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Goo tne DCEO Oo EE ee CaP DE rea ER i DOLCE DOR Were ONO TE ; FEE HEP e i WE Laat lee NO seeeebbee beeen WV j | Peer detgieatine sere eed TY VIVPOR LES TELE ait ba DL Wagibies USCS VELAKS TEED H VER NN Gerri ay CT} UINTVIRRT CONTENT ERE ENT Con DALE EON) Caay perp pbetaebete TTISESTENTILA TERE TD URT PEER REA TEES CCR S90 vaneey) Vine (Greene (VOTRE COREEIOT SUELUOUREERED TIE RE) COR REAL) Perens et Hers Het earn +r bitete Haoeretreceatte UREN PEA CERT UES Ys Qi ' enbbbeerr beak 't Weitere free! seantbe UL ERLI DES Werte bape ‘ M weuhares pbens tian VENVKSY UD PRAT} Toe PLL Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson \G NQ Aes) NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AN ILEUSTRATED MONTHLY EDITOR-IN-CHIEF : HENRY GANNETT MANAGING EDITOR: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR ASSOCIATE EDITORS GENERAL A. W. GREELY WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE O. H. TITTMANN C. HART MERRIAM O. P. AUSTIN DAVID J. HILL DAVID T. DAY ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE - IDA M. TARBELL MARCUS BAKER CARL LOUISE GARRISON VOL. XIII—YEAR 1902 SMITHSON TG NOV 9 1981 LIBRARIES PUBLISHED FOR THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY By McCiure, Puitiirs & Co., oF NEw YORK & DETWEI PRINTERS _ pe , ry Se CONTENTS Page ‘INS ING WigssIeOP loz JOG WE IOSIAR, Go cgoonsanodonoodu0ccDnOeecOoDEuOCoUsaSEUCOOND I Commerce of Mexico and the United States; by O. P. AUSTIN....................--+--- 25 AEST CoHle Boman ION NMS, ocoonoccdo0ocns oGeannoavdcoqadacunuDGoodbocauuaoute 27 Recent Decisions of U. S. Board on Geographic Names............... 2002s eee ee cence es 28 (CSOGTAPAG NOIES. occooo ccd coanocdodoqosebaugnNanbadsoedpocoDonbonooDodoosbacHonoG 31 LO TM OLA Wi EOS tera Om ECU CON ec eyesepnis oversiete Von ore ee Lela ev aket hata a) siete. ae fe cisye/efehaleversleleyel= 31 WED Gi Was Jeopllhiny oS bas spud ed one Unconeom bas cendommaooctonn cones aaacaoueor acer 31 Gold Mining Concessions for Northeastern Siberia................-. cece eee eee eee 31 ADIN Ey SE OPEL CVV, Ore] Cl oyemepere yore Pas cree ttre) ey enels/< sais icceuetatstepekersversvereiarorsietcheretchoiovarsicteraevel ey seenerciens 32 EST Ore 1 O MGT OTN STELLA eyepey Sie estes scr este fas au eal acs le ASV GIN etevspe eam abel siz el ot sa Shae lela] steve eradavs 32 speRRTissianwlce- breakin ego tea ery C7 Oee i ee einer daar stieitria: 33 MiesoreisnpeopulatiomofmtwewUmited States: anny eee ceiricieciieiecneart ere 33 East Siberian Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society................. 34 IRATE Wegaroms royal Sosy ooooncooudgooosdouc au GancadsobuuGdeduuousodabuousubund 34 SiberianeMammothery -eesereracciciers Sie SRNR A ROIDN Ane saree dna Cian only 34 IRICEN, 1S nie TSp-4 ofa blla (osu oye peed cect oiolaaiciero oro SOO Oe cac ciara i ac rcAC IS Ereete SOS 34 CeolosicaliSurveyaote Macedonian mers -eeeru ike ceri nore cael eaen erin 34 Commercial Consmoivosocasnootodsachucacacacnn odGadencopoadannqonsonogaacanacou 34 Ceosrapiiciiteratunes sen recrecacis ec aati cei cece pBODRTSDUOUDECOOUSCODUDDOORD 35 “Constantinople and its Problems’? (H. O. Dwight).............2..+.ecceeereeeees 35 “S Conneanntdineynka >? (WH, 18th JShitatONN)) 5 oo oaadasoacaddodoeuusoggGoba0g0udeudcandoboces 35 LC Prapeonhahys WkK (Mkts IsWlacn pcanaapgosdousodusbudgcouUbdGSbEdD vonooSoDenOU 36 WascornsiniGeolosicaliSunveyseublicationme-.meriater ieee eee ieee alienate 36 National Geographic Society.............-..--. SAA COAAR ET OUD EG SOON DOES EOS ACA OO OCeO, Lee) Neiriptnroushesiberiay a bye A BENEZER | EULL Ua ernaniiince rca ce eebeececore 37 The Teaching of Geography ; by RALPH S. TARR...... godadoovsqconnndcucecooHdounaONd 55 The Latest Route Proposed for the Isthmian Canal—the Mandingo Route............... 64 ASCOT A) Mt CPN OLE Speer rane Cveversteyerencney vel eretetetere its le ler eYod ey eNe Lio ole cu stovareueeiersts euevaceeteneltateyaNewsiore} ate 71 IMCRAeHS NUTS 5 oon po doaooqaonOEaad ooo peg asodonosAagDooSadcDnedeasoudgaoOS 71 URS PV CA CHOI Une aU areas cos eter au yoy. ity ates Gave oteld vance sasuavaneren are eve) bvawsgartioneys Ste Ge sereVane Poene eebe 71 Mwoubanrouss Mapsxof Ammertcaler -.-syfeletesyslssislcversyels1=(- e/re orecelslaisressucioteterareobetec ier slalaeielee 72 Hew amishmwWiestlmacdies- epee oeiionicciicic ce SMR POIC ETOH do iG Dod DIST OMS nee RG 72 SieTeRCoumtitriyAo her At vy SSitad alee secrete tate eves ects fe iereled she iaveaieteietese rakes soaveuste sieve sieves cneretyetaievarecieteertes 73 Mineralueroductsior thesUmitediStatesim) iGO <4 2 cliente elleiielioie elelareieielas 73 THOUKAD owen baboon Gaul obeoe ROO ee Ce TORE EEE ici Oe er erat att ne ante 74 (Gomi! ayaval Ibyorar sha MIE AICOL 6G cit CaS oS TOOT OU OCT CG COA PAS Oe men ae ee 74 Talons Iola ONCE. 1m Aes OGRE OG oa oT MERE er IEE ORCAS) SIE AE Co Cerra 75 The Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey................. 75 UCM VOLOL ten Uses whichis COMM, SSIOMNen li ianiieiiieieicliciiieiaicietoaiciot cteierele 75 ANS RGSS Erol Wyforsobhnveral ihe) \WWCEieSoal (Cabooels sao boossenedcnaoadconcbacodeocude0uGuoDG 76 PAW IVia POM ERD ISA ATIN G LOU seer vavsceistiys,arerore o/s cs everaysibiexeva ise ctesetaterafaraterouct ove pssst siaycietves eienspalers 76 ClENCIS IRS 6 soscdao bop aboendds PUA S TA AOB APO CRT oT Tape arocE em oe necn dasteres 76 American Progress in Cuba..............-..-.000+ TR Te ana GOU oe HORN ene SEO 76 eRAIIeT CAUMVINISeMOh NAtiraleeistony. lie lar eieiiiciicriel meinen oeieisietls 76 shhesinterstate, Commerce (Comp4iiSsiOms.-.:s/s\siey2 © siete) 2ie oi olsisiese cae nsslslavelesetelsreieioreie eae 76 iHae Capos 1@ Carrio Atel eras gabe aopeebocdsaecndadccoobocodEAtononsaadasadonears 76 IV CoNTENTS Page AuGazetteemottneyPhtlippineslslandSnee ester eee cr errr etree erericn ie aeeerere 77 AGMaproteMountiloodrand Vicinity te etree re Ee Eerie ener eee rere Ce eer er rere 77 fRexassPetrol emis toe eee cheatin sce OE OCT ee OE Oe eee EEE EE Eero 77 eDivet Cen Sts7.@ Mie stcsisjokcteicau tei one ne eROREER TA GE a ras nee Saree ee Eee 77 The Progress of the United States in Material Industries...................02000005- Wi Stieler stan dyAttlas ches cota es ccsyoteyeiey a eevor eater aaaier oth seo uae oT aren ae oe OES 77 Guidestoythel Greats SibenianyRaill wayeereen eee eee EE ere een eee ee CLE REE ere 77 sbhesBureatotsAnnericanyRepulblicsamarrieee peer e ee EEE etter necro ne eee rere 77 GeooraphiehWiterature ly ssegecrectarses weesley oleh vene poled ates Secactaye for arse Vavele evo vaei eo eetetars Meteieie one eee 78 SCAN anTOKEAA (IANS Jevkqeie AyoMEIMABKO INiresoue (181, A, COO) 54 gs5c0000es55d0090 0000900000040 78 “Descriptive Geography from Original Sources: North America”? (A. J. Herbertson). 78 SOMA ILPOXS Thal AKON Bhorel (Coyswaiinay > (At, WE, ISO WEAN), cacooceccaccooconasocddcccedac 79 Cine sBolivianeAndesiy (Sits Martine Conways) Menee eee Eer reenter rrrrer ceercce 79 “South Africa a Century Ago”’ (Lady Anne Barnard)................ sod0opaoo00se% 79 ““History of Geology and Palzontology’’ (K. A. Von Zittel)....................-.- 79 So Macmillan’s= Guides TOOT a sass. i anessnersesgeseleue ie eosssie iol eevee Dares eile) Nee Eee 79 IsthinianyCarial FROWES A. aytavavayeiessislola wiesevoreal avs eosin aie reelel ore neratetelegeTeueteer sere ere cere 80 National eosraphichsSocietyAeened ners ci ee eee ecieee Lecce ee eee eee So The Possibilities of Alaska; by C. C GEORGESON ......... \oocc0adaDe0sOoNSORONDO AISA 81 Sam@nerg Agag, 1376S loy7 IMUNRACUS IAT, oo occadoascuboosenocoUseodod0CDnasoDONC OOO 86 MasneticisunyveysorthesUmitedastatestmbyalaeACE> AUD Renn sneer et te eer ret ie 92 SVenveledinyin LIDS ac ccs etree rete tol ated ones. Pelehatstal er ee ecco eBoy fare errr Rea 96 ATNENCEIO JEKOPRSS shal (CM ogo ban daavovood DoD ObeSsEDOOnaoDAS DS oaAsoeDDeODaDO Sabo0000e 97 Cuban sRailwaysiby Ar BER GC ROBINSON ae see sceielleeiel tees ieelsiciisieielsteeeicieietiaes 108 The Storm of February 25-28, 1902); by ALFRED-J. HENRY....2.....-----e20ee+-e+eeus IIo Aezaeuikgnres iin (NESE S [oy JURA? GHMNINDTEDS, ob oogocoboousuedsudsoadvednoCOoCNsUCOnOS 112 Geogr ra pn verNote|s ey x sizizis sis: Lae) esciavoteee Ses Horst RCS ey aE ToT ISIe rere Tee: Chae ede oaate eRe tot arco yeae 1i3 DreBells\Surveysinebatinland aby aWeleViC GD Ete etree Ener rere r err eerie rrserr 113 Notable vWorkvonvAlaskaye saniscrie te tela ores cle IORI e ante hero eo Stetriere | oto are ee 113 DY Woy hah aod so} ye eenerie re or Sy he RE Sree Sameer CACAO oe od oOo oo b eS 114 Bureaulorshoresthycre rte cect eee eR ein ere eeeeet eer iet eee poe iil Wossiof, Liteiby, Lightnin oe sete aay circ echo pale eee eisai Ret etl oie ere TI5 Wi SuGeologicalsSuxrvyey, craves cette teers ioe meeitaleerotcn eset ete erste eet 115 PLreasunysbureaucolStatistl CShee ene eerie nee eseereL eerie eee EER aaerres Eur GES OF? WS IANNIS, > So onoscodacssoouoscooooddHoUoOOODO SS OOoNONDODEODODOOOOORS 116 Areentina- Chiles oundanya iS plteeneneencee ee reece Ee ee EEL eee eee eee eee ee II7 Geographic Taterature (4 esraays crater rete retelet ote neta sNalateiote aes starch sve i elferetese ay etete te cse eve ees eerie 117 “Wanderings in Three Continents’’ (Richard F. Burton)....................-.--+5- 117 ci SramyUsyAtlas ofthe wWorlduen (ha Miunray= acon) pera eeseeeeiseiieeiieiseiiestt 117 WationaliGeosraphicksocietyaae eee eeee eee ee Eee nee eee a ee eee rrceceeeeeecee 118 Recent French Explorations in Africa; by CHARLES RABOT...............+--+-00---00- 11g Proposed Surveys in Alaska; by ALFRED H. BROOKS.............-..- SE HN or ee 133 Ocean Currentshinngo2)-a bya) AMESPRAG HEN ese eer eee rere nee ii erect 135 Geographic: Notes i..). cavens\oce hiss erates aoa alo es ea ave ato eT ETERS ag Seno OS Oe 143 Brenchphs ““Stanford’s Compendium of Geography ’’ (A. H. Keane) CMI aS IAEA (Isigainy INO) sos 5naoq000cooDUDKbdUdouENCOddbOodooObNIODGGOOD ““Glimpses of China and Chinese Homes’’ (Edward S. Morse) “International Year Book for Igor’? (Frank Moore Colby)............. ..eeessseeee “The Home Life of the Borneo Head-Hunters’’ (William Henry Furness)........... CO }izjorual Ehovel 1S (esp 1eteoyola? (VAobsal (Cy Ieternusa\oy sats) 5 Go drconeanooooodoGccooccnodGcoDonGe “« Historical Sources in Schools ’’ (Charles D. Hazen) Sverdrup siwork in) the Anctics, 1898—1902 o.oo) cee eee cnieielse lel ese cise maleic scene Vil Page 357 358 VIII CONTENTS WolcaniceDisturbanicespnl Guatentalaener seer ree ereer erotic nen neeer rete Erte Wego Avornal Nowe NICKNAME. cos ¢c0accc7900000d00DedNbOCas0bCDII009009" Magrretio Disturbances) sci ot saci ctactiatste tte etn eter te toncine eieyste aio tetar Neier eee eee DriWallteryReed cre cron UM rapt ener cree ACI ce ered reat eee ee eee ee eee Dravid DD ays)a sos aac ardor deren eee eerie cree oni ra Sei ee teen Permanent lansol emote Colimblcs eee ese ener etree terete rrr er eee Geographic Witeratune: cp, scissor asics resets oie hele eo eine ec eee orale ois elec reate ey ee SJhathenMarqiuettezes (Renbens Gaul tiwaltes) see rnn rene beer eet lreeei ist ae areee GANAS IavaGl @r INOS”? (Ios WISIKES))..s0cccccosscescasca0cdnas0s9s00¢uD90450000025 “Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet’ (Sarat Chandra Das)...................----- IAnGoMOs Or Winssia,”? (Berane Ilo ail). os s50000cs000000054000020s000000000006 ANNE BASE Ok ova Eyaval Iorsarorsnony?” ((Issslaveyo) JEWS) 05.5 000000000n00000000900500000 OIRO OH NS Sioawtharyoranleva Ibasiauemowoya 7 .ooocaccgusaoocsausceons00gpaeEHCSONEecOD SeAninalsiormowitzenlandien @uliae Vien Colton) eee eee Er rere eer raer rer reer ‘Rorestzy,inl Minnesota (Samuel Bs Green) henre-ace a enaertias eerie eerie Weiuiomeall Ceoeiapane Gooey. osococaccocassoasosnogdcesndosbussosanDEbso0s FAS SOD ira LO ey shap ats steley te tetereke ee iva C eI aE er here sieeve aieino eh RO ee peek et eee MSP Or IMEUSTPRADIONS Page Milzijo) OF aS Plaullkiyayoyv7ass; (HK) GaSseS))o, os sonecaaancsscacdsgnoncac0.oobbadoo0gd00GS Supplement Way Siow nines mules Ct WIC SO oasonocconpnoeeeabnoseadubo0dd560000 ogcodDRE Frontispiece PRES alent HORI IONE, SoccooondesogsunougnaadoNeHEnGS suDosnbpdeonsuuoodDdaoodbOO BOBS 2 BOM, IigsTEVeno Wermigeeil. dio occobocgganeundgaacdudonaododssonsadodcgudccudbudoaouGUoGoD 4 H@M, JOSS W. WphmenMOUIG, So oosae dpecacoosaanoo /aosqugemAs shan ooneooueG .sdnoERaC 5 Wapishowingsareadrained by the greaticanalliy..). se). a scire oe = 2s clissie cis cieleleieyarsiels) sie ee l= 7 DANA CHIME! MNES? COMSEANHOM ono, cacggassdnnocnoc guns oddodqodddobcdcsonnnbouodS 8 lOraRATS Cowell COTA DIAL. ona4 SodcovvccasocdsudepoousosuovgsoodgavagdbudoagogonD0G00 9 IDrnTARS CavaEIl WANS SENS ASH ogdoodogosocuaguebodesoFvoodgoboeSdooRSo0sGD00GDDUdERO DS 10 Wouthyohthedraina rercanalutunme leer eal alsetcblcr ie ieiieiincitoici rer rrtcl erate II Miagrambpsh ows) cross-section ofstheltummellys sc cee aisiayelelsie ele cle) eld cicieleieiel svelcleteieia ele -rereiere = 12 Mihianaee Gaveoyo Ate 19)! Ons cegacsdavodneacundgoccueneepoude epupnedooaoooacaceDe, co Hooda 15 Cottoniiactony atiOnizabaleeesaes see ecco Bi aia aio US Oa ole Hole Cecicioe cine CORN cnn 16 Cais ISHS). secdaneoggnaneasbeae Veco s oC odod oD anouD FdeceduaaBeae bodadcasaDaouends 25 Daina Mey OF Silosrizna keMkyehre aoocsscsocoouoosauyodocasboddaqaanoangcbo0Dcbo00000009 38 SieawaGe ILAclins Cn WATS SomscoaooaccodouaeDe voodoooReadaunaaccoecsoDnOD 39 \WWeocahaial On Woo /Nentte RUE oa0 do buacbeducucgoesoodgcHDodaHbababaoRAaSOuDDOD DOD D00000 40 SSLIICRAOMEM Se AUT UIT rreretecsvere cvosiols cVotetecalae o alefesesel si Sueyjm kere elolexstei oy ayexolersusleteterueyetesleye\exe avesoie nats 41 Mnimisrantsawaitine ton tae Amr tomlse sytem seiciicneinie teiicelcieieieca eile reletereelreielelel 42 Wiiikeandabreadsusellersonmth evs eile reir ieickeicieriisiselsiciiceieiletttevlel-reictelertcrkeistele r= 42 mifAOETATS OM THIS Ass | os GognooudosoUCcUSDHOODUUNUDODODU ODD OODCCDOHODUOaCbDOUODORC 43 BankyotherAmunshowineathetexrtileysoill emeeielerieieves sci sl oeieicle eis elelsisiel teleieie/sielelelelehens 43 @il-burnins locomotive on the Siberian’ Railroad). 205. .-5..2000ce0e sees ese ee ee cece 44 ASMEIS COAG TN Sas, dodhonuosossooodoseesbondeudsovondudosodeosbedoundSDabogD 45 (hur chyataS tretensSkiny ss enttiyeciciericeiciee ¢ beard op aavance GIT AEN OCE IRC Clot lctekedalatatetsteyetats 46 Operapouseyat lrkutskee, We. cieserers\ eters szucre essere sheveisvejeveioleveless Ree a on Me LOU BAN ael ttre Soa eas 47 ESSE GFE WARTS coco sadsooseGeqedsosusupaode odo bun OconeDaoEDndoLbobOdoUGDcOUUe 48 Mohammedan Tatars at Taiga railroad station awaiting the arrival of a Turkish delegation. 49 BirsinesshCOnmersitiatheyheartiotaotbemnl aan cinicijer ta cisielers cickorcistetnicieis ste oiciedeieieieteetererioielsrak 49 DFO PS TINGS UVES 56 noooooocoogcdeuoouaounoaouEHHDdoODoGgOUL oubbGOO od oDDdC 50 Siiseneia WES 5460 clacanadouduGed GueecoAdad cae SHUN nO A OM eo op emouca ee mm mas bs op oUcD Go 51 Picture of a chocolate wrapper found in a peasant’s hut in the Heart of Siberia.......... 52 Map and profile of proposed Mandingo ship canal.............. 0.0 e cece cence eee eeee 70 Ihe Pinadlaricls A, COOK aavodenscdsansdauccsa¢dosgoodoubbodoodEeoD cosodduDHonGED donDUC 78 Map showing lines of equal magnetic declination (variation of the compass) and equal METH Chio) Worn WANS WE USO acoasuda dno ubgeSagdODOuUNnaeee wooNBceDDUnGodDDdDSGEOeS 95 Gleanimeosiousesions Oficios streets seabatiasnr erie ciclo ole cy cicinclteveisinicionisiace ciclolehlacicelote 98 Into gpoiall Wither ISMIEME ooo oooonpeaoaosoD sod dbOnDUDUBUOUOCbOUoOU EB UGS ob oUDpUCUDOUDO 99 liatone AVveneinleain (OOM G55 onooconccaussaDoFeNaodaDUcGDDbODOGGHSGDODCOGODGODUODS 100 PMR NTE Chl CATOCCH PALO UMP REE per eittreileisicieiielisietsl oeitelstlsictv lieaisiteriatelelretoherstersysisrslel 101 Section of the Colon Park before American occupation.......... 0.0 e cece cece ee eee reas 102 Same section of the Colon Park a few months later...... 00... .. ccc cee er eee ees cov nenns 103 Sireetiieliabanayberore Wmiteds otatesroCeCupatiOni iy.) .\cfa ie eieielolve ree ele lelalelelelolafiershaleteteei sl 104 Sunine GiGi ONS iG EWS «ao ae oAdeo Sopa BO CDORoTOUUo OOOH Hoeo ogo Coos ooooMOHDoDe 105 Sea wall built at the end of the Prado Promenade by Major Black...............20..00 106 MSTA TATE OEE Cal ATLL CICS erreye peters tat otecoiseaiarckcysfehey stems vaya zeielaNev youn say srarsycnclitetey opsio rs ialaed (oh etat atelie @iingeue ens 107 xX List oF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Wicatdngre may), S A, Sil, JNA NAMEINY AE}, WOOP ooannsossoosocons000sconn0n00e0000D9000009000¢ III AX HOWE Tin WAS GASSHE « ovodoocccesoaesocogueHan Mn oGGDEDDONSDSODEDTOO DHE GODDSOss00CC0 120 WL, SEAL INO EISEN, go cacooccdonnecaDe0G Ststterctore niolssstetoee KoaospdanccccweDDEseceCDs5000 121 Grossingathe Gabiara cv acevemel cess cee Tye Tee ee ae ATS ATE fedora Pekan 122 Nhevereats dures: crevasse ah ee eae eee Se PO oT nec) steerer 122 NES ovaey shal WS eA Oe AVHNCESISE oo ooo000s0000can 0000009 000005009500000000000009750% 122 Rockygplateamxisucceedinestnerseneatid lin essere mere tree acetate elie erie eet 122 WATE ag NS lors Fie LAKES INOewGl, oooocosoonconDoduoDUdsGUGgDbOoODONDOSAHODOSOE DSF 123 DVI GST toy fe rst cteteveletetetcrcseeosl ace lc icvnte aelens aie ieteaefataus ois cer okeicael oles netic oes) Sener lalsvoncie ke Cieker ee 124 Senecaliimmsqueteerseyacvcwyse tcc cence eee aA ete oe ee ene See Eee eae eerie 125 Gheckaivovantat ta choca yeni tae tin te en i teat seer cau A a Aa Sie es Ca are yore eg 125 Tins battle dimers: atvs aye taste cecioi cists chcpeasi crabs cyatersvsy aeewetodey svete el che Sic pepee leisy sterols kere aerators 125 Om Has Soeyal, meer BMEO . 5 cogccnsaabocuvgso00s BocosscnnocsouODCS Fe tee cpr ie ee a 125 Onithesroaditomlnsalla mn yerstrviye oat voices ionic ekelel trie tenneisrer rere rere aererereicicrees 126 Plateantorsinsal atyraemig enc cic ae eee eee COE ec eee eee Ce Reto c erect 126 . Marching across the desert—the plateau of Tadmait...................-.eeeeeeeeeeeeees 126 Ready for the attack ; the men crouch behind the camels................--.------++++:> 126 Gastlevofmsalawusey vacate ccna enc Mep aie Cesanen ar vere ve React Re LaTes veh tok ekeraystononet esate Boe, L2/ AX SERSSe tia NEHA, oocabcoc000008 Bp aa elakelet ofan tere yatenstetat ke stale SAGA ee IEG Pie eee Rene 128 ASvillagenine Madagascar ecmnciecsionn-1-(reriele ee enicayaeT-\ lose oes ise eee cee eee 12 Prince Roland Bonaparte vai sa semeteiosws oelaeisc oine cise atone oaks a eee ene eee _ 130 MapishowingwunexploredtareasvoteAllaskanen nae eres easier iia eee 132 Spray/Riverinear ithe forks... yoss st nelerste nos intel oie ior eee Ee Eee 152 (Cenk oi GENRE eee ona SS Un Fos oo OU Oo GE RA Dou ROO ODNO UE BoonOdobaorODoOSecoOGCOUSESSooIOS 153 “We continued our march up the valley”... .50....2---- 66622 eee e eee es eee ans 154 Ap pLoachin siaproughy country eee eect eerie ek iret etree SS AMLOTrentiallstreaml ner re rerer eeeiinicieec bel miele eee eee ee eet latte ett Ti eerr 157 baNViercampeduinialdelighttwlispoteaennc reer eit se eee Cee itt 159 “Vane of green meadows and Alpine flowers”’............00eeece eee e eee tee e eet e ees 160 “A long sweep of the river and a distant snow peak”’ ...........-..- eee eee e teeters 161 “Imposing precipices 3,000 or 4,000 feet above the valley”’..........----+.+++-+-2eeeee- 162 Chitral oybayes NG PES oooggagdoddobeascacgndoenoooDogooDeDODORDS Bacasondooo00” inadysootas 164 AN ORONO away [al Gabe cog HnagdoadH odd SodondnovAGnbosoHdDaObUsD0OgGGHONDSOGDONNNDD 165 IRS bAER OVal (oS Gobaobeobl Cot (98K SIS) 5p 5000000000000 0080004000005 0000 0Ros0DG000G5000055% 166 Sketch map of region west and south of Kananaskis Lakes by W. D. Wilcox............ 167 MIETo) Salonivabayer idols Wheghaela INEM ehyy 9 Goo0co0000cad00 pac0s00000 nodGD0DD0GGG00Gc0000 170 Roberteh Hilla yah eekecc nice biter eee Gece ee rie ane Cerner Cette 183 Commander Cpr Borcherevinkeen eee e erica dhoogouespocEsobHEsooGGodS 184 econdtrangelwestiolithes kin ener eerie ence sete er errr teres ae Lee 186 Cormnyariayss thm (aS ISMN WANE 06 coo ocadoad cooguagqoeuousaddoacsadoacodboss0De%. onenDD0009 187 Making camp after a hard day’s journey....... ... Mes aEed noe oO ao ooaue oe COU ARSUO OC P.0.0.0 188 s Our camprwas) pitchedlonia wood edibanke mettre tltietlelleltlotteleletee tre ttetett ketene 1g0 Upper Kananaskis Lake looking toward pass .........0.. cece see eeee cee eee e reece eee 191 INanredtbya Mi Walcoxeswawsonwlake2 anneal: sadOeoDODDOH OOOO ODRONS _192 Storm on Kananaskis Lake............. Pha SERRA noore eros ooe ab es oO nooodueabamccA0° 105 Hallspuearmivananaskisyalker anette erecta tc tar 196 HordingstheiWananasicich crc Hosen eso ee en Oe LEER ere iircrre 198 Sketch map of the world, showing general distribution of voleanoes..........- jah cavaays 205 Sketch map of Martinique, showing mountainous character of the island..............-. 211 Map showing the volcanic islands of the West Indies.................0ssssueeseeeeseees 213 List oF ILLUSTRATIONS XI Page Wy leseagsl (C. TRMESEING 6 oo He patos FeSO 0s ORAS R CASS OE OTe OOS ee ISDE COT SECT 219 Own ogiG! WNE /DIBEIA, .caqcoosdoungodoune seoodubduDabooovogb oO LoReEUdadyREOaOFUDOCOUODE 224 PolbieEll TE Oe WyYabarshwenl GEG. [oooonoboaosscouedosouuode SM atayare ere Iver ciate er ee SEGOa WIAD OF WiarastMeWO se, o00cca0cgc0dneo Hooadovddbe0odEdaduadbuoUboUddHUSODUDEUODO 231 TNS Griiy OF Se LUSH lySiKorrs Wolo Sato avoya on onuoccsoeaveosacdeossuesdoouu0sboeobcouDOGGDO 235 INNS Oiiy OF Su Pieare aise WAS SEMEN, 5 c00odangancbba0dbuoUSbuddooUDaDObuODbCDOUORKO 236 INAS DEA SHORTS aS Noyeeo OH? (a setyohaal wENMyo po donbodocouD coco GoDOo OUCH aOHOndoUbOoGOD 240 NDOME UNS MUMS Or SNe. 5 scnanosedcoudoceaevocudssueud sano amennone a season ceGOoUG 241 Wirdeplasteredulandscapesendsot Morne ad @Oraneere yee e):)a sel sie ceils eisiels aisle ei eel 243 Wontasnepbeleerandudestroyvedmortihendlohicitya mercies selects siey=iieleteisieree leliei> 244 Winid-comtedesnrtaceandenyuxedutrees, Morne Gd? @xrangeneay sees sella) leileieeiialelelerore 247 Statue of Our Lady of the Watch, Morne d’Orange, south end of city..............-...- 250, ‘Guns of Battery on Morne d’Orange dismounted by the blast..............-...-.....55- 251 ABiASHOtmicitnin oyimEclondsreruptedstrompbel erste aciieetiitciciieeleriiaci salreiclorle 253 pe Nati teetulavarherdead icityasilentiandyuonaya ne snniyeis cecil dtc) elekesletierl= 254 Map prepared by Robert T. Hill showing zones of devastation in Martinique........- so000 Ao) RAMWMACES OW AS Goins OF Se WibaGSoto oo asocencoopudchoonasovonaoudenoesuonunacoacad bio, Dyk ““On the slopes about us still stood the denuded trunks of palms’”’..................045. 274 phiverdevastatedaslopesior Wal Soutrienessr meni carrie nee eeinenciiiir ieee acts eatte telat 277 INatinestol Georgetown TOE RV ITCEILb ssp. c)eicial svsesveyainle Sintec laters) els elayaieeeieie loielebsisie elon Sears, asetsietsss 279 AN iiypuGall WON OH aS WEE IGN Ene cedoonoseuuDoooboucsocnoMoNcaaonenanEeeMacouodonS 280 Sketch map prepared by Israel C. Russell showing the zones of devastation in St Vincent. 282 LAL TINGE OH anil Foe HoxONenl ILA) (OVBBLSO, ooo soouaseoodosdodeds ob0bdDeendeKneOUaOO0D 283 IRigT CHAWES Meee Ceorrssonre, Sly Wahavesyeles cao onaccgnuecccoqudnccnc0adedcodcopbauonds 284 Principal productions of the countries fronting on the Pacific ...... 0 ...........20.-005- 305 Wationalgnontaseandewayastatlonsron the Pacitles rn -ciciee)s)-tciars-iltecietet-ioler siete oheticl= yer ste 308 “INAVTS DOMANSTOval TOMS OF WIS IEAEVTIO pagopcasde vooosgaduondopndaddeaudavosdacooHDAsoono 310 IPO} DOLSGl 1eOLEHIS tiOyr EBVO GNIS ooapgsqoncenbunenccdconecoooasuacHnEne J bododndoudo6 312 Manila as a distributing point for commerce ....3............. SrarasnUnes pan sond aac dbo 314 PRicioitmandawatemcurrentsOlmtiesbaciiG s(n. saneiiciiesactereiiee ee cisie ler eiciic crite 316 Sei HesPacinensandewilleremainanm American @cean es... «lee eisie siecle eee 318 Hlatheadgvalleyemissioniran renin backs rounds.) ile ckelel+ feller el-/s) ciel ois lel aeledeleleiciatsileracts 362 “We start for the pass and peak (McDonald) by the easiest route”’.................--05 363, MeWonaldibeaksfrombeast. Wacelvakein! foregrounds... 29a eee ase e ae dade 364 Mission Range. Sin-yel-a-min Peak from high park south......................s 0000s 366 EPTFOStOULOuMlimestome meat silvertop beau iissas sii a cleiciie se eis clei iets rere 367 Continental divide. East face of cliff near Silvertop Peak.................eecee eee eseee 368 Conutmentalidivide—-Pentagon Peak: |(limlestone)\. se seem sce cees cs see cae oesceide sa * 369 Pack team crossing limestone cliff on trail built of green timber.................-..0005- 370 Ro ldedestratag mstsouthiofprliecaves Reales s/c lyases ninisieioieieiectelsit aie olen el rete oenelesicyeicteleis 371 WUSSOMmB Ry eta) ain Seat dupa katralinnanier srlacellss/s «sists lslere ersyeleisteisiarels loieiel tere etter) slorereieesle 372 PRNEBVITSSISSIp pind Gree tivale yey coy ye rey-ra) etc sera sas hauaye cis dvevaisnolcl aletevenele ede ceototevaverstavatevenevebeneusts oleceheuelene 373 Ware INVES, BEGMEOr lainey soon FoOC ROHS OO Cee OOR En coo aoOd OSpan one OCR oas acmsnto as 374 siremVUatie caeatwr ler OO sg MASS ilps raat ralsteiarcrccssd ein c cisee oveih «ten agsusia/aisdas Ate coelaldicoe avare euaiee acta lavas 376 Pepeline—AncOrre chedenean d erin oy SEN@ AM pete fal-fetelels)sIteleleeieiaielehsisteletelieleiel elector sieletate cael er 381 “Nine I@railel ale Sheed binesr 6 Sanoooso neh One 0p SORE REE DO BOE MOe DA DADE Ene Ooaoo eam tanae rn aakao 382 FAC CM CMB LOACH ATIC MN OL CHIC kavaeyeere nye ulCcloysiel cia cleieieceielelerone) )sveleiek- reid evel denctelelaataterevel-re nicl sevenecapspeli 383 Jiaiane: VWWGSNSy Toy Gl Cou boonnessesoedon sou adsaomoUEDEBaooocneDopucoMUoUEO UU HouO DOOD OOO 393 DEUS ERLE CIRO ESTRSE CLI OL Sears) alee vever a starece ere aicin etepe eseilovaievessinlanessosey sted susie tal aers cose] syassuale oosdastierspeiaiolatvas ave 399 ERMINE EERE ON Gl ype teeter PaeWey< fever ic are\aysie ales shalosralelapetciere sl seietccrs elas cheleveiale] eitterelererersicrae laa 400 XII List oF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Sandusky and) vicitity)./,/2.-. 2,52 less s/eltles ale ele = felt ofavedevaverele aecverete inverse avave rey ate note eee 401 Valley extending under marsh from Guston Inlet to Cedar Point................-.....-- 402 Mont /Pelée from ‘Vive; May’ 2752.8. igs man acloanrten Halos ues oe ee ee ees AIT | INA SHE erp tion: isis’. A yes errs aus tesa arecaress ese to araioror sed etre yah eae Ee, Se eee 418 Smoke from the top crater rising to a height of six miles................-.--21-+-+--eee 420 PeBreaducristee volcanic bomb sVionteeele ene een ter here eer Eber ae errr nettle 421 StPierte, Ruuinsiof theoreatrdistillenyas eee ee rea eee r rer eee eee eet eee Cees 422 Si Pierre), /Near view) of onejofithesholes); eee sence eee eee nate nee cere peas eee 423, Boys carrying water to refugee camp, Georgetown, St Vincent..................-..-::-- 425 Riis of the Wallibuisugartactonyan stance nite rs ser eer ee anne eee ieee eee 426 NearChateau Bellair. St Vincent 2.2545) .ncnee cao Oe eee EEE ee eee eee 429 Richmondestate: (Sb Vincenti. 5 osoeai faeces sie ee nee BR en ee eee 430 Mont Peléerinexrmption®. jasiticvacnctnraycics eee eee nlach: Gee RE eee ee Ce eOeee showgoorso4 447 WaSoutriere. “interior“of/crater sc sanprna cies aloe niet tease eee 450 ay Souirierewmmyesteqnnpant otes reat cia Le tars ease ts ter ener eile eee eee 451 La Soufriére. Mud coating upper portion of the cone.........................-.-.----- 455 Map showing Capt. O. Sverdrup’s explorations .................2.0.. sc seece essen eeres 460 THE NATIONAL ‘GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZIN Vol. ‘XIII JANUARY, 1902 CONTENTS MAP OF THE PHILIPPINES (TWO.SHEETS) . : SUPPLEMENT é x THE NEW MEXICO. ILLUSTRATED. BY JOHN W. FOSTER, pags EX-SECRETARY OF STATE . matinee : 3 ; : ‘ ; I w COMMERCE OF MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. BY HON. O. P. AUSTIN, CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS 25 w ARGENTINE-CHILE BOUNDARY DISPUTE . : F : ; : 27 gS RECENT DECISIONS OF U.S. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES 28 : vw Mune EEN Ge PCy etee es ont ee Oe he gt ; w GEOGRAPHIG LITERATURE } ; : P . ; ; ( 35 7 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY... ‘ : ; ; : 5 ‘ 36 ) McCLURE, PHILLIPS & CO. $2.50 a Year NEW YORK ~ 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter, : ow J McGBB, NATIONAL _ | GEOGRA PIHIIC | _MAGAZINE _ _N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published for the nae Nationa GrocraPHic Society, of Washing- er © ton; D. C,, by McCuuvrz, Puturs & Co., abe m4! East 25th Street, in New York City, to whom all business communications should be addressed. Ware _ Editorial communications should be addressed to the Managing Editor of the Nationa GrocrarHt a Macazine, Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C 25 CENTS A NUMBER; 8250. A ‘YEAR Editor-in- Chief: "HENRY GANNETT es eee Chief ‘Geographer, Cx Ss. @eological Survey Se Keo AUR “Managing Editor: (GILBERT ae GROSVENOR oo Seales oes WILLIS L. ‘MOORE, | ie rs B, Chiat of the ‘Weather Foran U. $2 s - Associat Rate GENERAL A.W. GREELY, eet >. Chief Signal omer U.S. : my cone ? 2e tI _ Department of Agriculture SUneeatre 0. oa ‘TITTMANN, ase so pt ee \_ Superintendent of the us. Coast nae Haceny). 3 poorer, Survey ; °. P. AUSTIN, s eee s Chief. of the hacen of ( Sintioticg DPS: : t de Us: s. Treasury Department Sey Sh a ™. TARBELL, oe Dea inte ae Author of *Lite of Napoleon, “ite pe f Lincoln,” e te. Pais: RL LOUISE | GARRISON, S: Principal of esis School, Wash i s eee. a: fe ; zi _McCLURE, PHILLIPS: & cO.,, : ae 8 ee ie Etinolagiet’ in. tae. ‘Sica of American_Ethnology Soe iG ‘HART MERRIAM, Chief of the Biological ae u. hides ot AEs: - : DAVID J. ‘HILL, é + Assistant Secretary of State sid ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE, — © Author of “Java, the Garden, oe ‘the East," etc. ae : MARCUS BAKER, maa. : U. Se: Ceplanioat Survey ° OoIXeTY Jo sAvAyIeY Surmoys dey \ 7 a S 5ILNIIMVISVN uejjeze \\ OoNVvuNGE \ sejidoyego BuKenges a S ONISOWUaHD \SVZPUUalp e B1epRewd AB i0n op oseylY //RORAGG bi Udall b ‘Id ‘ZO6L ‘IIIX “1OA “OVW “DOSS “LVN Vior XII No. 1 WASHINGTON January, 1902 GEOGRAPIENIC MAGA ZIONIE, THE NEW MEXICO* By Joun W. Foster, Ex-SECRETARY OF STATE HEN I was invited by the National Geographic Soci- ety to deliver a lecture in its course on my observations during a recent visit to Mexico, I felt that it would be a work of superfluity on my part. The means of communication with our neighboring Republic are now so frequent and easy, and the inter- course between the two countries is so intimate, I doubted whether I could add to the stock of knowledge of the mem- bers of the Society, especially of a geo- graphic character; but your President thought differently, and it may be of some interest to hear the observations of one who, having resided in Mexico for seven years, returns to it after a period of twenty years, and to listen to his narrative of the progress made in the interval, and of the present condi- tions of that country. RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION It may be first noted that the greatest change in the face of the country of a geographic character has been in the construction of an extensive system of railroads and the consequent improve- ment in the means of communication. The first thing which strikes a visitor today who knew Mexico a quarter of a century ago is the facility and comfort with which the journey to the City of Mexico is now made. When I began the preparation for my first journey, in 1873, I found that the only means of regular communication was by a steamer from New York, departing from that port every three weeks, and which oc- cupied usually twelve or fourteen days in reaching Vera Cruz, stopping at a number of ports en route. From that port to the City of Mexico a railroad had been finished that year, which had been nineteen years in building, a dis- tance of 264 miles. ‘Today four lines of railroad enter the Mexican Republic from the United States, and one can make the journey in five days from Washington to the City of Mexico in a Pullman car on the regular trains, with only one change, either at Kansas City or New Orleans. The era of extensive railroad con- struction did not begin till after Gen- eral Diaz had been firmly seated in the presidency. With the aid of liberal subsidies, railroad building began in *An address before the National Geographic Society, January 3, 1902. dent of the Republic , Pei 1aZ D ral Porfirio Gene Tes Ney IMipsaco — 3 earnest about 1880, the only road of any length at that time being the one just mentioned, from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. ‘There are now com- pleted and in operation 15,454 kilome- ters, approximately 10,000 miles, and by means of these lines the capital is connected with all the important cities of the country. Four lines enter the Republic from the United States. One branches off from the Southern Pacific in Arizona and traverses the State of Sonora to the port of Guaymas. ‘The second, the Mexican Central, crosses the boundary line at El Paso, extends to the City of Mexico, with a branch line to Tampico, an important seaport on the Gulf of Mexico, and another branch to Guadalajara. ‘The third, built under the auspices of the Southern Pacific system, from San Antonio, Texas, crossing the Rio Grande at Eagle Pass, intersects the Mexican Central at Tor- reon and extends some distance beyond the city of Durango, its ultimate goal being the Pacific coast; and the fourth international line, the Mexican Na- tional, crosses the boundary at Laredo and extends to the City of Mexico, being a narrow-gauge road. From the City of Mexico various other roads lead to important districts, and most of the main lines have a number of branches constructed to reach rich mineral and agricultural districts. MOUNTAINS AND TABLE LAND The configuration of the Republic lends itself to easy railroad connection with the United States. The great Andean Range, coming up from South America, is crowded in by the two oceans and depressed as it passes through the isthmus connecting the two continents, but as it emerges from the narrow neck of ‘Tehuantepec into the wide expanse of North America, apparently glad of its escape from the ocean barriers, it again shoots up its peaks toward the sky, and branches off into two grand mountain chains, the one following the Pacific and the other the Gulf coast, and, like the brawny arms of a giant, lift Mexico up onto the vast tablelands which stretch far away into the United States. The work of connecting the capital through this vast tableland with the United States was comparatively easy. But when it came to constructing the lines from the high elevation of the City of Mexico, as has been done in various directions, toward the coasts, it became a herculean task, calling for engineering skill and a large expenditure of capital. Notwithstanding the obstacles, the mountain range confronting the Gulf has already been pierced by at least four lines of railway, and they are now in operation to’Tampico and Vera Cruz, the two most important ports on the Gulf. But thus far the Sierra Madre Range traversing the Pacific coast line has not been completely crossed. ‘The Guada- lajara branch of the Mexican Central Road has been extended some distance toward Manzanillo, and work on that extension is being pushed to completion. The Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway, a road under enterprising American management, leaving the City of Mexico, climbs to a height of 10,000 feet above the sea-level, then descends into the charming valley of Cuernavaca, cuts its way through the mountain gorges amidst most beautiful scenery, has already reached the Balsas River leading into the Pacific, and has a com- paratively easy course along its valley to the Pacific port of Acapulco. The Tehuantepec route across the Isthmus has for many years been a com- petitor in expectancy with that of Nica- ragua and Panama for the world’s com- merce. ‘The canal project gave way to the Eades ship-railway scheme, but an ordinary railroad was finally completed some years ago. It was, however, cheaply and imperfectly constructed, and was without suitable ports at its + - Tue Nationat GeoGRaPHIc MaGaZINE termini, and hence could offer no com- petition with the Panama Railroad. The road has now passed into the hands of an experienced and responsible En- glish company, which will entirely re- build the road, and the federal govern- ment has made contracts with it for the construction of good ports of capacity for the largest vessels, in which work the government will expend several millions of dollars. When these im- provements are completed it is claimed this route will be able to successfully compete with the Panama Railroad for much of the Isthmus traffic. ~ The construction of lines of telegraph have not only kept pace with the rail- road extension, but far exceeded it, and there are now in operation 42,500 miles. In addition to this the telephone system is established in all the principal cities Hon. Ignacio Mariscal, Secretary of Foreign Relations and towns and with their adjacent vil- lages. PUBLIC PEACE AND ORDER The establishment of railroad commu- nication and the ramification of the tel- egraph throughout the length and breadth of the country have not only brought new life and activity to the commerce and industries, but they have had a most salutary effect upon public order. Before this new epoch it was very possible not only for bandits and outlaws to maintain themselves in the mountain fastnesses and remote regions, but for revolutions to be hatched and grow into formidable proportions, owing to the inability of the government to concentrate troops. Now every part of the Republic is within easy reach of the federal authority. Hence, the old-time visitor to Mexico on his return today is struck with the every where-prevailing evidence of peace and security to persons and property. Books of travel on Mexico written twenty-five years and more ago are full of hair-breadth escapes from brigands, assaults upon the stage coaches, kid- napping of the rich for ransom, and the depredations of robbers and revolution- ists. ‘The passenger trains between the City of Mexico and Vera Cruz each carried a car full of soldiers as an armed guard, and even with that precaution the male passengers usually wore side arms, and a guard of soldiers was kept at every station. No man of business or of importance ventured on journeys outside of the cities, large towns, or ha- ciendas (plantation-houses surrounded by a high stone wall) without a number of friends heavily armed or a regular escort. Today trains run daily in al- most every state of the Republic with- out any guards, assaults upon the stage coaches have long ago ceased, kidnap- ping is a thing of the past, robberies on the highways are almost unknown, trav- elers armed withpistols, rifles, and swords THe New Mexico 5 Hon. José Y. Limantour, Secretary of Finance (a common practice in the past) are rarely seen, and only in the remote and mountainous districts. ‘The use of large bodies of soldiers to preserve peace and order has been supplanted by indi- vidual gens d’armes or policemen. Be- sides the visitor's own observations of security and peace, the old residents of Mexico will tell him that in this respect the country has undergone a complete transformation. I think it may be safely asserted that life and property are as fully protected in Mexico as in the United States. It would be idle to say that murder, rob- bery, and disorder do not occur in Mex- ico, for that would be to assert that the passions of man have changed; but it is perfectly correct to say that today out- lawry is of rare occurrence, and that in few countries of the world is better pro- tection afforded to persons and property. In the past twenty years the telegraph lines have more than tripled in extent and in number of offices, and now at midnight there comes up to the national palace in the City of Mexico, from every near and remote town in the Republic, the message, ‘‘ No hay novedad.’’ It is like the cry of the medizeval night watchman, ‘‘All’s well,’’ that assured the citizen of peace and security. The primary cause of this state of civil order has been the maintenance of a government of peace and of a contin- uous régime. Much had been done under Juarez to remove the causes of the revolutions, and under Lerdo a con- siderable advance had been made in civil government; but since the advent of General Porfirio Diaz to power, in 1876, there has been no foreign war and no serious disturbance of an internal character, the only exception being the outbreak of certain semi-independent Indian tribes. In the previous fifty years of the existence of the Repub- lic, there had been as many presidents, the majority of whom owed their exist- ence to revolutionary movements. ‘The wretched story of Mexican history of that period is too familiar to be repeated here. OTHER LATIN-AMERICAN REPUBLICS The blessings which the era of peace and order attending the administration of President Diaz has brought to the country and the significance of the achievement will be better understood by a very brief reference to the other Latin-American states of the hemi- sphere during this same period. Every one of the five states of Central Amer- ica has suffered from revolutionary movements and violent changes of gov- ernment, and at times they have en- gaged in war with each other. Colom- bia has been torn by political dissensions, 6 THe NationaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE aud is even now undergoing the ravages of revolutionary movements. Ecuador has been the scene of many revolutions and the displacement of one president by another through armed force. Peru has suffered by a foreign war, whereby the most valuable of its territories were torn away, and one revolution has fol- lowed another in quick succession, with changes of rulers. Chile, once the most conservative and prosperous of the South American countries, has carried on an expensive foreign war, has undergone a bloody and exhaustive revolution, and, because of its hostile attitude to its neighbors, has been compelled to main- tain a large army and costly navy. Bolivia, shut out from the sea by a jealous neighbor, has been in frequent turmoil and political disorder. ‘The Argentine Republic, though greatly favored by nature and by progressive rulers, has not been free from revolu- tionary movements, and has undergone a serious financial disaster, which has greatly paralyzed its industries. Brazil, by a conspiracy in the army, expelled the emperor and established a republic; but that did not bring it peace, for the new government has had to contend with successive attempts at revolution. The history of Venezuela in the past twenty-five years has been one of re- peated revolutions and changes of gov- ernment. From this hasty sketch of the other nations of the American hemisphere to the south, in contrast with Mexico, the brilliancy and the beneficence of the ad- ministration of President Diaz is made apparent. Ina recent inaugural address to Congress, on again being installed as President, he referred to the achieve- ments of Mexico in the past twenty-five years, and modestly stated that in it there were no brilliant deeds tochronicle. From that notable address I make this extract : ‘““Tf it were true that a peaceful and laborious people have no history, the administrative period I am about to re- view would almost be devoid of history. But, on the contrary, those nations that deserve to be called happy in the only intelligible sense of the word, far from being without a history, have a very glorious and interesting one, if besides being peaceful and laborious they are also progressive. “That history is the history of their progress, their achievements, their grow- ing prosperity, of the improvements of every kind which they have intro- duced—a history which, in this modern age and the present constitution of cty- ilized societies, is as interesting as that of their past and just as deserving of attention.’’ DRAINAGE OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO Next in importance of a geographic character to the vast railway system, which has done so much to transform the face of the country and the habits of the people, is the great drainage canal of the Valley of Mexico and its adjunct improvements. As is well known, the City of Mexico is situated in the bot- tom of a valley entirely surrounded by mountains, with a series of lakes on the southeast and northwest, draining into a salt-water lake which has no outlet, on the shores of which this most ancient city of America was located. Owing to its location, the capital was constantly exposed to overflows, and from time to time it has been visited by most de- structive inundations. Besides, on ac- count of the necessarily imperfect sew- age system, the death rate of the city has always been very high. For six hundred years, from the time of the ancient Aztec kings, the artificial drainage of the waters of the valley has been the vexed problem of each succeed- ing government. ‘The Spanish viceroys exhausted the engineering science of their epochs, spent hundreds of millions 3 wy, te Ming = = we ee Ns FSF 2S es = Im Sy eS SS “ys SSS = My, i‘ Mi SS = dN © ap cis RO) Zit Sn \\ > = Siva we 3, wE s Qe ey FS Fe Se MY, Fi = ‘1 aa FS nity, Si = 7 € TSS fre aN\WS > Hi aie Qwiy, Woy 1 Ge ZAIN GH S sti, 9% yo é, Cine" = Gis e 3 — A, IZUMPANGO Drm = wile wile : < at pew \ wil wavy, : % . wk A ST if troy, SS ME oo) pre ain a0 Se = Fone ng i ne mes — JM ayy Pea 328 = Arf y, pe z ae c SES Za gs): 4 5; ———_—>=——/ ELS R Py — =< 2253 f CANE 25k y ES | Sis J =TEXCOC OZ iy, hil pa 4 MAW, why 3, RS WS inl Dey, Wy, Si a 2 < sine Hilly, Use su wl NS \ > x2 KS § wg ray %~ SE ‘ oS & Sug, Ay 4 Ane pes welling Vn 3 YAN) CS 3 LE Myney AM Alay yy cn ¥ BW ayy Zi, edly 4 Byway < Py » Aly Nz é Ss = Sy, OTIS Zip WY, Zn ai ; Wag ZA Trirwi\\ s 2 1 TAS IN® MWB, Zam® = Trl) y = YIN sy iL) Sy, 7im& 27 3 SFP In inven, SN Eee, wecy, SE "Bopocatepe = Z fame MINS Iu, Ss t = I 4 ey J mnie “a, ae Z rg iy 7s, aelt By, CTs Map showing Area Drained by the Great Canal Canal, under Construction rainage The D The Drainage Canal, Completed The Drainage Canal Water Gate JeuUN TL, [euey) ISeUIvIC oq fo WyNo/py oY L ‘a £ : < 4 BPS TAL men Re aN THe Nationa, GrocrapHic Macazine Cross-section of the Tunnel Width, 4.180 meters ; Height, 4.286 meters of dollars, and sacrificed the lives of hundreds of thousands of the natives in the vain attempt to solve it. During the first half century of the Republic spasmodic and feeble attempts were made to effect the drainage, but suc- ceeding revolutions or foreign wars de- prived the government of the financial means to accomplish the herculean task. It was reserved for President Diaz to achieve success in this great enterprise. He was forced to delay the beginning of the work for some years until the finan- cial condition of the public treasury would justify it and until he was en- abled to secure contracts with experi- enced engineers and trustworthy cap- italists. Finally, for the last time, the project was entered upon and was suc- cessfully completed two years ago. The system consists of a tunnel six miles long, extending through the mountains, and with it is connected a canal, the total length of the waterway being nearly thirty-seven miles. It cost $20,000,000, including the drainage of the city, and may justly be said to take rank with the great achievements of modern engi- neering. The city is now safe from overflow, and the last step in this great work is in process of completion—the connec- tion with the canal and tunnel of a new and perfect system of drainage for the capital. For some time past the streets have been torn up in laying the drainage Tue New Mexico pipes, but this work is nowpractically fin- ished, and the municipality, with the aid of $2,000,000 from the federal treasury, is engaged in the task of relaying the streets with asphalt pavement. When this is completed the City of Mexico will be one of the cleanest, healthiest, and prettiest cities in the word. THE CITY OF MEXICO Humboldt, in his visit to America at the beginning of the last century, pro- nounced it the best-built city on this hemisphere. During the rule of Spanish viceroys, under the stimulating influ- ences of the great riches yielded by the mines of Mexico, the capital contained a population much greater than that of any other city of the new world, and it numbered among its public buildings a cathedral unequaled in size and archi- tectural attractions, the result of a hun- dred years of labor and pious contribu- tions ; institutions of learning and be- neficence, public gardens and drives without rivals in any other of the west- ern countries. But during the first fifty years of the independence of the country, torn by civil dissensions, the capital remained stationary, or at times even retrograded, while New York and Philadelphia, as well as Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Ayres, outstripped it in the race for population and development. All that was needed, however, to enable City of Mexico again to take its place the among the first cities of the hemisphere was the preservation of public order. With the establishment by General Diaz of a government of peace and security, beginning at the close of 1876, the cap- ital gave the first symptoms of returning prosperity. When it became apparent that the new chief of the state had the power to preserve a continuous govern- ment of law, and the executive ability to awaken the dormant resources of the country, under the new régime of peace which had at last dawned upon the Ig country, the City of Mexico entered upon an era of prosperity unparalleled in its history. Population began to flow in from the surrounding states ; native wealth, which had been hidden away or deposited in Europe, returned to the natural channels of trade, and foreign capital, which during the time of disorder had kept away, began to seek methods of investment. Before the first term of Diaz came to a close, the construction of railroads had been entered upon under government aid. Today the capital of the Republic pre- sents to the old-time resident the most impressive evidence of the growth and prosperity of the country. During the Diaz administration it has nearly doubled in population, the census of 1900 show- ing over four hundred thousand souls. ‘The area of the city has greatly extended, especially in the suburbs to the west and northwest. Formerly it was regarded as unsafe for a well-to-do family to live outside of the city gates. Assoonas the new government could give an assur- ance of safety to life and property, the movement of suburban enlargement be- gan, and now the most beautiful and commodious private residences are found in the quarter named, far away from the noise and bustle of the center of the city. In all parts the price of real estate and of rents has largely advanced, especially to the west of the national palace, and marvelous stories are told of the enormous increase in value in suburban real estate—many hundreds per cent; and it is gratifying to be in- formed that wide-awake Americans have shared in the profits, the projectors of “‘La Colonia Americana,’’ laid out by a New Jersey corporation, being among the most successful promoters. IMPROVEMENTS OF THE CAPITAL The evidences of progress and pros- perity are to be seen on every hand. The streets are much more crowded 14 than formerly, the foreigners are more numerous, and among these Americans predominate. The shops are enlarged and multiplied in number. In the cen- tral part of the city substantial houses have been torn down to give place to magnificent business edifices constructed of steel and marble, with electric ele- vators and all modern appliances of a first-class establishment in New York or Paris. ‘The government has taken the lead in this era of reconstruction. A new and extensive general hospital, one of the largest and best equipped in the world, and a new penitentiary, as per- fect as the advance in humane study could make it, have just been com- pleted. ‘The foundations of a Hall of Congress, which promises to be an im- posing edifice, are being laid, and the appropriations have been made for a new department post-office and other public buildings which will greatly beautify the city. "The many friends in the United States of the late Matias Romero, so long the honored minister of his country in Washington, will be glad to learn that the great advance in real estate largely enhanced his modest property in the capital. In his will he stated that he owed all he possessed to his country, and he devised the great body of his estate to the founding of a home for indigent old people, which will constitute one of the improvements of the city. The ancient system of street railways is undergoing a great transformation. It has passed into the hands of a foreign syndicate, which is supplanting the old method of mule traction with electric- ity, and is replacing the old-fashioned and rickety cars with those of improved modern construction. In fact, the Diaz epoch may be called the régime of elec- tricity, as in his day it has been intro- duced very generally into the houses and streets, not only in the capital, but in all the principal towns of the country. One of the chief attractions of modern THe Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGAZzINne Mexico is the fashionable driveway, the Paseo de la Reforma. It has been greatly widened, ornamented at fre- quent intervals with statues of public men and artistic figures, and extended to the Castle of Chapultepec, lying nearly a league away from the center of the city. At the foot of this pictur- esque castle there has been laid out a beautiful park, which is being con- stantly enlarged and adorned, and which will soon rival the most famous pleasure grounds of the world. ‘The old visitor to Mexico will, however, have to mourn the loss of many of his dear friends, the so-called ‘‘ Montezuma trees,’’ the grand old cypresses, some of the most colossal of those surrounding the castie having died. In its present setting of green and flowers, with paved roads and objects of art, the old castle of the Montezumas and the Spanish viceroys appears more lovely than ever. The view from its summit, embracing a wide area of the broad valley, everywhere covered with verdure, the waters of the lakes sparkling in the sunlight, the cap- ital, with its towers and wide-spreading edifices, the many villages nestling among the semi-tropical vegetation, the amphitheater of high mountains sur- rounding and shutting in the valley, with the lofty volcanoes, clothed with eternal snow, standing as hoary senti- nels of the scene—all this constitutes a vision, in my judgment, unsurpassed in any other part of the world. In this day of prosperity and improvement, no wonder the Mexican is proud of his capital and his country. IMPROVEMENT OF THE SEAPORTS Another geographic phase worthy of notice is the transformation which has taken place in several of the seaports of the country. It is related that a King of Spain, on a visit to Cadiz, was seen with a glass scanning the horizon across the waters to the west. A court- O19 [ye dureg surmiyy VqvZLIC) yw A1OJV 107309) Tue New Mexico ier asked him what was the object of his search, and he replied that he and his ancestors had spent such vast treas- ures on the fortress at Vera Cruz he thought he ought to be able to see some of the towers of the castle rising out of the sea! Thestory illustrates the marked difference in the Spanish rule in Mexico and that which prevails today. The object of Spain was to keep off intruders and preserve the commerce of Mexico as a monopoly for the mothercountry. ‘The policy of the present régime is to invite to its shores all the commerce of the world and afford free access to its ports. The country has heretofore labored under a serious embarrassment in the accomplishment of this purpose, in that on the Atlantic or Gulf coast it had no harbor worthy of the name. Vera Cruz, the principal port, was nothing but an open roadstead. But during the ad- ministration of Diaz a thorough system of improvements has been entered upon and is now approaching completion. In shutting off the northern passage by a sea-wall, connecting the island upon which stands the famous Spanish castle with the mainland, a comparatively safe harbor is afforded to vessels, and the landing and customs facilities are being greatly increased. In these improve- ments the federal government is spend- ing several millions of dollars. ‘Tam- pico possessed an excellent harbor, but it was rendered almost useless by a bar which cut off access to all but vessels of very light draught ; but under contract with the government a system of jetties similar to that at the mouth of the Mississippi has been successfully con- structed, and a channel of 23 feet has been secured across the bar. Asa re- sult of this improvement and of the con- struction of a railroad connecting the port with the capital and with the im- portant city of Monterey, Tampico is aspiring to rival Vera Cruz in its foreign commerce. The ports of the Pacific coast possess natural advantages and adaptability to Ly shipping not found on the Gulf coast, but some of these also are undergoing important improvements, and when the railroads projected and now in course of construction across the Sierra Madre Range reach them, they will doubtless participate more fully in the great in- dustrial and commercial development of the country. GROWTH OF FOREIGN COMMERCE In view of this development, it would naturally be anticipated that foreign commerce would feel the effects of the general prosperity, and the statistics fully sustain thisexpectation. In 1875, the year previous to the accession of President Diaz, the total imports amounted to less than $19,000,000, and during the fiscal year of 1899 the im- ports had increased to $106,000,000 in silver. The same gratifying condition has attended the export commerce. In 1875 the exports were $27,000,000, and during the last fiscal year they amounted to $150,000,000, thus showing the enor- mous increase of 500 and 600 per cent. In the order of their importance the leading articles imported were as fol- lows: Machinery, cotton textiles, iron and steel, wines and liquors, wool tex- tiles, paper, and crude cotton. It is gratifying to note that the United States leads all other countries in the amount of this import trade, having about one-half of the total, Great Brit- ain coming next with 20 per cent, France and Germany with to per cent each, leaving ro per cent divided among Spain, Belgium, and other countries. The leading classes of imports from the United States are given in the order of their importance: Coal, wood and lum- ber, cotton, steel rails, mineral oil, vege- table oils, carriages (railroad, etc.), cotton cloths, electrical apparatus, wear- ing apparel, hardware, sewing machines, furniture, agricultural implements, boots and shoes. Although there has been this greatly 18 enlarged import commerce, it is by no means as large as it should be, taking into consideration the fact that the country possesses nearly fourteen mill- ions of people. ‘There has been cause in the past for the comparatively small import trade in the disordered condition of the country, the poverty of its in- habitants, and the habit of the mass of the people of subsisting on the bare ne- cessities of life. The enlarged com- merce under the Diaz régime illustrates the effect of peace and prosperity in en- abling the inhabitants to consume more largely of comforts and luxuries from abroad. If this era of peace and good government shall become the fixed order of the country, there is no reason why the present import trade may not be doubled within a few years, and if American merchants and manufacturers will study more intimately the condi- tions of trade in Mexico, they will be able not merely to maintain their pres- ent preeminence, but even to increase their ratio. Examining the details of the export trade, we find that the United States is extending to Mexico liberal reciprocity; for, while we enjoy only about 50 per cent of her import trade, she finds in our country a market for about 75 per cent of all the products she sends abroad. Great Britain follows with 10 per cent, France with 4 per cent, and Cuba leads Germany in the consump- tion of Mexican products. If we also consider the mining and agricultural conditions of the country, we shall see that it possesses almost boundless ca- pacity for the increase of its export trade, if the present state of order and govern- ment shall continue. The leading pro- ducts now exported are, in the order of their importance, as follows: Silver, henequin or sisal hemp, gold, coffee, cattle, ledd, copper, hides, and precious woods. The facilities for conducting the for- eign commerce have been greatly mul- THe Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE tiplied. When I first visited the coun- try, as I have mentioned, the only regular means of communication with the United States was by a steamer to and from New York, sailing once in three weeks. “Today steamers sail for that port from Vera Cruz and Tampico twice a week, a new line has been re- cently established to New Orleans, lines of steamers are plying regularly from the two Mexican ports mentioned to England, France, Germany, and Spain, with many irregular steamers to various parts of the world. ‘Then only one rail- road reached the seacoast, and that only from the capital. Now four more lines are in operation, connecting the seaports with almost all the states of the interior. Then there was no railroad communica- tion with the United States. Today four different lines enter Mexico from her northern neighbor. Of the total import and export trade about two-thirds in tonnage is carried by ocean vessels and one-third by the railroads. The subject of a reciprocity treaty between the two republics has been often mooted, and it is believed that a judiciously framed convention of this character would largely increase the trade between the two countries. But since the unseemly treatment accorded to the Grant-Romero reciprocity treaty of 1883 by the Congress of the United States, it is presumed that Mexico will be slow to make any new advance on the subject. And from the treatment which is now being extended by the same body to various treaties negotiated under President McKinley’s direction with different foreign powers, I appre- hend the Government of the United States will be slow to propose such a measure to Mexico. GOVERNMENT FINANCES ‘The most conspicuous evidence of the good effects of the management of af- fairs by President Diaz is seen in the Tue New Mexico financial condition of the country, both official and private. When he assumed control, the financial condition could hardly have been more desperate. The revenues Of the government since the re-establishment of the Republic had al- most constantly shown a deficit. The public creditors, domestic and foreign, were unsatisfied. For many years the interest on the foreign debt had been defaulted ; its bonds had no value at home or abroad, and were not quoted in the money markets of a single city of the world. ‘There were a few private banks in the capital, but no banking system existed in the Republic. As a consequence, and because of the risks of communication, exchange between the different cities of the country was very high, standing at 5 to 8 and sometimes Io per cent. Although the revenues barely reached $20,000,000 annually, it was very difficult to collect the taxes on account of the sluggish condition of commerce and industries. The rigid enforcement of peace and security by General Diaz soon began to bear fruit in a marked improvement in financial affairs. ‘The government early felt its effects in, first, a gradual, and finally, a rapid increase in its revenues. I do not propose to confound my hear- ers with long tables of figures which are the usual accompaniments of the discus- sion of financial and commercial ques- tions. It will be sufficient to state that the revenues, which before had been barely $20,000,000 annually, soon dou- bled, then trebled, and within ten years had increased more than sixfold, reach- ing as high as $140,000,000. This marvelous increase had its nat- ural effect upon the policy of the gov- ernment. First, it enabled it to extend its aid toward greatly needed public improvements. It not only granted concessions to an extensive system of railroads, but it also contracted to pay the different companies liberal subsidies, without which it would have been im- ug) possible for most of them to be built. It also entered upon an expensive sys- tem of harbor improvements at Vera Cruz, Tampico, and other ports in en- couragement of commerce. It made the long-needed drainage of the Valley of Mexico a success. Every depart- ment of administration felt its whole- some effects—the post-office and tele- gaph service, government buildings, the schools, the army, and the navy. REDUCTION OF TAXATION This increase in the revenue also en- abled the government to take another important step, to wit, the adoption of a complete revision of the system of tax- ation. Heretofore it had been the prac- tice of the government to rely upon the import and export duties for the greater portion of its revenues. A new tariff was adopted which, while it preserved the protective system, was much less burdensome to foreign commerce, and abolished almost all the export duties on Mexican products shipped abroad. A system of internal taxation was adopted which made the levies much more equal in their effects, but the general result was a large reduction in taxation. This era of financial prosperity put it into the power of the President to re- move a grievous burden upon commerce which had long been the dream of pro- gressive Mexican rulers, the abolition of the ‘‘alcabalas,’’ a system of taxation whereby duties were collected on pro- ducts and merchandise passing from one state to another. It had been declared abolished by the liberal constitution of 1857, but the poverty of the state treas- uries had heretofore made it impossible of realization. The abounding pros- perity of the Diaz régime had extended to all the states, and in 1896 the ‘‘ alca- balas’’ ceased to exist ; and with them has disappeared another medizeval reve- nue annoyance, the ‘‘octroi’’ taxes, collected at the city gates on all articles 20 of consumption entering the city, a sys- tem still in force in many of the coun- tries of Europe. The reduction made in the various branches of taxation has largely dimin- ished the receipts of the national treas- ury, having brought them down to about $60,000,000 annually, but this sum proves more than sufficient for all the current needs of the public service, as at the end of each fiscal year a con- siderable balance remains subject to appropriation for special purposes. This financial revival brought upon the administrative departments multi- plied work and new problems to solve, and President Diaz sorely felt the need of a man of business capacity, of thor- ough uprightness of character and in- dustry for the portfolio of Secretary of Finance, and he was most fortunate in his ultimate choice. Jose Yves Liman- tour is a gentleman of culture and in- herited wealth, to which he has largely added by his skillful business manage- ment. He had no taste for political life, and when the call came to him to accept this post he was reluctant to do so, and only yielded from a high sense of pa- triotic duty. To him greatly is the President indebted for the splendid suc- cess which has attended the reorganiza- tion of the taxation methods just men- tioned, for the establishment of a well- ordered banking system, and for the rehabilitation of the foreign credit and the public debt. THE PUBLIC DEBT This latter work has been most suc- cessfully carried out. From the earliest days of independence the public foreign debt has been a fruitful source of em- barrassment and shame for the Mexi- cans. In 1825 loans were effected in London for 420,000,000, and only a few years elapsed before the recurring revolutions forced default in interest, and for years this debt remained nom- THe NartionaL GerocrapHic MaAGaZzINE inally of no value. In 1851 the cred- itors had to accept a refunding, with loss of accrued interest and reduction of the rate, but this proved only a tem- porary expedient. New foreign debts to English, French, and Spanish cap- italists were added, only to be soon defaulted or repudiated. ‘This latter action brought on the tripartite inter- vention of 1861 which led to the Maxi- milian Empire. The situation was most deplorable when Diaz came into power, but the financial improvement which he inaugurated soon began to create confidence among European cap- italists, and the rapidly growing rev- enues finally enabled the Secretary of Finance to re-establish the govern- ment credit abroad. By the year 1888 he had succeeded in consolidating all the discredited foreign indebtedness of every character whose legitimacy could be established and issuing therefor new gold bonds bearing 6 per cent interest, and from that date the treasury has not failed to pay the interest promptly. This action, with the continued im- provement of the finances, placed these bonds at a premium of 102% in London, and advances were made to the govern- ment by leading foreign bankers to con- vert the foreign gold-bearing debt into anew loan at 5 per cent interest, and this transaction was consummated last year, the bonds being taken by three reputable banking houses of Berlin, London, and New York. ‘The entire foreign indebtedness of Mexico is there- fore now represented by a single 5 per cent gold loan, with coupons payable in the three cities just named, amount- ing to $115,178,000. This was accepted as a great triumph for the government, and justly so when we recall the depth of utter bankruptcy from which the country has been re- claimed. Its credit is now equal to that of some of the first powers of Europe and much above that of any other of the Latin-American republics. If we Tue New Mexico take the three South American coun- tries which have been the most prosper- ous and have always commanded the highest credit in London and compare them with Mexico, taking recent quota- tions of their foreign loans of the same date, we have this result : London quotations. ’ Argentine Republic 6 per cent loan.. 93 ikeavaul i jolse CSA WOE Go eeonocobeo5o 62 Chillers ipemcentloaneesaeen nee eces 92 WExIcONSupercentloanss. 4-4 5e4-6 99 In addition to its foreign loan, Mexico has what is termed an interior debt, pay- able in silver, amounting to asum which if converted into gold would represent approximately $62,000,000, created by subsidies to railroads, obligations for publicimprovements, etc. . Thus the en- tire indebtednessof the republic amounts to about $177,178,000. It may be prof- itable to make a further comparison. This debt is borne by a population of 13,570,000. Canada, her more north- erly neighbor, has a debt of $345,160,- 000, with a population of only 4,833,000 souls. In other words, Mexico’s in- debtedness is $13 per inhabitant, while that of Canada is $71 per inhabitant. In connection with government fi- nances, it may be well to call attention to the fact that Mexico is upon a silver basis, and that all business transactions are conducted upon that basis. The prevailing opinion is that it is very ad- vantageous to the country; but there are some of its most intelligent people who contend that the system is inju- rious, and that at no very distant period Mexico will adopt the gold standard. But no such change is considered by the government or by the ruling financial interests. THE FOREIGN RELATIONS It will not be possible in this paper to discuss at any length the political questions which arise in connection with the present state of Mexico, but I must 21 make a brief reference to its relations with foreign countries. When Presi- dent Diaz assumed the reins of govern- ment the evil effects of Maximilian’s attempt to establish an empire on the ruins of the republic were yet being felt. The country had not recovered from the exhausted condition into which its re- sources had been brought by the long, bloody and expensive war. ‘The pas- sions of the contending parties, which had been sodeeplyembittered by thatter- rible contest, had not altogether calmed down.; and the foreign nations which had taken part in or sympathized with the intervention—France, Great Britain, Austria, and the other European pow- ers—had not renewed their relations with the restored republican govern- ment. It was important for the well-being of the country that the wastes of war should be restored, that the people should bury their partisan rancor, and espe- cially that the two first-named nations should renew their diplomatic inter- course, because from them would come much of the capital and skill to develop the country’s great resources. ‘Time and statesmanship were requisite for this task. One of the first acts of Gen- eral Diaz toward the accomplishment of these ends, after he became well seated in power and when the step could not be interpreted.as a sign of weakness, was to call into his counsel two of the most prominent and able men in the government of his predecessor, Presi- dent Lerdo, whom he had driven from power—Manuel Romero Rubio and Ig- nacio Mariseal—the former the head of the Lerdo cabinet, and the latter for so many years the accomplished Mexican Minister in Washington. ‘The fact of the acceptance by these two men of office under the Diaz government was evidence of the consolidation of all par- ties and all interests in working for the future peace and prosperity of the Re- public. 2) 7a For twenty years Mr. Mariscal has served at the head of the cabinet as sec- retary for foreign relations, except when absent for a time as minister at London, and to his skillful and prudent manage- meut are in great measure due the sat- isfactory relations which Mexico has established with the other nations of the world. France and Great Britain soon overcame their scruples growing out of the death of Maximilian and the cir- cumstances attending the intervention and reéstablished diplomatic relations. Their action was soon followed by all the other leading nations of Europe, except Austria, and even that monarchy has recently renewed diplomatic inter- course, and has buried any feelings of bitterness for an act which, under the circumstances, was for Mexico a polit- ical necessity, and would have been commtited by any other civilized nation under similar provocation. Mexico has also cultivated more inti- mate and friendly relations with the other Latin-American republics, and at no time has her intercourse with them been more pleasant than at present. By her larger population, by her worthy example of a quarter of a century of unbroken peace and constitutional gov- ernment, and by the consequent era of unexampled development and prosper- ity, Mexico stands today at the head of the Latin-American states, and when it was suggested that the time was ripe for the holding of another Pan-Ameri- can international congress similar to that which assembled in Washington eleven years ago under the direction of Mr. Blaine, it was unanimously agreed that the Mexican government was the proper one to issue the invitations, and that its beautiful capital was the ideal place in which the representatives of allthe Americas should assemble. What- ever may be the outcome of the inter- national congress now in session in the City of Mexico, I am sure every one of its delegates will leave that country Tur NarionaL GeocrarHic MaGazine with a higher estimate of its govern- ment, its people, and its resources. MANUFACTURES AND MINING This paper is already so extended that a number of topics of importance can be only alluded to very briefly. The pro- tective system prevails in Mexico, the tariff on imports being regulated both with a view to securing revenue and to stimulate and protect domestic indus- tries. Under this system manufactures have shared largely in the general pros- perity of the country and have very greatly increased in production and va- riety, the chief attention being given to the manufacture of cotton fabrics. Mining has for three centuries been the leading industry of Mexico, its out- put of silver usually standing first in the world’s production of that metal. The new order of affairs has imparted fresh vigor to this industry, and a large amount of American capital has been invested in mining. The United States tariff on lead-bearing silver ores has also led to the establishment of large smelt- ing works in various localities, a com- paratively new industry in the country. In recent years the number of mines has greatly increased, the output of silver reaching near $70,000,000 annually, or over one-third of the total production of the world. Gold mining has had new development and is steadily increasing in its yield. Copper exists in various parts of the Republic, and the prevailing high price of late years has stimulated its production. The great want of the country in the mining industry is an abundant supply of good coal. Deposits have been found in the Rio Grande re- gion, but the supply as yet is entirely inadequate to the needs of the country, as fuel for locomotives, mining, and do- mestic uses is still high and scarce. AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES Agriculture stands next to mining as THe New Mexico 22 an industry, its total valuation being considerably greater, but its export value being less than the precious metals. Farming on a large scale has been quite profitable, the price of corn, the chief article of food of the masses, being usu- ally twice as high as in the United States, as it is protected by aheavy duty. The production of sugar, on large planta- tions, is also a profitable industry, but the yield is barely sufficient for the home consumption; and although pos- sessing a large area of sugar-producing lands, the country has as yet never been an exporter to any considerable extent. The most promising agricultural indus- try for development is coffee culture, there being vast areas well adapted for it, and its exportation has considerably increased of late years. Many of these lands have recently passed into the hands of American companies and citi- zens, and quite an impetus has been given to these enterprises, as well as others for the development of rubber. But most of these enterprises are still in the incipient stage, their permanent profit not yet having been fully demon- strated. EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ADVANCE- MENT Did time permit much might be said of the social advancement of the people under the Diaz regime. In the past twenty-five years special attention has been given by the Government to ed- ucational matters, particularly to the public primary schools, which are now maintained in every political district. Their infiuence and the general pros- perity are beginning to be felt in the elevation and intelligence of the masses. Newspapers are more widely circulated and read. ‘Twenty-five years ago the circulation of the most widely read newspaper scarcely reached 15,000 cop- ies, and that was regarded as phenom- enal. Newspapers today issue fifty to sixty thousand copies, and they are read largely by the common people. The wages of mechanics in the capital and along the lines of railway have in- creased fifty per cent, and the working classes live in greater comfort. As illustrative of the quickened moral standard of the people, a strong tem- perance movement has been organized in the City of Mexico and has extended to the other important cities. During my recent stay in the country, it was being visited by one of the officers of the Woman’s ‘Temperance Christian Union of the United States, and though it was quite unusual in that land for a woman to appear on the platform, this lady in her crusade against intemper- ance was received with enthusiasm, gratuitous use of the largest theaters was tendered her, she was introduced by the governors of states, and given free access to the public schools. For a generation past Mexico has oc- cupied the most advanced position of any of the Latin-American states re- specting religious toleration, absolute freedom of worship being guaranteed by the constitution and enforced by the government. The mass of the people are devout Catholics, but the present archbishop is a man of liberal views, and he has done much to reconcile the people to the new order which Juarez established after the long and bloody war against the clerical party. The Protestant movement at first evoked op- position and violent outbreaks, but all that has passed, and its propagandism is peacefully tolerated in all parts of the land. Compared with the Catholic Church, its adherents as yet are few in numbers, but it has exerted a marked influence on that church. The morals and education of its clergy have been raised. ‘he necessity of more preach- ing is recognized, pews are being intro- duced, the churches are cleaner and less 2 4 gaudy in their interior, and the political utility of some religious division among the people is seen. AMERICANS IN MEXICO I must not close this paper without a reference to the Americans in Mexico. From the beginning of the Republic our countrymen, owing to the proximity of its territory, have made investments in that country and embarked upon vari- ous enterprises ; but not until the reign of peace and order was assured by Pres- ident Diaz did they go there in large! numbers. They now constitute the largest foreign element in that country. The American colony in the City of Mexico is not only numerous, but pros- perous and well established. It sus- tains a well-equipped club, an excellent hospital, and has all the paraphernalia of a well-ordered society intent on get- ting the most out of life, such as golf links, base-ball, women’s clubs, after- noon teas, literary circles, etc. Ameri- cans have superintended the construc- tion and are now directing the operation of some of the leading rail- roads. ‘They have invested largely in mining, and colonies of American min- ers, numbering several hundred each, are to be found in different states. have purchased large tracts of land for the development of coffee, rubber, and other agricultural products. Millions of dollars of bonds of the federal, state, and city governments have been sold in the United States in the past ten years. Many stock companies have They) THe NarionaL GeocrapHic. MaGazINnE been organized in various cities of the Union to develop and carry on enter- prises in Mexico. Where the object and location of these companies have been judiciously chosen, and they are under experienced and prudent manage- ment, they are likely to prove success- ful, but money can be squandered in Mexico as readily as in other countries. Asa rule, the American residents in that country have found adequate pro- tection for their persons and business. Occasionally complaint is made to our Government or through the newspapers of injustice on the part of the courts or authorities, but when investigated the complaint is generally found to origi- nate either in a want of knowledge of the system of jurisprudence in force in that country (the civil law) or from an undue bumptiousness on the part of the American. Our citizens who volun- tarily go to Mexico should bear in mind that they are in a community of a dif- ferent race, language, religion, customs, and system of judicial procedure from ours, and if they adapt themselves to these changes they are quite unlikely to encounter embarrassment or trouble. Our countrymen, our capital and enter- prise, are welcomed by the government and the people, and there is a wide field for the exercise of our surplus capital and energy. ; Our political relations with the neigh- boring republic were never more cordial than they are today, and there is every prospect that the two nations will con- tinue to enjoy together the blessings of peace, prosperity, and independence. SIDYI_ I]foo “OVW “SO3D “LVN Z “1d ‘206 ‘INIX “OA COMMERCE OF MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES Byeellons OF} Re Awsrin, CHIEF oF Bureau or SraristTics, TREASURY DEPARTMENT OMMERCE between the United @ States and Mexico has made very rapid gains since the estab- lishment of rail communications be- tween the two countries. Prior to that time European countries,enjoyed a large share of the import trade of Mexico, the exports from France and the United Kingdom ranging from five to ten mill- ion dollars per annum each, and those from Spain averaging about one million dollars annually, and those of Germany less than a million dollars. With the construction of railways giving close communication between Mexico and the United States, shipments from the United States into Mexico rapidly in- creased and quickly outgrew those from European countries. In 1890 exports from the United States to Mexico were a little above thirteen million dollars, those from the United Kingdom and France each about ten millions, Germany three and a half millions, and Spain nearly two millions. As the railway lines from the United States extended farther into Mexico and the number of lines multiplied, the exports from the United States to that country grew to fifteen million dollars in 1895, twenty-three millions in 1897, twenty-five millions in 1899, thirty-four millions in 1900, and thirty-six millions in 1901. Meantime the exports from the United Kingdom to Mexico, which were $9, 794,000 in 1890, fell to $8,056,000 in 1895, and have in the last two years shown a slight reaction, being in 1900 $10,506,000. From France the exports, which in 1890 were $10,777,000, fell to $7,498,000 in 1895 and $7,060,133 in 1899. From Germany the exports to Mexico were in 1890 $3,544,000 and in 1899 $5,372,000; from Spain in 1890, $1,797,000 and in 1899 $1,891,000. Thus it will be seen that the United States has, since the creation of a satis- factory railway system connecting this country with Mexico, made much more rapid gains in her trade with that coun- try than any of the other parts of the world from which Mexico formerly ob- tained a large share of her imports. Exports from the United States to Mexico in 1900 were two and a half times as much as in 1890, while those from the United Kingdom show an in- crease of about 50 per cent, those from France a considerable decrease, those from Germany an increase of about 50 per cent, and those from Spain show little change. The United States now supplies considerably more than one- half of the imports of Mexico, and takes about one-third of her exports of mer- chandise, not including in this term her exports of precious metals, which nearly equal in value those of merchandise. ‘The principal imports into the United States from Mexico are sisal grass, used as a substitute for hemp in the manu- facture of ropes, twine, etc. ; coffee, copper, lead, hides and skins, and cattle. The imports of sisal grass in 1900 amounted to over eleven million dollars in value, having grown from a little more than four million dollars in 1891. Coffee imports into the United States from Mexico amounted in 1900 to a little over three million dollars; copper, including ore, three and a half millions ; 26 lead, two anda half millions ; hides and skins, one and a half millions, and cattle less than one million dollars in value. On the export side, manufactures of iron and steel are by far the largest item in our trade with Mexico. Steam-en- gines increased from less than a half million dollars in 1891 to more than one million in t900; machinery, from less than a million dollars in 1891 to more than five and one-half millions in 1900, and other manufactures of iron and steel, from two and a half millions in 1891 to more than seven millions in THe NationaL GeocrapHic MaGAazine a little more than a half million dollars. in 1891 to about two and a half millions in 1900; lumber, from less than a mill- ion dollars in 1891 to nearly two mill- ions in 1900 ; vegetable oils, from less than a hundred thousand dollars in 1891 to a million dollars in 1900; and chem- icals, drugs, medicines, etc., from less. than four hundred thousand dollars in 1891 to more than eight hundred thou- sand dollars in rgoo. The table which follows shows the commerce of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Spain with Mexico from 1881 down to the 1900, Coal and coke increased from latest available date: | UNICED STATES. UNITED KINGDOM. FRANCE. | GERMANY. SPAIN. | | i} ow Iiaports | Exports Imports | Exports Imports | Exports || Imports | Exports |) Imports | Exports § |into, from) from, to || into, from) from, to ||into, from) from, to |j/into, from | from, to ||/into, from} from, to S Mexico. | Mexico.* || Mexico. | Mexico. || Mexico. | Mexico. || Mexico. | Mexico. || Mexico. | Mexico. | Dollars. \ Dollars. Dollars.| Dollars.\| Dollars. | Dollars. Dollars. | Dollars. || Dollars. | Dollars. 1881.) 8,317,802 | 11,171,238 2,878,218 | 8,202,247 1,590,883 | 8,998,140 361,998 699,006 228,146 871,861 1882..! 8,461,899 | 15,482,582 2.818.531 | 9,526,252 1,797,737 | 10,119,841 309,400 823,004 240,4 6 | 1,077,079 1883 .| 8,177,123 | 16,587,620 3,546.485 | 7,884,956 1,537)337 | 9,791,092 497,420 823,718 || 211,929 | 1,231,029 1884..! 9,016,486 | 12,704,292 3,408,984 | 5,271,164. 1,011,378 | 6,574,365 || 872.984 878,696 160,423 891,811 1885..| 9,267,021 | 8.340,784 3,527,468 | 4,217,654 1,198,445 | 5,987,782 1,791,188 644,742 114,066 931,112 1885..| 10,687,972 | 7,737,623 2,877,497 | 4,883,252 1,025,098 | 7,583,221 | 1,788,332 986.510 192,253 | 1,043.810 18387..| 14.719,840 5959, 2,300,833 | 5,751,488 1,540,063 | 7,631,701 | 1,310,190 | 1,146,208 180,386 | 1,266,468 1888..| 17,329,889 2,215,070 | 6,683,432 1,655,085 | 8,471,374 || 1.750.728 | 1,616,020 50,788 } 1,344,885 1889..| 21,253,601 2,267.760 | 7,889,112 1,655,389 | 10,777,561 2 560,686 | 3.463.424 159.526 | 1,625,364 1890..| 22,690,915 2,642,407 | 9,794,133 1,326,657 | 10,681,834 2,608,718 | 3,543,820 84.975 | 1,797,487 ISQI..| 27,295,992 2,401,389 | 9,522,023 1,659,540 | 8,809,652 3.046, 400 200,007 | 1,509,521 192..| 28,107,525 | 14,293,999 || 2,2¢9,732 | 7,099,372 || 1,903,072 | 6,837,205 |) 3.554.054 112,150 | 1,433,075 1893..| 33,555,099 | 19,568,634 || 2,843,182 | 6,115,623 || 3,340,453 | 5.386,822 |) 3,000,446 166.949 | 1,250,786 1894..| 28.727,006 | 12,842,149 2,699,671 | 6,446,477 || 3,046,585 | 5,822,073 || 3,068,058 193,402 | 1,345,545 1895..| 15.635.788 | 15,005,906 2,274,266 | 8,056,622 2,265,482 | 7,498,579 2,844,100 336.793 | 1,476,952 1896..) 17,456,177 2,885,846 | 8,187,658 |} 3,029,884 | 6,390,245 3,338-618 7s 1,675,657 1897..| 18.511,572 2,890.185 | 8,427,986 3,389,514 | 5,123,488 |] 3,141,124 | 1,494,528 1898..| 19,004,863 1,285,204 | 9,332,350 2,233,273 | 5.842,496 || 3,555,006 2,085,398 1899..| 22,995,722 2,487,561 | 10,690,085 2,043,799 | 7,060,133 3,116,372 I900..| 28,646,053 2,297,883 | 10,506,357 ||--- ee 1901..| 28,851,635 oof foso | *Hxports from the United States to Mexico, defective, the value of goods exported over railways not being included prior to 1894. ARGENTINE-CHILE BOUNDARY DISPUTE N 1881, after years of bitter dis- | pute, Argentine and Chile signed a treaty defining, as they sup- posed, the boundary between the two republics. They alsoagreed to appoint an expert from each government to sur- vey the line according to the definition of this treaty, and to submit any points of difference which might arise between the two experts to a third party for final decision. Apparently this dispute, which had dragged on for forty years and more than once threatened war, was at last settled. In due time, in 1888, the experts were appointed by each government and set to work surveying and locating the boundary. Immediately, however, the Chilean expert began to interpret the wording of the treaty differently from his Argentine associate In the words of the treaty, the boundary was defined as follows: ‘‘’The boundary between the Argentine Republic and Chile from north to south as far as the parallel of 52° south is the Cordillera de los Andes. The frontier line shall run in that ex- tent along the most elevated crests of said Cordilleras that may divide the waters, and shall pass between the slopes which descend one side and the other.”’ ‘The Chilean expert proceeded to include within his line, as far as its source, every stream whose waters flowed westward. The Argentine expert, on the other hand, drew his line from summit to summit of the highest crests of the mountain range. In other words, the Chilean expert re- garded the water divide as the boundary, and the Argentine expert the line join- ing the highest crests of the Andes. It may be that the persons who drew up the treaty of 1881 believed that the water divide and the highest crests were synonymous, but such is often not the case. Repeatedly the Andes are cut by gorges, through which flow rivers rising from 25 to 100 miles east of the Andes. Chile asserts that these rivers and all the territory drained by them belongs to her, and the line as traced by her expert is most carefully drawn to include every spring or stream whose waters flow into these rivers. Argentine, on the other hand, asserts that only the territory to the west of the line drawn connecting the highest peaks belongs to Chile. In long stretches, of course, the crest of the range and the water divide is identical, but then the range will be cut by a river gorge. While the Argentine line skips to the next crest, the Chilean line will dip down to the valleys and often runs in between swamps, and then after a circuit of perhaps a hundred miles, more or less, will come back to the mountain crest. The differences between the two ex- perts were thus so great that the ques- tion was, in 1896, submitted to the British Government for arbitration. It was agreed by each government that until a decision was rendered neither country should take possession of the disputed territory. Great Britain ap- pointed arbitrators, but the years have dragged on and no decision has been rendered. During the past year the Argentine Government claims that Chile has been pushing roads across the moun- tains, building forts at strategic points, and so intrenching herself as to make her possession of the disputed territory certain in case hostilities should arise. ‘The energetic protests of the Argentine Republic against Chile’s action is the cause of the present rupture between the two governments. To better understand the dispute be- tween Chile and Argentine, we may instance the Alaska boundary dispute between Great Britain and the United States. For years the Alaska boundary 28 was unquestioned, but when certain ter- titory became of value, Great Britain raised the question of uncertainty and claimed a strip to which she held no title and had never claimed title. Inthesame way with Chile and Argentine. For thirty years the Cordillera de los Andes was the boundary acknowledged by both governments. Then in 1841 Chile sent a colonizing expedition to the Pen- insula of Brunswick, in the Straits of Magellan, and claimed the whole Ma- gellan territory. The Argentine Re- public protested, but was not sufficiently energetic to settle the question at once. Chile gained possession of a large part of what she then claimed, and the remainder of the claim is still in dis- pute. Encouraged by this success, Chile proceeded to claim territory at various points along her entire length which she had never claimed before, and justi- fied her conduct by her interpretation of the complex geographic conditions of the Andes. ‘These claims continually increased until at last war between the republics became imminent. It was averted, however, and the Argentine Republic, at least, thought that every- thing was settled satisfactorily by the treaty of 1881. ‘The ambiguous word- ing of that treaty, however, enabled RECENT DECISIONS THe Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGaZzINe Chile to claim even more than she had ever done before. The parts of the disputed boundary are three : 1. That relating to the region be- tween parallels 23° and 26° 52’ 45” lati- tude south. The territory in dispute here was a tract between two parallel ranges, Argentine claiming the west- ern and Chile the eastern range as the boundary. The dispute regarding this section became so bitter in 1899 that the United States Minister to Argentine, Mr. William H. Buchannan, was asked to act as arbitrator. He settled the difference by awarding to the Argentine Republic eleven-twelfths of the disputed territory in this region. 2. That relating to the boundary from parallel 26° 52’ 45’ to the prox- imity of parallel 52° latitude south. Sections of this boundary, where the water divide and the crests of the moun- tains coincide, have been settled by the two governments, but the larger dis- tance is still undefined. 3. That relating to the boundary region close to latitude 52° south. This is the region of the Magellan Strait, and the geographic conditions are most complex. Chile has, however, as pre- viously described, gained a large sec- tion of what she originally claimed. OP UW. Ss bOAR DEON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES HE following decisions have been recently made by the U. S. Board on Geographic Names : Afio Nuevo; bay, creeks, island, and point, San Mateo County, Califor- nia (not New Year). Aultmans; run, tributary to Cone- maugh River, Indiana County, Pennsylvania (not Alteman nor Altman’s). Barren ; run, tributary to Jacobs Creek, Westmoreland County, Pennsylva- nia (not Barnes). Bentley; post-office and railroad station, Baltimore County, Maryland (not Bentley Springs). Bonnie Doon; post-office, Santa Cruz County, California (not Bonny Doon). U.S. Boarp on GeocraPHic NAMES Bowlems ; creek and mountain, Yancey County, North Carolina (not Bo- lens). Brockatonorton ; bay, in Chincoteague Bay, Worcester County, Maryland (not Bockatonorton nor Parkers). Bynum; post-office, railroad station, and run, Harford County, Maryland (not Binum, Bimans, Bynhams, ete. )). Calabazas ; creek, tributary to Sonoma Creek, Sonoma County, California (not Calabezas nor Calebezas). Calabazas is Spanish for pumpkin, cal- abash, etc. Cascade Springs; post village, Fall River County, South Dakota (not Cascade). Chikasanoxee ; creek, tributary to Tal- lapoosa River, Chambers County, Alabama (not Chickasonoxie, etc. ). Cohobadiah ; creek, tributary to the Lit- tle Tallapoosa, Gleburne and Ran- dolph Counties, Alabama (not Co- habadia nor Hobadijah). Craigville ; post-office and railroad sta- tion, Orange County, New York (not Craigsville). Cutnose ; creek, tributary to the Little Tallapoosa, Randolph County, Ala- bama (not Cutnoe nor Cut Nose). Donohoe; railroad station, Westmore- land County, Pennsylvania (not Donahoe nor Donohue). Doves; cove, in Bush River, Harford County, Maryland (not Dove nor Dove's). Edmondson; mountain, McDowell County, North Carolina (not Ed- monson nor Edmundson). Gillespie; creek, Ohio County, West Virginia (not Gillaspies, Glasby, nor Glyspie). Greys; creek, tributary to Assawoman Bay, Worcester County, Maryland (not Gray’s, Grey’s, nor Rileys). Griers; hollow, Franklin County, Penn- sylvania (not Greer, Greers, etc. ). Honeygo; run, branch of Whitemarsh Run, Baltimore County, Maryland not Herring nor Horning). Ag) La Purisima Concepcion; land grant, Santa Clara County, California (not Ta Purissima Concepcion). Lauderick ; creek, tributary to Bush River, Harford County, Maryland (not Loderick, Luckwick, nor Lud- wig). Lemaster ; post-office and railroad sta- tion, Franklin County, Pennsylva- nia (not Lehmasters nor Lemas- ters). Little Falls ; city and township, Herki- mer County, New York (not Little- falls). Lobitos; creek, San Mateo County, California (not Lobatos, Lobitas, nor Lobitus). Matamoros ; town, near mouth of Rio Grande, State of Tamaulipas, Mex- ico (not Matamoras). New Windsor ; village, post-office, and railroad station, Weld County, Colorado (not Windsor). Nicks; creek, tributary to Catawba River, McDowell County, North Carolina (not Nix). Outward Tump ; island, Chincoteague Bay, Worcester County, Maryland (not West Clump). Palomar ; mountain, in northern part of San Diego County, California (not Smith). Parnell ; knob, at south end of North Mountain, Franklin County, Penn- sylvania (not Parnel). Phillipston ; post-office and railroad sta- tion, Clarion County, Pennsylvania (not Philipston). Pilarcitos; canyon, creek, and lake, near Pillar Point, San Mateo County, California (not Pillarcitos). Pit ; river, tributary to the Sacramento River in northern California (not Pitt). This name, applied as early as 1850, is thus explained in Pacific Railroad Report, vol. VI, p. 64: “We passed many pits about six feet deep and lightly covered with twigs and grass. The river derives its name from these pits, which are dug by the Indians to entrap game. On this account Lieu- tenant Williamson always spelled the name with a single t.’’ 30 Plum; creek, tributary to Cheyenne River, Fall River County, South Dakota (not Plumb). Price; creek, Yancey County, North Carolina (not Price’s). Price Creek ; post-office and township, Yancey County, North Carolina (not Price’s Creek). ; Purisima; creek and post-office, San Mateo County; California (not Pu- rissima). Putah; ‘creek and township, Yolo County, California (not Puta). Ramsaytown ; post-office and township, Yancey County, North Carolina (not Ramseytown). Reddens ; run, Indiana County, Penn- sylvania (not Bedding). Reems; creek, Buncombe County, North Carolina (not Reams, Reem, nor Rims). This is a reversal of the decision Reem, made January 9, 1901, and published on page 87, no. 2, vol. xii, of this Magazine. Robins; creek and marsh, Chincoteague Bay, Worcester County, Maryland (not Robbins, Robin’s, nor Robin). This is a reversal of the decision Robin, made in May, Igor. Robins ; point, the end of Gunpowder Neck, Harford County, Maryland (not Robbins nor Robin). Salisbury; township, Lehigh County, Pennsylvania (not Salsberg, Sals- burg, nor Salsbury). Sankaty; head or bluff, at east end of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts (not Sancoty, Squam, nor Swe- seckechi). Stansbury ; creek, branch of Middle River, Baltimore County, Maryland (not Stansberry ). Stansbury ; point, Back River, Balti- more County, Maryland (not Stans- berry). THe Nationa GeocraPHic MaGAZziINE Stickel; hollow, Perry township, Fay- ette County, Pennsylvania (not Stickle). Swaderick; creek, tributary to Gun- powder River, Harford County, Maryland (not Sundricks, Lauder- ick, nor Ludowick). Teays; post-office and valley, Putnam County, West Virginia (not Teayes, Teayse, nor Teazes). Two Lick; creek, post-office, and rail- road station, Indiana County, Penn- sylvania (not Two-Licks, Twolick, Ewe, )). Vailsgate ; post-office and railroad sta- tion, Orange County, New York (not Vailgate nor Vail’s Tollgate). Vieques; island off eastern end of Porto Rico, West Indies (not Biequi, Crab, Viequez, etc.). Walker; post-office and railroad sta- tion, Baltimore County, Maryland (not Walkers Station nor Walkers Switch). Watson; creek, on east side of Gun- powder River, Harford County, Maryland (not Waterson, Water- ton, nor Watsons). Weisenberg; post-office and township, Lehigh County, Penrisylvania (not Weissenburg, etc. ). Welsh ; post-office and railroad station, Chambers County, Alabama (not Welch). Wharton; creek, Madison County, Ar- kansas (not Warton’s nor Whor- ton). Wharton Creek; township, Madison County, Arkansas (not Whorton Creek). Whites; run, Indiana County, Penn- sylvania (not Whites Spring). Yeates; mountain, Yancey and Madi- son Counties, North Carolina (not Yates). GEOGRAPHIC NOTES HON. JOHN W. FOSTER ON MEXICO HE phenomenal economic and social progress of Mexico during the last twenty-five years is clearly de- scribed by Mr. Foster in the leading ar- ticle of this number. No man living is so well fitted to contrast the new Mex- ico with the Mexico of twenty-five years ago. General Foster began his diplo- matic career as Minister to this Republic in 1873, and for seven years represented the United States. After an interim of twenty years, during which he was Minister to Russia, to Spain, and Secre- tary of State, he again visited Mexico, this time as the guest of the nation. The present prosperity of the young Republic impressed him on every side. MAP OF THE PHILIPPINES HROUGH the courtesy of Gen. A. W. Greely, the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE is able to pub- lish as a supplement to this number the magnificent map of the Philippines pre- pared under his direction by the U. S. Signal Office. Every town or hamlet known by the Jesuits or reported to the War Depart- ment by its many officers throughout the islands is indicated on the map. It is a compilation of everything now known about the Philippine Archipel- ago. Sheet I gives the Northern Phil- ippines and Sheet II the Southern Phil- ippines, as officially divided by the United States Government. A glance at the map shows how much exploration is needed in large sections. For instance, on the Island of Mindoro only a few names along the coast are given. ‘The interior of the island is a blank. The tremendous progress made by the American Government in the islands is graphically illustrated by the red lines, indicating cables, telegraphs, and telephones, which penetrate to nearly all corners of the archipelago. Nearly seven thousand miles of wire are now strung, whereas three years ago there was not one mile in service. All the telegraph lines are owned by the Government and operated by a Goy- ernment department—the United States Signal Corps. The stations noted as commercial stations are open to messages of a private and commercial character, while from the stations noted as military only messages of a military nature can be sent. This map is the first map of the Phil- ippines that has been prepared by Amer- ican officials. ‘The spelling of the names is that adopted by the United States Board on Geographic Names. It may not be inappropriate to re- mark that the War Department printed an edition of only 4oo. ‘The demands of the army posts in the Philippines and in the United States exhausted nearly the entire edition, so that only a few remain for public distribution. The National Geographic Society was, how- ever, granted the use of the plate and has printed a large edition, so that each of its members may receive a copy of what is really the only up-to-date pres- entation of all that is now known of the geography of these islands. GOLD MINING CONCESSION FOR NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA HE expedition of geologists re- cently sent out to the Chukches Peninsula by Von Larlarski, who owns the concession for gold mining in that region, report that the geological forma- tion of the peninsula is like that of Cape Nome opposite, and that much gold is to be found there. The Russian Gov- ernment has been much criticised by the 32 newspapers for granting an exclusive concession to one individual. The criti- cism has, in fact, been so bitter that the government has been obliged to publish a three-column official defense of its action. It states that a concession was the only means of protecting the rich district from being invaded by American prospectors. ‘The country is so far dis- tant and so large that it is impossible to send troops there, but a strong Russian syndicate, for its own interests, would defend the property and keep out Ameri- can and foreign gold-hunters. There is probably little truth in the report that Senator Clark or any Ameri- can capitalist has been granted conces- sions for mining in any part of Siberia. By law all gold mined in Siberia and Russia must be sold to the government, which buysit at the ruling rates. It is a criminal offense to sell to any one else. RAILWAYS OF THE WORLD LARGER addition was made to the railway mileage of the United States in 1901 than in any preceding year since 1890. ‘The steam railways of the United States now aggregate about 200,000 miles, and those of the entire world nearly 500,000 miles. Fig- ures published by the Treasury Bureau of Statistics give the number of miles of railway in operation in the United States at the end of 1900 as 194,321, and add- ing to this the 5,057 miles built in 1gor brings the grand total for the United States to 199,378 miles. This does not include railways operated by electricity, of which the mileage, exclusive of street and suburban roads, is now con- siderable and rapidly increasing. The total miles now open for traffic in the entire world are estimated at 484,348, of which 220,657 miles are in North America, 168,605 in Europe, 35,580 miles in Asia, 28,364 in South America, 15,860 in Africa, and 15,282 Tue Narionat GrocrRaPpHic MAGAZINE milesin Australasia. The United States stands first, with 199,378 miles. Rus- sia: has 34,852; the German Empire, 31,934; Hrance, 26,613; India, 25/035- Austria-Hungary, 22,919; Great Britain and Ireland, 21,700; Canada, 17,657; British Australasia, 15,266; Argentina, 10,419; Italy, 9,810; Mexico, 9,603; Brazil, 8,718, and Spain, 8,300 miles. Of the half a million miles of railway in the world, the Bureau of Statistics estimates that about one-third are owned. by the governments of the country in which they are located. About nine- tenths of the railways of Germany are owned by the national or state govern- ments ; about two-thirds of those of Russia are owned by the government, and nearly one-half of those of Austria- Hungary are also owned by the gov- ernment. A large proportion of the railways of France will become the property of the government about the middle of the present century. In Italy nearly all of the railroads are owned by the government, but are operated ‘by private companies which lease the lines from the government. In Australasia nearly all of the railways are owned by the governments of the various colonies, and in India a large proportion of the 25,035 miles in operation is owned or guaranteed by the Indian Government. EMIGRATION FROM SIBERIA UCH is being written about the many thousands constantly pour- ing into Siberia, but little is heard in America of the great numbers who are compelled to return to Russia, having been unable to establish themselves in Siberia. The Russian papers during the past year have been severely criticis- ing the arrangements of the government for persons seeking to colonize Siberia. It has been frequently stated in these papers that from 35 to 50 per cent of Russians entering Siberia have returned GerocraPHic Nores within a few months, unsuccessful. In self-defense the Russian Government has therefore published figures showing the number of persons entering and leav- ing Siberia during the first nine months of 1901. During this period 77,774 immigrants entered Siberia, and of these 25 per cent, or 19,728, returned within a short time. The reason of such a large proportion as one-fourth returning is explained as fol- lows: During the past two years the crops have failed each season. Of the 19,000 who returned between January 1 and September 20, 1901, 16,000 had come from the grain provinces of Russia. Secondly, the steppe lands of Siberia along the railway are almost entirely taken up and only the forest lands re- main. But the majority of the immi- grants are from the steppe lands of Rus- sia and, being unused to clearing forest lands, soon became discouraged and re- turned. The Russian Ice-breaking Steamer Yermak, under command of her de- signer, Vice-Admiral Makarof, has re- turned in safety to Cronstadt, after a cruise of three or four months in the Arctic seas. In a review of the sum- mer’s work of the steamer, the Cronstadt Messenger says that she completed an accurate survey of the western coast of Nova Zembla from Sukhoi Nos to the Admiralty Peninsula, and made five voy- ages back and forth between Nova Zembla and Franz Josef Land. The scientists who accompanied Ad- miral Makarof made interesting and important soundings and observations in all that part of the Arctic Ocean, and brought back 525 jars of zoological spec- imens obtained by means of the dredge and the sounding line, as well as large collections of flowers, minerals, and diatoms from the Arctic lands visited and explored. In the heavy ice north- west of Nova Zembla and off the coast of Franz Josef Land the Yermak made her way without difficulty, 36 The Foreign Population of the United States. —The Census Office has just pub- lished the number which each country of the world has contributed to our for- eign-born population. ‘The five nations having the largest representation are the same as in 1890, though the first three, Germany, Ireland, and England, show a large falling off. Italy is now in the sixth place, succeeding Scotland, which was sixth ten years ago. The following table shows the representation of each country : 1900, | Exclusive Country of birth. of Alaska} 1890. |Increase. and Hawaii. Total foreign born... 10,356,664 | 9,249,547 | 1,107,117 Germany... 2,666,990 | 2,754,894 117,904* Ireland... 1,618,567 | 1,871,509 252,942* England.. aces $41,967 908,141 66,174* Canada (English) 785,958 678,442 | 107,516 573,040 | 478,041 94.999 484,207 182,580 301,627 424,096 | 182,644 | 241,452 395,297 | 302,496 | 92, 80z Poland.... 383,510 147.440 236,070 Norway .. 336,985 322,665 14,320 Austria 276,249 123,271 152,978 Scotland.. 233.977 242,231 8,254* Bohemia.. | 156,991 118,106 38,885 Denmark | 154.284 132,543 21,741 Hungary.... fs . Foreign Secretary BOARD OF MANAGERS 1898-1901 1899-1902 1900-1903, A. GRAHAM BELL CHARLES J. BELL Marcus BAKER HENRY GANNETT Wo. M. Davis HENRY F. BLounrT A. W. GREELY GEORGE DaviIDSON ' F. V. CoviLLe ANGELO HEILPRIN G. K. GILBERT D. C. GILMAN RUSSELL HINMAN A. J. HENRY S. H. KAUFFMANN JOHN HyDE DAVID J. HILL WILLIS L. Moore W J McGEE C. Hart MERRIAM W. B. POWELL GIFFORD PINCHOT JOHN Joy Epson R. D. 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Rh tee NSF EN We SR! < ee i _ , es ‘ ‘ Re eee Fy fe he : ret ye elt ete Be ¢ : 4 ridin 2 DS PR x Ley ts, : ve ~ Gk be Oe ty ae Rieti pt tee oo Pate apr be x Ce Bete ey eae ee Red SN LP ee oF pee ONS se ae a EEN lk SS ee ROS Be fk a Miata go SURI «Sa eet I ee ale A) ER aa ho Se ae ee ty Pe oe Mii oes ee “Sree 5 oe > THE. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZIN Vol XIII FEBRUARY, 1902 No.2 CONTENTS A TRIP THROUGH SIBERIA. ILLUSTRATED. BY EBENEZER paax J. HILL, MEMBER OF CONGRESS FROM CONNECTICUT Se ag a THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY. BY RALPH S. TARR, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN . CORNELL UNIVERSITY te Re pda is Sa Five ee , er THE LATEST ROUTE PROPOSED FOR THE ISTHMIAN CANAL—THE MANDINGO ROUTE. WITH - MAP ; ww MROGGRAPHIC NOTES... 2 he Pe ©" GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE .. i NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY McCLURE, PHILLIPS & CO, NEW YORK 25 Cents a Number . Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. 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Foreign Secretary 1900-1902 CHARLES J. BELL GEORGE DAVIDSON WM. M. DAVIS JOHN JOY EDSON G. K. GILBERT A. J. HENRY DAVID J. HILL Cc. HART MERRIAM BOARD OF MANAGERS 1904-1903 1902-1904 MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT F. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY D. C. GILMAN ANGELO HEILPRIN S. H. KAUFFMANN RUSSELL HINMAN WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE W. B. POWELL GIFFORD PINCHOT R. D. SALISBURY O. H. TITTMANN The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charge to all members of the National Geographic Society Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for membership Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary DvuES: Annual membership, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be enclosed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if at a distance from Washington, remit by New York draft or post-office money-order. Wilks LOUD INI. 2 a AX TIWIRIUE” WER OWGIS! SIUBIEIR ILE WASHINGTON GEOGRAPHIC MAGA ZIUNIE FEBRUARY, oe 1902 By EBenezer J. Hitt, Member oF CONGRESS FROM CONNECTICUT present year to make a trip around the world, starting from New York and journeying westward until I again reached New York, five months and fifteen days later. ‘The route was through Hawaii, Guam, the Philip- pines, China, Japan, Korea, and by the Amur River and ‘Trans-Siberian Railroad across Asia into Europe. It is of this latter portion of the trip that I have been requested by your Society to give some reminiscences, supplemented by views of the country, both mental and photographic. Its his- tory can be quickly told, for it illus- trates the Russian saying that “‘ ¢he empire only goes where the Cossack can march dryshod.”’ THE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF THE AMUR VALLEY AND MANCHURIA I: has been my pleasure during the Its conquest was begun in 1580 by a robber chief named Yermak, who crossed the Urals and, defeating the ‘Tatars, gave their lands as his own peace offer- ing to the Russian Emperor, Ivan the Terrible. For sixty years the Cossacks fought their way eastward until they reached the Okhotsk Sea, easily routing the scattered tribes of the northern country; but it was not until 1650 that Khabarovsk, a Russian farmer, led them into the Amur Valley. His memory has been perpetuated in the name of the flourishing city which stands today at ‘the junction of the Amur and Usuri Rivers. The Manchus were a warlike people, and the Black Dragon River, as they called the Amur, was their north- ern boundary. After a contest which continued forty years, they drove the Russians back and held undisputed pos- session for a hundred and sixty-six years, until 1854, when General Muravieff no- tified China that, with or without her consent, he proposed to resume control of the Amur River. In 1855 he reés- tablished the Cossack stations its entire length, and in 1860, by the treaty of Aigun, this splendid valley of a river navigable for two thousand miles, and with it the whole Pacific coast of Man- churia, reaching westward to the Usuri River and southward to Korea, was given up to Russia without a struggle. That one accession made Siberia what it is today. Without it, it was *An address before the National Geographic Society, December 20, 1go1. Tue Narronat GeocrapHic MaGaZzIneE QSt Petersburg R (U / Ss ¢ VU Permo / Vy Ekaterinburg Moscowh s rN 6Tobol sk offiuen Zlatousto p SS 1B f ~oOfenbiirg, SF ) C Waker Bi St Sem palatinsk aa 3 f Ba" Wa) ) oS ZF Chita . L Irkutsky4 O=Pberchinsk\'Blagovestchen: feds 2 5 < NG = ~ae we “SOK iakhya — URE EMPIRE A Y Viadfrostoky Pekin Q Port Artda ri = Sketch Map of Siberian Railway and would have remained a trackless waste. With it, it will be an empire which within a century will exercise more influence in the world’s affairs than European Russia ever has, for it is sure to be the dominant power in the Orient, where half the population of the world is found, and it is not impossible that in some distant future the United States of North America may clasp hands across the Pacific with the United States of Northern Asia. In the public park in Khabarovsk, on a high bluff overlooking the Amur and Usuri Valleys, there stands a splendid statue of General Muravieff. His back is turned upon the conquests of the past and he is looking a¢ and pointing foward Manchuria. As I sat and gazed at it and thought of the events of the past two years, I fancied I could see the bronze eyes twinkle and the lips move with a shout of triumph, for the Cossack has marched again, and by fire and sword almost to the Chinese wall, has established Rus- sian control over all Manchuria. ITS VASTNESS Few people realize the immensity of Siberia, for it is impossible for the mind to grasp the meaning of five million five hundred thousand square miles. To think of asingle state stretching through one hundred and thirty degrees of longi- tude and covering thirty-two degrees of latitude and equalling one-ninth of the land surface of the globe is almost in- conceivable. Let us measure it by countries with which we are familiar. ‘Take all of the United States between the oceans and add Alaska, the Philippines, Hawaii, and Porto Rico; then add England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales; then cross the English Channel and take France, Bel- gium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, Austria, Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Ser- via, making all of Europe except Russia, and you could put them a// in Siberia and have land enough left to make thirty-five states like Connecticut, and Manchuria will make seventy more. SURPRISES I had thought of Siberia as a convict settlement only, with a small population composed largely of criminals and polit- ical exiles. JI found it a country of nearly nine million people, 97 per cent of whom were either natives or volun- tary immigrants, with the exile system discontinued or transferred to the island of Sakhalin, and all, as a rule, earning better wages, living in better houses, having better food and clothing, and enjoying much more political and re- ligious liberty and personal freedom A Terre THRouGH SIBERIA than in European Russia, and indeed in some other Euro- pean countries in whose behalf our sympathies have not been evoked. I had believed it to be a frozen wilderness and a desert waste. The portion through which I traveled was-a land like Minnesota, the Dakotas, and the foothills of the Rockies, where wheat and rye and vege- tables matured ; where straw- berries, currants, and rasp- berries abound; where sheep, horses, and cattle graze unshel- tered throughout the year, and where a greater extent of virgin forest of splendid birch and pine is found than the whole area of the United States. I was told, and I believe it is true, that straight through from the Kingan Mountains to the Urals for about 400 miles north of the Trans-Siberian Road like conditions prevailed, and north of this tillable land was 400 miles more of un- broken forest before the frozen tundra or Arctic waste was reached. I expected to find in every town a convict prison full of exiles and crim- inals. With the exception of two con- vict barges floating down the Amur on their way to Sakhalin, I saw no trace of the system, but I did see in every town and village, no matter how small or humble, the dome of a Russian church, and in the larger cities Catho- lic and Lutheran churches as well. I had been told that Russian officials were peculiarly susceptible to tips and fees, and of course expected to be fit plunder for hotel- keepers, porters, and all others with whom a traveler comes in contact ; but after a somewhat exten- sive experience in most of what we call the civilized countries of the world, I want to record as my opinion that no- where have I had so courteous treat- ment, so generous assistance, and so A Steamer Landing on the Amur hearty welcome as in Siberia, both from the officials and civilians as well. I do not think that this was exceptional in my case, but that any American traveler ‘with proper credentials and without a mission to reconstruct the government and reform all of its abuses at once. would have the same experience. I was cautioned to be an American : and nothing else in Russia, and while I did not need the advice, I followed it and found in doing so that as a nation ; and as individuals,we had the confidence, ; respect, and regard of all. But the greatest surprise to me was the country itself, so wholly unlike what | I had expected, and since I have returned , to my home and read the descriptions of , it, written before the railroad was built, I have wondered whether I could have - been mistaken in my judgment of it. NOTES ON THE GENERAL, GEOG- RAPHY OF SIBERIA It was my practice daily to jot down notes of the physical geography and 40 general appearance of the country through which we passed, not as a con- nected diary, but as bench-marks, so to speak, for future reference. Let me read them to you, that you may judge for yourselves what Siberia is along the line of the Trans-Siberian Railway and in the Amur Valley. Arrived at Vladivostok July, 2, rgor. Left Vladivostok 9 a. m., July. 4. Very soon after leaving Amur Bay the road enters the ‘valley of a.river, and, judg- ing by the soil, grass, and flowers, we seem to be transported into a rich river valley of: our own West. Here and there is an apparently thriving village, and prosperous farms are intermingled | with virgin prairie. A great change has evidently come here from Russian occupation. As we go north the coun- try improves; magnificent stretches of well-watered prairie, wheat farms, large herds of cattle, and fine grass. The depots are well-built, pretty wooden cot- tages, and in each town, on the highest point, the domes of the Russian churches are seen. A Woodyard on the Amur River ~and-seems like a great lake. Tue NationaL GrocrapHic MaGaAzINe Friday, July 5.—The country has changed, and we are in the timber. Birch shows where pine has been cut off, and the hills in the distance indicate heavy timber. A train composed almost wholly of cars loaded with 3 x 10 white pine tells of pine trees somewhere, and gnats and mosquitoes and flies tell of timber. It is getting very warm, and summer clothes will be in order. At 4.30 Khabarovsk came in sight. The city here is to be fine. It is evidently new. Thestreets are wide and straight. It spreads over high bluffs, from which one looks down on the Amur River, which is a mile and a half wide here. Saturday, July 6.—VLeft Khabarovsk at 6.30 p. m. Sunday, July 7,—Mosquitoes and flies abound. The Amur is a wonderful river. It is more than a mile wide Thus far it flows through a prairie country and splendid tillable land, which will some day raise the world’s wheat sup- ply; Russia on the north bank, China on the south. Russia holds Manchuria and will never let it go. The country is a splendid one. Mountains are occasionally seen in the distance, but here all is prairie, and the river banks show at least ten feet of soil. Monday, July 8.—Surround- . ings similar to those of yes- terday. Occasionally, but rarely, we pass a small settle- ment. All through the after- noon and evening we were passing through the Kingan Mountains. Here they are a series of hills 500 to 800 feet high. The scenery is fine, the mountains coming boldly down to the river. I am reminded of the Fraser River, especially when we come to a mining camp, where the Russians first attacked the Chinese and drove them out. Tuesday, July 9.—This morn- ing we are out of the mountains A Trip and in an alluvial country again. The river still holds its great width. Wednesday and Thursday, July ro and rr.—Surroundings similar to foregoing. Friday, July r2.—Reached Blagovestchensk ; city a fine one; good buildings, wide streets, and excellent stores. Saturday, July r3.—Left Bla- govestchensk at 8 p. m. Sunday, July rg.—Evening. The banks are again steep, and low mountains appear on both sides of the river. The cur- rent runs very swiftly. Monday, July 15.—Noon: Mountains bordering river on the south side, prairie on the north. Evening: Mountains change to the north side. Tuesday, July r6.—The enor- mous horseflies, fully an inch long, have been exceedingly annoying all day. Wednesday, July 77.—The most in- teresting thing in natural scenery has appeared today—the so-called White or Tsaigon Mountains. ‘They are uneven hills of sand rock, at least 500 feet high, bordering the river, and continually breaking off and wearing away. ‘They show the strata, and layers are seen which seem to be on fire. ‘The smoke is visible at points in the daytime, and it is said that fire is seen at night. I think that instead of being burning coal, as claimed, it is discoloration from hot springs, which exude vapor like the mud springs of the Yellowstone. Flies and mosquitoes abound. Thursday and Friday, July 78 and ro. —River very shallow and progress slow. Smoke from burning forests somewhere, very dense, compelling us to stop. Sunday, July 2r7.—Reached Albasin and Reinovo. Monday, July 22.—Day delightfully cool. Thescenery,whilenotremarkable, has been more attractive than before. THROUGH SIBERIA Stuck on the Amur Tuesday, July 23.—Reached Povrosk, the junction of the Shilka and Aigun Rivers. ‘The character of the country thus far can be somewhat judged by the fact that though we have sailed the Amur 1,200 miles nearly, we have not seen a single waterfall on either bank. Evening : The Shilka thus far prom- ises to be much more picturesque than the Amur, the mountains higher and banks bolder. The river runs in a single course between high banks, the views are far-reaching and the moun- tains, though not grand, are beautiful. Wednesday, July 24.—The scenery still continues pretty, but not what would be considered grand or magnifi- cent. Thursday, July 25.—Fenced land and here and there a good farm can be seen. We are evidently approaching a more settled country. The scenery has been good today, and all indications have been those of a good hill-farm section. Friday, July 26.—Arrived at Stre- tensk at 12.30. It isa small place of 42 THe Nationat GrocrapHic MaGaZzine Monday, July 29.—Weather very cold this morning. We are in the western foothills, and the water in the little river by the side of which the track runs is flowing westward to Lake Baikal. The soil is light and sandy, and the prevailing trees are pine. Later we come into the country of the Buriats, a pastoral people, formerly Mongols, with the Chinese fea- tures, queue, and dress, except that they wear round hats with turned-up brims. The coun- try here is fine. Tuesday, July 30.—Arrived at Lake Baikal. Weather rainy and lake rough. Itisa large body of water, said to be about 50 miles wide and 400 miles long, and very deep, in some places 4,500 feet. Asfaras we Immigrants Waiting for the Amur to Rise could see, the shores are bold and rocky. Reached Irkutsk, two or three thousand people, and is the head of steamboat navigation. Pleasantly loca- ted, it has all the appearance of one of our frontier towns. Saturday, July 27.—There was a sharp frost this morning. I am told that the thermometer shows 60 to 70 degrees below zero here in the winter. Left Stretensk by rail at 9.45 a. m.; have been riding all day up the valley of the Shilka and then the Ingoda. The views are very pretty, the country a superb one now ; fine farms, ex- cellent cattleand many of them, and good grazing. Everything looks like June here. Sunday, July 28.—All day we have been passing through a fine country, with frequent villages, good-looking farms, and one city, Chita, a place of 22,000 people. Will enter the Yablonoi Mountains tonight. Milk and Bread Sellers on the Amur A ‘Trip THRouGH SIBERIA 4.3 40 miles west of the lake, at 12 midnight. Itisacity of 35,000 people. It is situated on both sidesof the Angara River, which flows out of Lake Baikal, and apparently is in a flat country. Friday, August 2.—\eft Ir- kutsk at midnight. Saturday, August 3.—We have been riding all day through a splendid prairie country with just grade enough for good drainage. White birch on both sides of the track and dense pine forests a little distanceaway. Here and there a small farm, now and then a river—the paradise of farmers and cattle-raisers. The forests are clean, no underbrush, but grass and ferns carpeting the ground under the trees. Sunday, dugust g.—Country still continues fine. Undulat- Immigrants on the Amur ing prairie as faras the eye can reach, with plenty of timber scattered about. I am _ sur- prised at the extent of cultiva- tion out here and the frequency and size of towns. ‘The soil seems very fertile, and grain looks well. Monday, August 5.—Early this morning we came to Omsk, and, crossing a long bridge over the River Ob, we came into a flat prairie country. ‘The soil is rich, the grass good; few trees, and these small, more like bushes. It is magnificent farm land. Every little while we see a herd of horses, cattle, and sheep grazing, and a Tatar boy sitting on horseback and keep- ing them together. The towns are larger than before, but less frequent. ‘Thisis genuine prai- rie country. } : Wednesday, August 7.—Same Bank of the Amur Showing the Fertile Soil as yesterday, only apparently 44 more fertile. Not much cultivation but more grazing. This is the country of the Kirghiz. They are cattle-raisers. The prairie is splendid, as good as I ever saw. Lakes and large ponds abound, and in the absence of rivers receive the drainage. Thursday, August 8.—Awakened this morning early by the tug of the cars on the upgrade, and, going out, found that we were climbing the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains. An occasional An Oikburning Locomotive on the Siberian Railroad « pretty view rewarded me for my early rising. The Urals here are about like the Berkshire Hills. Grass is cut al- most to the top. The passage is not difficult. We are now in Europe, hav- ing passed the boundary post in the night. ‘The Administrative boundary is some 200 miles eastward of Kurgan, where, officially, Siberia begins. All the morning we were running down the valleys, with an occasional pretty, far- reaching view. There is nothing spe- Tue NationaL GreocrapHic MacaZzINne cially attractive about the scenery. In the afternoon we came into a splendid farming country, with the peasant vil- lages and large estates; splendid farms, wretched huts; wealth for the land- owner, misery and dire poverty for the land-worker. The density of popula- tion is much more apparent. Friday, August 9.—Today we are in a country of no wood. As far as the eye can reach, the steppe is brown and bare after the harvest. The villages are numerous, but so dry every- where, and apparently dire poy- erty. The houses are hardly distinguishable from the grain stacks. Roofs of straw, and often mud walls, characterize the houses. Bricks of peat, piled in pyramids drying in the sun, constitute the fuel for the winter. : JVoon.—Have just crossed the Volga, a magnificent river. Later we suddenly ran into a low, swampy section of coun- try and at once splendid tall pine trees appeared and the rest of the day the woods prevailed. Saturday, August r0.—To- day the country is better and more diversified. Apparently few people live outside of the towns and peasant villages.. Vast tracts are farmed, enor- mous herds of cattle roam the grazing land, but the man be- hind the hoe is in poverty and hunger. We arrived at Moscow at 7 p. m. RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT Whatever I have given of description of Siberia may be applied in added de- gree to Manchuria, which is now and hereafter will be a part of Asiatic Rus- sia. I say in added degree, because of its more southern location and con- sequent milder winter climate. Both countries possess a fertile soil, abundant A Trip THrRouGH SIBERIA timber, navigable water-courses, coal, iron, copper, gold—indeed all of the re- sources which properly developed tend to make a nation great and prosperous. Into and through such a country the Russian Empire has built a rail- road which is as marvelous as the coun- try through which it goes. Undoubt- edly planned as a military road, its freight and passenger traffic has so enor- mously increased that there is no longer a question of its present and future financial success. From its be- ginning a steadily increasing tide of immigration has flowed into Siberia, not only by rail from central and northern Eu- ropean Russia, but by means of the Russian volunteer fleet through the Suez Canal and the Pacific ports until Vladi- vostok, which forty years ago consisted of four Chinese fish- ermen’s huts, is now a flourish- ing city of fifty thousand souls, and Khabarovsk and Blago- vestchensk are not far behind in wealth or population. At first a Cossack occupation at strategic points, then an as- sisted immigration of the for- mer serfs, now an eager and enthusiastic search for wealth in the fertile soil and rich min- eral resources of a new country. To each family moving into the Amur and maritime provinces an allotment of 269 acres of land is made, and into the central and western provinces forty acres for each male im- migrant, with certain tax exemptions and lessening of military service in both cases. ‘The fare to incoming settlers is preposterously low, being about twelve dollars for 4,500 miles. At frequent intervals hospitals, bar- racks, and dining stations are erected, where medical attendance is given free, where children and sick persons are fed without charge and all others can pur- chase food at cost. Wherever they go, ies) the fostering care of the government followsthem. Loans of money and seed are made to the needy and deserving and government stores supply agricul- turalimplements on the installment plan. Is it any wonder that Siberia is rapidly filling up with a strong, sturdy, vigor- ous population of independent Russian farmers, and that the brutish and cruel Cossack, who is regarded there some- what as the Sioux Indian is on our own frontier, must look for other fields where A Business Corner in Stretensk his peculiar skill in fighting, plunder- ing, and vodka drinking can be dis- played ? There is little doubt but that the Russian Empire will ultimately expend upon this stupendous enterprise at least $500,000,000, but it is building for the future, and is laying the foundations deep and strong. REMINISCENCES OF TRAVEL On the 28th of June, as I bade good- bye to Consul Harris in Nagasaki, he Church at Stretensk. said: ‘‘I will write a letter tonight and mail it to you at St. Petersburg, by way of. San Francisco, New York, and Lon- don. I think it will go around the world and get there before you do.”’ And it did, reaching St. Petersburg in 35 days, while it took me 4o days to get to Moscow. My first stop was in Korea, a pov- erty-stricken land, which Russia and Japan, in eager rivalry, are attempting to exploit. In my judgment, it will ultimately be a province of Siberia, for islands do not annex continents per- manently. India and Canada do not disprove the rule; for, as we reckon the life of na- tions, British occupation of either is but temporary. There is an opinion prevalent that the Philippines are a doorway into China, and that Manila is an entrepot for Chi- nese trade. One might as well claim that Cuba or the Bahamas could con- trol the commerce of the United States; for, barring the small percentage of THe Nationa GeocraPrHic MaGaZzINne Americans and Europeans 1 Manila, the industry, the en- terprise, and indeed the capital is largely Chinese. From Gensan, in Korea, we crossed the Japan Sea in a splendid subsidized Japanese steamer, with the most cosmo-— politan company of passengers that I ever traveled with—a Turkish pasha and wife, two Mohammedan priests and their attendants, and English, Scotch, French, Danes, Japa- nese, Chinese, Koreans, In- dians, Russians, Germans, and. Americans. We arrived in Vladivostok Tuesday evening, July 2. The harbor is a grand one, tremen- dously fortified from the outer approaches straight into and around the city itself. In many respects it resembles the Golden Gate at San Francisco, the Amur Bay reaching for many miles north and south behind the city. Vladivostok is what its name implies, ‘“The Capital of the Eastern Domin- ion,’’ and a wonderful empire that do- minion is sure to be. It is totally dif- ferent from anything that I had seen elsewhere in the Orient. In place of mud huts and nipa-thatched shacks were three and four story brick and stone buildings, and instead of little brown specimens of humanity I found full-bearded, strong-limbed men and vigorous, rosy-cheeked women. Vladivostok has every appearance of one of our western boomed cities in the very height of its prosperity. An ex- tensive naval station is being established there. Large dry docks for the con- struction and repair of the fleets of the Pacific are being built. Its wharves were filled with shipping, and everybody seemed to be prosperous and full of busi- ness. New hotels, a new railroad sta- tion, extensive buildings for a new naval academy, and a college for the study of A Trip THrRoucH SIBERIA Oriental languages are all under construction, and its streets are being regraded and adapted to the city as it will be in the fu- ture. The city is built on the southern slope of a high bluff stretching around a branch of the harbor, which is appropri- ately named the Golden Horn. Good curbs and gutters in the main streets and plank side- walks throughout the city man- ifest a proper public spirit, and a most excellent opera which we had the pleasure of attend- ing proved that the esthetic side of life is not neglected. In- deed, asa people, the Russians are passionately fond of music. Few things are more inspiring than to see a Russian regiment march at swinging step to the music of their own songs, and I shall never forget the grand chorus of the evening prayers, in which the crew and passengers daily joined on the River Amur, or the glo- rious even-song of the choir of monks at the Alexander Monastery at St. Petersburg. The wearing of a uniform is almost universal in Siberia, in civil as well as military life, and from the common laborer to the governor at least seven tenths of the men wear upon their cap or belt a badge which indicates their occupation, and respect is paid accord- ingly. Wherever the picture of the Emperor is seen, the cap must be doffed, and always in the presence of an ezkon the cap removed and the sign of the cross made. ‘The marvelous frequency of both of these objects, indoors as well as out, and the continuous bowing and pos- turing of the people becomes comical rather than serious to the stranger, and he wonders whether they are as pious and reverential as they seem. I presume the governor in Vladivostok outranked the postmaster, but his epau- lets were not so large nor his uniform so ar] i ‘7 be | Opera House at Irkutsk gorgeous. My first purchase in Siberia was a postage stamp, and living in a country where officials are public serv- -ants, and where postmasters take off their hats to the people, it seemed strange to me to stand with hat re- moved before a counter, behind which aman sat with his cap on, dressed like a major-general, and graciously con- sented to sell me one five-cent stamp, and I was then permitted to withdraw and recover when at the door. But great as the postmaster is, he is. nothing compared to the army officer. On one extremely hot day on the Amur a wealthy merchant was lying on a sofa in the cabin. He had removed his coat in order that he might enjoy a comfor- table nap. A lieutenant in the army, traveling third-class as a deck passen- ger, happened to go by the door, and seeing him in his shirt sleeves, and just above his head a picture of the Emperor hanging on the wall, awoke him and ordered him to put on his coat in the presence of the Emperor. The man 48 objected, and appealed to the captain of the steamboat, but to no effect, for the captain decided that the order must be obeyed, although he admitted it was arbitrary and absurd. ‘There are times when a despotic gov- ernment isa good thing, if youare ‘‘7/,”’ but one needs to be “‘ ov the inside’’ to enjoy it. When our passports were viséd at Tokio by the Russian ambas- sador, he sent back with them personal letters to each of the governors of the Museum at Irkutsk provinces through which we were to pass. On presenting the letter to Gen- eral Tchitagoff, at Vladivostok, he at once told us that he would telegraph to Khabarovsk and have our rooms at the hotel and state-room on the steamer re- served, and also have the chief of police assist us while there. The traffic on the Amur under any conditions is enormous, but with naviga- tion almost suspended by reason of very low water, both Stretensk and Khaba- rovsk had been crowded for weeks by Tue NartionaL GeocrapHic MaGaZzine passengers waiting to go up or down the river. We were told by others who had engaged rooms weeks ahead that no first-class accommodations could be secured, but we went on in faith and hope, and when the train stopped at Khabarovsk an inspector of the police met us, engaged our /zsvorshiks or cabs, looked out for our baggage, escorted us to the best hotel, where excellent rooms had been secured, and advised us that a good state-room was reserved on the steamer for the nextday. On the following day he came to the hotel, again cared for our baggage, escorted us to the boat and put us in a first-class state- room, and the gentleman who had so kindly advised us not to go went second-class. A call on General Grodekoff, at Kha- barovsk, and presentation of our letter to him, secured the same attention, so that when we arrived at Blagovestchensk, at 11 o’clock at night and two days behind time, an inspector was there waiting for us at the wharf, our carriage was se- cured, and we were sent to the Grand Hotel, where excellent rooms had been engaged. RUSSIAN COOKING We had learned at Nagasaki that travelers through Russia must carry their bed-clothing with them, and had provided ourselves there with pillows, pillow cases, sheets, and blankets; but the hotel at Vladi- vostok and the dining car on the rail- road to Khabarovsk thoroughly con- vineed us that Russian cooking did not appeal to Yankee appetites. The Siberians are good feeders and stiff drinkers, but vodka, which is princi- pally alcohol, and quass, which is a red beer distilled from rye bread, and strong tea served five times a day and taken by the tumblerful as freely as water, A Trip THRouGH SIBERIA 49 were none of them any use to me. For food, cabbage soup, flavored with onions and gar- nished with sour milk, was the principal dish, and, with black bread, was invariably served at noon and night. Toone who neither ate nor drank any of these things the prospect did not appear hopeful or joyous ; but we had been told of a Yan- kee from Maine who was the only man in Khabarovsk that could speak English, and, as good luck would have it, he was the manager of a large de- partment store. ‘There we out- fitted for the campaign and laid in supplies of crackers, jams, and mineral water to last us through to Blagovestchensk, as we supposed. Whenoursteamer, the Cesare- witch, started, she had two large steelfreight bargesintow. The first night one ran into the bank. A Business Corner in the Heart of Siberia Mohammedan Tatars at Taiga Railway Station Awaiting the Arrival of a Turkish Delegation The second one ran into the first, and its back was broken. It was abandoned, and on we went. ‘The river is admirably lighted and buoyed, and great sums have been spent on its im- provement ; but, like the Mis- sissippi, it is uncontrollable, having one channel today and, another tomorrow. ‘There was not a day when we did not run aground. We were due in Blagovestchensk in five days, and were provisioned for that time. On the fifth day meat and white bread gave out, and it meant cabbage soup or noth- ing. On the sixth day our boat, which drew four feet of water, stuck fast on a three-foot bar, and late in the day we trans- ferred to a twéenty-two-inch- draught, stern-wheel-working boat which had been sent to our assistance, and, taking off 50 all of the passengers it could carry, pro- ceeded to Blagovestchensk. “BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION ”’ The city is on the north bank of the river. Just below and on the south bank was the Chinese city of Aigun. Two years ago it had twenty thou- sand population and there were three thousand Chinese in Blagovestchensk. When the Boxer troubles began and the A European-Russian Village railroad down into Manchuria was de- stroyed, the order came to General Gripsky to ‘‘ fling the Chinese across the Amur.’’ He tried it, but as the river is more than a mile wide there, it was impossible, and most of them never reached the other side. But the Cos- sacks went across, and today all that is left of Aigun could be put in a freight car. Not a house is standing, not a Chinaman remains. The gold mines up and down the river, all on the Man- churian side, are being worked by Rus- Tut NarionaL GrocrarpHic MaGazIne sian soldiers. Alls quiet in Manchuria, but a Russian gentleman told me that at Aigun alone ten thousand Chinese found a watery grave, and that the Cossacks on the Amur had been drinking yodka and living on the plunder from Manchu- ria ever since. That Manchuria has ceased to be Chinese and is thoroughly Russian now, there is no question what- ever, and though the methods employed were awful, the results will in the end be better for Manchuria and the world, for Russian occupation cer- tainly means progress. LOW-WATER NAVIGATION At Blagovestchensk we called on General Gripsky and were informed that as the water was still falling and the regular boats were unable to run, he had decided to send on the small working boat with the mails, and that we were welcome to such accommodations as there were upon it. He said we would have trouble, but that there was a possibility that we might getthrough. Thealter- native was to wait at Blagoves- tchensk until the water rose. After much consideration we decided to purchase our tickets and go forward, and the expe- riences of the following thir- teen days will never be for- gotten. With no accommodations whatever: for carrying passengers, the boat was so horribly overcrowded that there was: hardly standing room, and at night both decks were an indistinguishable mass of headsand legsand arms. As first-class passengers, by courtesy we occupied the dining-room, a room about 10 by 12, just large enough for a table and seats on each side. A French captain slept on the table, the correspondent of the Paris Morning Journal slept under it, and my friend and I occupied the cush- AN “Tieate joned benches on either side. When we left Blagovestchensk we were told that Senator Beveridge was a short distance up the river, and that we would pass his Steamer the next day. We did pass it five days later, hard aground, but it was half a mile away from us, and we did not see him. ‘Twice we ran on rocks and stove in the forward and after com- partments. Supplies gave out, and cab- bage soup and sour milk became a Juxury. As we dragged our way along we found the Cossack towns had been foraged by the pas- sengers on the stranded boats ; but our captain bought two young cattle and killed them on the bank, and with potatoes from the fields and black bread bought from the peasants and wild strawberries for sauce, we came through alive, and reach- ed Stretensk in thirteen days. We had made 1,442 miles in nineteen days. I canimagine that a trip across Siberia from west to east with high water in the Amur might be a pleasant one, but I cannot recommend the navigation of the river against the current in July or August. INFORMATION FOR FUTURE TRAVELERS On the Pacific division of the railway, 478 mules, the speed -was 16 miles an hour, includ- ing stops. From Stretensk to Irkutsk, 747 miles, it was 12 miles an hour, but this includes the crossing of Lake Baikal and long delays at the custom-house. From Irkutsk to Moscow, a distance of 3,463 miles, the average speed was 18! miles an hour, including stops. On this portion of the journey we took the French frazz de luxe and paid extra charges for “‘ express speed,’ 46.48, and for use of car and bed-cloth- ing, which is furnished on that train, >) $9.78. THROUGH SIBERIA 51 The total time between Vladivostok and Moscow was thirty-eight days. I have recently received a letter from Mr. Penrose, of Philadelphia, in which he stated that he had made the Amur trip eastward the latter part of August, with high water, in eight days, against our nineteen, and that the whole jour- ney was a most interesting and enjoy- able one. The ‘Trans-Siberian Railroad is well constructed—in my judgment, much ' A Siberian Village better than our transcontinental lines originally were. ‘The rails are fifty- four. pounds to the yard, and must ulti- mately be replaced by heavier ones. More than fourteen hundred wooden bridges are being changed as rapidly as possible to steel. The road-bed is well drained, and watchmen flag all trains its entire length. The cars, though built on the English plan of compartments, are equipped with vesti- bules and Westinghouse air-brakes, and are in every way as comfortable as ours. 52 The dining-car service compares as fa- vorably with ours as the ordinary Euro- pean hotel does with the American—no better and no worse.* The trip is an exceedingly interesting and instructive one, and, so far as the railroad is concerned, can be made with entire comfort. With the Manchurian division open for traffic in another year, the ‘‘vound-the-world’’ travel is sure to go that way, for climatic advantages, together with the saving of time and money, will give it undoubted prefer- ence over any other. At present a knowledge of the Russian or German language or the employment of an in- * For the benefit of prospective tourists I give the items of expense between Vladivostok and Moscow : R.K. Hotel Vladivostok, one day.......... 8.57 Fare, Vladivostok to Khabarovsk, 478 WUE cg oosnoddoooasoodadsooobGOOD 17.05 Meals, Vladivostok to Khabarovsk, Omer AIM pirate severe tals oi dap vel ressesl clicks 4.00 Hotel at Khabarovsk, one day....... 9.80 Steamer fare to Blagovestchensk, say IS OOMMILES Tere eeetaecitel 24.00 Board on steamer to Blagovestchensk . 19.15 JOSE [DEVAN 6 Go coocooeoccurHood 1.68 Steamer fare to Stretensk, say 942 WME cssgedecepocdcepodsooDanEDDS 30.00 Board to Stretensk............. S000, QI&KOO Hotel at Stretensk, one day......... 4.58 Railroad fare to Irkutsk, 747 miles... 24.40 Eixtralbagcagenen camer eicek 5-40 Railroad fare to Moscow, 3,463 miles. 63.50 Express speed ticket................ 12.60 Sleeping-car charges................ 18.90 Hotel at Irkutsk, three days ...... 15-65 Extra baggage, Irkutsk to Moscow. . 16.13 306. 41 Equals United States money..... $157.80 Meals, Irkutsk to Moscow, estimated. $25.00 Extra food on whole trip, with mineral water, and bed-clothing, estimated. 38.00 Tips, fees, etc , as you please........ 00,00 Total 6,130 miles first-class, in- Ohnabins MOKAS, oo dicbo009a00c $220.80 Fare alone ow ¢vain, including sleeping-car, but no meals, including baggage for 4,688 miles, $51.34—1.74 cents per mile. Tue Nationa, GrocraPuic MaGaAZzINneE terpreter is almost necessary, but En- glish is being spoken more and more, and will soon be the commercial lan- guage of the world. Indeed, the clerk at the leading hotel in Moscow told me that the great increase of American and English travel through Russia this year had compelled him either to learn the language or give up his place. WH o. ~ tee = 5 8 Ee x as os eee 108 BYHOH A Picture of a Chocolate Wrapper Found in a Peasant’s Hut in the Heart of Siberia The chocolate was made by a Russian firm. The use of President McKinley’s picture and of the American flag to make the candy popu- lar among themselves, illustrates the affection which the people of Siberia feel for William McKinley and the American people. A Trip THRouGH SIBERIA OUTLOOK IN THE ORIENT FOR AMER- ICAN TRADE No American in making this trip can fail to be impressed with the wonderful possibilities of Siberia in its agricultural and mineral wealth, and, because of this, the splendid opening which it affords for the sale of American farming and mining machinery. Russians are farm- ers, not manufacturers, and, poor as the peasants are, one family in that climate will consume more of the world’s manu- factured products than a score of people of like occupations in the Philippines, India, or anywhere in the tropics, and I think I might truthfully add in China, Korea, or Japan. The well-to-do Russians are lavish in their expenditure, fond of display, and extravagant in the gratification of their appetites and inclinations. They hold a genuine regard for our country and our people, and it is not a new develop- ment. When some of the nations of Europe threatened to combine against us in the Civil War, the Russian fleet sailed into the harbor of New York and her shotted guns silently, but effectively, proclaimed her sympathy. Later she transferred her possessions on this con- tinent to us, and in the sale of Alaska for $7,200,000 put us into the greatest and most profitable real-estate trans- action of modern times. Her climate, her soil, her geographical position on the world’s map is like our own. Be- fore we gave four million slaves their freedom and left them destitute, to fight their way in life, she emancipated twenty million serfs and is slowly but effectively providing them with homes. No Monroe Doctrine disturbs our mutual relations or ever can, for her policy is as ours should be, to mind one’s own business and say hands off to those nations which make war on other lands for trade expansion only. She does not pretend to love us be- cause she needs our help, for she has 6 one hundred and forty million people and a land that is unconquerable, and even the Nihilist or revolutionist there is proud of it and would give his life with equal readiness either to better his home conditions or to defend his country from a foreign foe. Her gov- ernment is despotic, I admit, but self- government is not a remedy for all ills. The world is moving on, and, if I am not mistaken, Russia will be no laggard in the race, for no abler man today con- trols the destiny of any people than Mr. De Witte, the Prime Minister at St. Petersburg. We have not got to make a market there; it is already made. The Russian railroads are operated. with American air brakes, steel barges and steamers from Pittsburg navigate the Amur, and American locomotives are waking Man- churia to new life. On the steamer which brought me to Vladivostok there were seven hundred tons of American farm implements destined for Siberia. From Seattle and San Francisco to Vladivostok and Port Arthur we jointly own the right of way and can hold it against the world, and the distance, across the Pacific is less than from the ports of any European rival. We need have no anxiety about the trade of China. In due time it will be ours, if we can meet the competition of the world, no matter who controls the government or holds spheres of influence there. England, France, and Germany are not exploiting China for our benefit, and the trade of Indian and Chinese ports, though nominally open to the world, has somehow been controlled by the dominating power. In 1900 we sold to China and Hong- kong $20,459,385 worth ; Great Britain sold to China and Hongkong $41,806,033 worth, or twice as much as we did. In r900 we sold to British India and Ceylon $5,227,032 worth, while Great Britain sold to British India and Ceylon oF: $160,035,563 worth, or thirty-two times as much as we did. During the same year we sold to Si- beria $2,786,664 worth. In other words, in 1900 we sold to 8,000,000 Russians in Siberia more than half as much as we sold to 300,000,000 people under British rule in India. In other words, where India pur- chased American products to the amount of 124 cents per capita, Siberia pur- chased 35 cents per capita. If this was the situation last year, what will it be in the years to come, with India dor- mant or dying and Siberia just stepping out into new national life. ~ The situation in Japan shows what the United States can do in the Far East in competition with other nations under equal conditions. In 1890 Great Britain sold Japan mer- chandise to the amount of 26,619,102 yen; the United States sold 6,874,531 yen; Germany, 6,856,955 yen. In 1900 the respective sales to Japan were: United Kingdom, 71,633,219 yen; United States, 62,761,196 yen; Ger- many, 29,199,605 yen. Our exports to Asiatic Russia have been as follows for ten years past: USO Reais ays ereacte sora ave sustaatens wees eve fooy $161,580 ike Phan RC SORT ENON GORE OM cH adO.6 120, 200 WIR cancoosdsdausosMeboodsonsnboN5 145,591 TOO Ate oe vet ae TT ects Tare 163,855 lSIsidan ONO SHO OL.o REMADE Sea we seco 204,937 TSG Oia Neve ciara Newel rrecousn ste tatash seu 568,002 ley ietoauou here aroase HDDeo-0 ¢ HOES 413,942 IRs Coin a Reet OR TH AnG Ho Non 618,015 LOO Oe Nave cate oct ata Neer I Reka 1,543,126 LQOOI sss cayiiavsie-s erstaieareeroaie esis Ssisiioetee 3,050, 102 UOGIt, WO) MNOVMINE 65 ooucooe0Bnca000Gs 779,839 or, on the basis of a year, $909,812, or a loss in a single year of more than two million dollars, or two-thirds of our en- tire trade there since the sugar-bounty decision was made by the board of ap- praisers in New York. Our trade conditions in India should Tue NationaL GeocraPpHic MaGAZINE be a warning to us in dealing with the Chinese question. Hon. George Curzon, in his ‘‘ Prob- lems of the Far East,’’ says ‘‘ that the commercial supremacy of Great Britain in the Far Eastern seas, though sharply assailed by an ever-increasing compe- tition, has not as yet been seriously shaken. How vital is its maintenance, not merely for the sake of our empire, but for the sustenance of our people, no arguments are needed to prove. It is only in the East, and especially in the Far East, that we may still hope to keep and create open markets for British manufactures. Every port, every town, and every village that passes into French or Russian hands is an outlet lost to Manchester, Bradford, or Bombay.”’ Every word of this is literally and absolutely true. It is for themselves and not for us that European nations seek concessions and mark out spheres of influence. Each one pursues its own peculiar method, but the result is alike in all. There is no sphere of influence for us there, and to look upon Manila as a base for Chinese trade is like chasing rainbows for a pot of gold, for commer- cial bases are not established six hun- dred miles at sea and where storage and reshipment charges would be more than the direct freight to the destined mar- ket. The integrity of China cannot be preserved by a protectorate of the Pow- ers, and if it could the people of this country would not permit our govern- ment to bea partner init. China must reform herself or go to pieces speedily. My judgment is that her destiny is slow but sure absorption by Asiatic Russia, and that the world will be the gainer by the change. Meanwhile our duty and our interest is to keep on terms of peace and amity with all, but to make alliances with none. THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY By Ratpu S. Tarr, Proressor or PHysicAL GEOGRAPHY IN CoRNELL UNIVERSITY branch of instruction in the schools. The length of time devoted to it would lead us to expect from it highly important results in mental dis- cipline. Yet one is frequently hearing the statement made that geography in- struction is woefully barren of educa- tional results. ‘This does not mean, of course, that there are not individuals who are securing the best results from geography work, but that, as a whole, the ends obtained are not of the kind that should be expected. There are evidently difficultiesin the way of making geography work in the grades as success- ful in its results as it is certainly capable of being made. ‘That the teachers are alive to this fact is evidenced by the numerous text-books that are appear- ing and by the activity of educational associations, which in almost every meet- ing discuss some phase of the problem of how to secure good results from geogra- phy instruction. This activity of the teachers is a most hopeful sign; for ‘‘ where there’sa will there’s a way.’’ ‘That it has accom- plished results is evident to all who have given attention to the subject. The methods of teaching today are so far different from those of a quarter of a century ago that those of us who spent our time in memorizing lists of all the capes of eastern America, all the capi- tals of the states, etc., would scarcely recognize as the same subject geography taught in a modern class-room. ‘There is surely progress ; but much remains to be done. EOGRAPHY has an important (e position as a fundamental NEED OF TEACHERS WITH BETTER TRAINING In answering the question, ‘‘ What is to be done ?’’ I should say, first of all, have better teachers. That this state- ment may not be misunderstood, let me hasten to add that it is in no sense in- tended as a criticism of the teachers. As a body they are overworked and un- derpaid. ‘They are trained to one line of teaching, and then, by the caprice of the superintendent, perhaps, given some > new method—often a fad—of which so: many pass over the educational world. They do their best, work hard—far harder in fact than they ought to be expected to work—and, in spite of tremendous difficulties, accomplish bet- ter results than can properly be ex- pected of them, though less than the subject itself is capable of furnishing. The difficulty lies beyond the control of the teachers under existing circum- stances, and its correction can come only very slowly. It is a consideration of this problem that I would, first of all, take up. ‘The teacher in the grades has as her primary work instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography. A training that will adapt a person thor- oughly for the task of teaching the first three may fall far short of fitting her for a geography teacher; for to teach geography well requires knowledge, not necessarily profound, but nevertheless fairly thorough, upon a large range of topics. One must know enough geology to understand the physiography ; enough physics to grasp the meaning of climatic 56 differences ; enough history to appre- ciate the influence of history upon polit- ical geography, etc. In other words, geography has such varied relationships that the teacher who would teach it properly must have a broad range of information. Otherwise it is necessary to blindly follow the text-book, and this, unfortunately, is far too often done. Then, too, the teacher must be well- balanced—not too easily led astray by passing fads which often appear so at- tractive. This presupposes sufficient appreciation of the subject and its possi- bilities to understand what is good and what is bad in method. Next to know- img something to teach, it is important to understand how to teach what one knows—what to include, what to omit, how to present difficult points, and how to secure training from the teaching— not merely of the memory, but of the powers of observation and deduction. I believe that I am not misstating the facts when I say that, while geography demands these powers from the teacher, it is possible to teach the other three subjects with much less training. In- stead, therefore, of demanding from the teacher the knowledge and training which geography requires, a teacher is selected who is amply qualified for the other subjects, and then required to do the best she can with the difficult and complex subject of geography. OPPORTUNITY FOR SECURING TRAINING To secure better trained teachers, boards of education should be prepared to offer better compensation. Three or four hundred dollars is now commonly offered, and this surely cannot command highly trained teachers of geography. Not only is it difficult to find well- prepared geography teachers because of the complexity of the subject and of the low compensation offered, but also be- cause of the limited opportunity for Tue NationaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE securing proper training for such teach- ing. By far the greater number of grade teachers go no farther for their training than the high school, with pos- sibly a year of two ina ‘“‘training class’’ or as pupil teacher. No geography in- struction is given them in the high school, and little that bears directly on geography, with the exception of some short courses in geology, physical geog- raphy, ete., which are often indiffer- ently taught, and rarely so taught as to show their geographic significance. Thus the teacher of geography is, in a vast number of cases, selected from the ranks of those who had no further in- struction in geography than that of the grammar school. In other words, the teacher must return to teach the sub- ject with little more knowledge of it than the very pupils whom she teaches will possess when they go from under her instruction. It is not quite as bad as this, of course, for the teacher is more mature, better disciplined men- tally, and, in the natural course of events, has obtained a broader range of information. But it is an anomalous condition, and, in view of the fact that so many teachers are supplied from the high school, there seems to be a demand that geography instruction be given in that school. There are other good rea- sons for believing that geography should be taught in the high school, but as these have no bearing on the present question they will not be considered. Of the teachers who did not get their preparation solely from the home schools the great majority come from the normal school. ‘The training there is decidedly better, and in some is excel- lent; but in far too many it is very far below the standard that should be set. I have visited one normal school (and understand that there are many quite like it) where the geography was taught by the teacher of English, while the science was all in the hands of one man, who, in spite of his marked ability, THe TEACHING oF GEOGRAPHY was unable to do good work with any science, because he had to give short courses in nearly all— physics, chem- istry, zoology, botany, geology, phys- ical geography, and physiology. At the time of my visit he had just had his burden increased by the requirement to teach temperance physiology. Much attention is given in all normal schools to ‘‘method,’’ and in many of them the students are given‘ instruction in method without a knowledge of the subject in which the method is to be employed. The best preparation for method of teaching is a knowledge of the subject to be taught, and without that knowledge drill in method cannot produce much result. But one of the most hopeful features in the movement for better teaching of geography is the improvement of the last ten years in the normal schools. Those that are abreast of the times have provided spe- cial teachers of geography, and in many cases have provided trained geogra- phers. Each year the list of such schools is increasing, and the effect of this advance must be felt in a decided improvement in the teaching of geog- raphy in the grades. The gist of what I have said above is that the conditions of geography teach- ing are bad, but are improving in vari- ous directions. But the complexity of the subject, and the lack of facility for obtaining proper training in it, make it certain that for many years to come the teaching of geography will not be raised to the desired high standard unless there are several fundamental changes, of which the most important must be to provide for better training, to require it of applicants, and to pay them in pro- portion to the training demanded. Such changes can come only slowly; but in the meantime there are some simple re- forms which, if.introduced, would cause a very decided improvement in a very short time. In the first place, the teachers of geog- . with most excellent results. oy, raphy should be encouraged (or, better still, required) to put part of their sum- mer in further study and preparation. The summer schools of many universi- ties offer opportunity for such study in geography, or in allied subjects upon which much in geography is based. To encourage such attempts at improve- ment increases in salary should be given to those who show sufficient zeal and in- telligence to put part of their summer in study. This method is already fol- lowed by some of our large cities and It should be extended. A modification of ethis is to offer to some of the best teachers a sort of scholarship to pay the expenses of a summer, or even an academic year, at a university. Few investments of school money could be better made with promise of more far-reaching results. This method is followed in Indianapolis, where the funds were provided by a wealthy citizen. It is a unique form of bequest; but how could money be better used than to provide for an uplifting of the teacher who gives to children their early training, upon which so much of their future depends? Would that every city in the land had a Gregg fund similar to that in Indianapolis. THE UTILIZATION OF SPECIALLY TRAINED TEACHERS Improvement will come also when the school authorities recognize the fact that geography is a difficult and complex sub- ject, requiring knowledge of a broad kind, and, for proper instruction, a talent in addition to mere knowledge. In every city there are some teachers who really know geography, who like it, and whose work is eminently successful ; but these teachers are required to give most of their time to other subjects than geog- raphy. Why not make use of these special talents? Why not have speciali- zation in the grades as in other schools. There are special drawing teachers and 58 music teachers because not all teachers candraworsing. It is equally true that not all teachers can give instruction in geography; and while a teacher may be an excellent instructor in arithmetic, reading, and grammar, she may be a flat failure in geography. Let the school boards but recognize this fact and take for geography work those who are best qualified for it, and there would be an immediate advance in result that would be most gratifying, and that would lead toward constant improvement. I think no other reform in school work is now so seriously demanded as this simple one. There is no reason why the geography teacher should not handle the geog- raphy in every grade; in fact, there is every reason for believing that it would be better to have it done so than to have the children go from one type of teacher to another—good, bad, and indifferent. It would, to be sure, call for some re- arrangement and reorganization, but nothing serious. Once this was started, the grade of geography teacher would improve, both by the necessity of special- ization and by reason of the fact that, when a new teacher of geography was to be selected, inquiry would be made concerning her special fitness for that work—an inquiry not now commonly made. Another improvement of almost equal importance to the one last proposed, though less feasible than that, because of the additional expense involved, is to have a geography specialist as supervisor in every city. I know of a man who is a specialist in geography, thoroughly competent to guide work of the best kind, who is teaching all the English, and nothing more, in the high school of the city, not because he prefers it, but because that was all that was open to himthere. What an advantage it would be to that city if he were employed to guide and instruct the teachers, to out- line a rational course, and to see that uniformly good work wasdone! Many Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGaZINE cities have teachers competent to fill such a position, and the additional ex- pense ought not to be considered when such important results are to be secured. It has often been found possible to pro- vide for nature-study teachers. Why not also geography supervisors? If some of the educational conferences would turn their attention toward such prac- tical needs as these, instead of devoting their time to pedagogical discussion, there would be more good accomplished, more speedy improvement in teaching, and less valuable time wasted. NEED OF UNIVERSITY COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY One more important change seems to me to be calledfor. Inthe United States there are now 10,000,000 children, more or less, being taught geography, and ap- proximately 400,000 teachers engaged in teaching them. ‘These teachers should receive better instruction. But where are they to turn? ‘To the normal school ? Then where is the normal school to turn foritsteachers? Where, inthiscountry, is an education in geography to be ob- tained? While there are institutions in which physical geography is well taught, or the pedagogy of geography, or com- mercial geography, there is not a single institution in America in which provis- ion is made for adequate and well- rounded training in geography. It fol- lows, then, that the would-be teacher of geography must either go abroad or else himself fillin the gaps in his training, after having obtained what he can from some institution in which a part of geography is taught. Is it not an anomalous condition in our educational system that one of the oldest and most respected branches of learning, in which all our youth are in- structed by tens of thousands of teach- ers, in a course covering at least five years of their lives, finds no place in our universities? One by one new Tue TEACHING sciences have developed and found their way into the university curriculum ; but the English-speaking people pro- vide no place for the venerable geogra- phy, notwithstanding the fact that so much of their development has depended upon geographic knowledge. It is not because there is lack of interest in geog- raphy, for there are enough who are interested to form numerous societies with great influence. Our geographic magazines rank with the best scientific periodicals, which indicates that men are not merely members of the societies, but also workers in geography. Doubtless investigation would reveal reasons why geography has been ruled out of the university while many really less important subjects have crept in ; but no investigation can offer adequate reason why this condition should be allowed to continue. We need such in- struction for many reasons; but, confin- ing ourselves to the single purpose of this paper, we need it for the sake of the advancement of geographic instruc- tion in the schools. There is an ever increasing demand for training in geog- raphy, for which no adequate provision is made. If only one of our large uni- versities could set the example of estab- lishing a school of geography, others would soon find it necessary to follow. Such a school should provide instruc- tion in the various branches of geogra- phy and in the pedagogical aspect of the subject as well. It is quite useless to hope to see such a school established by the university, for the simple reason that every university has such demands upon its resources that a large, new de- partment could not be provided unless it were absolutely necessary. For the establishment of such a school money must be specially provided. Is there not some one among the many who are interested in geography who will see the need of a school of geography and provide for its establishment? The founding of such a school will mark the OF GEOGRAPHY 5Y) beginning of a new era in the teaching of geography, as well as in other lines of geographical work. NEED OF A PLAN FOR GEOGRAPHY STUDY IN THE SCHOOLS While, according to my view, im- provement in the treaching staff of the grades is the greatest present need of the schools, and has therefore been given first place in this article, I consider it highly important also that there should be some agreement as to what should be taught and ow the subject-matter should be presented. By this I of course do not mean that there should be abso- lute uniformity, for there must always be much difference in detail, according to the individual and to the environment; but that there is a general feeling that something like a rational plan should be agreed upon and followed is indicated by the fact that the matter is every now and then made the subject of committee report and discussion at leading educa- tional conferences. The diversity of the reports presented proves how diffi- ‘cult it is to find a plan acceptable to all, and the marked differences in the lead- ing text-books points to the same con- clusion. This question is altogether too large a one for full discussion within the limits of a single short paper, and accordingly I shall confine myself to a mere state- ment of a few fundamental principles which I believe should govern all courses in geography in the grades. There should be a well-matured plan so that the course should develop step by step—that is to say, the earlier les- sons should form a foundation on which the later ones may be built. Unfor- tunately in many cases there seems to be no such provision, but instead, topic after topic 1s introduced with no pre- vious foundation and no vital relation- ship between what precedes or follows. It is a mass of description and unrelated 60 fact. For example, the trade winds are described as parts of physical geography, and later, when their influence on rain- fall or desert might be shown to explain striking features of geography, there is no such application made, and the pupil is allowed to go away with the knowl- edge of two sets of facts without any hint’as to their connection. Glacial de- posits are described, but little or no use of them is made in explaining industrial development in glaciated regions, etc. THE PLEMENT OF INTEREST The well-matured plan proposed should provide for the element of z7- terest. By-this it is not meant to make the course easy, nor to go outside for material just because it is interesting. There seems to be a feeling in some quarters that it is undignified and un- desirable to provide for interest; but there could be no greater mistake than this. Where interest is not aroused, work becomes tedious, the mind readily tires of the task, and soon such a dislike for the subject is created that nothing is done except that which is required, and even this is done with little result. It was only yesterday that a young girl said to me, ‘‘Ihate geography. I passed the regents’ examination in it and now I am going to forget it just as fast as I ean.’’ ‘This view is far too common, and it is not the child who is to blame for it; nor is it geography, but the method of teaching, which has failed in the fun- damentally important point of arousing and maintaining interest. Some try to provide interest by read- ing to the class, or by telling stories of school children in other lands, or of can- nibal feasts, etc. The attempt is laud- able, but the method is trivial and totally unnecessary. Interest can be provided without departing one step from a well- defined plan of scientific presentation, as I shall attempt to point out below. Once interest is aroused, the amount of THe Narionat GrocrapHic MaGazine work which it is possible to expect from the children increases many fold. It is the same as in more mature men, who, when interested in their life work, are able to work hard and with effect, while if not interested, their life is very apt to be a partial or complete failure. If the geography student has an interest in his work he will not merely learn his lessons well and remember what he has learned, but he will also be eager to learn more by reading and inquiry. These facts seem to me so evident that I would hesitate to dwell upon them so long if it were not that, strangely enough, there are those who do not seem to grasp the point. Let me insist that the arousing of interest does not mean that the work be made easy. It becomes easy because of the interest ; but with interest the child is even ready to learn the list of all the capes of Asia if the teacher sets it asa task. Memorizing, observation, reasoning, inquiry—all these are stimu- lated by the interest ; and the benefits derived from the study, instead of be- ing lessened by reason of interest, are greatly increased by it. IMPORTANCE OF HOME GEOGRAPHY In order to present the subject in such a way as to provide for a connection between topics and for the develop- ment of interest, and its maintenance, it seems to me that it is necessary to fol- low only a few very simple principles, provided, of course, the ‘‘teacher’’ is a veal teacher. In the first place, there should be a proper foundation. To jump right into the wide world with children of eight or nine years is per- fectly absurd, even if the teacher or geography writer may say, ‘‘ Now, dear children, we will go over hill and moun- tain and sea to see what other dear chil- dren are doing,’’ etc. They simply are not ready for such a journey, even though it is taken in baby talk. Much - THE TEACHING of it is absolutely meaningless to them, because they lack experience ; and be- fore they can take it they must have a foundation. Next to the need of better teachers I should place the need of a better basis upon which to study distant geography. "They must really know the meaning of mountain, valley, river, ocean, commerce, etc.; and they must understand what maps stand for before they can study intelligently about the Atlantic Ocean, Mississippi River, and Alps, and before they can understand why London is a great city and be able to locate it on the map and know what such a location really means. Too much care and attention cannot be given to the building of this founda- tion. It is difficult to treat in a general way, and is therefore absent or poorly presented in almost all the text-books. It can be secured only by a study of the conditions surrounding the school and the intelligent use of the knowledge thus gained in application to more remote re- gions and conditions. Thus it is neces- sarily dependent upon environment ; and what in detail is adapted to one en- vironment is perhaps not available in another. ‘Therefore only general rules can be laid down, and this is not the place forthem ; but that home geography should serve as the foundation for future geography study is absolutely certain. Yet how rarely it isdone! In acity of 15,000 a few years ago I found a teacher giving a lesson on the Mississippi delta. I asked if any in the class had ever seen a delta, and no one had—not even the teacher. Yet the school was on a delta two miles long and half a mile wide. How much more the Mississippi delta would mean if these children had under- stood their own! And the same thing holds for quantities of other features. There is no school in the country that has not scores of geographic features available for use in building a founda- tion for geography study. Nor does the study of the home sur- ‘more opportunity for its 61 OF GEOGRAPHY roundings merely serve in giving a prep- aration for future study ; it also arouses interest. Geography is no longer a mere study of distant lands, for the home of the child is a part of it. ‘The winds, rains, soils, rivers, railways, etc., are bound up in intimate connection with world phenomena. The pupil’s home is but a part of a whole; and when he studies the whole he is constantly seeing its relation to the part which he knows so well. There is so much of value to be gained from long and thorough study of the home, and from frequent use of these facts in later study, that I should like to see a full year, or even two, devoted to it; and when this is done provision should be made for frequent excursions, as the Swiss so effectively do. Will teachers and superintendents in America ever realize that a half day spent by the river or in the factory may be made of more educational value than tenfold as much time in the class-room? ‘The nature-study idea is a move in the right direction ; but it seems to me that far more good would come of it, and far extension would be found, if it were geographic nature study—that is, study that not merely creates interest in surroundings, but in that particular class of surround- ings which have a broad application to something. The same powers of obser- vation could be developed and the same interest aroused with,in addition,a larger training in reasoning and an application tolife work. Rain or wind offer as good an opportunity for nature study as a tree bud; a lake or stream asa tadpole; and the soil as acaterpillar. Zoologists and bot- anists have developed nature study. Is there not some one ready and compe- tent to present geographic nature study ? It is needed. THE PHYSIOGRAPHIC BASIS Having a foundation resting on the appreciation of the home environment, 62 the future study should be related to this, partly to illuminate the subject and partly to maintain the interest. As new topics are presented there should be a causal sequence ; and this seems to me to be one more funda- mentally important principle in geog- raphy teaching. Instead of teaching unrelated facts there should always, where possible (and there is nearly al- ways a possibility), be an attempt to show relation between cause and effect. If wheat in the Red River Valley is the topic, the reason why wheat is grown there should be shown; if the size of New York city is stated, it should be shown why it is so large; if the desert of Sahara is being described, there should be a reason apparent; if the marked colonial development of the British Empire is stated, reasons should be presented, etc. Here, again, the method proposed provides for interest and also makes certain a clearer under- standing. Facts thus learned will be remembered and memory will not alone be exercised; for if the chain of thought is logical, as it must be if properly pre- sented, a habit of logical thinking will be trained. In geography there are several bases for a causal sequence, though by far the greater majority of facts which the children learn rest upon either the his- torical or the physiographic basis. It follows, therefore, that some attention must be given both to history and to physiography, not in either case fur their own sake alone, but merely in so far as they are needed to understand the facts which general geography includes. I believe it to be as great a mistake to include too much physiography or me- teorology as to include too much history or biology. Pure history or biology are, by common consent, excluded; and pure physiography, which is a branch of geology, should likewise be excluded; but for the purposes of general geog- raphy each of these subjects, and as Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGaZINE many others as are necessary, may be drawn upon to the full extent that they may be needed to serve as a broad cause for a part of a geographic sequence— that is, in so far as they have a direct bearing on an interpretation of the re- lation of man to the earth, they may be introduced into general geography. Of the several bases for causal se- quence not one has so much importance as physiography. In the past this as- pect has been greatly overlooked. At the present we are perhaps carrying it a little too far—at least many believe so—and for my part I agree with them; but that physiography is fundamentally important to a rational scientific study of geography, in which cause and effect are considered, no one whose opinion is worth hearing can now question. If we wish to understand the position and importance of San Francisco, Chicago, New York, Boston, Montreal, the Brit- ish Isles, ete., we must know the physi- ographic facts. The application of physiography is well-nigh universal. Its introduction, therefore, makes the study of geography rational and scien- tific, and, if not carried too far, it makes the study interesting, because it shows how, from certain causes, im- portant results necessarily follow. If merely introduced and not applied, as it is in some of the texts, it not only loses its value, but it is positively dan- gerous, because it deadens interest and repels students. A reaction against physiography has already set in among teachers because of this fact. TEXT-BOOKS IN GEOGRAPHY STUDY It would easily be possible to follow this subject much further, and to enter into many details not here referred to. But this is not the place for that. Else- where, in a series of text-books, I have, in association with another, endeavored to work out in detail a system of geog- raphy for the schools, in which the Tue TEACHING main underlying principles are those set forth above. My final point is that it is by such practical expositions as the preparation of text-books that we are to gain much of our advance in geogra- phy instruction. Much time is wasted in committee reports and association ‘discussions of geography courses. These presuppose that teachers can fill in the gaps, which in nine cases out of ten is an unwarranted assumption. Let us have more text-books, each embodying the ideas of its writer. Each good text- book will improve the teaching, partly by its own use and partly by forcing competing publishers to try to equal or excelit. Out of these books in time will come one which approaches the ideal; for each good new book makes it easier to write a better one partly by showing what is weak and partly by reason of the strong points which it- contains. We need more geographies and each ‘good one that appears should be wel- comed as a step toward attaining better results. I dwell upon text-books with full knowledge of the fact that there are dreamers who believe the text-book to ° be bad, who think teachers do not need these helps, and who say that to tell a teacher how to teach, or to give ques- tions and suggestions, is ‘‘an insult.” The teacher needs all the help she can get; would that it were different, but it is not, and teachers know it and ad- mit it and are doing their best to ad- vance under difficulties. It is better to use the poorest of text-books than to follow the plan of teaching without one, for the latter method leaves many loose ends. It is the introduction of the “college idea’’ into the grades. It is ‘coming to be believed by many that the lecture system is overdone in colleges where specialists areemployed. Whata result, then, must be obtained where the hearers are mere children and the teach- ers by no means specialists! Far better is it to use a text, and then, if the teacher 63 OF GEOGRAPHY has the ability and knowledge, to add to it where it is weak or where she is strong—that is to say, have a skeleton to build on. ‘There are in every text- book some things said better than most teachers can say them, and these state- ments are in print, not taken down as notes with a part lost. If the teacher can find time for extra work, it would be far better to use that time in laboratory work, using this term to include also a study outside of the school-room. Here is a chance to do something that no text can provide and whose results are of exceeding impor- tance. ‘The value of this work as pre- liminary and basal has already been mentioned when speaking of home geography; but it should be continued throughout the course. I do not speak of it further here, partly because it has already been pointed to with more or less fullness by others on various occa- sions, and partly because I believe that there are other lines of improvement of more fundamental importance than this, and much more liable to be adopted, because the way to their adoption is al- ready open. ~ Laboratory work means time, equipment, and training not now generally available. It is better to try to get it started where most needed, namely, in the very earliest years; and from this as a nucleus it will spread to the higher grades, when once its value is established there. SUMMARY Briefly summarized, the points made in this article are that there is an op- portunity for improvement in geography instruction along several lines. First of all, there is need for better training of teachers, and this calls for geography courses in the high schools, better teach- ing inthe normal schools, and provision for training of geographers in the uni- versities; but by making a better use of the talent already available—that is, by 64 having geography supervisors in the cities, and by having the teachers who are best prepared for it take all the geog- raphy work, orall the arithmetic, etc. , in- stead of spreading themselves over all subjects, an immediate improvement may take place; for in the grades there are already large numbers of teachers who are well prepared for the position of geography teachers, or who could quickly become so if they were given a chance to specialize. Immediate im- provement may also be expected if teachers are encouraged to take advan- tage of the opportunities open to them in the numerous summer schools. As to method, there should certainly be teaching in home geography, and this should involve laboratory and out-of- door work. ” GerocraPHic Nores coal beds are cited. Very rich iron deposits are also found near the coal region. In Durango is a hill of iron a solid mass of ore 640 feet high, aver- aging 70 per cent of metal and capable of yielding over three hundred million tons of solidiron. Nearly all her moun- tains are of metalliferous character. Those that appear richest in mining de- posits are on the western chain, extend- ing from the state of Oaxaca to the state of Sonora, a distance of 1,600 miles from northwest to northeast. The statement of Humboldt some hundred years ago, that probably ‘‘ Mex- ico would be the treasure-house of the world,’’ may perhaps be realized. EDWARD JOHN EYRE N Australian explorer of sixty years ago, Edward John Eyre, died in England November 30, 1go1. In 1832, then seventeen years of age, Eyre went to Australia to seek his for- tune in sheep farming. From New South Wales he wandered toSouth Aus- tralia, which was then separated from West Australia by one thousand miles of unpenetrated desert and wilderness. Eyre thought that a route to the rich pasturable districts in the west of the con- tinent might be found along the shores of the Great Australian Bight south of the desert. After several fruitless at- tempts, he set out, in the fall of 1840, accompanied only by one white and three native boys, for a journey of nearly 1,200 miles, not one mile of which had ever been seen by a white man. ‘They had advanced half the distance when two of his native companions rebelled, killed his only white companion, and fled. He was left with one native boy to push on. After untold hardships, he reached King Georges Sound in the spring of 1841, where he was picked up by a French whaler that happened to be cruising along the coast. An account of this expedition is given in the thirteenth volume of the Journal LS of the Royal Geographic Society. This work ended his geographicallabors. In 1845 he returned to England, received various colonial appointments, ending with that of Governor of Jamaica in 1864, and at the end of that year retired to private life. The Report of the Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Mr. O. H. Tittmann, for the last fiscal year describes some of the important work upon which the Survey is engaged. During the year the survey of the coast of the Philippine Islands was com- menced, and charts of harbors at all important points were made. The Survey adopted a standard datum, to be known as the ‘‘ United States standard datum,’’ to which all geographic posi- tions throughout the United States will be reduced whenever possible. An im- portant contribution to the subject of geodesy was completed, ‘‘the eastern oblique are of the United States.’’ In addition to extensive work in progress in nearly every state of the Union, sur- veys are being made on the coasts of Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. A survey to deter- mine the magnetic elements is in prog- ress at several hundred stations dis- tributed over many states and territories, in all the island possessions, and in Alaska, and British Columbia. The Work the U.S. Fish Commission is doing throughout the country is de- scribed in the report for 1go1 of the di- rector of the Commission, Hon. George M. Bowers. During the last fiscal year 1,173,833,400 fish and eggs were dis- tributed. Most of these were shad, sal- mon, lake trout, whitefish, pike, perch, lake herring, cod, flatfish, and lobsters. In Lakes Superior and Michigan, 224, 000,000 lake trout eggs were collected, from which 19,000,000 fry were hatched. Many lakes and rivers were stocked dur- ing the year; as many as 160,000,000 eggs were placed in the Missisquoi River, in Vermont, while 42,000,000 eggs were taken from Lake Erie to Michigan. ‘The report comments on the increasing scarcity of lobster eggs along the coast of New England, especially south of Cape Cod. The Commission planted in New England waters during the year 202,870,000 cod, 44,000,000 flatfish, and 60,000,000 lobsters. The Russian Expedition, under Lieu- tenant Kozloff, to explore the sources of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, has returned to Irkutsk in safety, after hav- ing made very important surveys in Western China. A Map of the Bisayan Group of the Philippine archipelago has just been published by the Military Information Division of the War Department. It is on the scale of eight miles to an inch and shows with much detail the geo- graphic features of Panay, Negros, and the other islands of the Bisayan group. Clarence King, geologist and geogra- pher, died at Phcenix, Arizona, Decem- ber 26, 1901. In 1863 he crossed the American continent on horseback and joined the California Geological Survey, later discovering and naming mounts Whitney and Tyndall. From 1867 to 1872 he commanded the expedition for the geological survey of the goth paral- lel; and organized and was the first di- rector of United States Geological Sur- vey, 1878-81. To his paleeontological discoveries are largely due the evidence which has determined the generally ac- cepted age of gold-bearing rocks. American Progress in Cuba,—Major W. C. Gorgas, chief sanitary officer of Havana, in his last report. pre- sents striking evidence of American progress inthat city. During the month of September 16,121 houses were in- spected and oiled by the mosquito bri- gade, but only 1.5 per cent were found to have mosquito larvee on the premises. Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGAaZzINE When the first inspection was made last March every house had deposits of larvee. For three months in succession there has not been a single case of yellow fever in the city for the first time in its history. The death rate in the city is now 20.47 per thousand, whereas the minimum death rate during the last nine years of Spanish rule was 28.32 and the maximum 100.08 per thousand in 1897. The American Museum of Natural History has received preliminary in- formation as to the results of the Jesup North Pacific expedition sent to north- eastern Siberia in the summer of 1900. The object of the expedition. was to study the points of similarity between the people of northeastern Siberia and the natives of Alaska and British Co- lumbia. ‘The museum announces that definite proof has been obtained that the tribes of northeastern Siberia and north- western America in early times had more or less intimate connections, partly inferred from the great similarity in their customs and myths. The Interstate Commerce Commission has in preparation a ‘‘ Ten-year Book on Railways in the United States.’’ The volume contains tables showing the mileage, equipment, earnings, capital, accidents, etc., of the different railroads, and a summary of the statutory pro- visions of the states and of the federal government pertaining to the taxation of railway property, the administration of railway commissions, etc., and of the laws that limit, direct, and control the business of transportation by rail. The Cape to Cairo Telegraph now stretches from Capetown 2,500 miles north, or a few hundred miles less than from New York to San Francisco. ‘The latest station put up is at Ujiji, on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. It is a question now of only a few months GrocraPHic Nores before the wire will be strung as far as Fashoda and the circuit between Egypt and South Africa be complete. A Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands has been compiled by the Insular Di- vision of the War Department. It con- tains much information about the civil and military governments, the means of transportation, the cable and postal sta- tions, and other matters of interest. The gazetteer will soon be ready for distri- bution. A Map of Mount Hood and Vicinity, Oregon, has been published by the Geo- logical Survey. It is on a scale of two miles to an inch and shows in detail the timber resources of the mountain and its neighborhood. A complete recon- naissance map of the Cascade Range in Oregon on a scale of four miles to an inch has also been prepared. Texas Petroleum is the title of a very comprehensive bulletin published by the University of Texas Mineral Sur- vey and prepared by W. B. Phillips, Director of the Survey. It gives a his- torical sketch of the discovery of oil in Texas, describes the nature and origin of the petroleum, of the oil and gas bearing formations, and of its useas fuel. Dr. Phillips states that the oil is be- ing substituted for coal in some. Texas establishments; locomotives are being equipped for oil, and that it is being used for laying the dust on streets, and for other equally practical purposes. The Census Office has published in one volume all the returns relating to the population of the United States obtained by the census of 1900. A series of ad- mirable charts, prepared by Mr. Henry Gannett, Geographer of the Census, il- ‘lustrate the density and distribution of the population, the sections where the negro and the foreign elements are con- centrated, and the other facts revealed V7 by the census. ‘These charts will later be embodied in the ‘‘ Statistical Atlas,’’ which is being prepared under Mr. Gan- nett’s direction. The general nature of the Atlas will be similar to that for the eleventh census, but of a smaller and more convenient size. The Progress of the United States in its material industries, a valuable mono- graph issued by the Treasury Bureau of Statistics, shows in striking manner the rapid development during the past cen- tury of the important factors in the present prosperity of the country. The enormous increase in products of the field, forest, mine, and manufactory, the growth in our population, wealth, and commerce, and the extension of rail- ways and telegraphs are clearly pre- sented in a series of clever tables. A new edition of Stieler’s Hand Atlas is being published by Justus Perthes. The atlas will contain roo copper-plate maps, which are being issued two at a time at intervals of two or three weeks. ‘The price of the complete work is $7.50. This is the ninth edition of this notable atlas,,the first having been completed by Stieler in 1831. The Guide to the Great Siberian Rail- way, published by the Ministry of Ways of Communication, St. Petersburg, con- tains a vast amount of geographic mat- ter about Siberia. The volume consists of over 500 large octavo pages, is hand- somely illustrated, and gives for each section of the country a bibliography of official, historical, and geographic works. The Bureau of American Republics has published a bibliography of books, magazine articles, and maps printed during the nineteenth century relating to Brazil. ‘The volume was prepared by P. Lee Phillips, and forms a supple- ment to the handbook of Brazil recently published by the bureau. GEOGRAPHIC Through the First Antarctic Night. By Frederick A. Cook, M.D. Illus- trated. New York: Doubleday & McClure Co. j Dr. Cook has the unique distinction of having explored the two ends of the earth. He has worked with the Peary expeditions in the far north, and was an important member of the first party of men ever to winter within the Ant- arctic Circle. The volume which he Dr. Frederick A. Cook has recently published, giving the re- sults of the two years’ work of the party on the Lelgica, forms a notable work. As the surgeon and anthropologist of the expedition, Dr. Cook was naturally most interested in the problems of ani- mallife. ‘Thereis an interesting chapter LITERATURE as 5) on the Fuegian ‘‘ giants,’’ who average at least six feet in stature; on the great sheep farms of southern Patagonia, where the climate is so mild and pas- turage so easy that one shepherd can guard 2,000 sheep; on the geographical discoveries by the expedition, including Belgica Strait and the tracing of a con- siderable coastline, and on the long South Polar night. The effects of the winter darkness, Dr. Cook believes, are much more severe in the south than at the opposite end of the world. The unceasing storms are harsher and more depressing. Dr. Cook tried the experi- ment of making his men stand daily for an hour half naked before the fire, and found that the stimulating effect of the sun was thus partly obtained. In an appendix to the volume are included the scientific results obtained by the various members of the expedition. Dr. Cook has given the public an interesting and instructive volume, handsomely illus- trated by photographs taken by himself. To gain an idea of what the three ex- peditions sent out by England, Ger- many, and Sweden, and now in the far south, are experiencing and aiming for, one could not do better than read “Through the First Antarctic Night.’’ Descriptive Geography from Original Sources. North America. TIllustra- ted. Edited by F. D. and A. J. Her- bertson. London: A. & C. Black. IQOI. $0.75. The selections in this volume have been made with much care and wisdom and the editors are to be congratulated on their success in giving interesting and accurate original descriptions of many geographic features. A work of this nature, however, being a compila- tion of extracts from many authors, necessarily lacks unity and symmetry. Each description appears more or less GEOGRAPHIC independent of the others. American exploration of Alaska has been so rapid in recent years that it is perhaps not surprising that this work is several years behind in its information regard- ing the great territory. ‘There is also no reference in the volume to the wheat and corn areas of the United States, though the ‘‘ Bad Lands’’ are described. Dutch Life in Town and Country. By T. M. Hough. With illustrations. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. I90I. $1.50. Mr. Hough presents an interesting picture of Dutch life, more particularly in his chapters on ‘‘ Court and Society,”’ “The Professional Classes,’’ ‘‘’he Peasant at Home,’’ ‘‘’ The Administra- tion of Justice,’’ and ‘‘’ The Canals and Their Population.’’ About 50,000 per- sons live on barges all the year round and form a ‘‘canal population.’’ For generations they have been left to them- selves, a class apart, and have given color and picturesqueness to the inland waters of Holland ; but the spirit of re- form is in the air—the government is beginning to interfere, to insist on the education of the barge children, so that ° ina few years this unique population will disappear. The volume is one in the notable series on ‘‘Our European Neighbors,’’ which the Putnams: are publishing, : The Bolivian Andes, a record of climb- ing and exploration in the Cordillera Real in the years 1898 and 1900. By Sir Martin Conway, with illustrations. New York: Harper & Bros. This book is a narrative of one suc- cessful ascent, that of Illimani (21,192 feet), and of two failures, on Sorata and Ancohuma. Were this merely a narra- tive of these climbs, the book would be dreary reading, but fortunately it con- tains much more. ‘The author intro- duces his readers to the central and one of the highest parts of the Andes, to the LITERATURE TY great desert plain, the Puna, the summit of the Andean plateau, which forms the base of the great peaks, and to the human life of this scarcely known re- gion, in a most charming and interest- ing manner. ‘The rubber industry and the gold and tin mines of the region visited are treated also with fulness. A map would have added greatly to the value and interest of the book. South Africa a Century Ago (1797- 1801). By Lady Anne Barnard. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. Lady Anne Barnard was the wife of the first secretary of Cape Colony. She was a clever, observing woman, in the habit of writing to her friend, the Sec- retary of State at home, her manner of life in South Africa. Her letters are published in this volume, but are rather disappointing, as they have more to say about the garrison life of her set than of the people of the Cape. History of Geology and Palaeontology. By Karl Alfred Von Zittel, translated by M. M. Ogilvie Gordon. Illus- trated. London: WalterScott. r1go1. $1.50. : A scholarly work, designed for the specialist and of doubtful interest to any one else. Macmillan’s Guides, 1901.—/taly. With 51 maps and plans. $2.50. The Eastern Mediterranean. With 27 maps and plans. $2.25. The Western Mediterranean. With 21 maps and plans. $2.25. Palestine and Egypt. With 48 maps and plans. $2.50. These excellent guide books are spe- cially noteworthy for their many beau- tifully engraved maps and for their convenient size. ‘The editors have given particular attention to the historical, archeological, and artistic features of the countries, and have also included at the end a list of standard books about each country. 80 Isthmian Canal Routes.—In view of the prominence of the Isthmian Canal prob- lem, it may not be inappropriate to di- rect attention to the following articles on this subject that have appeared in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE during the last several years: “The Nicaragua Canal;’’ abstract of the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, January, root. “The Level of Lake Nicaragua: A Question of Permanency of the Nica- ragua Canal,’’ C. Willard Hayes, April, 1900. “The Water Supply for the Nica- ragua Canal,’’ Arthur P. Davis, Sep- tember, 1900. THe NationaL GreocrapHic MaGaZzINE ‘The Isthmian Routes,’’? Arthur P. Davis, July. 1899. ““Physiography of the Nicaragua Canal Route,’’ C. Willard Hayes, July, 1899. ‘““The Proposed American Inter- oceanic Canal in its Commercial As- pects,’’ Joseph Nimmo, August, 1899. “The Interoceanic Canal,’? Emory R. Johnson, August, 1899. ‘The Panama Canal Route,’’ Rob- ert T. Hill, February, 1896. ‘“The Tehuantepec Ship Railway,’’ E. L. Corthell, February, 1896. ““The Nicaragua Canal,” Greely, February, 1896. A. W. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY : January 10, 1902, Annual Meeting.—President Graham Bell in the chair. The President gave an address on the “ Growth and Prospects of the National Geo- graphic Society,’? which will be published later in this Magazine. The report, 1901, of the Secretary, Prof. A. J. Henry, was submitted, showing the member- ship of the Society, December 31, I90I, as 2,661. Of this number 1,592 members are resi- dent outside of Washington, and represent every state and territory of the Union and nearly every nation of the world; 1,025 are resident in Washington, 32 are life members, and 12 honorary members. The report of the Treasurer, Mr. John Joy Edson, was submitted, showing that on Decem- ber 31, 1901, the treasury of the Society had a balance of $2,257. January 24.—President Graham Bell in the chair. Dr. L. A. Bauer, of the U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey, read a paper on ‘‘ The Magnetic Survey of the United States,’? and Mr. James Page, of the U. S. Hydrographic Office, a paper on ‘‘Ocean Currents.’’ Both papers will be published later in this Magazine. LECTURES : January 3, 1902.—President Graham Bell in the chair. Hon. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State, gaye an illustrated address on ‘‘The New Mexico.’? The paper was published in the January number of this magazine. January 17.—President Graham Bell in the chair. Gen. A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer of the U. S. Army, gave an illustrated address on “American Progress and Prospects in the Philippines.” Further notice of this address will appear later. January 31.—Vice-President McGee in the chair. Capt. James F. T. Archibald, tha war corre- spondent, gave an illustrated address on ‘‘ Pres- ent Conditions in South Afriea,’? which will be published later. = ANNOUNCEMENTS. LECTURES: February Lae The Proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve,’’ Hon. James Wilson, Secre- tary of Agriculture, and Prof. Joseph A. Holmes, State Geologist of North Carolina. February 28.—‘‘ Fifty Years of Immigration,” Hon. E. F. McSweeney, Assistant Commis- sioner of Immigration. + MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY : February 7, 1902.—‘‘Some American Work in Cuba,’ Major W. M. Black, Corps of En- gineers, U. S. Army. February 21.—‘‘ Notes on the Geography of Alaska,’’? Alfred H. Brooks, U. S. Geological Survey. SMITH PREM li ‘Rocks and Shoals IN THE SEA. OP Business Correspondence ARE SAFELY PASSED WITH THE = a Smith Premier Typewriter = 10 AID YOU, a HE Smith Premier is the Business Man’s Beet Machine for all around office work. I¢ possesses all casential features constituting typewriter excellence—casy operation, strong, simple and durable construction, clean and quick type cleaning device, clear cut work and the enforced mechanical accuracy-of all working parts. . Hilustrated catalogue free. THE SMITH PREMIER TYPEWRITER CO. “A land flowing with milk and honey.” CALIFORNIA IS THE MECCA, Seekers after rest and recreation in a bracing climate, amid enchant- ing scenery, surrounded by fruits and flowers, are going to California this winter in greater numbers than ever before. The way to go is by the NEW YORK CENTRAL LINES, The new trains of this system give a fine service, fast time, and afford every convenience and lux- wry. Inquire of ticket agents re- garding the new facilities. Four-Track Series No. 5, '‘America’s Winter Resarts,’’ sent free, on receipt of a two-cent stamp, by George H. Daniels, General Passenger Agent, Grand Central Station, New York. _. Catalogue and Information at Washington, D. C., Office, 519 Eleventh Street The Children of the Nations Second Edition, A work that is the result of personal observation by its author POULTNEY BIGELOW in parts of the world controlled by the great colonizing powers ‘The breadth of view and virile pattiotism make it both educative and effective.’’ —Philadelphia Ledger. Price, Net, $2.00; posipaid, $2.16. - McCLURE, PHILLIPS & CO. New York The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK oo RICHARD A, wfcCURDY, President Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World The Records of the Insurance. Department of the ‘State of SHOW THAT Coe. Mintaal Life eee Has a Larger Premium Income~ ~ - - ate ate. More Insurance in Force: <5 9) = 5 - A Greater Amount of Assets 9 - = = sf A Larger Annual Interest Income mo Beg ee eae PRC eter Writes More New Business - — =. : Bs And Pays More to Policy-holders- asray oe (Ga THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY It has paid to Policy-holders since t ee its organization, in 1843. Sa ROBERT A, GRANNISS, AREER SUSI Bons Sa aca econ: ice. *SN ent e G WILLIAM J. BASTON, COUR Department of Office Panic uous AS O R Deparment requisite to the furnishing of Piece mirydee : office, a bank, a committee room, etc. eee sortments and latest and best styles of. Office Furniture, Revie Office tionary Book Cis “Cases, Sectional se : bbe dine Leather cities etc. WASHINGTON JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D. C. THE BE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Vol. XIII MARCH, 1902 CONTENTS THE POSSIBILITIES OF ALASKA. BY C. C. GEORGESON . - , os SARICHEF’S ATLAS, 1826. BY tl aha BAKER MAGNETIC SURVEY OF THE UNITED STATES. WITH CHART BY L. A: BAUER : bs s : ; SVEN HEDIN IN TIBET AMERICAN PROGRESS IN CUBA. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. CUBAN RAILWAYS. ‘BY ALBERT G. ROBINSON THE STORM OF FEBRUARY 25- Se: 1902, WITH CHART. BY ALFRED J, HENRY ates eRe: AGRICULTURE IN ALASKA, BY HENRY GANNETT we » GEOGRAPHIC NOTES .. 2 ‘ peta . ” GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE es _ NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY . . . ease Published for the National G Eder chic Society By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York Pye a Year ' 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter. "Ethnologi tin Charge, Br es: nology ‘ Chief of the Biologi a mcitione ee ; s Stathiow. of i East,’ + “ele Every Christian Home, Every Student of History, Every Lover of Art, will be inter- ested in this offer, but only those who act at once can see the wonderful colored reproductions appearing in Tissot’s Life of Christ | : ae NOTHING APPROACHING Bec NS THIS WORK HAS EVER went BEEN ATTEMPTED BEFORE... The famous French artist devoted ten years in the Holy Land to the closest travel and study. In this series of 500 splendid pictures, 138 in colors, every recorded incident in the lite of Christ is presented, every parable illustrated and described, the scenes of his youth, ministry, death, and resurrection are depicted true in color, costume, landscape, and all details to the life, country, and the time. Here is seen Judea of 1900 years ago, the busy streets of the cities, curious architecture, magnificent temples, all the pomp and ceremony and pageantry of the past. The men and women of the Gospel Story seem to live again before the eyes of the reader. The Exhibition of the Paintings in the large cities of this country aroused intense enthu- siasm. Over 500,000 people viewed them before they were purchased for the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. As the reproduction of the pictures for book publication was personally supervised by M. 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If bound in ‘Three-Quarter Morocco, $2.00 per month for 12 mos. If bound in Full Persian Morocco, $2.50 per month for 12 mos. If unsatisfactory, I will return same promptly, AT YOUR EX- PENSE. Title in books to be yours until paid for. NAME N.G.M.—3. Please Indicate Binding Desired D. A. McKINLAY, Treasurer United Charities Building, . . New York City Since the beginning of the Boer War England has been attacked with unexampled bitterness by the Continental press. Repeated charges of inhuman atrocities laid to the account of the British Army have brought to its defence Dr. A. CONAN DOYLE whose experience at the front has peculiarly fitted him to present the facts in the case. This he does frankly as an advocate, but never permitting his intense loyalty to prevent him from giving the same weight to Boer as to British testimony, and always reporting the truth as he sees it, without rancor or- malice, in THE WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA ITS CAUSE AND CONDUCT Dr. Doyle’s occupation in life is writing, but he has done this work not as a matter of business, but as a labor of love, to set right in the world’s eyes his mother-country. | He has directed us to publish the book at the cost of its making, foregoing all royalties or profit. That is why the price is 10 cents a copy. No man who keeps abreast of his time can afford to pass over this most important contribution to the history of a war which has become a world-interest. Upon application, ‘The War in South Africa” will be sent free to any public or institutional library. MARCONIT’S BOOK This book was begun about two years ago and only recently finished. The earlier chapters form the best and most competent summary yet made of the history of wireless telegraphy; and the ! autobiographic chapters are of unique interest, recounting in a series of modest reminiscences the author's own work, from the time when he had the first idea of sending messages without wires till he heard in the receiver on the Newfoundland coast the repeated signals that had come across the ocean. : Ready in April. THE HOUND OF THE BASKERVILLES By Dr. A. CONAN DOYLE We have just three points to mention about this: 1. It is here that SHERLOCK HOLMES first figures as the principal character in a complete novel. . It is Dr. Doyle’s greatest work, both as a profound and thrilling mystery story and in literary workmanship. . We publish it in April and it’s worth waiting for. M¢Glure, Phillips & Go. iw) NOU) BY RAY STANNARD. BAKER — Professor Ernst Haeckel, drawn from life by George Varian _,URNISHED with credentials which afforded him unusual facilities, Mr. Ray STANNARD BAKER was enabled to study intimately the workingman at home and in his shop, the soldier, on and off duty, the typical German scientist, the student, the Emperor—in fact, all sides of German life. Mr. BAKER has not sought to burden the reader with tedious descriptions and statistics, but rather to tell in a brisk, narfative style the things which the untravelled cannot know and those who travel do not see. The text is most happily supplemented by the drawings of Mr. GkORGE VARIAN, who accompanied Mr. BAKER. his artist made numerous sketches from life of some of the nation’s most noted scientists, as well as of typical scenes from the every- day life of the civilian and soldier. Many engravings from photographs complete the profusion of illustrations which add materially to the beauty and the unique interest of the book. Price, $2.00 net; postpaid, $2.15 EE TAR Re and Vici WRIRwY GEOGRAPHIES BY RALPH S. TARR, BS., F.G.S.A. and FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. Cornell University Teachers’ College, Columbia University HE series of Geographies by Professors TaRR and McMurry is perhaps the only series of recent years to contain a wew method of presentation. These geographies differ from previously published books on the same subject, in the following particulars : Firsi—Causal Treatment. This isa careful arrangement of the subject matter in accordance with its relation to cause and effect. ‘The fact is recognized by the best teachers that physiographic conditions usually determine the location of human industries, the development of transportation routes, the situation of cities, etc. Beginning then with the physical features, most of the other geographic facts touching a certain locality arrange themselves as links in a causal chain and are then easily taught in proper relation with one another, for they approach the form of a narrative rather than that of a mere list of assertions as in the older text books. Second—Type Study is well illustrated in the study of our own country. The old method of treatment by States, with its multiplicity of topics, is abandoned, and a comparatively small number of topics are treated, but each subject is dealt with at some length: The authors’ reasons for this innovation are: that boundary lines between the States are for the most part arbitrary and mark no important differences in physiography, indus- try or customs; that in a treatment by States there is much repetition of the same kind of facts tothe confusion ofthe pupils. To avoid the waste of space and the lack of perspective of the old method, the ew presentation is by groups of States and by the typical industries that characterize them. More space can thus be given to each important subject, and the many details necessary for a clear impression are associated as parts of one story. For instance, lumbering, fishing, etc., receive their most detailed treatment in connection with New England ; coal and iron mining and the attendant manufactures are discussed in connection with the Middle Atlantic States ; gold mining and irrigation naturally are included under the Western States. Other new and attractive features of this series might be named: as the final summary at the close of the entire subject, the new and convenient form, the use of home geography, the suggestions and bibliogra- phies for the use of teachers, the frequent reviews, etc. THE THREE BOOK SERIES THE FIVE BOOK SERIES Book I —(4th and 5th years) Home Part I —\4th year) Home Geography Geography and the Earthasa Whole 60 Cts. Part II —-(5th year) The Eartoeees Book II —(6th year) North America 75 Cts. Whole : Book III—(7th and 8th years) Furope Part III—(6th en North ees and Other Continents . . . . . 75 Cts. Partivon (jthtn.ean iEacopesiSecth America, Etc. Revie Pine aes Part V —(S8th year) Asia and Africa, with Review of North America and Local Supplement THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA Mors clit. No: 3 L Ee eOssl Bilis OF ALASKA WASHINGTON Marcu, 1902 GEOGRAPIENIC MAGA ZIUNIE By C. C. GEorGESON, oF SITKA, ALASKA SpEciAL AGENT oF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN CHARGE OF ALASKA INVESTIGATIONS E would have been considered arash prophet who five years ago had the temerity to pre- dict that Alaska would one day become a great and powerful state. Yet, today, such a prediction would not be ascribed to prophetic sight, but simply a common-sense view, a fore- gone conclusion, based on the resources and possibilities inherent in the territory. ‘The change of opinion is due to the fact that it has been demonstrated that Alaska has agricultural possibilities of a high order. The development of agri- culture will enhance the value of the other vast and varied resources of the territory a thousand fold. -It will make it possible to work the extensive placer mines not rich enough in gold to pay at the present prices for foodstuffs, as well as the enormous deposits of low-grade quartz ores found nearly everywhere in the mountains. Alaska has been maligned, abused, and totally misunderstood. It has been regarded as a frozen, worthless waste, whose only value consisted in its seal fisheries, and totally incapable of fur- nishing homes for a civilized people. These ideas are still current even in quarters where one would naturally ex- pect to find a knowledge of the facts. Through the instrumentality of Secre- tary Seward, Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867, for the sum of $7,200, ooo. It has already paid for itself many times over, and still we have scarcely begun to realize how enormous the re- sources are. What the profits to the lessees of the sealing privilege have been will probably never be made known, but it is interesting to note that the rentals received or due the govern- ment for the lease of this privilege from 1870 to 1895 amounted to almost the original cost of the territory, namely, $7,192,540.41 (Senate Document No. 81, 54th Congress, 2d session); and as to the income from mines, it is com- monly reported that more than an equal sum has been taken from a single mine near Juneau, to say nothing of the mil- lions taken out in other places. Alaska has an area of 591,000 square miles, in round numbers ; that is to say, it is as large as all of the United States 82 east of the Mississippi River, exclusive of the four states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. It requires an effort of the mind to grasp the signifi- cance of such an expanse of territory. ‘There never could be a greater miscon- ception in regard to a geographical fact than the popular idea that it is a snow- covered, inhospitable waste, and it is strange that this idea should be so per- sistently propagated and disseminated among the people. As a matter of fact, you can travel from one end of the Yukon to the other in summer. time and never see snow. You see, on the contrary, a tangle of luxuriant vegeta- tion, large forests, and such delicacies as wild raspberries, red currants, huckle- berries, and cranberries in profusion. In places the grass grows as high asa man’s shoulder. At Holy Cross Mis- sion I desired to photograph some cat- tle, native born, reared by the fathers, and for that purpose asked that they be turned into a meadow reserved for hay. ‘Tomy astonishment I found that the cattle were totally out of sight when they got into the grass, which reached above their backs. Alaskan tourists are largely respon- sible for the false conception which is abroad in regard to the agricultural possibilities of the country. The high mountain range which skirts the sea ‘coast is covered with snow and glaciers. It hasarugged, forbidding aspect. Peo- ple who go as far north as Skagway and back again to Seattle in a two weeks’ trip fondly imagine that they are study- ing Alaska, and that they are quite pre- pared to pass judgment on the whole territory, when, as a matter of fact, they have not been within 200 miles of the 141st meridian, where Alaska proper begins. ‘To get anything like a correct idea of Alaska, one must go inside. WHAT EXPERIMENT HAS PROVED Facts ought to carry greater weight than theories founded on misconception. Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE Now the facts are that all the hardy vegetables are grown with marked suc- cess all over Alaska south of the Arctic Circle, except on the coast of Bering Sea. I have never seen finer potatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, peas, lettuce, and radishes than have been grown at the experiment stations at Sitka and Kenai. At Dawson I have seen a mag- nificent display of native-grown vege- tables comprising all the hardy-kinds ; and at the Chamber of Commerce rooms of that town are displayed fine samples of barley, oats, and wheat in many varieties, perfectly normal in all partic- ulars, and grown there by a local ex- perimenter. At Eagle I have seen all the foregoing crops, and in addition a luxuriant growth of sweet peas, poppies, mignonette, and a host of other flowers in full bloom. At Holy Cross Mission Tate new potatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, carrots, beets, lettuce, and radishes in the beginning of August, all produced in the Mission gardens. At Rampart, in latitude 65, a station was established by the Department of Agriculture in the summer of 1900. Winter rye, seeded there in August of that year, lived through the winter perfectly under a good covering of snow. Although the temperature fell to 70° below zero, it came out in the spring in perfect con- dition, and matured grain by the first of August, r9g01. Barley seeded in May of the latter year was ripe by the mid- dle of August. At the headquarters station at Sitka I have for three years past grown as fine spring wheat as one would wish to see (samples of it may be seen at the Department of Agriculture), and barley and oats have been grown there successfully for four years. These grains have likewise been grown suc- cessfully at the experiment station at Kenai, on the Kenai Peninsula. This station is situated in a region where there are thousands of square miles of land available for farming and grazing. Captain W. R. Abercrombie, THE who constructed the trans-Alaskan mili- tary road, at my request seeded the past summer small quantities of wheat, bar- ley, and oats at Copper Center, in the Copper River Valley, and he writes me that they all matured. Ripe oats were seen last September by Mr. Isaac Jones, an employee of the Department of Agri- culture, on a tributary to the Forty-mile, in about latitude 64. ‘“'wo Wisconsin men, Messrs. H. C. Nicolai and D. H. Clark, started to farm at Skagway two years ago. In September of last year I saw considerable fields of oats, pota- toes, and cabbage grown by them. On Admiralty Island, near Killisnoo, a man named Thomas Baker has been growing vegetables and grains for years with noted success. Small patches of grain have been matured at Kadiak, at Afog- nak, at the Moravian Mission on the Kuskokwim River, and at many other places. At Fort Selkirk an American named Frank Bach, and at Dawson two brothers named Morgan, also Ameri- cans, have secured from the Canadian Government tracts of upward of a hun- dred acres of land each, which they are farming successfully. STOCK-RAISING Cattle are kept at every considerable settlement in Alaska, except perhaps at Nome. They all dowell. The treeless region to the westward of Sitka is es- pecially well suited to cattle and all kinds of livestock. "The Alaska Com- mercial Company has kept cattle, sheep, and Angora goats at Kodiak for many years, and they required but little feed and shelter, except in an occasional storm during winter. The data on these experiments were published in the re- port to Congress on the Alaska Investi- gations for 1899. ‘Thenatives at Kenai and Ninilchik, on Cook Inlet, have kept cattle for half a century or more. At the latter place they have upward of thirty head. But few breeding cattle PossIBILITIES OF ALASKA 8 3 have as yet found their way into the in- terior, but horses are quite numerous there. In this connection it is of interest to note that in spite of the extremely cold winters in the interior, there are many instances on record in which horses abandoned by prospectors in the fall have survived the winters and come out in the spring in fair condition. Mr. Mark E. Bray, an American miner, told me last summer that he used five mules in his mining operations on one of the tributaries of the Tanana. He aban- doned them when he went out in the fall, it being too expensive to buy feed for them in Dawson, where he wintered. When he returned to the diggings the following April he found four of them alive and well; the fifth had been killed by the Indians. In the fall of 1899 Mr. Jack Dalton turned loose forty-five head of pack horses he had used in carrying provisions over the Dalton trail, and in the spring of 1900 he found forty-three of them alive and well and in fair con- dition. AGRICULTURAL LANDS There are extensive areas of grass land in many parts of the interior. Mr. Isaac Jones, already referred to, made a reconnaissance last summer between Eagle, on the Yukon, and Valdes, on Prince William Sound. ‘The distance between these two points as the trail runs is about 435 miles. He examined some fifteen miles on either side of the trail, thus covering an area of thirty miles wide by 435 miles long. Within the boundaries of this strip he estimates that he saw two million acres of pasture and farming land. In the region oc- cupied by the Kechumstuk Indians, north of the Tanana, and especially along the south fork of the Forty-mile, he reports that he crossed a meadow ‘with the grass waist high for a distance of eight miles. He also learned of horses which had run at large for two 84 years in this region. The Kechum- stuk Indians have given a new name to cattle. They call them ‘‘ McKinley moose,’’ and Americans were known to them as ‘‘ McKinley men.’’ The chief of the village had secured an American flag, which he hoisted on a tall pole whenever he learned that white men were in his territory. There is some hope for the civilization of a tribe which cherishes such sentiments. Mr. Jones’ description of the country is highly interesting. It forms part of my report now before Congress. WHAT IT MEANS The development of agriculture in Alaska means the settlement and devel- opment of the territory. It means the making of homes, a permanent popula- tion, the rapid development of the min- eral resources, the creation of wealth, the building of astate. If, on the other hand, no foodstuffs can be produced in Alaska, a large population is impossible, and it could never become a state. We cannot imagine the possibility of sus- taining even one hundred thousand people there if all that they required to support life must be brought from the states, a thousand miles distant, and carried hundreds of miles more from the ports of entry to the mining camps and villages in the interior. Under such conditions development of the nat- ural resources must languish. Agri- culture is the backbone of prosperity. An adequate food supply is the first essential to the growth of population, to prosperity, to greatness, and if this factor were lacking in Alaska, it would be doomed to remain a scantily popu- lated territory. States with little or no agriculture make no growth. Look at Nevada, for instance. But it is fortu- nate for Alaska, and therefore for the whole country, for the growth of any section benefits the whole, that she has agricultural possibilities to an extent Tue NarionaL GrocRaPHic MAGAZINE which will make the fullest devel- opment of her resources practicable. Alaska can furnish homesteads of 320 acres each to 200,000 families. She has abundant resources to support a population of at least three million people. Such a population would mean + a volume of trade which would yield an immense and permanent income to the coast states. There are people who fear that the development of agriculture would prejudice the mining interests. Nothing could be further from the truth. On the contrary, it would be of the greatest possible help to the mining industry. It would reduce the cost of living, make labor more plentiful, and therefore cheaper, and give rise to bet- ter transportation facilities. It would then become possible to work the low- grade mines with profit, and to mate- rially increase the profits of the good mines. THE EXAMPLE OF FINLAND The foregoing statements are borne out by the example of Finland. This little country lies wholly north of the 60th parallel. Alaska reaches six de- grees south of this latitude. Finland is less than one-fourth the size of Alaska, and its agricultural area is less than 50, ooo square miles; yet in 1898 Finland had a population of over 2,600,000 souls. Agriculture is the chief indus- try. Only about 300,000 people are city dwellers. They export large quan- tities of dairy products, live stock, flax, hemp, and considerable grain, and the population has increased some 825,000 in the last twenty-eight years, and this in spite of a very considerable emigra- tion. ‘The conditions in Alaska from an agricultural standpoint are more fav- orable than those of Finland. We have a larger agricultural area, somewhat warmer summers, and the mines will yield the best possible home market. When the fishing industry of Alaska Deus is developed, it will engage the labors of hundreds of thousands of people, who must be fed in large measure from the farms. Alaska has a coast line of 26,000 miles, practically all of which affords splendid fishing ground. ‘The salmon is as yet the only fish which has at- tracted attention. There are thousands of square miles of cod banks, the enor- mous halibut grounds have not been touched, and the myriad shoals of her- ring go by unheeded. An oil and guano factory has been established for some years at Killisnoo, a little village some distance from Sitka, in which the her- ting is utilized. There is room for fifty such enterprises. The guano sells readily for $30 per ton. WHY ALASKA IS NOT SETTLED With such facts as to resources, why is Alaska not settled? Simply be- cause settlers cannot get title to land. There is much inquiry for land, but when the would-be settler learns the status of affairs he changes his plans. To get title, the settler must -first buy soldiers’ additional homestead script, which can be located on un- surveyed lands. ‘This will cost him anywhere from $5 to $15 an acre. Then he must deposit in the surveyor general’s office an amount which will cover the cost of the survey. United States deputy surveyors charge $15 to $20 a day and traveling expenses in Alaska. He must also pay for the office work, entries, etc. The result of all this is that a piece of raw land in Alaska will cost him as much as a good, im- PossIBILITIES OF ALASKA 85 proved farm in almost any state. Such conditions are prohibitive, and Alaska will not be settled as long as they pre- vail. Again, a homestead of eighty acres, which the law allows, is not large enough. Stock-raising must, of neces- sity, become a leading branch in Alaska _farming, and eighty-acre stock farms will scarcely be muchin demand. Three hundred and twenty acres would be more in harmony with conditions which require considerable pasture land to make farming a success. Would it not be a wise policy to make the land ab- solutely free to bona fide settlers? The great expense necessary to reach the territory with work animals, imple- ments, and all that is required for a start, and the hardships incident to pioneer life in a rigorous climate, far from civilization, entitle the pioneer to special consideration. The develop- ment of the territory depends upon his work. He must blaze the way and bear the brunt of the battle. His cour- age, endurance, and self-sacrifice con- stitute the very foundations on which thestate must hereared. The exploita- tion of the territory’s resources by wealthy corporations will not enrich or build the state. It is the pioneer, the settler, the home-maker, who, with ax and grubbing-hoe, subdues the wil- derness and forces unwilling nature to yield him a livelihood ; who nurtures a family ; who rears the school-house and church. It is he who is the state builder, and every practicable means employed to aid him in the onerous task will further the development of the ter- ritory. SARICHEF’S ATLAS, 1826 By Marcus BAKER drographic Office, then under the direction of Vice-Admiral Gavrila Andreevich Sarichef, published a large folio atlas of northwestern America, northeastern Asia, and the waters be- tween. ‘This atlas comprises 33 double- page sheets, of which 26 are charts and 7 are views. It appears to be a collection of charts made during the two or three decades preceding 1826, in which year they were collected together, numbered, and issued in atlas form. The first 6 are general charts and the remaining 20 special charts of various harbors, islands, etc. Some of these are copied from Vancouver, Kotzebue, and others, and some are from original surveys by Sarichef and others. Sari- chef was one of the companions of Com- modore Joseph Billings, who, by com- mand of the Russian Empress Catherine II, conducted a secret astronomical ex- pedition in and about Bering Sea in 1785to1794. ‘The earliest Russian sur- veys about Unalaska, after Krenitzen and Levashef, 1768-1769, were made by Sarichef in or about 1790-1791. Some of the separate charts, after- ward brought together to form this atlas, are to be found in Washington in the Coast and Geodetic Survey Office, some in the Hydrographic Office, and perhaps some in private hands. No copy of the atlas, however, so far as I am aware, exists in Washington. Indeed, the only copy of it in the United States, so far as I know, is now owned by and in the possession of Professor George David- son, of San Francisco. While I was engaged, in 1900-1901, in making a dictionary of Alaskan geographic names, Professor Davidson very kindly placed at my disposal his copy of this scarce atlas, a courtesy for which I here make if the year 1826 the Russian Hy- grateful acknowledgment. Professor Davidson also permitted photographs of it to be made, and accordingly photo- graphs were made of those sheets which specially relate to Alaska. One set of these photographs has been deposited in the Library of Congress, one in the Coast and Geodetic Survey, one in the U.S. Geological Survey, and one in the National Geographic Society. On account of the rarity of this atlas and its importance for the history of Alaskan exploration and survey, it has seemed worth while to translate and publish a table of its contents. The atlas itself, Professor Davidson’s copy, contains no table of contents, and it is therefore uncertain whether any was published. The following table is made up from the sheets themselves, the en- tries being translations of the titles engraved upon the sheets : TABLE OF CONTENTS OF SARICHEF’S ATLAS, 1826 Title-page. Atlas of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, compiled in sheets by the Imperial Navy Department from the latest information and maps, 1826, under the direction of Vice-Admiral and Hydrographer Sarichef I. En- graved and printed at the Hydrographic Office. Sheet 1. Mercator’s chart of the Pa- cific Ocean and part of the Arctic Ocean. Sheet 2. Mercator’s chart of the Ok- hotsk Sea and part of the Pacific Ocean, together with Kamchatka between lat1- tude 46° 30’ and 62° 30’ north, longi- tude 104° and 144° 30’ [east] from St. Petersburg. Sheet 3. Mercator’s chart of the Pa- cific Ocean, with the Aleutian Islands and parts of northwestern America, from SARICHEF S ATLAS latitude 47° 30’ to 62° oo’ north, longi- tude 141° 30’ to 179° oo’ east from St. Petersburg. Corrected from reports of Pilot Vasilief, obtained in 1829 on the coast of America from the Kuskokwim River to Fort Alexander. Sheet 4. Mercator’s chart of Bering Strait, with parts of the Pacific Ocean and Polar Sea from latitude 60° to 68° north, longitude 140° to 169° east from St. Petersburg. Sheet 5. Mercator’s chart of a part of the Pacific Ocean, together with northwest America between De Fuca Strait and Kenai Gulf (Cook Inlet), from latitude 48° to 62° north, longi- tude 174° to 209° east from St. Peters- burg. Sheet 6. Mercator’s chart of a part of the Pacific Ocean, together with north- west America between the Bay of Pan- ama and Fuca Strait from latitude 5° to 50° north, longitude 175° to 250° east from St. Petersburg. Sheet 7. Mercator’s chart of the Sand- wich Islands from latitude 19° to 25° north, longitude 164° to 174° 50’ east from St. Petersburg. Sheet 8. Mercator’s chart of te New Philippines or Caroline Islands from latitude 5° to 30° north, longitude 106° to 144° east from St. Petersburg. Sheet 9. Mercator’s chart of the Japan and Yellow Seas, with parts of the Pa- cific Ocean, together with the coasts of China and Japan, from latitude 18° to 47° north, longitude 75° to 125° east from St. Petersburg. Sheet ro. Contains four plans, as fol- lows: Northwest Corner.—Plan of the Port of Okhotsk and mouth of the Okhotsk River, with soundings in feet at low water. Drawn with the true compass from reports obtained in 1825. ‘This port is in latitude 59° 20’ 38” north and in longitude 216° 37’ west from Green- wich. Variation of compass, 1° 30’. _-— Southwest Corner.—Plan of Feklistof Island and a bay on the west side of it, _north, longitude 201° 87 with soundings expressed in sazhens (Russian fathoms). Compiled from in- formation obtained in 1806 by Borisof, assistant pilot of the fourteenth class. Latitude of the island, 55° 20’ north, longitude 220° 20’ west from Green- wich. Northeast Corner.—Chart of Aian Bay, situated on the Okhotsk coast west of the River Aldama, with soundings in sazhens. Compiled from information obtained in the year 1806 by Borisof, assistant pilot of the fourteenth class. The latitude of the bay is 56° 27’ 30” north, longitude 221° 33’ west from Greenwich. Southeast Corner.—Chart of the bay ° and of the mouth of the Aldoma River, which empties into it, with soundings expressed in feet. Compiled from in- formation obtained in the year 1793 by Vice-Admiral Fomin. The latitude of the bay is 56° 50’ north, longitude 221° 12’ west from Greenwich. Sheet 11. Chartof the Gulf of Avacha, together with the harbor of Saints Peter and Paul, which is in latitude 53° oo 15/ 30” west from Greenwich. Compiled frominformation obtained in 1792 by Captain Sarichef. Soundings in sazhens. This sheet has also a sub-sketch en- titled : ‘* Plan of the harbor of Saints Peter and Paul, with the settlement indi- cated.’’ Soundings in sazhens. Sheet 12. Contains four plans, as fol- lows : Northwest Corner.—Chart of Me- chigme Bay, situated at Bering Strait, in Chukotskoi Land. Mechigme settle- ment is in latitude 65° 27’ 30” north, longitude 172° 18’ west from Green- wich. From the chart of Captain Bil- lings, 1791. Soundings in sazhens. Southwest Corner.—Chart of Akomten and ‘Tekerki Bays, situated on the east- ern coast of Kamchatka, at a distance of 38% versts (about 25 miles) to the west of Avacha Bay. Latitude of the 88 bay, 52° 31’ north, longitude 201° 25/ west from Greenwich. Drawn up from reports of Geodesist Sergeant Hilef in 1789. Soundings in sazhens. . Northeast Corner.—Chart of St. Law- rence Bay, situated at Bering Strait, in Chukotski Land. Latitude of the an- choring place, 65° 39’ 33” north, longi- tude 171° 11’ 35’’ west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. ‘Taken from the chart of Lieutenant Kotzebue. Southeast Corner.—Chart of Naashkin and Ipadin Bays, situated on the east coast of Kamchatka, at a distance of 28 versts (about 18 miles) to the west of _Avacha Bay. Latitude of the bay, 52° 38’ north, longitude 201° 25’ west from Greenwich. Compiled from reports of Geodesist Sergeant Hilef, 1789. Sound- ings in sazhens. Sheet 13. Contains four plans, as fol- lows : Northwest Corner.—Chart of Koro- vinski Bay, situated on the northwest- ern coast of Atka Island, in latitude 52° 25/ north, longitude 174° 10’ west from Greenwich. From the chart of Vasilief. [Scale, 134 nautical miles to 1 inch, or I : 127000. | Southwest Corner.—Chart of Attu Is- land, with indications of a harbor under the designation Ubiennoi (Massacre), which is situated in latitude 53° north, longitude 186° 40’ west from Green- wich. From the chart of Captain Golofnin. [Scale. 3% nautical miles to 1 inch, or I : 228000. | Northeast Corner.—Chart of Tanaga Bay, situated on the western shore of Tanagalsland. Latitude of the anchor- ding place, 51° 52’ north, longitude 178° west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 16° 34’ east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Sari- chef. [Scale, +2 nautical mile to 1 inch, or IT : 59000. | Southeast Corner.—Chart of Massacre Harbor, situated on the southeastern Tue Nartionat GeocraepHic MAGAZINE coast of Attu Island, in latitude 53° north, longitude 186° 40’ west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. Variation of the compass, 10° 45/ east_ Vi From the chart of Bieliaef. [Scale, 0.46 nautical mile to 1 inch, OF I : 33000. | Sheet 14. Chart of the Aleutian Is- land Unalaska, together with the bays contained in it, with soundings in sazhens ; also anchoring places. From the reports and compilations of Fleet Captain Sarichef in the year 1792. [Scale, 2 nautical miles to 1 inch, or I : 146000. | Sheet 15. Contains four plans, as fol- lows : Northwest Corner.—Plan of Cher- nofski Bay, situated in the western part of Unalaska Island, in latitude 53° 20! north, longitude 167° 23’ west from Greenwich. Drawn from information by Fleet Captain Sarichefin 1792. Sound- ings in sazhens. [Scale, 280 sazhens to 1 inch, or I : 23500. | Southwest Corner.—Plan of Kuliliak Bay, situated in the western part of Unalaska Island, in latitude 53° 31’ north, longitude 166° 57’ west from Greenwich. Made from information obtained by Fleet Captain Sarichef in 1792. Soundings in sazhens. [Scale, 175 sazhens to 1 inch, or I : £4700. | Northeast Corner.—Plan of Captain Harbor, situated in the northern part of Unalaska Island, with adjacent places east and west, as well as the anchoring place and settlement of Iliuliuk,of which the latitude is 53° 55’ north, longitude 166° 43’ west from Greenwich. Varia- tion of the compass, 19° 24’ east. Drawn from the chart of Lieutenant Kotzebue. ~ [Scale, 11% nautical miles to one inch, or 1 : 85000. | Southeast Corner.—Plan of Udagak Strait, between Unalaska and Spirkin Islands. The cape at eastern Beaver Village is in latitude 52° 58’ north, lon- SARICHEF § ATLAS gitude 166° 20’ west from Greenwich. Drawn from information obtained by Fleet Captain Sarichefin 1792. Sound- ings in sazhens. [Scale, 0.97 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I: 71000. | Sheet 16. Chart of Chiniatski Bay, situated in the Island of Kadiak, with the entrance to Paul Harbor and the settlement of the Russian American Company, of which the latitude is 57° 47' 10” north, longitude 152° 18’ 18” west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. Compiled from reports ob- tained in the years 1808, 1809, and 1810 by naval officers formerlystationed there. [Scale, 7 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 64000. | This chart has a sub-sketch of St. Paul Harbor entitled : “Plan of Paul Harborandthe Russian American Company’s settlement, situ- ated upon it, on the Island of Kadiak.”’ ‘[Seale, 60 sazhens to 1 inch, or e-t5O00)||- Sheet 17. Contains four plans (and a ‘ssub-sketch), as follows: Northwest Corner.—Chart of Port ‘Chatham, situated in the entrance to Kenai Gulf (Cook Inlet), on the north- western shore of America. Roadstead, in latitude 59° 14’ 00” north, longitude I51° 40’ west from Greenwich. Varia- tion of the compass, 24° east. Sound- ings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. [Scale, 12 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 68000. | Southwest Corner.—Chart of the north- western part of the Island of Khataga- luk and Nuchek Gulf, situated in lati- tude 60° 1714’ north, longitude 147° oo’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 28° 714’ east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Captain Sarichef. [Scale, 124 nautical miles to 1 inch, Of I : 122000. ] Northeast Corner.—Chart of the en- trance to Three Saints Harbor, situated . pass, 30° east. 89 in the southeastern part of Kadiak Island. Its latitude is 57° 5’ north, longitude 153° 27’ west from Green- wich. Variation of the compass, 26° east. Soundingsinsazhens. From the chart of Captain Sarichef. [Scale, 7g nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 64000. | Southeast Corner.—Chart of Samga- nuda Bay, situated in the northeastern part of Unalaska Island. Its latitude is 53° 57’ north, longitude 166° 32’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the com- pass, 19° east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Captain Sarichef. [Scale, , nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 17000. ] Sheet 18. Contains four plans, as fol- lows: Northwest Corner.—Chart of the en- trance to Port Altorp, in Cross Strait, called by the English Cross Sound, situ- ated in the northern part of Yakobi Island, on the coast of northwestern America. Roadstead’s latitude is 58° 12’ 00” north, longitude 136° 25’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the com- From Vancouver chart. [Scale, ++ nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 27000. | Southwest Corner.—Chart of Altua Bay, situated on the coast of northwest America. Place under the letter A is in latitude 58° 37’ north, longitude 137° 31’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 25° east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of La Pe- rouse. [Seale, 2 nautical mile to rinch, or I : 61000. | Northeast Corner.—Chart of Ilin Bay, situated in Yakobi Island, near Sitka Island. Place A is in latitude 57° 47’ 2” north, longitude 136° 16’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 22° east. Soundingsinsazhens. From the chart of Pilot Tin. [Scale, 37, nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 14000. | Southeast Corner.—Chart of Port Chal- 90 mer, situated in the northwestern part of Tsukli Island. Latitude of point A is 60° 15’ oo” north, longitude 147° 28’ 30” west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 28° 30’ east. Sound- ings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. [Scale, +8 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 61000. | Sheet 19. Chart of Sitka Bay, situ- ated on the northwest coast of America, with indication of the entrance to the chief settlement of the Russian-Ameri- can Company, called New Archangel, of which the geographical latitude is 57° 3 north, longitude 135° 18’ west from Greenwich. Soundings expressed in sazhens. Establishment, 12:30. Rise of water, from 14 to 14% feet. Com- piled from reports obtained by naval officers in 1809. [Seale, 34 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 55000. | Sheet 20. Contains four plans, as fol- lows : Northwest Corner.—Plan of Stewart Bay, situated on the northwest coast of America. Latitude of point A, 55° 38’ /15" north, longitude 131° 47’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 28° 30’ east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver: [Scale, +$ nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 61000. | Southwest Corner.—Plan of Protec- tion Bay, situated on the northwest coast of America, in Beaver Island. latitude of Point Baker, 56° 20’ 30” north, longi- tude 133° 37’ 30” west from Green- wich. Variation of the compass, 26° 30’ east. Soundingsinsazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. [Scale, 32 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 67000. | Northeast Corner.—Plan of Conclu- sion Bay, situated at the south point of Sitka Island, on the shore of Northwest America. Latitude of point A is 56° 15/ 00” north, longitude 134° 40’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the com- Tue NatTionaL GEocRAPHIC MaGAZINE pass, 25° 30’ east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. [Scale, 3 nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 23000. | Southeast Corner.—Plan of Spaskoi Harbor, situated on the northeastern shore of Yakobi Island. Its latitude is £8° 6’ north, longitude 135° 17’ west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Assistant Pilot Bub- nof. [Scale, =; nautical mile to 1 inch, or I : 5200. | Sheet 21. Contains four plans, as fol- lows: Northwest Corner.—Plan of Gray’s Harbor, situated on the northwest coast of America. Latitude of point A, 47° oo’ north, longitude 123° 53’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 18° east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. Southwest Corner.—Chart of Nootka Sound and Bay, situated in Vancouver Island, on the northwest coast of Amer- ica. Soundings in sazhens. Latitude of point A, 49° 36’ north, longitude 126° 24’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 17° 49’ east. From the chart of Cook. Northeast Corner.—Chart of Juan De Fuca Strait and Discovery Harbor, sit- uated in northwest America. Latitude of point A 48° 2’ 30” north, longitude 122° 37’ 30” west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 21° 30’ east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. Southeast Corney.—Chart of entrance to Bucareli Harbor, situated in Beaver Island on the northwestcoast of America. In latitude 55° 15/ north, longitude 133° 35’ west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of La Perouse. Sheet 22. Contains four plans, as fol- lows: Northwest Corner.—Plan of San Diego Harbor on the shore of northwest Amer- ica. Latitude of point A, 32° 42’ 307 SARICHEF S ATLAS north, longitude 117° 1’ 373%” west from Greenwich. Variation of the com- pass, 11° east. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. Southwest Corner.—Plan of Port San Francisco, situated on the shore of northwest America,northern California. Cape Korolei, in latitude 37° 59’ north, longitude 122° 34’ west from Green- wich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of a Perouse. Northeast Corner.—Plan of Monterey Bay, situated on the coast of northwest America, in northern California, in lati- tude 36° 38’ north, longitude 121° 34’ west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of La Perouse. Southeast Corner.—Chart of the en- trance to Columbia River, on the shore of northwest America. Point A, in lati- tude 46° 19’ north, longitude 123° 54’ west, from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Vancouver. Sheet 23. Contains three plans, as follows : Northwest Corner.—Chart of Socoro Island, to the south of Cape California. Latitude of Tent Settlement, on Socoro. Island, is 18° 42’ north, longitude 110° 34’ west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 7° east. Soundings in saz- hens. From the chart of Arrowsmith. Southwest Corner.—Chart of strait in Chugach Gulf (Prince William Sound), ‘in the northwestern part of Klikaklik Island, with indications of the anchor- ing places. Compiled from reports ob- tained in the year 1790 by Captain Sari- chef. Soundings in sazhens. Lati- tude of point A, 59° 56’ north, longitude 148° 24’ west from Greenwich. Lastern Half.—Chart of a part of the shore of northwest America from Fort Rose to Big Bodega Cape, with Count Rumiantsof Bay. Latitude of anchor- ing place, 38° 18’ 30” north, longitude 122° 35’ west from Greenwich. Sound- ings in sazhensatlow water. Variation of the compass, 16° east. From the chart of Captain Hagenmeister. gl Sheet 24. Contains three plans, as follows : Western Flalf.—Chart of Manila Bay, in Luzon Island, situated on the bor- der of the Philippine Islands. Lati- tude of Manila City, 14° 36’ 00” north, longitude 239° 2’ 22’’ west from Green- wich. Soundings in sazhens. From a Spanish chart made in 1792. Northeast Corner.—Chart of Maribel- ski Harbor, situated on the border of the Philippine Islands, in Luzon Island, at the entrance to Manila Bay, on the northern side. Latitude of Maribel Village, 14° 26’ 15’ north, longitude 239° 31/ 30” west, from Greenwich. Sound- ings in sazhens. From a Spanish chart made in 1792, Southeast Corner.—Chart of Cavite Harbor, situated within Manila Bay. Latitude of eastern corner of the fort,14° 29/ 20” north, longitude 239° 5/ 40” west from Greenwich. Soundings in sazhens. From a Spanish chart made rhol 7/O2e Sheet 25. Contains three plans, as follows: Northwest .Corner.—Chart of Kastri Bay (De Castries), situated on the western coast of Tartary, in latitude 51° 29’ north, longitude 218° 57’ west from Greenwich. Soundingsinsazhens. From the atlas made by La Perouse. Southwest Corner.—Chart of Inner Harbor and Macao Roads, situated on the coast of China, of which the lati- tude is 22° 11’ 20” north, longitude 246° 29/ west from Greenwich. Sound- ings in sazhens. From the chart of Arrowsmith. Eastern Holf.—Chart of the Chinese coast from Morskoi Gulf, or Ti-po-hoi, to Tikam Island. Soundings in saz- hens. From the chart of Arrowsmith, published in 18r2. Sheet 26. Contains four plans, as fol- lows: Northwest Corner.—Chart of Brotonof Harbor, situated in the northern part of the chain of the Kurile Islands, of G2 which the latitude is 47° 8’ north, lon- gitude 208° 2’ 30” west from Green- wich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Golofnin. Southwest Corner.—Chart of the east- ern part of Yesso Island from Nosteki Bay to Atkis Bay, of which the latitude is 43° 25’ north, longitude 214° 17’ west from Greenwich. From the chart of Krusenstern. Northeast Corner.—Chart of a harbor in the eastern part of the Kurile Island Urupa, in latitude 45° 56’ 29 north, longitude 209° 45/ 37” west from Green- MAGNETIC Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE wich. Soundings in sazhens. From the chart of Captain Golofnin. Southeast Corner.—Chart of Nanga- saki Bay, situated in Kiuziu, one of the Japanese Islands. Latitude of Megaski, 32° 44’ 50” north, longitude 230° 7’ 20” west from Greenwich. Variation of the compass, 1° 45’ 30” west. Soundings , in sazhens. From the chart of Captain Krusenstern. Sheets 27-33. Entitled, ‘““View of the shores and islands situated in Okhotsk Sea and in parts of the Pacific Ocean.”’ SURVEY OF THE UNITED SaAMe Ss By Dre i. AL Baver, Curr of Division op DerRrsmrucsu MaAGneTisM, Coast AND GEODETIC SURVEY of the Survey of the Coast, as adopted by a board convened on the 30th of March, 1843, by direction of the President of the United States,’’ explicit provision is made for the mak- ing of ‘‘all such magnetic observations as circumstances and the state of the an- nual appropriations may allow.’’ Since then Congress; by more or less generous appropriations, has distinctly recognized the importance of this feature of the work of the Survey. Under the first Superintendent, Prof. F. R. Hassler, the magnetic declination (‘‘variation’’ ) was supplied on the Coast Survey Charts, as determined with the aid of the ordinary nautical instrumental means then in vogue. The real magnetic work of the Sur- vey, however, may be said to have com- menced with Professor Hassler’s suc- cessor, Prof. Alexander Dallas Bache. Professor Bache had previously made a | N the ‘‘Plan for the Reorganization magnetic survey of Pennsylvania, which was not followed until in quite recent years by the magnetic surveys of Mis- souri, New Jersey, Maryland, and North Carolina. He had likewise established the first magnetic observatory in this country—that at Girard College, Phila- delphia—and, while on a trip abroad, had made a series of magnetic observa- tions at various places. Improved magnetic instruments were now imported, and the expert aid of Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati, and Professor Renwick, of Columbia Col- lege, was temporarily employed. The three magnetic elements—declination, dip, and intensity—were determined at various places, chiefly along the sea coast. The work of magnetic observation, thus fairly started, has since been pros- ecuted without interruption over the entire country, including Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands, as well as in some *Abstract of an address before National Geographic Society January 24, 1902. MacnetTic SURVEY OF THE foreign countries, by various members of the Survey. With the advancing years the de- mands for practical information from surveyors and mariners became so heavy that on July 1, 1899, there was created a special division, known as the ‘‘ Division of Terrestrial Magnetism.’’ The magnetic work has thus been made one of the fundamental divisions of the work of the Survey, and it is now possible to undertake seriously a mag- netic survey of the United States and countries under its jurisdiction according to the methods in use in similar under- takings abroad. Nearly every civilized country is at present either planning or has already carried out a detailed mag- netic survey of its dominions. OBJECTS OF A MAGNETIC SURVEY A magnetic needle or compass does not point ‘‘ true to the Pole,’’ as the old saying would have it, and as was dis- covered by Columbus on September 13, 1492, but instead makes an angle with the true north and south line, this angle being anything you please, according to, the location of the place where the com- pass is mounted. Thus, in the United States, in the extreme northeastern part of Maine, a compass points 21 degrees west of north, while in the northwestern part of the state of Washington it points 23 degrees east of north; hence a change of 44 degrees from one end of our coun- try to the other. There are portions of the earth where the ‘‘north’’ end of the needle points due east or due west, and even for a place between the mag- netic North Pole and the geographical North Pole due south. In view then of the fact of the use of the compass by the surveyor to locate land surveys, by the mariner to guide him in storm and night, over trackless seas, and by the traveler to pilot him in unfrequented regions of the earth, it becomes the first object of magnetic sur- veys to determine the amount by which UNinEDISmArEsT Oi the compass direction differs from the true direction, and to publish the quanti- ties in such a form so that those inter- ested may, at a glance, be able to extract the desired information. The chart of lines of equal magnetic declination in the United States for 1900, based on over 4,000 determinations in different parts of the country, is aspecimen of the form now generally adopted for giving this information in a convenient form. At the places along any one line, e. ¢., the line marked 8 degrees east, passing through about the central part of the United States, the needle everywhere points 8 degrees east. Along the line marked zero, passing near Columbus, Ohio, and Columbia, South Carolina, the compass direction coincides with the true direction and the needle is ‘‘ true to the Pole,’’ ete. Next, attention is called to the fact that such a chart can only apply to a certain year—thus our present chart is for January 1, 1g900—namely, not only does the needle not generally point due north, as already shown, but the amount of the angle by which it departs there- from is continually undergoing change, during the day, during the month, and from-year to year. ‘Thus, at London, for example, the needle changed its direc- tion from 1114 degrees east in 1580 to 24 degrees 12 minutes west in 1812, a change of 35 degrees in 232 years. A street a mile long, laid out in London during the year 1580, in the direction of the compass at that time, would have its northerly terminus by seven-tenths of a mile too far east, according to the compass direction of 1812. At the pres- ent time the needle points about 161% degrees west at London. In this country the rate of change in the compass direction is not as large as at London, but nevertheless of sufficient magnitude to seriously affect the mag- netic bearings of boundary lines. Thus, at Baltimore the needle pointed in 1670 about 6 degrees and 6 minutes west; in o QSe 1802, 39 minutes west, and in 1900, 5 degrees west. A street laid out in Bal- timore in 1670 so as to run parallel to the compass direction prevailing at that time would have its north terminus one- tenth of a mile too far west in 1802. This change in the compass direction, known as its secular change, was discov- ered by Gellibrand, an English mathe- matician, in 1634. Even in the course of a day the fitful needle changes its direction by an amount sufficient to be taken into ac- count. ‘This amount, according to the season of the year, may cause a dis- crepancy of from 5 to 20 feet at the terminus of a line a mile long run by the compass in the morning and re-run in the afternoon. Again, at times the needle’s direc- tion, by some subtle force, is abruptly changed out of its course. ‘This is the case during magnetic storms which make their influence felt over a very large portion of the globe at practically the same instant of time. ‘Thus, in November, 1882, during the period of maximum number of sun spots, oc- curred a magnetic storm which caused the needle at Los Angeles, California, to change its direction by more than a de- gree and a third. At the same time General Greely, at Lady Franklin Bay, in the Arctic region, noted a deflection of 20 degrees and 48 minutes. Frequently these magnetic storms are accompanied by brilliant displays of polar lights. There are, in addition, many minor fluctuations, depending upon the posi- tion of the sun and the moon with refer- ence to the earth and to each other. We can follow with our eyes the sun in its apparent motion around the earth, and can behold many of the manifold changes ever taking place in our starry firmament, but here is something in the earth, invisible to us, that we call mag- netism, which day by day, year in, year out, passes through its cycle of changes—a force powerful enough to bend every bit of magnetized steel out THe Nationa GrocrapHic MAGAZINE of its regular course and to compel the needle to march in perfect obedience to its will ! We thus see that it is possible to por- tray the state of the earth’s magnetic condition, as represented by magnetic maps, only for a definite moment of time. ‘The tides, the trade winds, while subject to definite periodic fluctuations, nevertheless will not change their gen- eral character for thousands of years, but a few years suffice to materially change and make useless a cartographical rep- resentation of the magnetic lines. The second great object of a magnetic survey must, therefore, be to provide such means, in order that a continuous record be obtained of the countless fluc- tuations and vagaries of the magnetic needle. Itis then possible to always bring our magnetic charts up to date, and to provide the surveyor and mariner with the precise amount of change be- tween any two given dates. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has made an exhaustive and careful compi- lation of all the available data for the past three centuries as obtained from various sources, and the practical in- formation which it is in the position to furnish in reference to inquiries from lawyer and surveyor is regarded as final and authoritative throughout-the country. The amount of money saved to land-owners in the prevention of costly litigations by the information thus furnished exceeds many times the total amount spent by the government for magnetic work. Furthermore, in connection with the magnetic survey, certain base stations are established, where are erected magnetic observatories, in which are mounted sensitive magnetic instru- ments, recording photographically, day and night, the variations or changes of the magnetic needle. Such a station has been established 16 miles southeast of the city of Washington, at Chelten- ham, Maryland, far removed from arti- ficial disturbing influences, such as elec- Macnetic SurRvEY OF THE UNITED STATES tric car lines, whose powerful influence may affect magnetic instruments five miles away. Similar stations have also been established at Baldwin, near Law- rence, Kansas; at Sitka, Alaska, and near Honolulu, in the Hawaiian Islands, in order to assist in the magnetic survey of those regions. All of these observa- tories are furthermore taking part in the international magnetic work conducted in cooperation with the present Arctic and Antarctic Expeditions. The practical application of magnetic data. is, however, not entirely limited to a knowledge of the direction of the com- pass needle. The mariner, with the modern iron ship now in use, carries with him a continuous source of disturb- ance, so that his uncompensated com- pass will fail to give even the true mag- netic direction for the ship’s position. It is therefore necessary to apply such counteracting or correcting devices which will annul toa large extent the ship’s magnetic influence. "These me- chanical devices are not, however, en- D5 tirely compensatory for all the places a ship is likely to be in, owing to the changing character of the ship’s own magnetism, and so the mariner must determine a table of correction (the so- called deviation table) for the different positions and directions of the ship’s head. For this purpose a knowledge of the dip of the magnetic needle (the angle by which a magnetic needle mounted in the vertical plane passing through the magnetic meridian is pulled down by the earth’s magnetic force) and the intensity of the magnetic force are essential. The electrician, the geolo- gist, and the physicist likewise desire a knowledge of these quantities. They are furthermore essential in ascertaining the precise laws underlying the varia- tions of the earth’s magnetism. A complete magnetic survey, there- fore, embraces the determinations of the three magnetic elements, magnetic dec- lination (variation of the compass), dip, and intensity, and their changes from time to time. ° (0) aX gow. 10° W. 1B ION Lines of Equal Magnetic Declination (Variation of the Compass) and Equal Magnetic Dip for the Year rg0o SVEN HEDIN IN TIBET R. JOHN B. JACKSON, Secre- M tary of the United States Em- bassy at Berlin, sends to this Magazine an abstract of a letter from Sven Hedin-to King Oscar of Sweden, describing Sven Hedin’s march across Tibet. Ihe letter is dated at Leh, India, December 20, Igor, and was received at Stockholm late in January of this year. During the last three years that he has been in Asia, Sven Hedin has explored and mapped six thousand miles of territory previously unknown to civilization. He has taken over 4,000 photographs and sketches. This expedition, in its results, is the most important he has ever made, and marks him as one of the most dauntless, accurate, and original explorers of his- tory. Before the publication of the more scientific results of his journey he will write a large book for the public describing his travels. An account of his work during the first two years of the expedition appeared on page 393, volume xii, of this Magazine. Dr. Sven Hedin left his headquarters in northern Tibet July 27, 1901, and, disguised as a Buryat and accompanied only by Lama, a Mongolian belonging to the caravan, also disguised as a Bur- yat, set out on his march to the south. They carried only absolute necessities, but when two days out were attacked by robbers and relieved of various arti- cles besides their two best horses. This taught them the need of night watches, so they took turns in watching every night three hours at a time, which was a hardship, for it was the rainy season, and it poured. ‘The further south they went the more wet it became, until at last the ground was little better than a deep morass, which threatened to en- gulf them. But they worked through, and at last reached inhabited land, where the black tents of the nomads greeted them and the rich grass prom- ised fine feed for their cattle. Lama was able to communicate with these nomads, and was shown the way toward Lhasa. They went on for two hard days’ marches, when one evening they were suddenly halted by some native chiefs. Three soldiers appeared before their tents and informed them shortly that they were to consider themselves pris- oners and forbidden to attempt to escape under penalty of death. They were very well treated, however. Every- thing they required was supplied, but they were kept in ignorance of what was to become of them pending the arrival of the ‘‘ banbo,’’ the governor of the province, who had been notified of their capture, and who would on his arrival decide what was to be done with them. Meanwhile their anxiety was increased by the departure of a large force, fully armed, back on the track, and they feared that an attack on their headquarters was contemplated. Fi- nally the banbo arrived, and word was sent to Hedin that he would receive him. ‘To this Hedin replied that he had no special desire tosee him, but thatif his excellency desired to meet him he was always to be found in his tent! The result was that the governor, accom- panied by 67 chiefs and courier soldiers, appeared at his tent, gorgeously ap- parelled. They informed Hedin that he was known to be an Englishman, and that it was impossible to allow him to proceed to Lhasa. He was also informed that they were aware that he had a large caravan in the north, which was attempt- ing to enter his province of Nokktgin, and accordingly all northern entrances were strongly guarded. he banbo then gave Hedin presents of horses, sheep, etce., and returned him to the border as a prisoner of war under guard of 20 soldiers. They reached their caravan on the AMERICAN PROGRESS IN HABANA 28th of August, very thankful to have escaped so easily, and found all in good order. After necessary rest the whole caravan continued its way in a south- westerly direction, determined to keep on their course until stopped again by the Tibetans. This happened in ashort time, on the east side of the Naaksang- Tfo Lake, where an embassy from Lhasa stopped them. It was 300 riders strong, heavily armed with guns, swords, and pikes. Heasked them what would happen if in spite of their command he insisted on pushing to thesouth. ‘‘ We will fire upon the caravan,’’ was the steady reply. He attempted to make it clear to the good people that each of his forces could easily dispose of at least AMERICAN: PROGRESS HE city of Habana has so long | been considered as a sort of nurs- ery of diseases for the United States that the average American cit- izen finds it hard to realize that today Habana is clear and pure, more healthy than Washington and many cities on the American continent. Unenviable has been the record of the Cuban cap- ital; yellow fever, typhoid fever, and filth diseases have found a luxurious home there for one hundred years. In 1896 1,262 deaths from yellow fever alone were reported by the city govern- ment. In 1899, the year of least yellow fever during eleven years, 1889-1899, 1or1 persons died in Habana with the dreaded pest. The average for the eleven years was 440 fatal cases. In 1go1, for the first time in the history of the city, the yellow fever season—A pril 1 to January 1—has passed with only five fatal cases of the disease occurring. October, November,and December, 1901, the months during which the fever was wont to play the fastest, each came and went without a single case. 7) 36 Tibetans, and that their fire would be of no great danger to them. ‘The chief considered on this argument that it would be as well for both parties to attempt to come to some understanding without shooting. Hedin then con- tinued on the march in a westerly direc- tion, being accompanied in good-fellow- ship by the ‘Tibetan guard. Near Tyargutso the troops were augmented by 500 riders, and it was not for several weeks that they became convinced that Hedin and his party did not intend to profane their holy city, and the stately cavalcade left them to pursue their way alone to Panggong and Leh, where they arrived in good condition on the morn- ing of the 20th of December, rgot. JUIN(> JSUALIB VAC INTAN The wise, conscientious, persistent measures which for three years the United States officers have been enfore- ing throughout Habana, despite the op- position and dislike of the Cubans, have delivered the city of its old foes—filth and filth diseases. The illustrations that accompany this brief paper show strikingly the contrast between Habana of the past and Ha- bana of today. ‘The pictures were loaned to this Magazine by Major Wm. M. Black, of the Engineer Corps of the U.S. Army. On the United States oc- cupation of Habana, January, 1899, to Major Black was given charge of the engineering work of the city, and to him are due in large measure the splen- did results that have been achieved. His courageous and broad-minded en- thusiasm overcame prejudice and oppo- sition and found inexpensive methods of accomplishing tasks which were thought impracticable because of their supposed cost. By the end of the second year of American occupation every house in Cleaning Houses on Officios Street, Habana 5 aly No AMERICAN PROGRESS IN the city had been cleaned from top to bottom at least once under the super- vision of American officers. Picture No. 1 shows the cleaning squad in front of a house which was about to be at- tacked. "The squad washed the floors with electrozone (made by the elec- trolysis of sea water) and the walls with a solution of bichloride of mercury. As many as 16,000 houses were cleaned in this way in a single month. When the squad left a house it was as clean and spotless as ‘‘ Spotless Town.’’ All this cleansing was done by hired Cubans under the personal direction of an Amer- ican officer. The Cuban of high or low degree had to have his house purified, and his remonstrances availed nothing. It may at first sight seem to have been an arbitrary course of proceedings, to enter a man’s house thus and wash it while he and his family looked on, but No. 2. HABANA YY) the health and safety of the whole people demanded that a complete cleans- ing of the city be made. The sights that met the cleaning squad may be im- agined but not described. Accumula- tions of years and decades of filth were heaped in cellars and courts and closets. The cleaning of the houses, however, was not a circumstance to the work of opening and cleaning the sewers. These had not been touched since they were built, long ago. Years of refuse had choked many of them, so that the system had become a continual source of danger to the city. Without hesitation, how- ever, they were attacked by the ener- getic squads and every foot of sewer thoroughly cleansed and repaired. So scientifically was the work done that, though the men were working deep down in the ground all day long, not a single man of the squads was taken sick. —< Hospital Wii\i: Hospital Militar, Habana Vor 99 1900, Monseratle St. /308, Before American Occupation Noi 3: The wretched shanties on the left were breeding d ens of disease Aeme partes[o useq aAvy soueys oy, uonrdnsg Uvowemy Iayy ‘yon THE 102 NaTIonaL GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE When the United States troops en- tered Habana the building shown in picture No. 2, though intended for a hospital, was notorious as probably the most vile building hygienically in the world. Between 60 and 70 per cent of the patients carried there died within its walls. Even the American doctors shunned the place, and soldiers passing literally held their breath. The first thing the American officers did was to cleanse it from top to bottom ; then they put several thick coats of whitewash on its walls, and made the building, which is as large as two city blocks, as spick and span as a Yankee kitchen. ‘The hospital is now used as a school-house for 7oo children. ‘The top floor has been remodeled into school-rooms, and fur- nished throughout with the latest Amer- ican improvements. A gymnasium, with A Section of the Colon Park, Habana, when the United States Officers Assumed Control of the City a complete equipment, was added, and the basement turned into a warehouse. Today there is not a healthier spot in Habana than this building, which for years had been a hot-house of vice and disease. The hovels on the left, in picture No. 3, were formerly breeding dens of disease. They had been built on pub- lic parking by some investor who had bribed the Spanish officials to overlook his appropriation of public property. The miserable huts were crowded with the refuse of humanity, and the investor and disease had reaped equally rich harvests. One of the first things the new administration did was to tear down the row. Picture No. 4 shows the transformation. The high wall on the left is a part of the old city wall, of which only this small section remains. AMERICAN PROGRESS IN HABANA No. 6. The Same Section of the The parking inside the wall belongs to the people. The former condition of Colon Park is shown by picture No. 5. The park had run to weeds and coarse grass. It was not only unattractive because of its general untidiness, but quite unsafe for women and children. At night-time it was haunted by thieves and thugs. ‘To pass by after dark was to risk being held up and robbed of one’s purse or even of one’s clothes. Today the park is one of the pleasure spots of Habana. Children and nurse girls throng the walks in the daytime. In the evening it isa popular promenade for the people. The walks have been cleaned, the grass and trees trimmed, new trees and shrub$ planted, benches have been placed under the trees, and at night-time electric lamps keep the park bright and safe. Colon Park a Few Months Later Picture No. 7 represents a typical street of Habana in 1898. ‘This street was then regarded as quite a good one. Picture No. 8 shows the same street after the American officers had been in the city afew months. The holes and stones have disappeared and in their stead 1s a hard, smooth, well-drained way. One hundred and twelve miles of streets in Habana and its suburbs have undergone this transformation. The width of the streets ranges from 4.4 meters to 13 meters. The engineers had a problem on their hands to remake such narrow thorough- fares without blocking the traffic, but they solved the problem, and the work progressed rapidly without interruption to the stream of carts and vehicles. During the repairing of one street, which was only 4.4 meters wide, between the hours of 6 a. m. and 6 p. m. Major a setae —% ME ed A Street in Habana Before United States Occupation ING, 7. uorjyednds9Q $93¥IG prapUG Jo SYWoyY aM], IW JooNG ames oT, 8 ON 106 Black counted 2,371 vehicles passing one point; during the busiest part of the day 324 passed in a single hour. On another street, 6 meters wide, 2,500 vehicles passed a certain point in one working day. The streets were washed as thor- oughly as the houses, 33,000 gallons of electrozone often being used in one day for this purpose. This electrozone proved very effective, and is a compara- tively new idea in street cleaning. It had been used in New York previously with partial success. Major Black heard of it and succeeded in introduc- ing it into Cuba. Electrozone costs very little, as it is made by the electrol- ysis of sea water by the cheap process discovered by an American several years ago. ‘Two strengths were used: one, of a very strong quality, for a disinfect- No. 9. Tue NatTIonaAL GeEoGRAPHIC MaGaAZINE ant, and the other, of a weak quality, for a deodorizer. The magnificent sea sya and prom- enade shown in picture No. 9 was built under Major Black’s personal direction. The promenade is placed at the end of the Prado, the wide avenue which is a favorite drive of the inhabitants. For- merly the beach was the dumping ground of everything offensive to the nose and eye. The stones in front of the wall are designed to break the force of the surf. When the plan of building this wall was announced a great outcry arose about American extravagance, and the government was charged with scheming to squander a quarter of a million dol- lars of the people’s money. As a matter of fact, the wall cost about $10,000. Its cheapness has been a wonder to the citizens of the town, The Sea Wall Built at the End of the Prado Promenade by Major Black i No. ro. Cleaning the Barracks 108 THE who are accustomed to generations of officials careless of the course of public funds. It is now planned to continue the wall some distance further. Thou- sands of people come here for their daily promenade to watch the breaking of the great waves and enjoy the fresh breezes from the sea. It should be remembered that every dollar spent for the improvements of the capital and elsewhere in the island of Cuba has come from the pockets of the Cubans, and not one cent from the United States. The Cubans have not liked the pro- cess which has made them cleaner and healthier. If they could have voted on it, probably they would have vetoed to a man the house and street cleaning prop- osition. What was good enough for CUBAN NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE their fathers and grandfathers was quite good enough for them. But now that the parks have been made enjoyable and sea promenades built where they can loaf at ease and in safety, they begin to take pride in the improvements to their capital. The reputation of the city of Habana is rapidly changing for the better. The beautiful surroundings which Nature has given it and the mildness of its cli- mate in winter make the city a Paradise to northerners during the harsh season of the year. ‘There are many who believe that Palm Beach and the winter resorts of Florida are many times eclipsed by the charms of the Cuban capital, and that in the near future it will rightly become the most popular of American winter resorts. RAILWAYS By Arspert G. RosBinson UBA was no laggard in the adop- C tion of steam railways as a means of transportation. I have not at hand the date of the opening of the first Cuban railway, a 43-mile line from Habana to Guines, but it came within a few years of the opening of the first American line. Following a concession granted by Governor General Tacon in 1837, the Puerto Principe and Nuevitas line was opened in 1851. ‘The Matan- zas-Sabanilla road was opened in 1854. Others followed until, at the time of the American occupation, on January I, 1899, Cuba could boast of 124 rail- roads, with a total length of 2,100 miles, representing a valuation of $70,000,000. The Puerto Principe-Nuevitas system deserves a passing note for its peculi- arity. Its capital is $1,000,000, repre- sented by eight shares, though no printed stock certificates have ever been issued. It is practically a private cor- poration. Threestockholders ate elected annually to serve as a director, a treas- urer, and a secretary. ‘They serve without pay and are not eligible for re- election. The road has neither mort- - gage nor outstanding indebtedness. Its expenses are paid from its receipts. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900, its earnings were $292,442.42. Its oper- ating expenses were $191,130.33, leav- ing $124,312.88, which was paid as dividends to its eight stockholders. The number of Cuban railways (124) seems out of proportion to the mileage until it is understood that only 17 are public lines. ‘The remaining 107 are private roads for the transportation of sugar-cane in the vicinity of the large centrales, or grinding mills. The 17 public lines cover 1,135 miles. Of this all except 162 miles are in the western Cupsan Ratiways half of the island. ‘The system of the eastern half is represented by four short lines running to interior points from the ports of Santiago, Guantanamo, Gibara, and Nuevitas, and by a Spanish military road across the island, along the line of the Jucaro-Moron trocha. This was constructed with the expecta- tion that it would enable the Spanish army to limit insurgent activities to the region of their inception—the provinces of Santiago and Puerto Principe. Much the larger part of the Cuban railway system is now in the hands of English companies. English capital was represented prior to the insurrec- tion, and its holdings have been largely increased during recent years, notably about the time of the American occupa- tion. Purchases were made at prices which American investors did not care to touch, in view of the condition of the properties and the uncertainty of those prompt returns which are a much more important item in the mind of the Amer- ican investor than they are in the mind of his English competitor in the world of finance. The principal systems, five in number, represent about nine-elev- enths of all the public lines. ‘These are under English control, though some American money is represented among the stockholders. The private roads are practically feeders to the public lines, though some run to coast ports. Thus the United Fruit Company operates 29 miles of rail- way, with 7 locomotives and 300 cars. This runs from the company’s planta- tions to the shipping port of Banes. The ‘Terry estate operates some 65 miles of road, with 16 locomotives and 700 ears. Of the private lines which con- nect with the public lines, some use their own equipment and some use the equip- ment of the lines with which they con- nect. The 107 roads represent an in- vestment of nearly $12,000,000. At the close of the war many of these lines, both public and private, were in 109 exceedingly bad condition as a result of the destructive methods employed by the contending parties. Equipment had been wrecked, stations burned, bridges and culverts blown up, and road-bed neglected. ‘Travel over them meant so many hours of misery at exorbitant rates of fare. There has been a notable im- provement in physical conditions, but the rates are still excessive. ‘These aver- age about 7 cents per mile for first-class passengers and about 5 cents per mile for second-class. On some runs I have paid as high as 12 cents per mile. Freight rates are also exorbitant, and a serious detriment to the welfare and the development of the country. Some effort is now being made to effect a modification of rates by military order, though the legality of the step is some- what doubtful. But the railway feature of the great- est importance in the island is the line which is now in process of construction by Sir William Van Horne and his asso- ciates of the Cuba Central Railway. This will connect at Santa Clara with -the lines now-running from Havana to Cienfuegos. It will extend eastward for a distance of some 350 miles, va Ciego de Avila, Puerto Principe, and [Las ‘Tunas, to the Bay of Nipe, on the north- eastern coast, which will become a prom- inent port of shipment. Nipe is per- haps the best harbor on the whole Cuban coast line. This company has also pur- chased the short line now running north- ward from Santiago. This will be ex- tended to the main line from Santa Clara to Nipe. With these lines completed, there will be railway connection from Santiago to Pinar del Rio, a distance of some 600 miles. The benefits of thissystem are not to be estimated. It will open a vast area of fertile land for cultivation and set- tlement. ‘The railway project is, in fact, little more than an incident in a great scheme of insular development. The road will tap, by means of radiating I1Lo lines, the country to north and south of itscourse. It will open for profitable cultivation an area of approximately 10,000,000 acres, or about one-third of the total acreage of the island, hitherto practically undeveloped. Alongits route there will be sugar estates and cattle ranges. ‘There will also be groves and orchards. Small farmers will grow veg- etables and small fruits for our winter market. Nipe Bay is but 60 hours distant from New York by such steamers as will one day run between the ports. Trains from inland points, connecting with these steamers, will bring us, for winter con- sumption, fresh vegetables, strawberries, and other small fruits grown under nat- ural conditions and laid down in our Tue Nationa GrocraPHic MAGAZINE eastern cities during the season when such a supply is most acceptable. Cuba has yet to pass through a period of political stress and trial, and probably through a period of financial liquida- tion. Her political problems will be solved, probably at no distant day, by her absorption into the American Union. In the solution of her financial and in- dustrial problems, the extension and development of her railway system will be an important, if not the determining, factor. Upon the ashes of her insur- rection, and out of the throes of political reconstruction, there will come a new Cuba, a land of law and order, of peace and plenty. Cuba will become in fact as well as in name The Pearl of the Antilles. Iss SIORIMG Old ICU Areas, 1OO2 HE tempestuous weather of Feb- ruary, 1902, culminated in one of the most remarkable storms in the history of the Weather Service. The storm came direct from the Pacific, striking the Washington, Oregon, and California coasts almost simultaneously, early Tuesday morning, February 25, 1902. Inthe next 24 hours its front had pushed well across the Rocky Mountains, leaving a trailof rain from San Diego and the desert region of the Southwest to the northern boundary. ‘Twelve hours later—that is, at 8 p. m., 75th meridian time—Wednesday, February 26, it had debouched over the dry plains east of the Rocky Mountains as a violent wind storm without precipitation. The winds at the storm center on Wednesday were relatively light—ro to 12 miles per hour—but around the periphery of the storm, in the southwest quadrant, espe- cially, winds of 60 to 70 miles per hour prevailed. The movement of the storm after leav- ing Oklahoma, where it was central Wednesday evening, was quite slow. It reached southwestern Missouri by 8 o’clock Thursday morning, and eastern Iowa by Friday morning at the same hour. ‘Thence it moved slowly north- eastward into the upper lake region, where it was last observed Saturday evening, March 1. ‘The effect of the slow movement of the storm during and subsequently to the time of recurving in Oklahoma and Arkansas was to set the air east of the Rocky Mountains in motion around the storm center in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch. ‘The weather map of Friday, February 28, 1902, il- lustrates the whirling of the air about a central point most beautifully, and at the same time presents the rather unique spectacle of the entire surface stratum of air, from the Rocky Moun- tains to the Atlantic, circling in a gi- gantic whirl about a single storm center. This circulation naturally produced striking contrasts in the weather expe- rienced in widely separated parts of the Ns. 299 298 297 256295" Weather Map, 8 a. m., February 28, 1902 Solid lines are isobars; broken lines are isotherms. The shaded portion of the map indicates the area over which precipitation has occurred during the 12 hours preceding 8 a. m., 25th meridian time, February 28, 1902. The arrows point in the direction in which the wind is blowing. I12 country : high temperatures, thunder- storms, and torrential rains in the south- ern and southeastern quadrants ; rain, hail, and snow in the northwestern and western quadrants. The high temper- atures and heavy rains, coming as they did after a brief period of rainy weather, conspired to swell the rivers and small streams of the south and east to danger- ous and destructive stages. ‘The flood in the Ohio River at Pittsburg was equal to that of 1884, but fell short of the great flood in 1832 by about two and a half feet. The monetary loss in damage to Tue Nationa GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE property, loss of wages and earnings in the city of Pittsburg alone will aggre- gate $1,250,000. The remarkably low barometric press- ure, not only in the center of the storm (28.68 inches, Friday morning, at Day- enport, Iowa), but from ocean to ocean, was doubtless due to the rapid move- ment of several areas of low pressure across the United States, each low being followed in turn by a second low before pressure had risen appreciably in the rear of the first. ALFRED J. HENRY. NG RAGWEED WISE INAS ASS IKGAS HE article in this number by Prof. C. C. Georgeson, special agent, Department of Agricult- ure, upon the agricultural possibilities of Alaska, will doubtless be read with much interest. It is an excellent pre- sentation of the subject from an ex- tremely optimistic point of view. It is easy to understand how an agriculturist, meeting with success in a land which has always been considered a frozen, worthless waste, and who, through the employment of careful, scientific methods, 1s rewarded by the growth and maturity of cereals and vege- tables, could become enthusiastic over the productivity of Alaskan soil and the possible results awaiting its cultivation. Professor Georgeson is sincere, but his error (for most scientists familiar with Alaska believe him to be in error) lies in the fact that his enthusiastic state- ments are in danger of leading the reader to believe that agriculture on a commer- cial scale is possible in Alaska. While it is admittedly true that hardy grains and vegetables have been brought to maturity at various points on the coast and in the interior, the climate must always prevent this northwestern terri- tory from becoming a successful farming region. Tobe successful, farm products must be grown at a less expense than they can be raised in California, Oregon, or Washington, plus the cost of trans- portation. Wedo not think that Pro- fessor Georgeson would maintain that farmers upon the Alaskan coast could compete in their home markets with the Pacific states. Inthe interior of Alaska, where climatic conditions are more favor- able than upon the coast, the summers being hotter and less moist, and where home products would be protected by higher transportation rates, it may be possible to maintain successful competi- tion, although that is a matter yet to be demonstrated. HENRY GANNETT. GEOGRAPHIC NOTES DR. BELL’S SURVEY IN BAFFINLAND ce AFFINLAND isa large island on the west side of Baffin Bay, or op- posite to Greenland. It stretches from Hudson Strait northwestwards through twelve degrees of latitude, or from 61° 40’ to 74° north. It is the third largest island in the world, being only exceeded by Greenland and Australia. Its total length is 1,005 English statute miles, and its breadth varies from 200 to 500 miles, the average being 305. “The area is therefore about 300,000 square miles, or about ten times that of Scotland or Ireland. It forms, however, only about one-tenth of the superficies of the Do- minion of Canada. Notwithstanding its immense extent, it appears to be of no great value, since it is composed, as far as we know, of barren rocks, partly cov- ered with ice.’? So writes Dr. Robert Bell, Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, in a summary account of work printed in the Geographical Journal for July, rgor. the summer of 1897, from July 20, when the Diana put off the survey party in a little yacht (with a year’s supplies against emergency) on the stormy and tide-swept coast, until September 12, when they were taken up by the same vessel. The coast-line was found ex- ceedingly complex and bordered by lit- eral thousands of islands—z. e., the country from North Bay nearly to Fox Channel is a deeply incised plateau, in- clining westward, and half submerged beneath the waters of Hudson Strait. The interior is mainly bleak and barren, with scant herbage in places, a meager fauna, and an Eskimo population esti- mated at 670 for the whole of Baffin- land. Much of the land is a permanent ice-field like interior Greenland, and glaciers of great extent feed bergs to the adjacent seas ; while in the compar- atively ice-free interior there are several The survey occupied ° great lakes, hundreds of lakelets, and many rivers. Dr. Bell discovered Lake Amadjuak, about 120 miles long and 40 miles broad, at an altitude of about 290 feet, and, through Eskimo accounts, located the still larger Lake Nettelling at a somewhat lower level; while the coast surveys located a number of safe harbors. ‘The local nomenclature ap- plied by Dr. Bell is a monument to con- temporary geography and geology ; the National Geographic Society Board is perpetuated by McGee Lake, Gannett Lake, Gilbert Lake, Merriam Lake, Hyde Lake, and Greely Lake; Powell Lake, Winchell Lake, Walcott Lake, Stevenson Lake, Franz Boas Lake, Orton Lake, Emerson Lake, Bailey Island, Chamberlin Island, and Cape Salisbury commemorate well-known American geologists and geographers, and British geographers, geologists, and other per- sonages are equally remembered, while McKinley Island and Hobart Island pay compliment to the neighboring nation ; yet the old nomenclature, from Fro- bisher down, is retained for larger fea- tures, and the local Eskimo names are applied wherever known. W J McGEE. NOTABLE WORK ON ALASKA R. MARCUS BAKER is the au- thor of an official geographic dictionary of Alaska just published by theU.S. Geological Survey. It consists of 450 pages packed with information, descriptive, geographic, and historical, on the Alaskan territory. "The volume is a summary of almost every fact about Alaska which the American wants to know but does not know where to find. Mr. Baker has been working a number ~ of years on this work. ‘Ten years ago the Board of Geographic Names decided to prepare a geographic dictionary of Alaska, and appointed a committee con- 114 sisting of Mr. Herbert G. Ogden and Mr. Marcus Baker to conduct the work. Later the editorship devolved on Mr. Baker. The introduction to the work explains the origin of Alaskan names. Naturally many of the names were bestowed by the Russians prior to the purchase of Alaska by the United States. A few of the names were given by Spanish ex- plorers along the southern coast during the last quarter of the 18th century. Cook, Vancouver, Captain Beechey, and other Englishmen also named many capes and headlands. Americans did not begin bestowing names in Alaska until 1848, but since that time they have bestowed many hundreds. But, as Mr. Baker says, the most important are the names given by the natives, Eskimo and Indian. Perhaps the most valuable feature of this very notable work is a list of the dif- ferent exploring expeditions of Alaska, with a brief summary of the results of each expedition and references to the separate published reports. An idea of the patient and exact scholarship re- quired to bring the work to such a suc- cessfultermination may be obtained from the fact that over 7,000 names are in- cluded in the dictionary. ‘The volume may be obtained from the Geological Survey for the nominal sum of 30 cents. MOUNT ATHOS Tis a firm belief of the Eastern monks that God will not allow a monas- tery to be burned. When the Russian monasteryof Saint Pantelemon at Mount Athos was burned a few years ago, the Greeks, who constitute the great major- ity of the 6,000 monks on the peninsula, maintained that their Russian brethren had brought the calamity on themselves because they had fire-engines and ex- tinguishers and did not trust wholly in God. Now the neighboring Greek mon- astery of Saint Paul, which had no fire- Tue NarionaL GrocrapHic Macazine engines, has recently, together with all its treasures, been utterly destroyed by fire. This was one of the more modern and less populous of the twenty monasteries which dot Mount Athos. It was erected in the 14th century and had less than 60 inmates. But its reliquary possessed many Byzantine objects of great inter- est, the more remarkable being a Byzan- tine model of Herod’s temple and a silver cross, 3 feet 1 inch inlength, covered with jewels and exquisite miniature portraits of the saints in enamel. The library consisted of about 120 manuscripts, the majority in Slavic and a few in Greek. Most of the monks came from the Ionian Islands, and though those islands passed from the control of Great Britain in 1862, were commonly called ‘‘ Eng- lishmen’’ by their coreligionists. This is said to have been the only monastery at Mount’ Athos which has ever been visited by-a woman. ‘The wife of a British embassador landed from her yacht one day on its tiny pier and in- sisted on entering the church. In con- sequence the monks, relieving each other by relays, for 40 days and nights main- tained a continuous service of prayer to purify the church from this contamina- tion. BUREAU OF FORESTRY HE important work the Bureau of Forestry is doing in promoting in- terest in the welfare of the forests of the country and the large results obtained in rgor are described by the Forester, Mr. Gifford Pinchot, in his last annual report. The Bureau is now giving prac- tical assistance and advice in the man- agement of 50,000,000 acres of national, state, and private forest lands, an area larger than the state of Nebraska. An efficient organization of trained men has been formed, whose esprit de corps and enthusiasm is most marked. During the year 1901 38 private own- GeocraPHic Nores ers applied to the Bureau for assistance in the care of their forest lands ; these included lumber companies in Arkansas, Missouri, New York, and Maine, and Hon. William C. Whitney. In each case a working plan was made for the owner. An examination of the Black Hills Forest Reserve, where practical forestry is urgently needed, was made, and a working plan for the reserve is nearly ready. ‘The Prescott, Big Horn, and Priest River forest reserves were also examined for the same purpose. Mr. Pinchot announces that an ex- tensive investigation of the forest condi- tions of Nebraska has been carried far enough to show that it is feasible to replant large areas hitherto believed to be permanently treeless. The forests of Texas have been carefully studied and will form the subject of an early special report. Many owners of unprofitable cleared or treeless lands have received assistance from the Bureau, and by re- planting have made these lands of value. The Bureau of Foresty is studying the native trees of the United States and Philippines that yield commercial tan- barks, resins, and gums. As many as 50 species are being tested in conjunc- tion with the Bureau of Chemistry. Another investigation of the greatest importance aims to find the causes and prevention of decay of railroad ties and timber, and to discover what trees will produce railroad ties in the shortest time. LOSS OF LIFE BY LIGHTNING ROM 700 to 800 persons are killed annually in the United States from lightning strokes, is the estimate given by Prof. A. J. Henry in a bulletin on the subject recently published by the U.S. Weather Bureau. For some years the Weather Bureau has been seeking to ascertain the loss of life from this cause, and in 1900 received actual rec- ords of 713 fatal cases of lightning stroke. This number was obtained from It5 the reports of the many officials of the Bureau throughout the country and from lightning cases cited in the news- papers, especially in the journals of the rural districts. During the two years of 1899-1900 as many as 30,000 clippings were received by the Bureau from one clipping agency, which shows that the lightning strokes were carefully watched. Of course, most of the clippings were du- plicates, sometimes as many as 50 notices of the same case being received. The loss of life from lightning is greatest in the Ohio Valley and the Mid- dle Atlantic States, if we consider both unit area and density of population. If density of population only be considered, it is greatest in the Upper Missouri Val- ley and in the Middle Rocky Mountain region. Of the 713 fatal cases reported in 1900, 291 were killed in the open, 158 in houses, 57 under trees, and 56 in barns, and the circumstances attending the death of the remaining 151 are not known. During the same year nearly one thousand—973 persons—were more or less injured by lightning. The Weather Bureau has discontinued col- ‘lecting statistics of loss of life by lightning. ‘The experience of the past years has convinced it that the practical results of the enquiry do not justify the expenditure of time and money. U, S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ECENT publications by the U. S. Geological Survey include: ““Geology and Water Resources of Nez Perce County, Idaho.’’ By Israel C. Russell. Professor Russell describes at considerable length the Columbia River Lava formation of Washington, Oregon, and western Idaho. This area produces annually from 50,000,000 to 60,000,000 bushels of wheat and large quantities of other grain. ‘The fine, dark, rich soil, almost unrivaled in fer- tility, has resulted from the disintegra- tion and decay of volcanic rocks which, 116 in a sea of lava, inundated the region in mid-Tertiary times. Further notice of this notable work will appear later in this Magazine. ‘The Lead and Zine Deposits of the Ozark Region,’’ by H. F. Bain, with an introduction by C. R. Van Hise, and chapters on the physiography and geol- ogy, by George I. Adams. The Ozark region is an elliptical area, about 300 miles long by 200 miles wide, embrac- ing the southern half of Missouri, the northern third of Kansas, and small ad- jacent portions of Illinois, Kansas, and Indian Territory. "The region is rich in minerals of economic importance. “The Asphalt and Bituminous Rock Deposits of the United States.’’ By George H. Eldridge. “The Gold Belt of the Blue Moun- tains of Oregon.’’ By Waldemar Lind- gren. ‘Three-fourths of the gold output of the state is from the Blue Mountains. Within the last few years this region has resumed the prominent position among the gold-bearing areas which it held about forty years ago. ‘Oil and Gas Fields of the Western Interior and Northern Texas Coal Meas- ures,’’ by George I. Adams. ‘“The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Copper River District, Alaska,’’ by F. C. Schrader and A. C. Spencer. ‘“Geology and Water Resources of Yakima County, Washington;’’ by G.O. Smith. These publications may be ob- tained for a nominal sum. TREASURY BUREAU OF STATISTICS VERY bulletin and publication is- sued by this department contains information, usually unobtainable else- where, on some living topic of the day. Recent monographs include : ‘The Danish West Indies,’’ a sum- mary of facts about the three little islands whose annexation to the United States is now imminent. ‘“Commercial Japan in 1900,’’ a new THe NatTionaL GeocRAPHic MaGaAZINE edition of a monograph first published in December, tg01. ‘The work includes a scholarly treatise on ‘‘ The develop- ment of commerce in Japan, and its effect on civilization in that country,”’ by Chohei Shirasu, A. M. (a native of Japan). It was by this treatise that Mr. Shirasu gained the degree of master of arts from Columbia. ‘*Great Canals of the World,’’ con- densed information and statistics in re- gard to all the great artificial waterways of the world—the Suez, Kaiser Wilhelm, Manchester, Canadian, St. Marys Falls, New York State, canals in India, Hol- land, Belgium, etc. “* Statistical Abstract of the United States.’’ Solid columns of figures are not usually interesting, but the tables in this report are really picturesque. They are arranged in parallels in such a manner as to give a graphic picture of the gigantic leaps of the United States in every direction during the past cen- tury. This is a work that should be studied by every geographer, historian, teacher, or man of affairs in the United States. ATLAS OF THE PHILIPPINES OME months ago the first Philippine Commission published, under the auspices of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, an atlas of the Philippines com- prising some 30 colored maps of the different islands of the archipelago. The edition was, however, so small that very few were fortunate enough to se- cureacopy. General A. W. Greely has recently published a large second edition of this atlas under the auspices of the Signal Office, and responsible persons may obtain a copy by addressing the War Department. For many years the Jesuit Fathers of Manila had been preparing a series of maps of the more important islands. ‘They were much handicapped by an absolute want of accurate surveys, but they secured all available data and GeoGRAPHIC LITERATURE such information as they could get from other religious orders, the old residents and explorers. The first Philippine Commission decided to publish the series for want of anything better, and this was done under the editorship of Father Jose Algué, Director of the Manila Ob- servatory. The maps necessarily are not so recent as the War Department map, which was published as a supplement to the January number of this Magazine. Argentina-Chile Boundary.—Therecent acute difficulties between Argentina and Chile have been temporarily settled. It will be remembered that the recent strained relations were caused by Chile’s sending police into certain sections of the disputed territory, and also building roads at alleged strategic points in the territory. Inthe protocol signed by the two republics Chile declares definitely that the roads were opened merely in GEOGRAPHIC Wandering in Three Continents. By the late Captain Sir Richard F. Bur- ton. Edited by W. H. Wilkins, M. A. With illustrations. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1901. $3.5¢ 7et. ‘The volume gives a fascinating ac- count of the bold wanderings of this great traveler. Burton was the first European to enter Mecca and Medina disguised as one of the people, 1853; he penetrated Abyssinia in the days when it was as forbidden ground as Mecca ; with Speke he discovered that vast in- land African lake, Tanganyika, rumors of which had for centuries been whis- pered on the seacoast; he went on a dangerous mission as British envoy to the King of Dahomey, and was a guest of his wild court and protected by the army of Amazons; later he explored the interior of Brazil, and in 1870, while consul at Damascus, made an eventful trip to Palmyra. ‘‘ Wandering in Three ‘Continents 117 order to explore the country and to help the experts who were studying the boundary line, and that in no sense did the act of building the roads mean an occupation of the territory. ‘The two republics furthermore agree to police jointly such sections as may need police regulations. About a year ago Argen- tine submitted to the British arbitration committee four quarto volumes of evi- dence and a large portfolio of maps in support of itsclaims. Chile has at last also submitted its final documents, and it.is hoped a permanent decision of the boundary dispute will soon be reached. Dr. Eugene Murray-Aaron, editor of Cram’s Atlas, has recently compiled from latest surveys a bird’s-eye view of the Maritime Canal and the Isthmus of Panama. It is an excellent piece of work and is published by George F. Cram (Chicago). LITERATURE ”) consists of eleven popular essays or lectures on these journeys. Burton wrote many heavy works of travel, but none of a popular form, so that this posthumous volume of popular essays is specially welcome. Five of the essays were read before the Emperor and Empress of Brazil while he was consul at Santos, and the others before distinguished gatherings in England and Scotland. Cram’s Atlas of the World, Ancient and Modern. New Census edition. Ed- ited by George F. Cram, Dr. Eugene Murray-Aaron, I.C. Clare, and others. New York and Chicago: George F. Cram, 1901. $10. For the general uses of the home or school this atlas is unequaled. The de- sign of the editors has been to publish a volume that would answer the needs of the general reader and student, and to produce it at a moderate price. In ad- 118 dition to the many modern maps and admirable historical charts, the editors have included a series of statistical dia- grams showing the world’s distribution of population, of wheat, minerals, etc. There are also a number of astronom- ical maps and much interesting de- scriptive matter about the different countries, the progress of knowledge during the nineteenth century, etc. In the maps and matter relating to Amer- ica the atlas excels. The editors have ineorporated the latest data from the geographic and scientific bureaus of the United States Government. For in- Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE stance, in the spelling of geographic names the rulings of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names have been followed. This latest edition of Cram’s well-known atlas has been entirely rewritten, hun- dreds of new photographs have been added, all the maps reéengraved, and many new maps added. Dr. Murray- Aaron and his large staff of workers have made a splendid work. ‘The one apparent defect is an omission of many of the routes of the great explorers in history. A series of maps outlining the main routes of discovery on land and ocean would add to the value of the atlas. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS MEETING OF THE SOCIETY : February 7, 1902.—President Graham Bellin the chair. Maj. William M. Black gave an address on ““Some American Work in Cuba.”’ February 21.—Meeting postponed to March 7. LECTURES : February 14.—President Graham Bell in the chair. Hon James Wilson, Secretary of Agricult- ure, and Prof. Joseph A. Holmes, State Geol- gist of North Carolina, gave addresses on ‘‘ The Proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve.’’ Both addresses will be published later. February 28.—President Graham Bell in the chair. Hon. E. F. McSweeney, Assistant Comimis- sioner of Immigration, gave an illustrated ad- dress on ‘‘ Fifty Years of Immigration,’’ which will be published later. ANNOUNCEMENTS MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY : March 7.—‘‘ Notes on the Geography of Alaska.’’ Alfred H. Brooks, U. S. Geological Survey. ‘Petroleum Resources of the United States.”’ Dr. C. Willard Hayes, U. S. Geological Survey. March 21.—‘‘ Mt. Wrangell.’’? Robert Dunn, of New York. LECTURES : March 12,*—‘‘ Problems of the Pacific— Japan.’’? Prof. EK. F. Fenollosa, University of Tokio, Japan. March 14.—‘‘American Progress in Cuba.”’ Maj. William M. Black. March 19.*—‘‘Australia and New Zealand.” Henry Demarest Lloyd, author of ‘‘ Newest England,”’ etc. March 26.* Gilbert. March 28.—Subject to be announced. Mr. George Kennan. “The Pacific Basin.”? G. K. April 2.*—‘‘ Hawaii, Guam, and Australa- sia.’’ Dr. Charles H. Townsend, U.S. Fish Commission. The following standing committees have been appointed by President Graham Bell. The President is an e% officio member of all committees : Committee on Publications.—Henry Gannett, A. W. Greely, W J McGee, C. Hart Merriam, David J. Hill, Marcus Baker, Willis I.. Moore, O. P. Austin, Gilbert H Grosvenor, O. H. Titt- mann, David T. Day, Miss E.R. Scidmore, Miss Cc. I. Garrison, Miss Ida M. Tarbell. Committee on Communications (lectures ).— W J McGee, A. J. Henry, Gifford Pinchot, Gilbert H. Grosvenor, Herbert Putnam. Committee on Admissions.—Marcus Baker, John Joy Edson, H. F. Blount. Committee on Research.—G. K. Gilbert, ’ C Hart Merriam, A. W. Greely, G. W. Mel- ville. Committee on Finance.—Charles J. Bell, Henry Gannett, John Joy Edson. *To be held in Columbia Theater, Twelfth and F streets, Washington, at 4.20 p. m. Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Telephone, Main 471 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY OFFICES Rooms 107, 108 Corcoran Building Fifteenth and F Sts. N. W., Washington, D. C. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL President W J McGEE 0 a Vice-President JOHN JOY EDSON 6 c 6 6 Treasurer A. J. HENRY . 5 - Secretary ELIZA R. SCIDMORE . - Foreign Secretary BOARD OF MANAGERS 1900-1902 4901-1903 1902-1904 CHARLES J. BELL MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL GEORGE DAVIDSON HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT WM. M. DAVIS F. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY JOHN JOY EDSON D. C. GILMAN ANGELO HEILPRIN G. K. GILBERT S. H. KAUFFMANN RUSSELL HINMAN A. J. HENRY WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE DAVID J. HILL W. B. POWELL GIFFORD PINCHOT C. HART MERRIAM R. D. SALISBURY O. H. TIVTMANN The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charge to all members of the National Geographic Society Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for membership Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary DUES: Annual membership, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be enclosed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if at a distance from Washington, remit by New York draft or post-office money-order. for membership in the Society. THE — Popular Science Monthly Especially important in free public libraries.—J. S. BILLINGS, Director of the Consolidated Libraries, N. Y. City. Of great utility.—S. P. LANGLEy, Dircctor of the Smithsonian Institution. Unique among scientific journals.—T. C. MENDENHALL, lately President of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. The latest and best in a most attractive form.—Rop’t H. THURSTON, Director of Sibley College, Coriell University. Most valuable in Repad busy men abreast of the more important advances of science.—A. W. GREELY, General, U. The newest and best that can be said on any subject.—WILLIs L. Moore, Chief of the U. S. Weather Bureau. It has done more for the diffusion of scientific information in this country during: the past twenty-five years than any other one agency.—GEORGE M. STERNBERG, Surgeon General, U.S. A. The most instructive and most enjoyable scientific journal which I have seen ps here or abroad.— HuGO MUNSTERBERG, Professor of Psychology, Harvard University. I refer to it so constantly that we shall soon need a new set.—H. A. STRONG, Professor of Physics and Chemistry, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. It has had few rivals and no equal in the educative service it has done for the American people. A complete set of the volumes thus far published is both a history of science for the period covered and at the same time a pretty complete cyclopedia of natural science. ‘here is nothing to fill its place, and to carry it on is a benefaction to the public.—W. I’. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education. THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY will be sent to new subscribers for six months for One Dollar. Single Numbers, 30 Cents Yearly Subscription, $3.00 The Science Press, Sub-Station 84, New York BACK VOLUMES of the National Geographic Magazine Volume {—Not complete Volume 7—Complete . - $3.00 Nos. for sale, 1 & 3, each $0.90 Vol ale ' 2.75 Volume 2—Not complete Cre NE One cae : z None for sale Volume 9—Complete . . 2.50 Volume 3—Complete . 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GILLETTE, General Manager ISAAC F, LLOYD, Second Vice-President The Mutual Life Telee Co. : OF NEW: YORK © RICHARD A. wicCURDY, President Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World SHOW THAT The Mutual Life eae Has a Larger Premium Income = = ecu ee “(Bapsand woe) ‘s More Insurance in Force - Pe ES et . ($918,000,000) i A Greater Amount of Assets Se Papert oe ae eee -($235,000,000) : A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - == = ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business - er ° i - ($136, 000,000). ae And Bods More to Policy-holders - - ‘- Foes 000 in| 1608) | THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY - ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President Senta WILLIAM J. EASTON, gee toes JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D, C. office, a bank, a committee room, etc. Complete as- ; A: The Records of the Insurance Department of the Se of New York Ee S ower deans -sersinsay : = FREDERICK oxoMieett, pees eke aoe EMORY MCCLAIN TORK: puede % THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZI Ma NR: Vol. XIII APRIL, 1902 CONTENTS RECENT FRENCH EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA. BY CHARLES RABOT. ILLUSTRATED . w PROPOSED SURVEYS IN ALASKA IN 1902. BY ALFRED H. BROOKS. WITH MAP we OCEAN CURRENTS, BY JAMES PAGE w GEOGRAPHIC NOTES . GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE <.. Bae NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY . Published for the National Geographic Society By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter. Appletons’ World Series; Or, THE REGIONS OF THE WORLD Edited by H. J. MACKINDER; M.A., Student of Christ Church, Reader in Geography in the University of Oxford, Principal of Reading College. The series will consist of 12 volumes, each being an essay descriptive of a great natural region, its marked physical features and the life of the people. Together, the volumes will give a complete account of the world, more especially as the field of human activity. S8vo. Cloth. Illustrated Colored Maps, ete. Each, $2.00 ze/; postage, 19 cents additional. LIST OF THE SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS. 1. BRITAIN AND THE BRITISH SEAS. By the Eprror. 2. THE NEARER EAST. By D. G. HocGarrH, M.A., Fellow of Magdalene College, Oxford, Director of the British School at Athens; Author of ‘‘ A Wandering Scholar in the Levant.” In Preparation. CENTRAL EUROPE. By Dr. JosEPH PARTSCH, University of Breslau. INDIA. By Sir T. HUNGERFORD Horpicn, K.C.1.E., C.B., R.E. SCANDINAVIA AND THE ARCTIC OCEAN. By Sir CLEMEN’s R. MarKHAM, K.C.B. THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. By Prince KroporKkin. AFRICA. By J. Scorr KEL/‘IE. THE FARTHER EAST. By ARCHIBALD LITTLE. 9. WESTERN EUROPE AND THE MEDITERRANEAN. By ELISEE RECLUS. to. AUSTRALASIA AND ANTARCTICA. By Dr. H. O. ForsEs, Liverpool Museum. ir. NORTH AMERICA. By Prof. ISRAEL CooK RUSSELL, University of Michigan. 12, SOUTH AMERICA. By Prof. JOHN CASPER BRANNER, Stanford University. MAPS by J. G. BARTHOLOMEW. Ar ann -& Ww The International Geography Edited by Dr. H. R. MILL, assisted by a Corps of Seventy Leading Geographers. Svo. 1088 Pages. 488 Illustrations. Cloth, $3.50. “It can unhesitatingly be given the first place among publications of its kind in the English Language. . . . No single volume in recent scientific literature embodies in original contributions, the labor of so many emi- nent specialists as this one.’’— Fyrom a two and one-half column review in ‘* The Nation.’ A Commercial Geography By CYRUS C. ADAMS, B.A., F.A.G.S. A Handbook for the Student, Teacher, Scholar or Business Man. Numerous Full-page Illustrations. r2mo. Cloth, $1.30 med. “We have long felt the need of a book which might be placed in the hands of pupils, and from which they might readily obtain, without the unsatisfactory and time-demanding labor of searching for them through large statistical works in an outside library, the facts touching modern commercial conditions which they ought toknow. ‘The book which I recommend is in plan and choice of facts the best for our purpose I have seen. Jt is teachable in form, and in some places is very suggestive. ‘his last is a point of great value.’— Caroline C. Robinette, Teacher of Commercial Geography, Business High School, Washington, D. C. D. APPLETON & COMPANY, Publishers, New York SPRING The Madness bf Philip And Other Stortes of Childhood By JOSEPHINE DODGE DASKAM Miss Daskam writes of child life with a de- lightful insight and vivid realism. It would be hard to decide which of her little heroes and heroines is the most attractive. Every ~ one of them is fascinating. Mlustrated by F. Y. Cory. $1.50 Whe Making of a ' Statesman A Novelette Together with Other Stories of Georgia Life By JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS Author of “Uncle Remus” The noyelette that gives this volume its title is a story of love, sacrifice, and ambition that is of absorbing interest. $1.25 The Blazed Trail By STEWART EDWARD WHITE Author of “The Westerners” A stirring story of the battle of the forest. The human element is abundantly supplied in the fight of Thorpe, the green young land- looker, against a powerful lumber firm that is perpetrating big steals far up in the Michi- gan wilderness. Ilustrated by Thomas Fogarty. $1.50 Red Saunders His Adventures West and East By HENRY WALLACE PHILLIPS “Red” is not the misconception of an American cowboy so often found in fiction. His is a ‘‘sure enough”’ live cow-puncher, brimful of keen western humor and capable of performing mighty interesting feats in both West and East. Frontispiece by Jay Hambidge. $1.25 An Island Cabin By ARTHUR HENRY This is a record of a voluntary Crusoe. Mr. Henry and two companions, city-weary like himself, take possession of a small island within one hundred miles of New York, and work things out for themselves. The book is written with a vigor and sympathy that is irresistible $7.50 Next to the Ground By MARTHA McCULLOCH- WILLIAMS Mrs. Williams has written an enchanting narrative of rustic life. Her impressions of nature are painted with true charm and deli- cacy. The book will appeal to all readers, both as a faithful picture of country life and as a nature study. $7.20 net WGILW IA IsliNbIbINe Ss ce (GO, IN8 W/ YORK The Hound of the Baskervilles by A. Conan Doyle A story of a profound mystery, and its solution by Sherlock Holmes The great detective’s first appearance in a complete novel 12mo. Illustrated Price, $1.25 | The House With the Green Shutters by George Douglas There is no need for us to say much about this book or its author. Others are saying it for us. When such critics as the 72mes, and the Spectator, and the Academy in England; and the Suz and Harper's Weekly in America, compare George Douglas to A‘schylus, Balzac, Stevenson, Flaubert, and Thomas Hardy, what remains for the pub- lishers to add? At one time, before the book was “ discovered,” we had hundreds of copies piled up in our stockroom. ‘These were first editions. We have none left now. If we had we could sell them at a premium, an unheard-of thing for an American imprint of a British Book. But you can get a seventh edition at present, and some edition at any time, for ‘‘ The House with the Green Shutters” will be a live book years from now. Seventh Edition Price, $1.50 McCLURE, PHILLIPS & CO., NEW YORK | Ee WAR and eWireV Uae GEOGRAPHIES RALPH S. TARR, B.S., F.G.S.A. and FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. Cornell University Teachers’ College, Columbia University HE series of Geographies by Professors TARR and McMurry is perhaps the only series of recent years to contain a vew method of presentation. ‘These geographies differ from prev iously published books on the same subject, in the following particulars : Fivsi—Causal Treatment. ‘This isa careful arrangement of the subject matter in accordance with its relation to cause and effect. ‘Lhe fact is recognized by the best teachers that physiographic conditions usually determine the location of human industries, the development of transportation routes, the situation of cities, etc. Beginning then with the physical features, most of the other geographic facts touching a certain locality arrange themselves as links in a causal chain and are then easily taught in proper relation with one another, for they approach the form of a narrative rather than that of a mere list of assertions as in the older text books. Second—Type Study is well illustrated in the study of our own country. ‘The old method of treatment by States, with its multiplicity of topics, is abandoned, and a comparatively small number of topics aretreated, but each subject is dealt with at some length. The authors’ reasons for this innovation are: that boundary lines between the States are for the most part arbitrary and mark no important differences in physiography, indus- try or customs; that in a treatment by States there is much repetition of the same kind of facts totheconfusion ofthe pupils. To avoid the waste of space and the lack of perspective of the old method, the zew presentation is by gvoups of Slates and by the typical industries that characterize them. More space can thus be given to each important subject, and the many details necessary for a clear impression are associated as parts of one story. For instance, lumbering, fishing, etc., receive their most detailed treatment in connection with New England ; coal and iron mining and the attendant manufactures are discussed in conuection with the Middle Atlantic States ; gold mining and irrigation naturally are included under the Western States. Other new and attractive features of this series might be named : as the final summary at the close of the entire subject, the new and convenient form, the use of home geography, the suggestions and bibliogra- phies for the use of teachers, the fregucnt reviews, etc. THE THREE BOOK SERIES THE FIVE BOOK SERIES Book I —(4th and 5th years) Home Part I —(4th year) Home Geography 40 Cts. Giuneny and the Earthasa Whole 60 Cts. Part II —-(5th year) Wie Hain as a Book II —(6th year) North America 75 Cts. Whole. . . 40 Cts. Book III—(7th and Sth years) Furope Part I1I—(6th en North Ae 75 Cts. and Other Continents . . . . . 75 Cts. PartIV—(7th year) Europe, South Americas tcon aero: 50 Cts. = Part V —(Sth year) Asia and Agios. he bei! be ss ~ with Review of North America and HocaltSupplementas aia ORGtSe Te MACMIEEAN (CON euNia NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA Wore eli INios 4 WASHINGTON APRIL, 1902 RE @hNG ERENCE: HX PVORADIONS IN ANE IRI Cie’ By HE closing of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth are noted for impor- tant explorations in Africa by the French Government. In order to establish be- yond dispute her sovereignty over the hinterland of her colonies, and to con- nect the scattered members of her colo- nial empire in Africa, France has been directing a number of military and civil expeditions whose results have greatly enriched our geographical knowledge of the northern half of the continent. The regions in which the French have been specially active belong to three dif- ferent zones: in the north, the Sahara ; then passing southward, the Sudan or the higher basin of the Niger; and, thirdly, the tropical forest stretching from Guinea across the middle and lower basins of the Niger to the Kongo and beyond, the forest in the interior giving way to a land of dense brush. The most famous of the French ex- peditions in Africa is that of Colonel Marchand. Its object was political—to pre vent England from realizing herlong- cherished plan of an African Empire Dr. CHARLES Raspot, EDITOR OF b) “T,a GEOGRAPHIE’ stretching from Cape to Cairo. The Marchand expedition started from the Upper Ubangi for the east, while an- other expedition, commanded by Mar- quis de Bonchamp, then M. Michel, ad- vancing from Abyssinia toward the west, was to meet him at the Nile. If this scheme failed politically, from a geo- graphic point of view itwasa magnificent success. ‘he Marchand expedition, which, besides its chief, included seven officers, has obtained a very careful map of the entire region, in large part pre- viously unknown, which stretches across Africa between the parallels of 5° and 10° north latitude. Lieutenant Com- mander Dyé, the astronomer of the party, determined the position of 75 points between Bangui, in the Kongo basin, and Jibuti, on the Red Sea. A large map on the scale of 1 : 3,000,000 will soon be published by the officers of the expedition, showing the country explored by them, but no account of this expedition has yet been published by any member of the party. No less worthy of admiration than their cartographic achievements are the i2ZO heroic efforts of Marchand and his party in dragging to the very heart of Africa the boats and barges which they would need on the Nile. The Kongo and its tributaries and sub-tributaries, the Ubangi and the Mbomo, are cut by fre- quent rapids. ‘To pass these barriers the boats were carried through the for- ests, sometimes dismantled, sometimes dragged just as they were. ‘Troops of negroes, 1,800 in all, would take hold of the boats and push them along on tree trunks stretched across the yielding earth. ‘Thus the party advanced to Brazzaville, the chief French post on the Kongo, situated at the head of navi- gation of the Ubangi, sometimes travel- ing in their boats on the river, but very often dragging and pushing them along instead. The distance they traveled thus was 2,187 miles. Between thebasins of the Kongo-Ubangi, and the Nile, the water-divide consists of a slightly undulating plateau, inwhich the streams A Scout in the Desert Photo by Flamand Tue NarionaL GeocrapHic MaGaZzInE follow an uncertain course, so gentle is the slope of the divide. In order to carry the boats across this region, the soldiers of the expedition and the ne- groes opened a road one hundred miles long, over which they shoved the boats and barges. The party reached the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, a tributary of the Nile, in 1897 ; the low water prevented them from continuing their march ; it was not till 1898 that they gained Fashoda on the Nile. From Fashoda, Colonel Marchand continued his march eastward and through Lobat and the lofty Ethiopian plateau, reached Jibuti, on the Red sea, after a complete crossing of the continent. In the country of Bahr-el-Ghazal, Commander Roulet, who was sent to join Marchand, gathered much inter- esting geographic information. Ac- cording to this officer, Souet, Iba, and Ruwa, tributaries of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, are dry from December to May. From June to November they rise to a height of 15 to 24 feet, submerging the sur- rounding land and forming between the 8th and goth parallels of north latitude an immense lake hundreds of miles in length. The expedition that left Abyssinia before Marchand has brought back a survey of those upper tributaries whose union forms the Sobat. ‘This survey was later completed by the Marchand party. This expedition encountered terrible difficulties. While following the valley of the Baro toward the Nile in Novem- ber, 1897, they fell into a country of morasses and tall grass, through which they toiled almost buried. One day ten hours of unceasing labor advanced them only three and one-half miles. The country was barren and gave no sustenance to the column. Worn with fever, with hunger, and fighting the morasses, deserted by the natives, the little French company were obliged to stop at the Sobat, at the junction of Recent FrencH EXPLoRATIONS IN AFRICA M. Fernand Foureau “Tf it can be done, I shall do it”’ the Baroand Didessa. Finally, on June 22, 1898, two members of the party, MM. Potter and Faivre, who followed an army of King Menelik, reached the Nile, but were not able to remain there because they had insufficient supplies. While these parties were working in the basin of the Nile, another no less important expedition, led by M. Fer- nand Foureau, left southern Algeria, intending to cross the Sahara from north to south in order to connect the French possessions of West Africa, the Niger, and the Tchad. All previous attempts to carry out this plan had been thwarted by the fierce Touaregs, those hardy bandits, who, fleeing on their swift camels, are the masters of the Sahara from Tripoli to Timbuktu 121 and Tchad. The last French expedi- tion organized to cross the desert, led by Colonel Flatters, had been massacred (1881). The Touaregs had not been chastised for their crime, and hence had become more audacious than ever. The Foureau expedition was essen- tially scientific and peaceful in its aims, but the surest way of being peaceful is to be strong and able to compel respect by arms. ‘The French Government there- fore gave M. Foureau a military escort consisting of 285 Algerian soldiers and equipped withtwo Hotchkiss guns. ‘The squadron included only 28 Europeans and was commanded by Captain Lamy. One thousand camels carried the pro- visions and supplies. On the 23d of October, 1898, the expedition left Ouargla, marching di- rectly southward for Air. ‘The Sahara does not consist simply of stretches of sand ; the zone of great dunes is suc- ceeded by rocky plateaux and sharp, abrupt ravines. ‘The crossing of this country presented fearful hardships. The first plateau, that of Tindesset (2,200 feet), required four days of effort and cost the lives of gocamels. After- ward the climbing of the masszfs of Tassili, Adrar, and Anahef caused the caravan much suffering. ‘The divide between the waters of the Mediter- ranean and Atlantic passes along these ridges; at the point where Foureau crossed, it reaches a height of 4,533 feet ; further to the west the mountains rise to 5,400 feet, and in Ahaggar the sum- mits are as high as 6,000 feet, and in winter are sometimes covered with snow. The mountain relief is here much more prominent than has been supposed. Foureauw’s observations have shown that the water parting is 188 miles farther to the south than is given on the maps. In the country of Tassili the caravan experienced quite low temperatures, 13.8° Fahrenheit, January 3, 1899. Beyond the plateaux stretches a barren sea of rocks; no water, no trees, rare NVIANOT LQ SOJOYL « XNvoqy[q AYOoy Aq papasdsong sty sounq ywoaryg oyy,,, °v JassopuL], JO NvoyeTg oy} ul Burjsoy “€ SOUN JI) 9PJ, *z “"BILYLS dy} SuUIssoIg “1 RecenT FRENCH EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA and thin patches of herbs for the camels. Under the relentless sun 140 camels perished in seven days. One hundred and more carcasses, seen in 48 hours of march, told Foureau, however, that the native caravans suffered no less in this fearful desert. February 24, 1899, the expedition reached Iferouane, the most northerly town of Air, having lost 4oo camels, and with all that remained worn to the bone. Foureau stayed three months at Ifer- ouane to explore the oasis and to pur- chase new camels, so that he might con- tinue his march. But the Touaregs stripped the country round about and furthermore bulldozed the natives from selling them anything. After a while they did not hesitate to attack the French caravanitself. ‘They could not stay forever at Iferouane, so on May 26 one party of the expedition began the journey southward, carrying such baggage as they could on the camels that were still strong and leaving the remainder to the care of an escort. It was during their stay at Iferouane that they experienced the severest temper- atures of the journey, 115.7° Fahren- heit, on May 19. When they reached Aquellal, situa- ted 31 miles south of Iferouane at the foot of a chain of mountains, the camels were sent back to bring up the baggage that had been left behind; but they could not carry everything, and much that had cost them such pain and suf- fering to drag so far had to be burned. Meanwhile, the Touaregs were becom- ing bolder and bolder, and attacked the expedition again. On June 25 they again started south across dry moun- tains torn with ravines. ‘Ihe extremely difficult and painful passage cost them more camels and mules; all the horses that survived were turned into beasts of burden, and the officers marched afoot. ‘Thusthey gained Aouderas and Agades. The natives of the country everywhere adopted the same tactics— 122 they concealed their supplies, and only when repeatedly threatened gave them out with great niggardness. At last they had crossed the Sahara ; Tagama, covered with low brush, now stretches before them; and later Damer- gou, strewn with wide fields of millet and clumps of gigantic jujub trees. Under the shade of one of these trees more than one hundred men could rest with ease. On November 2 Foureau reached Zinder, the most eastern of the French posts in the Sudan, after hav- ing crossed the Sahara from north to south, from Algiers to the French pos- sessions in East Africa. Watering the Horses at Lake Tchad Pholo by Foureau From Zinder the expedition proceeded east toward Tchad in order to join two other expeditions—one from the west, commanded by Lieutenant Joalland,and the other from the south, commanded by M. Gentil. The union of these three parties was to establish the French con- trol over the region of Tchad and to free the country of Rabah, a Moham- medan conqueror, who for several years had been ravaging this part of Africa. Foureau marched along the north and east shores of Lake Tchad. During this journey he determined the contour of the lake; he reports that the level of the lake varies as much as 40 feet during the year. 124 Early in April the three French parties met on the Shari, the principal tributary to Lake Tchad. ‘The scien- tific mission of Foureau was now ended. His work includes a survey of 3,655 miles, from Ouargla, in Algiers, to Bangui, on the Ubangi, in French Kongo, of which 1,218 miles had never before been traversed by a European. This survey is based on 510 astronom- ical positions. Foureau has also de- termined the boundary between the sedimentary formations of Northern Sahara and the crystalline massifs of Central Sahara, and collected, in addi- tion, many botanical, zoological, ethno- graphical, and archzeological specimens. In the Sahara archzeology is represented by many figures sculptured in rocks and by very curious ancient tombs. The two other expeditions, under Gentil and Joalland, have obtained equally important scientific results. During the years 1899 and 1900 M. Gentil, commissioner of the Territories of Tchad, and his colleagues, made sur- veys of 4,600 miles included between the sources of the Ubangi, the Niger, and Tchad. ‘The first of these regions is quite well populated, there being about 15 inhabitants to the square mile. M. Gentil in a boat steamed over a large part of Lake Tchad, and found that this great lake is navigable at all seasons of the year. The peoples living here are extremely interesting. At Zinder feudal institutions exist such as were in France at the beginning of the Middle Ages. ‘The people are thus ten centuries behind the world. After their union, the three French troops, about 700 men strong, on April 22, 1900, attacked the army of the Rabah. He had 7,000 men, of whom 2,000 were armed with rapid-fire guns; but the little French company put them tocomplete rout. The country of Tchad was thus acquired. Besides these three principal expedi- tions of Marchand, Foureau, and Gen- Tue Nationa GrocraPHic MaGAZzIne M. Gentil. til, many other parties were exploring the different French Colonies of Africa. During December, 1899, to February, 1900, M. Flamand was exploring the oasis of Tibikelt, south of Algeria, where the phenomenon of eolian erosion is taking place. Flamand was attacked by the Arabs. The scientist immedi- ately became a general, and with his 100 Arabs put his assailants to flight. By this victory France acquired the hitherto independent oases of Tidikelt, the possession of which will insure con- trol of the tribes of the Sahara. Less fortunate was the expedition of Blanchet in the region of Adrar, that part of the Sahara which is north of Senegal. The party was captured by the Moors, and remained in captivity for two months. When set free they were compelled to return. In French West Africa three natural- ists, Chevalier, Cligny, and Rambaud, 1. Senegal Musqueteers ‘ 2. In Battle Line 3. Checking an Atttack 4. On the Shari, near Busso Photos by Gentil. punwunpey &Q Sojoud sjomred ot} yeUrpey, puryeg yonorg uayy oy} ! ov oy} Joy Aproy F JO NvoyLI[q WJ— esa] sy} Ssoroy Suryorvyy “f LILVSUT JO Nvaywiq “c ! LIVSUT 0} peoyY ey} UO “I Recent FRENCH EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA a7 Castle of Insala Photo by Flamand completed a scientific examination un- dertaken in order to discover the mate- rial resources of the colonies. This region consists of three botanical zones: First, da z6ne sahélienne, characterized by some species of the Sahara and by rare underbrush growing on bare and sandy soil; second, /a zéne soudantenne, consisting in the main of plateaux of laterite and covered from June to No- vember by dense prairies or meadows of tall grass and many kinds of herbs; third, /a zéne guinéenne, covered in the lower regions by dense and impene- trable forests and in the mountains by meadows or by underbrush, as in the zone of the Sudan. It is in this last zone, between 9° 30’ and 11° 30! north latitude, that there grows in such abun- dance the Landolphia heudelotii, which furnishes all the caoutchouc exported from French West Africa. In 1900 the colony of French Guinea exported 1,464 tons of caoutchouc. This figure may be taken as the maximum produc- tion of the region. In 1899 and 1900 the hinterland of the Ivory Coast and French Guinea was explored by M. Hostains and Cap- tain d’Ollone. Ascending the basin of Cavally, they gained Beyla, situated in the upper basin of the Niger, and thence proceeded to Konakry, the principal town of French Guinea. They had marched from the sea to within a few miles of Beyla through the dense trop- ical forest, often without a guide and directed only by the compass. In the midst of this luxuriant vegetation, which hid everything from them, they were attacked by the natives. For six days they fought without resting, tak- 128 ing by storm 44 towns. Against the multitudes of negroes they had only an escort of 20 Senegalese soldiers. All the people inhabiting this part of the tropical forest are cannibals, but they are nevertheless much more civ- ilized than their neighbors ; they weave cloth ; their villages are quite substan- tial ; their roads are well planned, and they cultivate many vegetables. They hunt men in the Sudan and capture all they can ; their captives are then butch- ered and eaten. But they do not lack meat for they have cattle, goats, and sheep. When they kill a man, each, ac- cording to his rank, receives a special portion ; one hasa right to the shoulder, another to the thigh, a third to arm and liver. MM. Hostains and d’Ollone were the first Europeans who had pene- trated to the country of these cannibals ; the region will soon be occupied by military French posts, who will try to THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE put an end to these horrible practices. To help the Hostains-d’Ollone party Captain Woelffel, with a company of 100 Senegal soldiers, started from north- ern Sudan to meet them, but the hos- tility of the natives prevented a junction of the two parties. Captain Woelffel was compelled to fight for every mile of advance, and soon had lost two-thirds of his men in killed and wounded. The maps made by the two expedi- tions have greatly changed our former idea of the hydrographic basins of this. part of Africa; these maps show the existence of high mountain ranges rising to 9,000 feet between the Sassandra, the Cavally, and the Niger. From allthe French colonies on the west coast of Africa many expeditions, often directed by the officers of the colo- nial army, have set out to explore the hinterland. Each has brought back a survey of a river or a district. Thus A Street in Insala Photo by Flamand A Village in Madagascar Photo by Guillaume Grandidier Prince Roland Bonaparte Twice President of the ‘‘ Société de Géographie””’ of Paris, Honorary Member of the National Geographic Society, ete, ete. Recent FrReNcH EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA little by little the blank spots on the map are disappearing. In French Kongo, and notably to the north of this colony, these expeditions have been particularly frequent in order to define the lands granted to the great colonizing com- panies. Among these explorers we may mention the journeys of M. Lesieur and Captain Jobitin the basin of the Ogooé. In the basin of the Kongo the course of many tributaries to this great African river have been determined. The work of defining the boundaries between the different European colonies on the west coast of Africa has resulted in many detailed surveys; these bound- aries have been defined between Gold Coast and the Sudan, between Nigeria and Dahomey, between French Kongo and the Spanish piece at Rio Mouni. Finally the reconnaissance for a railway route from Konakry to the Niger and the observations of Captain Lenfant as to the value of the Senegal and of the Niger for water routes to the inte- rior of the continent have served the interests of geography. The most important topographic work as yet performed in Africa has been in ~ Madagascar. General Gallieni, gov- ernor of the island since 1896, has adopted the methods used in the United States with such admirable results. He organized a survey of topographers and geodesists ; in four years these officers have made charts of the great island based on a very precise triangulation. The scale is 1:1,000,000 and 1 :500,000, and for central Madagascar I : 100,000. The maps, which are in colors, were engraved at ananarivo, the capital, by a staff of natives. Scientific explo- rations have also been carried out in the south and southwest of the island by private individuals—MM. Bastard and Guillaume Grandidier—son of the fa- mous explorer who is today President of the Société de Géographie of Paris. In conclusion I must mention some of the French explorations in Africa in it @ Ul territory that does not belong to France : In Egypt, the work of ‘‘la Mission Archéologique d’Egypt,’’ directed by the eminent egyptologist, Maspero ; in Tripoli, the journey of M. Méhier de Ma- thuisieulx (1901). This last explorer reports that the country from Tunisia to the great Syrte and to the south of this portion of the coast issterileand only one-twentieth part inhabited. Sooner or later, of course, Italy will gain pos- session of this territory. West of Algeria, Morocco is equally coveted by several European powers. The country is still but little known, due to the Mohammedan fanaticism of its inhabitants, who massacre Euro- peans as soon as they get a chance. Quite recently several Frenchmen have explored Morocco, notably Lieutenant de Segonzac, who traversed the Great Atlas mountains and the valley of the Sus. In the opposite quarter of Africa, in Abyssinia, the European powers are displaying great political and scientific zeal to gain the alliance of Menelik. In 1900, the celebrated French writer, M. Hugues-Le Roux, achieved some interesting work in the upper valley of the Blue Nile, and has told his story in a book as thrilling asa romance, ‘‘ Mene- lik et Nous.’’ Starting from Addis Abeba, Hugues Le Roux proceeded to the east across the mountains that sepa- rate the upper basins of the Aouache and the Omo and the Didessa. All this country he describes as exceedingly picturesque, even more beautiful than Switzerland. The story of all these explorations is told or summarizedin'‘‘ La Géographie,”’ the monthly magazine of the ‘‘ Société de Géographie’’ of Paris. The chair- man of its editorial committee is Prince Roland Bonaparte, a great grandnephew of Napoleon I. This illustrious geog- rapher has accomplished many impor- tant scientific excursions, especially in northern Kurope, where he has made 132 some very noteworthy anthropological discoveries. He has been twice the president of the Société de Géographie. Prince Roland Bonaparte has visited the United States ; probably when the International Geographical Congress Tue Nationat GrocrarHic MaAGAZzIne meets in Washington in 1904, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, he will again visit America to strengthen the ties of sympathy which bind French geographers and their col- leagues in the United States. ac? 138° 130° 122° 16 1S Map Showing Unexplored Areas of Alaska. SCALEOF MILES © 50 100 150 200 ee 1465 138° 130° The heavy black lines indicate the proposed routes of the exploring parties from the Geological Survey in 1902 BuOLOSED: SURVEYS IN ALASKA IN 19027 By Atrrep H. Brooks, U. S. GEoLoGicaL SURVEY logical Survey has been making systematic geologic and _ topo- graphicsurveysof Alaska. The annual appropriation by Congress for this work has been recently increased from twenty- five thousand to sixty thousand dollars in order to extend the investigation of Alaska’s mineral resources. This in- erease has not been adequate to the needs of the work. The mineral inter- ests have developed so rapidly in the past few years, and surveys in this dis- tant province are so expensive, that it has been impossible with only sixty thousand dollars yearly to satisfy many of the urgent demands for work in various parts of the territory. For three years past special attention has been given to the placer gold region of Nome, and the larger part of this area has been surveyed and investigated in some detail. The Koyukuk gold fields have also received considerable attention. In both of these fields, how- ever, there is still much reconnaissance work to be done, besides the detailed work yet to be begun. Unfortunately, there is no money for the work to be carried on in these regions this coming season. Southeastern Alaska is rapidly forg- ing ahead in mineral production, and there are pressing demands on the Geo- logical Survey for topographic and geo- logic surveys in this area. During the season of rgo1 it was im- possible to continue the work of the previous year in the Copper River basin. in view of the importance of this area, it is deemed desirable to spend there a large part of this year’s appropriation. The copper deposits of the Chitina River, a tributary of the Copper, have Gee 1898 the United States Geo- excited a great deal of interest among miners and capitalists. There have been many parties outfitted to prospect this region, and some preliminary de- velopment hasbeen made. Prospecting has also been done in a second copper belt in the northern part of the Copper River and in the upper Tanana and White River basins. These two belts are to be the subject of special investi- gation during the coming season. The Chistochina gold fields, also included in the Copper River basin, have become important producers of placer gold. A survey of their entire area is contem- plated. The surveys of the Copper River basin will also throw a good deal of light on the proposed railway route from Valdes to the Yukon River, and they will cover large areas which are believed to have value for stock raising and for cultivation. The work in this region has been divided. One party will be in charge of Mr. F. C. Schrader, geologist, with Mr. D.C. Witherspoon, topographer, and the other will be incharge of Mr. T. C. Ger- dine, topographer, with Mr. Walter C. Mendenhall, geologist. Mr. Schrader’s party will map the upper Copper River basin and adjacent portions of the Tanana basin. ‘They will connect the previous surveys of the Tanana River ‘with those of the Copper and give special attention to the upper northern belt. Mr. Gerdine’s party will map the Chistochina gold fields and will give attention to the southern copper belt, which was studied in 1g00 by Messrs. Schrader and Spencer. ‘The outfit and provisions for these two parties were shipped north in the latter part of Feb- ruary, and were transported across the coast range by a party led by Mr. D. C. * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S Geological Survey. 134 Witherspoon. It is hoped that by the time the sledding breaks up all of the provisions and supplies will have been carried in as far as Copper Center, or possibly as far as the mouth of the Chistochina River. Both parties will then have their base of supplies com- paratively accessible to the areas which they propose to map. ‘The rest of the party will start inland from Valdes in the early part of April. It is hoped that these two parties will give usa topographic map of the entire Copper River Basin and a geologic re- connaissance of the greater part of ‘it ; also that definite statements can be made, after the completion of the work, in regard to the identity of occurrence of copper in the two belts running north and south of the Wrangell group. Mr. Schrader’s party will also gain impor- tant geographic data concerning the rugged mountain mass known as the Wrangell group, which has been but little explored. In making plans for Alaskan surveys two objects are kept in view: the one to investigate areas of known impor- tance as to their mineral resources; the other to extend the general exploration work over the entire territory, toward the end of obtaining complete geo- graphic and geologic knowledge, and possibly of finding new mineral produc- ing areas. [The Copper River work is planned for investigating a region which is now producing mineral wealth. Another party, which will explore the northern slope of the Alaskan Range, will have for its more special purpose a topographic and geologic reconnais- sance. It is proposed that this party shall leave Seattle about May 15, going by steamer to Tyonok, on Cook Inlet. From that point it will go westward toward the head of the Beluga River until it strikes the base of the mountain range; then, turning northward, it will cross through the mountains by the pass at the head of Skwentna River, THe Nationa GEocrRaPHic MAGAZINE explored in 1898 by, Mr. J. E. Spurr. From the Skwentna Pass the route will lie along the northern slope of the Alas- kan Range. As far as possible the range itself will be penetrated and topographic and geologic data gathered. Ifthe plan is carried out as contemplated, impor- tant information should be obtained concerning Mount McKinley, whose al- titude, 20,464 feet, was determined by Mr. Robert Muldrow in 1898. Mount McKinley, which isthe highest mountain on the continent, lies in the heart of the Alaskan Range, and no one has yet reached its base. Proceed- ing in a northeasterly direction, the party will cross the Tanana near the mouth of the Cantwell. If when this point is reached the season should be far advanced, the party will be under the necessity of shooting the horses and proceeding down the Tanana by raft. From the mouth of the Tanana the re- turn to the coast can be made by way of Dawson and the White Horse. Should time permit, however, the party will cross the Tanana at the mouth of the Cantwell, and, heading in a north- easterly direction, will cross the Tanana and Birch Creek gold districts and reach the Yukon at Circle City. This latter route would give a chance of investi- gating the important and little known gold fields on the lower Tanana. The party will be under the leadership of the writer, with Mr. D. L.. Raeburn as to- pographer, and five camp hands. It is proposed to use twenty pack horses to carry the outfit and supplies. As the accessible timber along the Yukon is being exhausted, the matter of fuel supply in the interior is of grow- ing importance. Coal is known to exist in many localities, and has been mined at some profit. Much is of an inferior quality, but some fairly good lignite has been found. With a view to inves- tigating this coal supply, a party will be sent down the Yukon during the coming season. Mr. Arthur J. Collier, OcEAN CURRENTS assistant geologist, will be in charge, and will be accompanied by two men. Mr. Collier will start at the interna- tional boundary and carefully study the Yukon section as far as the delta. He will make special investigation of such areas as are known to contain eoal. He will also visit some of the placer camps accessible from the river which have not yet been investigated. This work is of particular importance from the standpoint of geologic corre- lation. Mr. Collier will have ample time to study the geologic relations in detail and to collect paleontologic data. It is believed that his work will throw considerable light on some of the broader stratigraphic problems of the territory. Southeastern Alaska, embracing an area of about twenty thousand square miles, presents problems entirely dif- ferent from those of the interior. ‘The Coast and Geodetic Survey has com- pleted the reconnaissance surveys of the coast line, but its detailed topographic work is limited to a few areas. As the mineral resources, consisting of gold, copper, silver, and nickel, occur in de- posits which require large expendi- tures for underground mining, reduc- tion works, etc., it is necessary, in this region, to carry on investigations in great detail, if they are to be of value 135 to the mine-owners and prospectors. While the question of transportation is here much simplified because of the natural waterways, yet the dense timber and the heavy rainfall of the summer season make work in this region so diffi- cult as to greatly increase the cost. Unless the appropriations are increased, it will take many years to map the most important mining districts alone. The Geological Survey, therefore, proposes to begin: this work by mapping the Juneau mining district this year as a base for future detailed geologic studies. This topographic work will be in charge of Mr. W.J. Peters. The Juneau dis- trict is the most important in all Alaska, containing, as it does, the famous Tread- well mine. We have a territory of nearly six hundred thousand square miles, and of this less than a sixth has been surveyed. These surveys have been chiefly of a reconnaissance character, and must be followed by mapping in greater detail. In view of the rapid development of the mineral resources, the immediate com- pletion of the reconnaissance surveys and the initiation of the detailed surveys are acrying need. ‘There would seem to be economy in such immediate fur- therance of the important mining in- terests of Alaska. OCEAN CURRENTS By James Pace, U. S. VERY method of investigation KE thus far employed, whether the drift of floating objects, the comparison of the temperature and specific gravity of specimens drawn from widely distant points, the distribution of animal organisms inhabiting different localities, all lend support to the belief HybDROGRAPHIC OFFICE that the vast mass of the surface water of the sea, and of the water some depth below the surface, even at a distance of thousands of miles from the conti- nental shores, and hence far removed from local or tidal-current influence, is in motion ; and the continuity of this motion, in certain broad and well-de- 1 (0) fined regions such as the tropics, cannot but impress us with the idea that itis in a general way cyclical—that is, that the same water, after the lapse of time, re- traverses approximately the same path. The source of the energy required to set and keep this vast mass in motion has been productive of endless discus- sion. ‘he attractive force of the moon, the vis zzertie@ or lag of the water itself, the difference in temperature and specific gravity of the equatorial and polar re- gions, the unequal distribution of at- mospheric pressure—each in its turn has been proposed and strenuously ad- vocated as the true and only cause of the ocean currents. To the seaman, however, the cause of the ocean currents has always been the winds, the motion of the waters of the sea taking its origin in the region where the latter attain their maximum constancy, viz., in the region of the trades. The trade winds cover a belt on the earth’s surface extending roughly over 50 degrees of latitude, from 30° N. to 20° §., including within this belt a greater water area than could be in- cluded in any other position. Through- out this wide zone the wind blows for go per cent of the time from some point inthe eastern semicircle. In the south- ern hemisphere the trades are somewhat stronger and more constant than in the northern, owing probably to the freedom from interrupting landareas. Over the eastern half of the ocean they extend far higher in latitude than over the western. This is true of both hemi- spheres, the northern and the southern, the northeast trades in the Atlantic during the northern summer often ex- tending far up on the coast of Spain, the southeast trades during the southern summer often extending beyond the Cape of Good Hope. Similar conditions hold for the Pacific. The southeast trades, too, blow well across the equator into the northern hemisphere. The trade winds, however, are not Tue NarionaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE continuous throughout the entire belt from north to south. Just north of the equator and confined entirely to the northern hemisphere, extending east and west, is an elongated triangular area, the base of the triangle, in length some 15° of latitude, resting in the case of the Atlantic Ocean on the coast of Africa, in the case of the Pacific on the coast of Central America and Mexico, throughout which the trades are absent, their place being taken during a large portion of the year by light, variable winds and calms, during the remainder of the year by winds whose prevailing direction is southwest—the so-called southwest monsoon of the African and American coast, most apparent during July, August, and September. THE CHARACTER OF THE TRADE WINDS Among those who have not sailed in them the impression is general that the trades blow day after day steadily in one direction and with a constant force. This is distinctly not the case. ‘The trade winds are quite as susceptible to variation, and fortunately so, as the winds of higher latitudes. The one thing about them is that, not being sub- ject to the large variations of barometric pressure which characterize higher lati- tudes, the wind rarely goes around the compass and, indeed, rarely gets out of the eastern semicircle. As an example of their constancy, let us consider the percentage of winds coming from each compass point for a certain region, for instance, the square bounded by the parallels 20°-25° N. and the meridians 50°-55° W., in the heart, therefore, of the northeast trades in the north Atlan- tic. ‘The figures are for the month of June, and may be regarded as giving the number of hours in each hundred, or, approximately, in 4 days, that the wind may be expected to blow from the given point: OcEAN CURRENTS Ipeuaogqus QOg—25cMNcrtsneey vai N. I BOSS Si Wiceryevisusiciensie N.N.E. 3 N. E. 17 E. N. E. 24 E. 1B, S13, Ss 135 10 Se Shad.) al Other squares show similar variations; some greater, some less. THE IMPULSE COMMUNICATED BY THE WINDS TO THE SURFACE WATER Let us now examine the effect of such a system of winds in impelling through surface friction the water with which they come in contact. If through any cause a thin layer of liquid is set in motion in its own plane with a given velocity, the layer imme- diately below it, and with which it is in contact, does not remain at rest, but likewise receives an impulse. This second layer exercises a like impulse over the third, the third over the fourth, and so on, the velocity ultimately at- tained by each successive layer being pro- portional to its distance from the bottom layer, which is supposed to be at rest. In the case of sea water, the rapidity with which this velocity is propagated downward is very slight. It has been calculated, for instance, that a period of 239 years would elapse before a layer at a depth of 50 fathoms would attain a velocity equal to half that at the sur- face, and for a surface current of given velocity to transmit its proper propor- tion of that velocity to a depth of 2,000 fathoms would require an interval of 200,000 years, the surface current flow- ing steadily all this time. Such surface currents do not exist, nor do winds capable of producing them. ‘The trades, as we have seen, fluctuate from day to day and, indeed, from hour to hour, and the surface currents fluctuate in obedience to them. It has been stated, however, that the fluctuations of the trades rarely carry LOT them out of the eastern semicircle, and that in point of fact 90 per cent of the winds that blow in the region of the trades do come from that semicircle. ‘There is thus always a westerly compo- nent in the motion of the air, coupled with a component which is sometimes northerly, sometimes southerly. For each alteration in the direction of the wind there is a correspond ing alteration in the direction of the surface current, the new direction being the resultant of the old direction and the direction which would be imparted to it by the new wind acting alone. ‘These, however, affect only the waters immediately at the sur- face. Thus, to cite a specific example, observations at the Adlergrund lght- ship, in the Baltic Sea, have shown that while the water at the surface responds almost immediately to a change in the direction of the wind, the water at the depth of 21% fathoms does not feel its effects until an interval of 24 hours has elapsed. The steady westerly compo- nent is then the only one felt in the region of the trades at some little depth below the surface, and this is sufficient ‘to impart to-the entire body of water occupying the equatorial regions of the earth a westerly motion. It is of some interest to note the ve- locity imparted to the surface water by winds of a given force. A comparison of a large number (658) of wind and current observations in the equatorial regions gave as the set imparted by a wind of force 4 on the Beaufort scale, corresponding to 20 miles per hour, a current velocity of 15 miles per day. The figures are taken from the ‘‘ Me- teorological Data for Nine 1o°-squares of the North Atlantic Ocean,’’ pub- lished by the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society. The system of surface currents pro- duced by such a system of winds as the trades has been experimentally studied, using for this purpose a miniature ocean, the surface of the water being lightly 138 sprinkled with powder in order to ren- der its motion visible. As soon as the artificial wind was brought into action, a drift was created, and the first tend- ency was for the water to flow from all sides into the rear of the drift. This gradually extended itself in a sheaf-like form, the marginal threads in the fields untouched or only occasionally. touched by the air current leaving the main body, first branching out to the right and left, then reversing their motion, and finally again working round to the rear of the drift. The central portion of the drift followed a right-line course, in close agreement with the direction of the air current, until a perpendicular obstacle was interposed. Here the drift divided into two streams, each flowing with the same velocity, but having half the cross-section. This experimental system of currents finds its counterpart in nature. Under the northeast trades in the north At- lantic and the southeast trades in the south Atlantic, we find a broad cen- tral drift directed toward the shores of America, the drift from the southeast trades extending well into the Northern Hemisphere, the two uniting some dis- tance off Cape San Roque. ‘To the right and to the left of each of these drifts the water fringes off, the direc- tion of the motion is reversed, and the so-called compensating currents mani- fest themselves. Along the equatorial margin of the two main drifts, under the equatorial belt of calms, these com- pensating currents unite to form the counter-equatorial current, or Guinea current, reaching a maximum intensity during June, July, and August, the months of the southwest monsoon. On the polar margin they either return into the drift or are taken up by the general easterly drift of the higher latitudes. In the equatorial region of the earth we thus have in either ocean three cur- rents. In the north Atlantic the north Tue Nationa, GEoGrRaPHic MAGAZINE equatorial current, due to the northeast trades ; in the south Atlantic the south equatorial current, due to the southeast trades ; between these two the counter- equatorial current, flowing at all times, but reaching a maximum intensity and covering a maximum area at the time of the southwest monsoon. These first two are westbound, carrying the water toward the shores of America; the third is eastbound, carrying toward the shores of Africa. They all suffer a slight displacement with the season, in harmony with the movements of the trades, which oscillate slightly in lati- tude with the movement of the sun in declination. Also, in harmony with the fact that the meteorological equator lies slightly to the north of the geographical equator, the south equatorial current extends at all seasons well over into the northern hemisphere. Corresponding again with the fact that the southeast trades exhibit greater constancy and strength than the northeast, the south equatorial current shows higher velocity than the north, the average for the latter amounting to but 13 miles in 24 hours, for the former to 27 miles in 24 hours. Similar statements hold for the Pacific Ocean. But from this point let us limit ourselves to the Atlantic, the currents for which are not only better known, but also probably better developed, being confined to a less extensive area than the Pacific. In the Atlantic Ocean, then, the two drifts unite some distance off Cape San Roque, the eastern extremity of South America. A portion of the water is diverted to the southward, forming the Brazilian current ; the main body flows west-northwest along the coast of South America, some entering the Caribbean Sea by way of the passages separating the Windward Islands, the drift through these passages often attaining a veloc- ity of 50 milesa day. ‘The remainder passes to the northward of the islands, forming the Bahama current. In this OcEAN CURRENTS neighborhood a series of observations by Admiral Irminger, of the Danish navy, showed that the westerly drift of the water could still be detected at a depth of 900 meters. A striking instance of the fluctuations of the surface currents with the winds is shown in the case of the straits sepa- rating the Greater Antilles, the Wind- ward, and the Mona passage. From January to April, the months when the northeast trades are most northerly in direction and blow with maximum force, a strong southwesterly set is felt upon entering these passages. As the season advances and the trades weaken, at the same time becoming southeasterly, these currents diminish and change their di- rection to northwest. Throughout the entire extent of the Caribbean Sea the drift is westerly, save that in those portions where resistance to the flowis offered, such asthe southern coast of Cuba, return currents manifest themselves. Throughout the Yucatan passage the drift is northwesterly, but here again the influence of the return current is felt, notably under Cape San Antonio, the western extremity of Cuba, where southeasterly sets are frequent. In the Gulf of Mexico observations have thus far failed to reveal any de- cided set of the surface water. THE GULF STREAM Between the northern coast of Cuba and the Florida reefs starts the most celebrated of all ocean currents, the Gulf Stream. Discovered by Ponce de Leon in 1513, it has from that time been and still is the subject of scientific investigation. In the Gulf Stream we have to deal with a current of a nature entirely distinct from those which we have thus far considered. These were all due to the direct action of the wind upon the water, producing a drift. The Gulf Stream is only indirectly due to this T3) cause, being the overflow of the water heaped up by the trade-wind drift in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mex- ico. ‘Throughout a considerable por- tion of its extent its direction, even at the surface, is independent of the wind or only slightly modified by it. The stream reaches its maximum strength at the point where it emerges from the Bemini Straits between the Bahama bank on the east and the coast of Flor- ida on the west. The breadth of the actual current here between Fowey Rocks and Gun Cay Light-is 38 miles, its average depth 239 fathoms, its aver- age velocity 50 miles in 24 hours, although it rises at times to 100 miles. Farther north its breadth increases, and its velocity is correspondingly di1- minished. The western edge of the stream in its northward course along the coast of the United States follows closely the 100-fathom curve, although the axis of the stream, the line of great- est velocity, lies somewhat further sea- ward, its position varying, according to Pillsbury, with the declination of the moon, lying (at Jupiter) 8 mules farther off shore at time of low moon than at time of high. From Jupiter to Hatteras the axis runs at a distance varying from 11 to 20 miles outside the 100-fathom curve. The color of the stream is a percep- tibly deeper blue than that of the neigh- boring sea, this blueness forming one of the standard references of the nauti- cal novelists. The depth of color is due to the high percentage or salt con- tained, as compared with the cold green water of higher latitudes, observation having shown that the more salt held in solution by sea water the more in- tensely blue is its color. Thus even in extratropical latitudes we sometimes observe water of a beautiful blue color, as for instance in the Mediterranean and in other nearly land-locked basins, where the influx of fresher water being more or less impeded, the percentage of 140 salt contained is raised by evaporation above the average. Another important fact in connection with the stream is its almost tropical temperature, due to the fact that its high velocity enables it to reach the middle latitudes with very little loss of heat. Upon entering its limits, the temperature of the sea water frequently shows a rise of 10° and even 15°. It was this fact that gave to the stream in the later years of the eighteenth century and the earlier years of the nineteenth an importance in the minds of navi- gators that it no longer possesses. In those days the chronometer, invented by Harrison in 1765, was still an ex- periment. Instruments were crude and nautical tables often at fault. The re- sult was that the determination of the longitude was largely a matter of guess- work, a vessel after a voyage from the channel to America often being out of her reckoning by degrees instead of by minutes. The idea, first suggested by Benjamin Franklin, that the master of a vessel, by observing the temperature of the surface water, could tell the moment of his entry into the Gulf Stream, and could hence fix his position to within a few miles, was hailed with delight. The method was published in 1799 by Jonathan Williams in a work lengthily entitled ‘‘ Thermometrical Navigation, being a series of experi- ments and observations tending to prove that by ascertaining the relative heat of the sea water from time to time, the passage of a ship through the Gulf Stream, and from deep water into sound- ings, may be discovered in time to avoid danger.’’ In this work he makes the patriotic comparison of the Gulf Stream toa streak of red, white, and blue painted upon the surface of the sea for the guidance of American navigators. ‘The discovery of the stream is also alleged to have exercised a curious ef- fect upon the commerce of some of our southern cities. In those days, when Tue NatrionaL GeEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the only known sailing route was by way of the trades, it was the custom for ves- sels making the voyage from Europe late in the year to winter and refit at Charleston or Savannah before attempt- ing to reach the more northern ports of Boston and New York, the prevalence of the northwesterly gales along the coast during the winter season render- ing the passage a trying one even to the larger ships and with the better navigation of the present time. The southern cities thus became to a certain degree half-way houses on the voyage, greatly to the benefit of their trade. With the aid of a thermometer, how- ever, a vessel once making the stream was enabled to remain in its midst and to be thus borne along by the current until the desired northing was made, after which she headed up for port. ‘Thus the necessity for making Charles- ton or Savannah was obviated, and the advantage which they had hitherto en- joyed as commercial centers was lost. From Hatteras the course of the stream leaves the coast in an east-northeast direction. It ceases to exist as a stream current—that is, as acurrent which runs independently of the winds—shortly after crossing the 4oth parallel, and even previous to that, the current ob- servations in the square bounded by 35°-40° N., 65°-70° W. (off the coast from Hatteras to Sandy Hook), show- ing for the month of maximum fre- quency (September) but 32 per cent of the whole number of observations set- ting northeast—z. e., only 7 per cent more than 25 per cent, which would be the number if there were no directive influence whatever. In this latitude it becomes part and parcel of the general easterly drift which characterizes the waters of the ocean north of 35° in a manner quite analogous to the westerly drift of the tropics and due to the same cause, namely, the prevailing winds. In this latitude, however, the latter show none of the persistency of the trades. OcEAN CuRRENTS The winds of the North Atlantic Ocean, as also of the several other oceans—the South Atlantic, South Pa- cific, North Pacific, and the Indian— are governed mainly by the presence of an almost permanent area of high ba- rometer covering the main body of the ocean, around which the winds con- stantly circulate, the circulation in the Northern Hemisphere being in the same direction as the hands of a clock, in the Southern Hemisphere in a con- trary direction, or ‘‘with the sun’’ in either hemisphere, as it is expressed by sailors. In the North Atlantic the center of this area lies somewhat to the southwest of the Azores. On the southern slope of this barometric pla- teau the winds have an easterly direc- tion—the northeast trades; on the north- ern slope, a westerly. These west- erly winds, however, exhibit none of the constancy of the trades, being con- stantly interrupted by the wind systems proper to the alternate areas of high and low barometer which move across continent and ocean from west to east, and which form the governing feature of our own weather, the wind backing to the southeast with falling pressure, hauling to northwest with rising. Just as in the case of the trades, only to a much less extent; there is, however, a sufficient easterly component remain- ing to impart to the waters of the sea below the surface a distinct easterly mo- tion, while on the surface itself there is apparently an utter lack of definite direction other than the fact that the direction of the current ordinarily agrees with the direction of the wind. How true this is may be gathered from a com- parison of the observed winds and the observed currents for a given area; for instance, the 5° square included between the parallels 40°-45° N., 30°-35° W.— about in mid-ocean. ‘The total number of wind observations recorded for the Square was 8,898; of reliable current observations, 719. Dividing each of ‘tion, the log the speed. 141 these up into quadrants and setting the current under that wind quadrant to which they are due, we have the fol- lowing percentages: INS E92.) Ss We IN W WAGES os sed00 ococe HO 20 26 28 Currents sere 20 18 31 31 THE CONSTRUCTION OF CURRENT CHARTS For our knowledge of the currents of the sea as tabulated in the current charts used by navigators—the move- ments of the waters as they actually take place—we are dependent upon ships’ observations. When at sea the position of a vessel at noon of each day is determined by two independent meth- ods. ‘The first of these is known as the position by observation, and means, as its name implies, the position of the ves- sel as found by actual astronomical ob- servation. The second is known as the position by dead reckoning, and is the position as found by reckoning up the vessel’s progress from noon of the pre- vious day, the compass giving the direc- In a majority of cases these two positions fail to agree. The astronomical position is then as- sumed to be correct, and the difference between them is set down as the cur- rent during the intervening 24 hours. Thus let 4 be the position by obser- vation at noon of a given day, B’ the position by dead reckoning at noon of the following day—~. e., the position de- B , A rived from a consideration of the course and distance during the intervening 24 hours. Suppose, however, that astro- nomical observations show that the 142 actual position of the vessel at noon the second day is at &. In this case BB will be set down in the log as the current experienced during the inter- vening 24 hours. In case no astronom- ical observations can be obtained, as happens in fog or cloudy weather, the position by dead reckoning has to be adopted as the best obtainable, with the result that if such weather con- tinues for several days in succession, as sometimes happens at certain seasons of the year, the true position of the vessel may differ considerably from the assumed position, which is frequently accompa- nied with disaster upon approaching shore. To lessen this danger these cur- trent charts have been constructed, giv- ing the results of current observations in the past, and the master of a vessel, by reference to them, is able to profit by the experience of those who have sailed over the same waters in previous years, and to some extent correct his own dead reckoning. The current charts of the various oceans published by the British Admi- ralty—the charts which are universally employed by navigators—are the result of many, many thousands of observa- tions—in fact, of all the reliable current observations taken since 1830. .A glance at these charts will make plain the dif- ficulty which confronts the navigator when approaching a dangerous coast, such as that of Newfoundland or of France, and compelled to rely upon his dead reckoning. For a knowledge of the motions of the water throughout longer periods of time we are forced to depend upon the drift of floating objects, derelicts, wreck- age, floating bottles bearing messages, and the like. Two attempts recently made to study the currents of the sea THe NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE by this method deserve mention. The first is an effort to obtain a knowledge of the currents in the Arctic Ocean. Stout oaken casks, each one numbered and bearing a message, have been dis- tributed by the Philadelphia Geograph- ical Society among the whalers bound for the Arctic by way of Bering Sea, where they winter in the vicinity of the mouth of the Mackenzie River. “These casks are to be placed upon the ice as far eastward as circumstances permit, and the expectation is that they will enter the Atlantic either by Davis Strait or Barents Sea, be noticed by passing vessels, and picked up. A letter from Dr. Bryant, the president of the society, states that 35 out of the 50 casks have been already set out, and that in his opinion they may be looked for on the Other side of the circumpolar area about a year from the spring of 1902. The second project is the proposed investigation of the current in the neighborhood of Ushant and Finisterre by means of floating bottles. This has been undertaken by Lloyds, the great ship underwriting firm, and has prob- ably been brought about by the number of vessels lately lost in that vicinity, owing to the fact that they were out in their reckoning. The bottles, which are of gutta-percha, are to be sealed and thrown into the sea by passing vessels, each one containing a label showing the date and the position at which it was cast adrift. They are then supposed to drift ashore and to be recovered. ‘The ex- pense involved is considerable. On the bottle it is stated that a reward of five francs will be paid for the return to any of His Majesty’s consuls—an instance of liberality of expenditure in the acqui- sition of knowledge which is almost unprecedented. GEOGRAPHIC NOTES FRENCH EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA HE article in this number on ‘‘Re- cent French Explorations in Africa’’ is the first of a series to be pub- lished in this Magazine from time to time on the geographic work of the great gov- ernments of Europe. France,Germany, and Russia are actively exploring their respective spheres in Africa or in Asia in their search for what will help them in a political or material sense. Much has been done during the past several years, but the story of the work accom- plished has been for the most part buried in scattered government reports. It will be the aim of this series of articles to present briefly the main results of this work. The admirable article by Dr. Charles Rabot gives an authentic summary of the plucky and persistent efforts of the French explorers in North Africa. ‘The inspiring motive of nearly all these ex- peditions has been political, to join the disconnected members of her African colonies into a united empire. ‘That France will get out of these lands all they have and will cost her in blood and money seems to us Americans im- probable ; but from a scientific and geo- graphic point of view, the results have been enormous. Great blanks in the map of the continent have been filled in and much knowledge of country and wild inhabitants gained. Dr. Charles Rabot is well known as the enterprising editor of La Géographie, a French geographic journal, the organ of the Société de Géographie of Paris. MOUNT FORAKER BOUT 2omiles from Mt. McKinley, the highest mountain in North America, there towers another moun- tain believed to be only a few hundred feet lower. It was first seen by Capt. some 500 miles. Joseph S. Herron, U. S. Cavalry, in the summer of 1899, and by him esti- mated to be about 20,0co feet high, or 464 feet less than the measured height of Mt. McKinley. Captain Herron named the mountain Mt. Foraker, in honor of the distinguished Senator from Ohio who had nominated William McKinley at each convention that made him the Republican candidate for President. Herron reports that Mt. Foraker be- longs to the same range as Mt. McKin- ley. He made a sketch of it, showing its relative position to Mt. McKinley andtherange. The sketch is published in his report. For several months he was within sight of the two mountains, and was thus able to make a good study of them both. Captain Herron had been charged by the War Department with the task of finding an all-American route to the Yukon from Cook Inlet to Fort Gibbon. He started from Cook Inlet June 9, 1899, and spent six months on the journey of He proceeded slowly, surveying and mapping the country very carefully as he advanced. His report, handsomely illustrated from photo- graphs, has recently been published by the War Department (Adjutant Gen- eral’s Office, Bulletin 31). ROCKY MOUNTAIN COAL-FIELDS A LONG the east base of the Rocky Mountains there extends a belt, 1,000 miles long, from the Canadian boundary through Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, 60 per cent of which are coal-fields. A sim- ilar though smaller belt stretches along the west base of the range through Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. Mr. L.S. Storrs, of the U.S. Geological Survey, has recently made a special investigation of this coal area and estimates that in the Rocky Moun- ‘ 144 tain region there are nearly 45,000 square miles of anthracite, bituminous, and lignitic-bituminous coal and 56,500 square miles of lignite. The results of the investigation are published in the twenty-second.annual report of the Sur- vey, part III, now in press. Mr. Storrs believes the available coal of Colorado alone is thirty-four billion tons. The coals of Wyoming, lying largely in the plains region, are of a lower grade than the mountain coals of Colorado and Montana. ‘The coal-fields of New Mexico have been explored only near the railroads, and those of Utah but little explored, so that no estimate can be formed of the coal resources of these two states. North Dakota’s coal is lignitic and must be used very soon after leaving the mine, because it dis- integrates so rapidly. ‘There are no important coal mines in South Dakota. No careful exploration, however, has been made of the northwestern part of the state, where there is coal of more or less value. In Nevada coal of any value has been found only at one point, in the Eureka district. No coal is mined on a large scale in Idaho. In Igoo, from the Rocky Mountain coal- fields 13,496,555 short tons were mined, worth about $17,400,000. WORLD’S SUGAR PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION VERY timely bulletin has recently been issued by Hon. O. P. Aus- tin giving the present statistical posi- tion of sugar. Fifty years ago about all the sugar consumed in Kurope came from the tropics; from the West Indies, Louisiana, and the South American col- onies in the Western Hemisphere, and from Java and parts of the East Indies in the Eastern Hemisphere. During the last half of the nineteenth century, however, the sugar-producing area of the world has been slowly shifting from the tropics northward to the temperate Tue NationaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE zone, due to the development of the beet-sugar industry. Practically all the countries of Europe are now en- gaged in the production of beet sugar. Spain, within the last five years, has developed a beet-sugar industry that supplies her home market and is now seeking for foreign outlets. Italy also within the last decade has made such progress in producing sugar that nearly two-thirds of the sugar used 1s produced within her borders. In 1900 Germany exported nearly one million tons of sugar—988,703; Austria-Hungary, 657, 492 tons; France, 587,063 tons; Bel- gium, 300,757 tons, and Russia, 201, 330 tons. Two-thirds of the world’s sugar sup- ply 1s now produced from beets. Prior to 1871-72 the world’s production of beet sugar had never exceeded 1,000,- ooo tons for one year. In thirty years sugar produced from beets has quin- tupled, and for 1900 reached an esti- mated grand total. of 5,510,000 tons. Meanwhile the sugar produced from cane has not quite doubled in quantity. In 1871-’72 the estimated production of cane sugar was 1,599,000 tons, while in 1900 it had reached a total of 2,904,000 tons. The Coast and Geodetic Survey has. just published a chart showing the lines. of equal magnetic declination and of equal annual change in the United States for 1902. ‘The chart is based on all known observations to date. A topographic map of Philadelphia and vicinity has been recently issued by the Geological Survey. The map shows the city and suburbs on the south and west, and connects with another map, also just published by the Survey, showing the city of Chester and sur- rounding country to the Delaware line. The Survey had previously issued two sheets of the Norristown and German- town suburbs, so that by mounting the GeocrapHic Notes 145 four sheets together an excellent map of the United States is figured at $8r, of the Philadelphia region may be 650,000,000; of Great Britain, $59, obtained. 030,000,000; France, $48,450,000,000; Germany, $40,260,000,000, and Russia, Dr. George Davidson has published an $32,125,000,000. The per cent of debt exhaustive treatise, with map, on ‘‘The to wealth of these nations is estimated Tracks and Landfalls of Bering and for the United States, 1.4 per cent; Chirikof on the Northwest Coast of United Kingdom, 6 per cent; Germany, America,’’ from the point of their sep- 8.1 per cent; Russia, 11.1 per cent; aration; in latitude 49° 10’, longitude France, 12.8 per cent. 176° 40’ west, to their return to the same meridian—June—October, 1741. ye he original map made by George Washington in 1775 of the lands on the Geographic Work in the Philippines Great Kanawha River, West Virginia, Plans are being matured for extensive granted to him by the British Govern- explorations in Mindanao, Mindoro, and ment in 1763 for his services in the Luzon. Of the two first-named islands Braddock Expedition, is now in the pos- practically nothing is known except the — session of the Library of Congress. Mr. coastline. The work will be under the P. Lee Phillips, Chief of the Division of personal charge of Dr. David P. Barrows, Maps and Charts, who recently obtained chief of the Bureau of Non-Christian the map for the Library, has placed it on Tribes, P. I. Dr. Barrows is now in exhibition, where it can be seen by the the United States, but on his return to many thousands daily visiting the Li- Manila early in April will immediately brary. The map is about two by five enter the field. Mindorois about twice feet, and is entirely in the handwriting the size of the state of Delaware, Min- of Washington. The margin is filled danao is larger than the state of In- with notes, also in Washington’s hand- diana, and Luzon nearly as large as the writing, describing the boundary marks state of New York. ‘set by Washington and different features Stretching from north to south across of the tract. Luzon on either coast are parallel mountain ranges. The low country “The Journal of School Geography, between the ranges is comparatively so successfully directed for many years well known, but the mountainous re- by Richard EK. Dodge, Professor of Ge- gion is unexplored, and little is known ography in Columbia University, and of the unchristianized tribes living there. ‘The American Bureau of Geography,” The special object of the Bureau of of which Edward M. Lehnerts, Pro- Non-Christian Tribes is to study the fessor of Geography in the State Nor- natives of the islands who are not Chris- mal School of Minnesota, was the able tians and have not been under Christian editor, have joined forces, and will here- influence. after be issued as one publication. ‘The title of the new magazine is ‘‘ The Jour- The Wealth of Nations—The London nal of Geography.’ It is planned ‘‘ to Daily Mail year book for 1902 estimates meet the needs of all the teachers and the wealth of the United States asnearly students in geography.’’ ‘The journal, equal to the combined riches of France which will be issued ten times a year, and Germany, as three times that of is edited jointly by Professors Dodge Russia, and about twenty-two billion and Lehnerts and J. Paul Goode, Pro- dollars more than the wealth of Great fessor of Geography in the University Britain. In round numbers the wealth of Pennsylvania. a 146 The First Crossing of Samar.—tIt has been repeatedly stated in the press re- ports recently that the first crossing of the island of Samar by Americans was madeseveral weeks ago by Major Waller, of the Marine Corps. As a matter of fact, the island had been crossed several times previously by American officers and troops. For instance, the Military Information Division of the War De- partment has now in press a map show- ing several route sketches across Samar surveyed by Lieut. W. S. Martin from June to September, 1901. This map shows six distinct trails across theisland. The scene of Waller’s crossing was the southwestern corner of the island. A dense, impenetrable forest jungle covers large portions of the island. ‘The jungle is so dense that even the natives are ignorant of what it hides. GEOGRAPHIC The’ Mastery of the Pacific, By Archi- bald R. Colquhoun. With maps and illustrations. New York: The Mac- millan Co., 1yo2. Mr. Colquhoun has written many vol- umes, but probably none of them will command as widespread interest and attention as his latest book, ‘‘’ The Mas- tery of the Pacific.’’ He has visited the Philippines, Australia, and New Zealand, and also lived for considerable time in China and Japan and in Cali- fornia, studying the life and peoples bordering the great ocean, for he has long believed that in the arena of the Pacific ‘‘ will occur the great struggle of the twentieth century.’’ The pres- ent volume aims successfully ‘‘to pre- sent a vivid impression of the various countries, their peoples, scenery, social and political life, and the parts they are destined to play in the great drama of the mastery of the Pacific.’’ Tue NationaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE The Peary Arctic Club has reélected its present officers for the year 1902: Morris K. Jessup, president; H. W. Cannon, treasurer, and Herbert L. Bridgman, secretary. In July the club will send the Wizudward northward to ' take supplies to Mr. Peary and probably to bring him back in the fall. Mr. Peary is now leading his fourth consecu- tive campaign against the North Pole. In 1899 he reached Fort Conger, being the first to visit Conger since General Greely left it in 1883; in 1900 he rounded the Greenland Archipelago, perhaps the most important of all the important work he has done; in 1901 he again reached Fort Conger, but advanced only ten days beyond that point. This spring Fort Conger will again be his base and Cape Hecla his starting point for the Pole. A ERAS ORT: One hundred and thirty pages are devoted to the United States in the Pacific, 130 pages to Great Britain in the Pacific, 80 to the Dutch, 36 to Japan, and 20 to Germany, France, Russia, and China. To Americans Mr. Colquhoun’s observations in the Phil- ippines are specially interesting. The American plan ‘‘ to fit the com- ing generation for its future’’ by edu- cation of the most advanced type Mr. Colquhoun pronounces ‘‘a_ beautiful theory and a beautiful scheme, but un- fortunately it involves an entire sub- version of the laws of nature.’’ ‘The Filipino is not simple and amenable, but a half-civilized, clever, irresponsible child, with warped ideas of right and wrong. ‘‘If unnaturally stimulated, he may grow up into a Frankenstein.” The great danger is that by a whole- sale education a great mass of half-edu- cated Filipinos will be developed, who GEOGRAPHIC will be restless, discontented, and con- ceited, and turn against the government unless provided with offices. The Fili- pino loves the abstract—the theoretical side of learning ; he will talk fluently about the principles of individual rights, but what these rights are in practice he does not know, and if they were given to him he would not recognize them. There are many openings for capital in the Philippines, but very few for the individual without money. ‘‘ This is no poor man’s country ; no place for the individual digger—the climate and cost of living preclude that—and it is to be hoped that the government will be able to prevent the influx of a large number of unemployed. Already mean whites are abundant and on the increase.’ Everything considered, the Americans have begun well. Judge Taft ‘“has won golden opinions. from every side,’’ and “is peculiarly the stamp of man to deal successfully with the Philippines.’’ Irrigation in the United States. By Frederick Haynes Newell, Hydraulic Engineer and Chief of the Division of Hydrography of the U. S. Geological Survey, etc. With many illustra- tions and maps. New York: T. Y. Crowell & Co., 1902. $2.00. Mr. Newell, the chief of the Irriga- tion Division of the U. S. Geological Survey and the foremost authority on all matters relating to irrigation in this country, portrays in this book the con- ditions confronting man in the arid region, the character of the lands, the rainfall, and the available water supply. He describes the methods of stream measurement, the construction of irri- gation works, the application of water to land, the occurrence of underground supplies of water, and the methods of raising it. Irrigation laws and the practice in different states are set forth clearly and simply. The work closes with descriptions of the states in the arid and semi-arid regions. Itisaclear, LITERATURE 147 simple, and full presentation of the sub- ject addressed to the general public, to settlers and intending settlers in our arid regions rather than to technical experts. One-third of the area of our country is dependent upon artificial watering for success in agriculture. With awise application of the available water, many millions of people can find homes therein. Without water it is well-nigh valueless for home-making. ‘The theme of the book is the aphorism that in the arid region it is water, not land, that creates values. Of the arid region only about one per cent is now utilized through irrigation. It is esti- mated that there is sufficient water to reclaim ten times that amount, if prop- erly applied. Land is abundant, water is scarce and precious. At present, nearly all the water that can be applied to land at small expense has been utilized. Future works of reclamation must be upon a large scale, and can best be done by the National Government. Under the plan, which is now before Congress, it is proposed that the Gov- -ernment construct the works and sell the water and lands to settlers at cost. ‘The increase in our arable area and consequent increase in our agricultural population, resulting from a complete utilization of our water supply, will benefit and strengthen our whole people, east as well as west, for the prosperity of one section increases the prosperity of all. The illustrations merit special men- tion. ‘The half-tones are admirably selected and well reproduced. The maps and diagrams are simple and yet wonder- fully effective. Scotland. Historic and Romantic. By Marie Hornor Lansdale. Illustrated. 2 vols. Philadelphia: Henry T. Coates & Co., 1902. The best part of these volumes is the unusually fine illustrations. The text 148 is random, disconnected, and incomplete. The reader would infer from the de- scription that the chief interest of the great castles and palaces is that the Earl So-and-So or the Bishop So-and-So was imprisoned, tortured, or beheaded in such-and-such a building. What they fought and died for is usually left to the reader to supply. Those who visit Scotland merely to see the historic fortresses and hear the grewsome tales which cling to each should take these volumes with them. Wonderland, 1902. By Olin D. Wheeler. Illustrated. Published by Charles E. Fee, Northern Pacific Railway, St. Paul. This handsome little book of . 100 pages describes that part of the north- west which is tributary to the Northern Pacific Railway. The leading chapter tells the story of mining in Montana from the early sixties to the present ; there are also chapters on the Northern Cheyenne Indians, the Yellowstone Park, and the Puget Sound country. Several hundred beautiful pictures are artistically arranged in the text. ‘The publisher announces that the book will be sent to any address upon receipt of six cents, the cost of postage. The Scenery of England. By the Right Honorable Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock). Withullustrations. New York and London: The Macmillan Col yig025 2550: The author does not attempt to de- scribe the scenery of England, but rather to explain wherein the rivers and hills, the moors and fens, and the great cliffs of the coast have had their origin. In other words, he does not directly tell what the country is, but how it has be- come what it is. The book is thus, in a certain sense, a geologic history of England. It is written in Lord Ave- bury’s terse and pointed style, and is an exceedingly valuable work. Some of Tue Nationa, GrocrRapHic MAGAZINE the chapter headings are ‘‘ Geology,”’’ “The Coast,’’ ‘‘ The Origin of Moun- tains,’’ ‘‘Volcanoes,’’ ‘‘ The History of a River,’ ‘‘ Influence of Rocks upon Scenery,’’ and ‘‘ Downs, Wolds, Fens, Moors, and Commons.’’ Rarely has any book of this character contained such graphic and real illustrations of the results and working of the different forces of nature. Touring Alaska and the Yellowstone. By Charles M. Taylor, Jr. With illus- trations. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs and Company. Mr. Taylor describes merely the or- dinary tourist’s trip by the Canadian Pacific road from the east to Seattle; thence by, the steamer Queen to south- eastern Alaska, and by rail from Skag- way to White Horse, on the Yukon. The return journey was made by the Northern Pacific road, stopping a few days in the Yellowstone Park. ‘The book is written in a bright, interesting manner, and the numerous illustrations are well selected and excellently repro- duced. : China and the Allies. By A. Henry Savage Landor. Twovolumes. I1- lustrated. New York: Charles Serib- ner’s Sons, 1901. The story of the Boxer uprisings and of the massacres and horrors of the months that followed are graphically told. It makes rather superficial read- ing, however, and beyond much excite- ment the reader gains little. The vol- umes are very handsomely illustrated. Eastern Peru and Bolivia (H. H. Hill Publishing Company, Seattle) is the title of an interesting little book of 50 pages, giving some of the experiences in that country of William C. Ogle, a Yankee engineer who has prospected and worked gold mines all the way from Alaska to Bolivia. L y A NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY PROCEEDINGS MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY: March7, 1902.—President Graham Bellin the chair. The proceedings of the last meeting were read by Secretary Henry and approved. “The Petroleum Resources of the United States ’’ was the subject of an address by Dr. C. Willard Hayes and of the discussion follow- ing. Dr. Hayes briefly explained the compo- sition of the hydrocarbons and outlined the several theories of the formation of petroleam— the organic theory, the inorganic hypothesis, and the theory that petroleum is formed by inorganic substances acting on organic sub- stances. Petroleum in Pennsylvania is found in sandstone which looks so massive that at first sight it would seem to be solid; in Ohio it is found in the Trenton dolomites, and in Texas in porous and vesicular rocks. The age of the formations containing petroleum varies from Silurian in Ohio and Carboniferous in Pennsylvania to Neocene in California There are no surface indications to indicate where petroleum exists. Certain characteris- tics of rocks, however, must be present. The rocks must be porous, they must have good cover (2. e., must be overlain by an impervi- ous stratum), and they must be flexed. The geologist can tell with certainty where oil will not be found ; he can also tell where it may be found, but he cannot tell definitely where it will be found. Dr. Hayes called attention to the peculiarity of the land at Beaumont, Texas. All wells drilled in the top of a sharp dome yield oil, but any holes drilled in the side of the dome yield nooil. As an instance of the great pressure of the oil at Beaumont, Dr. Hayes cited one well where, at a depth of 1,700 feet, the pressure was from 700 to 800 pounds to the square inch. He also called attention to the widespread use of oil as a fuel in some manufactories in the South, where it was found that one man could do the work of nearly fifty in the furnace- rooms. The output of petroleum has more than doubled for the United States in the last 20 years. In 1580 the output was 26,286,123 bar- rels, and in 1900 it reached the enormous total of 63,362,704 barrels. Considerably more than half of the petroleum produced comes from the Appalachian field and about one-third from Ohio and Indiana. Dr. Hayes said he wished especially to em- phasize the fact that the supply of oil was not inexhaustible, but limited, and that unless the great waste at present was checked there would be an exhaustion of petroleum at no distant day. When gas was discovered the supply was thought to be unlimited, but already the nat- ural-gas fields of the country have been prac- tically exhausted. At least 1,000,000 barrels of oil have been wasted in one year at Beau- mont. Such wasteful extravagance ought to be corrected if the oil is to last. At the conclusion of Dr. Hayes’ very inter- esting address President Bell called for remarks. Prof. A. J. Henry mentioned the practice, common in certain parts of Ohio, Pennsyl- vania, and New York, of pumping abandoned wells at intervals, which is a quite profitable business when the price of oil is high. He also directed attention to the fact that presence of gas does not indicate that oil is to be found in the vicinity. Mr. R. U. Goode inquired as to the relative price and value of oil found in the different fields. Dr. Flayes remarked that the price depended upon what you could get for it. Beaumont oil sells for from to to 25 cents a barrel on the field; Pennsylvania is worth 90 cents a barrel, California 65 cents a barrel, and Texas 50 cents a barrel, or 75 cents if coal in the neighbor- hood is selling for $2.50 a ton. Vice-President McGee called attention to the fact that young formations are richer and old formations poorer in hydrocarbons, in- stancing marsh gas as an illustration of con- temporary origin of the substances. Dr. McGee -also stated that-the dome structure noted in Texas and elsewhere is not found in Califor- nia, and inquired what was the mode of the accumulation of the oil in California. Dr. Hayes, replying to the question as to whether any oil had been discovered in the West Indies or the Philippines, said that small quantities of a very pure oil had been found in Santa Clara, Cuba The peculiar fact of this oil was that it was associated with rock of igneous origin. So far as he was aware, there was no further developed field elsewhere in the West Indies. There was said to be some oil in the Philippines. The Appalachian oil field is the largest in the world, in extent greatly exceeding the Russian fields at Baku. Dr. David P. Barrows mentioned the fact that in the Far East oil from Sumatra is ex- tensively used, and there was also oil in Java. Prof. C. C. Georgeson inquired as to the process of refining petroleum. Dr. Hayes replied that he had not inves- tigated the refining process sufficiently to consider himself competent to speak on that subject. Mr. G. K, Gilbert believed that the speaker had given undue weight to the inorganic theory 150 as to the formation of petroleum, inasmuch as there was no observational basis for this theory. Inorganic materials, as far as we know, do not exist in combined form on the earth’s crust. They may exist in combined form, but we know of noinstance Mr. Gilbert also alluded to the growing custom of using oil for laying dust in road-beds of railways and in the streets in southern California. The President referred to some oil fields in California which were beneath the surface of the water. The wells are drilled some distance from the shore. Dr. Bell also alluded to a neighbor of his in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, who drilled an artesian well and obtained a small quantity of refined oil! At one time there was great excitement in Nova Scotia over the supposed existence of much petroleum there, but it turned out that there was no oil at all, except in some rare instances. LECTURES : March 12..Vice-President McGee in the chair. Afternoon course. Prof. E. F. Fenollosa, of the University of Tokio, gave an illustrated address on ‘‘ Prob- lems of the Pacific—Japan,’’ which will be published later. March 14,—President Graham Bell in the chair. Dr. Charles H. Townsend, U. S. Fish Com- mission, gave an illustrated address on ‘“‘ Ocean Bottoms.’’ March 19.—President Graham Bell in the chair Afternoon course. Mr. Henry Demarest Lloyd gave an address on ‘‘ Problems of the Pacific—New Zealand,”’ which will be published later. ANNOUNCEMENTS ANNUAL EXCURSION ; The Annual Excursion of the National Geo- graphic Society will this year be to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on Saturday, May 17. By special arrangen) it with the Pennsylvania Railroad, the round trip ticket from Washington to Gettysburg will cost $2.25, provided 200 mem- bers and friends join the excursion. (The price of the regular round trip ticket is $5.60. ) Luncheon persons may carry with them or buy at Gettysburg for a moderate sum. The Committee on the Annual Excursion, consist- ing of Col. Henry F. Blount, Mr. F. V. Coville, and Mr. Raymond A. Pearson, request that all members who intend to take part in the excur- sion, or who have friends desiring to join the party, should send their names, with the num- ber of tickets they desire, to the Secretary of Tue NationaL GrocRAPHic MAGAZINE the Society as soon as possible. Tosecure the special train and the special fare, the Society must guarantee 200 tickets. Other details of the excursion, such as the time of departure of the train, etc., will beannouncedlater. An interesting programme of addresses, to be given on the field of Gettysburg, is now being ar- ranged by the Committee. Itis earnestly hoped that many members of the Society resident outside of Washington may find it possible to join the excursion at either Gettysburg or Washington. MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY: April 4.— Work of the Bureau of Forestry : Development, Organization, and Policy of the Bureau of Forestry, Gifford Pinchot. Division of Forest Management ; Forest Working Plans; Scope of Work, O. W. Price. The Arkansas Tract ; A Specific Work- ing Plan; Problems Involved, F. E. Olm- sted. Division of Forest Investigation ; Scope of Work ; Notable Investigations, Geo. B. Sudworth. Section of Tree Planting; Scope of Work ; Tree Planting, Wm. L. Hall. April 18.—Results of recent Hydrographic Surveys : ; Introductory Remarks, F. H. Newell. Work in Arizona, Arthur P. Davis. Work in Colorado, C. H. Fitch. Work in Montana, Cyrus C. Babb. LECTURES : April 2.*—‘‘ Problems of the Pacifice—The Commerce of the Great Ocean.’? Hon. O. P. Austin. April 9.*—‘‘ Problems of the Pacific—The Great Ocean in World Growth.’? Vice-Presi- dent McGee, LI. D. April 11.—‘‘ Explorations in Antarctica.” C. E. Borchgrevink. April 25.—‘‘ Our Northern Rockies.” ert H. Chapman. Rob- President Graham Bell has appointed the following committees of the Society : Technical Meetings.—Richard U. Goode, G. W. Littlehales, Isaac Winston. Annual Excursion.—Henry F. Blount, F.V. Coville, Raymond A. Pearson. * Columbia Theater, 4.20 p, m. pe HENRY ROMEIKE'S _ BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS 1 aoe 110 Fifth Avenue, New York Reads every paper of importancé published in the United States, - and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna every paper of importance published in Europe and the British > Colonies. One subscription on any given subject will bring notices ~ from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers. WRITE FOR TERMS Forest ALONG THE NEIGHBORS COLUMBIA RIVER % By W. D. HULBERT No other river in the world is like the Columbia. Its fish are shipped No stadent of wild life has set down e are pee of ae world, sti S rom t iental countri the comedies and tragedies of fur and islands ‘of the Pacific paae to cad feathers with more intimate truth,’ fro upon it, and the scenery along its banks is charming, iiicacy, and. Eemnor ngs, Be; : This country. is reached by th e ‘Halbert in these personal sketches of New York Central ‘and its connec- montidlnnd ‘eseatures with whors” he ae in eet, any pert of the Pacific east can be edsily and quickly has lived in long and friendly com- reached by the New York Central panionship. Lines. : ; by f Four- i Sy Ifkestrated with drawings and photographs i Asics! a Beruter weaiae denn = Ready this month ..’. Price, $4.50 net 2cent stamp to George H. Daniels, Gen- eral, Passenger Agent, Grand Central Station, New York, or McCLUR PHILLIPS & CO. Send 5 cents for a sample copy of the - ° ents eee Nya eid monthly magazine of travel and edu- NEW YORK cation. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY the Philippines (5 feet 2 inches x 3 feet), South ‘Atsca (46x 33 inches). P s Northeastern China (36 x 28 inches), ip (18 x 7% inches).. 3 ; Full-page Charts, showing storm tracks and methdds of weather forecasting. BY MAIL FOR 25 CENTS EACH The Latest on Nicaragua OCEAN TO OCEAN ms By LieuTenant Jd. W. @G. WALKER, eS s. N. A chatming account, personal and historical, of Nicaragua and its people, by the son of Rear. Admiral Walker, the head of the Nicaragua Commission. Lieutenant Walker conducted: the survey of bod and gives his impressions of the country from the standpoint of the observant traveler, It alas heded interesting to the admirer of Pele macs travel notes, and to the reader who wants he latest information on a vital topic of the hour, |The full text of the Clayton-Bulwer and erie Paunesfote treaties is included in the volume; also a graphic account of the Walker Filibusteri xpe With 15 Sut, page plates and ¢ maps. r2mo, oseer te ) net. ALSO, NEW EDITION, ae NOTES ON THE NICARAGUAN CANAL By HENRY I. SHELDON. A brief for the Nicaragua route, written by a business man, who states clearly and. forcibly the rea- sons for his choice. All the great canal projects of the world are considered in connection with the discussion of the present enterprise, and a Sd aoe index Gs is also included. serhe Dhicas isa re been a strong factor in the literature of the su ness and a new edition has become It is uniform in style with ‘‘ Ocean to Ocean," and each book supplements the other adinirabiy ‘Together they are the latest word on a question of National interest. Z With 22 foliage illustrations and 5 ies r2mo, indexed, $125. O= pon of Office Rectibvete is ee with of everything requisite to the furnishing of a modern office, a bank, a committee room, etc. Complete z as- sortments and latest and best styles of Office Furniture. Roll-top Desks, hs Desks, Standing Olitce Desks, Typewriter Desks, Typewriter and Letter Press Stands, Revolving Office Chairs, Stationary Office Chairs, Sta- tionary Book Cases, Revolving Book Gace Sectional )hGiaciers INDIAN TRAILS + CAMPS PASSES a Scale of Miles ae =A fi Ay EF, Py Z= Zz if / ZZ Lysyyyy, ZK Me / LUE: QU ZZ \ NY YZ, Z a Z LW \ \\ WW \ \ & Fm Hil mi Mae WWW re ny = vou all Wee Al WZ iy =(( WA MISA a Z == ZS AM! AY i. Me I wirSx p"MZ TANS ® SS Sketch Map of Region West and South of Kananaskis Lakes: by W. D. Wilcox 168 petual snow. ‘The Indians in choosing a trail had most skillfully availed them- selves of every little patch of soil and vegetation in a bare slope of limestone. On the upper parts, however, even these disappeared, and the trail was lined with sharp stones. A great deal of work had been done by throwing down the larger stones and paving a way with the smaller ones. I approached the crest of the ridge at 8,140 feet with not a little excitement and interest. A short space of level ground makes the top of the pass, and then bends over into a valley of great depth. A large extent of new country was seen toward the east and south, with a green valley below and several ranges of mountains, all, however, of less height than those on either side of the pass, which were imposing precipices three or four thousand feet above the valley. How the Indians first got their horses over this place surpasses compre- hension. Part of the trail was covered by snow even at this late date, and the slope was so steep that the stones were ready to slide. If a horse ever lost his balance here, it would be all over with him. After taking photographs, I made a dificult scramble to a spur half a mile distant to get a better view. Here I erected a cairn and took angles of all the ‘prominent points. ‘This otherwise bar- ten peak was covered by forget-me-nots growing in the cracks of blue limestone, their stems short and stunted by cold. The beautiful clusters of bright flowers covered every slope.and enlivened the bare rocks. That night we had an excellent dinner, -consisting, among other good things, of a grouse stew, the results of Tom’s good hunting. Around the camp-fire -we discussed the developments of the day, cheered by hotscotch, and now Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE felt certain that the newly found valley would lead us into some tributary of the Elk River. The next day, August 12, was warm and fair, with high fleecy clouds. The ascent and crossing of the pass by our fourteen horses was one of the most pic- turesque and interesting sights imagi- nable. The intelligent animals hardly knew what to make of the tremendous climb, and the sharp rocks cut their feet badly. We rolled down tons of stones, and repaired the trail as well as possible ahead of them. Both Bryant and I were busy also in getting snap shots of our pack-train from every point of view. A short rest and a precautionary tight- ening of cinches took place on the sum- mit. Then ensued a still more difficult descent of 2,000 feet into the new val- ley. When we looked at the precipitous and snowbound pass from below, it seemed impossible that four-footed ani- mals could traverse sucha place. Nev- ertheless, thanks to the extraordinary care and skill of our packers, not one of the entire outfit of pack animals had _ a sore or chafed spot on his back, though most of them had been carrying from 150 to 200 pounds, jumping logs, and scrambling over steep passes every day for the past two weeks. ‘The weather was very warm, and our tired animals had to fight swarms of bulldog flies and mosquitoes which appeared in this val- ley. The last two valleys had been almost free of them. Our men built smudges, around which the horses stood till late in the day, when a hard rain cooled the air, drove away the flies, and allowed our animals to feed in a meadow not far distant. Bryant walked about five miles down the valley in the after- noon to explore the trail, and said much less rain had fallen there than at our camp. (To be concluded in the June number) eG RAG PACE RAG AUN ae ACKER, By Sir Henry M. Srantey, M. P. HE other day I was favored with a peep at Commander White- house’s map, and I was struck with the fullness of its detail and its accuracy. I took out my old note books, and then compared the rude sketches that I made as I went from camp to camp around the Victoria Nyanza twenty- seven years ago with the details which Commander Whitehouse has put in his map. Mention has been made on more than one occasion of Ugowé Bay when speak- ing of this part of Africa. I remember when sailing from Bridge Island I came on a very spacious bay. Managing to get within about a hundred yards of the shore I saw a native and asked him what the name of the place was. I had toask several times. Finally, in answer, I heard something which sounded like, “You go away.’’ I said to myself, ‘“ Why, this must be a Swahili, who has fled from Zanzibar through committing some awful crime, and who has found shelter in this region.’’ I again asked the man the name of the place, the man again replying, ‘‘ You go away.’ Finally I got the interpreter to say that all I wanted was the name of the place, and again the answer was, ‘‘ You go away.’’ Under these circumstances I was, of course, bound to accept the name; anyhow, it would do very well as a landmark to indicate the place where the question had been asked, and it could be left to experts like Com- mander Whitehouse to come along some day and find out whether it was ‘‘ U-jee- jee’’ or ‘‘ You go away.”’ During his remarks Commander Whitehouse let slip a sentence which impressed me very much. He said, “The lake region is a very stormy one, and a day never passes without thunder, while a storm can always be seen some- where, although it never lasts long. During the first survey of Port Florence, in 1898, there were no less than seven- teen violent storms occurring within twenty-one days.’’ On looking at the beautiful map shown by Commander Whitehouse I seemed to see the sailor, with his small crew and his little steel . boat, wandering from point to point, crossing and recrossing, going from some island to some headland, taking his bear- ings from that headland back again to the island and to some point far away; then a tornado coming down, with a torrential downpour of rain, and per- haps a storm of hail, which threatened to fill the boat; then afew hours later a sun so fierce that the sides of the boat became so hot as to scorch the hand if they were touched. As I traced his many courses over the lake I thought to myself that Commander Whitehouse must have passed many anxious hours during thesurvey. Hehad said that he was occupied thirteen months in de- lineating the coast line of 2,200 miles in length. When twenty-seven years ago I was instructed to go into that part of the world it was understood that I had to settle a question which very much vexed geographers at that time. According to Speke’s theory that great lake, to which he had given the name “‘ Victoria Ny- anza,’’ was one vast body of water almost equal to the size of Scotland in area, whereas, according to Sir Richard Burton, it was only aseries of small lakes orswamps. ‘The problem I had to settle was, which of the explorers was right. Hence I had to circumnavigate the lake. I carried a little sectional boat, built at * Republished from Zhe Zudependent by courtesy of the editors. 170 Teddington-on-Thames, and, after fifty- seven days’ voyage with numerous ad- ventures, I came back to the point from which I had started. Even had I had the time to examine more carefully the inlets, bays, creeks, and gulfs of the Lake Victoria, I could never have hoped to lay them down with the remark- able accuracy displayed by Commander Whitehouse. I remember that twenty- seven years ago after rounding the southern side and the eastern and north- ern coasts of the lake, and coming half way down, just south of the equator, we were driven from the mainland by some cantankerous natives, and came to a small islet where at last we were perfectly safe from all harm and had leisure to reflect. Ascending to the highest peak of that little islet, I saw Map shewing the UGANDA RAILWAY. Scale of ae °o 20 40 60 . 190 Railway shown thus:— .....———. canta) Stations shewn thus:- Head Quarter Station shewn thus: ers Trade Route Shown Chus:- 2mm. can 00% ees } ok Naivasha \ - L.Maivashaes i i \ Esca en fi 4 Lamom ys.” * } : / 1 | Kicuyud Naitobines | v5 j thi River + 9 Stony-Athi Gks Kapiti Plait RB { Machakdg Road i ! ac’ oa in | NG Kimaa - =RE =i Sult. moud “*eg>imbyy ee “i Makinduy_ [\, ~ Kibwe7i 7 - “0, a KM ongoleni ~~ 2 Mtoto Ahdéj ; “a3 ae ean. THe Nationa GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE a boundless extent of fresh-water sea toward the north, east, and south, while toward the west and southwest there was a magnificent extent of hitherto- unexplored territory. I could not help but admire the scene, and I seemed to see as in a vision what would happen in the days to come. JI seemed to see steamers trailing their dark smoke over the gray waters of the bay, loaded with passengers and natives about to ex- change and barter at some well-estab- lished port, and the natives of Uganda, instead of looking with contempt upon the wild, savage Usukuma at the south, willingly coming down to exchange their coffees for the cattle of Usukuma, and shaking hands in all friendship with the natives of the east coast making blood-brotherhood with the natives of . “A Great AFRICAN: LAKE the west coast ; I seemed to hear church bells ringing at a great distance away, and I hoped and prayed that some day that vision might be realized. Twenty-seven years have passed, and I think it will be admitted that we are on the eve of the realization of that vision. In those days Mtesa, of Uganda, impaled his victims and clubbed his women to death upon the slightest provocation ; the slingers of the islands stood ready to welcome the wayfarer or the traveler with showers of stones, and along all the shores described by Commander Whitehouse there was a group here and there, or an army at another place doing all the tricks common to barbarous people, and sighing and thirsting for blood. Those days have passed by. -The missionaries have been laboring since 1877 in Uganda, and as the result of their labors can show 90,000 Chris- tian people. Three hundred and twenty churches have been established there, and there are many thousands of chil- dren at school. It was only the other day I received a letter from a man at Mengo saying there were 500 children in the Mengo school every day. ‘The converts of Uganda are now actually carrying the gospel to the distant lands ' of the west. ‘Toro has been made ac- quainted with the gospel. Usongora, which was a wild and devastated coun- try only twelve years ago, now welcomes the white traders; at Kavalli, where I rested some months, the people are be- ginning to take a strong interest in the white man’s religion. Such has been the change wrought in twenty-seven years. Thoughit has been slow work; though missionaries have often felt depressed, broken-hearted, and dispirited, suffered persecution and been expelled from Uganda; though the native converts have suffered torture and death, still the missionaries have persevered, and in the end they have received theirreward. ‘They now know that the terminus of the great railway 171 is built on the very shore of the lake, while one steamer, the W2lliam Mac- kinnon, is daily trafficking between Port Florence, on the east, and Entebbe, on the northwest. She is but the precur- sor of a fleet of such steamers. In 1880, 1881, and 1882 I carried three small steamers on to the Upper Congo ; today there are eighty, with a tonnage of about 10,000 tons. ‘Today there is only one steamer of seventy-five feet in length on the Victoria Nyanza ; in ten years hence there will very likely be fifty, in twelve years one hundred, in fifty years two hundred, and that is the way civilization will go on spread- ing out and stirring the dark peoples to activity. ‘There are two main motives for which the British nation voted the money for the construction of the Uganda Rail- way. ‘The first isthe suppression of the slave trade, and the second was to effect an uninterrupted and speedy communi- cation between the sea and what is called the ‘‘ Pearl of Africa,’’ and today those two objects have been accomplished. The slave-trader cannot now be found in those regions, otherwise the very sight of a white man would be fatal to him, while as for the uninterrupted and speedy communication, it only now requires two and a half days to reach Uganda from the sea, whereas it pre- viously occupied months. Speke took nine months to reach Uganda ; it took me eight ; but two or three years ago it took the missionaries generally six months. One brave and energetic trav- eler takes three months. Now it can be done in two and a half days. If the lake region has advanced so marvelously as it has done during the slow period, when the laden porters car- ried the loads of the missionary, the sugar chest of the trader, and the weights of the steamer up to Uganda, what will be its rate of progress now that Uganda is brought within two and a half days of the sea? While con- 172 gratulating ourselves on what has been accomplished during the last twenty- seven years, we should remember grate- fully the services of the missionaries, and also of those wise men who, like Sir Gerard Portal, emphasized over and over again to the government the need Tue NationaL GrocraPHic MaGAZINE of the Great Uganda Railway to redeem the land. We must also recollect the sagacious administrators who have been sent to Uganda, who, by their tolerance and tact, have taught the natives wher- ever they go that the advent of the Englishman was a blessing to them. COAL RESOURCES OF ALASKA LASKA embraces about 600,000 i square miles and _ stretches through nearly 20 degrees of latitude and 50 degrees of longitude. Practically no detailed investigations of any part of this vast territory have been made, and at least a third part of its area has not even received preliminary topographic and geologic surveys. Our knowledge of its mineral resources is therefore very incomplete. What is known of its coal resources has been compiled and is presented by Mr. Alfred H. Brooks in Part III of the Twenty-second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey. This compilation is not from printed sources alone, but is largely from manuscript notes made on the spot by Mr. Brooks himself and by others. Mr. Brooks di- vides Alaska, for purposes of his report, as follows: Beginning on the south, southeastern Alaska includes the Pacific Ocean coastal belt and islands, extend- ing northward to Mount St. Elias and northwestward so as to include the Cop- per River Basin. Beginning on the west, southwestern Alaska embraces the Aleutian Islands, Alaska Peninsula and adjacent islands, Kenai Peninsula, and the Cook Inlet region, with the drainage basins of its tributary rivers. The Kuskokwim region lies west of Bristol Bay and Cook Inlet and east and south of the Yukon, and drains into southeastern Bering Sea chiefly through the Kuskokwim River. ‘The eastern part of this region is broken by the Alaskan Range of mountains. To the west of these mountains is the broad basin of the Kuskokwim River. A small southern part of this region drains di- rectly into Bering Sea by a number of short rivers. The Yukon Basin includes a great area lying partly in Alaska and partly in British Northwest Territory and British Columbia. The chief tributaries of the Yukon are Koyukuk, Tanana, Porcupine, White, Pelly, and Lewes rivers, the two last uniting to form the Yukon proper, and their drainage basins are wholly within Canadian territory. The larger part of the basin is occupied by the great Yukon Plateau, sloping from about 5,000 feet near the head- waters above sea-level to 2,500 feet at the great bend of the river. East of this plateau lies the northern extension of the Rocky Mountains, which near the Arctic Coast turns abruptly west, parallel to the coast, forming the Ro- manzof, Davidson, and De Long moun- tains, the Arctic-Yukon watershed. On the southwest side of the Yukon Basin the Coast Range and the St. Elias Range and the Alaskan ranges form the barrier and in part the watershed of the basin. Northwestern Alaska includes an ill- defined area northwest of the Yukon Basin. Seward Peninsula, cut off from the mainland by Norton Sound on the south and Kotzebue Sound on the north, is an important feature of this province. Several rivers drain from this area into Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Coat Resources oF ALASKA Northeastern Alaska has been but littleexplored. It includes the drainage basins of rivers between Point Barrow and the international boundary. ‘The geology and mineral resources of this region are unknown. ‘The occurrence of coal in Alaska, as in the western United States, is limited to the rocks of the later geologic periods (the Mesozoic and Tertiary). The rocks of these ages have an extensive distribution in the territory, and at a number of widely separated localities workable coal beds have been found. In 1852 the Russian-American Com- pany prepared to open coal mines at Port Graham, on the western side of Kenai Peninsula, but soon abandoned their operations, though an American com- pany mined coal at Port Chatham and supplied the Russian company’s steamers for about ten years longer. In 1868 a few tons of coal were mined at Kootz- nahoo Inlet, Admiralty Island, for the United States Steamship Sagizaw, and in 1868 coal was reported near Point Gardiner, Admiralty Island. Consider- able prospecting has been done at Kil- lisnoo, Admiralty Island, and the Fire- stone mine has been worked for local use since 1880. ‘The Admiralty Coal and Fuel Company did considerable de- velopment work in 1900 at Point Gar- diner. In 1872 coal was mined at Coal Bay, Unga Island, for the United States Steamship FTumboldt, and the mining of these southern Alaska coals has gone on in a small way for a number of years. In 1888 the Alaska Coal Company began mining at Kachemak Bay, west of Kenai Peninsula, and since 1899 the Cook Inlet Coal Fields Company seems to have controlled this field, and are now operating extensively. Since 1893 the Alaska Packers’ Association has been mining intermittently at Chignik River, southeastern Alaska Peninsula. In 1889 the development of coal mines at Herendeen Bay, western Alaska Pen- eS insula, was begun, but without great success. The coals of the Yukon River at- tracted little attention until the discoy- ery of gold in the Klondike region, in 1897. Within a year there were prob- ably upward of a hundred steamers on the Yukon River, with wood selling at from $8 to $20 a cord, and with no wood to buy on the lower Yukon below the Holy Cross Mission. Soon some of the larger companies established a coal- ing station at St. Michael for the use of river steamers, but with the resultant disadvantage that the steamer must take most coal when she has most freight. Much investigation of the coal supply of the Yukon River has taken place. In addition to coal mines in British Northwest Territory, the Alaska Ex- ploration Company started some devel- opments about 60 miles above Circle City, on the upper Yukon. ‘The oldest mine is Drew’s, opposite the mouth of Hess Creek, where the workings are extensive, and the equipment includes steam hoisting apparatus, coal bunkers, etc. The Pioneer mine, below Hess Creek and 30 miles above Rampart, is similarly equipped. Both mines pro- duced considerable coal in 1900. Near Nulato, farther down the Yukon, the Blatchford and the Pickart mines pro- duced some coal, and the Clemens Thein mine and the Williams mine, both be- tween Nulato and Anvik, were small producers in 1900. Asa result of the development of the Cape Nome gold fields, the Cape Lisburne coal deposits, in northwestern Alaska, have attracted renewed attention, and the Corwin Trading Company is now engaged in endeavoring to develop these deposits to supply Nome and the whaling ships, which have heretofore brought their coal from Puget Sound. The coals are chiefly lignites, with some bituminous coals,and in a few local- itiessemi-anthracites. Developmentsso far have been entirely along waterways. 174 The southeastern and southwestern Alaska coal fields are on tide water along a coast affording good harbors open to navigation theentire year. They can be mined cheaply and can find a ready market for local steamboat and domestic use. No developments have been made of the higher-grade coals of southern Alaska. These higher-grade coals are worthy of the attention of prospector and capitalist, for, if found to occur in sufficient quantities, they could compete with all other coals in the Pacific Coast market. The Yukon coals as developed depend entirely on their local market. Their grade is loo low for exportation; but the Yukon coals seem to vary greatly in character, and careful preliminary work should be done before a mine is devel- Tue Natrona, GrocrapHic MaGAzIne oped. The Yukon coals are said to bring about $15 a ton at the mines. Nome has offered a splendid market for coal during the last two years. Coal sold there at from $25 to $100 per ton, with an average price of about $40 to $50 per ton during the summer of 1900. It was this that led to the development of the Cape Lisburne field, where the coals are of a semi-bituminous charac- ter, which is only 200 miles distant. In 1900 about 13,000 tons of coal were shipped as cargo to Alaska from Washington ports, and probably still more was imported from British Colum- bia. No accurate data as to the coal produced by Alaskan mines are obtain- able, but the total is probably between 4,000 and 5,000 tons, of which about a third is from mines on the Yukon River. THE HUBBARD MEMORIAL BUILDING HE cornerstone was laid on April | 26 of the Hubbard Memorial Building, which will be the home of the National Geographic So- ciety. The building occupies a large and handsome site on the southwest ‘corner of Sixteenth and M Streets, Washington, D. C., and when com- pleted will be a notable monument to the honored first President of the So- ciebyan The contents of the box deposited in the cornerstone were as follows: 1.. An engrossed document relating to the Hubbard Memorial Building, and also to the Hubbard Memorial Window in the Church of the Covenant, Wash- ington, D. C., both dedicated to the memory of the late Hon. Gardiner Greene Hubbard. This document is signed by Mrs. Hubbard and by all the surviving descendants. The following is a copy of it: HUBBARD MEMORIAL BUILDING This building is erected in memory of GARDINER GREENE HUBBARD by his children, Gertrude, Mabel, Roberta, and Grace. Gertrude, being no longer living, is represented by her only child, Gertrude, daughter of the late Maurice Neville Grossmann, and Roberta, being no longer living, is represented by her surviving children, Helen and Grace, daughters of Charles James Bell. The library is the gift of Mrs. Gardi- ner Greene Hubbard, who joins her children in establishing this memorial to her husband. The building is designed to be the home and headquarters of the National Geographic Society, of which Mr. Hub- bard was President from the date of its organization, January 20, 1888, to the day of his death, December 11, 1897. Another monument to Mr. Hubbard exists in the Church of the Covenant, Tue Hussarp Memortiat BuitpInG Washington, D. C., in the form of a Memorial Window presented by Mrs. Hubbard, which portrays in allegory the leading characteristics of Mr. Hub- bard's life and its tranquil close in the midst of his useful and abounding work. The memorial window may be identi- fied from the following published de- scription: ~ , : “A stately figure stands with uplifted face, looking toward the western sky ; the glory of the sunset is above and about him; fields of green and yellow spread around him; sheaves of golden grain are heaped beside him; from his hand the seed still drops into the open furrow, the soft shadows fall, and the evening star rises.’’ The box containing this document and other papers and coins will now be sealed and deposited in the cornerstone of the Hubbard Memorial Building in the presence of Mrs. Gardiner Greene Hubbard, and all the surviving descend- ants of Mr. Hubbard, together with a few personal friends. The cornerstone will be laid by Mel- ville Bell Grosvenor, the infant great- grandson of Gardiner Greene Hubbard, in the arms of Mrs. Hubbard. Witness our signatures this 26th day of April, 1902. GERTRUDE’ M. HUBBARD (Mrs GARDINER GREENE HUBBARD) CHILDREN MABEL GARDINER BELI, aND HER HUSBAND, ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELI, GRACE HUBBARD BELLI, AND HER HUSBAND, CHARLES J. BELL GRANDCHILDREN GERTRUDE HUBBARD GROSSMANN ELSIE MAY BELL GROSVENOR AND HER HUS- BAND, GILBERT H. GROSVENOR MARIAN H. GRAHAM BELL HELEN A. BELL GRACE HUBBARD BELL GARDINER HUBBARD BELL BOBBY BELL, GREAT-GRANDCHILD MELVILLE BELI, GROSVENOR (*) His MaRK 175) 2. A copy of the NaTronaL GEo- GRAPHIC MAGAZINE issued February, 1898, vol. ix, No. 2, containing : A portrait and signature of the Hon. Gardi- ner Greene Hubbard. Address of Rev. Dr. Hamlin delivered at the memorial services held at the Church of the Covenant, December 13, 1897. Proceedings of the memorial meeting of the National Geographic Society held January 21, 1898. Introductory remarks by the President, Alexander Graham Bell. Address of Dr. George N. Sternberg, Sur- geon General, U. S. A., on behalf of the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies of Wash- ington, D. C. ; Addresses of Prof. S. P. Langley and the Hon. William I, Wilson, on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution. Address of Miss Caroline A. Yale, principal of the Clarke School for the Deaf, on behalf of the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf. Address of Dr. B. I). Whitman, President of Columbian University, on behalf of the Uni- versity. Address of Dr. Marcus Benjamin, on behalf of the Society of Colonial Wars. Address of Dr. Daniel C. Gilman, President of Johns Hopkins University, on ‘‘ Gardiner Greene Hubbard as a Helper.”’ Address of Major John W. Powell, on behalf of the journal Sczence. Address of the Hon. A. R. Spofford, on be- half of the Columbia Historical Society. Address of the Hon. John W. Ross, Chair- man of the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, on behalf of the city of Washington and the District of Columbia. Address of General A. W. Greely, on behalf of the National Geographic Society. 3. A copy of the Association Review, an educational magazine published by the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, October, 1899, vol. 1, No. 1, contain- ing: A portrait and signature of Gardiner Greene Hubbard, and An account of the life of Gardiner Greene Hubbard by his wife, Gertrude M. Hubbard. 4. A book entitled ‘‘The Story of the Rise of the Oral Method in America, as told in the writings of the late 176 Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard,’’ published Washington, D. C., 1898, containing : A portrait and signature of the Hon. Gardi- ner Greene Hubbard. An introduction by his daughter, Mabel Gardiner Bell (Mrs. Alexander Graham Bell). Extracts from the writings of the Hon. Gardiner Greene Hubbard relating to the edu- cation of the deaf, compiled and arranged by his daughter, Mabel Gardiner Bell. 5. A copy of the Association Review, dated February, 1900, vol. II, No. 1, containing the opening chapters of a work entitled ‘‘ Historical Notes Con- cerning the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf,’’ published as a tribute to Mr. Hubbard’s labors on behalf of the deaf, written by his son-in-law, Alexander Graham Bell. 6. A composition on the life of Gardi- ner Greene Hubbard, written by the pupils of the Gardiner Greene Hubbard School, Washington, D. C., eighth grade—Horton Simpson, principal, April 17, 1902. Tue NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 7. A pamphlet entitled ‘‘ The Educa- tion of Deaf-Mutes: Shall it be by signs or articulation?’’ by Gardiner Greene Hubbard, published Boston, Mass., 1867; contributed by the Hon. John Hitz, superintendent of the Volta Bureau for the Increase and Diffusion of Knowledge Relating to the Deaf, Washington, D.C. 8. A pamphlet entitled ‘‘ Further Contributions to the Study of that Sub- tile Art which may Inable one with an observant eie to heare what any man speaks by the moving of the lips (Bul- wer, 1648),’’ by Mrs. Alexander Gra- ham Bell; extracted from the Proceed- ings of the Fourth Summer Meeting of the American Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf, July, 1894. g. A poem by Major John W. Powell, entitled ‘‘Becoming,’’ dedicated to Mrs. Gardiner Greene Hubbard. 10. Specimens of United States coins. 11. Miscellaneous. GEOGRAPHIC NOTES FORECASTING THE WEATHER N a recent address, published in the Marine Review, Prof. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau, emphasized the point that any person, by studying the few simple principles on which the daily weather map is founded, can estimate the general char- acter of the weather for his region one, two, or, at times, three daysin advance, ‘“By preserving the weather charts each day and noting the movements of the highs and the lows, any intelligent person can make a fairly accurate fore- cast for himself, always remembering that the lows, as they drift toward him from the west, will bring warmer weather and sometimes rain or snow, and that, as they pass his place of ob- servation, the highs following in the tracks of the lows will bring cooler and probably fair weather. ““ He can closely forecast the temper- ature for his region by remembering that the weather will be cool so long as. the center of the predominating high, z. é., the high enclosing the greatest area within the 30-inch isobar, is north of his latitude —either northeast or northwest—and that it will be warm so: long as the high is south of his lati- tude. Atul “To get a rough idea of the differ- ence between storms, we might classify them, according to the diameter of the gyrating masses of air under their in- fluence, as follows: ““ Cyclones, 1,000 to 2,000 miles; hur- ricanes, 1co to 500 miles, and tornadoes, GeocraPHic Nores 100 to 1,000 feet. We might imagine their vortical action and their destructive force to increase in some ratio as their diameters of rotation decrease. ‘“The tornado is always an incident and a sporadic outbreak of the cyclone, and usually occurs in the southeast quadrant of a cyclonic storm. ““The thunder-storm, instead of ro- tating about a vertical axis, like the cyclone and tornado, has a horizontal roll, caused by cold and heavy air from above breaking through into a lighter and superheated stratum next to the earth. This rolling motion throws for- ward the cool air in the direction in which thecloudis moving. In general, thunder-storms move from the west to- ward some eastern point, the same as tornadoes, which mostly move from the southwest toward the northeast. If any part of the horizontally rolling air in the thunder-storm drops down toward the earth and adjusts its rotation about a vertical axis it at- once becomes a tor- nado, and its destructive force is in- creaed a hundredfold.’’ NO NEWS OF ANDREE HE recently revived reports that portions of the balloon in which Andrée attempted to reach the North Pole had been found in northern Canada have been discredited by the commis- sioner of the Hudson Bay Company in a letter to Mr. William Ziegler, of New York. The commissioner writes in part as follows: “Tt is a matter of great regret to me that I cannot bring myself to offer en- couragement to any hopes which friends of the explorer may have of his still surviving anywhere in northern Canada. In the few portions of the Far North where the company’s people do not come in touch with the natives, whaling vessels from American and British ports traffic with the natives. ““There is no probability of there EG being any truth in the report regarding the supposed finding of Andrée’s bal- loon. ‘The chief officer of the company on the west coast of Hudsons Bay, who. himself interviewed the natives on the matter, has reported as his firm convic- tion that the natives who are said to have seen the balloon imposed upon the clerk at Churchill, to whom the story was given. ‘The sketches of the balloon which the company has been careful to distribute throughout north- ern Canada naturally gave occasion for much talk among these isolated people, and it is not greatly to be wondered at that some such tale might be given out by natives peculiarly cunning and prone to practice upon the credulity of those not familiar with them or easily imposed upon.”’ COMMANDER BORCHGREVINK E. BORCHGREVINK, the Ant- e arctic explorer, who has gone farther south than any man, has made formal application to become an Amer- ican citizen. On April 25 he filed his first papers at Washington. The American Robert E. Peary holds the record for having reached the most northerly land, so that the United States may now claim as citizens the two men who have reached the most remote land at each end of the globe. Lockwood and Brainard, of the Greely expedition, had for 18 years, from 1882 to 1900, held the record of the most northerly land, 83° 25’, which Peary surpassed by 15’ in the spring of 1900, when he reached 83° 39’. The Italian Duke of Abruzzi has been farthest north on the open sea, 86° 33’. : Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink (the ch is pronounced hard, like k) was born at Christiania in 1864. His training and taste made him a sailor scientist. Early in the nineties he led one expedi- tion to the far south, in which he did some notable work, but the expedition 178 was especially valuable, in that it gave him good experience in South Polar work. Hisgreat achievement, however, was in his last expedition of 1898-1900, when his party was the first in history to pass the winter camped on the Ant- arctic Continent. He penetrated far- ther south than any man had ever done before, and also made some important biological discoveries. Among his col- lections he brought back a jelly-fish weighing no less than go pounds. Mr. Borchgrevink’s plans are yet too indefinite to announce. He will for some years yet bea rover, but the United States will be his home. On April 12 President Alexander Gra- ham Bell gave a dinner in Washington in Lonor of Commander C. E. Borch- grevink. Vice-President W J McGee, as the toastmaster of the evening, intro- duced the following toasts : “The President of the United States,”’ Justice Harlan; ‘‘ His Majesty King Oscar,’’ Mr. Hauge, Secretary of the Swedish and Norwegian Legation ; ‘““The Navies of the World,’’ Admiral Dewey; ‘‘Our Nation and Others,’’ Senator O. H. Platt, of Connecticut ; “The Explorers of the Ends of the Earth,’? Rear Admiral Melville, Gen- eral Greely, Mr. Walter Wellman, Com- mander Borchgrevink ; ‘‘ The National Geographic Society,’’ President Graham Bell. Those present were: President Alex- ander Graham Bell, Commander C. E. Borchgrevink, General Greely, Mr. F. V. Coville, Mr. S. H. Kauffmann, Mr. Henry Gannett, Mr. Walter Wellman, Hon. David J. Hill, Admiral Dewey, Dr. W J McGee, Justice Harlan, Admiral Melville, Mr. C. J. Bell, Mr. O. H. Tittmann, Mr. Arthur W. McCurdy, Col. Henry F. Blount, Prof. A. J. Henry, Mr. Marcus Baker, Mr. Angelo Heil- prin, Mr. George Kennan, Prof. Willis L,. Moore, Representative EK. J. Hill, of Connecticut; Mr. Hauge, Senator O. H. Platt, of Connecticut; Mr. George THe Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE Eastman, President Eastman Kodak Company; Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Mr. Gifford Pinchot, and Mr. Gilbert H. Grosvenor. DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. January to April (inclusive) 1902 LL decisions rendered by the Board from its creation down to April, 1900, were published in its second re- port, March, 1901. For decisions ren- dered during the remainder of 1900 and in I9g01, see NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, vol. xi, pp. 329, 478; vol. Xli, pp. 87, 125, 200, 242; vol. xiii, p. 28. Aektok ; island, near west end of Avatanak Island, Krenitzin group, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Aiaktak, Goloi, Goly, Ouek- tock, nor Rootok). Agamegik ; bay, indenting the northern shore of Beaver Bay, Unalaska Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Food). Battery ; point, the eastern head of Sarana Bay, on south shore of Akutan Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Kaianak, Liberty Cap, nor South Head). Bosporus ; strait between Black Sea and Sea of Marmora, Europe. (This is a reversal of the decision Bosphorus, rendered by the Board January 12, 1897 ) Chiwawa; creek, Chehalis County, Washing- ton (not Chiwahwah). Curlew; creek, lake, and post-office, Ferry County, Washington (not Karamin nor Karamip). : Forest ; lake, in Woodbury, Orange County, New York (not Slaughter’s Pond). Goosmus; creek, Ferry county, Washington (not Goos nor Koosmus). Howes ; cave in Cobleskill, Schoharie County, New York (not Otsgaragee). Howes Cave; post-office, Schoharie County, New York (not Howecave, Howe Cave, Hows Cave, nor Howe’s (ave). Tliulink ; the chief town of Unalaska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Unalaska). Kisselen ; bay, at the head of Beaver Bay, Unalaska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Kissialiak, Warsham, nor Worsham). Levashef ; port or harbor at head of Unalaska Bay, Unalaska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Captains nor St. Paul). RY Marcy ; mountain peak, the highest point in the Adirondacks, Essex County, New York (not Tahawus). GeocraPHic Nores Mechanicvyille ; post-office and village, Sara- toga County, New York (not Mechanics- ville). (This is a reversal of the decision Mechanicsville, rendered by the Board April 4, 1900.) Rabbit; creek, Ferry County, Washington (not Nine Mile). Samganuda ; bay indenting the eastern shore of Unalaska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not English). Sanpoil ; lake and river, Ferry County, Wash- ington (not Rowena nor San Poil). Sigak ; cape, the north point of Akutan Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not North Head). St. Helens; mountain, in Skamania County, Washington (not St. Helen). St. Peter ; creek and flat, Ferry County, Wash- ington (not Rock). St. Vrain ; creek and precinct, Weld County, Colorado (not St. Vrains). Tanaskan ; bay, indenting the southern shore of Beaver Bay, Unalaska, eastern Aleu- tians, Alaska (not Macks nor Taneska). Tangik ; islet, near the eastern shore of Akun Island, Krenitzin group, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Waverly). Tanginak ; islet, east of Akun Island, in Uni- mak Pass, Alaska (not Breed nor Propa- gation). Teroda; creek and mountain, in Ferry and Okanogan Counties, Washington (not Tar- rota nor Toroda). Ugalgan ; island, near the easternmost point of Unalaska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Egg, Gagalgin, Iachnoi, Jaitschoi, Kigalgin, nor Orieshik). Unalaska; bay, indenting the northeastern shore of Unalaska Island, eastern Aleu- tians, Alaska (not Captains). Urilia ; bay, on the northern coast of Unimak, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Shag nor Shaw). Usof , bay, indenting the southeastern shore of Unalaska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Whalebone). Wallkill; river, in Ulster and Orange Coun- ties, New York (not Wall Kill). Witchcoat; point, Back River, Baltimore County, Maryland (not Witchcoate). THE LATEST MAP OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA HE United States Geological Sur- vey has just issued the first of a series of three map sheets which will cover the region in California extending from San Diego to Santa Barbara, in- cluding the adjacent mountain ranges, ie) and will form a map of the whole south- ern portion of the state. Sheet No. 1, which has lately been issued, is compiled from 23 atlas sheets of the U. S. Geological Survey. It comprises within its limits the San Ga- briel Timber-land Reserve, the San Ber- nardino Forest Reserve, the Trabuco. Canyon Forest Reserve, and parts of the San Jacinto, Pine Mountain, and Zaca Lake Forest Reserves. It con- tains all of Orange County, the greater part of Los Angeles County, and por- tions of Riverside and San Bernardino counties. It includes all of what may be termed the Great Valley of Southern California, extending from Los Angeles to the vicinity of San Bernardino, as well as the mountains which are the source of the waters that irrigate its orchardsand farms. ‘These map sheets, which are listed by the Geological Sur- vey at Io cents each, are 21 by 33 inches and are drawn on a scale of about four miles to the inch. ‘The re- lief of the country is shown by contour lines. EXPEDITIONS IN THE ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC IEUT. ROBERT E. PEARY is now leading his last campaign to gain the North Pole. He probably started from Cape Hecla some weeks ago, and is now well on his way north. The Peary auxiliary steamer, under command of Mr. H. L,. Bridgman, will leave Sidney, N. S., about the middle of June to carry supplies to Peary and to bring him home. The Baldwin auxiliary expedition will sail from Tromso, Norway, on July 1. ‘The expedition will be in charge of W. S. Champ, secretary to William Ziegler, who is Mr. Baldwin’s financial backer. No news has now been had of Sver- drup since 1899. It is generally believed he is among the Parry Islands. Con- 180 siderable anxiety is felt in Sweden and Norway for his safety, and a relief ex- pedition is planned to set out in a few weeks. It has been cabled from Europe that Baron Toll, who has been seeking to re- peat Nordenskiold’s voyage around the entire north coast of Asia, has given up his original plan and is now returning tu St. Petersburg. His vessel passed the winter among the New Siberia Isl- ands. ‘There was not coal enough to continue the voyage eastward, and to transport coal to the New Siberia Isl- ands would have cost so much that the original plan was abandoned. It is stated that Baron Toll is proceeding. up the Lena River, and will meet the Trans- Siberian Railway at Irkutsk. In the South Polar regions the Ger- man expedition on the ship Gauss sailed from the Kerguelen Islands in the latter part of January of this year, bound for Termination Land. The party were in good spirits, and everything ready for a successful winter. The English expedition, after consid- erable difficulty with their vessel, the Discovery, because of its leaking, sailed from New Zealand early in 1902, bound for Victoria Land. A relief expedition isnow being preparedin England. King Edward has subscribed $500 toward the expenses of the party. The Swedish South Polar Expedition reached Cape Horn too late in the season to proceed very far south. ‘The expe- dition will remain among the New Falk- land Islands during the present southern winter, and then proceed south toward the end of 1902. Dre Emil Holub, the well-known ex- plorer of interior Africa, died on Febru- ary 21, 1902. As a young man Dr Holub read the journeys of David Liv- ingstone and became greatly interested in the problems of natural life on the great continent. After studying medi- cine and natural science at Prague he Tue NatrionaL GrocraPHic MaGAZINE went to South Africa in 1872, as a doc- tor to the diamond fields. During the next few years he made several journeys into the interior, in 1875 reaching the Zambezi and Victoria Falls and always making large collections. On his re- turn to Europe in 1879 he distributed his many collections to 113 Austrian and foreign museums and schools. Sev- eral years later he again went to Africa with the purpose of proceeding from Cape Town straight across the continent to Cairo. The troubles in the Sudan, however, made this plan impossible and confined his work to southern Africa. In 1887 he returned to Europe with 13,000 objects, which he again distrib- uted to schools and museums. He pub- lished many books and lectures—‘‘ Sie- ben Jahre in Sudoffike,’’ ‘‘ Die Koloni- sation Afrikas,’’ ‘‘ Von Kapstact in’s Land der Mashukulumbe,’’ etc., etc. Photographic films may now be devel- oped in a small apparatus or box about the size of a camera without recourse to a dark room and by a process wonderful in its simplicity. This new and impor- tant addition to photography is the re- sult of several years of careful experi- ment and research by Mr. Arthur W. McCurdy, of Washington, D. C. The first automobile to cross the great mountain range of the Caucasus, by way of the Georgian Military Road and the Dariel Pass, has recently carried from Vladikavkaz to Tiflis the present Minister of Ways and Communications, Prince Hilkof. ‘The behavior of the automobile, says the Russian TZervek Messenger, was in every way satisfac- tory, and evenon steep descents, with sharp curves, where travel with horses is sufficiently terrifying, the vehicle maintained a speed of twelve miles an hour, without the least jerking or jolt- ing. ‘‘This achievement,’’ the /Zes- senger says, ‘‘ proves that automobiles may be used, not only on the great Cau- Nationa, GeroGRAPHIC SOCIETY easian road’’ (which goes to a height of more than 8,000 feet), ‘‘ but upon Russian roads of all sorts.’’ Dr. C. Willard Hayes has been appointed “geologist in charge of geology’’ in ISI the U. S. Geological Survey. The du- ties of the office make Dr. Hayes the administrative head of the geologic work of the Survey, leaving the more imme- diate scientific direction to the chiefs of the different divisions in geology. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY : March 21, 1902.—President Graham Bell in the chair. Mr. Robert Dunn, of New York, gave an address describing his explorations of the Wrangell group of mountains in Alaska in Ig00. Lieut. H. T. Allen, 2d U. S. Infantry, the first explorer of the Copper River Valley (in 1885), mapped five mountains over 12,000 feet high in the Wrangell group east of the river : Mt. Wrangell, Mt. Tillman, Mt. Sanford, Mt. Dunn, and Mt. Blackburn. Prospectors and others who first entered the valley thereafter in 1898 could, in several instances, locate only four such mountains. Up to the present year no attempt has been made to map the Wrangell group accurately. The mountain apparently missing was the ‘‘ Mt. Tillman, 16,600 ft.,’”’ o Allen’s map, the most southwestern of the whole group, which he mapped in the form of an ellipse. When Mr. Dunn visited the slopes of Mt. Wrangell (17,500 feet) in 1900, various stories were current about this ‘‘ Mt. Tillman.’’? Some men denied and some affirmed its existence, and it was plain that the matter could not be settled without a trip to the spot on the map where Allen placed ‘‘ Mt. Tillman.” ‘‘ For in- stance, Schrader in 1898 accepted its exist- ence,’’ said the speaker. ‘‘Ijeutenant Bab- cock, 8th U. S. Cavalry, who was in the Cop- per River Valley in 1900, believed that Allen, on seeing Mt. Wrangell from two parts of the valley at different times, had reduplicated Wrangell. Theclearness of the air, the amount of glaciated country in the valley, and the oval grouping of the peaks contributed to the con- fusion.”’ On August 12, 1900, Mr. Dunn made camp where, according to Allen’s map, the northern slopes of his ‘Mt. Tillman’ should have been ; but south of him for thirty miles, until the coast mountains were reached, the country was absolutely flat. The mountain, where mapped, did not exist. The explanation of Allen’s mistake then seemed to be that of Lieutenant Babcock and others. Two days later, however, he camped between Mt. Wrangell and Mt. Dunn. According to compass observations, this point lay on a north- east-southwest line between a Mt. Sanford of Allen’s map and its ‘‘ Mt. Tillman.’? In line also with this point was that to the southwest, on Copper River, from which Allen, in his re- port, had drawn an outline of the Wrangell group as it appeared to him to lie against the horizon and undoubtedly made the observa- tions which formed a basis for hismap. From Mr. Dunn’s camp, however, the sky-line of Mt. Sanford was identical with that drawn for Mt. Tillman on the outline. Mr. Dunn saw the Mt. Sanford of the map at exactly the same angle as Allen did, only he was much nearer to it. “Mt. Tillman’’ of the map having been proved non-existent, it was plain that Allen had confused Sanford and Tillman, not Wrangell and Tillman. “The mistake in mapping could not have arisen,’’ said Mr. Dunn, ‘‘if Allen had seen the group only from this point of view. A study of his itinerary clears the matter up, with the fol- lowing explanation: Allen outlined the five mountains as if he saw them in a straight northwest-southeast line; he mapped them in an ellipse. In the outline Mt. Sanford appears as a minor peak of Mt. Dunn, northeast of Dunn and of the outlined Mt. Tillman (Mt. Sanford of the map).”’ At the conclusion of Mr. Dunn’s address, the President called for remarks from the members present. Dr. William H. Dall referred to the fact that Lieutenant Allen had been the first American to get sight of the great peaks of the Copper River district. The first account of Mount Wrangell was by a Russian party under Bran- icoff, which went up the Copper River a little distance. The party aroused the enmity of the Indians, and every man was massacred. The 182 Indians, however, returned the note books to the Russian post. No exploration by Ameri- cans was done until the Alaska purchase. Lieutenant Allen deserved great credit for his persevering work, which was carried on with the greatest difficulty. Mr. Marcus Baker stated that he enjoyed the lecture immensely, and especially commended the photographs which Mr. Dunn showed. He also wished to emphasize the magnificent work done by Allen, who was the first white man to cross from the coast to the river. Mr. Alfred H. Brooks, who has general charge of the Alaska work carried on by the Geological Survey, stated that the peaks of the Wrangell group had not yet been mapped, and that very little had been learned since Allen’s time. A party from the Geological Survey was to locate these peaks during the present summer. Mr. Brooks also alluded to the fact that Mr. Oscar Roan reported in ’99 that one of the five peaks of the Wrangell group was missing. The proceedings of the meetings of the So- ciety on April 4 and 18 will be published in the June number of this Magazine. LECTURES : March 25.—Vice-President McGee in the chair. Afternoon course. Dr. Charles H. Townsend gave an illustrated address on the ‘‘ Problems of the Pacific—The Lesser Islands.’’ March 28.—Vice-President McGee in the chair. Col. Wm. M. Black, Corps of Engineers, gave an illustrated address on ‘‘ Cubaand Porto Rico.” April 2,—President Graham Bell in the chair. Afternoon course. Hon. O. P. Austin gave an illustrated ad- dress on the ‘‘ Problems of the Pacific—The . Commerce of the Pacific,’? which will be pub- lished later. April 9.— Vice-President McGee in the chair. Afternoon course. Dr. McGee gave an address on the ‘‘ Prob- lems of the Pacific—The great Ocean in World Growth,’’ which will be published later. April 11,—Vice-President McGee in the chair. Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink, Commander of the Borchgrevink Antarctic Expedition of 1898— Igoo, gave an illustrated lecture on ‘‘Antarctic Explorations, 1898—1900,’’ which will be pub- lished later. April 25,—President Graham Bell in the chair. Mr. Robert M. Chapman, of the U. S. Geo- logical Survey, gave an illustrated address on ‘Our Northern Rockies,’’ which will be pub- lished later. Tue Nationa, GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NOTICE OF PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO THE BY-LAWS OF THE NATIONAL GEO- GRAPHIC SOCIETY. HE following amendments to the By- Laws of the National Geographic So- ciety have been duly proposed, have been considered by the Board of Managers, and will come up for action at the regular meeting, to be held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club, on Friday evening, May 16, with the recommendation of the Board that they be adopted : ARTICLE Il1.—MWewibership. SECTION I. Change to read: The Society shall consist of members, honorary members, fellows, and patrons. Src. 4. New section: Fellows shall be per- sons engaged in scientific work pertaining to geography ,; they shall be members of the cor- poration. SEc. 5. New section: Patrons shall be per- sons interested in geography who have con- tributed one thousand dollars or more to the objects of the Society ; they shall be entitled to all the privileges of membership for life. SEc. 6. Substitute for old section 4: The election of members, honorary members, fel- lows, and patrons shall be entrusted to the Board of Managers. ARTICLE 1V.—Officers. SEcTION 1. After the word ‘‘members,’’ in each of the first two clauses, insert the words or fellows. ARTICLE VI.—Finances. Src. 3. New section: Fellows shall pay an iniation fee of ten dollars on notice of election. Sxc. 4. Substitute for old section 3: Annual dues may be commuted for life by members or fellows on the payment at one time of fifty dollars. Src. 5. Old section 4 changed by inserting after the word ‘‘members,’’ in both the first and second clauses, the words or fellows. Ske. 6. Old section 5. ARTICLE VII.—Weetings. Src. 4. After the word ‘“‘members’”’ in the second clause insert the words and fellows. - Announcement of.an Important Work to be published next month ASIATIC RUSSIA By Prof. George Frederick Wright, of Oberlin College Professor Wright records his travels among strange peoples in the almost unknown interior of Russia. Traveling in primitive ~ conveyances, many days’ journey from the nearest railroad, he vis=:’ ited spots so remote that the inhabitants were practically cut off from the rest of the world, His book is full of strange and inter- esting experiences, and is, besides, a scholarly and attractive study of the scientific and commercial possibilities of this vast country, 1 es Iustrated with Photographs and Maps Two Volumes, boxed. Net, $7.50; postpaid, $8.00 ee ES Me Lae y MCCLURE, PHILLIPS @ Co., NEW YORK HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS tro Fifth Avenue, New. York Gk eye Get e Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European‘agencies in London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna every paper of importance published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given subject will bring notices 7a from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers. WRITE FOR TERMS ef ist Sh ss 7 a RAY Pd — The Manhattan Press-Clipping Bureau ARTHUR CASSOT, Proprtetor ~NEW YORK (Knickerbocker Building) » LONDON | COR. FIFTH AVENUE.AND 14TH STREET, NEW YORK” * Will supply you: with all personal reference and clippings on any subject from all the papers and pe als published here and abroad. 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Should you wish one, or ou think would be interested, and ll be.glad to mail one; without cost. We are now displaying in this wood Chairs, Rockers, Settees, Foot Stools, Tete-a-Tetes, Couches, Tabourettes, Roman Seats The prices start*with chairs at $1.50 and range upwards to settees at $20.00. sf sf We are the exclusive sales agentsfor Washington. ¢ * ¥ ¥ TF Ff OT TF wv WOODWARD @ LOTHROP Ww YORK ™% WASHINGTON « PARIS “AMERICA’S SUMMER RESORTS” This is one of the most complete publications of its kind, and will assist those: who are wondering ~ . Where they will go to’spend their vacation this summer, ‘ It contains a valuable map, in ad- dition to niuch interesting informa- tion regarding resorts on or reached by the "NEW YORK CENTRAL LINES A oa will be sent free, postpaid, to any address on receipt of a two-cent stamp, by George | H. Daniels, General Passenger Agent, New. York Central & Hudson River Railroad, Grand Central Station, New York, JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D, C, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINI Vol. XIII JUNE, 1902 . No. 6 ‘CONTENTS Cue PAGE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY EXPEDITION TO MARTINIQUE AND ST. VINCENT. ILLUSTRATED - 183 RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES. BY WALTER D. WILCOX. ILLUSTRATED Bae 365 THE EXPLOSION OF KRAKATOA. BY SIR ROBERT BALL. 200 ae iy td 5 Ber eNORS WITH MAR 8 i 20g yin THE MAGNETIC DISTURBANCE “CAUSED BY THE. ERUPTION OF MONT PELEE... 280.0 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC sOcIETY EXPEDITION IN THE WEST INDIES 209 » VOLCANIC ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. WITH MAP’ .. 213 _ LAFCADIO HEARN ON THE ISLAND AND PEOPLE OF MAR- ae TINIQUE : F : Sere pe. wr . a ie ee i gs a6 a wT “GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE. . . Pe gat Published for the National Gubicaphie Sacitty . By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered me the Post-office in Wabhingteis D. C., as Second-~class Mail Matier, | GEOGRAPHIC |_ MAGAZINE N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published for the Nationat GEOGRAPHIC Society, of Washing. ton, D. C., by McCuure, Punurs & Co. All communications should be addressed to the Managing Editor of the NationaL GEOGRAPHIC Macazine, Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C Business communications may also be addressed to McClure, Phillips & Co., at 141 East 2 a = . New ge City. a5 CENTS A NUMBER; $2. 50 A YEAR ‘Editor-in-Chief: 4 HENRY GANNETT Chief eld a Uz Ss Geological: Survey vs 5 | Managing Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR SS Associate Bditors py aaa - GENERAL A. W. GREELY 2 ‘WILLIS L. ‘MOORE ae Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army Sie eC, Somes of tie pe v. S: Le Department wy ethics : wi McGEE ° a é ©. H. “TITTMANN - ‘Ethnologist tht Chaves Bureau. Oe : American Ethnology : Me cheat z 9 U. 2 Coast Cc, HART MERRIAM : aa See °. FP. AUSTIN oes whe ‘ Chief of the Biolog ical Survey, U. s. S - = Chief of the’ ate oy Statistics ie aaa of oon Sie ROE S Treasury eae: : DAVID 3. HILL: Hees pavin s BAF e 3 3 aa . ; Assistant Secretary of Stale ee ae ak aie U. cee ‘ sey ‘ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE ast eA M. TARBELL ~ ee 5 Author of es the Garden of the a, _~\ Author of “Life of Napoleon,” We “i East,” etc. eect eae “Life of Lincoln,” ete. : ; ss “CARL LOUISE GARRISON - MARCUS BAKER ate : shanty tts 3 aie U.S, Geological Survey — Rie ee ai be Pe ai on migr ee WAR and (MeMUR RY meOGRAPHIES BY RALPH S. TARR, BS., F.G.S.A. and FRANK M. McMURRY, Ph.D. Cornell University Teachers’ College, Columbia University HE series of Geographies by Professors TARR and McMurry is perhaps the only series of recent years to contain a mew method of presentation. These geographies differ from previously published books on the same subject, in the following particulars : 2 Fiysi—Causal Treatment. This isa careful arrangement of the subject matter in accordance with itse relation to cause and effect. ‘The fact is recognized by the best teachers that physiographic conditions usually determine the location of human industries, the development of transportation routes, the situation of cities, etc. Beginning then with the physical features, most of the other geographic facts touching a certain locality arrange themselves as links in a causal chain and are then easily taught in proper relation with one another, for they approach the form of a narrative rather than that of a mere list of assertions as in the older text books. Second—Type Study is well illustrated in the study of our own country. The old method of treatment by States, with its multiplicity of topics, is abandoned, and a comparatively small number of topics are treated, but each subject is dealt with at some length. The authors’ reasons for this innovation are: that boundary lines between the States are for the most part arbitrary and mark no important differences in physiography, indus- try or customs; that in a treatment by States there is much repetition of the same kind of facts tothe confusion ofthe pupils. To avoid the waste of space and the lack of perspective of the old method, the zew presentation is by groups of States and by the typical industries that characterize them. More space can thus be given to each important subject, and the many details necessary for a clear impression are associated as parts of one story. For instance, lumbering, fishing, etc., receive their most detailed treatment in connection with New England ; coal and iron mining and the attendant manufactures are discussed in connection with the Middle Atlantic States ; gold mining and irrigation naturally are included under the Western States. Other new and attractive features of this series might be named: as the final summary at the close of the entire subject, the new and convenient form, the use of home geography, the suggestions and bibliogra- phies for the use of teachers, the freoucnt reviews, etc. THE THREE BOOK SERIES THE FIVE BOOK SERIES Book I —(4th and 5th years) Home Part I —(4th year) Home Geography 40 Cts. Geography and the Earthasa Whole 60 Cts. Part II (5th year) Gio Taia Ag A Book II —(6th year) North America 75 Cts. Wihole a0 40 Cts. Book III—(7th and Sth years) Europe Part III—(6th 4 es) North wae 75 Cts. and Other Continents . . . . . 75Cts. PartIV—(7th year) Europe, Saath America, Etc. . . 50 Cts. Part V —(8th year) Asia and NE, with Review of North America and Local Supplement . . .. . . 50 Cts. t $ t $ t Weis NEW YORK MACMILLAN COMPANY BOSTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO ATLANTA A New Novec MYRA OF THE PINES By Herman H. Diele Author of ‘‘ The Inn of the Silver Moon” and ‘‘ The Last of the Knickerbockers.” THIS is the story of an impecunious family who at the lowest ebb of their fortunes find refuge in a vast tract of uncultivated land. Myra and her charming and impractical parents lead a life there that has the fascination of a queer fairy tale. The charm of the cireum- stances, the winsome art of the narrator, the fascination of the charac- ters, the touch of weirdness of the native pinelanders, the foreign distinction of the lover who so naturally yet surprisingly drops from ‘the sky,— all these things give the story a fresh hold on the jaded novel reader, comparable to his childish experiences with fairy books. $1.50. DENSLOW’S THE | ‘~MOTHER GOOSE MADNESS OF PHILIP George Ade says: And Other Stories of Child Life “It will give undiluted By joy to anyone between the Josephine Dodge Daskam ages of two and one hun- dred. It will relieve the feel- ‘“*These tales of childhood, ing of vertigo caused by the written for grown-ups, offer a romantic novel.” fund of entertainment of the brightest and most amusing The Rochester Herald says that ‘‘ Mother kind.”—Brooklyn Life. Goose has never lived before. ‘Den’ has iy made her as though she had never been.” Illustrated by 185 Sf Cory 40th Thousand. $1.50. Second Edition. THe House WITH THE GREEN SHUTTERS Bp George Douglas “If a more powerful story than this has been written in recent years I have not seen it. “It must take first honors among the novels of the day. “The great success the book ines met with is not to be wondered at. It is a great nov al unusual, strange, powerful, absolutely distinctive.” —Philadelphia Item. at Edition. $1.50. Jo _ de (PallMcCiure Prurs &Co.]pal Forest N eighbors By W. D. Hulbert No student of wild life has set down the comedies and tragedies of fur and feathers with more intimate truth, delicacy, and humor than has Mr. Hulbert. Illustrated with drawings and photo- graphs. $I.50 net Songs of Nature EDITED BY Fohn Burroughs « letgaeyg000 68198 $ WOO suounty [YatouyjegSSLVLS GALINA ooo Bley a ag Heu }000 oe 904% dOd uojsog\ o9sinuesyUes aR ] uo4sajse4D, T= OO00SEOIS$ JOUIN KC 000Z69¢¢ NOILVINdOd VISSNY i —$—=— PROBLEMS OF which we may string a wire or series of wires, by which we may converse across this great body of water, stretch- ing half way round the globe, making every one of its intermediate landings and relay stations on our own territory and protected by the American flag. Meantime England has decided to at- tempt to connect the western coast of Canada, va Fanning Island, the Fiji group, and Norfolk Island, with her Southern Pacific possessions of Aus- tralia and New Zealand, ‘The proposed routes of these two cable systems are shown on the map here presented. It is proposed to also construct con- necting links between Fanning Island and the Hawaiian Islands, and by a short side line connect the Samoan group with the main line. This would give to the American and the British lines an opportunity for an interchange of business and put all the important groups of the Pacific—the Hawaiian group, the Samoan Islands, the Fiji- group, Guam, and the Philippines—in direct cable communication with our western coast, and enable vessel owners and owners of their cargoes to commu- nicate with them en route to and from this great market which we are seeking to invade. My next suggestion is that we have in the city of Manila a most valuable distributing point for commerce destined for the Orient. Located at a point where the steamship and sailing lines of the western Pacific converge, it be- comes at once an important port of call, transshipment, and exchange, and lying midway between the great business cen- ters of the Orient—Yokohama, Shang- hai, Canton, Singapore, Calcutta, the Dutch East Indies, and the cities of Australia—it furnishes a base for com- mercial operations, a point where Amer- ican warehouses filled with American goods will be accessible by cable and quick steamer transportation for all these points now so far removed from THE PactFic S15 great European and American trade centers. That these natural distribut- ing points are of great strategic impor- tance to the commerce of the nation controlling them is illustrated in the growth of the commerce of the United Kingdom in the Orient since the estab- lishment of Hongkong and Singapore as distributing stations for her com- merce. Hongkong became a British colony in 1842, and Singapore at a somewhat earlier date. In 1840 the exports of the United Kingdom to the countries adjacent to these commercial stations amounted to but about $10,000, ooo, while today it is $125,000,000. While it is not assumed that this in- crease is entirely due to the control of these commercially strategic points by the United Kingdom, their great im- portance for such purposes is generally admitted. That our control of Manila is likely to be not only beneficial to American commerce, but even to estab- lish us as a formidable rival in the trade of the East, is admitted by that distin- guished British writer, Archibald R. Colquhoun, whose familiarity with con- ditions in the Orient makes him a rec- ognized authority upon these topics. In his work entitled ‘‘ The Mastery of the Pacific,’’ recently issued, he says: “The presence of America in the Philippines and the consequent shifting of the center of activity considerably to the east of Hongkong open a grave pos- sibility, for it is obvious that Hongkong will in the future be out of the direct trade routes between Australasia, the Malay Archipelago, and the great mar- kets of America. The possi- bility of Manila becoming a serious rival does not at present seriously exercise the Hongkong merchant or ship owner, but there are evident signs that the United States mean to make an important center of the capital of the Philippines. Among the most significant factors of the Pacific situa- tion is the advent of Russia coming ove- THe NationaL GrocrRAaPHic MAGAZINE lia land to the Pacific littoral, Rene and, on the other hand, the sudden ap- pearance of the United States coming oversea and establishing herself in a large, populous, and important archi- pelago on the borders of Asia.’’ In closing this discussion Mr Colquhoun adds these significant words: ‘‘ The United States, in the opinion of the writer, will be the dominant factor in the mastery of the Pacific. She has all the advantages, qualifications, and some of the ambitions necessary for the réle, and her unrivaled resources and fast- jncreasing population provide the ma- terial for future greatness.”’ ‘These words from this high authority, a representative of the present chief factor in the trade of the Orient, are significant, and they become more so when considered in conjunction with a map which I now present, illustrating the position of Manila as a distributing point for the commerce of that great semicircle of countries stretching from Bering Strait to Australasia, containing half the population of the earth and importing a hundred million dollars’ worth of merchandise every month of the year. ‘ I come now to my final proposition— that in certain great natural conditions, conditions which are as unchangeable as. the oceans and the continents and the revolution of the earth itself, nature has given to the United States marked advantages regarding the movements of vessels between her western shores and PROBLEMS OF the eastern coast of Asia, where the trade of the Orient must always center, and in this belief I find myself fully sup- ported by the practical opinion and ex- perience of distinguished officers of the American and British navies whom I have consulted and by men who have had long experience in the commerce of that great ocean. ‘These advantages to which I allude are found in the great and permanent currents of air and water which flow westwardly across the Pa- cific in the vicinity of the Equator, turn- ing northwardly along the coast of Asia, and, following the Japan coast, again move toward the east across the north Pacific and down the western coast of North America to the point of begin- ning. Inthe map herewith presented are shown the ocean currents and the currents of air, the direction of the movement in each case being shown by arrows. It will be seen that the equatorial current begins its westward movement at the very point in which vessels from an isthmian canal would enter the Pacific, and moves steadily westward to the vicinity of the Philip- pines, then, turning northward along _ the east coast of China and Japan, is deflected to the east, flows eastwardly across the north Pacific to the American coast, and then moves down the western coast of the United States to the point of beginning. The air currents, while their exact location is somewhat affected by the changes of the seasons, follow practically the same lines and are equally certain and reliable. The rate of speed at which this ocean current flows in its great circular movement across the Pa- cificand returns is probably on an aver- age about one mile per hour, or 24 miles per day, while the rate of the movement of the air currents is of course much more rapid. While there is a general belief that vessels propelled by steam are little affected by favorable or adverse winds, a series of experiments recently made by German navigators THE PaciFic R307 and scientists shows that even with high- power steam vessels of modern type a difference of from 50 to 100 miles per day is realized in traveling with or against winds of any considerable power. ' These facts, it seems to me, justify me in the assertion which I have made and now repeat, that this steady, per- manent flow of air and water—a flow which will never cease so long as the earth revolves toward the east and the great bodies of land and water retain their present relative positions—must always give to the North American con- tinent a marked advantage in the com- merce of the Pacific. Its vessels from the eastern coast, entering this great whirlpool of the Pacific at the Isthmus, will move westward, aided by air and water currents, past our Hawaiian Isl- ands, Wake Island, and Guam to the Philippines ; thence northward to those two great trade centers, Shanghai and Yokohama, and thence, still following these currents, will move to the east along that shortest route known as the “great circle,’ in the north Pacific, touch at our own western ports for transshipment of fast freights for the East, and then, still following the ocean current down our Pacific coast, will reach the entrance to the Isthmian canal, having been aided by favorable currents of air and water in the entire circular tour of 18,000 miles. The en- tire feasibility of this plan is found in the fact that, while the actual sailing distance from the western end of the proposed Nicaraguan canal to Manila via Hawaii and Guam is 9,000 miles, the return trip from Manila vza Shang- hai, Yokohama, and San Francisco to Brito is but 9,500 miles, with the ad- vantages of favorable wind and current in practically every mile of the entire distance. I close, then, by the assertion that at least one of the great problems of the Pacific, that of commerce, has been solved, and solved in favor of the United 318 States. In the exchange of mutually necessary commodities, in length of frontage upon the ocean, in harbors, in way stations for vessels and cables, in advantageous points for distribution and concentration of trade, and even in the currents of air and water which nature has given, the conditions favor the United States. Indeed, when we consider all these things, we might al- most claim the Pacific as essentially our own. Stretching along its eastern coast THe Nationa GroGRaPHic MAGAZINE from the tropics to the Arctic, thence across its northern borders, then for more than a thousand miles on its west- ern shore, in the Samoan group on the south, and in a line of islands across its very center, the American flag floats, and will continue to float, and by its presence, its ennobling purposes, and its power for civilization and advance- ment it proclaims, and will continue to proclaim, that the Pacific is, and will re- main, an American ocean. °MIDWAY IS. = Fa I , GUAM 1. PHILIPPINE 5 1B ig SAMOA 1. Map No. 7. *, HAWAIIAN IS. = “The Pacific is, and will remain, an American Ocean’”’ SHORTENING TIME ACROSS THE CON- TINENT By Henry Hersperr McCiure WENTY hours to Chicago, forty-five hours to Denver, ninety hours to the Pacific coast—these are the new records for long-distance transportation, taking New York city as the starting point, which indicate a general movement on the part of the great railroad systems of the country to save time across the con- tinent and to draw closer together the important cities along the way. The establishment of the twenty-hour trains between New York and Chicago on June 15th may be said to mark the new era of transportation. Interest in that ini- tialevent had not subsided before there began a service out of Chicago which- landed passengers in Denver in twenty- five hours, and plans are now being made whereby the transcontinental sys- tems will run trains from Chicago to ‘Los Angeles in something less than three days’ time. The movement is significant of genu- ine twentieth-century progress, and the new conditions may in a sense be said to have come about because of the need for improved facilities. It was well that the railroads should keep pace with the rapid movements of modern life just as formerly they were pathfinders and pace-makers for civilization itself. These United States owe much to the railroad systems, which have ribbed it with bands of steel and changed it from a tremendous territory which required months to cross into a community of farms, factories, towns, and cities. The accomplishment of these new rec- ords and their maintenance as a regular daily occurrence places this country in the fore rank so far as railway facilities and fast long-distance speed are con- cerned. It is true that the Sud Express on the Orleans and Midi Railroad, run- ning from Paris to Bayonne, makes an average of five miles per hour more than the Twentieth Century Limited of the New York Central, but the French train travels only half as far as the American. As a matter of fact, how- ever, few trains in the world cover such long distances as those in this country, and comparisons are scarcely just. For example, the Siberian Express, running between Moscow and Irkutsk, makes 3,400 miles in eight days, an average of about one-third the speed of our trains. No one would regard this rec- ord as representing the best that Rus- sian trains could do over distances of from 500 to 1,000 miles. When the twenty-hour trains between New York and Chicago were first put on, they were designed to carry passen- gers and a limited amount of baggage only. ‘The trains were made up of four cars—a buffet smoking and library car, two twelve-section drawing-room state- room cars, and one state-room observa- tion car. On certain sections of the lines a dining car was added to each train. Within a few days, however, the government arranged for the addi- tion of one mail car to each of these twenty-hour trains, and, as a result, this fast service has come to be of great value to thousands who might never wish to travel in the trains themselves. The new era of transportation at once in- spires an interest, which is not merely wonder at its achievements—it becomes a practical, tangible thing, which calls for our appreciation because each one may be benefited by its existence. The business man of New York city 320 is now able to mail a letter to his agent in Chicago on Monday and receive his reply on Wednesday morning. A tre- mendous advantage of the new train service is that, since the mails at New York close now six hours later, a whole business day is gained at St. Louis and points further west; almost a whole business day is gained for Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Indianapolis. The mails for the new fast trains close at one o'clock in the afternoon at New York. Within an hour on one line, and two hours on the other, these pouches of letters for the west are whirling toward their destination. Columbus gains nearly ten hours by the new service ; Cincinnati, seven hours ; Indianapolis, eleven hours; Kansas City, eleven hours. In nearly all of the country southwest of St. Louis there is a gain of from ten to twenty-four hours. At St. Louis the gain is twenty hours outside of the business district, and twelve hours in- side. Indeed, almost everysection of the country has been affected by the new mail schedule made possible by these fast trains. The east-bound mails, of course, make practically the same gain in time. ‘There are minor differences owing to connections at various points. The apparent discrepancies between the gain for business sctions of a city and the gain outside is explained by time of arrival being after business hours. An amusing feature of the interest taken in these fast trains is the impres- sions made on those who imagine the trains rocking madly back and forth, taking the curves on two wheels and righting themselves with difficulty, and dashing by the scenery with such swift- ness that nothing is to be seen save a blur of green from the fields. ““Guess you had to hold on to the seat some,’’ was one comment. It is a curious fact, but he who travels on one of these twentieth-cen- tury trains can scarcely appreciate more than the results. It does not seem to THe Nationa, GrocraPHic MaGAZINeE -him that the train is moving swifter than an ordinary passenger train; but when he arrives at his destination, a thousand miles away, eight hours sooner than has been his custom, then he realizes that something unusual has happened enroute. He has the feeling that the trip has been exceedingly com- fortable, and he may have noticed that his train has made few stops—very short ones ; that the engines were changed quickly, and that no time was wasted in getting under way again. It was the writer’s privilege to make the first trip of the Twentieth Century Limited over the New York Central and the Lake Shore Railroads. Aside from one instance, when the train had been delayed by a freight and there were fourteen minutes to be made up within an hour, which was done, it was not possible to distinguish a high rate of speed. An old railroad man was asked where it was that these trains gained eight hours on the average trains running between New York and Chicago. ‘“ Suppose two men started out to run a mile race,’’ he replied. ‘‘If one of them had to stop every hundred yards and the other ran right on, which one do you think would win?”’ Fewer stops, then, have contributed to the saving of time, but other elements have entered into the matter. During the past five years millions of dollars have been spent in improving track and rolling stock, in shortening distances, and in reducing grades. ‘There is now complete from Boston to Omaha a double-track line of railways. Every mile of this is guarded from wreck by the block signals. Many trains a day travel over the lines with absolute safety. The engines are heavier than formerly. Their capacity for coal and water is greater, and hence longer runs can be made without stops. Where division points were formerly 150 miles apart they are now separated by more SHORTENING Time Across THE CONTINENT than 200 miles. ‘These are a few of the qualifications for speed. Indeed, if one desired to account for all of the elements which combine in the result of present-day speed and comfort in long-distance travel it would be neces- sary to review the whole history of railroading. It is a far cry even from the service of twenty-five years ago to that of today. It is not so long since parlor and sleeping cars were unknown ; twenty-five miles an hour was considered a good speed for a passenger train ; there were no air brakes, no safety devices. Travel, even for five hundred miles, re- quired considerable physical endurance. Now, however, New York to San Fran- cisco is an easier journey than New York to Chicago was formerly. Elec- trically lighted trains, with library, buffet, dining, sleeping, and observa- tion cars drawn by huge greyhounds of steel, whirl swiftly and safely over a pathway whose every mile is a monu- ment in stone and steel to the engineer- ing ability of our country. ‘The trav- eler has every comfort at hand—a tele- phone is at his elbow, a bath-room and a barber shop are at his disposal. Through the West, at least, as great changes have taken place in the country. In thirty years time the granary of the world has been opened up. Unbroken wastes have given place to thousands of prosperous towns. Maps were made and remade, and a geographical text book was not long in getting out of date. The growth of the West, as well as the development of the East, was not only fostered by the great railroads, but it was met and anticipated by them. Wit- ness the rapid introduction of every modern :nvention which may be applied to railroading. On the Chicago and Northwestern and the Illinois Central Railroads passengers may telephone from the moving train to any point within the range of long-distance te- lephony. Ona Texas railway wireless telegraphy is now being installed for the RAT purpose of preventing collisions. The new twenty-hour trains between New York and Chicago are lighted with elec- tricity generated by dynamoes attached to the car axles. These are mere de- tails which indicate the struggle for the best service possible. The New York Central’s ‘‘ Twentieth Century Train ’’ stands first in point of speed, ease of operation, etc., between New Yorkand Chicago. Their mileage is nearly seventy miles greater than that over which the Pennsylvania Special goes, but they have fewer grades and curves. Beyond Chicago the traveler will find four routes to the coast open to him. ‘The Burlington No. 1 has re- cently increased its speed to Denver so that one hour and ten minutes are saved. Over the Rock Island’s El Paso Short Line route will begin a service this fall by which the time to Los Angeles will be considerably shortened. ‘The line to El Paso, completed only this year, is over 200 miles shorter from Kansas City than any other route, but the entire dis- tance from Chicago to Los Angeles on the Rock Island and Southern Pacific is practically the same as that over the Santa Fé route. The former, by reason of a smaller per cent of grades, will be able to make more speed, while the lat- ter will, of course, continue to hold its attraction as a scenic route through the mountains. The Chicago and North- western road has recently completed a two-track system to the Missouri River at Omaha—a movement which is part of a plan to make the facilities for travel as good as possible over this and the Union Pacific line to San Francisco. Within a year Salt Lake will be bridged. Millions of dollars are being spent in shortening distances, abolishing grades and curves wherever possible. Our country is becoming smaller all the time, and all because the transcontinental links of steel railways are annihilating space and conquering time with more vigor and result than ever before. UID YORI Ole Wiss, (ONIN ID) SIA es GEOUVOGICAL SURV EVGRO RS ELE SEASON HE following assignments of geologic and paleontologic par- ties of the United States Geo- logical Survey have been made for the present field season: Pacific Coast.—Dr J. C. Branner will continue areal surveys on the Santa Cruz quadrangle, California. MrJ.S. Diller will complete the areal and economic survey of the Redding quadrangle, California, and make a reconnoissance of the Klamath Moun- tains. He will be assisted by Dr Geo. B. Richardson. Dr Geo. F. Becker will continue. the supervision of the Division of Physical and Chemical Research and the prepa- ration of a report embodying his inves- tigations on the conditions of gold depo- sition in the Mother Lode of California. Dr T. W. Stanton will continue a general supervision of the paleontologic work of the Survey, and will carry on fieldwork in cooperation with Mr J. S. Diller in the Klamath Mountains of California. Mr Geo. H. Eldridge, who has re- cently completed a study of the oil-fields of California, will devote the coming year to the preparation of a report on this subject and on the phosphate de- posits of Florida. Dr Geo. Otis Smith will continue areal surveys necessary for the preparation of the Snoqualmie folio, Washington. On the completion of his field season in the Cascade Mountains he will survey the Bluehill quadrangle, Maine. He will be assisted by Mr Frank C. Calkins. Rocky Mountain Region.—Mr J. M. Boutwell and Dr J. D. Irving will study the mining geology of the Park City district, Utah. 1902 Prof. T. C. Chamberlin will continue the supervision of investigations in Pleis- tocene geology of the United States. He will be assisted by Prof. R. D. Salis- bury and Mr W. W. Atwood in the Rocky Mountain region, by Mr Frank Leverett and Mr F. W. Taylor in Mich- igan, and by Mr W. C. Alden in Win- consin. Mr S. F. Emmons will continue the supervision of investigations in the Di- vision of Metalliferous Minerals, visit- ing various mining regions in the west for the purpose of examining work in progress and preparing plans for future work. He will be assisted by Dr J. D. Irving in the completion of work on the Leadville mining district. Dr N. M. Fenneman will continue the investigation of the Boulder oil field, Colorado. Mr Arnold Hague will continue the preparation of his monograph on the Yellowstone National Park, and will visit the park for the purpose of obtain- ing necessary additional information. Dr T. A. Jaggar will complete the areal work necessary for the preparation of the Boston folio, and will prepare a report on the Bradshaw district, Ari- zona. He will be assisted by Dr Chas. Palache and Mr Laurence La Forge. Prof. Wilbur C. Knight will continue the areal and economic surveys neces- sary for the completion of the Laramie folio, Wyoming. Dr F. H. Knowlton will devote the year to the completion of reports on the fossil floras of the Puget and Laramie formations. Mr Waldemar Lindgren has recently returned from a winter field season in Arizona, and will spend the greater part FIELDWORK OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of the coming year in the preparation of reports. Prof. H. F. Osborn will continue his investigations on vertebrate paleon- tology, and under his supervision special examinations will be made of the stratig- taphy of the Colorado Jurassic by Mr F. B. Loomis, and of the Bridger, Washakie, and Uinta basins, Wyoming, by Mr W. B. Matthew and Mr Walter Granger, for the purpose of determining the exact stratigraphic position of beds from which fossil collections have here- tofore been made. Dr F. Ll. Ransome is at present en- gaged in the preparation of his report on the Globe, Arizona, mining district. Later in the season he will carry on areal and economic surveys for the prepara- tion of the Bisbee folio, Arizona, and for a report on the Bisbee mining dis- trict. Dr J. Morgan Clements will be associated with him in this work. Dr A. C. Spencer will study the areal and economic geology of the Grand En- campment mining district, Wyoming. He will be assisted by Prof. J. Volney Lewis. Mr W. H. Weed will revisit Montana for the purpose of securing additional information required for the completion of his report on the Butte mining dis- trict. Mr Bailey Willis will continue the su- pervision of the investigations in areal and stratigraphic geology. He will visit field parties in various parts of the United States, and will investigate the stratigraphy along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in Montana and Wyoming. The Southwest,—Dr George I. Adams will make an areal and economic survey of the Yellville quadrangle in Arkansas, with special reference to the preparation of a report on the Arkansas lead and zine district. He will be assisted by Prof. A. H. Purdue and Mr Ernest F. Burchard. Dr Geo. H. Girty will investigate the 323 paleontology and stratigraphy in con- nection with the work of various geolo- gists in Arkansas, Indian Territory, Texas, and elsewhere. Mr R. T. Hill will continue his in- vestigation of the economic geology, stratigraphy, physiography, and vul- canism in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. Dr Girty will be associated with him in this work. Mr J. A. Taff will continue his areal and economic surveys in Indian Terri- tory. Hewill be assisted by Prof. S.W. Beyer and Mr J. W. Beede. The Northwest.—Mr N. H. Darton will continue areal surveys in the Black Hills and the Big Horn Mountains, and will complete a reconnoissance of the Great Plains for the preparation of a map showing the geology and water resources of that region. He will be assisted by Mr C. A. Fisher. Northern and Eastern States.—Mr M. R. Campbell will continue the super- vision of areal and economic work in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indi- ana, Kentucky, and West Virginia. He will be assisted by Messrs Charles Butts, Lester H. Woolsey, Ralph W. Stone, and Marcus Goldman in Penn- sylvania, by Mr Myron L. Fuller in New York and Indiana, and by Profs. Geo. H. Ashley and L. C. Glenn in Kentucky. Prof. I. Nelson Dale will continue his surveys in western Vermont, and will survey the Slatington quadrangle in eastern Pennsylvania. He will be assisted by Prof. Frederick B. Peck and Mr Fred H. Moffit. Prof. B. K. Emerson will continue his investigations on areal and structural geology in Central Massachusetts. Prof. J. F. Kemp will complete the fieldwork necessary for the preparation of the Mettawee folio in New York and Vermont. Prof. Chas. S. Prosser will continue areal work necessary for the prepara- 324 tion of the Columbus folio, Ohio, and he will be assisted by Mr E. R. Cum- ings. Mr Geo. W. Stose will continue in charge of the editing of geologic maps, and will spend a short field season in the continuation of work on the Cham- bersburg quadrangle, Pennsylvania. Prof. C. R. Van Hise will continue the supervision of investigations on the pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks of the United States. He will visit vari- ous parties in the field for the purpose of verifying and coordinating work in his division. He will be assisted by Mr C. K. Leith in the preparation of a final monograph on the Lake Supe- rior region, by Dr W. S. Bayley in the completion of fieldwork in the Menom- inee district, by Dr W. H. Hobbs in the continuation of surveys in Connecticut and Rhode Island, by Dr Florence Bas- com in the continuation of areal and structural studies in the Philadelphia district. Mr David White will continue his in- vestigations on the paleobotany of the Carboniferous, working in cooperation with various geologists in West Vir- ginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indian Territory. Prof. Henry S. Williams will continue his studies on the co-relation problems of the Devonian in Pennsylvania, New York, and Maine. He will be assisted by Mr E. M. Kindle. Prof. J. E. Wolff will continue the in- vestigation of the areal and structural geology in the crystalline areas of New Jersey and southern Vermont. Southern States.—Prof. W. B. Clark, with assistants, will continue the inves- tigations of the geology of the Coastal Plain region in Maryland and Delaware, and of the Piedmont plateau of Mary- land in cooperation with the Geolog- ical Survey of Maryland. Dr William H. Dall will continue his studies for the completion of the revis- ion of the Tertiary faunas of Florida. THe NatTionaAL GrocRaPHic MAGAZINE Dr C. W. Hayes will continue the su- pervision of the investigations on non- metalliferous economic deposits, and will continue areal work in the southern Ap- palachians. He will be assisted by Mr W. T. Griswold in the Eastern Ohio oil field and by Mr Edwin C. Eckel in Ala- bama and Georgia. Mr Arthur Keith will continue areal, structural, and economic surveys in the southern Appalachians. He will be as- sisted by Mr H. S. Gale. Dr W.S. Tangier Smith will be asso- ciated with Mr E. O. Ulrich during the early part of the season in the study of the lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits of western Kentucky, and later will con- tinue his investigation of the lead and zine deposits of the Joplin district. -He will be assisted by Dr C. E. Siebenthal. Mr #.O. Ulrich will study the geology of the western Kentucky mining district in connection with Dr Tangier Smith’s investigation of the mineral deposits. Later in the season Mr Ulrich will be associated with Dr Adams in Arkansas and Mr Taff in Indian Territory. Mr T. Wayland Vaughn has recently returned from fieldwork in southern Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and Flor- ida. He will be engaged throughout the greater part of the coming year in the preparation of a monograph on the fossil corals of the United States. Alaska.—Four parties, under the supervision of Mr Alfred H. Brooks, are now carrying on geologic work in Alaska. The first, in charge of Mr Alfred H. Brooks, geologist, with Mr D. L. Raeburn as topographer, and five camp hands, is exploring the northern slopes of the Alaskan Range, having for its more especial aim a geologic and topographic reconnoissance of the re- gion. ‘This party expects to obtain im- portant information concerning Mount McKinley, said to be the highest moun- tain on the continent, which lies in the heart of the Alaskan Range and whose base has not yet been reached. The FIELDWORK OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY party hopes to cross the Tanana River at the mouth of the Cantwell, and to investigate the Tanana and Birch Creek gold districts, reaching the Yukon at Circle City, thus obtaining a chance to examine the important and little known gold fields on the lower Tanana. Mr Arthur J. Collier, geologist, ac- companied by two men, will start at the international boundary and carefully study the coal deposits of the Yukon section as far as the delta, visiting also some of the placer camps accessible from the river, which have not yet been in- vestigated. The copper deposits of the Chitina River, a tributary of the Copper, have excited a great deal of interest among miners and capitalists. ‘There have been many parties outfitted to prospect this region, and some preliminary develop- ment has been made. Prospecting has also been done in a second copper belt in the northern part of the Copper River and in the upper Tanana and White River basins. These two belts are to be the subject of special investigation during the coming season. The Chis- tochina gold fields, also included in the Copper River basin, have become im- portant producers of placer gold. A survey of their entire area is contem- plated. The surveys of the Copper River basin will also throw a good deal of light on the proposed railway route from Valdes to the Yukon River, and they will cover large areas which are believed to have value for stock-raising and for cultivation. The work in this region has been di- vided. One party, in charge of Mr F. C. Schrader, geologist, with Mr D. C. Witherspoon, topographer, will map the Upper Copper River Basin and adjacent portions of the Tanana Basin, giving special attention to the upper northern belt ; the other party, in charge of Mr T. C. Gerdine, topographer, with Mr Walter C. Mendenhall, geologist, will 325 map the Chistochina gold fields and will give attention to the southern copper belt. In addition, Mr W. J. Peters, topog- rapher, will make a map of the Juneau mining district as a base for future de- tailed geologic studies. The Juneau district is the most important in all Alaska, containing, as it does, the fa- mous Treadwell mine. Flawatian Islands. — Dr Whitman Cross will suspend his regular field- work in Colorado for the present sea- son and will spend a portion of the year in the Hawaiian Islands, for the purpose of investigating volcanic phe- nomena. Mr G. K. Gilbert does not expect to carry on any fieldwork, but will be en- gaged throughout the year in the prep- aration of reports. Prof. Lester F. Ward will continue the preparation of reports on the Meso- zoic floras of the United States. FOREST RESERVES Mr Henry Gannett, in charge of the examination of forest reserves, will ex- amine forest reserves in Utah, and will visit the different parties working in the field under his direction. Mr Arthur Dodwell will complete the examination of theSan Francisco Moun- tain Reserve of Arizona, and will con- tinue work to the southward and east- ward in the Black Mesa Forest Reserve, Arizona, as far as the season will per- mit. Mr Theodore F. Rixon will commence the examination of the Black Mesa For- est Reserve, Arizona, completing, with Mr Arthur Dodwell, the entire area of the reserve. Mr Fred G. Plummer will examine the Uinta Reserve, in the northern part of Utah, a rather narrow, irregular strip of country, lying mainly along the top and north slopes of the Uinta Range. TOPOGRAPHIC WORK OR Prk, Us Seine LOGICAL TSU RViEN SUNG igo? In WasHINGTON, OREGON, AND CALIFORNIA ASHINGTON .— Topo- graphic work will be com- menced wunder the general direction of Mr Richard U. Goode, geog- rapher, in two general localities in the State of Washington. Two parties will operate in the eastern part of the state and three parties in western Washing- ton, in the forested regions of the Cas- cades. One of the eastern parties will be under Mr JL, C. Fletcher, with Messrs J. G. Hefty and J. B. Bond as assistants, and will outfit at Republic. The work will be an extension westward of that commenced during the past season in the vicinity of Republic, the area to be surveyed extending along the interna- tional boundary for about thirty miles and including the valley of the Oka- nogan River and the region adjacent to Osoyoos Lake. The second eastern party will be under Mr George T. Hawkins, and will outfit at Spokane. ‘The work assigned to this party is the extension of the existing triangulation in the vicinity of Spokane southward through Whitman, Garfield, and Asofin Counties. This triangula- tion will be followed as soon as may be practicable by a detailed topographic survey, and the resulting maps will in turn form a basis for the investigation of the important economic problems in this region. If practicable this trian- gulation will be connected during the present field season with that brought northward from the vicinity of the Baker City region by another party, thus mak- ing a connection between the astronomic positions determined at Spokane and Baker City. The western sections will be covered by parties operating in three districts, that in the northwest district being under the charge of Mr R. A. Farmer. The party will outfit at Wenatchee. The area selected to be surveyed will be that known as the Stehekin quadrangle, in the Washington Forest Reserve, and will include the upper portion of Lake Chelan and a portion of the crest line of the Cascade range. In this general locality will also be a party under Mr E. M. Fry, whose duties will be to determine by spirit- leveling elevations above sea - level of various points in the Cascade Mountains along the Skagitt and Nethow Rivers and in the mountains between Republic and the Colville River. The party in the central district of the western section will be under the charge of Mr A. E. Murlin, and will survey the Skykomish quadrangle, which includes an area of about 800 square miles north and south-of the Great Northern Railroad, in the vicinity of Skykomish, within which are many mines and much valuable timber. A portion of this quadrangle is within the Washington Forest Reserve. Mr Mur- lin will have for his principal assistants Messrs W. C. Guerin and C. W. Sutton. Mr A. H. Sylvester will have charge of the third party in the western sec- tion, or that operating in the southern district, and will outfit at North Ya- kima, the work being a continuation of that done during the preceding field season upon the Mt. Aix quadrangle. The greater portion of this quadrangle is in the Mt. Rainier Forest Reserve. It includes a number of passes along TorocrapHic Work oF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY the summit of the Cascades and the headwaters of the White and Cowlitz Rivers, flowing to the west, and of the American, Bumping, and Tieton Rivers, tributaries of the Natches and Yakima Rivers. MrSylvester’s principal assist- ant will be Mr Ralph Cowgill. All the work in the western section is a continuation of the systematic sur- vey, begun several years ago, of the for- ested areas of the Cascade Mountains. Oregon.— Topographic work under the direction of Mr Richard U. Goode, geographer, will be continued in Oregon in two localities—one in the eastern por- tion of the state, in the vicinity of Baker City, and the other west of the Cascades, in the vicinity of Riddles. The party operating in eastern Oregon will be in charge of MrC. F. Urquhart, his principal assistant being Mr R. B. Robertson, and will outfit at Baker City. The work will be an extension of the existing triangulation eastward and northward inte Union and Wallowa Counties, the object being to provide starting points for future topographic work, which will extend through the forested areas and mining districts. The party will commence work about July 1, and remain in the field as long as the weather conditions are such that work can be prosecuted in the mountains. In western Oregon one party will be under the charge of Mr A. B. Searle, and will commence operations in the vicinity of Glendale. ‘The work will be in continuation of that commenced dur- ing the past field season, and will result in the completion of the Riddles quad- rangle, comprising an area of about 900 square miles. This region is noted for its various mineral deposits, the exam- ination and study of which by Mr J. H. Diller, geologist, will follow upon the completion of the topographic map. Another party, under Mr C. H. Sem- per, will be engaged in carrying a line of primary levels from a tidal connec- tion at Benicia, California, along the 347. line of the Northern Pacific Railroad as far northward toward Portland as avail- able funds will permit of. Iron bench- mark posts, on which will be stamped the elevation above sea-level to the nearest foot, will be established at all prominent points and at intervals not exceeding three miles. These levels will furnish a main trunk line, from which other lines of levels will ulti- mately branch into the territory to the east and west of the state line, thus furnishing the vertical control for future topographic work California,—Under the general direc- tion of Mr Richard U. Goode, geogra- pher, topographic work will be prose- cuted in various localities in California during the coming field season. In the northern portion of the state a special map will be made of the Keswick min- eral region, including an area of about 30 square miles. A portion of this area is included in the Redding quadrangle, which has been recently surveyed on the scale of about two miles to the inch. The ‘special work will be on the scale of about one mile equal to three inches, the large scale being necessary to a proper study of the geologic questions involved in thisimportant district. The party engaged in this work will be in charge of Mr A. B. Searle. In the central portion of the state two parties will operate, the areas to be sur- veyed being within or adjacent to the Sierra Forest Reserve. One of the par- ties will be under the charge of Mr R. B. Marshall, who will have as his princi- pal assistants Messrs George R. Davis and Ll. D. Ryus. The party will outfit at Fresno, and will complete the survey of the Kaiser Peak quadrangle com- menced during the previous season, which includes the upper portion of the San Joaquin River. This party will also extend spirit levels so as to afford verti- cal control for future topographic work in the Mount Silliman and Kings River Canyon region. 328 The second party in central California will be in charge of Mr E. T. Perkins, who will have as his principal assistants Messrs A. I. Oliver and W. V. Hardy. This party will outfit at Visalia and will survey the Kaweah or Three Rivers quadrangle, an area of nearly 1,000 square miles, including the headwaters of the principal tributaries of the Tulare River. In southern California there will be two parties. One of these parties, under Mr W. T. Turner, with Mr S. N. Stoner as his principal assistant, will continue the work which has been going on for several years in the Mount Pinos and Zaca Lake and Santa Ynez Forest Re- serves. The other party, under MrJ.E. Rock- hold, with Mr E. R. Childs as his prin- cipal assistant, will complete the work begun during the past field season in the vicinity of San Diego, thus finish- ing the mapping of practically all of the thickly inhabited portion of southern California. Precise spirit-leveling will be contin- ued by a party under Mr C. H. Semper. This party will first complete a gap in the line which was begun during the last field season at a tidal connection at Benicia and carried through the San Joaquin Valley and across the Tehachapi Tue Nationa, GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Mountains, so as to make a junction with spirit levels previously run in southern California. After this work is completed the party will go north to: the vicinity of Sacramento and com- mence another precise line which will have its ultimate termination at Port- land, Oregon. In connection with this. line iron bench-mark posts will be es- tablished along the line of the Southern Pacific Railroad at intervals of about three miles, on which will be stamped the elevation to the nearest foot above sea-level. In the fall, after it becomes too late to work in the northern states or the high Sierra, two large parties will com- mence work along the Colorado River, one outfitting at Yuma and the other at Needles. This work is undertaken with a view of determining the prac- ticability of utilizing the waters of the Colorado River, which at present are wasted into the ocean, for the purpose of irrigating the vast tracts of desert lands in California and Arizona adja- cent to the river. Later in the season it is also contem- plated to do certain preliminary work looking eventually to the topographic mapping and geologic investigation of the Coalingua, Bakersfield, and McKit- rick oil fields. GEOGRAPHIG NOTES NEW KEY TO THE REPORTS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HE U. S. Geological Survey has just issued, in Bulletin No. 177, a catalogue and index of its publica- tions. ‘This compilation has been made necessary by the increase in the number of the publications since the last cata- logue was published in 1893 and by the need of a convenient classification. The first part of the compilation is composed of notices of all the Survey’s publications from its inception to date; the annual reports, monographs, bulle- tins, water supply, and irrigation papers, the volumes of the old series of mineral resources, geologic atlas folios, topo- graphic atlas sheets, special maps, and miscellaneous publications. The second portion of the volume is an index, alphabetically arranged, com- GerocraPHic Nores prising 742 pages. It is a broad classi- fication of the subject-matter of the pub- lications, yet sufficiently detailed to be of value in economic, scientific, engi- neering, and educational lines. DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES June 4 and 5, 1902 Barnett; run, near Bridgeport, Harrison County, West Virginia (not Barnet). Bentons Ferry ; post-office and railroad station, Marion County, West Virginia (not Ben- ton Ferry). Bonaire ; island, one of the Dutch West India Islands, in the Caribbean Sea, off the coast of Venezuela (not Buen Ayre). Nove.—This is a reversal of the decision Buen Ayre, made in r8or. Cobun ; creek, in Monongahela County, West Virginia (not Coburns). Connorville ; post-office and railroad station, Jefferson County, Ohio (not Connor nor Connorsville). Davisson ; run, branch of West Fork River, Harrison County, West Virginia (not Davidson’s). Davisson ; run, branch of Simpson Creek, Har- rison County, West Virginia (not David- sons). Fassett ; point, Sinepuxent Bay, Worcester County, Maryland (not Fassetts nor Henry. Fudges ; creek and post-office, Cabell County, West Virginia (not Fudger). Gibson City ; post-office and railroad station, Ford County, Illinois (not Gibson). Glenns ; run, Ohio County, West Virginia (not Glen’s). Glenns Run; railroad station, Ohio County, West Virginia (not Glens Run). Green Village ; post-office and railroad station, Franklin County, Pennsylvania (not Greenvillage). Horrell ; precinct, Frontier County, Nebraska (not Howell). Hupa ; Indian tribe, mountain, and post-office, Humboldt County, California (not Hoopa, Hoopah, Ho-pah, Hupa, Hfip6, Noh-tin- oah, nor Up-pa). Hupa Valley ; Indian agency and reservation, Humboldt County, California (not Hoopa Valley). Inner Manchas; coral reef or bank on north side of entrance to Mayaguez Bay, Porto Rico, West Indies (not Inner Machos, etc.). Jaffrey ; point, the southern point of entrance 329 to Portsmouth harbor, New Hampshire (not Jaffray nor Jerry’s). NoTe.—This is a reversal of the decision Jaffray, made March 7, 1900. Kenneatto ; creek, Fulton and Saratoga Coun- ties, New York (not Fonda nor Kennyetto, etc. ) Lehi; post-office and railroad station, Utah County, Utah (not Lehi City). Machos Grandes ; coral reef or bank on south side of entrance to Mayaguez Bay, Porto Rico, West Indies (not Allart, Great Man- chas, nor Machos). Manchas ; coral reef or bank on north side of entrance to Mayaguez Bay, Porto Rico, West Indies (not Machos Grandes). Manchas Chicas ; coral reef or bank on north side of entrance to Mayaguez Bay, Porto Rico, West Indies (not Machos Chicos). Outer Manchas ; coral reef or bank on north- ern side of entrance to Mayaguez Bay, Porto Rico, West Indies (not Outer Machos). Pereleshin ; mountain, east of the Stikine River and near the Alaska-Canada boundary line (not Pereleshini). Provo ; post-office and railroad station, Utah County, Utah (Not Provo City). Raquette ; lake, Hamilton County, New York ‘not Racket). Raquette ; pond, Franklin County, New York (not Racket). Raquette ; river, of northern New York, drain- ing lake and pond of same name, and emptying into the St. Lawrence River (not Racket). Raquette Lake ; post-office and railroad station, Hamilton County, New York (not Racket Lake). Sea Gull; six rocky islets between Unalga and Akutan, in Akutan Pass, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Baby nor Gull). Southmayd ; post-office and railroad station, Grayson County, Texas (not Southmayde). Steel ; mountain in the Olympic group, Jeffer- son County, Washington (not Steele nor Stone). Valdes; glacier, narrows, port, summit, and town, Prince William Sound, Alaska (not Valdez). Van Etten ; post-office, railroad station, town- ship, and village, Chemung County, New York (not Vanetten). West Fork; river, in Marion, Harrison, and Lewis Counties, West Virginia (not West Fork Monongahela). Wheeling ; creek, Ohio and Marshall Coun- ties, West Virginia (not Big Wheeling). Wheeling ; island in Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia (not Madison nor Zanes). Willow Island; railroad station, Dawson County, Nebraska (not Willow). J 52 COMMERCIAL ALASKA HE title of a monograph just is- sued by the Treasury Bureau of Statistics is ‘‘Commercial Alaska in 1go1.’’ In it are presented some strik- ing figures about this little-understood territory of the United States. A mill- ion dollars a month is the estimate made by the Bureau of Statistics of the pres- ent value of the market which “‘ frozen Alaska’’ offers to the producers and manufacturers of the United States. Gold, fish, and furs are, according to this monograph, the principal industries of Alaska at the present time, and they send to the United States 15 million dol- lars’ worth of their products—8 mill- ions of gold, 6 millions of fish, chiefly salmon, and the remainder furs. The cost of Alaska was $7,200,000. ‘The revenue which the government has derived from it since its purchase amounts to over 9 million dollars, and the value of the products are now twice as much every year as it cost. The total value of the products of Alaska brought to the United States since its purchase is (according to the best esti- mates that the Bureau of Statistics is able to make) about 150 millions. of which 50 millions are precious metals, 50 millions products of the fisheries, chiefly salmon, and 50 millions more furs, chiefly seal fur. Probably 50 million dollars of American capital are invested in Alaskan industries and busi- ness enterprises, including transporta- tion systems. In the salmon fisheries alone the companies engaged have a GEOGRAPHIC By Margaret B. New York: Mosaics from India. Denning. Illustrated. Fleming H. Revell Co. The title of this book is well fitted to its contents. Each chapter is a story THe NatTionaL GrocRAPHic MAGAZINE capitalization of 22 million dollars, and the value of their plants, including ves- sels, is given at 12 million dollars. In the mining industries there are large investments, the great quartz mill at Juneau being the largest quartz stamp- mill in the world, while several other quartz mills represent large invest- ments. The Mazamas.—The annual outing of the Mazamas this summer is a trip to the summit of Mount Adams. ‘The Mazamas are a society of mountain climbers and one of the most unique organizations in the United States. The qualification for membership is the as- cent of some snow-capped peak formid- able enough to make the ascent more than a pleasure trip. The society was organized in the summer of 1894, on the summit of Mount Hood. So much enthusiasm was felt at that time that 193 people climbed the 11,225 feet to the summit of Mount Hood in order to attend the first meeting. Each year the club makes successful expeditions up some mountain. Mounts Baker, Rainier, Adams, Hood, and Jefferson, us well as Crater Lake, on the summit of Mount Mazamas, have each been visited. An expedition to take meridian meas- urements in the Arctics, north of Spitz- bergen, left Tromso late in July. The expedition was organized in Sweden, and is directed by Dr P. Rubin and in- cludes Dr von Zeipal as astronomer and Lieu. Duner as cartographer. LITERATURE in itself. The customs of the people are set forth by graphic terms and illus- trations. ‘The author shows the oppo- sition that has been brought against the missionaries by the superstitions of GEOGRAPHIC the people. Many new points of the inner side of the social conditions of the Hindoo family are depicted in a vivid manner. Chapters devoted to The Re- cent Famine, The Classes of Society, The Missions, etc., describe in an in- teresting and instructive manner the observations of a personal tour of the far regions of country by the mission- ary author. Bird Life, a Guide to the Study of Our Common Birds. By Frank M. Chap- man. S8vo, pp. xii -+ 195, with Ap- pendix, with 75 colored plates and 25 text cuts. Third edition. New York: D: Appleton & Co. 1902. The study of birds has become popu- lar and, let us hope, not a fad or a craze, to run its course and disappear, but a permanent feature of the rising interest in science; for no more delightful inter- est can be added to life than the study of our feathered neighbors, making their personal acquaintance, familiarzing our- selves with their home life, their house- keeping methods, their loves, and their hates. Mr Chapman has given the public one of the best of many volumes which have been called into being to minister to this interest. The first part is devoted to feathered creation in general—describ- ing the bird’s anatomy, colors, and change of color, migrations, songs, and nesting seasons. Popular descriptions of common species follow, and are illus- trated with colored plates. Without depreciating the text in the least, the colored illustrations are the most valu- able feature of the work. Well drawn and well reproduced, they alone aid the amateur more in identifying species than any amount of description could do. It would be better if the colored figures were placed in juxtaposition with the related text, instead of being widely separated from it. The book closes with an appendix for the use of teachers. LITERATURE oo Practical Forestry — For Beginners in Forestry, Agricultural Students, Woodland Owners, and others de- siring a general knowledge of the nature of the art. By John Gifford. 8vo, pp. xiv + 284, with 35 illustra- tions. New York: D. Appleton & Commnoo2! Part I opens with a collection of ex- cellent definitions, and the succeeding chapters treat in turn of the relation of silviculture to the broad subject of agriculture, the forest canopy and floor and the wood mass, the geographic dis- tribution of forests and their geographic effects. Part II is devoted to the forma- tion and tending of forests, Part III to their industrial importance, the wood industries, etc., while the concluding part, after listing the forest reserves, describes the principal forest trees. Among the numerous books on For- estry recently published, this will de- servedly stand high. Where there is so much to praise, it seems almost cap- tious to criticise. Certain of the meth- ods of restoring forests here described— z. €., to restore forests by replanting trees—is a method that will not be fol- lowed in this country on any considera- ble scale for centuries, however appli- cable it may be to the countries of Europe. The author confuses the plains and the prairies, and is still among the agnostics concerning the in- fluence of forests on rainfall. H. G. A Ride in Morocco Among Believers and Traders. By Frances Macnab. 8vo, pp. 367, with ro illustrations and r map. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. 1902. This is a narrative of a journey down the coast of Morocco to Mazaglan, and thence south to the city of Morocco (Marakesh), returning to the coast at Mogador. Miss Macnab is an experi- enced traveler and observer, and her journal and the accompanying observa- tions on the country and people are 384 graphic and of great interest. The utter rottenness of the government and the degradation of the people under its oppression are scarcely conceivable. It is a picture of the retrogression, for these are the Moors whose ancestors made the civilization of Spain. Altitudes tn the Dominion of Canada, with a relief map of North America. By James White, geographer, De- partment of the Interior. Ottawa, 1gOl. This is the first comprehensive collec- tion of elevations in Canada to be pub- lished, those of Messrs J. W. Spencer SIC DAE THe NationaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE and Warren Upham, published by the U. S. Geological Survey, relating to portions only of the Dominion. The publication comprises abstracts of the profiles of the railways and canals, pro- files of rivers, and many miscellaneous heights, including levels of the Great Lakes, arranged geographically. As to fullness and accuracy, the work leaves little to be desired. The arrangement, however, is not a convenient one, and should have been at least supplemented by a full index of names of places. The relief map, printed in tints, is a very valuable addition to our knowledge of the northern part of our continent. MULES) PUBLISHED BY THE INVA INIOUIN AUG (Gla OEIRAvelsulC SOMME OW Map of the Philippines (5 feet 2 inches x 3 feet). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of South Africa (46 x 33 inches). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of Northeastern China (36x 28 inches). Prepared under the direction of the War Department. Map of the Chinese Empire, Japan, and the Russian-Manchurian Rail- way (Ji x7% inches). Map of Alaska (28 x 24 inches). Prepared under the direction of the U. 5. Geological Survey. A Series of Twelve Maps on the Alaskan Boundary Dispute. Prepared under the direction of Hon. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State. Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projection (48x 27 inches). Prepared under the direction of the Hydrographic Office. Map of Cuba (18x7% inches). Prepared under the direction of Robert T. Hill. A Series of Twenty-five Full-page Charts, showing storm tracks and methods of weather forecasting. Prepared under the direction of Dr. Willis L. Moore, Chief U. S. Weather Bureau. BY MAIL FOR TWENTY-FIVE CENTS EACH WASHINGTON, D. C. ! The Popular Science Mon Entered in the Post Office in Lancaster, Pa., CONTENTS OF MAY NUMBER The Electronic Theory of Electricity. Prorressor J. A. FLEMING. Sulfuric Acid and its Manufacture by the Contact process Dr. R. KNerrscn. eal Basis of Heredity. Proryssor Cart NMANN. Children’s Vocabularies. M. C. and H. Gate. Meseal: A Study of a Divine Plant. But Haverock Infectious Diseases. Dr. ALFRED SPRINGER. The Relation of Electrically charged Molecules to Physiological Processes. Proressor Jacques Logs. An Afternoon at Chelles and the Earliest Eyi- dence of Human Industry in France. Pro- Fessor A. S. Packarn. The Progress of Science: The Will of Cecil Rhodes; The American University; The Americ an Philosophical Society and the American Philosophical Asso- ciation ; Societies for the Scientific Study of Education; Biographies of Hminent Chemists; The Conditions of Chemical Action; The Periodicity of Solar Phenomena; The Com- parative Growth of Bacteria in Milk; tific Items. Scien- as second-class matter CONTENTS OF JUNE NUMBER Lord Kelvin. Irontispiece. On the Definition of Some Modern Sciences: Introduction. Proressor W. H. Datu. Statistics. Hon. Carroti D. Wricut. Political Economy. Rotanp P. FALKNer. PROFESSOR Psychology. Proressor E. A. Pace. Sociology. Lersrer F. Warp. The Commercial Value of Human Life. O. Leicutron. Instinct. Dovuetas A. Spanpina. Edueational Value of Photomicrography. Curtis Scorr. Sugar and the Sugar Beet. Peter Guthrie Tait. C. K. Concerning the American University. J. McKeen Carvery. Scientific Literature : Botany. The Progress of Science: MarsuHaLi ARTHUR Dr. JoHN WADDELL. EpmunDs. PROFESSOR Lord Kelvin in America; The National Acad- emy of Se zie ices; The Metric stem in the United The Causes of Voleanic Eruptions ; Some Facts and Figures concern- ing the Earth; Biographies of Eminent Chemists; ‘Che Origin of the Human Species ; Scientific Items. eS" The MONTHLY will be sent to new subscribers for six months for One Dollar SUBSCRIPTION HO, WIE SCWEMOSS, IMIISS, ORDER Publishers of THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY, Sub-Station 84, New York City. Please find enclosed check or money order for three dollars, to THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY for one year, June, 1902. subscription beginning Please find enclosed from a new subscriber one dollar (sent at your risk), subscription for six months t0 THE POPULAR SCIENCE beginning June, 1902. Single Numbers, 30 Cents. MONTHLY, Yearly Subscription, $3.00 THE SCIENCE PRESS GARRISON-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. 41 NORTH QUEEN ST., LANCASTER, PA. SUB-STATION 84: NEW YORK. J} { BA EE ES ESS HE ZZ >_> oS a Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. 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BY W J McGEE, VICE-PRESIDENT NATIONAL MAP HIC SOCIETY Fcc ey oe RPA TON ggg ww = PROBLEMS OF THE PACIFIC-NEW ZEALAND. BY HENRY DEMAREST LLOYD . . i # SUMMER MEETING OF THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIA- 8 TION . : ; < = 5 ° : : . » ‘ ° , w GEOGRAPHIC NOTES... ve ’ Published for the National Geographic Society By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C,, as Second-class Mall Matter. THe NATIONAIL _ | GEOGRAPIEMC | MAGAZINE _ ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published for ‘the | AE NationaL GroGRAPHIC Society, of Washing- ton, D. C.,, by McCuure, Puitires & Co. All communications should be addressed to the — Managing Editor of the Nationat Grocraruic — Magazine, Corcoran Building, Washington, D.C. Business communications may also be addressed to McClure, Phillips & see at Bo os 2 be ne ae New York City, ~ oe 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2, 50 A ‘YEAR “Editor-in-Chief: HENRY GANNETT ae Chief Geographer, De Se: aan Survey Managing Editor : "GILBERT Hw GROSVENOR | “Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal ast U.S. Due Eee W J McGEE Ethnologist in Charge, Buren ee A merican Ethnology Cc. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. is Res te Department of riegecay : DAVID J. HILL ; Assistant Secretary of State ELIZA RUBHAMAH SCIDMORE : : Author of ‘Java, the Garden of the a East,” eto. MARCUS BAEER U.S. Geological Survey WASHINGTON, D. ae a ie — 0. H. TITTMANN 0. P. AUSTIN: As DAVID 7. DAY “1A M. “TARBELL ‘CARL LOUISE GARRISON — WILLIS L. ‘MOORE ae es : toe eet wed of the Weather Hetess U. Ses Department. of ASTRA: Aes ae 3 poten f the U. S) Coast and Geodetic ne iS S aia Chief of the. oe oe / Slatistics, a ne Treasury Depart ment NY Chief of ithe Disisidh ‘of Aimee a Resources, U.S. COE Author of “Life of No Yeon,” ~ “Life of Lincoln,” ele, pe : Principal o ie Pe ‘School, Wash os 5 sels tr; Vor. XIII; No. 9 a PROBLEMS OCEAN WASHINGTON GEOGRAPIEIC MAGAZINE SEPTEMBER > ar 1902 OL eth ot NCE Tad) Eiki G Rn Aa UN WORD: GROW ANA Biv Wisse WicGrEr. ED: VICE-PRESIDENT NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY cific basin, If all the conti- nents and islands forming the face of the earth were joined in one great conti- nent, its extent would scarce equal that of the great ocean ; and if the mass of HE greatest by far among great. geographic features is the Pa- all the lands of the globe above sea-level were poured into the Pacific, barely more than an eighth of the basin would be filled. Three fourths of our world- surface is water; afull third of this vast expanse, or a quarter of the superficies of the planet, is that of the great ocean, while its abysses are of such depth that a full half of the water of the earth is gathered into its basin. In every view the Pacific is vast, so vast as to tax if not to outpass our powers of contempla- tion. Nor is it only in the magnitude of the basin that the Pacific isvast; its areais *A lecture before the National Geographic Society, April 9, 1902. indeed unequaled and its abysses un- paralleled in profundity and extent, yet the great world-scar becomes far more striking when regarded asa record of processes in’ planetary growth, and still more when viewed as a theater of that vital activity culminating in the growth of races and peoples and the develop- ment of high humanity. The basin is bounded on the east by a wrinkle in the terrestrial face which on closer view re- solves itself into the longest and second highest mountain system of the world, whose rocks must hold our best record of earlier world-making ; its other side, half a world-cireuit away, is skirted by our greatest continent and several sub- continents, which must give the globe’s best record of the later stages in world- building ; while half its expanse is stud- ded with islands which must tell elo- quently of world-making whenever their The summary and final lecture of the Afternoon Course of the season 1901-1902 on the general subject, ‘‘ Problems of the Pacific.’’ The course comprised also ‘‘Japan,’’ by Prof. Ernest F. Fenollosa, March 12; “Australia and New Zealand,’ by Henry Demarest Lloyd, March 19 (published in this num- ber) ; “The Lesser Islands,” by Dr. C. H. Townsend, March 25; and ‘‘ The Commerce of the Great Ocean,’’ by Hon. O. P. Austin, April 2 (published in this volume, pp. 303-318). 3 B4r mute testimony comes ‘to full interpre- tation. Lesser chapters of world- growth may be read from the shorter records of smaller provinces; longer chapters are read from the fuller records of larger provinces, such as those of our own well-studied continent ; but it can- not be doubted that the fullest record of all will be found in the foremost of geo- graphic features, to form the body of the book of world-history. If, as biology and paleontology seem to teach, the earliest living things on the globe were aquatic if not marine, it would seem probable that the life of the world began somewhere about the present Pacific, and spread thence over the growing continents eastward and westward, as well as northward and southward until the eternal barriers of arctic and antarc- tic ice were built out from the poles of the cooling planet. Hazy as the vital vista may be in its remoter stages, there is nothing questionable about the lead- ing role of the Pacific as a factor in the later life of the globe; the horse, as shown by Marsh, and the dog, as held by Osborn, are among the animals that came up on the eastern purlieus of the Pacific, to be somehow translated to the western border-land during later geo- logic times ; the paths of several migra- tory birds still cross the narrow north- erly portion of the Pacific in such wise as to bind hemispheres into a single faunal province and prove that the avian instinct outlasts continental outlines ; while Cook contends that the palm, and perhaps the banana and other plants, must have been carried across the Pacific from east to west by human agency after prehistoric man reached the plane of primitive husbandry. Still less is there question as to primacy of the role played by the Pacific in human develop- ment. Counting in the basin the lands draining toward its depths, the Pacific province is the home of half the popula- tion of the earth; the abiding-place— if not the birthplace—of the black, yel- Tar Nationa GrocrApHic Macazine low, brown, and red races of mankind, and now the realm of the white; the seat of societies ranging from the lowly clanship of the prime to the most re- splendent empires of history; the field of cultures rising from bestial savagery to the world’s highest enlightenment. | Such are some of the aspects of the earth’s greatest feature, of that bound- less theater of life and human activity on which the eyes of the world are turned today. THE GENESIS OF THE OCEAN Foremost among the greater problems of the Pacific is that connected with the origin of the basin in which the great ocean is cradled; and this problem can hardly be approached save along the lines of world-growth suggested by the relation of our sun and other stars, our earth with the rest of the planets, and our moon with the other satellites of the solar family—for the problem of the Pacific basin is large enough to be viewed as a cosmic problem. Since the days of Laplace, author of the nebular hypothe- sis, the attention of astronomers has been attracted by the great world- chasm, and several students have con- ceived it as the scar left by the off-cast- ing of the moon during an early stage in the condensation of the earth from a primordial chaos of matter. The latest noteworthy discussion of these views of the Pacific is that of G. H. Darwin, son of the naturalist, and our leading author- ity on tides. ‘*‘According to his lumi- nous theory the tidal action of the sun on the viscous earth formed two protu- berances at opposite points of the equa- tor; one of the protuberances broke away and solidified as the moon, which revolved around the earth much nearer than at present.’’ So Gregory summa- rizes the conclusions of the eminent mathematician (Smithsonian Report, 1898, p. 366). Another view of the great basin connects it with the general PROBLEMS OF warpings and the flexures or fractures of the earth-crust marked by other large geographic features, all supposed to grow out of a tendency of the terrestrial ball to approach the form of a tetra- hedron with the slow shrinkage due to secular cooling. This theory of a ‘‘ tet- rahedral earth’’ is far too elaborate and many-sided for summary in a sentence; it must suffice to note that it was framed by Lowthian Green during a long resi- dence on one of the islands in the great ocean and under the inspiration of its grandeur, that such geologists as Gregory in England, and Emerson and Hitchcock in this country, have viewed it with favor, and that our fellow-citi- zen, Preston (of the Coast and Geodetic Survey), thinks ‘‘ Nothing is more in accordance with the action of physical laws than that the earth is contracting in approximately a tetrahedral form’’ {zbid., p. 377). It is just to say that certain other geologists and physicists are less attracted by the enticing view outlined by Lowthian Green; they hold that the hypothesis requires greater rigidity in the earth-crust than that at- tested by various well-known facts of geology. So, too, the view that the Pacific basin is a moon-scar is rejected by some thinkers; for example, our asso- ciate, Gilbert, would have it that our lu- minary of the night was probably formed more largely by accretion of cosmic matter than by robbing our planet of so much of her substance. Yet, whether the views—either or both—be accepted or rejected, they are well worth weigh- ing; they are products of great minds, and must stimulate our powers of con- templation and emphasize the magni- tude of our greatest geographic feature. If a trace of personal conviction may be infused in the discussion of so broad a field, it may be questioned, first, whether either the astronomical or the physical hypothesis is necessary, in view of the great fact that the Pacific basin is pre- cisely like the other oceanic basins in THE PAcIFIC 305 kind, differing only in degree of mag- nitude ; and, second, whether the legion islands of the sea stretching from Hawail and Easter Island to the borders of the Asian and Australian continents do not prove that this greater part, at least, of the vast basin is but a drownéd land whose higher peaks and volcanic vents still rise above sea as monuments to its former greatness. Certainly there are many points of similarity between our own Antillean and Bahamian outliers and the seemingly boundless archipelago stretching a third of the way round the globe from Asia and Australia ; certainly, too, the unavoidable infer- ence that our lesser archipelago is a series of culminating points of an an- cient land gives warrant for a parallel inference with respect to the insular peaks projecting above the waters of the Pacific ; and certainly, again, the geol- ogist’s necessity for a Paleozoic Atlantis as a source of the five-mile-thick for- mations of the Appalachian zone must be shared by those delvers in the rocks seeking the source of the vaster sedi- ments lying between the Himalayan crests and the littorals of the Pacific. It is not to be forgotten that whether the low mountain be old or young, the high mountain is always a young moun- tain ; nor is it to be forgotten that the volcano and the earthquake are symp- toms of general geologic activity with attendant geographic changes. So the bleak heights of Thibet and the steep footslopes below, which feed the mighty Hoangho and the Yangtse so fully that they in turn color the Yellow Sea with their silts ; so, too, the recurrent earth- quakes of Japan and neighboring islands; so also the island volcanoes, led by Krakatoa, whose last outbreak shook half the earth and blew dust-clouds to the remotest lands—all these and many other stupendous phenomena are among the indications that the internal forces and agencies of earth-making culminate somewhere about the great archipelago 336 of the farther Pacific. And the magni- tude of the internal force attested by these outward manifestations is ample to account for even so great changes in the earth-crust as those involved in likening the broad Oceanian archipelago with our own Bahamas. Other reasons for view- ing Oceania as a mountain-set land drowned by subsidence during a later geologic age might be drawn from the laws of continental growth ; but these may be passed over. Accordingly, the problem of the gen- esis of the Pacific must be left open pending research in many lands and along many lines ; yet for the present it would seem safer to regard this great- est of geographic features as the product of proper earth-movements and conse- quent geographic changes rather than a direct heritage of cosmic interaction— the birth of the basin may better be viewed as of the earth earthy than of the stars starry and remote. THE PACIFIC AS A VITAL PROVINCE During most of the time since earth began the great ocean was, like other provinces, mindless, scriptless desert ; and it remains in exceptional degree bar- ren because of the poverty of its paleonto- logic record—for the fossil record is one of fecund shorelands and fruitful inlands rather than watery wastes. So present knowledge must rest on the probability that, despite the changes of the ages, despite the shifting of seas and the lift- ings of lands, some part of the world’s greatest and deepest ocean was also the world’s earliest ocean, with the conse- quent probability that aquatic life began within or about its bounds. The course of development of living things from the lowly forms of the prime to the motile organisms of the deeps, on to the plants pushing out over pristine lands, then to creeping and flying things, and thence up to the era of brute strength, and finally to that of cunning and slowly Tue Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE brightening mentality, was far too long and devious to be traced without the constant help of fossil records; yet it is worth while to note that the rich flora of Pacific shores and the abundant fauna of Pacific depths seem in themselves to tell of long-continued and largely inde- pendent vital development. True, the field is so vast that the naturalists of the world have been able to touch it but here and there; even such vigorous work as that directed by Agassiz and described all too briefly by a speaker in this course (Dr Townsend) does little more than reveal the wealth of the proy- ince, so that what may be called, by ex- tension of a current term, the vital sta- tistics of the Pacific remains a sealéd book. Itisindeed known that the ma- rine fauna of the Pacific is notable for the high proportion of distinct forms, the large number of unique genera and species of fishes, as well as of other or- ders of sea-born life. It is known, too, that the great ocean forms a congeries of faunal districts vaguely limited by latitude and more sharply defined by varying depth with the attendant changes in pressure, light, and heat from sun-kissed surface to freezing and darkling deeps where organisms’ must either produce their own light by ob- scure organic processes or live in eternal gloom; yet it would be rash even to at- tempt listing the species of any of these districts, much less those of the entire basin, save as a record of advancing knowledge and a guide for further re- search. Stretching as it does half way round the globe near the equator and thence to both polar ice-fields, ranging as it does from sunny shallows to frigid depths, and holding as it does half the water of the globe, the Pacific is a reser- voir of marine vitality of capacity pass- ing our standards of measure; thescat- tered facts gathered by naturalists are at once suggestive and promising—sug- gestive of long, long development in the unwritten past as well as of present PROBLEMS OF Tichness, promising of future wealth when men learn to convert the seas into pastures and preserves for living things useful to their kind. Herein lies one of the greatest and most enticing of the problems of the Pacific: How are the watery wastes and the abounding vitality of the great ocean to be reconstructed and rendered avail- able for human benefit? ‘When an in- ternational tribunal discussed the seal question a few years ago, two of our as- sociates—General John W. Foster and Mr J. Stanley - Brown—were almost alone in grasping the idea that open ocean will some day be brought under human subjection as feeding grounds for useful organisms, just as are the narrower fields and pastures on land; yet the concept is growing, and the problem of ways and means is destined to become a burning one in the early future. THE PREHISTORIC PACIFIC It is a convenient custom to apply the term ‘‘ prehistoric’’ to that earlier part of the human era—the Psychozoic age of Le Conte—stretching from the advent of man, either in particular provinces or on the entire globe, up to the stage at which writing arose and records began. This was the prescriptorial stage of human development, and the period, with its remains and relics of early humanity, forms the major part of the domain of archeology. Now, the arche- ology of the Pacific is a nearly untrod- den field, and teems with problems of most attractive character. Thus the home of what would appear to be the earliest known human prototype has been found in modern Java, on the bor- ders of the great ocean, in Tertiary deposits attesting profound geographic changes since the scattered bones were entombed. ‘Thus, again, the uttermost island of the Oceanian archipelago, Te Pito Te Henua, or Easter Island, eis, IPACIaKC $87 abounds in most impressive monolithic sculptures of a size so gigantic as to re- call the Titanic relics of Yucatan and Peru, Egypt, and India, yet whose ori- gin and age are wholly lost in the ob- security of the unrecorded past; and, similarly, various other Pacific islands contain relics or ruins attesting a former population of which no known tradition survives among the living inhabitants. No doubt the greater part of these relics await discovery, while the story of all remains to be wrought out as our knowl- edge of the islands and shorelands ad- vances. So well informed a student as Archibald Colquhoun suggests that Easter Island must have been originally peopled from South America, and it is simple and easy to so extend the sug- gestion as to explain similarly the peo- pling of the more westerly islands by a stock of navigators skilled in rock carv- ing. ‘True, the distances are so great and other difficulties so numerous as to render the suggestion of little weight in the absence of direct archeologic evi- dence; yet it is worth remembering that the supposition is in line with the sug- gestion of Professor Cook that the palm and other tropical plants were car- ried westward by human agency after their character was shaped by cultiva- tion on the American hemisphere. It was an early view that America was peopled from Asia by way of Bering Strait. This may be so; yet it is im- portant to recall that the only absolutely known crossing of Bering Strait by a primitive folk was that of the Eskimo working their way westward from America to Siberia; and during the last decade the scientific collaborators of the Jesup expeditions about the northern shores of the Pacific have found clear indications that the mythologies of such aboriginal Asian peoples as the Tchuk- chi originated in America and found their way across the northern seas dur- ing prehistoric times. Both relics and traditions indicate that Chinese and 338 Japanese junks have been swept to American shores by wrecking storms, and it is easy to imagine the peopling of America by such accidents, or by de- signed voyages through the same waters in the darkness of the prehistoric; yet on the whole the indications are clearer that Asia was peopled in some part from America than that America was peopled in any part from the great continent beyond the Pacific. If personal opinion based on original research may again be ventured; the probabilities may be summarized in this way: First, that the Old World and the New were separately peopled by autoch- thones—by veritable children of the soil, growing up independently from un- known ancestry in families and clans and tribes which have merged and blent and integrated into ever larger groups dur- ing the ages ; second, that the chief re- semblances in arts, customs, faiths, and even in languages, are the product of similarities in environment, and hence in conditions and modes of life; third, that there were occasional interchanges both eastward and westward, though these were not of such extent as mate- rially to affect the course of racial and cultural development ; and fourth, that the extensive peopling of the Oceanian archipelago may be connected with the geographic indications of relatively re- cent subsidence of a mountain-set land whose island crests were places of refuge for tribes and peoples displaced by grad- ual inundation of one-time lowlands now wholly submerged. Anent the last of these probabilities, it is to be observed that many 6f the Oceanians are masters of a peculiar craft or sense employed in navigating their proas and out-riggered canoes; they regularly traverse scores or hundreds of miles of open ocean be- yond sight of land, without compass or sextant, by following traditional lines in the water invisible to the better eyes of Caucasians, seemingly under the guidance of an instinct analogous to our Tue NatTionaAL GrocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE own feebler instinct of orientation, or sense of direction. The apparent homol- ogy between this sense of the Ocean- ian navigators and the instinct of the migratory birds which still traverse the northern Pacific (just as the European quail spans the Mediterranean in spring and fall migrations) is strikingly close ; and much as the naturalist sees in the persistence of migration routes an in- stinct outlasting geographic boundaries, so the anthropologist must contemplate the possibility, if not the probability, that the invisible sailing lines impressed on the brains of Samoan and other island- ers must date back to earlier geographic conditions when the stretches of open sea were shorter than now. All these suggestions as to the pre- historic Pacific are of use chiefly in pointing to the problems of the great world-basin. The archeology of the isl- ands and shorelands is no better devel- oped than the biology of the littorals and deeps; and in either case only enough is known to sharpen the mental appetite for more and better knowledge. THE PACIFIC IN HISTORY Passing over the hazy legends of geo- graphic adventure (connected chiefly withIndian Ocean though approaching the Pacific) from the fable-tinged search for the Golden Fleece by Jason and the echo of the discovery of Australia by Norsemen up to the veritable but ill- recorded journeyings of Marco Polo, the history of progressive discoveries in the Pacific comes up as an alluring tale, abounding in adventure, bristling with exciting episodes, and big with lessons for modern men and up-to-date enter- prises. Seen first by Caucasian eyes when Balboa sighted its silvery expanse in 1513, the conquest of the great ocean began when, in 1520, Magelhaes—better known as Magellan—entered the basin through the stormy South American strait still bearing his name; and the PROBLEMS OF progress of this plucky sailor’s party westward by way of the Ladrones to the Philippines, and thence on and ever westward until the globe was girdled for the first time by human enterprise, was not merely a signal fact but a preg- nant prevision—a truly prophetic por- tent whereof the vision and interpreta- tion were caught with marvelous insight by the philosopher-poet Berkeley : Westward the course of empire takes its way ; The four first Acts already past, A fifth shall close the Drama with the day: Time's noblest offspring is the last. A pity that the poetic measure and current meaning of pre-Revolutionary days should have met in ‘‘empire,’’ the end of the fourth ‘‘Act’’ (or stage in human progress) and but the painted scene for the fifth! But, after all, the essence of the fifth Act zs empire, albeit of freedom and humanity rather than the mingled tyranny and trumpery *“such as Europe breeds in her decay.”’ Magellan’s fate, like that of many other explorers, was tragic; the killing of Captain Cook on Hawaii, and the mutiny against Captain Bligh on the sood ship Bounty at Pitcairn , Island were typical—they served to stimulate curiosity and cupidity, and guided the ever-springing ambition of vigorous men to go, to see, and to conquer. During the last century Caucasian discovery proceeded apace along far too many lines to be followed in an hour ; but one of the lines was of such signifi- cance as to demand a moment’s thought. While still in the flush of national growth following the annexation of Texas, the acquisition of California, and the Gadsden Purchase, American seamen sailed distant seas and looked on new-seen isles as treasures trove; and the American Congress in 1856 en- acted a law authorizing American citi- zens to claim, acquire, and possess islands discovered in the broad Pacific. Several were so acquired; some were taken formally and officially by the Navy of PHB ly ACIEIC 339 the United States. Notable among these were two of the ‘‘ Line Islands ”’ lying under the equator in mid-ocean ; in 1858 Commander C. -H. Davis, U.S. N., took formal possession, in the name of the United States, of Jervis Isl- and, in longitude 159° 58’, and New Nantucket (or Baker Island), in longi- tude 176° 32’ (z. e., within little over 200 miles of the anti-prime meridian dividing the western hemisphere from the eastern), and formally reported the annexation to the executive and legisla- tive branches of the government amid acclaim eclipsed only by that evoked by his own record in the stirring days to follow.* During that decade as in de- cades before, Spain was relaxing dili- gence in the Pacific, Russia was cling- ing closely to northern shores, Portugal had passed her prime, Germany was full of the affairs of the Fatherland, the sun of Japan was not yet risen, and there was none but Britain to oppose the bridging of the Pacific by American enterprise. The day of Oceania seemed to dawn; the legion islands seemed step- ping-stones for the youthful giant among nations, stepping-stones stretch- ing to far Cathay and farther Ind. Such was America’s promising place in the Pacific toward the end of the fifth decade; but even before the opening of the sixth the ardent growth-flush paled before the threat of domestic dissension, the energy of civilian and navalian voyagers was concentrated at home, and the nation withdrew for a season from the Oceanian field. Thus fell an un- reckoned tax of the Civil War—a tax beyond easy summing, and one never to be paid in full. The paralysis of American enterprise in the Pacific was complete ; gains ceased, losses began ; the Stars and Stripes floated figuratively * An account of Commander Davis’ peaceful conquest with a description of the islands has just been published by James D. Hague in the Century Mag azine, vol. \xiy, September, 1892, p. 653 et seq. 340 over Jervis and New Nantucket until 1889, when H. M. S. Cormorant sailed by, gorged the former at a gulp, and thrust a clinging claw through the strong Yankee aroma of the name half shielding the latter; other footholds were forgotten, and the American flag inclined homeward—until Alaskan op- portunities and Hawaiian appeals re- kindled the earlier flush of normal growth, and the Star-spangled Banner was again unfurled to the outer world. During the lost decades Russia reached out to Pacific ports, Germany grasped some oceanic gems, Japan jumped into the foreground of the national stage, while our insatiate cousinly—cozenly?— neighbor pursued the tiresome tactics of the Forty-ninth parallel, the Maine line, the seal islands, the Alaskan boundary, and all the rest—in the words of the down-south camp - meeting, “Jes’ inchin’ along, inchin’ along, inchin’ along to’a’ds Glory.’’ Sobegan, and so ended, the first era of American expansion in the province of the Pa- cific. Meantime other, albeit feebler, forces were at work ; other, albeit softer, races than the Caucasian were pursuing the paths of human destiny, paths leading ever from lower planes to higher—for of such is the course of human progress. The black men of the Austral subcon- tinent and of the insular bridge lead- ing thence from man’s primordial cradle on Asian and African coasts retreated before exuberant Nature, shrank from the touch of higher intelligence, fled the beast-gods of their own mystic creation ; for as glimpsed by Kipling, This is the story of Evarra—man— Maker of Gods in lands beyond the sea. The brown men of the islands and shore- lands pressed forward in physical de- velopment until the Samoan excelled the Greek in bodily vigor and statuesque Tue Natrionat GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE beauty; but since the end of the brown man’s ambition was ease and comfort, with but occasional spurts of strenuous exercise, the world was not rewrought at his hands. The yellow man of the shorelands studied in a severer school and learned to spare no toil or effort, so that he rewrought his own fraction of the world in his own patient way, and raised his Flowery Kingdom to the high- est rank of empire, only to stop at his own walls of exclusion. Meantime and after, a strain of brown and yellow blent, and, invigorated in the mixing after a curious law of human develop- ment, found lodgment on an island prov- ince; and there the generations were pent and trained in Nature-conquest until they developed a vigor and prepo- tency of blood and brain which, in the fullness of time, enabled them to take rank among the world-makers—for in this class the Japanese must ever stand. The. story of China through her un- counted cycles of steady growth, through her slow but certain rise from barbaric faiths to a practical cult of the Golden Rule, through the tedious stages of germinant letters and arts. was well summarized in our course of lectures on Asia a year ago; the more acute ac- tivity and swifter progress of Japan, with the peculiar senses of humanity and artistic perfection so well developed among her folk, were clearly protrayed in the initial lecture of this course by Professor Fenollosa; while other facts and features of oriental progress are too many for easy telling. The brown and the yellow and the mixed strain were still on their upward course when the white stock pushed across the great ocean; the contacts and interactions soon brought up a series of problems for solution by the hard pro- cesses of living experience; yet the greatest of these problems, the greatest, indeed, in all human history, remain un- solved today—and their name is Legion. PROBLEMS OF THE PaciIFIC THE PROMISE OF THE PACIFIC When the area involved is half the earth; when the continents are four out of five, and the races all of our five; when the countries area score, the great islands a hundred, and the islets a myr- iad ; when the population is uncounted hundreds of millions, and when the in- terests cover all those known to human ken, the problems of progress become too complex for full statement, to say nothing of definite solution. Yet when it is realized that the essential problems of progress ave problems, the way is opened for statement, if not for solution, of the leading questions; for, thanks to the modern science which has been called the New Ethnology, the general trend of human progress is no longer obscure. It cannot be too firmly held and too often stated that human development may be defined by stages, each reflecting the endless series of interactions between the human organism and the environment, and each measuring a long step in mental growth. The stages may be defined in - many ways; they are most conveniently expressed in terms of social organiza- tion. So defined, the first great stage (passing over the shadowy one of the prototype) is that in which customs with all the power of law are based on blood kinship traced in the maternal line, and in which the men are warriors; the next is that in which custom and formal law are based on consanguinity traced in the paternal line, and in which men become patriarchs; the succeeding stage is that in which elaborate laws, with attendant customs, are based on proprietary and hereditary rights, especially in lands, and in which men. are sovereigns and subjects; the final stage is that in which formal law merges into equity based on the recognition of equal rights to life. liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and in which men are citizens. It is true that these stages intergrade or over- lap in some measure; yet the great fact 341 remains that humanity may be defined in terms of these developmental stages more comprehensively and more usefully than by any other means thus far de- vised—for the stages are measures of humanity itself. For convenience they may be designated as (1) the unob- served, or primordial stage; (2) savag- ery, or the warrior stage; (3) barbarism, or the patriarchal stage; (4) civiliza- tion, or the monarchial stage; and (5) enlightenment, or the stage of citizen- ship. With the great stages of human prog- ress in mind, it becomes clear that a change has come o’er our dreams of con- quest since the days of blood and rapine, which are to be remembered but to be deplored, and that the conquest now to be sought and wrought in the fullness of time and ever-multiplying opportu- nity is not the subjection or enslavement of helpless weaklings of alien blood or darker color, not the forcible capture of ill-defended lands, not the loot of stores and razing of pagan temples, but the moral conquest of lower races and more backward peoples — a conquest con- ducted at every step under principles of high humanity and the law of the great- est good to the greatest number. Inthe light of this ideal, the problems of the Pacific are simplified if not unified. Anglo-Saxon vigor has extended to every part and corner of the great prov- ince; in Japan it is represented rather by ideas and mechanical devices than by blood ; in China it has been represented by the protection of the weak rather than the destruction of the strong; in the Philippines it is represented by the most patient efforts toward peaceful pos- session in the history of the world; in Australia, despite many dark chapters, it has been represented by the conver- sion of the wilderness to blossom as the rose; in New Zealand, as well shown by one of our number (Henry Demarest Lloyd), it has been represented by the world’s most promising social experi- 342 ment. Yet the tale of what we call An- glo-Saxon vigor is but part of the story ; for the history of a century has shown that the vigorous folk of northwestern Europe came to their own in its fullness only after they had journeyed afar and engaged in new struggles for conquest over Nature and for the amelioration of their kind. So it was that America arose to the culminating plane of human progress, to the enlightenment kindled by Washington and his co-workers ; so it was that Australia attained distinctive national character’ as a new chapter in world-history through the effects of labor in new lands, the blending of new lines of blood, and the birth of new gen- erations ; so it was also that the minia- ture continent of New Zealand—Lloyd’s ‘“Newest England’’—reached her unique social condition after strenuous interactions between white men and brown. In the light of the law that blood is not all, but that culture, or THe NationaL GrocRAPHic MAGAZINE moral force, is the final factor in the shapement of progress, the bow of prom- ise may be seen by eye of hope to hover over the islands and the shorelands alike, about the vast expanse of the great ocean; for, in the light of this law, it is the great Nation of Erlighten- ment which must exert the moral force required for the reclamation of the isl- ands of the sea and the lands beyond— Time’s noblest offspring is the last. Most eloquently and effectively did our last speaker—Mr. Austin—show that the Stars and Stripes now gleam through clouds of doubt and smoke of uncertainty in every part of the Pacific province; yet a still brighter feature than that of commercial conquest is that of the moral conquest, the human renovation, to which the best efforts of our citizens are directed. And of such is the promise of the Pacific. PRO BERIMS Ohm Ek se N@itliCraNi EVE NSIS ID) By Henry Demaresr Lioyp, AUTHOR OF ‘‘ NEWEST ENGLAND,’’ ETC.. HERE is a country on the other side of the world which is known to its admirers as the experiment state of modern democracy. It has made itself more talked about politically than any other country of recent times. Though asmall country, it is a very large laboratory of social science. Its admirers describe it as the political advance-country of the world, so confident are they that in its evolu- tion it is only the leader in the path in which we must all follow with our de- mocracy; they look upon it as a sort of contemporaneous posterity, as if it were a present mirror in which the twentieth- century democrat may look his grand- children in the face. This country, which lies under our feet, is New Zealand, our antipodes— antipodes in more senses than one. I went there two years ago in order to see for myself what might be found out about the achievements of this country which had been so much praised as it was seen by the eyes of its admirers ; to * An address before the National Geographic Society, March 19, 1902. PRoBLEMS OF THE PaciFIc study for myself upon the ground what might be the truth in what they say. That I did not find any perfect people, any realized Utopia, any cooperative commonwealth is true; but I did find there that people of our kind confronted with our problems have found a solution so adventurous and so successful that it is of surpassing interest to us all, as much so to those who do not agree with the methods employed there as to those who do; and if it be true, as believed by its admirers, that the democracy of the future is rising in this new land of human rights in the Pacific, then those results are of especial interest to us, be- cause they mark the path along which our own future is to go. New Zealand is like Japan, a country to the south of the Orient what Japan is tothe north. It is like Japan in the beauty of its climate ; in the beauty of its scenery, which wins the hearts of all comers. It is liké Japan, very windy, except that in the New Zealand Parlia- ment they have atime limit on speeches, which is very rigorously enforced. scenery of New Zealand is an epitome of the best scenery of the world. There are Alps as glorious as those of Switzer- land ; lakes as beautiful as those of Eng- land ; mountains among the highest and grandest in the world, as grand as those of Norway, and rivers rivaling those of the Orinoco and the Amazon. There are beautiful flowering trees, spreading their canopy of pink and white and purple over the landscape, with the red tree, the king of all. There are some earthquakes and vol- canoes there, and you will learn from the conservatives of New Zealand that the old-age pension laws, labor laws, and some of their other innovations are among the most dangerous of their earth- quakes and volcanoes. A traveler from a country so far away is expected to bring with him at least something of the marvels which are to be found there; but New Zealand, let The - 343 me impress upon you, is not a country of the abnormal, neither in the home nor the nation; neither is it abnormal in its social life. New Zealand isa country of the normal. It is normal in its natural characteristics, in its people, and from my point of view it is normal in its in- stitutions. They have, however, one thing which might possibly bear men- tioning in passing, because it appeals to the curiosity of the traveler, and be- cause, like so many of their natural features, it is an allegorical metamorpho- sis. They have a caterpillar that after death turns into a plant and blossoms and goes to seed, and to all appearances it does so in the plain way that is usual with the cryptogams, to which family it belongs.* But it has been stated that there is a certain parallelism between the metamorphosis which takes place in the case of the New Zealand insect and that which takes place in the human world ; but there is this difference between the change which takes place in the human case and in the case of the New Zealand insect, the human worm in New Zea- land.does not wait till death to blossom. Every country must be either an ex- periment or anefflorescence. Japan has flowered into that exquisite art which has done more to influence the esthetic development of mankind than anything since Greece gave the Milo to art, and New Zealand has flowered into democ- racy. ‘There waited the last piece of vir- gin soil on earth where Britain’s race could expand its governing genius, its in- stitution-making genius—for our genius to govern ourselves, I hope, is an institu- tion-making genius. ‘here waited the last piece of virgin soil on earth where the race could expend its governing genius and free from the slavery of monarchical vested rights, and, what is * The insect is the ‘‘ white grub,”’ or larva of the May-beetle (Lachnosterna fusca) ; the fun- goid plant which springs from its head is the ‘white grub fungus”’ ( Zorrubia rarenelit).— WJM. 344 worse, vested rates—free from the un- fulfilled seductions of power a subject race. Never was there a race with the strength of mind and the strength of body like that which British colonists found in New Zealand waiting for them. Of the strength of mind of the Maori you may judge by a remark made to me by one of them, who said, ‘‘ They came to teach us to pray to God, and as our eyes were uplifted in prayer they stole our land from under our feet.’’ ‘The larger parties of Maori on the warpath found their enemy famished for the want of food, helpless from weakness ; they did not fall upon him and exterminate him as his brothers in all Christian countries woulddo. ‘They proclaimed a truce and sent their enemy a full half of the finest provenderin their larder. "This was not from any motives of magnanimity, but because they, first of all, wanted a good, square, stand-up fight, and wanted to fight well in order that they might rest well. This strength of the Maoriarises from a peculiar situation in the conditions of New Zealand. Although theirs was this exquisite country, perfect in soil and perfect in climate, although it was a beautiful house when the first Maori lived there, it was an unfurnished house. The Maori had to fight so hard for their living that they acquired the vigor that enabled them to struggle with equal ardor and equal strength for their rights. And hence it is that in this splendid new country it is their work which has counted in raising to such height its social and legal rights ; and in these they are thoroughly recognized as factors— you see the Maori policeman walking right by the side of the English police- man, equally respected, equally feared. ‘The Maori shares the same benefits in the land laws and in the other institu- tions of the country. There are two Maori sitting in Parliament, and since I was there a Maori gentleman, a real Tue NationaL GeocrRAPHIC MAGAZINE gentleman, has been called by the gov- ernment into the cabinet and now sits beside the premier, one of the magis- trates to hear and decide upon questions of the country. This perfect land that I have described to you is inhabited today by the most perfect Anglo-Saxon people to be found in the population of the world; English principally, then Scotch, and just that touch of Irish which is needed to give perfection ; and this population consti- tutes today the most homogeneous, the most compact, the most energetic, and the most manageable democracy in the world. And in tracing some of their recent achievements, bear in mind that New Zealand was not settled by exiles, patriots driven from home, nor by mar- tyrs seeking freedom of religion, nor by social enthusiasts seeking to found a new and perfect state. Not at all. New Zealand was settled by middle-class capitalists, almost all of whom were merely seeking to better their condi- tion. The English gentleman left the social question behind him when he went there. He took with him polit- ical questions, probably because he was an Englishman ; and it came to be that by 1890, when only 50 years old, New Zealand, the youngest of the nations, found itself the oldest in economic in- iquity and sin. The people found themselves caught in the strongest grip of the modern so- cial problem. There was the land mo- nopoly, almost worse than that of Ire- land, because it was not only a monopoly of absentees, but the absentees were cor- rupt, and there was notin New Zealand, as there was in Ireland, the alleviation of representation in the Imperial Parlia- ment—an alleviation for the Irish, not for the Imperial Parliament. There was also the money monopoly, which in the country and in the cities was in the hands of a few men who had learned how to combine and keep the screws twisted about the necks of the PROBLEMS OF rest of the people. ‘These two monop- olies had done what monopolies always do—they had gotten control of the gov- ernment ; and the government of New Zealand was a government of monopo- lists, by monopolists, for monopolists, and there followed the result which al- ways will follow on the application of such power and such motives in so wide a field as that of human welfare. The farmers in the country were effectually turned into tramps on the roadside ; they were followed there by the farm laborers and by the country tradesmen, and the cities became centers of conges- tion of the entire population. Then those scourges of our modern civiliza- tion—shelter houses—were established ; soup kitchens followed. Then began an exodus of the best blood of the land, the young men and women from the farms, brought up on farms, wanting farms, knowing how to farm, having money and stock, and taking them to find foot- ing in another land. All this because the monopolists wanted the soil. At this moment occurred what proved~ to be the turning point in the history of New Zealand—a great laborstrike,called the miners’ strike, followed by a strike of the seamen of the companies which controlled the steamship lines running between New Zealand and Australia and the rest of the world. This was fought in extreme bitterness and brought the country to the verge of civil war. But the strike was a failure. Just why this should have broken the heart of New Zealand it is difficult to say, because New Zealand is not a workingman’s country. Like our own country of America, it is particularly an agricultural country. But they had learned the secret of sympathy with others who are oppressed, and could sympathize with the workingmen. Whether it was that they were then ready to move and unite, and wanted some one to give the initiative, and that the workingmen gave this initiative, it THE PaciFic 345 would be hard to say. But whatever the reason was, the people of New Zea- land turned to find a remedy, and they did find it. ‘There was only the one side on the next election day in New Zealand. It stood for the workingmen, with the exception of a very few of the conservative party. It wasarevolution. One of its leaders said it was a substitute for the French revolution. It was a bloodless revolution, but it was a revo- lution. You know that in times of great pub- lic suffering and calamity, in times of panic, there is a natural tendency to turn toward a revival of religion. In this case the people of New Zealand turned to a revival of religion, but in their case it was a revival of democracy, the best kind of religion. Now, to show you I am not using too strong a word when I describe this as a revolution, let me give you as rapidly as Ican a compact review of the things which have been done under the inspira- tion of this revolution. I think I shall be able to make good to you the propo- sition that there is scarce to be found in all history the equal of this move- ment; neither in the number of prob- lems attached, nor in their novelty, nor in the success of the movement has there ever been found anywhere in the world by any democratic people an equal evi- dence of the breadth and political capac- ity of the common people. New Zealand had been a country of landlords, yet the system of tenants was entirely revolutionized, and in its place federal ownership of the public land was substituted. A tax was placed on land and on incomes, and these taxes were naturally made progressive, so that the more land a man had and the greater his income the more taxes he had to pay. By this means the government accom- plished what was their darling purpose, the abolition of the millionaire and the pauper. New Zealand is a lovely coun- try, entirely devoid of the ordinary as- 346 sailants of animal and vegetable life. But the worst of pests came to them— the social kind. When the New Zea- lander talks of social pests he means the plutocrats and the paupers, and in order to remove them he removed the false credit system of government. In the construction of their public works the directors have been abolished to as great extent as possible. The New Zealand public works, the New Zealand railways, bridges, and school-houses are constructed by the government, which makes contracts with its own laborers without the intervention of the director. Then the land system was changed by means still more thoroughgoing than this: the government began to take back the land, in order to break up the land monopoly. It did this in two ways: one was purchase by negotiation ; the second was purchase by condemnation, if owners were not willing to sell. The land itself was then cut up into smaller tracts for the benefit of the farmers; and they especially recognized in their distribution the young men and women whom we saw leaving during the exodus, by giving garden and subur- ban spots to such as wished to live in the country. For such there are special trains to take them to and from their work; they have a road which makes special rates and runs special trains. That is what the government has done for them; but in New Zealand the “‘gov- ernment’’ and ‘‘ the people’’ are inter- changeable terms, and the people in the cities have clothed themselves with power to take by the same methods of condemnation any new tracts of land, which are then subdivided and sold to the inhabitants in small tracts. To describe this system fully at this moment would not be possible, but briefly it may be stated that when the land with all its advantages goes to its new owner it can never again be rolled up into great estates and never again be allowed to he idle. This land must Tue Nationa GrocrRaPHic MaGaZINe always be kept in use and can never again be consolidated into the great tracts held by the land monopolists, who made the revolution. : The railroads are also the property of the people in New Zealand. ‘The first thing the revolution did was to place them in the hands of a minister for rail- ways, with a seat in Parliament, for the express purpose of making the railroads responsive to popular pressure, which has been the result. They have adopted a system of fac- tory laws more minute, more advanced, and more progressive than those found anywhere else in the world. One of them forbids any woman to work ina factory until her new-born child is at least four weeks old. They worked out their great method of dealing with the labor problem of the world, an experiment the success of which has been phenomenal, by means of compulsory arbitration of labor dis- putes. And so today New Zealand isa country without strikes, and for the past six years has been the only coun- try in Christendom which has presented the spectacle of a country without strikes. There cannot be a panic in one coun- try of the world that does not show it- self in the others. The panic of 1893, traveling on its path of destruction, reached Australia on time, and struck it, and struck it hard, on the first of May, 1894. ‘There were then in Australia, in full and flourishing operation, nine hun- dred million dollars of capital. Six weeks later there were only four hun- dred and fifty million ; all the rest had been swept out of existence in six weeks in consequence of the panic. This monster started for New Zea- land, but it never arrived there. The people took possession of the principal bank, took it with the full consent and approval of the owners. ‘The govern- ment said to the.people of New Zealand and to all the world, ‘‘ This bank has PROBLEMS OF THE PaclIFIC behind it the undivided resources of the whole people of New Zealand.’”’ ‘That bank stood, and that bank stands today. All the business houses and manufac- tories and other institutions stood, and of all the places in the world the only one where the panic of 1893 was never able to set its foot was in the home of the New Zealand democracy. The necessary funds to avert this evil were raised by a means so simple that when you hear what it was you will feel as the friends of Columbus did when they learned from him how to make an egg stand on end. The people of New Zealand, acting in their collective capacity as a country, went into the London money market, and there, upon their security as a peo- ple and their government bonds, they borrowed fifteen millions of dollars at the low rate of interest which a nation of good credit can always command. ‘This money thus borrowed so easily and quickly in the London money market by these new-fashioned democrats was brought home and loaned out to them- ~ selves as individuals at the low London rate plus only a small percentage neces- sary to cover the cost of the operation and the risks. ‘The rate of interest was at once cut in two, and this not only for the people who borrowed, but the gov- ernment cut in two the usual rate of in- terest and fixed the rate for the entire country. Now, notwithstanding the losses in- curred—through mistakes of the gov- ernment, through fires and other losses, through mistakes of single borrowers, through fraud of all kinds, in principal and interest—not one cent, either of that borrowed by the government or the peo- ple, not one dollar of principal or inter- est remains unpaid. The government ‘of New Zealand did more than this. Following the lines of least resistance, they saw that the gov- ernment of the people, being for the people, as an economic concern, could be S4e 7) made as well a political concern, and could become, through these powers of cooperation, a factor in their daily lives. They would make it a part of their eco- nomic capital. The people and the gov- ernment of New Zealand stand today as the partners of each other in their indus- tries to an extent unknown elsewhere. They have established what you can perhaps best understand as a sort of family, or Government & Co. Unltd. It investigates the secrets of various kinds of production. It builds railroads so as to stimulate farming industries. It buys a mining patent—a cyanide pat- ent, for instance—and then throws it open to all the people without cost. It provides facilities to the people of sell- ing their produce in the foreign markets. The government will inspect the butter or the cheese or the meat, and if all right will approve it for export. The government has erected large warehouses, with cold storage free. So far has this system been carried in South Australia that the South Australian farmer, desiring to market a flock of sheep, drives them to the nearest rail- road station. He need not follow the sheep any farther. The railroad de- livers the sheep to the harbor, where they are left on the wharf. The gov- ernment then takes these sheep and transports them to the nearest port and there undertakes the business of slaugh- tering, especially accounting to the South Australian farmer for all the products, the hides, the wool, the meat, etc. The products are then shipped by the government to London and con- signed there to the house in London which represents the South Australian farmer, and, to make a long story short, all the farmer has to do is to wait at home until he receives back through the post-office the government check for the proceeds ofthesame. He does not even have to wait as long as that for all his money, because the government will ad- vance to the South Australian farmer a 348 certain proportion of the value as a loan. You will remember how the farmers in Kansas and Nebraska, when the bankers were borrowing money from the government under the subtreasury scheme, proposed that the Government of the United States should loan them something on the value of their crops, as it lends money to the holder of gov- ernment bonds. Do youremember how that was greeted by all the statesmen and the editors? How these unfortu- nates were branded as anarchists or something even worse than that? And yet today precisely that same scheme is in actual and successful operation on the other side of the world among a people of related blood, of related institutions, and of related political affiliations. But while we were doing that the people of New Zealand, as a sort of side issue, gave woman the suffrage. It seemed to them so much a matter of course that a real democracy should not allow any portion of their community, and the best part of it, to be disfran- chised that the bill went through in one night, practically without a single dis- senting vote. This last fall New Zealand, first of Christian nations, out of the proceeds of the general taxes, gave its destitute old men and women the old-age pension. Step with me into the chamber of the minister of railways and get a glimpse of what it means to a people to be the owners of their own highways. All are free to discuss where the lines shall be built, how they shall be operated, what the rate shall be, and so on. Every- thing is a matter of public discussion— in the newspapers, in the commercial bodies, in the homes, it is the privilege of all to discuss these questions, as they know that the roads are not to be used to make a profit from the people, but are to be used to give the people a great necessity of life at the cost of production. So far is this principle carried that as Tue NartrionaL GeocrapHic MacaZzine rapidly as the profits show a tendency to increase, the government cuts down the rate; and this is being done all the time. ‘They are not to be used as a means for fleecing the people. There are different ways of fleecing the people on the railways of the United States. Last year there were killed in all eight thousand, to say nothing of fifty thou- sand wounded. ‘The death roll of the war was not as great as that of the railways. But in New Zealand, under this public administration of the precept of the highest good to the greatest num- ber, there were killed last year of em- ployés and passengers—not one; and yet by their mileage statistics they were entitled to have killed at least two hun- dred and fifty. The traveler will not find the railways equal to the American railways, al- though in some respects superior. There are no air brakes on them, but neither are there any records of their having been needed. There is no continuous cord through the train, but neither are there any private cars. There is no continuous passage through the train, but neither is there any credit mobilier burrowing its way. ‘There are no dining-room cars, neither any merchants’ fast lines nor fast-freight lines. The rates are the same, even if it is the treasurer of the road; such a thing as a special rate is unknown. No one could get a special rate. A merchant shipping ten thou- sand tons could not get a lower rate than one shipping ten tons, no, nor one shipping a million tons. ° > : ° : , : , , : ) PEARY’S WORK IN 1901-1902 © GEOGRAPHIC NOTES . Published for the National Geographic Society . By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Secomd-class Mail Matter, : - NATIONAL | GEOG RAPHUC _MAGAZINEE _ “N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, ‘publiches: for the ee GrocraPHic Society, of Washing a fone Ly cy by McCrure, Puiiurs & Co All communications should be rate Managing Editor of the - - Gec - Macazine, Corcoran Building, W V Business communications ma’ also McClure, Phillips. (8 Co, at rar New York oe a es Guaenae A. w. ‘GREELY us Chief Signal eed a. SS “As Chief of of the W “Department fA owe McGEE_ \Bihnolorisl in F uees B : American Eithwology ¢. ‘HART MERRIAM | Chief of the Biological Sut ; wi cspalelntaysd of ey ht DAVID J. BIL aay : Assistant Seoretary of. State ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE Author of ee the Gare. of hee East,” ete. Fae MARCUS BAKER : OS. ian: Survey Vor. XIII, No. 10 WASHINGTON OCTOBER, 1902 OU NOR PaERIN ROCKIES By R. H. Cuapman, UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY of Montana about the middle of its east and west extent, the moun- tainous area will be to the west and the plains to the east of it. In the mountain- ous region the Government has reserved certain areas for the protection of the forests, and much of the region I shall describe lies within the Lewis and Clarke Timber Reserve. The area of this reserve is about 6,000 square miles and covers both flanks of the Continental Divide, which here sepa- rates the waters of the Columbia and Missouri rivers, and so includes the main Rocky Mountain range. The major portion of it is mountainous, and lies between the Flathead Valley to the west and the great plain of the Mis- souri to the east, which stretches for a hundred miles, a sharp contrast to the ruggedness of the reserve. In these valley areas are towns, ranches, roads, and fences—marks of civilization. In the Reserve rough trails and a few In- dian camp-grounds, marked by a num- ber of ‘‘teepee’’ poles, are about the only culture features, although there are a few cabins. I F a line be drawn dividing the State It is our purpose in entering the re- serve to visit prominent mountain peaks to build cairns or signals of timber on their summits, to make the necessary observations to enable us to locate by tri- angulation these signals, and to compute the latitude and longitude, distance and directions, from other known points. These signals are to be used by the to- pographers in mapping the reserve. It is also necessary to make sketches of the route traveled, the existence and condition of trails and camping places, to make note of burned areas, and to get as much general information as possible of this wild region. I shallask you to imagine yourselves making a journey with me on horse- back, our limited baggage and many weeks’ supplies packed on the backs of mules. ‘To such places as we cannot ride and drive our train, we will take our loads upon our own backs and travel on foot. We will pass through the Flathead Valley, take a course ap- proximately northeast until, passing the many ranges which make up the Rocky Mountain backbone, we emerge upon the plain of the Missouri River. 362 Tue NarionaL GEOGRAPHIC M AGAZINF Flathead Valley. The Flathead Valley is of consider- able area—open, grassy, and rolling, dotted by ponds and lakes, the largest being Flathead Lake, which is about 30 miles long, 5 to 12 miles wide, and about 2,900 feet above the sea. This region is one of the best in the state for raising grains and the hardier fruits ; it requires little or no irrigation, as there is an abundant rainfall. It is largely within the Flathead Indian Res- ervation, through which we pass en route to the mountains beyond. ‘The Indians, gathering from all directions to ° celebrate the holiday of the Fourth of July in dancing and horse-racing, call to us to stay and pitch our tents in the circle and *‘ have some fun;’’ but on we go, the mountains to the west and south—rolling and beautiful—straight up the narrowing canyon toward the Mission Range, which rises to the east, directly in front of us. Here are blos- soms and grass in profusion, stately trees, and grateful shade. The summits of the Mission Range gradually increase in height toward the south and culminate in McDonald Peak, which is about 10,000 feet above the sea. [his peak wears perennial snow, has several glacial remnants, and is dif- Mission Range in background ficult of ascent late in the season after heavy snows. ‘The peak is one of the triangulation stations of the Geological Survey, and I have attempted to climb. it on four occasions, the first and the last being successful. ‘The unsuccessful at- tempts were made in October and No- vember ; the successful ones in July and August. As we ascend we cross many snow banks, and eventually make our camp high in the range at the most available spot, where there is only five feet of snow—a sharp contrast to the valley be- hind us. Our horses and mules are fed a few handfuls of grain—‘‘ to keep them cheerful,’’ as the packer says—and we start for the passand peak (McDonald ) by the easiest route, a wearying one at best. We skirt the cliffs, have superb views on every hand, the problem al- ways in front of us white and forbid- ding. After many hours of steady but not dangerous climbing, we at last stand on the summit, gazing from the midst of winter to the sunny plains of sum- mer, miles away and thousands of feet below. We are wet to the skin, and the wind penetrates all the clothing we can wear, so that the return is begun as soon as possible. Our The weary climbing through heavy snow is replaced by long, exhilarating slides down the hard slopes, the spike of the alpenstock scratching a deep track in the snow and our knees aching with the long tension, and at nightfall we reach camp, to find that every gunny- sack, many saddle blankets, and the front of my waterproof coat have all been eaten by the hungry mules. The Mission Range is the western- most of the several ranges which col- lectively represent the Rocky Moun- tains, and it receives more rain and snow than the ridges to the eastward, being the first to intercept the moisture- laden winds from the southwest. The range is much steeper on the western slope than on the eastern, which is ac- counted for by the geologic structure ; but at the top of the ridge so much NorTHERN RoOcKIES 363 glacial erosion has taken place, so many amphitheaters and deep gorges have been cut, that the crest is broken into a number of isolated peaks. We find it is made up of a series of limestones, which dip to the northeast, with some quartzite and intrusions of igneous rock, the west face being a fault plane. ‘The stratification and dip of the beds are clearly shown in the view on page 371. “This may be taken as a type of the ranges west of the Continental Divide. To the east of the Mission Range lies Swan Valley, extending some 55 miles north and south and being about to miles wide. It is drained by Swan River, which heads in the snow and ice fields of the Sin-yel-a-min Peak and Jocko Crags and flows northward for a time in a narrow, ice-cut gorge, now “We start for the pass and peak (McDonald) by the easiest route ”’ ee aoe a McDonald Peak from East. Lace Lake in Foreground Our occupied by Long or Elbow Lake, then through a wide, gently graded valley to Swan Lake, which in turn empties into the Flathead River. ‘This valley is flat and U-shaped, has many ponds and small lakes, and is densely timbered, with many small ‘‘ parks,’’ grassy and beautiful. Several days are consumed in making the descent to, and crossing the Swan Valley, as it is difficult to ac- complish in an east and west direction. The timber and trails are in many places choked by wind-fallen trees, and our animals are jumping these logs, their legs scraped and bruised; but they are well fed, as grass of the best quality is found in many open meadows. ‘The river, flowing over gravels and sand, abounds in fish, and we feel that we are in a camper’s paradise. The range to the east of this valley is the Swan Range. It is the highest and least broken ridge in the region, the higher peaks rising to ten and eleven thousand feet. It extends from the south line of the reserve to a point northeast of Kalispell, where it is cut by the Flathead River in a gorge named “ Badrock Canyon,’’ and through which the Great Northern Railway passes. Like the Mission Range, the Swan is steeper on the west slope. The rocks dip to the northeast, and are folded and fractured on a large scale, and superb views are constantly coming before us. Our trail up this slope is plain, but steep and hard, and when the pass is reached we are four thousand feet above the valley. Stunted pines and scanty grass surround us here, lakelets dot the bottoms of the narrow gorges, and the mighty peaks rise far above us. To reach these peaks we find that the route to travel is along the ridge. ‘The cliffs are about 1,000 feet high. We remem- ber that while trying to reach the Hol- land Peak in rgoo this ridge was so cov- ered with glare ice as to be impractica- ble; a long detour was necessary and the total climb of about 8,000 feet so NorvrHERN RockIEs 365 wearying, that one man collapsed as we returned in the darkness. We could not leave him to sleep with no awaken- ing, in the snow, so rolled him in can- vas, fastened ropes to his feet and shoul- ders, and tobogganned him down 2,000 feet to a frozen camp. The eastern slope of the Swan Range we find to be in the nature of a bench- land cut deeply by gorges and canyons eroded by local glaciers, of which only the remnants remain. The Swan Peak is the highest of the range (about 11,000 feet), andthe largest ice mass of this range flanks it. The Swan Ridge is the western rim of a large basin drained by the South Fork of Flathead River, and the de- scent to the valley is long and rough and the trails much choked by fallen timber. Our route is across the shelf lying between the crest ridge and the final steep slope of the valley proper, which is heavily timbered. ‘There is a trail the whole distance from the head to the mouth of the South Fork, but no novice must attempt to follow it. At a point east of the Holland Peak the valley of the South Fork of Flat- head is broad, flat-bottomed, and cov- ered with fine, open timber and with grass, and at this point our trail follows the river bottom or ascends to the slopes of the gravel deposits flanking it. Here we find evidence that the in- domitable prospector in his quest for wealth has anticipated our arrival. His cabin is decaying and his tunnel-mouth caving in, and we find that coal is his ambition, from the nature of the mate- rial on the river bank. Many miles below, where the stream crosses several limestone ridges, it runs in a sharp ‘‘box’’ canyon, and the trail, which follows the canyon brink quite closely, is difficult and dangerous ; it is sometimes zz the water and at others eight or nine hundred feet above it. Itis often a great problem to get animals across the canyons in which the YMosS Yreg sry wos, Yvog urwi-v-[aA-wiG ‘asuvy UWoIssipy Our NortTHern RockIEs Erosion of Limestone near Silvertip Peak “A pavement not calculated to increase our rate of travel many miles per day”’ side streams join the main river, and to cross the river in these canyon districts is impossible. When the water is high, traveling in this valley is out of the question. At one point the whole river, when at low stages, flows in two chan- nels, each not more than five or six feet wide, which may be crossed dry shod by springing over them, though the water is 50 feet or more in depth. Unlike the Swan River, the South Fork is doing much work in cutting a way through the limestones and shales which it encounters, the canyons being picturesque in the extreme. The ridge next to be scaled to the east of the South Fork is the Continen- tal Divide—the watershed of the Rock- ies, which is flanked by numerous spurs or parallel ‘‘ rampart ’’ ridges, shown in the views taken from the Silvertip Peak. This peak we have found to be easily climbed, the pack-mule carrying instruments to within 500 feet of the top. It is a huge mass of limestone on top of a plateau guarded by long lines of cliff, with sentinel peaks at every ap- proach. ‘The plateau is almost devoid of vegetation, the surface being worn into innumerable channels by the waters running from huge snow banks, a pave- ment not calculated to increase our rate of travel many miles per day. Upon reaching the summit of the Di- vide we discover that the cliffs which we have continuously scaled or circled, and which face southwest, are replaced by similar ones facing northeast, so that our difficulties, which have been of as- cent, become ones of descent, and may 368 in many places be accomplished with no effort, l'ttle fun, and less comfort, unless great care be taken. Continuing in our northeasterly course, we reach the headwaters of the River of the Sun by a rough trail—great peaks, now of limestone, light yellow, buff, or bluish in color, and again of shales, red, green, and slate color, on every hand. ‘The Sun River was named by the Indians, some say on account of the brilliance of the light, due to reflections from the many cliff walls in the upper reaches and from the open, light-buff-colored plain east of the mountains. It was long used as a gathering point for the tribes east of all the ranges for the ‘“sun dance.’’ It might well be named for Afolus, as its canyon serves as a funnel through which all the ‘‘ winds of heaven’’ rush forever. Tue NarionaL GeocrapHic MaGaZzINe In the valley of Sun River are nu- merous hot springs and defos7ts of springs long since extinct. The In- dians use the waters of these springs for drinking and bathing to cure many ailments, and today the location is one frequently visited by camping parties from the valley towns. 3 The Sawtooth, or Sun River Range, divides the upper branches of Sun River from the Missouri plain, and is the east front of the Rockies. The rocks of this range are largely light-colored lime- stones, and are faulted and eroded into a series of ragged, sharp peaks rising abruptly, and are very impressive. From the divide until the open plain is reached the Sun River crosses no less than twelve ridges, usually of limestone (but sometimes igneous rocks), and cuts a canyon through each, similar to Continental Divide. East Face of Cliff near Silvertop Peak Our NortTHErRN 369 RoOcKIES Continental Divide—Pentagon Peak (Limestone) those described in the valley of the South Fork of Flathead. The abruptness of the ranges to the east of the Divide and the lines of con- tinuous cliff, make the trails across them steep, slippery and dangerous, and de- tours of many miles are often necessary in order to cross some unbroken line of cliff. We find a trail which we built as long ago as 97, since used only by elk and deer, and which is still in condition to use ; and at last the pack animals are safely over it. During our journey we have found many difficulties—cliffs and canyons in the mountains, and in the valleys the problem has been to make our way through dense forest growths, often complicated by large areas of wind-fallen timber and sometimes by swampy ground, or all three of these conditions at the same time, when the problem has been well-nigh disheart- ening. We are sometimes confronted with the débris of a snowslide, which makes no small delay in our progress toward the objective point. We have found large areas that have been burned over by forest fires, which transform live, cool forests into desolate tangles of dead trunks, and we have passed through fires, smouldering, which would have become a raging conflagration with the advent of a heavy wind, a by-no- means uncommon thing in the mountain districts. These fires are often started by Indians, out hunting, who build smudges to protect their horses from the big flies and mosquitoes, and so pre- vent the animals from stampeding. These insects are a terrible affliction to 372 both men and beasts, and are omnipres- ent in the valleys during July and Au- gust. We have found that the weather con- dition at any given time is of no small importance in endeavoring to prosecute work in thisregion. In the mountains snow may fall at any time; July and August are by no means exempt from snow squalls, and September will al- ways bringastorm. Newsnow, whether falling or lying, will always be no small factor in the difficulties attending a climb. In October, 1900, the party made three attempts to reach the sum- mit of the ‘‘G. N.’’ Peak. ‘The third was successful, but during the second attempt slides of no mean proportions passed, one a few yards ahead and one but a few, behind the party. These slides were of the newly fallen snow, Tue Nartrionat GeocraepHic MaGazIne and passed over smooth rock surfaces with a comparatively slow motion, the front of the moving mass turning under as the breakers do on the beach at the seashore ; the sound was a ‘‘ shush”’ of low tone but goodly volume. If caught by one of these a man would be rolled over and under and inevitably smoth- ered. But the time has come when provis- ions are exhausted, and the leader of the pack-train is turned toward the nearest accessible point of supplies. At the first cabin—a halfbreed’s—we obtain a little tobacco and flour, enough to carry us to the store. The mountains are slowly left behind us, and low ridges, much scarred by forest fires, the usual accompaniment of approaching civilization, give way in turn to the grassy hills and finally to the open plain, Pack Train Crossing Limestone Cliff on Trail Built of Green Timber Folded Strata Just South Heayes Peak. From Snow Bank to Summit is about 2,000 Feet 372 Tue NarionaL GeocrapHic MacGaZzINeE Missouri River Plains and Pack Train “The mountains are slowly left behind us and our eyes, so accustomed to crags and peaks, look upon an apparently boundless prairie, blazing hot, dusty, and shadowless"’ where our eyes, so accustomed to the crags and peaks and such limited hori- zons, look upon an apparently boundless prairie—blazing hot, dusty,and shadow- less; but with letters and news of the world’s doings at the post-office. The fascination which is born of ex- ploration and travel in a great moun- tain region never quite leaves one, and the northern Rockies are a field worthy of any man’s study. The diversity of the demands upon him, the inspiring scale upon which his surroundings are builded, make human accomplishment seem, in a measure, vain; but there are obstacles to be overcome, requiring all his attention and effort; streams to be forded, glaciers to pass, cliffs to be scaled, and mighty walls, measured by thousands of feet, tempting him to: greater efforts, fitting monuments if he: fails. LIMITING WIDTH OF MEANDER BELTS By Pror. Mark 8S. W. JEFFERSON, STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN “One of the most characteristic features of streams, whether large or small, is the ten- dency to wind in serpentine curves when the angle of declivity is low, and the general surface of the country tolerably level.’’—Sezkie: Yeaxt Look of Geology, 3d ed., p 387. “The Meander, a serpentine river of Asiatic Turkey, has given its name to this river habit. The size of the meanders increases with the volume of the stream. brook may swing around curves measuring only 4o or 50 feet across. A meadow The curves of the lower Mississippi are from 3 to 6 miles across.’’—Davwis: Physical Geography, pp. 243-244. HE present paper seeks to estab- lish a limit for the width of the belt of meanders of any given stream and finds that limit to be eighteen times the mean width of the stream at the place, the depth of water and the volume of stream discharge being neg- ligible in the present state of geographic knowledge. If we examine the course of any well- mapped meandering river, as the Mis- sissippi at Greenville, Miss., we shall observe that it is very irregular. Stretches of wide-swinging meanders alternate with stretches of wavering course, where the river trends along a straight line, but with tremulous lean-. ings to one side or the other. These wavering stretches are further embar- rassed by sand bars and islands flung into the river’s path in disorder. ‘The meandering stretches are distinguished by a more positive, self-assertive char- acter, the sand bars are pushed mostly to the inner bank, while the channel hugs the outer ateachcurve. But here, too, is a certain hesitancy in the sweep of lines, suggestive of numerous factors of control. Even disregarding these minor waverings, the meanders display great variety of type and dimension within short distances. Along the Mis- sissippi may be observed circles of dif- fering radius, ovals and ellipses distorted 10 MILES The Mississippi at Greenville THe Nationa GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE lO IM Niki S The Theiss, Basin of Hungary in every conceivable direction with re- spect to their own axes and the trend of the river. Certainly there is great diver- sity, even appearance of disorder, here. But when the processes that are changing geographic forms are studied, system and law become at once more evident ; not that the process is more systematic or observant of law than the resultant forms, but only a mind con- scious of process can perceive the sys- tematic element in the forms. Atevery bend is the stream-cut bluff without and growing sand bar within. Along each wavering stretch lie the oxbow lakes and sloughs to right and left. Every- where are seen signs that the river, wandering too far to right and left in its meandering stretches, recovers itself by cutting off loops it has planned be- yond its powers, to again stagger aim- lessly, gathering momentum across its valley as its thread rebounds from bank to bank and presently begins meander- ing anew. To measure the width of the belt of meanders between lines tangent along the swings of the river to right and left is to measure a varying quantity that finds its minimum in wavering reaches and its maximuni in some strong group of meanders. This value must be se- lected as characteristic of the river, since the river’s swinging tendency finds in it its fullest expression. There are many difficulties in the measurement of meander belts. In practice, judgment is aided by the pres- ence of cut-off loops and by the empir- ically determined fact thatstreams rarely attain their maximum width of meander until the belt is two or three times as wide as the successive loops are distant along the general course of the river. This ratio is given for the rivers for which data are tabulated at pages 37 and 3 or mean- mb oT der belt divided by distance. It gives an excellent idea of the stage of devel- opment of any system of meanders. 79 under the heading WHY VOLUME IS NEGLECTED We have very little accurate knowl- edge of stream discharge to obtain good data for the rivers that are otherwise suitable for meander study. Limirinc Wipru or MEanperR BELTS The following is a brief outline of method and result of an attempt in this direction. Three streams were first con- sidered as having mature meanders on flood plains of very slight inclination. They were the tiny Matfield at Elm- wood, Mass., the moderate Oder at Kosel, Silesia, and the giant Mississippi at Greenville. The Matfield was carefully mapped for this purpose. Essential quantities, such as the me- ander belt, were measured directly on the ground. As run-off could only be determined by observations through a long series of years, I thought it better to utilize the results already obtained by 36 and 19 years respectively of ob- servations in the neighboring Mystic Lake and Lake Cochichuate watersheds. I obtained the results from Water Sup- ply and Irrigation Paper No. 35, page 39, that on those basins the run-off was respectively 1.49 and 1.46 cubic feet of water per second for every square mile of surface. Asthe Matfield basin above Elmwood Village bridge has an area of _ about 43.5 square miles, making allow- ance for the water diverted to the use of the city of Brockton, I estimate its run-off at an average of 63 cubic feet per second. ‘The meander belt is about 450 feet wide. For the Oder we learn from Der Oder- strom, Berlin, 1896, map 11, that there isa typical recent cut-off at Kosel. The meander belt is 4,688 feet wide. The same work puts the Oder’s discharge for mean stages, with the Kosel gage reading 1.29 meters, at 1,907 cubic feet per second. According toa table by Loeschmann, Beitrage zur Hydro- graphie der oberen Oder, page 55, this corresponds to an average annual flow of 2,407 cubic feet per second. This is probably too small a quantity, as the volume discharged at high stages must have a far greater departure from the mean than that at low stages. The Mississippi data are from Park STS Morrill’s Floods of the Mississippi River, Report of the Chief of the Weather Bu- reau, 1896-7, page 391 and plate IV. Adding the drainage of the upper Mis- sissippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Arkansas. basins to A, B, C, and % D in the Central Valley, I estimate the discharge at Greenville at 570,000 cubic feet per second. From sheet 14 of the prelimi- nary map of the lower Mississippi it appears that the meander belt attains a maximum width of 55,000 feet at that point. Since the doubtful data for these streams was all I had access to for ma- turely meandering streams, I looked for what confirmation might be had from various rivers not on typical flood plains, but flowing in inherited mean- ders now incised in the region of Appa- lachian and Alleghany uplifts. I found run-off estimates for these streams in F. H. Newell’s Hydrographic work, Nineteenth and Twentieth Reports of the Director of the U. S. Geological Sur- vey, section Hydrography. Meander belts were measured on the topographic maps of the Geological Survey. To show the departure of these streams from the flood-plain type the feet of descent per mile have been in- cluded in the table in the column headed jf, mo heads that containing widths of meander belts in feet, while md heads the column of discharges in cubic feet per second. A—ON FLOOD PLAINS if mb ma SL Ts paas| i : Matfield.........|--...- 450 63 | Klmwood, Mass. Odenn.--- | yi 4,688 2,47 | Kosel. Silesia. Mississippi..... 55 G09 | 570,000 | Greenville, Miss. B—INCISED | 4,000] 1,134 | Canton, Ga. | 8.448| 1,779) Buchanan, Va. 4 yg, 763 2,080") Alderson, W. Va. Shenandoah... 9,000 2,700 | Near Potomac River Tennessee......| * 26,4c0| 40,000 | Chattanooga, Tenn- * Less than a foot. [ wy | ow 2) a (9) The Matfield at Elmwood, Mass. Limirinc WiptTH of MEANDER BELTS Calling the Tennessee comparable to the first three rivers because of its mod- erate descent, we may construct a curve with discharges for ordinates and mean- der belts for abscissas. The curve is, however, determined at points too few and badly placed to be of much value. The following selected quantities indi- cate well enough its character : ma nub fo) fo) 500 1,400 1,000 2,600 5,000 7,000 10,000 10,700 50,000 28,000 100,000 33,500 500,000 54,000 That is, the larger the volume of water discharged by a river, the wider its meander belt, but the differences in width are less as the rivers are greater in volume. The data for incised rivers do not fall into this curve. Such data do not suf- fice to establish definite relations. SOME THEORETICAL CONSIDERA-— TIONS Stream volume is a function of width, depth, and velocity. Maturely mean- dering streams may be regarded as find- ing their slope too steep. As this gave them more energy than was needed to carry their load of waste seaward, they employed the excess in cutting sidewise, forming meanders until their slope was thus lengthened and flattened to their taste. The Mississippi travels 80 miles along its winding channel in flowing from Greenville to a point 45 miles due south. In so doing it reduces its descent from 7 inches to 4 inches per mile. When a cut-off thwarts further lengthening of the course, we must suppose that the proper slope has been already reached. So maturely mean- dering streams will have courses tend- Bye ing to a minimum of inclination, differ- ing with each other chiefly as they carry more or less silt. It is probable that meander-cutting, like all other erosive work, is chiefly effected at re- current moments of more intense activ- ity. Perhaps there is never a cessation of the cutting on the outer bluff; yet the greater part of the work will be done at times of swollen waters. At these moments the streams are bur- dened with silt to their utmost capacity, all of them alike and each of them in its mean thread of flow. The swift outer reaches are still eager to take more earth from the bank, while every check within a bend is the scene of act- ive deposition. As the load of silt de- termines the slope needed for its trans- portation, here is another agency tend- ing to uniformity of slope in all streams with well-developed meander systems. ‘These considerations look to the elimi- nation of velocity as a constant factor in the volume of the stream ; there remain as varying factors width and depth. We cannot assert that at the time of most effective meander-making depth, too, is a constant, but there are consid- erations which tend to show it has little effect on the width of meander belts. The width of a meander belt depends immediately upon the sharpness with which astream can turnacorner. Gen- erally speaking, the longer the radius of curvature, the wider the belt, and the shorter the radius, the narrower the belt. ‘The stream’s difficulties in turn- ing increase with the stream’s width quite apart from its depth. Material cords and cables offer some interesting analogies. A thread may be doubled sharply on itself, a string less sharply, while a large rope or cable can only be bent in a wide, openturn. The difficulty is with the inside strands. The thicker the rope, the more there are of them, and the more they insist on tak- ing up room and holding the bend open. 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Strictly, in the case of the turning river, it is a matter of momentum. Could we have a single thread of water flowing along a curved or crooked channel, its turns would be made with ease, howeversharp; but actual streams are always made of many threads of water side by side, and when the outer thread seeks to rebound from the outer bank at a turn, the momentum of the inner threads drives it along in a course that is kept straighter in proportion as there are more inside threads of current. A column of men, marching, turns as easily with twenty files abreast as with one, but only because the inside man has been trained to stand still and merely rotates on his axis until his companions have got around the corner. The inside threads of river current have no volition, no training to stop and wait for their neighbors outside. ‘Their mo- mentum carries them along and their number makes the turn longer, the meander belt wider. In view of these considerations let us return to our table of meander belts and consider the stream width in each case. The table is here reproduced, omitting fall and discharge, and introducing two new columns, headed w for width of 2 mb 5 stream in feet, and —, or ratio of mean- Ww der belt to width of stream. River. mb w — Place. 450 30 | 15.0 | Elmwood, Mass. ---.| 4688] 243 | 19.3 | Kosel, Silesia. Mississippi..... 55,000 | 2,830 | 49.4 | Greenville, Miss. Ktowah.........| 4,000 260 | 15.4 | Canton, Ga. 8,448 660 | $2.8 | Buchanan, Va. 9:768| 528 | $8.5 | Alderson, W. Va. 9,000} 800 | {4.2 | Near Potomac Rivet | 26,400 | 1,400 | $8.9 | Chattanooga, Tenn. | | Tue Nationa, GerocraPpHic MAGAZINE Here is a good suggestion of a con- : mob stant value in the column —. ae these rivers were selected under con- straint when I was trying to utilize the best meanders that occurred near points where measurements of volume had been made. We are now able to select the best flood plains, and on these the best-developed meanders on any Ameri- can or European maps that are accessi- ble. The list follows as Table A. No stream has been excluded because its ratio was discordant. Many were re- jected because of too small a value of mb a ’ of measures at meanders across and along the general river course; @ rep- resents the distance from meander to But the quantity which gives the ratio meander along the river axis. Starred rivers have cuts-off near. The mean meander ratio is 17.6. Study would doubtless remove some of the discordancies. The Rhine near Speyer and Worms, as the accompany- ing map shows, is a corrected stream, flowing in an artificial channel. The width of the meander belt may be meas- ured from the old course, which still subsists, but the width of the river, measured on the artificial channel, which is confined between walls, is probably less than that of the uncor- rected stream that made the meanders. This must tend to give an excessive value to the meander ratio. E It is interesting to observe in the case of the Rhine that the flood-plain width is not far from the width of the maxi- mum meander belt. The small ratio for the Mississippi at Baton Rouge is of interest with the opener character of the meanders in the lower course, where each arm of the river seems to point away from the next arm upstream instead of swinging around toward it. A little farther and the river stops swinging, to rush headlong 381 Limirinc WiptTuH ofr MEANDER BELTs The Rhine—A Corrected Meandering Stream 382 to the Gulf. The same opening out of meanders is noticed at Teesmouth and at the mouth of Seine and Dniester. The Panaro and ‘Tagliamento come from their mountains overburdened with waste, and flow where it encumbers them in braided courses. The mean- dering stretch examined for each comes just below. The facts ascertained by an exami- nation of incised rivers are of suffi- cient interest to be now summarized in Table B. The ratios run high. The average is 30.6. Of all single rivers studied, The Forth at Stirling the most interesting is the Dniester, with two measurements in each table. On the flood plain its ratios are 14,3 and 16.4, and 34 and 36 where incised in the mountains. This is the same story as the longer tables tell of mean- der belts that widen out as they are incised in the rocks. It is to be noted that the river widens in the mountains, but the meander belt widens even more. The exceptionally high ratios for Seine, Oise, and Marne go with the quite as exceptional symmetrical form. The Seine and Marne at least are quite as regular in their curvature as the Mississippi and quite of the flood-plain type. Note the large ratio ze One Toe Nationa, GeocrapHic MAGAZINE might look for some local cause for all three did not the Agout, in the south- west of France, agree with them. Yet farther from Paris, Seine 24 and Seine 26 have values nearer normal. Is there interference with the streams by wall- ing or dredging sufficient to explain this abnormal ratio? The great use of these streams for interior commerce might easily lead to a deepening of the channels at important points, and this would tend to narrow the stream and increase the meander ratio. The width tabulated for Seine 25 is suspiciously small. This would be comparable to what has happened to the Rhine at Mannheim in the process of “correcting’’ that stream. Seine 25 and 26 have their chan- nels divided in two by a contin- uous line of islands, as in the Rhine in the Schiefergebirge, but more numerous. Very likely the Agout has too great a width as- signed to its meander belt because of what I may call compounding of meanders, which very often makes it hard to measure flood- plain streams, notably the Koros on the plain of Hungary. The accompanying sketch of the Forth at Stirling illustrates this com- pounding. Cd may be regarded as the immediate axis and 4 # as the original axis. Such forms are common in the small tributaries along the central valley of the Mississippi. In contrast to the curves of the Seine just noted are the stiff zigzags of the Nolichucky and French Broad shown on figure 5, as characteristic of inherited incised meanders. We must think of them as once swinging freely on a low- lying plain, but their incision in the rising land has set them rushing swiftly from turn to turn where once they swung in curves. ‘The deep-cut mean- ders of the canyons of the Colorado ap- pear from the maps to have nothing of stiffness or zigzag in their form. Limitinc WiprH oF Meanper BEtts 293 10 MILES French Broad and Nolichucky It should be remembered that there are no true maxima for incised meander belts, since the cut-offs that rebuke the flood-plain stream when it undertakes ventures beyond its strength cannot readily occur when the stream bed is sunk deep in the rocks. ‘The average difference of the flood-plain meander ratios from their mean is 3.3, of the in- cised meander ratios 12.3. necessary limit to meander belts when incised, and soft rocks may facilitate high values. THE WIDTH OF STREAMS A brief examination either of astream or a good map shows width to be very variable, not merely from foot to foot, from mile to mile. The most striking case that I have come across is on the Prestonburg, Ky., topographic sheet, where Levisa Fork of the Big Sandy flows for 10 miles or so in the southeast part of the map with a pretty constant width of over 500 feet in adeep, narrow valley. Then for 5 or 6 miles near Prestonburg it is barely 300 feet wide, though the valley is opener. Later it again widens out to the northward. If correctly mapped, it is clear that such variations would be important in mean- der studies. There is no - If examination be continued through the seasons, the changes at one place become very great. The fluctuations in height of the water at a river gage are incessant, not merely through the year and month, but even through the day. As the slopes that confine the stream waters to right and left are gen- tle, the fluctuations in width are much greater than the changes on the gage. At high stages particularly an inch rise on the gage may increase the width of the river by many feet. In drought stages there is a narrow thread of water meandering on its own law in the bot- tom of the stream bed; at flood time the whole plain is submerged, and if there is then a tendency to meander, it is in long curves wholly unlike those the river is familiar with. The mean- ders of the maps are, of course, those of the stream bed. ‘his is confined by steeper slopes, but still by slopes, causing it to vary in width as the water falls or rises. It is in this bed that the stream is when it carves its meanders, and if it varies there in width, so is the stream bed the scene of varying mean- der tendencies. Some of the irregu- larities in the resultant meanders are due to this cause. For the Preliminary Map of the Lower Mississippi the stage adopted for mapping is about one-third 384 of extreme oscillation above low water. For the United States topographic maps such details probably do not come within the limits of accuracy aimed at. It would be desirable to know for every stream the width at which the water stands longest. In practice the measurements taken from the maps are subject to errors so much greater than this uncertainty of stage that no great harm results from itsneglect. In field- work mapping should have regard to this point. ; CONCLUSION There are already depicted on good maps many river courses to which the criteria suggested may be applied. Ab- normal results should be traceable to local conditions. But the vast majority of meandering rivers are too small to admit accurate measurement from such PEARY’S WORK IN FTER four years of brilliant ex- A plorations in the far north, Peary has returned to the United States and his last Arctic campaign is ended. A summary of his work during the first three years of this last expedition ap- peared in the October, 1899, and Oc- tober, 1901, numbers of this magazine. His work during the past year is sum- marized in the following modest report to Mr H. L.. Bridgman, secretary of the Peary Arctic Club: OFFICIAL REPORT BY ROBERT E. PRARY Dated Sydney, September 7, 1902 Left at Erik Harbor, on the Elles- mere coast, August 29; the party reached Payer Harbor September 16; crossing Rosse Bay partly by sledge and partly Tue NationaL GrocraPpHic MAGaAZzINne mapping as they are likely to get. The essential measurements are easily made on the ground. It is now evident that the Matfield, the study of which has led to this dis- cussion, has not a typical flood plain. A 30-foot river demands a 540-foot me- ander belt. This it hardly has between its bluffs, asa glance at the map will show. The river is still cutting at these bluffs to remove the restraint they now exercise on its meander system. Though its plain may be called incised, it is not due to the incision of meanders inherited from a previous cycle, but they are rather now first developing on a somewhat uneven surface of gla- cial deposits. The presence side by side of oxbows and sloughs with the close-pressed course against the bluffs suggests some distinctive epithet like hindered, embarrassed, or bluff-bound, rather than simply undeveloped. LQOI-1902 by boat, then walked across Bedford Pin Island. About a week later my Eskimo be- gan to fall sick, not one escaping. By November 19, six adults and one child were dead; nearly all the others very weak, but out ofdanger. Early in Jan- uary Eskimo came across from Anori- tok, bringing news of the ravages of a fatal epidemic through the tribe. Word was sent back by these scouts for as many of the survivors as could to come to me, and by the end of the month they began arriving. In February a large depot of dog- food was established near Cape Louis Napoleon, some 60 miles north of Sabine. March 3 my advance party of six sledges, in charge of Henson, left for Conger. Prary's WorkK IN 1901-1902 March 6 I started with the main party of 18 sledges, leaving Percy in charge at Payer Harbor. Conger was reached in 12 marches, arriving within an hour or two of the advance party. My supporting party of Eskimo re- turning from Conger brought down the instruments, chronometers, and Arctic library. Eight marches more took us to Cape Hekla. The north end of Robison Chan- nel was all open water to the Greenland coast, and lakes of water extended north- ward as far as could be seen from Black Cape and Cape Rawson. From Hekla another supporting party returned. April 1 I started northward over the polar sea with Henson, four Eskimo, and six sledges. Old floes covered deep with snow and intersected with rubble ridges and lanes of young ice were encountered from the moment we left the ice foot. “Thesame kind of traveling (except the lanes of young ice) was found by the English expedition of 1876. After six marches open leads and floes in motion were encountered. ‘T'wo natives were sent back. As we advanced the floes became smaller, the pressure ridges on a grander scale, and the open leads more frequent. Each day’s march was very tortuous and our general course deflected west by the character of the ice. Finally at84° 17’ north latitude, north- west of Hekla, the polar pack became impracticable and further efforts to ad- vance were given up. New leads and pressure ridges, with foggy weather, made our return in some respects more trying than the advance. Hekla was regained April 29 and Conger May 3. Leaving Conger May 6, Cape Sabine on the 17th, a few days later, I went north as far as Cape Louis Napoleon to com- plete the survey of Dobbin Bay, return- ing the first of June. 385 A proposed trip westward across Ellesmereland was prevented by open water in Buchanan Bay. ‘The ice broke up earlier than in 1901, and Payer Harbor was blockaded almost contin- uously. The Windward bored her way through the ice and entered the harbor on the morning of August 5, and got out the same afternoon, with scarcely 15 min- utes to spare before the harbor was closed by the ice.- Forcing our way across Smith Sound, my Eskimo with their belongings were landed in Ingle- field Gulf, and several days devoted to hunting walrus for their winter sub- sistence; then the Wzndward started south, reaching and leaving Cape York the afternoon of August 28. Calling at Godhaven, Greenland, and Cape Haven, Baffinland, the Windward arrived at Choteau Bay, Labrador, Sep- tember 14 and sent dispatches. The summer voyage has been with- out mishap, and the Windward, with her new engines, has made as good time _as the larger and more powerful ships that have been going north the past ten years. The year at Payer Harbor was passed comfortably, though the anxious strain caused by the ravages of disease among my faithful people was not light. Food was abundant, and our supply of musk ox and deer meat continuous through- out the year. The northern sledge trip in the spring was arduous, but not marked by special exposure, suffering, or danger more than is necessarily incident to serious Arctic work. The equipment and personnel was satisfactory, and further advance was vetoed by insuperable natural condi- tions. The Windward has on board the in- struments, chronometers, and Arctic li- brary abandoned by the Greely expedi- tion at Conger, numerous specimens in natural history, bear, musk ox, rein- 386 deer, and walrus skins, skeleton of a two-horned narwhal, a rare Arctic spec- imen; also living specimens of musk ox, walrus, Arctic hare, and Eskimo dogs. Anchor and chain lost by A77& last summer are on board. The Fram left Godhaven about Au- gust 20, bound home. She has been in Jones Sound, from whence it is under- stood explorations were made to the northwest. One death, a fireman, is reported since 1899. Others on board said to be well. The little schooner Forgetmenot, caught in the ice at Cape Haven last year, is now on her way to St Johns. (Signed ) PEARY. SUMMARY OF PEARYS WORK Mr Peary has devoted practically the whole of the last twelve years to Arctic work. He announces that he has now retired from Arctic exploration and will hereafter devote his energies to his pro- fession, civil engineering. The results of his long labors in the far north are most important. He has proved Green- land an island and mapped its northern coast line; he has defined and mapped the islands to the north of Greenland, known as the Greenland Archipelago; he has shown that an ice-covered Arctic Tue Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE ocean probably extends from the Green- land Archipelago to the North Pole; he has accurately defined the lands oppo- site the northwestern coast of Green- land, Grant Land, Grinnell Land, and Ellesmereland; he has reached the most northerly known land in the world; he has gained the most northerly point yet reached on the Western Hemisphere, 84° 17’; he has studied the Eskimo as only one can who has lived with them for years; he has added much to our knowl- edge of Arctic fauna and flora; of the musk ox, the Arctic hare, and the deer; the notes he has made during the past years will benefit meteorology and geol- ogy—all these are some of Lieutenant Peary’s achievements during the twelve years he has so valiantly battled in the far north. But, above all, Mr Peary has given the world a notable example of a brave and modest man who, inspite of broken limbs and most terrible phys- ical suffering and financial discourage- ments, has unflinchingly forced to a successful end that which he had de- cided to accomplish. To Mrs Peary, the able seconder of her husband’s plans, and to Mr H. L. Bridgman, the efficient secretary of the Peary Arctic Club, and the loyal mem- bers of that club, much credit is due. G, jel, G. GEOGRAPHIC NOTES RECLAMATION SERVICE N June 17, 1902, what is known as the ‘‘ Reclamation Law ’’ was signed by the President. This appro- priates the receipts from the sale and disposal of public lands in certain states and territories to the construction of irrigation works for the reclamation of arid lands. Thirteen states and three territories are named in the bill, viz, thestates of California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming, and the territories of Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma. The funds made avail- able are those received during the fiscal years ending June 30, 1901 and 1902, and subsequent years. “The amount has. not been specifically given by the Treas- ury Department, but is unofficially stated to be three millions for r1g9o01 and four and a half millions for 1902. GeocraPHic Nores The work authorized by the law is that of surveying and examining oppor- tunities for water storage and diversion of large rivers, and also the location and construction of the works when found to be feasible. The cost of these is to be returned to the reclamation funtl and used again in construction. In 1888 the Director of the United States Geological Survey was author- ized to make examinations of this char- acter, and extensive surveys were begun at thetime. The appropriation for these was cut off at a later date, excepting as regard the topographic surveys of the catchment basins. In 1894, however, appropriations were made for measur- ing the streams and determining the water supply, and the funds for this purpose have been increased until now, the year ending June 30, 1903, there is available the sum of $200,000. The information obtained under the authority of the law of r888 and of subsequent acts has been published in the reports of the Geological Survey. In obtaining the data a considerable number of skilled engineers have been employed anda separate division formed, known as the Hydrographic Branch of the Geological Survey. Upon the passage of the Reclamation Law, the Secretary of the Interior, to whom is entrusted the administration of the reclamation fund, received from the Director of the Geological Survey a plan for putting the law into imme- diate effect, and on July 8, these sug- gestions being approved, active work was begun. This is in effect a continu- ation and enlargement of the work of the Hydrographic Branch. — Instead of organizing a new bureau, the Secretary authorized the gradual creation within the Hydrographic Branch of a corps of engineers to be known as the ‘‘ Recla- mation Service,’’ these men retaining their connection with the Geological Survey, but receiving additional assist- ants and being assigned to a larger field of work. “Walcott. 337 The great advantage derived from the creation of the Reclamation Service within a well-established bureau is that it is able to obtain the services of skilled and experienced men, and does not pass through the vicissitudes incident to the formation of new rules and regulations and the originating of precedents for all of its operations. The Reclamation Service as thus established is able to proceed at once with the work contem- plated by the law with the least amount of time consumed in preparation, and it is safe to say that at least a year has been saved in this way. The new men added are young engineers, graduates of professional schools, selected after competitive examination from the eli- gible lists of the Civil Service Commis- sion. The official in charge of the work as designated by law is the Secretary of the Interior, Hon. Ethan A. Hitchcock. He has referred the surveys and exami- nations and making of recommendations for construction to the Director of the Geological Survey, Hon. Charles D. The charge of the work is by him entrusted to the Chief Engineer, Mr F. H. Newell. The latter is also Chief Hydrographer of the Geological . Survey, and is conducting stream meas- urements in various parts of the United States. The principal engineer next in rank is Mr Arthur P. Davis, well known for his work on the hydrography of Nicaragua and Panama. Before the passage of the Reclamation Law detailed surveys had been begun in Montana on St. Mary’s Lakes and out- let, in Nevada on the Truckee and Car- son Rivers, in Colorado on the diversion of Gunnison River, and in Arizona on the San Carlos and Salt River reservoirs. After the passage of the law this work was pushed forward more vigorously, the field parties being increased. Ex- aminations have been begun on Yellow- stone River in Montana, on the Snake River in Idaho, on the Bear River in 388 Utah, on the South Platte River near Sterling, Colo., on Grand River near Grand Junction, Colo., to take water into Utah, and on Colorado River in southern California and western Ari- zona. A number of other important projects are awaiting consideration and will be taken up as rapidly as experi- enced men can be obtained through the Civil Service Commission. This law is regarded as one of the most important in the development of the public lands of the West. It is of concern not merely to the western peo- ple, but even more so to those of the entire country who are seeking homes or employment or who have goods to be sold or transported to the new commu- nities which will be formed. The suc- cessful administration of the law means a great change in the western half of the United States through the upbuilding of homes in regions which are now desert but where there are great possibilities latent. The men having the work in charge are keenly alive to the responsi- bilities resting upon them and are en- deavoring to guard the work from de- structive influence and keep it on a sound, business-like basis. For this reason, great emphasis has been placed upon the necessity of keeping the per- sonnel strictly on civil-service lines, em- ployment and promotion being depend- ent upon efficiency and experience. In the same way the selection of projects for consideration and report is being made upon the basis only of public im- portance and feasibility, the refunding of the cost and the settlement of the greatest number of people upon the re- claimed lands. COAL IN ALASKA RC. WILLARD HAYES, Geolo- gist in Charge, U. S. Geological Survey, is in receipt of a telegraphic re- port from the Collier expedition an- nouncing that they had reached Seattle THe Nationa, GrocraPpHic MaGAzine en route to Washington, and giving the leading results of the season’s work. The party of three, with Mr Arthur J. Collier in charge, left Washington early in May, to explore portions of Yukon Valley, in which the existence of coal was rumored. ‘The telegraphic report indicates that they have discovered large bodies of good coal adjacent to the river and within reach of transportation fa- cilities. THE SVERDRUP ARCTIC EXPEDITION RESS dispatches from Christiania and Stavanger, Norway, convey gratifying announcements of the success of the Arctic expedition of the /vam, led by Captain Otto Sverdrup. The Fvam sailed from Christiania June 24, 1898, with a crew comprising Cap- tain Sverdrup, commander; Naval Lieutenant Victor Baumann, astrono- mer; Lieutenant Guy Ysachsen, car- tographer; Dr H. Svendsen, meteor- ologist; Dr Ed. Bay, zoologist; Dr Her- man G. Simons, botanist; Dr P Schell, geologist; Dr Draskrug, surgeon, to- gether with nine seamen. The vam is owned by the Norwegian Government, which not only granted Captain Sver- drup permission to use the vessel, but supplied him with the funds requisite for outfitting the expedition. The primary purpose of the expedi- tion was to explore and map the north- eastern and northern coasts of Green- land, and to trace the connection between Cape Washington and Independence Bay; but on learning that a considerable part of this task had been already ac- complished by Peary, Sverdrup changed his design, and undertook to survey the unknown coasts of Ellesmereland, with adjacent portions of the Arctic Archipel- ago. Great difficulties were encoun- tered. For nearly three years the Fram lay almost motionless in the ice of Jones Sound, despite repeated attempts to free the craft by both sawing and blasting. GeocraPHic Noregs Game was found in abundance; a hun- dred musk oxen were killed for food. The most serious loss suffered by the party was that of the death of Surgeon Draskrug, whose body was buried in the ice. Several cases of illness were suc- cessfully treated by Captain Sverdrup after the death of the surgeon. According tothe meager reports issued through the press dispatches, ‘‘ the dis- tricts explored were the southern and western coasts of Ellesmereland and the hitherto unknown districts west of that region. ‘The boiler of the 77am shows signs of usage, but everything is in good order.”’ ‘The vessel left Gothaab, Greenland, August 16, but an accident to the ma- chinery compelled her to make the homeward passage entirely under sail. On September 28 the /vam entered Christiania harbor under the escort of warships and pleasure steamers, and was saluted by the fort and welcomed by thousands of spectators. ‘The latest advices announce a reception to Sver- drup and his companions given by the Geographical Society on September 30, at which the Captain was decorated with the Order of the Grand Cross of St Olaf, while Seaman Peter Hennik- sen (who had participated also in the Nansen Arctic expedition) received a gold medal, and other members of the expedition received silver medals. The dispatches quote Sir Clements R. Mark- ham, president of the Royal Geograph- ical Society of Great Britain, as regard- ing Captain Sverdrup’s expedition as the most important since that of Sir John Franklin. The geographic results of the Sver- drup expedition remain to be described. According to Sir Clements Markham, as reported in the dispatches, the expe- 389 dition skirted three thousand miles of coast, of which half was newly discov- ered land. Unquestionably the surveys will supplement those of Peary and others, and with them bring into the domain of actual knowledge a large part of Arctic America. THE BROOKS ALASKAN EXPEDITION REAR HE BROOKS of the Us S: Geological Survey, has just re- ported by wire the successful termina- tion of a notable season’s work in Alas- kan exploration. Entering by way of Cook Inlet, he so laid his course as to divide the largest unexplored area in Alaska. This he traversed, skirting the base of Mount McKinley and mak- ing fresh observations on this culminat- ing point of the North American conti- nent, coming out on the Tananak. The brief telegraphic report indicates that the plans for the work were successfully carried out, without serious casualties. REPORTED ENTRANCE OF LHASSA Tis currently reported in Hamburg that one of the seven Japanese Buddhist priests who have been endeay- oring to enter Tibet has succeeded, and that heisnowin Lhassa. Itissaid that this priest went in from Darjiling, and that two others are approaching the sa- cred cityfrom Mongolia. Thethird party passed up the Yangtse Valley toward the frontier about a year ago, but their present whereabouts are unknown. Miss Eliza R. Scidmore, Foreign Secre- tary of the National Geographic Society, isin Hamburg asa delegate from the Society to the ‘Fhirteenth International Oriental Congress. Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5 P. M. Telephone, Main 471 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY OFFICES Rooms 107, 108 Corcoran Building Fifteenth and F Sts. N. W., Washington, D. C. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL . President Wai McGEE Ise). Vice-President JOHN JOY EDSON ° ° o ° Treasurer A. J. HENRY . . - Secretary ELIZA R. SCIDMORE ° - Foreign Secretary BOARD OF MANAGERS 1900-1902 3901-1903 1902-1904 CHARLES J. BELL MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL GEORGE DAVIDSON HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT WM. M. DAVIS F. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY JOHN JOY EDSON D. C. GILMAN ANGELO HEILPRIN G. K. GILBERT S. H. KAUFFMANN RUSSELL HINMAN A. J. HENRY WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE DAVID J. HILL ISRAEL C. RUSSELL GIFFORD PINCHOT Cc. HART MERRIAM R. D. SALISBURY O. H. TIVTMANN The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charge to all members of the National Geographic Society Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for membership Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary Dues: Annual membership, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be enclosed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if at a distance from Washington, remit by New York draft or post-office money-order. for membership in the Society. The hardest book of the year The easiest book of the year to begin to lay down war SHERLOCK HOLMES himself says of the Mystery in The Hound of the Baskervilles “I told you in London, Watson, and I tell you again now, that we have never had a foeman more worthy of our steel.” « “Chustey fap. gt Miatiy Oo weve cod We Kash Soe eee me iene eee ee f 3 : “Our Department of Office Furni re) f fic 1 Cc e _.. | with everything requisite.to the furnishing _ of a modern Office, a Bank, a Committee Room, ete. : ~~ Handsome C : Furniture ee ° 5 Filing Devices ice and Lib sii age page Leather Furie, le eo ee Ts the case for the home of office: Bveryo one has some soe: rah ae ‘oiatie When there are not. enough to fill an ordinary book case, one or two sections may at a very small expense, andas the number of yolumes i increases additional sections can, ~be added—and the book case grows as book space is needed, _ Whether you h: one section or more, you’ have a complete book case. We carry the ‘*Gunn,”’ the « and the « Danner ae has its sod feature—in the most st pepalan, ‘wood dfi rishes $1.15 per Section” pe3 Up Without Glass, in Solid Oak — A special finish to suit the gecdoare of f-- any particular room made to order with- J. out additional cost, We shall be pleased” a have you Call and examine them. ses 1 ; TIHRD FLOOR od : ARTHUR cAssor, “Rnickerbocker oS Proprietor 4 wit su pl you with al! ersonal efeeaee aia cippings 0 on any subj ect fr 1 th papere eek edicaa i and abroad. Our large staff of readers’ ee ie a more Saeple ae on any current aahiert than Ee can oF ina Jifetime, meas ¥,000 clippings, $35.00. PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, WASHINGTON, D.C. — THE , NATIONAL GRAPHIC © Vol. XIII NOVEMBER, 1902 No 1 ft CONTENTS he PAGE B) JOHN WESLEY POWELL. ILLUSTRATED. . +. + + 393 Fok a § THE COURSE OF THE RETAIL COAL TRADE. BY DAVID T. DAY : : ; . : . . z : , : 2 ; » § 304 ie ©: |) SUBMERGED VALLEYS IN SANDUSKY BAY. ILLUSTRATED. ns Pere 1 MOSHI. ee Se ee ec 85 398 oa ; e : MePLACE NAMES IN THE UNITED STATES .°>. 2. ss 403 Bey ” Mm AMONG THE GREAT HIMALAYAN GLACIERS. . . + + 405 Ee we Published for the National Geographic Society By McClure, Phillips & Co., of New York $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Batered at the Post-office in Washington, D, C,, as Second-class Mail Matter. 3 by. oe on BG, by shot Managing Editor of ! Magazine, Corcoran Buildi g ‘Business. communications ay al McClure, Phillips & Coy Ne ew ‘York ee ELIZA. ‘RUHAMAH 36 Author of “Java, the Garden o nee. Fast,’ etc. Has MARCUS BAKER ; oo. S. Geological Survey John Wesley Powell Vor. XIII, No. 11 2 WASHINGTON GEOGIRALPIENIC MAGA ZIUNIE, NovEMBER, a 1902 JOHN WESLEY POWELL OHN WESLEY POWELL died at his summer home in Maine Sep- tember 23, 1902. He was born at Mount Morris, New York, March 24,1834. Few men in the history of the United States have left behind them such a deep and lasting impres- sion on the practical scientific work of the nation. Major Powell was of English parent- age, his father and mother settling in the United States a few months before his birth. He passed his boyhood working and managing his father’s farm and gaining such education as the rural community could offer. Later he supported himself by teaching school, meanwhile working hard at his favorite studies, natural history and geology. In-the pursuit of specimens for his col- lections he made long voyages in a skiff on the Mississippi, Ohio, and Illinois Rivers in the years preceding the Civil War. He served in the Union Army throughout the war and gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, but he has always been known to the public as Major (not Colonel) Powell. He had lost his arm in the battle of Shiloh, and, as the wound never completely healed, he suffered fearful torture at times during the rest of his life. The public will probably always remember Major Powell most promi- nently for his dramatic exploration of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado in 1868 and 1869. His modest official narrative of the journey for hundreds of miles between the perpendicular walls of the canyon aroused intense feeling throughout the country and is still read with unabating interest. In 1879 Major Powell was appointed the first Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, at the head of which he remained until his death. In 1881 he was also appointed Director of the United States Geological Survey, and for thirteen years guided the policy of the Survey. In this brief article it is possible to mention only some of the work he organized and developed while at the head of these great bureaus, in whose formation he had also taken a prominent part—the importance of an adequate topographic mapping of the United States, the necessity of irriga- tion to the West, and principally the definite and sympathetic study of the American Indians. During the last years of his life, in order that he might give his time to his personal studies in psychology and philosophy, Major Powell entrusted to 394: his principal and devoted assistant, Dr W J McGee, the practical management of the Bureau of which he was the head. Major Powell possessed a faculty of suggesting ideas to others and of inspir- | ing others to carry them out. This element of his personality Dr G. K. Gilbert, for many years a close per- sonal friend of Major Powell, brings out very clearly in a _ biographical sketch published in Sczence of October IO, 1902: “‘In summarizing the results of his active life it is not easy to separate the product of his personal work from that which he accomplished through the organization of the work of others. He was extremely fertile in ideas, so fertile that it was quite impossible that he should personally develop them all, Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE and realizing this he gave freely to his collaborators. "The work which he in- spired and to which he contributed the most important creative elements I be- lieve to be at least as important as that for which his name stands directly re- sponsible. As he always drew about him the best ability he could command, his assistants were not mere elaborators, but made also important original cou- tributions, and the ideas which he gave the world through others are thus so merged and mingled with theirs that they can never be separated. If we count the inspiration of his colleagues as part of his work of organization, then the organization of researches may properly be placed first in the list of his contributions to the progress of science.”’ G, lat, G. Wels, COWS Ole Wists, Ie IATL, COAL TRADE By Dr. Davin T. Day, CHIEF OF DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES, U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY N the average the total consump- tion in the United States of fuel of all kinds—hard and soft coal, wood, natural gas, and petroleum—is equivalent to about five tons of coal per year for each man, woman, and child. Of this about two-thirds of a ton is an- thracite and, approximately, three tons bituminous coal. At the mouth of the mine the anthracite is worth about $1.50 a ton and the soft coal $1 aton. Asa rule, the coal must be hauled not more than 150 to 200 miles to the consumer. These figures are low, compared with the cost in other parts of the world. The most fortunate element in these fundamental facts of our fuel supply is the short distance which the coal must be hauled from the mines to the con- sumer. In other words, coal deposits. are very generally distributed over the United States. This is a feature of greatest consequence in our exceptional prosperity as a nation: Further, the condition of the forests is still such that where there is least coal, wood is gener- ally cheap. Again, there are great tracts. of country where natural gas, and occa- sionally petroleum, can be used to pre- vent any great rise in the price of the general fuel, coal. ; It isa very difficult matter for the av- erage citizen to reconcile this low price at the mine with the actual cost of the coal delivered at his residence. This cost at the point of delivery ranges in Tue Rerai. ordinary times from 70 cents per ton, as a minimum, to over $10 for anthracite at a remote distance. ‘The railroad com- panies seldom receive less than a dollar a ton as their total charge for loading, transporting, and distributing a ton of coal, nor often more than $2.50. ‘Thus, ou the average, the freight more than doubles the cost of the coal by the time it reaches the city for consumption. Curiously enough, for only a few cents more than the rate for a short haul coal is often hauled over five times as many miles to competitive points. Thus the rate of hauling coal varies from one- tenth of a cent per ton for each mile hauled, as a minimum rate, to over twenty times that rate on certain short hauls. It costs the retail dealer $1 to take the coal from the cars and deliver it in the consumer’s cellar. The re- mainder of the cost of a ton of coal to the consumer represents the dealer’s profit. Thus, in New York the price of anthracite for stove size on the re- sumption of mining after the strike was $5.00 per ton at the dealer’s yard. cost of delivering this was as follows: Unloading at yard, 25 cents ; insurance, 2 cents; screening, 10 cents; hauling to consumer, 38 cents; delivery in cel- lar, 25 cents—total, $1.00. The general retail price is put down as $7.00, leaving the profit of the dealer $1.00, or 20 per cent on his cost. Under these conditions the supply of coal in the United States has been generally well up to the demand, and the trade has been fairly satisfactory; so that the pub- lic has taken little interest in the general coal supply beyond the mere price for each particular locality. The regions to be served by bituminous coal and those supplied by anthracite have, in general, been well defined. There has been keen competition at only a few points. In general, the requirements of the trade were well known and amply supplied, but late in the spring of this year an- The Coat TRADE 395 thracite mining was abruptly stopped by the great strike, and the small stock in the hands of dealers was at once ata premium. This small supply, which was weekly supplemented by meager shipments of coal washed from waste dumps at the mines, was carefully hus- banded and doled out only where abso- lutely necessary, like food in a siege or a famine. ‘The previously satisfactory supply of coal was profoundly disturbed. Anthracite supplied practically the en- tire fuel for a certain well-defined ter- ritory, including the states of New York, New Jersey, eastern Pennsyl- vania, and including also the principal consumers of coal as far south as Wash- ington. In calling this strike the miners took advantage of a favorable opportunity for continuing the discussion of issues between the coal miners and the oper- ators, which they did not consider sat- isfactorily concluded at the previous great strike, which lasted from Septem- ber 17 to October 27, 1go0o. The issues of the strike which has just closed, as definitely stated, are as follows: ‘“7. ‘That there shall be an increase of 20 per cent to the miners who are paid by the ton—that is, for men performing contract work. These men involve about 40 per cent of all the miners. 2. A reduction of 20 per cent in the time of per diem employés. The mines are operated about 200 days per year, ten hours per day. ‘This demand, if granted, would result in reducing the day to eight hours (20 per cent), so that the mines would be operated 240 days at about the same pay; hence an equivalent of 20 per cent increase in the earnings, no increase in the rates of per diem employés being demanded. 3. That 2,240 pounds shall constitute the ton on which payment is based for all coal mined where the miners are paid by weight. This would apply in 396 any district where weighing coal would be practicable and to those miners who are paid by the quantity, and not to those paid by the day. These are the specific demands formu- lated from alleged grievances existing in many ways at many of the collieries. They have been sources of increasing irritation between the miners and their employers for many years. Many of them have actually resulted from efforts of mine managers to devise the most intelligent means to make the amount of money earned the same in different mines for the same amount of work. Owing to the varying conditions in the different mines, particularly the varying thickness of the veins in which the miners work, different rates of pay are necessary where the miner is paid ac- cording to the amount mined. ‘The amount which a miner should receive for a ton of coal is further complicated by the proportion of slate which he sends to the surface in the coal. Rank carelessness in this respect on the part of the miner has led to much irritation with the company. It has led to the practice of guessing as to how much worthless slate is contained in every car of coal which is sent to the sur- face. Although the guessing is usually close, it is recognized as guess-work, and the miners are never contented with any system of book-keeping in which guess-work forms part. Guess-work and irritation will always be intimately associated in the anthracite mines. Among the different plans for adjust- ing the amount of wages to be paid in mining different seams of coal, the very intelligent method has frequently been used of paying a uniform price per car- load, and then varying the size of the car so as to fit the thickness of the vein in which the miner worked, so that the thinner the vein and the more difficult the mining, the less coal required to constitute a car-load. This varying car-load has always been looked upon Tue NarionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE with suspicion by the miner and has added to the general irritation. The coal strike of 1900 raised the general wages 10 per cent and did away with the artificial price charged for powder. ‘The other sources of irritation remained and formed a considerable in- centive for continuing the efforts for further discussion of the whole wage question with the operators at the first convenient opportunity. It must be pointed out also that beside the question of an arbitrary docking of the miner for slate in his coal, and the variable size of the car used, some change in the rate of pay, or, whatis the same thing, thelength of aday’s labor, must be made in favor of the men who work by day’s labor, if the newly made alliance of the anthracite miners with the United Mine Workers of America should be continued. There- fore, to hold all the day laborers, the engineers, pumpmen, etc., in the organi- zation, the other claims were added tothe formal demands on the operators. The strike promptly resulted on the 12th of May, when the operators refused even to consider these grievances, claiming with considerable justice that the settle- ment after the strike of 1900 had been accepted by the miners as satisfactory. On May 22 even the so-called ‘‘ washer- ies,’’ where the finer sizes of anthracite are separated from the old refuse dumps which have accumulated for many years, closed down. OnJune 2 the union, rec- ognizing that the engineers and pump- men were prospective gainers by the strike, called on the men to abandon the pumps and join in the strike. These men have heretofore been exempt from striking. They are employed perma- nently by the companies, and their work must go on, day and night, perma- nently, in order that the mines may be kept in good condition for future work. Calling them out involved a radical change in the attitude of the strikers. The irritation between the strikers and employers was manifestly increased, with THE RETAIL the result that troops were ordered to the mines and preparations for a long fight were completed on both sides. Although bituminous coal is the pop- ular steam-raising fuel in most industrial centers, this is not the case in the neigh- borhood of New York, and few people appreciate the enormous number of man- ufacturing interests in the vicinity of the great metropolis. ‘The supply of anthra- cite was rapidly cut off, and it was neces- sary to divert soft coal from its regular channels to supply a shortage of about one-fifth of our total supply and to fur- nish it in a region of the greatest indus- trial activity. To manysmallindustries it brought great hardship; to laundries and bakeries, forexample. It requires half a pound of coal to bake a loaf of bread. Anthracite is looked upon as the fuel for household use, but the famine came in the warmer months, when none was needed for house-heating. The great majority of the users of hard coal took little heed of it, nor did the general pub- lic have any conception of the hardships. actually suffered by industrial enter- prises around Philadelphia and New York in securing a substitute for an- thracite. In 1898 the price of soft coal was much lower than now, on account of overproduction. At first sight it would appear probable that this extra de- mand for soft coal to replace anthracite would have furnished a welcome outlet forextra production. Such was not the ease. The soft-coal producers had re- duced their yield and had also fortified themselves by yearly or longer con- tracts. It was necessary to fill these contracts, and only the surplus was available for the new trade. A more important obstacle to the relief from the bituminous mines was the difficulty in furnishing cars and motive power for hauling the coal from more remote bitu- minous mines. The capacity of the railroads had been limited closely to the Coat TRADE 897 previous conditions, in fact, too closely; for a shortage of cars was felt even under normal conditions in the previous year. Recognition of this condition made it worse, for every one hoarded coal. Thus an anthracite famine in the seaboard territory led to general coal scarcity far beyond the region of an- thracite’s usual influence. Our average citizen is habitually trust- ful and good-natured, and as long as continued warm weather postponed the necessity for house-heating, he dismissed the coal situation with faith that coal would be forthcoming by winter. By October 1, however, it was evident that the end of the strike was as far removed as ever. ‘The efforts of Pennsylvania’s political forces to secure a compromise were futile. This strengthened the miners and also reinforced the deter- mination of the operators. The outlook at once became serious, and the condi- tion was laid clearly before the people by the action of the President. This action served two other valuable pur- poses ; it caused the Governor of Penn- sylvania to use all his resources for the maintenance of peace in the anthracite coal region, and it served notice on the retail dealers who were hoarding coal that the strike was soon to end. In fact, they had less than two weeks in which to market their hoarded reserves. With the calling of the conference on October 3 went the full assurance to every one that the strike would be ended by the President. This article is designed, not to show the course of the great strike ; still less to point out any lines of just and per- manent settlement—conclusions which must follow the careful investigation of the Commission—but to outline the past and prospective course of the retail coal trade. ‘The announcement of the close of the strike marked high tide in the bituminous coal prices. The haste of all the producers to market every ton possible while high prices prevail, can 398 have only one result—lowering prices to somewhere fear a legitimate basis. The anxiety of the householder to fill his cellar at the present time is mate- rially lessened by the hope of cheaper coal in the near future. In the mean- time the coal scarcity has aroused great interest in all practical (and many im- practicable) substitutes for this kind of fuel. The recent interest in the oil fields of Texas rendered logical the efforts to substitute fuel oil for coal, and yet these efforts were practically fruit- less, simply because in the territory par- ticularly concerned, oil can never be a cheap fuel for heating purposes. It may be that the coal famine caused some slight advances in the construction of devices for burning oil in stoves and furnaces, but even when perfected, the cost of the fuel would be prohibitive. It can be briefly stated that oil at ten cents per gallon is about the equivalent of coal at $20 per ton. It is quite pos- sible that a beneficial result from the efforts to use oil may come at some time in the future, when the discovery of some new crude oil field may make it possible to spray crude oil into furnaces with an ordinary steam jet, with an eco- nomical result, and with the many ad- Tue NationaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE vantages which come from a liquid fuel. But many devices recommended, such as soaking bricks with kerosene, must be dismissed as absolutely unworthy of consideration. It may also be possible that the ad- vance in the construction of devices for burning refined oil, similar to the type of burners furnishing the Kitson light, may be sufficient to furnish a useful means of heating kitchen ranges in the summer time, in the place of illuminat- ing gas. The two substitutes for an- thracite which on the whole have gained in favor by means of the strike are bitu- minous coal and its two products—coke and illuminating gas. The use of gas ranges has permanently increased as a result of the strike. The advantages of coke have become more manifest, and the advantages of soft coal in rais- ing steam, even in household steam- heating plants, have been very favor- ably received by the public. On the other hand, the regret which will be felt at the general introduction of soft coal and its accompanying pall of smoke are so great as to justify much further endeavor to market this soft coal after it has been converted into the more agree- able forms of cheap fuel—gas and coke. SUBMERGED VALLEYS IN SANDUSKY BAY By Proressor E. L. MosEry, Sanpusky, OnIo MONG the captains o vessels A and others who have occasion to notice the stage of the water from time to time, the impression pre- vails that Lake Erie is getting lower, and that many of the harbors now in use are likely to become unsuited to deep-draft vessels. Some of them re- member the high water of 1858-1860, higher than they have ever seen since, while so recently as 1895 the water was lower than they had ever seen it before. Since 1895 it has been rising, and now stands about 16 inches higher than at the same time last year. ‘These fluctu- ations are due mainly to variations in the rainfall on the drainage basins of Lake Erie and the upper lakes. This year at Sandusky, in the two months June and July, more than half as much SUBMERGED VALLEYS IN SANDUSKY Bay rain fell as in the fourteen months be- ginning January, 1901. Examination of Weather Bureau records since the establishment of stations at upper lake ports shows that unusually high water in Lake Erie has been preceded by pe- riods of unusually heavy rains. If, however, considerable periods of time are considered, there is abundant evidence.to show that the lake is deep- ening instead of getting shallower, as limited observation has seemed to indi- cate ; nor is the process too slow to be noticed in a lifetime. Old men who were living only a few years ago at Put-in-Bay, Port Clinton, and San- ‘dusky could remember that when they were boys there was little or no water 599 formed only in the air, may be seen several feet below the present lake level, where they are being slowly dissolved. If we look for a cause of this deep- ening of the lake, it is to be found in a slow tilting of the earth’s crust in the Great Lake region. The old beaches so much utilized for roads in northern Ohio and farther east are roughly parallel with the south shore of Lake Erie, but several miles away from it. "They were formed at the margins of glacial lakes whose waters, being confined by the ice on the north and northeast, found an out- let to the Mississippi, first at Fort Wayne, Indiana, and later at different places across Michigan, the different WATER LEVEL WWW ]?>F vl: Fc LO Figure 1.—East and West Section—One Mile Long where it has since been several feet deep. Testimony of many witnesses ina lawsuit at Sandusky in 1844 showed that east of the city the water had been deepening since about 1823. Gauge readings at Erie and elsewhere show that at several times in the first half of the nineteenth century the water was lower than it has ever been since, and in the first quarter of the century con- siderably lower than in the second ‘quarter. The high water of 1858—’60 killed many trees that stood on the border of marshes connected with the lake. Hickory, walnut, elm, and syca- more of large size and probably more than 200 years old were killed at this time by high water keeping the ground ‘too wet around their roots. Stumps are still standing with roots in place, their tops now below the level of the lake. In the caves of Put-in-Bay sta- lagmites and stalactites, which can be beaches corresponding to the different levels of the outlets. Each beach at the time of its formation was approxi- mately level, being formed at the margin of a lake. Now, however, they show a rise as they are traced eastward. The Forest beach, upon which Euclid Ave- nue, Cleveland, is laid out, is the lowest and most recent of these beaches. ‘‘At Crittenden, N. Y., it is 168 feet higher than at Cleveland.’’* This shows a rise of the whole region to the east as compared with that to the west, involv- ing a rise of the outlet of Lake Erie as compared with the rest of the lake and causing a deepening of the water, espe- cially at its western end. Examination of the lake beaches does not show whether the tilting of the earth’s crust is still going on or ceased centuries ago. By comparing * Leverett. 400 the heights above the normal lake level in 1895 of a bench-mark in Cleveland and one at the head of the Welland Canal with the heights of the same as carefully determined in 1858, G. K. Gilbert found that the point near the northeast end of the lake rose as com- pared with the point in Cleveland. (See the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAG- AZINE for September, 1897.) This tilt- ing of the Great Lake basins, still con- 17 20 130+ 18 18 7 ‘ W7 23,2225 “ 20 18 14 19.24.3036 + 1S IS / ‘ /4 bof 4 We 3P26 30 323219 13 13 ae x 13 u } 19 ‘ 709 2109 8 918 20388 7778 8 8 8 | Lene B Of Fe OF Dp he 7a 7 7777206 6 66 67 7 8 NS) 6 > 135-47+ é te ps8 Sandusky ish yy 3 ae 3 H Line A 6 po) One Mile Figure 2.—Depth in Feet to Clay tinuing, is doubtless the cause of the deepening of the water witnessed by old residents and shown by gauge read- ings and the submergence of stalag- mites and stumps. That it was going on continuously for centuries before the first settlements were made on the shores of the lake and before the oldest trees killed by the high water of 1858 began to grow we have considerable evidence to show. Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE As the lake has deepened it has ex- tended over the lowlands about its west- ern extremity, forming marshes at the mouths of all the streams, making bays. of some of the marshes, converting pe- ninsulas into islands and islands into- reefs. At many places in northern Ohio- roads and houses have been moved south on account of the encroachment of the water. Many orchards have fallen into thelake. The same is true of the Cana- dian shore. Nowhere is there any building up at all comparable with the amount of land lost. Since 1809, when the first survey was made, more than 500: acres have been lost in Erie county along the lake and in the eastern part of San- dusky Bay, while the enlargement of the western part of the bay probably amounts. to several square miles. That Put-In- Bay, Kelleys Island, and the others in the western part of Lake Erie were cut off from the mainland in earlier centu- ries by the gradual extension of the lake is shown by a study of their flora. All the plants that are well distributed in similar soil on the mainland are found also on the islands, and it is difficult to see how some of them could have reached the islands while the latter were separated by such wide expanses of water asnow exist. (Fora full discus- sion of this see Sandusky Flora, Ohio- State Academy of Science, Special Pa- pers, No. 1.) As the water has risen it has extended the lake level into the valleys of streams, so that navigable water is found along the lower portion of many streams. whose drainage area is so small that the stream, if seen at any point above slack water, might be regarded insignificant. In January, 1901, an attempt was. made to trace out into Sandusky Bay the valleys of some of the streams that. enter it by examining the bottom with an auger suitably rigged. The plan proving feasible, the work was contin- ued as long as the ice was safe that win- ter and the next. The bottom of the KELLEY’S ID. SAN DU S* \ e) Oo | ~ Gustot Jed MARGARETTA PER Ava Figure 3.—Sandusky and Vicinity \_AoAn B7brbe7e. 402 bay is nearly level, so that soundings giving the depth of the water do not disclose any valleys. By testing the bottom at numerous points along lines transverse to the general course of the stream, it was found that off the mouth of each stream was soft mud containing organic matter and readily distinguished from the glacial drift on either side. It had been thought that the glacial clay might be softened by being covered by water so long, but experience showed THe NationaL GeEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE Figure 1 shows a cross-section of the valley of Mills Creek, three-eighths of a mile out from the present mouth. Figure 2 shows the depth in feet to clay in the part of Sandusky Bay ex- tending north from the mouth of Mills Creek a distance of 2 miles. To avoid crowding, some of the numbers have been omitted. Along line A were made 41 holes 8 rods apart. Excepting near the western end, they show the clay to be everywhere 6 to 8 feet below the sur- One Mile i Figure 4.—Valley Extending Under Marsh from Guston Inlet to Cedar Point that as a rule the weight of two men would push the auger but a few inches or a foot or two into this clay, whereas it might be pushed 20 feet or more into the deposits made since the glacier. The agitation of the water by waves has caused the loose mud to fill the original valleys, making the bottom of the bay approximately level. ‘These valleys, made by the streams when they flowed miles farther than now to reach the lake, are thus traceable by the lines of soft mud. face—such uniformity as to indicate that the original inequalities were planed off by wave action. Line B, parallel to A and almost 2 miles long, shows nearly as much uniformity. From the place of deep mud on line A a line of deep mud extends to the present mouth of Mills Creek and in the opposite direction to the line of deep mud that marks the former course of the Sandusky River. The valleys of two streams east of the city, Pipe Creek and Guston Inlet, one in the open bay and one in the marsh SUBMERGED VALLEYS IN SANDUSKY Bay (see figure 3), have been traced across to Cedar Point and the valleys of five other streams entering the bay or marsh traced for short distances or intersected by lines of holes at one or more places. The submerged valley of Sandusky River, which empties into the west end of the bay, was intersected by six north and south lines. It reaches a depth of more than 4o feet before entering the lake. The valley extending under the marsh from Guston Inlet to Cedar Point was one of the easiest to trace. Along the belt indicated on figure 4, not much wider than the valley of the brook be- fore it enters the marsh, 35 holes were made through the muck. Atall of them the hard bottom is deeper than at the nearest holes outside the lines. The present channels through the marsh do not follow the buried valleys. In the deeper parts of these valleys in the marsh the auger penetrates 20 feet of organic matter,and with an extension piece this would doubtless be found to extend several feet lower. In the open bay the valleys are filled with mud, the lower portion of which contains an abun- 403 dance of molluscan shells and vegetable matter. In some places, even at adepth of 32 feet, the peat shows that a marsh existed there when the lake was that much lower. These buried marshes seem to indicate that the depression of the land has not been interrupted by any periods of elevation sufficient to allow the streams to carry away the remains of the marsh vegetation. In attempting to trace the valley of Mills Creek I found a small valley north of Sandusky which I supposed for some time to connect with Mills Creek, but which proved to be an extension of a lit- tle stream that formerly flowed through the city, whose water was long ago di- verted to sewers. Along its course the streets had been graded and the yards filled, so that probably very few, except- ing the older residents, knew that a nat- ural stream once flowed past their prem- ises. The discovery of these submerged valleys in Sandusky Bay is an additional verification of the theory that the post- glacial tilting of the Great Lake basins has not yet ceased. mioGheNAVES OF THE UNITED S@ATes HE origin of some ten thousand place names in the United States is given in a recent bulletin by Mr Henry Gannett, published by the U.S. Geological Survey. ‘The names are well distributed throughout the country. The author, in his preface, disclaims universal accuracy, but hopes that the work may arouse interest and criticism, so that all possible informa- tion on the subject may be obtained and published in a later edition. There is much difference of opinion about the origin of many names, as the follow- ing extracts from the bulletin well illus- trate : Chicago; city and river in Illinois. The origin of the word is from the In- dian, being a derivation by elision and French annotation from the word Chi- kaug-ong. Col. Samuel A. Starrow used the name in a letter to Gen. Jacob Brown, in 1816, as follows: ‘‘ The River Chicago (or in the English, Wild Onion River).’’ Schoolcraft in 1820 said: ‘‘ Its banks stated to produce abundantly the wild species of cepa or leek.’’ Bishop Baraga gives: ‘‘ From Chicag, or Sikag, “skunk,’ a kind of wild cat.’”’ John Turner defines skunk as she-gahg ; onion, she-gau-ga-winzhe, ‘‘skunk 4.04 weed.’’ When the word first appeared the country was inhabited by a tribe of Miamis, in whose dialect the word for skunk was ‘‘se-kaw-kwaw.’’ It issaid that the wild cat, or skunk, was named from the plant. Coney; island at the extremity of Long Island, New York, which is said by some to have been so named because of the numbers of rabbitsthere. Another theory ascribes it to the winds having driven the sand into truncated cones. It appears, however, to have been orig- inally called Congu, which may suggest another derivation. Chesapeake ; bay in Maryland which gives name to several places in the country. An Indian name variously ex- plained. Heckewelder says it is cor- rupted from Tschischwapeki, which is compounded of kitski, ‘‘ highly salted,’’ and peek, ‘‘a body of standing water, a pond, a bay.’’ Others give che, ‘“great,’’ aud sepi, ‘‘ waters.’’ Bos- man interprets it as ‘‘ mother of waters.”’ W. W. Tooker says that the early form was Chesepiooc, from k’che-sepi-ack, “country on a great river.’’ California ; one of the states of the Union. This name was applied by Cor- tez to the bay and country, which he supposed to be an island. The namie is that of an island in an old Spanish ro- mance, where a great abundance of precious stones were found. Eight post-offices bear this name. Canada ,; villages in Marion County, Kansas ; Pike County, Kentucky, and Muskegon County, Michigan, named from the Dominion of Canada. Author- ities differ as to the derivation of this name. Father Hennepin says the Span- iards were the original discoverers of the country, but upon landing they were disappointed in the general ap- pearance, and expressed their feelings by saying, ‘“‘Il capa di nada,’”’ ‘‘ Cape Nothing.’’ Sir John Barlow says the Portuguese, who first ascended the St. Lawrence, believing it to be a passage Tue NationaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE to the Indian Sea, expressed their dis- _ appointment when they discovered their mistake by saying ‘‘ Canada,’’ ‘‘ Noth- ing here.’’ ‘This the natives are said to have remembered and repeated to the Europeans who arrived later, who thought it must be the name of the country. Dr Shea says the Spanish derivation is fictitious. Some think it was named for the first man to plant a colony of French in the country, Mon- sieur Cana. Charlevoix says the word originated with the Iroquois Indians, Kanata, or Kanada, ‘‘a collection of huts, a village, a town,’’ which the early explorers mistook for the name of the country. Other etymologies pro- pose the two Indian words, Kan, ‘‘a mouth,’’ and ada, ‘‘a country ;’’ hence ‘the mouth of the country,’’ originally applied to the mouth of the St. Law- rence. ‘There is a respectable authority that the name was first applied to the river. Lescarbot tells us that the Gas- perians and Indians who dwelt on the borders of the Bay of Chaleur called themselves Canadaquea ; that the word meant ‘‘ province or country.’’ Sweet- ser says that the word came from the Indian Caughnawaugh, ‘“‘ the village of the rapids.’’ Brant, the Indian chief- tain, who translated the gospel into his own language, used the word canada for ‘‘ village.’’ Chautaugua, county in Kansas ; county, lake, and town in New York. An Indian word which has been the sub- ject of much controversy. Webster says it isa corruption of a word which means “foggy place.’’? Another derivation gives the meaning as ‘‘ bag tied in the middle,’’ referring to the shape of the lake. It is also said to mean ‘‘ place where a child was washed away.’’ Dr Peter Wilson, an educated Seneca, says it is literally ‘‘ where the fish was taken out.’’ Other meanings given are ‘“ place of easy death,’’ ‘“‘ place where one was lost.’’ Brandywine ; creek in Pennsylvania. Prace Names oF THE UNITED STATES According to a tradition, the name is derived from the occasion of a vessel laden with brantewein (brandy), which was lost in its waters. Other author- ities derive it from Andrew Braindwine, who owned lands near its mouth in early days. A third theory is that the slough near Downington discharged its muddy waters into the creek, tinging it the color of brandy. A celebrated battle was fought there, which accounts for the name being given to eight places in the country. Des Moines; river, county, and city in Iowa. This name is thought to have been derived from the Indian word mikonang, meaning ‘“‘the road.’’ This name was applied by the Indians to a placein the form of Moingona, which the French shortened into Moin, calling the river ‘‘ riviéredes moins.’ Finally the name became associated with the Trappist monks, and the river by a spuri- ous etymology was called ‘‘lariviére des moines,’’ ‘‘ the river of the monks.’’ Laramie; county and city in Laramie County, Wyoming, named for Jacques Laramie, a French trapper. San Francisco; bay, county, and city in same county, in California, said by some to have been named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco de Assisi ; by others to have been named for the founder of the order to which Father Junipero, the discoverer of the bay, belonged. Delaware; river, state, counties in Indiana, Iowa, New York, Ohio, and 4.05 Pennsylvania, named for Lord de la Warr, governor and first captain-gen- eral of Virginia. Many small places also bear this name. A tribe of Indians were known by this name, and in the case of the county in Indiana, the name was given because this tribe had villages within the boundaries of the county. Niagara; county in New York and river between Lake Erie and Lake Onta- vio. An Indian word meaning ‘* across the neck or strait,’’ or “‘ at the neck.’’ Shenandoah ; county and river in Vir- ginia, city in Page County, Iowa, bor- ough in Schuylkill County, Pennsylva- nia, and town in Page County, Virginia. An Indian word said by some to mean ‘“the sprucy stream ;’’ by others, ‘‘a river flowing alongside of high hills and mountains ;’’ and still another authority states that it means ‘‘ daughter of the stars.” Massachusetts; one of the thirteen original states. An Indian word mean- ing ‘‘at or near the great hills.’’ Ac- cording to other authorities, ‘‘ the hill in the shape of an arrow-head,’’ ‘‘ great hill mouth,’’ ‘‘ the blue hills.’’ Montana, state in the Union.