated as the have won the 24-hour record for a stock
damper on a stove. chassis, the Transcontinental Run both
Low-grade gasoline gives low mileage ways, the fastest stock chassis mile, and
and is wasteful and harmful to the engine. have outsold any other high-grade car in
unless the motor is operated 8tea<;Jily at a the world. So if you want a fine car that
high temperature. out-performs any other car that is built,
your choice must be a Hudson Super-Six.
Primer Insures Easy Starting ^^^^^^ ^^.^^j ^^^ ^^^^^^
In «5ro weather, even at 20 below, the ^^ ^j^j^ ^^^ ,^^^ ^^^^^ ^, j^„ exceeded
new Hudson Super-Six motor starts. The ^^^ production by 8.000. At no time
pnmeris another new feature of the new ^uri„g the season were there enough
Super-Six. Hudsons to go around. From this you
On the new cars there are also other can see what the demand will be this year, worth-while features you should see. We are only producing 30.000 cars as There is the new plaited upholstering. against last year's 25,000 because we can- more attractive door fasteners, hard rubber not build more and build them welL That handles, an improved body finish, and other is not a large increase. It shows, however, details you can see. And then we have that if you want a Hudson you cannot made many improvements in the building afford to postpone buying. Unless you of the car. The car that last year won act now you may be like other thousands every worth-while record is a much better who will be disappointed this year because automobile now. because we have learned they could not get prompt deliveries, to build them better. Don t fail to see the gasoline saver.
Phaeton. 7-pas8enger $1650 Town Car Landaulet $3025
kuiincnMA^ Cabriolet, S-passenger .... 1950 Limousine 29K
K^Sonjm Touring Sedan 2175 Limousine Landaulet ^3025
r«x4r Town Car 2925 {All Price* f, o. 6. Dmtroit)
HUDSON MOTOR CAR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICHIGAN
'I HM I i| NT II n i| r ■' r 'M i ^ ' I M ' !' i M <''''' > ' "
^■Ti|li'M|'1ITIi''r
a:l'lilillilj.ililliill!llkil
Mili|ii[ir|ii'ii|l||if|m:ii'|i|ii!riT JiiiilililiiiihiilililaliUliliJiliiiliii'iiJiLlii.liL
Mm
"Mention the Geographic — It idenxifles you.'
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g
INSOMNIA DUE TO INDIGESTION
When indigestion or dyspepsia is the cause of insomnia, one of the most satis- factory methods of securing relief is to chew a piece of Beeman's Pepsin Gum — a chewing gum made from a scientific for- mula of my own.
If you suffer at all from insomnia, al- ways have a piece of my gum within easy reach, for many times it may turn a sleep- less night into one of restful slumber.
I
JtM^pva^*^
Doctor E. E. B(
A
CHICLE
V
AMERICAN CHICLE COMPANY
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Making a
Food Confe
of Four Things Folks I
The four best-liked foods, pro
Fruits — Nuts — Sugar -
Most sweetmeats are made
They are now being served— in bination— on a million breakfasts
But, instead of nuts, use nut-like bles of wheat or rice. They are thin and crisp and flaky. And they taste like toasted nut meats.
Prof. Anderson rather ob- jects to treating Puffed Grains as tidbits. To him they are scientific whole-grain foods. They are shot from guns. Every food cell is exploded for easy, complete digestion.
But Puffed Grains got their world-wide welcome because they are delightful. No other grain food so fascinates the young. So we urge their daintiness to bring you their good.
You will never find a morning dish folks like so well as Puffed Grains
|
Puffed |
Puffed |
|
Wheat |
Rice |
|
and Corn Puffs |
|
|
Each 15c Except in |
Far West |
The Dairy Dish
Thousands of men now avoid dulling luncheons by eating Puffed Grains in milk. Thousands of chil- dren go to bed on this ideal good-night dish.
It means a whole-grain food, with every element anybody needs. It means easy digestion — no tax on the stomach — for the food cells are all exploded.
And it means toasted grain bubbles, flimsy and crisp, with a flavor that never was imitated.
Three grains are now prepared in this form, giving you variety. And they should be served in place of flour foods wherever they apply. Keep all three kinds on hand.
The Quaker O^^ 0>mpaiiy
Sole Makers
(1555)
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. t
I
Boston Woven Hose & Rubber Compal
Department N Cambridge, Massachusetts j
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Johns-Manville
ASBESTOS ROOFING
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He Turned the Light Shade Upside Down
'N a sick room, a distracted hus- band turned the light shade up- side down to re- lieve the patient*s petulance.
It was a touch
of inspiration —
the beginning of X-Ray Lighting.
That makeshift indirect light of the despairing husband showed the way to better lighting. It estab- lished the guiding principle funda- mental to the X-Ray Lighting sj^em.
The source of the light is always out of sight.
So, from the lofty Woolworth tower to the smallest article in the country dealer's show-case — wherever you do not see the light, but do see the object alone, beauti- fully and strikingly illuminated — there is X-Ray Lighting.
Wherever there is attractive lighting that rests and comforts the eyes, from the searching, high- intensity illumination of the hos- pital operatmg room to the subdued glow of the motion-picture thea- ter— and you do not see the light source — there is X-Ray Lighting.
♦ Whether it is source-concealed direct X-Ray light for the rushing factory, or source-concealed indi- rect X-Ray light for the quiet home; in either case it is a sunny, daylight brightness, radiantly uni- form and clear.
In every case the light is con- cealed in the opaque X-Ray re- flector, with its wonderful silvered corrugations that difluse and temper the light perfectly.
Directed ceilingward, so that no part of the light reaches the eye directly, X-Ray reflectors produce real (not semi) indirect lighting, efficiently and economically.
Doctors prefer X-Ray Lighting because of its cheerful, eye-saving character; architects favor its fix- ture beauty; home-makers like its artistic effect ; business men value its economy.
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Vol. XXXI, No. 4
WASHINGTON
April, 1917
TIME
ATflONAL OGIAPHH AGAZD
DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA
A Proclamation by President Wilson to the American
People
MY Fellow-Countrymen : The entrance of our own be- loved country into the grim and terrible war for democracy and human rights which has shaken the world creates so many problems of national life and action which call for immediate consid- eration and settlement that I hope you will permit me to address to you a few words of earnest counsel and appeal with regard to them.
We are rapidly putting our navy upon an effective war footing and are about to create and equip a great army, but these are the simplest parts of the great task to which we have addressed ourselves.
There is not a single selfish element, so far as I can see, in the cause we are fighting for. We are fighting for what we believe and wish to be the rights of mankind and for the future peace and security of the world.
To do this great thing worthily and successfully we must devote ourselves to the service without regard to profit or material advantage and with an energy and intelligence that will rise to the level of the enterprise itself. We must realize to the full how great the task is and how many things, how many kinds and ele- ments of capacity and service and self- sacrifice it involves.
These, then, are the things we must do, and do well, besides fighting — the things
without which mere fighting would be fruitless :
We must supply abundant food for ourselves and for our armies and our sea- men, not only, but also for a large part of the nations with whom we have now made common cause, in whose support and by whose sides we shall be fighting.
THE THOUSAND NEEDS FOR VICTORY
We must supply ships by the hundreds out of our shipyards to carry to the other side of the sea, submarines or no sub- marines, what will every day be needed there, and abundant materials out of our fields and our mines and our factories with which not only to clothe and equip our own forces on land and sea, but also to clothe and support our people, for whom the gallant fellows under arms can no longer work ; to help clothe and equip the armies with which we are cooperating in Europe, and to keep the looms and manufactories there in raw material ; coal to keep the fires going in ships at sea and in the furnaces of hundreds of factories across the sea ; steel out of which to make arms and ammunition, both here and there; rails for worn-out railways back of the fighting fronts ; locomotives and rolling stock to take the place of those every day going to pieces ; mules, horses, cattle, for labor and for military service ; everything with which the people of Eng-
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BEFORE THE STATUE OF NATHAN HALE^ CITY HAI.L SQUARE, NEW YORK
A patriot of 1917 becoming imbued with the patriotism of the Revolutionary hero who, upon being led forth to die, voiced the inspiring regret that he had but one life to lose for his country.
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291
land and France and Italy and Russia have usually supplied themselves, but can- not now afford the men, the materials, or the machinery to make.
It is evident to every thinking man that our industries — on the farms, in the ship- yards, in the mines, in the factories — must be made more prolific and more effi- cient than ever, and that they must be more economically managed and better adapted to the particular requirements of our task than they have been ; and what I want to say is that the men and the women who devote their thought and their energy to these things will be serv- ing the country and conducting the fight for peace and freedom just as truly and just as effectively as the men on the battle- field or in the trenches.
SOLDIERS BEHIND THE FIRING LINE
The industrial forces of the country, men and women alike, will be a great national, a great international, service army — a notable and honored host en- gaged in the service of the nation and the world, the efficient friends and saviors of free men everywhere.
Thousands — nay, hundreds of thou- sands— of men otherwise liable to mili- tary service will of right and of necessity be excused from that service and assigned to the fundamental, sustaining work of the fields and factories and mines, and they will be as much part of the great patriotic forces of the nation as the men under fire.
I take the liberty, therefore, of address- ing this word to the farmers of the coun- try and to all who work on the farms: The supreme need of our own nation and of the nations with which we are coop- erating is an abundance of supplies, and especially of foodstuffs.
The importance of an adequate food supply, especially for the present year, is superlative. Without abundant food, alike for the armies and the peoples now at war, the whole great enterprise upon which we have embarked will break down and fail.
The world's food reserves are low. Not only during the present emergency, but for some time after peace shall have come, both our own people and a large
proportion of the people of Europe must rely Upon the harvests in America.
WHERE THE FATE OF THE WAR RESTS
Upon the farmers of this country, therefore, in large measure rests the fate of the war and the fate of the nations. May the nation not count upon them to omit no step that will increase the pro- duction of their land or that will bring about the most effectual cooperation in the sale and distribution of their prod- ucts?
The time is short. It is of the most imperative importance that everything possible be done, and done immediately, to make sure of large harvests.
I call upon young men and old alike and upon the able-bodied boys of the land to accept and act upon this duty — to turn in hosts to the farms and make certain that no pains and no labor is lacking in this great matter.
I particularly appeal to the farmers of the South to plant abundant foodstuffs, as well as cotton. They can show their patriotism in no better or more convinc- ing way than by resisting the great temp- tation of the present price of cotton and helping, helping upon a great scale, to feed the nation and the peoples every- where who are fighting for their liberties and for our own. The variety of their crops will be the visible measure of their comprehension of their national duty.
The Government of the United States and the governments of the several States stand ready to cooperate. They will do everything possible to assist farmers in securing an adequate supply of seed, an adequate force of laborers when they are most needed, at harvest time, and the means of expediting shipments of fer- tilizers and farm machinery, as well as of the crops themselves when harvested.
A democracy's CHANCE TO MAKE GOOD
The course of trade shall be as unham- pered as it is possible to make it, and there shall be no unwarranted manipula- tion of the nation's food supply by those who handle it on its way to the consumer. This is our opportunity to demonstrate the efficiency of a great democracy, and we shall not fall short of it !
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Photograph from Ledger Photo Service PLIGIITINX ANEW THEIR FEALTY TO THE FLAG
Assembled in Independence Square, Philadelphia, thousands of patriotic Americans re- cently pledged their unanimous support to the President in the following stirring resolutions •
"Meeting on the eve of a great crisis affecting our national life and on the sacred ground where, 141 years ago, the fathers of the Republic declared belief in the unalienable right of man to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, we citizens of Philadelphia, following the traditions of the fathers, here publicly renew our oath of allegiance to the Constitution and the laws of the Republic, pledging to the President of the United States our loyal support in any action which, in the exercise of his constitutional powers, he may deem necessary to the protection of American rights upon land and sea. Because the common defense is a common duty, universal military training is the only system that is fundamentally democratic and fair. We urge upon Congress the prompt enactment of a bill to put this system into imme- diate operation." ^-^ -_
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DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA
293
This let me say to the middlemen of every sort, whether they are handling our foodstuffs or our raw materials of manu- facture or the products of our mills and factories : The eyes of the country will be especially upon you. This is your oppor- tunity for signal service, efficient and dis- interested. The country expects you, as it expects all others, to forego unusual profits, to organize and expedite ship- ments of supplies of every kind, but espe- cially of food, with an eye to the service you are rendering and in the spirit of those who enlist in the ranks, for their people, not for themselves. I shall con- fidently expect you to deserve and win the confidence of people of every sort and station.
To the men who run the railways of the country, whether they be managers or operative employees, let me say that the- railways are the arteries of the nation's life, and that upon them rests the im- mense responsibility of seeing to it that those arteries suffer no obstruction of any kind, no inefficiency or slackened power.
To the merchant let me suggest the motto, "Small profits and quick service," and to the shipbuilder the thought that the life of the war depends upon him. The food and the war supplies must be carried across the seas, no matter how many ships are sent to the bottom. The places of those that go down must be supplied, and supplied at once.
STATESMEN AND ARMIES HELPLESS WITHOUT MINERS
To the miner let me say that he stands where the farmer does — the work of the world waits on him. If he slackens or fails, armies and statesmen are helpless. He also is enlisted in the great service army.
The manufacturer does not need to be told, I hope, that the nation looks to him to speed and perfect every process ; and
I want only to remind his employees that their service is absolutely indispensable and is counted on by every man who loves the country and its liberties.
Let me suggest, also, that every one who creates or cultivates a garden helps, and helps greatly, to solve the problem of the feeding of the nations; and that every housewife who practices strict economy puts herself in the ranks of those who serve the nation. This is the time for America to correct her unpar- donable fault of wastefulness and ex- travagance.
Let every man and every woman as- sume the duty of careful, provident use and expenditure as a public duty, as a dictate of patriotism which no one can now expect ever to be excused or for- given for ignoring.
THE SUPREME TEST HAS COME
In the hope that this statement of the needs of the nation and of the world in this hour of supreme crisis may stimulate those to whom it comes and remind all who need reminder of the solenm duties of a time such as the world has never seen before, I beg that all editors and publishers everywhere will give as promi- nent publication and as wide circulation as possible to this appeal.
I venture to suggest, also, to all adver- tising agencies that they would perhaps render a very substantial and timely serv- ice to the country if they would give it wide-spread repetition.
And I hope that clergymen will not think the theme of it an unworthy or in- appropriate subject of comment and hom- ily from their pulpits.
The supreme test of the nation has come. We must all speak, act, and serve together !
WooDRow Wilson.
The White House, April 15, 191 7.
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A TRIBUTE TO AMERICA
By Herbert Henry Asquith
Formerly Prime Minister of Great Britain
IT IS only right and fitting that this House, the chief representative body of the British Empire, should at the earliest possible opportunity give definite and emphatic expression to the feelings which throughout the length and breadth of the Empire have grown day by day in volume and fervor since the memorable decision of the President and Congress of the United States.
I doubt whether, even now, the world realizes the full significance of the step America has taken. I do not use lan- guage of flattery or exaggeration when I say it is one of the most disinterested acts in history. For more than lOO years it has been the cardinal principle of Ameri- can policy to keep clear of foreign en- tanglements. A war such as this must necessarily dislocate international com- merce and finance, but on the balance it was doing little appreciable harm to the material fortunes and prosperity of the American people.
What, then, has enabled the Presi- dent— after waiting with the patience which Pitt described as the first virtue of statesmanship — to carry with him a united nation into the hazards and hor- rors of the greatest war in history?
Not calculation of material gain, not hope of territorial aggrandizement, not even the pricking of one of those so- called points of honor which in days gone by have driven nations, as they used to drive individuals, to the duelling ground.
It was the constraining force of con- science and humanity, growing in strength and compulsive authority month by month, with the gradual unfolding of the real character of German aims and meth- ods. It was that force alone which brought home to the great democracy overseas the momentous truth that they
♦An address in the House of Parliament April 17, 1917.
were standing at the parting of the ways. The American nation had to make one of those great decisions which in the lives of men and nations determine for good or ill their whole future.
What was it that our kinsmen in Amer- ica realized as the issue in this unexam- pled conflict? The very things which, if we are worthy of our best traditions, we are bound to vindicate — essential condi- tions of free and honorable development of the nations of the world, humanity, respect for law, consideration for the weak and unprotected, chivalry toward mankind, observance of good faith — these things, which we used to regard as commonplaces of international decency, one after another have been flouted, men- aced, trodden under foot, as though they were effete superstitions of a bygone creed.
America sees in this clear issue some- thing of wider import than the vicissi- tudes of the battlefields, or even of a re- arrangement of the map of Europe on the basis of nationality.
The whole future of civilized govern- ment and intercourse, in particular the fortunes and faith of democracy, has been brought into peril. In such a situ- ation aloofness is seen to be not only a blunder, but a crime. To stand aside with stopped ears, with folded arms, with averted gaze, when you have the power to intervene, is to become not a mere spectator, but an accomplice.
There was never in the minds of any of us a fear that the moment the issue became apparent and unmistakable the voice of America would not be heard. She has now dedicated herself without hesitation or reserve, heart and soul and strength, to the greatest of causes, to which, stimulated and fortified by her comradeship, we here renew our fealty and devotion.
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FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS
By Henry W. Henshaw
Author o^ "Common Birds of Town and Country/'
Geographic Magazine
IN THE National
Illustrations by Louis Agassis Puertes
AT EVERY stage of their growth,
/\ from the seed to the adult tree,
i\ our forest, shade, and orchard
trees are subject to the attacks of hordes
of insect enemies, which, if unchecked,
would soon utterly destroy them.
What the loss of our forest and shade trees would mean to us can better be imagined than described. Wood enters into so many products that it is difficult to think of civilized man without it, while the fruits of our orchards also are of the greatest importance. Aside from the eco- nomic loss, which can hardly be imagined, much less estimated, how barren the world would seem shorn of our forests and beautiful shade trees!
Fortunately, the insect foes of trees are not without their own persistent enemies, and among them are many species of birds whose equipment and habits spe- cially fit them to deal with insects and whose entire lives are spent in pursuit of them. Many insects at one or another stage of their existence burrow deeply into the bark or even into the living wood of trees, and so are quite safe from ordinary bird enemies. Woodpeckers, however, being among the most highly specialized of birds, are wonderfully equipped to dig into wood and to expose and destroy these hidden foes.
Certain insects that largely confine their attacks to the smaller branches and ter- minal twigs are sought out and preyed upon by nuthatches, creepers, titmice, and warblers. Others, and their number is legion, attack the blossoms and foliage, and here the nimble and sharp-eyed warb- lers render supreme service, the number of plant lice and lepidopterous larvae they destroy in a single day almost challenging belief.
Thus our woodland songsters are among the most important of all our birds, and in their own field render man
unequaled service. Moreover, very few have any injurious habits, and the little harm they do, if any, weighs as nothing in the balance when compared with the good. By reason of their numbers and their activity in hunting insects, our warblers take first place as preservers of the forest, and the following account, which treats of about half the total ntun- ber, is devoted to the more conspicuous, the more important, and the commoner species.
THE WARBI^ER FAMILY
Our wood warblers are assembled in a rather loosely defined family (the Mnio- tiltidae), embracing in all about 140 spe- cies, of which more than a third are visitors to the United States. They are fairly well distributed over the country at large, although more species make their summer homes in the eastern half of the United States than in the western.
A number of notable species, however, summer in the West, as they do also in the Southern States. Our New World warblers are quite unlike their Old World relatives, the Sylviidae, or true warblers, whose family includes some 75 genera and between 500 and 600 species.
Not only do our American species dif- fer structurally in many particulars from their Old World representatives, espe- cially in possessing nine instead of ten primaries, but they differ markedly also in appearance and habits. It may be said in passing that while our warblers are brilliantly colored and many of them sexually dissimilar, those of the Old World are not only small, but plainly plumaged ; moreover, the sexes are gen- erally alike in coloration.
The larger number of our warblers, as well as the most characteristic, are in- cluded in the one genus Dendroica, which is notable, since it includes more species
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
than any other genus of North American birds.
HAUNTS OF WOOD WARBLERS
Fortunately for the bird lover, our wood warblers are not recluses. They are creatures of light and sunshine. Some of them, it is true, retire to the mountain fastnesses or the depths of coniferous forests during the nesting period; but the number of these is small and their withdrawal for only a comparatively short time, while the majority at all times of the year favor the edges of the forest, open woods, or brushy clearings.
Their preference for such situations brings many within the bounds of civil- ization and renders it comparatively easy for any one so inclined to make their ac- quaintance. As during migration they assemble in flocks, they are, on the whole, pretty well known ; and since, as a rule, they are not shy, they have long been favorite objects of observation and study.
WARBLERS AS SONGSTERS
Despite their name, which would seem to imply musical ability of no mean order, our wood warblers, with few exceptions, occupy no very high place in the musical galaxy. All sing, however, after a fash- ion, and the musical efforts of some are pleasing, even according to human stan- dards. While most warblers are prodigal enough with their music and sing early and often, especially prior to and during the nesting season, their music is fre- quently so faint as to be audible only to the trained ear of the bird lover.
As if aware of their musical inferior- ity, few display much enthusiasm in their vocal efforts, but sing while they work, or while pausing for a brief moment as they move among the foliage hunting for food. With them, singing appears to be an audible expression of general content and well being, and, no doubt, an effort to please and attract their mates.
Certain members of the thrush and thrasher families, on the contrary, which contain in their ranks the prima donnas of our bird world, as if conscious of their supremacy, are wont to mount a com- manding perch when about to sing, and to pour out their melody for all the world to hear. With them, singing is not merely
incidental to the day's work. It is a con- scious and supreme effort, and is much too important to be slighted or shared with any other function. Apparently they appreciate to a great extent and en- joy their own outpourings, and, if we may interpret their feelings by human standards, are conscious that their musi- cal offerings entitle them to an audience.
TROPICAL ORIGIN OF WARBLERS
Not only do their bright colors suggest a tropical origin of our warblers, but their whole make-up is in keeping with tropical surroundings. Warblers are thinly feathered and delicately organized and most of them incapable of withstand- ing any great degree of cold. They are also almost exclusively insect eaters, only a few of the family being at all vege- tarian, and these only to a comparatively small extent.
Hence, with them, migration is not a matter of choice, but is imperative. They come to us on a particular errand for a few short months, and when family cares are at an end, back they hie to the tropics, the lands of warmth and sunshine, which lend them to us for a brief season. Thus the true home of our warblers is not where they nest, but where they spend three-fourths of their lives — not the north, but the south — not in the temper- ate, but in the tropical zones.
THE SPECTACULAR MIGRATION OE WARBLERS
That wonderful phenomenon, bird mi- gration, is illustrated by few birds so clearly and convincingly as by our wood warblers. Assuredly no other birds — unless it be the geese — migrate in such a spectacular manner. The stroller, in late August or September, finds himself in the woods, the silence being broken only by the drumming of a distant partridge, the chirping of insects, or other familiar sounds which only emphasize the general quiet that prevails.
Presto! The scene changes! The woods, apparently almost tenantless but a moment before, are now filled with life of the most animated and intense kind. Every shrub, every tree, has its feathered occupant. Our observer recog-
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FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS
299
nizes perhaps a dozen or twenty species, representing several distinct families ; but prominent among them, by reason of numbers, variegated plumage, graceful forms, and active motions, are the wood warblers.
Every individual is alert and busy, gliding from one twig to another near by, or flying from one tree to the next, while from all sides come the soft calls and notes of individual members of the flock, whose friendly converse has the effect, if not the purpose, of keeping the individ- uals of the assemblage in touch with each other and with the flock as a unit. In a few moments silence again reigns where all was commotion and activity. The birds have passed on their seemingly aim- less course.
^ If the observer would learn the solu- tion of the mystery of the birds" evident hurry, he has only to follow them for a time, when he will find that, however er- ratic may seem the course of individual members of the flock, the flock as a whole is steering a tolerably straight course southward. In other words, he is in the midst of a flock of birds en route to their winter quarters and, in order to econo- mize time, feeding as they go. This, however, is not the only way warblers migrate, nor is it the most important, since the greater part of the long journey of many is performed by night.
Any one with good ears has only to listen on a clear, frosty night in fall to hear hundreds of warblers and other birds as they flit by, a few hundred yards above the earth, the call notes coming in- cessantly out of the darkness. The route of these flying hosts often carries them above cities, and one cannot be insensible to the incongruity between his surround- ings and the woodland scenes, so vividly brought to mind by the lisping notes com- ing from the darkness overhead. The subject of migration has not inspired our poets so often as might be expected, but Longfellow, in his "Birds of Passage," gives us the followinp^ wonderfully sug- gestive lines:
But the night is fair, And everywhere A warm, soft vapor fills the air, And distant sounds seem near;
And above, in the light Of the star-lit night, S\vift birds of passage wing their flight, Through the dewy atmosphere.
I hear the beat
Of their pinions fleet,
As from the land of snow and sleet
They seek a southern lea. I hear the cry Of their voices high, Falling dreamily through the sky,
But their forms I cannot see.
Probably because insects constitute such an important part of their food, warblers, as a rule, migrate early in fall and late in spring. It is true that in fall many linger till frosts nip the vegetation ; but insects are abroad even later than this, and it is only necessary to watch these late migrants for a short time to learn that their search for insects is be- ing well rewarded.
Only a few species come north early in spring, the great bulk of the warblers evidently having been taught by bitter ex- perience that in spring, at least, it is not the early bird that finds most worms or finds them easiest.
FLOCKING OF SMALI. BIRDS
Just why small birds, when migrating, congregate in large flocks and troop through the woodlands has often been the subject of speculation. Juncos, several species of sparrows, woodpeckers, nut- hatches, chickadees, creepers, and, above all, warblers, combine to swell the ranks of these migrating companies. As many as a dozen or more species of warblers may often be seen in one flock, which, in addition, may include 200 or 300 indi- viduals, representing a number of fam- ilies whose tastes and habits in every-day life differ very widely.
Yet here are these incongruous ele- ments mingling together on terms of the utmost friendliness. Since birds are so- ciable beings, except during the short time when family cares prompt to jealous vigilance, sociability alone may be the bond of union; added, however, to the kindly feeling of companionship probably is a feeling of increased security which comes from numbers. Certainly no enemy can approach one of these bird assem- blages without being spied by at least one
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
pair of vigilant eyes, when the flock is immediately notified by a few sharp chirps — warning for every individual to seek safety in flight or to scurry to cover.
WHAT MYSTERIOUS SENSE GUIDES THEM IN THEIR LONG JOURNEYS?
In what manner warblers migrate — that is, how they are guided on their long journeys — is a moot question. Little mystery attaches to their ability to find their way north or south in daylight, since the recognizable landmarks are many and prominent. As most birds, es- pecially the warblers, choose starlight and moonlight nights for their trips, perhaps they are similarly guided by night, and natural landmarks, as mountains, rivers, and the coastline may point out much, if not all, of their way.
However plausible this explanation may sound in the case of birds migrating over land, it utterly fails when applied to migrants whose journeys north and south necessitate flight over long stretches of ocean, in some instances at least 2,000 miles, quite out of sight of land and of all landmarks.
In seeking an explanation of the mys- tery of birds' ability to find their way under such circimistances, many are in- clined to reject the one-time sufficient answer, "instinct," in favor of the more recent theory, the possession by birds of another faculty, the so-called "sense of direction." This added sense enables birds to return to a known locality with no other aid than an ever-present knowl- edge of the right direction.
But, in the case of our wood warblers, there is little need of appealing to another sense to guide them in migration, or, in- deed, to anything out of the ordinary save excellent memory and good eyesight. The five-hundred-mile flight toward the trop- ics across the Gulf of Mexico is made by preference, and however it originated as a fly line, had it proved to be extra haz- ardous, it might have been abandoned at any time in favor of the apparently safer West Indian route.
But, after all, the Gulf trip involves few hazards other than those connected with storms, since the flight across the water, even at a slow rate, would necessitate a
journey of less than 24 hours, and this, no doubt, is quite within the capacity of even the smallest and weakest of the family. Moreover, the South American Continent is too big a mark to be easily missed, and an error of a few hundred miles north or south would make little diff^erence in the safety of the birds.
WHY WARBLERS MIGRATE
It may be set down as an axiom that all birds which travel south in fall do so because they must migrate or freeze or starve. Why some of them leave early, when food in their summer home is seem- ingly so abundant, is indeed a puzzle. Once the nestlings are on the wing and ready for the journey, oflF they go, old and young.
Nevertheless, by an apparently prema- ture start they only anticipate by a few weeks the time of scarcity when they must go, and perhaps the lesson of bitter experience in the history of the several species has taught them to go when all the conditions are favorable. It is true that every winter a few birds, often a few individuals of a given species, winter far north of the customary winter home. Some of these are evidently stragglers or wanderers which, for some unexplained reason, failed to accompany the rest of their kind on the southward migration. They in no wise aflFect the general state- ment, being exceptional in every way.
A few of our warblers in Florida and on other parts of our southern coast do not migrate ; but the almost universal rule in the family is to abandon the summer home when the care of the young ceases and to go far southward ere they stop for the winter. Indeed, the males of many species do not trouble themselves much with the care of the nestlings, but prepare to migrate before the young are well on the wing.
A still more flagrant case is that of the hummingbirds. The male deserts the female when she is still on her eggs, shifting the responsibility of caring for the family entirely on her devoted head, while he disports himself among the flowers, leaving for the south long before his exemplary mate and the young are ready.
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FRIENDS OF OUR FORESTS
301
Some of our species, however, while migrating southward, are satisfied to re- main all winter within our boundaries. Thus the pine and palm warblers winter in the Gulf States, while a greater or less number of individuals, representing sev- eral species, winter in southern Florida. The great majority, however, winter south of the United States, in Central and South America.
Thus Professor Cooke tells us: "The prairie, black-throated blue, Swainson's, Bachman's, Cape May, and Kirtland's warblers go only to the West Indies. The worm-eating, myrtle, magnolia, chestnut- sided, black-throated green, hooded, blue- winged, Nashville, orange-crowned, pa- rula, palm, and Wilson's warblers, and the chat, go no farther than Central America, while many species spend the winter in South America, including some or all the individuals of the black and white, prothonotary, golden-winged, Ten- nessee, yellow, cerulean, bay-breasted, black-poll, Blackbumian, Kentucky, Con- necticut, mourning, and Canada warb- lers, the redstart, oven-bird, and both the water-thrushes. Nearly all the warblers of the western United States spend the winter in Mexico and the contiguous por- tions of Central America.*'
VAST NUMBERS SUCCUMB
The northward journey in spring, away from the land of sunshine and plenty to the land of uncertain spring weather, is another matter. Probably if all birds that habitually abandon the north and winter in the south were to nest there, their quota, added to the number resident in the tropics, would be too great for the means of subsistence.
Nevertheless, birds are not forced away from their winter quarters by inclement weather or impending famine, but by the subtle physiological change which warns them of the approach of the mating sea- son and fills them with new desires, among which is the compelling one of a return to the spot where they first saw the light, or where they reared last sea- son's brood.
Whatever the cause, the birds are not discouraged by the many and great perils that attend migration, and vast numbers every year succumb to them. Storms,
especially off-shore storms, constitute the gravest peril, and there is abundant evi- dence that millions of birds are annually blown out to sea to find watery graves. Perhaps no family suffers more in the aggregate than the warblers. Thinly feathered, delicately organized, highly in- sectivorous, they are exposed to unusual dangers while birds of passage to and from their nesting grounds.
It is a matter of common observation that every few years in some given lo- cality, perhaps embracing a region of con- siderable size, a particular species of warbler or other bird suddenly becomes rare where before common. After a sea- son or so, though sometimes not for years, the equilibrium is reestablished and the numbers are as before. These changes very probably are the visible signs of migration catastrophes, the re- sult of the sweeping away of a migration wave, composed of one or of many spe- cies, in the path of some sudden storm.
Again, many of us have witnessed the dire effects of a prolonged rain and sleet storm in spring, when thousands of luck- less migrants find only too late that they have prematurely left the warmth and plenty of their tropical winter refuges. Under such circumstances thousands of migrants perish from the combined effects of cold and starvation, and among them are sure to be great numbers of warblers.
ECONOMIC VALUE OF WARBLERS
From the esthetic point of view, our warblers, as a group, occupy a high and unique position. They also occupy no uncertain place in the list of our useful birds. Preeminently insectivorous, they spend their lives in the active pursuit of insects. They begin with the eggs, prey- ing upon them whenever and wherever found, and continue the good work when the egg becomes the larva and when the larva becomes the perfect insect.
They are especially valuable in this re- spect because of the protection they lend to forest trees, the trunk, bark, and foli- age of which they search with tireless energy. Their efficiency is vastly in- creased because the many different spe- cies pursue the quest for food in very different ways. While some confine their search chiefly to the trunks and large
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
branches and examine each crack and crevice in the bark for eggs or larvae, others devote their energies to the twigs and foliage, scanning each leaf and stem with eager eyes. Still others descend to the ground and examine the rubbish and grass for hidden prey, while nearly all are adept at catching insects on the wing.
Each species, however, has a method of its own, more or less unlike that of its fellows, and each excels in some specialty. Not only does the group as a whole spe- cialize on insects, but each individual member of the group still further special- izes, so as to leave no loophole for the escape of the enemy.
The quantity of animal food required to drive the avian engine at full speed is so very great that it is no exaggeration to say that practically all the waking ' hours of our warblers, from daylight to dark, are devoted to food-getting. What this never-ceasing industry means when translated into tons-weight of insects, it is impossible even to guess, but the practical result of the work of our warblers and other insectivorous birds is that we still have our forests, and shall continue to have them so long as we encourage and protect the birds.
In the case of orchards and shade trees, there are other means at our disposal of controlling the insect enemy, notably the use of sprays. Sprays are very impor- tant, since birds are too few in number immediately to control insect outbreaks, especially nowadays, when the number of destructive native insects has been so greatly increased by importations from all quarters of the globe. But for the preservation of our forests we must rely largely upon our birds, since the use of sprays or of other agencies over our vast woodland tracts would be too expensive, even were it not quite impracticable for many other reasons.
MEANS OF INCREASING THE NUMBER OF WARBLERS
Insects are very numerous, and there is reason to believe that much benefit would
result if we could multiply the present number of their enemies — the birds. The erection of bird boxes and shelters is an easy way to increase the number of cer- tain species of birds, like swallows and chickadees. Unfortunately, with few ex- ceptions, our warblers do not build their nests in cavities, and hence can not be induced to occupy bird boxes.
Many of them, however, nest in bushes, vines, and shrubbery, and by planting clumps of these near houses something can be done toward increasing the num- bers of certain species, as the yellow warbler and the redstart. Because our warblers are chiefly insectivorous, their food habits bar them from the usual bird lunch-counter in times of hard storms.
During migration, warblers are pecu- liarly exposed to the danger of prowling cats. Many species feed close to or even on the ground, and then they are so much concerned with their own business that any tabby, however old and lazy, is equal to catching one or more individuals daily. The bird lover can do good service by summarily disposing of vagrant cats, which, during migration, work havoc in the ranks of our small birds.
They can also restrain the pernicious activities of their own pets, for these, however well fed, are still subject to the predatory instincts of their wild ancestry, which impel them to stalk a live bird with all the zeal and cunning of their fore- bears.
PLUMAGES OF WARBLERS
Little difficulty is experienced, even by the tyro, in distinguishing warblers from other birds, but to recognize the several species is not so easy, particularly as the adult males and females of many species are markedly dissimilar, while the young, both in the first and second plumages, often diflFer from the adults. So far as possible the various plumages are shown in the illustrations of the artist, which are so admirable as to do away with the need of descriptive text. All are ap- proximately one-half life size.
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THE WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA
INDEX TO TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION PAGES
Illus-
Text tratlon
page. page.
Audubon's Warbler 307 309
Bay -breasted Warbler 318 316
Black and White Warbler. 307 309
Blackburnian Warbler 315 313
Black-poll Warbler 315 313
Black-throated Blue Warbler 311 312
Black-throated Gray Warbler 318 316
Black- throated Green Warbler 318 316
Blue-winged Warbler 311 308
Canada Warbler 314 320
Cape May Warbler 310 312
Chestnut-sided Warbler 314 313
Connecticut Warbler ^21 320
Golden-winged Warbler. 306 308
Hooded Warbler 321 320
Kentucky Warbler 314 317
Louisiana Water- thrush 319 317
MacgilUvray Warbler 321 320
Illus-
Text tratlon
page. page.
Magnolia Warbler 315 313
Maryland Yellow- throat 304 305
Mourning Warbler 321 320
Nashville Warbler 311 312
Northern Water-thrush 319 317
Orange-crowned Warbler. 306 308
Oven-bird 304 305
Palm Warbler 319 317
Parula Warbler 310 312
Pine Warbler 318 316
Prairie Warbler 319 317
Red-faced Warbler 304 305
Redstart 307 309
Tennessee Warbler. 310 312
Wilson's Warbler 314 320
Worm-eating Warbler 306 . 308
Yellow-breasted Chat 304 305
Yellow Warbler 307 309
YOUNG FISH-HAWKS ABOUT TO LEAVE THEIR NEST: GARDINEr'S ISLAND, NEW YORK
Photograph by Frank M. Chapman, and from his book, *'Camps and Cruises of an Orni- thologist"
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MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT (Geothlypis trichas and variety)
Length, about 5^ inches. Mostly green above, yellow below. Distinguished from other war- blers by broad black band across forehead, bor- dered narrowly with white.
Range: Breeds from southern Canada to southern California, Texas, and Florida; win- ters from the southern United States to Costa Rica.
This little warbler is common throughout the Eastern and Southern States, frequenting thickets and low bushes on swampy ground. He is not a tree lover, but spends most of his time on or very near the ground, where he hunts assiduously for caterpillars, beetles, and various other small insects. Among the pests that he devours are the western cucumber beetle and the black olive scale. He has a cheery song of which he is not a bit ashamed, and when one happens to be near the particu- lar thicket a pair of yellow-throats have chosen for their own, one has not long to wait for vocal proof that the male, at least, is at home. The yellow-throat has the bump of curiosity well developed, and if you desire a close ac- quaintance with a pair you have only to "squeak** a few times, when you will have the pleasure of seeing at least one of the couple venture out from the retreat far enough to make sure of the character of the visitor.
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT (Ictcria virens and subspecies)
Length, about 7>4 inches. Its size, olive- green upper parts, and bright yellow throat, breast, and upper belly distinguish this bird at a glance.
Range : Breeds from British Columbia, Mon- tana, Wisconsin, Ontario, and southern New England south to the Gulf States and Mexico; winters from Mexico to Costa Rica.
The chat is one of our largest and most notable warblers. It is a frequenter of brushy thickets and swampy new growth, and, while not averse to showing itself, relies more upon its voice to announce its presence than upon its green and yellow plumage. Not infre- quently the chat sings during the night. The song, for song we must call it, is an odd jumble of chucks and whistles, which is likely to bring to mind the quip current in the West, "Don't shoot the musician; he is doing his best." In this same charitable spirit we must accept the song of the chat at the bird's own valuation, which, we may be sure, is not low. Its nest is a rather bulky structure of grasses, leaves, and strips of bark, and is often so conspicuously placed in a low bush as to cause one to wonder how it ever escapes the notice of marauders fond of birds' eggs and nestlings.
The chat does no harm to agricultural inter- ests, but, on the contrary, like most of the warbler family, lives largely on insects, and among them are many weevils, including the alfalfa weevil and the boll weevil so destruct- ive to cotton.
(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 18 et seq.; also Circular 64, p. 5.)
OVEN-BIRD (Seiurus aurocapillus)
Length, a little over 6 inches. Above mostly olive green; below white, breast and sides streaked with black.
Range: Breeds from southern Mackenzie, Ontario, southern Labrador, and Newfoundland south to Wyoming, Kansas, southern Missouri, Ohio Valley, and Virginia; also in mountains of Georgia and South Carolina; winters in southern Florida, southern Louisiana, Bahamas, West Indies, and southern Mexico to Colombia.
The oven-bird is one of our best-known birds and one the woodland stroller is sure to get acquainted with, whether he will or no, so common is it and so generally distributed. In moments of ecstacy it has a flight song which has been highly extolled, but this is only for the initiated ; its insistent repetition of "teacher, teacher, teacher," as Burroughs happily phrases it, is all the bird vouchsafes for the ears of ordinary mortals. Its curious domed-over grass nest is placed on the ground and is not hard to find. The food of the oven-bird does not differ greatly from that of other warblers, notwithstandmg the fact that the bird is strictly terrestrial in habits. It consists almost exclu- sively of insects, including ants, beetles, moths, span worms, and other caterpillars, with a few spiders, millepods, and weevils.
(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17; also yearbook for 1900, p. 416.)
RED-FACED WARBLER (CardcUina rubrifrons)
Range: Mainly in Transition Zone in moun- tains of southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico and south through Mexico to the highlands of Guatemala.
So differently colored from our own North American warblers generally is the little red- face that one might at once suspect it to be a stranger from a strange land. So at least it seemed to me when, in the mountains near Apache, Arizona, in July, 1874, I saw the first one ever detected within our borders. Later in the same year I found others on Mount Graham. It is a Mexican species which has obtained a foothold along our southern borders in Arizona and New Mexico. As I noted at the time, I saw flocks of ten or fifteen among the pines and spruces, the birds frequenting these trees almost exclusively, only rarely being seen on the bushes that fringed the stream. In habits red-faced warblers are a rather strange com- pound, now resembling the common warblers, again recalling the redstart, but more often, perhaps, bringing to mind the less graceful mo- tions of, the familiar titmice. Their favorite hunting places appear to be the extremities of the limbs of spruces, over the branches of which they quickly pass, with a peculiar and constant sidewise jerk of the tail. Since 1874 other observers have had a better chance to study the bird and a number of nests have been taken. These were under tufts of grass, and in the case of one found by Price was "such a poor attempt at nest-building and made of such loose material that it crumbled to frag- ments on being removed."
304
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MARYLAND YELLOW-THROAT
Female and Male
OVBN-BIRD
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT
RED-FACED WARBLER
305
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WORM-EATING WARBLER (Helmitheros vermivorus)
Range: Breeds mainly in the Carolinian Zone from southern Iowa, northern Illinois, eastern and western Pennsylvania, and the Hudson and Connecticut River valleys south to southern Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, and mountains of South Carolina; winters from Chiapas to Panama, in Cuba and the Bahamas.
He who would make the acquaintance of the worm-eating warbler must seek it in its own chosen home, far from which it never strays. It is a bird of shaded hillside and dark thickets along watercourses. Though nimble in its movements and an active insect hunter, it is an unobtrusive little warbler, garbed in very modest colors, and is likely wholly to escape the notice of the unobservant.
There seems to be an unusual degree of jealousy among the males, and a pair, the hunting and the hunted, are often seen pur- suing a rapid, zigzag flight through trees and bushes. I imagine that in such cases the pur- suing male, whose angry notes show how much in earnest he is, is asserting the right of do- main over his own hunting grounds, and driving from his preserves an intruder.
Like several of our terrestrial warblers, the worm-eater has caught the trick of walking, perhaps borrowing it from his thrush neigh- bors, and he rarely or never hops. In his case the term "terrestrial" must be modified by the statement that to a certain extent he is a connecting link between the arboreal mem- bers of the family, as the black-throated green and Tennessee, which descend to the ground only casually, and such species as the Con- necticut and the Swainson, which seek their food chiefly on the ground. Of the musical ability of the worm-eating warblef little is to be said save that his song is so very feeble that one must listen carefully to hear it at all, and that it much resembles that of our familiar "chippy" when heard a long, distance off. This warbler nests on the ground, often on a hillside or in a shallow depression, and the pairs seem so much attached, to their old home that they may confidently be looked for in the same place year after year.
GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER (Vcrmivora chrysoptera)
Range : Breeds in Alleghanian Zone from central Minnesota, southern Ontario, and Mas- sachusetts south to southern Iowa, northern Illinois, northern Indiana, northern New Jer- sey, and northern Georgia; winters from Gua- temala to Colombia.
Though less gaudily colored than certain others of our warblers, the golden-wing ranks high in the family for beauty, and its trim form and tastefully contrasted tints of gray, black, and yellow may well excite admiration. It is almost wholly hmited to eastern States, rarely indeed being found west of the Missis- sippi, and its summer haunts are in the north- ern parts of its range. Though common in some localities, the golden-wing in most places
is sufficiently rare always to interest the bird observer, and in Massachusetts if several are heard or seen in a long tramp the day may well be esteemed a red-letter day. The bird is to be looked for in deciduous timber, and is espe- cially fond of elms and birches as hunting grounds. I have often seen it busy in elms so high up that only with difficulty could it be dis- tinguished from the Tennessee, Nashville, and other strikingly different warblers in company with it. Like the blue-wing, it has the habit of clinging to the tip of a branch or cluster of flowers, back downward, examining the spot with the most exact scrutiny.
Once heard, its song is not to be forgotten nor mistaken for that of any other warbler, unless possibly the blue-wing. It possesses a buzzing, insectlike quality and is well repre- sented to my ears by the syllables se-ze-ze-ze, the latter notes in a higher pitch. It seems strange that a bird so distinctly arboreal in habits should choose to nest on the ground; but numerous nests of the golden-wing have been found, all of them practically on or a few inches from the earth, though usually sup- ported by weed stalks or grass stems.
ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER (Vcrmivora celata celata)
Range : Breeds in lower Hudsonian and Can- adian Zones from Kobuk River, Alaska, south- east to central Keewatin and Manitoba, and south locally in the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico ; winters in the Gulf and South Atlan- tic States to South Carolina and south through Mexico to Mount Orizaba.
The orange-crowned warbler is much better known as a migrant, especially a fall migrant, than as a summer resident. Its summer home, in fact, is so far north that it is beyond the ken of most observers, although the bird occa- sionally summers, and no doubt nests, in Maine and Wisconsin. Seton found it a com- mon summer resident in Manitoba; Kennicott discovered it nesting about the Great Slave Lake among clumps of low bushes ; while Nel- son found it common in summer in the wooded regions of northern Alaska. For some reason or other of late years the orange-crown seems to be a much commoner migrant in Massa- chusetts, and perhaps generally in New Eng- land, than formerly, and the sight of three or four in a day occasions no great surprise. It winters in Florida and in other of the South Atlantic States, and the cause of its rarity in the Eastern States in spring is due to the fact that it migrates up the Mississippi Valley. The orange-crown is one of the most plainly col- ored of the warbler tribe, and there is little about it to attract the notice of the casual observer. The song is said to consist of a few sweet trills, and, as is the case with the ditties of so many of its kind, has been likened to that of the familiar little "chippy."
BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vcrmivora pinus)
(For text, see page 311)
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BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER (Mniotilta varia)
Length, about 4^4 inches. Easily known by its streaked black and white plumage.
Range: Eastern North America. Breeds from central Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Ontario, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick to eastern Texas, Louisi- ana, central Alabama, and northern Georgia, west to South Dakota; winters in Florida and from Colima and Nuevo Leon to Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.
A warbler in form and general make-up, a creeper by profession and practice, this readily identified species, in its striped suit of black and white, may be observed in any bit of east- ern woodland. Here it flits from tree to tree or climbs over the trunks and branches, scan- ning every crack and cranny for the insects that constitute its chief food. Though not a lover of open country, it frequently visits the orchard, where it performs its part in the task of keeping insect life within due bounds. It nests on the ground and hides its domicile so skillfully that it is not often found. None of the warblers are noted as songsters, but the black and white creeper, as I like best to call it, emits a series of thin wiry notes which we may call a song by courtesy only. In scramb- ling over the trunks of trees it finds and de- vours many long-horned beetles, the parents of the destructive root-borers ; it also finds weev- ils, ants, and spiders.
YELLOW WARBLER (Dcndroica aestiva
and races) \
Length, little more than 5 inches. Mostly yellow, breast and belly streaked with reddish brown.
Range: North America, breeding generally throughout its range south to California, New Mexico, Missouri, and northern South Caro- lina ; winters in Central and South America.
The "yellow bird," or wild canary, as it is sometimes called, is one of the commonest of the warbler tribe and ranges oyer a vast extent of territory, being found here and there from ocean to ocean. Unlike some of its relatives, it prefers open thickets, especially of willows, to thick woodland, and often builds its pretty nest by the roadside or in garden shrubbery. Though not an expert musician, the yellow warbler sings early and often, and in zeal makes up what it lacks in quality of voice. Because its nest is easily found by the initiated, this warbler is often victimized by the infa- mous cowbird, and is forced to bring up one, or even two, young cowbirds in place of its own rightful progeny. It is pleasant to be able to record the fact that sometimes the clever warbler knows enough — how it knows it is an- other matter — to evade the unwelcome respon- sibilities thus thrust upon it, and builds a plat- form over the alien egg, and then continues its domestic affairs as originally planned. Indeed, cases are on record when two cowbirds' eggs have been found in a nest, each covered up by a separate layer of nest material.
(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 17, p. 20 et seq.; also Bull. 29.)
AUDUBON'S WARBLER (Dendroica auduboni)
Length, about 5 inches. Much like the yel- low-rump, but with yellow crown and throat patch.
Range: Breeds from central British Colum- bia, Alberta, and southwestern Saskatchewan to our southern border, east to South Dakota and Nebraska; winters from California and Texas south to Guatemala.
No member of the wood warbler family is more characteristic of the group than this JDeautiful bird. In voice, coloration, and habits it is almost the counterpart of the yellow-rump of the Eastern States, for which indeed it might easily be mistaken were it not for its yellow throat, the corresponding area in the yellow-rump being white. It summers in the mountains and shows off to advantage against the dark foliage of the pines. It seems to have little fear of man and in winter frequents orchards, gardens, and dooryards. Wherever it may be, it keeps up an incessant hunt for its insect food, in the pursuit of which, like many others of its family, it sometimes essays the role of flycatcher, being very expert and nimble on the wing. This warbler also devours large numbers of ants, flies, scale and plant lice, and noxious bugs.
(See Biol. Surv. Bull. 30, pp. 43-46.)
REDSTART (Sctophaga ruticilla)
Length, nearly 5 J/2 inches. To be distin- guished from other warblers by its coloration and its motions. (See below.)
Range : Breeds from central British Colum- bia and eastern Canada to Washington, Utah, Colorado, Oklahoma, and North Carolfna; win- ters in the West Indies and from Mexico to Ecuador.
Its beauty of form and plumage and its graceful motions place this dainty bird at the head of our list of wood warblers — a place of distinction indeed. The bird appears to be the incarnation of animated motion and fairly dances its way through the forest. Spanish imagination has coined a suggestive and fitting name for the redstart, candelita, the little "torch-bearer." The full appropriateness of the name appears as the graceful creature flits through the greenery, displaying the salmon- colored body and the bright wing and tail patches. The redstart is not unknown in some parts of the West, but it is essentially a bird of the Eastern States, where it is a common inhabitant of open woodland districts. While it builds a rather neat and compact structure of strips of bark, plant fibers, and the like, placing it in a sapling not far from the ground, the nest is not the thing of beauty one might be led to expect from such a fairy-like crea- i ture. Ornamental as the redstart is, it pos- sesses other claims on our gratitude, for it is a most active and untiring hunter of insects, such as Epittle insects, tree-hoppers, and leaf- hoppers, and both orchard and forest trees are benefited by the unceasing warfare it wages.
(See Biol. Surv, Bull. 17, p. 20 et seq.)
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WORM-EATING WARBLER
ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER
GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER
Male and Female
BLUE-WINGED WARBLER
308
Digitized by
BLACK AND WHITE WARBLER
AUDUBON WARBLER
YELLOW WARBLER
REDSTART
Female and Male
309
Digitized by
TENNESSEE WARBLER (Vcrmivora pereghna)
* Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from up- per Yukon Valley, southern Mackenzie; cen- tral Keewatin, southern Ungava, and Anticosti Island south to southern British Columbia, southern Alberta, Manitoba, northern Minne- sota, Ontario, New York (Adirondacks), northern Maine, and New Hampshire; winters from Oaxaca to Colombia and Venezuela.
The Tennessee warbler is by no means as local as its name would imply, but is likely to be found in migration almost anywhere in eastern United States, although it is much more numerous in the Mississippi Valley. Un- pretentious both in dress and character, this little bird seems to 'possess no very salient characteristics. It is, however, not likely to be mistaken for any other species save the Nash- ville, which it resembles rather closely. Pur- irtg spring migration the Tennessee is apt to be overlooked, smce it is prone to keep in the tree-tops. In fall, however, it is found lower down, usually in coiopany with flocks of other warblers, among which it becomes conspicuous by reason of its very inconspicuousness and in contrast with its more gaudy fellows.
Its song has been variously described and may be said to be a simple trill not unlike the chippy. It appears to be certain that the Ten- nessee, like the Nashville, nests on the ground, but apparently the nesting habits of the bird are comparatively unknown, or at least have not as yet been very fully recorded.
NORTHERN PARULA WARBLER (Compsothlypis americana usneae)
Range: Breeds mainly in Transition and Austral Zones, from^ eastern Nebraska, north- ern Minnesota, central Ontario, and Anticosti and Cape Breton Islands south to central south- ern Texas, southern Louisiana, Alabama, Vir- ginia, and Maryland; winters probably in the Bahamas and West Indies to Barbados, and from Vera Cruz and Oaxaca to Nicaragua.
The northern parula, smallest of our war- blers, with prevailing colors blue and yellow, is generally distributed during migration and usually found in company with other war- blers in leafy trees, which it explores from the lower to the topmost branches. It is one of the most active of the tribe, and is untiring in its pursuit of the minute insects which form its food. Its habit of hanging head down- ward as it explores a cluster of blossoms sug- gests a chickadee, and the little fellow is a combination of warbler, kinglet, and chickadee. It is very partial to nesting in usnea moss and so is found in summer along streams or in swampy localities where long streamers of the usnea festoon the trees. The preference of the parula for this moss as a site for its nest is exemplified by a nest I once found in
Maryland on the bank of the Potomac, which had been built in the frayed end of an old rope hanging to a sapling and which a short distance away looked to me — and no doubt to the bird — exactly like a clump of usnea. As no usnea occurred in this locality, the bird accepted the frayed rope as a satisfactory substitute, and in so doing followed the spirit if not the letter of family tradition. How- ever, the parula is not strictly limited to usnea for a nesting site and I once saw a pair carrying shreds of bark into a juniper on an island in the Potomac River, the nest being already far advanced toward completion. The parula has a short, buzzing song of which it is prodigal enough, but it is weak and can be heard at no great distance.
CAPE MAY WARBLER (Dcndroica tigrina)
Range : Breeds in Canadian Zone from south- ern Mackenzie, northern Ontario, New Bruns- wick, and Nova Scotia south to Manitoba, northern Maine, aiijd New Hampshire, and in Jamaica ; winters in the Bahamas «tnd the West Indies to Tobago.
Not only is the Cape May one of our most beautiful warblers, but its rarity adds greatly to the zest with which one hails the discovery of even an individual. This species, however, is far more numerous even in New England, especially in fall, than it used to be, and in time the bird may even be listed in many of the Eastern States as among the more common migrants.
Although the bulk of the species undoubtedly migrates north through the Mississippi Valley, rarely a spring passes that a few individuals are not reported about Washington, D. C, and I have seen several in a day. At this time of year the Cape May often forsakes the wood- lands and appears in orchards or even in city parks, and probably not a season passes that one or more do not visit the Smithsonian or Agricultural Department grounds. Chapman tells us that in Florida he has seen the species "actually common feeding in weedy patches among a rank growth of pokeberries.**
The bird is a rather sluggish, l^ut persistent, insect hunter, though it adds to its bill of fare one item, grapes, which is bringing it into ill repute in parts of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The sharp-pointed bill of the Cape May enables it readily to puncture the skin, its apparent purpose being to satisfy its thirst with the sweet juice.
The Cape May is a persistent songster, but its song is weak and squeaky and by no means worthy of so superb a creature. Comparatively little is recorded of this bird's nesting habits. It is known to summer from northern Maine northward. A nest found by Banks at St. Johns, New Brunswick, was built in a cedar less than three feet from the ground.
310
Digitized by
BLUE-WINGED WARBLER (Vcrmivora pinus)
(For illustration, see page 308)
Range: Breeds from southeastern Minne- sota, southern Michigan, western New York, Massachusetts (rarely), and southern Con- necticut south to northeastern Kansas, central Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, an# Delaware; winters from southern Mexico (Puebla) to Guatemala.
Like the golden-wing, the blue-winged war- bler is confined to the Eastern States, but it ranges considerably farther west than that species and occurs almost or quite to the Plains. The blue- wing is in many ways an inconspicuous member of the warbler group, but, because of its perplexing relationship with the golden-wing, Brewster*s >yarbler, and Law- rence's warbler, its ornithological interest is ex- celled by few. Like the golden- wing, it prefers deciduous trees and second growths and shuns the deeper parts of the forests. It has the habit — shared by the golden-wing and chicka- dee— of hanging from the under side of any particular cluster it wishes to investigate, and no doubt it makes sure of insects that defy the less careful search of most other species. The ordinary song of the blue-wing is com- parable to the golden-wing's, being in fact little else than an apology for a song, with the same insectlike quality. This warbler, though of distinctly arboreal habits, prefers to nest on the ground, or a few inches above it, in a tuft of grass, a clump of goldenrods, or at the foot of a sapling.
The nest is rather bulky, composed of leaves and grasses, put together after the artless man- ner of its kind ; but it is usually well congealed by the surrounding screen of grass or weeds from any but chance discovery.
BLACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER (Dendroica caenilescens caenilescens)
Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition Zones from northern Minnesota, central On- tario, and northeastern Quebec south to cen- tral Minnesota, southern Michigan, southern Ontario, Pennsylvania (mountains), and north- ern Connecticut; winters from Key West, Florida, to the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and Cozumel Island.
The male black-throated blue warbler is one of the most conspicuous of the warblers, his black throat and blue back serving to distin- guish him at all times and all seasons. The female, despite her inconspicuous coloration, may always be identified by the white spot on the primaries. The bird is common and ranges widely through eastern North America, and few flocks of migrating warblers are without a greater or less number of this species. Though in the main a comrtipn resident of the northern woods, in the mountains it breeds as far south as Maryland, whiFe a color variety of the bird (Dendroica ccerulescens cairnsi) nests in the southern Alleghenies from Penn- sylvania south to Georgia.
Thayer, as quoted by Chapman, says of the song: "There is not a more regularly and amply versatile singer among our eastern war- bJlers than the black-throated blue. It has at least four main songs, on which it is forever playing notable variations."
Whether in its northern or southern home, the black-throated blue warbler builds its nest of bark, roots, and other pliant material, loose and rather bulky, in a variety of saplings, bushes, and weeds, byjl^a>»»»ys a few inches or a few feet from;tpe grottf^.
.i-
NASHVILLE WARBLER (Vcrmivora nibricapilla nibricapilla)
Range: Breeds in Canadian and Transition Zones from southern Saskatchewan, northern Ontario, central Quebec, and Cape Breton Is- land south to Nebraska, northern Illinois, northern Pennsylvania, northern New Jersey, and Connecticut; winters from Vera Cruz and Chiapas to Guatemala.
As Wilson never saw but three individuals of the Nashville warbler, all taken near Nash- ville, Tennessee, he not unnaturally named his new discovery for that city, apparently believ- ing it to be a local species. Far from being so, however, it is now known to inhabit most of the eastern United States. Without doubt the bird is much more common than it was in Wil- son's time, perhaps due to the fact that second growth and areas of low woods, its preferred haunts, have largely replaced the denser forests of the early part of the nineteenth century. One cannot wander far afield in Massachusetts in summer time without hearing its song or songs, since it is not only a frequent and viva- cious songster, but has a number of ditties in its repertoire, including a flight song.
I never found but one nest, and this was on a little pine-wooded knoll in a small depression in the earth, only partially concealed by thin grass. I should never have found it but for the fact that the bird flushed from between my feet. So far as known, the Nashville always nests on the ground. Its preference for the ground as a nesting site is the more remark- able, since the bird rarely or never hunts there, but prefers to seek its insect food among the foliage, often of the tallest elms and chestnuts and other giants of the forest.
The Calaveras warbler {Vcrmivora ruhri- capilla gutturalis) is a form closely allied to the Nashville, but confined chiefly to the Pacific coast, extending eastward to eastern Oregon and northern Idaho. Fisher is quoted by Chap- man as saying: "The Calaveras warbler is a characteristic denizen of the'cUaparral and is found on both slopes of the ISierra Nevadas about as far south as Mount Whitney. It fre- quents the belts of the yellow, sugar, and Jeffry pines, and ranges up into trf^ red-fir zone. During the height of the nesting season, while the female is assiduously hunting among the dense cover of bushes, the male is often sing- ing in a pine or fir, far above mundane house- hold cares."
311
Digitized by
T
|
1 |
5 |
|
^ A " ■■ w^^'/ .^^ |
|
|
J |
^^WBESj^^ |
NASHVILLE WARBLER TENNESSEE WARBLER
CAPE MAY WARBLER Male and Female
PARULA WARBLER Male and Female
BLACK-THROATED BLUB WARBLER
Female and Male
312
Digitized by
MAGNOLIA WARBLER
Adult and Immature Male
BLACK-POLL WARBLER
Male and Female
CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER Male, Immature Male and Female
BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER Male and Female
313
Digitized by
CHESTNUT-SIDED WARBLER (Dendroica pcnsylvanica)
Range: Breeds mainly in the Transition Zone from central Saskatchewan, northwestern Manitoba, central Ontario, and Newfoundland south to eastern Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, northern Ohio, northern New Jersey, and Rhode Island, and south in the Alleghenies to Tennessee and South Carolina; winters from Guatemala to Panama.
Since the days of Wilson, Audubon, and Nuttall there is little doubt that the chestnut- sided warbler has increased in numbers, and within its range it is now one of the commoner of the family. It is trim of form and its colors, though not gaudy, have a quiet elegance all their own. During the fall migration it shows little preference in its hunting grounds, but is found with others of its kin in all sorts of woodland haunts and in deciduous as well as coniferous trees. It frequents open woodland tracts in summer and loves to nest in low thickets of hazel and barberry. In favorable localities in Massachusetts I have frequently found half a dozen nests in a morning's search. The nests are made of shreds of bark and grasses and are put together so loosely and carelessly that, in connection with their situa- tion, they unmistakably betray their ownership.
KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporornis formosus)
(For illustration, see page 317)
Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori- parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska, southern Wisconsin, southeastern and south- western Pennsylvania, and the Hudson Valley south to eastern Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, and northern Georgia; winters from Tabasco, Campeche, and Chiapas through Central Amer- ica to Colombia.
The Kentucky warbler, with its rich colors and symmetrical form, is to be classed among the elect of the warbler tribe. Moreover, while locally common it is never so abundant that it does not excite a thrill of interest in the breast of even the most blase of bird observers. It loves the deep, dark forest and shaded ravine, where the foliage overhead casts heavy shad- ows on the plentiful under^owth beneath and where even m midsummer it is moist and cool.
The bird is a persistent singer, and in its own chosen haunts its loud, sweet song may be heard all day long. There is a curious resem- blance between its ditty and that of the Caro- lina wren, and while no one can mistake the two songs when heard close by, at a distance even the expert may be puzzled. This warbler finds most of its food on the ground, and the thick undergrowth in which it hunts makes it difficult to learn much of its habits by observa- tion, since it is difficult to keep an individual in sight many minutes at a time.
It builds a rather loose, bulky nest, largely of leaves and grasses, which is placed either on or just above the ground, and although it may seem to have been rather artlessly located it is in reality well protected by the surround- ing vegetation with which it blends, and hence generally escapes the observation of all but the most persistent and sharp-sighted of observers.
WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusiUa pusilla)
(For illustration, see page 320)
Range: Breeds in Boreal Zones from tree limit in northwestern and central Mackenzie, central Keewatin, central Ungava, and New- foundland south to southern Saskatchewan, northern Minnesota, central Ontario, New Hampshire, Maine, and Nova Scotia; winters in eastern Central America from Guatemala to Costa Rica.
This tiny warbler ventures farther north than many bigger and apparently hardier species, and Nelson found it in Alaska "one of the commonest of the bush-frequenting species, . . . extending its breeding range to the shores of the Arctic Ocean wherever it finds shelter." Cooke also found it in Colorado breeding from 6,000 to 12,000 feet elevation.
The black-cap is a nervous, energetic, little fellow, now essaying the role of flycatcher, now huntfttgrp^or insects among the foliage, while ever and aiion it jerks its tail up and down as though constant motion were the chief end of existence. It has a short, bubbling, warbling song which has been likened to the songs of several other species, but which possesses a tone and quality all the bird's own. Its nest is built on the ground, is composed chiefly of grasses, and the eggs do not differ in essential respects from those of other warblers.
It is noteworthy that the West Coast form of the black-cap chryseola breeds as far south as Los Angeles, and that its nest instead of being built on the ground is placed in the crotch of a limb or in a bunch of weeds or nettles.
CANADA WARBLER (WUsonia canadensis)
(For illustration, see page 320)
Range: Breeds in the Canadian Zone and casually in the Transition from central Alberta, southern Keewatin, northern Ontario, northern Quebec, and Newfouadland south to central Minnesota, central Michigan, southern Ontario, central New York, and Massachusetts, and along the Alleghenies to North Carolina and Tennessee; winters in Ecuador and Peru.
The Canada warbler is always associated in my mind with the black-cap, in company with which it is frequently found during migration. The association is purely accidental and results from a common preference for the same hunt- ing grounds. A path or road through swampy ground, especially if bordered by old willow trees, is sure to have its quota of this warbler and the Wilson black-cap during migration.
Like the black-cap, the Canada warbler is half flycatcher, half warbler, and the click of the bird's mandibles as they close on some hapless insect caught in mid-air is often the first indication of its presence. Unlike many of the family, it sings much during its spring migration. The song is loud for the size of the warbler and is very characteristic. The bird builds a rather bulky nest of leaves and grasses, which it places in a mossy bank or under a moss-grown log. It is an assiduous and active insect hunter and gleans among the leaves and twigs after the fashion of the parula warbler.
314
Digitized by
MAGNOLIA WARBLER (Dendroica magnolia)
Range : Breeds in Canadian and upper Tran- sition Zones from southwestern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, northern Quebec, and New- foundland south to central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, Minnesota, northern Michigan, and northern Massachusetts, and in the moun- tains of West Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylva- nia, and New York;* winters from southern Mexico (Puebla and Chiapas) to Panama.
The magnolia, or black and yellow warbler, as I like best to call it, is one of our most beautiful warblers, and fortunately, being one of the commonest of the. tHbe, is easily met with by any one willing ip take a little pains. When busy at its self-imposed task of hunting insects — and when is it not busy — it is by no means shy, and may be watched at close range with or without the aid of a field glass. When- ever or however met, the sight of a full-plu- maged male resplendent in the gold and black livery of spring is worth a long journey.
The bird ranges over much of eastern North America as far west as the Plains, and toward the north reaches the Mackenzie region. In the mountains it breeds here and there as far south as Maryland. In migration the magnolia shows no preference for special localities, but occurs in upland woods and lowland shrubbery where is promised a good harvest of insects. Like so many of its fellows, it finds rich hunt- ing grounds in gray birches, and few large companies of warblers traverse gray birch woods without their complement of these beau- tiful and sprightly wood nymphs. The mag- nolia warbler is a versatile, though scarcely an accomplished, songster, and phrases its song in a number of different ways. Many of its nests have been found in the northern woods, some of them in small firs or spruces only a few feet from the ground.
BLACK-POLL WARBLER (Dendroica striata)
Range: Breeds in Hudsonian and Canadian Zones from limit of trees in northwestern Alaska, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, northern Ungava. and- Newfoundland south to central British Columbia, Manitoba, Michigan, northern Maine, and mountains of Vermont and New Hampshire; winters from Guiana and Venezuela to Brazil.
The black-poll is one of our commonest warblers, in both spring and fall, and probably heads the warbler list in point of numbers. So far as superficial observations go. the bird would seem to be no spryer, no more indus- trious, and no more adept in hunting food than its compeers; but for some reason or other, possibly greater adaptability, it seems to have succeeded beyond most of its kind in extending its breeding range and in multiplying. It is a late migrant, both spring and fall, and when the hordes of black-polls put in an appearance.
especially in the vernal season, one may know- that the end of the migrating season is at hand. A laggard in spring, it is also a loiterer in fall, and occasionally a flock of black-polls will linger in some sheltered valley where food is abundant till long after others of the family have passed southward.
The bird nests chiefly in the far north, though it summers as far south as the Adiron- dacks. As it winters in South America, there are thus at least 5,00a miles between its ex- treme northern- and southern habitats. Chap- man notes that it is one of the very few war- blers that migrate directly across the West In- dies from South America to Florida. It makes its appearance in the Gulf States about the last of April. As pointed out by Professor Cooke, the black-poll is "one of the greatest travelers among the warblers. The shortest journey that any black-poll performs is 3,500 miles, while those that nest in Alaska have 7,000 miles to travel to their probable winter home in Brazil." One can only wonder that so small a bird has the requisite courage and strength to undertake twice a year such a vast journey, every stage of which is compassed by dangers of one sort or another.
BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER (Dendroica fuspa)
Range : Breeds in lower Canadian and upper Transition Zones from Manitoba, southern Keewatin, central Ontario, Quebec, and Cape Breton Island to central Minnesota, Wiscon- sin, northern Michigan, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and in the Alleghenies from Penn- sylvania to Georgia and South Carolina: win- ters from Colombia to central Peru and less commonly north to Yucatan.
The Blackburnian, one of the gems of the warbler tribe, has a rather wide range in east- ern North America, extending west as far as the Plains and north to Manitoba. Apparently it is nowhere, at least in migration, an abun- dant warbler, and there are few field observers so seasoned to the sight of its beautiful colors as not to be thrilled by sight of the bird. In migration its habits offer nothing peculiar. In the Atlantic States in September careful scru- tiny of a migrating band of warblers and other birds will often reveal the presence of one or perhaps half a dozen Blackburnians. About Mount Monadnock, Gerald Thayer finds it a "very common summer resident. It is one of the four deep- wood warblers of this region, the other three being the black-throated blue, the Northern parula, and the Canada."
The Blackburnian favors very big trees, par- ticularly hemlocks, and spends most of its life high above the ground. As Thayer says, the Blackburnian is the "preeminent forest warbler of the group, the lover of deep mixed growth and the upper branches of the biggest conifers.*' The bird has a thin, shrill voice and utters at least two songs or variations which some think resemble the black-throated green's. Whatever the tree selected, be it a hemlock or a deciduous tree, the nest is placed well up among the branches and well out toward the end. where it is safe from all enemies that do not possess wings.
315
Digitized by
BAY.BREASTED WARBLER BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER
Male and Female Male and Female
BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER PINE WARBLER
316
Digitized by
PALM WARBLER NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH
YELLOW PALM WARBLER LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH
PRAIRIE WARBLER KENTUCKY WARBLER
Male and Female Male and Female
317
Digitized by
BAY-BREASTED WARBLER (Dendroica castanea)
Range: Breeds in Canadian Zone from northeastern Alberta, southern Keewatin, southern Ungava, and Newfoundland south to southern Manitoba, northern Maine, and mountains of New Hampshire; winters in Panama and Colombia.
The bay-breast appears to be increasing in numbers. Forty years or so ago it was rare in Massachusetts in fall, and search by the most vigilant collector during the entire autumn migration was rarely rewarded by the sight of more than one or two. Today it is far different, and not a season passes that at the proper time and place careful search will not reveal a dozen or more mingled with others of the warbler family. In spring the bird has always been uncommon or alto- gether wanting in the Eastern States, as it migrates up the Mississippi Valley, spreading out to occupy notthetn,. Maine and other of its northern summer haunts. In summer it frequents coniferous forests, and often nests in hemlocks.
BLACK-THROATED GRAY WARBLER (Dendroica nigresccns)
Range: Breeds in Transition Zone from southern British Columbia. Nevada, northern Utah, and northwestern Colorado south to northern Lower California, southern Arizona, and northern New Mexico ; winters in southern Lower California and in Mexico from Du- rango to Michoacan, Vera Cruz, and Oaxaca.
The handsome black-throated gray warbler is exclusively western in distribution, from our southern border to British Columbia. Though I have seen it many times, I am unable to re- call any especially salient characteristics pos- sessed by the species. Like others of the fam- ily, the black-throat is an active insect hunter, both among the oaks' and various kinds of scrub growths of the valleys and the conifers of higher altitudes. The bird seems naturally to suggest the black-throated green warbler of the Eastern States, but I am not aware that in habits it is more nearly comparable to that species than to others. In choice of nesting sites it exhibits a wide range of taste, and nests have been found in scrub oaks, pines, and firs, and varying in height from the ground from 3 or 4 feet up to 50 feet or more.
BLACK-THROATED GREEN WAR- BLER (Dendroica virens)
Range : Breeds in lower Canadian and Transition Zones from west, central, and northeastern Alberta, southern Manitoba, central Ontario, northeastern Quebec, and Newfoundland south to southern Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, northern Ohio, northern New Jersey, Connecticut, and Long Island, New York, and in the Alleghenies south to South Carolina and Georgia; winters in Mexico (Nuevo Leon to Chiapas and Yucatan). Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panama.
What true bird lover is there who does not
cherish fond memories of certain birds? The very name of black-throated green warbler carries me back to boyhood days and to a certain pine-crested hill in Massachusetts, from which was wafted on an early spring morning the song of this warbler, heard by me then for the first time. The many years since elapsed have not effaced the sweet strains, and I seem to hear them now as they were borne that morning by the pine-scented spring breeze. I can vividly recall the pleasure the song occasioned and the satisfaction of having added one more bird to my small list of avian acquaintances. Those were the days of mystery, when the woods seemed filled with unknown birds, and secrets lurked in every thicket and met the seeker at every turn. They were the times when bird books were few, keys unknown, and the keen eyes of youth far more satisfactory than the best field glasses of the present day.
The black-throated green is one of the com- moner of our eastern warblers and one of the first to engage the attention of the bird stu- dent. During migration it may be met with in every kind of woodland, where it is at home, both high and low, ever pursuing with tireless energy its quest for insects. It has two songs, or rather one song delivered in two different ways, sprightly, sweet, and perfectly character- istic. In summer it is partial to coniferous woods, especially white pines and hemlocks, and it frequently nests in these, though also in birches and alders.
PINE WARBLER (Dendroica vigorsi)
Range: Breeds in Transition and Austral Zones from northern Manitoba, northern Mich- igan, southern Ontario, southern Quebec, and New Brunswick south to east-central Texas, the Gulf States, and Florida ; winters from southern Illinois and coast of Virginia to Flor- ida, eastern Texas, and Tamaulipas.
Few of our birds are so aptly named as the pine warbler, which first, last, and all the time, except in migration, resorts to pine woods. It summers in them in the north and it winters in them in the south. Even its feathers often bear conclusive evidence of its predilection for pines, being often besmeared with their gum. Among its bright-hued relatives the pine war- bler cuts but a poor show with its somber green and brown coat, which, at least in Florida, is often dingy and smoke-begrimed from contact with burnt timber.
Though distinctively a warbler and not a creeper, the pine warbler is more deliberate in its motions than most of its kind and, some- what in the manner of the creeper, moves among the branches or over the trunks in search of its insect food. For a warbler it is an early migrant and reaches the latitude of Massachusetts soon after the middle of April. Indeed, its nest contains eggs or young while the late migrants are still passing north. Its song has little variation, but while monotonous is pleasing and sweet, far sweeter than the trill of the chipping sparrow, which it recalls. Nat- urally the pine warbler nests in pines, usually rather high up. either on a horizontal limb or among the twigs at the extremity of a limb.
3'8
Digitized by
PALM WARBLER (Dendroica palmanim palmarum)
Range : Breeds in Canadian Zone from south- ern Mackenzie (Fort Simpson) and central Keewatin south and southeast to northern Min- nesota; winters from southern Florida and the Bahamas to the Greater Antilles and Yucatan.
The palm warbler, including under this name both the eastern and western, or yellow {Den- droica palmarum hypochrysea), representatives of the species, is for the most part an inhabit- ant of the Mississippi Valley and the region eastward, spending its nesting season chiefly north of our northern frontier. It is, there- fore, as a spring and fall migrant that it is best known. Its somewhat subdued tints of olive and yellow streaked with brown class it among the less conspicuous members of the warbler group, but its motions and habits unmistakably distinguish it from its fellows. Though often associating with other warblers as they flit from tree to tree, the palm warbler keeps close to Mother Earth and not infrequently visits pastures and stubble far from cover of any sort. Favorite hunting grounds are old fences and even buildings.
Perhaps the most salient characteristic of this little warbler is the almost incessant tip-up motion of its tail, in which respect it recalls a bird in no wise related to it — the spotted sand- piper, or "tip-up," of pond and stream. It nests on the ground. Its song is a low, faint trill, characteristically ^yarblerlike, but in no way remarkable. It winters in great numbers in Florida, and in 1871 I found it wintering in loose flocks of considerable size near Lakes Borgne and Ponchartrain, Louisiana, where it fed chiefly on the ground and among low bushes.
PRAIRIE WARBLER (Dendroica discolor)
Range: Breeds chiefly in Carolinian and Austroriparian Zones from southeastern Ne- braska, eastern Kansas, southern Ohio, south- western Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, and (along the coast) from Massachusetts south to southwestern Missouri, northern Mis- sissippi, northwestern Georgia, Florida, and the Bahamas, and north locally to central Mich- igan, southern Ontario, and New Hampshire; winters from central Florida through the Ba- hamas and the West Indies.
The prairie, a dainty little warbler in its variegated black, yellow, and chestnut dress, is common from Florida to the New England States and from Nebraska and Kansas east to the Atlantic. Its choice of habitat varies con- siderably locally ; but wherever it may be found there is nothing in the habits of the bird that justifies its common name, which is entirely misleading, since it has no predilection for prairies or indeed for open country of any sort. In Massachusetts it frequents rocky barberry pastures on open hillsides dotted with cedars. About Washington it frequents sprout lands, and when it first arrives from the south is found almost exclusively in groves of the Jer- sey scrub pine or in junipers. It is an active insect hunter, moving rapidly among the foli- age, now here, now there, ever and again send- ing forth its characteristic song. Its unusually compact and pretty nest is often placed in the crotch of a barberry bush in Massachusetts or elsewhere in junipers or in low deciduous bushes.
NORTHERN WATER-THRUSH (Sciunis noveboracencis noveboracensis)
Range : Breeds chiefly in Canadian Zone from northern Ontario, northern Ungava, and New- foundland south to central Ontario, northwest- ern New York, and northern New England, and in mountains south to Pennsylvania and West Virginia; winters from the Valley of Mexico to Colombia and British Guiana, and from the Bahamas throughout the West Indies.
So far as appearance, motions, and habits go, the water-thrush is more thrush than warbler, and one who sees him for the first time walk- ing sedately along with teetering tail may well be excused for declining to class him with the warbler family. He is partial to swamps and wet places, is a ground frequenter, and in no real sense arboreal. Though an inhabitant of the wilds and showing strong preference for swampy ground, he not infrequently visits gar- dens even in populous towns, and seems to be quite at home there in the shade of the shrub- bery. A sharp and characteristic alarm note often calls the attention of the chance passer- by, who would otherwise overlook the bird in its shady recesses.
Few who are privileged to hear its notes will dissent from the opinion that the water-thrush is one of the foremost of the warbler choir and a real musician. The bird is a ground builder, placing its nest under the roots of an upturned tree, in banks, or in cavities of vari- ous sorts.
LOUISIANA WATER-THRUSH (Seiurus motacilla)
Range: Breeds mainly in Carolinian Zone from southeastern Nebraska, southeastern Min- nesota, and the southern parts of Michigan, Ontario, New York, and New England south to northeastern Texas, northern Georgia, and central South Carolina; winters from northern Mexico to Colombia, the Greater Antilles, An- tigua, and the Bahamas.
The Louisiana water-thrush, though not un- like its northern relative in general appearance, is very different in disposition and habits, and I know of no bird more shy and difficult to watch. It frequents the banks and neighbor- hood of clear streams that run through wood- lands and tangles of laurel. One hears the sharp note of challenge or the wild ringing song, but any attempt to see the singer, unless made with the utmost caution, will end in dis- appointment or in a casual glimpse of a small, brown bird flitting like a shadow through the brush.
The song of either water-thrush is of a high order of excellence. I cannot but think, however, that the song of the Louisiana water- thrush gains over that of its tuneful rival by partaking somewhat of the nature of its wild surroundings, and that its song is enhanced by its accompaniments — the murmur of the wood- land brook and the whisper of the foliage — among which it is heard. Quite a number of our birds habitually teeter or wag their tails, but few as persistently as the water-thrushes.
KENTUCKY WARBLER (Oporomis formosus)
3»9
(For text, see page 314)
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CONNECTICUT WARBLER
MOURNING WARBLER MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER
HOODED WARBLER Male and Female
WILSON WARBLER
Male and Female
CANADA WARBLER
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CONNECTICUT WARBLER (Oporomis agilis)
Range : Breeds in Canadian Zone from Mani- toba to central Minnesota and northern Mich- igan; winters in South America, probably in Colombia and Brazil.
Discovered by Wilson in Connecticut early in the last century, the Connecticut warbler re- mained almost unknown for many years until, September 7, 1870, I found it numerous in the fresh pond swamps of Cambridge. The bird thus rediscovered rapidly came into the lime- light, and there are few eastern observers of the present day who are not tolerably familiar with the appearance and habits of this warbler. In fall it is common throughout eastern United States in low, swampy thickets. It habitually feeds on the ground, and is so silent and shy as easily to escape the notice even of one on (tie lookout for it, especially as its single chirp of alarm is infrequently uttered. In fact, the only way to be sure that one or more Con- necticut warblers are not concealed in the shrubbery of a suspected locality is to beat over it systematically, not once, but many times.
When started, the warbler flies noiselessly to the nearest shaded perch, and there sits mo- tionless, watching the intruder, till it decides either to renew its interrupted search for food or to seek some distant place, far from the dan- ger of intrusion. Under such circumstances its motions are highly suggestive of the staid and quiet thrushes, and in no respect similar to the sprightly warblers. The Connecticut is one of the few species that for some reason choose distinct routes of migration, as in spring it passes up the Mississippi Valley instead of through the Atlantic Coast States, which form its southern route in fall. The bird is known to breed in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Manitoba, and elsewhere in the north. The only nest so far found, however, appears to be one discovered by Seton in Manitoba. As was to be expected, it was on the ground.
MOURNING WARBLER (Oporomis Philadelphia)
Range : Breeds in lower Canadian Zone from east central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southwestern Keewatin, Nova Scotia, and Mag- dalen Islands south to central Minnesota, Michigan, central Ontario, and mountains of New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and West Virginia; winters from Nicaragua and Costa Rica to Coloipbia and Ecuador.
The mourning warbler is a near cousin of the Maryland yellow-throat and, like that bird, sticks rather closely to Mother Earth, being no lover of tree-tops. Unlike the yellow-throat, however, it is one of the rarest of the family, and few ornithologists have ever enjoyed op- portunity to get on familiar terms with it and to observe its habits adequately.
^lost observers, like myself, have come across a few in migration from time to time, chiefly in spring, when the birds* habits may be de- scribed in general terms as a combination of those of the Maryland yellow-throat and the Connecticut warbler. During the spring mi- gration it freguents brushy hillsides and damp thickets, and in the nesting season seems par-
tial to briar patches, in which it places its bulky nest of leaves and stalks.
The song is said to be rich and full and has been compared with that of the Maryland yel- low-throat and the water-thrush.
MACGILLIVRAY WARBLER (Oporomis tolmiei)
Range: Breeds mainly in the lower Cana- dian and Transition Zones from central British Columbia, central Alberta, and south- ern Saskatchewan south to southern Cali- fornia, southern Arizona, and northern New Mexico, and from the Pacific coast to the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains and southwestern South Dakota; winters from Lower California to Colombia.
Though closely resembling the mourning warbler in appearance and representing that bird in the west, the Macgillivray warbler differs widely in habits. Thus it is far more generally distributed, both in the mountains and in the lowlands, and is much more numer- ous. In my own experience I have found it in summer chiefly in moist thickets of willows or other brush along streams, and a suitable locality is rarely without a pair or two. Other observers, however, have found the bird on dry brushy hillsides. This warbler nests from a few inches to a few feet above the ground. It has a short, though pleasing, song which is repeated at brief intervals.
HOODED WARBLER (Wilsonia citrina)
Range: Breeds in Carolinian and Austrori- parian Zones from southeastern Nebraska, southern Iowa, southwestern Michigan, central New York, and the lower Connecticut Valley south to Louisiana, Alabama, and Georgia; winters from Vera Cruz and Yucatan to Pan- ama.
While the hooded warbler has a wide range in eastern United States, its center of abun- dance is the lower Mississippi . Valley. It is common only locally and wholly absent from many sections except as a casual migrant. Of the bird, one of our most beautiful warblers, Chapman says :
"To my mind there is no warbler to which that much misused word lovely' may be so aptly applied as to the present species. Its beauty of plumage, charm of voice, and gen- tleness of demeanor make it indeed not only a lovely, but a truly lovable bird. Doubtless, also, the nature of the hooded warbler's haunts increases its attractiveness not merely because these well-watered woodlands are in them- selves inviting, but because they bring the bird down to our level. This creates a sense of companionship which we do not feel with the bird ranging high above us, and at the same time it permits us to see this exquisitely clad creature under most favorable conditions."
WILSON WARBLER (Wilsonia pusUla pusilla)
(For text, see page 314)
CANADA WARBLER (Wilsonia
canadensis)
(For text, see page 314)
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THE BURDEN FRANCE HAS BORNE
By Granville Fortescue
FRANCE has taken war's foulest blows full on her breast. During the first two years of conflict Ger- man armies spread across her most pro- ductive provinces like a gray corroding acid, eating through farm, orchard, fac- tory, home, destroying the most valuable property and most useful lives of the French nation.
But this scorification did not crush the spirit of France. Rather the enemy outrages — ruined cathedrals, ransacked homes, ravaged women — roused the French people to a terrible realization of the German threat against the world.
For the French man and woman, love of France, under the scourge of war, be- came a religion — 2l religion where fathers, mothers, sons, daughters, claimed the highest privilege accorded the Crusader and the ultimate sacrifice that gained the martyr's crown.
The battle which checked the greatest expression of organized savagery the world has seen in 3,000 years is often called the Miracle of the Mame. Surely it was a miracle. During three days lust- ful Uhlan outguards pointed their blood- stained lance tips at the Eiflfel Tower, saying confidently, "Within the week and our fkg will float from the highest pin- nacle in France." But the God who weaves the world's destiny in mystery heard the prayers of France. The mira- cle was performed. Paris, the most beau- tiful achievement of man on earth, was saved from sack and rapine.
INTERPRETING FRENCH PATRIOTISM
It is no easy task to try to interpret French patriotism to our home-staying Americans. Only sympathetic hands can inscribe the tong, sad stories of sacrifice which mark the stations of the war in France. When one has lived in the sacred atmosphere of a people daily immolated on the altar of patriotism, one feels a cer- tain unworthiness in sounding the depths
of this feeling, of analyzing its springs, of calculating its results.
When the earth's last judgment is given on this great war, France will be deemed to have saved the world from despotism. Diplomats, during many years, have prophesied the contest between democ- racy and despotism for the domination of the world. In the struggle that endures France is the true champion of democracy, and no better expression of this demo- cratic spirit exists than the French army.
When the Fr^ch army is mentioned today, the French people is implied, for the whole nation is bound by the most sacred ties to the trials and triumphs of the fighting section of the populace.
THE IDEALS OF FRANCE
Contrasting the French with the Ger- man army, we discover, though both are grounded on conscription, they are radi- cally different in their inspiration of serv- ice. The French and the German armies are completely separate in soul. History gives us the analogue of variance be- tween the French and German military- systems in the story of Greece and Rome. The Roman armies were organized for conquest, with the aim of spreading Ro- man "kultur" to the southernmost bound- aries of Carthage and the northernmost villages of Gaul. The Roman eagle, like his Prussian descendant, sank his beak into the breast of the world. Roman power, like Prussian power, sprang from the will of the Emperor.
In Greece, in the age of Pericles, the demos was the fountain of power, and the army was the guardian of the free- dom of the people. The ideals which in- spired the Athenians, honor gained in serving the country, is today the ideal in- spiring the soldiers of France.
In analyzing the spirit of the French soldier, bear in mind this vital fact — fighting is an emotional act; and it is admitted that an emotion springing from
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an ideal is necessarily finer than one founded on a person. The German goes to battle with the Kaiser's sparkling fig- ure in the back of his mind, while the Frenchman fights for all that is connoted in the one word — France.
Frankly, the German honors, reveres, sanctifies war ; the Frenchman hates, de- spises, abhors war. I have seen the sol- diers of both nations in battle. I have studied them and talked with them after battle. I have watched for some uncon- scious expression that would give the clue to the real feelings of the French and German soldier, and when some phrase of the lips or flare of the eye marked the true state of the inward soul, I have noted it.
In countless ways the German shows it is the Kaiser he fights for ; that domi- nant, disdainful figure symbolizes the Teutonic system, inspiring the German race to the ultimate sacrifice in the eflFort to spread that system over the face of the earth.
Never has the French soldier given any indication other, than that he fights for his country, his cities, his farms, his homes. Never does he give way to the lust of battle for battle's sake. He sees in this war an evil, a scourge laying waste his beloved country, and he conceives it to be his duty to his forefathers, himself, and his children to rid the earth of this plague. The cultivated Frenchman will take pains to explain to you how illogical, unintelligent, uncivilized is war ; yet you will see this same cultivated Frenchman wearing the uniform of his motherland racing like a fighting fury to the muzzles of the machine-guns.
THE TRUE HERO OF WAR
Will not the man who recognizes the brutal side of war, still does not hesitate to pay its penalty, merit more the title of hero than he who fights to gratify am- bition ?
The paradox of the French way of thinking about war and acting in war is carried out in the organization of the army. The wide, unbridgable chasm of caste which exists between the officer and the private in the German company is but the step of necessity in French battalions.
French soldiers recognize the need for discipHne, of the value of team-work, and the urgency of obeying in battle, as the very foundation of their worth as citizen soldiers. They know also that they of their own volition have created the au- thority behind the officer, and for this reason there can be nothing degrading in the surrender of personal privilege in the crisis of war.
Discipline is not maintained through fear, but by public opinion. Each private soldier recognizes that his individual efficiency and eflFectiveness, and conse- quently the efficiency and eflFectiveness of the whole French army, is based on his prompt and intelligent obedience of or- ders delivered by military superiors.
He knows that his officers are trained specialists in war, and he puts himself freely in their hands, so that the nation's will in war may be accomplished. He understands the successive limitations of military authority — the private to the ser- geant, the sergeant to the lieutenant, the lieutenant to the captain, the captain to the major, and so on through grade after grade, up to General Nivelle, who in turn is responsible to France. With this con- ception of his duty, the most difficult part of military instruction is readily instilled into the French recruit.
HIGH STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
Thoroughly to appreciate the relations of officer to soldier in the French army, they must be seen together in the trenches. The captain watches over his men like a father. He shows a sympathetic under- standing of their difficulties, while de- manding in the common cause a rigor- ous adherence to their duties. The officer sets the highest standard of performance for himself and exacts the best each of his men can do.
But the soldier knows he can go to his officer with his private troubles and re- ceive helpful advice. He knows he will never meet with intentional injustice. And what gives him supreme confidence is the knowledge that he will be led with intelligence and skill.
The French officer is constantly alert to take advantage of the enemy and safe- guard his own men. The greatest crime
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WEARING GAS Z^IASKS
l*lK)tograph by American Press Association AT THK BENCHES
It is not alone in the trench that the soldier must guard against poisonous gas and dust. These women soldiers of the munitions plants must be similarly protected.
in the officer's calendar is wantonly to waste the life of a subordinate. Circum- stances may call for the last sacrifice at times, but short of this condition the French commander husbands the lives of his men as a miser his pieces of gold. In an attack he will plan how they must creep from shell-hole to shell-hole, keep- ing as safe as possible from the enemy's artillery fire. He will study the ground in front of his trench for every available bit of cover, and so maneuver his men that they will gain its every advantage. He will elaborate trench and sap until his men are as safe as the battle front per- mits, feeling his duty to his country de-
mands not only that he defeat the enemy, but that he defeat him with the minimum expenditure of the lives under his com- mand.
Men learn quickly to appreciate this quality in their officers, and this appre- ciation brings about a sense of loyalty which closely knits an army into an un- beatable whole.
THE TEST OF THE TRENCHES
The test of the trenches also brings out the indomitable spirit of France as could no other circumstance. I saw this spirit in its concrete cheerfulness during a visit to the battle line beyond the Somme.
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iO American Press Association J'RENCPI WOMEN WORKING IN AMMUNITION FACTORIES
Mythology relates that Jupiter, as a reward for the excellence of the thunderbolts forged by his crippled son, Vulcan, bestowed upon him the hand of the fairest of the immortals — Venus. The daughters of France have inherited their beauty from the Cytherean goddess and their skill in making modern thunderbolts of battle from the Olympian blacksmith.
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Photogravh by Paul Thompson WOMEN ENGAGED IN RESEARCH WORK FOR THE BENEFIT OF FRENCH SOLDIERS
This war has given women their opportunity, which they have not been slow to seize upon ; but in no sphere of usefulness has this been more pronounced than in Red Cross work. Here nurses are seen engaged in research work to benefit the particular cases they have in hand.
It had rained for two weeks and it still rained. The battle ground, a great patch of black, desolate earth, looked as if for an age it had been submerged beneath the slimy waters of some flood. Gaunt and murky tree stumps marked the residue of woodlands. A thousand shell pits pocked the ground. Into these drained the top soil of the earth in flux.
The Germans kept up a sullen shelling of the French trenches, zigzagging across these fields of desolation. Depression hung like a lowering cloud over the scene. Yet as I passed along the communication trenches I heard a voice in blithe song issuing from the depths of a dug-out. A sodden rain was falling, adding the last dismal touch to conditions, yet the singer chanted gaily:
"Elle a perdu son parapluie, tant pis pour elle.''
In a moment a mud-spattered soldier appeared from the dark of the cave.
"Good morning," he said, cheerily throwing the carcasses of two huge rats
over the parapet. "There goes the night hunting."
The cheerfulness of this soldier per- sonified the spirit of France.
war's awful cost to FRANCiv
In the proportion to her population, France has given more of her citizens to battle than any other nation. It would be valuable information to the enemy to give the exact figures of losses, so the French general staff publishes no record of the cost of victory. But from a study of such data as is available an estimate can be made. Counting the dead, the per- manently disabled, and the prisoners, France's contribution to the holocaust of war is more than two millions.
The price France pays in flesh and blood is a greater sacrifice than has been yet demanded from any of the allied na- tions. In computing the value of this sacrifice, all the conditions of French population must be taken into account. Chief among these must be placed the ab-
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Photograph by American Press Association
THE FAIR CHAUFFEUSE OF A SHELI. SEDAN
This is the type of electric cart used in the munitions factories for the transportation of shells. It requires a steady hand and a sure eye to pilot this machine when it is laden with a cargo of canned death.
normally low annual increase in the num- ber of French citizens. Taking only the figures for native-born Americans during the last forty years, and the increase in population in the United States has been over thirty millions, while during the same period in France the increase has been less than three millions.
If the loss continues at the same rate, in another year France will lose the total surplus in citizens she has gained since the war of 1870. And it must be remem-
bered that the death lists today are not compiled from the aged and sickly, but from the youth and health of the land.
Through the sacrifices in men lost dur- ing the early battles of the war France was able to check the German rush and gain time for England to prepare. The French army met the German army at its full strength and defeated it. The victory of the ]\Iarne was due to the tactics em- ployed and the blows struck by the French army. When the facts are finally
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THE BURDEN FRANCE HAS BORNE
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revealed, history will grant France this honor. But it is an honor paid for in the best blood of the country.
Up to the present it has been the French army, the French citizen soldier, who has saved the world from German conquest.
A SPARTAN MOTHER AND WIFK
As an example of what France gives, let me quote the story of General Castle- neau. He is a valiant, generous gentle- man— a soldier with the soul of a Spartan.
He and his sons were among the first to draw their sabers in defense of their land. During the first year of the war, when he was pressed down with the cares of one of the most important commands in the French army, news was brought to General Castleneau, first, that one of his sons had been killed; then in a few months a second died for his country.
The third son fought in the army com- manded by his father. He was his father's favorite. Little more than a boy, in the first battles he had shown a courage that won him honor and rapid promotion. Then in one of those attacks, where regi- ment upon regiment charged through the fields of death, this third son was mortally wounded.
Upon the death of this boy, broken by his sorrows and the strain of war. Gen- eral Castleneau thought to give up his high command and live out his last days on his home farm. Then his wife*came to him. He told her his thought.
"No," said this French wife and mother, "you have given the best of your- self to your country. You have nothing left to give save these last years. We must keep up the fight." General Castle- neau today is still at his post of duty.
RESOURCEFUL FRANCE MEETS NEW CONDITIONS
Not only has France given the bodies of her sons in the sacrifice of battle, but she has also given the fruits of their brains. The trained professional officers of the French army have been the intelli- gence which directed the military opera- tions of the Entente armies. These offi- cers were instructors in the art of war to*
the allied forces, and while acting in this capacity they evolved new tactics which so eflfectively thwarted German ambitions.
The new tactics were the outcome of trench warfare, which had brought into use weapons long since discarded in modern armies. When the war opened French battalions, a thousand strong, had the organization common to most armies, namely, four companies and a mitrail- leuse section of two guns. The men were armed wholly with rifle and bayonet ; but French ingenuity was quick to see the changes of organization and armament made necessary by the new warfare.
Today half the battalion have discarded the rifle and carry grenades or one-man machine-guns. Three of the original companies are still infantry, while the fourth has been changed to a machine- gun company with eight mitrailleuses.
The infantry companies are subdivided into sections and armed with special weapons: first, the hand-grenade throw- ers ; second, the rifle grenade soldiers, who, instead of throwing the grenade, fire it from their guns ; third, the soldiers fir- ing automatic rifles, and these are fol- lowed by the ordinary infantry, using rifle or bayonet.
The machine-guns as employed by the Germans were the great bugbear of the trenches. These weapons would mow down a whole company of advancing soldiers in the charge. French officers set themselves to solving this problem and devised the small cannon to be used in the assault. The gun, i^-inch caliber rapid fire, was dragged forward with the charging line. When brought into action it soon mastered the fire of any hidden machine-gun.
THE WORK OF THE RIFLE GRENADE
That ingenious weapon, the rifle gren- ade, merits special citation. It consists of an iron receptacle, clamped to the end of the regular rifle, in which a special type of grenade is placed, and the rifle fired. The explosion sends the grenade about 200 yards through the air, while the rifle bullet, piercing the center of the bomb, sets free the fulminate, which causes the grenade to explode on landing.
I have no intention of going into a
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technical discussion of the French in- fantry in attack, and only give the outline of tactical changes in order to indicate how the French people are fighting with their intellects. They have no belief in brute force in war ; if they had, they long ago would have surrendered to the Ger- mans. Their faith is pinned to their own finesse — a finesse which exasperates and thwarts the enemy.
As instructors, French officers have been of inestimable value to the English. In the beginning of the war the British army was deficient in artillery — a defi- ciency which was rapidly remedied in material, for England turned out guns for the army from the naval-gun foun- dries. But gunners, who are soldier specialists, were not available for the bat- teries.
In this dilemma England turned to France, the country that had developed the finest corps of artillerists the world has ever seen. French officers were de- tailed to the English batteries, and Eng- lish officers also were taken into French artillery units and learned their art in the actual practice of war under the tutelage of the most competent teachers.
I have referred to French artillerists as the finest in the world. The statement is made without qualification; and were I seeking the factor of greatest single importance in the military strength of France, I should decide upon the artillery.
A HUMAN MACHINE IN ACTION
It was given me to see the French guns go into action in one of the early attacks of the war — the engagement at Dinant. Aside from its spectacular interest, the performance was one of the most perfect exhibitions of artillery technique I have ever witnessed. The guns were driven, wheeled, and unlimbered with the pre- cision of parade-ground maneuvers. The men dropped into their appointed places like the parts of a geared machine. Then guns were loaded, aimed, fired, reloaded, without an ounce of lost motion. When the projectiles exploded, and I could see the effect through my binoculars, I want- ed to cheer for the gunners of France. They had scored four direct hits.
The guns of this battery were the
"soixante quinze" caliber, since become the most famous cannon of the war.
The construction of this cannon was a jealously guarded military secret up until the time of the opening of hostilities. Other nations knew that France pos- sessed a field gun of exceptional proper- ties, and while they had hints of its ef- fectiveness, as demonstrated in peace, it needed the brutal test of war to prove the superiority of this weapon above all sim- ilar makes of artillery.
It is readily understood that, with a cannon which shoots farther and faster than the enemy, the French army pos- sessed an asset of great military advan- tage.
I have heard French artillerymen state that the superiority of their "soixante quinze*' batteries made up for the Ger- man preponderance of numbers in the be- ginning of the war, and that the destruc- tiveness of these guns was so great that they almost equalized the tactical value of the forces of France and Germany after several hours of actual fighting.
The gun is a marvel of fitted mechan- ism ; breech-block, recoil cylinders, sight- ing apparatus, all the puzzling pieces of hardened steel which open and close the cartridge chamber, function with the smoothness of a dynamo.
In the process of loading and firing, it gives the impression of some sentient organism rather than a machine of turned steel. This impression is heightened by the stiort, dry sound of the explosion when the shell is fired — a sound that awes and electrifies when first heard, and which has come to be far more characteristic of battle than the conventional "boom" sup- posed to convey the noise of cannon.
GERMANY BEATEN AT THE ARTILLERY GAME
As soon as the superiority of the French cannon was recognized, the great arms factories of France were enlarged and worked to the limit of capacity, not only to furnish new guns for the French army, but also to supply the enormous demands of the Russian army. Later Serbia and Roumania were also supplied with field batteries from French foundries, and in 4hese countries officers and men accom-
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Photograph by Paul Thompson
FARES TO THE FAIR
Among the many occupations which the women pi France are pursuing, in order that men may be released for service in the army, are those connected with the street railway systems of Paris and other cities. Motorwomen, girl conductors, ticket sellers, and ticket takers are now the rule rather than the exception. Here a young girl is seen wearing the uniform cap of a surface-car conductor. From her shoulders hangs the big leather bag in which she deposits the passengers* sous and centimes.
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BORDEAUX-BEGLES : GENERAL WAREHOUSES OF THE HEALTH SERVICE
Like her chief munitions works at Le Creusot, France, finds it expedient to keep her principal stores of surgical cottons and health-service supplies far removed from the imme- diate scenes of hostility. Not- only are these warehouses beyond the zone of possible air- plane raids, but, being at Bordeaux, they are convenient depots for the receipt of Red Cross shipments from England and America.
panied the guns to insure efficient hand- ling.
From the above it is seen how gener- ously France came to the support of her allies in the most important branch of military science; and when we reflect on the enormous amount of material de- stroyed during the two and one-half years of war, we begin to perceive what a drain this has been on the resources of France.
Reliance upon the decisive effect of ar- tillery in battle has been a tradition with the French army since the victories of the first Napoleon. He it was who originally employed artillery in a massed formation. At Wagram, at Lutzen, at Hanau, this maneuver of concentrated artillery fire gave the victory to the armies of France. Xapoleon III tried to continue the theo- ries of his brilliant ancestor, but failed; yet the influence of the great master of tactics continued ; so it is but natural that the use of artillery in war should reach
its highest perfection through French de- velopment.
The French have relied for success in the fighting today on the ancient maneu- ver of the Napoleonic era — a mass of guns firing at a given point in the enemy line. At the same time they endeavored to make the practice of concentrated fire more effective through increased speed and accuracy of fire.
THE BIG GUX vs. THE LIGHTER ONE
Before the opening of the great war there were two schools of artillery tac- tics— the French, which believed in the above theory of rapid field-gun shelling, and the German, which pinned its faith to the effectiveness of huge guns having a greater range than the ordinary field gun and of course throwing a far more destructive exploding charge. The ex- treme of the German theory was the widely advertised 42-centimeter cannon, supposed to be able to reduce the strong-
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BOUND FOR PARIS
Photograph from Paul Thompson
A French Red Cross train bearing sick and wounded soldiers to Paris after passing through a field hospital. One of the nurses is making a tour of the train, distributing coffee to the slightly wounded and sick men.
est fortress to ruin with three well-di- rected shots.
The actual practice of war and the pe- culiarities of trench fighting developed the fact that neither of these schools was wholly right. The light French guns were ineffective against troops hidden in well- constructed trenches, while the difficul- ties of transportation involved in moving the giant German guns from point to point outbalanced their ultimate effect- iveness.
French artillery experts began at once to experiment toward developing the
most serviceable gun under actual condi- tions of war, and the result of this ex- periment can be gauged by the different caliber of cannon now used in the French army. Here is the list given in meters and the approximate caliber in inches :
First the 75 millimeter, the standard field gun, 3-inch caliber; the 95 milli- meter, 3^ inch; 305 millimeter, 12 inch; 370 millimeter, 15 inch; 400 millimeter, 16 inch, and last the largest cannon in the world, 520 millimeter, or 20 inches.
I give the list in full to impress upon my reader the extraordinary complication
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of industry involved in the casting, turn- ing, and assembling of these various types of cannon. Special ma- chinery must be em- ployed in each in- stance where there is a variation in caliber. Complete foundries are given over to the manufacture of the separate parts of the gun and gun carriage. The industrial organi- zation for one size of gun alone is greater today than the total pre-war ordnance or- ganization.
THE 20-INCH CANNON OF FRANCE
From the failures of the Germans the French found that the problem of heavy ar- tillery in the field was transportation ; so French artillery ex- perts began at once to try to solve this diffi- culty. They have suc- ceeded in their task. Their triumph is the construction of a rail- road truck upon which is mounted a 20-inch cannon, the heaviest piece of artillery in the world.
The marvelous man- ner in which the French have overcome the mechanical diffi- culties that hitherto confined heavy artil- lery to fortress or siege operations is a striking example of what French brains are doing in this war. Firing a 12-inch gun from a foundation built along a spur of railway was consid- ered a mechanical impossibility before General Joflfre's expert artillerists dem- onstrated the success of the idea.
It was not only in the construction of these guns that France showed her skill, but in their operation. French gunners
THE SHOWER BATH
Judging by this contraption, the French soldier has developed a modicum of Yankee ingenuity. A water-wheel motor operates a hydraulic lift, which supplies a bucket reservoir with the "makings" of a sprinkle. The apparatus works, but it looks as if it might have been modeled after a comic cartoonist's distorted dream.
first developed indirect fire — ^the art of hitting an unseen target — and in this war they have brought indirect fire to tech- nical perfection and even applied its prin- ciples in new ways.
Undoubtedly, in accounts of present-day battles in Europe, the reader has met the phrase curtain or barrage fire. He may have guessed something of the nature of this artillery expedient*
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Photosraph by Paul Thompson ISSUING A roOD TICKET TO TOMMY ATKINS
The offices of the Gare du Nord, Paris, have been converted to the uses of organizations for the relief of suffering among the refugees and victims of the war. A British soldier is seen accepting an order for a meal.
The phrase means, in untechnical lan- guage, the art of aiming a mass of cannon in a manner that the projectiles from all of them fall in a given area in such a shower as to form a curtain or barrage of exploding iron.
This curtain may be dropped behind an enemy position so that reinforcements cannot come to his aid when attacked, or it may be used to check an advance.
THE SYNCHRONIZED FIRE OF 4OO GUNS
Accurately to synchronize the action of 50 or 100 batteries, 200 or 400 guns, so that while firing from widely separated positions at a target that is not in view the projectiles arrive simultaneously along a defined and predetermined line, is a
matter of the highest technical skill and • calculation. To the French belongs the honor of first employing this effective artillery principle.
I have seen these great pieces of ord- nance, equal in size to the major guns of a battleship, moving from point to point along specially built lines of lateral rail- roads, running in rear of the trench posi- tion on the Somme. At the will of the commander they are brought into action wherever the press of battle w^arrants.
This development and operation of ar- tillery is the most impressive manifesta- tion of the colossal expansion of modem war. Consider the tons of metal molded into each of these great cannon, and then reflect that wherever the trucks upon
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PIUNG UP SHELL CASES FOR 75-MILLIMETER GUNS
"The French 'soixante-quinze' gun is a marvel of fitted mechanism. In the process of loading and firing it gives the impression of some sentient organism rather than a machine of turned steel. This impression is heightened by the short, dry sound of the explosion when the shell is fired — a sound that awes and electrifies."
VIEW OF YPRES: PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN FROM A FLYING MACHINE
The pitiful ghost of one of ravaged Belgium's most beautiful and historic cities. In the central foreground may be seen the roofless remains of the famous Cloth Hall, the largest edifice of its kind in the kingdom, begun by Count Baldwin IX of Flanders in the year 1200. Just beyond looms the scarred and desecrated Cathedral of St. Martin. On all sides are ruin and desolation, where three summers ago dwelt nearly 20,000 happy, thrifty people, engaged chiefly in the peaceful pursuit of making Valenciennes lace.
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RESERVES CROSSING A RIVER ON THE WAY TO VERDUN
"They shall not pass" is a phrase which for all time will be associated with the heroic defense of Verdun. To future generations of French people it will bring a thrill of pride even surpassing that enkindled by the glorious **The Old Guard dies, it never surrenders." The guardians of the great fortress on the Meuse have proved themselves invincible in attack, invulnerable in defense.
which they are mounted move, bridges, culverts, even the road-bed itself, of the railroad line must be strengthened to sup- port the load.
Further, in order that the giant cannon shall have the mobility for effective use, new sections of railroad must be built whenever the army advances.
If you analyze the process of manu- facture and the details of transportation involved in the creating and bringing of each one of the new heavy field guns to the front, you arrive at an understanding of the important part played in the war by the French industrial organizations.
A WONDERFUI. PRODUCTION OF SHELLS
I was witness to another phase of the effectiveness of this organization, as shown in the munition industry in France. Taking the number of units produced daily as a standard, the greatest single business of the war is the making of shells. This comes about through the
enormous disproportion in the time con- sumed in the production and the distribu- tion of shells compared with the time needed to expend them.
Consider the making and the breaking of the shell. One is a tedious, toilsome, exacting, and complicated process, begin- ning with the digging of iron ore from the earth, its transportation to steel mills, its transfusion and casting into ingots.
These ingots are the raw material of the shell casing only. The production of the explosive that serves as the bursting charge is an industry in itself, while the construction of the mechanism of the fuses requires almost as much skill as watch-making.
In the first year of the war, the critical period of the conflict, France led all the Entente nations in the production of shells. As was the case with guns, France had to supply her ally, Russia, with the munitions so necessary to the effective- ness of the armies fighting in Poland and
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Photograph by Paul Thompson . A WAGON-LOAD OF HELMETS OR CASQUES FOR FRENCH SOLDIERS LEAVING THE
FACTORY
At the outbreak of the world war the French fighting man wore a long-visored, tall- crowned cap, but this picturesque headgear soon yielded to the utility of the metal head- piece, which furnishes a certain degree of protection from the shrapnel that bursts above the trenches and sows the seeds of destruction in the furrows of death.
the Carpathians. To meet this drain the industries of the country were reorgan- ized. The products of peace gave way before the demands of war.
The concrete example of this is the transformation of the plants of the Re- nault automobile works to the making of munitions. In one factory, formerly wholly concerned with the forging and fitting of motor machinery, 15,000 men and 4,000 women are now employed 24 hours of each day grinding and filling high-explosive shells. The work, divided into shifts, never halts, and from this one plant 11,000 projectiles are daily sent for- ward to the front.
THE VASTNP:SS of the expenditure OF STEEL
But during periods of heavy fighting, when the cannon is playing its important part in the tragedy of battle, the calcu- lated average expenditure of ammunition
by one army corps is 29,000 shells per day. So the total effort of 19,000 work- ers employed during 24 hours furnishes somewhat more than one-third the am- munition used by a small part of the army.
The number of army corps holding the front in France is a military secret, and as the United States is now ranged on the side of France in the war, it would he injudicious to try and probe that secret. We violate no confidence when we state that it is more than thirty. This figure will give us a basis for calculating the number of shells produced by the muni- tions factories of France.
There are long periods when the ex- penditure of ammunition in no way ap- proximates the figures given above, and it is during these periods when the guns are comparatively silent that production catches up with consumption.
It may be true that England is grad-
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Photograph by Paul Thompson HKAVY TRAINING FOR FRENCH SOLDIERS
The making of men taken from civilian life into well-trained soldiers has been a problem in England as in France. Business hours left the Frenchman with little time for exercise. Their training in the manner here shown quickly made them fit, and soon after leaving the counter, lathe, or desk they have proved themselves able to undertake with endurance the long marches and successful offensives against the common enemy with complete success. Every Frenchman entering the army undergoes a preparation in gymnastics as here show^n, where men of the new armies are being made fit at the Physical Training School near Vincennes.
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Photograph by Paul Thompson
now TO TAKE A BUILDING BY STORM : A LESSON AT THE PHYSICAL TRAINING SCHOOL
OF VINCENNE^
Although there have been innumerable new engines of destruction employed in the present world war, such as the submarine, the airplane, and the high-explosive shell, the fighting forces of Europe have also hied back to ancient and medieval principles of warfare with astonishing frequency. For example, we have seen the recrudescence of the **Greek fire" idea in *'liquid fire," the evolution of the' Chinese stinkpot in the new poisonous gas, the reappearance of the armored knight in the soldier wearing a steel helmet, and the glori- fication of the battering ram in the lumbering new "tank." As shown in the above illustra- tion, the modern soldier is trained to scale walls, just as were the soldiers of Darius the Great, Alexander the Great, Alfred the Great, and Charlemagne. There are variations, but no new principles, in the crude art of destroying human life.
ually approaching France, both in the manufacture of heavy guns and the pro- duction of munitions ; but this condition appears after two and a half years of war. During those two and a half years it was the French cannon, French shells, French soldiers, and Franch brains that checked the military ambitions of Ger- many.
NEW MIRACLES OF SURGERY
With all this effort applied to improve her killing power, France did not neglect the complement of war destruction — healing. The best surgical and medical minds of the country pondered long on the problem of saving all that was possi- ble from the human wreckage of war.
The fruit of this thought is exemplified in the work of Doctor Carrel, whose achievements under the Rockefeller Foun- dation are well known in the United States, and Doctor Dakin.
These two men put all their efforts into curing the evil of infection. They had found in their work among the wounded that 75 per cent of deaths, after the first 24 hours, were due to infection; that 80 per cent of amputations were due to in- fection, and that 95 per cent of secondary hemorrhage came through infection.
While the work incidental to healing the wounded was going on, Doctors Car- rel and Dakin established a research labo- ratory in conjunction with their military hospital at Compeigne.
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A CHURCH CONVERTED INTO AN EMERGENCY HOSPITAI. : THE OPERATING TABLE
"With so much of its skill and thought applied to the development and perfection of her killing power, France has not neglected the complement of war destruction — healing. The best surgical and medical minds of the country have wrestled with and mastered the problem of saving all that is possible from the human wreckage of modern battle."
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HOSPITAL UNPREPAREDNESS : AN OBJECT-LESSON FOR AMERICA
In the early days of the war, before the French Red Cross had fully organized its resources, it frequently happened that straw strewn upon marble flags was the only make- shift for beds which could be provided for the wounded. This straw proved most unfortu- nate for the wounded, as it was often infected with tetanus germs. Here, beneath the ahar of their faith, in the Church of Aubigny, converted into a hospital, the fighting men of France reconsecrated their lives to the cause.
It IS not necessary to give the details of the experiments of these two scientists. Today, by the application of the Carrel- Dakin method of sterilizing wounds, one amputation is performed wh^re formerly twenty were necessary, and where there were ten deaths one now occurs, and the time of convalescence is reduced from three to six months to four or, at the most, SIX weeks.
It has been found that the method of Doctor Carrel applied to the formula of Doctor Dakin has not only shortened con- valescence, but in consequence reduced the strain on doctors and nurses and the cost of hospital maintenance; also it has minimized pain. But more than all this, it has resulted in a great saving of limbs and lives to France.
THE HEROISM OP THE FRENCH WOMEN
Turning from the purely military side of war to the economic side, we find an-
other picture of French sacrifice. In this picture the French woman holds the fore- ground.
In the time of war every physically fit male in France can be called upon to shoulder rifle and fight the battles of his country. When this call sounds, it might be thought that the agricultural and in- dustrial structure of the nation would be reduced to chaos.
But for the sturdy heroism of the women of France such might have been the case. When the men were called to the colors, the women came forward to fill the gaps in the farming and manufac- turing armies.
French women, aided by their children, plowed the fields, sowed the seed, har- vested the crops that during two years have fed the soldiers of France. French women tended the vines, gathered the grapes, and pressed the wine which France exports throughout the world.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
French women became conductors, motor operators, ticket-sellers on the subways of Paris ; they took the positions vacated by men in the post-office department; they were employed in the street-cleaning and other municipal departments.
In all industries, public or private, women replaced the men called to the front, and, what is much more to the point, they made good in their new work.
UXREMITTING TOIL FOR A FREE FRANCE
As farmers, as vintners, as laborers, as munition workers, French women toil without ceasing to save France and take some of the burden of war from the shoulders of the men. In their own field, as housewives who understand the impor- tance of thrift, they have saved the eco- nomic situation.
The enormous financial burden which war has so unjustly thrown on France has been lightened by the thousand econo- mies put into practice by French women in their homes. All the little dainties of table, the little coquetries of dress, the little temptations of amusement, have been sternly put aside for the duration of the war.
Sugar means money spent abroad; therefore the French woman gives up pastries, sweets, and reduces the amount of sugar used in the household. Coal is needed to keep the munition factories up to the maximum of production, so the French woman reduces the amount of gas and electricity used in her home, as these are the products of coal.
Thus French women, through practicing direct and indirect economies, actually re- duce the cost of the war to France ; and, more than this, when any money is saved to them from these economies they invest the saving in government war loan, mak- ing every copper do double work in the defense of the country.
In this article I have outlined what France has done in the war. I have men- tioned the work of the army which met and turned the heaviest blows the mili- tary power of Germany could muster. I have mentioned how the artillery, the product of French brains, bulwarked the eflforts of the soldiers. I have referred to the work of the women of France and their splendid stand under the strain o*f war, and I have mentioned the spirit of France.
AN UNCONQUER^VBLE SPIRIT
In conclusion, I must again allude to that spirit. French men and women know that the resources of their nation in property and lives are being consumed in the furnace of war. They know what the death of their soldiers means to the nation in the future. They realize the terrible consequences of German occupa- tion. Yet in the face of all these bitter trials the people have never faltered.
Throughout the misery, the suft'ering, the brutal injustice of this war, France has fought valiantly for one ideal — the ideal upon which that nation and our own is founded — the right of the citizen to liberty.
Each day as the French armies press the enemy back from the territory so long occupied, the sacrifices of France are proved with greater poignancy.
The band of blackened land now given over to desolation is the visual testimony of what the \var has meant to France. But it is not only the losses of today, but what those losses mean in the future, that must be reckoned as part of the burden France bears. This is a sacrifice no man can gauge.
When democracy rises triumphant from the struggle with despotism, and when the last page of war history is written, the world will gladly acknowl- edge its debt to France.
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THE CALL TO THE COLORS
© Underwood & Underwood
500 NEWLY MADE BLUEJACKETS 01^ THE U. S. NAVY RE^U)Y FOR ACTIVE SERVICE
Having completed the necessary course of instruction at the Naval Training Station, Newport, R. I., these youths, bearing their white canvas bags, vi'hich in the navy take the place of "wardrobe trunks," stand on the threshold of the great adventure — war — with honor and sacrifice for country as the two great prizes. The Newport Naval Training Station is to the bluejacket what West Point is to American army officers and Annapolis is to the future admirals of our fleets. Here he receives instruction in the essentials of seamanship. At the present time all the pupils at this school are undergoing intensive training to fit them for the immediate needs of the hour.
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C) American Press Association
A NAVAL MILITIA BUGLER SOUNDING A CALL "TO THE COLORS"
In twenty million American homes fathers and sons are waiting for this call, and when the summons comes there will be no shirking of responsibility. Mothers, wives, and daugh- ters also will hear this challenge, and with hearts steeled to sacrifice will bravely bid farewell to those who go to battle for America and humanity.
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© Underwood & Underwood
A NATIONAL GUARDSMAN COMPLETELY EQUIPPED FOR SERVICE
On his back this American fighting man carries his blanket roll, small shovel, bag, etc. His canteen is at his belt. He is armed with a ^o caliber U. S. Army rifle. Minimum weight for maximum efficiency is the principle upon which his whole outfit has been designed.
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© Underwood & Underwood
BATTLESHIP ABLAZE IN MID-OCEAN
Owing to the perfect organization of the crew of a thousand or more men on a super- dreadnought, a fire at sea is not usually so serious as a landsman would imagine. With the first alarm each individual on board becomes a fire-fighter, rushing to his post of duty. Water compartments are closed and preparations are made for flooding the magazines if the flames threaten these store-rooms of destruction.
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•/"
© Underwood f: Underwood SALUTING TIIIv FLAG
An impressive ceremony which took place in Fifth Avenue, New York, opposite the Union League Club reviewing stand during the recent "Wake Up, America" celebration. Thousands marched in the procession; hundreds of thousands lined the great thoroughfare and voiced their approval in a succession of cheers.
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THE OUTSPEAKING OF A GREAT DEMOCRACY
The Proceedings of the Chamber of Deputies of France
on Friday, April 6, 1917, as Reported in the
'Journal Officiel de La Republique Francaise'
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PRESIDENT OF THE CHAMBER OF Deputies: The President of the Council has the floor. Mr. Ribot, President of the Coun- cil, Minister of Foreign Affairs: Be- fore the Chamber adjourns the Govern- ment asks it to address a cordial greet- ing to the great Republic of the United States. {Cheers. All the deputies rise, turn toward the diplomatic gallery, and applaud [the Ambassador of the United States being in the gallery]. Many cries of ''Long live the Republic/')
You have read the admirable message of President Wilson. We all feel that something great, something which ex- ceeds the proportions of a political event, has been accomplished. ( Cries of assent. ) It is an historic fact of unequaled im- portance (applause) — ^this entry into the war on the side of us and our allies by the most peaceful democracy in the world. {Loud applause.) After having done everything to affirm its attachment to peace, the great American nation de- clares solemnly that it cannot remain neutral in this immense conflict between right and violence, between civilization and barbarism. {Loud and prolonged applause.) It holds that honor requires it to take up the defiance flung at all rules of international law so laboriously built up by civilized nations. {Applause.)
It declares at the same time that it is not fighting for self-interest, desires neither conquest nor compensation, in- tends only to help toward a victory of the cause of law and liberty. {All the depu- ties rise and applaud.)
A MESSAGE OF DELIVERANCE
The grandeur, the nobility, of this ac- tion is enhanced by the simplicity and serenity of the language of the illustrious leader of that great democracy. {Loud applause.)
."
If the world had entertained the least doubt of the profound meaning of this war in which we are engaged, the mes- sage of the President of the United States would dissipate all obscurity. It makes apparent to all that the struggle is verily a struggle between the liberal spirit of modern societies and the spirit of op- pression of societies still enslaved to mili- tary despotism. {Prolonged applause.) It is for this reason that the message rings in the depths of all hearts like a message of deliverance to the world. {Applause.)
The people which, under the inspira- tion of the writings of our philosophers, declared its rights in the eighteenth cen- tury, the people who place Washington and Lincoln foremost among their heroes {applause) y the people who in the last century suffered a civil war for the aboli- tion of slavery {cheers; the whole Cham- ber rises and applauds), were indeed worthy to give such an example to the world.
Thus they remain faithful to the tradi- tions of the founders of their independ- ence and demonstrate that the enormous rise of their industrial strength and of their economic and financial power has not weakened in them that need for an ideal without which there can be no great nation. {Applause.)
A FRIENDSHIP RATIFIED IN BLOOD
What touches us particularly is that the United States has held to the friend- ship which at an earlier time was ratified in blood. {Applause.) We bear witness with grateful joy to the enduring sym- pathy between the peoples, which is one of the delicate virtues the bosom of a democracy can nourish.
The Star-spangled Banner and the Tri- color will fly side by side ; our hands will join; our hearts beat in unison. This
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will mean for us, after so much suffer- ing, heroically borne, so many bereave- ments, so many ruins, a renewal of the sentiments which have animated and sus- tained us during this long trial. The powerful, decisive aid which the United States brings us is not only a material aid ; it will be especially moral aid, a real consolation. (Loud applatise.)
Seeing the conscience of peoples every- where in the world awake and rise in an immense protest against the atrocities of which we are the victims, we feel more keenly that we are fighting not only for ourselves and for our allies, but for some- thing immortal (applause), and that we are laying the foundations of a new or- der. (Loud applause.) Thus our sacri- fices will not have been in vain ; the gen- erous blood poured out by the sons of France will have sowed fertile seeds in the ideas of justice and of liberty funda- mentally necessary to concord between nations. (Applause,)
In the name of the whole country, the government of the French Republic ad- dresses to the government and people of the United States, with the expression of its gratitude, its warmest good wishes. (Prolonged cheers. All the deputies rise and turn applauding to the diplomatic gallery.)
THE HARVEST OF JUSTICE •
Many voices : The proclamation !
Mr. Paul Dechanel, President of THE Chamber: The proclamation of the speech which the Chamber has just ap- plauded is asked. There is no opposi- tion? The proclamation is ordered.
The French Chamber greets with en- thusiasm the verdict of the President of the Republic of the United States, who has indeed spoken for justice, and the vigorous decision of the Federal Senate accepting the war imposed by Germany.
^schylus says in "The Persians": "When insolence takes root, it grows into crime ; the harvest is suflfering."
And we can say: "The growth of the crime brings vengeance ; after the harvest of suffering comes the harvest of jus- tice!" (Loud applause.)
The cry of the women and children from the depths of the abyss where hide-
ous wickedness flung them echoed from one end of the earth to the other. Wash- ington and Lincoln trembled in their graves; their great spirit has roused America. (Loud applause.)
And is it a question only of avenging Americans? Is it a question only of punishing the violation of treaties signed by the United States? No; the eternal truths proclaimed in the Declaration of 1776, the sacred causes which La Fay- ette and Rochambeau defended (ap- plause), the ideal of pure consciences from which the great Republic was born — ^honor, morality, liberty — these are the supreme values which shine in the folds of the Star - spangled Banner. (Loud applause.)
all AMERICA ARRAYED AGAINST MAD ARROGANCE
Descendants of the Puritans of New England, brought up on the precepts of the Gospel, and who under the eyes of God are about to punish the infernal creation of evil, falsehood, perjury, as- sassination, profanation, rape, slavery, martyrdom, and all kinds of disasters; Catholics, struck to the heart by curses against their religion, by outrages against their cathedrals and statues, reaching a climax in the destruction of Louvain and Rheims; university professors, trust- worthy guardians of law and learning; industrialists of the East and Middle West, farmers and agriculturists of the West ; workmen and artisans, threatened by the torpedoing of vessels, by the in- terruption of commerce, revolted by the insults to their national colors — all are arrayed against the mad arrogance which would enslave the earth, the sea, the heavens, and the souls of men. (Pro- longed applause and cheers.)
At a time when, as in the heroic times of the American Revolution, the Amer- icans are to fight with us, let us repeat once more: We wish to prevent no one from living, working, and trading freely ; but the tyranny of Prussia has become a peril for the New World as for the Old, for England as for Russia, for Italy as for Austria, and for Germany itself. (Applause.) To free the world, by a common eflfort of all democratic peoples,
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from the yoke of a feudal and military caste in order to found peace upon right, is a work of human deliverance and uni- versal good. (Applause.)
THE IMMORTAL ACT OI^ A GLORIOUS NATION
In accomplishing, under an adminis- tration henceforth immortal (applause, cheers; all rise and applaud) , the great- est act in its annals since the abolition of slavery, the glorious nation whose whole history is but a development of the idea of liberty (applause) remains true to its lofty origin and creates for itself another claim to the gratitude of mankind. (Ap- plause.)
The French Republic, across the ruins of its cities and its monuments, devas-
tated without reason or excuse by shame- ful savagery (loud applause), sends to its beloved sister Republic in America the palms of the Marne, the Yser, and of Verdun and the Somme, to which new victories will soon be added. (Prolonged applause, cheers; all the deputies rise.)
Many voices : We call for the procla- mation !
Mr. Colliard: I ask that the two speeches which the Chamber has just heard be issued as proclamations and read in the schools of France.
Mr. Mauger: I second the motion.
President of the Chamber: The proclamation of the speeches which the Chamber has just heard is requested. There is no opposition? The proclama- tion is ordered.
OUR heritage of liberty
An Address Before the United States Senate by M. Viviani, President of the French Commission to the United States, May i, 1^17
MR. President and Senators: Since I have been granted the supreme honor of speaking be- fore the representatives of the American people, may I ask them first to allow me to thank this magnificent Capital for the welcome it has accorded us ? Accustomed as we are in our own free land to popular manifestations, and though we had been warned by your fellow-countrymen who live in Paris of the enthusiasm burning in your hearts, we are still full of the emo- tion raised by the sights that awaited us.
I shall never cease to see the proud and stalwart men who saluted our pas- sage ; your wom^en, whose grace adds fresh beauty to your city, their arms out- stretched, full of flowers ; and your chil- dren hurr>'ing to meet us as if our com- ing were looked upon as a lesson for them — all with one accord acclaiming in our perishable persons immortal France.
And I predict there will be a yet grander manifestation on the day when your illustrious President, relieved from the burden of power, will come among us bearing the salute of the Republic of the United States to a free Europe, whose foundations from end to end shall be based on right.
It is with unspeakable emotion that we crossed the threshold of this legislative palace, where prudence and boldness meet, and that I for the first time in the annals of America, though a foreigner, speak in this hall which only a few days since resounded with the words of virile force.
A magnificent example FOR
democracies
ALL
You have set all the democracies of the world the most magnificent example. So soon as the common peril was made mani- fest to you, with simplicity and within a few short days you voted a formidable war credit and proclaimed that a formi- dable army was to be raised. President Wilson's commentary on his acts, which you made yours, remains in the history of free peoples the weightiest of lessons.
Doubtless you were resolved to avenge the insults offered your flag, which the whole world respected ; doubtless through the thickness of these massive walls the mournful cry of all the victims that crim- inal hands hurled into the depths of the sea has reached and stirred your souls; but it will be your honor in history that
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Photograph by Paul Thompson
BARRELS OF PORCELAIN AT THE DOORS OF A FRENCH FACTORY READY FOR SHIPMENT
TO THE UNITED STATES: LIMOGES, FRANCE
Those industrial institutions whose skilled workmen were required neither for the trenches nor for the munition factories France has endeavored to operate without interrup- tion. The ceramic establishments which were not requisitioned for the manufacture of crucibles needed in producing high explosives have continued to make beautiful porcelain, thus contributing their bit toward the financial welfare of the nation.
you also heard the cry of humanity and invoked against autocracy the right of democracies.
And I can only wonder as I speak what, if they still have any power to think, are the thoughts of the autocrats who three years ago against us, three months ago against you, unchained this conflict.
Ah! doubtless they said among them- selves that a democracy is an ideal gov- ernment ; that it showers reforms on man- kind ; that it can in the domain of labor quicken all economic activities. And yet now we see the French Republic fighting in defense of its territory and the liberty of nations and opposing to the avalanche let loose by Prussian militarism the union of all its children, who are still capable of striking many a weighty blow.
And now we see England, far removed like you from conscription, who has also, by virtue of a discipline all accept, raised from her soil millions of fighting men.
And we see other nations accomplishing the same act; and that hberty not only inflames all hearts, but coordinates and brings into being all needed eflforts.
And now we see all America rise and sharpen her weapons in the midst of peace for the common struggle.
ORGANIZING THE FEDERATION OF THE WORLD
Together we will carry on that strug- gle, and when by force we have at last imposed military victory our labors will not be concluded. Our task will be — I quote the noble words of President Wil- son— to organize the society of nations.
I well know that our enemies, who have never seen before them anything but ho- rizons of carnage, will never cease to jeer at so noble a design. Such has always been the fate of great ideas at their birth ; and if thinkers and men of action had allowed themselves to be discouraged by skeptics, mankind would still be in its
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infancy and we should still be slaves. After material victory we will win this moral victory.
We will shatter the ponderous sword of militarism; we will establish guaran-
ties for peace ; and then we can disappear from the world's stage, since we shall leave at the cost of our common immola- tion the noblest heritage future genera- tions can possess.
THEIR MONUMENT IS IN OUR HEARTS
Address by M, Viviani Before the Tomb of Washington, at Mount Vernon,
April 2p, IQ17
WE COULD not remain longer in Washington without accom- plishing this pious pilgrimage. In this spot lies all that is mortal of a great hero. Close by this spot is the modest abode where Washington rested after the tremendous labor of achieving for a nation its emancipation.
In this spot meet the admiration of the whole world and the veneration of the American people. In this spot rise be- fore us the glorious memories left by the soldiers of France led by Rochambeau and Lafayette ; a descendant of the latter, my friend, M. de Chambrun, accompanies us.
And I esteem it a supreme honor, as well as a satisfaction for my conscience, to be entitled to render this homage to our ancestors in the presence of my col- league and friend, Mr, Balfour, who so nobly represents his great nation. By thus coming to lay here the respectful tribute of every English mind he shows, in this historic moment of communion which France has willed, what nations that live for liberty can do.
When we contemplate in the distant past the luminous presence of Washing- ton, in nearer times the majestic figure of Abraham Lincoln ; when we respectfully salute President Wilson, the worthy heir of these great memories, we at one glance measure the vast career of the American people.
It is because the American people pro- claimed and won for the nation the right to govern itself, it is because it proclaimed and won the equality of all men, that the free American people at the hour marked by fate has been enabled with command- ing force to carry its action beyond the
seas ; it is because it was resolved to ex- tend its action still further that Congress was enabled to obtain within the space of a few days the vote of conscription and to proclaim the necessity for a national army in the full splendor of civil peace. In the name of France, I salute the young army which will share in our com- mon glory.
riGHTlXG FOR WASHINGTON'S IDEALS
While paying this supreme tribute to the memory of Washington, I do not diminish the effect of my words when I turn my thought to the memory of so many unnamed heroes. I ask you before this tomb to bow in earnest meditation and all the fervor of piety before all the soldiers of the allied nations who for nearly three years have been fighting under different flags for some ideal.
I beg you to address the homage of your hearts and souls to all the heroes, born to live in happiness, in the tranquil pursuit of their labors, in the enjoyment of all human affections, who went into battle with virile cheerfulness and gave themselves up, not to death alone, but to the eternal silence that closes over those whose sacrifice remains unnamed, in the full knowledge that, save for those who loved them, their names would disappear with their bodies.
Their monument is in our hearts. Not the living alone greet us here ; the ranks of the dead themselves rise to surround the soldiers of liberty.
At this solemn hour in the history of the world, while saluting from this sacred mound the final victory of justice, I send to the Republic of the United States the greetings of the French Republic.
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THE OLDEST FREE ASSEMBLIES
Address of Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour, in the United States House of Representatives, May 5, 1917
MR. Speaker, Ladies and Gentle- men OF THE House of Repre- sentatives : Will you permit me, on behalf of my friends and myself, to offer you my deepest and sincerest thanks for the rare and valued honor which you have done us by receiving us here today ?
We all fe6l the greatness of this honor ; but I think to none of us can it come home so closely as to one who, like my- self, has been for 43 years in the service of a free assembly like your own. I re- joice to think that a member — a very old member, I am sorry to say — of the Brit- ish House of Commons has been received here today by this great sister assembly with such kindness as you have shown to me and to my friends.
Ladies and gentlemen, these two as- semblies are the greatest and the oldest of the free assemblies now governing great nations in the world. The history indeed of the two is very different.
The beginnings of the British House of Commons go back to a dim historic past, and its full rights and status have only been conquered and permanently secured after centuries of political strug- gle.
Your fate has been a happier one. You were called into existence at a much later stage of social development. You came into being complete and perfected and all your powers determined, and your place in the Constitution secured beyond chance of revolution ; but, though the history of these two great assemblies is different, each of them represents the great democratic principle to which we look forward as the security for the fu- ture peace of the world.
ALL FREE ASSEMBLIES MODELED AFTER
THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT AND
AMERICAN CONGRESS
All of the free assemblies now to be found governing the great nations of the
earth have been modeled either upon your practice or upon ours or upon both combined.
Mr. Speaker, the compliment paid to the mission from Great Britain by such an assembly and upon such an occasion is one not one of us is ever likely to for- get. But there is something, after all, even deeper and more significant in the circumstances under which I now have the honor to address you than any which arise out of the interchange of courte- sies, however sincere, between the great and friendly nations.
We all, I think, feel instinctively that this is one of the great moments in the history of the world, and that what is now happening on both sides of the At- lantic represents the drawing together of great and free peoples for mutual pro- tection against the aggression of military despotism.
I am not one of those, and none of you are among those, who are such bad dem- ocrats as to say that democracies make no mistakes. All free assemblies have made blunders ; sometimes they have committed crimes.
PURSUING THE APPALLING OBJECT OF DOMINATING CIVILIZATION
Why is it, then, that we look forward to the spread of free institutions through- out the world, and especially among our present enemies, as one of the greatest guaranties of the future peace of the world? I will tell you, gentlemen, how it seems to me. It is quite true that the people and the representatives of the people may be betrayed by some mo- mentary gust of passion into a policy which they ultimately deplore; but it is only a military despotism of the German type which can, through generations if need be, pursue steadily, remorselessly, unscrupulously, the appalling object of dominating the civilization of mankind.
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TYPES OF THE MEN WHO DEFENDED WARSAW TII.I. THE END
Photographs by George H. Mewes
RUSSIAN WOUNDED GOING TO THE REAR
Motor ambulances are a rare luxury in Russia and the wounded arc frequently two and three days in peasants' carts before they reach the railhead or base hospitals
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And, mark you, this evil, this menace under which we are now suffering, is not one which diminishes with the growth of knowledge and the progress of material civilization, but, on the contrary, it in- creases with them.
When I was young we used to flatter ourselves that progress inevitably meant peace, and that growth of knowledge was always accompanied, as its natural fruit, by the growth of good will among the nations of the earth. Unhappily, w^e know better now, and we know there is such a thing in the world as a power which can with unvarying persistency focus all the resources of knowledge and of civilization into the one great task of making itself the moral and material master of the world.
It is against that danger that we, the
free peoples of western civilization, have banded ourselves together. It is in that great cause that we are going to fight, and are now fighting this very moment, side by side.
In that cause we shall surely conquer, and our children will look back to this fateful date as the one day from which democracies can feel secure that their progress, their civilization, their rivalry, if need be, wmII be conducted, not on German lines, but in that friendly and Christian spirit which really befits the age in which we live.
Mr. Speaker, ladies and gentlemen, I beg most sincerely to repeat again how heartily I thank you for the cordial wel- come which you have given us today, and to repeat my profound sense of the sig- nificance of this unique meeting.
THE RUSSIAN SITUATION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE TO AMERICA
By Stanley Washburn
NOW that America has entered the world war and, in spirit if not by treaty, has become one of the Allies who are engaged in this incom- parable conflict for the idea of world democracy, it becomes of fundamental importance that we, as a people, realize, and at once, the factors in this war with which and through which we must work in order that by our united effort we may consummate the sacrifice of blood and treasure by the achievement of an en- during peace in Europe and throughout the world.
Of France, our traditional friend, we know much. Our realization of what England has done in the war is, for the first time, receiving the appreciation which is its due. .
Of far and distant Russia there seems to be apparently little known in America. The world is aware in a general way that the Russians have made huge sacrifices and have been fighting an uphill battle on the far eastern front.
At this time, when we must in so large a measure depend on the cooperation and assistance of the great Republic, it is im- portant that it should be realized exactly what Russia has contributed to the war and what her remaining in the war until the end means to the Allies, and to America in particular. For this reason I wish to trace briefly Russia's part in this conflict and what it has represented.
To understand the almost insur- mountable handicaps under which the Russians have been laboring, it is neces- sary to appreciate the nature and impor- tance of the German influence in Russia, which for the last few decades has be- come such a vital menace to the inde- pendence of the Russian people.
TEUTON INFLUENCES IN RUSSIA
After the Franco-Prussian War, when the new economic and industrial era be- gan to develop in the Teuton Empire, it was but natural that the Germans should look to Russia for their most important
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market. At first this outlet for their trade was a luxury t6 their economic de- velopment, but as, to a greater and greater extent, their trade became com- mitted to this vast territory it became more and more of an economic necessity that they retain and increase their grip on Russia.
The northern or Baltic provinces of Russia are very largely populated by persons of German blood who have for many generations been Russian subjects. It is natural that these people, in a meas- ure, should feel and understand German aspirations and aid and abet in their plans where possible.
By this I do not mean to assert that all Baltic Russians are pro-German, for some of the ablest and most loyal men and devoted troops have come from this part of Russia ; but it is true that many of the worst influences have also been of Baltic province extraction. For ten years before the war we can trace the German influence moving through every specious channel of intrigue and malevolent ac- tivity to gain ascendency in the internal policies of the Russian Government.
GERMANS OPPOSE A LIBER.\L RUSSIA
There is little reason to doubt that the German influence has aimed in every way to check the growth of liberalism in Rus- sia. There are many who believe that but for the German influence there would have come the abolition of vodka five years before the war. The elimination of this curse would have meant educa- tion, and with education inevitably must have come a demand for a more liberal government and a ministry responsible to the Duma.
Alone the Germans could not have hoped to exert this influence; but we find in Russia another group, commonly known as the bureaucracy, who had a community of interests with the Teutons. The bureaucracy represents the office- holders and officials appointed by the Throne, who have for generations, and one might almost say for centuries, preyed upon the resources of the Rus- sian Empire, which, unchecked, have flown irresponsively through a small
group of public buildings in the Russian capital.
There has been during and before the war a cooperation between these two parties, the enduring prestige of which depended on German victory and Rus- sian defeat. It is clear that if Germany had been overwhelmingly defeated, both the pro-Germans and the bureaucrats would have lost the hold they had on the Russian Empire.
Russia's unpreparedness
It is probably true that none of these dark forces had any great apprehension at the beginning of the war that Ger- many could lose ; for, being well aware of Russia's unpreparedness, it seemed in- credible that she could triumph over her enemy — efficient, complete, and ready for the war.
Russia owes to the Grand Duke Nich- olas Nicholaievitch the salvation of the Russian cause, for during the first six months, with the absolute power dele- gated to him by the Tsar, he completely upset the original military program of the Russian General Staflf in Petrograd and of the ^Minister of War, Sukomlinov, afterward removed for corruption and alleged treachery.
The original Russian program seems to have contemplated an early defensive. By a suspicious coincidence the German plan of campaign had anticipated the sup- posed negative campaign of the Russians and little effort had, therefore, been made for the defense of East Prussia, the greater part of German energy being di- rected toward the invasion of France.
The Grand Duke, loyal to the cause of the Alhes and faithful to the interests of Russia, in quick response to the appeals from France, upset, almost over night, the original defensive program and launched his East Prussian campaign.
The Germans were probably taken by complete surprise as perhaps was the Russian Minister of War in Petrograd. The result of the Grand Duke's offensive in August, 1914, was to fill the Unter den Linden in Berlin with refugees fleeing panic stricken from East Prussia. It was impossible for the Kaiser to advertise,, convincingly, successes in the west when
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every day filled the streets of the capital with refugees fleeing from the east.
RUSSIA AIDS AT THE MARXE AND CALAIS
Ten days before the battle of the Marne the Germans transferred six army corps from the west to the east and Paris was saved. The Germans, utilizing to capacity their wonderful system of rail- roads, were able to make a concentration of troops in the east which almost an- nihilated the Russian army in East Prus- sia. The Russians accepted this disaster with extraordinary complacency on the ground that it was their contribution to the war, and that if they had saved Paris their losses were quite justified.
Later in the fall, when the Germans were making their terrific drive on Calais, in their eflfort to strike more directly on England, the Grand Duke again launched a new and unexpected campaign on Ger- many, this time advancing from his base in Warsaw and striking at the enemy from the Polish frontier. Again the Ger- mans were obliged to divert huge bodies of troops to meet this menace of the Rus- sian invasion. By December i the Rus- sians had been driven back to the Bzura line outside of Warsaw. It is true that they had suffered reverses, but it had taken sixteen German army corps to drive them back, and Calais was saved !
In 1 91 5, when the one cherished stra- tegic aim of the Germans was to crush either England or France, their program was again upset, this time by the activity of the Russian armies in Galicia and the Bukovina. By the latter part of March the Russians had made such progress in the southwest as vitally to threaten the Hungarian plains, resulting in political chaos in Austria and Hungary. This be- came such a menace to the whole situa- tion that the Germans were obliged to abandon whatever plans they had in tlie west and give their immediate attention to backing up the dual monarchy, lest it be seduced from its alliance.
DRAWS HORDES OF GERMANS FROM THE WEST
Beginning in May, the Germans began pouring their troops into Galicia, and for six months there was an unending flow
of German divisions and of army corps directed against the Russian front with an extraordinary supply of munitions, while even in men the Russians were out- numbered at strategic points by two or three to one.
The Germans were able to drive through Galicia and bring about the fall of Warsaw in August, 191 5. Contrary to their expectations, they were unable to bring about an independent peace, and instead of seeing the collapse of their enemy they beheld the legions of the Tsar slip from out their grasp and retire into the vast spaces of the Empire. From August until October the great retreat continued, until exhaustion and falling morale of the invader made it necessary for the Germans to dig in for the winter.
The Germans claimed that this was the appointed place that they had elected to reach for the winter, but I would state, unequivocally and without fear of con- tradiction, that the German advance stopped there, not because it wished to, but because it literally was unable to con- tinue the invasion any farther. Any ob- server who has seen their lines as I have in many places would concur in the belief that no army would elect to spend the winter on a line which ran through forest, swamp, and plain, achieving, for the most part, no strategic asset.
RUSSIA GIVES ENGIvAND AND FRANCE OPPORTUNITY TO PREPARE
The world at large looked upon 191 5 as a year of Russian defeat, failing to realize that it took between thirty-five and forty corps of German troops, op- erating in the east, to bring about the Russian disaster. The withdrawal of these corps from the west gave England and France an opportunity to prepare after the war what lack of vision had not done before. When the Germans, in the spring of 191 6, sick of their empty ad- vances in the wastes of Russia, attacked the French at Verdun they found them prepared, and their efforts, as the world now knows, to break the French line proved ^abortive.
By June of 1916, when the Germans were assembling troops for some other strategic aim, BrusillofF launched his of-
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Photograph by George H. Mewcs TYPICAL REFUGEES FROM THE BATTLE ZONE RELATING THEIR EXPERIENCES
fensive on the southwestern front, which continued without intermission for sev- enty days. The capture, during the sum- mer and early fall, of 456,000 prisoners and nearly 500 guns so demorahzed the Austrians that whatever plan the Ger- mans may have had for that summer had to be abandoned and supports hurried to Galicia and Volynia to save again the dual monarchy from collapse.
ANOTHER FRONT FOR THE GERMANS TO FACE
This tremendous diversion of troops against the Russians last summer made It possible for the British and the 'French to commence their blows in the west on the Somme, operations which are still in progress.
By September i Germany was again beginning to accumulate a strategic re- serve which might have made it possible for her to strike either on the east or west. At this moment Roumania, daz- zled by Russian successes, entered the war, and the Germans, again menaced on the east, were obliged to send thirty divi- si<)ns to the Balkans to drive the Russians out of Roumania. We see, then, that ever since the beginning of the war the pressure of the Russians, directly and in- directly on the east, has robbed the Ger- mans of their strategic opportunities on the west.
Prior to the entrance of Roumania into the war the pro-German alliance in Petro- grad had been viewing the situation with the gravest fear. For the first time it was
Zl^
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THE RUSSIAN SITUATION
377
beginning to see the great possibility of defeat. The Tsar, himself a well-mean- ing and patriotic man, was surrounded by a clique inimical to the Allies, eager to bring about a cessation of hostilities as the only means of preserving their power and prestige in Russia. The removal in the early summer of Sazanov, and every man in the foreign office known to be loyal to the Allies, provided a mechanism for negotiating an independent peace.
SCHEMERS EXPOSE THEIR OWN PLOTS
The little clique who had been engi- neering this enterprise had been so intent on their own interests that they utterly failed to appreciate the fact that every other faction in Russia saw and clearly realized their aims. The fall of Bu- charest gave them their opportunity, but so powerful had become the Duma and the Council of the Empire that the gov- ernment dared not move openly at that time.
Probably it was felt that the condition in Russia economically would be so des- perate in the spring that the people would demand a cessation of the war and little intriguing would be necessary, but when spring arrived with its inevitable unrest, and the Emperor endeavored to dissolve the Duma, there came not the demand for an independent peace, but a demand for the overthrow of the government whose incompetence and double-dealing had brought about the wide-spread suf- fering and disorders in Russia.
The ease with which this revolution was accomplished was due entirely to the fact that every faction in Russia realized the truth as to the government, learned by thirty months of observation of in- competence and munition shortage, which had resulted in the sacrifice of millions of men at the front, and made manifest at home by the fact that in Russia more than thirteen million refugees were forced to flee for safety to the heart of the Empire because an army had not been given rifles and munitions with which to guard the Russian front.
We now approach the period of the present, when America has elected to en- ter the world war, and if America would realize what Russia means to this cause It must understand that the Russians at the present time are holding on their
eastern front, from the Baltic to the Danube, nearly three million enemy troops, perhaps a million and a half of these being Germans.
WHAT Russia's elimination would
MEAN
If, by disaster at the front or by in- trigue at home, Russia is forced out of the war during the coming summer, we may anticipate the early transfer of a large portion of this vast mass of men to the western, front, and we will see the beginning of what in reality is an entirely new war.
We must now consider what is our duty toward ourselves and toward our Allies. The minute a nation by declara- tion of war engages in hostilities with an enemy nation it becomes the duty of the government and the people of that gov- ernment to commence striking at that enemy with every means which is at its disposal — moral, financial, economic, and military.
If this country is to be of actual and vital assistance to the Allies who are fighting this war for world democracy and the cause of humanity against the German Government, which represents neither, the first and most essential re- quirement today in America is the realiza- tion on the part of the people of this country that the Germans are not on the point of collapse.
SEEDS OF DISASTER SOWN BY UNDERESTI- MATING THE ENEMY
I have been in three countries at the beginning of the war — England, Russia, and Roumania — ^and in each of these countries the seeds of future disaster, later paid for by the sacrifice of hun- dreds of thousands of lives, were sown in the belief among the people that the struggle was to be of an approximately short duration, and that it would be un- necessary to exert the entire national eflfort to defeat the enemy. I heard many Englishmen in the early days of the war express their hesitancy in enlisting for a year's training before going to the front, because they believed the conflict would be over before they ever could reach the fighting line.
In the fall of 1914 the Russian Min- ister of War had almost ceased ordering
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THE NATIONAL CzROGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ammunition, expressing^ the opinion that the war would be over before the time of delivery came, while in December of that first year men of highest importance in the Russian Empire labored under the belief that Austria, exhausted by her early sacrifices, was on the point of mak- ing an independent peace. Roumania, in September of 1916, believed that the war was practically over.
The result of this general misconcej)- tion in England was that the mobilization of British resources did not take place until the spring of 191 5 and conscription until 1916. In Russia the truth was realized only when the army ran out of suppKes early in 191 5, when she paid for the lack of vision of her government by the sacrifice of thousands of lives in the great retreat, while Roumania, as the world now knows, has lost three-quar- ters of her territory as a price for her undue optimism as to the German ca- pacity to continue the war.
FALLACIOUS ARGUMENTS HEARD HERE
In 19 1 7 we hear in America the same fallacious arguments that one has heard for three years in Europe, namely, that Germany is at the end of her resources, and that it is not worth while for indi- viduals to enlist, as the chances are they will never have the opportunity to leave American shores.
The prevalence of this opinion is in reality of the greatest assistance to the Germans, and by the wide-spread belief in this we are actually making the dura- tion of the war infinitely longer. To those who believe that the German Gov- ernment is about to break on account of the reverse on the western front, I would call attention to the extraordinary psy- chology of the German people, which is so different from that of all other coun- tries engaged in this war that compari- son is impossible.
It is difficult for Americans to realize the discipline and lack of intellectual in- itiative which exists in the German army and among the German people.
Ever since he became Emperor, Wil- helm has been instilling his extraordinary beliefs into his army and into his people, until today we have a psychology in the Teuton Empire which will probably make
it possible for the military autocracy to continue the war to a far greater length than would be conceivable in any other country in the world.
THE PERVI'RTED TEACHINGS OF THE KAISER
In the early nineties the Kaiser sounded the keynote of his own character and point of view in a speech he made to a regiment in northern Germany, when he said to them: *'I would rather see my forty-five million Prussians dead on the field of battle than see one foot of the soil taken in 1870 given back to France.''
And several years later, in addressing a body of recruits in Potsdam, the Kai- ser is reported to have said: "Now that you have donned my uniform it must be your pleasure and your duty to fellow my wishes, realizing that I rule Germany by the direct will of God, and you must willingly obey my commands, even though I require you to shoot down your own fathers and brothers in response to my dictates."
With such ideas as these being in- stilled into the German army and Ger- man people year by year, we must not believe that at the first sign of reverse they will forget the teachings of forty years and demand consummation of im- mediate peace; and we must likewise realize that a revolution in Germany at this time has far less opportunity for success, for there is every probability that the German soldiers would fire upon their own people with the same sub- servience to their officers that they show in all their military operations.
THE war's end not AT HAND
While the military operations in the west are of vast importance to the situ- ation and must unquestionably demoral- ize the Germans to a certain extent, I see no reason to believe that the events of this month in France have created a con- dition from which we may expect any immediate results looking toward peace.
When we read that the French and English have taken 33,000 prisoners and 330 guns in the month of April, we must, of course, rejoice ; but we must at the same time guard against an optimism which leads to the belief that our only
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photograph by George H. Mewes RUSSIAN TROOPS AWAITING A GERMAN ATTACK
This is a typical rear-guard trench, characteristic of the field fortifications of the great
retreat
379 Digitized by GoOglC
Photograph by George H. Mewcs THE STAFF OF THE 5TH SIBERIAN CORPS
The last corps to leave Warsaw and one of the first in action on the southwestern front in
the summer of 1916
duty in this war is financial and eco- nomic.
These losses of the Germans, while en- couraging, are in reality but a drop in the bucket. It might be well to remem- ber that Brusilloff, in a little over two months' operations on the southwestern front in Russia during the summer of 19 1 6, took 450,000 prisoners and 496 guns ; and yet this far greater loss to the enemy, as one now realizes, has exerted but transitory influence on the world situation.
In order fully to appreciate the Teuton strength, it is necessary to give the Ger- mans the credit which is their due. One must, I think, consider broadly their whole point of view and realize that the power of the Central Empire, and no one at this time will question its strength, is due to the German virtues and not to the German vices.
Now that the bitterness against the Germans is so intense, it is difficult to wipe away the prejudices one feels and give them the benefit of the extraordi- nary values which they have as a people ; but if we underestimate these virtues, we
fail to understand the causes which have made it possible for the Germans to do what they have done.
WHY THE GERMAN WAR MACHINE IS STRONG
Much as I disapprove of the German point of view and of the spirit which has been manifested by the Germans of nearly all classes in this war, I still re- main of the opinion that, taken from the internal point of view, our enemies pos- sess almost every virtue which makes for military strength.
In the first place, no one who has seen and talked with the German troops can question the sincerity of their belief in the righteousness of the German cause. I have talked with prisoners from the Baltic to the Bukovina, and I have never yet met one who did not believe implic- itly in the statement of the Kaiser, made at the beginning of the war, to the eflFect that "in the midst of perfect peace we have been treacherously surprised by a ring of enemies jealous of our genius and intent on our destruction."
380
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THE RUSSIAN SITUATION
381
THE PRUSSIAN CAPACITY FOR SACRIFICE
With this idea dominant in the Ger- man mind, and probably now accepted as a truth even by the Kaiser himself, who has come to believe implicitly in his own statements, the fallacies of which his lack of imagination has made him inca- pable of seeing, there has been produced in Germany a national fortitude and a capacity for sacrifice rarely equaled and never surpassed in the history of the world.
Having spent in the achievement of what they regard as their national de- fensive aims four and one-half million casualties gross, we need not imagine that the loss of a few hundred thousand in the west is going to exert any funda- mental or far-reaching influence on the German ultimate capacity of resistance.
I believe it to be an absolute truth that if America prepares for war with the idea that this conflict is to last for three years we may expect the end of the war before 1918; but if we elect to make the same psychological mistake that the other Powers have made and cling to the belief that the war is almost over, and prepare in the belief that the Germans will be ex- hausted this year, it is perfectly possible that the war may last for another two years.
now WE MAY PROIyONG THE WAR
If we raise a trifling army of half a million to a million men, it is quite possi- ble that before this war is over we may suffer a million casualties on the western front alone; whereas if we accept the necessity of sacrifice and prepare our- selves as we would do were we fighting Germany alone and for our national ex- istence, and formulate plans for a three- years war, involving ultimate capacity to deliver on various European fronts five million men, fully equipped and trained, it is my opinion that, with the possible exception of an expeditionary force for moral eflfect on the situation, none would ever reach a European front.
It must be realized at this time that a dominant feature in the world has be- come the visible supply of man power. The German staflf has carefully analyzed the European situation, has reckoned with this visible supply in Russia, France, and
England, and has, to its own satisfaction, reached the conclusion that Germany has a sporting chance of outHving her ene- mies in this competition of death. The staff has not, at any time, I am certain, included in its figures the possibility of five million Americans being potentially available to fill the losses of the Allies in 1 91 8, 1 91 9, and possibly 1920.
A WHEAT MARKET ANALOGY
In this matter of the visible supply of human material I see a direct analogy in the wheat market. If a Chicago operator contemplates a comer in May or July wheat and learns many months before that the acreage in Argentina is to be increased 200 per cent, his plans are af- fected and defeated, not when this wheat really comes on the Chicago market, but when he receives information of the con- templated acreage in distant fields of pro- duction.
Thus the price of wheat in other rul- ing markets is affected even before a seed is planted. And so, I believe, it is with this military situation. If our plans con- template the raising of an army of five million men within a certain period, the Germans feel the military and moral ef- fect before we have enlisted the men; for it means that a staff already des- perately pressed to provide men for this year's campaign must extend its vision to contemplate the possibility of raising in 1 918, for delivery at the same time and place, approximately an equivalent num- ber of troops as contemplated in our mili- tary program.
THIS YEAR OR NEVER W^ITH THE GERMANS
The realization of this potential situ- ation must convince the enemy that what they cannot accomplish during this sum- mer they can never accomplish, and the necessity of peace late in the fall or early winter must be apparent to even the frozen imagination of the German people. It is for this reason that I believe our second fundamental duty is the adoption of a military program on the basis of three years of war.
The third fundamental and, in my opinion, the most necessary action which this country should take is that which our President and government are already
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
taking in the support of the new provis- ional government in Russia. Inasmuch as we cannot at present strike the enemy with any military force of our own, we must strike by assisting, to the greatest extent possible, that member of the Allies who is in the greatest need of assistance. It must be evident now that the Ger- mans have lost for the present the possi- bility of achieving any objective in the west which might bring them peace. It is clear, then, that they must turn their minds toward the adjustment of peace with Russia; for, if this end can be ob- tained, between two and three million available troops would be released for operations in the west, and an access to food supplies and raw materials in Russia would largely neutralize the eflfectiveness of the British blockade and give the Ger- mans the capacity to fight indefinitely.
DANGERS OF A TEUTON DRIVE ON PETROGRAD
While I am not a pessimist as to the situation in Russia, I am certainly of the opinion that it is more than a military possibility for the Germans to take Petro- grad between now and the first of Sep- tember.
Were they to do this, they would strike a terrific moral blow at the Empire and an equally heavy economic one by the. capture of the greatest munition and manufacturing base in Russia. At the same time they would isolate the Russian fleet in the Baltic and threaten potentially the lines of communication between Eng- land and Russia, throwing a terrific bur- den on the Trans-Siberian Railroad.
There is no question but that the pres- ent provisional government in Russia is composed of the most far-seeing and pa- triotic men of the nation. Perhaps no revolution in history has produced a finer group of patriots than this Russian twelve ; but we in America must not ex- pect the impossible, even from these dis- tinguished and highly intelligent gentle- men.
In the face of military disaster, the possibility of which we must recognize, and the loss of the capital, whose security we must not too certainly depend upon, and with the ammunition and supplies from the outside threatened, if not cut
off, we must discount the possibility of an extremely dangerous situation in the east during the coming summer.
We must always count on German in- trigue exerting malevolent influence in Russia whenever the news from the front is in the least bit pessimistic. It is for the reason mentioned above that I believe our President has shown great wisdom and foresight in giving his immediate at- tention to the Russian situation in pref- erence to any other of the Allies at the present time.
NO DOUBT AS TO THE WAR'S OUTCOME
As to the ultimate outcome of the war there is, of course, not the slightest doubt in my mind, nor has there ever been. The only danger was as to whether or not Germany's material preparations would be able to crush the Allies before the character of their people had had time to crystallize and prepare itself first for de- fense and then for offensive operations.
With nations as with individuals, it is character that is the ultimate test. Forty- two centimeter guns are worn out, muni- tions are shot away, and food supplies are eaten up, but the moral character of the people remains the one enduring asset which makes sacrifice possible and victory assured.
The American Revolution was won, not at Yorktown, but at Lexington, when it became apparent for the first time what was the fiber of the American people; and so this war was won when it became evident that the people of France, of England, and of Russia preferred sacri- fice and death to defeat.
That all these sacrifices are justified those who have followed the situation closely cannot doubt.
I am personally of the opinion that an enduring moral idea is the greatest in- heritance which one generation can leave to its successor.
The establishment of the democratic idea, based on morals, ethics, equity, and justice, which must come from this war, is worth, not a million or ten million casualties, but fifty million, if from this struggle there emerge an enduring con- ception as to the fundamental basis on which society, progress, and civilization must rest in perpetuity.
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Floors that look new
Some people
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Murphy Transparent Floor Varnish
" the varnish that lasts longest "
makes you realize how much beauty there is in the grain and color of natural wood. It will not scratch white and can be kept free from dust with a damp mop or cloth. But the great thing about it is the way it wears — long enough to put off for months the expense and annoyance of refinishing, and it looks well to the very end.
Your painter or dealer can furnish Murphy Transparent Floor Varnish and any of these Murphy fi nishes for beau tify i ng the home —
Murphy Transparent Interior Varnish Murphy Univernish Murphy Transparent Spar Varnish Murphy White Enamel
Send for our interesting and handsomely illustrated book, "The House That Found Itself."
Murphy Varnish Company
Franklin Murphy ^ jr.^ President Newark New Jersey Chicago Illinois
Dougall Varnish Co. . Ltd., Montreal, Canadian Associate
'Mention the Geographic— It identifies you.'
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%el Lock — Sault Sie, Marie, Michigan
Should Be four Car
y virtue possessed by : tire.
us margin of ^comfort, curity, and endurance.
a measures of mileage, jedom from trouble.
) big saVings in gaso-
^roxiniates the service Joodyear Cord Tires.
jer than other tires,
jer, go farther, serve
cost less in the end.
exible, they ride easier, 5e less fuel, require less
jr effect make their slighdy price the part of economy.
tire of America, they )ur car.
►'w, Heavy Tourist Tubes Saver* * Accessories are from Goodyear. Service balers everywhere,
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X E^klC
AKRON
CORD TIRC
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Keeps Your "Going'' Business Going!
This is how the Grinnell does it
A BAD fire will give any business, how- ever prosperous, a solar-plexus blow and knock it out !
But you're insured against fire, you say?
Oh, yes, of course; we know that. But if you have a big fire your business will come to a full stop, won't it ?
You'll plead for "kind consideration" from your customers and urge them to wait.
You'll call in your salesmen and tell them not to sell for a while.
You'll keep men on the pay-roll without work.
You and all your executives will work eighteen hours a day.
You'll telegraph frantically and vainly for new machines, new stocks, and new raw materials.
You'll not be able to start again with experienced workmen while the present shortage of labor continues.
Your business will be in a state of sus- pended animation for at least three months and weakly convalescent for another six.
And your annual statement will be marked apologetically, "This was the year of the fire."
That's what happens in any business when a fire starts and is allozved to finish its work.
That's why it will pay you to have a sys- tem that puts out a fire as soon as it starts.
One of the greatest automobile manufac- turers won't do business with any source of supply which is not protected against busi- ness interruption and demoralization by a modern automatic-sprinkler system. He can't aflford to take chances on a stoppage of supplies.
That is the modern view. Conflagrations are a proof of slipshod business methods; a needless nuisance to every interlocking business relation ; obsolete in the most up- to-date businesses.
A business safeguarded by Grinnells is considered so thoroughly safe by the insur- ance companies that the insurance rate is cut away down as soon as the system is in
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.*'
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put out hy Crinnells.
operative condition, diminished hazard.
That tells the story of
Not being an insurance expert, you may think, "Oh, there's not much chance of a big fire in my place!" But the insurance rate, based on statistics, tells the unwelcome truth about it.
So do thousands of business fires a year.
Don't stick your head in the sands of self-complacency ! Your business will never be safe until it is protected by automatic sprinklers.
Fireproof construction ? That won't save you. Coal will burn in a fireproof grate, and, likewise, your business will burn in a concrete cage.
Sprinklers rank far ahead of fireproof construction as rate-reducers on everything inside a building.
A sprinkler system is a large and impor- tant investment, and when once installed can never be economically changed for an- other kind.
Play safe, therefore, and buy the stand- ard system, the Grinnell. It protects more property than all other sprinkler systems put together and is assembled to order in our plants, which are the largest and best
equipped of their kind in the world. The system, therefore, comes to you complete except for a few last connections, and you can rest assured that it is the best, because it has behind it a big six-million-dollar cor- poration, with over thirty-four years' ex- perience in the art of automatic fire-pro- tection.
Don't theorize— ^et the figures!
We publish a blank form which we will be glad to send to you without charge. It is called the Grinnell Exemption blank be- cause it is the first step toward gaining exemption from the high cost of insurance. Thousands of business men have been ex- empted from a large part of their insurance "tax" by the underwriters as a result of taking this easy first step. When you fill it out with the facts that are called for, we can tell you something pretty definite about what Crinnells will do for you.
A postal request will bring the blank. Tell your stenographer to send it — now! Even an hour's delay may prove costly! Write — now — ^to the General Fire Extin- guisher Company, 293 West Exchange Street, Providence, R. I.
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
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BETTER THAN LEATHER
"AT THE END OF THE TRAIL" Frazser*s Statue ^ to be erected at the western end of the L incoln Highway.
'Mention the Oeographlc — It identifies you '
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Standards of Service
In rural communities clusters of m€ul delivery boxes at the crossroads evidence Uncle Scuii*s postal service. Here the neighbors trudge from their homes — perhaps a few yeurds, perhaps a quarter mile or so — for their mail.
Comprehensive as is the govern- ment postal system*^ still the service rendered by its mail carriers is neces- sarily restricted, as the country dweller knows.
Long before rural delivery was es- tablished the Bell System began to link up the farmhouse with the neighbor-
ing towns and villeiges. One-fourth of die 10,000,000 telephones in the Bell System are ruraL They reach more places than there are post offices. Along the highways and private lanes the telephone poles lead straight up to the f £urmer*s door.
He need not stir from the cheerful hearth ablaze in winter, nor grope along dcurk roads at night for friendly^ news or aid in time of trouble. Right in the heart of his home is his tele* phone. It is the American farmer*& key to the outside world, and in no other countiy is it found.
American Telephone and Telegraph Company
And Associated Companies One Policy One System Universal Service
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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* 'Mention the Geographic— It identifies yon." ^-^ ^
Digitized by VjOOQIC
'Mention the Oeographio — ^It identifies you."
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Great corporation Kead is amazed at the skill & devotion of DaveyTree Surgeons ^
Correspondence between W« W. Salmon, President of the General Railway Signal Com- pany, and M. L. Davey, General Manager of the Davey Organization— a message of vital Impor- tance to every owner of trees.
GENERAL RAILWAY SIGNAL COMPANY
Principal Office:
Rochester, N. Y., U. S. A.
W. W. Salmon, President.
New York City. Sept. 29. 1916. Mr. M. L. Davey, Davey Tree Expert Co., Kent, Ohio. Dear Mr. Davey: •
Enclosed herewith please find my check to your order for $1,081 .33 in full for tree surgery on my i>roperty at Beechmont, New Rochelle.
In makinff this remittance permit me to express my appre- ciation of the capable, interested service rendered by your or- ganization. Your New York Office as well as your Westchester representative and your foreman, have one and all given the most painstaking attention to my needs, and I have been so much impressed with the efficiency of your organiaation as I have come in contaa with it, that it womd please me greatly if. when you can find time, you will have the goodness to furnish me with any data at your command, showing how you have built up and maintained tt in such a way as to bring about the devotion and enterprise so evident in your representatives whom it has been my pleasure to meet. Yours very truly,
W. W. Salmon.
Kent, Ohio. Oct. 3, 1916. W. W. Salmon, Esq., "Beechmont," New Rochelle, N. Y. Dear Mr. Salmon: ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ , ,
Acknowledging your esteemed favor of Sept. 29thj I want to aartare you that such a voluntary expression of satisfaction is more than a pleasure — ^it is an inspiration. The public as a whole has been very gracious to us in return for our conscientious dOtorts to give Otuuity First Tree Surgery and honest service.
I believe that most worthy things, especially along the line oi organization, are the result of evolution based upon a f imda- menw policy. Our purpose from the beginning has been to give maximum service, whtch means perfuted methods, high type men and an organisation ideal, ,
Perhaps the thing of first unix>rtance is the men — ^the men who actually do the work. The people whom we serve are not iwrticularly interested in my theories or my knowledge or my abiUty. They measure the Davey organization by the men whom they see, and rightly so. Consequently, we have en- deavored to get the right kind of men.
We go on the theory that "A leopard cannot change his spots. If a man is dishonest, if he is lazy, if he is c
indifferent, if he lacks intelligence, if he lacks the spirit of < operation and devotion to his work wad his employers — if he lacks these fundamental things, no argument and no appeal and no inducement will make him a good man. We, ther^are, eliminate the poor oHes as fast as we find them, keeping only those who have in them the qualities which have impressed you. The good ones we boost and encourage and try to inspire as soon. as we find that they are good, we pay these good men well and pay them niore as soon as they prove they are worth more. The foreman who had charge of your work will be given a raise immediately on the strength of your letter. Is It not reasonable to sui>po6e that he will strive still harder to please every other client? Every man in the Davey organisa- tion-knows that his advancement depends upon his servue and upon no other thing.
While we pay well we demand much in return. If a man fails to live up to our high standard, we do not want him and will not have him. // our service at any time falls below this high standard, we let the offender go and make good to the client. Thus the process of elimination leaves us the good men, those who are intelligent, industrious, honest and devoted to theirworlc
Our men are aU trained in the Davey organisation. We take no man's recommendation of himself. He must go through the mill and show us. Every man is responsible to us for his work and his conduct, whidi is the measure of his service.
Bcarel^sand
Thus the client gets, through us, the highest possible . guaranteed service. We, who know values in Tree Surgery, select the man who is to handle your priceless trees and we stand back of it with the whole strength of our organisation and reputation.
We have devoted ourselves unceasingly to the perfection of our methods, with the result that our work is in reality prac- tically perfect both mechanically and scientifically. We main- tain our own school at a considerable annual expense for the specific purpose of training our men according to the Davey methods and Davey standard.
Every year we have a Convention, when we bring all of our responsible men together, including foremen, special repre- sentatives, officers, students and school faculty. We had our usual Convention last March, We had more than sixty foremen in attendance. The average length of their experience was a6oMl five years, with the result that more than three hundred years of actual experience was concentrated, massed, on the problems cgf Ttee Surgery, We had a week's demonstration work, during which time we discussed everything from the most important down to the seemingly trivial things. Everything was put to the test of experience. We wanted no theories. We demanded only the definite results of ripe experience. The result is not only a constantlpf rising standard, but a very grat^ying and valuMe uniformity of methods and policy.
We had with us during our last annual Convention, Dr, H, D, House, New York State Botanist, who was formerly Professor in the Biltmore Forestry School. We wanted him here so that he could look us over. He expressed himself as amased at the character of our organisation and said that he could now understand why we had made a success of our work. Among other
From Mr. Wm. M. Wood. Pres. Am. Woolen Co.. Boston, Mass.
"Your work upon my trees bears the mark of expert Icnowledge, and I am looking forwtuti confidently to the best possible results from your intelligent treatment. Your success in tree pres- ervation makes you a real public bene* factor."
From Mr. G. M. Palmer, Pres. Hubbard Milling Co.. ^^.
Manlcato, Mmn.
"I was very much pleased with the work of your men on my trees. They seem to tmderstand thoroughly then- business and I am sure they have put my trees in first class condition."
From Mr. W. H. Mullins. Pres. The W. H. MuUins Co.. Salem, O.
"The work done by your men on my trees has been very satisfactory and I hope will be the means of prolonging their life for many years."
From Mr. Ezra F. Hershey, Hershey Chocolate Co. Hershey, Penn.
"It is a pleasure to me, and I feel it a duty, to recommend any work that is done as intelligently as you handled my work here."
<^
DaveyTree
FOR SAFE TREE SURGERY
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things he said, "These men would do honor to any insti- tution of learning in America." A thing which greatly im- pressed nim was the fact that our men, these fellows of broad, practical experience, were absolutely unammoua on every vital pomt.
Then ihire is the question qf organisation spirit. Our men have been made to feel that they are engaged in a great work—n worh whidt is alto- gether worthy of them and the best thai is in them. They have been made to realize that their future success is in- separably interwoven with the future and the success of the Davey orsanization. We have appealed to their self- interest, their desire for suc- cess and for financial return. We have shown them that there is only one way for them to advance their saf -interest and that is to five devoted service to their Company and its dients. Without the right kind of men such an appeal would be as wasted as a single rain on a desert. With the right kind of men as we have, such an appeal finds ready response, which grows and grows in beauty and in prac- tical utility.
You as a business man know the inspiration which comes from definite achieve- ment, from approaching a fixed goal. I find more satis- faction in this achievement than in the profit which comes from it. / believe that a business ideal is a source of power and serves to draw sue- cess as a magnet.
Ten years ago the Davey organisation was only a mere himdful doing a business of
about ten or twelve thousand dollars per year. Today we have an organisation of about three hundred built along the lines which I have indicated. Our business this year will exceed three hundred thousand dollars and I am very glad to say it leaves in its wahe an almost general feeling of satisfaction such as you have expressed.
Let me assure you that we very deeply appreciate the oppor- tunity of serving you and the honor of your full confidence and Sincerely yours, THE DAVEY TREE EXPERT CO. M. L. Davey, General Manager.
Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 17, 1916. Mr. M. L. Davey. General Manager.
The Davey Tree Expert Co., Kent, Ohio. Dear Mr. Davey:
Please accept my sincere thanks for your most illuminating letter of October 3rd.
Your story, interesting in itself, is most admirably told.
though in its telling it apiiears to me that you have failed to mention the one element with- out which the "perfected methods, high type men and organisation ideaf' would not have come into being. That unnamed element I suspect to have been Davey, who first conceived the ideal, then de- termined the methods and later found and inspired with some part of his own enthu- siasm the men who are actually canying out the work.
Shortly after receiving your letter I read it to the aepart- ment heads qf the General Railway Signal ComPanv^ while at luncheon^ and the interesting discussion that ftA- lowed led me to show the letter to some of my business friends, who are at the head of com- panies employing a peat many men. In each such instance I have been ashed for a copy of the letter-— in order that they may have their men read and proAt by it.
Will you have the goodness to write me at my home ad- dress whether I have voor consent to make and send oat to my business friends toch oopies?
Sinoerelyyours, W. W. Salmon.
Write today for FREE examina^ Hon of your trees
— and booklet, "When Your Trees Need the Tree Sur^ geon." What is the real con- dition of your trees? Only the experienced Tree Surgeon can tdl you fully and defi- nitely. Without cost or obligation to you, a DaveyTree Surgeon will visit your place, and render an honest verdict xegutling their conditkm and needs. Write today.
The Davey Tree Expert Co., Inc.
isis Elm St.* Kent, Ohio (Operating the Davey Inititute of Tree Surgery)
Bnmdi Offices witli telepiione connecdonat
225 Fiftli Ave., New York
2117 Land Title Bldg., Philadelphia
4N McCormick Bldg., Chicago
Permanent representatives located at Boston, Newport, Lenox, Hartford, Stamford, Albany, Pou^ikeepsie. ,WWte Plains, Jamaica, L. I., Morristown, N. J., Philadelphia, Hamsbui]^, Baltimore, Washington, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Cleveland. Detroit, Cincinnati. Louisville, Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, St. Louis. Kansas City. Canadian Address, 81 St. Peter St.. Quebec.
From Mr. Henry A. Everett. Pres. Northern Ohio_Traction 8k, Light Co.
From Mr. Samvel G. Allen, Prea. Franklin Railway Supply Co.
«« Mention the Oeographio — ^It identifies yon."
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CHANDLER SIX $(393
THE CHANDLER CHECKS JVith High-Priced Cars
/^^ HANDLER checks in the most essential ^^ features of design and construction and equipment with the high-priced cars. Chandler performs with the high-priced cars.
The manufacturer of one Six can make just as big claims as any other. The Chandler Company likes to deal in facts.
For years the Chandler Company has made the Chandler ay^f/-car, not a cla'tm-Q^s, Claims sell a lot of cars, but facts sell more cars, just as fast as the buyers learn the facts.
The Chandler is honestly built and mod- erately priced. There is no other Six, selling at anything like the Chandler price, which will give you so much dependable service.
Thousands of motor-car buyers recognize the mechanical superiority of the Chandler Six, mechanical superiority achieved through the Marvelous Motor — the exclusive Chandler Motor, powerful, flexible, simple, and econom- ical— and through the excellence of design and construction of the entire Chandler chassis.
So many recognize its superiority that the Chandler has earned a front rank position in the industry. So many recognize it that twenty- five thousand buyers this year will choose the Chandler as the Six to be preferred above all Sixes.
FIVE PLEASING TYPES OF BODY
Seven 'Passenger Touring Car^ $1395
Four-Passenger Roadster^ $1395 Seamen -Passenger Convertible SeJan^ $2095
Pour-Passenger Connjertible Coupe^ $1995 Limousine^ $2695
Ail prices F. O. B, Cie<velanJ
Write us today for cataloir and booklet. " Sec How the Chandler Checks with High-Price<l Cars," This booklet tells how ethrr medium-priced sixes do not check with hifh-piiced cars. Write today, and see your dealer. Address Dcpt. O
CHANDLER MOTOR CAR COMPANY
New York Office: 1790 Broadway CLEVELAND, OHIO Cable Address: **Chanmotor"
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The Eiends of "TbeMost Lutifiil Qr in America"
^"^^y{:
Tolk for ten minutes ^tk any man vtho oiJtxs a Paige car. You then will realize tKat tKe most priceless assets of tkis company do not appear on our financial statement as "Bills Receivable" or "Plants and Ma- cKinei^/'
TKe loyalty of our o^^ners; the implicit confi- dence of our owners ; the ynrm friendship of our owners — tKese are the tKings ^\at Kave made the Paige Companj^ what it is today.
TKese are tKe assets tKat mone^ cannot hvcy. TKese are tKe assets tKat fire and flood can- not destroy. TKese are tKe assets tKat Kav« Kuilt an impregnable bulwark of Reputation and Prestige around tKe name Paige.
Call tKem intangible, if you will, j^et tKese are tKe tKings tKat Kave made possible " TKe Most Beautiful Car in America."
Stratford "Six-Sl/'seven-passensrer - S 1495 f.o.b. Detroit Hairri<M"Six-46."scvpn-pnsscinrcr - f 1375 f.o.b. Detroit Linwoo.l "Six 39." five-passcnifcr - $1 175 f.o.b. I>etioit Brooklands"Six-5l."iour p.is5enffer- S 1695 f.o.b. Detroit Dartmoor "Six -39." 2 or 3-passenspr - $1175 f.o.b. Detroit Complete line ol enclosed cars
Paiffc-Detrott Malar Car Coatpaay, Datroit, Hick.
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iiiiiiiinii]
14'ina Gratot
Quarter-turn unvt in tht Donovan LMmber Co. \ Aberdeen, ^''(tsh.
6RATON& KNIGHT
Standardized Series
LEATHea B6LTINO
Taiwtd by mfor be^ng ms
Graton & Knight Leather Belts are uniform—
Because Graton & Knifi:ht are the larg:est belt makers, because they purchase and tan 285,000 hides a year, because their brands are selected and g:raded to the hig:hest de- gree of uniformity from this enormous supply of raw material.
Uniformity is the most important factor in belting quality. A belt, like a chain, is no better than its poorest piece.
* * :(:
Only a big firm like Graton & Knight could establish and maintain an equal degree of imiformity in its belting.
And Graton & Knight are the largest leather-belt makers in America.
This minute control of uniformity is possible only because of their large supply of leather tanned by them for belting use . A smaller supply would prove a constant temptation to put dissimilar pieces of leather into the same belt.
Graton Sc Knight hides are tanned in the Graton & Knight tannery, especially for belting purposes, by processes perfected in 53 years of belting tannage. It would be impossible for them to maintain ecfual imiformity if they used several different tannages.
Finally, Graton 8c Knight in the manu&icture of their by-products use bellies, shoulders, and other parts of hides not suited for belting— there is no temptation to include these in their lilting.
* :|c 9|C
This is why Graton 8c Knight can make a com- plete and standardized series of leather belting, and maintain so high and so fixed a degree of imiformity in each brand.
It is why Graton 8c Knight First Quality meafu first quality— absolutely free from any mixture of seconds, shoulders, or worse.
Write today for the Graton & Knight Belting Book— or have tlie nearest Graton & Knight representati¥e callonyott.
The Graton & Knight Mfg. Company
Oai Ltathtr Tantun, Mahrt nf IsaAtr Bshini, Uathtr Padt- tni, LtaAtr SkndrUs and Sftdabies, Cmnttrs and Stitu
Worcester, Massachusetts, U. S. A.
wtrtv**^ and DistribatDn in all Principal Cidea
GRATON & KNIGHT
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Concrete on the Me- dkna-Hartland Higk- way,N.T. Si»mties of durable road. En- gineer^J.N Carlitle. State Highway De- partment. Contrac- tor, J. A. Culkin, Osv/ego, N T
You can live betide a. conereteroadordriv^ upon it free from th^ annoyance ofduMt and mud. Nature keeps it clean. Automobiles do isot skid on concrete roads.
How Concrete Roads Increase the Value of Your
ITS WORTH is not what you put into it, but what you get out of it — how far, how quickly, how comfortably, how cheaply and how safely it carries you — in other words, upon the mileage of good roads available and upon the contmuity of that mileage.
Permanent roads should be built in connected systems — noi in scattered stretches, with ruts and mud-holes in between. And they should be built of concrete.
Concrete roads not only add to the safety and com- fort of driving, they very much reduce operating costs. Less gasoline is required on the hard , even sur- face; tires are not strained and bruised as when lung- ing and plunging over ruts, stones and holes. The chassis suffers none of the racking of rough going. It lasts longer and keeps in much better repair. The motorist is quite as much interested in con- crete roads from the standpoint of low maintenance
cost as from the standpoint of comfortable driving. It is chiefly the extensive motor traffic which is tear- ing our highways to pieces, involving repair bills so heavy that sooner or later the burden is likely to be collected back in higher license fees. For the sake of his pocket book, as well as for safe, comfortable driving, the motorist should actively promote good roads bond issues to build at once needed systems of permanent highways.
Concerted action is certain to be felt by your road authorities. We have convincing facts and figures about the durability of concrete. It is most suitable for road work as it is for the building of great engineering structures, dams, bridges, aqueducts, etc. Write for Bulletin No. 136.
PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION
ATLANTA
Hurt Bnildinff DALLAS
Southwestern Life Bnildlng DENVER
Ideal Cement BolUUng
at
CHICAGO 1 1 1 Weet Washington Street INDIANAPOLIS NEW YORK
Merchants Bank Budding 101 Park Avenue
KANSAS GIT7 PARKERSBURG
Commerce BuUdfaig Union Trust Building
MOiWAUKEE PITTSBURGH
First National Bank BuUding
Fanners Bank Building
SALT LAKE CITY
Keams Building SAN FRANCISCO
Rialto Building SEATTLE
Northern Bank & Trust Bldg.
CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE
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MarmfadurtTZ of the famous ** Millet Standard" Ifp^ of Dmggiata' Sundries, Surgeon's Qoves, BaUoons, Nooeliks, £Ste.
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Thb Atlas Portland Cbmrnt Co.; 30 Broad Street, New York, or Com Exchange Bank Building, Chicago. Send to name and address below book on Color Stucco. I am interested in Houses costing about $ Oarages costing about $_
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two-c" mr pocket
It fits.
The 2C KODAK Jr.
For pictures of the somewhat elongated post-card shape, but just a trifle smaller, — 2^x4^ inches. And this elongated shape in the picture makes possible a slim, thin camera, that^/j* the pocket.
The 2C Autographic Kodak Junior has a capacity of ten exposures without reloading, it has the Kodak Ball Bearing shutter with cable release, working at speeds of 1/25, 1/50 and 1/ 100 of a second and of course the usual '* bulb " and time actions. The camera has brilliant revers- ible finder, two tripod sockets, black leather bellows, is covered with fine grain leather, is well made and beautifully finished. It is autographic, of course, and is extremely simple to use.
Furnished with a choice of lens equipment as listed below:
No. 2C Autographic Kodak Jr., meniscus achromatic lens, . $12.00
Ditto, with Rapid RectiHnear lens, 14.00
Ditto, with Kodak Anastigmat lens, /.7.7, 19.00
All Dealers',
EASTMAN KODAK CO., Rochester, N. Y., The Kodak City.
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Try My Delightful J. R. W. Cigar Free
I want to convince you of the real quality of my J. R. W. Cigar. I know how difficult it is to persuade a man to try a cigar he has never smoked. But I also know that once you have tasted my J. R. W. cigar you will be a lifelong customer.
IS AAA Mon A<n.AA WUL M^
1
iC ™..-j
KXACT Smoke five with me. If you
like them, send me a check for $2.60 for the full fifty. Write today and be convinced.
J. ROGERS WARNER
220 Lockwood Building BUFFALO, N.Y.
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On the Show Streets of the World
Touring Car
$1395 Six-4S
Ciuh Roadster
$1485 Six'66
66 Horse- Power Actual Brake Test
Touring and Club Roadster
$1750
Prices subject to a Joan ce wUhout notice
— the Moon car is conspicuous
for its downright good looks. Its double- cowled Delaunay-Belleville body design, ijsually associated ^vith the higher-priced European models — and its charming Spanish leather upholstery give the Moon car a Patrician look — surprising in a car of its cosl With a mechanism which is famous in the field of automo- bile engineering, the Moon Car justifies the judgment and good tciste of exacting buyers who appreciate the niceties of hfe.
MOON
A few of their splendid specifications
Red Seal Continental motor — Rayfield carbure- tor— smart slanting windshield — long wheel base — vacuum feed — Delco starting, lighting and ignition system — one-man top — motor-driven tire pump — Gemmer steering gear — extra long springs — complete chassis and body equipment and appointments.
MOON MOTOR CAR CO.. ST. LOUIS. U. S. A.
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New Forces from Old Sources
Fire and water have built civiliza- tion out of barbarism and savagery.
But (or generations man used these sources of energy clumsily, through machinery that was expen- sive in operation, limited in capacity, and extremely local in application.
Today we are entering upon a new age of greater achievement because we have learned to trans- late natural resources into a more efficient, economical, and conve- nient form of energy — electricity.
It can be generated at lower cost, transported to greater distances, transformed at will into light, heat, and power.
Herein is one of the great con- tributions to civilization by George Westinghouse and his successors: that they have not confined their activities to the designing of appa- ratus for the use of electricity alone.
They went back of the current to the primal source — that power might be more economically gen- erated and more widely distributed.
Westinghouse water-turbine, gen- erators were the first to turn the power of Niagara to mans advantage.
Westinghouse stokers under thou- sands of boilers save labor, improve combustion of coal, and therefore reduce the cost of steam.
PRIME MOVERS ^^ AND GENERATORS
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The Regeneration of Power
Westinghouse turbo-generators in Central Stations and power plants utilize steam more economically and turn it into the alternating form of current which, largely through the development of Westinghouse ap- paratus for transformation and con. version, has made possible a wider distribution of light, heat, and power ^
Where gas or oil are more eco- nomical, there again you find West- inghouse generators translating en- gine-power into the invisible current that does more work at less expense.
Whatever your individual power problem, whether of generation or application, Westinghouse engineers can help you arrive at the most economic£j and efficient tjrpe of
apparatus, and Westinghouse manu- facturing facilities cover everything needed for complete equipment of any power plant, large or small.
Westinghouse Electric engineer- ing and designing are equally promi- nent in the domain of current-using apparatus of every tjrpe, from elec- tric locomotives and steel-mill mo- tors to fans and electric ware for the home.
Westinghouse Electric equipment for power plants includes, among other items, stokers, condensers, turbo-generator units, generators, transformers, rotary converters, mo- tors, switchboards, meters, etc, etc.
WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC ft MANUFACTUtlNG CO. East Pittibvik, Pa.
PRIME MOVERS ^7 AND GENERATORS
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THE most Batisfying trip in America for health and recreation. Almost 1000 miles of lakes, rivers and rapids, including the Thousand Islands, the exciting descent of the marvelous rapids, the historic associations of Montreal, Quaint old Quebec, with its famous miracle- -working shrine of Ste. Anne de Beauprd* and the famous 8agiienay River with its stupendous Capes, "Trinity** and **Eternity,** higher than Gibraltar.
Send 2C poetage for Illustrated booklet, map and guide, to John P. Pierce, AssisUnt PaMcneer Traffic Manager, Canada Steamship Lines, 107 R. & O. Building, Montreal, Canada.
Canada Steamship Lines
TOWNSEND'S TRIPLEX
Floats Over the Uneven Ground as a Ship Rides the Waves.
One mower may be climbing a knoll, the second skimming a level, while the third pares a hollow. Drawn by one horse and operated by one man, the TRIPLEX will mow more lawn in a day than the best motor mower ever made 5 cut it better and at a fraction of the cost.
Drawn by one horse and operated by one man. it will mow more lawn in a day than any three ordinary horse-drawn mowers with three horses and three men.
Does not smash the rrass to earth and plaster it in the mod in sprin£time, neither does it crush the life out of the ens* between hot rollers and bard, hot ground in summer, as does the motor mower
The public is warned not to purchase mowers infringinf the Townscnd Patent, No. 1,209,519, December 19ih, 1916.
ff rite for catalog illustrating all types t/Laum Mnctrs.
S. p. TOWNSEND & CO. 27 Central Avenue Orange, New Jersey
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Wliat lies back of the brilliance of a MAZDA lamp? All the facilities of tiie world's greatest lamp - makers support- ing the standards set by MAZDA Service.
IVfATT)^
DA
I semooto cwtuD ect •nd tdcctKi* I progreM and de» up manufiKtuiiikc :ompaiues entitled m centered in the ctric Company at 'A can appear only :DA Service. Itia irk ia the property
rORIES OF COMPANY
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[W&L,
TootKBrush \^X\0^' ^-^^^^
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DENBY
TRUCKS
FOR rRA/l ORmV£M£Hr
Etfery Brmexe an Ocean Breexe
Cape Cod
Where you'll enjoy a Quiet Restful, Healthful Vacation
A Summer Playgromid without a peer
Bathing in ocean or inland lakes. Fishing that's worthy of a king. Motoring over superb roadways. Golf that delights enthusiasts.
"Quaint Cape Cod" or ''Buzzards Bay'*
Illustrated booklets. Write Vacation Bureau « Room 463, 171 Broadway, New YorL
New York, New Hayen & Hartford R. R.
between Compo-Board and all other wall- boards.
is actually in a class by itself. It is the only wall-board made with a center core of kiln-dried wood slats.
That* 8 what makes the difference^ in strengiiiy in durability, in its moisture-proofnessy in its ability to keep out cold in winter and heat in summer.
That*8 why it doesn't warp, shrink^ or buckle, even if papered; that's why it saws with smooth edfes, so you don't have to panel Compo-Board wJls to cover unsightly cracks. Use an y decora- tive method or scheme— simple or elaborate.
Look for the wood core when jroa order Compo-Board— and die name on the tnrface. Don*t accept it unless they're there, ^rfte /tr samfU and Inttrtsting botkUi
THE COMPO-BOARD CO. 4512 Uadale Ave. N.. MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.
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Crtuul Prix, Pam^Grand Prixe, St. LomB
HE BALDWIN tone is intimate, sympsL- thetic, warm, mellow. Because; of these human qualities, the really great artists such as Levitzki, De Pachman, Sembrich, Bachaus, Alda, Scharwenka, La Forge and I Eddy Brown are satisfied with no other. In the opinion of those who rate pianos according to true musical worth, the sheer loveliness of its tone places the Baldwin beyond comparison.
Wherever you live, you can hear the Baldwin Piano and take advantat^e of the attractive proposition now offered to prospective buyers of hi^-grade instruments by all Baldwin dealers. Write to nearest address today.
Wl)t PalbtDm $iano Company
CincinnaU ...142 W. Fourth St.
Chicago J23 S. Wabash Av.
St. Louis -...1111 Olive St.
Denver 1636 California St.
San Francisco 310 Sutter St.
Indianapolis 18 N. Penn'a St.
isville 521 S. Fourth Av.
;)11 Elm St.
RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP
in the
National Geographic Society
The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine
DUEIS: Annual membership in U. S.. $2.00; annual membership abroad, $3.00; Canada, $2.50; life membership, $50. Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or express order.
Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary
.191
Vo the Secretary, National Geographic Society,
Sixteenth and M Streets Northwest,
Washington, D, C. :
/ nominaie- ylddress
for membership in the Society,
(Write your address)
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sr Camp
HIS durable.com- [ortable camp has n specially de- led for people who e the great out- >rs. It can be :kly put up by un- skilled labor on the banks of your favorite stream.
THIS camp is of single wall construction. Contains three bed-rooms, a 12x15 living
unlike the all year round larger Bossert- room, and a 6x9 kitchen in extension. Vital
built houses. It is not painted, but stained a economies effected by the Bossert method of
beautiful brown color with creosote, which buying and constnictioo enable us to offer
not only preserves the wood, but brings out this camp at beautifully the natural grain*
Five Hundred Dollars f. o. h. Brooklyn
Send 12 cents today for catalog showing details of Bossert construction
LOUIS BOSSERT & SONS, iNC, 1313 Grand St, Brooklyn, N. Y.
After many centuries of dignified and unchallenged supremacy, OAK, •*The Pride of the Permanent Home," remains today the world's premier hardwood. (And everybody knows it.) OAK is the first hard- wood you naturally think of, and the last for which you will ever re- linquish your inherited preference.
GOOD OAK FURNITURE justifies a keen search, critical insis- tence and a special order if need be.
The American Oak Mprs. Assn.
Imow the whys and hows of Oak. Ask tbem any sort of questions. Please address R.1416, 14 Main St, Memphis, Tenn.
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rfpGR06R4ni\^
lJESMVES00lj0RPH(ni06R»PHL
VOfJ ca** ^ovr photograph in color with your own camera, using
The Hiblock
a pack of two sensitized plates and a sensitized film. Let us send you free booklet
Hess-Ives Corporation
1201 Race Street Philadelphia
YOU CAN HEAR!
Toa Bee the wonderful inraroved Acoasticon has now enabled 276^000 deaf people to hear. We are Boxe it will do the same for yoa; are bo abeolately eertiin of it that we are eager to Bend yoa the
1917 Acousticon
On FREE TRIAL
No Deposit»N6 Expense
There Is nothing yoo will hare to do bat aak for yoor free trial. NomoDeytopay.noredtape,iioreaervatioiiBtothl«off«r. Oar eonfidence in the present Aeoostioon is so complete that we will gladly take all the risk in provinir beyond any doubt that
The Joy of Hearing Can Be Yours Againl
The Acoostieon has impro?enients and patented f eatorea which cannot be doplieated, so no matter what yoa have ever tried, Jast ask for a free trial of the New Acoostieon. Yoo'U net it promptly, and if it doesnt makeyoo hear, retom it and yoawiUoweoBDothinv-DOtoiMeent. AddrsBB
GENERAL ACOUSnC C0„ Ull Caadkr BUg .. NevTerkCly , 121 IM Birks III
Write for a free copy of
Vantine's Catalog
It is s fasdnatin^r book, filled widi illuKn- ^ tions— many in actual colon— of the qnaint and r curious objects of art and utility collected by the ^ Vantine rcpresentatires in Japan, China. Penia. ' and other Oriental coantries. _ ' As a reader of the National Gtojrraphie MagajHnt we feel sure ybu will be interested, for the Vantine Catalogr "in- creases and diffuses ireosrraphic knowledfe " by inustratins or describing the distinctive and individual creations of the artisans in the mystical lands beyond the seas.
Write now— your name and address on a postal wiU do—and with- out obliffation we shall send, postpaid, this deUgrhtful book of the Orient. Address Dept. N.
A. A. VANTINE & CO.«Inc. Fifth Ave. and 39th Street , Nfew York
''Mention the Oeographic — ^It identifies you."
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lUDD GUM
"AMERICA'S FINEST CABINET WOOD"
KEfU GUM
Sis
^14
31
1^
I
IS'
Put Up Thb Flicker Hoi
rletyc
Che flicker TptEerwlae Inown m the -^ — -
winged woodpecker). ThU IntereetTag va. •^^f woodpecker Is ma*eMUy attracted » «uar sarden by this snug, safe home. Boilt of best Norway, p/p; v.__i- ^
roof,. copDer copins.
popular. Price IS.OO.
M shingle A and very %
There's a i
Dodson wren and blne-blrd honses. vooma. very ornamental, R-w» !*"*»' house, ffl rooms, and att C^fc. There's i Dodson house for every bird. Frioos il.oO at
Valuable Bird Book Free
■Yodf Bird PrienA. .ndagr to WInThem'
bird picture in colors for framing.
JOSEPH H. DODSON
Vke.Fisiiasit tad Diractor. AsMriesaAoMM 702 Harrison Ave^ KANKAKEE. ILLl
< 'Mention tbe Geographic— It identifies you.'
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'*
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VOLUME XXXI
The NATIONAL
GEOG MAGAZI
lie
MAY, 1917
CONTENTS
On the Monastir Road
HERBERT COREY,
Niagara at the Battle Front william joseph sho walter
Our Armies of Mercy
The Needs Abroad
Belgium's Plight
Bind the Wounds of France
Devastated Poland
America's Duty
Stand by the Soldier
A Poisoned World
The Red Cross Spirit
HENRY P. DAVISON
IAN MALCOLM
JOHN H. GADE
HERBERT C. HOOVER
FREDERICK WALCOTT
NEWTON D. BAKER
JOHN J. PERSHING
WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT
ELIOT WADSWORTH
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C.
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS. WASHINGTON. D. C.
O. H. TITTMANN PRESIDENT
GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR O. P. AUSTIN SECRETARY
JOHN E. PILLSBURY vice-president
JOHN JOY EDSON .... treasurer GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, assistant secretary WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . assistant editor
1915-1917
Charles J. Bell
President American Security and Trust Company
John Joy Edson
President Washington Loan & Trust Company
David Fairchild
In Charge of Aflrriculturat Ex- plorations. DepL of Asric
C. Hart Merriam
Member National Academy of Sciences
O. p. Austin
Statistician
George R. Putnam
Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lishtliouses
George Shiras, 3d
Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress. Fauna! Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photosrapher
Grant Squires
New York
BOARD OF MANAGERS
1916-1918
Franklin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Henry F. Blount
Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company
C. M. Chester
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory
Frederick V. Coville
Formerly President of Wash- i ngton Academy of Sciences
John E. Pillsbury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation
Rudolph Kauffmann
Manasine Editor The Evenins Star
T. L. Macdonald
M. D., F. a. C. S.
S. N. D. North
Formerly Director U, S. Bu- reau of Census
1917-1919 AlexanderGraham Bell
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howard Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics. The Geo. Washington Univ.
A. W. Grebly
Arctic Explorer, Major Qen'l U. S. Army
Gilbert H. Grosvenor
Editor of National Oeosraphic Magazine
George Otis Smith
Director of U. S. Geological
Survey
O. H. TiTTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey
Henry White
Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France. Italy, etc.
John M. Wilson
Brigadier General U. S. Army. Formerly Chief of Enarineers
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, **the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge," the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed :
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. EDITOR
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
A. W. Grebly C. Hart Merriam
O. H. TiTTMANN
Robert Hollister Chapman Walter T. Swingle
Alexander Graham Bell David Fairchild Hugh M. SMrrn N. H. Darton Frank M. Chapman
Entered at the Post -Office at Washington, D. C, as Second-Class Mail Matter Copyright, 1917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights resep,»«d j
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^■S'S\^r;x\-<:-v % NT t^T 'cry^^^v^^^::^r'iX7:r7rrrTjrrrr^^rT:2'^^
*'Tbo Watob of Railroad Accuracy'*
Used for Navigation—* * Far more accurate than the average chronometer, ** I says Captain in U. S. N.
% The follofwing letter, recently recei'ved from an officer of the Na^, speaks for itself. The signer* s name is omitted for reasons of na<val etiquette,
Hamilton Watch Company
Lancaster. Pa. Gentlemen : —The watch purchased from yon in December. 1913. is a marvel of accuracy. On January 1. 1914. it was set 22 seconds fast, on standard mean time, and throuchout ; the year frequent comparisons were made which showed a / steady and regular irain. On January 1, 191$. it was acain compared and was found to be 1 minute 3 $ seconds fast, or a tain of 1 minute 13 seconds in 365 days, which is equivalent to a eainine rate of 0.2 second a day, or 6 sec- onds a month.
Had the rate of cain been variable, it would have been very different, but running as steadily and uniformly as it did. I would have no hesitancy whatever in using it for navigational purposes, as it is far more accurate than the average chro- nometer used for this purpose, and much more convenient. (Signed)
IMAGINE yourself carrying this very watch — it was not an expensive watch. Wouldn't you derive an immense satisfaction from the comfort, convenience and companion- ship of so accurate a watch ? Every Hamilton Watch sold has Hamilton Accuracy and Hamilton Durability.
Prices of Hamiltons : The lowest-priced Hamilton is a movement alone for $13.00 $14.00 in Canada). The highest-priced Hamilton is our Masterpiece at $150.00 in 18-k. heavy gold case. Other Hamiltons at $26.50, $30.00, $40.00, S55.00, etc. Hamiltons are made in many models— in cased watches ; also in movements alone which your jeweler can fit to your present watch-case.
:?^"7^
'* Mention the Oeographic — ^It identifies you.'
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WEED
TIRE CHAINS
Attached without the Use of a Jack or Other Tools
Lay chains over wheel Start car forward just Hook chains as tightly
with hooks toward rear, enough to run over slack as possible by hand,
and tuck the slack under ends, front part of wheel. Do Not Anchor
Chains must be free to **Creep" — to Shift their Position on the Tires Continually — or they will Injure Tires.
Weed Chains do "creep'' — a patented principle
AMERICAN CHAm COMPANY, Inc.
BRIDGEPC-HT K^/ CONNECTICUT
In Canada: DOMINION CHAIN COMPANY, Ud., Niajjara Falls, Ontario
Largest Chain Manufacturers in the World
THE COMPLETE CHAIN LINE-ALL TYPES. ALL SIZES, ALL STYLES From Plurabers* Safety Chain to Ships' Anchor Chain
•Mention the Oeographio— It identifies you."
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^'t'P^^i!'i''i'i^''!ii'':'''^^
li;lii,ililillliiliiiiiiiLi,i,iiiLilllilililiililii
Suppose All Could Use the HUDSON SUPER-SIX
Would Other Types Remain?
In the present conflict of types — Fours, Sixes, and V-tjrpes— it is well to consider what would happen if the Super-Six were free. Our patents confine it to the Hudson.
As it is now, numerous fine-car makers advocate other types, and tell you reasons for it
Some still cling to Fours. Some urge Elights and Twelves. But the weight of opinion favors the small-bore Six.
What would come of this conflict, think you, were the Super-Six not patented ?
These Are the Fads
The Super-Six last year won all the worth-while records. In a hundred hard- fought contests, against all types, it proved itself supreme.
As for the Light Six, in our final per- fection the Super-Six invention increased its efficiency by 60 per cent
As for Eights and Twelves, our expe- rience with motors of that type which we built made them seem to us unnecessary.
And the Super-Six has made the Hud- son the largest-selling front-rank car. Last year it outsold any car with a price above $1100.
The Vital Supremacy
One may say, " I don*t care for speed, or great reserve power, or a marvelous hill- climber.** "
Then why added cylinders, or extra valves, or anything else to that end >
You do want superlative capacity, whether you use it or not You certainly want it when it means no added size or cost — when it means simply ended friction.
That's the great point The Super-Six motor is small and light and simple. We have not aimed at excessive speed or
power. We have simply minimized fric- tion.
We have done— but done better— what every engineer has been aiming at for years. And for the same result — more speed and power, without added compli- cations. Also multiplied endurance.
Endurance was the chief aim. It is fric- tion that causes wear. We have so reduced it that we attain what is proved the greatest motor in the world. And certainly you want it
What One Year Did
Mark how the Super-Six, in one year, sprang to the pinnacle place. There are now 30,000 running. This year brings nothing to rival it So it is bound to gain multiplied prestige.
This year's bodies also give to Hudson leadership in style. The ablest artists and craftsmen gave their best to these models. Each is a study in motor car luxury. Each is a pattern type.
This vear we add a great gasoline saver — shutters on the radiator — which by controlling the heat of the motor in part overcomes the disadvantage of the con- stantly falling quality of gasoline. We add a pneumatic engine primer. We add plaited upholstery.
Our patented carburetor — on Hudsons alone — is self-adjusting to every engine speed.
So Hudson supremacy does not lie in the Super-Six motor only.
When you buy a fine car- a car to keep — you are bound to wcmt the Hudson. You want the car which outperforms and outshines other cars. If you wcmt such a car this spring, we urge a prompt decision. Last year many buyers waited months for delivery.
Phaeton, 7-pas8enser $1650
Cabriolet 3- passenger .... 1950
Touring Sedan 2175
Town Car 2925
Town Car Landaulet $3025
Limousine 2925
Limoudine Landaulet 3025
(All Pric9» f. o. b, Dmtroit)
HUDSON MOTOR CAR COMPANY, DETROIT, MICHIGAN
** Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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It's a pretty good idea (now that the lumber mills in the Southern Cypress Mfrs. Assn. are identifying every
CYPRESS BOARD THEY SAw) tO MENTION TO YOUR LUMBER DEALER, CONTRACTOR OF CARPENTER — and tO ASK YOUR
ARCHITECT to SPECIFY— that your Cypress must be
IDENTIFIED BT THIS TRADE-MARK
Stamped In the End of Every FIcce
or AFPUED TO EVERT BUNDLE
Tuoe Mark Reg. U.S. Pat-O^cc
When a manufacturer places his Imprint Indelibly upon his product it evidences to the consumer two factors of value which, together, are the sum total of all any buyer wants ; these factors are Integrity of purpose and complete responsibility on the part of the maker of the desired commodity.
The above legally registered * 'Tidewater Cypress^' trade-mark is now YOVR INSURANCE POLICYof LUMBER QUALITT.
It appears stamped mechanically into the end of EVERY board and timber of
«THE WOOD ETERNAL.**
CYPRESS
Thoroughly dependable Cypress Flooring, Sidine, Moulding, and Shingles, etc., which come in bundles, bear the same mark on EVERY BUNDLE.
The legral right to apply this epoch-making symbol of STRICT RESPONSIBILITY IN LUMBER MAKING AND SELLING is restricted to those Cypress mills which, by their membership In the Southern Cypress Manufacturers* Association, attest their devotion to Its Principles of Sebvice to the Consumer. Only mills cutting "Tidewater" Cypress are eligible for membership. ( Cypress which grows too far Inland Is not equally noted for the "Eternal," or decay-resisting, quality.) Only mills which subscribe to the Associa- tion's standard of scrupulous care In Methods of MANUFACTURE, INTEGRITY OF GRADING and ACCURACY OF COUNT can belong to the Association. These respon- sible mills the Association now licenses to CERTIFY THEIR CYPRESS by applying the registered trade-mark with their identifying number Inserted.
BY THIS MARK YOU KNOW THAT IT'S CYPRESS. "THE WOOD ETER- NAL," AND WORTHY OP YOUR FAITH. IT IS WELL TO INSIST ON SEEING THIS TRADE-MARK ON EVERY BOARD OFFERED AS "CYPRESS."
IWt Not Rn.U.SP»OmGi
1%Mt Not Rn. u.SPKr.QnMl ^
Let our ALL-ROUND HELPS DEPARTMENT help YOU MORE, Our entire resources are at j'our service with Reliable CounseL
Southern Cypress Manufacturers' Association
12Z4 HIBERNU BANK BLDG., NEW ORLEANS. U., or 1224 HEARD NATIONAL BANK BLDG.. JACKSONVILLE* FLA.
INSIST ON TKADB-MARKED CYPRBSS AT YOUR LOCAL LUMBER DEALER'S. IF HB HASN'T IT, LET US KNOW,
* 'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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Add Exploded
Wheat Grains
And Make That Dish Complete
The bowl of milk is ideal food for noons or nights in summer. But what will you put in it ?
Bread or crackers — made from just the inner parts of wheat? Why not all the wheat? Then you have in one dish all that human bodies need.
The Scientific Food
Puffed Wheat— invcnte/d by Prof. Anderson— stands first among the hygienic grain foods.
It is whole wheat puffed to eight times normal size. Every food cell is exploded, so digestion is easy and complete. All the food elements are made available.
After an hour of fearful heat, the grains are shot from guns, and a hundred million steam explosions occur in every kernel.
The grains come out like bubbles— flaky, toasted, crisp. When eaten, they seem to melt away. They taste like porous nut-meats.
Yet these delightful morsels — these seeming confections — are this premier grain food, fitted for digestion as it never was before.
Add these to the milk dish. Then you'll have a dish containing 16 foods in one.
|
Puffed |
Puffed |
|
Wheat |
Rice |
|
and Corn Puffs |
|
|
Each 15c Except in Far West |
Flaky Titbits
Thin, crusty morsels to mix with fruit, or with sugar and cream, to make a morning food confection.
Like Bubbles
Airy, flimsy, toasted globules to float in bowls of milk. Very easily digested.
Keep well supplied in summer. Use in candy-making or as garnish for ice cream. Let hungry children eat them dry or doused with melted butter. Every ounce is an ounce of ideal nutrition.
TheQuakerO&^&0>inpaiiy
Sole Makers
(1580)
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon.*'
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BETTER THAN LEATHER
.Leather has had its dcg
A new motor car xxpKol^ery is taking its place -DURATEX ^ ^
Here is a material not only as fine as the fine^ leather but more comfortable -mote durable and infinitely more beautiful .
And besides— no visions of the brutality and die endless slaug^iter involved in the pnxlucflion of leather can ever disturb the perfection of your comfort and" pride in a car uphoktered with DURATEX.
THE DURATEX COMPANY
NewaJrk . New Jersey
"Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.'
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Life-Long Service
Aimed at in This Double Strength
Perhaps men will tell you that no car needs 1 00 per cent over- strength. So we thought once ourselves. Our former margin of safety was 50 per cent.
But the greatest engineers— particularly in Europe— have long aimed at twice the needed strength. It was after a year in Europe that John W. Bate established that standard here.
This double- strength means a lifetime car. That meant less when types were chang- ing. Now, with standardized cars, it means much.
It means safety, low upkeep, endur- ance. It means a car that stays new. We intend it to mean200,000miles of service. Two Mitchell cars have already run that far. One conspicu-
SIXES TWO SIZES
a highly developed 48-bonepower motor.
$1460
FowvPaaoenger Roadster, $1 49 fi.
Sedan* $2175. Cabriolet, $1895.
Coupe, $1995.
Also Town Car and Limousine.
MitchellJumor-v^^:;i?Xw1ih
1 20-inch wheelbase and a 40-horsepower motor; K-inch smaller bore.
ous result shows in springs. Not a single Bate cantilever spring has ever been broken. Yet Mitchell owners buy no shock absorbers, rebound straps, or snubbers to facilitate easy riding.
Other Extras
This 100 per cent over-strength is a costly Mitchell extrsu In addition, there are 31 features which mcst cars omit. There is 24 per cent added luxury over our last-year models. And there are 10 exclusive body styles, all designed by our artists and built in our shops.
The Mitchell differs in a hundred ways. See these distinctions and judge them for yourself. They are all due to factory effi- ciency, as evolved by John W. Bate. On this year*s output these extras cost us about $4,000,000.
$1195
All Prices f.o.b.Racin;
MITCHELL MOTORS
COMPANY, Inc. Racine, Wis., U. S. A.
* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Situated 2300 feet above sea level — never any extremes — Agreeable mornings, cloudless skiesy balmy noons, wonderful and incomparable sunsets. It would be difficult to £nd a more delightful spot for a vacation. At no other place is there found such ideal conditions for rest, recreation and recuperation. No otner resort offisrs so many advan* tages at such a reasonable price.
I
The Homestead Hotel
^00 bright, airy rooms, degandyr furnished — Excel- lent cuisine — lac
Qcompafable drinking water — attrac- tive ball room — Perfect equipment and service. Quiety dignified and homelike in every appointment. Many Diversified Recreations— Two splendid,
" fine
sporty golf courses.
day
Seven exceptionally fi tennis courts. Fascinating drives. Interesting trails and bridle paths. 200 saddle and driving horses. Magnificent mountain scenery.
The Healing Water
( NaturaUy Heated io6<') Baths given in water as it flows from tpringk Waters not artificially heated. Hot Springs the only cure in the world where temperature prescribed for hot baths is that at which water actually emer- ges fix>m earth. At none of the celebrated places in Europe are the waters as charged by nature with their gases and health giving qualities.
The Famous Spout Bath for Gout, Rheumatism, Nervous Diseases, Sciatica, Nervous Ptostration, Liver Troubles and old joint injuries — Modem and complete bath equipment, Swedish Gymnastics, massage and hot air treatments — Needle, Spray, Electric, Medicated and other baths. Physicians of international reputation. Experienced and careful attendants.
Not a single case of Infantile Paralysis at Hot Springs during 1916
The Homestead Book tS^^^^^ui^
and its surroundings in natural colors — graphically illustrates and describes the many charms of this ideal summer resort and fiiUy dilates upon the thera* peutic values of the fiunous waters — We will gladly send copies upon request.
H. ALBERT, Resident Manager, Hot Springs, Virginia Booking Offices— RUx^arHon HokUr-Ntw York—Phlladehhla
M
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Chandler Power IS Power
CHANDLER power is power on the hills and mountain-sides; it is power in the mud and sand. . Four years of skilful and conscientious manufacturing effort have developed and refined the Chandler motor to a point approximating perfection. Chandler owners long ago named it The Marvelous Motor, and now, more than ever before, it is the wonder Six, powerful, flexible and enduring.
On^ high gear and without apparent labor it pulls the hard, steep grades and winding hill roads where other motors shift to second.
In crowded traffic it responds to every demand.
On open roads it answers every call for speed.
The Chandler motor is a fact-motor.
What any Chandler will do every Chandler can do.
The Chandler Company has never built a special demonstrating car.
The Chandler Company has never furnished to any Chandler dealer a si>ecial gear ratio.
Every Chandler is a demonstrator.
FIVE PLEASING TYPES OF BODY
Seven- Passenger Touring Car, S^J9S
Four-Passenger Roadster, $1395 Seven-Passenger Convertible Sedan, $2ogs
Four-Passenger Convertible Coupe, $iggs Limousine^ $26gs
All prices F. O. B. Cleveland
Write us today for catalog and booklet "See How the Chandler Checks With High-Priced Cars.'*
This booklet tells how other medium-priced sixes do not check with high-priced cars.
Write today » and see your dealer. Address Dept. O.
CHANDLER MOTOR CAR COMPANY
New York Office: 1790 Broadway
CLEVELAND, OHIO
Cable Address: "Chanmotor"
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1
8
ruin. Write today for adjuster.
the "What To Do" Why not profit by this >
Miller Tires are for sale by Geared-to-the-Road dealers and It illustrates and shows the distributors everywhere,
cause of common tire iniu- ries and explains how tires. ™E MILLER RUBBER COMPANY. AKRON, U. S. A.
though badly injured, may MamfaeSunnof the durable, economkal. and UghUufelghl
be saved at slight expense. Rhin^O-Hlde Fibre Soles for men's and women's shoes.
"Mention tlie Geographic — It identifies yon.'* ^-^ ^
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* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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THE Moon car is designed to appeal to people who are distinguished from the masses by higher ideals — not necessa^ rily by larger bank accounts.
It meets their requirements in looks, comfort and service. Its superb coach- worh — exclusive upholstery and grace of design lend charm and beauty to its reliable mechanical construction.
MOON
A few Moon features
Red Seal Continental motors — ^Rayfield carburetors — ^long -wheel base — ^Delco starting, lighting and igniting — one-man top — extra long springs — com- plete chassis and body equipment.
The Moon Sixes
8bc-43 — 5-Pa88enger Touring Car — 11395
Six-45— 4-Pa88enger Cluh Roadster— 11485
Six-66— 7-Pa88enger Touring Cai— 4-Pa88enger Cluh Roadster— fl750
MOON MOTOR CAR CO,, ST, LOUIS. U. S. A.
Prices suhfect to advance without notice.
'* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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« •Mention the Geograplilc — It Identilles yon.''
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L
Our Service- Its Distinctive Features
No, 3— Securities Previously Purchased
Investors who desire current and relevant information regarding securities in their possession are at liberty to utilize the facilities provided by our Service Depart- ment.
This service includes the appraisal of values, the status ot bonds under the Income Tax Law, the legality of bonds and their adapt- ability to your specific require- ments.
Correspondence invited
The National City Company
National Citjr Bank Building New York
|in iiiiiiniiiiiif t5i»eu»HeD law aiiiiiiiinmnminii
Diversified hyestments For Your Present Funds
Successful, experienced investors agree that for utmost safety it is ad- visable to select investments scciu-ed by properties of varied character and location.
We have an exceptionally broad list of di- versified 5}4% and 6^ securities in denomi- nationsof JlOO, $500, and$l, 000, suitable to the most exacting requirements. We offer, and particiJarlyrecommendforyour present funds, four bond issues secured by these dif- ferent classes of property: Established In- dustrial Property; Farm Land; Improved Chicago Real Estatcj Natural Resources.
Recommendations are based on long experi- ence, complete investigation by our experts, and outr^ht purchase. Write for Circular No, 982D, giving details.'
Peabodbp; Hoiighteling&€o*
(EMabUshed 1865) 10 South La Salle Street, Chicago
■iiiiiiiiiiiiimHiiiHif eaTABusHED 1665^1 nifmimnir
America's Greatness
EVERY first mortgage bond, safeguarded under the Straus Plan, is in the broadest and truest sense an investment backed by the nation's prosperity and greatness.
SECURITIES founded on the land and the improvements thereon, which give it value and earning power, are always least affected in a period of stress, such as war-time.
WRITE for our booklet "Add Tests of Investments in War- Time," and for our list describing sound first mortgage serial bonds based on the land, netting SVz — 6%. Ask for Investment List Na E-706
SM^STRAUS & CO.
Pounded 1882 Incorporated 1903
NEW YORK CHICAGO
150 Broadway Straus Building
Branch Offiem:
Detroit Minneapolis CInelnnad
boston San Francisco Kansas Cfty
i'hiladelphia Uayton Rochester
35 years without loss to any investor.
SSSSSS^
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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GR^HP
TRUNK
1 p\c\nc
'^M^:wmmMm^^m>'MMmmmmmmmmmmmmmm^^
i
SAFEGUARD YOUR FUTURE BY INVESTING IN
t
MUNICIPAL feONDS
Systematic saving is the first essential in building for an assured income. Equip your surplus funds, however small, with power to increase month by month, safely and with never-failing interest returns.
Your opportunity is in Municipal Bonds, the only securities, except government bonds, which are accepted by the U. S. Government to secure Postal Savings Deposits.
We have several million dollars' worth of Municipals for you to select from. The following are especially recommended:
Interest
HamOton Coimt7, Ohio 3.90%
Niagara Falls, N.Y •••••.. 3.95%
Corsicana, Texas 4.50%
George County, Mississippi ••••••..•• 4.50%
Creek County, Manuford Township^ Oklahoma • • 5.00%
Cypress Creek District, Arkansas • • • 5.05%
One thousand dollar, five hundred and one hundred dollar bonds paying four to five and one-eighth per cent interest. Alt free from Federal Income Tax.
Satisfactory service to investors for over 27 years gives us complete confidence in our ability to meet your most exacting requirements. Booklet N5, **The Pre- mier Investment," is yours free for the asking.
llliam R.(Qmpton(Qmpany
Municipal Bonds
**Over a QuarUr Century in Thi» Btuine$af
NEW YORK: 14 WaU Street ST. LOUIS: 408 OUve Street
CHICAGO: 105 S. La SaUe Street CINCINNATI: 102 Union Trust Bldg.
I
i
"Mention tbe OeogiapUc— It identifies yon."
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* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." ^^^ j
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Vol. XXXI, No. 5
WASHINGTON
May, 1917
THE
ATDONAL OGMAIPEII AGAZH
ON THE MONASTIR ROAD
By Herbert Corey
THE story of Macedonia today is the story of the Monastir road. Along this highway Alexander and Xerxes and Galerius once tramped with their legions. It has been the link be- tween the Adriatic and the uEgean seas ever since history was written.
For centuries it has carried its ox-carts with their solid wooden wheels, and long trains of donkeys and peasant women bowed under packs. Serb and Bulgarian raiders have descended on Saloniki along it. For thirty centuries fighting men and peasants and thieves and slaves have marched through its bottolnless mud.
Today it is kaleidoscopic as it could never have been in the >^orst days of its bad history. To the ox-Carts and donkeys have been added great camions and whirl- ing cars filled with officers in furs and gold. Natty Frenchmen in horizon blue, Englishmen in khaki, Italians in gray green, Russians Jn brown, Serbian sol- diers in weather-washed gray, bead its surface. Fezzed Turks are there and Albanians in white embroidered with black, and Cretans in kilts and tights and tasseled shoes.
COLOR AND MOVEMENT FILL THE ROAD TODAY
Airmen, so wrapped in furs that they remind one of toy bears, dash by in cars that are always straining for the limit of speed. Arabs, perched high on their little gray horses, direct trains of the blue carts of the French army. Gaudy Sicilian carts
with Biblical scenes painted on their side- boards are dragged through the mire.
Senegalese soldiers, incredibly black, watch with an air of comical bewilder- ment the erratic ventures of donkeys that seem to have been put under pack for the first time. Indo-Chinese soldiers in pa- goda-shaped hats, tipped with brass, put- ter about at mysterious tasks. Blackish- brown men from Madagascar carry bur- dens. Moroccans in yellowish brown swing by under shrapnel helmets.
SOLDIERS OF ALLIES TREAD HISTORIC GROUND
New levies marching toward the front, the sweat beads standing out on their pale foreheads as they struggle under their 6o-pound packs, give the road to the veterans of six months' service — hard, capable, tireless. Overhead the fliers purr on the lookout for the enemy. Big guns lumber along behind caterpillar tractors. Ammunition dumps line the road and hospitals dot it. Girl nurses from France and the United States and all the British Empire ride over it.
Always the ambulances are there. They are always given the road. The men who turn out for them anticipate the day when, in their turn, they will be rid- ing in a Red Cross car toward Saloniki and home.
At the farther end of the road is Mo- nastir, taken last winter by the Allied forces in a battle that in any other war' would have been set down as great. At
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ON THE MONASTIR ROAD
385
the sea end of the -road is Saloniki, the Allied base, where Cicero lived for a time and St. Paul shook the dust from off his feet as a testimony against the Thes- salonians of his day, and where Suleiman the Magnificent built the White Tower, in whose oubliettes bones still moulder of the victims of 500 years of Turkish rule.
At right angles to that road, as though they were the bent bow of which the road is the arrow, are half a million fighting men of the Allied forces. Not many in this conflict, perhaps. Macedonia is rare- ly mentioned in the communiques. Yet the British did not employ so many men in South Africa during the whole Boer War. In one day I have counted the uni- forms of twenty fighting peoples on the road.
Campaigning in Macedonia differs for the correspondent from campaigning else- where. In the greater armies in the greater fields a correspondent is cared for, guarded, watched, night herded. Everything is provided for him except his uniform and his wrist watch. He rides out in fast cars ; he is taken to high hills from which to watch the distant ac- tion ; he sleeps in hotels of differing de- grees of excellence.
In Macedonia he first secures creden- tials permitting him to visit the Allied armies; then he buys an outfit — tent, cooking pots, blankets, water bucket — all complete ; headquarters gives him an or- derly, and he takes to the road. Things begin to happen.
WANDERING IN MACEDONIA HAS A SPORTING FLAVOR
I found myself occupying a position somewhere between that of an honored guest and a hobo. Although permission was given me to visit the other units, I was formally attached to the Serbian army. The Serbs would be the most generous hosts in the world if they could be, but they have so little. They are the poor relations of the Allies. They are armed with the old St. Etienne rifle which the French discarded. The artil- lery in support has been cast from other fronts. Their surgeons are borrowed surgeons, for the most part.
They are uniformed and fed by the French and Great Britain loans them money. They never have enough cars, even for staff use. Sometimes they have not enough food. But they always have enough ammunition and they find enough fighting for themselves. Doubtless I am influenced by my affection for the Serbs. Later I shall tell why I think this army is today — what little there is left of it — the most efficient fighting force in the war. ^
There were moments when I found myself at the right hand of a general, dazed by the earnestness with which some officer was responding to the toast "America." That same night I might be traveling by freight train to another point of the front. If I was very lucky the orderly found an empty box car. In it he would erect the camp cot and pro- vide canned food and candles and read- ing matter and then go away to tell his mates in the next car of the eccentrici- ties of the foreign Guspodin.
HEROISM OF SERBS IN I916 CAMPAIGN
If it was raining^t usually was rain- ing— it ordinarily fell to my lot to ride on a flat car. Sometimes I crouched under a canvassed gun on its way to the front. It was no drier under that gun. It did not even seem drier. But the silent guardsmen gave me the place as the place of honor. It was the one courtesy in their power to show.
Last winter's campaign of the Serbian army was one of the most heroic on any front in this war. I do not mean to com- pare the Serb with his allies to the dis- advantage of the latter. He was at all times loyally supported. If it was the generalship of Voivode Mischitch and the incomparable courage and endurance of his men that directly resulted in the capture of Monastir, this could not have been accomplished except for the frontal attack by the French through the plains of Monastir or the bulldogging by the British of Turk and Bulgarian in the swamps of the Struma and the wet trenches of the \^ardar. But it is only fitting that what the Serb has done should be made known. Let us go back a little.
Digitized by
Photograph by Herbert Corey SERB SOLDIERS WEARING FRENCH TRENCH HELMETS MAKING THEIR WAY UP A PATH
ON DOBRAPOLYA MOUNTAIN
In the background are the lines of trenches,, while the roads leading to the valley are shown
in the middle distance
The Serbian army began the great re- treat of 191 5 250,000 strong. Not more than 150,000 reached asylum on the island of Corfu after the winter's fight through the snow-filled passes of Albania and Montenegro. In the confusion of those days some one had forgotten. There was not sufficient food or clothing or medicines or nursing waiting them. Men who had struggled through the winter died on the open beaches of the island of Vido.
Dying men dug their own graves and then dug the graves of the men already dead. Not more than half were fit to serve again when the fall campaign of 1916 began.
AN ARMY OF OLD MEN IN THE FIGHTING LINE
It was a sad army — a bitter army — but not a despairing army that I accom- panied last winter. Many of these men were "cheechas," in the Serb phrase. When a man reaches the age of forty he
becomes "uncle" to his neighbors. Some of these men were in the fourth line be- fore the war.
Serbia to the Serb peasant means the little white cottage, the plum orchard, the ten acres of ground. Few of them had been fifty miles away from home when war began five years ago in the Balkans. Fewer have seen their homes since. They have received no news from their wives and families, for the Austro- Bulgarian censorship has been extremely severe. They had seen their comrades die. Most of them — ^three men out of five in some units — had been wounded at some time during the war.
There were no songs upon the march except during those vivid days when the Bulgarians were being forced out of Monastir. There was no light-hearted talk about the camp fires. There was no music, except that now and then one heard the weird and complaining tones of a one-stringed fiddle which some pa- tient soldier had made out of the material
386
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Photograph by Herbert Corey
WHERE NATURE MAY BE EITHER ALLY OR ENEMY
The picture gives an excellent idea of the country through which the Serbian army forced the Bulgarians during the drive at Monastir. The mountain in the distance is Sokol.
at hand. They kept to themselves or in little groups of twos and threes. At night scores of tiny fires would sparkle in the open land on either side of the Monastir road, where the paired com- rades were cooking their evening meal. They marched badly, slowly, slouching, their old shoulders bowed under their packs, their grizzled faces deeply lined. Yet these men were the cutting edge of the weapon that bent back the Bulgarian lines.
One division — the Morava — remained in the aggressive for 95 days without rest. During that period they had but
one trench — the front trench. They had no second line, no reserve, no rest camp.
One regiment of the Choumadia di- vision lost 1,100 out of 1400 men in tak- ing Vetternik Mountain, and then held that mountain under fire from the Rock of Blood, which dominated the summit, for 20 days until relief came. Even then the men of the regiment which had been so nearly wiped out did not go to rest. They stayed on Vetternik.
In the taking of Kaymakchalan half of some organizations were killed out- right. They were enabled to do these things partly because of the experience
387
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Photograph by Herbert Corey MACEDONIAN TYPES AT SOUBOTSKO ON A MARKET DAY "But there is always something at hand which marks this land as the East. ... It may be a cynical and discontented peasant in a town that has escaped injury."
gained in five years of almost constant fighting. Another factor was the spirit of the men. They no longer hoped for anything for themselves. They expected to die. Those who still remain expect to be killed in action. But they intend that the bill of Serbia shall be paid.
If one could forget the foreground, a Macedonian winter landscape would re- mind one of Wyoming or Montana. There are the same brown, shallow swells with patches of scrubby brush. There are the same washed-out ravines, the same distant hills clothed with dark wood, while here and there a great bare eminence thrusts upward. Shepherds herd their sheep within sound of the guns. Women wash their clothes at the river side, and do not even look up when the infantry tramp by on the Monastir road. Little black, galloping figures might be cowboys if the glasses did not prove them to be uniformed men.
But there is always something at hand which marks this land as of the east. It may be a Turkish drinking fountain
through whose old pipes the water still trickles. Perhaps it is a Turkish grave- yard — neglected, weedgrown — among whose tumbled stones the cattle graze. It may be a cynical and discontented peasant in one of the towns that has escaped injury. .
"Neither Bulgar nor Serb," said one such old woman, defiantly, when we left the Monastir road at Dobraveni. "I am Macedonian only and I am sick of war."
MASTERLHSS DOGS ROAM THE BARREN IIII^LS
And everywhere are the dogs. In this country of shepherds every peasant's cot- tage has d moving fringe of dogs. In the East the dog is neither fed nor petted, so that he feels himself outcast and de- spised. During this war first one army and then the other has swept over north- ern Macedonia, driving the peasants be- fore them. The dogs have been left be- hind. At night one hears them howling on the desolate hills.
388
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Photograph by Herbert Corey
A FRENCH COOK JUST OUTSIDE OF MONASTIR
Despite the fact that the Bulgarians were at the moment shelling the camp heavily, his one concern was to assume a properly martial air
The tainted breeze that comes down the valley hints at the ghastly food on which they live. By day every man shoots at every dog save the few that cling close to an inhabited cottage. They slink, coyote fashion, behind rocks. At night one hears their feet padding behind him on the lonely roads. Their eyes shine in the flare of the electric torch. Every one carries arms in ^lacedonia at night, not against man, but as a protec- tion against the dogs.
The fighting here has been of an oddly
personal character. On the western front war is confusing in its immensity. Hun- dreds of guns roar. Thousands of men advance over a front miles long. One as completely fails to comprehend in detail what is going on as though he were caught in an earthquake. Here opera- tions are watched in the open. One crouches in an artillery observation post on the tip of a hill and watches the little gray figures go forward to the charge on the slope opposite. Sometimes they are broken, and one sees them run down hill
389
Digitized by
THE MAN WITH PEAKED CAP AND PIPE IS A NOTED SWISS CRIMINOLOGIST INVESTI- GATING CONDITIONS IN THE RECAPTURED PORTION OK SERBIA AT THE REQUEST OK THE SERBIAN GOVERNMENT
Photoerraphs by Herbert Corey A CROUP OK ENGLISH, KRENCH, AND SERBIAN OKKICERS AT SAKULEVO, ON THE
SALONIKI KRONT
*390 Digitized by
Photograph by Herbert Corey TWO WOUNDED SERBIAN SOLDIERS BEING CARRIED TO THE FIELD HOSPITAL ON A
WING-TYPE MULE LITTER Compassionate comrades are giving them a drink of water from an old Turkish fountain
again, dodging from rock to rock, hiding in the crevices of the surface.
Occasionally the drama takes on an intimate — almost a neighborly — touch. Five cold men of the Choumadia division became aware last winter that in the Bul- garian dugout just opposite their post — not 50 feet away — three fur-coated offi- cers often met.
"Let us get the fur coats," said the five cold Serbs.
The story of the getting is too long to be told here. But during the two weeks in which the five cold men intrigued and maneuvered for those three fur coats their entire regiment became aware of the play and watched it as one might a particularly entertaining movie. In the end the five cold men succeeded. Lives were lost on both sides; but that is be- side the point. From the colonel down the men of that regiment rejoiced over the strategy of the five cold men. For the remainder of the winter they luxuri- ated in fur. The bitter winds of Dobra- polyi Mountain had no terrors for them.
There was the old woman of Polok, too. Polok IS hardly a hamlet. It is just a huddle of stone huts, stained by the ages, each crowned with a blackened and disheveled thatch. For weeks the Serbs attacked Chuke Mountain, in a dimple of whose shoulder Polok rests. Each day the village had been under bombardment. The artillery observers from their high posts could see the lone old woman going about her business. No other peasants were seen in Polok; but she milked her cows and drove them to water, as though peace reigned in the land. Once she was seen chasing a group of Bulgarian sol- diers with a stick, as though they were a parcel of mischievous boys.
Twice the hamlet was taken in hand- to-hand fighting and lost again. The third time the Serbs held it.
The old woman picked her way down the cluttered hillside, past the dead men and the wounded, and through the shell holes and amid the ruins of the other huts, until she found the officer com- manding:
391
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ST. PAUL S ROCK IN SALONIKI
Photograph by Herbert Corey
According to a local tradition that has persisted for centuries, St. Paul fulfilled in Saloniki the scriptural injunction of "shakinsf off the very dust from his feet" as a testimony against the Thessalonians of his day. That they took to heart his act is witnessed by this historic rock on its three-step pedestal.
"And who is to pay me for my cow ?'' she asked. "What have I to do with your war ? I want pay for my cow that is dead."
GERMAN FLIERS WATCH THE ALLIED PLANS
Sometimes the enemy fliers visit the Monastir road. On many a pleasant day they fly over Saloniki, lOO miles distant from their lines, on missions of recon- naissance. It is desirable to know how many ships there are in the harbor, for in this way they can keep an eye upon the Allied plans.
It is not often that they drop bombs. Usually they come at the noon hour, when all leisured Saloniki is taking its coffee in front of its favorite cafe. No one goes to shelter ; it isn't worth while. Perhaps no bombs will be dropped, and if bombs are dropped experience has told those be- neath that running and dodging are futile ways in which to attempt to escape.
It is not this conviction of futility, but
real indifference, however, which keeps most men and women in their seats. They are "fed up" on aeroplanes, as the British say.
Sometimes this indifference is carried to an extreme. One day I visited for the first time a hospital on the Monastir road. There were pretty girl nurses there — several of them. Next door was an am- munition dump. Further on were hang- ars for the war fliers. On a recent visit an enemy plane, no doubt intending to bomb the ammunition depot, had dropped bombs instead in the midst of the hos- pital tents.
The surgeon in charge was a practical man of forethought and reason. He had funk-holes dug all over the place — many funk-holes. No matter how unexpect- edly a flier appeared, one had but to dive for the entrance of a funk-hole. It was somewhat rabbity, perhaps, but the plan was sound and safe.
"Boche coming," trilled one of the pretty nurses.
392
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OPEN-AIR BARBERING AT IVKN
Photograph by Herbert Corey
Where one of the most noted Serbian divisions, that of the Morava, had its camp at the time. Two peasant children are watching the operation.
"To the funk-holes, girls ; hurry," said the doctor.
He stood at the mouth of his indi- vidual funk-hole and waited. Like a captain whose duty it is to stand by his ship, he felt that he must see his nurses secure. They had but to get into the bot- tom of the funk-holes and take a half turn to the left and there they were safe — at least as safe as could be ex- pected.
NO ONE WORRIES ABOUT BOMB DROPPERS
The girls ran. But instead of running to the funk-holes they ran to their tents and produced minute cameras, each hav- ing a possible range of about 40 feet. They stood there in the open and snap- shotted the flier and uttered small, ex- cited squeaks of satisfaction. The doctor did not go down into his funk-hole. He showed a regrettable lack of moral cour- age. I could not go either, for I was talking to the doctor.
Always the Monastir road is lined with road-menders. Some wear the dirty
brown uniform and the Russian cap of the Bulgarian army. They are not par- ticularly happy, but they are frankly at ease. Broadly speaking, the Bulgarian does not seem to know what the war is all about. If it were only to fight the Serb, he would not mind. He has always fought the Serb. He dislikes the Serb quite as cordially as the Serb detests him. But he remembers that only a little while ago he was at work, having just returned to his farm from the last war, in which he fought the Serb to his heart's content. This time he was called out to fight Great Britain and Russia, countries which have always been known to the Bulgarian as his country's friends. He is puzzled and says so. Very often he is so puzzled that he deserts.
GERMANS BOSS THE ROAD MENDER OF THE MONASTIR ROAD
If there are helmeted Germans on the road, they are the gang bosses. The Ger- man is an excellent gang boss. His Bul- garian underlings are made to work much
393
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ON THE MONASTIR ROAD
395
harder than when a Serbian soldier is bossing them, for it must be admitted that the Serbian sympathizes with people who do not like to work.
Driving along the roads, one finds Bul- garians asleep under bushes, stretched face down on the sand, examining their foot-gear, doing anything but work. In that case one is very apt to see a com- plaisant Serbian sentry sitting under a rock not far away, smoking a cigarette and quite at peace with the world. He would cheerfully kill that one of his charges who sought to escape, but he is open- minded in regard to industry.
"He just got in today," one such sentry told me, nodding at a particular contented Bulgarian who was actively killing time. "He came in from the front, thirty-five kilometers away."
The prisoner explained that he had de- serted, hidden his rifle, and started out to give himself up. The whole countryside is crawling with Bulgarian prisoners, so that no one paid the least attention to him. He walked on and walked on, ex- amining gang after gang, until he found one in which the dignity of labor was respected.
His only complaint was that after he had properly surrendered he was obliged to walk three kilometers farther, until he found an officer at Vertekopp who would receipt for him properly. He thought this formality might have been attended to by mail.
PEASANTS ARE SOURLY PHILOSOPHIC
Along with the prisoners one also finds press gangs of the peasants of the vicin- ity. They are heartily discontented, al- though they are paid for their work. One cannot wonder at their attitude. Throughout the centuries there have been wars in Macedonia, and with each war the overlordship of the peasant changed. But a little while ago he owned allegiance to the Turk. Then the Greeks took Mace- donia and began to tax him. Then the Bulgars established themselves, and right on the retreating heels of his new masters came the Serbs, accompanied by a swarm of strange men wearing many uniforms and speaking in many tongues. The peas- ant takes refuge from his confusion in a sour philosophy.
"One year the crops fail," he says, "and the next year there is war. It is all one to the poor man."
Along the Monastir road there is a con- tinuous, dribbling stream of refugees — not many at a time. Sometimes half a dozen will trudge by in the course of a day. Sometimes an entire village has been evacuated farther up the line, and the fifty or so who have held on to the bitter end tramp stolidly and unwillingly to safety. These poor folk never leave their homes until they have been com- pelled to. The outer world is a strange and hostile place to them. Perhaps not one in an hundred has ever been twenty miles away from his hamlet.
WOMEN RETURN AT NIGHT TO THEIR ABANDONED HOMES
They pile their poor eflfects on donkeys, put the babies on top, and load the women with what there is left. If there is a spare donkey, the man of the house al- ways rides. If there are two spare don- keys, the eldest sons ride. The women always walk. Only once did I see a man walking while his wife rode the donkey. The road buzzed with the gossip of it.
They have suffered greatly, these poor folk. Yet candor compels me to say that at first sight the diflference between a Macedonian peasant evicted and a Mace- donian peasant at home is so slight that it fails to arouse much sympathy. These poor folk seem to a westerner always on the edge of starvation. The principal item of their diet is maize, so poorly ground by crude water-turned wheels that their bodies are repulsively swollen from the resultant indigestion.
A man with a yoke of oxen and forty sheep is rich.
Their homes are mere inclosures of stone, topped with a blackened thatch, without windows and sometimes without other door than a blanket or a bit of flapping skin. Often the fire is lighted in the middle of the dirt floor and the smoke seeps out through the crevices of the walls and the holes in the roof. Baths seem unknown and vermin are a common- place of their existence.
Yet they cling blindly to these hovels. When they hide themselves from an in-
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Photograph by Herbert Corey REFUGEE TENTS JUST OUTSIDE THE OLD CITY WALL AT SALONIKI
vader they always choose some nook in the hills from which they may watch their black roofs. They cache foodstuffs in secret places, from which they take a handful of corn or a cheese of ewe milk at night.
When they are driven out the men go silently. Sometimes they are sullen. Sometimes they smile at the soldiers in a sort of twisted, sidewise fashion, in a poor attempt at propitiation. The women follow at their heels patiently. After the first outcry against the order of eviction they never openly defy the soldiery. Yet it is the women who most flagrantly dis- obey.
They return at night to the abandoned homestead, taking their children with them. To do so they must evade the
guards and tramp across a desolate coun- try in the darkness, in continual danger from the prowling dogs or from the rifles of the sentries. Somehow they manage to do it. Humanity requires that these little villages in the war zone be emptied to the last human, for in the rear is food and shelter, while at the front is only starvation and danger.
Yet little by little the inhabitants trickle back. At first they are unobtrusive. Al- though fifty may be living in a hamlet, one sees no more than four or five at a time. Eventually they resume their for- mer mode of life, so far as that is possi- ble. Sometimes they live on the hidden stores of food. Sometimes it is quite im- possible to discover how they live at all.
Some such thing happened at Brod.
397
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Photograph by Herbert Corey CHARACTERISTIC COSTUMES IN THE SALONIKI STREETS
This IS a fair-sized town for the northern Macedonian country. There are perhaps 150 houses scattered on the slopes of a rocky hill or sunk in the abominable mud of the Cema Valley. Here the Bulga- rians behaved "fairly well," the peasants said. Some of the men were beaten, and some were taken away to dig trenches, and some ran away to the hills ; but the town was not burned and the women were not abused. The peasants were grateful.
AMERICAN NURSE FED THE STARVING AT BROD
When the Serbians took the town they found several hundred of the people still there. There was no food. The village was under constant bombardment. Each Macedonian peasant is a potential spy, for lineage and allegiance are too mixed for either side to place reliance in his loyalty. The people of Brod were moved out to the last man and baby. The Serbs searched the houses one by one , and looked under the caving bank of the Cerna and hunted over the bare hillside. There was none left. The village head- man swore it.
Yet a little later, when the Serbs had given place to the Italians, the mired and filthy streets of Brod suddenly became alive with children. Children were every- where ; starving children, impossibly dirty children, children that were verminous and pallid and so ragged that the snow- struck against bare flesh through the holes in their garments. No men and few women were seen at this time. The Italian soldiers fed these little outcasts with the scraps of their rations. A mili- tary ration is scientifically adjusted to the needs of the soldier. There is no ex- cess to be devoted to charity.
Miss Emily Simmonds, of the Amer- ican Red Cross, relieved this situation. Miss Simmonds secured an assignment as nurse in a near-by hospital and while there learned of the children's famine at Brod. She moved in one night without a pass, without a guard, and equipped only with a small tent that was so im- perfect a shelter that the constant rains rotted the mattress of her bed. She took a census of the starving ones.
By this time there were 40 women and 200 children, and there was not a bite to eat, nor a stick of fuel nor a blanket.
398
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Photograph by Herbert Corey A TYPICAL MARKKT-DAY CROWD AT SOUBOTSKO
They lived in that defiance of natural law which seems the rule of the destitute in the Balkans. Most of the time they were starving. They slept in heaps, like ani- mals, in order to keep from freezing.
"Send food," Miss Simmonds tele- graphed, "especially beans."
PEASANT WOMEN TRIED TO CHURN CON- DENSED MILK
The beans came, but nothing else. There was no salt, no meat, no anything but beans. Boiled beans become singu- larly unpalatable after one has lived a few days on bean au naturel. Yet the nurse and the refugees were thankful for beans that week. They were kept from starvation. Later on other supplies ar- rived. The poor women, faithful to that domestic instinct implanted in every wo- man's breast, made a pathetic attempt to resume housekeeping along familiar lines. But soon they cante to the nurse indig- nant and complaining. The delegates placed before her bowls of the prepared condensed milk she had issued:
"A devil has entered it," they said
with conviction. "For hours upon hours we have churned it and yet the butter will not come."
It was at Slivitska that I began to sus- pect that these poor devils have a sense of humor. I had gone to the townlet with a Serbian officer who was inquiring into the recent behavior of the Bulga- rians. We held court in a cow stable during a pouring rain.
Outside a German prisoner wandered, asking an unintelligible question. He had lost his wits completely during the battle. He fumbled about aimlessly. Sometimes he stood opposite the open door of our cow stable, the tears on his cheeks mingling with the rain. Wounded meii lay on the sopping straw.
A dozen or so compact, sturdy, cheer- ful little French soldiers dried their clothing at the fire which smoked on the dirt floor. A notably sullen priest stood by. A peasant told the village story.
"The Bulgarians were unkind to our father here;," said he, indicating the pope. "Also they were cruel to us." The pope sneered ostentatiously. I have never seen
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Photograph by Herbert Corey THREE GENERALS STANDING BY THE SIGNAL POST. AROUND WHICH AERIAL OBSERVERS WERE WONT TO CIRCLE AND DROP THEIR MESSAGES
At the extreme left is General Jerome, of the French army; in the center is Voivode Mischitch, the Serbian strategist of the Macedonian campaign, and at the right is General Sicard, of the French army.
a pope who seemed on such bad terms with his parishioners. He half turned to go away. Then he turned back, as though to listen to the story.
**The Bulgarians said they would hang our pope at noon if we did not give them 200 dinars," said the peasant, impres- sively. It seemed to me that he did not meet the eye of the pope.
"What did you do?" asked the Ser- bian officer who was conducting the ex- amination. The peasant explained that they were poor folk at Slivitska. They did not have 200 dinars. Furthermore, most of the people of Slivitska had hid- den in the hills when the Bulgarians came.
"So the only thing we could do for our father," said the peasant, suavely, "was to ask the Bulgarians to postpone the event until 4 o'clock. That would give our people time to come in from the hills and see our father hanged."
^lacedonian mud coupled with the
Monastir road is a formidable opponent of the Allied forces here. The Monastir road, in spite of its centuries of use, is of an incredible badness. It has no bot- tom in wet weather. In dry weather it is but a dust-bin, so that one can trace the course of a moving column for miles by the pillar-like cloud that rises.
MAKING A BAD ROAD BEHAVE
The Allies have done what they could to make the road behave itself. But the Saloniki base is at an average distance of 100 miles from the front line, and those goods which cannot be carried upon the two single-track railroads must go by the Monastir road. The railroads are gen- erally in an acute state of congestion.
At all times the native ox-cart is the last line of transportation defense. In bad weather the railroad bridges wash out. The little De Cauville railroads that net the hills go completely to pieces after each downpour. Their tiny tracks slip
401
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Photograph by Herbert Corey MISS EMILY SIMMONDS, ONE OP THE MOST NOTED NURSES OF THE AMERICAN RED CROSS, LUNCHING WITH THE TWO "CHEECHAS" WHO HAD BEEN ASSIGNED TO HER FOR A PERSONAL GUARD AT BROD
sidewise on the slopes or the soft dirt ballasting oozes out from beneath the ties.
On the big road the great motor lor- ries slip and strain and beat the surface into huge ruts. When a car is stranded it is pushed into the ditch by the side. The men attached to it paddle about barefooted, hopelessly, doing little things they know will do no good. They must wait for the road to come to its senses. The pack-trains abandon the road com- pletely and strike across the open coun- try.
OX-CARTS THE FINAL RELIANCE OF TRANSPORT DEPARTMENT
But the ox-carts groan and creak and waggle on. The little oxen sway and grunt under the goad. Progress is in- finitely slow, but there is progress. In the end they reach the place appointed.
The Allied forces have built 2,000 miles of main and branch roads in Macedonia during the occupancy and dry weather conditions are slightly improved. But the loose Macedonian soil and the sandy Macedonian rock is not good road metal. When the Allies leave Macedonia and the people come back to these poor vil-
lages that are scattered through the hills, the big road will go back to that state in which Alexander put it, perhaps, or Darius found it. Until it is bettered and the roads that lead from it are made sound for traffic, there can be no perma- nent improvement in the internal condi- tions of northern Macedonia. Where Macedonia is not hilly it is a swamp. During the winter Macedonian hills defy nature and become swamps.
If the road is an irritation as well as a necessity, the malaria-bearing mosquito is a really dangerous enemy. Last year the Allied troops did not realize what the Macedonian mosquito can do, apparently. They were not prepared. In consequence fully one-half of their strength was out of action because of malaria.
During one period more men were in- valided home than arrived on ships. I heard of battalions with 75 per cent of their men on their backs, and of com- panies in which only five men were fit for duty. The well men watched the trench while the invalids groaned in their dug- outs, but the sick men responded to call when an attack was made. Even in the midst of winter one saw yellow-faced men faltering along the Monastir road toward
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Photograph by Herbert Corey THE THREE GRACES OF SALONIKI
Persistent beggars, but so adorably sunny that they were forgiven and enriched
some near-by hospital. It often took them a day to cover five miles. At night they sometimes slept in the mud, wrapped in blankets that had been soaked by the day's rain. They did not complain. What was the use ?
MALARIA-BEARING MOSQUITO IS THE MOST DANGEROUS ENEMY
Conditions have improved for future campaigns. The Allies are on higher ground, for one thing. They have cut their way through the Bulgarian lines until they have reached the hills. There
will be malaria, of course. There will always be malaria here until Macedonia is drained and oiled, Panama fashion. But the doctors are learning how to treat it and the equipment of prevention has become almost formidable. Men now wear mosquito gloves and masks and neck covers, and sleep in nets inside tents that have been made mosquito-safe.
The difficulty is to make the men make use of these safeguards. They become irritable during the Macedonian heats, in which their strength is fairly drained from them. They tear oflF the head cov-
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PEASANTS ON THE ROAD TO SAFETY
In this case their exodus had been so hurried that they had not even time to load their
donkeys
Photographs by Herbert Corey GROUP OF REFUGEE CHILDREN IN MONASTIR, SHOWING THE VARIETY OF TYPES
OBSERVABLE IN THE CITY
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Photograph by Herbert Corey A GRAVE AND COURTEOUS IJTTLK GENTLEMAN
Although his home had been turned behind him and the other members of his family had
disappeared
ers to get a breath of air and draw the gloves from hands that have been bleached and thinned by the fllow of per- spiration. Then the mosquito does his perfect work.
Today the road ends at Monastir. True, a branch wanders north to Nish and Uskub and Prilip, and another branch crosses the hills to the Adriatic Sea. But across these branches the Bulgarian line is thrown. Monastir is a town of 40,000 people, pretty clean by eastern standards, well built, with wide streets and a tink- hng river running through its handsome
boulevard. It was captured by the Allies in November, 1916, but the Bulgarians held the hills from which it is command- ed. They shelled it every day until the middle of April, and they may be shelling it now for aught I know.
It was even a contemptuous sort of shelling they gave it. Although they had a sufficiency of big guns, and sometimes dropped a 210 shell in the middle of a promenade to prove it, most of the firing on the town was from the field pieces of 'j'j caliber. They were so near at hand, you see — only four or five kilometers
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411 Digitized by
Photograph by Herbert Corey ORDERS HAD JUST BEEN RECEIVED TO MOVE THE BATTERY ON, AS THE BULGARIANS
WERE RETREATING Twelve horses were needed to tear the gun out of the reluctant mud
away. At night the tapping of the mi- trailleuse seemed in the very edge of town.
It was too large a town to be hurriedly evacuated. There are few asylums for refugees in this land of ruined villages and minute farms. So that only the very poor — perhaps ten thousand in all — who had no food and no money and no hope, were sent away to Saloniki and elsewhere at the start. The richer ones trembled at home.
One by one they were permitted to leave ; but when I saw Monastir for the last time, in January, fully one-half of its population were still hiding in the cellars and hoping that the Bulgarians might be driven on. The streets were empty. The one cafe that remained open
was tenanted only by French soldiers, singing a rousing Gallic chorus; and in the single restaurant the only guests be- side myself were the Italian officers. At night there is never a light in the city.
I have never felt so absolutely alone as in wandering through these broad, white, moonlighted streets. When a regiment of tired men shuffled by, their hobnails scraping on the cobbles, I sat down on the curb to watch them. They took the curse of emptiness off the town.
Then an English officer came up and asked the sort of a question one learns to expect from an Englishman and from no other man on earth.
"Where," said he, "can I find a piano? We want to have a sort of a sing-song tonight."
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NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT
By William Joseph Showaltkr
NIAGARA FALLS, held in rever- ence for its beauty by generations of nature-loving Americans, has enlisted for the war and is doing its bit in the cause for which the people of the United States have pledged anew their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor.
Aided by science, it has transformed the silvery sheen of its whitened waters into the fateful furies of the artillery duel and the infantry charge. The placid flood of the upper river has become hardness in steel, speed in manufacture, healing in antiseptics, whiteness in linen, cheapness in automobiles, durability in machinery.
It has lengthened the lives of big guns ; it has multiplied the power and the num- ber of shells; it is standing guard over every mile of war-carrying railroad track, and is protecting every engine axle and car wheel from failure in the rush of material to the front. Aye, who knows but that the very scales of victory will be turned by the weight* it throws into the balance ?
The story of Niagara's role in the battle of the nations is an epic in the history of war.
Twenty-seven years ago certain manu- facturers, seeing the tremendous amount of power running to waste where the waters of Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie leap from lake level toward sea- level, undertook the installation of a great hydro-electric plant at Niagara. Later other power-developing interests entered the field, and then began a legislative and diplomatic war between those who would utilize some of the power of Niagara and those who would keep it untouched by the unsentimental hand of commercialism.
Finally the governments of the United States and Canada made a treaty regu- lating the amount of water that could be diverted for power purposes. Canada has used her share to the last second-foot, but the United States has never permitted
the utilization of a considerable share of her allowance.
A VAST EI.ECTRICAI, I.AB0RAT0RV
But for the part used there has been rendered by the users one of the most remarkable accounts of stewardship in the history of commercial progress. The cheap power obtained made Niagara a laboratory where great ideas could be transformed into nation-benefiting enter- prises.
When Niagara power was first devel- oped, efforts to make artificial grinding materials were proving a failure because of a lack of electric current at a price the new venture could afford to pay. Those who backed the process thereupon went to Niagara Falls, set up a plant, and founded the artificial abrasive industry. How much its success means to America cannot be overestimated.
Take the grinding machinery out of the automobile factories, remove it from the munition plants, eliminate it from the locomotive works, car foundries, and ma- chine shops of the country and you would paralyze the nation's whole industrial system. And that would have happened ere now had not Niagara's artificial abra- sives stepped in to save the day when the war shut out our natural supply of em- cry and corundum from Asia Minor.
There is not a bearing in your auto- mobile but is ground on Niagara-made grindstones; crankshafts are roughened and finished with. them, pistons and cylin- ders are made true, camshafts likewise, and a hundred critical parts of every car, whether of the cheapest or the most ex- pensive make. It would be impossible to build anything of tool steel on a commer- cial basis without Niagara's abrasives.
NIAGARA SIIAPKS AND IIARDKNS OUR SllEhhS
No shell goes to Europe whose nose has not been ground into shape on Ni- agara-made grindstones. Likewise it is
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Photograph by Ernest Fox
HORSESHOE FAI,LS FROM GOAT ISI.AND
The shimmering softness of the cataract has been transformed by a miracle of industry mto a sure rock of defense. From the seemingly insecure wooden causeway shown to the left the spectator commands a wonderful panoramic view of the very heart of Niagara.
414
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Photograph by Ernest Fox AMlvRICAN FALLS FROM GOAT ISLAND
Directed by the magic of man's ingenuity, the resistless energy of these raging waters is transmuted into hardness in steel, speed in manufacture, healing in antiseptics, whiteness in linen, cheapness in automobiles, durability in machinery.
415 Digitized by
I'hotograph by Ernest Fox
THlv AMERICAN FALLS IN THEIR PLUNGE OF 167 FEET
A modern Orpheus, science has lured the mighty waters of Niagara to follow it into the channels of utility, yet without sacrificing the beauty and grandeur of the world's noblest cataract.
416 Digitized by VjOOQIC
Photograph by Ernest Fox
HORSESHOE ealls From the Canadian side
The ceaseless flow and measureless power of Niagara are symbolic of America's purpose and resources, which will be mobilized for service in the cause of humanity on the battlefields of Europe. No hand can stay the nation, no fleets or armies turn it from its goal — ^the emancipation of mankind from the tyranny of despots.
417 Digitized by
Photograph by Ernest Fox
Niagara's cave of the winds
The Niagara that mantles itself in ice at the silent touch of the Frost King, in its turn touches sand and coke, and they become near-diamonds ; water and salt, and they become purity in drinking water ; clay, and it gives forth a marvelous metal ; a dead wire, and it lights a city or drives a car; carbon and silica, and they are transformed into lubricants or inks.
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NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT
419
Niagara's abrasives that have done more than any one other thing to master the "hot box," that bete noire of the Amer- ican railroad man and the worst enemy of schedule-time train transportation the world around.
While the processes of carborundum manufacture were being perfected an- other lesson was learned. Quartz, you remember, is \ the geologist's thermom- eter, for it is formed between narrow ranges of temperature. If the materials from which Nature makes it are sub- jected to more than so much heat, they take on an entirely different character from quartz. The same is true if they are subjected to less than a certain amount of heat.
So, also, it is with carborundum. In its manufacture a large quantity of a mixture of coke and sand, with a touch of sawdust and a dash of salt, is put into an electric furnace. A heavy current of electricity is passed through this for 48 hours, heating it to 1,350 degrees centi- grade.
If it is properly heated, there forms around the central core of coke a great array of crystals, large and small, almost as hard as diamonds. If too much heat is applied, instead of forming into crys- tals, the material breaks up into fine particles of black dust and you have graphite.
LKADS FOR pencils; ELECTRODES FOR FURNACES
Therefore, largely by the same process, the electric furnace produces from the same materials the near-diamond of the artificial grindstone and the microscopic dust that becomes lead for a pencil, color for ink, base for lubricants, electrodes for furnaces and death chairs, or a thou- sand other things, under the manipula- tions of industrial science.
In making carborundum wheels, whet- stones, and other grinding implements, the crystals are separated, graded, mixed with various binders, pressed into the shapes desired, dried, and then baked in kilns, like porcelain or other ceramic products. In some cases binders are used which do not permit exposure to heat, as in the case of emery cloth.
Carborundum has a companion, alun- dum, as an abrasive, each having its more advantageous uses. In the manufacture of the latter certain clays are used. One of these is bauxite. This is first purified and then put into a water-jacketed elec- tric furnace, which fuses the aluminum oxide. The fused material is taken out, crushed, and prepared for use much after the manner of carborundum.
Between the two, Niagara has suc- ceeded in saving American industry from the calamity that would otherwise have ensued as a result of the cutting off of our supply of natural abrasives. For more than two years Niagara's abrasive industry has been mobilized against the Central Powers with an effect that can* not be measured.
GIVING STEEL A GREATER HARDNESS
But Niagara's bit in behalf of Ameri- can arms does not end with the story of sfbrasives; indeed, it only well begins. The story of ferro-silicon is another il- lustration of how beauty under the al- chemy of science is transmuted into grim- visaged war.
Last year this country made more steel than the whole world produced when William McKinley became President of the United States. Nearly three-fourths of that steel vi^s made by the open-hearth process, and ferro-silicon was used as a deoxidizer, to purify it by driving out the oxygen. Furthermore, in the making of big steel castings that alloy is practi- cally indispensable in the elimination of blow-holes.
The entire ferro-silicon industry, prac- tically, is centered at Niagara, which thus gives pure steel and sound castings as another part of America's contribution to the cause of Allied victory. Every con- tract for shell steel that has been made in two years calls for a content of ferro- silicon.
There is another alloy of iron indis- pensable in war, and well-nigh so in twentieth century peace — f erro - chro- mium. This is the alloy which gives that peculiar hardness to steel which makes it * resistant almost beyond human concep- tion. It has been estimated that a modem 14-inch shell, such as our Navy is ever
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420
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
holding in readiness for the possible dash of a German fleet, has a striking mo- mentum at a distance of eight miles equal to the colliding force of a modern express train running at top speed.
Yet this shell must have a nose so hard and so perfect that, although the entire force of the impact is upon its narrow point when it strikes the armor plate, it will pierce the plate without being de- formed itself.
NIAGARA PROTECTS YOUR AUTOMOBILE AXLE
Not only does ferro-chromium go into the shells of American manufacture, giv- ing them hardness and death - dealing qualities which must make the stoutest enemy heart quail, but it gives strength to the tool steel shaft, life to the auto- mobile axle and gear, and serves peace and war alike with equal fidelity. And Niagara produces half of America's sup- ply of ferro-chromium today.
Other alloys indispensable to our suc- cess in the great war, in the production of which Niagara is a contributing factor, are tungsten, vanadium, and molybdenum. Some of these alloys are made there, but in the production of the part that is not Niagara contributes the aluminum which makes their preparation possible. To- gether with chromium, they give us our high-speed steels, gun steels, etc.
America has been able to turn out mu- nitions with a rapidity that has astonished the world and even ourselves, because through Niagara's influence the high- speed tool reached an unprecedented de- velopment in days of peace.
In the old days of carbon steel the ma- chine that would cut rapidly would heat the steel so hot as to ruin its temper. Today alloy steel is not even fretted, much less put out of temper, by cutting speeds that would have been fatal to any carbon steel ever produced.
Niagara's gift of aluminum
Where once a cool cutting edge was absolutely indispensable, now even a huge battleship shaft can be turned down, re- volving at a speed of 30 feet a minute and giving oflf shavings more than half an inch thick.
It was the touch of Niagara that trans- formed aluminum from a laboratory curi- osity into one of the most essential of all the minor metals, one with which it would now be difficult to dispense and which has been power to the Allied arm in the European war. Take it out of the auto- mobile industry, and the stream of cars America is sending to the battle front would fall to low-water mark, instead of rising above it.
Then there is silicon metal which keeps transformer steel in electric transmission from ageing, and which, in conjunction with caustic soda, will produce the gas for the army's hydrogen balloons, and titanium — both Niagara products which cannot be overlooked in any summary of Niagara's part in America's war.
Between Niagara's alloys and her abrasives, it is estimated that every in- dustry utilizing steel has multiplied its productive powers by three. Engineers who know every phase of the processes of automobile manufacture declare that if it had not been for these abrasives and alloys, every motor-car factory in Amer- ica would have had to slow down to one- fifth of its normal production when the war broke out.
preparedness against the dynamite
PLOTTER
Calcium carbide is another product of the electric furnace which Niagara is giv- ing to the nation in vast quantities. One furnace uses egg-size lime and chestnut coke in the proportions of 3 parts lime and 2 parts coke and is able to produce as much calcium carbide in a day as the original furnace could produce in a year. This compound is the only commercial source of acetylene, whose many uses are well known.
In every big industrial plant in the country there is fear of the spy, and every oxy-acetylene blow - pipe in the neighborhood is registered, so that in the event of a wrecked plant the work of rescue and restoration can begin at once.
When the Eastland went down in Chi- cago harbor it was the cutting power of the oxy-acetylene flame that liberated the imprisoned people. Calcium carbide is also the material from which calcium
Digitized by
Photograph by Ernest Fox
ICICI^ES UNDER THE HORSESHOE FALLS I NIAGARA
When Nature desires an altar dedicated to her own glory she seeks Niagara in winter and there creates gigantic monoliths of ice and snow, carves them with her chisels of wind and water, quickens them with color snatched from a sunbeam, and lo I her worshipers come to gaze in silent adoration in the aisled and vaulted temple of her matchless handiwork.
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
cynamid, essential in the fixation of nitro- gen, is obtained.
But Niagara does not stop with these things. In the trenches of Europe there must be pure water lest epidemic disease sweep over them, destroying more than the shells, shrapnel, and machine-guns of the enemy; and Niagara comes forward with chlorine, or an allied product, which kills the germs of disease, yet leaves the drinker untouched.
In the simplest form, the process of breaking up salt and getting command of the qualities of the two elements in it con- sists of dissolving about one part of com- mon salt in eight parts of water and pass- ing a given current of electricity through it. The resultant fluid is a great bleacher and disinfectant. A gallon of it will kill all the germs in a day's drinking water of a city like Washington. Of course, the processes of manufacturing chlorine, bleaching powder, and other compounds is more complex.
A thousand American cities sterilize
their water with these products, which have done more than any other agency in the hands of the sanitariums to wipe out water-borne epidemics. In the hos- pitals of France and England they form the active part of mixtures used to steri- lize the wounds of the soldiers. Without them there would be no book or letter paper; cotton dresses and sheets would be no longer white ; our every-day chem- ical fire extinguisher would disappear.
One might go on showing how Niagara aids America in her preparedness cam- paign. Its laboratories are producing the materials from which picric acid and other powerful explosives are made. They also are producing metallic soda from which is manufactured sodium cyanide, used alike in extrarcting gold and silver and in electro-plating.
All these things Niagara has been able to do without detracting at all from its beauty — even without exhausting the amount of water authorized by the Cana- dian-American treaty.
HELP OUR RED CROSS
^HE RED CROSS needs at this time more than it ever ^ needed before the comprehending support of the American people and all the facilities which could he placed at its disposal to perform^ its duties adequately and efficiently.
I believe that the American people perhaps hardly yet realize the sacrifices and sufferings that are before them.
We thought the scale of our Civil War was unpre- cedented, but in comparison tvith the struggle into which we have now entered the Civil War seems almost insig- nificant in its proportions, and in its expenditure of treasure and of blood. And, therefore, it is a matter of the greatest importance that we should at the outset see to it that the American Red Cross is equipped and pre- pared for the things that lie before it.
It will be our instrument to do the work of alleviation and of mercy which will attend this struggle.
WooDRow Wilson.
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OUR ARMIES OF MERCY
By Henry P. Davison Chairman of the War Councii. of the American Red Cross
Probably every member of the National Geographic Society, if not already in service, has at least one near relative or dear friend preparing cheerfully and unselfishly for the battle lines on sea and land. Those who cannot go are search- ing for means to help their loved ones and our beloved country. In order to assist, in their patriotic ambition to be of service, those who must stay at home, the National Geographic Magazine, by courtesy of the American Red Cross, pub- lishes herewith the principal addresses at one of the most awakening meetings that has ever assembled in America — that of the American Red Cross War Council, held in Washington on May 24 and ^5.
The meeting had been called by the President of the United States to plan means for raising immediately an immense Red Cross war fund. Every one who reads the addresses by General Pershing, Henry P. Davison, Ian Malcolm, John H. Gade, Herbert C. Hoover^ Frederick Walcott, Secretary Baker, Eliot Wads- worth, and ex-President Taft tvill appreciate the imperative necessities of our Department of Mercy.
The members of the National Geographic Society are urged to cooperate with the Red Cross through their local Red Cross chapters, but, for the convenience of the many thousands of members living in remote places, zvhere there is no Red Cross chapter, remittances may be made to the Red Cross fund through the Na- tional Geographic Society, using the blank form printed on another page.
Gilbert H. Grosvenor, Director and Editor,
THE most stupendous and appeal- ing call in the history of the world to aid suffering humanity con- fronts our Red Cross. Millions of men who have been fighting for liberty lie dead or wounded ; millions of women and children are homeless and helpless ; hun- dreds of towns and villages have been destroyed; disease and distress are ram- pant-
Up to now our own people have not suffered. While Europe has been pour- ing out her life-blood, America has ex- perienced a prosperity she had never known before.
But now we ourselves are in this gigan- tic war. We now see that the struggle against autocracy and tyranny which our Allies have been making is and from the first has been in reality no less our strug- gle than theirs. We ourselves must now share the suffering which they have en- dured; we, too, must bear the burdens and we must do our part in a very real way.
needs beyond computation
Our Red Cross is a vital factor in the struggle. To promote efficiency in ad-
ministering Its great responsibilities, the President of the United States has cre- ated a Red Cross War Council. We of the Council know now only what the minimum requirements are ; but we know already that the needs which our Red Cross alone can supply are at present be- yond computation.
Something of what we must expect to do and something of the sacrifices which we must expect to make will be indicated by the following summary of the very present situation:
Hundreds of American doctors and nurses are already at the front. A force of 12,000 American engineers will soon be rebuilding the railroads of France. Upwards of 25,000 American men are now on the battlefields of Europe, fight- ing as volunteers in the Allied armies; soon 25,000 American regulars will be added to their number.
All our National Guard is to be mobil- ized, our regular army is to be recruited to full strength, and 500,000 other men are shortly to be called to the colors. Within a few months we should and will have in service an army of 1,000,000 and a navy of 150,000 men.
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Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams
PUPILS AT A FRENCH SCHOOL FOR WAR ORPHANS
In the midst of her battle for national existence, France is doing her utmost to provide an education for the children of her dead patriots. It is a difficult task, however, to feed and clothe as well as give instruction to the fatherless thousands.
These men must have our best. To prepare against their needs in advance will be a stupendous task which the Red Cross must undertake.
Doctors, nurses, ambulances, must be made ready. Vast quantities of hospital stores — linen, bandages, and supplies of every kind — must be prepared and at once. If we wait, it may be too late.
OUR DUTY TO OUR FLAG's DEFENDERS
When we ask our own sons and broth- ers to fight for our liberty 3,000 miles from home, in a country already sore and afflicted, surely we cannot do less than prepare to take care of them in their day of suffering.
Gallant Canada from 8,000,000 popu- lation raised an army of 450,000 men. Eighty thousand are dead or injured, and Canada has raised in value $16,000,000 for the Red Cross to relieve her sick and wounded. Her Red Cross, thus vitalized by the sacrifice of those at home, has been able to save thousands from death and misery.
Immediately our soldiers go into camp their dependent families will become a
problem. Obviously, in a country the size of our own, the proper and practical way to distribute both the burdens and the benefits fairly and uniformly will be through the government itself. This is especially fitting when voluntary contri- butions must meet such enormous re- quirements in other fields.
There will undoubtedly arise a large number of special cases requiring addi- tional or unusual assistance. Such assist- ance should be made systematic largely through local chapters of the Red Cross.
When our men go to France we must not only prepare to take care of them when sick and wounded; another very serious problem will confront them and will confront us in our care and fore- thought on their behalf.
Englishmen and Frenchmen, when from time to time they are relieved from their grim duties in the trenches, go home. The soldiers from other coun- tries on the firing line cannot go home; there is no home to go to! They go to Paris. Many of them do not return from Paris as efficient soldiers as they were when they went there.
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THE HOSPITAL FOR CONSUMPTIVE SOLDHvRS I BUGNY, FRANCE
Not all the casualties sustained in the trenches are inflicted by the bullets of the enemy ; tuberculosis finds many victims among those not inured to the hardships of trench life. France has been quick to recognize the necessity for giving instruction to her invalid soldiers, in order that they may, by practicing the lessons of hygiene, be restored to health and to their homes.
Our American soldiers must have a home in France — somewhere to rest, somewhere to find a friendly atmosphere, somewhere to go for recreation and wholesome amusement.
These men will be returning to this country some day. We want to make it certain that as many as possible return in health and strength, and not afflicted with disease from which our forethought might have protected them.
The Red Cross must — and it alone can — ^become a real foster parent of our soldiers while they are in Europe. To perform that function well will require a large sum of money.
The needs of France cannot but stir the heart of every American. Tubercu- losis has become prevalent as a result of this trench war. And the disease is spreading. Here is a call not only to aid the brave and liberty-loving French peo- ple, but also to help make this afflicted country healthy for our own sons and brothers who are soon to be there in such great numbers.
Hundreds of towns and villages have
been destroyed in France. In her devas- tated regions men, women, and children are homeless and suffering for the barest necessities of life. We ought at the ear- liest moment to provide these peoples with the simplest essentials to begin life anew.
THE CRYING NEEDS OE WAR-WASTED COM- MUNITIES
They need clothing, agricultural im- plements, domestic animals, especially horses and cows, seeds, fertilizers, tools, bedding, stoves, and the elementary ma- terials with which to cover themselves by day and by night. Some idea can be formed of the amount involved in such an undertaking, with the knowledge that Mr. Hoover, through his magnificent or- ganization, has advanced for govern- ments and from private subscriptions $350,000,000 for relief in Belgium.
If there were no thought of protection and provision for our own people in France, can we hesitate generously to provide from our plenty that we may show some appreciation of our everlast-
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ing debt to the people of our sister re- public.
THE VITAI, IMPORTANCE OF RED CROSS AID TO RUSSIA
We should do something and do it im- mediately to hearten afflicted Russia. On the Russian line of i,ooo miles there are only 6,000 ambulances, while on the French front of 400 miles there are 64,000 ambulances fully equipped.
Behind the lines in Russia are millions of refugees from Poland, Lithuania, and western Russia— driven from their homes by the German and Austrian armies — wandering from city to city, crowded into unfit habitations, huddled in stables, cel- lars, outhouses, and dying from disease due to exposure and insufficient food.
Russia needs our trained women to in- struct hers in the art of nursing; she needs enormous quantities of the ele- mentary articles necessary to relieve the very worst cases of pain and suffering.
Probably nothing that can be done im- mediately will do more to win this war than to strengthen Russia. The oppor- tunity and the duty here alone are almost without limit in extent. Our Red Cross is the one agency which can exert itself effectively in this terrible emergency.
The foregoing are but the greater and more urgent needs of the moment. Other work of great magnitude must be done. Our Red Cross must maintain a supply service, whereby all the contributions in kind which our people make can be effi- ciently distributed. We must organize
comprehensive plans to keep the families and friends of our soldiers and sailors informed as to the wounded and miss- ing.
Indeed, the duties and the opportuni- ties which confront our Red Cross have no precedent in history and are not within human estimate today. The War Council, however, can make definite plan and budgets only to the extent to which it is supported by the generosity of the American people.
EVEN THE CHILD CAN HELP
If each individual American now con- tributes his "bit" there can be no failure. America will, we feel sure in this, again demonstrate her ability to handle a big task in a big way.
If, in making a survey of the obliga- tions and opportunities of our Red Cross a gloomy picture is drawn, we must not be discouraged, but rather rejoice in this undertaking and in the confidence that we can by our voluntary action render a service to our afflicted allies which will for all time be a source of pride and sat- isfaction in a good deed well done.
As President Wilson has said : "But a small proportion of our people can have the opportunity to serve upon the actual field of battle, but all men, women and children alike, may serve, and serve effectively."
We must and will all immediately con- centrate our energies and efforts, and by contributing freely to this supreme cause help win the war.
THE NEEDS ABROAD
By Ian Malcolm
Member oe the British Red Cross and of the House oe Commons
IT IS difficult, nay, almost impossible, to imagine or to describe the damna- ble devastation of modern war. It is one thing to glance at long lists of casualties in the morning papers, to read the descriptions of villages and townships ruined by artillery fire. It is quite an- other thing to sense, as I have had to do, the true inwardness of the vast hu-
man tragedy that is being enacted across the sea.
The silence of London and Paris, and of our great cities in France and Eng- land ; the prevalence of black as the color in which most of our worne'n are dressed, an eloquent testimony to the piourning that is in the hearts and homes of nearly every family in the land ; the streets full
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THE NEEDS ABROAD
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of wounded in hospital uniforms, either walking or being driven out for an air- ing— these are some of the outward and visible signs of the ravages of war.
Ambulances driving gently down all the thoroughfares, the Red Cross flying over one or more large houses in every street of the residential quarter — these are tokens of the same tragic truth.
And abroad, in France and Flanders, you come nearer still to the true agony of the situation. How can I describe it? Think of the worst earthquake, of the worst floods, that have scourged and shocked you here at home; multiply the horror of your impression a hundredfold, and you will come near to the horrors of the Marne and the Aisne.
Multiply them a thousandfold, and you will realize the ferocity of carnage at the battles of the Ancre and the Somme.
Multiply them two thousandfold, and that is the picture of misery and pain and death after the great battles on the plains of Russia and in the mountains of Persia and the Caucasus.
Think of the ruin by floods in Glan- ders, with the stench of thousands of car- casses, human and animal, poisoning the atmosphere for miles around for those who must stay day and night in the trenches ; think of the devastation by fire in France, where villages and woods and broad pasture lands are utterly wiped out of existence — not a house nor a church nor a tree left standing, where once there were thousands of families living in a condition as prosperous and happy as anywhere in the world.
A PURGATORY OP PAIN
Then turn your minds to the picture of some great engagement ; try to conceive long trenches of men writhing in torture from poisonous gas or from liquid flame, soldiers smashed and disfigured by shell wounds, their lacerations indescribable as their heroism is undaunted.
Leave the trenches and retire behind the firing line with me. Here we are on roads lined with men on stretchers some dead, scores mortally wounded, hundreds upon hundreds of casualties in one or an- other degree of collapse. The middle of the roadway is filled by dozens of ambu-
lances after every action; there is per- haps a mile length of hospital trains wait- ing in a siding to convey the wounded to base hospitals.
And all this purgatory of pain is de- pendent for relief upon the skill of our doctors, the tenderness of our nurses, the efficiency of our equipment — all of which means, and is dependent upon, the gen- erosity of the public.
May I not take it for granted that just as the fighting manhood of the United States is soon to be with us in the trenches, so you of the Red Cross who have done so much for us in the past are now eager to be mobilized in the allied Army of Mercy, and of charity that is almost divine ?
I assume that your organization is coming with us in increased numbers and with increased equipment, if necessary, to the mountains above and around Saloniki, to the plains of Egypt, to East Africa, to the waterless wastes of Mesopotamia — our tears and triumphs mingling beneath the shadow of the Red Cross flag.
WHERE UNASSUAGKD WOUNDS CRY FOR AMERICA'S COMPASSION
Nay, further, I should like to assume that, with your resources inexhaustible as your hearts are warm, you will pour out of the fullness of your treasure into war zones where we have no men fight- ing, but where ambulance columns are desperately needed, such as Russia and Roumania.
You are wanted there, though the pride of Russia will prevent their even telling you so. I cannot think of a greater movement at this moment, in the interests of bleeding humanity or of Allied propa- ganda, than the offer of a fully equipped ambulance corps to work with the Rus- sian army and for the Russian people.
Have I said enough to indicate to you the illimitable sphere of Christian in- fluence that lies before you if you care to occupy it ? Have I said enough to show you the dire needs of those who are fight- ing in the sacred cause that you have made your own ?
Even so, I have left untouched all the work of caring for the homeless, starving populations, now being daily released
Digitized by
C5 E. W. Weigle. PRIESTS AND NUNS WHO MINISTERED TO THE WOUNDED AT TERMONDE, BELGIUM
These shattered walls and piles of debris tell their own story of the terrific fighting which occurred in and around this little city in the early days of the war, when it was cap- tured and recaptured many times. And ever in the thick of battle the "angels and ministers of grace" were at hand to succor the wounded and comfort the dying.
from the bondage of nearly three years* servitude, as slowly, but surely, we are driving back the Germans on the western front. It is, of course, for your great- hearted public to decide whether and when and how they can best intervene in this area of human desolation.
Unless I have totally misconceived your splendid ambition to rescue and to save in whatever part of the world war zone you are needed most, I have indi- cated to you by inference the tremendous part that money must play in the great drama of your intervention.
Am I to specify in detail a few of the objects upon which, it may be supposed, your money will be most usefully spent? I can only do so by reference to your own schedules of expenditures.
A THOUSAND NEEDS FOR DOLLARS
We have base hospitals, running into hundreds, I am sorry to say, in France and England; advanced base hospitals, and special hospitals for convalescents.
for cripples, for the blind, for face cases, and homes for the permanently disabled.
We have hospital ships on the English Channel, in the Mediterranean, on the Adriatic, and on the Tigris.
We have hospital trains in England, France, and Egypt; hundreds of motor ambulances in all our theaters of war, with their repair cars and other necessary adjuncts.
There are thousands of doctors, nurses, orderlies, etc., to be clothed and fed; there are canteens for Red Cross men, rest homes for nurses worn out by assiduous work and ceaseless ac- tivity. We provide, of course, hospital clothing, drugs, dressings — all in enor- mous quantities for equipment and in re- serve. These reserves are forever being replenished and forever rising in cost.
Then if you affiliate the Young Men's Christian Association to yourselves, there will be scores of canteens wanted — you can never have enough of them — for the soldiers sent to rest camps or to the base.
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BACK ON CANADIAN SOII,
No fighting men of the world war have shown finer stamina than the boys of our neigh- bor nation, the Dominion. Their recent heroic offensive which wrested the supposedly impregnable Vimy Ridge from the Germans was only one of a long series of brilliant achieve- ments. Whenever their condition permits, the wounded Canadians are brought home to recuperate, as in the case of this Dominion soldier, who is being tenderly nursed back to health at the Spadina Military Hospital, Toronto.
You will want accommodation for offi- cers or men sent over to England from time to time for the regulation periods of leave.
I feel I could go on forever suggesting to you ways and means for the expendi- ture of all the money that you can collect in June and go on collecting afterward ; but the time at my disposal, to say noth- ing of your patience, is exhausted, and I must close.
But I close with these words : We count confidently upon you to rouse, and it should not be difficult, the deep-seated spirit of humanity that permeates this Northern Continent of America — to rouse that soul of your people to translate itself into terms of hard cash ; as an ear- nest that those who cannot fight will pay,
and that, if it be the will of God that wars shall continue in this imperfect world, then you are determined to relieve and mitigate its horrors for its victims to the utmost of your power.
And may I add that if, in any way whatever, you care to ask the British Red Cross for the benefit of its experience in any quarter of the world during the tragic period through which we have passed, I am authorized to say that it will be promptly and gladly given ; no longer to our "cousins," as we used affectionately to call you, but to our brothers and sisters united by a thousand ties, but none closer than that of an overmastering passion to join hands in drawing a great net of mercy through an ocean of unspeakable pain.
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Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams
A CORNER OF THE DINING-ROOM FOR WOUNDED SOLDIERS: LYON HOSPITAL IN I917
In the multifold activities engendered by war woman has many spheres of usefulness, but none where her labors are more fruitful than in cheering and comforting the convalescent. A hospital dining-room would be a dreary place indeed were it not for her presence. The atmosphere of home is brought by her to the otherwise desolate places of earth.
BELGIUM'S PLIGHT
By John H. Cade Of the American Commission for Relief in Belgium
YOUR brothers tell you their sons lie dead. Your heart aches and you try to understand it. You feel it — you think you feel it.
But it is not your son and you have no conception, even though he be one of the nearest in the world to you, of what your brother feels. It is your, brother's son who lies dead. In six months, in three months, in one month your own son lies dead. It is for ^you to bring before this country now whJt' it feels like to have your own son lying dead there.
You are about to issue the S. O. S. call to this country, to save it to a certain ex- tent from ignorance, but also from in- difference, and also from carelessness, from selfishness.
I come fr(5m northern France, from southern Belgium, from the gallant strongholds in that great district. There firm virtues were the order of the day; stern mercies were before you from hour to hour, and the flames of chivalry still burn in the hearts of men and women. The horizon was dark, and it is difficult to bring it to this country.
reflections of one back from BELGIUM
When I came ashore, it struck me like a blow in the face. Is it possible this is the same planet on which I have lived: that this is the same world? Have I left the basic reality of things behind for the rudiments of life?
Where do these people get all the
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BELGIUM'S PLIGHT
435
things in the shop windows? Why do they look so careless and disinterested instead of so serious and earnest and sober? Where do they get the automo- biles, the tires, the boots, the shoes ?
No ; I have left the real world beyond. The artificialities of life are gone; the conventionalities have been washed away, and here I have come back to where they still look the truth between the eyes.
Every man and every woman was a worker there. I remember one day going through the streets of Brussels. We had recently opened a soup kitchen. We had the pots; we had the pans; we had the kitchen ; we had the food ; we had every- thing except the workers.
I walked down the street and saw a couple of servants waiting in front of a building, and I asked, "What is going on inside ?" They told me there was a meet- ing of the noble women of Brussels.
I went inside, and as soon as I entered they recognized me. I said, "I need twenty or more women right away — five to wash the floors, five to ladle soup, five to take away the dishes, five to carry out the garbage, and the remainder to do whatever work there is left."
I had scarcely finished my demand be- fore the response came, almost as quickly as the appeal. There those women have been working for the last eight months, not once a week, but seven days a week. Those are the noble women of Belgium, noble of heart as well as of birth.
You have got to bring home here to our people conditions as they are. You have got to give them the vision. How awful the conditions are no one realizes. I will give you a single picture.
THE WOES OF SLAVERY
I will take the i8th of November of last year. A week or so before that a placard was placed on the walls telling my capital city of Mons that in seven days all the men of that city who were not clergymen, who were not priests, who did not belong to the city council, would be deported.
At half past five, in the gray of the morning on the i8th of November, they walked out, six thousand two hundred men at Mons, myself and another leading
them down the cobblestones of the street and out where the rioting would be less than in the great city, with the soldiers on each side, with bayonets fixed, with the women held back.
The degradation of it ! The degrada- tion of it as they walked into this great market square, where the pens were erected, exactly as if they were cattle — all the great men of that province — the lawyers, the statesmen, the heads of the trades, the men that had made the capital of Hainaut glorious during the last twenty years.
There they were collected ; no question of who they were, whether they were busy or what they were doing or what their position in life. "Go to the right! Go to the left! Go to the right!" So they were turned to the one side or the other.
Trains were standing there ready, steaming, to take them to Germany. You saw on the one side the one brother taken, the other brother left. A hasty embrace and they were separated and gone. You had here a man on his knees before a German officer, pleading and begging to take his old father's place; that was all. The father went and the son stayed. They were packed in those trains that were waiting there.
You sav/ the women in himdreds, with bundles in their hands, beseeching to be permitted to approach the trains, to give their men the last that they had in life between themselves and starvation — a small bundle of clothing to keep them warm on their way to Germany. You saw women approach with a bundle that had been purchased by the sale of the last of their household effects. Not one was allowed to approach to give her man the warm pair of stockings or the warm jacket so there might be some chance of his reaching there. Off they went !
AT THE BIER OP A CITY
I returned to Mons that evening. You have sat at the funeral of your dear sons and you have heard "the family weep, but you have never sat at the funeral of a city. I went in and I lost courage. I walked the streets of Mons all that even- ing.
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BELGIUM'S PLIGHT
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There was not a street, there was not an alley, where the shrieking of women did not deafen your ears.
So they went. Then we saw them come back, too. I read the reports the next day in the paper at Brussels of how Ger- many had announced to the United States that, in her great mercy, she was taking the idle working men of Belgium in order that they might earn enough in Germany to keep their families provided with plenty of funds back in Belgium. Yeis, I read this, and every other edict issued by Germany, and I found no truth in them.
I saw them come back in the cars. We carried the corpses out of the cars; we carried the poor, broken wretches to the hospitals after three weeks of work in Germanj^*
They took me out to the front and I tried to get through. It was impossible. They did not want me to learn the truth. But I got a man through and back to me, and he told me what they did, what they had done with the men there. They tried to put them in the trenches and make them dig. What had been the result?
THE UNCONQUERABLE COURAGE OF MARTYRS
Those men, filled with love for their country, refused to work; so they took twelve of the best of them and tied their hands to posts outside of the city and let them hang there for thirty-two hours without nourishment, and then they fainted or died rather than fight against their brothers in the trenches! That is just one of the stories of the courage of those men over there !
I see them again across those terrible swamps, up to their waists in the mire and dirt, shot at with blank cartridges in order to make them sign the contracts so that Germany might publish to the world that they were willing workers ; that they had come from Belgium to Germany in order to execute the work they needed so much.
It is for you to bring these scenes be- fore the public. You cannot all fight, but you can bring these scenes before the public and help those who do fight.
I will tell you about one man who stood beside me in Valenciennes. He came to
me in the early morning and said, "I can- not work any more ; I have got to leave." I said, "You are the captain of your
own soul. You know what you are do-
• _ >>
mg.
"Yes," he said, "I have stood this as long as I can ; I have got to quit." So he quit and left the work because it was too horrible.
What is the sequel? Today, in these early spring days, he is leading his Brit- ish soldiers into battle because he pre- ferred to fight rather than to see the Ger- man officers opposite him, with his hands tied. He fights the hardest because he is once more approaching that little country which he loves so much.
ARE WE "the most generous people in
THE WORLD?"
You are going to make an appeal to this country. You are starting to do so. On behalf of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, six or seven weeks ago, I talked one day in Boston. After the meeting the Bishop of Massachusetts was so kind as to say he would come to the house where I was going to dine that evening. •
You are as well acquainted with the fact as I am that the Bishop of Massa- chusetts made the most successful appeal to this country ever made in the raising of church pension funds. The task was believed impossible — that task in which he succeeded beyond the sum which even ' he expected to raise.
He turned to me that evening and his first words were these: "You are going ta have the best time of your life appeal- ing to this country for funds* You are going to deal with the most generous people in the world, and you are going to deal with their best impulses."
I have found it to be the case ! I ap- proached with hesitancy, with timidity. I am no speaker, least of all one who can make a successful appeal, especially to those I have known best. When I asked for hundreds, I received thousands. When I asked for thousands, I received tens of thousands.
It showed me that our people are alive to the fact that now they must give, and give with both hands ; that now no longer
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BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE
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those who cannot enter the conflict should stand aside and shame their country. I was dumbfounded at the response I re- ceived from all sides, from high and from low.
"five kids of my own, but ready to help"
Again and again I appealed in behalf of the children, and some working man in his embarrassment would arise in the throng and finally would bravely say, "Well, I have got five kids of my own, but I can take on another one if you want me to." That was the response from all sides.
I remember one day in particular. When I went to my work that morning a friend said to me, "You look rather dis- couraged this morning." "Yes," I said, "I see no hope in the situation today." He said, "You will never be discouraged if you will follow the Great Captain the way I do." That was, of course, the re- sponse of the Bishop of Massachusetts, given to me in that way.
It seemed an almost impossible, hope- less task to raise these hundreds of thou- sands of dollars, but he said: "It seems very easy after you have gotten frankly into the hearts of the people, after you have taken them right into your confi- dence, after you visualize the situation.
"If you can visualize your work, if you can make them see the things in the
battlefield, if you can make them feel and give them the vision as you have it, then you will find the response is imme- diate and glad. It is not only those who have been educated in giving to whom you can successfully appeal, for gener- osity lies in the human heart, and it is the most blessed thing man can do, to give rather than to receive."
GIVING WITH BOTH HANDS
In New York I went to see a man — one of the most influential, one of the wealthiest men of this country — ^to thank him for the thousands and thousands of dollars he had sent to Belgium. I gave him the figures and showed him the de- vastated condition of northern France and showed him the shattered fields, without a tree standing, without a fruit tree that will ever bear fruit again.
His reply was the same reply you are going again and again to receive : "What am I going to do? Belgium is closed. How can I help? I would like to help more than I did."
I replied to him, "Here is the Red Cross. It knows this work and how it is being conducted and how it should be done." He then said most promptly, "I have given with one hand before ; now I am going to give with two hands !"
That is the reply which will come from all sides in this work we are now under- taking.
BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE
By Herbert C. Hoover Chairman of the Committee for Reuef in Belgium
I ALWAYS feel an infinite embar- rassment at the reception and over- estimation of the part that I may have played in what is really an institu- tional engine, and the credit for which belongs, not to myself, but to some fifty thousand volunteers who have worked for a period now of nearly three years. During the whole of this period we have had as one of our duties the care of the civilian population in northern France. We are, I think, the only Amer-
icans who have been in intimate contact or even in any contact with that impris- oned population. We are the only group who know of their suffering, of their misery, of their destruction, and who know of what confronts those people even after peace.
We have always entertained the hope that possibly some other engine, some other organization, might be found that could adequately take in hand their wounds and bind up their difficulties, re-
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BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE
441
habilitate them into a position again of self-support.
That is probably the greatest problem of all the war. There is an untold de- struction of property, a total displace- ment of population, an enormous loss of human life, a loss of animals, a loss of implements — a population of probably three millions of people totally and abso- lutely unable to get back onto their feet without help.
WHERE ONLY THE VULTURE COULD LIVE
About the end of March the retreat of the German army over a small area opened up to the world a vision of what had really happened to the three millions. It was but a little parcel in France that was recovered, with a population of only 30,000 people.
I had visited that area from behind the lines and again visited it from the Allies* side. I found that every village, with the exception of two small areas, had been totally destroyed.
The Germans had erected battering rams, had destroyed and burned villages, had leveled everything to the ground, had gathered up all the agricultural imple- ments in open squares and burned them, had taken all the animals, and had re- moved all the male portion of the popula- tion between the ages of 18 and 65 years.
Even the fruit trees have been de- stroyed, and that entire section, of prob- ably 60 miles in length and over 20 or 25 miles in depth, has been devastated to such an extent that those people cannot get back onto their feet without an en- tire replacement of all of the engines by which production is carried on.
This is but a sample of what we have to expect from practically the entire area. The cost of rehabilitation runs into fig- ures which should startle all except Americans, and perhaps Americans even in the larger figures in which we have begun to think.
THE DAMAGE RUNS INTO BILLIONS
I made a rough estimate of the imme- diate amount of money required to re- habilitate that little parcel of population and to support them for one year ; to pro- vide them with their implements, to give
them the roughest kind of housing, to get them back to the point where they may get the land into cultivation and get into self-support, would run somewhere from seven to ten millions of dollars.
Altogether the north of France is prob- ably faced with a total expenditure for rehabilitation which will reach a billion and a half dollars.
There are other problems in France also demanding immediate help. Tuber- culosis from exposure in the trenches, from a population in many sections par- tially undernourished, has spread to the most alarming degree. The French, busy and intent upon the war, with limited re- sources, have not neglected the prob- lem ; but ^hey need help, they need sani- tary support, and they need care and di- rection. I am informed that there has been an increase above normal in tuber- cular cases in France, in the men alone, of over 600,000.
There is still a further field in France, and that is the children. The orphans of France increase day by day. That serv- ice is one. which probably touches more nearly to the heart of every American than any other we can do.
BLEEDING FRANCE ON LIBERTY'S PYRE
On the children of France rests abso- lutely the hope of France, because today France is sacrificing her manhood on a pyre devoted to liberty and a pyre de- voted to our protection.
In these three problems the American people have an outlet for all of their generosity, for all their capacity of or- ganization, and that has never before been presented to them.
The problem of Belgium is a problem much the same as France, but a problem of much less dimensions, so far as we see it today.
If the Red Cross could now consoli- date the whole of eflfort directed toward civilian charity to civilian support in France, it would have laid the foundation for probably the greatest work which the American people must undertake as one of the aftermath results of the whole war.
I have long had the feeling thdt all civilian charities in Europe should be better organized and better consolidated
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THE HOSPITALS ARE NOT SPARED
These nurses, both of whom have been decorated for bravery, perform their acts of mercy in the front line clearing hospital. Poisonous gas is no respecter of the Red Cross, so it is necessary for the young women to wear the same protective masks which the fighting men use in warding off the fatal fumes released by the Germans.
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Photograph by Paul Thompson SURGICAL DRESSING-ROOM, NURSES, AND INTERNE IN U. S. ARMY HOSPITAL
RAILWAY CAR
Every facility for performing emergency operations en route from a battlefield to a base hospital is provided in these modern operating rooms on wheels
in the United States. We have had a multitude of bodies engaged in that ef- fort, a multitude of overlapping effort, a multitude of overlapping in collection of support, and a multitude of overlapping in distribution on the other side.
HELPING HEROIC PEOPLE HELP THEM- SELVES
Furthermore, as the war goes on, as times become harder, we will require a greater and a better organized effort in order to maintain that support. It re- quires an effort that not only covers the field of charity, but also covers the field of helpful finance. I do not think that any thinking person wishes to pauperize a population by pouring charity upon them.
We ourselves have undertaken to do some rehabilitating and have made some
study of that subject, which is only one of the three great problems.
We have developed a method by which we believe that these people may be put back on their feet and made self-support- ing again. If perhaps only lo or 15 per cent of the total cost may be founded in charity, these people themselves will re- pay the entire cost of their reconstitu- tion. They must be given time. The 80 per cent may be accomplished by finan- cial measures, but some one has to pro- vide the first 10 or 15 per cent to give the foundation for any adequate devel- opment of that problem.
Since coming to America I have had a number of discussions with your officials, and I have urged upon them, and they are only too glad to undertake, that problem as the problem of the Red Cross.
The Red Cross is perhaps founded
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LUNCHEON HOUR FOR THE NURSES IN THE AMERICAN HOSPITAL AT PARIS
No American undertaking in France since the beginning of the European war has received or deserved more enthusiastic endorsement than this great institution, which daily is mending the maimed who are rushed here from the trenches in Flanders.
fundamentally for the care and comfort of soldiers, but we are not fighting this war alone for the direct efficiency of bat- tle. We are fighting here for infinitely greater objectives, and th^re is no support that can be given to the American ideal, to the American objective of this war, better and greater than a proper organi- zation of that side of our civilization which we believe is today imperiled.
We are fighting against an enemy who had become dominated with a philos- ophy, with an idea, for which there is no room in this world with us. It is a na- tion obsessed with the single idea that survival of the strong warrants any ac- tion, demands any submergence of the individual to the state, which justifies their mastery of the world.
Our contention of civiHzation lies in
the tempering of the struggle for exist- ence by the care of the helpless. The survival of the strong, the development of the individual, must be tempered, or else we return two thousand years in our civilization.
While the Red Cross devotes itself to the strengthening of the strong, to the support of the soldier, it is a duty of the Red Cross to illume that part of Amer- ican character and American ideal which stands for the care of the helpless.
I had hoped, and I think that all of your officials had hoped, that it would be possible to now congregate the strength of the whole nation into the Red Cross in order that it might undertake this, pos- sibly the greatest work which we have yet to perform, and that is to bind the wounds of France !
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DEVASTATED POLAND
By Frederick Walcott
I WANT to impress upon you two things — what the Prussian system stands for, and what that system is costing the world in innocent victims.
You are all familiar, more or less, with the story of Belgium. You can never appreciate what that tragedy means until you have seen it. I want to stop just a moment in Belgium to give you two or three figures to take away with you, and pay a tribute to an organization that has been supreme there ever since the war began.
You must remember that in Belgium nearly five millions of people for many months now have been completely desti- tute and are getting their one meager meal per day, consisting of approximately three hundred grams of bread — a piece of bread about as big as my fist — and a half liter of soup — approximately a pint of soup in 24 hours; a nation, in other words, whose sole living is obtained by going up and standing in line from one to three or four or five hours a day, to wait, without shelter from the weather, for one meager meal a day given to them by charity.
That undertaking has cost approxi- mately fifteen millions of dollars per month in cash for more than two years. Ninety-five per cent of that money is being contributed by the English and French governments.
It takes between 50,000 and 60,000 people, most of them volunteer Belgians and French in Belgium and in that oc- cupied territory of northern France, to distribute this food; and that great un- dertaking is being supervised by a small group of loyal Americans, who have been working from the beginning without pay under the leadership of an inspired genius, Mr. Herbert C. Hoover.
BORN AND BRED TO THE HARDENED HEART
I went into Belgium to investigate con- ditions, and while there I had opportuni- ties to talk with the leading German officials. Among others I had a talk one
day with Governor General von Bissing, who died three or four weeks ago, a man 'jz or 73 years old, a man steeped in the "system,*'* born and bred to the hardening of the heart which that philos- ophy develops. There ought to be some new word coined for the process that a man's heart undergoes when it becomes steeped in that system.
I said to him, "Governor, what are you going to do if England and France stop giving these people money to purchase food?"
He said, "We have got that all worked out and have had it worked out for weeks, because we have expected this system to break down at any time."
He went on to say, "Starvation will grip these people in 30 to 60 days. Star\^ation is a compelling force, and we would use that force to compel the Bel- gian workingmen, many of them very skilled, to go into Germany to replace the Germans, so that they could go to the front and fight against the Enghsh and the French.
"As fast as our railway transportation could carry them, we would transport thousands of others that would be fit for agricultural work, across Europe down into southeastern Europe, into Mesopo- tamia, where we have huge, splendid irrigation works. All that land needs is water and it will blossom like the rose.
RIDDING THE LAND OF THE WEAK
"The weak remaining, the old and the young, we would concentrate opposite the firing line, and put firing squads back of them, and force them through that hne, so that the English and French could take care of their own people."
It was a perfectly simple, direct, frank reasoning. It meant that the German Government would use any force in the destruction of any people not its own to further its own ends.
I had never thought in such terms. I had read von Bernhardi and others, but I did not believe them, and the whole
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
point of view was new; but gradually the truth of it all began to dawn upon me.
After that some German officials asked if I would not go to Poland, because there the situation had gotten the best of them. There some three millions of peo- ple would die of starvation and exposure if not fed between then, a year ago, and the next crop, last October. They said, "If that thing goes on and on, it will demoralize our troops." Again that prac- tical reasoning.
I hurried into Poland under the guid- ance and always in the company of Ger- man officers, many of them very high officers, men on the general staff.
I want briefly to give you a word pic- ture of what I saw there, and again drive home the point of what that system stands for. Picture Poland, that country beween Russia and East Prussia, looking like a man's foot, with the foot pointed toward East Prussia.
In the fall of 1914 the Russian offen- sive had successfully driven the Germans back almost to East Prussia. There they dug themselves in for the winter, two and one-half millions of Russians and two and one-half millions of Germans, in a north and south line nearly 300 miles long, from East Prussia to the north and down to Galicia.
WHEN Russia's verdun feli.
It took ten months for the Germans to prepare the greatest offensive that has ever been known in military times, under General von Hindenburg. They antici- pated that in the retreat that might fol- low every railroad bridge would be de- stroyed, the railroads would be torn up, the highways and culverts and everything would .be gone, and they must make a supreme effort to be ready for all these contingencies. That started in August,
1915-
By the collapse of their great fortifica- tion at Lodz, the "Verdun" of the Rus- sian line, about 50 miles west of Warsaw, which stood there as a bulwark support- ing Russia and Poland against any in- roads by the Prussians, the situation was changed.
That fortification had been built eight or ten years back by money which the Russians had borrowed from the French
Government. I spent the entire day out there. It took only five shots from the huge howitzer, "Fat Bertha," named for Miss Bertha Krupp, that throws a shell weighing 1,900 pounds, with an effective range of 22 miles, to completely demolish that magnificent fortification.
The gun was located on a concrete foundation 13 miles away from one of the principal forts — the one that contained the most munitions. They knew twenty millions of marks' worth of provisions were in that warehouse. They knew ex- actly how much ammunition was in each one of the twenty-six forts in a semi- circle facing Prussia, and they picked out the one that contained the greatest quan- tity. Then they fired four shots, each one of which went astray.
Each one made a crater in that field, a place 150 feet in diameter and 30 or 35 feet deep.
THE UNPRECEDENTED POWER OF THE BUSY BERTHAS
The fifth, getting the range by aero- plane, struck the center of that fortifica- tion, and the combined explosion of that shell with the explosion of the ammtmi- tion in the firing pits, detonated by the explosion of the shell, threw chtmks of concrete one-fourth the size of a big room out into the field as if they were paper, turned over those . six- and eight-inch guns, mounted on their heavy carriages, with 15-inch steel turrets over them, and dumped them out in the field as if they were nothing.
I went around through some of the firing pits that were more or less intact, and there the German officer pointed out to me the forms of men against the con- crete.
He said 450 men were killed instantly ; that in some of the firing pits they were plastered up against the wall and flat- tened as flies would be against a window- pane, so that they had to spade the bodies off.
The whole Russian line collapsed with the surrender of that fortification. The commandant of the Russians telephoned to the German commander and said, "We will surrender the fortification if you will stop firing."
"No," he said, "not until you have sur-
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SISTERS IN THE ARISTOCRACY OF SERVICE TO MANKIND
Many American girls are already serving in the hospitals of France, and the number will have been enormously increased before General Pershing's expeditionary force goes into action. In this illustration are shown the daughter of a prominent New York capitalist and a member of the British royal family at work in the American Hospital in Paris.
rendered all your men ; and if you bum that warehouse we will not take your men alive."
"It is all yours." And it was all over with the Russians in Russian Poland. That Russian line, 300 miles long, swept across Russian Poland and clear into Russia before it stopped, trying every now and then to resist, but failing, con- tinued its retreat.
That gray mass of men traversed three great military highways, fighting along the southern road commencing 30 miles
west of Warsaw and going 230 miles to- ward Moscow, clear into Russia, covering an area three times the size of New York State and nearly three times the size of New England, excepting Maine, contain- ing fifteen millions of Poles.
AN EMPIRE LAID WASTE
I motored along those roads, the two running toward Petrograd and the one toward Moscow. They are all in very much the same condition. The German officers and the Poles who were with me,
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Photograph by Stanley Washburn
THE EXODUS FROM POLAND
Fleeing from their homes to escape the ruthless fury of the conqueror, thousands of these unfortunates died of starvation, leaving their bodies upon the roadside to mark the line of march of a stricken people; and those responsible for this great crime with ruthless thrift gathered the bones of their victims to fertilize the fields which the dead had once called home-land.
with whom I consulted, agreed in this estimate, that in about six weeks time, a year ago last fall, approximately one mil- lion people along that southern road were made homeless by the burning of their dwellings, and of this one million people at least four hundred thousand died in the flight along that one road.
Of the balance approximately half were saved and gathered by the Germans later into refugee camps, and today, according to the Central Relief Committee of Po- land, approximately seven hundred and fifty thousand of those miserable refu- gees who escaped with the Russian army are now in Russia, many of them in Si- beria, and more dead than alive.
HUMAN BONES FOR FERTILIZER!
It is those people whom the committee has been trying to relieve, because no- body has been able to get food or help into Russian Poland proper, with the ex- ception of one undertaking of the Rocke- feller Foundation.
As I motored along that road, only a few weeks after that terrible retreat, I be- gan to realize something of what had hap- pened. Both sides of the road were com- pletely lined for the whole 230 miles with mud - covered and rain - soaked clothing. The bones had been cleaned by the crows, which are in that country by countless thousands. It is a rich alluvial country. Three-quarters of the people are agri- culturists and one-quarter industrial.
The Prussians had come along and gathered up the larger bones, because they were useful to them as phosphates and fertilizer. The little finger bones and toe bones were still there with the rags of clothing.
The little wicker baby baskets, that hold the baby as he swings by a rope or chain from the rafters of the peasant's cottage, were there by hundreds upon hundreds. I started counting them for the first mile or two and gave up in de- spair, because there were so many.
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Photograph by Stanley Washburn POLISH JEWS LOOKING FOR A NEW HOME
These wanderers in a wilderness of woe, like their forebears in Palestine, have a pillar of fire to guide them by night; but it is to guide them away from their homes, kindled by the torch of war, instead of a flame to pilot them to a Land of Promise.
We began to investigate the conditions of those who were still alive, those refu- gees who were homeless. We saw no buildings in that whole 230 miles. Every- thing had been destroyed ; nothing but the bare chimney, black and charred, was standing: no live stock, no farm imple- ments, in all that vast area.
I saw with my own eyes between fifty and sixty thousand of the six or seven hundred thousand of those refugees who had been gathered together, about a thousand to a building, in rude, hardly weather-proof barracks hurriedly put up by the Germans.
A STATE OF INDESCRIBABLE WOE
There they were, lying on the ground in broken families, getting one starvation ration a day, dying of disease and hunger and exposure. The buttons from their clothing were gone ; their clothes had to be sewed on.
When I saw them they had not had their clothes off for weeks. There were no conveniences of life. They were in a state of bodily filth that is indescribable.
Going back to the cities, where the de- struction was not so awful, we saw little people and grown people, mothers and children, sitting on the sidewalk, leaning against a building, sometimes covered with snow or rain-soaked, too weak to lift their hands to take the money or bread that we might offer them.
All the wealthy people of Poland were giving everything they owned to save their nation.
One day one of the Poles, the head of the great Central Relief Committee of Poland, a wonderful man, wealthy before the war, but who has given everything he possessed to save his people, showed me a proclamation and translated it for me. It was written in Polish and I could not read it. It was signed by the German Governor-General, and the significance of it was this: It was made a misdemeanor for any Pole having food to give it to any other able-bodied Pole who would refuse to go into Germany to work.
That meant that this "system" had put it up to the head of any of the various families to go into voluntary slavery in
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O International Film Service IN FRONT OF THE BELGRADE MISSION OF THE RED CROSS UNIT IN SERBIA
Germany, knowing that he could not hear from his family or communicate with them, knowing that he would be back of a barbed-wire barricade with an armed guard to keep him from escaping, with one blanket to sleep in on the factory floor at night; knowing that the money he earned would be taken for the food he ate, leaving his family in starvation.
"starvation a GREAT FORCE"
I took this matter up with the Gover- nor-General and asked him what it meant.
He said, "I do not know; I have to sign so many of those things; but," he continued, "go to the Governor-General of the Warsaw district and he will tell you the whole story."
I went there in a rage, and when he told me that those were the facts, I got up and said: "General, I cannot discuss this thing with you ; it is worse than any- thing I ever heard of. I did not suppose any civilized nation would be guilty of such a thing as this"; and I started to walk out.
He said, "Wait a minute: I want to explain this thing to you. We do not look at it as you do. Starvation is a great force, and if we can use that to the ad- vantage of the German Government we are going to use it.
"Furthermore, this is a rich alluvial country. We have wanted it and needed it for a long time, and if these people die off through starvation, perhaps a lot of German people will overflow into this country and settle here; and after the war, if we have to give up Poland, the question of the liberty of Poland will be solved forever, because it will be a Ger- man province."
still the "system" 1
Still the reasoning of that "system"! As I walked out. General von Bernhardi came into the room, an expert artillery- man, a professor in one of their war col- leges. I met him the next morning, and he asked me if I had read his book, "Ger- many in the Next War."
I said I had. He said, "Do you know, my friends nearly ran me out of the
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O Underwood & Underwood
CRUDE AND SPRINGLESS AMBULANCES ON THE RUSSIAN FRONT
A conveyance of any kind was a luxury for the Russian wounded after the fall of Warsaw. Compared with 64,000 ambulances on the 400-mile front in France, Russia has only 6,000 ambulances I0 serve the wounded on a front of 1,000 miles.
country for that. They said, 'You have let the cat out of the bag.' I said, *No, I have not, because nobody will believe it.' What did you think of it?"
I said, "General, I did not believe a word of it when I read it, but I now feel that you did not tell the whole truth"; and the old general looked actually pleased.
What is true in Poland, is true in Serbia and in Roumania. In Serbia approxi- mately three-quarters of a million people have died miserably. A German captain who had been there three months, in that campaign through Serbia, told me that he saw the Bulgarian soldiers killing inno- cent men and women and children along the road with their bayonets : that it got too much even for him, and he could not stand it and came back. He said they had tvphus in every city he visited in Poland.
In Roumania practically six hundred thousand people have been murdered in cold blood by the Turks. All the armed
forces in that country are officered by Germans, so they are in a sense guilty of that, too ; they are parties to it.
A MAD DOG AMONG NATIONS
There is a wild dog, a mad dog, loose. That system has become so ingrown that it threatens to involve the German people themselves. I tell you, ladies and gentle- men, it is worth while, if it costs every- thing in the world, to stop that system!
Ever since the signing of the Declara- tion of Independence we have welcomed people who have come to these shores to get away from religious and political per- secution. They have come here to enjoy life and liberty and the pursuit of happi- ness. I hope and we all hope that these shores always will welcome those people.
The people that came here, particularly the Germans that came in 1848 and the two or three years following, and in 1872 and thereafter, knew why they came, and now we know why they came. For two years we have been suspicious of the
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Photograph from Brown Brothers
AN AMERICAN AMBULANCE ROLLING THROUGH A RUINED TOWN IN FRANCE
The locomotive engineers of one of our great Western railway systems have asked their general manager to deduct from their wages during the period of the war a voluntary con- tribution of fifty cents a month. There are 450,000 men in the train service, and that would mean a substantial contribution to the Red Cross.
hyphen, but it behooves us, as a free, lib- erty-loving people, to get over that sus- picion, to dispel from our hearts rancor and hatred, because the fire of American- ism has fused that hyphen in an incred- ibly short time, and we must assume that the German-American today is one with us, and that free America, with all its citizenship, is going in whole-heartedly, with money and with men, to fight for a free world.
NO TIME TO COUNT THE COST
What IS that going to cost us?
We
must not count the cost, though that cost Avill be terrific. It has already over- Avhelmed the nations of Europe. The "blood and the travail of Europe thus far, terrible as it has been, may be justified by the birth of a great nation, the United States of Russia, and I pray God de- voutly that the last stages of this war, terrible as they are going to be, awful as
will be the cost, may be justified by the birth of another great nation, the United States of Germany !
It devolves upon this great organiza- tion, the American Red Cross, first to heal the suflFering of the combatants, first to look after our soldiers and to help the soldiers of our allies.
But after that, do not let us forget our duty to the innocent victims in this war. because after this war the nations that have been belligerents and engaged in the war arc going to be so seriously crippled that they will have to give all their strength to recuperation. They cannot give to their people.
It is going to devolve upon this nation to go in there, remembering our duty, re- membering the fate of Belgium and Po- land, to resuscitate those people and give them hope and prove to them that there is a God in Heaven, and that liberty is worth any price !
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Photograph from Brown Brothers
CONVOY OF TRUCKS PASSING THROUGH A WRECKED VILLAGE NEAR VERDUN
"Within a few months we should and will have in service an army of 1,000.000 and a navy of 150,000 men. These men must have our best. To prepare against their needs in advance will be a stupendous task which the Red Cross must undertake."
AMERICA'S DUTY
By Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War
I SHALL not attempt to describe the size of our American duty beyond saying that the human race is a waif left to die unless we, as trustees, accept the task of rescuing it.
I suppose there has not been, since the very early times in human history, a war in which slaughter was so casual as it is in this. Of course, there has not been in recorded human history a war in which slaughter was so tremendous in its pro- portions as in this war.
I speak of its casual character because for a great many hundred years we have been progressing in the direction of lim- iting the horrors of war to the combat- ants, and that in this twentieth century we should revert to the casual slaughter of children, to the improvident slaughter
of women, to the theory of warfare by the extermination of peoples, and to the use of weapons of war like starvation and disease — for both of them have be- come weapons of war — is an unthinkable reversion to a barbarous type which it was the hope of the intelligent that the world had outgrown.
TRAGIC FIGURES IN HISTORY
But, whatever the cause, the fact re- mains that the suffering of the people in these warring countries is more wide- spread, the desolation and devastation more complete, than ever before within the knowledge of living persons ; and as this mode of warfare has not spared little persons, so it has not spared little nations.
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AMBULANCE FLEET IN THE COURT OF HONOR, HOTEL DES INVALIDES : PARIS
"Just as the fighting manhood of the United States is soon to be in the trenches, so the Red Cross, which has done so much for the Allies in the past, is now eager to be mobilized in the allied Army of Mercy."
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FRENCH WAR ORPHANS ON THEIR WAY TO CANNES, SOUTHERN FRANCE
Many of these children, made waifs by the world war, are assured a brighter future because they now have foster parents in America. Recently there has been organized in the United States a society each member of which assumes the financial responsibility for the care and maintenance of a particular child. Ten cents a day, or $36 a year, is all that is required to insure some innocent little war sufferer food and clothing.
Photograph by Paul Thompson A BREAD LINE AT GHENT, BELGIUM Our government is now advancing $7,5QO,ooo monthly to Belgium to help feed these lines
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Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams
BANDAGING A WOUNDED DOG
In Flanders they still "Cry 'Havoc' and let slip the dogs of war." But the dogs follow after the havoc and are not party to it. With a heroism that makes them akin to their mas- ters, these gallant animals carry succor to the helpless and the dying who lie in no-man's land between the trenches. Heartless indeed must be the sharpshooter who can make a target of one of these dumb messengers of mercy.
I suppose that when this war comes to be written as an epic — and it will some day be written as an epic of the folly of mankind — the tragic figures in it that will persist in the imagination and mem- ory of mankind forever will be countries like Belgium and Roumania and Poland.
America's duty! We are separated from the actual scene of this conflict by thousands of miles of sea. Our losses in it have as yet been minor. We are enter- ing the war in the firm belief and pur- pose of ending it in a victory for right, and we have not the slightest intention of stopping until that victory is achieved 1
Mad as the world seems to be, some day there will be reestablished on this stricken planet a peace which will be just and wise and permanent — just in propor- tion as America pours out her spiritual resources in the waging of the war from now on and is heard at the conference table to challenge the attention of man-
kind to the beauty of righteousness among nations!
But in the meantime, as the armies which are being called are trained and are led to battle, all along the national wayside of every nation in the world still crouch the terrified and trampled figures of the children of 'mankind — disowned, starving, and dying.
HORRORS THAT MAKE THE STOUTEST HEARTS QUAII,
There is no limit to it, and I shall not undertake to harrow your feelings — in fact, I am not certain that I could com- mand myself to repeat intimate letters which I have seen within the last day or two about Roumania.
But the call is limitless and it is going to be made known to the hearts of the people of the United States, and we are going to endeavor to respond to this cry of distress. The President has urged
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STAND BY THE SOLDIER
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that the Red Cross be made the vehicle of our response.
Organization for any task is the more important as the task becomes larger and more serious. It requires no organiza- tion to allow one of us as an individual to buy a dinner for a hungry man. But it requires a very high degree of organi- zation effectively and economically and wisely to administer the charities of a city. It requires a very much higher de- gree of organization and coordination to make effective the philanthropies of a nation.
By that same token it requires the highest degree of organization, of con- centration and consecration of purpose, the most careful cooperation, the most willing harmony, the utmost centraliza- tion of effort, to deal with the woes of a world.
And so, in the interest of making ef- fective our generous impulses, in the in- terest of saving just as many as we can — facing an impossible task in size, and yet seeking to save life and alleviate pain and suffering just as far as we can — the con- centration of our efforts through the Red Cross, which has both a national and an international status and is managed and conducted by men of large affairs and great experience with this sort of thing, seems to be essentially demanded.
I think if anybody would ask me how much he ought to give to the Red Cross at this time I would say, "All you have.'*
That is a counsel of perfection, I know, but then it would not be enough.
I understand the War Council has set itself the task of raising one hundred million dollars.
GIVE TILL YOU FEEL IT
That may sound to some like a large amount, and yet this war is costing in actual money every day from sixty to seventy millions of dollars, and in human life from ten to fifteen thousand of those who are killed in actual warfare, without counting those who starve and die of disease.
The Red Cross of the United States of America has set itself the great task of raising for, one might say, cosmic phil- anthropy a sum equal to the destruction which the war entails in a day.
I cannot further describe the size of this task. I am very happy to repeat the admonition of the President of the United States to the people that they cen- tralize their energies. Let us have as little lost motion as possible about this great enterprise, and center our activi- ties in this national and international agency. The response which we ought to make ought to be limited only by the extent to which our sympathy, enlight- ened by knowledge and stirred by imagi- nation, and then overstepping rather than understepping the mark, will enable us to make sacrifices for the greatest need the world has ever known !
STAND BY THE SOLDIER
By Major General John J. Pershing, U. S. Army
I HAVE been requested by some of the officers of .the Red Cross to say a word as to the part that organiza- tion played in our little expedition into Mexico.
Just before Christmas, an official of the Red Cross wrote me a note and asked me what the Red Cross could do for the men in Mexico. ...
There was ruot ^anything that we really needed, but her idea was to arouse a little enthusiasm among the members of the
Red Cross by encouraging them to work for our own people; so I telegraphed her a list of things that I thought might be acceptable as Christmas presents, in- cluding cigarettes, cigarette papers, smok- ing tobacco, pipes, old-fashioned candy, comfort bags, bandanna handkerchiefs, pocket-knives, and perhaps a dozen arti- cles, thinking that she would select frcJm these some one thing to give to each man. But she took the telegram literally, and sent word around to the various chapters
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A POISONED WORLD
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throughout the country, and prepared not only a comfort bag, but a comfort bag containing each and every one of those articles for each man in the division.
We arranged a Christmas tree and had various Christmas celebrations at the various camps, and those presents were distributed.
MAKE THE SOLDIERS FEEL YOU'rE BACK OF THEM
The point I wish to make is that those things cause the soldier to remember that the people at home are behind him. You do not know how much that is going to mean to us who are going abroad. You do not know how much that means to any soldier who is over there carrying the flag for his country. That is the point which should be uppermost in the minds of those who are working for the soldier.
The great work, however, for this Red Cross is to help our allies. As I under- stand it, the people in Fr3,nce need sup- plies of all kinds. Thereifore, it is our first duty to help them rehabilitate them- selves.
We must help their orphans and their widows. We must help put them in a position to produce. We must help them
in every way to relieve the French nation from the drain upon it which will, in turn, be a drain upon its military re- sources.
Our people have not begun to realize that we are in this great war. It is all very well to write newspaper editorials about it and to talk about it on the plat- form ; but it has not yet been impressed upon the people everywhere.
I have just come from a county where they talk to you and say, "Oh, well, we haven't lost anybody ; none of our vessels has been destroyed, and we do not really feel that we are at war."
I put this question to all such men: "Now that we are in this war, do you realize that we must take the place of every man that is killed among the Allies, that we must support the widows and orphans? If we do not, who will do it?"
The representatives of business inter- ests are the men to start this enterprise among our people and bring them to a full realization of the very grave serious- ness of this war, to make them feel that we are in this war to win, and the prob- ability is that our entering this war is going to be the deciding factor, and that the burden of the success is going to rest upon the United States.
A POISONED WORLD
By William Howard Taft Ex-President op the United States
^REVIEW of the dreadful horror uL of this war brings back to one the iV attitude of mind of many good people in the outset of the war, who wrote communications and expressed themselves orally to the effect that this had shaken Iheir faith in the existence of a God ; that it could not be that a good God would permit the horror and agony of spirit of his children such as we saw before our eyes.
The war goes on. There has, it seems to me, developed in the war some evi- dence of the divine plan of eliminating
from the family of nations a conspiracy to put the world under the heel of a ruth- less philosophy of military force to take away the liberty of mankind.
If you will study the history of Ger- many for the last half century, you will see that conspiracy disclosing itself more and more clearly.
The doctrine preached openly in the philosophy of that country was that there is no international morality ; that there is no rule by which a nation may be gov- erned except that of self-preservation, as it is called, which means self -exploitation
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WOUNDED GOING TO THE AMBUI^ANCE
The work of the American Red Cross "everywhere in France" has served to seal the bond of fraternity between the two nations more closely than any other agency since the beginning of the war. From this time forth the red badge of courage and compassion will be worn by those who must minister to our own wounded as well as to our brother allies in arms.
over the ruins of other civilizations and other peoples and other nations.
THE MINDS OF A PEOPI^E POISONED
So deftly has that conspiracy been car- ried on that the minds of a great people — a people that have demonstrated their greatness in many fields — even in that fifty years, have been poisoned into the conviction that it is their highest duty to subordinate every consideration of hu- manity to the exaltation and the develop- ment of military force, so that by that force they can take from the rest of the world what is needed to accomplish their destiny, at whatever cost of honor or principle.
I yield to no man in my admiration for most of the quahties or all of the qualities of the German people except this obses- sion that they have been given through the instilling of that poison in the last fifty years.
Where do you see the working out of the divine plan? That was a cancer in
the world. It had grown to be so for- midable that it needed a capital operation to excise it and restore the world again to the station in the development of Christian civilization which, but for that, we would not have reached.
So we have seen it in the destruction of the greatest autocracy, perhaps — at least apparently the greatest autocracy — Russia, whose alliance with the Entente Allies gave for the time the lie or appar- ently gave the lie to the proposal that they were fighting the cause of freedom, fighting the cause of freedom against ab- solutism.
That toppled over, and now we have arrayed on the one side the democracies of the world against the military autocra- cies on the other, and the issue has been clearly drawn so that it may be seen by the wayfaring man, though a fool.
Accompanying this devotion to military efficiency, as a God, has come that blind- ness which is in the end to destroy the HohenzoUern philosophy of government.
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Left to right, front row, Robert W. De Forest, vice-president ; Woodrow Wilson, Presi- dent of the Red Cross; former President William H. Taft, chairman of the executive com- mittee; Eliot Wadsworth, acting chairman. In the back row are Henry P. Davison, chair- man of the War Council ; Grayson P. Murphy, Charles D. Norton, and Edward N. Hurley, all members of the War Council. Cornelius N. Bliss, Jr., the only other member of the council, was not present.
After two and a half years of struggle that has tested the endurance nearly to the breaking point of the great nations engaged, Germany, in that confidence that she has in the science of warfare, has said: "We will starve England into sub- mission and we will end the war," and in the accomplishment of that she forced, because she had to force, into the ranks of her enemies, at a time when this war is to be determined by money, by re- sources, and by men, the nation that can furnish more money, more resources, more equipment, and more men than any nation in the world !
And now, my friends, do not let us minimize the task we have before us. We Americans are a good people — we admit it ; but one of our weaknesses is an
assumption, justified by a good many things that have saved us from egregious mistakes in the past, that God looks after children, drunken men, and the United States !
We have got beyond that reliance — I do not know whether we have or not, but we are going to get beyond that reliance. Germany is not exhausted. She is, by reason of this system of fifty years stand- ing, the greatest military nation that ever was organized, and she still has great fighting power ; and she arrayed ourselves as her enemies because, with that devo- tion to system, with that failure to under- stand the influence of moral force in a people, she was contemptuous of what we, who had ignored military prepara- tion, could do in this war.
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HANDS THAT ARE QUICK TO HEAI,
Like this mother and daughter, many Americans, who are now serving in the ranks of Red Cross workers in France, had never known hardship or privation until they volunteered to assume the responsibilities of war service, in order that they might mitigate the suffering of the men who actually bear the brunt of battle.
She has now made an egregious error, as it is for us to show. When we went into this war there were a good many people that thought all we had to do was to draw a check or several checks for a billion dollars, and that "George" would do the fighting.
THE FRUIT OF GERMANY'S CONTEMPT
That is not the case. One of the things which has happened ought to give us the greatest hope and satisfaction. It is largely due to the gentleman who has just addressed us, the Secretary of War, and the President of this administration.
We have begun right in the raising of
an army, and that is one thing gained. We have provided for a miUion or per- haps a million and a half of men. That probably will not be enough.
A great deal better that we should make overpreparation in a matter in which the whole welfare of the world is engaged than that we should make underprepara- tion!
What has been said I only wish to re- peat, and that is, while we can intellectu- ally, perhaps, visualize the war, if we sit down to think about it, we do not in our hearts feel it yet. It is something apart from us.
I read the other day, as doubtless you
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Photograph by Brown Brothers
NO SURCEASE FROM LABORS 01^ LOVE
Even a Red Cross nurse has an occasional respite from toil ; but so eager is the spirit of help that during moments of recreation the hands that are accustomed to binding wounds and ministering to the suffering are employed at knitting.
read, "Mr. Britling Sees It Through," and studied the psychological develop- ment of the coming of the war to him. That is what we have got to have.
SOON we'll realize we're at war
We shall not realize what the war is until our men, those beloved by us, have been exposed to the dreadful dangers, to the character of wounding that is so hor- rible under this modern system of war- fare, and until we all go to the bulletins and study the names to see whether those who are near and dear to us have been taken for their country's sake.
Then the war will come in to us. Then there will be nothing but the war and everything else will be incidental; and until that psychological change has come, we shall not feel the whole measure of our duty as we must feel in order to carry this war through.
The Red Cross is the only recognized agency through which we may help to take care of the wounded of the armies and the nations that are fighting our battles.
It is an admirable arrangement that some such avenue as that should be sup- plied to give vent to the patriotic desire
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© Underwood & Underwood A GROUP OP WORKERS AT THIS NEW YORK HEADQUARTERS 0? THE AMERICAN
RED CROSS
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THE RED CROSS SPIRIT
467
of those who cannot go to the front, to help in behalf of their country and the world. Every country- litas a Red Cross, and every country must have it, because no army can furnish the instrumentali- ties adequate to meet the proportion of wounded that this war furnishes.
SIX MILLION BEDS OF PAIN
Think of it! Forty million at the colors, seven million dead, six million on beds of pain, and the whole of Europe taken up with hostilities !
You cannot exaggerate the function that our Red Cross will have to perform merely in attending to the wounded of our army and other armies in carrying
on this fight. Therefore, one hundred million dollars, great as the sum seems, is inadequate; but the first hundred million dollars will be the hardest hundred mil- lion to raise I
And we must leave no doubt about it. I thank God that the organization is in such competent hands to do the great work that has to be done.
And now, my friends, the one thing for which we ought to be grateful is that in this great war, in this war in which we shall have to make sacrifices — oh, such sacrifices, so great that they wring tears from us as we think of them — we should be grateful that we have a cause worthy of all the sacrifices that we can make !
THE RED CROSS SPIRIT
By Eliot Wadsworth
IT IS a most satisfactory fact that the Red Cross was able to call into the field and send to Europe the first actual help that we have extended to our allies, in the form of those six base hos- pital units which were called and sailed. Inside of three weeks the whole six units were on the water going to Europe, where they will take over existing hospitals and relieve the overworked staffs who have been struggling with their problem of caring for the wounded for nearly the last three years.
SACRIFICES THAT COUNT
The sacrifice these people make who go, particularly the doctors, is one that we cannot forget. When a busy doctor answers the call, such as Dr. Brewer in New York, it is something we should never forget. Dr. Brewer received his telegram that he was to go.
He was here the next morning to make the arrangements, and I met him, talked with him a minute, and he said: "My house IS to rent. I have performed my last operation in this country. I am go- ing to use every bit of my time from now on to enlist the balance of the personnel, getting my uniforms, and getting the men
ready and everything in good order so that we can go."
Such a sacrifice by a busy doctor, with a tremendous practice, cannot be meas- ured in money. Any business man could afford to give a check for a year's income and be allowed to stay at home and go on with his business far better than any one of those doctors can afford to go over there and practically disappear from view for how long he does not know; it may be six months, it may be a year, it may be five years.
Not a single one of them begged off. They all went, unless there was some very pressing family reason, such as a serious illness, and in all cases they ex- pressed a desire to go just as soon as they could possibly get away.
A HUNDRED PER CENT O^ GIVERS
It is a tremendous power for good that is now spread in every hamlet, in every cross-roads in the country. It is in guid- ing that power and giving it something to do, in pointing out ways in which it can help more and more as the war goes on, that the headquarters has been occupied.
The Red Cross of this country has a problem that no Red Cross has ever had
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O Harris & Ewing **UNITED WE STAND, DIVIDED WE FALI."
An illustration of the true American democracy which in times of stress swings every man into line for our country and the cause of liberty! The former Commander-in-Chief of the United States Army and Navy measuring up with his son, who decided to try to come up through the ranks and enlisted as a private in the lield artillery.
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A SQUADRON OF FRENCH RED CROSS DOGS I.KAVING PARIS
The Belgian police dogs, on account of their ability to detect and capture criminals, and the great St. Bernards, which were famous for their rescues of travelers lost in the Alpine snows, were considered the greatest heroes of the cariine world until the present war intro- duced the Red Cross dogs, whose deeds of valor in front of the front-line trenches have
RnvpH the livp<ft nf thnii<;anHQ nf <;nrplv wniinHeH.
Photograph from Brown Brothers
AN X-RAY TENT IN A BASE HOSPITAL OF THE RED CROSS
By means of these powerful rays the physician can see right through the human body, watch the beating of the heart, etc., and discover interior fractures or fragments of shell
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RECREATION HOUR IN A MILITARY CAMP, Y. M. C. A. BUILDING
One of the most important problems which has grown ont of the modern method of trench warfare, with its months of **-stale-mate'* inactivity, is that of providing diversion for the soldiers. In this work the^ Army Young Men's Christian Association is maintaining thousands of recreation centers in army camps in the United States and Europe. The work of the Association is about as varied as the men. At the Mexican Border camps there were lectures and educational classes, concerts by such talent as Schumann-Heink, popular enter- tainments, and motion-picture shows which often attracted crowds so great that the Asso- ciation buildings could not hold them. Volley-ball and base-ball also helped to offset the temptations of idle hours. The estimated number of letters written — free stationery fur- nished— reached nearly six millions.
Photograph by United States Navy Department '
CLASS IN TELEGRAPHY, NAVAL TRAINING STATION
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Photograph by C. K. Fennell
WHAT ONE MII.LION DOLLARS IN GOLD LOOK LIKE
The fifty thousand twenty-dollar gold pieces in this display fill a tray ii feet 3 inches long, 2 feet 10 inches wide, and 2 inches deep. One hundred times this amount of money is needed by the American Red Cross — a quantity of gold which would weigh 375,000 pounds and would make a column of yellow discs nearly eight miles high. And yet this vast sum, which is required for the alleviation of suffering and distress, is less than the amount the world is spending every forty-eight hours in the prosecution of this all-destroying war.
473
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47.4
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
before — that of doing its own work in our own armed forces and at the same time trying to give the greatest possible help to the nations who are in desperate need of that help and who are really fighting our battle.
The Red Cross is strong now as it was never strong before for carrying on this work, and we can go before the coimtry with absolute confidence that we can do the work that the country intrusts to us ; that we can handle the money, the volun- tary contributions that they may make, with the best possible efficiency and get the best possible results.
I know from personal observation what
the problem is in Europe. It is beyond the power of any group of men or any nation to really meet those needs. But I have at least a vision of seeing through- out this country every individual affiliated in some way with the Red Cross through a Red Cross chapter or auxiliary branch. Every individual that wants to help— and every individual does want to help — can be given a definite and practical bur- den to carrv, and thus help to make this American National Red Cross give to our allies and give to this cause one of the greatest contributions toward winning the war than any nation in the world has ever given as a voluntary offering !
THE RED CROSS SPIRIT SPEAKS
"I kneel behind the soldier's trench, I walk 'mid shambles' smear and stench,
The dead I mourn ; I bear the stretcher and I bend O'er Fritz and Pierre and Jack to mend What shells have torn.
"I am your pennies and your pounds ; I am your bodies on their rounds
Of pain afar; I am you, doing what you would If you were only where you could —
Your avatar.
*I go wherever men may dare, I go wherever woman's care
And love can live ; Wherever strength and skill can bring Surcease to human suffering,
Or solace give.
''The cross which on my arm I wear, The flag which o'er my breast I bear,
Is but the sign Of what you'd sacrifice for him Who suffers on the hellish rim
Of war's red line."
— John H. Finley.
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YOU MAY BE HELPING YOUR OWN BOY
HUNDREDS of our doctors and trained nurses at our country's call are leaving comfortable homes and lucrative practices, representing years of untiring effort, in order to care for the wounded and suffering in our army and in the armies of our Allies. (See page 467 of this number of the National Geographic Magazine, )
YOU can make their work much more effective and their hearts lighter by ensuring that they will be enabled to command every medical necessity with which to soften the pain of the anguished and the sick.
Let your dollars volunteer for our Red Cross War Fund, as our physicians and surgeons are doing.
Who knows but by such practical aid in prepar- ing and equipping our hospitals for the proper care of the nation's defenders you may be helping y your own boy 1
^^' H, p. DAVISON, ^ Chairman, American Y i J 11 ^"i^ Red Cross War Council,
Let your aOUarS ^f- Washington, D. C:
1)0 YOUR ^^ I enclose for the war
* ' fund of the American Red Cross.
Messengers of Mercy! y
• ^ Address
N.G.M.
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The Y. M- C- A- Follows Your Flag and Your Boy Wherever They Go
WOULDN'T it gladden your heart to know that big-hearted, broad-gauged men are standing by your lad in camp and can- tonment, as well as in practically every port, to give him the right hand of fellowship, to be interested in his leisure hours, and to assist him to get honest, healthful enjoyment out of them ?
In the Y. M. C. A. club-houses and athletic fields our soldiers and sailors, when jaded in body and weary of soul, find that refreshment and strengthening of inspiration which only a wise home can give.
By September our country will doubtless have at least one million men mobilized in camps this side of the ocean or in the trenches of Europe, fighting **to make the world safe,'' and by January first this army may have grown to two million men.
To Combat Dangerous, Dull Monotony An Army of a MILLION MEN will require
Two hundred Association buildings (see pages 470-472).
Twelve hundred experienced Association Secretaries.
Two hundred pianos and piano players.
Two hundred moving-picture machines.
Two hundred and sixty-eight thousand feet of film a day.
Two hundred talking machines and 10,000 records. >
Three million sheets of writing paper daily. /
Forty thousand pounds of ice per day. ^ ^
Ten thousand pens a day and many barrels of ink. /
Ninety-five automobiles and trucks. . ^
Magazines by the hundreds of tons. /
A Bible to every man. /
AND $3,000,000, to be raised at once, to cover /1^^,„„.^„^ ail the necessary expenses involved in serving ^^ ximmu.
this mUUon of men until the end of the year, y^ i24E.«Tw«ty..i,iitfcSb^.' NATIONAL WAR WORK COUNCIL OF THE /'' "-T-AOtx^ YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS y j ^n^iose for the War
OF THE UNITED STATES / Work of the y. m. c. a.
William Sloane. Chairman John R. Mott. Central Stcretaty y
Cleveland H. Dodge. 7rrdjur#r Name
124 East 28th Street, New York / ^^^
r Address
y
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To insure Victor quality, always look for the famous trademark, "His Mas-
'ays look \^
1^
I 'i
New \nctor Records demoiurtrated at all dealers on die 28tli of each mondi
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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Counting Costs and Cutting Corners
Everybody who counts costs these days cuts corners.
Take a hint from big business on the subject.
It will save you just about half of the dollars you're paying for printed matter. That much corner-cutting would count, wouldn't it?
Your costs on stationery, office forms, price-lists, and the like are higher than ever before. They're still going up, with no one sighting the end.
The way out is via the Multigraph.
That'sthe way 18, 000 businesses, big and little, cut a corner that cuts costs.
What were your bills for printing last year? Make a guess.
Write down the amount.
Subtract 25^ to 75^, depending upon how keen you are to utilize the Multigraph's normal capacity. Or be extra^conservative; take the minimum, 25%.
The result is what the Multi- graph would have put back in your pocket last year. Also it would have handed you, as a bonus, speed, convenience, privacy, dispatch, that you didn't have; and would have eliminated your waste on forms bought (to get a price) in too-large quantities.
When will you begin counting costs and cutting corners ?
Now — if you use the coupon.
You can't buy a Multigraph unless you need it
|
Tk« |
Name |
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MdUgrapli. 1821 E. 44Kk St., |
Official Pmition |
|
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CleTtl»a. Obi*. |
Firm |
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Count main /or a hukHng on |
Street AHHreM |
|
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counting cotia andctttUng cornen. |
Town |
fuili- |
"Mention the Geographic — It identifi^es you.*'
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CORD TIRE
"Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies yon."
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** Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you.'*
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"Mention the Oeograpiiic — It identifies you."
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M J^ M M M
As sentries guard the front
At the Gemco Manufacturing Company A^ factory at Milwaukee an explosion oc- ^ -^ curred in an enameling-oven and set fire to the dipping-tank.
It was all one big flash in a minute. The flames spread over an area of 1,500 square feet, threatening a great conflagration.
As the flames mushroomed over the ceiling, however, something else happened. Up there, in military array, stood little mechanical Sen- tries, protecting the inflammable contents of this fireproof building. Snap— snap— snap — snap went the Sentries ; not the rattle of guns, but the snap of the mechanical triggers of the Grinnells, touched off by the heat. Instantly that fire-swept area was the scene of a drench- ing rain.
All along the ceiling, amid burning gases, Grinnell Sprinklers were working intensely.
At the first moment the glass in the win- dows had dropped out and flames rolling forth had climbed to an open window on the floor above. There, unknown to any one, they started a second fire. But a Grinnell Sentinel waiting up there took care of it as soon as the heat grew intense.
The fire department was prompt, but the Grinnells had done the work. There was nothing left but to turn off the water and investigate the damage. Throughout the rest of the plant, business was resumed and went on as usual.
**It saved us from a complete wreck," the Company reported.
That explains why insurance is almost free in t^af business. The plant is safe from a serious fire; the risk is small, not merely on the building itself, which is a modern fireproof structure, but on the contents as well.
MANY business men fondly imagine that if they have fireproof buildings they are safe from fire But 2II authorities will tell you that fireproof con- struction, with the usual spacious rooms and hallways, is like a steel furnace, incombus- tible itself, perhaps, but capable of letting your goods bum merrily inside of it
The awful Triangle Waist holocaust was in a fireproof building. So are plenty of other iig fires every year.
The Hinde & Dauch Paper Company, the five-million-dollar corrugated box concern of Sandusky, Ohio, were paying a fire insurance
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rate of $1.20 per hundred on the contents of their modem fireproof building. When the Grinnell System was ready for business the rate fell to 12c. per hundred, saving them $2,800 a year on insurance. (The Grinnell cost only a little over $11,000, so it was a 25^ investment paying for itself over and over again.)
In another of their Sandusky plants and in their Delphos plant the rate fell from $2. 75 to 35c. per hundred.
Observe that these were modern, well-built, fireproof buildings.
One of the biggest manufacturers of burial- caskets and phonograph-cabinets says:
*One Sunday afternoon while in my office I smelled smoke and found a fire next to the stairway. It had just started among some sweepings and I easily beat it out with my coat
*That little fire set me to thinking : Suppose I had not been there; suppose it had happened some other Sunday, or at night, and the watchman had been ten or fifteen minutes late? I was well covered by insurance, but even then a serious fire would have meant a heavy loss.*'
The contents of your building— the machin-
ery, the goods in process, the patterns, the fur- niture, the raw materials— are probably worth a great deal. Could you start with a fire-swept building and restore your going business in less than six months ? With fire insurance you are only half protected.
Sentries are self-paid
To protect the uninsured part, put a Grin- nell Sentry over each and every 80 square feet. What they save on the cost of insuring your property values will usually pay their whole cost in a few years.
Grinnell Systems are easily installed, without disturbance to occupants or interruption of busi- ness, because Grinnell Systems are shop-assem- bled and brought up to the job complete, save for a few last connections.
Write— now— to the General Fire Extin- guisher Company, 293 West Exchange Street, Providence, R. I., and get a copy of the Grin- nell Information Blank. Fill it out with the required facts as to floor area, insurance car- ried, etc., and we can tell you in round fig- ures about how much saving in insurance a Grinnell System would bring you. Wouldn't you like to get your insurance almost free?
Don't theorize— get the figures!
GRINNELL
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER SYSTEM TTiQ Factory^semblQdSystom
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'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you,'* ^ j
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Meeting the Universal Need
In the high passes of the moun- tains» accessible only to the dcuring pioneer and the sure-footed burro, there are telephone linemen string- ing wires.
Across bays or rivers a flat-bot- tomed boat is used to unreel the message-bearing cables and lay them beneath the water.
Over the sand-blown, treeless desert a truck train plows its way with tele- phone material and supplies.
Through dense forests linemen are felling trees and cutting a swath for lines of wire-laden poles.
Vast telephone extensions are pro- gressing simiJtaneously in the waste E laces as well as in the thickly popu- ited communities.
These betterments are ceaseless and they are voluntary, requiring the ex- penditure of almost superhumsui imagination, energy and large capital
In the Bell organissation, besides the army of manual toilers, there is an army of experts, including almost the entire gamut of human labors. These men, scientific and pmctical, are con- stantly inventing means for supplying the numberless new demands of the telephone using public.
American Telephone and Telegraph Company And Associated Companies
One Policy One System Universal Seruiee
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I
If
New England
^ The Vacation Land
MAINE WOODS
The best vacation for fun, new expeitences and health— among the forest-hidden lakes and rivers of Maine. Fishing, paddling, exploring, getting made over. Wonderful canoe trips. Other summer sports. Splendid hotek, real camps.
Through
Wash
Phikdelf
S«
WHITE MOUNTAINS
of New Hampshiro
Four hundred square miles of peaks, forests, scenic wonders. Dozens of resorts, centers of bril- liant social life.
Golf courses near the clouds, beautiful roads for motoring and riding
Through train senrice from
Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia
and New York
S«nd for Booklet C
* 'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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"Mention the Oeographio — It identifies you."
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sr Camp
H IS durable .com- Fortable camp has n specially de- led for people who e the great out- >rs. It can be :kly put up by un- skilled labor on the banks of your favorite stream.
THIS camp is of single wall coostruction. unlike the all year round larger Bossert- built houses. It is not painted, but stained a beautiful brown color with creosote, which not only preserves the wood, but brings out 'beautifully the natural grain.
Five Hundred Dollars f. o. h. Brooklyn
Send 12 cents today for catalog showing details of Bossert construction
LOUIS BOSSERT & SONS, INC., 1313 Grand St, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Contains three bed-rooms, a 12x13 living room, and a 6x9 kitchen in extension. Vital economies effected by the Bossert method of buying and construction enable us to offer this camp at
•'Mention the Geographic— It identifies you.*'
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SUMMER Para- dise"— afuUdescrip-
SEND FOR THIS
VACATION TOUR BOOK
A
tion of America's rarest playgrounds — the his- toric Adirondacks, Lake Champlain, Lake George, Saratoga Springs, Platts- burg, Cooperstown, Au- sable Chasm and hun- dreds cf other charming vacation resorts in north- eastern New York State.
THIS book tells you where to go — how much it will cost — and what you will find after you get there. Maps and hundreds of photographs —350 pages about 1500 lakes and 3,500,000 acres of vacation land — prices, number of rooms and pic- tures of leading hotels, etc., etc. Send 6c for iU
DclanAjare Gf Hudson trains lea<ve Grand CcTiiral Station, Ne*w York, Connections iviih Hudson River Boat Lines at Albany and Troy, Time-tables FREE on request,
M. J. Powers, General Passenger Agent,
Delaware & Hudson ComiMUiy
A1IMUI7.N.Y.
RErD GUM
"AMERICA'S FINEST CABINET WOOIT
R£D GUM
561
Kg
^^
^^ tog
i
If
t53 •■
St:
'* Mention the Oeograpliic — ^It identifies yotu"
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'Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you."
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Vacation
«
Isles of Delight
Unique Summer Playgrounds Swept by Cool Ocean Breezes
Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard
Warm sea-bathing. Smooth, sandy, gently sloping beaches, ideal for children.
Splendid fishing in fresh or salt water.
Superb seaside golf links. .
Sailing, motor-boating, tennis, and every kind of social activity that gives new zest to life.
For illustrated booklets write Vacation Bureau. Room 476. 171 Broadway. New York
New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.
Higher than Gibraltar
Passing Capes "Trinity^ and "Eternity" on the route of
Niagara to the Sea
THE most satisfying trip in America for health and recreation. Almost 1000 miles of lakes, rivers and rapids. Including the Thousand Islands, the exciting descent of the marvelous rapids, the historic associations of Montreal, Quaint old Quebec with its famous miracle-working shrine of Ste. Anne de Beaupre and the renowned Sain>enay River with its stupendous Capes, "Trinity" and "Eternity," higher than Gibraltar.
Send 2c postage for illustrated booklet, map and guide, to John P. Pierce, Assistant Passenger Traffic Manager, Canada Steamship Lines, 107. R. ft O. Building, Montreal, Canada.
CANADA STEAMSHIP LINES
'Mention the Geographic— It identifies you.'
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mmmmmmmmm
Dodge Brothers
CLOSED CAR
The varied uses to which the con- vertible sedan may be put make an especial appeal to women
For shopping, for touring, for social functions— it is always ready the whole year 'round.
Sedan or Coupe, $ 1 265 . In Canada, $ 1 800
Tourins Car or Roadster. $835. In Canada. $11 85
All prices f. o. b. Detroit
Dodge Brothers. Detroit
fee CiKjacceMParf^irj^ig!*^^
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OAK INTERIOR TRIM FOR Homes and Public Buildings and for the corresponding FURNI- TURE is desired by the well-inform- ed not only because of its historic ex- cellence as a cabinet wood and its inborn trait of ** staying put,*' but also because, by reason of centuries of respectful familiarity, there is an inbred accuracy in handling OAK among those who work in woods. They know how to get the best re- sults without experiment. Thb American Oak Mfrs. Assn.
know the whys and hows of OAK. Ask them any sort of qtxestions. Please address R.1416, 14 Main St., Memphis, Tenn.
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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"Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you."
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Keep a Kodak Story of the Baby
And, along with it, written on the film at the time, keep the dates and titles. How old was Baby when this was taken ? Where were we the year that that was taken ? Such records mean a great deal when baby has begun outgrowing baby ways and time has begun playing tricks with memory.
And to make an authentic, permanent record, on the negative, is a simple and almost instantaneous process with an
Autographic Kodak
All Dealers' .
EASTMAN KODAK CO., Rochester, N. Y., The Kodak City.
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies yoc."
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* 'Mention the CtoograpMc— It Identifies yon.'*
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RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP
in the
National Geographic Society
7%e Membenhip Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine
DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membenhip abroad, $3.00; Canada, $2.50; life membership. $50. Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or express order.
Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary
79/
7o the Secretary, National Geographic Society,
Sixteenth and M Streets Northwest,
Washington, D, C. :
I nominate _ _
Address _ _
for membership in the Society.
( Write your address)
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Ma
I ANY an curtain of fire, patch, 18 toda] on sturdy littU to point as the
—fold it
— typezvrite anywhere
CoroNA
The Personal Writing Machine
^^ountless Coronas are in daily use in many sectors of the great battle-fields. Their ready portability, made possible by their light weight and compactness, appeals alike to the officer whose orders must be legible and to the war cor- respondent who today is contributing history.
1 he same qualities of convenience and depend- ability which mark Corona for the Service of war. establish it securely in the broader development of the arts of peace. Not a mere writing machine, but a machine for your individual use — because you can take it with you anywhere. Corona folds for travel and weighs but six pounds — can be carried in one hand from room to room or from office to home, or used on train or steamer or in the wilderness camp.
C^omplcte with neat black case. Corona costs fifty dollars. Our Booklet No. 27— "The Personal Touch in Typing" — tells about it; and a copy is yours for the asking.
CORONA TYPEWRITER CO., GROTON, N. Y.
AGENCIES IN ALL PRINCIPAL CITIES
SAN FRANCISCO
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Puncture-Proof—
Will you accept proof?
Driving Nailinto 7ir« Tnatmdwith Kor-Kmr PaneturmCurm, Thin i« ihm 9trongm9t proof any onm can aak and wili convince thm most skmpiicaL
Kor-Ker Puncture Cure
AnurUa^i Sutndard Tlr« Trtatmmt
Seals punctures
Stops slow leaks
Preserves rubber
Kor-Ker seals any puncture up to the size of a ten-penny nail — seals it imme' diately and permanently, Kor-Ker ferrets out and stops slow leaks. Kor-Ker pre- serves rubber. Kor-Ker reduces blowouts to a minimum. Kor-Ker keeps tires at their normal inflation^ preventing thereby 90^ of tire troubles from fabric rupture, rim cutting, etc.
Dttailed inftrmatien and frtof art shtxsn In our Consumtr and Dtaltr BotiUtt. ff^hich dtjwt want ?
ALCEMO MFG. CO.
73 Bridge St^ Newark, N. J.
(Wo nomd high-claas mon to manoMo our\ branch officoB — mmn who can cam $40 to 1 $150 a tv««lt and build up their own bueinm. f Can ^ou qualify ? if mo, write u; /
Dodson House
Wrens raise two broods of tonnr every year. lomeUmes three; therefore they need a hoase with 4 compartment*.
Offer- thie -special ^-room bancalow to some cote little pair of wrens and they will oome back to yoa each season.
"^ird Friend'' Book Free
A BSvlMok by Mr. DodMa. toUaf yoa ho* toattiMtMgbMs. niulnlM DodaoB ItaNK clvM fvtot^ RM elUi eolond biid jitotui.
JOSEPH H. DODSON
▼ta.-PiM. kbA DIiMtar Amtrieui AndvboB Ah*.
TOS HftrrisoB Ave. X«ik*kee. ZU.
irfpcROfflSAniv^
lJ^S^IVES00U»PIKnOGR»PHi
\^OU can now photograph in color with your own camera, using
The Hjblock
a pack of two sensitized plates and a sensitized film. Let us send you free booklet
Hess-Ives Corporation
1201 Race Street Philadelphia
gfttg jWagaMne in from ^ar ^reggf g
420-422 eUbenti) £>treet
3utiti 6i ©ettoeiler, 3nc.
ll?a£(i)inston» S. C
eat
DROMEDARY DATES
now
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You owe it to your eyes to see that your lenses are fitted with
Shur- on
EYEGLASSES -SPECTACLES
They stick tight, com- tortably, hold the lenses in the correct optical posi- "tionandare themost becoming because least conspicuous.
DENBY
SHELLTEX RIMS (^S^)
—the latest in Shur*ons. Stylish and ele'sant. made to meet the mode. Like all Shur-ons, quality euaranteed. At most hijth-jrrade optometrists, opticians, and oculists, or write us. Look for the name Shur-on or Shelltex in the bridse.
E. KIRSTEIN SONS CO.
249 Andrew Street Roobeater. N. Y.
TRUCKS
D.
'ENBY perform- ance records are remarkable because Denby Engineering and Manufacturing Standards are the highest it is possi- ble to attain.
Denby Motor Truck Company
Detroit^ Michigan
"Mention the Gheographlc — ^It identifies you.'*
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N THE ARMIES AND NAVIES
'>^-
-i ^
}.r.
r boi^
needs a
Easy to Jill
V
Gssssn
FOUN'^N PEN
^"^rw
Ntw
Parker
tat. clip held in
place like a -washer
PARKER
SAFETY-SEALED— The nmr type " m boln b tb« wdl " foofaun yen. bk on't get out to toO clothtt or penon
PARKER INK TABLETS lSl^LVifZi%^ -
PEN COMPANY, 18 Mill Street. Janesville. Wisconsin; New York Retail Store, Woolworth Building
DON'T BE ASHAMED
of your garbage can
Your g:arbage can should be just as unnoticed and just as sanitary as the rain spouts on your house. Witt's meets these requirements. It won't Aist and won't dent. Made of heavy galvanized, corrugated steel — 29 times stronger than plain steel. It outlasts two ordinary cans. Witt* slid fits air-tight. Keeps odors in; keeps dogs, rats, flies out. Buy Witt's for your home. It saves you money.
Lantern Slides
from
Photographs in
National Geographic Magazine
/m^ O MANY REQUESTS are being con- gjl stantly received regardipg lantern ^^ slides from the copyright photographs in the Geographic that arrangements have been completed to supply them to members of the Society. Slides are not kept in stock, each order being made up as received, and will be delivered within two weeks after receipt of order, unless otherwise advised.
The copyright notice must appear on each slide. The purchase of lantern slides does not carry with it the authority to publish the pictures and they cannot be used for advertising purposes.
Slides cannot be sent upon approval and a remittance must accompany each order. The slides will be carefully packed and sent by express collect. Prices in the United States (standard size), black and white, 75 cents each; colored, $1.50. Address,
Dept L, National Geographic Magazine WASHINGTON, D. C.
<< Mention the Geographic — ^It identifies you."
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"Mention the GheograpMc — ^It idenUiles yen.*'
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"Sore Throat"
is a thing full of terror —
But sore throat can easily be guarded against by the exercise of a little intelligent care. Keep the mouth and throat clean and healthy by the use, morning and evening, of
Dioxo^en
{^a teaspoonful to a quarter glass of water) and the germs which cause sore throat,
\l/^0 r\'r\i\ T
w-rit-^T^/a Y\r^\7f^ T\
r\ r»rion/
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Get your favorite bacon in the form you like best
To give you not only exceptionally delicious bacon, but bacon in just the form you prefer, "Swift's Premium" is packaged in three different ways.
You can get it in the always popular strip, or in slices put up snugly and either sealed in glass jars or protected in parchment- wrapped boxes.
And such appetizing slices! Slices with the rind carefully trimmed away, slices that are absolutely uniform, and cut neither too thick nor too thin!
Serve "Swift's Premium" Bacon often. Seven days a week your family would enjoy the flavor the famous Swift cure gives. You will appreciate the convenience of getting their favorite bacon in the form you prefer.
"Swift's Premium" Bacon
Swift & Company, U. S. A.
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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Blt==
1
CnmdFrix, PtarU
Grand Prize, Si. Loai9
HE richness, evenness, depth and ' charm of Baldwin tone cannot be du- plicated. Only with the Baldwin Piano can it be produced because only the Baldwin has the acoustic properties capable of its development. Those who approach the selection of a piano unprejudiced and with open mind find the Baldwin a revelation.
If you are Interested In the imrchaee of a really hlgb- grade piano, you ahould have the Tery attractive propo« •Itlon now being offered to proepectlve^ buyers by The Baldwin Piano Company and Its dealers. "' nearest address.
Ztt iBoIbbibi $iatio Cotnjpatip
Cincinnati 142 W. Fourth St.
Chicago 323 S. Wabaah Av.
St. Louis 1111 OUveSt.
NewYorlc 665 Fifth Av.
Denver. 1636 California St.
San Frandaco .310 Sutter St.
IndianapoUs 18 N. Penn'aSt.
Louisville 521 S. Fourth Av.
....1911 Elm Street
Bronze
Memorial
Tablets
Designs and Elsti mates Furnished Free
Send for Illustrated Booklet
JNO.WILLIAMS, Inc.
EstabUsked 1875 STATUARY BRONZE FOUNDRY 556 West 27th St. (Dept. T) NEW YORK CITY
mumni' iiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiininiinnmiiiiiiimiummniiifiiiinit
I You look at the clock for the time of day : Look at a Tycos for the kind of day
A BAROMETER is nearly as necessary as a dock. It gives you the weather, ^^ tells you of changes, forecasts sudden drops or rises, and prei>ares you for what 18 coming. An instrument which is scientifically correct is the S. & M. 1^co» f^^ Nazzse W\ MOUSE »
jycos naromcter
The beat materials enter into Its construction. Adjnstable by anyone to 8,500 feet alti- tude. In a 6-inoh laoQuered brass case with enamel metal dial.
8. A M. Weather Instmments are sold by yonr Optician and Scientlflo Instrument Dealers. If yours does not have an 8. A M. $mi0 House Barometer Ko. 2252 in stock send us his name and addrees and HO and we will ship yon one at once. Our 86-page Barometer Booklet, which deseribes other styles, is yours on request.
gjjUJHOmmtCmtKmim Rochester, New York World' 8 Largest Manufcieturera ofSetenti/le Inttrumentt
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GRATON& KNIGHT
Stondordixed Series
LEATHER BELTING
Tanned by us fir beitinx uie
fo»»»»»>»»»»»»>»>>:>>>>»»»»>»»»»»
G RATON KNIGHT
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Are you trying to drive Pulleys with a Belting Specification?
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The only kind of specification the belt buyer should attempt to make is of the work to be done. Because to get the work done most efficiently and economically is the only possible reason for any Idnd of a specification about anything.
To get the work done properly, in every case, is the basis of the Graton & Knight Series of Standardize Leather Belts.
This Series wm evolved to fit the working needs of actual conditions, not to meet theoretical conditions as described on paper. Every belt in this Series — and there is one for ever^ transmission purpose ^has been standardized only after it has been /roa«</ right.
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♦ ♦ ♦
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A reaaonable and proper Behinff Spedfication, based on tiie principle of tbe rigtK belt for the work U> be done, is "Graion A Knicbt-Brand. or equaL '* Have our representative show yoa what the standardization of Bekinff means to you. or write for a description of our Standards, and a copy of our Book on Bdtinr.
The Graton & Knight M^. Company
Oak L$mUur Twnun, Maitn^f Ltathtr BtMng^ Lot* Imshw, Paddnis and SiftdaltUs
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STAND BEHIND THE MEN BEHIND THE GUNS
Buy a Liberty Loan Bond
AND
Help Win the War
issued by the United States Government
Denominations— $50, $100, $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000, $50,000, and $100,000 First payment as loi^ as One Dollar
INTEREST, m PER CENT
You have until August 30, 1917, to pay in full for your bonds. ^sk any Banker^ Postmaster^ Express Company^ or Merchant for an Official Application Blank and —
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**Wars cannot be conducted without money. It is the first thing to be pro- vided. In this war it is the most immediate help — the most effective help that we can give. We must not be content with a subscription of two billion dollars — we must oversubscribe this loan as an indication that America is stirred to the depths and aroused to the summit of her greatness in the cause of freedom. Let us not endanger success by complacent optimism. Let us not satisfy ourselves with the reflection that some one else will subscribe the required amount. Let every man and woman in the land make it his or her business to subscribe to the Liberty Loan immediately, and if they cannot subscribe themselves, let them induce somebody else to subscribe. Provide the Government with the funds indispensably needed for the conduct of the war, and give notice to the enemies of the United States that we have billions to sacrifice in the cause of Liberty.
**Buy a Liberty Bond today ; do not put it off until tomorrow. Every dollar provided quickly and expended wisely will shorten the war and save human life.*'
May 14, 1917.
W. G. McADOO,
Secretary of the Treasury.
A LIBERTY LOAN BOND IS UNCLE SAM'S PROMISE TO PAY, AND HE IS WORTH $225,000,000,000
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Our booklet/^Let's Choose Executors and Talk of Wills,** contains much valuable in- formation for will makers.
Bankers Trust Company
16 WaU Street New York
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Write now — your name and address on a postal will do — and with- out obligation we shall send, postpaid, this delightful book of the Orient. Address DepU N.
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Drawn by one horse and operated by one man. it will mow more lawn in a day than any three ordinary horse-drawn mowers with three horses and three men.
Does not smash the grass to eanh and plaster it in the mud in springtime, neither does it crush the life out of the grass between hot rollers and hard, hot ground in summer, as does the motor mower.
The public is warned not to purchase mowers infringing the Townsend Patent. No. 1.209.519, December 19th. 1916.
Wriu for tatalog illustrating atttypts t/Lavm Afotoert,
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Adventure! Just over the next hill-top — ^who knows what thrill awaits? Throughout all ages the spirit of adventure has ever enticed strong men into tl\e open^ But — now to travel to all the land's ends in the luxury, comfort and security of a power- ful and economical Twin-six — that indeed is to add rare zest to the finest of adventures* "8? There are twenty and more Packard body styles for you to select from* Prices, open cars, three thou- sand fifty, and thirty-five hundred dollars, at Detroit- "8? "8? Packard Motor Car Company.
Ask the man
w
h 0
owns one
TWIN-6
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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V
J
k 'iilj J 'JJI
The NATIONAL
»HIC
GEOG MAGAZI
JUNE, 1917
CONTENTS
16 Pages in Four Colors Our First Alliance
AMBASSADOR JUSSERAND
Our State Flowers Madonnas of Many Lands
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C.
>dcoi
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL
SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS. WASHINGTON, D.C.
O. H. TITTMANN president
GILBERT H.GROSVENOR. DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORGE . ASSOCIATE EDITOR O. P. AUSTIN SECRETARY
JOHN E. PILLSBURY vice-president
JOHN JOY EDSON .... TREASURER
GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, assistant secretary WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . ASSISTANT EDITOR
1915-1917
Charles J. Bell
President American Socurity and Trust Company
John Joy Edson
President Washinston Loan & Trust Company
David Fairchild
In Charee of Agricultural Ex- plorations, Dept. of Asric
C. Hart Mbrriam
Member National Academy of Sciences
O. p. Austin
statistician
George R. Putnam
Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Liffhthouses
George Shiras, 3d
Formerly Member U. S. Con- srress, Paunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photographer
Grant Squires
New York
BOARD OF MANAGERS
1916-1918 Franklin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Henry F. Blount
Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company
C. M. Chester
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory
Frederick V. Covillb
Formerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sciences
John E. Pillsbury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation
Rudolph Kauppmann
Managing Editor The Evening Star
T. L. Macdonald
M. D.. F. a, C, S,
S. N. D. North
Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census
1917-1919
AlexanderGraham Bell
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howard Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The Oeo. Washington Univ.
A. W. Greely
Arctic Explorer, Major Qen'l U. S. Army
Gilbert H. Grosvbnor
Editor of National Geographic Magazine
George Otis Smith
Director of U. S. Geological Survey
O. H. TiTTMANN
Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and GeodetkSur- vey
Henry White
Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc
John M. Wilson
Brigadier General U. S. Army. Formerly Chief of Engineers
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, "'the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,*' the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed :
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
A. W. Greely C. Hart Merriam
O. H. TiTTMANN
Robert Hollister Chapman Walter T. Swingle
Alexander Graham Bell David Fairchild Hugh M. Smith N. H. Darton Frank M. Chapman
Entered at the Post -Office at Washington, D. C, ai Second-Class Mall Matter Copyright, 1917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D, C All rights xf.
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Coogle
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XrilOL^SESgll^I^^iaiiSEIigglirL^ ,7^'^^gF^
I KNEW IT WOULD RELIEVE DYSPEPSIA
I knew, as a physician, that a good chewing gum in combination with pepsin would relieve many cases of dyspepsia.
This led me to experiment and after many triak I produced in the gum that bears my name one that has given great relief to thousands of dyspeptics.
I make no claim that Beeman's Pepsin Gum always overcomes dyspepsia, but there is ample proof that many people keep it constantly at hand because they know from experience that it does give them relief.
Doctor E. E. Baemaa
1.:^ AMERICAN CHICLE COMPANY
fcc'lllliii^^
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.*'
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* Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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The
Puffed Wheat
Dish
As Every Child Would
Like It — Constantly
Overflowing
To the youthful lovers of Puffed Wheat and Rice, no dish seems large enough.
You know how it is — you mothers who have served them. Again and again the bowls come back for refilling.
There is never so much that the end of the dish doesn't leave a desire for more. For these bubbles of grain — airy, flaky, and nut-like — are delightful food confections.
Why Do You Stint Them?
Consider these facts, Mrs. Housewife.
These are whole grains, filled with all the elements that youthful bodies need. They are not partial foods, like most things. They are not unbalanced, so di- gestion is upset.
They are two of Nature' s premier foods.
By Prof. An- derson'sprocess— shooting from guns — every food cell is exploded. So ev- ery granule feeds.
No other grain food offers that ad- vantage.
Puffed Puffed Wheat Rice
and Corn Puffs
Each 15c Except in Far West
When such foods come in such likable form, why not let the children have them in abundance ?
Puffed Grains are not mere breakfast cereals. They are flavory, crusty morsels to be mixed with any fruit. They are flimsy, toasted bubbles to float in bowls of milk. They are nut-like tidbits for eating between meals. Douse them with melted butter. Use them in candy-making or as garnish for ice cream. They are ideal wafers for soups.
Such perfect foods, made so en- tic ing, should be served in many ways.
Puffed Grains in Milk
Puffed Grains Mixed witfi Fruit
The Quaker O&^^0>inpany
Sole Makers
(i5:<;)
"Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you."
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for the new Airoplay j
Outfit— a big package .^^^ For sale by Geared'tO'thc'Road
of balloons. Fun for ^pi Distributors and Dealers everywhere
everybody — children
dl^^^ept f"'^ ^''' ^ THE MILLER RUBBER CO., AKRON, U. S. A.
"Mention the (Geographic — ^It identifies you.**
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JOHNS'MANVILLE
ASBESTOS ROOFING
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You Can Make Photos
in Natural Colors with Your Own Camera
USE the plate or film camera you now have. Process easily under- stood and readily followed by any one who can take black-and-white photo- graphs. The new
HiBLOCK
is a plate that gives any number of colored prints from a single set of negatives. Well handled pictures show all the beauty of color found in animate or inanimate nature. Usable indoors or outdoors with natural or flash light. We supply all necessary materials for cameras of all sizes.
Write for our free bofMet explaining color photography for your camera*
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* Mention the Oeographic — It identifies you."
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For over 310.000 deaf people now hear distinctljr through the ACOUSTICON. Thousands of them have had their hearing per- manently restored. In erery occupation, science, and industiy. seU-supportins people are maklni; their way because of the help Siven their hearini; by the Acousticon. All you need do is to write us.sayinir: "I am hard of hearing and will try the Acousticon;" also state aire and the cause of your deafness (if you know it); we will immediately send you. chari^es paid, the
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B P^H^iV D F f The irenulne Acousticon is made and sold ^^ ww#%I%^ ■ only bytheGeneralAcousticCo.— branches in all principal cities — never through agents. The Acousticon is the only instrument for the deaf RECOMMENDED by eminent Aurists. The results accomplished by the Acousticon cannot be had in any other manner. SEND FOR YOUR FREE TRIAL TODAY— YOU ALONK TO DECIDE
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'Mention the Geographic — It Identifies yon/'
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New England
The\^cation Land
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'* Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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p
I
Your Income Tax
On June 15, 1917, every one whose income last year amounted to $3,000 or more paid the tax assessed by the Federal Govern- ment,
Returns from this tax are of the utmost importance to the Government, espe- cially at the present time.
It is the duty of every individual subject to this tax to cooperate with the Gov- ernment in simplifying die process of collection.
For the convenience of investors we have prepared a sixteen-page individual income record book which will greatly facilitate the making out of annual income reports.
Complimentary copy on request. Mention edition N6.
This is indicative of the attention— even to the smallest particular— which our clients receive through the Compton Investment Service.
>A/liriam R.fi>mi)ton rompany
Municipal Bonds
" Oiw a Quarttr Ctnturj in This Butimm^^
NEW YORK : 14 WaU Street ST. LOUIS : 408 Olive Street
CHICAGO : 105 S. La Salle Street CINCINNATI : 102 Union Trust Building
PITTSBURGH: 721 Farmers Bank Building
|
July Investments To Net S«^— 6% TN war time conditions, shrewd investors \ are taming back to the land and its ^ eaming-power for unimpeachable security. This widespread demand is met in the first mortgage bonds we offer, safe- guarded under the Straus Plan. Xj^ACH issue is a first mortgage on a high -C/ grade building and land in New York Chicago Los Angeles DeUoit PbUadelphia St. I^uis or some other large city. Price to net 5V^ — 6%. Write for our booklet, "Acid Tests of Investments in War Time", and for July Investment List Na F-706 s::w^straus & co. Pounded 1882 Incorporated 190S NEW YORK CHICAGO 150 Broadway Straus Building Branch OffUm: D^eroft Mtnn«apo1ii Cfndnimtl Boftoo _ San Fraaciaco Kansas City 35 years without loss to any investor |
Our Service- Its Distinctive Features A^o. 4-'Trustees' Requirements Appreciating the restric- tions placed upon the in- vestments of Savings Banks and Trustees, we maintain at all times a comprehensive list of issues eligible and at- tractive as to safety and yield for these various purposes. Send for our current list of offerings, AN -60 The National City Company National City Bank Building 1 New York |
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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"Mention the Gtoograpblc — It identifies you." ^-^ ^
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Vol. XXXI, No. 6
WASHINGTON
June, 19 17
TEE
ONAL
©GIRA^ AGA
REVIVING A LOST ART
IN NO other field of endeavor have German efficiency and German sci- ence been so eminently successful as in the conservation of that country's limited resources to such a remarkable degree that even after three years of iso- lation from world markets, on which for- merly it depended so largely for suste- nance, the nation is not yet faced with the alternatives of surrender or starvation.
The United States can profit by this economic success of its enemy.
One of the most important features of the food conservation movement in Ger- many since the outbreak of the war, and one which has been of material aid in maintaining the physical fitness of the German industrial worker and his family, has been the practice of drying fruits and vegetables.
In the great cities all over the empire the government, following the establish- ment of an eflfectual blockade of food supplies, put into operation the scheme of collecting from the markets all un- sold vegetables and fruits at the end of each day. Those foods which would have spoiled if "held over" were taken to large municipal drying plants, where they were made fit for future use at a negligible cost. These drying plants thus became great national food reser- voirs, saving immense quantities of food which otherwise would have gone to waste.
But the activities of the German Gov- ernment did not end here. Community
driers were established in the smaller towns and villages, and the inhabitants were instructed to see that all surplus vegetables were brought in and subjected to the drying process, which insured against the great extravagance of non- use.
A third method of conservation by dry- ing was inaugurated with the itinerant drying machines. These vegetable dry- kilns on wheels were sent through all the rural communities, and the farmer was admonished to allow no fruit to grow over-ripe in his orchard, no vegetable to spoil ungathered in his garden. It was an intensive campaign for the saving of little things, in so far as each individual house- hold was concerned; but it has totaled large in the story of the nation's eco- nomic endurance.
Not only does the drying of fruits and vegetables increase the supply in the win- ter larder of the people at home, but much of the dried product can be in- cluded with the wheat, which must be sent in a constant stream across the seas to feed our own soldiers in France and our Allies on the battle fronts of the world.
The practicability of sending dried garden and orchard products to the fight- ing men has been demonstrated already in Canada, where fruits have been pre- served in this manner and shipped to Europe.
While the process of saving surplus summer vegetables for winter consump-
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AN INEXPENSIVE SUN DRIER MADE OF ONE WINDOW SASH, A FEW LATHS, AND SOME
METAIv FLY SCREEN
By removing one pane of glass a simple ventilator can be made of lath and screen and fitted into place, or, if electricity is available, the drying can be accelerated by keeping a gentle current of air blowing over the fruits or vegetsiles. Protection from showers is obtained by such a drier and especially delicate fruits can be handled in small quantities under it; larger amounts require more space.
SUCING BEETS
The trays are filled with Swiss chard and sliced beets. Both trays and drier itself are made
of lath and wire netting.
^^^ Digitized by Google
THE HANGING STOVE DRIER SWUNG OVER THE KITCHEN STOVE AFTER THE MEAL
HAS BEEN PREPARED
It utilizes heat which otherwise would be wasted. When the stove is required for cook- ing purposes, the drier can be swung back out of the way by means of the wooden bracket made of lath and attached to the wall by a bent nail and piece of fence wire. An electric fan can be trained on the drier to hasten the drying process. It can be kept running at night when the kitchen stove is cold.
Photographs by Charles Martin and David Fairchild THE WATER-TANK DRIER
This has a false bottom and under it water, which is kept hot by the contact of the drier with the back of the stove. In it are leaves of the Chinese cabbage, which are easily and quickly dried on this type of drier. Unless watched, delicate leaves will scorch.
479
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480
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
tion by merely drying may seem novel to the housewife of today, it was not un- known to the thrifty mistress of the home two generations ago. Our grand- mothers knew the secret of drying many garden and farm products, and so suc- cessful were they in putting aside for the winter day those vegetables which could not be consumed in season that they came to prefer dried sweet corn over the canned product, while the dried pumpkin and squash were pie-plants par excel- lence.
In certain communities today snap- beans are strung on threads and dried above, the stove, while festoons of red and green peppers decorate the space be- tween the kitchen rafters. Thrifty house- wives dry cherries and raspberries on bits of bark for winter use in place of raisins. In fact, a survey of our fruit products shows that drying is by no means an unusual method of preserva- tion. Prunes, figs, dates, raisins, apples, and apricots are staples in the food mar- kets of the world.
Turning to the vegetables, we find that dried beans of many varieties, peas, and other legumes, tea, coflFee, and cocoa are familiar articles of food, while various manufactured products, like starch, tapi- oca, and macaroni, are dried either in the sun* or wind, or in specially constructed driers.
While the modern methods of canning on a vast commercial scale caused the drying processes of two generations ago to become one of the *iost arts" of the home, the present food situation seems destined to revive it with splendid eco- nomic results. The country is producing at the present time larger quantities of perishable foodstuffs than at any other period in its history, owing to the ef- fective educational campaign which has stimulated the cultivation of individual gardens in waste places.
Drying will help to conserve the sur- plus yield of these gardens. But canning and preserving should not under any cir- cumstances be abandoned. All processes have their place in the economy of food conservation.
One of the chief advantages of drying vegetables and fruits lies in the practica- bility of the process for the city house- wife. The farmer's wife has her root cellars and other places for storing vege- tables ; but in the city home, where space is a primary consideration, the drying method furnishes a practical solution of an important problem.
For the farmer's wife the new methods of canning are commended in preference to the longer process of sun-drying. But new and shorter methods of drying are now available, and the dried product has several advantages over the canned prod- uct, particularly in the saving of the ex- pense of cans, glass jars, and other con- tainers. Dried vegetables can be stored in receptacles which cannot be used for canning, and the bulk of the product is usually less.
Another consideration should be taken into account: the canned fruits and veg- etables are subject to freezing, a danger entirely obviated in the drying process. Dried foodstuffs can be shipped in the most compact form, with a minimum of weight and a minimum of risk.
One of the most important considera- tions commending the drying process is that the city or town housewife can em- ploy this method of preservation with the simplest and most inexpensive facili- ties, and the process can be employed continuously, whether the food to be saved is in large or small quantities. A few sweet potatoes, peas, or beans can be dried at a time. Even a single turnip or an apple is worth drying. Bit by bit veg- etables may be saved until a whole meal is conserved. Small lots of dried car- rots, cabbage, turnips, potatoes, and onions are combined to advantage for vegetable soup.
As to the tastiness of such dried prod- ucts as spinach, beet-tops, and kale there is no question. In other cases, while the flavor of the fresh vegetable is not pre- served in its entirety, the use of these ingredients in soups and stews meets suc- cessfully the problem of any loss of palatability, while the food value of the dried product remains unimpaired.
Digitized by
Photograph by Charles Martin ONCE DRIED, THE VEGETABLES CAN BE STORED IN PAPER BAGS OR CARTONS
One form of these cartons made of paraffin paper is closed by means of a special instru- ment, which is heated and spreads the cap into place, thus hermetically sealing the carton.
OUR STATE FLOWERS
The Floral Emblems Chosen by the Commonwealths
By the Editor
THE National Geographic ]\Iag- AZiNE in this number prints as its annual tribute to the "children of summer" pictures of the blossoms which have been chosen as the floral favorites of the various States.
Realizing that an emblem of natural beauty is as significant and essential as a State seal, motto, or flag, twenty-six States, more than one-half of the nation's commonwealths, have formally, by legis- lative action and gubernatorial approval, selected State flowers.
Six other States have accepted the ver- dict of the school children as the voice of the people, while six others have adopted floral emblems by common con- sent, mainly under the leadership of the
club women of the respective common- wealths. The ten remaining States and the District of Columbia have either taken no action at all or else action pos- sessing so little weight of authority that the several Secretaries of State do not recognize it (see index, page 486).
Although thirty-eight of the States have in one way or another expressed their preferences and chosen their flower queens, this is the first attempt that has been made to assemble in a single publi- cation color paintings and descriptions of all the State flowers.
These pictures, like those of previous flower series appearing in the Geo- graphic, are very costly reproductions of the exquisitely beautiful paintings from
481
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482
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
life made especially for this Magazine by Mary E. Eaton, of the New York Bo- tanical Garden.
In making their choices the legislatures, women's clubs, and school children of the several States were confronted in every instance by a plethora rather than a paucity of floral treasures from which to select a favorite, for the United States contains a much greater number of spe- cies of wild flowers than any equal area on the globe.
Nations have long honored particular flowers with heartiness and devotion — Ireland, the shamrock, that beautiful bit of green with which it is alleged St. Pat- rick demonstrated the doctrine of the Trinity; Scotland, the thistle, which pricked the foot of the Dane and awak- ened all Scotland with his cry of pain, saving her from the heel of the invader ; and France, the lily, which Ruskin called the flower of chivalrv (the iris, or blue flag).
Our series pictures every flower that has been chosen by legislative action or is regarded by common consent as the State flower. But in cases where different spe- cies of the same flower have been selected "by several States, only one specimen is pictured (as the goldenrod, violet, rose, and rhododendron).
SOME OF THE DIFFICULTIES OF MAKING THIS COLLECTION
Some difficulty, however, has been ex- perienced in the selection of the exact species to be portrayed. For instance, in the case of Minnesota, although the act of the legislature gives the name of the flower chosen as Cypripedium calceolus, the extract from the official year book of the State, furnished the National Geo- graphic Society by the Secretary of State, gives six different species as representa- tive of the State flower, among which is Cypripedium acaule, but among which Cypripedium calceolus does not appear.
Again, in the case of Nebraska, the act of the legislature choosing the goldenrod as the official flower designates Solidago serotina as the particular species. On the other hand, this species is not the most widely distributed in other States
which have a preference for the golden- rod. It is believed that Solidago nemo- ralis (page 511) is one of the most rep- resentative goldenrods, and one which would be probably the composite of pref- erences of all of the States having that flower, either officially or unofficially.
Colorado's legislature expressly names the "white and lavender columbine," with no Latin name attached, as the State flower ; yet today, through a later vote of the school children, the blue and white columbine is everywhere in Colorado rec- ognized as the State flower.
The acts of the Arkansas and Michi- gan legislatures simply call for "the apple blossom." The Illinois law refers to its preference only as "the native violet," of which there are numerous species, while the Louisiana law names no species, but simply says "magnolia." The Delaware law gives no scientific designation, but speaks only of "the peach blossom."
The resolution of the Ohio legislature names the "scarlet carnation," while in the Indiana law the only designation is "the carnation." Remembering how many colors of carnation there are in existence today, the one chosen was left, in the case of Indiana, to the discretion of the artist. The reader should note that the carna- tion pictured on page 507 is really too deep a red for the State flower of Ohio, which has a brighter tone.
When the State of Kansas came to adopt the sunflower, the resolution of the legislature used the term "helianthus, or wild native sunflower."
The resolution of the legislature of Texas sets forth that the State flower is ''Lupinus subcarnosus, commonly known as the buffalo clover, or bluebonnet." There appears to be so little difference between Lupinus subcarnosus and Lu- pinus texensis that no distinction what- ever is made between them by the aver- age Texan in plucking the State flower. In the case of the South Dakota flower, while the artist portrays the species of pasque flower known as Pulsatilla patens, the South Dakota law designates the Anemone patens. The main difference between the two seems to be the matter of a name, since the pasque flower is the
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name of several plants of the genus anemone, section Pulsatilla.
OKLAHOMA AND MINNESOTA ACTED OFFICIALLY FIRST
Oklahoma was the first of our States to take legislative action in the adoption of a State flower. In January, 1893, the Territorial government was considering the question of exhibits for the Chicago World's Fair and a Territorial seal. The ladies of Oklahoma had presented a peti- tion asking that the mistletoe be made the Territory's emblematic flower. A bill to that end was accordingly introduced and passed by a large majority.
Minnesota had a bill pending to make the moccasin flower the State's official blossom at the same time that Oklahoma was debating the issue of the mistletoe. In February, 1893, the Gopher State was preparing its exhibits for the Chicago Fair. The Ladies' Auxiliary of the State World's Fair Commission found only an official flower lacking— which they thought ought to be used in the scheme of decorations. So they prepared a bill making the moccasin flower the emblem- atic representative of the Common\yealth and presented a widely signed petition in favor of its enactment. The legislature promptly passed the bill.
The next State to take action was Ver- mont. A concurrent resolution to adopt a flower was introduced in the House of the Vermont legislature, October 19, 1894. It was considered by a special committee consisting of one member from each county — fourteen in all. The name of the flower was not specified until November 8. On that date an agreement was reached which led to the amendment of the bill by the insertion of "red clover."
The next State to act was Nebraska. On the 29th of January, 1895, the dele- gate from Boone County introduced a bill to designate a floral emblem for the State. It provided that the goldenrod should be the emblematic flower. On the 23d of March the bill was taken up in committee of the whole. One of the delegates, having in mind that Nebraska was a free silver State, moved to substi- tute the word "silver" for "golden." His
motion was not considered, and the bill was promptly passed by the House and Senate.
Delaware was the fifth State in the Union legislatively to adopt a State flower, when by an act of the legislature, approved May 5, 1895, that State chose the peach blossom as its representative. There was very little debate and the sen- timent in its favor was practically unani- mous.
Montana also chose a State flower in 1895, its legislature adopting the bitter root almost unanimously.
Michigan followed the example of Del- aware in awarding its floral honors to the blossom of its favorite fruit. In the pre- amble of its resolution, approved April 28, 1897, adopting the apple blossom, the legislature declared that a refined senti- ment seemed to call for the adoption of a State flower ; that the blossoming apple trees add much to the beauty of Michigan landscapes; that Michigan apples have gained a world-wide reputation, and that at least one of the most fragrant and beautiful flowered species of apple, the Pyrus coronaria, is native to the State.
The year 1899 witnessed the accession of two States to the ranks of those enjoy- ing legislatively created floral emblems. On January 30, 1899, a petition was in- troduced in the Oregon Senate reciting the fact that the women's clubs of Port- land, in regular session assembled, had declared in favor of the Oregon grape as a State flower, and asking the legislature to enact their recommendation into law. What little debate there was indicated a practical unanimity of sentiment, and the measure was ready for the Governor's signature on February 2 of that year.
IN COLORADO THE SCHOOL CHILDREN OVERRULE THE LEGISLATORS
Colorado holds a unique position in the matter of flower legislation. The law- makers of the Centennial State passed an act, approved April 4, 1899, designating the white and lavender columbine as the State flower of Colorado. This, how- ever, did not please the school children. Accordingly, on Arbor Day of 191 1 they submitted the question to a referendum in which they were the only qualified
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voters. Out of 22,316 votes cast, 14,472 were in favor of the blue and white col- umbine (Aquilegia ccerulea). No other flower received over 1,200 votes. The governor and the legislature seem to have concluded that the children are the court of last resort in such a matter and have apparently acquiesced in their decision.
Louisiana was the next State to act. June 20, 1900, a bill making the magnolia the State flower was read in the House. July 6 it passed that body by a vote of 62 to 2. Six days later it passed the Sen- ate by the unanimous vote of 32 to o.
Arkansas, by legislative action, Janu- ary, 1901, chose the apple blossom.
The very next month Texas took up the question. On February 28, 1901, a Senate concurrent resolution was intro- duced, the preamble of which recited the fact that the National Society of Colonial Dames of America, Texas branch, had requested of the legislature that it adopt "Lupinus subcarnosus, generally known as the buffalo clover, or bluebonnet," as the State flower. Sentiment in favor of the bluebonnet was so general that there was little debate, and the measure was passed and finally approved by the Gov- ernor on March 7.
IN WEST VIRGINIA ALSO THE CHILDREN LEAD THE WAY
In West Virginia the subject of an of- ficial State flower had long been a theme of discussion among teachers and others interested in school work. It did not take form, however, until 1901, when the Governor in his message to the legisla- ture recommended the adoption of a State flower and suggested the rhododen- dron, or big laurel, as the most appro- priate.
Under the direction of the State Su- perintendent of Free Schools, the school children of the State, on the 25th of No- vember, 1902, voted upon the question of a selection. Out of 33,854 votes cast, 19,131 were for the laurel, 3,663 for the honeysuckle, 3,387 for the wild rose, and 3,162 for the goldenrod. On the 8th day of January, 1903, the legislature adopted a joint resolution designating the rhodo- dendron, or big laurel, as the official State flower.
California had long been advocating the enactment of a law making the golden poppy the Golden Gate State's official flower. More than fifteen years ago a bill was introduced in the Senate and had passed both houses, recognizing the yel- low-hued beauty; but the Governor ve- toed the measure. The House then passed it over his veto, but the Senate permitted it to die. The bill was rein- troduced in the next legislature, January 21, 1903. It passed the Senate on Feb- ruary 2 by a vote of 28 to i. It received practically a unanimou.< vote also in the House. On March 2 the new Governor advised the legislature that he had ap- proved the bill, and the golden poppy be- came the State flower of California.
The bill to make the sunflower the floral emblem of Kansas was introduced on February 10, 1903. The Senate passed it by a vote of 30 to o, and the House by 31 to o.
South Dakota's resolution selecting the pasque flower as her floral emblem was enacted ]March 4, 1903, and provided that on and after the passage of the act the State floral emblem of South Dakota should be the pasque flower {Anemone patens), with the accompanying motto: '*I lead.''
OHIO CHOOSES Mckinley's favorite
FLOWER
The State of Ohio officially adopted the scarlet carnation as its emblematic flower on the 29th day of January, 1904. Both houses unanimously voted for the measure. The law is as follows: **The scarlet carnation is hereby adopted as the State flower of Ohio, as a token of love and reverence for the memory of Wil- liam McKinley."
Connecticut chose the mountain laurel as its State flower after a report of the Committee on Agriculture in the Senate favoring such action. One senator op- posed the bill, saying that he regarded it as unnecessary legislation, but that if the clover had been recommended he would have been inclined to favor it as the near- est approach in this country to the sham- rock he loved. He doubted, however, if there was any necessity for the legisla- tion. Another senator declared that he
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OUR STATE FLOWERS
485
was bound to favor anything three thou- sand women could agree on. In the House the choice was advocatel in en- thusiastic terms. Upon each desk sprigs of mountain laurel were distributed by persons in favor of the bill. After a short discussion it passed. When the measure was pending in the Senate the botanical name of the laurel was inserted by a senator, who complained that the request was out of order when some one asked him to spell it.
North Dakota adopted the wild prairie rose by legislative action in 1907, the same year that Florida's legislature se- lected the orange blossom. By act of the General Assembly the violet has been the State flower of Illinois since the ist of July, 1908.
Utah officially recognized the sego lily as its choice by act of its legislature in 191 1. Indiana selected the carnation by legislative act in 1903, but did not specify the color of the carnation, which in our illustration was left to the artist.
THK STATE FLOWER MOVEMENT WAS STARTED BY NEW YORK
The State flower movement in the United States was started by New York, although its legislature has never yet offi- cially sanctioned a flower. In 1890 a school vote was taken in the entire State, with the result that the goldenrod was adopted by a vote of 81,308 as against 79,666 for other candidates. A year later the case was reopened, and this time the rose led, receiving 294,816 votes as against 206,402 for all the other entries. From that time the rose has been consid- ered New York's official flower, though the vote did not specify any particular rose.
Rhode Island also chose its official em- blem by the vote of the school children. In May, 1897, there was a plebiscite of the children, with the result that the violet was overwhelmingly favored and was declared the representative flower of the State.
The school children in Mississippi made the choice for that State. In 1900 the matter was submitted to a refer-
endum, with the result that the magnolia was their nearly unanimous favorite.
The violet is also the unhesitating choice of the school children of Wiscon- sin. In 1909 the matter was submitted to a vote, with the result that the violet got 67,178 preferences, the rose 31,024, the arbutus 27,068, and the white water lily 22,648.
Maine's adherence to the pine cone and tassel was given by the vote of the public schools of the State, the same be- ing true of New Mexico's support of the cactus.
According to reports furnished the National Geographic Society by the Sec- retaries of State and other officials of the several States, Idaho favors the syringa by common consent; the wild rose was chosen by common consent in Iowa ; the Kentucky Historical Society and citizens of Kentucky prefer the trumpet vine, and the sagebrush is generally accepted in Nevada. The people of North Carolina favor the daisy generally, while through the work of the women's clubs the State of Washington held a contest which re- sulted in the choice of the rhododendron as that Commonwealth's flower (see pages 500 and 517).
TEN STATES HAVE SELECTED NO STATE FLOWER
In the case of Alabama it is reported that no action has ever been taken toward the adoption of a State flower, though several authorities put down the golden- rod as its emblematic blossom.
The people of Maryland are said to favor the black-eyed susan, with the sun- flower second; but no formal decision has yet been made.
In Massachusetts, although the may- flower, because of its good cheer to the Pilgrims, has met with great favor, no formal selection has been made. ^lis- souri officials say that no State flower has ever been adopted, yet several authorities publicly declare that the goldenrod has been accepted by a school vote.
New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Vir^nia are without State flowers, either officially or unofficially. Popular opinion seems never to have
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crystalized about any one flower in these States, or in the District of Columbia, which also has no floral emblem.
Although the State authorities in Ten- nessee advise that no State flower has ever been chosen, one outside list gives
the goldenrod and another the daisy. The same is true in the case of New Jersey. The Commissioner of Education of that State writes that, so far as he is aware. New Jersey has never chosen a State flower.
INDEX TO OUR STATE FLOWERS
Name of State.
Name of flower.
By whom chosen.
Text pasre.
Illustra- tion pa^e.
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia.
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
No choice.
Sahuaro or Giant Cactus
Apple Blossom
Golden Poppy
Blue Columbine*
Mountain Laurel
Peach Blossom
No choice.
Orange Blossom
Cherokee Rose
Syringa
Violet
Carnationt
Wild Rose
Sunflower
Trumpet Vine
Magnolia
Pine Cone and Tassel . . . No choice. No choice.
Apple Blossom
Moccasin Flower
Magnolia
No choice.
Bitter Root
Goldenrod
Sagebrush
No choice. No choice.
Cactus
Roset
Daisy
Wild Prairie Rose.
Scarlet Carnation§
Mistletoe
Oregon Grape
No choice.
Violet
No choice.
Pasque Flower
No choice.
Bluebonnet
Sego Lily
Red Clover
No choice.
Rhododendron
Rhododendron
Violet
Indian Paintbrush
Legislature
Legislature
Legislature
School Children.
Legislature
Legislature
Legislature
Legislature
Common Consent.
Legislature
Legislature
Common Consent.
Legislature
Common Consent.
Legislature
School Children..
Legislature
Legislature
School Children.
Legislature ,
Legislature
Common Consent.
School Children.. School Children. . Common Consent.
Legislature
Legislature
Legislature
Legislature
School Children. Legislature
Legislature Legislature Legislature
Common Consent.
Legislature
School Children. . . Legislature
498 487 487 489 488 494
490 492 490 491 494 492
494 495 493 495
487 488
493
489 496
498 492 497 493 494 499 500
491 499
497 498 517
500 500 491 500
513 501 502
503 503 507
504
505 505 510 506 508
509 506 510
501 502 506
504 511 503
513
512
507 514 515
505
514
512 512 516
516 505 515
♦ Legislature previously had chosen the lavender and white columbine.
t Indiana's legislature designated the carnation, but did not specify the color.
JThe vote did not specify the species of rose selected.
§ The scarlet carnation of Ohio's choice is of brighter color than the illustration.
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THE APPLE BLOSSOM (Malus sylvestris Mill)
The apple blossom shares with the carnation the distinction of being the only two flowers in Nature's garden that have won two legis- latures to their standards in the "battle of the buds" for popular affection. While Ohio and Indiana have pledged legislative fealty to the carnation, Arkansas and Michigan have cast their fortunes with the apple blossom (see page 501).
There are a few commonwealths which, while agreeing that a thing of beauty is a joy for- ever, are yet utilitarian enough to hold that when a delight to the eye ripens into a joy to the palate it is to be prized above all other forms of loveliness. Florida and Delaware share this view with Arkansas and Michigan.
Certainly, whoever has seen an apple orchard in full bloom, with its whole acres of pink and white petals set in a framework of green, will not need to wonder why two legislatures should prize especially the beauty of the apple blossom.
The apple blossom is one of the progressives of the floral world. It wants a hardy, strong, resistant posterity; so it takes careful precau- tion to insure cross-fertilization. The stigmas reach maturity before the anthers begin to shed their pollen, and in this way the insects have every opportunity to bring pollen from another blossom. But if the bees and the but- terflies chance to overlook one, it retains its petals until its own anthers are developed and can enable it to produce an apple.
Perhaps nowhere else do we get a more striking picture of what selection may accom- plish than in the case of the apple tree and its fruit. Contrast the stately and spreading winesap tree in a well-cultivated orchard with the small, knotty-limbed, scaly- wooded wild crab tree. Isn't it almost like contrasting a stately elm with a dwarfed hawthorn? And yet, is there as much difference between the ancestral crab and the descendant winesap trees as there is between their fruits?
The wild crab-apple, though a gnarled, knotty, thorny, acrid- fruited tree, is the Adam of a wonderful race. An orchardist recently counted more than three hundred varieties of apples, all of them direct descendants of this sturdy pioneer.
What could bear better testimony to the value of apples than the poetical proverbs which have crept into our language celebrating their qualities ! "To eat an apple before going to bed will make the doctor beg his bread/' says one of these; and another declares, "An apple eaten every day will send one's doctor far away." An old Saxon coronation cere- mony carried with it a benediction after this fashion : **May this land be filled with apples."
Any one who looks at a modern apple or- chard finds it hard to realize how close is the relationship of the apple to the ro^e, and yet they belong to the same order, Rosacae, the apple's thorns having passed under the soften- ing influences of a kindly civilization. Now the only thorn the apple possesses is the figura- tive one that is hidden in the green fruit, which small boys often discover to their anguish.
In history, tradition, and mysticism the apple has played a distinguished role. Through it, we are told, "came man's first disobedience, which brought death into the world and all our woe." Juno gave Jupiter an apple on their wedding day, and a poorly thrown one was the immediate cause of the ruin of Troy. Paris gave a golden apple to Venus; Atalanta lost her race by stopping to pick up one, and the fair fruits of the Hesperides were the apples of gold.
In the west of England the village girls used to gather crab-apples and mark them with the initials of their beaux. The ones that were most nearly perfect on old St. Michaelmas Day were supposed to represent the lovers who would make the best husbands. In our own land to this day girls tell their fortunes on Hallowe'en by naming the apples and counting the seeds. An apple paring thrown over the shoulder on that fateful night will form the initial of the future mate.
THE GOLDEN POPPY (Eschscholtzia califomica Cham.)
No State has chosen its representative flower more appropriately than California. The golden poppy, the very essence of California's sun- shine, has woven its brightness into the history of the Pacific coast. During the spring months, when it covers valley, field, and mountain side with a cloth of gold, men, women, and children make a festival of poppy-gathering like the Japanese at cherry-blossom time (see p. 502).
Tradition alleges that a tilted mesa north of Pasadena when aglow with poppies in the spring used to serve as a beacon to coasting ships more than twenty-five miles away, a tale which is not wisely questioned by one who has never seen the glory of a golden-poppy field. Certain it is that early Spanish explorers saw some of the hillsides covered with these flow- ers and named the coast "The Land of Fire." It was "sacred to San Pascual," they said, "since his altar-cloth is spread upon all its hills."
No State flower had more lovely rivals — Baby Blue Eyes, the butterfly or Mariposa tulips, the gilias, the lupines, and the Califor- nia peony nave a firm hold on the affections of nature lovers in a Commonwealth from whose floral treasures the finest cultivated gar- dens in the world have been enriched. But the golden poppy safely outdistanced all compet- itors and is now the crowned queen of the land of the setting sun.
The scientific name of this poppy was ac- quired when a Russian scientific expedition under Kotzebue, in 181 5, explored what is now California. Chamisso, the naturalist of the expedition, named it for* Dr. Eschscholtz, a companion naturalist, the Bschscholtsia cali- fomica. It is an unfortunate name; and the extra "t" must have been inserted amid that array of consonants with deliberate intent to appall the English eye and paralyze the Eng- lish-speaking tongue. Though copa de oro, the Spanish "cup of gold," has a poetic attractive- ness, yet it is not much used, even by the Spanish Americans.
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THE MOCCASIN FLOWER (Csrpripedium acauli Ait.)
When Minnesota officially decreed, in 1893, that the moccasin flower should be its favorite, it led all the States in enacting such legisla- tion, and it is the only Commonwealth which has selected a member of the orchid family (see page 502).
This orchid loves the deep wood and seeks a rocky, sandy place, usually as remote as pos- sible from human habitation. Once the com- monest of orchids, now it is one of the rarest. The friend of the moccasin flower who said that it "is generally and destructively appre- ciated" accurately sized up the situation.
We have heard much about prize-fighters being overtrained and extinct mammals being overspecialized, and now it has been said that the moccasin flower is overorganized. It is preeminently a flower that believes in the doc- trine of cross-fertilization, and therefore has developed so complex a system of protecting its stigmas and anthers from self-fertilization that it often defeats its own ends and must rely on root propagation.
In order to insure itself the cross-fertiliza- tion it demands, the stamens are placed back of the pistil in such a position that the pollen cannot be transferred except by outside agen- cies. The open end of the pouch is nearly closed with a singular, broad, scoop-shaped, sterile anther which shields the fertile anthers and stigma. The flower is so arranged that the bee which applies for a cup of nectar must come inside and do a little crowding to get room enough to stand. When the delightful draught is quaffed and the winged beggar turns to leave, it is confronted with a straight and narrow way out, and before the open can be reached our bee must squeeze under a re- ceptive stigma covered with sticky hairs which comb the pollen grains from the fuzzy back of the visitor. But still the guest has not satisfied the flower's bill. It must carry pollen. to some other flower. And so, working its way out, the bee has to creep under an anther that is placed almost across its path, getting a coating of pollen as it passes to take the place of that combed out by the pistil.
It is a short stay that the blossoms of the moccasin flower make in their annual visit to the woods. They come in May and say fare- well in June. It gladdens some of the Cana- dian woods, reaches as far south as North Carolina, and makes Minnesota its western- most home.
THE SAGEBRUSH
(Artemisia tridentata Xutt.)
Nevada's floral queen is not famed for its retiring disposition; neither is it known for its beauty; nor yet is it distinguished for its ag- gressiveness or the usefulness of its product. Rather, it is content to soften the sternness of the unoccupied, semi-arid lands of the South- west until the farmer comes along. Into his ear it whispers the information that where it grows alfalfa will flourish. After imparting
this information, it is content to endure the woes of surrendering its home. The farmer, using a railroad rail or a plank-drag, clears his ground of it and puts in its stead a field of alfalfa (see page 503).
The sagebrush belongs to the composite fam- ily, and its immediate cousins are widely dis- tributed. They are known as the artemisias, and there are a host of them, many with im- portant uses in the economy of civilization. Artemisia absinthium is popularly known as wormwood ; from it comes the bitter, aromatic liquor known as eau or creme d'absinthe. Many of its cousins grow in Asia and Europe, including the mugwort, used by the Germans as a seasoning in cookery ; southernwood, used by the British to drive away moths from linen and woolens and to force newly swarmed bees, which have a peculiar antipathy for it, into the hive; and tarragon, used by the Russians as an ingredient for pickling and in the prepara- tion of fish sauce.
Sagebrush itself is found as far east as Colorado and is one of the dominating shrubs of the great basin which lies between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada Mountains.
The artemisias derived their name from Ar- temisia, the beautiful wife of King Mausolus. The magnificent tomb she erected to his mem- ory at Haiicarnassus has given the name mau- soleum to every elaborate tomb from that day to this. Americans thought so highly of this wonderful structure that they duplicated it in the national capital. The Southern Jurisdic- tion of the Scottish Rite Masons of America copied it for their great American temple, and today Artemisia's architectural conception is one of the show places of one of the most beautiful cities of the earth.
THE MOUNTAIN LAUREL (Kalmis latifolia L.)
When Connecticut's legislature adopted the mountain laurel as the Nutmeg State's repre- sentative flower, it chose one that is a patrician in its history, a blue-blood in its family rela- tionships, and an Adonis of a Venus in its beauty.
In its floral relationships the mountain laurel is identified with the heath family, some of its kinsfolk being the trailing arbutus, the winter- green, the rhododendron, the white swamp and wild honeysuckles, the flaming azalea, and the Lapland rose bay (see page 503).
Because it grows in places where the bees and butterflies are not so numerous as they are in the fields, the mountain laurel has taken care that no visitor shall escape without ren- dering it the service of messenger. When the flower opens its stigma is erect, but the anthers are fastened down with a trigger-like arrange- ment, one in each of ten little pockets in the flower. The bee that creeps down into the flower for a sip of nectar releases a tiny spring, like a mouse entering a trap. The re- leased anther flies up and dusts its pollen on the hairy body of the insect Now, if you take this pollen and put it under a good microscope,
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you will see that each grain is in reality a cluster of four tiny balls resembling oranges. Indeed, in passing it may be observed that each species of plant seems to possess some special whim in the shape of its pollen, with its own peculiar devices of exterior decoration and structural form. The laurel's clusters of tiny balls ride safely on the bee as he flies to the next flower, and as he stoops for a sip of that blossom's honey they are brushed off by the ready pistil and the flower is fertilized.
Since ants can never render it any pollen- bearing service, the mountain laurel has set traps to protect its nectar from their ravages. It mounts its flowers on hairy stems and covers the hairs with a sticky substance, so that if Mr. Ant does not heed the warnings of the bristles that no trespassing will be allowed he promptly finds himself wading through a field of glue that pinions his feet until he dies an ignominious death as a would-be thief.
No friend of the stock-raiser is the moun- tain laurel. In the springtime, when the cattle- growers in the valleys of the East drive their herds to the grazing farms on the mountains, the laurel is the greenest thing in sight. A winter on dry fodder has made every animal hungry for a change of diet ; so that, aUhough the herd is urged on, one nip after another is taken of the laurel bushes along the roadside, until, the first thing the drover knows, two or three members of his herd have an overdose of laurel, with "blind staggers" as a result. Usually a day or two brings the affected cattle around, and once on the range, they seldom or never touch the laurel. Only when there is nothing else green in reach will they leave the straight and narrow way of abstinence to in- dulge in "sheep kill," as it is sometimes called.
There are many plants that are poisonous, a quality developed as a weapon of defense. And what would we do without our plant poisons? Opium, which in spite of its abuses is a boon to humanity, is merely the self-de- fense of the poppy turned to the service of man. The laurel, too, belongs to the class of poison-producers. If let alone it drapes the mountainside with lacy bloom, and never hurts any creature that treats it with respect; but woe betide the one that dares to eat it.
The mountain laurel is distinctly an Eastern plant. It flourishes from New Brunswick to the Gulf of Mexico, but, unlike so many flow- ers that have kept pace with man as he has followed the star of empire vvestward, it has never crossed the Mississippi Valley. Once there came to the United States a Swedish naturalist, Peter Kalm. After making the ac- quaintance of our American flowers, he de- cided that the laurel was his preference. He gathered some young plants, took them to Europe, and introduced them on many a fine estate. He also contributed to the plant its scientific name, "kalmia."
THE COLORADO COLUMBINE
(Aquilegia coerulea James)
The school children and the legislature of Colorado do not agree upon the issue of a
State flower. Both have voted the honor to the columbine, but the legislature nineteen years ago awarded the wreath of fame to the white- and-la vender, while six years ago the school children chose the blue-and-white. An out- sider may declare his neutrality and admira- tion for both (see page 503).
It is reputed that in no other region does the columbine grow more beautiful or so large as in Colorado. The people of the Centennial State have no hesitancy in declaring that their flower is four times as large as the "Down East" species.
A native of the lower mountain regions, blooming from April to July and rangring from Montana to Mexico, the columbine cheers every pathway that leads up toward the realm of summer snows.
The name "columbine" comes from the Latin for dove, and was applied because the flower has a fancied resemblance to a group of dainty little doves. Its other name, "aqui- legia," was given it because the spurs of the flower possess a resemblance — somewhat indis- tinct in the Colorado blossom— to the talons of the eagle. Thus the columbine may with equal claim play the role of dove of peace or eagle of war.
It has many exquisite relatives, among them the clematis, the anemones, the hepaticas, the rues, the spearworts, the buttercups, the mari- golds, the larkspurs, and the monkshoods.
The various species of columbine have a wide range. The flower possesses all Europe and occupies that part of Asia between north- ern Siberia and the Himalayas.
In the northern half of the world there are about fifty varieties of columbine, of which some twenty occur in North America.
THE BITTER ROOT (Lcwisia rediviva Pursh)
The bitter root played a part, though a small and inconspicuous one, in that epic of Ameri- can exploration, the Lewis and Clark Expedi- tion. It was the specimen taken from the her- barium of Meriwether Lewis that was first described by the botanist Pursh and named Lewisia rediviva (see page 504).
The acquisition of a dignified Latin name seems to have been the first forward step in its career; from the simple ornament of the primeval wilderness and friend of the Indian, this blushing beauty has risen to the magnifi- cent position of chosen flower of Montana, the Treasure State, and has given its English name — bitter root — to a mountain range, a river, and to the famous Bitter Root Valley.
Bitter Root Valley, the depression which sep- arates the Bitter Root Mountains from the Rockies for a distance of about 105 miles, long before the white man penetrated the great West, was a favored spot. The snow melted earliest within its sheltered heart; the storms blew less fiercely over its mountain walls; spring smiled there soonest, and answering smiles seemed to brighten the meadows when
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the bitter root held up its colored bowls to catch the sunbeams.
The Indians took a practical interest in the plant, for they knew that its thick, starchy roots could furnish food. When their brown covering is removed and the fleshy part dried, these roots will dissolve in water almost like pure starch, and when heated become a nu- tritious paste. This value was sufficient to give the plant great importance in the eyes of the savages, and they named the near-by moun- tains and river after it.
What stirring incidents of pioneer days the bitter root may have witnessed we do not know. Gradually its old friends, the Selish Indians, were replaced by white settlers, and the lovable flower seems to have had no diffi- culty in winning the hearts of the newcomers. Meantime mining strikes, boom towns, cow- punchers. Vigilantes, built the generous, ro- mantic, picturesque structure of Montana's early history, which was crowned in 1889 with statehood. It was not until 1895 that the citi- zens of the Commonwealth found time from developing the abundant resources of the Treasure State to choose a State flower ; when they did so, by legislative resolution they voiced their affection for this eager-faced, native blos- som— the bitter root
Of course, the habitat of Lewisia rediviva is not confined to the valley it has named, nor to the State of Montana. The visitor to Yellow- stone may find an occasional specimen, al- though it is rare within the limits of the park. It is naturally most plentiful in dry, sandy, or gravelly soil, such as may be found along the Lewis and Bitter Root rivers.
Nuttall, in 1834, said of it: "This curious plant constitutes a very distinct natural order," and decided that it was most nearly related to the cactus family. The flower he describes as "very large, wholly like that of the cactus, rose red." Since, however, botanists have classified the bitter root as allied to the purslane family, Portulacaceae, Its resemblance to the gay gar- den portulaca, a native of the hot plains of southern Brazil, is apparent; but it is not so easy to connect it with that persistent weed, the common purslane, which the farmer has condemned by his forceful comparison, "As mean as pusley I"
The bitter root's relations, poor or otherwise, are of no importance in the eyes of the Mon- tanan, who cares only that it was found rooted in the soil and has made itself inseparable from the history of his wonderful country.
THE ORANGE BLOSSOM
(Citrus sinensis Osbeck)
^ Who that has seen loved ones given in mar- riage, with the orange blossoms lending the touch of their beauty to the bride, can help but sympathize with the sentiments of Florida's legislators when they enacted into law the State's aflfection for the flower of its favorite fruit? And while the orange blossom is ad- mired and honored by its association with the
bridal hour, the fruit is known wherever men and women who love good things to eat fore- gather (see page 504).
While the orange is not native to America, being in reality a comparatively recent immi- grant, there are more orange trees in the United States than in any other part of the world. Fourteen million trees were growing in this country in 1909, two for every thirteen people. Of these, Florida had nearly three million, while most of the others were in California.
The orange appears to have originated in China and the Burmese Peninsula. Thence it was carried to India and Hindustan. There the Arabs met it, fancied it, and gave it a foot- ing in Mesopotamia at the beginning of the tenth century. From Asia it was introduced into northern Africa and Spain, traveling with the conquering armies of Islam. It journeyed with the Spaniards from Europe to South America, where it was found by missionaries from this country, who sent some small trees to Florida and California. These took root, thrived, and straightway the American orange became one of our chief blessings.
In favorable seasons and in well-kept groves, trees bear from 400 to 1,000 oranges each. Being slow in reaching maturity, they are slow also in giving up their privilege of producing their golden fruit. Carefully tended trees usually yield for fifty years, and some arc productive for eighty years. Occasionally a sturdy centenarian is found bearing fruit in abundance ; but so great has been the improve- ment of the orange under modern methods of plant-breeding that the product of these hardy old trees seems bitter and unpalatable, although it may have delighted ten thousand feasters in its day.
Those who have not been privileged to visit an orangery and there taste the nature- ripened fruit in all its golden lusciousness can- not know fully how delicious an orange may be. The orange that goes to market and must wait weeks before it can get out of the hands of the retailer and into those of the consumer is packed before it is ripe, and few fruits gath- ered unripe can ever be as delicious as those which have hung on the spit of the twig and toasted to a proper flavor before the sun.
The orange tree is an evergreen, and culti- vated varieties seldom exceed 30 feet in height Blossoms, green oranges, and ripe fruit are often seen on the same tree, but usually the trees bloom in the spring and ripen their fruit in the fall. The oily, acrid peel of the orange is an efifective means which Nature employs to seal up her packages of fruit. The germ or the insect that could break through a healthy orange skin would be a brave and persistent creature.
THE SYRINGA
(Philadelphus lewisii Pursh)
The queen of Idaho's wild flower garden is by unanimous acclaim the modest syringa, Philadelphus lewisii, which is limited in its
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territory to the western group of States, from Montana and Wyoming to Washington and California. Its flowers matching the orange blossom in beauty, its bursting buds appearing to be fairly pin-cushions, its fragrance as de- lightful as the odors that sweep over Elysian fields, its leaves a delicate, soft, shimmering green, the Idaho syringa is a shrub well equipped to awaken enthusiasm in every lover of flowers (see page 505).
The syringa belongs to the saxifrage family, which has some 250 species scattered through- out the North Temperate world. It has many close relatives — various species of Philadel- phus, which is the botanical name for all the species we in our common garden variety of nomenclature call the syringas. There is Phil- adelphus grandiflorus, which grows in the South Atlantic States and is famous for its rich and fragrant flowers ; Philadelphus ino- dorus, with the same range, but without the same fragrance; Philadelphus hirsutus, dwell- ing in the North Carolina-Alabama mountains and arraying itself in hairy leaves; Philadel- phus coronarius, the mock orange of the East- ern States and everywhere loved for its beau- tiful and wonderfully fragrant blossoms.
The syringas are unfortunate in their popu- lar name. Ptolemy Philadelphus loved them and they became Philadelphus this or Phila- delphus that. But the world at large wanted a name more to popular liking and by common consent they became syringas. Now that would be all right if it did not happen that syringa is the botanical name of the lilac, to which family the popularly named syringas bear no relation.
THE VIOLET (Viola)
One does not often meet two flowers so different in appearance, so dissimilar in dispo- sition, so unhke in their tastes, as the modest blue violet and the gorgeous goldenrod, the one content to be seen only by the eyes that search for it, the other seeking the spotlight of every landscape, so that no eye may over- look it (see page 505).
And yet the little violet blossom and the big yellow flower are rivals for the highest honors in flowerland. Three States have adopted the violet and a fourth is not yet sure on which side of the issue between them it will finally line up. Illinois has cast its lot with the violet by legislative action. Nebraska has come out for the goldenrod by the same route. Rhode Island) and Wisconsin have by the votes of their school children declared themselves cham- pions of the violet. On the other hand, Mis- souri and Alabama are reputed to favor the goldenrod, although no action recognized by either State government has been taken. New Jersey is agreed that her flower shall be one or the other, and there is a rumor that she wishes it could be both. Yet no one can blame this indecision on the lack of grounds for choice between them, for there is certainly little else than choice. Habit, color, haunt, dis- position, almost every point, is different in them.
There are many violets scattered over the country, among them the "bird- foot," the "common," the "arrow-leaved," the "marsh," the "sweet white," the "lance-leaved," the "downy yellow," and even the "dog." But, whatever their distinctions, they are all good to look upon, interesting to study, and modest to a fault. Best of all, they manage in their several species to gladden all communities from the Arctic to the Gulf and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.
Perhaps first among all the species is the common or purple hooded. Its royal color, its gentle dignity, its rich profusion, its wide range of territory, have given it a deep hold on popular affection. The different species are distinguished as stemmed and stemless, bearded and beardless, by the character of the spur, the color of the flower, and the shape of the leaf. In most of them the lower petal is prolonged backward so as to form a spur and a nectar jar, which is usually protected by little tufts of hair at the throat of the flower.
Some violets have put; away the ordinary processes of inbreeding and now strive, by pro- ducing liberal supplies of nectar, to attract the bees and butterflies and to enlist their services as carriers. But, knowing how readily their insect friends are wooed away by the more showy, more thickly clustered flowers of other families, they have not abandoned entirely the old idea of self-fertilization. If they fail to set seed by the cross- fertilization method, they promptly develop small, inconspicuous blos- soms that fertilize themselves, and therefore enable the plant to produce sufficient seeds to prevent its extinction by the race-suicide route.
One writer who knows the poetry of flower- land tells us that the witch-hazel is not the only sharpshooter of the autumn wood. Down among the dry leaves, he declares, it has a tiny rival, the blue violet, with which it occa- sionally exchanges a salute. The latter closes its reign as a debutante among the blossoms in May. Then it settles down to the stern realities of life and the production of seeds. As the late autumn comes, its pods begin to force out their tiny seeds just as the small boy shoots a cherry stone by pressing it between his thumb and finger. Each pod in its turn fires away, hurling the seed babies as far as 10 feet, with an admonition that they creep down into the soil, there to dwell in darkness, silence, and inactivity until the winds whisper to the pines the glad news that spring is com- ing, and that message is passed along to the seeds under the snow.
Violets have figured in many of the ro- mances of civilization. An old tradition has it that the flower was raised from the body of lo by the agency of Diana. Homer and Virgil knew its delicate beauty, and the Athenians were never so much complimented as when they were said to be violet-crowned.
The pansjr that we love so well and for which our English cousins have so many nick- names is, after all, only a violet that has had a chance. Some call it "Heart's-ease," others "Meet-her-in-the-entry," others "Kiss-her-in- the-buttery," and still others "Jump-up-and- kiss-me" and "Tickle-my-fancy."
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THE ROSE
Four States consider the rose, in one form or another, their emblematic flower. New York school children adopted the rose without any adjective limiting the selection. Georgia, by legislative resolution, considers the Cherokee rose as her flower. Iowa, by the same method of choice, made the wild rose hers. North Da- kota's legislature selected the wild prairie rose for that State.
The Cherokee rose, which has white petals and yellow stamens, was imported from China and is believed by botanists to be the one from which the Chinese developed the fragrant double Banksian roses.
Certain it is that from the standpoint of the florist, if not from the standpoint of general sentiment, the rose is our national flower. And yet the florist's rose, which delights milady's boudoir with its fragrance as well as with its beauty, is one of the most imperfect of flowers. To the wild flowers it is deformed, a freak, unable to fight its own way in the war of blos- soms for place and position.
That busybody, man, who is always mak- ing flower and insect, plant and animal, all serve his purposes, went out and gathered some natural roses and started to make them over to meet his own ideals of beauty and fragrance. But how he did interfere with their perfection when he tried to magnify their beauty ! He, in very fact, made them unfit for survival in the garden of Nature. No natural rose was ever such a poor seed-bearer as the American Beauty or Jacqueminot. Set these out to fight for themselves and they would dis- appear forever — for the more perfect the rose, from the flower-show standpoint, the more im- perfect from a natural standpoint. And why? When the florist took this rose in hand he concluded it had too many stamens and not enough petals, so one by one he converted the stamens into petals, step by step he bred out of the flower the ability to set seed and bred into it the quality of looking handsome, until it is what we have today.
Other flowers, like the lotus of Egypt, the chrysanthemum of Japan, come and go, but still the rose is queen of the flower world. That maiden of .nncient civilization who sang of it as being full of lovCj the servant of Aph- rodite, cradling itself on its nodding stalk and playing with the smiling zephyrs which kiss it as they pass, beautifully expressed what many a modern admirer of the rose has felt.
Again, the rose is as famous in legend and history as for its beauty and fragrance.
For three hundred years the youngest peer of France, on the first day of May, brought to the court in an elaborate silver bowl the an- nual tribute of roses. In Egypt mattresses for the wealthy were made from the flowers* sun- dried petals. The Romans placed them at the entrance of the banquet hall when the things which transpired within were not to be men- tioned without; hence our "sub rosa." In China roses play an important part in funeral rites, and in some parts of Europe girls prick their fingers, extract a drop of blood, and bury it under a rose bush to insure the color in their cheeks.
Then there is the commercial side of rose culture. It is said that there are more than 100,000,000 of the cut blossoms sold annually in the United States. Many, new varieties are propagated each year. One European col- lector, trying to keep pace with the constant additions to the list, has gathered 4,200 differ- ent kinds and still finds his collection incom- plete.
How long it has been since man first learned to develop new qualities in the rose is not known. That the Romans knew the secret of flower breeding is certain. And it appears that perhaps in even more remote time the Japanese and Chinese gardeners were crossing varieties and producing hybrid species. The trade in attar of roses has been hard hit by the war, and many are the hands that once labored to de- light the world with the bottled fragrance of the rose, but which now work to produce the death-dealing thunderbolts. It requires ten tons of rose petals to make a pound of the attar — ^20,000 pounds concentrated into one! A pound of this luxurious perfume is worth •$2oa
THE WILD ROSE (Rosa Carolina L.; Rosa humilis Marsh)
There is nothing about the simple loveliness of the wild rose to suggest that she is a queen who has never come into her own; yet, as the original from which all the reigning beauties of the rose-fancier's garden and the florist's window have been developed, royal honors are her due. She resembles rather a little flower princess too fragile to brave the dangers of rocky hillsides or meadows dose to busy high- ways. However, Nature has provided this seeming innocent with arms for protection and wiles for perpetuation (see page 506).
Sharp downward-turning prickles discour- age cattle from eating the fOfliage and prevent the field mice from climbing^ the stems to steal the fruit in the autumn, whert the hips, or ber- ries, are ripe. These prickles also help the plant to hold its position when it grows on the side of a bank.
The delicate fragrance of the usually soli- tary pink blossoms, and the solid center of bright yellow stamens, rich With pollen, attract a variety of insects. Bumblebees, requiring a firmer support than the pi?tals would give, alight directly on the center :of the flower, so that pollen from other flowers is likely to reach the pistil. Occasionally self-fertilization takes place in a simply constructed blossom which yields abundant pollen:
"The wild rose never outstays St. Mary Magdalen," is a fairly true English saying, for her day, July 22d, generally ends its season. Each delicate flower has atjout two days of life. During rainy weather the petals fold over the green stigmas and t^e yellow stamens to protect them from moisture. The blossom closes with the last rays of daylight and re- opens as the sun dispels the darkness, so that only the careful observer and the early riser realize that it "draws the drapery of its couch
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about it and lies down to pleasant dreams." It is true that some wild roses may be found open at night, but these are the ones whose seeds are fertilized and whose pollen is carried off, so that rain and dew are no longer to be feared.
The bright red "hips" have a pleasant flavor, but their outer covering irritates the throat, and today they are left for wild things to eat Old writers refer to them as highly esteemed delicacies. "Children with great delight eat the berries thereof when they are ripe, and make chaines and other pretty geegaws of the fruit : cookes and gentlewomen make tarts and suchlike dishes for pleasure," testifies one. We are rich enough in more luscious fruit to- day to forego this doubtful dainty. The "hip" is designed to tempt the birds, which some- times drop the seeds it contains miles away from the mother plant
Large swellings or galls are frequently found on the rose bush. "Robin's Cushions," the country people call them, although they have nothing to relate them to the robin except a somewhat reddish color. Their origin is found in a kind of wasp — the rose-gall — -which punctures a bud and lays its eggs inside. Numerous larvae are hatched and later creep into the leaf tissue, while the bud swells into a gall. The taste of these objects is suffi- ciently unpleasant to have gained for them a reputation for medicinal virtue in earlier days. The choice of the wild rose, by common consent, as the State flower of Iowa is only one of many tributes to it. English poetry breathes its fragrance in many pretty verses. The scenes of Scott's "Lady of the Lake" are profuse with "wild rose, eglantine, and broom." Yet so elusive is the charm of this blossom's simplicity that it remained for a great Ameri- can composer to express it most truly in the wistful sweetness of music
THE WILD PRAIRIE ROSE (Rosa blanda)
North Dakota's floral queen is the species known to botanists as rosa blanda; to others by various names in different localities. Rang- ing from Newfoundland to New Jersey and westward to where the Rocky Mountains cut off its march toward the land of the setting sun, it is known here as the "smooth," there as the "early," and elsewhere as the "meadow." It is indeed a bland rose, for usually it is en- tirely unarmed, with neither true thorn nor bark-attached prickle to defend itself. Now and then it may possess a few weak prickles as a sort of family crest or to show its friend- liness with its thorny relatives. Its flowers are a trifle larger than those of the climbing rose and change from pink to pure white.
The wild rose has many relatives. Among these are the strawberry, with its tufted stem, the cinquefoils, with their creeping traits, the spikelike burnett and agrimony, the scrambling blackberries and raspberries, the blackthorn and the hawthorn, the cherry, the mountain
ash, the apple and the pear — every variety of size and shape and style, from the lowly creeper to the big spreading tree, within the limits of a single flower family.
THE MAGNOLIA (Magnolia grandiflora L.)
When Louisiana's legislature and Missis- sippi's school children awarded the magnolia the high praise of rating it first among the flowers of their respective States and declar- ing that it best typifies their ideals and ex- presses their aspirations, they selected a floral emblem widely known and universally ad- mired, not less for its exquisite beauty than for its delightful fragrance. The Chinese re- gard the magnolia as symbolical of candor and beauty, and whoever has known the sweetness of its perfume and the charm of its blossom can appreciate the tribute (see page 506).
There are many kinds of magnolias, each with its own peculiar attractions. But queen of them all is the grandiflora, which has bor- rowed all the beauties of the laurel and the rhododendron. It has a straight trunk, two feet in diameter, which often rises to a height of 70 feet. It is an evergreen, with leaves not unlike those of the laurel, glossy green on top, rusty brown beneath, and oval-oblong in shape. It bears a profusion of large, creamy white, lemon-scented flowers. As these latter reach their final stages before the petals fall, they turn a pale apricot hue. When fruiting time comes it is a cone of dangling scarlet seeds that we see.
There are numerous other varieties indig- enous to America, among them the glauca, a beautiful evergreen species found in low situ- ations near the sea, from Massachusetts to Louisiana. Another is the "cucumber tree," well known for its small fruits resembling cu- cumbers. Its range is from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas, mostly in the mountains. Its wood is much prized by farmers for making hay ladders, bowls, and other implements and utensils where a hard, non-warping material is needed. Still another species is the umbrella tree. The tulip tree, also a member of the family, is of American origin.
The Chinese have a species of magnolia which gives them a medicine for healing and a flavor for improving the gustatory qualities of boiled rice. It is said that India has a spe- cies that surpasses all others in size, having a trunk which sometimes attains a girth of 12 feet and reaches a height of 150 feet. Western Europe has gathered species from China. Japan, India, and America, and although all of them are imported, they seldom reach the magnificence in their native habitat that they attain under the careful attentions of the landscape gardeners in the climes of their adoption.
The beetle is the special insect patron of the magnolia. Abundant pollen and nectar in pro- fusion suit it so well that instead of making a fleeting visit to a flower it shelters itself in the soft pe(^]s and stays and stays until di-^pos-
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sessed by the lading of the blossom. Then only does it go to another field to pasture ; but as It goes it carries liberal quantities of pollen grains with which to reward its new host for the food and drink and shelter it seeks and secures.
THE PEACH BLOSSOM (Amygdalus persica L.)
Who that has wandered through a f ull-blo\vn peach orchard, inhaling the fragrance of a mil- lion buds and feasting the eye upon acres of heavenly pink, can fail to applaud Delaware's choice of the peach blossom as her State flower (see page 507).
A deep claim has the peach upon national admiration as well as upon local affection, for it ranks second among all the inhabitants of the American orchard in the money value of its annual crop of fruit. It yields about two bushels for every family in the land, and the product ranges from the delicious Elberta to the small, neglected cling-stone of the wayside volunteer tree. »0f ancient lineage is the peach. Indeed, so far back can it be traced that its origin is lost in the mazes of Chinese tradition. Trav- elers from Persia saw it in China, loved it, and carried it home with them. Here they gave it firm root and endowed it with the name it bears. Thence it traveled westward, a sort of pacemaker for the Star of Empire. The Ro- mans in the days of Claudius brought it to Italy's shores and thence carried it to Britain. By the time of the discovery erf America it had made all Europe its friend and was ready to join the pioneers in shipping for America.
Before the War of 1812 it had crossed the Mississippi and was found as far west as Ar- kansas. In those days there were many hardy varieties, and where they once gained a foot- hold they maintained it without human aid. To this day one may journey through the Blue Ridge and Allegheny Mountains and see gnarled and knotty old trees, which must have outlived several generations of men, still bear- ing their small but delicious cling-stone fruit.
THE CARNATION (Dianthus caryophyllus L.)
This beautiful blossom belongs to the pink family. When man first looked upon it and conceived the intention of leading it captive to grace the flower garden and to add to the shekels in the florist's purse, it was the modest little clove pink, such as may still be seen on the slopes of turf that succeed the great chalk cliffs of the Cheddar Gorge, in Somerset County, England. The Briton considers it the rarest wild flower in Nature's garden (see pp. 507 and 510).
How long it is since the carnation joined the ranks of domesticated flowers no one can say with certainty, but that it was a favorite flower in Queen Elizabeth's day is certain. The "Winter's Tale" was pliblished in 1623. In that play Shakespeare tells us that **the fairest flowers of the season are our carnations."
Many honors have been paid the carnation
by man, and in its turn it has helped honor the memories of those who have counted for some- thing in our lives. The scarlet carnation was William McKinley's flower, and to this day Americans who pause to honor his memory wear it on his birthday. When the movement for an annual "Mothers' Day" reached impor- tant proportions, it was a white carnation that was set aside as the badge of her purity, her goodness, and the nobility and self-sacrifice of her soul.
Horticulturists have vied with one another in producing carnations of rare beauty, some of which have won nation-wide reputations and names. Men have given many thousands of dollars for control of a new variety.
Two States have by legislative action adopted the carnation as their favorite flower — Ohio and Indiana. Ohio has taken the scarlet car- nation (of a brighter color than that pictured on page 507) as emblematic of its spirit, and Indiana has chosen the carnation, without de- fining the color.
THE SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus L.)
It is fitting that such a genuinely American Commonwealth as Kansas should choose a genuinely American flower to represent it at home and abroad. And the sunflower is such, for the Old World's eyes never fell upon it until the days when the exploration of the New World began. The Incas of Peru and the Hurons of our own country alike were en- joying it as a cultivated crop when the white man first visited them. They used it much as the bamboo growers use the bamboo— as a Jack of all Services. Its seeds they found useful alike as food and as the raw material of a home-made hair oil ; its petals were utilized in the manufacture of a yellow dye; its leaves served them as fodder and from its stalk they secured their thread (see page 508).
The sunflower, along with the golden rod, the black-eyed susan, the asters, and many others, is a member of the composite family, the Na- poleons of finance and industry in the flower world. If there were politics and politicians among the flowers, there would be a lively campaign against the "trusts," for the compo- sites seem bent upon a monopoly of the nectar business. They are efficiency experts, knowing how to crowd hundreds of blossoms into a single head, with brilliant ray flowers at the edge to attract their jnsect customers. It has been estimated that one-ninth of all the flower- ing plants of the earth have joined the com- posite group, and that it includes in the United States and Canada alone more than 1,600 spe- cies.
The wild sunflower is the one that gave Kansas the title of "The Sunflower State." Its range extends from the Atlantic seaboard, through Kansas, and from the Northwestern Territory to the Gulf of Mexico.
Like the potato, which is the world's most productive food crop, like maize, which has marched to the ends of the earth, and like the tomato, whic^ has come to enjoy a place all its own in the culinary establishments of civili-
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zation, the sunflower is a native American gone forth to render rich recompense to other nations and other continents for the plants they have given us. In China its fiber is used as an adulterant of silk; in southern Russia the seeds are widely employed both in making oil and as a substitute for our peanut. The pocketful of sunflower seed plays the same role in some parts of Russia as the bag of pea- nuts here. Much of the sunflower oil pro- duced in Russia is used in making soaps and candles. Europe, Asia, and Africa all culti- vate this plant.
When the Spaniards first visited Peru they found the sunflower as much the national flower of the Incas as it today is the State flower of Kansas. The Incas gave it a deeper reverence because of its resemblance to the radiant sun. In their temples the priestesses wore sunflowers on their bosoms, carried them in lieu of tapers, and otherwise used them in their services. The Spanish invaders found many images of sunflowers wrought with ex- quisite workmanship in pure virgin gold. These wonderful images, among many others, helped to excite the cupidity of the conquista- dors and thus to bring about the downfall of the Incas.
In North America there are about 40 known species of sunflower. South America has about 20 species that do not exist on our own continent.
THE TRUMPET VINE (Bignonia radicans L.)
Who that has studied the enthusiasm with which that frail and filmy creature, the ruby- throated humming-bird, flits from flower to flower of the trumpet vine, burying its head and shoulders deep in the enveloping petals as it strives to drain the last drop from the floral honey cup, or who that has observed closely the constant effort of the trumpet flower to captivate this capricious, swift-winged beauty can doubt the community of interest between them. When Audubon came to paint his plate showing the ruby- throats in life colors, he por- trayed them hovering about a cluster of the trumpet vine's flowers (see page 509).
Kentucky has made the trumpet vine her State flower, and few States can boast of such a brilliant member of the sisterhood of em- blematic blossoms. Growing on a vine that has as much vitality as a Lexington thorough- bred and as much resourcefulness in holding its own in the gruelling free-for-all race for existence as any star of the turf, the trumpet flower is well beloved by those who live within the Blue Grass State and by a host who enjoy no such fortune.
Except in the West, the vine is no blatant intruder in places where it is not wanted and never drives the careful farmer distracted by a disposition to preempt land which he dedi- cates to grass. Rather it seeks the moist rich wood and thicket, desiring only to have its chance to survive in this habitat without in- truding upon every kind of landscape. Invited to do so by the lover of flowers, it willingly
comes out of the woods and forms a delightful arbor for any porch. Sometimes, in parts of the country where it did not originally grow wild, it lives as an "escape" from the portico arbor of the well-kept home. It begins to flower in August and seeds in September. From Jersey's shores to the Mississippi's banks, from the Lakes to the Gulf, it finds hospitable soil and genial weather.
Were it human, the trumpet vine would per- haps not be loved so well. Its instincts of sur- vival are so strong that it does not hesitate to trample upon the rights of weaker neighbors in its efforts to reach the top. Sometimes its aerial rootlets carry it upward or onward until it has stalks as much as 40 feet long. Ever reaching up and striving for a place with the elect of the plant world, it would be in danger of being called a "social climber"; but as a flower we can admire its determination to win its place in the unhampered room at the top.
THE PINE CONE AND TASSEL (Pinus strobus L.)
When the school children of Maine elected the pine cone and tassel as the floral standard bearer for their State, they not only followed the precedent that made theirs the "Pine Tree State," but they honored the first-bom of the flowering plants; for science tells us that in the long process of evolution, when some of the members of the fern family began to strive for higher things, their first success on the road to perfection was to become cone-bearers. And so today the cone-bearers remain the great middle class in the flower world between the plebeian fern on the one hand and the patri- cian rose and the noble lily on the other (see page 510).
How wonderful and how charming is the story of the pine's household economy! It is so equipped that it can make its home down in the lands of tropic warmth or up in the re- gions of polar snow. The last tree one meets, almost, on a climb to the hi^h summits of snow- capped mountains is the pine. The gales may blow so hard and so persistently that not a limb is able to grow on the windward side ; but, twisted and misshapen, the pine still lives on.
Though the winds seem harsh to the pine, they are none the less its good friends. It em- ploys them as the messengers in the spreading of its pollen. The pistils and stamens grow in separate flowers, and the breezes transport the pollen from tassel to cone and from tree to tree. Each grain is provided with two tiny bladders which give it buoyancy and enable it to take a balloon ride. In the region where the winds blow the hardest they serve the coni- fers best, for there insects are scarce and the trees would be exterminated if they had to de- pend on such pollen-bearers. This is only an- other evidence of the natural ability of the pine to adjust itself to its surroundings. The tree that could go on and on through number- less generations evolving a .conifer out of a fern naturally would have adaptability enough to meet the wind both as foe and friend.
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As a messenger the wind is wasteful, and so the pines, to perpetuate their species on earth, must produce vast quantities of pollen.
In the flowering season of the pines the air is filled with tiny grains of yellow dust, the ponds are covered with a golden scum, and one sees evidences of pine pollen everywhere. This pollen is shed from small tassels which occur at the base of the green shoots that form the current year's growth. Upon the under side of each scale of every cone is a tiny bag of jelly. When a pollen grain flies that way and gets stuck in this little bed of jelly, the scale closes up so as to be water — and even air — tight. Some of the pine species even varnish the openings so as to make them safe. Within this cozy chamber the miracle of life is con- summated, and ere long there is a small seed, with its wing attached, mature and awaiting the day when the friendly wind will carry it to where it can plant itself and grow up into a Big tree.
When the cone dies, the seeds it harbors live on. During the winter months the squirrels improve every fair day to gather pine seeds for their present needs and their future wants. If you have ever watched a squirrel open up a pine cone, you have- wondered how he learned so well the art of getting the seeds out easily. He handles the cone as adeptly as a trained athlete might handle a weight. He takes it in his fore feet, hurls it bottom upward, as if he were a professional juggler, and then begins to gnaw at the base of the lowest row of cells. Presently an opening reveals a seed or two. Thus he goes around and around the cone, taking each scale in its order, and before you could do it by hand he has unlocked every one of them.
The cones the squirrels do not get hang on as if they were the "pimmerly plums" of Uncle Remus* story. But when the first faint evi- dences appear that the balmy warmth of spring is to succeed the icy breath of winter, there comes a popping and a cracking in the pine forest, and the seasoned woodsman knows that it is the cones firing salutes of welcome to the approaching spring. As the months pass on, one by one the cones dry out, the bended bows of their many scales are released as the drying- out process pulls the hair-trigger that holds them, and ten thousand thousand winged seeds fly out into the world with the ambition to transform themselves into trees.
It is interesting to gather a number of dif- ferent species of pine cones before they have begun to open and watch them do so. Some of them jump around like things possessed as the scales on which they rest open up; others roll this way and turn that. When the last scale is open and the last seed is out, the cone may be three times as large as it was formerly and a hundred or more seeds have been set free. Alas, how few of these ever become trees. We are told, for instance, that a big tree in California produces from lOO to 200 seeds to a cone and as many as 1,000,000 cones to the tree — that is, 100,000,000 seeds in a single season.
There are 42 native species of pines in the United States. They make the woods of Maine
and other northern States largely evergreen. Countless generations of warring with the ele- ments led them to adopt the needle instead of the leaf, for needles do not oppose the free passage of the wind or afford snow a platform which could crush them. Hence it is that the pines "bind the tottering edge of cleft and chasm and fringe with sudden tints of un- hoped-for spring the Arctic edges of retreat- ing desolation."
THE GOLDENROD (Solidago nemoralis Ait.)
By legislative action the State flower of Ne- braska, in high favor, though not yet adopted, in Missouri and Alabama, and considered with the violet for the honor in New Jersey, the goldenrod disputes with the violet first place in State preferences (see page 491).
Not only is the goldenrod a member of one of the most widely known and versatile flower families of the world, but its own household is made up of a large number of brothers and sisters. We are told that there are 85 species of goldenrod in the United States. A few of them have crossed the border into Mexico and some have even invaded South America, thus indicating that there is such a doctrine as "manifest destiny" in flower land as well as in international politics. Over in Europe there are people who like our goldenrod so well that they grow them in their gardens, as we our- selves would surely do were it not for their wonderful ability to shift for themselves.
All of these species are grouped as members of the genus Solidago, a name which comes to us from ancient Rome, where they thought the goldenrod a possessor of healing powers strong enough to entitle it to be called the "makes whole" plant. The species range from the stout goldenrod, otherwise Solidago squarrosa, which lives up to its name, and the showy goldenrod, which does likewise, to the sweet- scented goldenrod, from which a delightful drink may be brewed, and the slender golden- rod, otherwise Solidago tennifolia. There is one species which an Irishman must have named, for it is called the white goldenrod. It is just about as logical to speak of a white blackbird, and the botanists get around the in- consistency of its color by calling it Solidago hi color.
There is also a species for every locality — the "alpine" for the mountains, the "seaside" for the brackish beach, the "bog" for the deep, soft wood, the "swamp" -for the waste places.
The goldenrod is one of the merchant princes of the plant world. "Quick sales and short profits" is its motto, and it has arranged its wares so that the insects may find whatever they want and in any quantity. The result is that the field covered with goldenrod is an American entomologist's paradise.
In the days of Queen Elizabeth the golden- rod had a great reputation for healing wounds and was imported in considerable quantities and sold in the London markets in powder form at half a crown a pound. In range the goldenrod covers the continent with its cloth of gold. North, south, east, west, on moun-
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tain and by sea, in dry field and in wet swamp, it flourishes in its season and warms every landscape with its rich color.
THE TEXAS BLUEBONNET (Lupinus texensis Hook)
When the legislature of Texas came to con- sider the issue raised by the flowers in their respective bids for Lone Star fame, it had a wide range of candidates, active and receptive, from which to choose. There were primroses and phloxes, euphorbiae, salvias, Texas plumes, Texas fire-wheels, rain lilies, and Indian paint- brushes, but the Texas bluebonnet — a different flower, by the way, from the bluebonnets of Europe — won the day, and is crowned queen of Texas* floral empire. It blooms in the spring and has a range rather more limited than most of the State flowers. One authority tells us that it is a great home body and never crosses the Texas line or the Mexican border. But when it is recalled that Texas is approxi- mately as large as all the Atlantic Seaboard States down to and including South Carolina, it will be seen that it has a rather extensive habitat at that.
To the botanist the Texas bluebonnet is known as Lupinus because of its reputedly in- satiable appetite. For generations it was be- lieved that flowers of this genus were wolfish in the amount of plant food consumed, and that they virtually exhaust the soil on which they grow. Hence their name of wolf flowers. Happily, this charge has been proved an unjust one. The lupines are, it is true, found in sterile, waste lands, gravelly banks, exposed hills, and like places; but they do not impov- erish the land. Rather they choose poor soil for their home, adding to the landscape's beauty and fertility.
There are about seventy species of lupines in America, mostly in the West. They can justly lay claim to being among the most brilliant of all the denizens of Nature's garden. Many a sandy waste they transform into an oasis of color. The blossom has five petals, the upper one an advertising banner announcing to the passing bee that the table within is laden with choicest viands, and that no daintier food was ever served in flower land. There are two side petals which serve as landing stages for the aeronauts of insectdom and two others which touch at the bottom and resemble the keel of a boat. When the bee alights on the landing stage the keel opens up, and the table, all set and garnished, greets the hungry vis- itor's eye.
The lupines sleep at night. Some species transform their horizontal stars of day to ver- tical stars at night; others shut them down around the stem like an umbrella around the ferrule. ^
THE DAISY
(Chrysanthemum cucanthemum L.)
So popular is the white ox-eye daisy in North Carolina that neither a legislature nor the school children had to express formally the State's choice. The unanimous tribute of
a "common consent" award was paid it by the people of the Tar Heel State; and if the whole catalogue of Nature's blossoming children had been ransacked there could not have been found a hardier flower, a more persistent war- rior in behalf of its right to exist, or a better loved or worse hated plant, than the ox-eye daisy. Flowering from May to November, it has adjusted its economy to the necessities of its perpetuation in a way admirable to the student of flower resources and baflfling to the good farmer who so heartily dislikes to have his field dressed in the full regalia of poor farming (see page 512).
To the daisy a home in the woods is like an East Side tenement to one who has lived on Fifth avenue. It can never content itself in the shade and the solitude of the forest. The meadow, the pasture, the hay field, the roadside — these are places where it likes to grow ; and if it is to grow there it must be well prepared to fight a battle with the farmer. It must be able to set some seed before haying time, else how could it continue its hold in the hay field? Then, too, it must vary its period of blooming, for what farmer who prides him- self on well-kept pastures would permit daisies to crowd out his clover if they could be over- come in a single mowing?
Prolific beyond words is this enterprising blossom. It multiplies by wholesale and cov- ers the green turf of April with a flowery snow' in June. Ten thousand thousand city folk go out and gather and admire, but ten thousand thousand farmer folk, knowing that it means poor quality and less quantity in hay and pasture, cannot understand the urban en- thusiasm for a blossom that lowers production and increases the cost of living.
But with all its "weedy role" in the eyes of the farmer, there is beauty in the field daisy and as much sentiment. What maiden has not on its "petals" told her fortune with the for- mula, "He loves me, he loves me not," or has failed to find a blossom that would declare to her that her Prince Charming's heart was at her feet?
But whether it be with the eyes of the farmer that you see the daisy, beholding only its per- sistent invasion of his domains, or whether with the eye of the beauty lover who is called by admiration and not to battle, or whether with the eye of the sentimental who love it for the fortunes it has told, the daisy is by all awarded the honor of being an alien that has no hyphen in its disposition. It is an immi- grant, unlike its closest relative, the black- eyed susan ; but it has all the enterprise, all the spirit of winning its way in the world, all the Yankee resourcefulness of a flower to the man- ner born. It long ago found Europe too crowded for comfort and discovered that it could come to America as a stowaway. Over here it traveled on the wind, in wagons, by river steamboats, on railroad trains, any way that offered it the chance to find a new field in which to lay the foundations of a new colony.
The daisy's prosperity is due no less to the form of its bloom than to the tactics it employs in fighting for its position in the field. The
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white **petals" are not petals at all ; they are sterile florets, gaily bedecked in white, waving a welcome to the passing bees and butterflies, whom they invite to the feast which the yellow florets have prepared for them. Like all other progressive flowers, the daisy has designed ways to insure itself the boon of cross-fertili- zation. The two arms of the pistil are kept tightly closed until the pollen is gone; then they open up and become sticky, so that the bee which comes their way from another blossom must leave with them some of the grains of pollen it has gathered elsewhere.
THE SEGO LILY (Calochortus nuttallii Torr. and Gr.)
Utah's floral queen belongs to the tulip branch of the lily family. It has a remarkable list of relatives, good, bad, and indifferent, close and distant. These kinsfolk range from the evil-smelling carrion flower to the delight- fully fragrant lily-of-the-valley ; from the gor- geous and assertive butterfly tulip to the timid, unassuming fairy bell; from the poisonous sego and the hog potato to the edible comass and the soap-like amole (see page 512).
The sego lily is a variety of the mariposa tulip. Its flower is about two inches across, and its white petals are tinged sometimes with yellowish green and sometimes with lilac. The flowers usually follow individual taste in color- ings and wear a wide range of the prettiest gowns imaginable.
Mariposa in Spanish means butterfly, and the members of the mariposa group of flowers, to which the sego lily belongs, are marvelous in their hues and delightful in their imitation of the decorative patterns and color combinations of their insect friends.
A visitor to the big trees of the Mariposa Grove relates how she found a bed of sego lilies in which, upon close examination, she dis- covered fourteen distinct markings, the flowers resembling so many butterflies with wings out- spread for flight, their rich color glistening in the sun.
The sego lily was even more to the early Mormon church in Utah than was the may- flower to the Pilgrims at Plymouth. The may- flower was the springtime's first harbinger and a blossom of hope; the sego lily was not only early on the scene to gladden a somewhat dreary landscape, but its roots proved edible. The followers of Brigham Young looked upon it in somewhat the same light as the Jews looked upon the manna that saved them dur- ing their wanderings in the wilderness. There- fore the sego lily has figured largely in the history of the Mormon Church in Utah and has been accorded the distinction of State flower as a proof of the early settlers' grati- tude.
THE SAHUARO
(Camegiea |^gantea [formerly known as
Cereus giganteus] (Engelm.) Britten
and Rose)
When the legislature of Arizona selected the column cactus, known to laymen as the sa-
huaro, as the State flower, it chose a repre- sentative which for tenacity and ability to live under stressful conditions is unsurpassed. The sahuaro grows so as sometimes to resemble an upstanding Brobdingnagian cucumber and at others to look like a huge green candelabra. It thrives on the mountain slopes where other plants cannot survive the shortage of moisture, rearing its thick, cylindrical branches straight up into the air as high as 40 feet. These are armed with rows of spines arranged in star shapes, and in May and June bear exquisite whitish, waxlike flowers, perfect in form and opening in the daytime (see page 513).
We always think it wise to save for a "rainy" day; but paradoxical as it may sound, the "rainy" day of the cactus is the' day when it fails to rain for a long time. So it has ar- ranged its household economy for "making hay" while the rain falls. In wet weather it converts itself into a sort of green-hued sponge, drinking up great stores of water. It long ago suppressed the last vestige of a leaf, and in lieu thereof has covered itself with a thick, hard, impervious coating which some- times has a grayish bloom on the surface. In other species the coating is covered by a mass of thick hairs. In this way it is able to pre- vent evaporation of its moisture under the fiercest sun and calmly to await new supplies. It is indeed the vegetable counterpart of the camel.
We think of the cacti as unfriendly, yet the birds often find them a refuge. Woodpeckers make holes in the sahuaro for their nesting places. Other small birds of the arid regions move in when the woodpeckers move out. One of these is a small owl, said to be the tiniest of all members of the owl tribe. Another feathered f rie;id of the cacti is the cactus wren, a little songster with a grayish brown back, a darker head, a spotted breast, and a white line over the eye. It builds a large, flask-shaped nest of grasses and twigs which it lines with feathers. The nest is entered by a covered way or neck several inches long.
The column cactus, like most of its relatives, is a prolific producer of seeds. Millions reach the ground, thousands may germinate, but only now and then does one escape the perils of childhood and become a full-grown cactus. In their youthful days the sahuaros are odd, round plants only a few inches high and with the spines, which protect them from animal depredations, undeveloped. The fruits of this species have a crimson flesh and black seeds, reminding one in those respects of the Georgia watermelon. The Papago Indians eat both the meat and the seeds.
THE CACTUS
(Echinocereus fendleri (Engelm.) Ruempl.)
In choosing the cactus as New Mexico's flower favorite the school children of that State honored a family of plants which are almost exclusively Americans. If a few spe- cies that originated in Africa be excepted, the cacti are limited to America.
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The Bchinocereus fendleri is but one of many of the types of cacti to be found on New Mexico's broad mesas and desert valleys. Looking like a cross between a pineapple, a cucumber, and a green pepper, and crowned with a brilliant flower whose red petals, yel- lowish stamens, and green pistil make a color symphony, this species is always a favorite. It is a sort of vegetable porcupine, ready to give every comer a reception that will not soon be forgotten. Many an admirer, seeing it for the first time, has plucked a blossom to his sorrow, for the tiny hairy thorns stick to the fingers in a most irritating fashion.
The cacti are one of the most interesting family of plants, containing many remarkable species. There is the barrel cactus, or visnaga, which often comes to the traveler's rescue in the desert. The barrel cactus acts as a cistern, collecting within itself reservoirs of water, which the traveler in the desert may tap. Then there is the coccus cacti, which is cultivated in Mexico and Central America as food for the cochineal insect, from which dyes for making carmine and scarlet are derived. The spines of another cactus are used as tooth-picks by the American Indians. Then there are the opuntias, which include the prickly pear or In- dian fig cactus. Several species are cultivated in southern Europe and northern Africa for their sweet, juicy fruit.
THE MISTLETOE (Phoradendron flavescens, Pursh, Nutt)
The mistletoe is the only one of the State flowers so far adopted that is parasitic in its habits. And yet, parasite or no parasite, there is no blossom in the catalogue that has more of romance clinging to it than this, Oklahoma's representative in the galaxy of emblematic flowers (see page 514).
Mistletoe figured in the superstitious rites of the British Druids and in the Nature myths of the Scandinavians. Balder, son of Odin, husband of Nanna, and the darling of all the gods, was so fair that light streamed from him and the whitest flower that blew was likened to him. Once he had a dream of an impending disaster, which caused his mother to put all things, animate and inanimate, under a vow not to harm him. But she omitted one object — ^the mistletoe. Loki, his enemy, dis- covers this omission and induces Balder's brother to shoot at him in play with an arrow of mistletoe. It hits the mark and Balder, god of light, dies, becoming thereafter the emblem of purity and innocence.
The mistletoe was then presented to the god- dess of love, and it was ordained that whoever passed beneath it should receive a kiss as a token that it was an emblem of love and not of vengeance. The modern Yuletide custom — perhaps more talked about than observed---of kissing the pretty girl under the mistletoe is a survival of those days.
There are more than 400 species of mistle- toe, most of them tropical and most of them parasitic. In the United States there are many varieties and they range far and wide, from the New Jersey coast west and south.
If you ask the Oklahoman about the mistle- toe as a parasite, he is likely to answer that if man, tapping the maple for sugar, extracting the sap of the rubber tree for automobile tires, and taking the pine tree's turpentine, is a para- site, then the mistletoe may be called one, too; but that otherwise it deserves to be absolved. It has as much right to get its food from trees, he maintains, as we have to eat beef and mut- ton or wear woolen clothes or silks and satins.
Of all plants the mistletoe has fewest breath- ing pores in its leaves — only 200 to the square inch, while the lilac has 200,000. The leaves are almost nerveless, thick, and fleshy. When the seeds put out roots, they always turn to- ward the branch, no matter whether on the upper or the lower side of it.
Traveling through the South, one may see thousands of trees literally festooned with mistletoe, now growing like witches' brooms, now in graceful array, but always calmly ap- propriating for its own development the life blood of the tree upon which it feeds.
THE PASQUE FLOWER (Pulsatilla patens, L., Mill)
Inhabiting dry soil and prairie lands, blos- soming through March and April, ranging from Illinois to the Rocky Mountains and from Canada to Texas, the pasque flower, elected queen of flowerland by the legislature of South Dakota, need never fear to stand in any flower company, however distinguished, however beau- tiful, however charming (see page 514).
As a member of the crowfoot family, the pasque flower has some lovely cousins. For instance, there is the Virgin's bower or clem- atis, the wood anemone, the buttercup, the larkspur, the monkshood, the columbine, the goldthread, and the baneberries. Its immediate relatives are the anemones, among which it is one of the prettiest.
With the first warm sunshine of spring the pasque flower begins to lend its soft purplish hues to the landscape. Its leaves are so furry, the result of its unconscious efforts to protect itself from pilfering ants and other creeping insects, that the children of South Dakota have come to call it the "gosling plant." If its lovely flowers gladden the hills while ungenial winter wanes, its fruiting period also has beauty to offer. A head of silky seedlets with their dainty plumes leads many people to call it the ground clematis.
The stalk of the anemone lengthens consid- erably after the plant flowers. Those familiar with the garden varieties have noticed how it grows longer even after it has been cut. If the stems be put in water, they readily double their length. This power of cell-making, with only air, light, and water out of which to manufacture tissue, seems a wonderful gift. Devoid of roots and possessed only of local energy, it is hard to understand how the stalk continues to grow. It has been suggested that the duty of raising the seed capsule to the re- quired height may be one that the roots have delegated to another part, just as the brain of man has delegated to the nerve ganglions the duty of shutting the eyes when they are threat-
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ened, or of causing the body to jump at a sud- den noise.
The pasque flower of South Dakota is a speaking likeness of an English variety, if in- deed it is not the direct descendant of that flower. There is a tradition that the plant first arose out of the blood of the Danes who were killed on the field of battle in the stormy days of Britain's early history, and many people call it the "Danesblood." Opinions differ as to how it came by its name of pasque flower. Some say that before the Gregorian revision of the calendar it was the most abundant flower at Eastertide; hence its name. Others declare that a dye for coloring Easter eggs was ob- tained from it. Be that as it may, the pasque flower itself brings delight to the prairies even before the last winter winds have roared their farewell.
THE OREGON GRAPE (Berberis aquifolium Pursh)
The Oregon grape is one of the State flowers which has the prestige of legal status behind its queenship. It belongs to the barberry fam- ily, other members of which are the twin-leaf, the blue cohosh, and the May apple. Between its dainty blossoms of early summer and its bright purple berries of late fall, it wins ad- miration wherever it grows. It lives close to the ground and is not a climber like the ordi- nary American wild grape. But no fruit of field or forest ever made a more dehcious jelly than that of this handsome shrub of the West. Though the berries resemble the huckleberry, the foliage looks like that of the holly, and the wood inclines to a yellow-cast red. Its range is wide, extending as far east as Nebraska, as far south as Arizona, and as far north as British Columbia (see page 315).
It is one of the strange things about nature that so many of its creatures are unable to perpetuate their species without a periodic change of environment. For instance, the germ of yellow fever dies and disappears where it cannot spend part of its time in the human body and part in the stomach of a stegomia mosquito. Likewise, cedar rust be- comes extinct if it cannot live one year on an apple tree and the next on a cedar tree. In the case of one species of wheat rust the bar- berry is necessary to its continued hold on life. This rust cannot live without changing hosts periodically.
But the Oregon grape is wiser than some of its immediate kinsfolk. It has a preference for situations where the communication of rust spores to it from wheat and from it to wheat is not quite so readily accomplished. It is found most abundant and beautiful on the foothills and mountain slopes deep in Oregon's lumber lands.
THE INDIAN PAINTBRUSH
(Castilleja linariaefolia Benth.)
Some years ago the school children of Wy- oming, feeHng that their State ought to have a duly chosen queen of the flowers, undertook
to elect one. They chose the dainty and uni- versally admired fringed gentian. But while no flower is more beautiful, many people in Wyoming thought there were others more rep- resentative and typical of their State. This feeling culminated m legislative action in 1917, with the result that beautiful Queen Gentian had to abandon her throne to the narrow- leaved Indian paintbrush (see page 515).
The paintbrush belongs to the fig%vort family, which mcludes a great host of beauties. Some of its cousins are the mullens, the toadflaxes, the snap-dragons, the turtle-heads, the beard- tongues, the monkey flowers, the speedwells, the foxgloves, and the eye-brights. Closest of kin are the painted cups, an attractive group of posies.
Most of the Castilleja tribe are inclined to be parasitic in their habits. Instead of sending^ out rootlets themselves in order to absorb the plant food and moisture that Nature provides, some of them send their roots down into those of other plants and feast all summer long^. Like the lily, they toil not, neither do they spin; but if Solomon was ever in all his glory- arrayed as they are, that fact was overlooked by the historians of his day.
Wyoming's flower, while not possessed of the deep hue characteristic of the Castilleja tribe— declared by one of our leading botanists to be "the brightest spot of red the wild palette can show" — makes up in delicacy what it lacks in intensity. The blossom is light red, with touches of soft yellow and hints of salmon pink.
No traveler in the Rocky Mountains, the High Sierras, or the sagebrush regions of the Great Basin can forget the paintbrushes. Where they dwell among the blue lupines, the yellow mimulus, and other bright blossoms, they perfect a combination of hues that trans- forms the veriest riot of color into an orderly aggregation of polychromatic beauty.
RHODODENDRON
(Rhododendron maximum Michx.)
The superb beauty of the rhododendron has won for it universal admiration and the dis- tinction of being the flower of two States. The legislature of West Virginia and the State organization of women's clubc in Washington have elevated it above all other floral rivals in their communities. The chosen variety of West Virginia is Rhododendron maximum, while that of Washington is Rhododendron calif ornicum, also called the California rose bay. The latter is the most splendid of western shrubs. Both kinds are of the heath family, cousins of the mountain laurel, and have deli- cate, waxen blossoms tinted like the "rosy- fingered dawn," with upper petals flecked with golden and greenish spots (see page 516).
A true artist in selecting its background, the rhododendron not only surrounds its exquisite blossoms with smooth, rich green leaves which set them off^ eff^ectively, but also makes its home commonly on moist, forested mountainsides, where the gloomy greens and browns of dark rocks and lofty trees contrast with its dainty pink and white rufiles.
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APPLE and BLOSSOM Malus syl<vestris Mill.
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LOW or PASTURE ROSE Rosa, Carolina L. {Rosa hu milts 'Mzxf^i.)
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MAGNOLIA Magnolia grandiftora L.
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PEACH BLOSSOM RED CARNATION
Amygdalus persica L. Dianthus caryophyllus L.
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COMMON SUNFLOWER Hclianthus annuus L.
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TRUMPET VINE Bignonia radicans L.
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The rhododendrons growing in Washington, or among the redwoods of California, or clothing the slopes of the Alleghenies with impenetrable thickets and in early summer glorifying them with bloom, are worth going Tar to see.
At its best, and rarely, the shrub attains a height of 35 feet. Its form, with spreading branches, twisting and interlocking, calls to mind the Greek meaning of its name, "rose tree." In less favorable locations the plant is sometimes less than five feet high. The wood is one of the strongest and hardest that grows and weighs 39 pounds to the cubic foot.
The rhododendron has no such clever trick of showering its pollen upon insect visitors as the mountain laurel, but, like the laurel, it pro- tects itself by a sticky substance below the flower from ants and crawling insects which do not transfer pollen. The bee and other in- sect friends of the rhododendron find its nec- tar very gratifying, but the honey they make from it is said to be poisonous.
To the deeper pink, rather purplish rhodo- dendron of the Carolinas, European gardeners pay the homage of careful cultivation, as they do also to some varieties native to Asia.
Americans might fittingly revive England's "Maying" custom and set aside an early sum- mer day for pilgrimages to our mountains where the laurel and rhododendron bloom, in order properly to appreciate these perfect gifts of Nature.
RED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense L.)
Member of the Pulse family, with the wild sensitive plant, the partridge pea, the wild pea- nut, the vetches, the tick trefoil, and the blue lupine as its cousins, the red clover, which the legislature of the Green Mountain State has decreed shall be accorded the honor of stand- ing at the head of the Vermont floral proces- sion, finds itself at home in all temperate America (see page 516).
The clover is an extraordinary seed-bearer. Darwin counted those of a large number of heads and found an average of 2y seeds per blossom. But when he kept the insects away not a single seed was set.
The clover blossom is preeminently the bum- blebee's flower. When Australia first under- took to add this legume to her list of forage crops, as fine-looking fields of clover as one could imagine appeared in due time. Biit somehow the heads did not set seed and it seemed that failure was to follow the experi- ment. On looking around for a possible cause of this failure, it was found that the clover's best friend, the bumblebee, had not been im- ported along with the seed. As soon as this faithful servant was brought in and given time to establish itself, there were lively, hopeful days in the antipodean clover fields and no more failures of the crop to provide for future sowings.
The butterfly, too, long of tongue, can sip the nectar of these blossoms; but the light- weight insects with short tongues need not apply. The clover hides its sweets beneath a
reddish lock that can be opened only by long tongues or heavy weights.
The child who has not plucked the tiny florets of the clover blossom and tasted their nectar is to be placed in the same category as the girl who has not taken a daisy and plucked the petals to the tune of "He loves me, he loves me not," for neither has known the simple joys of the field.
When James Whitcomb Riley asked what the lily and all the rest of the flowers were to a man who in babyhood knew the sweet clover blossom, it was not that he loved the lily less, but that he loved the clover more.
Who that has seen a herd of fine cows, sleek and fat and trim, in a field of red clover fails to understand the force of the phrase **Living in clover" as a description of worldly affluence? But even the cows have no advantage of the bumblebee and the butterfly when it comes to the joy the clover field gives, for neither ox- eye daisies, black-eyed susans, goldenrods, nor iron-weeds can afford such rich pastures for these insects as the" well-cultivated meadows of clover offer them.
For ages the clover has figured in the mys- ticism of the Caucasian races. The four- leaved clover is regarded as a harbinger of good luck when one finds it growing, although it is probably more an evidence of the finder's powers of observation and, therefore, of abil- ity to get on in the world. In Europe the peasants declare that a dream about clover foretells a happy marriage, long life, and pros- perity. There is another superstition to the effect that if one carries a fcur-leaved clover at Christmas time it will bring the ability to see witches and sprites. Still another fancy is expressed in the old couplet to the effect that finding an even ash leaf or a four-leaved clover is sure to bring a sight of the finder's sweet- heart before the day is over.
Clover is thought by the herb doctor to have some medicinal properties. For instance, it is claimed that a syrup made from its blossoms is a cure for whooping-cough; and many a country child knows the joy of red clover tea at impromptu parties.
The clover is not a native American plant. It was brought here from Europe, where it is widely cultivated; and, again, it is only a set- tler in Europe, for it originally migrated there, like so many other plants of economic value, from Asia. However, it has a right to be called a blue-stocking among our flowers, for it is one of those favored individuals of the plant world that enrich the soil as they grow. Man has been long ages learning how to ex- tract nitrogen, the most expensive of all fer- tilizing elements, from the air; but the clover learned that secret untold centuries ago, and instead of levying heavy tribute on the nitro- gen supply of the ground, it draws its supplies from the air, uses what it can, and presents the remainder to the land with its compliments.
It joins the cow-pea, the soy-bean, the locust tree, and other legumes in being a great sup- porter of soil fertility. Compare the sod under the next locust tree you see with that under an oak, and you will realize why the clover and its cousins are allies of the progressive farmer.
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OUR FIRST ALLIANCE
By J. J. JUSSERAND Ambassador of France to the United States
At this time, ivhen we are all reading the story of our expeditionary army to France, it is profitable to review the voyage of the French expedition of 137 years ago to America — an expedition undertaken with the same unselfish object as ours of today, but under conditions of travel and life so different. The following con- tribution by Ambassador Jusserand is abridged from his notable volume, entitled "With Americans of Past and Present Days'* by courtesy of the publishers, Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sofis. — Editor.
THE American war had been for five years in progress; for two years a treaty of alliance, having as sole object "to maintain eflfectually the liberty, sovereignty, and independence, absolute and unlimited, of the United States," bound us French to the "insur- gents"; successes and reverses followed each other in turn: Brooklyn, Trenton, Brandywine, Saratoga.
Quite recently the news had come of the double victory at sea and on land of d'Estaing at Grenada, and Paris had been illuminated. The lights were scarcely out when news arrived of the disaster of the same d'Estaing at Savannah. All France felt anxious concerning the issue of a war which had lasted so long and whose end continued to be doubtful.
When, in the first months of 1780, the report went about that a great definitive effort was to be attempted; that it was not this time a question of sending ships to the Americans, but of sending an army, and that the termination of the great drama was near, the enthusiasm was unbounded. All wanted to take part. There was a prospect of crossing the seas, of succoring a people fighting for a sacred cause — a people of whom all our volunteers praised the virtues ; the people led by Washington, and represented in Paris by Franklin.
An ardor as of Crusaders inflamed the hearts of French youths, and the intended expedition was, in fact, the most impor- tant that France had launched beyond the seas since the distant time of the Cru-
sades. The cause was a truly sacred one — the cause of liberty — a magical word which then stirred the hearts of the many. "Why is liberty so rare?" Vol- taire had said, "Because the most valu- able of possessions."
All those who were so lucky as to be allowed to take part in the expedition were convinced that they would witness memorable, perhaps unique, events, and it turned out, indeed, that they were to witness a campaign which, with the bat- tle of Hastings, where the fate of Eng-- land was decided in 1066, and that of Bou vines, which made of France in 1214 a great nation, was to be one of the three military actions with greatest conse- quences in which for the last thousand years the French had participated.
FRENCH FAITH IN AMERICA
A Striking result of this state of mind is that an extraordinary number of those who went noted down their impressions, kept journals, drew sketches. Never per- haps during a military campaign was so much writing done, nor were so many albums filled with drawings.
Notes, letters, journals, sketches have come down to us in large quantities, and from all manner of men, for the passion of observing and narrating was common to all kinds of people: journals and memoirs of army chiefs like Rocham- beau, or chiefs of staff like Chastellux, a member of the French Academy, adapter of Shakespeare, and author of a Fclicite Publique, which, Franklin said.
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showed him to be "a real friend of hu- manity" ; narratives of a regimental chap- lain, like Abbe Robin, of a skeptical rake like the Duke de Lauzun; journals of officers of various ranks, like Count de Deux-Ponts, Prince de Broglie, Count de Segur, son of the marshal, himself after- ward an Academician and an ambassa- dor; Mathieu-Dumas, future minister of war of a future king of Naples, who bore the then unknown name of Joseph Bonaparte; the Swedish Count Axel de Fersen, one of Rochambeau's aides, who was to organize the French royal family's flight to Varennes and to die massacred by the mob in his own country; journal, too, among many others, of a modest quartermaster like Blanchard, who gives a note quite apart, observes what others do not, and whose tone, as that of a sub- ordinate, is in contrast with the superb ways of the "seigneurs," his companions. From page to page, turning the leaves, one sees appear, without speaking of La- fayette, Kosciusko, and the first enthusi- asts, many names just emerging from obscurity, never to sink into it again: Berthier, La Perouse, La Touche-Tre- ville, the Lameth brothers, Bougainville, Custine, the BouiUe of the flight to Va- rennes, the La Clocheterie of the fight of La Belle Poule, the Duportail who was to be minister of war under the Constituent Assembly; young Talleyrand, brother of the future statesman; young Mirabeau, brother of the orator, himself usually known for his portly dimensions as Mira- beati-tonneau, ever ready with the cup or the sword; young Saint-Simon, not yet a pacifist and not yet a Saint-Simonian ; Suffren, in whose squadron had em- barked the future Director Barras, an officer then in the regiment of Pondi- chery.
ALI. FRANCH: behind AMERICA THEN
All France was really represented — ^to some extent that of the past, to a larger one that of the future.
A juvenile note, in contrast with the quiet dignity of the official reports by the heads of the army, is given by the unprinted journal, a copy of which is preserved in the Library of Congress, kept by one more of Rochambeau's
aides, Louis Baron de Closen, an excel- lent observer, gay, warm-hearted, who took seriously all that pertained to duty, and merrily all the rest, especially mis- haps.
Useful information is also given by some unprinted letters of George Wash- ington, some with the superscription still preserved: "On public service — to his Excellency Count de Rochambeau, Wil- liamsburg, Virginia," the whole text often in the great chief's characteristic hand- writing, clear and steady, neither slow nor hasty, with nothing blurred and noth- ing omitted, with no trepidation, no ab- breviation, the writing of a man with a clear conscience and clear views, superior to fortune, and the convinced partisan, in every circumstance throughout life, of the straight line.
The British Government has, more- over, most liberally opened its archives, so that, both through the recriminatory pamphlets printed in London after the disaster and the dispatches now accessi- ble, one can know what was said day by day in New York and out of New York, in the redoubts at Yorktown, and in the French and American trenches around the place.
AN EXTRAORDINARY TASK
Lieut. Gen. Jean-Baptiste Donatien de ^^imeur, Comte de Rochambeau, aged then fifty-five, and Washington's senior by seven years, was in his house, still in existence. Rue du Cherche-Midi, Paris, at the beginning of March, 1780; he was ill" and about to leave for his castle of Ro- chambeau in Vendomois; post-horses were in readiness when, in the middle of the night, he received, he says in his me- moirs, a "courier bringing him the order to go to Versailles and receive the in- structions of his Majesty."
For some time rumors had been afloat that the great attempt would soon be made. He was* informed that the news was true, and that he would be placed at the head of the army sent to the assist- ance of the Americans.
The task was an extraordinary one. He would have to reach the New World with a body of troops packed on slow transports, to avoid the English fleets, to
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GEINERAI, R0CHAMBH:AU
A distinguished veteran of three wars in Europe, Rochambcau came to America at the head of 5,000 French regulars to succor the Thirteen Colonies in their struggle for liberty. A more experienced soldier and an older man than Washington, the French general, with admirable spirit and magnanimity, placed himself and his troops unreservedly under the American commander-in-chief, serving as an integral part of the colonial forces.
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fight in a country practically unknown, by the side of men not less so, and whom we had been accustomed to fight rather than befriend, and for a cause which had never before elicited enthusiasm at Ver- sailles— the cause of republican liberty.
This last point was the strangest of all, so strange that even Indians, friends of the French in former days, asked Ro- chambeau, when they saw him in Amer- ica, how it was that his king could think fit to help other people against "their own father," their king.
Rochambeau replied that the latter had been too hard on his subjects; that they were right, therefore, in shaking oflf the yoke, and we in helping them to secure "that natural liberty which God has con- ferred on man."
AN ALLIANCE WHICH FORBADE CONQUEST
This answer to "Messieurs les Sau- vages" is an enlightening one; it shows what was the latent force that sur- mounted all obstacles and caused the French nation to stand as a whole, from beginning to end, in favor of the Amer- icans, to applaud a treaty of alliance which, while entailing the gravest risks, forbade us all conquest, and to rejoice enthusiastically at a peace which after a victorious war added nothing to our pos- sessions. This force was the increasing passion among the French for precisely "that natural liberty which God has con- ferred on man."
Hatred of England, quickened though it had been by the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Paris bereaving us of Canada, in 1763, had much less to do with it than is sometimes alleged. Such a feeling ex- isted, it is true, in the hearts of some of the leaders, but not of all; it did in the minds also of some of the officers, but again not of all.
What predominated in the mass of the nation, irrespective of any other consid- eration, was sympathy for men who wanted to fight injustice and to be free. The cause of the insurgents was popular because it was associated with the notion of liberty ; people did not look beyond.
It is often forgotten that this time was not in France a period of Anglophobia, but of Anglomania. Necker, so influen-
tial, and who then held the purse-strings, was an Anglophile; so was Prince de Montbarey, minister of war ; so was that Duke de Lauzun who put an end for a time to his love aflfairs and came to America at the head of his famous legion. All that was English was admired and, when possible, imitated: manners, phil- osophy, sports, clothes, parliamentary in- stitutions, Shakespeare, just translated by Le Tourneur, with the King and Queen as patrons of the undertaking: but, above all, wrote Count de Segur, "we were all dreaming of the liberty, at once calm and lofty, enjoyed by the en- tire body of citizens of Great Britain."
THE MAGIC W^ORDS TO CONJURE WITH
Such is the ever-recurring word. Lib- erty, philanthropy, natural rights — these were the magic syllables to conjure with. "All France," we read in Grimm and Diderot's correspondence, "was filled with an unbounded love for humanity," and felt a passion for "those exaggerated general maxims which raise the enthusi- asm of young men and which would cause them to run to the world's end to help a Laplander or a Hottentot."
The ideas of Montesquieu, whose Es- prit des Lois had had 22 editions in one year, of Voltaire, of d'Alembert, were in the ascendant, and liberal thinkers saw in the Americans propagandists for their doctrine. General Howe having occupied New York in 1776, Voltaire wrote to d*Alembert: "The troops of Doctor Franklin have been beaten by those of the King of England. Alas ! philosophers are being beaten everywhere. Reason and liberty are unwelcome in this world."
AN ALLIANCE WITH NO HATRED FOR THE COMMON ENEMY
Another of the master minds of the day, the economist, thinker, and reformer Turgot, the one whose advice, if fol- lowed, would have possibly secured for US a bloodless revolution, was of the same opinion. In the famous letter written by him on the 22A of March, 1778, to his English friend, Doctor Price, Turgot showed himself, just as the French na- tion was, ardently pro-American, but not anti-English.
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He deplored the impending war, which ought to have been avoided by England's acknowledging in time "the folly of its absurd project to subjugate the Amer- icans. . . . It is a strange thing that it be not yet a commonplace truth to say that no nation can ever have the right to govern another nation; that such a gov- ernment has no other foundation than force, which is also the foundation of brigandage and tyranny; that a people's tyranny is, of all tyrannies, the most cruel, the most intolerable, and the one which leaves the least resources to the oppressed; . . . for a multitude does not calculate, does not feel remorse, and it bestows on itself glory when all that it deserves is shame."
The Americans, according to Turgot, must be free, not only for their own sake, but for the sake of humanity ; an experi- ment of the utmost import is about to be- gin, and should succeed. He added this, the worthy forecast of a generous mind :
'It is impossible not to form wishes for that people to reach the utmost pros- perity it is capable of. That people is the hope of mankind. It must show to the world by its example that men can be free and tranquil, and can do without the chains that tyrants and cheats of all garb have tried to lay on them under pretense of public good. It must give the exam- ple of political liberty, religious liberty, commercial and industrial liberty.
"The shelter which it is going to offer to the oppressed of all nations will con- sole the earth. The ease with which men will be able to avail themselves of it and escape the effects of a bad government will oblige governments to open their eyes and to be just. The rest of the world will perceive by degrees the empti- ness of the illusions on which politicians have festered."
Toward England Turgot has a feeling of regret on account of its policies, but no trace of animosity; and, on the con- trary, the belief that, in spite of what some people of note were alleging, the absolutely certain loss of her American colonies would not result in a diminution of her power. "This revolution will prove, maybe, as profitable to you as to America."
THE HONORABLE RULES OF WAR RIGOROUSLY OBSERVED
Not less characteristic of the times and of the same thinker's turn of mind is a brief memorial written by him for the King shortly after, when Captain Cook was making his third voyage of discov- ery, the one from which he never re- turned. "Captain Cook," Turgot said, "is probably on his way back to Europe. His expedition having- no other object than the progress of human knowledge, and interesting, therefore, to all nations, it would be worthy of the King s mag- nanimity not to allow that the result be jeopardized by the chances of war."
Orders should be given to all French naval officers "to abstain from any hos- tile act against him or his ship, and allow him to freely continue his navigation, and to treat him in every respect as the custom is to treat the officers and ships of neutral and friendly countries."
The King assented and had our cruis- ers notified of the sort of sacred charac- ter which they would have to recognize in that ship of the enemy — a small fact in itself, but showing the difference be- tween the wars in those days and in ours, when we have had to witness the. wanton destruction of the Louvain library, the shelling of the Rheims cathedral, and the Arras town hall.
A FIGHT NOT FOR RECOMPENSE, BUT FOR LIBERTY
An immense aspiration was growing in France for more equality, fewer privi- leges, simpler lives among the great, less hard ones among the lowly, more acces- sible knowledge, the free discussion by all of the common interests of all. A fact of deepest import struck the least atten- tive : French masses were becoming more and more thinking masses. One should not forget that between the end of the American Revolution and the beginning of the French one only six years elapsed ; between the American and the French Constitutions but four years.
It was not, therefore, a statement of small import that Franklin had conveyed to Congress when he wrote from France : "The united bent of the nation is mani-
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MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE
His passion for liberty enkindled by the heroic struggle of the American colonies, Marie Jean Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier Lafayette, a youth of 19, determined to cast his fortunes with the followers of Washington. Arrested by order of his sovereign when he attempted to sail from Bordeaux, the dauntless boy escaped from France in disguise and embarked with eleven companions from a port in Spain. Landing in America in April, 1779, he went at once to Philadelphia, where Congress hesitated to give him a commission as major general, which had been promised by the American agent in Paris.
Immediately Lafayette waived all claim to military rank and asked to be allowed to serve in the Continental Army "as a volunteer and without pay." Happily, Congress proved no less magnanimous; his commission was issued at once. The day following he met Washing- ton, and there began a lifelong friendship between the two great patriots and lovers of liberty, epitomizing the mutual devotion and admiration which the people of France and of the United States were henceforth to entertain toward each other for all time. It was largely through Lafayette's influence that Rochambeau came to America with a division of French soldiers which turned the tide of defeat into victory for the colonies.
Returning to his native France, Lafayette played a distinguished role in the events of the French Revolution, his devotion to the cause of liberty ever remaining unsullied by wanton deeds of bloodshed or vainglorious striving for power. Having been made com- mander-in-chief of the National Guard of Paris on the day following the storming of the Bastille, he sent the key of that grim stronghold to General Washington as a symbol of the overthrow of despotism and the triumph of free government in France. That symbol is today one of America's most treasured mementos, carefully guarded in the nation's shrine — Mt. Vernon.
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festly in our favor." And he deplored elsewhere that some could think that an appeal to France's own interest was good policy :
"Telling them their commerce will be advantaged by our success, and that it is their interest to help us, seems as much as to say: 'Help us and we shall not be obliged to you/ Such indiscreet and im- proper language has been sometimes held here by some of our people and produced no good effect. The truth is/' he said also, that "this nation is fond of glory, particularly that of protecting the op- pressed."
The treaty of commerce, accompany- ing the treaty of alliance of 1778, had been in itself a justification of this judg- ment. Help from abroad was so press- ingly needed in America that almost any advantages requested by France as a con- dition would have been granted ; but that strange sight was seen : advantages being offered, unasked, by one party and de- clined by the other.
France decided at once not to accept anything as a recompense, not even Can- ada, if that were wrested from the Eng- lish, in spite of Canada's having been French from the first and having but re- cently ceased to be such. The fight was not for recompense, but for liberty, and Franklin could write to Congress that the treaty of commerce was one to which all the rest of the world, in accordance with France's own wishes, was free to accede, when it chose, on the same foot- ing as herself, England included.
This was so peculiar that many had doubts ; John Adams never lost his ; even Washington himself had some, and when plans were submitted to him for an action in Canada he wondered, as he wrote, whether there was not in them "more than the disinterested zeal of allies." What would take place at the peace if the allies were victorious? Would not France require, in one form or another, some advantages for herself? But she did not ; her peace was to be like her war, pro-American rather than anti-English.
THE IDEAL LEADER — ROCHAMBEAU
Aware of the importance and difficulty of the move it had decided upon, the
French Government had looked for a trained soldier, a man of decision and of sense, one who would understand Wash- ington and be understood by him, would keep in hand the enthusiasts under his orders, and would avoid ill-prepared, risky ventures. The government consid- ered it could do no better than to select Rochambeau. It could, indeed, do no better.
Rochambeau was appointed an officer and served on his first campaign in Ger- many at sixteen; fought under Marshal de Saxe; was a colonel at twenty-two (Washington was to become one also at twenty-two) ; received at Laufeldt his two first wounds, of which he nearly died. At the head of the famous Auvergne reg- iment, "Auvergne sans tache" (Auvergne the spotless), as it was called, he took part in the chief battles of the Seven Years* War, notably in the victory of Klostercamp, where spotless Auvergne had 58 officers and 800 soldiers killed or wounded, the battle made memorable by the episode of the Chevalier d'Assas, who went to his heroic death in the fulfill- ment of an order given by Rochambeau. The latter was again severely wounded, but, leaning on two soldiers, he could re- main at his post till the day was won.
On the opposite side of the same battle- fields were fighting many destined, like Rochambeau himself, to take part in the American war; it was like a preliminary rehearsal of the drama that was to be. At the second battle of Minden, in 1759, where the father of Lafayette was killed, Rochartibeau covered the retreat, while in the English ranks Lord Cornwallis was learning his trade, as was, too, but less brilliantly, Lord George Germain, the fu- ture colonial secretary of the Yorktown period.
A HAPPY MARRIAGE WITH ANNALS BRIEF
When still very young, Rochambeau had contracted one of those marriages so numerous in the eighteenth, as in every other, century, of which nothing is said in the memoirs and letters of the period, because they were what they should be — happy ones. Every right-minded and right-hearted man will find less pleasure in the sauciest anecdote told by Lauzun
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than in the simple and brief Hnes written in his old age by Rochambeau : "My good star gave me such a wife as I could de- sire ; she has been for me a cause of con- stant happiness throughout life, and I hope, on my side, to have made her happy by the tenderest amity, which has never varied an instant during nearly sixty years."
Informed at Versailles of the task he would have to perform, Rochambeau set to work to get everything in readiness, collecting information, talking with those who knew America, and noting down in his green-garbed registers, which were to accompany him in his campaign, the chief data thus secured.
He also addressed to himself, as a re- minder, a number of useful recommenda- tions, such as these: "To take with us a quantity of flints, . . . much flour and biscuit; have bricks as ballast for the ships, to be used for ovens; to try to bring with us all we want and not to have to ask from the Americans, who are themselves in want; ... to have a copy of the atlas brought from Philadel- phia by Mr. de Lafayette; ... to have a portable printing-press, like that of Mr. d'Estaing, handy for proclama- tions . . . siege artillery is indispen- sable."
Some of the notes are of grave import and were not lost sight of throughout the campaign: "Nothing without naval su- premacy."
XOTIIING WITHOUT NAVAL SUPREMACY
To those intrusted with the care of loading the vessels he recommends that all articles of the same kind be not placed on the same ship, "so that in case of mis- hap to any ship the whole supply of any kind of provisions be not totally lost."
When all were there, however, form- ing a total of S,ooo men, the maximum was so truly reached that a number of young men, some belonging to the best- known French families, who were arriv- ing at Brest from day to day, in the hope of being added to the expedition, had to be sent back.
The departure, which it was necessary to hasten while the English were not yet ready, was beset with difficulties. Tem-
pests, contrary winds, and other mishaps had caused vexatious delay ; the Comtesse de Noailles and the Conquerant had come into coUision and had had to be repaired. "Luckily," wrote Rochambeau to Mont- barey, with his usual good humor, "it rains also on Portsmouth." At last, on the 2d of May, 1780, the fleet of seven ships of the line and two frigates, con- veying thirty-six transports, weighed anchor for good. "We shall have the start of Graves," the general wrote again, "for he will have to use the same wind to leave Portsmouth."
At sea now for a long voyage, two or three months perhaps, with the prospect of calms, of storms, of untoward en- counters, of scurvy for the troops. On board the big Due de Bourgogne, of eighty guns, with Admiral de Ternay, Rochambeau adds now and then para- graphs to a long report which is a kind of journal, assuring the minister, after the first fortnight, that all is well on board : "We have no men sick other than those which the sea makes so, among whom the Marquis de Laval and my son play the most conspicuous part." He prepares his general instructions to the troops.
On board the smaller craft life was harder, and numerous unflattering de- scriptions have come down to us in the journals kept by so many officers of the army, especially in that of the aforemen- tioned young captain,* Louis Baron de Closen, later one of the aides of Ro- chambeau.
A FIRST-HAND PICTURE OF LIFE IN THE FRENCH FLEET
He confesses, but with no undue senti- mentalism, that he was saddened at first to some extent at the prospect of an ab- sence that might be a long one, particu- larly when thinking "of a charming young fiancee, full of wit and grace. . . . My profession, however, does not allow me to yield too much to sensibility ; so I am now perfectly resigned."
It is hard at first to get accustomed, so tight-packed is the ship, but one gets inured to it, in spite of the "buzzing of so numerous a company," of the lack of breathing space, and of what people
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breathe being made unpleasant by all sorts of "exhalations" from the ship, the masses of humanity on board, "and a few dogs."
Closen has the good luck not to be in- convenienced by the sea, settles in his comer, and from that moment till the end takes pleasure in watching life around him. He learns how to make nautical observations, describes his companions in his journal, and especially the captain, a typical old tar who has an equal faith in the efficacy of hymns and of oaths.
"Prayer is said twice a day on the deck, which does not prevent there being much irreligion among seamen. I have often heard our captain swear and curse and freely use the worst sailors' language while he was praying and chanting :
" 7a niets ma confiance, Vierge, en votre secours, Et quand ma derniere heure Viendra, guidez mon sort; Obtenez que je meure De la plus sainte mort.'
Various incidents break the monotony of the journey. On the i8th of June the Surveillante captures an English corsair, which is a joy; but they learn from her the fall of Charleston and the surrender of Lincoln, which gives food for thought.
A TRAP THAT WAS AVOIDED
Nothing better shows the difference ' between old-time and present-time navi- gation than the small fact that while on the way they indulge in fishing. On board the Comtesse de Noailles they cap- ture flying-fishes, which are "very tender and delicious to eat, fried in fresh butter, like gudgeons."
An occasion offers to open fight, with the advantage of numerical superiority, on SIX English vessels ; some shots are exchanged, but with great wisdom, and, in spite of the grumblings of all his peo- ple, Ternay refuses to really engage them, and continues his voyage.
"He had his convoy too much at heart," says Closen, "and he knew too well the importance of our expedition, his positive orders being that he must make our army arrive as quickly as possible, for him not to set aside all the entreaties of the young naval officers, who, I was told, were very
outspoken on that score, as well as most of the land officers, who know nothings of naval matters."
The event fully justified Ternay, for Graves, whose mission it had been to intercept him and his slow and heavy convoy, missed his opportunity by twenty- four hours only, reaching New York, where he joined forces with Arbuthnot, just as our own ships were safe at New- port. The slightest delay on Temay's part might have been fatal.
The more so since, when nearing the coast, our fleet had fallen into fogs. "Nothing so sad and dangerous at sea as fogs," Closen sententiously writes; "besides the difficulty of avoiding col- lisions in so numerous a fleet, each vessel, in order to shun them, tries to gain space ; thus one may chance to get too far from the center. The standing orders for our convoy were, in view of avoiding those inconveniences, to beat the drums every quarter of an hour or fire petards. The men-of-war fired their guns or sent rock- ets. The speed limit was three knots during the fog, so that each vessel might, as far as possible, continue keeping com- pany with its neighbor."
In spite of all which the He de France was lost, and there was great anxiety; she was not seen again during the rest of the journey, but she appeared later, quite safe, at Boston.
WASHINGTON GIVEN THE HONORS OF A MARSHAL IN THE FRENCH ARMY
The landing orders of Rochambeatu making known now to all concerned the intentions of the government, were clear and peremptory. Drawn up by him on board the Due de Bourgogne, he had caused copies to be carried to the chiefs of the several corps on board the other ships :
"The troops which His Majesty is sending to America are auxiliary to those of the United States, his allies, and placed under the orders of General Washington, to whom the honors of a marshal of France will be rendered. The same with the President of Congress," which avoid- ed the possibility of any trouble as to precedence, no one in the French army having such a rank.
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ADMIRAL DE GRASSE, WHO RISKED AND DID MORE FOR THE UNITED STATES THAN
ANY SINGLE FOREIGNER
By blockading the James and York rivers and by repulsing the British fleet, thereby pre- venting its coming to the relief of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, this French naval officer became a potent factor in the establishment of the American Republic (see pp. 537 and 541).
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"In case of an equality of rank and duration of service, the American officer will take command. . . . The troops of the King will yield the right side to the allies ; French troops will add black to their cockades, black being the color of the United States," and some such hats, with black and white cockades, are still preserved at Fraunce's Tavern, New York.
"The intention of His Majesty," the general continues, "is that there be per- fect concert and harmony between the generals and officers of the two nations. The severest discipline will be observed. . . . It is forbidden to take a bit of wood, a sheaf of straw, any kind of vege- tables, except amicably and in paying. . . . All faults of unruliness, disobedi- ence, insubordination, ill will, brutal and sonorous drunkenness . . . will be punished, according to ordinances, with strokes of the flat of the sword." Even "light faults of lack of cleanliness or attention" will be punished. "To make the punishment the harder for the French soldier, he will be barred from military service during his detention."
The army, but not the fleet, had been placed under the orders of Washington. Ternay's instructions specified, however, that while his squadron had no other commander than himself, it was expected that he "would proffer all assistance that might facilitate the operations of the United States," and that he would allow the use of our ships "on every occasion when their help might be requested."
Good will was obviously the leading sentiment, and the desire of all was to give as little trouble and bring as much useful help as possible.
THE FRENCH FLKKT AT NEWPORT
On the nth day of July the fleet reached Newport, after seventy days at sea, which was longer than Columbus had taken on his first voyage, but which was nothing extraordinary. Abbe Robin, a chaplain of the army, arrived later, after a journey of eighty-five days, none the less filled with admiration for those "enormous machines with which men master the waves" — a very minute enor- mity from our modem point of view.
"There were among the land troops," says Closen, "endless shouts of joy" at the prospect of being on terra firma again. The troops, owing to their hav- ing been fed on salt meat and dry vege- tables, with little water to drink (on board the Comtesse de Noailles water had become corrupt ; it was now and then replaced by wine, "but that heats one very much''), had greatly suflfered. Scurvy had caused its usual ravages ; 600 or 700 soldiers and 1,000 sailors were suflFering from it; some had died.
They were now confronted by the un- known. What would that unknown be? Rochambeau had only his first division with him; would he be attacked at once by the English, who disposed of superior naval and land forces about New York ? And what would be the attitude of the Americans themselves? Everybody was for them in France, but few people had a real knowledge of them. Lafayette had, but he was young and enthusiastic. Would the inhabitants, would their leader, Washington, would their army, answer his description?
A GAME OF NAVAL CHESS
On the arrival of the fleet Newport had fired "13 grand rockets" and illuminated its windows, but that might be a mere matter of course. Of these illuminations the then president of Yale, Ezra Stiles, has left a noteworthy record: "The bell rang at Newport till after midnight, and the evening of the 12th Newport illumi- nated; the Whigs put thirteen lights in the windows; the Tories or doubtfuls four or six. The Quakers did not choose their lights should shine before men, and their windows were broken."
The game was, moreover, a difficult one and had to be played on an immense chess-board, including North and South (Boston, New York, Charleston, and the Chesapeake), including even "the Isles" — that is, the West Indies — and what took place there, which might have so much importance for continental operations, had constantly to be guessed or imagined for lack of news.
Worse than all, the reputation of the French was, up to then, in America such as hostile English books and caricatures
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and inconsiderate French ones had made it. We knew it, and so well, too, that the appropriateness of having our troops winter in our colonies of the West In- dies was at one time considered. Our minister, Gerard, was of that opinion: *'The Americans are little accustomed to live with French people, for whom they cannot have as yet a very marked incli- nation."
"It is difficult to imagine," said Abbe Robin, "the idea Americans entertained about the French before the war. They considered them as groaning under the yoke of despotism, a prey to superstition and prejudices, almost idolatrous in their religion, and as a kind of light, brittle, queer-shapen mechanism, only busy friz- zling their hair and painting their faces, without faith or morals." How would thousands of such mechanisms be re- ceived ?
preparing to give the enemy shot"
*H0T
With his usual clear-headedness, Ro- chambeau did the necessary thing on each point. To begin with, in case of an Eng- lish attack, which was at first expected every day, he lost no time in fortifying the position he occupied, "having," wrote Mathieu-Dumas, "personally selected the chief points to be defended, and having batteries of heavy artillery and mortars erected along the channel, with furnaces to heat the balls."
During "the first six days," says Closen, "we were not quite at our ease, but, luckily. Messieurs les Anglais showed us great consideration, and we suffered from nothing worse than grave anxie- ties." After the second week Rocham- beau could write home that if Clinton appeared he would be well received. Shortly after he feels sorry the visit is delayed ; later, when his own second divi- sion, so ardently desired, did not appear, he writes to the war minister: "In two words. Sir Henry Clinton and I are very punctilious, and the question is between us who will first call on the other. If we do not get up earlier in the morning than the English, and the reinforcements they expect from Europe reach them before our second division arrives, they will pay
us a visit here that I should prefer to pay them in New York."
Concerning the reputation of the French, Rochambeau and his officers were in perfect accord ; it would change if exemplary discipline were maintained throughout the campaign. There is noth- ing the chief paid more attention to than this, nor with more complete success. Writing to Prince de Montbarey a month after the landing, Rochambeau says: "I can answer for the discipline of the army ; not a man has left his camp ; not a cabbage has been stolen; not a com- plaint has been heard."
NOT ONE COMPLAINT AGAINST THE CONDUCT OF THE FRENCH TROOPS
To the President of Congress he had written a few days before: "I hope that account will have been rendered to Your Excellency of the discipline observed by the French troops; there has not been one complaint; not a man has missed a roll-call. We are your brothers and we shall act as such with you ; we shall fight your enemies by your side as if we were one and the same nation."
Mentioning in his memoirs the visit of those "savages" who had been formerly under French rule and persisted in re- maining friendly to us, he adds: "The sight of guns, troops, and military exer- cises caused them no surprise; but they were greatly astonished to see apple trees with their apples upon them overhanging the soldiers' tents." "This result," he concludes, "was due not only to the zeal of officers, but more than anything else to the good disposition of the soldiers, which never failed."
William Channing, father of the phil- anthropist, confides to the same Ezra Stiles, in a letter of August 6, 1780, his delighted surprise: "The French are a fine body of men and appear to be well officered. Neither the officers nor men are the effeminate beings we were here- tofore taught to believe them. They are as large and likely men as can be pro- duced by any nation." So much for the brittle, queer-shaped mechanisms.
With the French officers in the West Indies, most of them former companions in arms and personal friends, Rocham-
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beau, as soon as he had landed, began to correspond. The letters thus exchanged, generally unpublished, give a vivid pic- ture of the life then led in the Isles. Cut off from the world most of the time, not knowing what was taking place in France, in America, on the sea, or even sometimes on the neighboring island, unaware of the whereabouts of Rodney, having to guess which place he might try to storm and which they should there- fore garrison, these men, suffering from fevers, having now and then their ships scattered by cyclones, played to their credit and with perfect good humor their difficult game of hide and seek.
They send their letters in duplicate and triplicate, by chance boats, give news of the French court when they have any, and learn after a year's delay that their letters of October, 1780, have been duly received by Rochambeau in June, 1781.
The Marquis de Saint-Simon writes from Santo Domingo to say how much he would like to go and fight under Ro- chambeau on the continent : "I would be delighted to be under your orders, and to give up for that the command-in-chief I enjoy here."
ROCHAMBEAU'S WARM IIKART AND STRICT DISCIPLINE
The stanch devotion of Rochambeau to his duties as a soldier, his personal dis- interestedness, his cool-headedness and energy as a leader, his good humor in the midst of troubles, had secured for him the devotion of many, while his brusquerie, his peremptoriness, the se- verity which veiled his real warmth of heart whenever the service was at stake, won him a goodly number of enemies, the latter very generally of less worth as men than the former.
In the affectionate letter by which he made up early differences with "his son Lafayette," shortly after his arrival, he observes, concerning his own military career: "If I have been lucky enough to preserve, up to now, the confidence of the French soldiers, . . . the reason is that out of 15,000 men or thereabout who have been killed or wounded under my orders, of different rank and in the most deadly actions, I have not to re-
proach myself with having caused a sin- gle one to be killed for the sake of my own fame."
"He seemed," Segur said in his me- moirs, "to have been purposely created to understand Washington and be under- stood by him, and to serve with republi- cans. A friend of order, of law, and of liberty, his example more even than his authority obliged us scrupulously to re- spect the rights, properties, and customs of our allies."
WAITING FOR THE SECOND DIVISION
Nothing without my second division, Rochambeau thought. He had urged the government in his last letters before leav- ing France to send it not later than a fortnight after he himself had sailed: "The convoy will cross much more safely now under the guard of two warships," he had written to Montbarey, "than it will in a month with an escort of thirty, when the English are ready." And again, after having embarked on the Due de Bourgogne: "For Heaven's sake, sir, hasten that second division. . . . We are just now weighing anchor."
But weeks and months went by and no news came of the second division. Wash- ington with his ardent patriotism, Lafay- ette with his youthful enthusiasm, were pressing Rochambeau to risk all in order to capture New York, the stronghold of the enemy and chief center of their power. "I am confident," Rochambeau answered, "that our general (Washing- ton) does not want us to give here a sec- ond edition of Savannah," and he felt the more anxious that, with the coming of re- cruits and going of veterans and the short term enlistments, "Washington would command now 15,000 men, now 5,000."
Rochambeau decided in October to send to France his son, then colonel of the regiment of Bourbonnais, to remon- strate. As capture was possible and the envoy might have to throw his dispatches overboard, young Rochambeau, being blessed with youth and a good memor}% had learned their contents by heart. One of the best sailors of the fleet had been selected to convey him, on the frigate Amacone.
On account of superior forces mount-
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Photofirraph by courtesy of Horace Wells Sellers
THIC FIRST FRENCH AMBASSADOR TO THE UNITED STATES: CHEVALIER GERARD
"Whereas the Honorable Sieiir Gerard, the first Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States, hath before as well as since their treaty with France uniformly, ably, and zealously promoted the objects of the alliance and welfare of both nations, Resolved, That the com- mittee do request Mr. Gerard to sit for his picture before he leaves this city, and that the same be placed in the Council Chamber of the United States." So ran the resolution, adopted in 1779 by the Continental Congress, which resulted in this Peale portrait of one of the first and ablest friends of the American Republic in the days of its infancy.
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ing guard outside, the captain waited for the first night storm that should arise, when the watch was sure to be less strict, started in the midst of one, after having waited for eight days, was recognized, but too late, was chased, had his masts broken, repaired them, and reached Brest safely. The sailor who did so well on this occasion and who was to meet a tragic death at Vanikoro, bore the name, famous since, of La Perouse.
DARK DAYS FOR THE PATRIOT CAUSE
Time wore on — a sad time for the American cause. One day the news was that one of the most trusted generals, famous for his services on land and water — Benedict Arnold — had turned traitor ; another day that Gates had been routed at Camden and Kalb killed. In December Ternay died. In January, worse than all, the soldiers of the Penn- sylvania line mutinied ; unpaid, underfed, kept under the flag long after the time for which they had enlisted, "they went," Closen writes in his journal, "to extremi- ties. In Europe they would not have waited so long."
The danger was great, but brief; tempted by the enemy to change sides and receive full pay, the Pennsylvania line refused indignantly. "We are honest soldiers, asking justice from our compa- triots," they answered; "we are not traitors."
Owing to Washington's influence, or- der soon reigned again ; but the alarm had been very great, as shown by the instruc- tions which he handed to Colonel Lau- rens, now sent by him to Versailles with a mission similar to that of young Ro- chambeau. The emotion caused by the last events is reflected in them : "The pa- tience of the American army is almost exhausted. . . . The great majority of the inhabitants is still firmly attached to the cause of independence," but that cause may be wrecked if more money, more men, and more ships are not imme- diately supplied by the French ally.
A SERIOUS SITUATION IX THE SOUTH
While the presence of the American and French troops in the North kept Clinton and his powerful New York gar-
rison immobile where they were, the situ- ation in the South was becoming worse and worse, with CornwalHs at the head of superior forces. Lord Rawdon holding Charleston, and the hated Arnold ravag- ing Virginia.
Against them the American forces under Greene, Lafayette, and Morgan (who had partly destroyed Tarleton's cavalry at Cowpens, January 17) were doing their utmost, facing fearful odds.
With a handful of men, knowing that the slightest error might be his destruc- tion, young Lafayette, aged twenty-four, far from help and advice, was conducting a campaign in which his pluck, wisdom, and tenacity won him the admiration of veterans. Irritated ever to find him on his path, Cornwallis was writing a little later to Clinton: "If I can get an oppor- tunity to strike a blow at him without loss of time, I will certainly try it." But Lafayette would not let his adversary thus employ his leisure.
One day, however, something would have to be done, and, in order to be ready, Rochambeau kept his army busy with maneuvers, military exercises, sham warfare ("le simulacre de la petite guerre"), and the building of fortifica- tions. As for his officers, he encouraged them to travel, for a large part of the land was free of enemies, and to become better acquainted with these "American brothers," whom they had come to fight for. French officers were thus seen at Boston, Albany, West Point, Philadel- phia.
LATIN WAS THE LANGUAGE OF COMMUNICATION
Closen, who, to his joy and surprise, had been made a member of Rocham- beau's "family" — ^that is, had been ap- pointed one of his aides — ^as soon as his new duties left him some leisure, began, with his methodical mind, to study, he tells us, "the Constitution of the thirteen States and of the Congress of America," meaning, of course, at that date, their several constitutions, which organization, "as time has shown, is well adapted to the national character and has made the happiness of that people so respectable from every point of view." He began
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after this to examine the products of the soil of Rhode Island, **perhaps one of the prettiest islands on the globe."
The stay being prolonged, the officers began to make acquaintances, to learn English, to gain access to American so- ciety. It was at first very difficult; neither French nor American understood each other's language; so recourse was bravely had to Latin, better known then than today.
UNSPKAKABLE QUANTITIES OF TEA ARE DftUNK
For the use of Latin the commander- in-chief of the French army was able to set the example, and Ezra Stiles could talk at a dinner in that language with Rocham- beau, still reminiscent of what he had learned when studying for priesthood.
Beginning to know something of the language, pur officers risk paying visits and go to teas and dinners. Closen notes with curiosity all he sees : ^*It is good be- havior each time people meet to accost each other, mutually offering the hand and shaking it, English fashion. Arriv- ing in a company of men, one thus goes around, but must remember that it be- longs to the one of higher rank to extend his hand first."
Unspeakable quantities of tea are drunk. "To crave mercy, when one has taken half a dozen cups, one must put the spoon across the cup ; for so long as you do not place it so, your cup is always taken, rinsed, filled again, and placed be- fore you. After the first, the custom is for the pretty pourer (verseuse) — most of them are so — to ask you: Is the tea suitablef" "An insipid drink," grumbles Chaplain Robin, over whom the pretti- ness of the pourers was powerless.
The toasts are also a very surprising custom, sometimes an uncomfortable one. "One is terribly fatigued by the quantity of healths which are being drunk (toasts). From one end of the table to the other a gentleman pledges you, some- times with only a glance, which means % that you should drink a glass of wine with him — a compliment which cannot be politely Ignored."
But what strikes him more than any- thing else is the beauty of those young
ladies who made him drink so much tea : **Nature has endowed the ladies of Rhode Island with the handsomest, finest fea- tures one can imagine; their complexion is clear and white; their hands and feet usually small."
But let not the ladies of other States be tempted to resent this preference. One sees later that in each city he visits young Closen is similarly struck, and that, more considerate than the shepherd Paris, he somehow manages to refuse the apple to none. On the Boston ladies he is quite enthusiastic, on the Philadelphia ones not less ; he finds, however, the latter a little too serious, which he attributes to the presence of Congress in that city.
THE frenchmen's IMPRESSION OF WASHINGTON
But, above all, the object of my com- patriots' curiosity was the great man, the one of whom they had heard so much on the other side, the personification of the new-born ideas of liberty and popular government — George Washington. All wanted to see him, and as soon as per- mission to travel was granted several managed to reach his^camp. I^Of all o! them, different as they might be in rank and character, the impression was the same and fulfilled expectation, beginning with Rochambeau, who saw him for the first time at the Hartford conferences, in September, 1780, when they tried to draw a first plan for a combined action.
A friendship then commenced between the two that was long to survive those eventful years. "From the moment we began to correspond with one another," Rochambeau wrote in his memoirs, "I never ceased to enjoy the soundness of his judgment and the amenity of his style in a very long correspondence, which is likely not to end before the death of one of us."
Chastellux, who saw him at his camp, where the band of the American army played for him the "March of the Hu- ron," could draw from life his well- known description of him, ending: "Northern America, from Boston to Charleston, is a great book, every page of which tells his praise." Count de Segur says that he apprehended his ex-
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pectations could not be equaled by reality, but they were. "His exterior almost told his story. Simplicity, grandeur, dignity, calm, kindness, firmness shone in his physiognomy as well as in his character. He was of a noble and high stature, his expression was gentle and kindly, his smile pleasing, his manners simple with- out familiarity. ... All in him an- nounced the hero of a republic."
ABBE robin's TRIBUTE
"I have seen Washington," says Abbe Robin, "the soul and support of one of the greatest revolutions that ever hap- pened. ... In a country where every individual has a part in supreme author- ity .. . he has been able to maintain his troops in absolute subordination, ren- der them jealous of his praise, make them fear his very silence." Closen was one day sent with dispatches to the great man, and, like all the others, began to worship him.
As a consequence of this mission, Washington came, on the 6th of March, 1 781, to visit the French camp and fleet. He was received with the honors due to a marshal of France; the ships were dressed; the troops, in their best uni- forms, "dans la plus grande tenue," lined the streets from Rochambeau's house (the fine Vernon house, still in existence) to the harbor ; the roar and smoke of the guns rose in honor of the "hero of lib- erty!" Washington saw Destouches's fleet sail for its Southern expedition and wished it Godspeed ; and after a six days' stay, enlivened by "illuminations, dinners, and ball$," he left on the 13th.
"I can say," we read in Closen's jour- nal, "that he carried away with him the regrets, the attachment, the respect, and the veneration of all our army." Surn- ming up his impression, he adds : "All in him betokens a great man with an excel- lent heart. Enough good will never be said of him."
ROCHAMBEAU'S DISAPPOINTMENT
On the 8th of May, 1781, the Concorde arrived at Boston, having on board Count de Barras, "a commodore with the red ribbon," of the same family as the future member of the "directoire," and who was
to replace Ternay. With him was Vis- count Rochambeau, bringing to his father the unwelcome news .that no second di- vision was to be expected. "My son has returned very solitary" was the only re- monstrance the general sent to the min- ister.
But the young colonel was able to give, at the same time, news of great impor- tance. A new fleet under Count de Grasse had been got together, and at the time of the Concorde's departure had just sailed for the West Indies, so that a temporary domination of the sea might become a possibility. "Nothing without naval su- premacy," Rochambeau had written, as we know, in his note-book before starting.
In spite, moreover, of "hard times," wrote Vergennes to La Luzerne, and of the already disquieting state of our finances, a new "gratuitous subsidy of six million livres tournois" was granted to the Americans. Some funds had al- ready been sent to Rochambeau, one mil- lion and a half in February, with a letter of Necker, saying: "Be assured, sir, that all that will be asked from the finance department for your army will be made ready on the instant." Seven millions arrived a little later, brought by the Astrce, which had crossed the ocean in 67 days without mishap. As for troops, only 600 recruits arrived at Boston, in June, with the Sagittaire.
THE QUESTION OF THE HOUR: STORM NEW YORK OR RELIEVE THE SOUTH?
Since nothing more was to be expected, the hour had come for definite decisions. A great effort must now be made — the great effort in view of which all the rest had been done, the one which might bring about peace and American liberty or end in lasting failure. All felt the importance and solemnity of the hour. The great question was what should be attempted — the storming of New York or the relief of the South?
The terms of the problem had been amply discussed in letters and confer- ences between the chiefs, and the discus- sion still continued. The one who first made up his mind and ceased to hesitate- between the respective advantages or dis- advantages of the two projects, and who
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plainly declared that there was but one good plan, which was to reconquer the South — that one, strange to say, was neither Washington nor Rochambeau, and was not in the United States either as a sailor or a soldier, but as a diplomat, and in drawing attention to the fact I am only performing the most agreeable duty toward a justly admired predecessor. This wise adviser was La Luzerne. In an unpublished memoir, drawn up by him on the 20th of April and sent to Ro- chambeau on May 19, with an explana- tory letter, in which he asked that his statement (a copy of which he also sent to Barras) be placed under the eyes of Washington, he insisted on the necessity of immediate action, and action in the Chesapeake :
"It is in the Chesapeake Bay that it seems urgent to convey all the naval forces of the King, with such land forces as the generals will consider appropriate. This change cannot fail to have the most advantageous consequences for the con- tinuation of the campaign," which conse- quences he points out with singular clear- sightedness, adding:
ADVANTAGES OF A SOUTHERX OFFENSIVE
"If the English follow us and can reach the bay only after us, their situation will prove very different from ours; all the coasts and the inland parts of the coun- try are full of their enemies. They have neither the means nor the time to raise, as at New York, the necessary works to protect themselves against the inroads of the American troops and to save them- selves from the danger to which the ar- rival of superior forces would expose them." If the plan submitted by him offers difficulties, others should then be formed ; but he maintains that "all those which have for their object the relief of the Southern States must be preferred, and that no time should be lost to put them in execution."
At the Weathersfield conference, near Hartford, Conn., between the Americans and French, on the 23d of IMay (in the Webb house, still in existence ) , Washing- ton still evinced, and not without some weighty reasons, his preference for an attack on New York. He spoke of the
advanced season, of "the great waste of men which we have found from experi- ence in long marches in the Southern States," of the "difficulty of transports by land"; all those reasons and some others, "too well known to Count de Ro- chambeau to need repeating, show that an operation against New York should be preferred, in the present circum- stances, to the effort of a sending of troops to the South." On the same day he was writing to La Luzerne : "I should be wanting in respect and confidence were I not to add that our object is New York."
To Virginia's rescue
La IvUzerne, however, kept on insisting. To Rochambeau he wrote on the ist of June: "The situation of the Southern States becomes every moment more crit- ical ; it has even become very dangerous, and every measure that could be taken for their relief would be of infinite ad- vantage. . . . The situation of the Marquis de Lafayette and that of General Greene is most embarrassing, since Lord Cornwallis has joined the English divi- sion of the Chesapeake. If Virginia is not helped in time, the English will have reached the goal which they have as- signed to themselves in the bold move- ments attempted by them in the .South; they will soon have really conquered the Southern States. . . .
"I am going to write to M. de Grasse as you want me to do ; on your side, seize every occasion to write to him, and mul- tiply the copies of the letters you send him" — that is, in duplicate and triplicate for fear of loss or capture. "His coming to the rescue of the oppressed States is not simply desirable; the thing seems to be now of the most pressing necessity." He must not only come, but bring with him all he can find of French troops in our isles; thus would be compensated, to a certain extent, the absence of the sec- ond division.
THE fate of the united states hangs
ON DE GRASSE
Rochambeau soon agreed, and, with his usual wisdom, Washington was not long in doing the same. On the 28th of
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May the French general had already written to de Grasse, beseeching him to come with every means at his disposal, to bring his whole fleet, and not only his fleet, but a supply of money, to be bor- rowed in our colonies, and also all the French land forces from our garrisons which he could muster. The desire of Saint-Simon to come and help had, of course, not been forgotten by Rocham- beau, and he counted on his good will.
After having described the extreme importance of the eflFort to be attempted, he concluded : "The crisis through which America is passing at this moment is of the severest. The coming of Count de Grasse may be salvation" (see page 541 ) •
Events had so shaped themselves that the fate of the United States and the des- tinies of more than one nation would be for a few weeks in the hands of one man, and one greatly hampered by imperative instructions obliging him, at a time when there was no steam to command the wind and waves, to be at a fixed date in the West Indies, owing to certain arrange- ments with Spain.
Would he take the risk, and what would be the answer of that temporary arbiter of future events, Francois Joseph Paul Comte de Grasse, a sailor from the age of twelve, now a lieutenant general and "chef d*escadre," who had seen already much service on every sea, in the East and West Indies, with d'Orvilliers at Ushant, with Guichen against Rodney in the Caribbean Sea, a haughty man, it was said, with some friends and many ene- mies, the one quality of his acknowl- edged by friend and foe being valor? "Our admiral," his sailors were wont to say, "is six foot tall on ordinary days and six foot six on battle days."
READY FOR A FIGHT OR A FROLIC
What would he do and say ? People in those times had to take their chance and act in accordance with probabilities. This Washington and Rochambeau did. By the beginning of June all was astir in the northern camp. Soldiers did not know what was contemplated, but obviously it was something great. Young officers ex- ulted. What joy to have at last the pros- pect of an "active campaign," wrote Clo-
sen in his journal, "and to have an occa- sion to visit other provinces and see the differences in manners, customs, prod- ucts, and trade of our good Americans !"
The camp is raised and the armies are on the move toward New York and the South ; they are in the best dispositions, ready, according to circumstances, to fight or admire all that turns up. "The country between Providence and Bris- tol," says Closen, "is charming. We thought we had been transported into Paradise, all the roads being lined with acacias in full bloom, filling the air with a delicious, almost too strong, fragrance." Steeples are climbed, and "the sight is one of the finest possible." Snakes are somewhat troublesome, but such things will happen, even in Paradise.
The heat becomes very great, and night marches are arranged, beginning at two o'clock in the morning ; roads at times be- come muddy paths, where wagons, artil- lery, carts conveying boats for the cross- ing of rivers cause great trouble and de- lay. "French gayety remains ever pres- ent in these hard marches. The Amer- icans, whom curiosity brings by the thou- sand to our camps, are received," Abbe Robin writes, "with lively joy ; we cause our military instruments to play for them, of which they are passionately fond. Officers and soldiers, then, Amer- ican men and women mix and dance to- gether; it is the feast of equality; the first-fruits of the alliance which must prevail between those nations. These people are still in the happy period when distinctions of rank and birth are ignored ; they treat alike the soldier and the officer, and often ask the latter what is his profession in his country, unable as they are to imagine that that of a war- rior may be a fixed and permanent one."
WASHINGTON WARNS OF SPIES
Washington writes to recommend pre- cautions against spies, who will be sent to the French camp, dressed as peasants, bringing fruit and other provisions, and who "will be attentive to every word which they rnay hear drop."
Several officers, for the sake of exam- ple, discard their horses and walk, indif- ferent to mud and heat; some oi the
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like the Viscount de Noailles, perform- ing on foot the whole distance of 756 miles between Newport and Yorktown. Cases of sickness were rare.
On the 6th of July the junction of the two armies took place at Phillipsburg, "three leagues," Rochambeau writes, "from Kingsbridge, the first post of the enemy in the island of New York," the American army having followed the left bank of the Hudson in order to reach the place of meeting.
On the receipt of the news Lord Ger- main, the British colonial secretary, wrote to Clinton, who commanded in chief at New York: "The junction of the French troops with the Americans will, I am per- suaded, soon produce disagreements and discontents, ■ and Mr. Washington will find it necessary to separate them very speedily, either by detaching the Amer- icans to the southward or suffering the French to return to Rhode Island. . . . But I trust before that can happen Lord Cornwallis will have given the loyal in- habitants on both sides of the Chesapeake the opportunity they have so long ago earnestly desired, of avowing their prin- ciples and standing forth in support of the King s measures."
Similar proofs of my lord's acumen abound in his partly unpublished corre- spondence. He goes on rejoicing and de- ducting all the happy consequences which were sure to result from the meeting of the French and American troops, so blandly elated at the prospect as to re- mind any one familiar with La Fontaine's fables, of Perrette and her milk-pot.
Washington, in the meantime, was re- viewing the French troops (July 9) and Rochambeau the American ones, and — a fact which would have greatly surprised Lord Germain — the worse equipped the latter were, the greater the sympathy and admiration among the French for their endurance.
THE PATIENT CGNTlNENTxVL SOLDIERS
"Those brave people," wrote Closen, "it really pained us to see, almost naked, with mere linen vests and trousers, most of them without stockings; but, would you believe it? looking very healthy and in the best of spirits." And further on :
"I am full of admiration for the Amer- ican troops. It is unbelievable that troops composed of men of all ages, even of children of fifteen, of blacks and whites, all nearly naked, without money, poorly fed, should walk so well and stand the enemy's fire with such firmness. The calmness of mind and the clever combi- nations of General Washington, in whom I discover every day new eminent quali- ties, are already enough known, and the whole universe respects and admires him. Certain it is that he is admirable at the head of his army, every member of which considers him as his friend and father."
These sentiments, which were unani- mous in the French army, assuredly did not betoken the clash counted upon by the English colonial secretary, and more than one of our officers who, had a few years later to take part in another revo- lution must have been reminded of the Continental soldiers of '81 as they led to battle, fighting for a similar cause, our volunteers of '92.
FILVNCE FOUGHT FOR AN IDE.\
No real hatred, any more than before, appeared among the French troops for those enemies whom they were now near- ing, and with whom they had already had some sanguinary skirmishes. During the intervals between military operations re- lations were courteous and at times ami- cable. The English gave to the French news of Europe, even when the news was good for the latter, and passed to them newspapers. "We learned that news" (Necker's resignation), writes Blanch- ard, "through the English, who often sent trumpeters and passed gazettes to us. We learned from the same papers that Mr. de La Motte-Picquet had cap- tured a rich convoy.
"These exchanges between the English and us did not please the Americans, nor even General Washington, who were un- accustomed to this kind of warfare." The fight was really for an idea, but, what might, have dispelled any misgiv- ings, with no possibility of a change of idea.
Two unknown factors now were for the generals the cause of deep concern. What would de Grasse do ? What would
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Clinton do? The wounded officer of Jo- hannisberg, the winner of Charleston, Sir Henry Clinton, a lieutenant general and former member of Parliament, enjoying great repute, was holding New York, not yet the second city of the world nor even the first of the United States, covering only with its modest houses, churches, and gardens the lower part of Manhat- tan, and reduced, owing to the war, to 10,000 inhabitants.
But, posted there, the English com- mander threatened the road on which the combined armies had to move. He had at his disposal immense stores, strong fortifications, a powerful fleet to second his movements, and troops equal in num- ber and training to ours.
There are periods in the history of nations when, after a continuous series of misfortunes, when despair would have seemed excusable, suddenly the sky clears " and everything turns their way. In the War of American Independence such a period had begun. The armies of Wash- ington and Rochambeau, encumbered with their carts, wagons, and artillery, had to pass rivers, to cross hilly regions, to follow muddy tracks; any serious at- tempt against them might have proved fatal ; but nothing was tried. It was of the greatest importance that Clinton should, as long as possible, have no inti- mation of the real plans of the Franco- Americans ; everything helped to mislead him — his natural disposition as well as ; circumstances.
Clinton's fatal error
He had an unshakable conviction that the key to the whole situation was New York, and that the royal power in Amer- ica, and he, too, Lieut. Gen. Sir Henry Clinton, would stand or fall with that city. Hence his disinclination to leave it and to attempt anything outside. His in- structions ordered him to help Cornwallis to his utmost, the plan of the British court being to conquer the Southern States first, and then continue the con- quest northward. . But he, on the con- trary, was day after day asking Corn- wallis to send back some of his troops.
A great source of light, and, as it turned out, of darkness also, was the in-
tercepting of letters. This constantly happened in those days, to the benefit or bewilderment of both parties, on land or at sea. But luck had decidedly turned, and the stars shone propitious for the allies. We captured valuable letters, and Clinton misleading ones.
On the 1 8th of August the two armies raised their camps, disappeared, and, fol- lowing unusual roads, moving northward at first for three marches, reached in the midst of great difficulties, under a torrid heat, greatly encumbered with heavy bag- gage, the Hudson River and crossed it at King's Ferry, without being more inter- fered with than before.
How can such an inaction on the part of Clinton be explained? "It is for me," writes Count Guillaume de Deux- Fonts in his journal, the manuscript of which was found on the quays in Paris and printed in America, "an undecipherable enigma, and I hope I shall never be re- proached for having puzzled people with any similar ones."
The river once crossed, the double army moved southward by forced marches. Rochambeau, in order to has- ten the move, prescribed the leaving be- hind of a quantity of eflFects; and this, says Closen, "caused considerable grumb- ling among the line," which grumbled, but marched.
The news, to be sure, of so important a movement came to Clinton ; but, since the stars had ceased to smile on him, he chose to conclude, as he wrote to Lord Germain on the 7th of September, "this to be a feint." When he discovered that it was not "a feint" the Franco- American army was beyond reach. "What can be said as to this?" Closen writes merrily. "Try to see better another time," and he draws a pair of spectacles on the margin of his journal.
Philadelphia's welcome
The march southward thus continued unhampered. They crossed first the Jer- seys, "a land of Cockayne, for game, fish, vegetables, poultry." Closen had the hap- piness to "hear from the lips of General Washington, and on the ground itself, a description of the dispositions taken, the movements and all the incidents of the
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famous battles of Trenton and Prince- ton." The young man, who had made great progress in EngHsh, was now used by the two generals as their interpreter ; so nothing escaped him.
The reception at Philadelphia was tri- umphal ; Congress was most courteous ; toasts were innumerable. The city is an immense one, "with seventy-two streets in a straight line. . . . Shops abound in all kinds of merchandise, and some of them do not yield to the Petit Dunkerque in Paris." Women are very pretty, "of charming manners, and very well dressed, even in French fashion." Benezet, the French Quaker, one of the celebrities of the city, is found to be full of wisdom, and La Luzerne, "who keeps a state worthy of his sovereign," gives a dinner to one hundred and eighty guests.
From Philadelphia to Chester, on the 5th of September, Rochambeau and his aides took a boat. As they were nearing the latter city, "we saw in the distance," says Closen, "General Washington shak- ing his hat and a white handkerchief, and showing signs of great joy."
GREAT news! DE GRASSE HAD COME !
Rochambeau had scarcely landed when Washington, usually so cool and com- posed, fell into his arms ; the great news had arrived; de Grasse had come, and while Comwallis was on the defensive at Yorktown, the French fleet was barring the Chesapeake.
On the receipt of letters from Wash- ington, Rochambeau, and La Luzerne, telling him to what extent the fate of the United States was in his hands, the sailor, having "learned, with much sorrow," he wrote to the latter, "what was the distress of the continent, and the need there was of immediate help," had decided that he would leave nothing undone to usefully take part in the supreme effort which, without his help, might be attempted in vain.
Having left, on the 5th of August, Cap Franqais (today Cap Haitien), he had added to his fleet all the available ships he could find in our isles, including some which, having been years away, had re- ceived orders to go back to France for repairs. He had had great difficulty in
obtaining the money asked for, although he had offered to mortgage for it his Castle of Tilly, and the Chevalier de Charitte, in command of the Bourgogne, had made a like offer. But at last, thanks to the Spanish governor at Havana, he had secured the desired amount of twelve hundred thousand francs. He was bring- ing, moreover, the Marquis de Saint- Simon, with the 3,000 regular troops under his command.
De Grasse*s only request was that op- erations be pushed on with the utmost rapidity, as he was bound to be back at the Isles at a fixed date.
America's debt to de grasse
It can truly be said that no single man risked nor did more for the United States than de Grasse, the single one of the lead- ers to whom no memorial has been dedi- cated.
The news spread like wild-fire; the camp was merry with songs and shouts ; in Philadelphia the joy was indescribable ; crowds pressed before the house of La Luzerne, cheering him and his country, while in the streets impromptu orators, standing on chairs, delivered mock fu- neral orations on the Earl of Cornwallis. "You have," Rochambeau wrote to the admiral, "spread universal joy through- out America, with which she is wild."
Anxiety was renewed, however, when it was learned shortly after that the French men-of-war had left the Chesa- peake, the entrance to which now re- mained free. The English fleet, of twenty ships and seven frigates, under Hood and Graves, the same Graves who had failed to intercept Rochambeau's con- voy, had been signaled on the 5th of Sep- tember, and de Grasse, leaving behind him, in order to go faster, some of his ships and a number of sailors who were busy on land, had weighed anchor, three- quarters of an hour after sighting the signals, to risk the fight upon wjiich the issue of the campaign and, as it turned out, of the war was to depend. "This behavior of Count de Grasse," wrote the famous Tarleton, is "worthy of admira- tion."
Six days later the French admiral was back; he had had 21 officers and 200
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sailors killed or wounded, but he had lost no ship, and the enemy's fleet, very much damaged, with 336 men killed or dis- abled, and having lost the Terrible, of 74 guns, and the frigates Iris and Rich- mond of 40, had been compelled to re- treat to New York. Admiral Robert Digby thereupon arrived with naval re- inforcements; "yet I do not think," La Luzerne wrote to Rochambeau, "that ' battle will be offered again. If it is, I am not anxious about the result." Nothing was attempted. This "superiority at sea/' Tarleton wrote in his History of the Cam- paigns, "proved the strength of the ene- mies of Great Britain, deranged the plans of her generals, disheartened the courage of her friends, and finally confirmed the independency of America." "Nothing," Rochambeau had written in his note-book at starting, "without naval supremacy."
ANOTHER FRENCH FLEET IN THE CHESAPEAKE
On reentering the bay, de Grasse had the pleasure to find there another French fleet, that of his friend Barras. As a lieu- tenant general, de Grasse outranked him, but as a "chef d'escadre" Barras was his senior officer, which might have caused difficulties; the latter could be tempted, and he was, to conduct a campaign apart, so as to personally reap the glory of pos- sible successes.
"I leave it to thee, my dear Barras," de Grasse had written him on the 28th of July, "to come and join me or to act on thy own account for the good of the com- mon cause. Do only let me know, so that we do not hamper each other unawares."
Barras preferred the service of the cause to his own interest ; leaving New- port, going far out on the high seas, then dashing south at a great distance from the coast, he escaped the English and reached the Chesapeake, bringing the heavy siege artillery now indispensable for the last operations. The stars had continued incredibly propitious.
The well-known double siege now be- gan— that of Yorktown by Washington and Rochambeau, and that of Gloucester, on the opposite side of the river, which might have aflforded a place of retreat to Cornwallis. De Grasse had consented to
land, in view of the latter, 800 men under Choisy, whom Lauzun joined with his legion, and both acted in conjunction with the American militia 'under Weedon.
The two chiefs on the Yorktown side were careful to conduct the operations according to rules, "on account," says Closen, "of the reputation of Cornwallis and the strength of the garrison." Such rules were certainly familiar to Rocham- beau, whose fifteenth siege this one was.
THE SURRENDER
From day to day Cornwallis was more narrowly pressed. As late as the 29th of September he was still full of hope. "I have ventured these two days," he wrote to Clinton, "to look General Washington's whole force in the face in the position on the outside of my works ; and I have the pleasure to assure Your Excellency that there was but one wish throughout the whole army, which was that the enemy would advance."
A dozen days later the torte was very different. "I have only to repeat that nothing but a direct move to York River, which includes a successful naval action, can save me ; . . . many of our works are considerably damaged."
Lord Germain was, in the meantime, writing to Clinton in his happiest mood, on the I2th of October: "It is a great satisfaction to me to find . . . that the plan you had concerted for conduct- ing the military operations in that quarter (the Chesapeake) corresponds with what I had suggested."
The court, which had no more misgiv- ings than Lord Germain himself, had caused to sail with Digby no less a per- sonage than Prince William, one of the fifteen children of George III, and even- tually one of his successors as William IV ; but his presence could only prove one more encumbrance.
After the familiar incidents of the siege, in which the American and French armies displayed similar valor and met with about the same losses, the decisive move of the night attack on the enemy's advanced redoubts had to be made — one of the redoubts to be stormed by the Americans with Lafayette and the other by the French under Viomesnil.
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On the 19th of October, after a loss of less than 300 men in each of the besieg- ing armies, an act was signed as great in its consequences as any that ever fol- lowed the bloodiest battles, the capitula- tion of Yorktown. It was in a way the ratification of that other act which had been proposed for signature five years before at Philadelphia by men whose fate had more than once in the interval seemed desperate — the Declaration of Independ- ence.
On the same day Closen writes : "The York garrison marched past at two o'clock, before the combined army, which was formed in two lines, the French fac- ing the Americans and in full dress uni- form. . . . Passing between the two armies, the English showed much disdain for the Americans, who, so far as dress and appearances went, represented the seamy side, many of those poor boys be- ing garbed in linen habits-vestes, torn, soiled, a number among them almost shoeless. The English had given them the nickname of Yanckcy-Dudle.
"What does it matter ? the man of sense will think ; they are the more to be praised and show the greater valor, fighting, as they do, so badly equipped." As a "man of sense,'* Rochambeau writes in his me- moirs: "This justice must be rendered to the Americans, that they behaved with a zeal, a courage, an emulation, which left them in no case behind, in all that part of the siege intrusted to them, in spite of their being unaccustomed to sieges."
yorktown's pitiful aspect
The city offered a pitiful sight. "I shall never forget," says Closen, "how horrible and pamful to behold was the aspect of the town of York. . . . One could not walk three steps without find- ing big holes made by bombs, cannon- balls, splinters, barely covered graves, arms and legs of blacks and whites scat- tered here and there, most of the houses riddled with shot and devoid of window panes. . . . We found Lord Corn- wallis in his house. His attitude evinced the nobility of his soul, his magnanimity and firmness of character. He seemed to say: I have nothing to reproach myself with ; I have done my duty and defended
myself to the utmost." This impression of Lord Cornwallis was general.
As to Closen's description of the town, now so quiet and almost asleep by the blue water, amid her sand-dunes, once more torn and blood-stained during the Civil War, resting at the foot of the great marble memorial raised a hundred years later by Congress, it is confirmed by Abbe Robin, who notices,. too, "the quantity of human limbs which infected the air," but also, being an abbe, the number of books scattered among the ruins, many being works of piety and theological contro- versy.
A GENEROUS VICTOR
Nothing better puts in its true light the dominant characteristics of the French sentiment throughout the war than, what happened on this solemn occasion, and more shows how, with their new-bom enthusiasm for philanthropy and liberty, the French were pro-Americans much more than anti-English. No trace of a triumphant attitude toward a vanquished enemy appeared in anything they did or said. Even in the surrendering the fact remained apparent that this was not a war of hatred.
"The English," writes Abbe Robin, "laid down their arms at the place se- lected. Care was taken not to admit sightseers, so as to diminish their humili- ation." Henry Lee (Lighthorse Harry), who was present, describes in the same spirit the march past: "Universal silence was observed amidst the vast concourse, and the utmost decency prevailed, exhib- iting in demeanor an awful sense of the vicissitudes of human life, mingled with commiseration for the unhappy."
The victors pitied Cornwallis and showed him every consideration; Ro- chambeau, learning that he was without money, lent him all he wanted.
CORNWALLIS'S TRIBUTE TO THE FRENCH
Cornwallis realized quite well that the French had fought for a cause dear to their hearts more than from any desire to humble him or his nation. He pub- licly rendered full justice to th« enemy, acknowledging that the fairest treatment had been awarded him by them. In the
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final report, in which he gives his own account of the catastrophe and which he caused to be printed when he reached England, he said :
**The kindness and attention that has' been shown us by the French officers, . . . their delicate sensibility of our situation, their generous and pressing offers of money, both public and private, to any amount, has really gone beyond what I can possibly describe and will, I hope, make an impression on the breast of every British officer whenever the for- tunes of war should put any of them in our power."
The French attitude in the New World w^as in perfect accord with the French sentiments in the Old. On receiving from Lauzun and Count de Deux-Ponts, who for fear of capture had sailed in two different frigates, the news of the taking- of Cornwallis, of his 8,000 men (of whom 2,000 were in hospitals), 800 sailors, 214 guns, and 22 flags, the King wrote to Rochambeau: "Monsieur le Comte de Rochambeau, the success of my arms flatters me only as being con- ducive to peace."
THI-: BEGINNING OF A NEW POLITICAL ERA
One of the most authoritative publi- cists of the day, Lacretelle, in 1785, con- sidering, in the Mcrcure de France, the future of the new-born United States, praised the favorable influence exercised on them by the so much admired British Constitution — "the most wonderful gov- ernment in Europe. For it will be Eng- land's glory to have created peoples worthy of throwing off her yoke, even though she must endure the reproach of having forced them to independence by forgetfulness of her own maxims."
As to the members of the French army who had started for the new crusade two years before, they had at once the con- viction that, in accordance with their an- ticipation, they had witnessed something great which would leave a profound trace in the history of the world. They brought home the seed of liberty and equality, the "virus," as it was called by Pontgibaud, who, friend as he was of Lafayette, resisted the current to the last and remained a royalist.
Yputhful Saint - Simon, the future Saint-Simonian, thus summed up his* im- pressions of the campaign: "I felt that the American Revolution marked the be- ginning of a new political era ; that this revolution would necessarily set moving an important progress in general civiliza- tion, and that it would before long occa- sion great changes in the social order then existing in Europe."
ROCHAMBEAU VISITS JEFFERSON
For one year more Rochambeau re- mained in America. Peace was a possi- bility, not a certainty.
Rochambeau had established himself at Williamsburg, the quiet and dignified capital of the then immense State of Vir- ginia, noted for its "Bruton Church/' its old College' of William and Mary, de- signed by Sir Christopher Wren, and the birthplace of the far-famed Phi Beta Kappa fraternity; its statue of the for- mer English governor, Lord Botetourt, in conspicuous marble wig and court^mantle. **America, behold your friend," the in- scription on the pedestal reads.
That other friend of America, Ro- chambeau, took up his quarters in the college, one of the buildings of which, used as a hospital for our troops, acci- dentally took fire, but was at once paid for by the French commander.
Rochambeau, his son, and two aides, one of whom was Closen, journey to visit at Monticello the already famous Jeffer- son. They take with them 14 horses, sleep in the houses where they chance to be at nightfall — a surprise party which may, at times, have caused embarrass- ment ; but this accorded with the customs of the day.
The hospitality is, according to occa- sions, brilliant or wretched, "with a bed for the general as ornamented as the canopy for a procession," and elsewhere "with rats which come and tickle our ears." They reach the handsome house of the "Philosopher," adorned with a colonnade, "the platform of which is very prettily fitted with all sorts of myth- ological scenes."
The lord of the place dazzles his vis- itors by his encyclopaedic knowledge. Closen describes him as "very learned in
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From a painting by Couder
THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS AT YORKTOWN
General Washington stands between Rochambeau and Lafayette. The original painting hangs in the Gallery of Battles at Versailles, but a copy in oils is one of the art treasures of the French embassy in Washington.
belles-lettres, in history, in geography, etc., being better versed than any in the statistics of America in general and the interests of each particular province — trade, agriculture, soil, products ; in a word, all that is of greatest use to know. The least detail of the wars here since the beginning of the troubles is familiar to him. He speaks all the chief lan- guages to perfection, and his library is well chosen, and even rather large, in spite of a visit paid to the place by a de- tachment of Tarleton's legion, which has proved costly and has greatly frightened his family."
MANY MEMORIALS ARE PRESENTED TO THE FRENCH COMMANDER
Numerous addresses expressing fer- vent gratitude were received by Rocham- beau from Congress, from the legisla-
tures of the various States, from the uni- versities, from the mayor and inhabitants of Williamsburg, the latter offering their thanks not only for the services rendered by the general in his "military capacity," but, they said, "for your conduct in the more private walks of life, and the hap- piness we have derived from the social, polite, and very friendly intercourse we have been honored with by yourself and the officers of the French army in gen- eral, during the whole time of your resi- dence among us."
The favorable impression left by an army permeated with the growing hu- manitarian spirit is especially mentioned in several of those addresses: "May Heaven," wrote "the Governor, council, and representatives of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in General Assembly convened," "reward
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your exertions in the cause of humanity and the particular regard you have paid to the rights of the citizens."
PRKJUDICKS 300 YEARS OLD DESTROYED IN 3 YEARS
Writing at the moment when departure was imminent, the Maryland Assembly recalled in its address the extraordinary prejudices prevailing shortly before in America against all that was French :
"To preserve in troops far removed from their own country the strictest dis- cipline and to convert into esteem and affection deep and ancient prejudices was reserved for you. . . . We view with regret the departure of troops which have so conducted, so endeared, and so dis- tinguished themselves, and we pray that the laurels they have gathered before Yorktown may never fade, and that vic- tory, to whatever quarter of the globe they direct their arms, may follow their standard."
The important result of a change in American sentiment toward the French, apart from the military service rendered by them, was confirmed to Rochambeau by La Luzerne, who wrote him: "Your well-behaved and brave army has not only contributed to put an end to the success of the English in this country, but has destroyed in three years preju- dices deep-rooted for three centuries."
The "President and professors of the University of William and Mary," using a style which was to become habitual in France but a few years later, desired to address Rochambeau, "not in the prosti- tuted language of fashionable flattery, but with the voice of truth and republi- can sincerity," and, after thanks for the services rendered and the pavment made for the building destroyed "by an acci- dent that often eludes all possible pre- caution," they adverted to the future in- tellectual intercourse between the two nations, saying: "Among the many sub- stantial advantages which this country hath already derived and which must ever continue to flow from its connection with France, we are persuaded that the improvement of useful knowledge will not be the least. A number of distin- guished characters in your army afford
us the happiest presage that science, as well as liberty, will acquire vigor from the fostering hand of your nation."
They concluded: "You have reaped the noblest laurels that victory can be- stow, and it is perhaps not an inferior triumph to have obtained the sincere af- fection of a grateful people."
THE FRENCH ARMY RETURNS TO PROVIDENCE
As the summer of 1782 was drawing near, the French army, which had win- tered in Virginia, moved northward in view of possible operations.
On the 14th of August Washington and Rochambeau were again together, in the vicinity of the North River, and the American troops were again reviewed by the French general. They are no longer in tatters, but well dressed and have a fine appearance ; their bearing, their ma- neuvers are perfect; the commander-in- chief, "who causes his drums," Rocham- beau relates, "to beat the French march," is delighted to show his soldiers to ad- vantage ; everybody compliments him.
During his stay at Providence, in the course of his journey north, Rochambeau gave numerous fetes, a charming picture of which, as well as of the American so- ciety attending them, is furnished us by Segur: "Mr. de Rochambeau, desirous to the very last of proving by the details of his conduct, as well as by the great serv- ices he had rendered, how much he wished to keep the affection of the Amer- icans and to carry away their regrets, gave in the city of Providence frequent assemblies and numerous balls, to which people flocked from ten leagues around.
"I do-not remember to have seen gath- ered together in any other spot more gayety and less confusion, more pretty women and more happily married cou- ples, more grace and less coquetry, a more complete mingling of persons of all classes, between whom an equal decency allowed no untoward difference to be seen. That decency, that order, that wise liberty, that felicity of the new Re- public, so ripe from its very cradle, were the continual subject of my surprise and the object of my frequent talks with the Chevalier de Chastellux."
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Ahh FRANCE HONORS ROCHAMBEAU ON HIS RETURN
In the autumn of 1782 a general part- ing took place, Rochambeau returning to France.
The King, the ministers, the whole country, gave Rochambeau the welcome he deserved. At his first audience on his return he had asked Louis XVI, as being his chief request, permission to divide the praise bestowed on him with the unfor- tunate de Grasse, now a prisoner of the English after the battle of the Saintes. where, fighting 30 against 37, he had lost seven ships, including the Ville de Paris (which had 400 dead and 500 wounded), all so damaged by the most furious re- sistance that, owing to grounding, to sinking, or to fire, not one reached the English waters. Rochambeau received the blue ribbon of the Holy Ghost, was appointed governor of Picardy, and a few years later became a marshal of France.
Rochambeau was keeping up with Washington a most affectionate corre- spondence, still partly unpublished, the great American often reminding him of his "friendship and love" for his "com- panions in war." Dreaming of a hu- manity less agitated than that he had known, dreaming dreams which were not to be soon realized, he was writing to Rochambeau, from Mount Vernon, on September 7, 1785: "Although it is against the profession of arms, I wish to see all the world at peace."
The French Revolution found Rocham- beau still an officer in the French army, defending the frontier as a marshal of France and commander-in-chief of the northern troops. In 1792 he (fefinitely withdrew to his estate, barely escaping with his life during the Terror. A strik- ing and touching thing it is to note that when a prisoner in that "horrible sepul- chre/' the Conciergerie, he appealed to the "Citizen President of the Revolu- tionary Tribunal" and invoked as a safe- guard the great name of Washington, "my colleague and my friend in the war we made together for the liberty of America." Luckier than many of his companions in arms of the American
war — than Lauzun, Custine, d'Estaing, Broglie, Dillon, and others — Rochambeau escaped the scaffold.
THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE WORLD HAS BEEN ALTERED
Visiting some years ago the place and the tomb and standing beside the grave of the marshal, it occurred to me that it would be appropriate if some day trees from Mount Vernon could spread their shade over the remains of that friend of Washington and the American cause. With the assent of the family and of the mayor of Thore, and thanks to the good will of the ladies of the Mount Vernon Association, this idea was realized, and half a dozen seedlings from trees planted by Washington were sent to be placed around Rochambeau's monument — two elms, two maples, two redbuds, and six plants of ivy from Washington's tomb. The last news received about them showed that they had taken root and were growing.
In less than a century and a half New York has passed from the ten thousand inhabitants it possessed under Clinton to the five million and more of today. Phila- delphia, once the chief city, "an immense town," Closen had called it, has now ten times more houses than it had citizens.
Partly owing again to France ceding, unasked, the whole territory of Louisiana in 1803, the frontier of this country, which the upper Hudson formerly di- vided in its center, has been pushed back to the Pacific; the three million Ameri- cans of Washington and Rochambeau have become the one hundred million of today. From the time when the flags of the two countries floated on the ruins of Yorktown the equilibrium of the world has been altered.
There is, perhaps, no case in which, with the unavoidable mixture of human interests, a war has been more undoubt- edly waged for an idea. The fact was made obvious at the peace, when victori- ous France, being offered Canada for a separate settlement, refused, and kept her word not to accept any material ad- vantage, the whole nation being in ac- cord and the people illuminating for joy.
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© International Film Servikc
A MADONNA OF SORROW AT HER SONS GRAVE
If the sympathy of the civilized world cannot still the anguish of the moment, the ages to come will venerate such heroic women who taught their sons the highest bravery, the finest courtesy, the loftiest honor — and who gave their all for France.
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Photograph by Dcr Vereinieten Kunstaniit. A.-G.
A MADONNA OF THE MOUNTAINS
In the whirlpool of Europe, Switzerland's political neutrality has kept its balance, and peace of a sort exists within the little democracy's borders. But it is a peace strained by the evidences of war and shot through with thoughts of another little state which had no friendly Alps to guard it — only a treaty and the honor of nations. Mother hearts cannot forget that there are no such idyls as this in Belgium today.
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A MADONNA OF SACRIFICE
Wordless reverence is the most fitting tribute to the Mothers of Belgium. May her sole remaining treasure, in the liberated and peace-blessed world of the future, live to realize that in the terrible vision of the present his eyes have seen the gloiy of the coming of the Lord.
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A MOTHER OF WARRIORS : JAPAN j
Stoicism is more than a tenet with the Japanese; it is almost a religion, and the mother of these babes, if the hand of death were laid upon them, could with calm fortitude relate her loss to a stranger without the dispjay of grief, for it is a cardinal principle of her politeness that she should never burden another with her woes. But beneath this cross-barred cradle of cloth there beats the universal mother heart — universal in its high hopes for her children's future and in its eager joy at
personal sacrifice for their happiness.
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WARM HEARTS OF THE NORTH
The Lapland father may measure his wealth in herds of reindeer, in hides and pelts, but the Lap- land mother knows that her bright-eyed, smiling baby and her sturdy two-year-old are the treasures beyond price.
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Photograph by A. B. Lewis
A NEW GUINEA WOMAN AND BABY
This device is at a disadvantage when compared with an American cradle, but it is a touching evidence of . ma^rnaJ .inventiveness and. industry at work for baby*s safety even in the South Seas.
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Photograph by Mrs. Charles K. Moser
YOUNG SOMALI MOTHER AND BABE: ADEN
Even the primitive heart of a Somali woman is instinct with a sense of protection for the inno- cence and helplessness of a child.
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PhotoEraph by S. J. Spooner
A PATIENT MEXICAN MOTHER
When war for the peace of the world and ** for the principles that gave her birth," is welding the great heart of America into high-purposed unity, she must needs feel a deep pity for the mothers and children of distracted Mexico, and a just indignation that their burden of poverty and distress lias been increased by selfish Prussian intrigue.
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Photograph from Hon. Belisario Porras
INDIAN MOTHER AND BABE: PANAMA
The Cuna-Cuna, or Tule Indians of the San Bias coast of Panama, are of the purest aboriginal strain.. For hundreds of years they have resisted amalgamation, and vfoe to the Cuna-Cuna belle who looks with favor upon a ** foreign " lover. They*aVe an intelligent race and are not savages by any means— even though nose rings are a part of the adornment of all members of the gentler sex, who wear them from the time they begin to walk.
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I'hotoeraph from Aiexandrr Craham Dell
MOTHER AND CHILD IN CEYLON
In spite of the white man's improvements, the climate of Ceylon is not merciful to baby dwellers in ** the Half-way House of the East;" but the little brown natives are merry and bright-eyed, never- theless. Life is sweet; although, of course, much sweeter when one has a bit of palm sugar to suck.
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Photogriph by Harriet Chalmers Adams
MOTHERHOOD IN THE PHILIPPINES
He doesn't know that, after his mother, Uncle Sam is his best friend. Had he belonged to an earlier generation his childhood would have been spent at work in the fields until he was old enough to join father in head-hunting. Under American direction, the future probably holds for him an education and a respectable career as a farmer or as a member of the native police. At present he is just a healthy little Ifugao; mother's back is a warm and comfortable reality — and "Who is Uncle Sam, anyway ? "
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Photoeraph by D. W. Iddings
A HUNGARIAN GYPSY MOTHER AND CHILD— AT HOME
Neither the poets who have celebrated the gypsy passion for freedom and the open road, nor the ethnologists who have studied the mysterious origin of the race have offered an explanation of the Romany's lack of that almost universal quality — a love for home*
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OUR SECOND ALLIANCE
By J- J- JUSSERAND
Ambassador from France to the United States
The following impromptu address by Ambassador Jusserand zvas delivered at the reception by the United States Congress to M. Viviani, President of the French Commission, and Marshal Joffre, in the House of Representatives on May J. The occasion was unique in that it was the first and only time that a resi- dent ambassador of any foreign country has addressed the United States Congress.
Mr. Speaker and Gentlemen of THE House of Representa- tives: I might repeat only the words of Marshal Joffre, though I have not the same excuse for not making a longer speech ; but the words interpret my feelings as well as his and those of all my compatriots. Gentlemen, I thank you.
This occasion is a very great one, and I am sure that those two men whose por- traits adorn this Hall — Washington and Lafayette — those two friends who fought for liberty, would, if they could, also ap- plaud, and say to their descendants, their American and their French ones, "Dear people, we thank you."
What you have been doing, the laws you have passed, the decisions you have taken, touch us deeply, and touch the French people in a very particular fash- ion, because what you have done is a sort of counterpart of what we did long ago.
What we did was to come to the rescue of men who wanted to be free, and our desire was to help them and to have no other recompense than to succeed, and that liberty should be established in this new continent.
What we did was unique then in the history of the world. We expected noth- ing for ourselves but your friendship, and that we got. .We did not know that ever a time would come when the same action would be taken by another of the nations of the world ; and yet that time has come, the same action has been taken, with the same energy, the same generosity, the same disinterestedness that characterized the conduct of those other men many years ago. It has been taken by the United States.
What you do now is to come to Eu- rope to take part in the fight for liberty, a fight in which you expect no recom- pense, no advantage, except that very great advantage, that in the same way that we helped to secure liberty — human liberty, individual liberty, national lib- erty— on this continent, you will fight to see that liberty be preserved in the broad family of nations.
Thanks to you, we shall see the calam- ities of this struggle shortened, and a new spirit of liberty grow greater and stronger, pervade all countries and in- deed fill the world.
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© Underwood & Underwood MARSH AI, JOFFRE UNVEILS THR MEMORIAL TO LAFAYETTE IN PROSPECT PARK,
BROOKLYN
Americans, as long as the United States endures, will reverence the name of Lafayette, who, though inheriting immense wealth and, as head of one of the oldest and most distin- guished families, assured of an influential career in France, deliberately abandoned the ad- vantages of birth to fight in our country for the liberation of mankind.
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Photograph by Albert Schlechten
A CLOVER FIELD IN MONTANA (SEE PAGE 517)
Although thirty-eight of the States have in one way or another expressed their prefer- ences and chosen their flower queens, this is the first attempt that has been made to assemble in a single publication color paintings and descriptions of all the State flowers (pp. 481-517).
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Photograph by Charles Martin and Ethel M. BagsT ROLLING AND PASTING RATION HEATERS AT HOME
THE CONVERSION OF OLD NEWSPAPERS AND CANDLE ENDS INTO FUEL
IN ITALY and France women and children are rolling old newspapers into tight rolls, pasting down the edges with glue or paste, and boiling them in paraffin to make ration heaters (scalda- rancio) out of them for the use of the soldiers in the trenches in the high Alps, where coal cannot be sent. They are making them by the million. The Italian National Society furnishes lyi million a day to the government, and the old news- papers are being used up for this pur- pose so fast that they are becoming scarce, and paraffin has become very ex- pensive.
In America there are still millions of candle ends and thousands of tons of newspapers scattered over the country, and it would seem to be well worth while for the thousands of willing hands in the homes to convert them into these most
useful ration heaters for the boys ac the front, or for their use next winter in the training camps, or even for use at home, where they can take the place of the more expensive solid alcohol or replace kindlings in the kitchen stove.
It is the easiest thing imaginable to make ration heaters, or scalda-rancio, as they are called in Italy, if one follows the directions of the National Italian Society.
Spread out four newspapers, eight sheets in all, and begin rolling at the long edge. Roll as tightly as possible until the papers are half rolled, then fold back the first three sheets toward the rolled part and continue to wrap around the roll al- most to the first fold, then fold back an- other three sheets and continue to w^rap around the roll again up to the last mar- gin of the paper. On this margin, con-
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Photograph by Charles Martin and Ethel M. Bagg CUTTING THF NEWSPAPER ROLLS AND MELTING THE CANDLE ENDS
sisting of two sheets, spread a little glue or paste and continue the rolling, so as to make a compact roll of paper almost like a torch. If six of the sheets are not turned under, there will be too many edges to glue.
While the newspapers may be cur along the line of the columns before rolling and the individual columns rolled separately, as is done in the making of the trench candles in France, it is easier to roll the whole newspaper into a long roll and then cut it into short lengths. A sharp carving knife, a pair of pruning shears, or an old-fashioned hay-cutter will cut
the rolls easily. These little rolls must then be boiled for four minutes in enough i^araffin to cover them and then taken out and cooled, when they are ready to be put in bags and sent to the front. If there are more newspapers than candle ends, block paraffin can be bought for a few cents at any grocery or drug store.
Little children and grown-ups in Italy and France are rolling, gluing, and paraf- fining these ration heaters by the million, and their fathers and husbands in the high Alps and other places where wood and coal cannot be sent are cooking their rations over them.
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Photograph by Charles Martin and Ethel M. Dagg
A SOLDIER BOILING HIS RATION OVER THE HOME-MADE RATION HEATERS
Three of these little rolls of paper, no larger than a spool of silk, saturated with hot paraffin and allowed to cool, will burn without smoke, which in the presence of the enemy is dangerous, and will boil a pint of soup in about ten minutes and keep lighted for twenty minutes or half an hour. By supporting the can of soup on pieces of rock and protecting the flames from the wind an ideal individual camp meal can be made.
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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•Mention the Geographic— It identifies you."
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S! se
STATIONS
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies you." OoOqIp
Your other camera.
A Vest Pocket Kodak
Although you have a grand-father's clock in the hall, a Dresden clock on the drawing-room mantel, an alarm clock in your bed-room, a chronometer in your motor car and an eight day clock on your office desk, you always wear a watch.
Similarly you may have and carry other cam- eras— you wear a Vest Pocket Kodak. It's the accurate, reliable, unobtrusive little Kodak that you can have always with you for the unexpected that is sure to happen.
Contact V. P. K. prints are 1^x2^ inches; enlarged prints of post card size (3^ x 5^ in.) are but fifteen cents.
The Vest Pocket Kodaks are $6.00. The V. P. K. Specials with Anastigmat lenses are $10.00, $20.00 and $22-50.
At your dealer* s.
EASTMAN KODAK CO., Rochester, N. Y., The Kodak City.
'Mention the Oeographic — It identifies yon.'*
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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u
Mum''
(a« euy to lue as to smy)
keeps the body fresh and sweet
A delightful sense of personal dain- tiness may be retained throughout the day by using a little **Mum'' after the morning bath. This snow- white, greaseless cream gently neutral- izes all odors of perspiration as they occur. Applied in a minute. Harm- less to skin and clothing. A jar lasts a long time.
25c at druf- and depaitmeoC-Mores.
"Afujvi'* it a Trad f Atari regisUrgd in tht Paxmt Qjfitm in H^ashingtm, D. C,
"MUM** MFC CO 1106 Chestnut St Pluladelpliii
mjc i^at/>Mu.
Dispenses with weitrht and dishwnshingr. Retail price, 35c. the set ; 3 sets, $1.00. Triirt sets ou receipt of price.
THE OVAL WOOD DISH COMPANY
Dept. 10, Delta, Ohio NcwOrkaa* SaaFraadsco New Taric TaMa,0.
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Twenty Million Miles of Telephone Wire
The telephone wire in use in the Bell System is long enough to run from the earth to the moon and back again forty times.
The Bell System has about twice as much telephone wire as all Europe.
More than 500,000 new telephones are being added to the Bell System yearly — almost as many as the total number of telephones in Elngland.
In twelve months the Bell System adds enough telephones to duplicate
the entire telephone systems of France. Italy and Switzerland combined.
In proportion to population the extension of the Bell System in the United States is equal in two years to the total telephone progress of Europe since the telephone was in- vented— ^a period of about forty years.
The Bell System fills the telephone needs of the American people with a thoroughness and a spirit of public service which are without parallel the world over.
American Telephone and Telegraph Company
And Associated Companies One Policy One System Universal Service
''Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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IFHAT IT IS.
WHY rou
WANT IT.
"A WORD TO THE 'BUYS' IS SUFFICIENT.
HOW TO GET IT.
Owing to the nation-wide insistence upon Cypress, **The Wood Eternal," for all uses that invite de- cay, (as well as for artistic uses in interiors), it be- came necessary to devise safeguards for lumber-consumers who have had no reason to become skilled in identifying differ- ent woods or in judging their gradations or adaptabilities.
The one way for you to be sure that the Cypress you get was grown in a region near enough to the coast to possess the MAX- IMUM of decay-resisting quality is to refuse all but genuine "TIDE-WATER** CYPRESS;-and the only way to know that you're getting Tide-mater Cypress is to insist (and keep on insisting) upon SEEING WITH YOUR OWN EYES the REGISTERED TRADE- MARK of the Southern Cypress Mfrs. Assn., stamped ineradicably in one or
both ends of EVERY CYPRESS BOARD OR TIMBER, and on EVERY BUNDLE of
"small sticks," such as flooring, siding, moulding and shingles. This is the mark to BUY BY — now that every piece of thoroughly reliable
•TipE-WATER"CYPRESS MANUFACTURED BY ASSOCIATION MlliliS IS IDENTIFIED BY THIS TRADE - MARK 'PtAoeNARKREG.u.S.pAT.OmcB
Only mills which are qualified by the superior physical character of their product AND the ethical character o their business practice can belong to the Southern Cypress Mfrs. Assn. — and mly member-mills can ever apply this legally registered trade-mark to ANY Cypress.
Lrt oar ALL-ROUND HELPS DEPABTBIENT bdp TOU HOBS.
Oar «ntire mouicM ua at joor Mnie* with BaliaUa Coanad.
SOUTHERN CYPRESS MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCUTION
1224 HIBERNIA BANK BLDG.. NEW ORLEANS, UL, or 1224 HEARD NAT'L BANK BLDG.. JACKSONVUXE. FLA
INSIST ON TRADE-MARKED CYPRESS AT YOUR LOCAL LUBfBER DEALER'S.
IF HE HASN'T IT, LET V3 KNOW.
TELL HIM TO REMEMBER
"BUY BY THE CYPRESS ARROW*
:r j^^ cypr]
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aMMgg^air List Price8^^:<il} jRAj»3^ Fair Tre^t men t^^:#a»:gj
GOODRICH
ILV
CaUe Cord'40Z Rubber
Immune to Tire Fever
^^^^EHOLD how cord and rubber are fused into the flexible, 11 ll P^^^^f^^ cable-cord v/hich forms the exclusive patent" IJu^ protected body of a Silvertown tire. Note the rubber core, and how each cord tendon in the cable-cord lies completely encased in a cushion of rubber.
Corded and cabled under high pres- sure, which replaces all air in the fiber with rubber gum, it is fused with rubber as a cobbler's waxed end is waxed with wax.
That fusion of rubber and cord, cool no matter how fast the tire whirls, when cross-wrapped in the Silvertown's two-ply body, is the secret of Silvertown s IMMU- NITY from TIRE-FEVER-the intemal heat rubbed up between
the plies of many-ply tires—the great destroyer of tires.
With but two plies of strong, cool cablecord— Silvertowns, trade marked with the Red Double Diamond, are bound to outlast and outserve many- ply tires with their multiplied tire fever.
Moreover they give a style, a smoother riding comfort and gasoline saving economy you can not afford to deny yourself.
THE B. F. GOODRICH CO., Akron, Ohio
Goodrich also makes the famous Fabric Tires — Black Safety Treads
*lSiivertown mak^s aU cars highrgrade^^
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LIT THI GAf MAN MAP
Si^£P^LM
Make fuel stops few and far between. Stretch mileage and shorten gas costs with the new
Stromberg Carburetor FOR FORDS
It "does It'* We thow you m figures on your speedometer— with 10 Day Free Trial.
The Economy Record That Made the Motoring World Marvel
S7 4/10 miles on a gallon of gasoline— was made by a Stromberg-equipped Model T 1915 Ford-carrying three passengers and weighing 2170 lbs.-in an official test A wonderful record -made more wonderful by the fact t hat the same Ford was acce lerated from stand- ing start to 25 miles an hour in 11.4 seconds; then speeded up to 43 miles an hour without touching the carburetor. Get the same remarkable results from your Ford— immense sav- ings—gi^ntic power and speed increase— easier starting. No risk. The purchase price —118— will be returned if not satisfied with 10 Day TriaL OrJttMir. OrscaaforFnelitentara.
StroiiibergMotorDeYice8Cb.,Dept639,64E.25tIiSL,Cliicago»IIL
RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP
in the
National Geographic Society
The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the National Geographic Magazine
DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad, $3.00; Canada, $2.50; life membership, $50. Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a aistance remit by N. Y. <lratt, postal or express order.
Please detach and fill in blank below and send to the Secretary
J9!
*\To the Secretary, National Geographic Society,
Sixteenth and M Street$ Northtceit,
Washington, D. C :
/ nominate^ ^
Address .
for membership in the Society,
(Write your address)
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Scientific study coupled with practical manufacturing methods -^tms is the basisof the MAZDA Service thathelps lamp-makers produce better lamps.
MAZDA
^Not the name of a things but the mark of a service^^
-The Meaning of MAZDA-
MAZD A is the trmdemark of a world-wido ■crrioe to certain lamp MAZDA Senrice ia centered in the Research Laboratorlaa of the
manufacturera. ItapurpoMia to collect and acleet scientific and General Electric Company at ScheoecUdy» New York. The
practical information concerning progreaa and developmenu in mark MAZDAcanappev only on lampa which meet the atandarda
the art of incandescent lamp manufacturing and to diatribnte thia of MAZDA Serrioe. It is thna an assurance of ijnality. Thia
information to the companies entitled to reoehro this Service. tradonark is the pn^terty of the General Electrio Company.
RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
463i
*' Mention the Qeographic — It identifies you."
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'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you.'
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J
v/x y\^u^x wv/xxx L7X^^.A.xvrxx
There can be no luxury for a woman equal to the consciousness that her complexion is clear, fresh, del- icately radiant. To keep it so, no amount of cosmetics can excel the regular use of a soap which thoroughly cleanses, and at the same time has just the rijjht sooth- ing, healing action to maintain the natural health and beauty of the skin.
Resinol Soap does tins because it is an exquisitely pure and cleansing toilet soap containing the Resinol medication which physicians prescribe, in Resinol Oint- ment, for the treatment of skin affections. With its
use, the tendency to pimples is lessened, redness and roughness disappear, and the skin usually becomes a source of pride and satisfaction.
The same extreme purity and gentle Resinol medica- tion adapt Resinol Soap to the care of the hair and of a baby's delicate, easily irritated skin.
If the complexion is in bad condition throach nrslect or an unwise use of counetics, a little Resinol Ointment should at first be used to help Resinol Soap restore its health and beauty. Resinol Soap is sold by all drufjristf and dealers in toilet eoods. Tht ut« of Rgitnol Soap grtatfy htlft tt tffset tfu ill tfftcts of summer sun, heat, and dust.
"Mention the Geographic — It identifies yon."
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Free Instruction
on Canning and Drying
Vegetables and
Fruits
Send 2c. stamp
for our Manuals containing
expert advice
National Emergency Food Garden Commission
210-220 Maryland Building Washinsrton, D. C.
Write for a free copy of
Vantine's Catalog
It is a fascinatinf book, filled with iltuitra-
tions — manyinactualcolorv— of the quaint and
curious objrcts of art andutilitycollectedby the
Vantine reprcKrnativcs in Japan, China. Penia,
and other Oriental countries.
As a reader of the National Gtographic Mmgaxint we feel sure yon will be intereste<i. lor tne Vantine Catalog "in- creases and diffuses Keoi^raphic knowledge" by ftlu'rtratinu or describintr the distinctive and individual creations of the artisans in the mvsticnl lands beyond the seas.
Write now— your name and address on a postal wfH do— and w»th. out oblisration we shall send, postpaid, thiii delightful book of the Orient. Address Dept. N.
A. A. VANTINE & CO., Inc. Fifth Ave. and 39tli Street New York
I Specialize in Binding up Back Volumes of the National
GEOGRAPHIC
Magazine— 6 numbers to the volume. Price per volume, neatly bound in full Library Buckram. Sl.OU; In % morocco. S1.50 : called for and delivered free in New York City. Books returned prepaid outside of New York. MissinsT numbers supplied. 25 cents per copy, back to 1912; previous years at market rates. Complete back volumes for sale; also back volumes and odd numbers boufifht for cash. Prospectus on application.
F. GAILER, Ubrary Bookbinder, 141 West 24th Street, New York City
PHONE. FARRAGUT 9058
"WESTERN FRONT ATA fiLANCE'
Just off the pret8, this new war map ii desired to satisfy those who desire a most complete, btr^e-scale map of the Western Front ; scale, 10 miles to one inch ; size, 28 x 36 inches. Shows •T«f7 haabt, Tillai e. and city, f mtcsIs, fferlilicatioM, dtitadM,
air-craft depots, wireless slatioas, etc It contains upwards of 5.000 place names, which can be readily located by means of the complete index which accompanies the map.
Paper, $1.00 TD^i^s^dlfi-eT Cloth, $2.00 C. S. HAMMOND & COMPANY
28 Ckorch Street (Hudson Terminal) t New York
gftfg iWaqa?fnc <g from ^ur jPrcggcg
420-422 CUbentft Street
1^as(()tngton» 9. C
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TOWNSEND'S TRIPLEX
Floats Over the Uneven Ground as a Ship Rides the Waves.
One mower may be climbing a knoll, the second skimming^ a level, while the third pares a hollow. Drawn by one horse and operated by one man, the TRIPLEX will mow more lawn in a day than the best motor mower ever made j cut it better and at a fraction of the cost.
Drawn by one horse and operated by one man, it will mow more lawn in a day than any three ordinary borse-drawn mowen with three horses and three men.
Does not sma^h the erass to earth and plaster it in the mud in sprinetime, neither docs it crush the life out of the grass between bot roller* and bard, hot ground in summer, as does the motor mower.
The public is warned not to purchase mowers infringing the Townsend Patent. No. 1.209. $19. December 19th. 1916.
ff^ritt far tataltg illtutratint all tjfit e/ Lawn Mnotri,
S. p. TOWNSEND & CO. 27 Central Avenue Orange, New Jersey
DENBY
TRUCKS
FANCY nSH
for Pleasure or Profit
TTUt im the SeoMon
There m a wonderful interest in this fascinating hobby. The demand for hiffh-priced aquarium fish is sreater than the supply. Our new, masnifi- cently illustrated book
"GoUfith Varieties and Tropical Aqaarivn Fishes"
(ives complete, practical information about the care, breeding and commer- cial handling of 300 varieties, their enemies, diseases, etc. ; aouarium con- struction, plants, pond culture, etc. A book of reference for the beginner or professional. Price $3.00, postpaid.
DINES & SONS, aerry and 12tk Sts., Phnadelpkia, P«
No doflf can pash off the Witt's lid and scatter refuse over your back doorstep. The Witt's lid fits air-tisrht and stays tieht until it is lifted off by the handle. It seals Witt's Can and Pail like a vault. Odors can't ffet out. Do(irs, rats, flies, and roaches can't firet in. Witt's is made of heavy, deeply corrtifirated tralvanized steel^rust-proof and dent-proof. It outlasts two ordinary cans. Buy Witt's for your home. It saves you money. Write for booklet and name of nearest Witt dealer.
'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
« 'Mention the Geographic — It identifies you."
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I heard screams. Saw a burn- ing car; a frantic woman; chil- dren in grave periL 1 snatched Pyrene and put out the fire so quickly that the little ones were unhurt.
Without Pyrene five minutes would have finished that car. Five children might have per- ished.
Think of j'our wife. Your children!
Every day you put off getting Pyrene for your automobile and Pyrene for your home is a mon- strous gamble.
Sold by hardware and acces- sory dealers everywhere.
Pyrene saves 15 per cent on auto insurance premiums. Saves money as well as Uf e.
Pyrene Manufacturing Company
New York
Every Appliance for Fire Protection
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