yhasabae sud bee gene uu toe eeeee Sosaeae? eas slisiudee seh Se bands nena Seynagand Vevaen aay nies aesiavaa pecan aoe esas EWEG GADD EERE AAS O TEAS en rr ree ee ce ee re eee) Seas aa eT OVORD TT ea bt Hera HS Pv ee saeda setae devoneud wuderted peer tier he waPaoHuev re dned sorry tobaan sae byae wn aead seeds red rea rd adn gan les hugessudge riedthdanse vbagsaeatere dad Vevae gun OeTGROLE PTET nn oeeee Visaevas baneaseae a reer re Pier ee koe ere CC Pree rrrrerrs Pete ere tee eee Pea ede d er hed e tab aedusine Va bees renane Vbee beets bovaeaae PAT ODED Pane a baad Sed dad odpboeaasad pyewoseraantumse rid dodo eteorenendmr eure ray feeb bead dd vas eddd ordered dap rand heaatusd aver puabeevverataann Li ayesabok budebeduaeroedene Susvivedaatenieeaeian nesrtaud? barievrincutes beg ed rae bib bas bberaewan pesebetue sun's tare aodtaneeaeds aus habaeseas eer reer ere eer re eee Oe a We ee rar el taddad Lee drer eres ersbediniupenaniae PeRP eH dei eHanaraa’d yeseone ee fvuauds@sgoudgsehagaad ee ee ee ee ee rola Dud se ene tag ene! anaqezian iodtaeeerabrve betes sien eerie eanan poebe cag are ederd ren ad erative waa Paeddneye ee apree veuriteand eeumat tree oat Tosser erransae titre Weereerereserrr te Te eeee ee eee ea Shee eand roe saved DOE Ha mamadudg de GeV V HGRA D IDO woe ed Fidivbvandeyiewe ear tana tae Pn ee pede at den aa terre) pbneaed sant iadra Gaetud yas ee Daeeh ea inaearuaes Vegbanipe® aighbeund ise peeaeannoen ut be bveoaiUeagee atone Hae ee douoagy Gea vane ered are ar: wivoanse® eaauen Aaiasedaiadh hiner ee rr) verpuyrdaed pdgeezthvownd Suceeendarad shergaNeae er Higeeaboabenav anna we doen ia eee wy aisovsearad Suse vena ree iupoodeneasy sa peetivrodineaee pevvae wage ear ore nine vo antnduenrdu ee taint ueeee aun waa soadaee dues papene jdanneatns diuuaiaed Piaveme ds i wedia eridaaga yesouanaty eb. neta peu ohbsgunek naeveunusd nase nnod iad eek a reecer anne fedeanes iu danev sine rn guabn dies wong ne ben wn enna e weet aeow VG ee thar unease TKD ada ren dakar phi eo lanapanec one bananas ee ed yueere when aaushumugnr ye yh eense Oe budalond anal SGarhogsinengons aodanan yun ae) Aan gaud aaa Weng tunnda Weuwnges henna ate nae vom ne aiunen a eee Nie henh oop ere Pe ee Guaacavayy sa ay wane neti wena vy sseporaren eater er ee ce ee Suehovadarandamd agin sabes senbiubiaar nun peon ay Lov h omen ewe neue nent wake aadan iapee ew) ” au bo ain uae Tt rewnin Vandasg nas rlaguaaeih and onihienuvenR owen sa canna waa aga ant Gaakaa wud, rakpuowaan WH dared etal ne rede war i wie wt wane aan Vewadpvands hp dp te Dearne peeuaiaenge reed sad eee ee ae Da AAR Ve dodgaete ear ea Pumaavadae sane roma ewe oad inbenw Ee ta nine ya ge ee anit wee ns flea sina. eee i iadh dh aah em Samaniganawaaa lt Went Pare ear nr averarecnranin Lite nih Wea eel are ae Wooten ney ee Wrenner ett Re Creer oa reheat Suen yan pueanunanity AOR Hae ee Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson es a ee SS: a ee KS ih “hh 7 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY Editor GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editor JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE Contributing Editors A.W. GREELY | ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’! U.S... DAVID G. FAIRCHILD C. HART MERRIAM eae Rae Member National Academy of Sciences DIESE ot Acceelture. aporahons. O. H. TITTMANN “ Superintendent of U, S. Coast and Geo- HUGH M. SMITH detic Survey Commissioner, U.S, Bureau of Fisheries. ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN N. H. DARTON U. S. Geological Survey WALTER T. SWINGLE FRANK M. CHAPMAN Vol. XXV— January-June, 1914 AEM SONIA w~ COPYRIGHT 1914 BY / ‘ THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ( OV 5 1981 HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL \ N WASHINGTON, D. C. CONTENT Here and There in Northern Africa, by FRANK EDWARD JOHNSON...........---.---- Battling with the Panama Slides, by WiLL1AM JosEPH SHOWALTER......... oot SelM, The Panama Canal, by Lieut. Col. Wirtzam L. Srpert, U. S. A., Engineer in Charge EMAC M NGAI CT CMO Ly A SHO Iwan ie. ... 378 Illus. ..... 376, 379, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 430 Imternior co thresmililitsenesreta tate cece eres cretens 3890 Private house of Governor of, illus..... 390 Paro Valley, Warm, Wouse im; ius... 5. ...%0s 6 399 Poonakha, Colnmtyanduaty WilUse ae asec e © ee eee 408 aaa wo bee Sia, aut-esee wate ee ee 4 ae 406, 407 Group taken in author’s camp at, illus.. 413 Our reception at, described............. 394 ALM TAS Hae verses 5 Aeeooee nee ie Re ore uc meer 404 Prayer wheels driven by water............. 419 leAbboieuidatel, “iWovelesy sting gonna same o adage 5 donoc 440 Royal-tanily Of; iisic. 0s ose es oe een ae 434 Sangachoiling, House of Sir Ugyen’s sisters at, Describedeetscirs so tel. Bier skelsveve tse eres 423 DUS Saeegereveroeere cc: sas wether s aise eos 426, 447 Shabdung Rimpoches’ house, illus.......... 416 Simtoka Jong, Described! “sts ae. Cite. aed eS ee ae ee 394 MASS ete telat GRA graghodee @tielaus @ sar ae) Sake a teuehe 398 Ta-lo lama and attendants, illus.:.........- 415 Tashi-cho-jong, described........s-%.00+ 381, 383 Views of, illus.... 392, 393, 395, 396, 397, 441 Tchin-Chu Gorge, described..............0- 377 Waew? 1p (thes lis tes oo ee iicn canes etree 449 Timbered house, Good example of, illus..... 403 Tongsa Jong, IWESCrIbed. accede repartee ee eee 419 Webel Jal oleh, ones subktiss os bod Gonbadaoooc 448 Lamas and novitiates at, allus........e.. 424 Views of, “alls... :22.<. 420, 421, 422, 423,.432, 433, 439, 444 WATTS TO erty LITT -Ye ce otateset ate citaue aro oxe ete ae 425 Ugyen Wang-Chuk, Sir, King of, Castle and official residence of, illus.... 432 Councilors of, described and illus....... 412 DOSCEIDEM s mtaare ad a ase eas We os GAN aed 428 Bama Ve by ail Smee @ a eeeneeas he oa ahs pee an 434 IREVIEYAS) one, MUG oo obo os G6 doo bh oo Oe 437, 446 Portraityol a Wiisscer, 5 eiets & eve cas ceiete tare 429 Singing girls “or, WluSs. 9. 8..<5,..4252 o.3 435 Village, A, prettily situated in, illus......... 400 Water for irrigation, Method of carrying, in, illuus.......... 401 Bhutanese, Wortnessi las WG. ec aa ee ited eet ois 381 Officials, Group of, described........... 377, 381 IDS Ta Steins fe cteeek teres eee RS cee tae contr 411, 391 Orderies? lia. sic Satta eink whe Case AII BIRDS AROUND THE HOME, ENCOUR- ZN GDING cient wean iene mae be re ae sie ee 206 Birds, Audubon food-houses, illus................. 27 Barn-swallow on its nest, illus.............. 324 Berlepsch bird-box, Flickers using a, illus.... 323 BIRDS 71 Canary, used in mine rescue work, illus......---- 207 Cape Nome, Alaska, : Eskimo girls near, illus.......-----+-++-++5: 198 Caravan on the march, A, illus.......--.+-+ eee: 130 CASTLES IN THE AIR: EXPERIENCES AND JOURNEYS IN UNKNOWN BHUTAN...... 365 Cat was worshipped, Why the........-.+--++-+eee: 345 Cedros, Hacienda de, Mexico, DESCrIDCHS shee cote ciecerslere oes eters #10 aie eneeioirons cles 563 Scenes. on, ilJus...... 564, 565, 567, 579, 571, 572, 574, 575 Street in the village of, illus..........-.---- 568 Chagres River, Panama, On the Upper, illus... 3. 0545.2 ses sees ee 155 Sport on the, illus..........e eee eee eee eens 156 Witew, One thes, Wits ssc a strc sce es one ee ete siteeno eu 154 Chapman, Frank M., A naturalist’s journey around Vera Cruz and TAMPICO waccievis «sa beac sis wees siege ee 533 Chenini; Tunis, Odsis of). ills. 6.245. s2.- 02a 84 Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico, Astronomical Observatory at, Mescnibeds sxe. ts. sxcvcveo ross sate crege oe, 593, 597 MD TSS oncce) caeneueticol © ao Sake ei ccue ale naueiesvon ene tateretelerrs 600 IDYe(unlo(acl qo ooo AGO Idee hin amet Sou Gar oomt.c 585 WEG EMdY Os. orga cucele nt anes eae Scuestene ayere ae 601 Mayan mural paintings at,. Wescribedtvate seis ale oeidivie oes oleberesee secures 593 MAT WS Ghee al ccs era cuore Sueser take lene) 6 Gyoteessenneus 596, 606 Mayan, Prison at, DWESCLIDE aicietecssterguevog 008 2.0. ot aaeie ake spatousy os 593 ATT US ee aoa ace oe ssig anes Seaone ths is ee ener ce stonerans 598 Moles of ceremonial court, WD CSCTIDE YS side oc es wc eee yee ss Sees ee 590 WTS. 2 c-cd oto oteaere ete ae sc aire occurs nt ote pyo 592 Nunnery, The, DESCEIDE | ssceeucl ons Sutvauclsta is -G: suede yarenonen a teLoue 597 TANTS Hees Aric acne gas wee ere ayens erat ures 602, 603 Sacred pvell ont, TS. cuc 25 ao sess tenance 591 Tablet of stone at, Described es cus orc rete aie Bena gee Geass ens 601 MMSE OSes elke evan alevslekare snob oinciardeiuee 605 Temple, Great Pyramid, of, Described i.5,s tae stents = Sensnste reeuess 585, 587 MBN S84 Fe a tayers pavers ay fgea nse reeiahn tevana ore 586, 588, 589 Temples, Small, of, Wescrn beds 2i.06ceG eases Moe ens be eede 590, 593 MTS execone soksieione ous, eeeke 2 san aun iereaceleranne 594, 595 Chihuahua, Mexico, actus: any vill aSircecs teres ee acters cose aera 473 Characteristic scene in, illus: 22256-20236. 582 ’ Children of the south, of Tunisia, illus...... 74, 81 Ghinese’ sal@ works, tus... oe ces ects oe Ge sree 226 Coaling stations, Importance of 2.752. .6c005-.5- 246 Coal resources, Diagram illustrating............. 205 Colima, Mexico, Pastoral scenes neatzy Ililttswermierers aes eiste eos eine 476 College of interpreters, Ha-noi, China, illus...... 227 Colon’ Panama, Breakwater ater «sem acces | 155 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD, THE PROBABLE EFFECT OF THE PANAMA’ CANAL ON “LHR. ....5... 245 Co-operation of Federal Government with States... 210 Cordoba, Mexico, Market at, illus. ...........:. 681 Costumes, Bhutanese allusiescw. ee -cseste tote mee eueee 427, 444 lnlshayegberehal, sMUbbisn.c noun guacocodc 233, 230, 240; 241 Courtyard, line thes harem etmisss allttS serene: dene scenes 17 OfvanwArab Wotise, millltiservesmes fave eseart se ere 38 MetO SOG yie wm eAG AllltSlotete s-eleceersis eee ereriale sere eu 7 Cucaracha slide, Panama, WD CSCribed eect oclebecin ses ste io aint cee ee. I4I Steam shovels removing, illus............... I51I Cuernavaca, Mexico, Boys. at, tlus.....4 22-2... 612 Culebra Cut, Panama, illus..... E4135. T40, 1412) 143 Slidess and etheses mat ec) connie ee ee 163 Custom, Avternible. vot the Sahara. sees... sene ee. 79 OG) yet Wateecwl tunes described)... .14 nee eeisee eis eee) eke eter ee 123 MMS ip oe Miers eaey trates to heel aoe eens eeucbrae eee 89, 90, 91 IWiaiK Ct Sy satiety, 27s aus tekie cos! are aie ve canada t oe etea Wetees oats 132 Date-palm, The, AMdlahts=ereatest ett, allies seen. ctsiciet. 2 37 Bre gemdinOl = th Gscc, ban. susteet natelaue shale siecs a aechecere.« 117 VIII Page Department of the Interior, Wears work oh thesis eras micusieieneisuetel-tetetelelelers 225 Desert, Superb racing camels of the......-+.+ee- 71 Scouting “im: the, allusists cia. 3 c's oete nue were ele serene 126 Diagram illustrating coal resources, illus......... 205 DISCOVERY AND INVIGNDION a tescie oie i- vero 649 Dress, Indoor, of a Tunisian maid, illus......... 42 tH ee BWducation, Modern, in Tunis.........6..+++--0- 62 El-Oued, Tunisia, Market day, -at, illusi 3% css. sieeve vies 1 oie, ene 116 (ORES michric,, Whites soqangundounotununn bao0dC 114 Waews cot, malls tinge cutee cece cys eterke eect eyene Testes ENCOURAGING BIRDS” ARO UN DEL [SC OUME On enn copra sito MLAs Geno Orem oO OO OOS 315 England, Scenesmin rural; allusevee s sey. nic sete ete reer 229 Some English cave-dwellers, illus........... 230 eCTe2 Falconers, The, northern Africa, illus......--- 34, 66 Fantasia, Arab horsemen ready for a, illus....-- 10 Fig tree, Tamesi River, Mexico, Wb o a womcAcdoor 537 Fish, Flying, Mexico.......-.-seeeeseesecrecees 534 Florida, Phosphate mine in, illus........+-+++-++-- 208 Food-bell-: The, ius ize oo % 's nvaies < oegnjerele io anrterscneiesels 331 Food-plants, Some useful.........-.+eseeeeeeees 327 OG GE Gabes, Africa, Waterfall in an oasis near, illus........---- 97 Gatun Lake, Panama Canal, Drowning trees in, illus.........ee-eeeeeees £75 Dying jungles in, illus........0eeseeeeeeees 174 Floating islands of, illus.......--++++eeeees 163 Gatun Locks, Panama Canal, ; Cross-section of side wall compared to six- Story building:. sc «sc cr «eee a i= ee 181 Cross-sections showing how the locks are filled and iemptiedsu «-crisipyewierst- ysis 0s se sceoee 181 Dredging fleet in the middle lock at, illus.... 167 Entrance to upper locks, illus.......-+.+eees 168 First boat through the, illus............-+6- 162 Floating islands obstructing the, illus.......- 172 Wock gates, The illus.c ii. sae o= se cscleerai= cis 165 Locomotives of the}, allusiye tire. sw ere el ener 171 Operating, for the first time, illus........... 164 Suction dredge entering, illus..........+-..- 166 Girl, A little Bedouin, illus..........--.2++--0: 8, 80 Glacier Creek, Alaska, Hydraulic smining) 100.2% .tcsesreye © ore olor anal 190 Goethals, Colonel George W., Honored by National Geographic Society..... 677 Response of, to presentation of medal by National Geographic Society............-- 683 Gorgas, Colonel, Work in Panama and Cuba of.............- 350 Graveyard in North Africa,-illus...............- III Grosvenor, Gilbert H., Director National Geo- graphic Society, Address by. ....2.. 0.5.1.2 20 679 Guadalupe, Mexico, Chapel) of the -wellUat;sillus tone or re) creneteton suns 610 Scenes at railroad station in, illus...... 611, 612 Stone: sails at, dlls cme oe eee ee 609 GUARDIANS ON THE DEEP MOUR Gre. scien 655 Guaymas, Mexico, Scenesinallus:2..-2oiaccteers eee nie eines 615 Waews ofp walllisic: (issues cheteteiers retiree eee eens 614 Guermessa, Africa, The curious Troglodyte town of, Described ee 5 ee eee ee eee 3 CS BG ooo Da oro Ooo oO co Sole. ao ob GO6.6-00 0 5 Gunsight Lake, Montana, Prom, Mount: Jiacksonmallltisse eerie ceca terre 221 OS Be Halley comet, Effect of the, on Jews and Arabs.. 96 Ha-noi, Tonkin, College of interpreters at, illus............. 227 Head-dress, Tehuana Indians wearing famous, illus...... 360 Hemlock and pine, on Mt. Orizaba, Mexico, illus. 555 Henshaw, Henry W., ‘Birds of stown and {counthye. se tere a 494 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page HERE AND THERE IN NORTHERN AFRICA 1 Holland, Dutch school-girls in, illus............. 238 HOLY LAND; VILLAGE LIFE IN SHE eee 249 Holy Land, Agricultural pursuits in the, Wescribeduem se secre 276, 279, 281, 284, 296 USER cercsenn ey cere totece 272, 282, 283, 202,)301,.312 Bethlehem, Grotto of the Nativity in, illus.......... ‘304 Street scene in, illus... ... s/o. 2-1 erento 303 Building methods in the, illus........... 250, 252 Costumes, Of men’ illus erst oie emeer omnes 269, 313 Of women, - ils. cin cs «sc cr smornenennene 262, 307 David slew Goliath, How, Described’: estar oie ciel ones cectev ee skesiemetenet en eteme 295 TWSi) oie oe hard eae espe see ee 280 Elijah, Where the ravens fed, illus.......... 278 Family life in the, Deseribed: 2.5 h.:..0s sere ole erste ener 257, 261, 262 VN Soe ber ichae op sua tebetevesucah speeeoe 250.2075. 27/ 70304. Galilee, The Sea of, at sunrise, illus........ 290 Garden of Gethsemane, The, illus............ 302 Guest chamber, The village, Described .cj23055 S26 be oe oe ene A 253 TUS. a eGiene ala'e scott: 9 deabola: Keone eee ere eae 254 Industries, in the, illus...::.- 274, 275, 2806, 207, 299, 301 Jerusalem, Scenes ain serillltistepaaeice 287, 289, 293, 308, 310 Views or, silltis cece 266, 268, 294, 298 Jewels of Bible times and today............. 264 Land, The, conserves the old customs....... 251 Marriage customs of the, Described a5 cack sce ee 273, 276 TS o + s.d.ecs,cre, es 38 se ele ee 307, 309 Omar, Mosque of, Jerusalem, Beneath the dome of--iilusta. cee 305 Legend: Of 5. 06 .Se s/s svete ei cteheerarats Cenneeene 284 Poor; Care: of the; in thes... 3.2 eee eee 291 Roadside scene in the, illuss: =e eee 255 Roadway scenes in the, illus.... 260, 289, 300, 306 Shepherds and their flocks, illus.... 280, 282, 283 Types of village people in the, illus.... 265, 28s, 288, 297, 299, 313 HOME OF A FORGOTTEN RACE, THE...... 585 HONORS TO COLONEL GOBT EARS? ocer 677 Hookworm disease, The, Cure, A simple‘and casyis ine ee 353 Vanquished... sie eere 4 oases CP ee eer 353 Horsemen, Arab, ready for a fantasia, illus...... 10 Hungary, Bride and bridegroom of, The, illus......... 241 Family group an; allus?..>- asses eee 240 Shepherd boys on the great plains of, illus... 233 Slovak girls’ in their best; illuss5. sce 239 LU fae Idaho, United States, Apple growing in the desert in, illus........ 214 Iguanas, Mexican, Described eee sie feo ses ie w eterna e+ oe 545 MS ss uN ecdielstd posted elec Smet ee 560 Ixtaccihuatl, Mexico, Summit; cof sllus. cs: ociee caus jhe 0 cee ee 641 View from) Sllus.:.:0.50 hohe tes | Ae 563 Wiew of; illuSee.is atte am Sous hee ee 640 see Jalapa, Mexico, Primary. school ans Ay alliseesss ss ss eee 678 Jerico, Medicine woman. of, The; illus: ....:. sea 265 Road: tors tluisi sic veccctote e bteces scale eos eee 271 Jew, Am Arabian, -illlus:c vice aces. che occ 288 Johnson, Frank Edward, Here and there in northern Africa.......... I Jusserand, Honorable J. J., the French Ambassa- dor, Address of, at banquet of National Geo- fraphic: Society sc%-5.. . «ocrsns svete ech ge ee eee 688 iad Kennard, Frederick H., Encouraging birds around the home......... 315 Keokuk, Iowa, Generators of power plant at, illus......... 211 Power dam Great. ati dlllttsceeerc eterna 210 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXvV,.1914 IX Pag Kirkwood, J. E., Nee Vilexicatie hacien Gan cary sisters a debts) coher 5 iets 563 5 ae La Beneficencia, Mexico, Sigestas Matly., TWUlUSiii sews cc hone eens es 362 Lake Patzcuaro, Mexico, Wescribeds andi alluste.. ees «ce. te sees oe es 634 Lake Xochimilco, Mexico, PO atten OM a TIS os 05. cls! cise lerors «5 ore boars s ore as 638 TCS MMMIITIA DEL ss s%ejcce vis: s. cfei sol eis v eteneleiale sive 's «fais Gis 207 Aridh of-ereat American desert........ 24.00% 207 Lane, Franklin K., The Nation’s undeveloped resources......... 183 Wevee, Evolding an early morning...!...........: 32 Level, The most perfect, in the world, illus...... 675 Lobos de Afueva Islands, Peru, PRG MCATISMOINs TUS ee) orc cerene: oi'0-6. 414 os 0 os Bi erecs S14, 515 Locust, IANS B. Hoa ss SAA pee Oe on rare ree re 83 Concerning the camel and the.............’. 62 Nymphs more destructive than the.......... 83 Poe mOie 1M, AIS ETI as 2 ties snobs Sees sie evens oe 82 COTY, (ea McDermott Lake and Falls, Montana, illus...... 216 Maidens, Tunisian, of high rank, illus........... 14 Mialatia,in the “tropics, Fight against.....:....+.. 350 Mann, Hon. James R., Address by, at banquet of National Geo- RAP C MOOCICLY. a) .voisrocs ave 6 axe ¢ srepe sissies 8 we 076 687 Map-making from photographs, NDESCI HSC ccs iesists ss ais aus. + Sveiedeuess, cole attviale weost ea! cus 669 HAD SPM ne ccs Site sides lovely ilens sete Sieutue Seatea ¢ 674 a POE Alaska, supplement, February. @ PaCS ete be te hels oe ansic A euseetens ats hla snataorsiai 453 Of Mexico, supplement, May. Showing network of primary triangulation in Me MOTITES GS EACES o's aiiors. cue'ens sete, wns'el a F as oa a) os © Of gg 3 o peed S ates th transform a barren stretch of sand irrig The canal shown here HERE AND THERE IN NORTHERN AFRICA 49 “A lion of the Sahara, the king of beasts, said to himself, ‘An-cha-Allah, to- morrow night I will kill a buffalo with a stroke of my paw and carry it to my cubs. The next day, ‘God willing,’ I will slay a horse and carry it back. The third day I will kill a calf, ‘God willing ;’ then I will kill a sheep;”’ but, despising so small a creature as a sheep, the lion omitted to say “An-cha-Allah,” and when he killed the sheep, to punish him, God made him drag it on the ground. And the king of beasts does so even today, so say those hunters of the Great Sahara, and there is no reason to doubt their word. WHY THE TROGLODYTES LIVE IN CAVES Many letters have been written me since the publication of my article on “The Molemen” in the NATIONAL GEo- GRAPHIC MAGAZINE of October, I9QII, in- quiring why the Troglodytes live in caves and do not build houses, asking details of their life and habits, and laying stress on birth, death, and burial. One man wrote: “If they have no wood or stones to build houses with, why do they not use bricks?” How can they make bricks without mud, or mud with- out water, and of what use are bricks without cement? Were we Americans to be suddenly placed in a country like theirs, without wood or water, and so far away from the world that importation of these com- modities was impossible, we would have to follow the example of the Troglo- dytes or die of exposure. On these mountain table-lands climatic changes are great, and some sort of dwelling is needed. The Troglodytes of extreme southern Tunisia speak Berber-Arabic and have adopted the Mohammedan religion. At an unknown period the ancestors of these Troglodytes of today were all mountain Troglodytes, living on the tops of high table-lands overlooking the sur- rounding country, usually on sugar-loaf peaks with precipitous sides, so that an enemy could be killed by stones being rolled down upon them. Driven out of their mountain abodes by the scarcity of food and water, the inhabitants of some of these villages came down to the plains, where they have lived ever since. But, having been accustomed to their cave-dwellings, they preferred them to any other kind, so they built artificial caves, such as we see in Medenine, Metmetemur, and other towns farther south. ‘These caves not only serve as homes, but also for the purpose of huge storehouses for their food, guns, gourbis (tents made of camels’ and goats’ hair), harnesses, ex- tra ammunition, plows, and other agri- cultural implements. A SEMI-NOMADIC PEOPLE These people are pastoral, and most of the tribes are nomadic during nine months of the year. Their towns are built in ovals, or small horseshoes, only one entrance for each tribe, so that a few brave men, armed to the teeth, can easily protect their strongholds from thieves. One might say that these Troglodyte towns were the safe-deposit vaults of the cave-dwellers (see the illustrations in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, October, Torr). Fach man has his individual key, which he never forgets to take with him wherever he goes, for if he did, on re- turning, he would find his cave empty. These keys look something like a banjo handle made of wood. Each key has plugs that fit in it, and no two designs are alike; so that, unless the plugs fit the holes, it would be impossible to unlock the front door. On the return of a wanderer, he takes his key from one of his saddle-bags and screws or fastens it into a stick that he leaves behind. He then inserts it through a hole to the. nicht of the) door and thrusts in his arm, turning the stick at right angles, and scratches the door with the key until he finds the lock. The plugs of the key finally catch into the holes of the lock and, on pulling, the door opens. TROGLODYTES THAT BURROW LIKE THE MOLES The tribes of the Houaia Mountains, comprising the villages of Matmata, Benioussa, Benizelten, and Hadidiji, f THE MINARET OF THE GREAT MOSQUE: TUNIS The Mosque of the Olive Tree, founded in 608, is the chief mosque of the city. One of its most attractive features is the handsome minaret of interlaced brickwork shown in the picture. Attached to the mosque is a Moslem university, where about 1,000 youths receive instruction in the Koran and other branches of orthodox learning (see pages 61-62). hoto by Lehnert and Landrock ENTRANCE OF THE MOSQUE OF THE OLIVE TREE: TUNIS This mosque is reputed to be very beautiful, but no European is allowed to enter it or even to inspect the university which is connected with it. Set in a deep niche on one side of the door can be seen the large sign, on which is written in English, French, German, and Jtalian the warning, “This mosque is reserved for Moslem worship. Entrance forbidden.” SI A STREET AT TETUAN Northern Africa, notwithstanding political divisions, is very similar everywhere. Here is a picture taken in Tetuan, a city of Morocco, nearly a thousand miles distant from Tunis, yet its architecture, its pavements, its veiled women, and hooded men are the same in almost every detail as those found in Tunis. 52 IN A BISKRA STREET Biskra is a town in Algeria, situated in an oasis of the Sahara, some three miles long by about one mile broad. The houses in the native quarter are built of hardened mud, with doors and roofs of palm wood. There is also a fine modern town, which is a favorite winter resort for French and other European visitors. Photo by Lehnert and Landrock ARAB WOMEN OF ALGIERS Here is a picture taken at the entrance of a cemetery to which Moslem women resort once a week, usually on Fridays, the Moslem Sabbath. On the day of the weekly visit the cemeteries are by no means gloomy places; all men are excluded, and the ladies, laying aside their veils, indulge in impromptu picnics, with much laughter and gossip. 54 Photo by Lehnert and Landrock THE WINDOWS OF THE HAREM The windows so heavily latticed and barred show how jealously the Moslem guards the privacy and seclusion of his women folk. This seclusion is accepted by the women as a visible sign of their husbands’ love and they would strongly resent any evidence of careless- ness on his part in this respect. Wy - SESS Se Vi, ie 4 A MORESQUE BEAUTY The term Moresque is applied to those Moslems of mixed blood who are found chiefly in the cities on the North African coast. In their veins flows the blood of Roman, Berber, Arab, Spanish, and often other Christian ancestors, and many of their women are strikingly handsome. AN ARAB DOOR The Arabs have always expended much artistic care upon the doors of their homes. Wherever the. Arab civilization has dominated, as far to the west as Tangier, to the east as Bagdad, and to Zanzibar in the south, these beautifully carved brass-studded portals can be found at the entrance to the houses of the wealthy. Sal NI] - Photo by Lehnert and Landrock A BAZAR IN TUNIS The bazars, or souks, of Tunis are narrow, winding streets, some of them vaulted and many covered in with a roof of boards. ‘There are five chief bazars ; el-Attarin, the market of perfumery; el-Farashin, of carpets and cloths; el-Serajin, of saddlery, and el-Birka, of jewelry. The Souk-el-Birka was formerly the slave market. 58 Photo by Lehnert and Landrock THE RITUAL OF GREETING “No matter the state of one’s birth, or power, or dignity, he that is on horseback should greet the man on foot. . . . A man on horseback should speak first to the man he meets riding a mule. A man on a mule should greet first a poor man riding a donkey. .. . These rules of etiquette are most scrupulously kept” (see text, page 103). 59 Photo by Lehnert and Landrock IN THE INN Here are two Arabs from the South resting in their room in the fonduk, or inn. The man on the left is holding his rosary or prayer beads. These rosaries are very much in evidence among the Arabs “and are—among the wealthier classes—usually made of amber. 60 HERE, AND: THERE IN. NORTHERN AFRICA 61 tired of living on the high table-lands, where climbing up and down was diffi- cult, decided, about a hundred years ago, to come down and live in the valleys. But wood was lacking and water scarce and it was therefore impossible to build houses, so instead they dug enor- mous circular holes in the earth. These holes averaged about 27 feet in depth by about 195 feet in circumference. One enters these great courtyards, which are open to the sky, by means of under- ground tunnels cut out of rock, which is quite soft and can be dug through with a spade, but it hardens on coming into con- tact with the air (see page 7). These subterranean caves are so dry that grain will keep indefinitely when stored in them. The dwellings are cool in summer and warm in winter, and out of the way of sand when the sirocco blows. The people in these underground dwellings live like the patriarchs of old. The head of the family is lord of all he surveys, and lives with his sons and his son’s sons, their wives and their children. Frequently almost 100 people live in a single dwelling, each family having their individual cave to themselves. TROGLODYTES WHO EMIGRATE The men of Matmata have more en- ergy than most Arabs. Often two or three adventurous youths receive per- mission from their fathers (for without that permission they could do nothing) and start on foot or on donkeys for Tunis, The journey is long. Kairouan, Sacred City of the Sands,* is usually visited en route; also the tombs of several cele- brated Marabouts. Arriving penniless and unknown in Tunis, these young Trog- lodytes earn money by carrying trunks, running errands, or going to market and carrying vegetables and provisions for housekeepers. When they have earned enough money to buy two or three copper pots and what looks like a large flower-pot, they hire a small shop, hardly as large as a closet, with an open front facing on the street. * See the Sacred City of the Sands, Na- TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, December, IOQII. Here, about 4 o'clock in the morning, they begin frying cakes in their copper pots, which taste something like apple fritters. These they sell tor five cen- times, or one cent. The day laborers, going to work, are their patrons. About 7 o’clock the morning’s work is over, and they close the shutters, clean up, and go to sleep. About half past three in the afternoon the shop is again opened. The embers in the flower-pot, which is in reality a stove, are blown by small bellows until they glow, and more fritters are fried. The demand seems greater than the supply. In about four years’ time these young men can lay aside enough money to buy some broadtail sheep, and goats, and several camels, and return to their native Troglodyte town, where they take to themselves a Troglodyte maid and estab- lish a small but happy home of their own. II THE UNIVERSEDY “A THe MOSOUR OF THE OLIVE TREE IN TUNIS Few people outside of Tunisia know of the Mohammedan University, where about 1,000 students annually study vari- ous branches of history, religion, ethics, and sciences. Several years ago the students went on strike because the professors came late to their lectures, and some did not turn up at all. Some of the Arab professors were not particularly interested in the instruction they gave. The students desired a larger curriculum that would include chemistry, physics, physical geography, and several of the modern branches as taught in the smaller American colleges. The strike was a passive one and lasted about two months. A few of the students were arrested, but almost im- mediately released. A deputation of students called upon the Bey and the Resident of Tunis and begged them to look into the matter. The Tunisian government answered that from henceforth the professors would be forced to attend their lecture courses punctually, and that if sufficient funds could be raised some of the modern 62 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE courses would be adopted by the Uni- versity Ot-the Olive Tree The university headquarters are in the interior. of the Grand Mosque of the Olive Tree, so that no foreigner can ever catch a glimpse of it, owing to the mosque belonging to the Malachite rite, where only persons going to pray are al- lowed to enter (see page 51). Even the Sheik ul Islam (a Moslem ecclesiastic oc- cupying in northern Africa a position corresponding to that of the Pope in the Roman Catholic Church) could not grant me permission to enter, although he was most desirous of my seeing the mosque, university, and its various branches. It was suggested by some of my Arab friends that I slip in dressed as an Arab, but this seemed to me a very improper proceeding and I refused to do so. A Mohammedan society has _ been formed for the betterment of all classes. This society is known as the Khaldoiinia. Wealthy Arab gentlemen volunteer their services as instructors, each one teaching his particular subject. The Khaldotinia has met with tremendous popularity. ‘They have comfortable reading-rooms, an auditorium, and a small but excellent library. The members meet frequently and discuss all sorts of questions. MODERN EDUCATION IN TUNIS During the past ten years a school for Arab girls has been founded and has met with great success. The head of it is a French woman, who thoroughly understands Mohammedan ways. No effort is made to proselytize or in- fluence them in any way, the desire is simply to make these young girls intelli- gent and useful members of the com- munity, so that when they marry they may have attractive homes and be intelli- gent companions to. their husbands. They are taught plain, common-sense sewing, hygiene, common-sense cooking, how to set a table properly, to read and write; also arithmetic and bookkeeping. The school is very largely attended by the daughters of the aristocrats and wealthy families. The Arabs are taking much interest in the school, and its head- quarters have had to be changed several times since it was started, so all its schol- ars could be housed. The French have made public instruc- tion compulsory throughout ‘Tunisia, and even in the far-away “l'roglodyte villages small schools are to be found, which as a rule are attended only by the boys, -but some of the broad-minded and intelligent Arabs are sending their daughters. These public schools have both Arab and French instructors, who teach history, geogra- phy, reading, writing, and arithmetic. The Arab teacher instructs the natives in the Koran and in reading and writing Arabic. The Koran is not only a re- ligious book, but it contains excellent ad- vice on daily life that is quite practical. When an Arab boy has learned to read the Koran, he is an excellent Arab scholar. ah The result of these public schools is that the younger generation can speak, read, and write excellent French, whereas most of the older men do not understand a word. The French government has allowed the natives absolute independence of thought and religion. In the far-off Troglodyte towns, where no mosques ex- isted, some have been built by the gov- ernment. This has been a very wise move, because it has endeared the French to the hearts of the ‘T'unisians. Justice is administered to the natives according to the ancient laws of the country. A foreigner, be he French, Italian, or English, is judged by a French court, just as if he were in France. The Oriental mind cannot quite grasp the French (Roman) laws, and this na- tive and French dual tribunal is most effective in dealing with justice. The law is swift, just, and severe. Evil-doers are always caught and punished, so that from the lowest ‘to. the highest there is strict law and order. Tunisia has a French and Arab police and mounted police, called otidjac, that patrol the country (see page 5). IIT CONCERNING THE CAMEL AND THE - LOCUST There are almost as many varieties of camels as horses. The Arab name for camel is djemel. Those of ‘Tunisia, Tripolitania, and Algeria have one hump i i ; ; "Bist Wms seit Photo by Lehnert and Landrock ets ; -THE STREET OF THE ANDALUSIANS: TUNIS This is a typical quiet street in the older part of the city of Tunis—narrow, tortuous, and in places vaulted over, while under foot are the age-resisting but uncomfortable cobblestones 63 # & e 3 oe x Photo by Lehnert and Landrock THE WATER SELLER Here is a picture of an itinerant water seller taken in the streets of Tripoli of Barbary. The water is carried today in a skin just as it has been from time immemorial bk AND TEP REIN NORTHERN AFRICA 65 and are really dromedaries. Certain breeds of camels can withstand the great heat of the Sahara Desert and others that of the zero weather of Tibet and China. The ordinary camels of northern Africa (dromedaries) cost from 150 to 300 francs (30 to 60 dollars) apiece, and they live on almost anything that they can find to eat by the roadside; hence it costs next to nothing for their native Arab owners to keep them. Should a European own camels and attempt to feed them with hay and grain, he would find that they ate a great deal, and that it would cost at least a dollar a day for each one. During the Italian war in Tripoli the usual price for hiring a camel and its driver to take food supplies from Ben Garden to the Turkish camp was from 3 to 3% francs a day (60 to 70 cents). Between Kairouan and Sbeitla are many miles of bad land, where almost nothing thrives save the prickly pear. This has been cultivated by the natives, is rented out in great tracts, and has become a source of comfortable income. It is amazing to see the rapidity with which a herd of 500 camels will eat to the ground a large pasturage of prickly pear from 8 to 10 feet high. Leaves, stems, prickles and all, disappear like magic. HOW THE CAMEL’S HUMP GETS FAT Throughout southern Tunisia and Al- geria the natives keep all their date stones and give them to exhausted camels, weary from their long Sahara march. The camel resists at first, and the date stones, moistened in a little water, are pushed forcibly, by the handful, down the camel’s throat, after it has been made to kneel, and then securely fastened. In two or three days the camel learns to eat them of its own accord. The natives say that these date stones make the hump of the camel strong and stiff. The camel in its long march across the Sahara frequently finds very little to eat and lives on the fat of its own hump. When this continues during a long time, the hump of the camel becomes flabby and almost disappears. The African broad-tailed sheep lives in the same way on the fat of its own tail. Fhe: flesh’ of a‘ camel is eaten by the natives throughout the Sahara and north- ern Africa. ‘The greatest delicacy is the hump, which contains a great deal of fat. One can always tell the condition of the animal by observing its hump. When a camel is weary, after a long march across the Sahara, its hump almost disappears, whereas when it starts out on a journey the hump is well defined. Camels of Tunisia, Algeria, and Tripo- litania are used almost entirely as beasts of burden, although in Tunisia one occa- sionally sees them drawing two-wheeled carts, or plowing. The usual weight of the burdens carried by a camel varies from 550 to 600 pounds; this is the aver- age for the camels going from town to town along the coast or the borders of the Sahara. Should they be planning to cross the Sahara, the weight of the burden would be less, as the strain of the month’s journey through the desert 1s tremen- dous. ‘The usual march when crossing the desert is 30 kilometers a day (about 20 miles), with an occasional day’s rest. When a camel is being ladened it keeps up a continual snarling, and should it be overburdened it refuses to arise. Most camels are vicious and their bite is very dangerous. Hardly a week passes at the large native hospital in Tunis but some unfortunate camel driver dies of blood poisoning caused by a camel’s bite. The grinding motion of a camel’s jaw crushes to pulp whatever it bites; so that the arm or leg has to be amputated, and bicod poisoning usually sets in before the patient can reach the hospital. The ordinary camel would have diffi- culty in crossing the desert unless it were born and bred in it, and it would be folly for a man setting out on such a journey to select camels that were unused to the desert. The probabilities are that his car- avan would never reach its journey’s end. Great care must be taken in selecting beasts; of burden for a caravan: trip across the Sahara, and camels must be secured at towns in the desert, where Sahara camels, accustomed to the great wastes of sand, are obtainable. Those oy} $s Be "y (vE aded osye vas) Aard yo spriq dy} [Te Jo odd} snoaSesnoo jsour puke ysoySry ay} Surquososdo. f UOILF oujsso10d oY} JO opewWo} oY, Uoryeyndod qery oatyeU dy} YIM J10ds apIOALZ ke st suOoTey YIM SuNUNY eoIapy UID) SYANOOTVA AVAV ) ‘aseyo dy} JO sasodind 107 p.3rq 1s9q JOU jnoYsno IY &. 66 ‘yuoredde odu0 Je UPUIOM YSIMO[ IY} Jopuol He -UI}sIp AYNOYJIP YPM st UU oy} FO Jey} ‘oun op SuidopsAuo-][e pue deo Feojf-iesns YsSty 9Yy} Nq !ssroqysiou Wo[soW joy} FO Jey} worry apqeysins 09 Jeloods B IvOM sSoxes YJoq ysnoyy, “Of ‘(| “VY Ul SHY, Aq Woyesndaf JO UOTJNA}Sop yy} I10 JOU 1S aSeyjsJeg ye papas YryM salpluey Wolf Ppospusdssep oe WOM FO Auvul ‘synos OOO‘OS DWOS SUTJOquINU ‘AUOJOD YSIMaf JUSTOUR AIOA B Sey SUNT, yooipue’y pure jsouya’y Aq 00 SINODL :AMALAWAO HSIMAL AHL tla A JEWISH BEAUTY OF TUNIS Photo by Lehnert and Landrock Throughout northern Africa beauty and fat are thought to be the same and nowhere is this more true than in the Jewish colony in Tunis. This gaudy costume, the satin breeches, the pink silk jacket covered with embroidery in silk and gold thread, the tall sugar-loaf cap, and the curious slippers ending under the instep, while still common, is slowly but surely giving place to the ordinary Paris fashions. 68 apagreyeacaen mene Pee n Me mee Se Se ieeetnonas este asctas caooneseeaae ae eee ee" Po ae rt and Landrock Photo by Lehne A HOME IN TUNIS eet) eins SOT e geet svEe He: Sees us 2 4, =o ggee ‘sama G Oo g1OE 2 ees ong s e Oub0 e us| Om = Un oe ama DY a) So's & SOUS aan « Se S Sacccs ia oe = SOc Hw sf 5 o ASSES Sings n oes} 2H 9k qo¢?s SB eceins Se at 3 oO ets Hs! al a Ss o 8 hwY SS ees Uy Vv aa aos op epee ry oe Sm a=) 3 san “= g Os OS & heagiras Bee ape 2b Sy o) Oe ee nbd Ost S). he lel GD) eo) ea ae — a5 SES « SIYSIN: UPIGEIV,, IY} Ul poJUNOdII soInJUIAPe 9} Suryaas UdYyM UIs sACY }SNU plyosey-[e-unoIeFT se Yons osinjord e dn osyeul JY SIPUCOW IY} pue ‘soInsy surdsea[s oY} ‘s]jea oY} JO YIOM-o]1} YI oy Janoo 94} FO sivpid 9}eoTap syT, “}svsy oy} FO Ato}SAWW pue WAY oY} sh O} IWOY ssuUlIq JYsITUOOW Aq ssnoy YSIIOOW sry} JO pieAyINOD oY, yooipur’y pur yrouys’y Aq 010g GUVALYNOD AHL NI LOW LHOVINOOW V HERE AND THERE IN NORTHERN AFRICA tal bred near the coast have become more or less accustomed to drinking at frequent intervals and require water every two or three days. ‘Those of the Sahara can go much longer without water and do not suffer in the least. A camel can abstain from drinking for six to ten days during the winter, spring, and autumn. In the hot summer months of July, August, September, and October, five days’ absti- nence seem to be the hmit without in- flicting unnecessary suffering upon the animal, SUPERB RACING* CAMELS OF THE DESERT In the interior of northern Africa is a superb race of camels known as the mehara (singular, mehart), or racing camels. The mehara owe a great deal to the care taken in their breeding during the past 2,000 years. Ancient writers speak of camels used by the army of Xerxes, more than 2,000 years ago, that had the speed of the fastest horses ; these were doubtless mehara. When a baby mehari is born it is swathed in bandages to prevent the stom- ach from getting too large, and is taken into the family tent, where it is nursed and watched over with care and tender- ness. When a year old, it is sheared, and is known from then on as a bou-keutaa, which means “the father of the shearing.” Arabs are very fond of nicknames and everything and everybody is given one. For the first year it is allowed to wan- der at will and follow its mother. The bou-keutaa is weaned by a pointed stick being run through one nostril and left in the wound. When the young camel tries to sickle its mother the stick pricks her and she kicks the baby camel away. It soon leaves the mother and learns to eat fresh green shrubs. In the spring it is sheared again and the name of heug re- places that of bou-keutaa. When it is two years old its training begins. “A: halter is placed around -the head and a cord tied to,one of the fore feet. It is kept quiet first by gestures and the voice; later by the voice alone. Then the cord is loosened, but should it make a step it is tied again. Finally it understands what is required, but the les- sons are only terminated when it will stand in one place without moving for an entire day. To make a heug kneel, the rider cries out, “Ch-ch-ch,” and a person standing near strikes it with a stick on the knees atthe same time: the rider speaks to it. The camel soon learns to kneel without being struck, To make it a. fast run- ner, the rider whips it on both flanks alternately with a rhinoceros-hide whip and cries out in Arabic to excite it. A young mehari is very fond of its own skin,* and on being struck starts on 4 gallop. The whipping keeps up and the camel tries to get away by running faster. The long legs seem like wings.and it flies Pacts with. the sspeed=or an Ostrich. “lt will stop instantly at a pull on the rein, no matter what speed it has been mak- ing. When the rider jumps off, or should he happen to fall, a well-trained mehari will stand quite still and wait, while should the master happen to be injured the faithful beast will never leave him. When a heug can turn in a narrow cir- cletaround: al spear and. staresom. at tull speed the instant it is pulled up, the pe- riod of training is considered finished. The camel is no longer a heug; it has become a mehari and is ready for the races or the war-path. THE WAY: TO RIDE “A. RACING ‘CAMET, A mehari is never used as a beast of burden; all~it ever. carries is a’ saddle (something like a Mexican saddle, made of gazelle skin, dyed red, with a high pommel and a cross in front), two saddle- bags, and a rider The rider is buckled into the saddle by two belts. His feet are crossed in front of the saddle and rest on the neck of the mehari. His slippers are usually slung across the pommel, and the mehari is guided by the wriggling of the rider’s toes: An iron ring passes through one nos- tril.of the animal‘and a-.rein of camels’ hair is attached. Should the mehari nib- ble from the bushes on the wayside, the slightest jerk of the rein will bring it up, and a pull to the right or left will make it take the direction wished, although the voice and the toes are the usual guides. oy uyof ext] ‘per yno ‘QAI UIOISIAA IY} O} JSIIOJUI SUISVID-IOADU JO spofqo ore ‘i1ey sjoures ul ysndeq qeieul [euorses00 ue pur ‘sJoyIM oI[Gnd oY} ‘sIessoq PUl[q oY} ‘Sasnousaq AMOUS II9Y} UI SIOOW poueqiny ATIAvoY oy} ‘sosnoy jurenb oy} ‘Uns [eotdos}-1W1as oY} FO DOURIT[IIG IY} : J9J2ACI} OY} O} }SA19}UT Jso}WoIs JO sould oy} SAVATS SI UMO} URILIFW YON we FO JoyIeU dILT, HOW Id-LAMUVW AHL NI 72 ‘sazoys AIO Sonstii 8) O18 0} p 210 Ie) Aq 0jJ0Ug [IoA yortq AAvay JOY YUM APP] qery oy} 99110N AIP A]IINUS SI JodI}]S 9UO SNY} 5 }901}S I[SUIS e UL JoYyjos SINOL NI SAYOLS ‘uO OS pure ‘sJaT[as sUINJIId 0} IOYJOUe 0} [Je sdoys 194} dsay soreM owes dy} Ul apel] OYM osOYy} sIUNT, UT AWAIOND 73 ‘(zo o8ed ‘x9 99S) ,pIOM B pueysiopuN jou Op Us JopyfO 94} JO JSOW S¥oJOYM ‘YUST YY JUITJOOX9 o}IM pue ‘prot ‘yeods ued UOl}eJOUIS JosuNOA on oe SI sjooyps oyqnd osoy} JO yNset oyy, © * ‘S1oJYSnep Jl} SUIPUSS o1e SqeIy JUISI[[9JUL pue PepuTW-peosy oY} JO gwos ynq ‘sKoq Aq ATUO pepue} -je oie ani e Se YSIYM ‘punoy oq O} 91e sjooyys [Tews SISET[IA dJAPOTSOLT, APME-Je] 94} Ul UOAD pue ‘eIsIUNT, jnoysno1y} Aros~ndwos UOT}ONALSUL oyqnd apem oavy Yuet, 2 J, ‘BIIFY JO yseod jsoM IY} WOLF SIAPIS O1s9U fo sjuepusosep o1e—oiIsou fyey ‘qeiy FTeY—uesIppiys ysoyy, HLOAOS 4H. AO NAC TIHS yooipue’y pue yrouija’y Aq 0J0Yd ‘yUOWIOUL [Cotta oy} ye peoy sIy JOAO SnousIg SIY MoIy} BY OS ‘paydessojoyd oq 0} URAL JOU PIP JOUMO qeIV SJ, “ssouyxIep oY} UL poutsdsIp ATWIP oq uvd yey} ‘anu oy} Aq poystuIny Suroq Jomod daATOW sy} “CNIFY YON JOAO ][e Puno} st se Yons ‘s[eaioo SUIPUIIS JOJ [piu PeordA} & ST SIT, yooipue’y pure yrouyo’y Aq oJ0yg TTIW HAILING V : = : ‘ &. Dc sisihiials anal LADIES IN STREET COSTUME: TUNIS “During the past ten years a school for Arab girls has been founded and has met with great success. The head of it is a French woman, who thoroughly understands Mohammedan ways. No effort is made to proselytize or influence them in any way; the desire is simply to make these young girls intelligent and useful members of the community, so that when they marry they may have attractive homes and be intelligent companions to their husbands” (see text, page 62). Pg ice eanernecn inertia BIND RE = he in t icate the ind taken to in 1S la rer ’ 1@Ww gs 1S V mosque Th ty of Al er in every yer. ge Cl turn Ton pra Tlemcen EN wanlat ’ O < a ¢ gm 3 Sp eS ie H vo ao 1C S QU iper in or small n ief one J ab the worsh hr IN THE MOS F teal the ch 9 i ine the m and to Bou Med i ture shows ’ f Mecca i Cc mosque of S ig tah This ion o direct : , "($9 a8ed 4x0} 998) (or8eur oyty readdesip ye pue sapyorid ‘surajs ‘saAeo’T “YSty Jo} OI 0} Q WoIZ Ie9d Apyoid jo aseinjsed oSie] & puNoIS oy} 0} Jea [IM spores OOS JO ploy ev YSIYM YIM A}IpIdet oY} 99S 0} SUIZBUIL SI }],, “Sospoly oY} WAOF OF posn st (VIIpuL snIY DYUNdE) Sy Areqieg 10 ‘1vod ApYyord ayy JdAS*T 0} ODOIOPY WOT sooipue’y pur yrouya’y Aq o0Yg UVad ATMOId AO AONAA V HERE AND THERE IN NORTHERN AFRICA 79 The nostrils of the mehari are as sensi- tive as those of a bull and the least pres- sure of the rein insures obedience. ‘The wives of the rich caids and sheiks travel on mehara and are hidden from the gaze of mankind by the curtains of ornate palanquins. The mehara are used entirely by the Arabs when on the war-path, or ragzva. Arab friends have told me how caravans in the Sahara have gone many days’ journey to reach a certain oasis, to find, on arriving, that the water had all been used by previous caravans and the springs dry. To run short of water half way across the Sahara is a very serious proposition, which the natives overcome by killing a djemel, or ordinary camel, and drinking its blood, after it has cooled and the froth at the top, which the Arabs claim is very poisonous, is skimmed off. The water found in the camel’s stomach 1s also drunk, and, thanks to the blood and the water, the caravan can continue to an oasis further on, where springs of water are found. A TERRIBLE CUSTOM A terrible custom used to prevail among certain tribes of the Sahara. Be- fore starting on a razzia, or war-path, old camels of not much value were kept from drinking as long as possible, and just be- fore starting out were allowed to drink their fill; For the policy. I have suggested as advisable to apply in Alaska 1 think “the, sensible policy. to- adopt throughout the rest of the country. We have tried two experiments in the United States as to coal lands. We allowed our coal lands to slip from us under the old land-:s-land policy until we came into the presence of a coal monopoly or a series of such monopolies in various parts of the country. If this is questioned we may at least say, with exactness, that we realized that we had been putting priceless assets into the hands of a comparatively few far-sighted men for an inconsiderable consideration. Then we tried the other plan of ap- praising such properties on a scientific estimate of contents upon which the land is sold. This is the present plan, and it is really nothing more than a demand for a full but discounted royalty in ad- vance. It has against it, in my opinion, at least two objections. Our coal land is not being used under this plan save under exceptional conditions of local and immediate demand, and the purchaser, when there is one, is speculating on the best guess that an honest geologist can make as to the amount of coal in the ground.* It is certainly not for the public interest that our coal deposits shall be opened rapidly and ruthlessly. We may refor- est lands that have been devastated, or feed again into fruitfulness a soil that is starved, but we cannot replace the car- *The outstanding withdrawals of public lands valuable for mineral fuels and fertilizers or in connection with the water resources of the public domain now aggregate 66 million acres. The coal-land withdrawals awaiting classifica- tion constitute the larger part of this acreage, being 56,316,410 acres on December 4, 1913, not including the blanket withdrawal of coal lands in Alaska. It is noteworthy that a larger area than this has been restored within the past five years, and nearly 20 million acres have been classified as coal lands and are open to entry at appraised prices. The lands classified and restored by executive order to appropriate entry since March 4 last total 10 million acres, every restoration being based upon careful con- sideration within the Department of the In- terior. About 400,000 acres of mineral lands in the same nine months have been withdrawn. —————————— *(ggI osed ‘yx0} 90S) ,uoTelTIMMyY pue UlISeYD JOF Jo}eUl St QUOP VAY ‘Zulyjou JUOpP 2sACY 9M ULL oYM oY} JOY “Weed MPty JY} JO JopsIog sy} UO OUNTYSY oY} FO Wousq OM JYM VOUS OF Jey} ORF UT “O[HIT OS > eB yey Ajreou ul eysey JO FeYyoq uo JUIWIUIDAOS sty} Aq BUOP SurIY} 9ATJONIJSUOD DUO OUT, DY} 1OF Jooputer FO uoTjey1oduT oY} SEM Ainjue feos oon VMSVIV NI YWHAONISY HLIM ONITMAVEL SSQQE : NEAL 196 ue Ieak se] paXofus saarjeu oy} Joapulat JO Sp1oy MWoyy WOT “SoAtyeu olf} Aq pouMo oie yU9d Jod zg 9WIOS Y sey ‘QouIs suOTye}IOdWIT Mof BV YYWM “ploy Jey} Aepo} Seyseyy OJUr pe} VMISVIV NI AGISTIIH V NO WAHaNINY JO daa ddory “1, “Md 4q O04 G ZULOg oY} SSO19e JoOpUloT QI PYSNoId uosyoe [ SIM JO ‘000 é CQghh$ JO OUODUT ob Aj1e9U 0} poseatOUl uOp]IYS : Iq 16g I uf 197 this GU yy 198 Se ee om c a7 The dress of the The jacket, which has a hood to *.4 o the most common. ing deer, bear, and fox, the first two bei f seal, rein ins o FOUR ESKIMO GIRLS NEAR CAPE NOME, ALASKA y of sk : n—a suit with a lone jacket and trousers tucked into seal-skin boots. irel imo consists ent The dress of the Esk women differs but little from that of the me THE NATION'S UNDEVELOPED RESOURCES bon deposits underground, once they are removed. I cannot, however, feel that we should sacrifice any present need for fuel or willingly surrender ourselves to a demand for exorbitant prices because of a fear that some day the coal supply may be exhausted (see page 205). Already there has been developed a substitute for coal in the flowing stream. The turbine converts melted snow into heat and light, which can be distributed over aconstantly widening area. I think we have now arrived at that point in scientific achievement which justifies the belief that the wheels of industry will not cease, nor our houses go unlighted or unheated, so long as dams may be built upon our streams. Water will be—in- deed already is—the greatest conservator of coal. | We must seek to make use of our coal, the fullest use that society requires. This principle seems a truism. But here lies the difficulty. We wis’ cheap coal and at the same time a minimum of waste. We wish society to take the lion’s share of the profit and. yield no more to the operator than will make his work sufficiently attractive to keep him at- it. In short, we desire competition without waste—a frank impossibility. Other countries have wrestled with this problem. Some have gone into gov- ernment operation. But those who are nearest to us in institutions and ten- dencies have found that in a new country, where there must be large development and higher rewards for enterprise, the safest practicable method is to lease the land, the government taking a modest royalty and retaining some measure of control over operation. OUR OIL, PHOSPHATE, AND POTASH DE- POSITS SHOULD BE DEVELOPED The United States is beginning to ap- preciate the extent and value of its oil deposits, and for the disposition of these lands no better plan has been suggested than one analogous to that offered as to coal lands. I would call your attention to the absurdity of applying the placer mining law to the development of petroleum lands. This law, which was based upon 199 the fundamentals of the miners’ codes of early days, was passed without thought of the occurrence of other deposits than placer gold. However, the land depart- ment, and later Congress, applied the law to oil lands. | The placer law provides, in the main, that no location shall be made without a discovery of valuable minerals on the claim, that the boundaries of the location shall be plainly marked on the ground, that no claim for an individual shall ex- ceed 20 acres or for an association 160 acres, that $100 worth of assessment- work must be done each year, and that upon the expenditure of $500 in labor or improvements and upon compliance with certain minor requiremerts the claimant is entitled to a patent to his claim. The claimant who has gone upon lands for the purpose of making mineral loca- tion, and is engaged in work looking to the discovery of minerals, is protected against adverse agricultural claimants on the ground that the land which he occupies is not vacant and open to set- tlement. The extent of his protection against adverse mineral claimants 1s, however, a matter of serious doubt. He cannot be ousted by the forcible or fraudulent entry of another mineral claimant, but if such adverse claimant enters peaceably, openly, and in good faith, prospects the claim and first dis- covers minerals, thus perfecting his loca- tion, his title is superior and he dispos- sesses the original occupant. On the other hand, in some of the fields large areas are held indefinitely by assessment-work which makes little pre- tense of exploring the claims or develop- ing them. Useless roads which make the claims no easier of access, drilling rigs incapable of reaching the oil sands, build- ing-stone locations where no building stone is to be found, and locations on worthless deposits of gypsum are among the subterfuges adopted to hold posses- sion of lands prospectively valuable for oil, Thus, where occupancy without discov- ery 1s respected, large areas are withheld from exploration and development, and where such occupancy is not respected the oil prospector must assume undue Sa a aL OR, AE EGS ESE ER ORES EE : UINS IY} JO ozIs yeoIs dy} yo otal) Sop pieuslog 4S sl ey} pue uew sy, ‘Ysing -s}ig ye wmasnyy aSoused ay} FO WOTeTIJO9 dy} IO} ‘eYSepY Ul ‘YeIpoy Jeu poly sea “YSus] UI SoyOUT g joof ZI Poinseaw uTYys 9sOYM ‘IvIq SIU, ee a ee AVA NVMSV'IV SAOWYONH Nv JO NIMS AHI, te oo 7), 200 Jo Aqeq oy} SsyNd AjoIOAOs ‘punos Surin} |PIUIYOSUTOTST “A “7 Woy OO EB Uu e ‘ soyeM Japun jt synd pue yoou ay} Aq a soye}y STY} O} SJDIlqO JoYyJOW oy SOUNTJIWIOS WIMS V YOX TNO €ND ANV AV a ‘SUO[Te PMO} SI pue IIe] $s ad av’lod 6 JIYyOUL 9Y} 01 UO ssuey qnd ayy 201 “(opt a8ed 4x9} 998) ,poy1oMuN sor] ‘spue] [eos sz ‘o[doad 9y} 0} anTeA dj}eIpaumt jsoyeoIS Jo sadimosai S}t JO 9U0 pue ‘payIOM oq Wed souTUT s}I JO Jsoyors oy} AJUQ “AI}SMpuL ozearid & Ze JO SSoUtOP]IA 94} Ul Joyye ‘UOds.x9 9UO YA ‘o}eUTWIID} YDIYM peosrer JO sayojoss IIGeIapisuoour Moz e sey i] “peor uosem v paT[ed aq ued Jey} SuIY}AUL JO SojlWs puBshOY} B UvY} SSoj SUIe}UOD Sajye}G pa}UA ey} JO azIs oY} Yiy-9uo A1O}PII9} VY, VMUSVIV NI WATIOd V DONITINVH 202 risk of the loss of his investment prior to discovery. PRESENT MINING LAWS DO NOT SUFFI- CIENTLY REWARD PETROLEUM PIONEERS An objection of equal force to the placer law as applied to petroleum arises from the fact that the mineral is fluid. It moves underground. A well on one tract is likely to draw from a neighboring dract. Thus it becomes necessary for each operator to drill wells along his boundary lines before his neighbors do so. Otherwise, they will draw off a part of his oil. He is therefore forced to drill whether it is otherwise to his advantage or not, in order to protect his oil deposits from exhaustion through adjacent wells. We should, I believe, stimulate the ‘search for oil and protect the prospector. ‘The government is withholding from entry certain considerable bodies of land in the belief that they contain oil, when ‘this has not been demonstrated. It is our 203 Photo from Leonard Davis A PAIR OF SALMON, ONE WEIGHING 65 POUNDS AND THE OTHER 82 POUNDS, CAUGHT AT KETCHIKAN : THE PORPOISE SHOWS THE COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE SALMON practice as soon as there has been a pro- ducing well discovered, and sometimes earlier, to withdraw all lands in the neighborhood which, in the opinion of experts, are of similar geological forma- tion. The lands on which the discovery has been made or upon which exploration has been begun may or may not be included in the withdrawal. If they are, the law offers to protect the rights so acquired. I feel, however, that we are not suffi- ciently rewarding the pioneer. A plan could readily be evolved by which any one wishing to prospect for oil on the public lands could obtain a license from the government to prospect exclusively a large tract of land for a period of time— perhaps two years—and in the event that oil is found in commercial quantities the government should be paid a royalty fixed in advance. This method is similar to that by which the Indian lands in Oklahoma have been developed and which has proved of the highest value in bringing capital into this Photo from Leouard Davis TURNIPS WEIGHING I2 POUNDS GROWN IN A PRIVATE GARDEN AT RAMPART, ALASKA “And in agriculture the government itself has demonstrated that it will produce in abundance all that can be raised in the Scandinavian countries, the hardy cereals and vege- tables, the meats and the berries off which nine million people live in Norway, Sweden, and Finland. It has been estimated that there are 50 million acres of this land that will make homes for a people as sturdy as those of New England. Whether this is so or not, it would appear that Alaska can be made self-sustaining agriculturally” (see text, page 185). work and insuring large returns to the Indians. Inthe Oklahoma case one great corporation, however, was given so large a body of land that after the original discovery it found it profitable to farm out its rights to subsidiary companies. This might easily be prevented by regula- 204 tions under which the government would reserve to itself the adjoining lands. Indeed, I would not be adverse to granting such a license in unexplored country for, say, four sections of land, and in the event of discovery permitting patent to issue to the discoverer for a full Paci 10 MILES - DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING OUR COAL RESOURCES, THE AMOUNT B EIFFEL TOWER THAT HAS BEEN USED AND THE AMOUNT STILE REMAINING UNUSED IN THE UNITED STATES A represents the total coal supply of the United States. C represents the amount consumed in a single year. prepared by Edward W. Parker, Chief of the Division of Mineral Resources of the U. to the end of 1912. Geological Survey. section, the balance of the licensed land to remain in the government to be leased in small parcels to other parties on a royalty basis under the more advantage- ous terms that could then be secured. THE NEED OF OIL FOR THE NAVY The United States will need oil for its navy as well as coal, and probably in increasing quantities as the modern oil-burning or gas-burning engines are recognized. It would be economical to substitute oil for coal for many reasons; to reduce labor cost, to avoid the building B represents the amount used This diagram was 2) and maintenance of colliers, and the purchase and support of coaling stations. The Diesel engine can, with the fuel carried from the home port. take one of our greatest ships around the world without dependence upon a renewed sup- ply of fuel. England’s adventure in this direction will presumably force other nations into like enterprise, and yet Eng- land has no oil fields on which to draw, while we have already the largest pro- ducing fuel-oil fields in the world, and others are appearing. Already we know of oil in Alaska, and , ‘SJOWoYy VA}O0}0Id Sulieam Noy yM poasdoid oO IpUL [[IM ui se ‘sorjied anosot [[@ YW Sptiq 9soy} FO auo Aled 0} ddI}OeId JY} MOU SI VW aatlep ae : Wi Ul Soses [hjwistey fo aouesoid oy} Je SsSat}SIp JO SUSIS MOYS TIM Solreued jey} punoj useq sey 1] : ayes jou st yt YyoyM puokoq yurod 3} 9789 dIVME oe SSuloq URUMY 21OFoq SUOT Soul MYOM ANOSAN ANIW NI NOWLOWLOUd V SV GISN AYVNVO V JOTINIUT SY} JO Juour1edaq ay} Jo SOUL JO NvoAN worZ OF0Ud Pair NATION Ss UNDE VELORED RESOURCES within a few weeks a fine grade of oil has been found on the Quinaitelt Indian Reservation in Washington. The Indian oil lands we do not own. They belong to the Indians, and their product must be sold for the Indians’ profit. The one sole reservation of oil lands for governmental use is that in California, over the withdrawal of which litigation is now pending. Under these conditions it would seem of the highest expediency that the government make such offers as will induce the proving of our lands, and of these proved lands retain sufficient to make our ships independent of the world and as fully competent as their rivals. “Some years since the Department of the Interior announced the discovery within the United States of a deposit of potash which it was hoped would render our farmers independent, for a time at least, of all other sources. This deposit still lies unused. No proper laws have been passed by which it can be put into use. A common-sense view of the matter would be to treat these lands as it has been suggested we should treat coal lands. Se, too, should our vast deposits of phosphate rock, undoubtedly the world’s world’s supply.. We are giving a. con- stantly increasing volume of thought to the. scientific methods*by which the fertility of our soils may be increased. And the time is likely to come when the deposited phosphorus in our western lands will be regarded as of almost price- less worth. Few appreciate how very extensive these deposits are. They run for hun- dreds of miles through Wyoming, Utah, Montana, and Idaho, and in other States similar deposits of lesser extent are known to exist. We have millions of acres of phosphate lands which are esti- mated to contain several billion tons of phosphate rock; undoubtedly the world’s largest known reserve. In 1910 the United States produced 52 per cent of the world’s output of phosphate rock, and last year over 40 per cent of our product was exported. It would certainly be well if we could insure the preferential use of this fertilizer on American farms and export it in the form of farm products rather than as raw material. 207 TIMBER LANDS I am not satisfied with the operation of the homestead law as to the timber lands of the far western lands. As the law now is, a man may enter upon 160 acres of these lands, and by living a total of 21 months on the land during three years and cultivating at a maximum 20 acres of the land it becomes his. He promptly proceeds, if he is wise, to sell it to some lumber company for from $10,000 to $20,000. ‘The land is allowed to lie for an indefinite period as a part of the company’s forest reserve or is logged off, leaving the stumps in the land, and eventually sold for agricultural pur- poses, 1f so adapted. Fxperience justifies the statement that few men take up these heavily timbered lands under a bona fide attempt to meet the purpose of the law, which, as its name implies, is to convert the public land into homes. By the investment of a few months’ time and a few hundred dollars the homesteader gains a property worth many thousands of dollars. Yet all the conditions of the law are complied with and patent must issue. The govern- ment loses the timber and the land and does not gain a real home-maker. Such homesteaders add nothing to the wealth of the nation. The law should punish them, in fact, as frauds. Whether with the connivance of the lumber companies or not, they are the agencies by which the law is defeated and the lands conveyed where it is not intended that they should go. There is a remedy for this condition of things, and it lies in the selling of the land and the timber separately. I am be- ginning to doubt the wisdom of applying the homestead law to any land which has not first been declared fitted for agricul- ture. It is now a blanket law which is used to cover a multitude of frauds. Such legislation would also cure the abuses re- sulting from the use of certain classes of scrip. THE ARID LANDS OF THE GREAT AMERICAN DESERT “The Great American Desert,” as it was designated upon the map some 40 oats ‘(voz oSed 90s) ,poyiodxo sem yonpoid imo JO quao Jod oF JdA0 IeOA jseT pue ‘yDo1 ajeydsoyd Fo jndjno s pjtoM dy} FO yuad Jod ZS paonpord sa}yejG powUL, ey} OIOI UT “oATOSAT UMOUY 4soS1P] S$ PjJ1OM ody} A[poyqnopun Spor szyeydsoyd Jo suo} UOT][Iq [B1oAVS ULEJUOD OF PojzelUtjsa 1B YIYM Spur] ayeydsoyd Jo soatoe FO SUOT]]IW JAP IM,, AAAING [BIIBOTOI) “S "F) WlOIZ OJOY VdINOTA NI ANIW HLVHdSOHd Lid NAdO 208 (aE Ny tONS SUN DEVE WO PEI RESOURCES years ago, has become one of the richest portions of our country. This desert included a variable area, generally all west of the Missouri River to the Sierra Nevada. Today it is harvest field, cattle range, mining camp, and orchard—where there is water. And where there is no water it remains desert. There are at least four States which can never increase greatly in stable popu- lation unless their lands are brought under irrigation. And in all of the West- ern States there are tens of thousands and in some millions of acres that will remain waste land, fit only for the poorest cattle range, and much not even for that use, without the expenditure of large sums for reservoirs, dams, canals, and cdlitches. That there is not water enough even with the fullest storage to supply the demands of all the arable land can safely be said. That, however, there is suff- cient to care for a large part of this territory and bring it into fruitfulness there is no doubt. The government, seeing this condition, undertook to lend itself to the develop- ment of these lands by what is known as the Carey act. This was a form of cooperative effort in which the Federal government turned over any required body of lands to a State, which the latter undertook through private enterprise to irrigate. When to irrigate meant nothing more than to divert a portion of a stream from its bed and convey it by gravity to the desert, this plan was attractive. But since these simpler methods had to be abandoned as no longer adequate, this act has done little in the promotion of such. enterprise. 7 The successful Carey act projects are a distinguished few. Great wrongs to trustful or none-too-wise farmers were done in its name, and the suffering which it caused has made it difficult to make it serviceable, even under the more careful scrutiny of later and more cautious officials. THE GCOVERNMENT’S RECLAMATION WORK IS A SUCCESS Because of the magnitude of the money investment required, and apprecia- 209 tive of the need, Congress in 1902 adopted the policy of undertaking irrigation projects of its own. The moneys re- ceived from the sale of public lands—less 5 per cent—went into a reclamation fund, administered by the Department of the Interior. The result has been the con- struction of some 25 projects, scattered through all of the arid-land States. In these the government has invested ap- proximately $76,000,000. One of these, a pumping plant in Kansas, is now wun- used; another, a flood-storage system in New Mexico, is only in partial use; both of these, however, represent less than 1 per cent of the total investment. The others are in operation, and less than 3 per cent of all the land which is served or which we are ready to serve is unoccu- pied. This work has been a success. Soon after taking office I received a number of letters complaining of the reclamation service. “I’o inquire into these complaints I first called a conference in Washington of representatives from all the projects and later visited most of those from which most serious complaint had been received. I cannot here review the matters considered or the information gained. My conclusion was that mis- takes had been made by the service, some of which grew out of ambiguities or defects in the law, some out of inexperi- ence, and others out of a misconception of the relationship that should exist between such a governmental service and those with whom it was dealing. A larger degree of frankness with the farmer on our part and a fuller apprecia- tion of the responsibilities assumed on the part of the farmer will mend much of the feeling that I found. RELIEF FOR THE USERS OF WATER RIGHTS But there is one matter of great moment to these people which should be corrected by law as soon as possible. We mistook the ability of the farmer to pay for his water rights. Ten years was the time given. His optimism and our own was too great. ‘That time should be doubled. This should be done not alone because of the inability of many to meet their obligations to the government, but because it will prove wise policy to give “yNYOoY FO Sopiut OFT FO snipes & uly sjuepqeyur Mou uolpiu suo ysoddns [][IM Wep Mou SIy} poyeultjsa st jt yey} OS ‘suosiod 3AY Sy1Oddhs A][UrytoAe AJIUNWWOD SULIN}jOefnNueW eB UL pedojaaap Jamodoasioy yoe'q ~~ ‘sasodind Sulmmjoeynuew sof opqepreae oq [1M YOIYM FO SPsIYI-OM} yseo] 4e Jomodosioy Jeolueysow gor‘o1le sonpoid [IM yorym Yueyd sty} fo UOTaNIJsUo0d ay} UL JUads Uaaq aavy OOO‘ODO'ZzZG 10AQ “JodesOskys AJOJS-SI B se YSIY Se pue ‘OplM AO] Ajio & Jey “Suo] ajiu e Jo pity} ev st ssnoy -JoMOd dy} ofIYM “YIBUI] Ur oprur & FO syzO}-oUrU SI }] “PpyOM dy} UF que[d 1aMOod-19}eM jsoote] IY} SUIOF IddISSISsIPY 94} SsO19e Wep yeo1s8 sIyy, Pineau kd o10n MOAMONM LV WVd WHMOd IddISSISSIW LVAND FHL 210 O}UT IOJUD UPD I JJaYM ‘JURYSIP Solu LET “sIno’T JO WeIT}S SUIMOY 9} s10}e19UIS VS9Yy} YSnosyy, $9381 poyug oy} ur somod uieajs ysodevoys oy} pue [voo ysodvayo oy} YA UOMedWI0D [Nyssodons 4S 0} JUIS 9q [JIM JoMOod 91129079 Woy} WOly ‘yYsl] pue yeosy OUI pdjzdAUOd si IddIssisstp_ oy} yNnyOoy 7e ssnoy-tamod oy} ul siojyesisuss DI1IaTO OF JO MOI 9Y} FO JAed SMOYs dANJoId YT, znyosuy wWors OJON GQTYOM HHL NI LNV'Id YAMOd-MHLVM LSHDUV’I AHL JO SYOLVYANHD AHL aOR SAN AR OR i SaOR 211 a free period within which the farmers may more fully use their farms. ‘They can put their lands to a more profit- able use, both to themselves and to the country, by being allowed to cumulate their earnings in the early years and be thus enabled to make investments in stock and machinery which will make for larger profits later. I feel the keenest sympathy with those upon these projects who are entering into this work of putting the desert into public service. They are genuine pioneers in a new field of work, on the success of which depends greatly the rescuing of a vast territory. The enemy of the gov- ernment and of the farmer is the land speculator.. Heis of two kinds. Some- times he is a farmer who does not expect to farm but to sell-out at a higher price and go elsewhere. Generally, however, he is the holder of a large tract of private land within the project, who creates false values and burdens those who buy and attempt to farm with a load of debt which handicaps them in their efforts. Both of these are hostile to the welfare of the enterprise and tend to destroy the value of the service which the govern- ment is attempting. But such matters may, I trust, be overcome by new methods of administration. It is my hope that the government will find its way to enter with zest upon more works of a similar character. Not to do this will leave undeveloped much of the most fertile land of the West. What is to be the future of Arizona and of New Mexico, of Nevada and Utah, of south- ern Idaho, central Oregon, eastern Wash- ington, much of Montana and Colorado, and more of Wyoming and Nebraska, if the government does not aid in their de- velopment ? Private capital will not, for many years at least, risk undertakings of such mag- nitude as these States require. Experi- ence has made the irrigation-bond buyer extremely wary. Within a few weeks the most promising of the great private enterprises in Idaho has met with the misfortune which had befallen so many others in neighboring States. The most successful irrigation plants are founded on the wrecks of their pioneer exploiters. ‘The government has rescued others. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE It has been with these projects much as it has been with our western railroads. They had to descend into the hands of the receiver before they.could be resur- rected into a new and glorified life. THERE IS MUCH MORE IRRIGATION WORK FOR THE GOVERNMENT TO DO But where are the funds to come from to carry on such work? My answer is, From the public lands in these States. We sell these lands now and the proceeds go into the reclamation fund. ‘This is the policy of Congress—that we shall for a time use the moneys which the govern- ment derives from the sale of its lands to create new values within the States. Two years ago the government went further and set aside $20,000,000, to be used in the completion of the irrigation schemes now under way. This is an advance by the government for which it takes what might be termed a mortgage on the moneys which the projects will yield from the sale of water rights. Why not extend this policy? The West can use profitably and wisely $100,000,000 in the next 10 years to the advantage of the whole country. Indeed, without this expenditure the asset which the government has in its desert lands will le unused and be of no national value. The government will recover all of the money it advances, not to speak of the homes and the values created by its enterprise: If the government will place upon a leasing basis these western resources with which we have been dealing, it can have an increased fund for the continuance of this work and an increased assurance of the. return of its advances, 9 |iustasae would aim to make Alaska pay in the end out of her own resources for a liberal advance made to her for the opening and improvement of her territory, so should we aim to make these lands of the West bring into being the latent values of the West. With a little foresight we can transform coal and oil, phosphate and timber, into green fields and electric power. Railroads and power plants, street railways and waterworks, are built with 50-year bonds, which rest upon the foundation of their probable earnings. \ LOCOMOTIVE IN MID-AIR Photo from U. S. Reclamation Se.vice Moving an engine from the bottom of the site of the Arrowrock Dam in Idaho to the top of the future spillway, 350 feet above. The Arrowrock Dam, which is part of the Boise Reclamation Project, will be the highest dam in the world. ‘(002 98ed 998) pordnoso Gt Te FO Jus. Jod usdas-AjouIN ‘sae[]Op O4d 9S10G 94} Aq poystuiny 139eM 9Y} 04 St preyoto sfdde sunod surariyy SIU, SI ‘pares SHY} oq 0} Apeot st YIYM 10 ‘sy9ford wOeUTepOOI yUIUIIDAOS 9y} AQ Padres st YIM pury o UOT[IUE JYsI9 UY} stow yuods sey JuaWUIDAOS oY} YIYM wodn ‘sIAsag uoyeUepsy “S “A ay} FO ol onp St UOeUIO;sSUeI} SIU], “‘OYep] JO uleyd ys9sap oy} Jo zed sem Oe sivdk MOF & JeYM UO SUIMOIS SdTAIOG UOTJEUILIISY “S “— WO.1Z OJOYg LAASHG AHL NI Sa’IddV ONIMOND 214 ‘(612 a8ed 4X9} 99S) ,ayeul Sj AQ pofeals st yoea Aq payIOM oI8euI sy} PUY ‘10Y}0 dy} SutjsoSSns qnoyIM suo dy} FO YUIYy} JOU sxOp 9UQ ‘“sUOTURdUIOD d1e—JIMOd I11}99[9-O1pAY PUL UOSIIII—OM] ISoY J, “Wary pure UMO} JOF Jeoy pure 4YSI] ‘SolIJSNPUL JOF JaMod suvou P + usUIpUegsnYy AjIvey JO sowoY 94} pue ‘SplvY91O snojoues ‘ey]e}]e JO spjoy ucy} sIOW SUIT 19}e@M PatO}S ONINOAM ‘IWVG JNOHSOHS AUL WOU WW V JO SYALAVNO-AIYHL ‘STANNOL NIML GNV YIOAMASHY LNA ” UHAOD LVAD AHL, DTAIAG UOTPEUIL[IIAY “S “() WOAZ OJON Photo from U. S. Reclamation Service THE MCDERMOTT LAKE AND FALLS, MONTANA : The dam of the St. Mary Project of the Reclamation Service will be built across the canyon at the foot of the falls shown in the picture. While it will destroy the beauty of these picturesque falls, it will be the means of bringing under cultivation great tracts of land which are now arid. ALL ON MOUNT RAINIER Photo by A. H. Barnes This great ice wall, with its face of 400 feet, stands on the upper part of the mountain. Mount Rainier, the Great White Monarch of the Pacific Northwest, is included in the Mount Rainier National Park and is one of the wards of the Secretary of the Interior. ore ES mM le aa < —Q a ea an (a) Zz < aq Ey an Sa © = = Z c U [9 S I IY) Moz e SACU qe A ‘suojsnd uvadoin’yy MoO} Aat aL os[e o1e 910Y4} Jnq ‘OSOWUPUUY M ‘SIo}oIdIOJUT FO ISaT[OD IY} se [jam se » ‘ ION-VH ‘SYALANAWALN ATUIPUL ae s}uapnys 1ou OUT, I ur UE OPEC ES U9 EROTIC HEIN Ras ‘So uIyUuO TL ul [e 1} 914" 4e yey} parrosqo eg O ensuel yous CH Ve S}sIx9 SoAT}eU OF aUTSIpaU JO 9a tod Jeuonyeonpa [es1aqiy AjoA e ponsind dAeY ‘VER I 9} Ul surul S9][OO AILII@ IIOt I e } dUIS e Ta I SNOIOL I oq [JIM Jt pue osinod sry} Sursmp 1 pue ‘sjuiod JuotudAUO0d ‘Youd LL N N AT STUDY IN A BUDDHIST MONASTERY Photo by Dr. W. E. Grubl The children are studying the Buddhist Scriptures, which are written in a language called Pali on curious oblong tablets made of palm leaves. The monks are distinguished by their shaven heads and by their single garment, the famous yellow robe. In Burma all boys be- come monks for a year or two and in this way a part of their education is acquired. 228 * mw b t ty bs {Va 7 { j | A WAYSIDE SCENE IN RURAL ENGLAND _ The entrance to one of the quaint old cottages in the village of Cockington in the south of Devon- shire. All the houses in this village have thatched roofs and are very old; manv of them have been standing for over three hundred years. Photo by A. W. Cutler 229 qaIgM Arays0y 343 ul 9AI] Mou ‘uospueiZ ajay] Jey pue Ape] pjo sty, “aureu quaseid st saAtap 3 s0udyM SIeLy uvrunsnsny Aq pardnaa0 | SEM IOI OY} “UOTLULIOJOY oY} s10jog = “s1eaA ONG YOG Suryep vorjednds0 jsaryses sj ‘pueljsuq ut Suyjomp y901 payqeyur ysapjo ay} aq 0} sty} poaoid sary suoTjEsI}SaAUI JUddoY =‘ puLlsuq ‘osryssa}saoI0M UT ArayOY UTSNY A]OF] se UMOUY s8uyfamp yx901 Jo dnoid e jO au0 SI sIy] SYXTIAMdG AAVO HSITONA AWOS { {tens lps ~s : a ‘oA t 230 agree a Ny ‘§ on i ARM EI A BIT OF OLD WALES This old fish-wife is wearing the fast disappearing Welsh costume, the most curious feature of which is the high beaver hat worn over a frilled muslin cap. The top basket is used for cockles and mussels, the lower one for fish. The picture was taken at Llangurn in South Wales. Photo by A. W. Cutler. 231 a cneemmemeurenee : - m “SoTeM ITsy} jo 947 ul 01 S30} Tu s1o4eq “pueyjopy pue “uInIsjag UT UVES 9}O 31k Sjied Bop asayy “ssop Aq UMBIP }IeD ay} UT pajzeas ‘ya1ysneppurss ayaa sty aM auioy AeM SIY UO SI UPW plo sy], “Jops0q Host ay} Jvau UINIZ[ag jo aprsAsqUNOD ay} UI aUaDS JaINb Vv AVM HHL Ad LSHa V ppNy “MY Aq O1OYd 9419} e ayeutaj jo saporqae oq 0} Jeadde Aay} YSIS ys1y ie yey Ad3eq pue [[Ny os ssosnosg yng sjrys Suleam jou st Aoq s98uNoA ayy, “sadid Buoy ay} o1e Os ‘yeo1d A} StI 3eOo uTysdoaays aSUDUIWT ay { SNIWId NVIYVONNH LVAND AHL dO SAOWP GYAHdAHS 33 rere eeu eu eg ysnoiy} 3pem S]Als eu L “apy MOT 7e 74 SIS UOUTUIOD & SI styy “Seioys APUeS JY} UO juepuNnge cB & 3 sduiiys 313yM *ysPOD UPRUTION 9} suoly AGNVWYON NI ONIdWIYHS 234 “APEIO] YORI UL JUALOIp St yoryM Jo adeys ay} ‘sdvo ayTYM 1IM UIIIOM VYT “puTYysq UMOp Sursuey UOqq! Jo SJoUreat}s JeoIs YM EY powUt4q-peo4q asny dy} pue yayoel pausluit4}-JAoA “Z10Ys ‘QuIN}sOd JUDIOUR dy} 07 Ajsnotoeua} SuTjo sjuvsvad ayy, ‘aoueiy jo jaed oarqnuiid ysour 94} sureuior Aepoy AuezjLig J19y} 0} Us 947 THAAHNM-ONINNIdS AHL LV e a pad Got en: Mei yvuodH JY pauMm & Ae UBD UI9Y? JO aUO A[psJeYy Ysnous Ajosuesjs pue ‘souesy |je ul UaWJeYysy pidezur jsow 9y} sdeysed puno} a1e Aue}}Ig yo 3seOd |9Yy2 Suojy NAWYAHSIA AHL YOd YAAHD GOOD epee Vet ar UdUIOM OM} JOYIO VYT “FsTeM ay} Wo1y UMOP qysre13s -S09 }S9q JOY UT SI Ia, 247 UO Ape] ey L ag aa gtk ogee pete eek wee Zuisuey suoqqu pasojoo-17eA jo Joquinu & YIM ‘poystjoquie st ySTYA jo WTYs sy? ‘owns “SMO]]IG BSUSWUIT UO SJULJUI Jay} SUI|PpeMs Jo WOJsND SNOLIN & oALY uswOM JuPsead URLIesUN}Y SAIdVad WAHL GNV SYAHLOW NVIYVONDH REE OREN ee foe *WLIOU dsIIe JeI1s pue diysuewyIOM Juaoue jo uazo are sBurids asayy ‘apduisy ase spits ay} sdeo ay], = “punoy ase sauinjsoo jurenb Aueur ‘907 TOPINZ 94} JO spuxjst 94} uo Ajyersadsa ‘pueyjory Jo $3O13sIp Bury no ay} uy STYIDTOOHOS HOLNG ATLIIT Avy} yoomM oy} jo Ar0j3 ay} [[e ul ‘Aepung UO YoINYS Wor} “FOI ) “A “yy Aq U4IUd Ajpouus 4y 4UYUYy Yory vuy G4pour V4 4FUUE cys puree peu yey vos — S[IIs 3 ‘ssoID-DeaU JO YOR] vy} SI auinjsod pouoqqtui-9 3 wWoI] Sploy oy} UT yIOmM [ts oy p-pesy jo You] oy} SI! peuoeqaq! J Sploy ynoysnosyy yeyy azijeat 0} JNOUJIP St HW ‘ysoq 19} AMVONNAH ‘LSAG MIGHL NI STAID AVAOTS q yonur sty} jo oanzeay snorins y “UMOpUNS 0} WI0Ul Ajie Sui0d ‘spss asey} 99s OL, 239 eee TT 94} JO 9S0Y4} 02 YseIQUOD BUTyLIS UT ‘gjqeyojywooun pue ys AidA VI UIWOM JY} JO S9Ado{S paynd oy], ul susIsap paJUsUIeUIO A[YDII SIT YIM Aq uiom uoide yoRIq suo] ‘saxas 4}0q AYVONDNH Se : § i | © 4soyINT "M “Y Aq OJOYG “paysom Aj[njiynesq pue surmoy ose yor ‘uous .04}2 3I0N ° NI dnowdd ATINVA V “SYpIS UL SOUTJAaWIOS— s[OOM paiO[O Aiaploiquis Jo uoissed & aAvy SJUesvad say] 240 THE BRIDE AND BRIDEGROOM, HUNGARY The enormous ornament on the bride’s head is not so heavy as it looks, being composed largely of tinsel. It will be noted that the bridegroom’s hat is also gay with flowers and tinsel. Note the ribbons hanging from the bride’s belt, as also on page 237. Photo by A. W. Cutler. 241 . a: eam Fao ATIOIS NI GATT INVSVad Sees 242 “100H passey auojs 34} UO wool 94} jo Joul gjoy 94} YSnosy4} Burjoo] UeUIOM 9Y} 9I0N “ND “M “VW Aq O10Ud 09 & Ul palpury Bulaq ary ay} ‘AouWTYD puke MOPUIM JOJ YIOG SIATOS VjOY SIL ‘I00p oy} Ul ‘syoryo pue AdyxIN} Jay SuryozeM ajiyM azop e& OJUT Yo paddoup sey {ef 94} UO Apr] ple oy SUAANIVLNOOW NVITIOIS FHL HLIM %, a fs ny 5 1° -—= © . e & a” Ser SMT NE Seat seeuwe mods iY IIe O48 BOYA YOUNG, “ALIS UF EU;WdUE | dAOGe Ish! aBeI[IA UreqUNOUL 3]39q] B WOIy SUIOD s19]SBUNOA asay | SAO@ NVITIOIS ATIO£L AWOS =~ ~+ eC THE PROBABLE PoPee tl OF PRE PANAVWA CANAL ON THE COMMERCIAL GEOG- RAPHY OF THE WORLD By O. P. AusTIn HAT will be the effect of the AY Panama Canal upon the com- mercial and travel geography of the world? Will it change travel routes, stimulate commerce, and bring the people of great land-masses into closer relationship ? The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, short- ened the travel distance between western Europe and eastern Asia by 3,400 miles, and in doing so opened new highways of travel and traffic, multiplied interchanges of merchandise, and developed closer re- lations between the Occident and the Orient. The Panama Canal will shorten travel routes between New York and Yokohama by 3,750 miles; between New York and Shanghai, about 2,000 miles; between New York and Australia, about 3,000 miles, and between New York and western South America by from 3,500 to 7,000 miles. It will also reduce the distance from Europe to western South America by 3,000 miles and to western North America by more than 5,000 miles. ‘Will it also divert travel and traffic from the present established routes, stim- ulate commerce, and develop closer rela- tions between the people of the countries thus brought closer together? International commerce doubled in the 30 years following the opening of the Suez Canal, and business and personal inter-relationship between the Occident and the Orient was increased in like pro- portion. Will similar results follow the like shortening of trade and travel routes by the Panama Canal? WHAT DETERMINES STEAMSHIP ROUTES Highways of travel on the ocean are influenced by surrounding conditions just as are those on land. ‘The shortest dis- tance between two given points is not al- ways the best on the ocean any more than is the case on a continent or island. True, the ocean surface gives a level “road-bed” for a direct line of travel, while a route over a land surface must make frequent detours to obtain even ap- proximate levels for moving great quan- tities of merchandise. But there are other important condi- tions which affect the ocean route. Plen- tiful freight supplies, present and pro- spective, interchangeability of the prod- ucts of the countries forming the termini of the routes, “way stations’ on such routes, plentiful coaling stations, and cheap coal of a quality suitable for steam- ship engines, and even favorable winds and ocean currents are among the fac- tors contributing to the success of routes of travel upon the ocean. Argentina, for example, has ample supplies of freight, but steamship lines do not develop rapidly between that country and the United States because most of the Argentine products are sim- ilar to our own, and there is no reason why she should send her wheat and corn and pork to this country, which has a surplus of those articles. Cuba, the world’s greatest producer of cane sugar, sends little if any of it to Europe, be- cause that part of the world produces from beets all the sugar it requires. Eng- land, the world’s greatest coal exporter, sends no coal to the United States, which has unlimited supplies of her own. So, shortening of distances between great sections will not develoo steamship busi- ness unless the products of the two sec- tions are of such character as to justify exchanges. In some instances, however, steamship routes adjust themselves to locally ad- verse conditions. The steamer which carries wheat and corn and meat from Argentina to Europe may bring the silks and woolens and laces of Europe to the United States and then return to Argen- tina loaded with agricultural implements, iron and steel manufactures, and mineral 246 oil from the factories and refineries of this country. THE IMPORTANCE OF COALING STATIONS Coaling stations and coal supplies are an important factor in determining routes of travel for steamers. ‘The sta- tions are numbered by hundreds and scattered over the entire travel world, yet the quality and prices of the material which they offer and the distances be- tween ample and cheap supplies have much to do in determining steamship HOULES: British coal is the standard for steam- ships in Europe, the Mediterranean, and western “Asia; India, Australia, and. ja- pan are the chief sources of supply for eastern Asia and the western Pacific, and the United States chief: purveyor to all of America and adjacent waters. Aus- tralian, Japanese, and American coals are somewhat cheaper than the English, and if the stations tributary to the Panama routes were so near to each other that the steamship could get supplies at fre- quent intervals, and thus devote most of its carrying space to merchandise rather than to large coal supplies, the routes via the Panama Canal would offer special at- tractions. Coal is nearly one-half the cost of running a freight vessel. A large share of the freight now moved on the ocean is carried in “tramp” steamers of from 2.000! tO 5,000" “met register’ tons ica- pacity, but an actual carrying power of about twice as many tons of dead weight. To charter a vessel of, say, 3,000 reg- ister tons, including the officers and crew, costs about $200 a day, while the coal required to run such a vessel at the very moderate speed of to miles an hour would cost about $150 per day. For pas- senger steamers, making higher speed, the cost of coal is much greater, and would probably be quite as much as the hire of the vessel and all of her officers, crew, subsistence, and incidental ex- penses. A freight vessel of the type above de- scribed, carrying about 5,000 tons dead weight and making about 1o miles per hour, would probably burn about 3,000 to 4,000 tons of coal on a trip from New THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE York to Yokohama or Shanghai and re- turn, and if a saving of $1.50 per ton could be made by going via Panama and using the cheaper coal offered by that route, the economy in coal alone might turn the scale in favor of that route. So it is apparent that coaling stations, coal supplies, and coal prices are factors of considerable importance in determin- ing the choice of routes where distances are nearly equal. THE SPHERE OF INFLUENCE OF THE PANAMA CANAL The sections of the world which may be considered as probably within the “sphere of influence” of the Panama Canal are the eastern and western coasts of America, the eastern coast of Asia, and the islands of the Pacific. All of western America will be nearer to Eu- rope than at present, and all of western America and most of eastern Asia and Oceania will be nearer to the eastern coast of America than at present. A study of the production and con- sumption of the various countries lying within the canal’s sphere of influence shows that their various products are thoroughly interchangeable. The west- ern coast of South America offers chiefly natural products. Chile has _ nitrates, copper, and comparatively small quanti- ties of wheat and other grains. ‘Yhe ni- trates are needed* by both thes Uimited States and Europe; the copper comes to the United States to be smelted and re- fined and the grains are wanted by Eu- rope. In exchange for these Chile takes manufactures, and both the United States and Europe have manufactures for sale in ever-increasing quantities. The Philippines and the Dutch East Indies offer sugar, tobacco, hemp, and other tropical products, and both Europe and the United States want these and pay for them chiefly in manufactures, which form the bulk of the imports of these countries. Australia and New Zea- land offer meats, wool, and hides and take manufactures in exchange; and both the United States and Europe want the wool and hides, and Europe wants also the wheat and meats, and she, as Teh ENE LUPNCE OF DHE PANAMA CANAL well as the United States, wants to pay for them in manufactures. It will be seen, therefore, that the products of the various sections within the canal’s “sphere of influence” are of a thoroughly interchangeable character. DOES THE CANAL REALLY SHORTEN TRADE ROUTES? Next we must consider the relative dis- tances via the Panama Canal and other existing routes, measured between great trading centers. From Europe we may take Liverpool as a representative point. It represents, with a fair degree of ac- Distances Orleans Respectively via Panama to Western Ports of America from Liverpool, New York, 247 curacy, the initial point for the trade of Europe. For the western coast of America we may consider the chief ports from Chile to Washington. For the tar East we may consider Yokohama, Shanghai, Hong- kong, Manila, Sydney and Melbourne, Australia, and Wellington, New Zealand, as more or less within the “sphere of in- fluence” of the Panama Canal, while Singapore, Colombo, and the ports of India are so much nearer to both Europe and the United States via the Suez that they need not be considered in a com- parison of distances via the two routes. and New (in nautical miles ) i} | Advantage over Liverpool. Via Panama to— a ee Ree oricaae i | New York. ieee VEIDENEVISO. 5 Re coerenneeeine rere 7,207 4,033 4,054 2,574 2,453 Iquique S45 0 SE Opes mE rte 6,578 4,004 3,425 2,574 Biss CAlla® os cog oo eeae atonm une arc 5,937 2,203 2,784 2A 2.558 (GAD (Ch UNE oe ee 5,384 2,810 2231 257A 2.7153 JAN CAND RUICCO)a cs Gy Senet aa oa 6,017 3,443 2,864 2.574 2153 AMOI OMe peter sco seer 4s ec ea weyers 9,276 6,702 O23 2;574 cries Salt chim attCISCOn i. as ds od «coe oa 7,836 5202 4,683 2,574 Bus JOE G Cle ee Rs COP ee ee 8,486 One Eegas 2,574 Ba15e Ont (eOWMSETIG: ac. ses elie cn ss os 8,606 6,032 5.453 27a ess Distances from New York, New Orleans, and Liverpool Respectively to Principal Ports of Eastern Asia and Oceani ia (in nautical miles) Yokohama Shanghai Hongkong Manila Melbourne Sydney Wellington re * Via Suez, except to Wellington via Magellan Strait. THE ADVANTAGES OF THE PANAMA ROUTE It will be seen from the above tables (1) that both New York and New Or- leans will be so much nearer to all of western America than is Liverpool that we may expect that an increasing share Ce ee ey Ce , ? Cr Ce Cr ) cece eee eee eee ee oe eee eee eee eee eee eee eee oe New York New Orleans| Liverpool by via via shortest Panama, Panama. route.* Dots aa 9,798 9,219 11,678 Re achat 10,049 10,070 10,007 ite tne 11,691 51 a) 0,785 See ere 11,548 10,966 0,701 ney anaes 10,028 0,427 11,654 a Regeire the 9,811 0,232 2 221cr, Rr ee 8,540 7,939 11,075 of the trade of that section will fall to the lot of eastern North America, and (2) that the eastern ports of the United States will be considerably nearer to Yo- kohama, Melbourne, Sydney, and Well- ington than is Liverpool by her shortest route, but (3) that Liverpool will be still 248 nearer Hongkong and Manila than either New York or New Orleans via Panama. lt “may »therefores be “expected: sthat while the canal will give us decided ad- vantages in the trade with western Amer- ica and increase the share which we have of that trade, we are not justified in ex- pecting marked changes in the share which we shall get of any part of the Orient except that with Japan and Aus- tralia and New Zealand. However, the Panama route so much shortens the distance to the western coast of America, both from eastern America and western Europe, that we may ex- pect to see most of the trade with west- ern America go via Panama, except per- haps in case of European commerce with the southern ports on the west coast of South America. EEPECIZOR THE CANAL ON OUR -DOMESTIC TRADE One of the most important results of the opening of the canal will doubtless be found in its effect upon the movements of merchandise between the eastern and western sections of the United States. This trade is already very large. While exact figures are not available, the data at hand seem to justify an esti- mate of about 3 million tons per annum of freight moved by rail and about a half million tons by water from the At- lantic Coast section to the Pacific Coast section, and about an equal amount from the Pacific Coast section and Hawaii to the Atlantic Coast section. The sums paid as freight charges on these 7 million tons moved between the Atlantic and Pa- cific Coast sections are estimated at from 250 to 300 million dollars per annum. Only about one-fourth of the tonnage which now moves westward across the Rocky Mountains originates east of Buf- falo and Pittsburgh, while most of the remaining three-fourths originates in the Mississippi Valley, which is the great producing section of the country and rapidly increasing its production of man- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ufactures, which are the most important factor in the west-bound traffic. Of the east-bound traffic across the Rockies, a large share originates near the Pacific coast, especially the fruits, vegetables, fish, wine, barley, and lumber; but only a part of this reaches the Atlantic coast, a considerable share being consigned to the communities of the Mississippi Vailey. At present the railway rates between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific coast are but little if any less than for the entire distance across the continent, but this will probably be somewhat mod}- fied when the steamship rates via Pan- ama become sufficiently iow to attract the Mississippi Valley trade toward the At- lantic and Gulf ports. In the actual cost of transportation between the eastern and western sections it may be expected that there will be a marked reduction in the tonnage rates charged. The water rates between New York and San Francisco, even with the pres- ent handicap of transferring to the Pan- ama or Tehuantepec railways and re- transferring to steamer, are from 20 to 60 per cent of those charged by the rail- ways, and about one-third of this present water rate is paid for the transferring across the Isthmus. To sum up, it seems probable that the Panama Canal will carry most of the freight passing between the eastern coast of the United States and the western coast of Latin-America, and that the shorter distances and lower rates which it offers will greatly increase that trade; that the trade between the eastern and western sections of the United States will be greatly increased and transported at a much lower charge per ton; that it will sufficiently shorten the distances to Japan, northern China, Australia, and New Zea- land to increase steamship service and materially increase the traffic with those countries, and that the European coun- tries will use the canal in most of their traffic with western America and in ex- ceptional instances with northern Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. VoL. XXV, No. 3 - WASHINGTON GEOGIRAIPIGNIC MAGA ZIUNIE MARrRcH, 1914 VILLAGE LIFE IN THE HOLY LAND By Joun D. WHITING A description of the life of the present-day inhabitants of Palestine, showing how, in many cases, their customs are the same as in Bible times. Illustrated by photographs by the American Colony Photographers, Jerusalem. Land, is in a general way familiar to all of us from our study of the Bible. Few, however, realize that the manners and customs which prevailed there in Biblical days are still unchanged, even after an interval of 3,000 years. The land today is inhabited by three dis- tinct classes: the Bedouin, or nomads, a wandering, war-loving race; the Fella- heen, who are the agriculturists, shep- herds, and village dwellers, and the Ma- daniyeh, who live in the towns and cities and are artisans. With the advent of civilization the townspeople are fast losing their ancient customs and quaint costumes, but the villagers adhere to both far more tena- ciously. Still, no one knowing the coun- thy caimfail to see/that a time is not far distant when many of their interesting and long-lived habits of life will be things of the past. Pine often called the Holy THE VILLAGE HOME The present-day villages are located, as a rule, either on the tops of hills, orig- inally for protection, or near some spring or source of water. Many are built upon the foundations of dwellings whose origin dates back thousands of years. There does not exist a single example of a peas- ant village that has been founded in mod- ern times, With almost every village or district there. are, to-as greater or lesser extent, variations in the dialect of the Arabic they speak, their style of dress, and the homes they live in. On the Plain of Sharon, where stone is rare or non-existent, the houses are made of sun-dried brick, the roofs thatched and covered with clay to shed the rain, while in the motintains they are built of stone, since of that material there is an inex- haustible supply. Many have pictured in their minds Mary and Joseph, after arriving at the “inn” at Bethlehem and finding no room, being forced to turn into some barn built of timber, with lofty roof, hay mows, wooden mangers, and stalls for cattle and sheep. Such a stable has been the sub- ject of many medieval and modern ar- tists, but it does not present a really true picture. Let us consider the old-style vil- lage home that is most common in the districts around Jerusalem and Bethle- hem, for that will give us a better idea of what happened on that first Christmas day. The village streets are crooked, nar- row, and unpaved. As in many of the countries of the Orient, farmers live close together for protection, and not on their lands ; therefore in the villages there are no open fields or gardens, but house is next to house, except for the small walled- % ‘nea eg "i, "ie: i MIXING THE MORTAR FOR THE ROOF When a house is ready to reo‘ over, all the villagers, both men and women, lend a helping hand. In this picture we s_e the men mixing the mortar and placing it on boards, which are passed along by the women to the men working on the roof. 250 VILLAGE, LIFE, IN in inclosures or sheepfolds through which one generally passes when going into the dwelling. The house itself consists of one large room, usually square. The walls, from 3 to 4 feet thick, are built of blocks of stone roughly dressed and laid in mortar, roofed over with a dome, also of stone. The outside of this roof is covered with a coating of mortar made of clay, which, on being pressed with a small stone roller or pounded with a board, becomes hard and compact enough to shed the rain (see pager252 ). A steep outside staircase, unprotected by any railing, is built up to the roof, for the surface must be repaired at times. The flat, open space of the roof also forms a handy place on which to dry figs and raisins, and during the hot weather the family may sleep there at night. SE wPPRER ROOM OF -THE HOUSE Entering the door, we find that about two-thirds of the space is devoted to a raised masonry platform, some 8 to 10 feet above the ground and supported by low-domed arches. This raised space, called el mastaby, is the part occupied by the family, while the lower part is used for the cattle and flocks (see page 310). A few narrow stone steps lead up to the mastaby, and a couple of small windows pierce the wall, high up from the ground. ‘These, as a rule, are the only means of admitting light and furnishing ventilation to the entire house. Until about half a century ago it was thought unsafe to build even medium-sized windows, and any man presuming to do so would have been considered as challenging the rest of the community. On one side is an open fireplace, with a chimney running through the wall and terminating on the roof often in an old water jar whose bottom has been knocked out, and so becomes a sort of smokestack. Many houses have no chimney at all; small holes through the wall, or the win- dows, furnish the only exit for the smoke, which on winter days fairly fills the house. The furniture is very simple and, as a rule, consists of a crudely decorated bridal chest in which the mother of the BEEP HOLY WAND 251 family has brought her trousseau ; a straw mat or heavy woven woolen rug which covers part of the floor, and mattresses, with thick quilts and hard pillows, which at night are spread on the floor. The cooking utensils are few in num- ber—one clay cooking pot, a couple of large wooden bowls in which to knead the dough, and a couple of smaller ones used to eat from. Wheat is ground ina hand-mill of black basalt, the lower stone being imbedded in a sort of sun-dried clay trough shaped to receive the flour as it is ground. These, with a sieve or two, a large wooden cooking spoon, a small brass coffee-pot, a few tiny coffee-cups, and perhaps a clay dish in which to roast and grind the coffee beans, comprise the entire outfit. Having inspected the dwelling portion, which at once is kitchen, store-room, bed- room, and living-room, let us descend the steps into what the natives call the stable. Below the mastaby, or raised platform, just described, among arches so low that a man can scarcely walk erect, are the winter quarters of the goats and sheep. To shut the flocks in, these arched en- trances are obstructed with bundles of brush used as firewood for the winter. The rest of the floor space, which is open to the ceiling, is devoted to the few work cattle and perhaps a donkey or camel. Around the walls are primitive mangers for the cattle, built of ough: slabs of stone placed on edge and plastered up with mortar. Often the owner makes a small raised place on which he sleeps at night to en- able him to keep better watch over the newly born lambs, lest in the crowded quarters some get crushed or trodden down by the older ones. Here he often sleeps by preference on a cold night, for he says the breath of the animals keeps him warm. THE LAND, NOT THE PEOPLE, CONSERVES THE OLD CUSTOMS One cannot become even tolerably ac- quainted with Palestine without perceiv- ing that it is the /and that has preserved the ancient customs. Its present-day in- habitants, who have nothing in common with the modern Jews who crowd Jerusa- ROOFING A VILLAGE HOME “The outside of the roof is covered with a coating of mortar made of clay, which, on being pressed with a small stone roller or pounded with a board, becomes hard and compact enough to shed the rain” (see page 251). 252 VILLAGE LIFE IN fem, are still perpetuating the life of Abraham and the customs and ways of the people who lived here at the time of Christ. To know the heart of the land, to have learned the hospitality of its people, which is always offered, no matter how primitive or simple, makes it easy to pic- ture Mary and Joseph returning from the inn, already filled with guests, and turn- ing aside into a home such as we have described, the regular dwelling portion of which may have been none too large for the family which occupied it. It may have been crowded with other guests, but they find a welcome and a resting place tor tae babe in a manger: Such a use of the rowyeh, or stable portion of the house, by human beings 1s not the exception, but an every-day occur- rence. You can occasionally find men working their primitive looms there or the mother preparing the food or doing her little sewing near the door, where there is more light on a dark winter’s day. We have all perhaps noticed that in the two Gospel narratives where the birth of Jesus is dwelt upon* neither of them mentions a stable, barn, or anything equiv- alent, while Matthew, speaking of the wise men, says: “And when they were come into the House, they saw the young child with Mary his mother.” -Many of these dwellings, placed as they are on ancient sites, are built over old caves or caverns which are incorporated into the lower or stable portion. Today, im. Bethlehem s church, sucha cave. is shown as the actual birthplace of Jesus. Its walls are covered with costly tapes- tries and paintings, and from its ceiling hang lamps of gold and silver (see page 304). THE GUEST-CHAMBER OF THE VILLAGE Bach village has an upper, room or guest-chamber (see page 254). During the summer the shade of some large tree is often substituted for this room. How- ever, in either case this guest-chamber or tree is the social center for all the village men, where many spend the evening or the entire day when they have nothing with which to occupy themselves. Socta- ‘Natt. 221-12; Luke 2: 1-20. se OLY WAND 253 bility is one of their characteristics; they love to gossip and chat about the local news. Of.course, not a single newspaper is to be had; so all their information is derived from those who have been last to town. A servant is hired to attend to this guest-chamber, and every day, by turn, one of the villagers furnishes the coffee beans and sugar for the coffee to be served to the men thus congregated; he, too, supplies the food and bedding if some ordinary guests come along. They are, of course, great respecters of persons; so that if a common man happens in, a couple of fried eggs with bread and’ olives: will-do tor hint. liea more important personage arrives, a pair of roast chickens is provided for his sup- pers buteit a, still more honored one, a sheik of a village, or a large company of men appear, a lamb or kid is killed, and in all cases horses are furnished with nose-bags full of barley. The supplying of these more expensive meals 1s appor- tioned among the various men by turn, while they furnish barley according to the amount of land possessed. In the possession of the man attending the guest-chamber are three small wooden bows, on the cord of which are strung ships of paper, each bearing the name of one of the men of the village. The slip hist 1m) Order indicates the mame-of the person whose turn next comes to serve, and in this simple way the proper ac- counts are kept, since one of the bows represents chickens, the next lambs and kids, while the third is for the barley. As each one fulfills his obligation the paper, represemting, it 1s torn “oll; and when all are gone, a new set is written and the turns begin again. Let us now watch a company of dis- tinguished visitors arrive at the village guest-chamber. The young men run to help the guests dismount, and, leading the animals away, tie them in the courtyard or in the stable, which is below the “upper room.” Oth- ers hasten to spread rugs and mats on the floor and mattresses around the wall, furnished with cushions, for on them the guests sit cross-legged or recline. Many of the men of the village now join the THE VILLAGE GUEST-CHAMBER “Each village has an upper room, or guest-chamber. During the summer the villagers often substitute the shade of some large tree for this room. ‘This guest-chamber or tree is the gathering place for all the village men, where many spend the evening or the entire day when they have nothing with which to occupy themselves, for sociability is one of their characteristics” (see page 253). i) On JSS 2 THERE ARE NO SUFFRAGETTES HERE The proper etiquette of the Holy Land bids the wife follow meekly on foot while her husband rides majestically in front. In the good old days the gentle sex never was seen riding, but the modern spirit is creeping in, and “today it is a common sight to find a woman astride of a donkey” (see text, page 261). 255 jeorydes cS -O Oo a O peoy Joy uodn speoy Aavay Surreaq FO woysnd Jay 0} ONp st UBWIOM UeTIAG 9Y} JO as8eliied [nyooeis syy, ‘uorrsod Joy Suiziseydura ounjysoo Joy ‘YNOG dy} FO ‘aqgoz 10 ‘aqO1 SUC] ISOOT 9Y} JopuN YWON oy} FO SIOWOO]Y IY} STPIM UPWIOM UeIeUIeS IT, VIUVAVS JO NHWOM 256 Virb Ser wipe tae wOLY LAND guests, and for a while there are long exchanges of salutations, while tiny cups of coffee are sipped, and the more they enjoy it, the louder they smack their lips. Bitter coffee is generally offered and is served with only a sip at the bottom of a very small cup, while when sweet coffee is made, the cups are filled to over- flowing. This, as will be readily seen, has a symbolical meaning—‘May bitter- ness be little and sweetness abundant.” AN INGENIOUS INSULT Traveling with a friend some years ago, we were thus entertained. Entering the guest-chamber, we noticed that the occu- pants were unusually quiet and that one man had no turban on. It was whis- pered to us that this man, who was a stranger, had been robbed the night be- fore by one of the men of the village who had a notoriously bad reputation, even among his own people. The victim had appealed to the elders of the town. With- out a word, coffee was prepared. As we were foreigners, they made sweet coffee for us, thinking we would not like the bitter, and filled our cups full, while the bitter kind was passed to all the rest in little doles; but to the man suspected of robbery a full cup was served. This was such an insult that he flew out of the room; a fight ensued, his house was searched and the goods recov- ered, and the stranger again donned his headgear, which was among the things that had been stolen. As they thus sit chatting and drinking coffee they also smoke. Each man car- ries a leathern pouch of tobacco from which he rolls his own cigarettes or fills a long-tubed water-pipe or narghellt. Little preparation is made for the mid- day meal. Some hot bread, a plate of fried eggs, another of curdled milk, or a dish of fresh butter with a pile of fine sugar on top, suffices. "This meal is for the guests alone. A FEAST FOR THE STRANGER The person whose turn it is to give the supper does not start preparations till the flocks come home in the evening, when a fatling is slain, cut into pieces, and boiled as a stew in a great kettle. An- other large pot of rice is cooked. 207 All the men of the village now slowly congregate at the guest-chamber, each throwing down on the coat, spread for this purpose, a couple of thin loaves of bread that he has brought with him. When all are assembled, the pile of bread is torn up into small pieces and placed in large wooden bowls. Over this, in each bowl, a large pile of rice is put and the meat on top, while a liberal sup- ply of the gravy is added. Sitting on the floor, first the guests, with the older and more important men, fall into circles around the bowls, and be- fore partaking each one says Bismallah (in the name of Allah), to drive away the genii. With the aid of the thumb and first two fingers, great balls of rice and soaked bread are made, which are dex- terously popped into the mouth. The food is eaten very hot, and it is surprising how much one man can con- sume when at such a feast and how little it takes to sustain him ordinarily. As each set finishes eating they wash their hands, water being poured on them by a servant, as we read of in Old Testa- ment times.* Then they drink coffee and smoke until time to retire, when beds are spread on the floor for the guests, some of the villagers remaining with them, sleeping in their coats. The party usually leaves the village early the next morning. The guest-chambers are not for wo- men; so, if a man is traveling with his. family, he does not go to this regular reception place, but waits about the vil- lage until some one passing invites him into his house. ‘This happens today just as in the case of the Levite of old who was traveling with his concubine and servant from Bethlehem-judah, and was entertained at Gibeah by the old man from Mount Ephraim who found them waiting in the street of the city.f CONCERNING FAMILY LIFE Children in the peasant family are al- ways welcome, girl babies sometimes ex- cepted. The father prides himself on his boys, and even the mother prefers them, and, when questioned as to the number of her offspring, she will invariably say PPI OSe 3. kL *+ Judges 19: 15-21. 258 that she has five children and two girls, or as many as the case may be. Not to have a boy is a great hardship to the family and is especially felt by the mother, for failure to have a son may become the cause of her divorce or her husband’s excuse for marrying again. This feeling is hard to understand, since they look upon a girl as a profitable pos- session, for a would-be husband must pay a comparatively handsome price for her. The boy, on the other hand, is a greater expense, and his wife and wedding are costly affairs. ‘The only explanation is that their great aim in life is to perpetu- ate the name of the father. To be polite the fellah, in speaking of a pig, dog, donkey, or anything out of good taste, invariably says, b’eed ‘annak, ineaning, “Be it far from you!” So, also; when a girl or woman is spoken of, they Often say, Beit far from you!” Although women are thus looked upon as something inferior, still when they have become well advanced in years and are perhaps the grandmothers of large families, or have signalized themselves by some special attainment, they are fre- quently the jobject.of the respect “and reverence of the younger women and of the men as well (see page 265). The woman may never call her hus- band by his first name, but “O father of Ahmed,” or whatever the eldest son’s name may be, which indeed is the name by which he 1s generally known. In naming the first son it 1s customary to give him the name of his grandfather on the father’s side; therefore, even be- fore a youth is married he will often be addressed as the father of Ali, or Mo- hammed, or Suleiman, as the case may be. The first daughter is usually named for the grandmother, again on the father’s side. The wife likewise takes the name of her first-born son. ‘The husband, speak- ing of her, especially to men, will never say “my wife” or mention her first name, but will say either “the mother of Ah- med,* or my. family, “sathe relative im my house,” “the forbidden,’ or “the daughter of my uricle.” The reason for this is that a man mar- ries his first cousin in preference to any THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE one else, and in fact she cannot marry another if he wants her. Gauged by our conception of the subject, the women are rigorously ruled by the men; still the men feel that in these days the women are becoming too independent, as what fol- lows will illustrate. ESSA’S LAMENTATION Only yesterday Essa, who tends the vineyard of a friend near the village of Sharafat, lying between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, was heard thus complaining to another : “Oh! my master, when I was young I used to rule ‘my family’ with a hard heart, for her ways did not please my mother, and I used to beat her much. My father, may God have mercy upon him,* often said to me: ‘My son, these are the days of women, and if you so treat your wife you will not be able to live with any woman. Their ways are perverse, but you cannot change them. The days of men are passed.’ ‘In former days, my master, a woman would not dare to go-to her father’s house or that of a neighboreionea wisi = without first getting her husband’s con- sent, and much less would she think of addressing her husband before people. If he happened to be in the village guest- chamber with the men and she desired to call him, she would say to some man sitting by, ‘Tell him to come,’ and some- times, to amuse ourselves, the man would inquire, ‘Who?’; to which she would re- peatedly answer only, ‘he,’ for modesty would prevent her mentioning his name or saying ‘my husband’; but now my wo- man calls me ‘Essa’ in the midst of the village and I hold my peace. “Women formerly, when passing men on the road, would cover their faces with their hands and keep their eyes on the ground; but now when we meet them they are not shy, so we men keep our eyes on the ground until they have passed. “A common saying among the women used to be, ‘O Preserver, protect: me from my husband’s displeasure!’ Now _ * This expression is always used when speak- ing of a deceased relative or friend, while when mentioning an enemy or evil person they say, “May God not have mercy upon him!” J THE HEBRON DISTRICT MARRIED AND SINGLE I) It is a very simple matter to tell if a woman is married or single in the neighborhood of the ancient city of Hebron. All the unmarried girls wear a large silver coin on their foreheads, like the girl in the picture. When no such coin appears, it is a sign that the woman is or has been married. 259 ‘sinjoid ay} ul uUMOYS se ‘sjauIeD pue sfayuop FO syed dy} UO JOJeM oY} SULIq Ud oY} SodURISUT [eUOI}d99xe UT ‘speoy 4110Y4} UO sjod-10}eM JtoY} YFIM [JOM IO WedIt}s 94} WOIF SulUIN}oI SUIUIAD PUB SUIUIOUL U9IS 9q UPI OYM ‘UIWOM JY} FO JO] IY} OF Us][P} SPY JOJFEM YIM ISLI[IA dy} SuIYysiuIN} FO yse} oy} [PLIOWOUWIUUT OUT} WOLT LHOIS IVOSONO NV 60 2 VIEVACEH LIFE IN. THE HOLY LAND it is reversed and we men say, ‘O Pre- server, protect me from my wife's dis- pleasure’ Women never in former times were seen riding, but today it is a common sight to find a woman astride of a donkey, and the other day I met one so mounted, and she was even singing aloud until she caught sight of me.” eh BIRTH OF THE BABY When the fellah or peasant child 1s born, its tender skin, without being washed, is rubbed with olive oil and salt. For seven consecutive days it is re-oiled, and when a week old gets its first bath and is again oiled, and each week until it is forty days old the bath is repeated. In some localities they consider it unsafe to bathe it before it is forty days old. Into the little eyes they put drops of liquid tar, and when two days old begin the periodical application of kohl. This is a dye used to blacken the eyelids of not only babies, but of women and some- times also men, and is considered both beautifying and beneficial to the eyesight. They believe the tar to be a preventive of weak eyes, and that a child who has not been salted will develop into a weakling. How old a custom this salting is can be seen from Ezekiel’s reproachful words to Jerusalem: “And as for thy nativity, in the day thou wast born thou wast not salted at all, nor swaddled at enlleae Swaddling clothes like those of Bible timest are still in use. A small shirt is the only real garment put on, around which may be wrapped some old rags, care being taken to keep the arms tightly pressed against the sides. A cap, perhaps decorated with a blue bead or some charm to keep off spirits and the evil eye, completes the apparel (see page 314). When one looks at a child, before ad- miring it or speaking of it, in order to avert a calamity, one must say Bismallah (in the name of Allah), or ““May Allah encircle you!*% or {May the evil eye be frustrated !” Mortality among the babies is great and is not to be wondered at, for in view * Ezekiel 16: 4. tule uke 227. 261 of the rough treatment they receive, it becomes a question of the survival of the fittest. HOW THE BABY IS CARRIED In the Judean mountain districts a cradle is often kept for the baby. while at home, and a sort of small hammock is used to carry the child around in when out-of-doors. The mother when going to work in the fields will be found with this hammock, called hiddil in Arabic, on her back suspended by a rope which passes across her forehead, often with nothing indicating that life is in it except an occasional squeal from one end. It is a common sight when passing through the bazars to find a baby in this sling hung on a small nail or on the lock or bolt of a turned-back shop door, while the mother sits in the street behind the basket of produce she is selling, seem- ingly unmindful of her child’s hazardous position. When in the fields she erects a tripod of sticks, from which she suspends the hammock, and she protects it from the rays of the sun by covering it with one of her garments. In the Samaria district and along the plain of Sharon a crudely decorated wooden cradle is the fashion and is car- ried by the mother on her head wherever she goes. We cannot refrain from narrating a story heard from an eyewitness. THE GENII CAPTURE A BABY. A TRUE STORY A woman of Abou Shoushey,{ wak- ing up late one morning and picking up ime etadlesiim «taste, started om for the harvest fields. She had no more than entered the nar- row path between the stretches of stand- ing grain when she felt her babe leap from the cradle on her head and heard it glide rapidly through the wheat. Terror - stricken and trembling, she screamed for help, calling to the men to pursue the genii that had taken her babe. + Abou Shoushey is ancient Gezer, which was given by Pharaoh as a dowry to his daughter when she married King Solomon. 262 After a heated chase some returned to inquire further particulars of her. Unable to get a reply, for she still stood screaming, “The genii have taken my boy!” they lowered the cradle from her head and found the child still sound asleep. The others soon returned to say they had overtaken the supposed enemy, only to find that it was her domestic cat, which had jumped from its hiding place near the baby. HE HAD THREE DAUGHTERS BUT NO CHILDREN ssa met us at the gate one evening and his face showed that something out of the ordinary had occurred. After the usual salutations he said, “I come to you for the reward of good news.” “And what is it?” “My family gave birth to a baby.” “Imbarak” (May it be a blessing!) ; to which came his reply, “/mbarak feek” (A blessing by your presence!). “What is it, Essa?” .He hung his head and replied, Beat-fartrom: you, arcinls “Tow many children does this make?” he was asked. Essa looked embarrassed, and said, “I have no children; this is my third girl. When I went into the village this morning both women and men said to me, ‘Imbarak, Essa! May it be granted that she die!’ but I replied, ‘May Allah not listen to you!’ for I have be- come like you foreigners and I am satis- fied, although I had taken upon me cer- tain vows in case it was a boy.” THE COSTUMES OF THE WOMEN The costumes of the women differ suf- ficiently in each district to enable one to distinguish readily where the wearer comes from. From the variations of the headgear one can tell whether a woman be single or married; but, although dif- fering from one another in the details, the costumes have much in common. The dress, called a tobe, is like a long loose shirt, the sleeves narrow at the shoulders and widening out something like the Japanese pattern. The front and back are made each of one width of cloth, with a gore on each side to widen the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE skirt. A girdle either of white linen or bright striped silk is wound around the waist and the tobe is pulled up a little to produce a full bosom. This tobe, when for common use, is of dark-blue cloth, the bosom is covered with cross-stitch embroidery and perhaps a little on the sleeves and skirt. In the districts north of Jerusalem the tobe for the bride or for gala occasions is made of heavy white linen almost cov- ered with embroidery, the prevailing col- ors being dark green and red with a little orange mixed in (see page 307). Around Samaria the tobe is made of white cotton cloth in which are woven bright strips of red, yellow, and green. The shoes are crude affairs, the tops being of bright red or sometimes yellow sheepskin, with soles of raw cow, camel, or buffalo hide. WEARING HER DOWRY ON HER HEAD The headgear is of two parts; first, what we shall for convenience sake call a cap, and over it a veil. The Bethlehem women wear a high cap, in shape some- thing like a man’s fez, called shatweh, on the front of which are sewn rows of gold and silver coins. A woman never parts with the coins from her headgear except in dire circum- stances, and for her to admit that she has lost one of these is considered a great shame, for an evil meaning is put upon it. This throws a strong light upon the parable of the woman who lost one of her stem pieces: of silver The woman in the Gospel had not lost a piece of money merely valtable as: a medium of exchange, but a part of her ornament and dowry, and had _ thus brought a reflection upon her character. So it was vital for her to recover it. No wonder, then, she is pictured as lighting a candle, sweeping the house, and seeking diligently until she finds it, and then calling her friends and neighbors to rejoice with her. THE CAPACIOUS, USEFUL VEIL The veil is a large affair, some 6 feet long and 4 feet wide, and placed over the P Muke, Wseto..0: peso ssee THE TOMB OF MOSES _ This photograph shows peasants, town folk, and Bedouins assembled at the traditional site of the Tomb of Moses. Pilgrimages to this spot are quite popular, for among the Moslems the “Prophet Moses,” as they call him, is held in high honor. 263 264 cap it covers the entire headgear, except the coins in front. It is considered 1m- proper for women to have their head or hair showing in public. At home they put off the veil. Ordinary veils are made of heavy white linen, with sometimes a little embroidery, while in the districts north of Jerusalem each girl makes one almost covered with needlework, so that it will match the white embroidered tobe for her wedding (see page 307). Whenever a woman lacks a basket or bag, the veil comes into use. She places what she has to carry in one end of her veil, gathers and ties it around with one corner, and places the burden on top of her head. The story of Ruth, when Boaz says to her, “Bring the veil that thou hast upon thee, and hold it; and when she held it, he measured six measures of barley, and laid it on her: and she went into the city,”* clearly shows that this use of the veil is the survival of a very ancient practice Those not acquainted with this land of ancient customs may find themselves un- able to understand how Ruth’s veil could contain so much grain, because of their having in mind a veil of gauze and of small dimensions. ‘The khirka, as the veil is called, is not only large and strong enough for this work, but such usage is very common down to the present day. Nor is it only the veil that has sur- vived, but the entire costume. Ezekiel the Prophet gives us a matchless descrip- tion of the woman’s attire of his day when, speaking allegorically of Jerusa- lem, he says: “T clothed thee also with broidered work, and shod thee with badgers’ skin, and I girded thee about with fine linen, and I covered thee with silk. I decked thee also with ornaments, and I put brace- lets upon thy hands, and a chain on thy neck. And I put a jewel on thy fore- head, and earrings in thine ears, and a beautiful crown upon thine head. ‘Thus wast thou decked with gold and silver; -and thy raiment was of fine linen, and silk, and broidered work.” + OR UME a5: 7 Ezekiel 16: 10-13. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE JEWELS OF BIBLE TIMES AND OF TODAY Jewelry is very much prized, although it is mainly confined to heavy silver pieces. A heavy silver chain is attached to the cap on either side and hangs down about the neck and below the chin (see page 307). A collarette made of plaited silver wire with many chains hanging from it used to be extensively worn by Bethle- hem women, but is fast disappearing. In the Hebron district the unmarried girls wear a large silver coin on their forehead (see page 259). Earrings are used and silver finger-rings, with Mecca stones or glass imitations, are much prized. Were we living much later we would find it difficult to learn the meaning of the prophet’s word; “And tpnt 08 beautiful crown upon thy head.” The tasseh, a disk of wrought silver or gold which, according to the old men, used to be so common, and was worn by the wo- men sewed to the crowns of their caps, is today almost non-existent. ‘They can occasionally be picked up at the silver-— smith’s, where they have been sold for the silver that is in them, but the present writer has not seen a single one in use among the peasants. In the Nazareth district European ma- terial is fast displacing hand-made goods. Even around Jerusalem the women are taking to shawls of foreign manufacture in place of the handsome hand-embroid- ered veils whose colors harmonize, which cannot be said of these shawls, with their flaming roses and pink backgrounds. Few of these peasant women can be said to be handsome; still, they make an interesting and picturesque sight, as they walk in companies along the roads, going to town with their baskets of produce, or returning, chattering like magpies over the day’s transactions. When the road is very stony or wet, it is a common custom for them to take off their shoes to save them, placing them on top of their loaded baskets (see page 306). It takes metaliks (coppers) to mend shoes, but feet mend themselves. The Bethlehem women have the repu- THE JERICHO MEDICINE WOMAN LTHOUGH women are looked upon as something inferior, still, when they have signalized themselves by some special attainment, they are frequently the object of respect and reverence. ‘The Jericho women dress like the Bedouin, but live in villages. Photo by the American Colony, Jerusalem. ‘<< BAB-SITNA-MIRIAM”’: JERUSALEM HIS gate is called by the Arabs the ‘‘Gate of Our Lady Mary,’ and is otherwise known as Stephen’s Gate. The lions that appear are said to have been placed here by the masons to comm orate the meeting of the two gangs of workmen at this point on the completion of this wall. WASH DAY: NAZARETH ‘‘Unfortunately, in the Nazareth district European materials are fast displacing the handmade goods.”’ ‘<«BAB-EL-HABIS”’ This street is called in Arabic the ‘Door of the Prison,”’ since it leads to the jail. Vitek By) UN Dri Om Y LAND tation of being handsome. ‘Their faces are a full oval, their complexion fairer than the ordinary fellaheen, often hav- ing very red cheeks, and attractive in the setting of their striking headgear. Their Nazareth sisters have gained a little less renown. Both are Christians and sup- posed to have a considerable strain of Crusader blood in their veins. Mee ATTIRE OF THE MEN The clothing worn by the men is very varied, and so we will consider only the most typical. There is a long shirt made of white cotton cloth, also called a tobe, and in form much like the women’s. Over this is a sort of gabardine made of striped goods, the waist being girt about with a leather, wool, or silk girdle. The colors are quite bright, red and yellow or black and yellow being favorites. The headgear costs him, like the wo- man’s with its silver attached, more than all the rest of his outfit. A low dome- like fez, with a blue silk tassel, 1s wound round with a turban (see page 313). This turban indicates where he comes from or his class. In the district north of Jerusalem the turban consists of a large square of white linen, with a col- ored border woven in; around Hebron it is of silk, golden yellow and red. A plain white one denotes a man of letters ; a plain red, that he is a dervish or holy man, and a plain green again, that he claims to be a direct descendant of Mohammed. Inside this fez is a heavy felt cap, and often between them one or two old fezzes are found, while next to the head there is still another cap of white cotton cloth. The object of these many layers is to make the headgear heavy, which is commonly believed to prevent headache. Similarly the women with their heavily weighted caps do not remove them night or day. Between the layers of the turban the man stows away his snuff-box, jack- knife, often a large pack needle, some- times money and valuable papers if he has any. ‘They have a witty saying to the effect that if one lacks a place of safekeeping let him make his head his custodian. Little boys are dressed like the men, with the exception that they have no tur- 269 ban until about 12 years old, and when his father gives a boy his first he feels just as proud and important as any American boy over his first long pants. The men shave their heads clean, leav- ing only a central topknot of long hair, and to shave the beard, once it has been allowed to grow, is considered a great disgrace. ‘To swear by one’s own beard, or the beard of the one with whom the controversy is being waged, is the usual thing, as well as bringing in that of the Prophet to add weight. The trick of shaving off half the beard of an opponent as a sign of contempt is practiced even today among the peasants exactly as it was in the days of King David when he sent his servants to Hanun, king of Ammon.* AN OVERCOAT, CARRY-ALL, AND BED- CLOTHES COMBINED The top garment or overcoat of the fellah is of coarse, woolen cloth woven in broad stripes of black and white or dark blue and white. In some districts the men do the spinning themselves in their spare time (see page 313), take the yarn to the village weaver to be converted into cloth, and then the women sew them. This coat is as simple in form as it is possible to be. It is nearly square and in length extends a little below the knees, 1s open down the front, and has an open- ing in each upper corner to pass the arms through. The best of them are made of only one piece of cloth, the width of which is the length of the coat, so that the only seams required are along the shoulders. Such a garment undoubtedly was the “coat” over which at the crucifixion the Roman soldiers “cast lots” rather than “rend it,” for it “was without seam wo- ven from the top throughout.” + It serves as a kind of carry-all, the wearer carrying various things in it; on rainy days it is pulled up over the head and sheds the rain fairly well, and at night it is the covering in which he sleeps. It is strange how fond both men and women are of keeping their heads well wrapped up in cold and wet weather, both when walking and sleeping, while *2 Samuel 10: 4-5. + John 19: 23-24. 270 the feet and legs can be quite bare and exposed to the cold and wet with seem- ingly but little discomfort. When -the native men travel and night overtakes them far from a village, they lie down in an open field or by the road- side, thrust the head into one corner of the abayeh, and, wrapping it round the body, have little care whether the legs be bare or not. It is quite common to see men thus sleeping with a stone for a pil- low, just as Jacob did of old at Bethel.* In the Mosaic law we read: “If thou at all take thy neighbors raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down: for that is his covering only; it is his raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep?” + ‘Today the giving of small articles as a pledge or security is quite common; still, any one taking an abayeh from a poor man to de- prive him of it over night 1s considered as unmerciful and a kind of Shylock. THE OLDEST EXISTING TYPE OF HEAD-DRESS In some districts or villages the men wear the Bedouin headgear, consisting of a large square of cloth called kaffeyeh. It is doubled cornerwise, laid on the head, and held in place by an ’agal, a thick double coil made of wool or goats’ hair and black:in color, The, vartations “of this ’agal, or coil, show from where the person comes (see page 271). It is probable that this form of head- gear is the oldest of those now in use in the country. A small Canaanitish figure in pottery, dating back to about the 14th century B. C., now in the Whiting collec- tion at Yale, although of necessity very crude, has such a band around the head, and shows how very ancient is the origin of this kaffeyeh and ’agal. Among certain Bedouin, at the death of a woman these ’agals are removed from the head and placed on the corpse as it is being carried from the tent to the grave ; and in the Book of Ezekiel a “tire” is twice mentioned{ as part of a man’s headgear, and he was told by God that his wife was about to be taken away with a stroke; but he was not to mourn or weep, but to “bind the tire of his head * Genesis 28: II. + Exodus 22: 26, 27. * Ezekiel 24:17, 23. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAG AZ ENG upon him.” This leads us to suppose that the “tire” of that timesmtsianave been the same in principle as the present- day ’agal. THE MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE HOLY LAND The villagers of Palestine are mostly of the Mohammedan faith, while fewer in number are the Christians belonging to the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. Some villages are entirely Christian, and there are a few which have both religions represented, but in this case each class has its own quarter. We are, throughout these descriptions of the life of the present inhabitants of the Holy Land, devoting our observations to the Mohammedans, who are not only by far the most numerous, but also, from our standpoint, the more interesting, as they follow the ancient customs more closely than the Christians. Marriage takes place at an early age, the young men at about 20 and the girls between 12 and 16. So long as the father is living, the burden and expenses of marrying his sons fall on his shoulders. When a youth has reached a marriage- able age and the expenses that a wedding involves can be defrayed, he begins in a business-like manner to look for a bride. When his choice seems to rest upon a certain girl from simply seeing her in the village, for no courtship is allowed, or if a girl is heard of in another hamlet that strikes his fancy, then the mother of the bridegroom, with a retinue of her daugh- ters and women friends, goes to see the prospective bride. If she is from another village, they may spend a couple of days “looking her over,” as the expression is, learning whether she bakes well and is handy at all kinds of work, seeing if she is good looking, and, above all, that her eyes are perfect. One who, like Leah of old, is “tender-eyed,’’§ is but little sought after. FIXING THE PRICE OF THE BRIDE The young man, with his father, uncles, and other male relatives and friends, next makes a visit. They formally ask for the girl’s hand. It would be considered im- polite for the girl’s father to “meem tne § Genesis 20: 17. THE ROAD TO JERICHO The two Bedouins in the foreground are wearing their characteristic head-dress, the white cloth and double coil of goats’ hair. This is reputed to be one of the oldest known forms of headgear still in use and has been traced back to the fourteenth century before Christ (see page 270). Ahi TREADING OUT THE GRAIN “Threshing by the primitive methods employed is the most tiresome task of all the fellah’s round of toil. In many places it is done entirely by treading out beneath the feet of the animals, which are tied together abreast and driven round and round over the spread-out grain. The mules and horses are provided with flat sheet-iron shoes for all kinds of work, and the cattle, just as the threshing season begins, are specially shod” (see page 281). 272 Vibe CEecithh Ne He. aOny LAND 2te request with a refusal, for if he objects to this suitor, he will not agree to the amount to be paid for her. The groom’s father then offers for the bride a sum far in excess of what he really expects to give, thereby exhibiting his generosity ; but this is only byplay. Different men present urge that for their sakes the price be lessened by a certain sum, and so on until the amount is brought down to what the bride is actually known to be worth—that is, to about the habitual price. This offer be- ing finally accepted by the father of the girl and the details of the betrothal con- tract arranged, the kid or lamb which the visiting party has brought with them is killed and dressed. As these preparations are in progress, and others drop in from the village, the bridegroom or his father will rehearse the contract with the bride’s father over again, so that several witnesses may hear the terms agreed upon in case of a dis- pute arising later. The bride has nothing to say in the matter; she is not consulted. WHAT A BRIDE IS WORTH The price of a bride depends on her age, beauty, usefulness, and the family _to which she belongs. The daughter of an influential sheik is greatly sought after and will bring many times the price given for even superior girls from families of less importance. | The prices range in sums which repre- sent in American money from $100 to $400, besides which the minor expenses bring up the total considerably, often doubling it. Among these the bridegroom, accord- ing to his ability, must give a present to the guest-chamber of the bride’s village, a new dress to the bride’s mother, and an abayeh (outer garment) to her father; and her oldest uncle on both her father’s and mother’s side must each receive a new garment with a gold coin in the pocket. He has also to provide two feasts, for which a man in average cir- cumstances must furnish 15 fatlings. Meantime the father of the bride has given her from the money paid as her price, say from $20 to $40, with part of which she gets the proper coins and with them makes her first married woman's headgear. “Wath the. rest she “bitys. a couple of pairs of bracelets, some finger- rings, and an ignak, or neck chain. The balance of the money the father keeps, just as if he had sold some cattle or produce, except that it is the custom for him to give her an every-day tobe, or dress, a veil, and a mattress, pillow, and quilt. THE BRIDE LEAVES HER NATIVE VILLAGE From the time the trousseau is bought until the actual wedding day, a period from a week to Io days, there will be dancing every night in the guest-chamber by the men, while the women make merry in the bridegroom’s hcme. When the bride belongs to another vil- lage, they go for her the day before the wedding, the company consisting of the bridegroom and his men and women rela- tives and a lot of his young men friends, all dressed in their best and armed with whatever weapons they may possess, and many of them mounted. They take with them several sheep or goats. Upon reaching the village, they slaugh- ter all the animals they have brought, and the entire village partakes of the feast. The bride is now arrayed in her new cos- tume, puts on the married woman’s cap and all her jewelry, her face is covered with a green or red gauze veil, and finally there is thrown over her entire person a man’s gabardine. She is mounted on a horse or camel, and with the firing of guns, the racing of horses, and a great send off, they leave the village, the bride’s mother carrying the bridal chest along on her head, she being about the only person who goes with her, except perhaps a sister or fe- male friend. As the bride leaves the village she re- ceives a gold coin of about $2 in value from the villagers, which in fact is part of the amount paid by the groom to the guest-chamber, and each of her uncles gives her a present in money. In each village through which she passes on her way she is met and a piece of money given her. The bridal party has now arrived at A VILLAGE INDUSTRY During harvest time the village women can be seen selecting fine straw from the grain piles, which they subsequently weave into straw baskets and trays. The process of manu- facture is quite simple, as can be seen from the picture. Se 08 DRYING STRAW BASKETS After the baskets have been made they are laid in the hot sun to dry. The women will then carry them long distances to market, where they sell them for an amount corresponding to five cents in American money. ‘To the Western mind this does not seem a very great reward for labor, but they are satisfied. 276 the bridegroom’s village, and the bride and those with her become by invitation the guests of the first house they reach, and this opportunity of entertaining them is looked upon as a distinctive honor. The host kills a fatling and prepares a feast to which only women are admitted, and here, under the protection of her mother, the bride spends her first night in her new village. When the bride has arrived safely, messengers are sent back to invite her father and male relatives to the ensuing ceremonies, and if the groom be promi- nent or wealthy he calls all his friends in the surrounding country to take part in the marriage feast. THE WEDDING CEREMONIES Early the next morning the wholesale slaying and cooking is begun, and a spe- cial dish is prepared for the women. During the day the religious formalities are attended to with great secrecy.. The bride, in the presence of two witnesses, appoints her father or nearest male rela- tive as her representative. The groom and the bride’s representa- tive are now seated facing each other, and a certain exact formula is thrice re- peated with much punctiliousness. The parties are prompted by the khatib (teacher), or the religious head of the village, who does not allow the slightest mistake to pass uncorrected. In this manner the young man accepts the bride as his wife and the representative of the girl in her stead agrees that she be his wife. At this time the marriage contract is written, which gives the names of both parties, the sum paid for the bride, with all the minor details. The explanation of the secrecy ob- served while the couple is thus being married is that they believe that should an enemy be present and either spill flour on the ground or tie knots in a string a specific calamity will surely befall the newly married pair. Toward evening the young men dress the bridegroom in his best, and with the entire village go out into some open field, where they have horse-racing and shoot- ing (see page 309), in both of which the groom is supposed to demonstrate his skill, while the women stand by and sing. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Returning to the village, the men go to the guest-chamber and the marriage sup- per begins, while the women congregate at the groom’s home and likewise feast. A portion is also sent to the bride and another to the family where she is a guest. The details of these customs vary, however, in each district. When the feasting is over in the guest- chamber, each guest drops a coin as a present for the groom into a handkerchief spread out for the purpose. Amid much joyous excitement a herald announces the name of each donor and the amount given, calling upon Allah to recompense him. Meanwhile the women have taken the bride, with much rejoicing and merri- ment, from the house where she has been visiting to her new home, going either mounted as she came from her village or on the shoulders of two women, while in some localities she walks. They dress her in her bridal attire, her arms and legs having been previously dyed with henna, the face is decorated with gold leaf, and the eyelashes and eye- brows blackened with kehl, which to the fellah is the acme of beauty. Her head and face are finally covered with a thin veil. The men are notified when all is ready, and with much pomp and firing of guns, they escort the groom to his house, when all retire ana he alone enters. Removing the bride’s veil and wiping off the gold leaf, they stand together, while presents of money are given to the bride by her male relatives and the wo- men, as the groom had received his previ- ously. The husband begins by giving his first. No men are admitted except the male relatives of the bride, and they only long enough to present the bride with their gifts. For the first few days the bride keeps on her finery and does no work; but this luxury and immunity she does not long enjoy, for we soon find her at the regu- lar hard work which falls to the woman’s lot. AGRICULTURE IN THE HOLY LAND In the mountain districts the farm land is usually owned by peasant proprietors, each man’s property being composed of various small pieces scattered about near GATHERING FUEL Ho, “iter tiie day s baking, the woman adds as fuel some dried manure ignites from the hot ashes and keeps smouldering, and so heats the oven f baking” (see page 291). 277 or stubble, which or the next day’s WHERE THE RAVENS FED ELIJAH In a deep ravine a few miles east of Jerusalem runs the brook Cherith, alongside of which Elijah was fed by the ravens (1 Kings 17:5). The picture shows the brook as it turns the corner under the convent of St. George. Vee GE ei ene El tO y iAND the village in which he lives. The raising of olives, grapes, and many other fruits is the leading occupation, but almost every farmer grows some grain. Down on the plains larger fields exist and cereals are largely planted. ‘The land of a given village is frequently owned in common by the villagers, and a division of it takes place every year or every alter- nate year, and is so arranged that each man gets portions of the good as well as of the less desirable land. Fences, in the western sense of the word, are unknown. In the mountainous country lands are inclosed by loose stone walls, still called by the ancient Hebrew name jedar, and on the plains by thorn hedges. When the open fields are owned individually, the boundary lines are indi- cated by deep furrows, in which at inter- vals stones are laid as “landmarks.” It is therefore readily seen how easily these boundaries could be changed by an ava- ricious neighbor, undeterred by the Mo- saic warning, “Cursed be he that remov- eth his neighbor’s landmark.” * LAND STILL, SOLD BY THE “YOKE” AND ERRED. Until a comparatively short time ago real estate was bought and sold by the use of a contract, which the chief men of the place witnessed and sealed; nor has this custom become entirely obsolete. Farming land is estimated by the faddan, which, being literally translated, is “yoke,” but implies a piece of land “that a yoke of oxen might plow” in a day. (Com- pare 1 Samuel 14:14.) City property, on the other hand, is measured by a standard known as a “reed.”’ We can trace its use far back into ancient times in the writ- ings of Ezekiel and St. John.} PLOWING AND PLANTING Raint begins to fall about November, after a rainless summer, and as soon as the ground is well moistened the fellah starts planting the winter cereals—wheat, barley, lentils, beans, etc. The plow is a crude affair, made of oak, the bent parts being natural curves held together with iron bands; these bands and a small plow- Sete 272-17. + Ezekiel, 40th to 42d chaps.; Rev. 21: 15, 16. + The annual average rainfall for the past 50 years has been 26 inches. 279 share, which only scratches the ground a few inches deep, are the only metal parts: Oxen are the favorite animals for yok- ing to a plow. Cows and donkeys are employed by the poorer people. Horses, mules, and camels (the latter only along the Mediterranean coast) are harnessed singly to plows, while sometimes one sees an ox and camel yoked together. In the Bible the command was ‘Thou shalt not plow with an ox and ass together.” § The fellah sows the grain on the bare ground and then plows it in. In rocky ground a man or woman follows with a pick to loosen the earth in the spots that may have been skipped by the plow. The soil is not fertilized. The disintegration of the underlying limestone feeds the soil, so that for thousands of years it has continued yielding crops. The manure and rubbish, instead of being utilized, are allowed to accumulate in heaps outside the villages until they surround it lke small mountains. Im- mediately a house is deserted and the roof falls in the women find it more con- venient to dump their rubbish there than to go farther, and in a short time the ruined house becomes a dunghill.§ After the winter crops have all been planted the vineyards and olive groves are plowed a couple of times and also the fields reserved for the summer planting. These latter crops are not put into the ground until the rains have entirely ceased. Watermelons and muskmelons, toma- toes, a species of cucumber, vegetable marrow, are all raised without a drop of rain or of water by irrigation, but are sustained by the moisture stored in the ground from the winter rains, aided by the copious summer dews. ‘The natives consider that rain falling after the sum- mer crops have been planted is extremely detrimental to them. During harvest time the fields are lively and picturesque; the entire family has a part in the work, the small children play- ing about among the sheaves, and even the babies are brought to the fields. A large toothed sickle is employed by the reapers when the grain is long, but SsDeuts 22.10; (ultzra Osan sWanvell 32> 20. THE SHEPHERD'S SLING “With this he becomes expert in throwing stones to a great distance precision. With such a simple weapon . . . the stripling David Goliath and slew him” (see page 205). 280 and with great . encountered Vit PA Chsr Ih EIN Doe HOLY LAND if short a smaller one is used, the edge being quite dull; so that it does not cut, but simply uproots the grain. Sheepskin aprons and a large glove are often worn by the men harvesters; but the women, who are doing the very same work as the men, are provided with neither. Destitute women and girls are allowed to follow the reapers and glean the fallen ears, which they tie into neat little bun- dles, dropping them on the ground as they go along, and these they gather up every evening and beat out the grain with a stick, just as Ruth did of old in the fields of Bethlehem.* During the reaping period what the Bible calls “parched corn” is made ‘in almost every field. Some wheat not fully ripe is cut down and set on fire, the straw only being consumed. The roasted heads are rubbed between the hands and the chaff winnowed out in the wind. With- out further preparation, this roasted wheat forms one of the common articles of diet of the reapers. Undoubtedly such was the “parched corn’ which Boaz reached to Ruth.+ THE THRESHING-FLOOR A large flat rock in the mountainous country or a hard piece of ground on the plains is selected for the threshing-floor, and this, up to the present time, bears the Biblical name joren. Here all the grain is gathered. We read that Jacob, after his dream at Bethel, promised to God one-tenth of all he should receive.{ Later, when this land was possessed by the Israelites, they were enjoined to give a tenth of their produce to the Levites.§ We also find Samuel telling Israel what they could ex- pect if they were determined to have a king to reign over them, saying: “He [the king] will take the tenth of your seed, and of your vineyards, ae and he will take the tenth of your sheep.” § Nor does this custom ever seem to have ceased, for the tithe is still collected. There are numerous mosques, schools, and other religious institutions which re- ceive it from specified properties on which sRuth (2: 17: fin 2 14 et oar: 17217 and 25: 1c; saGeneZo.. 22. § Lev. 27: 30. fae Sani Orns). 17. 281 it is charged, and from all other tillable land it is collected by the government, the right of exacting these taxes from each village being farmed out to the high- est bidder. The sheaves are brought to the thresh- ing floor on the backs of camels, mules, and donkeys, and in big bundles on the heads of the women, and are stacked up in the requisite number of piles. One of these is first chosen by the tax col- lector and has to be separately trodden out and the grain delivered to him before the rest of the work begins. Threshing by the primitive methods employed is the most tiresome task of all the fellah’s round of toil. In many places it is done entirely by treading out beneath the feet of the animals, which are tied together abreast and driven round and round over the spread-out grain (see page 272). The mules and horses are provided with flat sheet-iron shoes for all kinds of work, and the cattle, just as the thresh- ing season begins, are specially shod. On each half of the cloven hoof a small iron shoe is nailed, and this not only facili- tates the work of separating the grain, but prevents the animal from becoming lame. HOW THE GRAIN IS WINNOWED In the simple treading-out process the animals are driven around slowly over the grain, while the men, with wooden forks, keep stirring it up. When thor- oughly threshed, the straw has been chopped up into short bruised bits and all is then heaped up. To separate the grain, “the fan,” which is a wooden fork, is used, the farmer waiting until the wind is blowing hard enough without being violent. Such con- ditions are best found in the evenings or during moonlight nights. ‘The winnower tosses up the trampled grain into the air, and, being heavier than the straw, it falls into a heap by itself, while the fine straw separates into a neat pile a little distance away. The dust and very fine particles are completely blown away. This refuse is called wr by the Arabs, the original Hebrew name. A sieve is now employed, and through this the grain is passed to take out the (OV: 1 Ssuly 1) ,Woy} JO PUNOS dy} YM JUST SEM Y}Ie9 oY} Jey} OS ‘AOL JeoIs YUM poo1ofer pue sadid ym podid ajdood ayy pry,, ‘poyuroue seM UOULOTOS UayM poasn 9SOY} O} ALIIUIIS Sso[}qnop e1v pue SIvoA JO SpuRSNOY} JOJ pur] oy} UI Ie[Ndod usaq aavy sadid aydurs ALATA SdNHHdaHS AHL ISO, 282 *(Q6z ased 998) ,jIqey Jo JayVeW v se IAY10801 pst siayyeS yoy yows syearq Surusow oy} voy yey qaed ore Ady} YIYM JO YO 9Y} FO Ssoqwmiou [eNprlArpul 9y} MouYy Ady} OP [Jam Os ‘ynq ‘prsydeays UMO I1dY} FO IIOA dy} O} ‘puodsos daays oy J, “SoWlOD SUIUIOU UdYM S1oOUMO JUdJOHIp Joy} Aq poyesedas aie daays oy} Moy JapuoM AeU ‘s1odoay IBY} pue syxooy dy} uUddMjpoq diysuorjejas ueUIMY JSOW]e oy} MOU JOU OP OYM “pur] sly} JO oft] [etojsed oy} YM pozyurenboeun ssoyy,, MOOTA AHL NO HSTYNNS 283 284 coarse stubble that is too heavy to be blown away. Sometimes a wooden shovel is used to give the grain a final winnow- ing. ‘The presence of the stubble is ac- counted for by the fact that during har- vest the grain is largely pulled up by the roots. This fine straw is kept as fodder for the animals, for hay is unknown. ‘The Arabic name for this 1s tiben, being iden- tical with the Hebrew word which has been translated “straw,” and in Bible times as now was fed to the animals or mixed into the clay when making bricks. We read in Exodus that when Pharaoh refused to give the Hebrews straw (tiben) to make bricks they were scat- tered throughout all the land to gather stubble instead.* It might be interesting to note 1n pass- ing that when the mounds covering the ruins of the Jericho of Joshua’s time were unearthed by German explorers a few years ago the ancient bricks were found to bejidentical inssize and textrne with those made now by the inhabitants of modern Jericho, having tiben mixed in just in the same way. THE THRESHING-FLOOR MOSQUE In the southeast corner of Jerusalem, close by the old city walls, is an inclosure some 30 acres in extent, in which stands the far-famed Mosque of Omar. Its graceful dome, tiled exterior, and richly decorated interior, with superb mosaics and stained-glass windows of arabesque designs, make it one of the chief attrac- tions of Jerusalem to the tourist (see pages 298 and 305). Besides its beauty and grandeur, the past history of the site demands atten- tion. Thither Abraham came to sacrifice on the summit of Mount Moriah his only son, Isaac.t Later King David bought the threshing-floor located on this site from Ornan, the Jebusite, and built an altar to offer sacrifice in order that the plague then raging in Israel might be stayed. “Then David said, This is the house of the Lord God, and this is the altar of the burnt offering for Israel.” ft Although David made great preparations, * Exodus 5: 12. i Gen ch, 722) i (Chron. ichs, 2isand 922: THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the actual building of the temple on this: spot was left to his son Solomon. A second temple, far less grand, was. erected there by the Jews after the re- turn from captivity in Babylon, and the third and magnificent one was recon- structed and enlarged by Herod. After the complete destruction of Je- rusalem in A. D. 70, Hadrian erected here. a temple to Jupiter. Between this and the time that the present mosque was. built by Abd el Melik, little is known of the history of the site. To the Moslems this mosque, errone- ously attributed to the Caliph Omar, is the most sacred shrine after the Kaaba at Mecca. Under the gorgeous dome, seen only in the subdued light which filters in through matchless stained glass, is the flat rock supposed to be part of the original threshing-floor (see page 305). THE LEGEND OF THE MOSQUE OF OMAR The legend runs thus: Two brothers. were threshing out their grain upon this floor. The older one wakes one night and sees all about him his large family of children, while his brother lies on his. grain piles alone. Thus contemplating his many blessings, the abundance of the crop, his large pile of grain catches his. eye, and again thinking of his bachelor brother, and wishing to add some happi- ness to the life of one who has no family to love and be loved by, rises and from his own pile adds a quantity to that of his brother. After the elder brother has again fallen asleep, the younger awakes, meditates on the many bounties he should be grateful for—a full crop and health and strength— his brother and his large family attract his thoughts. He reasons that he who has no one dependent upon him could well spare some of his crop and thereby perhaps add joy to his brother’s life. Unwittingly he returns to his brother’s pile exactly the amount that had shortly before been taken from it, and” im the morning, neither knowing what the other had done, both were surprised to- find their grain undiminished. As soon as the grapes, figs, and other fruits begin ripening, the fellah, with his SISTERS ‘ Lncuu teens * ‘(eve ased x0} 998) ,a]qi811109ur are AayY I0F ‘wiay} uodn poeyseM oq JOU P[NoYs JUsuTjUsS UT[pneut pue 4s1om ay} ATpa}qnopun ate syed ‘soleus pid JO,, “Wey} Ul jsou Osye sioYysesy} UMOIG pu SUIGOY "}SOU S} OJUT SUIOS PIiqyeo & YA ‘99I} & UO JOYOYS Jsou V UALVIAHS [SYN V uospoq *H ydesof Aq oJ0yg Sap N oe) uiqioy FO ysod-9}yes 94} UL Pouoysefs dys YIYM “sou JOY SUIAIT SPM JUS ISHN aH soudeg yrg estoy Aq ojoyug ‘HON ‘Uaplioyy ye ye xoq-piiq Yyosdefiog e Ul qInq sey se poddeus pirqon[q o[eulof V QNIAVA'T “IULOY] IBY} FO JOOI dy} UO Sulse ue ayv}z 0} “sod oy} OF poyoeHe XOq-pal ayy PISUT ST YOTYM ‘JSoU Ady} Fo] CAVY Spsiqonyq sunoa Jo Ayres SIT, AOOU HHL NO ONIYIV NV soudkeg ppoieyy jsourty Aq 0104 q 325 cS Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes BLUEJAYS FEEDING IN WEATHERCOCK FOOD-HOUSE “The same man builds also a sheltered food-house that turns with the wind like a weather vane, so as to present always a lee side for the better protection of the birds” (see page 332). Photo by Thomas . Marr and Son A JUNCO VISITING AN AUDUBON FOOD-HOUSE “The Audubon food-house has been much used on this side of the water and is most satisfactory. It consists of a square hip roof, with vertical glass sides suspended beneath and open at the bottom, the whole supported on a central rustic cedar post, encircled with food trays beneath the roof. at the same time admit light and allow of easy observation. The glass sides protect the food trays from the weather and These, when placed among the shrubbery about one’s house, prove most attractive” (see pages 331 and 332). as well as to the birds, while lanes may be bordered with trees and shrubbery and walls covered with vines without any possible encroachment on the fields. An old pasture planted with savin and white pine, hawthorns, elders, barberries, cor- nels, viburnums, and the like, may easily be metamorphosed into a bird reserva- tion and still be useful as a pasture. For deciduous growth to be used for cover, choose those berry-bearing trees and shrubs whose berries are most popu- | lar with the birds; and, when possible, choose also those that may offer most convenient sites for nest-building. SOME USEFUL FOOD PLANTS Care must also be taken in the choice of species, so as to get, if possible, a con- tinuous supply of food, using such plants as the cherry, mulberry, raspberry, blue- benty, huckleberty, ete; tor the, summer supply; elder and the various kinds of dogwood and viburnum, etc., for autumn ; while for winter choose those plants which hold their fruit longest, such as the hawthorn, buckthorn, mountain ash, barberry, bayberry, sumach, wild rose, and the like. Hedges, particularly if they are ever- green, are favorite resorts for birds, both in winter and summer, and an arbor-vite hedge is the best of them all. | remem- ber such a hedge about one side of my father’s old-fashioned garden that in summer invariably held its quota of rob- ins’, song sparrows’, and chipping spar- rows’ nests, while in winter it was the 327 PAYING A MIDWINTER VISIT Photo by Wilbur F. Smith This shows a bird visitor attracted by the lump of suet fastened to the old pear fice: A lump of suet set in some convenient place is perhaps the surest way of securing bird visitors in midwinter, for it is a food supply they greatly appreciate. protected resort of such birds as stayed with us. In the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1¢og there is a most interesting article on “Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Protect Fruit,” by W. i MicAtee. In this there 1s alist, ton page 186, of the best trees and shrubs for attracting birds, given in the order of their attractiveness, as follows: Elders, raspberries and blackberries, mulberries, dogwood fruits, sumachs, wild cherries, blueberries, wild grapes, pokeberries, Vir- ginia creeper berries, bayberries, juniper beGmes, Service. berries.) holly: \bemnies, strawberries, the fruits of viburnums, hackberries, huckleberries, haws, spice- bush berries, rose hips, sarsaparilla, sour gum, gooseberries, currants, and snow- berry. To the above list is added the follow- ing supplementary list of some other plants known to be attractive to birds, and to this the names of other species doubtless might be added: Manzanita, barberry, buffalo berry, silverberry, buck- thorn, mountain ash, China berry, Cali- fornia Christmas berry, pepper tree, mag- nolia, nockaway, lote bush, and bluewood. With the above very comprehensive lists to choose from, it is not a difficult matter to make out a list of trees and shrubs for almost any place, no matter how small, that will supply its quota of birds’ food from early summer to the following spring, while if the place is a large one, or the problem at all difficult, it may be the best policy, as well as in the end the most economical, to consult some competent landscape architect as to the proper disposition of the proposed plantations. What is worth doing at all is always worth doing well. Besides the trees and shrubs in the above lists, there are many herbaceous plants whose seeds are attractive to birds. 328 Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes HROCIGJOE FOUALL SAL AvEOOb Ss 1A LION “In bad weather, however, particularly in the North, where we are so apt to be covered up with snow, more artificial means of feeding should be resorted to, and food stations, food-houses, and food shelters of various sorts should be established in proper places. If quail or grouse are to be fed, inconspicuous bough shelters may be built 1n protected places among the fields or woods most freaquented by them” (see page 331). Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes PINE SISKINS AND RED POLLS FEEDING ABOUT A HOUSE: NEW HAMPSHIRE The pine siskin is a lover of evergreens and spends the winter wandering from copse to copse in search of seeds and pine cones. The red poll is a winter visitor from the far North, and with its rich crimson head and breast makes a pretty picture in the snow. 329 bo bLD > OTR reeves O44 $U YUvd9445 ‘ssquate} IY} pue spriq aqeuorwedu10s Ajpensnun aie Aoyy, “Jo}UTAM Aue Aq JOuULS puk ssoxDIdpOOM ysour JO Jey} ULY} Jadieys puke sropnoy sI ul Ud}yO JSOU! U99S SI nq ‘reak oY} JO suOsvas [[e Ul pue ‘puRlAIe] 9}0U SIFT “oSnOY sy} yNoqe uses Ud}ZO JOU SI pue PseYydIO 9Y} 0} 4sa10J 0} Jopeiqe’y wolf ‘seq 34} JO syied [[e Ul PUNO; SI vopeyIYY oY] 94} Stojoid OYM ‘psiq AYS JeYMoUOS *& SI Jaysodpoom Arey ou WAGVMOIHO A’IGNATYA V YVAINNIG LV WAOYdGOOM ANIVH AHS V soudeg }11gq astno’y Aq oj0Yg soudeg pjoiepy jsousrty Aq oJoyg 330 Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes THE FOOD BELL “Baron von Berlepsch has invented a food bell that supplies grain, etc., automatically from a receptacle above, and which may be suspended from a tree or piazza roof or any other place that seems best” (see page 332). Sunflowers may be planted in groups about the flower garden or in lines among the rows of vegetables; wild sarsaparilla and pokeberry along the boundary walls; while if you have a corner somewhere in the fields that can be planted with buck- wheat and Japanese millet, it will prove a great attraction, particularly in winter. FOOD-HOUSES AND SHELTERS In bad weather, however, particularly in the North, where we are so apt to be covered up with snow, more artificial means of feeding should be resorted to, and food stations, food-houses, and food shelters of various sorts should be estab- lished in proper places. If quail or grouse 331 are to be fed, inconspicuous bough shel- ters may be built in protected places among the fields or woods most fre- quented by them, while about the house or among the neighboring plantations all sorts of devices may be resorted to. Baron von Berlepsch, in Germany, has invented a food-house, an adaptation of which, called the Audubon food-house, has been much used on this side of the water, and is most satisfactory (see page 327). It consists of a square hip roof, with vertical glass sides suspended be- neath and open at the bottom, the whole supported on a central rustic cedar post, encircled with food trays beneath the roof. The glass sides protect the food Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes A BLUEJAY FEEDING ON SUET “Perhaps the simplest scheme of feeding, the least trouble, and the most attractive to numbers of birds, is ‘the tying of a piece of suet to a convenient limb, or perhaps to the balustrade of one’s piazza, preferably in a protected spot and one that can at the same time be easily watched from some window” (see page 333) trays from the weather and at the same time admit light and allow of easy ob- servation. ‘These, when placed among the shrubbery about one’s house, prove most attractive. Baron von Berlepsch has invented also a food bell that supplies grain, etc., auto- matically from a receptacle above, and which may be suspended from a tree or piazza roof, or any other convenient place (see page 331). Window boxes are a _ never-ceasing source of enjoyment. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes built the first I ever saw at his home in Meriden, N. H., a particularly attractive one, which has helped him to become intimate with an astonishing va- riety of birds (see page 336). Food shelves may be put up in all sorts of protected places—about houses, against tree trunks, etc.; and a food cara ‘Sort of moving free-lunch counter, which may be run conveniently on a wire from window to neighboring tree, is actually manufactured by one enterprising gentle- man; and the same man builds also a sheltered food-house that turns with the wind like a weather vane, so as to present always a lee side for the better protec- tion of the birds (see page 326) Baron von Berlepsch originated also what he calls a food tree, a freshly. cut evergreen, preferably’ spruce or fir, or perhaps a discarded Christmas tree, set up in some convenient place, over which has been poured hot, and then allowed to cool, a mixture of food that is attractive to both insectivorous and graminivorous birds, the receipt for which is given in the little book, “How to Attract and Pro- tect Wild) Birds” :* “White bread (dried and ground), 4% 0z.; meat (dried and ground) ie znoz hemp, 6 oz.; crushed hemp, 370z..miawe 3 oz.; poppy flour, 114 oz.; millet (white) *For sale by the National Association of Audubon Societies, 1974 Broadway, New York City, N. Y. Price, 40 cents. 332 Boz; Oats, 114 02z.; dried elderberries, 11% * o%:;, sunflower seeds, IZ, 0Z.; ants’ eggs, / 52°02.” {A SIMPLE AND AT- _'TRACTIVE FOOD SUPPLY Perhaps the simplest scheme of feeding, the least trouble and the most attractive to numbers of birds, is the tying of a piece of suet to a convenient limb, or perhaps to the balustrade of one’s piazza, preferably ina protected spot and one that can at the same time be easily watched from some window (see page 332). In all these food- houses various kinds of food should be sup- plied — suet, crumbs, millet, hemp, rape- seed, canary-seed, and the like. On my place the birds have such a wealth of natural food that it is only during the winter storms and when the ground is covered with snow that they visit the food-houses; but on many other places— as, for instance, in Meriden, N. H., where Mr. Baynes and the Meriden Bird Club are doing such good work—there have been food-houses erected on places along the main street, entirely apart from any protecting shrubbery or natural food sup- ply, and many of these food-houses seem to be well patronized both winter and summer. Water, particularly during the sum- mer months or times of drought, 1s, of course, necessary for the birds. If they can’t get it on your place, they will be forced to look elsewhere. The proper installment of a drinking fountain or bird bath is a simple affair, and one that is almost sure to prove a great attraction to the birds, as well as a never-failing source of entertainment to the owner. Drinking fountains may be purchased ready made or manufactured at home. manner. Photo by B. $. Bowdish ON INTIMATE TERMS This jolly little white-breasted nuthatch has just taken a dainty morsel from the lips of its friend. These little birds are very clever climbers and can run up and down tree trunks in the most agile Almost any. shallow receptacle will do when placed in some quiet spot not too far from protecting shrubbery, but out of reach of skulking cats. Where the cats have not all been eliminated, it is sometimes safer to place the bath on a pedestal. A pool with foundation of concrete sunken in the ground, partially filled with earth and stones and planted with cat- tails, Japanese iris, or other moisture- loving plants, or perhaps with water- lilies and inhabited by a few goldfish, can be made a very interesting feature of any garden, to say nothing of its at- tractiveness to birds. It is essential, how- ever, that the slope of the sides should be gradual and the water at the edges shallow (see pages 338 and 339). If one has a brook or natural pond on the place, much can be done, particularly if the bottom of the pond is suitable for the planting of food for ducks. If the. lay of the ground is such that a meadow BSS) (S€€ ased ‘oinqord 99s) unsaq useq j94 Jou sey jsedor ay} Inq “poysiqejsa useq Apeosye saey suorjzeyas [eIp1od ‘“puslsy piiq Surssed & SoWAUI ay YSIYM 0} soudeg 411g 9stno’y Aq oJ0Ng ‘ Youn] IFT & pue Sot e IOF S}[eY ysipeinjeu 24} MoUs JOJUIM 94} SSOIDe dures} & JO JSpIur oY} UT OML YOX NOAHONND’I 334 A SANDWICH FOR TWO Photo by Louise Birt Baynes Having accepted the invitation, the bird settles down to enjoy his meal. The fact that he must share a sandwich with his host does not disturb him, for, like all birds, he is quick to recognize and trust a human friend (see picture, page 334). or woodland glade may be flooded and a pond thereby installed, there is hardly any limit to the enjoyment that may be derived from a pond of this sort. ATTRACTING THE WILD DUCK There is a little woodland glade, con- taining an acre or so, on my place, an opening in the woods surrounded by red maples, birches, alders, poison sumach, white azalea, high-bush blueberries, etc., which I flooded one winter merely as a 335 safe skating pond for the children in the neighborhood. Imagine my surprise and delight when one spring day, after the ice had gone out, I discovered there a whole flock of wild wood-ducks, and later during the summer was able to watch a flock of little ‘‘flappers,” the progeny of a pair of wild black ducks that had bred there. Herons came there, too, and red wings fre- quented the edge of the pond. From an uninteresting swamp the place had been BY THE HOSTESS ENTERTAINS Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes _ “Window boxes are a never-ceasing source of enjoyment. Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes built the first I ever saw, at his home in Meriden, N. H., a particularly attractive one, which has helped him to become intimate with an astonishing variety of birds” (see page 332). AKING THE CAKE Photo by Louise Birt Baynes This photo shows how responsive birds are to a little attention and how tame they may become. This wild chickadee will enter the house, perch upon his favorite delicacy, and enjoy a meal in no way affrighted by the presence of his human entertainers. 336 ics) WHAT BIRDS CAN DO Photo by Joseph H. Dodson A great-crested flycatcher house, with bluebird, suspended from a pear tree, from which Mr. Dodson last year picked eight bushels of pears with not a worm hole in one, and that notwithstanding the fact that the tree had never been sprayed. cheaper investment than a spraying-machine. A flycatcher is certainly a “About houses and buildings, particularly those on our farms, the ordinary type of bird- house rather than the hollow log is perhaps more appropriate. Bluebirds, tree-swallows, and house-wrens take to them readily, and if you have a large house on a high pole you may be‘lucky enough to attract a colony of martins” (see text, page 341). completely metamorphosed into a very attractive and interesting spot, replete with bird life. if wild rice can be made to grow, ducks will be sure to come in greater numbers each year, while regular feeding with corn at proper times may prove an additional attraction to whole flocks of ducks during the migration. ‘Tame call- ducks may be introduced, and if there are near-by woods nest boxes for the attrac- tion of the wood-ducks should be put up. One may even go into the raising of ducks, though this is often both bother- some and expensive, while the simple flooding of a meadow and _ intelligent planting of its shores is comparatively little trouble. 337, Mr. Herbert K. Job, State Ornitholo- gist of Connecticut, is having some very interesting experiences on a game pre- serve in Connecticut, where low-lying areas have been flooded and the wild ducks attracted in increasing numbers each year from miles around (see picture, page 338). know of one man in Canada who several years ago fed a small flock of wild geese that chanced to alight in a pond close beside his house. The geese appreciated the treatment so much that they later returned with friends, and have kept it up from year to year until now I believe that he has had at one time several hundred wild geese virtually in his front yard, and in a very exposed ea s oe ps cS SSS pS OH WSN LEN RRL EEE A RE SAREE IS A FLOCK OF MALLARDS AS$-VISITORS Photo by Dr. John C. Phillips “If wild rice can be made to grow, ducks will be sure to come in greater numbers each year, while regular feeding with corn at proper times may prove an additional attraction to whole flocks of ducks during the migration. Tame call-ducks may be introduced, and if there are near-by woods, nest-boxes for the attraction of the wood-ducks should be put up” (see paces 337): Photo by Herbert K. Job WILD BLACis DUCK ON A GAME PRESERVE “Mr. Herbert K. Job, State Ornithologist of Connecticut, is having some very interesting experiences on a game preserve in Connecticut, where low-lying areas have been flooded and the wild ducks attracted in increasing numbers each year from miles around” (see page 337). 338 SONG-SPARROWS TAKING A BATH “A pool with foundation of concrete sunken in the ground . . . interesting feature of any garden, to say nothing of its attractiveness to birds. Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes can be made a very It is essen- tial, however, that the slope of the sides should be gradual and the water at the edges shallow” (see page 333). position at that. They seem absolutely fearless, come and go at will, though only a short distance away are gunners who are waiting to take a crack at them. Only a few of us have ponds to which geese may be attracted, but the above ex- periment shows what can be and has been done in the way of attracting and taming locally the shy wild geese. HOUSES FOR THE BIRDS Of bird-houses, to be supplied for those birds that nest about buildings or in holes of trees, there seems to be an al- most infinite variety ; tree stumps, real or artificial, boxes, cottages, houses, large and elaborate mansions, barrel-houses, gourds, flower-pots, tin-cans, shelves, and all kinds of contraptions. Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton went so far as to construct on his place in Con- necticut a huge artificial stump, filled with imitation woodpeckers’ holes, etc. He attracted numbers of different kinds of birds and animals, and he seems to have had no end of fun with it. It is not allowed to all of us, however, to be given either the opportunity or the enthusiasm possessed by Mr. Seton. Of the various kinds of houses space will allow but brief mention. On my own place, which is covered largely with woods, I have used the Berlepsch type of vertical boxes with considerable success. These are simply sections of logs, hol- lowed out by special machinery in a very particular manner to represent wood- pecker cavities, with entrance hole in side of desired diameter, and covered by a wooden cap or roof that may be lifted for purposes of investigation or in order that the nests may be cleaned out from time to time, the whole bolted to an oaken batten, by which they may be fas- tened to trees (see pages 323 and 325). These may be obtained in Germany, 339 A BALTIMORE ORIOLE AFTER oN BATH Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes The Baltimore oriole is remarkable for its bright colors, and to these it owes its name, as the livery of the Lords Baltimore, who founded Maryland, was orange and black of just those tones that the bird exhibits. Cats have been eliminated on this place. Photo by Louise Birt Baynes A BROWN THRASHER BATHING “Water, particularly during the summer months or times of drought, is necessary for the birds. If they can’t get it on your place, they will be forced to look elsewhere. The proper installment of a drinking fountain or bird bath is a simple affair, and one that is almost sure to prove a great attraction to the birds, as well as a never-failing source of entertainment to the owner” (see text, page 333). 340 A COLONY OF EAVE SWALLOWS This colony of swallows built their nests beneath the eaves of a barn at Luenburg, Wate Note the partial support given by the narrow molding. These eave swallows become much attached to their homes, and if undisturbed will return year after year with unfailing regularity. but are now manufactured by at least two people in this country. Those on my place have been occupied by screech- owls, bluebirds, chickadees, tree-swal- lows, flickers, white-breasted nuthatches, and great-crested flycatchers. House- wrens, which are very local in our part of the country, have so far avoided them, and I have failed ignominiously to at- tract either the downy or the hairy wood- peckers, both of which frequent my woods. One firm makes bird-houses out of natural hollow logs or limbs, a hole bored in the side, and with wooden cap and bottom, while another makes an imita- tion woodpecker’s nest of pottery. The Berlepsch type are, however, in my opin- ion, far and away ahead of these others. BIRDS THAT WILL NEST IN PREPARED HOUSES About houses and buildings, particu- larly those on our farms, the ordinary type of bird-house rather than the hollow log is perhaps more appropriate. Blue- birds, tree-swallows, and house-wrens take to them readily, and if you have a large house on a high pole you may be lucky enough to attract a colony of martins. Chickadees, great-crested fly- catchers, and screech-owls may use these boxes, and the following is a list of birds recorded as having bred in nest boxes of one sort or another: Wood-duck, sparrow-hawk, screech- owl, flicker, red-headed woodpecker, great-crested flycatcher, starling, Eng- Photo by Fred B. McKechnie lish sparrow, house-finch, tree and violet green swallow, purple martin, house- wren, Parkman’s wren, Bewick’s wren, Vigor’s wren, and Texas Bewick’s wren, white-breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse, black-capped chickadee, Oregon chicka- dee, Carolina chickadee, robin, and three varieties of bluebirds—eastern, western, and mountain. To this list the Carolina wren ought probably to be added; though while I do not know personally of any record of its actually building in a bird- box, it builds about houses and in the most unheard of and crazy places. Robins and phcoebes may be encour- aged by shelves conveniently placed be- neath the roofs of porches, piazzas, and sheds, while the insect-eating barn and eave swallows may often be helped in their choice of nesting sites by a support- ing shelf. Vines on trellises or about the piazza posts are attractive nesting sites for chipping sparrows, as well as robins, and I once knew of a bluejay that built in a wistaria vine overhanging a friend’s front porch. One can never tell just what birds are going to do. Crows are reported to have nested in one of the squares in the city of Philadelphia and on Beacon Hill in Boston, while a pair of sparrow-hawks have bred beneath the eaves of the Law- Photo by' Louise Birt Baynes . rence Scientific” School” in Cambsidae Mass. Chimney swifts should also be encour- aged, and when possible the chimneys TELE, DAINT Ee STReGUurSt A picture of an inquisitive and very puzzled hummuing-bird probing an artificial flower MOTHER AND DAUGHTER Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes This is a photo of a wild chickadee feeding her young in June. She does not fear in summer the hand that feeds her in winter 342 left open at the top, and so constructed as to admit of their ready occupancy.* THE ENEMIES OF THE BIRDS Of bird enemies, cats are undoubtedly the worst, and maudlin sentiment should not be wasted upon them, for they are incorrigible. The plain, ordinary alley cat should be eliminated when possible, and they make fine fertilizers when planted about the roots of one’s favorite grape-vine. Cat - possessing neighbors * One of the most absorbing and interesting books of the present day, replete with infor- mation on the above subject, called “Useful Birds and Their Protection,” by Edward Howe Forbush, State Ornithologist of Massachusetts, has been published by the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture and may be obtained from them for the sum of $1.00. 343 Photo by Ernest Harold Baynes THE BEST KIND OF A BIRD ON A HAT should be warned that if their cats are caught trespassing they will be turned into fertilizer. Red squirrels are next on the list and should be shot on sight, but I have never found the depredations of the gray squir- rel to warrant similar treatment. Bird- chasing dogs are a nuisance and should be restrained during the breeding season. Skunks and foxes should both be dis- couraged, and the wily raccoon and elu- sive weasel also, if perchance they are found to lurk about. Of the hawks, the cooper and sharp- shinned hawks should both be shot at sight, while of the owls, the great horned is incapable of reform. The little screech- owl is almost always beneficial on ac- count of the numbers of mice it often de- j44 stroys, but individual screech-owls are often destructive to bird hfe. Crows and jays will bear watching. There seem to be good crows and jays, and then again individuals among them of exceeding bad habits, as many a long- suffering bird family knows to its sorrow. In many places the English sparrows are pests and should be shot and trapped relentlessly. They are pretty canny birds, and if once they learn you are af- ter them with a gun they quickly desert THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the premises. If owing to surrounding conditions gunning for them seems un- desirable, traps may be used with telling effect. ‘There are several kinds in use in this country. Last, but not least, the black snake should be killed whenever found; its large size, great activity, tree-climbing propensities, and taste for eggs and small birds have fairly won for it the reputa- tion of being one of the birds’ deadliest enemies. REDEEMING THE TROPICS By WILLIAM JosEPH SHOWALTER Author of ‘Battling with the Panama Slides,’ “The Countries of the Caribbean,” “The Panama Canal,” has been recording one triumph after another over germ- produced diseases, when the germ-hunter in his laboratory has been ascertaining the causes of so many mysterious afflictions and laying the foundations for one preventive measure after another, people all but lose sight of the tremendous debt humanity owes to the expert in experimental medicine and the sanitartan.’: Indeed, he would be a prescient mathematician who could calcu- late what the vast amount of this debt is. It is only when we look back over the records of the past, when civilization was young and humanity without knowledge of the causes of the great epidemic dis- eases, that we can have a faint appreci- ation of what the patient man of the microscope has wrought in humanity’s behalf. When we see Naples, in the seven- teenth century, as helpless as a new-born babe in the grip of a plague during which 380,000 souls perished in six months; when we see Constantinople, in 1812, with 144,000 deaths; when we see London, in the days of the great plague, with 70,000 of its population carried off ; when we go back to China and behold a few short years in the fourteenth century with a “black death” mortality record of 13 mil- lion souls, and to Europe, in the great I: THESE days when medical science in the National Geographic Magazine scourge of 1347-1350, and see 25 million people dying; when we come on down the years and see the untold millions who have died from the numerous pestilences which have inflicted death upon mankind ; then, and not till then, can we begin to appreciate what it all means. Even then our appraisal will fall far short of the truth, for in those times the world was, in a sense, larger, the seas were broader, and the distances on land much greater than in these days of highly developed transportation and commerce. How can the mind conceive of the terri- ble toll epidemic diseases would take to- day, with our world-wide commerce, with our metropolitan and cosmopolitan cities, and with the constant commingling of the peoples of all lands, were it not for preventive measures? MEDICINE Throughout the history of the ages one may read of great changes in the maps of the earth that have resulted on the one hand from the ravages of disease and on the other from the discovery of meth- ods of combatting it. We see the “glory that was Greece. depart because of the terrible toll exacted by malaria; we see a Panama Canal made possible because of the knowledge of the causation of yellow fever that came to MAP-CHANGING REDEEMING THE TROPICS us through the patient and heroic work of a group of army surgeons; we see cities like Havana and Rio de Janeiro transformed from pest-holes into munici- palities where epidemic diseases are under control. Today thousands, nay millions, of hu- man souls living between Cancer and Capricorn are being freed from the thrall- dom of those terrible visitations that came periodically only a few years ago. Africa is rising up against the terrible sleeping sickness and the insidious malaria that hayveomade it the “Dark Continent’ for generations without number. Wherever we turn we find places where once a man gambled with death when he visited them being converted into regions where good health conditions exist. Pre- ventive medicine everywhere, and in the tropics in particular, is writing a new geography of inhabitable territory and of commercial opportunity. Where yesterday the barriers of dis- ease were up against the peaceful and resource-developing invasion of capital and enterprise, there today is found health and happiness and_ prosperity. Where yesterday a man going to the tropics, even for a short stay, was bid- den good-bye by his friends as one who stood an even chance of never returning, today men and women go there for long periods; and in some places are quite as sate as at home, and in hundreds of others only a little less so. HOW.r ALL, HAPPENED Truly the story of how all this has been brought about is the world’s most splendid exemplification of the proverb that truth is stranger than fiction. For hundreds of years man stood helpless and appalled in the face of the onset of great epidemics. He saw millions of his fel- low-beings visited with deaths more hor- rible than ever torture chamber could invent, but not knowing whence the af- fliction came or whither it went. He sur- mised and guessed, and finally saw a cer- tain relation between dirt and disease, and gradually the elimination of dirt checked the ravages of some epidemic diseases. Then came the microscope with its dis- covery of infinitesimal worlds, and with O40 it Pasteur and his discovery of the rela- tion between bacteria and disease. One by one new germs were discovered, and soon medical men came to understand the methods of the transmission of most of the epidemic diseases of temperate climates. Still no one knew the cause of the epidemic diseases most characteristic of the tropics, and without this knowledge no satisfactory superstructure of prevent- ive tropical medicine could be reared. Tropical humanity was attacked by myr- iads of enemies so subtle that men did not know even that they existed, and yet so terrible that the carnage of the world’s battlefields paled in comparison. For centuries on end men had been seeking after the truth of the causation of yellow fever, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and allied diseases. Some of them had aearly guessed it. Sir Henry Blake tells of having seen a medical work in Ceylon, some 1,400 years old, which charged the mosquito with being a carrier of malaria. ‘The word canopy itself was brought into the language from a Greek word meaning gnat. WHY THE CAT WAS WORSHIPED There were many strangely close guesses at the cause of disease in the early history of the human race. Far back in Egyptian history the people came so near to guessing the cause of plague that they made the cat a sacred animal. They noticed that where there were cats there was no bubonic plague, and if they had only stopped to think a little further they might have seen that where there were cats the rats were scarce. But this relation did not strike them, so they went on worshipping the cat, and thinking that it was the animal’s supernatural power that saved them from contracting plague. The honor of having written the first modern work charging the mosquito with being a responsible agent in the spread of yellow and malarial fevers belongs to an American, Dr. Nott, of Mobile, Ala- bama. In 1848 he published a treatise upon yellow fever in which he charged the mosquito with the crime of spread- ing these diseases. A little later Dr. Louis Beauperthuy, studying an epidemic of yellow fever in Venezuela, also laid the FIGHTING THE PANAMA MOSQUITO WITH OIL These sanitary drip-barrels automatically spread oil, drop by drop, over pools, streams, and marshy places, thereby preventing the mosquito from breeding in the water. “He (Ross) proved beyond any peradventure that the Anopheles mosquito is the intermediate host, and that no one can contract malaria except he be bitten by a mosquito which has previously bitten a person suffering from that disease” (see page 347). blame upon the mosquito, and charged that it introduced a poison similar to snake venom into the human system through the biting process. Step by step a closer approach to the truth was made, and in 1883 Sir Patrick Manson demonstrated that the mosquito was the intermediate host of the blood parasite filaria. But it was not until Sir Ronald Ross arrived upon the scene with his investi- gations that the real truth of the prin- ciple of insect-borne diseases came to be understood. Prior to this Laveran had succeeded in isolating the germ of ma- laria ; and, building upon this foundation, Ross labored to ascertain the exact rela- tion between man and the mosquito. 346 REDEEMING THE TROPICS His efforts were rewarded with suc- cess. He proved beyond every perad- venture that the Anopheles mosquito is the intermediate host, and that no one can contract malaria except he be bitten by a mosquito which has previously bit- ten a person suffering from that disease. In telling of his achievement, Ross de- clared: ‘The exact route of infection of this great disease, which annually slays its millions of human beings and keeps whole continents in darkness, was re- vealed. The minute spores enter the sal- ivary gland of the mosquitoes and pass with its poisonous saliva directly into the blood of man. Never in our dreams had we imagined so wonderful a tale as this.” But even Ross little dreamed when he made his great discovery that the won- derful tale his astute mind had unfolded was to be but the beginning of a long series of related discoveries which would end entirely humanity’s helplessness in the face of epidemic diseases. The medical world had hardly ceased to wonder at the work of Ross when Reed, Carroll, and Lazear, of the U. S. Army Medical Corps, proved—Lazear at the cost of his life and Carroll at the cost of a severe spell of yellow fever—that the Stegomyia mosquito plays the same role with yellow jack that the Anopheles does with malaria. HOW MOSQUITOS, RATS, AND FLIES SPREAD DISEASE Then came others with their discover- ies that bubonic plague is transmitted by fleas carried on rats and ground-squir- rels; that sleeping sickness is carried and transmitted only by the tsetse-fly; that dengue is carried by other species of mosquitoes, and more recently that the body louse is the culprit which carries typhus from man to man. Likewise has our increasing knowledge of the principles of the spread of typhoid fever led us to the point where the only reason we contract it is because some one has been careless with the excreta that comes from persons having typhoid in their systems. We know that milk is a frequent vehicle of infection. We know, through the researches of Dr. Howard and his associates, that the house-fly, 347 which he has christened the “typhoid fly,” constantly furnishes free transportation for germs that are seeking an entrance to some human system. We know how much water has to do with its dissemina- tion, from the fact that in cities in Eu- rope where there is a perfect water sup- ply the number of cases is seldom above ten per hundred thousand people, and in America seldom above twenty per hun- dred thousand, while in cities where there is impure tap water the rate goes up to two hundred and even three hundred per hundred thousand population. It has come now to be accepted by sanitarians that in any average city of considerable population and ordinary sanitary regula- tions all sickness from typhoid fever over twenty cases per hundred thousand in- habitants is attributable to the water. How much the fly has to do with the spread of the disease is illustrated by the experience of the army encampment at Jacksonville during the Spanish-Amer- ican War. The lime that was carried on the feet of the flies from the latrines to the mess-tables showed that nearly all of the hundreds of cases of typhoid that in- fested the camp were caused by germs carried to the food of the men from the latrines. The fly has been caught red handed in divers instances. Some of them have been permitted to walk over infected material and then to walk over culture plates. In every case almost every point on which they set their feet brought forth a colony of typhoid germs. In other cases flies have been caught and given a bath in sterile water, with the result that a single bath has brought a hundred thousand germs from the body and legs of one fly. THE SAD HISTORY OF “TYPHOID MARY” There is one class of people who are a permanent menace to humanity. About 2% per cent of those who contract ty- phoid fever live to become germ carriers. The germs like them so well that they agree to dwell in peace and harmony with their hosts; but as they go about they spread a trail of typhoid fever. An illustration of this is to be had in the case of that celebrated woman, “Typhoid Mary.” She had suffered an attack of 348 typhoid fever, but got well. Then she returned to her -duties as a cook.) Sis cases of ‘the disease broke out am the family, and she left and was lost sight of for a long time. Although Dr. Soper tried to trace her, it was not until a long time afterward that she was found— this time in service in a family in a small town in New Jersey. Then her history was traced, and it was found that during the time between her two appearances she had cooked in five other homes, and in each and every one she gave the 1n- mates the disease—27 cases in all. TYPHOID VACCINATION But while all sorts of prevention in the line of sanitation help to check the spread of the disease, the final blow was given to it by the discovery of the prin- ciple of inoculation for typhoid. The germs of typhoid are grown in _ beef broth, and when they number millions for every thimbleful of the broth they are killed by the application of heat. The dead. germs. are then injected’ into) the blood with a hypordermic syringe, and three doses of these dead germs are nearly always enough to make the body immune from the invasion of live germs; perhaps because they do not like to dwell amid the sepulchers of their race. The success of vaccination for typhoid has been remarkable. In the history of hundreds of thousands of cases only a third as many vaccinated people have contracted the disease as unvaccinated people. Furthermore, the disease termi- nates fatally only a third as many times with vaccinated people as with unvacci- nated ones. In other words, vaccination against typhoid divides the chances of dying from the disease by twelve. Typhoid fever, however, is not so much of a tropical scourge. It does flourish in semi-tropical countries and among white people who go to the tropics. The na- tives seem to be rather immune from it, mayhap because the typhoid germ re- fuses to dwell in the same body with amcebic dysentery germs, with which so many tropical people are afflicted. But the lessons which our studies of the prin- ciples of the spread of typhoid fever have taught us fit in so beautifully in tropical THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE campaigns to master dysentery and chol- era that they are almost as serviceable in the tropics as they are in the temperate zones. ‘The fly carries the germ of chol- era ana of dysentery just as it carries the germ of typhoid. These germs use the same vehicles and travel in the same gen- eral way from the intestines of one per- son to the mouth of another. The sum of all of these discoveries is that they place in the hands of mankind the power to overcome the most terrible diseases with which the tropical world has been afflicted. CAPITALIZING THE DISCOVERIES And now, having looked far into the past to see the vast need there has been for such discoveries, and into recent his- tory to learn something of how they were made, let us journey around the tropical world today and see how they are being applied. Of course, we go first to Panama, for there they are being applied on a scale that is extensive and with a thorough- ness that shows the possibilities of such application. Indeed, no factor for putting the new science of tropical medicine to the most rigid test is wanting there. Before the United States took control and Colonel Gorgas began to apply the lessons that had been learned in Cuba, yellow fever was endemic, malaria al- most universal, bubonic plague not ex- ceptional, and smallpox not infrequent in its occurrence. ‘Things had been so bad that they defeated the French “in their efforts to dig the Panama.Canar and when the despair of the bubble-burst boom days settled like a night over the wrecked hopes of the French failure, conditions grew even worse. Colon was a swampy mire of filth which bade warm welcome to every germ that came along, and extended @iteany, hospitality to every mosquito and flea that traveled that way, bidding them all to “be fruitful and multiply”—an invita- tion as heartily and as appreciatively ac- cepted as it was extended. Panama offered a haven to every dis- ease borne upon the wings of commerce. The water-carriers who peddled water from contaminated springs became the Photo from American Red Cross Bulletin THE PLAGUE IN CHINA American Red Cross Relief Corps, showing method of protection against infection. The variety of plague during this epidemic was that known as pneumonic, and to guard against infection, both the skin and the air passages, such as the mouth and nostrils, had to be closely covered with antiseptic wrappings. allies of suffering, and the result was a death rate of vast proportions. Stretch- ing across the country between the two cities lay a vast expanse of untamed jungle and undrained swamp that was a paradise to the mosquito world. And then the masses of the people were hope- lessly ignorant of all things sanitary and as careless as they were ignorant. To add to the unlovely state of affairs, the ships that came in from South and Central America carried diseases with them. And so it was that one might look over the entire tropical world in vain for a place to put the new science to a se- werner test, The United States was not willing to undertake the sanitation cf the Canal Zone without including Panama and Colon as a part of the sanitary district, and so it was insisted that Uncle Sam should have perpetual sanitary control over the two major cities of the Isthmian republic, and Panama agreed. 340 After the international problems were settled Colonel Gorgas and his aides got busy. They built for Panama and Colon up-to-date sewer and water systems, the cost thereof to be returned to the United States in small annual payments. They cut down 16 million square yards of brush a year, drained a million square yards of swamps, cut 30 million square yards of grass, maintained nearly three million feet of ditches, emptied 300,000 night-soil cans and a million garbage cans, fumigated 11 million cubic feet of residential space, and did other things in proportion in the Canal Zone and in equal proportion in the two terminal cities. THE MOSQUITO IN THE COURT OF APPEAT, For awhile the rigid methods of the Sanitary Department met with success, and the morbidity and mortality rates both showed a remarkable decline. But then came an epidemic of yellow fever. 350 The mosquito, tried and convicted in the researches of Ross and Reed, and with that sentence confirmed by the sanitary work in Cuba and elsewhere, now came to appeal to its final court for a reversal of judgment. He claimed an alibi, and he proved to the minds of thou- sands that he was not responsible. Hun- dreds tore off the screens from their houses and thousands pronounced the criminal a maligned individual. Indeed, the revulsion of sentiment went so far that men ia the highest places were lining up on the side of the mosquito. But Colonel Gorgas remained firm, and finally former Governor Magoon came upon the scene to back him up, and to . give him a chance, as the counsel for the prosecution, to prove again the guilt of the accused. For three months the trial went on, and as soon as the yellow-fever mosquito was banished the epidemic ter- minated, and Colonel Gorgas was able to offer $50 for each yellow-fever mos- quito that could be brought him. ‘Thus for the last time in all medical history the mosquito had his day in court and was finally and forever pronounced a creature beyond the pale of the law. Rats and mice came in for the same stern measures of repression, and the re- sult has been that where yesterday the grim specter of death held Panama as a favorite abode, today it has to seek other regions for its preferred haunts. Where, at the beginning of our work at Panama, all the dangerous diseases in the cata- logue held high carnival and gave little heed to the despair of the people, today one may see there a sort of combination between a national tropical park and an international tropical health resort. Every possible difficulty in the way of the accomplishment of this end was en- countered when the work began, and the triumph has been as inspiring as the situation seemed hopeless. THE VICTORY OVER YELLOW JACK What the United States has done in Panama is no more than might have been expected in the light of what it had done in Cuba. There Colonel Gorgas, with the support of Gen. Leonard Wood, faced a terrible yellow-fever situation. In 47 THE NATIONAL GROCGCRKAPE IG, VEG 7 inis years more than 35,000 residents of Havana alone had died of yellow jack. In a year or two yellow fever was ban- ished from the island, bubonic plague was gotten rid of, and smallpox came under control. The experience of Cuba and Panama has been duplicated throughout the trop- ical world wherever the lessons of those sanitary triumphs have been enforced with proper vigor. Consider Brazil, which in times past had come to be regarded as the natural habitat of yellow fever. In the year fol- lowing the discovery of the mosquito’s part in the transmission of that disease, there were 35,000 deaths from it. The wonderful influx of young men from the outside world, the “conquistadors of a new era of commerce,” was about to be checked and the development of the great tropical republic set back for years. But Brazil would not have it so. Rio got busy, a perennial clean-up day was ordered, and where, in its harbor, ships once had rotted because their crews had died from yellow fever and none could be secured to replace them, there soon was not a case to be found. Thus Rio, Santos, and other Brazilian cities have become health resorts by contrast. THE FIGHT AGAINST MALARIA What has happened with yellow fever has not happened with malaria simply because the world does not dread it as much and will not make the thorough fight against it that has been made against yellow jack; and yet malaria has been a greater curse to humanity through more centuries than yellow fever has ever been. Where yellow fever has slain its hun- dreds, malaria has slain its thousands. It has not visited mankind as a grim messenger, smiting whole nations today, and tomorrow disappearing; rather its onset has been so gentle and its reign so persistent and so general that the public mind has never been wrought to the pitch necessary to its eradication. The fact that it results in less direct suffering and fewer proportionate direct fatalities than yellow fever has held the fears of the people in check and has per- mitted malaria to remain endemic in al- Photo from A. W. Cutler | PRIMITIVE SANITATION : BUZZARDS AT VERA CRUZ FOLLOWING A SCAVENGER’S CART These birds are protected by law and may be seen strutting sedately about the streets in every direction. They are largely responsible for the present excellent sanitary condition of Vera Cruz, now looked upon by the Mexicans as a health resort. most every country in the world. It plies its nefarious trade day in and day out, year in and year out, killing its millions of souls, some directly, but more through undermined constitutions which have permitted other diseases to be written upon the death registers. We do not have to travel to the tropics to see humanity living in close contact with the malarial mosquito and appar- ently indifferent to the ravages of the disease, ) Dr: 1). ©: Howard, perhaps America’s foremost authority in economic entomology, estimates that the financial loss inflicted at home upon the people of the United States by malaria amounts to a hundred million dollars a year. | Sir Ronald Ross gives an idea of the extent, economic consequences, and geo- graphical influence of malaria when he says that it “is important not only be- cause of the misery it inflicts upon man- kind, but because of the serious opposi- tion which it has given to the march of civilization in the tropics. Unlike many diseases, it is essentially endemic, a local malady, and one which unfortunately haunts more especially the fertile, well- watered, and luxuriant tracts—precisely those of greatest value to man. There it strikes down not only the barbaric in- digenous population, but, with still greater certainty, the pioneer of civilization, the planter, the trader, the missionary, and the soldier. “It is therefore the principal and gi- gantic ally of barbarism. No wild des- erts, no savage races, no geographical difficulties, have proved so inimical to civilization as this disease. We may say that it has withheld an entire continent from humanity—the immense an fertile tracts of Africa; what we call the Dark Continent we should call the Malarious Continent; and for centuries the succes- sive waves of civilization which have flooded and fertilized Furope and Amer- ica have broken themselves in vain upon its deadly shores.” Africa affords no statistics of the wide- spread prevalence of malaria, but in India, which at its worst is better than Africa, nearly five million souls died of fevers in a single year recently, and the 35t SS RRR AS SR ~~ < VERE 2 Photo trom Bureau of Insular Affairs A SOURCE OF PEACUE INEECLION These holes in the bamboo house-supports in Manila were found to afford shelter and nesting-places for rats, and so became dangerous to the public health of the city, for bubonic plague is transmitted by fleas carried on rats. How this danger was removed is shown in the picture on page 354. 352 RE DRE MING al bia RO PICS majority must have been directly or in- directly victims of malaria. But where steps as stern against ma- lanide@aie taken as are-required for the eradication of yellow tever, the results are magnificent. In Italy an anti-mala- rial campaign cut down the number of deaths from 16,000 a year to 4,000. In Greece, on the plains of Marathon, in 1906, 90 per cent of the sickness was due tovmealaria, in 1908 only 2 per cent of ~ the sickness was due to it. The wonderful results attained in fighting malaria at Ismailia, on the Suez Canal, surpasses anything that has been done in any part of the world. In 1900 there were 2,284 cases of malaria in that town. Sir Ronald Ross was called there to consider methods of banishing the dis- ease, and laid out a program in that di- rection. In 1901 the number of cases fell fOL1. OOO. in /1OO2 tO. 1,551 ; in 1904:to 90; in 19O5 to 37, Since that time there have been mo cases reported except such as were infected before visiting Ismailia. ‘Ihe malarial mosquito was absolutely ex- terminated there—something which prob- ably has not been done in any other part of the earth. One might go on indefinitely citing cases where cities and districts have arisemeim their micht. to put an end to malaria and with magic results. HOOKWORM DISEASE VANQUISHED If vast consequences have grown out of the solution of the mysteries of yellow fever and malaria, they are probably no greater than are destined to come to the people of tropic and semi-tropic regions through the mastery of the hookworm. Around the earth there stretches a belt 66 degrees wide, embracing 47 countries and an area of 15 million square miles, in which there lives a population of nearly a billion people. This belt is the hookworm belt of the world. How many cases of this distressing and strength- wrecking disease there are in this vast territory cannot be estimated with any degree of approximation. In 1904 some go out of every 100 of the working population of Porto Rico 358 had the disease. In Colombia 90 per cent of the people living between sea-level and the 3,000-foot level were suffering from it. Fifty per cent of the people in British Guiana are said to be afflicted. Not less than 1,80c,000 of the people of India are reported as having the disease, and in the southern part of China it is estimated that three out-of tour people are sur erers. The economic loss involved is »eyond estimate. In Porto Rico the physically sound coffee-picker picks from 500 to 600 measures of coffee a day; scores of those suffering from hookworm disease can pick only from 100 to 250 measures a day. In some regions it is estimated that “not more’ than’ 33 per cent of the natural’ efficiency of any force of men can be exercised because of the terrible problem of hookworm disease. Yet hookworm disease is about the most easily mastered of all the diseases in the category. Its cause is easily dem- onstrable to the laymen, even to the ig- norant layman, because he can see, with- Out the aid ‘OU 147 . E LOLTEBIO®, 0,46 ane ees ae aa I i % 150 ‘ s IN SOUP 9 2. eRe Reese ne ie I - 170 = i COIOEACO-S 5S ee ere I c= x 180 a : Fela 7 OVA Ve eh i ee eRe Rg be Moses wi Socks I a my 218 ce zs \WQiPITDOIIT . cc Ve Brace a I = fi 222 e es INi@ ey || LESS ee eee ay | me i 224 SS : DIAGF AIRS. “eee AERA re ne I ‘ i 235 3 > OM GMRMNMS ey elas oe lS Gb a hgstont whos he aces Sau s I : . 245. * . INGimeeAMMSINITS. ce eee Wea lees awk ee ee | Seow il i i 245 ; : io@emsl Slam... f4 8.0. en err wba ee eee es I . - 2100 | VL DIS. 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Saree ee ree a 7 I : j 1,457 : iS WOUbine CATOlMMA Nese wien bid b odedv cou ede eaee te ls I bs 1,620 ” @istal@ litem ees oe ah we at eas So Read Daleks I ; 1,673 : ss IN@rslay ACH) Gira Fee eee een ar ee I . “ L035, i ANTE TTISEIG Ly ai a a Se I te : OLS PND Alii aes ONG ete in os eT. a og bn aE lw be pees I . 2,188 a “ JIL TSSSIG SIT by Os es ele ears eee Te I i 2,300, i “T am very much interested in the Magazine, because it expresses more than any other the healthiest, happiest interest that one can know—Narure.” “T feel that every adult (over 12 years) should read—and see—it every month. I am one of those people who believe that war might be made impossible by ac- quainting the peoples of the world with one another. Certainly, your splendid Magazine is one of the best means we have of telling the American people about their ‘brothers across the seas.’ ”’ Housed in its new building, with addi- tional facilities for work in every one of its departments, with a rising tide of enthusiasm among its membership of 285,000, which is scattered among 15,200 post-offices in continental United States, 222 post-offices in the territories and in- sular possessions of the United States, and in 1,782 post-offices in the foreign countries of the world, the second quar- ter-century of the career of the National Geographic Society opens with a pros- pect without parallel in the history. of geographic education. A470 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Table Showing the Number of Towns and Post-offices in Each State and Territory in the United States where the National Geo- graphic Society Has Members. Number of towns and post-offices where the Sas National Geographic Society has members la Daiiial tsa tec oe 146 ANA ON Bilstein eae aS 117 UN EKATISAS disci tien er ae ot erie ene 128 CAMP Ona ep ccc SO ees eee 745 COlOKAd Ot M35 2c ee eet es, 264 COMME CLICHTs aytkntee 289 Del awed Pei urs nents ep tone oar ke eernee 36 District tom Columbian te eee I POT Clate,s taaree cas Side ny Mee ae eee eee 254 GeO Gea. Poise, Oe kee eta eae ae eee 195 IIKGIEN oo ade ee ie cee aise tts eA aie eta a an 156 MUOIS) Bytes SeNG eye he che ee er eed 665 Eg tGh tel ale Migea vines man tees WAAC Me irae ere 364 Tisai ty Beas 2 Ue Ne pee en cane RO 537 ICATISa See. stay hc a eens Cee 366 Ken titekcy:. secs, ead Mi acniigsh ae eet: 204 ME OUISTATIA Se ceo Sirsa a sy ee ae eh ee ee 153 VI TING tapes rat sho na Aiea Spee ae ee nae 306 iN Teteeyel tyler oe x as ccre an ine ore eee 245 Wrasse chiSetts a4 sh taaet er ee eee 614 IMinchiG ain. ore cota e0cgee ee ee eee 456 WieaNeS baad: ee 0 cL AM oe alee 306 IMASSISSID Die astute cere ek ee ee 152 MBISSYOTE Wes cee OP os one Mae cs on) St eee 3600 IMG TAM es 5 38 15 Miscellaneous Asia......... 26 16 Australasia: Australia: x) tet yeas 56 15 New *Zealandes 4). eee 31 16 South Sea Islands =>. ee 8 8 Europe: Austria-Hungary 4. kee 43 20 Beleium 285405000 s eee 22 yf Bulgarta witout. chee eee 8 3 Denmark 250.4. ( 9oe oe 20 8) Foprbanda ty. 8s ee eee 5 4 BPATICE «a heey. foe ee 195 26 Germarnty39 8s See 286 107 Great Britain: Eneland .. cc a eee 847 177. Irelands 28. 2 ae 65 2g, Scotlandie: 2. sae ce 100 55 Wiales fs. Baie 8 Wy, Greece \o5 a ee ee Ne 3 2 Eollandirn te) oe ee 22 17 italy ghrp kak eee ea ao ee OA 28 BAY [21h rR carne a a, A I I INORWaVE Ga tate Grete soe 36 14 Portugal, gs de ace cate hatte 3 2 Rasim tata "Baie oes ead as ek ee 4 I RASS 18 sie 8 Ree aeons ra eee 30 13 S paint sais aees eee ey ee 32 14 Swedene:. = cee ee 33 ity Switzerland pene een ee 82 36 Turkey in Buropes,...4.... 20 4 VoL. XXV, No. 5 WASHINGTON May, 1914 GIROGIRAIPIENIC MAGA ZIINIE, MEXICO AND MEXICANS By WILLIAM JosEPH SHOWALTER Especial attention is called to the map of Mexico published as a supplement to this issue of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. It contains the latest and most accurate mformation of the geography of the country, and also gives the transportation routes open and im prospect, as well as the contours of altitude. The map is the highest example of the cartographer’s art that has been produced with Mexico as its subject. Additional copies of the map may be obtained from the otiices of the National Geographic SOLAN Price, 50 cents each; mounted on linen, $I. ERHAPS nowhere else in the pP world is there a country so full of contrast as Mexico. With a uni- versity established before John Harvard, Elihu Yale, or William and Mary were born, the masses of its people are hope- lessly ignorant. With a hospital founded before Jamestown was even dreamed of, it is one of the most backward regions of the earth in a medical way. With natural riches greater than those of a thousand Midas’s, its masses are just as poor as the proverbial church mouse. With a constitution as perfect as any or- ganic law in the civilized world, it is a nation whose rulers always have been a law unto themselves. Effigies of Judas Iscariot —to be burned, crunched, exploded, or hanged by the neck until dead—may be bought in the same stores that sell the latest creations of the dressmakers’ and the milliners’ arts from Paris. A bull ring, built of American steel and concrete, stands within earshot of the Republic’s leading hotel, and the sound of the per- fervid cheering of the sun-gods as they applaud their favorite matador when he executes a brilliant pass, and the band. responds with the Diana, may be wafted into the very precincts of the American Embassy itself. Here you will see a Mexican half- breed, barefooted, wearing a dollar pair of trousers, a fifty-cent shirt, and a ten- dollar sombrero. There, at a single glance and within the length of a single city block, you may see an Indian cargador, a donkey, an ox-cart, a carriage, a en train, a street-car, and an automobile— almost every type of locomotion since Adam. WIDE CLIMATIC RANGE You may tread the burning sands of a tropical desert with the wet of the per- petual snow of towering mountains still upon your shoes. You may take a single railway journey of 36 hours in which the people you see at the railroad station will be dressed in four different weights of clothing. Land of the inordinately rich and of the abjectly poor; land of the aboriginal Indian and of the twentieth-century busi- ness man; land of perpetual snow and of "(16h ased 4x0} 998) (yey sty 0} st oy se opepuslory SI] O} DARTS B YONuT se AyIvoU JOU St Wood 9y} OF ‘SpIeMs9}}e SYJWOU JOF AISuNY OS 0} JaX{Nq ay} VdI0F saop oseyoind JIOY} Fl UsAd JYSnoq oie esoy, “SJeY JOY} 91¥ “pousIOUOS o1e Sspoosq-J[ey JO Sasseul oY} SB IJ OS “OSTXsW FO UOole[ndod ojew ay} ynoqe Bury} snondidsuos ysour 2 bay ueULIO( pue uewypy Aq 0j04g NOLLN’IOASHY ODZONO AHL ONTYNG ‘VAHVOHIHO “AHONVE LV SdOOUL NVOIXUW oe ess 472 almost any amount of such cactus to the person. and painful. unending summer—everywhere you turn there is contrast, high lights and deep shadows. Fitting indeed is Ober’s beau- ‘tiful apostrophe to this wonderful region: “Mexico lies at the meeting-place of two zones—the Temperate and the Tor- rid—and from its geographical position, combined with its altitudes, possesses a greater variety of soil, surface, and vege- tation than any equal area of contiguous territory in the world. Basking in the sunshine of the tropics, her head pillowed in the lap of the North, her feet resting at the gateway of the continents, her snowy bosom rising to the clouds, she rests serene 1n the majesty of her might. She guards vast treasures of gold and silver; emeralds and opals adorn her brow; while the hem of her royal robes, dipped in the seas of two hemispheres, is embroidered in pearls and the riches of suileeseay 473 Photo by Shirley C. Hulse A VARIETY OF CACTUS WHICH IS A SOURCE OF MUCH ANNOYANCE TO STOCK AND TO RIDERS. IN CHIHUAHUA, MEXICO Any part of the bush will come away freely, and a slight touch will serve to attach The process of removal is usually long “Mother of western civilization! Cradle of the American race! A thou- sand years have been gathered into the sheaf of time since her first cities were built. When the Norsemen coasted our western shores she had villages and towns, white-walled temples, and spread- ing palaces. When the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock, a hundred years al- ready had passed since the soldiers of Cortés had battled with the hosts of Montezuma. In no country in the world can you pass so rapidly from the blazing shores of the heated tropics to the region of perpetual winter, from the land of the palm and the vine to the land of the lichen and the pine.” ONE-FOURTH AS LARGE AS THE UNITED STATES Mexico has an area approximately one- fourthe.ef that or the United States, a HOVTIIA NVOIXAW IVINS V NI SGNVAMOVE AHL JO ‘IVOIGAL SI MHIA FHL ‘satoVO HHL WO%d Adisv : laa AHL NO SGNVLS HOIHM ‘SOLOVO ,/IVdON,, ANIA AWWA AHL JO TNQOOOV NO NAMVE SVM WAAL espn ‘— Ae[tryS Aq sojoyg SIH HdVOSGNVI HHL JO Livd LNANIWOUd AMAA V “IVOSN SV ‘SI HOUNHS AOVWTTIA AHL :AOVTIIA NVOIXHUW V NI LVAHM ONIHSVAHL 474 MEXICO AND MEXICANS AT5 fourth of whose area once belonged to Mexico. It has a coast-line some 6,000 miles long, although its greatest length is less than 2,000 miles and its greatest breadth only 750 miles. Although its area is only one-fourth that of Brazil, its population is approximately equal to that of the empire of the southern continent. Some 15 million souls live within its borders, of whom more than two-thirds can neither read nor write. ©f the total population, only 19 per Celliane wvmite, 43 pet cent are of mixed parentage, while 38 per cent still main- tain their Indian blood uncorrupted. The foreign population two years ago numbered 100,000 souls, of whom 30,000 were Americans, 20,000 Spanish, and 5,000 British. MEXICAN AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES The agricultural possibilities of Mex- ico, despite its vast central desert plain, are great. It has millions of acres of the finest grazing land, great bodies of land that will produce two crops of corn a year, large areas of banana lands that can match those of Guatemala and Costa Rica, coffee lands that produce coffee not only fit for the “queen’s table,’ but used on it, rubber lands, and cocao lands—all lying accessible to good railroads and in touch with the world’s markets. Go to Yucatan, go to Colima, go to Chiapas, go to Vera Cruz, and every- where outside the great desert you will find a soil teeming with possibilities. And portions even of the desert land, if we may judge by what we have done with our own western alkali plains, may yet be made to blossom when the irrigationist and the plant-breeder join hands. The possibilities of the arid and semi- arid regions of Mexico are disclosed at Saltillo, on the Mexican plateau between Mexico .@ity and IWaredo,’Texas.. The traveler who journeys from the capital to the frontier spends a night and a day traveling over a barren region, with here and there an adobe city, and with noth- ing) bit the green of the cacti to relieve the depressing brown of the desert. About twenty hours out of Mexico he comes to Saltillo. In a moment he passes from the desert into a broad oasis that is wonderful for its vegetation and beautiful for the air of prosperity and well-being that dwells with it. Here land that yesterday was as bare as Mother ._Hubbard’s -cup- board today is laden with all the good things that the vegetable kingdom af- fords. A strange combination of trop- ical and northern agriculture greets the eye. Most of the things which grow in our own western country flourish along- side of the crops which grow south of the Tropic ‘of. Cancer. A trip along the Pan-American rail- road, with its magnificent forests and great ancient estates, among them one on which the cattle still wear the brand of Cortes ; over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the tropical jungle rivals that of the Motagua River Valley in Guatemala, pronounced by Frank G. Carpenter the richest in the world, and then on up through the great Atlantic plain of mid- dle Mexico, suggests the immense unde- veloped resources of the country. In the middle and lower altitude belts of the country the banana and the orange flourish. The excellent railroad facilities of Mexico give a good outlet to the ports at Vera Cruz and Tampico, where ships are constantly loading for European and American ports. The orangeries of east- ern Mexico‘are nearer to.the eastern part of the United: States than are those of southern California, and crop failures among them are unknown. With the same methods of cultivation that are pur- sued in Florida and southern California, they should be a source of vast wealth to the country. THE HOME OF CORN AND COTTON Although the value of the corn pro- duced in Mexico each year is greater than that of any other product, not even ex- cepting gold or silver, the country still has to import a part of its supply. The reason is not far to seek—it is the nation- wide love for the tortilla. There are vast areas where it is easy to produce two crops of corn a year and where each crop erows with an exuberance that would de- light the heart of any corn-club contestant in the United States. It was my good fortune to travel through the region lying between the Mexican highlands and the lowlands, Photo by Dr. C. William Beebe This pastoral scene is where two springs—one hot, the other cold—arise close together, near the city of Colima and the active volcano of the same name, in western Mexico. This part of the country is noted for its enormous wild fig trees. from Santa’ Lucrecia: to Cordoba, and wherever I came across one of those little Mormon settlements which dot the prairie stretches of this region there were fields of corn to be seen the like of which may be met in but few parts of the United States. Uncounted generations before the United States came into being the In- dians of Mexico had their little patches Gt corm, —-It was the-ereat staple ‘of Montezuma’s court, and to this day it is almost the sole support of the Mexican Indian. There are few parts of Mexico, either in the hot belt adjoining the sea or on the table-lands between the mountains, where corn is not cultivated with success. How valuable the crop might be made when farmed in the Illinois and the Iowa way is shown by the wonderful success with which the Mormons have met when undisturbed by war. History does not recall the time when cotton first was cultivated in Mexico. The Spaniards found it there. Indians clothed with cotton garments were first 476 seen by Columbus along the coast of Yucatan at the very dawn of the six- teenth century. The Toltecs wrote in their sacred books that Quetzalcohuatl, god of the air, grew cotton of all colors in his garden and taught them its many uses. In the times of Cortes the Indians quilted armor of cotton, which was proof against arrows. To this day cotton is cultivated with profit in many parts of the country. In the Laguna region it is perennial and does not require to be planted oftener than once in ten years. Some of the largest cotton factories in the world are to be found in Mexico. The great Rio Blanco mills, in Orizaba, rank with the best in England and America. REMARKABLE MEXICAN PLANTS Mexico probably has a greater range of remarkable vegetation than any other country in the world. ‘The parrot fruit tree produces an odd-shaped fruit, bear- ing a close resemblance to green parra- keets. Evidently mindful of this strik- ing resemblance, when the parrakeet is MEXICO AND MEXICANS AT7 frightened it makes a dash for the par- rot tree, where it assumes a position which makes it look like the fruit itself. So close is the resemblance that their enemies, the hawks, occasionally tly by a tree on which a dozen or more of these birds are sitting, apparently unaware of their presence. Another remarkable tree is the “Arbol de Dinamite’ — dynamite tree — whose fruit, if kept in a warm place, bursts with considerable force and a loud report, scattering its flat seeds to a surprising distance. THE PAPAYA TREE One of the most interesting fruits in Mexico is known as the melon zapote, or papaya. It grows wild and attains a feiznt of as mtich as 25 feet. . The dark-green leaves are from 20 to 30 inches long and grow at the top of an otherwise leafless trunk. The fruit would seem a cross between a cantaloupe, a pumpkin, and a watermelon. The tree begins to bear fruit when a year old, pro- ducing from 20 to 100 melons at a time, a single one of which may weigh as much as 20 pounds. The melons contain considerable pep- sin, which reacts against both acid and alkaline conditions of the stomach, and it is said that a diet which includes papaya precludes dyspepsia. Both the fruit and the leaves possess the singular property of rendering tough meat tender. When the pulp of the fruit is rubbed over a piece of tough meat the juice attacks the fiber and softens it. The trees are well defined as to sex, and where they are cultivated but one male tree is permitted to grow in a grove of fifty or more females. Mexico abounds in orchids, and some of the most beautiful species known in the plant kingdom are there to be found. As one journeys through the country from the Tehuantepec Railroad to the Vera Cruz and Mexico City line he sees dozens of species of orchids on the forest trees, some of which would bring top prices in the New York market. MEXICAN RAILROADS No other country in the New World, south of the Rio Grande, is so well sup- plied with railroads as Mexico. Prior to the Madero revolution it had 20,000 miles of up-to-date American railroad. At six different points lines crossed the frontier from the United States, and Laredo, Eagle Pass, and El Paso gate- ways handled much traffic to and from Mexico. The Mexican railroads carried 11,000,000 passengers annually at that time, and handled about 11 million tons of freight.. Their total revenues amount- ed to about $40,000,000. The government owns a controlling in- terest in the major portion of the mileage of the railroads, and is the owner of the Tehuantepec road and of the Vera Cruz and Isthmus line. A plan was on foot a few years ago to extend a branch’ of the Tehuantepec road to Yucatan, to connect up with the United Railways of that province. ‘This would give every section of the country railroad communication with every other section. Besides the Tehuantepec route there are two or three other transcontinental lines. The Pan-American Railway ex- tends from the Tehuantepec route to the Guatemalan frontier, and this gives through railroad connection from Can- ada to Guatemala city. But having trav- eled over this route, let me advise the sea trip..as one far more comfortable, even to those who are not good sailors. From an American standpoint the Tehuantepec route is by far the most in- teresting of the Mexican railroads, be- cause it is the principal prospective com- petitor of the Panama Canal. This road is built on the line of the proposed Eads’ ship railway, from Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz It “issapproximately, 200 miles long, and crosses the continental divide above Rincon Antonio. EADS DREAM How Eads could see a ship railway across those mountains is more than [ can imagine. When you journey across a mountain on a railroad that is well located, and yet on which the curves have to be so sharp that the rear plat- Loni Or your car and the headheht of your locomotive point in the same direc- tion, and when this happens not once, but a dozen times, and in a 20-car mixed train, you cannot imagine, in your wildest Photo by Shirley C. Hulse TEC DI OIISKeL® WN (COSI The Mexicans use a gaff, or heel, up to three inches or more in length. As contrasted to the needle-like heel which is used elsewhere, the Mexican heel is broad and razor-sharp on both edges, except that the top edge is blunted for a little ways back of the point to insure the penetration of the gaff, which might otherwise merely rip instead of cutting deep. The Mexicans sometimes wrangle and haggle for hours while arranging terms of the fights, which are usually over very quickly after they are once started. Not infrequently both cocks fall dead after the first clash. flights of fancy, how a ship could be hauled over those mountains in a gigantic cradle. There are many peculiarities about the Tehuantepec Railroad. It is owned by the government, but is operated by a company made up of two equal partners, the Mexican government and the firm of S. Pearson & Son. Each partner con- tributed half the capital of the firm, and they share the profits, the Pearson firm being the managing director. The Mexican government owns about one-third of the stock of the American- Hawaiian steamship line, which is the principal freight producer for the Te- huantepec Railroad. Years ago these ships went around South America, from Hawaii to New York, with their cargoes of sugar. When the Mexican govern- ment decided to build the Tehuantepec Railroad, it proposed to the steamship line to take a third of 1ts-stockivamdero handle its cargoes across the Isthmus upon terms that would be more advan- tageous than the trip around South America. It agreed to handle the busi- ness between Salina Cruz and Coatza- coalcos for one-third of the through rate, with the understanding that if this did not afford a profit to the steamship com- pany the railroad would be willing to accept as low as a fourth of the through rate. COMPETING WITH PANAMA With the opening of the Panama Canal, the American-Hawatan line will send its ships through that waterway, in spite of the fact that the Mexican government owns one-third of the line’s stock, and took it in order to get the steamships to use the Tehuantepec route. But although the Tehuantepec officials 478 Photo by Shirley C. Hulse MEXICANS WATCHING A COCK FIGHT concede that on through cargo business they cannot, under any circumstances, compete with the Panama Canal, they still believe that they will not be seriously affected by the opening of the big water- way. They think that the business boom that “the canal wall--bring ‘to tropical America will give enough additional mixedecargo to take wince tees ec ce eee 505 ATK SPallOWerwn ince ote ees Pies ae 505 Maryland® Y cllow=throat.. 224. 2.2 eu. 507 Yellow-breasted’ Cliat.... 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