watt Yay, ve. TTA 0) au abaabaes PEEP Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson A ii if ee eae hth, L | GEOGRAPHIC | MAGAZINE INDEX aap Nn A) Ce > aay, PLL sei a hin Aru =] Noch \y > ‘as mellinitt January to June, 1917 VOLUME XXX) = 7 SMil HSOWN/ AT Ni RPP ye ¥) in el ( NOV © 1981 LIBRARIES__ PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE O. P. AUSTIN 1915-1917 CHARLES J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company JOHN JOY EDSON President Washington Loan & Trust Company DAVID FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Ex- plorations, Dept. of Agric. C. HART MERRIAM Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. AUSTIN Statistician GEORGE R. PUTNAM Commissioner U.S. Bureau of Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 3D Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturaljst. and Wild-Game Photographer GRANT SQUIRES New York ASSOCIATE EDITOR PRESIDENT SECRETARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1916-1918 FRANKLIN K. LANE Secretary of the Interior HENRY F. BLOUNT Vice-President American Se- curity and Trust Company C. M. CHESTER Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Supt. U. S. Naval Observatory FREDERICK V. COVILLE Formerly tresidentof Wash- ington Academy of Sciences JOHN E. PILLSBURY Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of : Navigation RUDOLPH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor The Evening Star T. L. MACDONALD M. D., F. A. C. S. S. N. D. NORTH Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. HOWARD GORE Pro’. Emeritus Mathematics, The Geo. Washington Univ. A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’! U.S. Army GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Editor of National Geographic Magazine GEORGE OTIS SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. TITTMANN Formerly Superintendent of U.S.Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey HENRY WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. JOHN M. WILSON Brigadier General U. S.Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, “‘the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,”’ the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remunera- tion is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed : GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR CONTRIBUTING EDITORS A. W. GREELY C. HART MERRIAM O. H. TITTMANN ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN WALTER T. SWINGLE ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL DAVID FAIRCHILD HuGH M. SMITH N. H. DARTON FRANK M. CHAPMAN Copyright, t917, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. All rights reserved CONTENTS America’s Duty. By NEwton D. BAKER Relonumysmeli elites Biv) OE Ne Els GA DE iene oye cys cbe cea sc Meal cee aaa ee Bind the Wounds of France. By Hereert C. Hoover WO COO OOO OOO OOM OOOO OOUOOCOD OD GODO OO UD Ooo 0 Do ORCEOR ONCE DEC TONCECmONC ECO EC NCEE Onn CNCE EC NCS CmCNCON ici Bolentiagandether ©zechsw ay TAnESMELRDEICICAN <0 1510" elas nee ee ee Burdenekrancestlas borne, whe: ByatGRANVILER, HORTESCUE Messe aoe ae Conversion of Old Newspapers and Candle Ends Into Fuel, The Devastatedelholand saa Rive HREDERTCK WWIAT COM sakes ono aeernieitaioniac erent Do Your Bit for America: A Proclamation by President Wilson to the American TEXSLOS DAVES aaa cai cgi s ehches ON Ne CIA E eB fC are meng ECRERS A aetna eal i A APRN TE acoA es a Erirendswon Ours Horests aby fHENRY? WrillENSHAWasce.)cn eee ucm cen aceon eee Game Country Without Rival in America, A: The ponerse Mount McKinley National Bark Sum ye OE PEE NG ge CAP PSI ees rea sects osuc secs eeryopniel Seine a ee ae Sah ay es Enero eae IN@EaS “Aloo Val, AM eveuen ehh LANEY Ea clo) Oa a ee ete er eR eye ARE See oe Su eabo oe Niagara ati the Battle"Eront, By) WiLLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER. <2 4... 5scne. os eer Oldest Free Assemblies, The: Address of Rt. Hon. ArtHur J. Batrour, in the United States House of Representatives, May 5, -I1917 @neshiundredeBritishs SeapOntsin sackets Acie te tees Saks ere Sia ere ee aci cia a ime inn ace ape pen @nethesMonastir Road By, FIERBERT” COREY, 3.0) oie. sees oe eee ene Our Armies of Mercy. By Henry P. Davison Oita 1Omreese Saved te cess eeree ae strive cotauscnenser seus auallocdc ual a) Waa MENTS CBee ci ieee eee pe Our First Alliance. By J. J. JussERAND Oiir =] Boianein sj nvormoll Saba sats eaeRG Es Me SEE cay ole eican ae ead ARG Beem an Boo Our Heritage of Liberty: An Address Before the United States Senate by M. Vivranl. er ed Ce rr ey On -Secomal, Aibervess = IBS Ie eho Nae ees nails oo digadodbedsand.so0 Our State Flowers: The Floral Emblems Chosen by the Commonwealths. By the Eprtor Outspeaking of a Great Democracy, The: The Proceedings of the Chamber of Deputies OlskrancesonsaridaypeAprltO TOL ete oe eee ne ae en eerie BoisonedaVWVorld Aes bya WILETAM) HOWARD DAFT: ...¢aamaavicemisn sierra cts coe meester Prizes for the Inventor: Some of the Problems Awaiting Solution. By ALEXANDER (CUNIZ UNI 01 BYS Ftd cla hg Bia. ramen Hear eR Ne ee eee Mies ee ve een Hien Pan Be, 566 Ned CrOSSSDitit seh ey ae yaa DR TOT UM VWADS WORTH o ssre co eientvel oes ayes fala y by eu aen ey mle ete para Republics he Wwadder,to wiberty.. By DAVID JAYNE HITED. 2.2% 26 veo: cee ee eens IR@wnharss et ILO AWE ts es oak io er RS TEE Sed Rea Rr or Ae at RIA Garten 5 5 oc Russian Situation and Its Significance to America, The. By STANLEY WASHBURN.... ussiaiseDemoc#atss: sy, MONTGOMERY, SCHUYLER aa es suis acilonc esc iolinciemilomielseineciers Soldiers of the Soil: Our Food Crops Must Be Greatly Increased. By Davw F. FET OWS Nee reer heat eee cura eaten pubs, sl cage at RN SG ilk UUM uieAL ag seating okt ny a a Standebyathe Soldier By; May. Gen orn a; PERSHING: 40.5 500+ - aces scene eens coke es Their Monument is in Our Hearts: Address by M. Viviani Before the Tomb of Wash- MetOneAteMOUntaVeEKnons Apily2O) LOL mas aeciesseoe ani soos ae eee Ties That Bind, The: Our Natural Sympathy with English Traditions, the French Ree public, and the Russian Outburst for Liberty. By Senator JoHN SHARP WILLIAMS. siributesto Ainerican Ac) By. LIERBERT HENRY ASQUITH): . ai setseliiidc ce cies eee Valley of Fen Thousand Smokes, The: National Geographic Society Explorations in the Katmai District of Alaska. By Roprert F. Griccs, Leader of the Society’s Mountitatmare bh xpeditions Of FOrsaande TOlOr. 42 osc eee eee cee Wiarbicrsqore NontiieAmentca. Isher creme tac) ois auopareretooniein Sees ee oe ie ee ee War, Patriotism, and the Food Supply. By FrepEricK V. CovILLE.......---..-.-.00- What Great Britain is Doing. By SypNky Brooks coe eee o eee eo eee eoe reer e rere sr ere eeeeee INDEX FOR VOL. XXXI (January-June), 1917 AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX CGN Page Abbé Robin’s tribute to George Washington..... 535 Abraham’s oak, near Hebron, Palestine, ill...... 189 Abrasive industry, Artificial: Niagara Falls, N. Y. 413 Acetylene gas: Niagara electrical laboratory..... 420 Aden: Somali mother and babe, ill. (duotone in- : SOOO CO DUI COST IOR OCD SEED On OnOe 55 insert) Agricultural scenes: Katmai district, Alaska, ill.. 16, 18, I9, 21, 22 CC Jv, Catia ‘Solel sta. EGS6 bac onooboguoadanMoOdD 145 Airplane -seveiami per loridase tll pieverevete sleieleasuererelelers 284 Airplane photograph of Ypres, Belgium, ill...... 337 Airplanes, German: Watch the allied plans, Mo- IASC Ge HOA yeparevaeeseronci eles ioheverstaveiajeislione eislexerelavsl siey/sic 392 Alaska: A Game Country without Rival in Amer- iCame Dye ote phenimknn Capps eraiiilireii ste teversrel« 69 AMlaskawelsatmareGistrictecjcieiieteretcieneiererete Pc peee text, 13; ill., 12, 14-19, 21, 22-32, 34-50, 52-58, 60-62, 64-66 Alaska, Mount McKinley region, ill.......... 69, 70, 72-76, 78, 80-83 Alaskan Eskimo family, ill. (duotone insert)..... 564 Allaskaw Ran penal liicreicic.s ohoreveuore oe chena aver anal olarecs TOT 2 7A: Alaska: The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. BysRobertwbrm Grigg seiy-\acctereroketiere cio cetieriseioe +13 Albert, Edward: Great Bohemian surgeon....... 183 Alcohol, Possibilities of: Inventions............. 133 Wiexander, column: Petrograd, ill. yes ee 22a Alexander II, Monument to: Petrograd, ill...... 220 Algeria: Children of the desert, ill. (rotogravure SIA): cosoodsavsogugeouusuoudoanousnacy 146-163 Algerian dancers, ill. (color insert).......... 256-273 Algerian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill............ 106 Alhambra: Hall of the Ambassadors, ill. (color Re): TEGO DDO OCOLIO BCT CEO ae 256-273 All France behind America then: 1780.......... 519 All free assemblies modeled after the British Par- liament and American Congress.............+. 368 Alliances, Our First and Second: France and Americasye BYyg) oxen sserand=c)jeic)-sreteicterete 518, 565 Alliance which forbade conquest, An............ 521 Alliance with no hatred for the common enemy.. 521 Alloys, Production of: Niagara electrical labora- COD, eee ce tees aYerale che foe chere ete: svaisiotelers ters ;anvenste 419 PNltiminum wy Niagaras) ciLts Ole slercraelvoieie ercieusietels 420 Ambulance, American: In a ruined French town, ill. Ambulance fleet in the Court of Honor, Hotel des InvalidessyRarisysillbemeant eerie leat 454 Ambulance, Russian: Being blessed by priest, ill. 214 Ambulance, Springless and crude: Russian front, Hy: Ke GEBOMOO OME DO cats BEE oni ene eas nem 451 America, All France then behind: 1780.......... 519 America and France: Our First and Second Alli- auces.5 By ven yeniusserandian.:. lesa e siete 518, 565 America arrayed against mad arrogance.......... 363 America, A Tribute to. By Herbert Henry As- GEN Socu5ccogddgouUNobOooN sab ooUEeaaUbOOODS 295 America, Do Your Bit For. By President Wilson 289 Nmericamehrencheraithminkceeeeee on eee 518 American ambulance in a ruined French town, ill. 452 American children, ill. (rotogravure insert).. 146-163 American-Czechs, Distinguished....:...........-. 185 American Falls from Goat Island: Niagara Falls, Lp iillanae300 50260 0005p 6 GOUGH DOAC 415, 416 American hospital at Paris: Nurses, ill...... 444, 445 American hospital at Neuilly, France, ill........ 440 American invention, Our first and greatest....... 248 American nurse at Brod: Miss Emily Simmonds. text, 398; ill., 402 American Red Cross men: Saloniki, ill...:...... 400 American Red Cross War Council, ill........... 461 peas Red Cross War Council, Addresses be- Oi Fon coCGOOOC DDG UDO RO 6 GUO SED UO OO N OBES 2 American Revolution and. the French............ as American warblers, North, ill. (color insert).. 305-320 PInericars) debtatomDen Grasses oe sine S41 AMERICA’S DUTY. BY NEWTON D. BAKER. 453 America, The Russian Situation and its Signifi- canceto. (By Stanley. Washburnee. oo sienne 371 ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES Page qudovey Academy Red Cross unit off for France, - ALDS Ss Seer ciicbe eretagevelel suelo e's Walomeyeretone tozetelneini teteteterolerers 45 Animal behavior, Differences in: Alaska......... 78 Animal life, Signs of: Katmai district, Alaska... 29 Animals, Alaskan: A game country......... 5600 9 Apple and blossom, The..,text, 487; ill. (colored) s5o01 Apple of discord, ill. (rotogravure insert).... 146-163 Arabia, Aden: Somali mother and babe, ill. (duo- ayssesbaltsao ) qavuounpOUGdoD Odo COS OnOOUOD OU GC0O 558 Arabian dancers, ill. (color insert)........... 256-273 Arab shod with fire, An: Type, ill. (color insert). 256-273 Araby, A daughter of, ill. (color insert)..... 256-273 Arch, Norman: Slovak house, ill..............-. 184 Armies and statesmen helpless without miners... 293 Armies of Mercy, Our. By Henry P. Davison... 423 Army, vA® democratice ce cetrcsicicieleieielersveleieieleleeiole +» 209 Army auto with carrier-pigeons: France, ill..... . 282 Army camp and the Y. M. C. A., ill......... 470-472 “Army of clerks and shopkeepers, An’: New York City lee Vi SUID (Sas baht he feahe arate pe yeT evev eer 358 Army of Germany contrasted with the French ALIMY? ere ereic je iwielevel evsieielejaiele en elejeie\ehe) sis =e) -lelelelelsieie 323 Army of old men in the fighting line: Serbians.. 386 Arrogance, ‘Our dislike Of... 0000. sci 00 ce cnc 283 Artificial abrasive industry: Niagara Falls, N. Y.. 413 Artillery, rnenchici. lyeresohsrofereie role tsrstckeolonens telerelsvenelole 330 Ash slides more than a thousand feet thick: Kat- Mal Gistricta Alaskalapepacreokerteveretsteketevenarshasalsparte) she 34 Ash, Volcanic: Katmai district, Alaska, ill.... 14, 15, 17, 18, 25, 36, 37, 41, 42, 44, 46, 54 Asquith, Herbert Henry, Formerly Prime Minis- ter of Great Britain: A Tribute to America.... 295 Assemblies, The Oldest Free. By Right Hon. ATEhUTselegeb alLOUT elrslererelereier trieleieie¢ te e/a cele) 368 Associations of the people: Russia.......... 223, 227 Astronomical clock: Prague, Bohemia, ill..... ,+-- 164 Aubigny, Church of: Converted into a hospital, Eirati Ce sell sme sesropetetekevereienelcieiatolevonsienete Baencnocdoc 343 Audubon’s warbler....... text, 307; ill. (colored) 309 Austrians and Hungarians in the United States, Distribution mot etacriccelcrerciiersiotelererere cbse wees 108 Austrian Tyrol: Boy feeding lamb, ill. (rotogra- VALLE MINISEHE) ietetecletetele store leleetetele eisiejeleletelels 146-163 Automobile burning: London road, ill........... Q2 Automobiles, Army, ill.............-.- 282, 283 OG 334) Babies and their mothers: Many lands, ill. (duo- tone insert)...2.-ecsecee tb ele wesc cece eens 549-564 Babies, Japanese, ill. (rotogravure insert)..... 146-163 Baby and mother: Minnesota Indians,. ill. (roto- gravure insert)...ceeeseesces esse eres oe. 146-163 Bagdad, A citizen of, ill.........--.-e eee eeeeee 188 Baker, Newton D., U. S. Secretary of War: America’s Duty....s.essesseeeees sete tec e cece 453 Baksheesh in abundance in Macedonia, ill....... 396 Balance of power in China: Chinese mother and her babies, ill. (duotone insert)...........-.-- 555 Balfour, Right Hon. Arthur J.: The Oldest Free Assemblies : Balkan States: Immigrants at Ellis Island, ill.... 103 Baltimore, Maryland: Washington Monument, ill. 249 “Barabara,’ A: Typical hut in Katmai village, Alaska, ill, oss... ee sec esse ee eeee Bopaooucor 25 Barbering, Open-air, at Iven, Macedonia, ill..... 393 Barley and oats, Usefulness of..........-....--- 273 Barrels of porcelain for United States: Limoges, Branceswilla reer Bath, Shower: Erected by French soldiers, ill... 335 Battle Front, Niagara at the. Showalter ...... Secvele Susie auciaratacsietaralo etevecstelaenetecte 413 Battleship ablaze in mid-ocean, ill............... 360 Battleships, United States, ill........... 348, 356, 360 Bavarian peasant: Immigrant at Ellis Island, ill:. ro2 Bay-breasted warbler..... ill. (colored), 316; text, 318 Beachuatmat-urAlasicasrll ovsrisverebrerertalseetcrelcieretetore 27 Beans, Soy-: Valuable for food.........:........ 275 Bear, An educated: Alaska, ill.......5.:.....2. 83 VI THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Bear hunter of Kodiak, Alaska................. 47 icmENY Rhee NEG is o66500c00b00000000000000 79 BeareskinesWodiakyeAlaskawplleermere ac iisecionioe 29 Bear trail, Following a: Kodiak, Alaska......... 27 Beavers, Many and busy: Alaska.............-. 79 Bedouin beauty, A, ill. (color insert)........ 2555273 Bedouin mother and child (duotone insert), ill. 552 Beggars sme Saloni leper eee een en ceeercioe 403 Belgian appreciation, A demonstration of, ill..... 278 Belgian fugitives inscribe their addresses. along UNS, WEN) alle amanda ador cuca rates are ara oenee 438 Belgium: A madonna of sacrifice, ill. (duotone ATIS@ Nt) eroletersherevenelalotors ists ioteVersiorclaterelekstecsroisien sisibes 551 Belgium, Ghent: Avsbread@linewsillee sient neice 455 Belgium, Reflections of one back from.......... 433 Belsiumirmkiver Meuse tlle seme t eee cree else oe 202 BELGIUM S PLIGHT. | BY JOHN H. GADE.. 433 Belgium, Termonde: TuUinedwburldings allie seen eee ene 430 Belgium, War orphans from, ill........ 432, 434, 436 Belgium, Ypres: City photographed from a flying machines pail] Spey terstclen Cveyerertoicie eek eincin Skee 337 ers mission of the Red Cross unit in Serbia, cold odo DCI bOOUG One a OO OU COURS OO nOSOObD RAG 450 Bell, Alexander Graham: Prizes for the inventor. 131 Bell, Liberty: Philadelphia, Pa., ill Sietialelev el avaysl erevels 253 Berkeley, Governor: Opposed the printing press.. 110 Berries, Wild salmon-: Alaska....... text, 15; ill., 24 Bible Society missionaries at Ellis Island, ill. 123 Bier of a city, At the: Mons, Belgium........... 435 Big-game paradise, A: Alaska................. 75, 81 iBigggunnessthemlichtenmone wea oer ae 333 BIND THE WOUNDS OF FRANCE. BY HER- BERRA Cy HOOVER nunca teem s 39 Binoculars, Staff: Chuke Mountain, Macedonia, ill. Voleekenere}shistckclexcrelehalsveusttatatetovetetarcristeretaiee ite 406, 410 Birds-mCarnier-pigconsaillsser er eee eee 282 Birds: Fish-hawks about to leave their nests, ill.. 303 Birds: Friends of Our Forests. By Henry W. PEllenshaw acer orescence eee erretele 297 Birds: Warblers of North America, ill. (color in- SErt)iararernevscetsiapetleve lesser toe ee ee ers 305-320 Biskra, Algeria: Dancers of the desert, ill. (color ATISE TE) ene fon cial cteovece eveloier ean eat oie ee eee 256-273 Biskra, Algeria: Street scene (rotogravure insert) 146-163 Bitter root, The (flower). .text, 489; ill. Black and white warbler. (colored) 504 ~text; 3073 ill: (colored) 309 Blackburnian warbler..... text, 315; ill. (colored) 313 Blackfeet Indians (rotogravure insert)....... 146-163 Black-poll warbler........ text, 315; ill. (colored) 313 Black-throated blue warbler................ text, 311; ill. (colored) 312 Black-throated gray warbler................ text, 318; ill. (colored) 316 Black-throated green warbler..............: text, 318; ill. (colored) 316 Bleaching powders: Niagara electrical laboratory. 422 Blessings, Church: Bestowed upon Russian sol- diersyerl lS erreitereie nt eee oe 214, 215 Bligny, France: Hospital for consumptive sol- diershpilleacertrectstelt teeta nas See ee 425 Blockade Posse nes Hnglandestes seein 87, oe 93 Blockley, orcestershire, England, ill......... , 91 Bluebonnet, Texas........ text, 497;. ill. (eclbreds” 512 Bluejackets: Class in telegraphy, Naval ara school, ill. sheheliaheelevepereerelieleetereleye.e.e, elelsleles;e)aiaiele/ele Bluejackets, United States, ill...... » 346 0, Blue-top; hay, -Alaskas Gili". 252. .2..: pee ee hes 354 Blue-winged warbler...... text, 311; ill. (colored) 308 Boats, Flying: Miami, Florida, Tee erarcreieeata karate 284 Bohemia, Scenes in, ill............ 164, 166, 168-174, 77, 178, 180-182, 184-186 BOHEMIA AND THE czkeH§ BY ALES ISURIDILIT CASES SOBER OC one DOE DOS ean ene 163 Bohemia, Colonized byaiGermans eee eee eee 165 Bohemians in the United States................ 183 Bohemians Onicinwot these teenie ne ne 163 Bordeaux-Begles, France: Health-service ware- ousessaallieictaaricieacicts oversee ee ee eee 333 Boy and donkey, Venezuela, ill. (rotogravure in- San) Ga SO 06 OO OOO DAR OE era Era me 146-163 Boy coal-miner: Pennsylvania, ill. (rotogravure in- Sai)» od Sea OO a COO A aE Dae n ocean 146-163 Boy eating apples, ill. (rotogravure insert). 146-163 Boy feeding lamb: Austrian Tyrol, ill. (rotogra- TALS TER Sanh oa So One oO COE ose 146-163 Boy headhunter: Philippine’ Islands, ill. (rotogra- WUT TEITISEGE cca cyeietare) clcla ciain eoece alee cies lars eis 146-163 Boy, Italian: Boy dressed in soldier uniform, ill. 121 Page Boy Scouts ie eae with flags: New York City, assailed Miaielsse erekais stuiarerels Sikes ene eer 359 Oe ey i Bread" line: eee cece eee reso eee cose Ghent, Belgium, tee sisie-wfeielaiefevolerenetetete Bridey and groom; Slovak) allagenceeseee eee layataley, \iiEnod Jerincy wWissnoouoocuoobo000D00000000 Bridge, Charles IV: Prague, Bohemia, ill........ Bridge, Draw: Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ill........ Bridges, Labyrinth of: Cleveland, Ohio, ill Bridge tower: Prague, Bohemia, ill............. British Empire’s rally to the motherland........ Britishifleet;: he 'resiec-eee eerie ee nenee poodenno 454 Coville, Frederick V., of the U. S. Department of Agriculture: War, Patriotism, and the Food Supply; eee eee eh Cee ene ee eee eee 254 Cow-peasvaluableatoratoodeee ee eee ee Leere Dee 275 CradlesaSlovalk-mBohemiaymilleee enema ere 186 Crater, Katmai Volcano: Alaska..text and ill., 53, 58, 57, 090 Criminologist, Swiss: In Serbia, ill.....:....... 390 Siuasets Gasoline-driven express: Miami, Florida, 5 50) aie rey Chath Con cd nee RN Gein Sian RAN NS eee ca 284 Cuna-Cuna or Tule Indians: Panama, ill. (duotone ITISETE) eaten Den ahe BEL ae ECE ote eae 560 Curie, Madame: Discoverer of radium........... 135 Cuyahoga River bridges, Cleveland, Ohio, ill.... 134 @zechichildrenteBohemiawallyanereeee eee terror. Czech-Americans)) Distinguished...2- saaeseee eee: 185 @zechs)and) Slovaks in Bohemians. os nee eee 163 Czechs. Bohemia and the. By AleS Hrdlicka... 163 @zechsicharactenisticsen ee eee eee Een 176 @zechs encouraged bya .Wiyclitteroe neeereee oes 176 GG) DY Daisy, sblie caeics cetera text, 497; ill. (colored) 512 Dancers of Arabia, ill. (color insert)......... 256-273 Dancers of the desert: Algeria, ill. (color insert) 256-273 Danes in the United States, Distribution of...... 108 Dangers of a Teuton drive on Petrograd........ 382 Dark days for the patriot cause: American Revo- JiBia Koy oe as een cr Si sere hate sy at 5332 Davison, Henry P., Chairman of the War Council of the American Red Cross: Our Armies of TY Wes olen Aamir noel bic a hein Gieiy, cecio bo oe OLO Olea 423 Death, An awe-inspiring valley of: Katmai district, Va skal rsieneinie pric g tine: aa Wane ale Gaclen oy ae eaepu Aeros Decoration, Interior: Geometrical designs: Alham- braallsi(colorneinsert) -ececoe eerie 256-273 Defense work, Brushwood screens for: France, ill. 364 DelivenancevANmessagestOfirerperverrel toy ekene keer he 362 Democracy, The outspeaking of a great: France.. 362 Democracy and republics in 1917, Map showing distribution votes cen occas Ce cee eee eine 243 Democracy’s chance to make good, A........... 291 DenlocraticitarmyceeAvorrese err iieteiereeeeiere 209 Nemocraticapeoplesw whheliwaya Oleic 195 Democrats, Russia’s. By Montgomery Schuyler.. 210 Denali and Denali’s wife: Mountain peaks, Alaska 72 Department store employees preparing or war: Newie Vonks Gitys-allinesaerecocis citi reir 358 Desert, Dancers of the, ill. (color insert).... 256-273 Destin, Emmy: DBohemian operatic star.......... 18 DEVASTATED POLAND. BY FREDERICK WATS COMMING verathevdais ansross eens eesreuereie srevepercnioie beens 445 Dining-room for soldiers, Lyon hospital, ill...... 433 Divis, Prokop: Discoverer of the lightning rod... 183 Dobrapolya Mountain, Serb soldiers on.......... 386 Wobravent) Awfamily panty, atgilleeei cts 407 Dog and child: Playfellows, ill. (rotogravure in- Sert)) mreuenceere Dutiahrabarle: OGeceee erie vetene eterno eeemerere 146-163 Doge, Office of the: Karly Venice............... 241 DogseeAlaskaniicillesyeaansutemmetues-werackerocntrneraners rior 82 Dogs ehrenche edi Grossjallierireiencicicieutietsieensie 469 Dogs, Masterless, roam the barren hills: Mace- COMM scat ey arc tene, ctopcueconsicrelal eee sone ol suereueiey ckeu memeese een toe 388 Dor-teamssyeNlaskasanllrverpeyarerepncionienetemenietetotearcnore 69 Doss Woundediawarapalleyietl-rncdeter-toeieeicrs oooh ocos 56 Donkey burden-bearer: North Affica, ill. (color isa Ga abougGUOOat OoDdGosouCe doe a Dade 256-273 “Donkeymobile” in Sicily, ill. (rotogravure in- Gi) Veeondsoanobodanoodboo So ooSanSedooeu 146-163 DO YOUR BIT FOR AMERICA: A PROCLA- MATION BY PRESIDENT WILSON: TO SEE AMIE RTCAND EE ORIGH reece 289 Drawbridge: Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ill.......... 140 Drunkard, Disappearance of the: Russia......... 224 Drying fruits and vegetables: Reviving a lost art i text, 277, 475; ill., 476-479, 481 Duma erhhemRissianarieeee eos ee eee 221 Dust-storm, Exploring in a: Katmai district, Milaskeay eins: letevsre etece suevenseetevsbare Sis eeioe mine eee 26 Dutch immigrants, Ellis Island, ill........... 99, 100 Dvorak, Anton: Bohemian composer............ 183 VIIL : Page Dvortzovaya Square: Petrograd, ill.............. 224 Dwarf, Burmese: Immigrant, Ellis Island, ill.. 129 Dynamite plotter, Preparedness against the...... 420 mela Economic success of Germany.................. 475 Hconomich value! OL WaTblerS\ja:si-ie)-) + rsisleiclicje\ele ie 301 Egypt, The lure of, ill. (color insert)........ 256-273 Ekaterinskaya canal, Petrograd, ill.............. 220 Electrical laboratory: Niagara Falls, N. Y....... 413 Electric cart for transporting shells: munition fac- HOM cooncbeabouddOO dos bod DAO DNODdOOUO ORDO OMS 328 Electricity, From candles to: Inventions......... 131 Electrodes for furnaces; leads for pencils...... ALO Electrochemical industry: Niagara, N. Y...... Seen ats) Elevatorse Grains (buttalow Nae Vesmlllentectemceicle ore 274 Ellis Island, Immigrants at, ill... 97-107, 110, 112-130 Elmley Castle village, England, ill............ 80, 94 Emblems, Floral: State flowers, ill. (colored). 501-516 embroidery, Bohemian: Peasant girl embroidering, LS ORO > EGOS AUIGCOGeC Hacc Gnmeico anno oon ob ecd “Emerald Isle’ of the Pacific: Kodiak, Alaska, text, 13; ill., 19 Engineer corps, Colonial: France, ill............ 200 Eine landwA vere wisteverein che savalond a/b cea clo erolele ob olavereccuexe 209 England and France given time to prepare....... 375 England, London: War rallies, ill........... 194-204 England: One Hundred British Seaports........ 84 Pugland Ours Debtitorcvecn acieictierctere em cisietemctore 281 Englandicskinalasceness 1ll) acs 346 Naval supremacy, Nothing without............... 525 Naval training station: Class in telegraphy, ill. 472 Naval training station: Newport, R. L., ill. 345, 348- 355 NEEDS ABROAD, THE. BY JAN MALCOLM. 427 Nelson Day: Trafalgar Square, London, ill...... 204 Nelson House: Yorktown, Va., ill............. ASS 4 Nelson monument lion: London, ill........... gob ZOY! Nenana coal field: Alaska........... texts 73ijyilles es Nenana River: Alaska........ Lisle leueretarsyate ei vaberaieays 69 Netherlands), Phe Wnited’s.ie)ere o sleiele/elevcicielol-rsielelae 244 Neuilly, France: American Hospital, ill.......... 440 Newfoundlanders and Canadians in the U. S., Dis- tribwtion vo herervisrotercteeeiserercia cher slelebeoketelstetolorerete 109 New Guinea woman and baby, ill. (duotone insert) 557 Newport, The French fleet at....-............-- 52 Newport, R. I.: Naval training station, ill. 345, 348-355 Newspapers and candles converted into fuel..... text, 568; ill., 568-570 New York City: A Red Cross Chapter, AE 464 New York City: eel scouts charging with flags, ill. 359 New York, U. S&S. Reenter Sepa SaaS 356 NIAGARA AT THE BATTLE FRONT. BY WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER.......... 413 Niagara Falls in summer and winter, ill.. 414-418. 421 Niagara shapes and hardens our shells.......... 413 Nicholas I, Monument of: Petrograd, ill......... 219 Night in Tetuan, Morocco, ill. (color insert). . 256-273 Nile, Land of the, lee colorinsert) ic. ee 256-272 Nippon: Japanese girls with babies on their backs, ills (rotogravireminsent)/ icles cre leleelsrelelelohel sie 146-163 Nizhni-Novgorod, Russia, ill........ 227, 236, 237, 238 Norman arch: Slovak house; ill). 30..0)./5.- 0. aG 450 Serbian! armysun=Macedoniasa- open cece oe 385 Serbian immigrants: Ellis Island, ill........ 105, 128 Serbian soldiers on the Monastir road, ill... 386, 387, Serbs’ heroism in 1916 campaign..........:..... 5 Seville, Spain: Patio in the Palace of the Dukes of AlbaSvill==(coloryinsert)eieeeeen eee 256-273 Sheep for stocking ranch: Alaska, ill............ 22 Sheep, Great slaughter of: Alaska............... 81 Sheep, White bighorn: Mount McKinley Region, PANIES eal Aen ince GION Ricca eM A aa eObInG MOA EGE ain vie) shelliicases Piling | Erance alleen een eee 337 Shells; A wonderful production of: French muni- tionMIndustryssae tee Seen 338 Shells. in munition factory, ill.......... 322, 326, 328 Shells shaped and hardened by Niagara water OL Ka Ghee EMG 6 OOo A Oooo OG Dton ono s 413 Shepherd types, Roumanian, ill.................. 117 ShipsweBritishipcepect emetic eer Showalter, William Joseph: Niagara at the Battle ront ....... SlelapelielsvelekehoKeKolofecrcterekererenebebstersreretete 413 Shower bath erected by French soldiers, ill...... 335 Siberian!(corps;istatt of thes cthssilleeenes eee ices 380 Siberian hides: -Nizhni-Novgorod, Russia, ill..... 227 SicardsiGeneralis Hrenchwanmiynalleseemeion acne 1 3 401 Sicily: Street scene, ill. (rotogravure insert).. 146-163 Ee : : text, 398; ill., 402 Singing class, Open-air: Naval training station, INE WDOTEs Rear lesa ill Severn sereneicyetctstateiaicieeiatereeraente 354 Skin, Bear: Kodiak, “Alaska, alls a2cc. cone cunne 29 Skin,’ Panther: Kodiak; Alaskal ill; oso. ..2..55 055, 29 XIV Page Skins, Goat: Used for carrying water in Palestine, NL coooacnnoonooo0o D0 000600 agodooscodoo0dCo~e 192 Skoda, Josef: Bohemian scientist..............-- 183 Skyline, New York City, ill...........-.-++- 98, 132 Slavery, The woes of: Belgium Slezak: Bohemian opera singer.........+- Fosaogo Slicing machines for fruits and vegetables, ill.... 476 Slide Mountain: Katmai, Alaska, ill.......+...-. 42 Slovak bride and groom, ill...... eocgcuOnConOUDe 168 Slovak immigrants: Ellis Island, ill.............. 118 Slovaks and Czechs in Bohemia........-... adoos ules Slovaks at Postyen, Bohemia: Sunday mass, ill... 178 Smetana, Bedrich: Bohemian composer.......... 183 Smokes, The Valley of Ten Thousand: Alaska. By Robert F. Griggs........--. were ge nes domo ~ 26} Snow bridge, Ash-covered: Katmai, Alaska, ill... Snow, Mud-covered: Katmai, Alaska, ill......... 55 Snow scene, California, ill............ suoooouNRS 9 Snow scenes: Niagara Falls in winter, ill.... 418, 421 Snow-shoes, Six-foot Yukon: Alaska........ 78, 80, 81 Soil. Soldiers of the. By David F. Houston..... 1273 “Soixante quinze’’: French cannon.........- 330, 337 Sokol Mountain, Macedonia, ill........ Hob OoSS 387 Soldier bandaging a wounded war dog, ill........ 456 Soldier boiling his ration, ill....... SoOoooo Heoocod 570 Soldier, Italian: Boy dressed in uniform, ill..... 121 Soldier of the Royal Guard, Greek: Ellis Island, Soldiers: Colonial engineer corps in France, ill.. 200 Soldiers, Consumptive: Hospital, Bligny, France, Ail, soo mesooebo pe ocoougad cubs agodouopeToDO OOOO 25 Soldiers, Defenders of Warsaw, lier. sisie eleisioie's 369 Soldier’s grave in France, ill. (duotone insert)... 549 Soldiers of allies tread historic grounds in Mace- Goh. oaccoUsOueb Ondo oO DoDDSacododuOUOKOIUadS 383 OLDIERS OF THE SOIL: OUR FOOD CROPS MUST BE GREATLY INCREASED. BVA DAWA eee OWS MONG veer cieioielelassyelejeveleuere 273 Soldiers: On the Monastir Road....... 384, 386, 387, 389-391, 393, 394, 401, 408-412 Soldiers, Patient Continental: American Revolu- “Maya, Gabo ceOG 0 O06 000.0 DUOC U0G005 00000 4 UW Oden 539 Soldiers, Russian, ill...........------ 292, 25, 2175 369, 372, 374, 379, 394, 451 Soldiers, Scotch: Packing a kit, ill.........----- 199 Soldiers’ shower bath: France, ill......-. aieleieieieie 335 Soldier, Stand by the. By John J. Pershing.... 457 Soldiers, United States, and the Y. M. C. A,, ill. 470-472 Soldiers, United States: Sequoia National Park, Hl: lino Sob boo nico ded ooS Sooo ooOpnOUUOS Da cUDDO4 Soldiers, Warsaw defenders, ill............----- 369 Solomon’s pools, il... 5... cece cence cree eee see IQI Soluka Creek: Katmai, Alaska, ill.........- 37. 38, 44 Somali mother and babe: Aden, ill. (duotone in- Aan) “Saas ceodeobapsomecane coop oUdooDMpODbod0 558 Songsters, Warblers as....-...-+--- aodpo cool oS 298 Soubotsko, Macedonia: Market day, ill...... 388, 399 Soy-beans valuable for food..........++.++++-+. 275 Spadina military hospital, Toronto: A wounded (Cammrkein, WL Gacondouuduono GadsuODbOOUo DOO 431 Spain, Seville: Patio in palace of the Duke of Alba. ill. (color insert)..... tee eee eeenee 256-273 Spanish gypsy girls, ill. (color imsert)........ 256-273 Spinning:. Hungarian gypsy, ill. (duotone insert). 563 Spirit of France, Unconquerable.............--. 344 Spirit of the Red Cross. Bv Eliot Wadsworth... 467 SANDE BY) a EUS SOLDER | VB: BO GENERAL JOHN J. PERSHING, U. INIRIWINE 5 Ba bocoeaooonOmOD Ooo obOdeUeCOONe s+ 457 Star Spangled Banner being taught to American HMA WE coosseonsnondsbdbcogosooednas 345 “Starvation a great force”’...........++.2escee 450 State-lower movement started by New -York..... 485 State Flowers, Our. By the Editor. .text, 481; ill. (@allonaa)) sosnogoascudegeosos Se UOGnACHOL 501-516 States and their floral emblems, Index to........ 486 Statesmen and armies helpless without miners... 293 Siatesmen mb ohemimtanmes se celeie oleic eieieielelatatoe/-)-inietar= 183 Statue, Nathan Hale: New York City, ill........ 290 Statue of Liberty, New York harbor, ill......... 245 Steamer, Excursion: Milwaukee, Wisconsin, ill... 140 Steamers, Freight: St. Mary’s River, ill......... 276 Steam jets, Valleys full of: Katmai, Alaska...... 66 Steel, High-speed: Niagara electrical laboratory.. 419 Sfeelplant:* Canada, ail... .. -..- Phase obNT 197 Steel, Vastness of the expenditure of: French munition factories......+. mabe cles lsieraleraateracie erator 339 Stock-raising: Alaska, ill..... 2.0... secsesineeoese 22 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Stocks and whipping-post: Rural England, ill.... 92 Strategist, Serbian: Voivode Mischitch, ill....... 401 Submarines, Prussian: Ineffective............... 196 Sugar:makingymachineryanil eee eee eee eoereorr 144 Sun-dial house: Surrey, England, ill............ 93 Sunfloweramlhemerrcrciciee text, 494; ill. (colored) 508 SurgeonwuGreat:) Hdward) Albertucscceneeeeeenee 183 Surgery, New, miracles) of; brances a eeeeenee 341 Surgical dressing-room, U. S. Army railway car, Deere ia eat ear re ce telrernsta c Aiot Suk ce Re eee 443 Surrey, England: Sun-dial house, ill.:....5.5505 03 Swedes in the United States, Distribution Olosco UGS Swedish children drawing pictures, ill. (rotogra- Wall RE! INSET EL) isc sie ele ecoreeie se law alae EO Ae eRe eRe 146-163 Swiss} criminologist; in’ Serbia, ile 390 Swiss Republic us very” old\c% 11. < ase 244 Switzerland: A mother and child in the moun- tains, alli, (duotone) insert) -.cko se eee 550 Synchronized fire of 400 guns: France.......... 336 Syringa, The (flower)..... text, 490; ill. (colored) 505 Oy SU Taft, Ex-President William H. and son, ill...... 468 ‘Taft, William Howard, Ex-President of the United Statess/A® Poisoned® Worldacsase aden 459 Tangier, Morocco: An Oriental minstrel, ill. (color -inSert) Rie cieeis «cols «1sle chee cereks loin mee S Ox2773 hannenyaninerlcbronieillyeace asic eee 192 Matar ccanses will Caicwicrsvenccrsieions weenie hee 213 hea, Afternoons eRussiany, 11l.s..scierelereree 217, 226 Tea: unspeakable quantities are drunk.......... 533 Teklanika and Toklat rivers, Alaska............. 71 Telegraphy, Class in: Naval training station, ill.. 472 Telephony» Classuins WS) Army,. alleen 57 Tennessee warbler........ text, 310; ill. (colored) 312 Tents, Refugee; near,\Saloniki, ill... 5025: eos 397 Termonde, Belgium: Priests and nuns among the KUinedw bil dingsseilleyerereer-ser 434, 436 WAR, PATRIOTISM, AND THE FOOD. SUP: PLY. BY FREDERICK Vi CONANG I Binezs cccvere 254 War refugees relating their experiences, ill...... 376 Warriors, A mother of: Japan, ill. (duotone insert) 553 War rules of honor rigorously observed......... 522 Waris awl scostitolebran Ces sie silencers elersheval 60 6) AS far as man is concerned, it is the same yesterday, today, and forever—emblem of permanence.”— JoHN Muir. Tp I5IVT & JO J9JUID DY} SSoToYJIOAOU SI A] yoinys ‘gq ‘q Aq ydessoj0y *‘JOLSIP JurJOdu AT[emusjod pue ‘aqdood pospuny Inof fo ooeyIA Adovjs e& st YvIpoy ‘odA} AAvoy ur sdvur oy} [je uo MVIGOM LV LNOMAMHLVM BELL suLivodde ysnoyiypy THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES National Geographic Society Explorations in the Katmai District of Alaska By Rogert F. Gricacs, of the Ohio State University LEADER OF THE SociETY’s Mount Karmat EXPEDITIONS OF 1915 AND I916 HE eruption of Mount Katmai in June, 1912, was one of the most tremendous volcanic explosions ever recorded. A mass of ash and pum- ice whose volume has been estimated at nearly five cubic miles was thrown into the air. In its fall this material buried an area as large as the State of Con- necticut to a depth varying from Io inches to over 10 feet, while small amounts of ash fell as much as goo miles away. Great quantities of very fine dust were thrown into the higher regions of the atmosphere and quickly distributed over the whole world, so as to have a profound effect on the weather, being responsible for the notoriously cold, wet summer of that year. The comparative magnitude of the eruption can be better realized if one should imagine a similar eruption of Vesuvius. Such an eruption would bury Naples under 15 feet of ash; Rome would be covered nearly a foot deep; the sound would be heard at Paris; dust from the crater would fall in Brussels and Berlin, and the fumes would be noticeable far beyond Christiania, Norway. Readers of THe Grocrapuic will re- member the accounts of the eruption by Capt. K. M. Perry and Dr. Geo. C. Mar- tin, which appeared in the magazine for August, 1912, and February, 1913, re- spectively. Fortunately the volcano is situated in a country so sparsely inhabited that the damage caused by the eruption was 1n- significant—very much less than in many relatively small eruptions in populous districts, such as that of Vesuvius, which destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Indeed, so remote and little known is the 13 volcano that there were not any witnesses near enough to see the eruption, and it was not until the National Geographic Society’s expeditions explored the district that it was settled definitely which of several near-by volcanoes was really the seat of the disturbance. The most important settlement in the devastated district is Kodiak, which, al- though a hundred miles from the volcano, was buried nearly a foot deep in ash. This ashy blanket transformed the “Green Kodiak” of other days into a gray desert of sand, whose redemption and revege- tation seemed utterly hopeless. When I first visited it, a year later, it presented an appearance barren and desolate. It seemed to every one there that it must be many years before it could recover its original condition. THE ERUPTION WAS THE BEST THING THAT EVER HAPPENED TO KODIAK What, then, was my surprise on re- turning after an interval of only two years to find the ash-laden hillsides cov- ered with verdure. Despite the reports I had received, I could not believe my eyes. Where before had been barren ash was now rich grass as high as one’s head. Every one agrees that the eruption was “the best thing that ever happened to Kodiak.” In the werds of our hotel keeper, “Never was any such grass known before, so high or so early. No one ever believed the country could grow so many berries, nor so large, before the ash.” Were the title not preempted, Kodiak might have been called the “Emerald Isle” quite as well as Ireland. Its situ- ation in the Pacific 1s indeed very similar to that of Ireland in the Atlantic, for it THE TOWN OF KODIAK, ALASKA, AFTER THE ERUPTION OF KATMAT The town is 100 miles from the volcano. hillsides and town. Note the heavy deposits of white ashes covering Dust fell as far away as Juneau, Ketchikan, and the Yukon Valley, distant 750, 900, and 600 miles, respectively, from the volcano. owes its climate, as does Ireland, to the tropical ocean current which bathes its shores. It is indeed a hundred and fifty miles farther north than Ireland, but this is more than counterbalanced by the pro- tection from the Arctic Ocean afforded by the mainland. Many people will no doubt be aston- ished to learn that the winter of Boston is far more severe than that of Kodiak, which more nearly resembles that of Washington, D. C. Indeed, an old lady, who had lived all her hfe in Kansas, found on returning there after two or three winters in Kodiak that the climate was almost unbearable and has been anx- oe lous ever since to return to the mild climate of Kodiak. The eastern half of the island is occu- pied by a dense forest of spruce, whose trees reach a great size. Beyond the for- est it is covered by a luxuriant grass land, which, in the abundance and fine quality of its hay and forage, surpasses any grazing lands in the United States proper and finds a parallel only in the “guinea- grass” pastures of the tropics. At present this country is lying almost entirely neglected, but as Alaska passes from the stage of exploitation to that of development, these lands are destined to be much sought after for stock-raising. Photograph by R. F. Griggs KODIAK FROM THE SAME POSITION FOUR YEARS LATER, AUGUST 25, 1916 Kodiak enjoys the unique distinction of having been benefited by a volcanic eruption. The grass has come through the ash better than ever before. The whole hillside has come up to grass as abundantly as the foreground. The eruption, of course, destroyed these pastures, so that the live’ stock nearly perished from starvation. The herd of the Government Experiment Sta- tion was shipped back to the States until it could be determined whether it might be possible to grow forage enough to support them on the ash-covered land. When they were shipped there was scant hope that they could ever be brought back again; but at the end of only two years the pastures had so far recovered that they were returned with full assur- ance that they could be maintained with- out difficulty (see page 22). Places which three years ago were sand plains, with hardly a green. leaf, have now come up into luxuriant meadows of blue-top grass. In some places the grass is still in scattered bunches, but in others it covers the whole ground in pure stands six or seven feet high. Where the mead- ows are completely grown up, the grass is finer than ever before (see page 18). 15 Of the berries, the most important is the salmon or “Molina” berry (Rubus spectabilis), which is allied to our black- berries and raspberries, but somewhat 1n- termediate between them, having much the shape and appearance of a blackberry, but coming loose from the receptacle like a raspberry. Salmon-berries were of course com- mon before the eruption, but the ash pro- vided such greatly improved. conditions for them that the plants have made un- usually vigorous growth (see page 24). The ash also smothered and weeded out the smaller plants which formerly competed with the berries and apparently acts somewhat like a mulch, protecting the soil from excessive evaporation, for the berries did not suffer in the unprece- dented drouth of 1915 as they are said to have done in less dry seasons before the eruption. But although the country is in places clothed with vegetation as richly as be- Photograph by D. B. Church A PLOWED FIELD, PART OF WHICH WAS CULTIVATED JUST BEFORE THE ERUPTION The line between cultivated and fallow ground remains perfectly distinct after four years. have been able to start. Cultivation just before the eruption destroy ed most of the weeds and no new ones The uncultivated land has grown a mass of fireweed, whose bloom is conspicuous for miles—illustrating the importance ‘of residual vegetation. fore, it must not be supposed that the old order of things has completely returned. The new vegetation is not altogether the same as that which was destroy edsimlitads true that the species are the same as those dominant before the eruption, but the smaller species which formerly grew with the dominant plants were unable to pierce the ash blanket and were smothered. This is particularly true in the bogs or tundras, which formerly covered consid- erable areas. Even four or five inches of the ash was fatal to the bog plants, whose extermination was so nearly complete that it 1s difficult to find even individual survivors. Thus while the salmon-berries and high-bush blueberries are finer than ever, the low-bush blueberries and cranberries are entirely lacking. The exposed mountain tops were for- merly covered with an alpine heath con- taining many of the same species that grew in the bogs, and to them the erup- tion was similarly fatal. While the sides of the mountains are covered with ver- dure, their tops are largely barren wastes covered with ash drifts and the skeletons of the former vegetation. THE NEW VEGETATION ROOTS CAME FROM OLD One would have supposed from the appearance of the country at the end of the first season after the eruption that practically all plants except the trees and bushes had been destroyed, and that re- vegetation must be due to new seedlings started on the ash. Such, however, is not the case. Excavation of the root sys- tems of the new plants shows that they are old perennials which have come through the ash from the old soil. Where cultivation destroyed the weeds, the land is still absolutely bare except for an occasional weed which escaped de- struction by the plow. The fallow ground, on the other hand, is a mass of fireweed whose bloom is conspicuous for miles (see the picture above). SSCS Photograph by D. B. Church A DUNE OF WIND-BLOWN ASH: WOMEN’S PENINSULA, NEAR KODIAK This blowing ash lodges behind any obstruction, like snow. Among the weeds at the edge of cultivated fields and along the fence rows drifts two feet deep have been formed. On mountain tops and in other places where there is no vegetation to catch the blowing ash it forms dunes like those on a seashore. THE SAND BLAST While these weeds protect the surface of the fallow ground, ash from the bare surface is picked up in clouds by every wind, forming a sand blast which is very hard on the few plants that have per- sisted. All of them are lopped over be- fore the wind, and their lower leaves are cut to pieces by the sharp sand or are buried beneath it. The particles of ash are all very sharp, sharper than ordinary sand. Indeed, vol- canic ash forms the basis of such scour- inemeacents: as uOld \Wutch «Cleanser? The ash is also finer and much lighter than shore sand, so that it is more easily carried by the wind. Consequently this sand blast is a very different thing from the sand drift common among beach dunes. Standing before it is like facing a blast of “Old Dutch Cleanser” in one’s face and is at times exceedingly unpleas- ant (see also page 27). One might suppose that the frequent ® 17 rains which characterize the climate of the region would have the effect of check- ing the sand blast, but it is surprising how quickly it starts up again after the rain stops. We found once, for example, after a day of soaking rain, that the sand was blowing early the next morning, al- though only the very surface had dried off. It was of the utmost importance for the welfare of the country that the ground be covered with vegetation, re- gardless of the value of the plants making the cover. Of all the native plants, the one which could grow through the deep- est ash and, once through, could spread most rapidly on the bare surface was the field horsetail (Equisetum arvense). This is a common weed of railway embank- ments and such places with us. In Ko- diak scattered individuals were frequent before the eruption, though they formed no noticeable element in the landscape. But it has come up everywhere through dsap jjey e@ pue jOOJ & su0}}Oq 9} SurTI9AOD ‘S]]IY 9Y} JO payseM sem ‘pury siy} FO Yonu ur ‘YyoIYM ‘Yse oy} Ysno1y, dn souros Avy (C1 {ovd OSV AUS) MVIGOM AVAN AVH dOL-MNITG@ AALLVN ONTLAO 18 oo LOYSs Sit Soyyed YOM JUOTANO sl IULOV OU} Ul UOTFENYALS SI] Se ee "(€1 o8evd ‘4x4 90S) UVIIO [VITGOT} DY} O} ‘PULJoIT S9OpP sv OPLUIIJD S}E SOMO BL JOF SONURTPY OY} UT puLjoIT JO Jey} OF AR[LUIS AIDA Poopul ‘purpoty Sv TOM sv o}ynd Isp pyesowlsy, OY} Poffo uso oAvY JYysrur yerpoyy ‘poydusodsid JOU 9]}1} oY} o19AA,, MVIGOM WV NOLLVIS DNYWNIWHd Xe UNL VOI AVE NI ONIONIVE MOY Ty, tig J BP Aa! SSE SSG KK ~~ \ \ Re 19 20 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the ash and spread out on the surface, forming in many places a_ beautiful greensward, where hardly anything else can come through. Its present abundance contrasts so greatly with its former state that, accord- ing to Mr. Snodgrass of the Experiment Station, some of the natives thought that it must have “come with the ash,” and could only be convinced of the contrary when he dug out the rootstocks and showed that they originated in the old soil beneath the ash. While a deposit of 10 or 12 inches would have been fatal to most plants, the horsetail in many places came through from 30 to 36 inches of ash. ~CONTRAST BETWEEN KODIAK AND. TIIE MAINLAND Nothing could offer greater contrast to the rehabilitation of Kodiak than the con- dition of the country on the mainland near the voleano. The village of Katmai, which was the nearest settlement affected, is in an altogether different state from Kodiak. While Kodiak is rejoicing in the prospect of a prosperity beyond that of former days, Katmai is sinking deeper into desolation. In fear of their lives, the people of Kodiak deserted their town for a few days; but the natives of Katmai, who, fortunately, were away fishing at the time of the eruption, were never allowed to return to their homes, but were re- moved in a body and settled in a new town built for them by the government. The grass has returned to cover the hill- sides of Kodiak as richly as ever before, but the former luxuriance of Katmai Valley is replaced by a barren waste, whose few spots of green serve only to heighten the weird effect. OUR TRIP TO THE MAINLAND It is not to be supposed that Katmai village was at all near the crater, how- ever. Situated at a distance of 25 miles, it was five times as far from the volcano as was Pompeii from Vesuvius or St. Pierre from Mt. Pelee. More important still, Katmai village was not in the main track of destruction, but lay at one side, near the edge of the ash fall. To make the trip to Katmai, we se- cured the services of Mr. Albert Johnson, of Uyak, who undertook to land us at Katmai and come and take us off again when we had finished our exploration. Mr. Johnson proved himself not only trustworthy, but a first-class seaman and a man of very good judgment as well, all of which qualities are essential in one who would successfully navigate the dan- gerous waters of Shelikof Strait, which lies between Kodiak Island and the main- land, for it has justly acquired the repu- tation of being one of the most treacher- ous pieces of water in the world. ‘There were three of us in the party: Mr. B. B. Fulton, Entomologist of the New York Experiment Station, who accompanied me throughout the summer, a most effi- cient and loyal assistant, and Mr. Lucius G. Folsom, manual-training teacher of Wood Island, near Kodiak, who by his resourcefulness and never-failing opti- mism helped to carry the expedition by many an obstacle which might otherwise have turned us back. A WEIRD, FANTASTIC SCENE The scene which met our eyes as we entered Katmai Bay was fantastic and weird in the extreme. Quantities of fresh pumice were floating about as though thrown out by a recent eruption. The sun was shining brightly, but the sky was filled with haze from the volcanic dust in the air, which increased the ghastly and mysterious appearance of the desert land- scape and veiled the upper reaches of the valley and the volcanoes we hoped to visit. As soon as we landed, we began to see evidences of the great flood, which was to be the source of much concern to us. The flats were everywhere covered ankle deep with soft, sticky mud. We were unable to find any place to pitch our camp between the precipitous mountain sides and the flooded flats, except a mound of avalanche detritus, which we felt was too dangerous, for boulders and small ava- lanches were rolling down the mountain sides all around us every few minutes. We finally reached a bed of pumice which had been floated into place in a grove of poplars. Although there was very wet mud only a few inches below it, the sur- face was fairly dry. We were in con- Photograph by R. F. Griggs ROLLING HAY DOWN THE MOUNTAIN SIDE AT KODIAK The native method of harvesting hay is certainly one of the most curious bits of agri- cultural practice to be found anywhere. The hay is cut high up on the mountain side, done up into bundles in fish nets, and sent tumbling end over end to the bottom, there to be picked up and carried home, oftentimes in boats. 21 SHEEP FOR: STOCKING A SETTLERS RANCH BEING LANDED ON KODIAK ISLAND At present this country is lying almost neglected, but as Alaska passes from the stage of exploitation to that of development, these lands are destined to be much sought after for stock-raising. Photographs by R. F. Griggs SLEEK GALLOWAY CATTLE BELONGING TO THE EXPERIMENT STATION AT KODIAK After the eruption the station herd had to be taken to “the States’ for the first two years; but their pastures made such a remarkable recovery that they were soon returned. A stranger would hardly suspect that this country was buried under a foot of ash only four years ago. i) i) 155° 170° Knife Peak 7585 Katmai Lakes hall We oe < Ia << A / Third Mt ( Cathedral Mt Amalik Bay 58° & aa lee Katmai Buy SHELIF OF \S TRAIT ‘oe LEGEND : etfs Bay ° 5 0 Sr ee Statute Miles Dena) ) Mt Kubugalki “oH || cape Kubugalie oil Glacier_ Contour interval 500 feet rou Streams choked with By DB Church 1916 : “y R "| pumice, and quicksands z : i = 155°40' 155° 20° ISS5 154°40' AHB Ie = SKETCH MAP OF KATMAI VOLCANO AND VICINITY stant fear, however, that the water would Under the mountain sides, where a few suddenly rise in the night and drive us. remnants of the forest remained alive, out. different species had suffered in different The desolation of the country beggars ways. The only large trees were the bal- description. All of the trees had per- sam poplars. All of the growing parts ished except such as were favored by and ordinary buds of these had been some special circumstance, such as prox- killed, but some of the dormant buds, He) to oe pices Deg noua Bae buried deep in the bark, had survived and Fs ee ete eeu ee) Seronm out jimto shout, sbustyenramehes more seriously than the herbage, for i : : Sacre which gave the trees a most bizarre ap- wherever the ground had been swept pearance. bare of ash the old roots of the herbage fi Stee 2 The alder, which is the most character- sent up new shoots, so that ina few for- ._: Manat ; G O Cars < A TW. 79S SiIm- fanateuspots! flowers. were blooming vin.) oe ee eee oe ee ar aeteaes ply exterminated. For our purposes this their pristine profusion. : was somewhat fortunate, for it was easy But where the ash remained to the depth Ole astoOOt OF more, the ground to break our way through the branches under the dead trees was absolutely bare. of the dead thickets, which otherwise No vegetation had come through cracks, would have made traveling difficult. Not as at Kodiak, and indeed such cracks a single live sprig of alder was seen until may not have been formed because the after we had explored considerable coun- deposit here is much coarser grained. try, and then only two or three very smail 23 Photograph by M. G. Dickman A BRANCH OF SALMON-BERRIES, INDICATING THE PROFUSION OF WILD BERRIES AT KODIAK SINCE THE ERUPTION These berries are somewhat like the persimmon, in that they have an astringent taste that disappears only when they are dead ripe. They have, however, a distinctive and extremely delicate flavor, and when served with sugar and cream equal or surpass any other berry with which the author is acquainted. shoots were seen coming up from the roots. When we arrived at the village, the magnitude of the flood was impressed on us as it could not be in the brush-covered dunes. The church where the people had worshiped undisturbed for years was standing in a sea of liquid mud. The high-water mark could be plainly seen across the front about five feet and a half from the ground. Some of the native houses were filled solid full to the eaves with pumice. Some had been completely submerged, as might be seen by the stranded pumice which had floated onto their roofs. The roof of one had been floated away from the body of the house and lay at a little dis- tance. The church had evidently floated free from its foundation, for the high- water marks across it were somewhat diagonal (see opposite page). 24 A RIVER FIVE MILES WIDE AND FIVE INCHES DEEP The river, whose former bed was close by the houses, had subsided from the flood condition enough to show its char- acter. Where formerly was deep water Was now a maze of quicksands and inter- twining streams. So much material had been dumped into it that the level of its bottom was seyeral feet above its former channel. We could see no indication of the farther bank. Somewhere out be- yond the range of our vision were one or more main channels in which a formida- ble volume of water was running, as we later found to our cost. But except for these shifting main channels it could be described as five miles wide and five inches deep. We ventured far out from shore to see whether it would be possible to cross, but THE GREEK CHURCH AT KATMAI VILLAGE STANDING IN THE MUD AND WSS LEFT BY THE GREAT FLOOD This part of Alaska is still “Russian America.” Russian is the language of the common people, and the Greek Church is the only religious institution. Tone ee 1D), 18% Gai A “BARABARA”’ BURIED BY THE PUMICE BROUGHT DOWN BY THE GREAT FLOOD: KATMAI VILLAGE These huts, comparable to the sod-houses of the plains, are well adapted to afford protection from the intense gales of winter 25 A FOX CUB DRINKING CONDENSED MILK: Foxes are feeding this one condensed milk, especial Other foxes must continue to soon found ourselv sands, so that we w to terra firma. The condition of this river is undoubt- edly the most serious obstacle to the ex- ploration of the district. While the bot- tom is too treacherous to travel afoot, especially under a pack, the greater part of it could be easily traversed with snow- shoes or some similar contrivance, which, however, would be a fatal encumbrance in the swift currents of the deeper chan- nels. A boat might be used were it not for the fact that the current is too strong for rowing, the bottom is too uncertain for poling, and there is no place to land. miring in the quick- es ere glad to hurry back MYSTERIOUS SOURCE OF FLOOD Conditions at the village greatly in- creased our respect for the magnitude of the flood, but failed to enlighten us as to its cause. The volume of water had been tremendous, considering the size of the watershed, for although the main stream is less than forty miles long and has a Bien by R. F. eon ( KODIAK abundant in this region, and it was not intended to establish a -precedent by ly during “rustle their own grub.” these days of the high cost of living. steep gradient through much of its course, the water had filled the whole valley, six miles wide, many feet deep. We knew of no general storm which could have caused any such unusual quantity of rain. Our first thought was that the spring tides, which had just passed, had over- whelmed the land; but a little examina- tion showed that the high water had been far above any tide-mark. We then thought of volcanic rains up the valley, for we had no knowledge of the condi- tion of the volcanoes. But the examination of the village was reassuring in one respect : Although there could be no doubt but that the flood had culminated only a day. or two before our landing, everything indicated that it was a very exceptional event. EXPLORING IN A DUST-STORM When we awoke the next morning we found that a westerly gale which had started during the night had picked up the fine dust from the mountains until it Photograph by R. F. Grig ggs LANDING ON KATMAI BEACH Only in perfectly calm weather can the landing be undertaken, the water being normally very rough had changed the haze of previous days into a terrific dust-storm. ‘The dust was so thick that it obliterated everything be- yond the immediate vicinity. It per- meated everything about our camp. We were extremely worried lest it should get into our cameras and ruin all our films. It matted our hair so that we could not comb it for days. ‘The sharp particles caused acute discomfort in our eyes, and at first we were afraid that it might do us permanent injury ; but after a time the irritation stimulated an increased flow from the tear glands, which helped to keep the eyes washed out. During this day of dust-storm we ex- plored the valley as far as Soluka Creek. The dust heightened the already weird character of the landscape, giving it an indescribably unearthly appearance. The effect was much like that of a heavy snow- storm. ‘This was increased by the out- lines of the bare trees. Indeed, so keen were the visual sensations of a snow- storm that every little while I would realize with a start of surprise that I was not cold (see also page 17). 27 About noon we fell to speculating on the state of the weather above the dust- storm and were surprised on searching the sky at being able to find the sun, whose disc was just visible, a pale white, something like the moon in daytime, but fainter. It would be quite impossible adequately to describe our feelings on this day, as we groped our way forward into new country, utterly different from any we had ever seen before. Fortunately the loose sandy surface of the ash every- where held our tracks, so that even with- out our compass we could hardly have become lost. FOLLOWING A BEAR TRAIL We followed all the way a well-worn bear trail which skirted the foot of the mountain, finding that the bears had se- lected the easiest going to be had. It was very noticeable that the bear trails, except for an occasional side branch into the mountains, all ran lengthwise up and down the valley. They had made no attempt to cross the river. Apparently *(gz aSed 90s) skep jo a[dnos & 10F ‘QUO 99S JOU P[NoYs Koy} 4So]T JeofF 0} URSoq Ady} ‘syovIZ Inq SuryyAUe ‘sdoo10} YIM JNO snp oq 0} pey yt yey} SUIIOJUNOIUD JNOYIM jre1} STyZ UO SABP [eIIAVS JO}JY “OUO SuTjOUL JIOFULODSIP J[qeIapIsuOd Sursnes poleof “[Ie41} Ie9q UIOM-]]JaM B SuUIMOT[OF ‘UOTIpsdxs oy} FO Staquout 94} pue ‘pyIOM dy} UI JeUIUe SNOIOATUILD Jso5IP] oY} “Iveq YeIpoy a010F YONS YM 9A AW UL paspoy] sotuind yo ddoI1d B opis]no sy AA S-ONVS HHL ONIVAC NAL AH NI ONILIIM 9Y} OF 9ZIS UL JOLoJUL ATJYSYS ATUO 91B UOTSat SITY} JO SIv9q dT, tan TIVal WH NO WVIVM GNV HOW) yoinyg “gq ‘q Aq ydeisojoyg tos]oy “5 “7 Aq ydessojoyg 28 Photograph by R. F. Griggs ss A KODIAK BEAR SKIN Although by no means a large skin, as Kodiak bears go, comparison with the mountain-lion skin to the right shows how much larger the bear is than the panther they had learned by experience not to try that. Everywhere we kept a sharp lookout for bears, but, although we found a great many tracks belonging to at least a half- dozen sizes of bears, we did not see any of them. At first we were rather con- cerned for fear that we should come upon one suddenly, for in such a barren country we could not but believe that they must be hungry, and in any event a she bear with cubs is an ugly customer to settle with on short notice. The bears of this region are only slightly inferior in size to the Kodiak bear, which is the largest carnivorous animal in the world, so large as to make a full-grown grizzly look like a cub by comparison. Later, after we had traveled many days without seeing one, we began to be as much concerned for fear we should not see a bear as we had been at first for fear we should. They doubtless saw us many times, but were shy and kept out of our way. In- deed, once we thought a mother and cubs 29 who had been advancing toward us had turned and retreated on our approach, for we found where their tracks, appar- ently just made, suddenly reversed and turned up the valley. We often found on returning over one of our trails that a bear out of curiosity had tracked us for some distance, and when we saw be- side our own footprints enormous bear tracks measuring nine by fourteen inches we could not avoid having somewhat of a creepy feeling. Some of the bear tracks were so clear that we could see the marks of the creases in their soles, and had we been palmists doubtless we could have read the fortune of the possessor or at least have learned his disposition. OTHER SIGNS OF ANIMAL, LIFE Besides bears, foxes were very abun- dant, and we could frequently get their scent as we traveled along. Wolverines were also frequent travelers along the trails we used. One of the latter must have passed close beside us one day as we climbed a mountain, for we found his “(8E ased 4x09 o0S) UureyUNOUW oY} JO yJHq oy} 0} uostaeduros WOT] “aUTYSUNs oY} UL JURT[IIG deo-MouS poyxeod-d91Y} JUIIYIUSLUL S}I ‘YloseyY JUNOPT Mes 9M ‘AoTTLA ay} JO peoy oy} ssotoe oaenbs AWTIVA UVAddA AW WOW MMIOVW LNOOW yoinyy ‘gq ‘q Aq ydeasojoyg rs re Joye1 ][ews e SUIpUr\S,, 30 ane ot se 9 Photograph by R. F. Griggs FLOATING ROCK—_LUMPS OF PUMICE PICKED UP ON THE BEACH: KATMAI BAY The foot rule gives the scale. pumice was blown to small bits. from Mount Katmai. Ten Thousand Smokes. fresh tracks on the pass at the top, and on returning followed his trail across our own. How he managed to hide from us in a country so destitute of cover is not clear, but probably he had ample notice of our approach and secreted himself somewhere behind a rock. Of the smaller mammals we saw not a sign, although the surface of the ash preserves tracks to a remarkable degree. We were surprised to find a few small fish like minnows in the river, for with the ash fall all the streams were entirely filled up for a time, and even the river must have been nearly choked. There was no evidence, however, anywhere of salmon, which must have formerly en- tered the river in large numbers. The means of subsistence of so many large animals was very much of a mys- tery to us; yet they must have found something to eat, for they were evidently at home and not merely passing through. Moreover, if they had not found food they could easily have migrated, for a journey of 20 miles to the westward Bit The violence of the explosion was so great that all the There were few pieces more than six inches in diameter These came from one of the subordinate vents in the Valley of the would have taken them into a country rich in berries, mice, ground-squirrels, and marmots, besides large game such as caribou, and, most important of all, in the summer, salmon in the streams. The - only evidence we could secure in this matter beyond our own conjectures was obtained from the character of the bear droppings, which much resembled horse dung, as though the animals had been living on grass. The quantity of grass obtainable, however, seemed entirely in- adequate to feed even one bear. FIRST VIEW OF THE VOLCANOLS On the 16th, having previously broken the trail as tiaras, Soluka “Creek. we packed up our outfit and as much food as we could carry and started up the valley for the volcanoes. Our remaining provisions, together with everything not essential to our work, were left in the base camp. Although we had made things as snug as we could, it was not without considerable trepidation that we turned our back on our supplies; for in ‘JEIIADS 91V 919} YSIYM JO ‘SJolovys S}I Syeaouos yse ayy, ‘omnqord sty} ut JMO JYSNOIG [JOM St UleyUNOU dy} JO sseUt ywvo1s OT, “MIA Io[D B Jas JOU PJNO aA\ yey} Os “JuUIMS oy} 0} Sunpo A]}ud4ststod spnoys uly} Jo deo vy NIVLNOOW NOLLVAYHSIO WOW MIOVIN LTNOOW yornyy “ef ‘q Aq ydessoj0yg Me THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES such a desert country we were absolutely dependent on our provisions, and if a bear or wolverine should take it into his head to wreck our camp in our absence we should have been 12 a bad way. Three or four miles up the valley we came out into the open, where we could see the distant mountains of the main range. Standing square across the head of the valley stood Mount Mageik, its magnificent three-peaked snow-cap_ bril- liant in the sunshine. From a small crater east of the central peak issued a column of steam, which, although clearly visible for 50 miles out to sea, appeared diminutive in comparison with the bull of the mountain (see page 30). Mount Katmai itself was concealed be- yond the bend of the valley, so that we were to have no glimpse of it until we encamped at its foot. A NEW VOLCANO NAMED FOR DR. MARTIN But to the west of Mageik, in a posi- tion where no volcano is indicated on the maps, was rising from a comparatively low mountain a tremendous column of steam a thousand feet-in diameter and more than a mile high. Comparison with MHorner’s picture showed-at once that this was the moun- tain he photographed as “Mt. Katmai,’ when he penetrated to the upper valley in 1913. It was clear enough from its loca- tion that it could not be the mountain called Katmai on the maps, which is east of Mageik. Even from our position it was evident that this was at present the most active volcano of the district. And it was not at all certain but that this, rather than Katmai, had been the seat of the great eruption whose effects we were studying; for, curiously enough, there has never been any very positive evidence, beyond the statements of a few natives who saw the beginning of the eruption, that it was Katmai, rather than some other volcano in the vicinity, which exploded. Indeed, there was one well- informed man in Kodiak who assured us that he had climbed the mountains back of Amalik Bay and taken bearings which fixed the location of the vent nearer the coast, in a position which he indicated by a cross on my chart (see map, page 23). Ge Cs Fortunately we were able later to ob- tain evidence which fixed the seat of the great eruption beyond question. In the first place, we found that the deposits became progressively deeper as we ap- proached Mt. Katmai, while the volcano of Hesse and Horner’s photographs was near the edge of the ash fall. Thus the deposits on the lower slopes of Katmai are 15 feet deep on the level; but 10 miles farther south, near the other volcano, their depth is to be measured by as many inches, and only a mile or two beyond the country 1s covered with vegetation, so rapidly do the deposits thin out in that direction. Moreover, great as is the activity of this volcano, its crater, in comparison with the great caldera, which we later found in Mount Katmai, is relatively di- minutive and quite too small to have thrown out such a tremendous quantity of ash and pumice in so short a time. Further, great as must have been the changes wrought in the landscape in the sudden opening of a vent a thousand feet in diameter, they were relatively insig- nificant beside the tremendous change we found in Mount Katmai itself. There can be no question therefore that the eruption was from Mount Katmai and not from any other vent. But if we were convinced that the vol- cano of Hesse and Horner’s photographs was not Katmai, we were equally uncer- tain of what it was, for none of the maps show any volcano near its location nor give any name to the mountain, and there appears to be neither record nor tradition of any volcano in that quarter. There 1s every reason to believe, there- fore, that this new volcano sprung into being at the time of the great explosion. But tremendous as is the phenomenon of the opening of such a gigantic vent through a mountain, we were to find later other accompaniments of the great erup- tion of even greater magnitude. In order to discuss the new volcano, it is necessary to give it some designation. It seemed to us as we watched the new “steamer” that no name could be more appropriate than one commemorating the work of Dr. George C. Martin, whose explorations and report for the National A CAMP SITE OF 1915: TREES ALL KILLED BY BLAST FROM THE VOLCANO On our first expedition our camp stood on the bank of Fickle Creek, whose channel, six feet deep, occupied the foreground of the present picture. During the year the channel completely filled up, so evenly that the location of the former bank could not be detected, and a new channel has been dug a thousand feet away. Yet so gently was this filling accom- plished that the embers of our camp-fire, on the same level and only a few feet away, were not disturbed. Geographic Society will always stand as the first authoritative account of the great eruption of Mount Katmai. We there- fore suggest that this new volcano be called Mount Martin. We were not able to determine the po- sition or altitude of this new volcano with precision, but have located it approxi- mately on the map given on page 23. Although situated in the main range, it is considerably lower than the neighboring mountains. Its altitude is approximately 5,000 feet. ASH SLIDES MORE THAN A THOUSAND FEET HIGH When we reached Soluka Creek we found it much more formidable than our reconnoiters in the dust storm had indi- cated. Leaving the others on the bank, I dropped my pack and waded out through the dead forest for half a mile in the icy 34 Compare the picture on the opposite page. water. From that distance it looked wider, deeper and swifter than from the starting point. I therefore decided it was impracticable to attempt to cross under our heavy packs, so we camped that night in the dead forest on the flat near by. Next morning, starting to hunt for a practicable ford, we climbed up on to the shoulder of a mountain where we could get a bird’s-eye view of the creek below and select the likeliest place to try. Here we found a new experience in climbing the great ash slides with which the lower slopes are covered. Wherever the mountains were precipitous and too steep for the ash to stick, it slid down into the valleys, covering the lower slopes with great fans of sand, which stand at the critical angle ready to slide down at the slightest provocation. Some of these ash slopes are more than a thousand feet high. Their surface is loose, rolling sand, THE BED OF FICKLE CREEK IN 1916: into which one sinks to his ankles, while new sand continually slides down on to him. Often the whole slide above one will begin to move and then he is placed in a tread-mill, where he must keep moving or slide to the bottom (see page 37). Such climbing was of course hard work, and we soon cut up our finger-nails and wore the tips of our fingers down to the quick in the sharp sand by using our hands to help us in climbing. FORDING A MILE OF QUICKSAND When we descended to the ford we found that the bottom was a continuous quicksand clear across. Sometimes the surface would hold like the crust of a snowdrift; but we were in constant fear of going down, for on sounding with our alpenstock we discov- ered that the whole length of the stick went down into the sand anywhere with- out finding bottom. Often our footing gave way and we found ourselves floun- dering up to our middle in quicksand. With all our crossings in the two ex- peditions no one ever got in so deep that he could not get out alone. But there was the ever-present knowledge that we never touched the bottom and the fear of what might happen next time. Besides this the labor of carrying a 35 Photograph by R. F. Griggs IT HAD SHIFTED A THOUSAND FEET IN THE YEAR pack through such mire is so great as to defy description. It must be experienced to be appreciated. Every step takes all one’s strength and soon one’s weary mus- cles ache from the strain. But once in, there is no chance to rest until one reaches the farther shore, for there is no place to lhe down or sit down, and if one even stands still he immediately begins to sink. Even the strongest man is well- nigh exhausted after a mile of such work. The condition of streams choked with ash and pumice is peculiar in the ex- treme. They spread out over their whole floodplain, wandering this way and that through the dead forest in a most fan- tastic way, changing their courses con- tinually, so that the stream is never the same for half an hour at a time. The whole bottom is rapidly traveling down- stream, its continuous, steady motion re- sembling one of the moving platforms which are sometimes used to transport passengers. One stream near our camp had cut clear through the accumulated mass of ash just below a fall, forming a bluff some 70 feet high. A hundred yards downstream, however, the slope, though still very steep, was less, and the stream had been completely overcome by the enormous quantity of pumice in its way. It was ludicrous to watch the struggles Photograph by R. F. Griggs ASH SLIDES IN UPPER KATMAI VALLEY “Wherever the mountains were precipitous and too steep for the ash to stick, it slid down into the valley, covering the lower slopes with great fans of sand” (see text, page 34) of this stream as it wrestled with the pumice in its bed. Dammed up in the failure of a previous attempt, it would gradually accumulate enough energy for a new effort. Then suddenly breaking loose from its bonds, it would rush for- ward down the slope, pushing a pile of pumice before it, as though to engulf the onlooker, writhing this way and that like a live thing, picking up pieces of pumice and floating them along as it came. Be- fore it had gone far, however, its new load would literally choke it, and it would give up the struggle in a hiss of grating pumice stones. It was quite a problem to secure water from such streams.- The water always carried such quantities of large angular pumice fragments, not to speak of sand and mud, that it was out of the question to attempt to wash in the brooks. If we tried, the pumice would so grind into our flesh as to prohibit any further efforts at cleanliness. But while washing is a mat- ter of choice, one must drink whether or no. We were obliged everywhere to 36 strain our water through one of our food- bags. Often we would have to strain a quart of pumice to get a pint of water. The stream changed so rapidly that we sometimes had to move before we could fill a bucket. Straining, of course, re- moved only the coarser grit. At one of the camps our water was so full of mud that Mr. Folsom refused to wash his face for three days, because he “did not want to dirty it with the water we had to drink.” CAVERNS FORMED BY SNOW MELTING BENEATH THE ASH The day after crossing Soluka Creek we climbed the mountain to the west in hopes of seeing the volcano, for we feared lest the fine weather which had favored us would come to an end before we should attain our object. Our quest, however, was vain, for when we reached the summit we found that another sum- mit, not marked on our map, cut off our view so that we could not see Mount Kat- mai. This we called Barrier Mountain. AN ASH SLIDE: Phomeat by R. F. Gri iggs SOLUKA CREEK Some of these slides spread out into gigantic fans more than a thousand feet high. Standing at the critical angle, their slopes are very hard climbing. We soon ground our finger-nails to the quick in the sharp sand of these slides. We tried to cross the pass to reach a position where we could see the condi- tion of the volcano, but were balked by a new kind of difficulty. On the way up one of us, sticking his staff into the ground harder than usual, discovered that it went through into a cavern beneath. Examination showed that we were sup- ‘ported on an arch of ash a foot thick, spanning a deep hole. We found that the mountains every- where were deeply covered with snow, which was concealed by a mantle of ash and pumice blown over it by the wind. The snow beneath was rapidly melting out in the warm weather, leaving the ash surface standing as smooth as ever above the cavity. Such small holes as the one into which we had accidentally broken were, of course, of no consequence; but as we looked down one of the side valleys, we could see great cave-ins in an apparently smooth ash field, where a stream burrow- ing through the snowdrifts beneath had undermined the surface. For half a mile or so the tunnel thus made had caved in, and then for another half mile it was still intact, giving no indication of its presence to an unwary traveler (see page 41). Reflecting on the significance of such phenomena for us, we carefully chose a path free from all appearance of buried snowdrifts. We had not gone a hundred yards, however, when I happened to stamp my foot and was astonished to hear the ground beneath me ring hollow. We quickly retreated, spread out, and tried another place. We had not gone far when all three of us at once, though 50 feet apart, detected a cavern ‘beneath ts. We had absolutely no means of judging whether the hole was 5 feet deep or 50, nor of estimating the strength of the roof. The danger of such a situation was altogether too great to undertake, so we reluctantly turned back, with as yet no view of the volcano. AN AWE-INSPIRING VALLEY OF DEATH The following day we started to en- circle the mountains into upper Katmai Valley. As we proceeded the country became progressively more desert. Small birds which were common in the lower valley were absent here. The stillness of the dead forest was oppressive. One could travel all day without hearing a sound but his own footfalls and the plunge of rushing water. The bear trails. persisted until we turned the corner into. the upper valley, but there they disap- Photograph by D. B. Church THE GLOOMY STRETCHES OF SOLUKA CREEK: TREES ALI, DEAD I must confess that even after many crossings of this sinister stream without mishap I could never plunge in without a shudder of dread. So wide that from the middle we could see neither shore, its swift current everywhere churning the quicksand, it presents a formidable obstacle to a man carrying a pack. the party would be mired in its depths, for, although we seldom sank below our knees, we could plunge the full length of our alpenstock into the quicksand anywhere without finding bottom (see text, page 35). peared. Beyond that point there were no signs of animal life, except a pair of bald eagles, which reconnoitered our camp the first night, a few mosquitos, and, curi- ously enough, a humming-bird moth, which seemed strangely out of place in such a valley of death. Clouds hung so low that everything above a thousand feet was obscured, but as we pushed up into the valley a feeling of tremendous awe possessed us. We had quite exhausted our stock of super- latives in the lower valley and found our- selves altogether without means of ex- pressing the feelings that arose in us or of describing the scene before us. MORE EVIDENCE OF A TREMENDOUS FLOOD As we proceeded, evidences of flood damage rapidly increased ; but we noticed that none of the tributary streams had 38 I was in constant fear lest some member of been affected, and when we reached the forks of the river we found that the whole flood had come down from under the volcano itself, wreaking havoc in its way. A deep channel had been eroded in the pumice deposits. Part of the way it had washed out all of the pumice and had cut into its original bed besides. For miles where thick forests had stood the trees were sheared off at the surface of the ash (see picture on page 42, taken a year later, after the stream had cut away the pumice, exposing the stumps). The few trees which remained were bent, twisted, splintered, and broken in every describable manner. In places, sheltered from the extreme fury of the waters, the trees were piled high with driftwood. The volume of water had been enor- mous. We found high-water marks 25 feet above the bed of the stream where the valley was two miles wide. * Photograph by B. B. Fulton THE AUTHOR STRUGGLING THROUGH THE QUICKSAND OF KATMAI RIVER The swift water running over the ash and pumice packs the surface, giving it a crust which sometimes holds a man and sometimes breaks under his weight. is somewhat like traveling in snow with a weak crust. for a few steps and then suddenly drop down to his waist. Crossing these flats One will go along easily ankle deep The labor involved in such travel cannot be described, but must be experienced to be appreciated (see text, page 41). As we gradually came fully to compre- hend what a tremendous catastrophe this flood had been, we were more and more thankful for the good luck which had delayed our expedition until after it had passed. If we had landed a week earlier, we would certainly have been over- whelmed, unless by chance we had hap- pened to be on high ground, out of the valley, at the time of the disaster. We had finally penetrated as far as we could up the valley and camped, as we hoped, about opposite Mount Katmai; but we could not be sure of our position, for the clouds hung low. A FLOW OF BRIGHT RED MUD MORE THAN TWO MILES LONG Here we beheld a formation quite dif- ferent from anything else we had seen. A ravine which branched off from the main valley behind a spur of the moun- tain was filled by what looked like a great glacier, except that its color was a bright 39 terra-cotta red. In every detail of its form except for its crevasses it was ex- actly like a glacier: beginning at a con- siderable elevation, where the ravine was narrow, it sloped evenly down to the valley level, widening as it descended, so as to assume a triangular form. If the color had not been so different from everything else in the landscape, we would have been quite sure it was a glacier covered with dirt. But in such a situation no glacier could have escaped without a thick covering of the omni- present ash. We concluded, therefore, that it must be a mass of mud which had run down off the volcano. Later, when we visited it, its structure confirmed this theory. As it lay on top of the ash, it had evidently been formed since the eruption. Although it was hard and firm, so as to be easy walking, both its structure and its form showed clearly that it had reached its position in a semi- fluid condition. Like a glacier, it had a RESTING ON relatively steep front and was convex, highest in the middle, so as to turn the drainage off to the edges, along each of which a deep canyon had been cut. But despite the indications that it had once been fluid, we saw no mud-cracks or other evidence of shrinkage unon dry- ing out, such as one would have