o ) 4) t x % “<¢ Mt “fk 5 ESE ‘< Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson ml iilieg iid INDEX OTT LT NTT NT tists ny POTN TTTTO 4 ' iat A \ ~ a a) @ = Fae . % ey = 08 co} x A\) 1 My i NS ar} y . nh CH ‘ \ Livulltieett H CLL oti ULiettNEl yh ULERY fh reellltines ne Met emir tnt tment July to December, 1917 VOLUME XXXII inseultinnllinerdinin er 5 é 5 \ 1981 (ek GM i 7 H S Ow “ a Artin tint PUBLISHED BY THE ||| NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY : aaa HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. j Nh ( nef me c Vien NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT H.GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE OVPTAUSTING = 1916-1918 FrankKuIn K. LANE Secretary of the Interior Henry F. Biount Vice President American Se- curity and Trust Company C. M. CHESTER Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Supt. U. 5 Naval Observatory Freperick V. CovitLe Formerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sci- ences Joun E. Pittspury Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation RupotpH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor The Iven- ing Star T. L. Macponacp Mie Dike At Ga5; S. N. D. Nortu Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census ASSOCIATE EDITOR PRESIDENT SECRETARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. Howarpn Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l U.S. Army Gitsert H. GrosvENoR Editor of National graphic Magazine Geo- GeorcEe Otis SMITH Director of U. S. Survey O. H. Tittmann Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Geological Henry WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. Joun M. Witson Brigadier General U.S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON. GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER RALPH A. GRAVES VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 1918-1920 Ciurarirts J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company Joun Joy Epson President Washington I,oan & Trust Company Davin FaircuHiLp In Charge of Explorations, of Agriculture Agricultural Department C. Harr Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. Austin Statistician Georce R. Putnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 3D Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photogra- pher Grant SQuiREs New York To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,” the National Geograpiiic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. of the Society, or other friends, are desired. use, adequate remuneration is made. Articles or photographs from members For material that the Society can Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR A. W. GREELY C. Harr MErRI1AmM O. H. Trrmmann Rosert HouristerR CHAPMAN Water T. SwiIncLe Copyright. 1918. by National Geographic Society, CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Davin FairRcHILD Hucu M. Smrru N. H. Darton Frank M. CuHarpmMan Washington. D. C. All rights reserved. CONTENTS America’s New Soldier Cities: The Geographical and Historical Environment of the National Army Cantonments and National Guard Camps. By WILLIAM JosEPH SHO WATTERI eo tira bate ae ean Te ceh ey ec PUM CMs eda tac cat sat Se ctise Was tages Um EIA Conserving the Nation’s Man Power: Disease Weakens Armies, Cripples Industry, Reduces Production. How the Government is Sanitating the Civil Zones Around Cantonment Areas. A Nation-wide Campaign for Health. By Ruprrr Buiuve, Surgeon General, U. S. Public Health Service CorrectsDisplayzotatherstarsvandastripess “hes... sci ee ee ee eee Fearful Famines of the Past: History Will Repeat Itself Unless the American People Conserve Their Resources. By RALPH A. GRAVES...........c0cccceccccccceccens Few Glimpses into Russia, A. By Lieut. Zinovi PECHKOFF lagselbalnouseime Nin ChiCat il StOmy ania neseiverer se y.)c cletiers siolsiis eee elnke sce oad ae Flags of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, and Turkey ilaesaO tel ukopessASlasan Ge AGriGas/ Lh MN@k se ccsje x srsieis fora ones iorelecc a ea eree serie Flags of Our Army, Navy, and Government Departments Flags of Pan-America, The.......... cee ahs es wee Rs sleet cial og te Man os Se aaa Eiagsvotethes british Empires Wiesel ce lens ac valcce arc tape oS ayaa oyeiet orci eatee At okt ea “Flower of Paradise, The’: The Part Which Khat Plays in the Life of the ae Arab. By CHariés Moser, Formerly American Consul, Aden, Arabia oode Armies ot olviberty, slsnesib yi HLIERBERT TOOVERG fee oe ie iene ees aac ee French Lorraine, In: That Part of France Where the First American Soldiers Have iallene By ELARRIE TS: CEVADDERRS OA DAIMIS i cychiiemn aus snl inser ain on eens cll aa eae eal Eromethesbrenchestowersailless, By. CAROLYN: COREY. 4.0: eu eee ee ee eee Geography of Medicines, The: War’s Effects upon the World’s Sources of Supply. IB yas OlimbO Ot es Vier DD rete epee centage nial aca tomes ie yta in esac tant ev tac ay cent tn cs ena eee ae Heroic Flags of the Middle Ages: The Geography of the Earth as Known in ectrerral Mumespoymbolized insoos Historic otandands 2) <2 2). yaciie anisole ei seer Immediate Necessity of Military Highways. By A. G. BarcHetper, Executive Chair- Mane Amenicane AutomobilesAssociationmanas maaan een ee eee Industry’s Greatest Asset—Steel. By WitntiAm JOSEPH SHOWALTER............-.---- Insigenia Ofithe Unitormed forces of the United States, The.) o-5- nue. 5 eee Letters from the Italian Front. By Marcuesa Louisé pi Rosas to Mruen Maier TRUCE ice teats Bs he cre ea HEE ea cE SiGe ge eee OUR eM RD a PL ea SAI ta ah oa Makers of the Flag, The. By Frank LIN K. LAN#, Secretary of the Interior............ Mecca the Mystic: A New Kingdom within Arabia. By Dr. S: M. Zwuemer........... Our Flag Number. By Byron McCanouess, Lieutenant-Commander, U. S. Navy, and GiILeeRt Grosvenor, [ditor, ASHORE CROSMAN CAMUNGAININIRY ws book ac eh osbecuss tate Stabe neler: see cane ai are MeL NEY RNID EO te ica ce See UAE RR eg IPerrmnmimis Ore IERYIOLEIRION ZOlG)« \ enue uid eh sath eS aM Hobe mecoeec.dis Bono sods Obdoocueos Rat Pest, The: The Labor of 200,000 Men in the United States Required to Support Rats, Man’s’ Most Destructive and Dangerous Enemy. By ISpwarp W. Netson, ChiretrotethemUa Ss s10logicaleStimeyvere eo ae) Wee eee Russia from Within: Her War of Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. By StTanury Wasuburn, for Three Years Special Correspondent with the Russian Armics..... Russia’s Man of the Hour: Alexander Kerensky’s First Speeches and Proclamations. . SLORY AO Lathe Nin ChICAIME Aap mole nar penrn Cas ucK cr wea N spec uaiciah erie wees hun deme eee Training the New Armies of Liberty: Camp Lee, Virginia’s Home for the National Army. By Major GRrAnviLir Forrescur, U. S. A BRS ae ee Ua EN eae Se Vive Or ood, AMG, JR TRIB EKO Sac s Selo bide uees bc easo gue sesebaucessoo Soe CC CeCe, rr ri) Ce ee ey i ee ed Ce ed PAcE 439 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXII (Juty-Decemser), 1917 AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX O/NUp Page Abd-el-Latif, a-learned Bagdad physician, Writ- NIVS OtsscoosoccoosousedogoadedqoconDBUToaGUBD 79 Abdication of Nicholas II of Russia............. 99 Aberfoyle, Scotland: Awaking the slacker, ill. (rotogravure insert).......... AdossesooGdyo 518-535 Ab yssiniany ANIM je clevecisielcicicycretelolsie oieisieleholer cars GuEue Wie Acorn bread eaten during a famine; Roca Seeseeere yh) Adamello Mountain, Italian soldiers advancing, Th 6b obbod bos oOnOrODU COE abMoc abies socom 58, 59 Adams, Harriet Chalmers. In French Lorraine. . 499 Aden, Tanks of: Arabia, PUN es er cessed Hino 160, 104 Aérial tramways in the Alps, ill............ 51, 55, 66 Aéroplane, the submarine and castor oil......... 219 Afghanistan to India, Caravan journeying from, ks 6 6edooR doo do CUO UNO OCOD UDO NOOO COB Dono DOO 226 Africa, Flags of Europe, Asia, and......... text, 372; ill. (colored) , 354, 355, 358 Ahala, Servilius, kills Spurius Maelius.........- 71 Alamos siege ef the sjeicc< ce ciesisi~s -icleles edatsvots oketens 465 Alexandria, La.: Camp Beauregard........... Spo Lye Allies’ needs and America’s resources.......-++- go “Allies”:. Scotch Highlanders with bagpipes, ill... 513 Allies’ undying gratitude earned by Russia ePorsrepenete 93 PMOES OIN SAPONE sielerercteleveiele ores cle ries plate loieteloloiciovelsleis 220 Alpine troops clad in white, advancing across a MEO MessonsooguoooumodguS GasucanEDecon 58, 59 Alpini on the Dolomites, Pe wistclctety a srcherslewerenoat vets 67 Alps, Italian soldiers in the..............06. text, 61; ill., 46, 48-56, 58-62, 64-66 AlsacesmGirlswots rill eyatisjcintererscia oiererertisicia cicheltis 508, 518 Altar of snow: ’Open- air religi ous services in the Nig, tes acsGacecoctaquupooonpoodae sRoodsun odo 53 Alvarado, Don "Pedro. figs Conquered Guatemala MATIWEIIG 25 meteravetevsiorele lovoveyelals sheveteccievetefeisioiohiesous-overerete 361 Ambulance drivers: Morristown, Is fooling Wiese cro 428 America alone can defeat man’s third foe—famine 6g America among the first to aid the Irish......:.. 86 American ambulance corps, Leland Stanford Uni- versity students, ill........... aVopevesheyolst steve etevers 300 American sila giSifilStoviCtOTy;ecccicverelercistel\sisiels er eiershe 292 American Flag, The Story of the............... 286 American History, Flags Famous in........ text, 341; ill. (colored), 338, 339, 342 Americanism, Developing real: National Army... 436 Americanization day in New York, ill........... 409 American literature translated in Russian........ 249 American Mission to Russia, ill........... 92, 94, 95, 105, 116, 252 American munition factories, Wonren workers in, HIE SacdoraooGuebosopoodaaodacads Korenereireitetereyete 136 American newspaper correspondent addressing RUSSIATIMEKOODSswelllicyaiyotererorele ekevetercielerensvaicredsieiclateke 34 American sailors, Italian canteen in American Churchwententains sive sckele cieisisieve ci oer eieieieieuerciels 65 Americans must eat the kind of food that cannot DDevex ported arc(-)c/steratenearctoielatsrcrnisijeiorscieteraiticncisisies 191 American Soldiers Have Fallen, That. Part of France Where. By Harriet Chalmers Adams.. 499 American steel industry, Size of the............. 156 American troops, The chasseurs who are training. 517 AXmericaismmerntalmVvaTrdstickeiscnis sc sealoectea tees 93 AMERICA’S NEW SOLDIER: CITIES: THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL EN- VIRONMENT OF THE NATIONAL CAN- TONMENTS AND NATIONAL GUARD CAMPS. BY WILLIAM JOSEPH SHO- WGA Bs Sadao BOAT OO ROTO ORDO DOG ROB EOOoS 439 America’s resources and the Allies’ needs..... soos CO) America’s task—banish famine.............2-+6. - 90 America was christened, Shrine where: France... 518 Angel defied the Hun, ill SA ddSDunOOUODOOEOOGHOOS Si4 Animal products export, United States: Pre-war.. 189 Animals: Bears, ill. (supplement)............. 91 Annie Laurie, ‘A modern: Scotland, ill. (eetoera VIITE sINSert) celeyaicierrcielots erie reieiereterere Sagan 518-535 Anniston, Ala.: Camp McClellan..............%. 470 Antigua, W. I.: Law passed-against rats......... 1s Ants as big as cats, Gold-mining...........--.0. 394 Apollo, Grotto of: Versailles, France...... -text, 543; ill., 550 Aprons, Embroidered: Russian peasants, ill...... 85 Apulia, Roman province visited by famine....... 75 ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES Page Arabia, A New Kingdom withiri: Mecca the Mystic. By Dr. S EWeEMETetsisistsiersioeieneis Lo rele 157 Arabiangescenes;oillitdse crise ice 158-162, 164-170, 172, 174-178, 180, 182-184, 215, 217 Arabia outline. map..........- saratarsieetetaterteotevevorsinte 181 Arabia: The Part Which Khat Plays in the Life of the Yemen Arab. By Charles Moser....... 573 Arabia, -(Dbree wise men! of,c1llci asreselecisieree oe or 182 Arabyoutcastsvor —Ihademiyy t)leinceretrstccere)oieiol olere!> 180 Arctic cold in the Alps: Italian front...........% 61 Argentina: Consecration of the flag in Mendoza City or Sizer tsicteralacs eye rarer tere eeyeneneta tc ter cee ebeteterets 357 Scstocrals of the dog world: Russian wolfhounds; Ue aarceate areas paravars cheloistorerolstoTevercver ever cnatote Son00d Ere Arlington: drugegardenssaconeeneee noe eenere 234 Armies of Liberty, The Food. By Herbert Hoover 187 Armies of Liberty, Training the New: Camp Lee, Virginia’s Home for the oe Army. By Major Granville Furtescue.... ...........- nazar Armies, Rats march like...,........... noGAgodoG 4 Armored car on the Texas Bborder® all eeeeeprepereevetaers 479 Army, Abyssinian ts.c sien sicral elev volo evneleteleleeion 372 Army, Navy, and Government Departments, Flags OfMOuresa tae ae text, 305; ut (colored), 310, 311, 14, 315, 318, 319, 322 Artillery observatory in the Deletes: MWeoade 49, 54, 56, 62 Artillery, Russian, on the road, ill.............. 40 Asatcetiday pimbmeueencsen wisn erie aes clevere/aies 214 Ashtabula, Ohio; Loading ore cars, ill..... Slockedan 1h Asia, Flags of Europe, Africa, and. .text, 372; ill. (colored), 364, 355, 358 Aspirin, a rose by another. name..............+0. 229 Astronomer, A_ cobbler: Russia...........c+eeee 247 Atlanta, Ga.: Camp Gordon.............-s-s00 2 452 Attitude of the average Russian toward the war.. 97 Auction, Khat: Arabia......... ill., 174, 1763 text, 182 Augusta, 7Ga.sGamp i Hancocks sceiietieicielescoereisiens 469 Augustus Ciesar, one of the earliest chiefs of sys- tematic famine relief work..............-...; 72 Auriflamme, Banner of St. Denis..........5..... 356 Australia, Incredible number of rats in.......... Austria-Hungary, Flags of......... ill. (colered), Aes: text, 386 Austria-Hungary: Russian advances in Bukovina anid Galicia sicitevsm cvernstoetetateiboieccrele roe iotetotetorerelerere 93 Austrian royalty, Shrine of: French Lorraine.... 504 Australia’s flags.......... ili. (colored) 363; text, 383 Authors, American, beloved in Russia. ......... 249 Authors; wRusSian\sjererressusralcterereretsroteloicte sleteceveverelveravere 251 Automobile) highwaysy tlic creieteictereiels cleveisietersverele . 478 Automobiles: Ambulances and drivers, ill........ 428 Automobile trucks on the Texas border, ill....... 479 Averesco, General: Commander-tn-chief of the Roumanian army, illasernselctsiercets eicleieietelevelerevelere 120 Aviation training schools, Government’s, ill...... 424 Awaking the slacker: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure INSETE) PasiercicterererstoiekersecicWevelsiolavetsietersihe : eee 518535 Ayer, Masss:.Camp:D evenSmnrelarceleritelelstacilereclercts 446 “BR” “Babes in the Wood”: Bears, ill. (supplement)... 91 Babies eaten for food during a famine........ 76, 82 Bachelor, William: Color-bearer, American Revo- Bluitromacisiieieleierotsisiekeroi-iousteisvoleteheteietsiehstetatelersisteteysiclc 352 Bacteriological examination of rodent carcasses: News Orleans eilliciicisierersvevelsisiclevoletersterelete steveferexere Bagdad physician, Abd-el-Latif, a learned........ 79 Bagpipes, Scotch Highlanders playing, ill........ 513 Bahama ae ae expedition against New Providence ser7.7.Osaicrerielofeleleiclersroicretetoneteyotetstelevorerele 292 Bailey, Tosenhe! exe Colonel, Civil Warnes 472 Bakery’s capacity, 80,000 pounds of. bread a day: Onencamprrpererereisiotoier-rereilotete weierpeccceseees 443 Baled hay protected from rats, ill. ScogooaHGD 4h. Balinont, Constantine: Russian poet.. Rrcete ccievercieieies 249 Banjo, Soldier playinguaswillepscrraciteieeteetroietre 458. Bankhead, Senator J. H.: Federal-aid Road Act.. oh Barbadoes: WAw.againstsratS.ciieveielcieiciccic 50606 Barbed-wire entanglements, Italian trenches, allen ke Bark for medicinal uses: China, ill.......... 227, 233 VI THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Bark of trees used for food during a Russian LPATITILTE tareget aie see til sysmevene eae a Guha) abste)OSlaes foie eibiatavevsiols 89 Baskers-of cline, Jews dloogscoccoccoecs50gc00s 219 Batavia—the ancient Queen of the East......... 237 Batchelder, A. G.: The Immediate Necessity of Molhiiares? TSVGiNWESd sue poaccuou0s000dc00G00000 477 Eh uhina, IPosy ime (Carlos stloosgacccasodonog0ce 3 224 “Battalion of Death’’: Russian women soldiers, : ill., 97, 98, 102 BattlenGreek, Mich (Cainp) Custer..22-.- ss. = 459 Battle grounds of early Islamic days..... Ro Ome 171 Battle of Bennington, Vt.: Flag....... sioner Wore tense 348 Battle of Jake Krie and Oliver Hazard Perry.... 344 Battlemotelorrainese ci aceec =e errr stchiersterersiere 517 BattlcmotesNamcyemusnanc ect vier eric cisitelels 515 Battles, Gallery of: Royal Palace, Versailles, inraiyeex Gs end otis Goa Se DetS Oa BOR OeD nen 541 Battleship Constructingmas lllisemive eerste el doeoiies 152 Battleships, United States, ill.......... 282, 283, 287, 294, 295, 296, 405 Bayonct drill, Soldiers practicing, ill......... 454, 466 Bazingeshmnesineas) weetrogradseillay ecm nace: 45 Bears: “Babes in the Wood,” ill. (supplement)... 91 Beaumont; John: Ienglish author..0.......02--. 399 Beauregard, Camp: Alexandria, Waescescel ences 472 Beauregard, P. G. ’I'.: General, Civil War....... 472 Bed-chamber of Louis XIV: Versailles, France, ill. 539 Bedroom of Napoleon: Versailles, France, ill..... 545 Beecher, Ifenry Ward: Significance-of our colors. 301 Reehivemcokc ovens seme eee re ern enn eee 135 Beersheba, Arabia: Where drugs are sold, ill..... 215 Behind the lines during an attack: Italian front.. 50 Belgrano, General: South America...... Aa ee 361 Besnacavts clmpenrorn ofebersiaeernncn cee neeieeeee 398 Bessemcr converters at work, all,..2) 0228201004. 130 Ressemensstecl) “he stony rotenone eee 150 3ethlehem, Pa.: Rolling structural steel, ill....... 145 Bethlehem Stecl Company employees, ill......... 132 Beverage, Khat never used as a: Arabia......... 185 Bible, ‘en famines are recorded in the.......... 70 Biblical origin of the Red, White, and Blue..... 302 Lills rendered by a flag designer...............- 297 Birthday of the Stars and Stripes: June 14, 1777. 295 Black Death in England, The “Black | Death” plague, illustrating the: From a Rate ye Poussims: alleen sete nie ieee 4 Black Death started by a Chinese famine........ 88 Black-face sheep: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure in- SOQYE) Wire ten Uevovoge ta cyese colavalaicis Cie aie he eee eis on oe 518-535 Blacksmith, Village: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure TITRE soir a GOs Bisa aoa aren Cee Sree 518-535 Black stone, Mecca’s oldest treasure........ text, 163; ill., 170 BIAS tannaceyGiantoilletecieieeieeiners selec reine 153 Blast furnaces, Making coke for..............+- 133 Blast Hunnacess olll-matesuinic: sckine Gee nie ee 140 peoliclitivemsong ibe. otis cli ocisne ee eae 538 Blockade, Opium and the 234 Blue, Rupert. Surgeon General, U. S. Public Ifealth Service. Conserving the Nation’s Man Power 1 DS DO ORAA TO SACRO Onc Gm ORd CCS 255 Board of Trade of Petrograd and the American WSS a): IRCSSEO SG ABRs 5 RR ey Oe Rees 94 BooNaliwescGeylon: ill... cso. csec cee bos cee 224 Boats: Judia, Down the Jhelsm in, ili........... 218 ROA med Sean lids. ce ee oe ees ao cae 161 Boats: Singapore, Massing the fleet at, ill....... 220 Bolivar, Simon: Liberator, South America.......- 357 Bombaidment scenes: France...... text, 509; ill., s5o2, 07, 51 Bonnie Prince Charlie, ill. (rotogravure ceeeiee a 518-535 aos IONE WATE hin lee oet- Gor Sse sas sseq8 -on- 249 Bowles Camps wort worth, Texas.......25. 00 les 473 Bowie, James: Originator of theebowie knife..... 475 Boy with his pets: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure in- SOT y Aad be OOS SS ee SIE eS a ie 518-535 Bread, \corn. caten during a famine in Russia... 89 Bread: Camp bakery’s capacity, 80,000 pounds a NG" SS ORne 5 Oe Bread, Cartload of: Galician front, ill........... srs Bread shortage in Petrograd...... text, 99; ill., too MAUR utthe Hanbor. Wl... as cecwccmcce cask ec 127 Ariane. orstish steamer, Wl. .<.cs) Camp =) Warightstowns Ne wise cecmacecee oe 450 Dixis Highway, Military motor-truck test over the, SE Diao Oe ras wre euatie epekone senevolete tens ee eatet caeatonev tere 481 DixsajoliniwAye General Civili Wareeiccrseieleiere 451 Dnieper River from Kief, Russia, ill............ 241 Docks at Dalny, Manchuria: Soy-beans ready for Siti loo oo cemUiebocodoobde ome oD oUGoDduGr 35 Doctor Chinese: Wali. alle ese ene 214 Dodge, Camp: Des Moines, Iowa..............-. 461 Dodge, Granville M.: Civil ‘engineer and gencral. 461 Dogs and horses: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure in- SOT E) ire seven shaver teen Welseene coher olavekowaioh note hora wenstecrete 518-535 Dogs devoted allies to the soldiers in the Alps, ill. 60 Dogs eaten for food during a famine.... 79, 82, 86, 89 Dogs Russian wolthoundss allisaqemmccsraeciecsio eis 242 Dolomite Alps, The: A sea of clouds, ill......... 48 Dolomite Alps, Italian soldiers in the, il...... 46, 49, 51, 54, 56, 62, 64, 65 Don johnwvily of Portugalsin’ Brazile 360 Doniphan, Alexander William: American soldicr.. 475 PoniphanyiGam ps alcawtonk wlvanSepereterers sreictelere cickers 475. Drag used to improve a North Carolina road, ill.. 489 Diropvhammer-corging, anvaxlesulleceecmce aoc 154 DrugsgardensseArliigtonaesiacer eee eee 234 Vill Page Drug prices compared....... ooousesnoodacooesce 229 Drnee, Specwlawors tio scaoccnso0couO0DDUDDOUGOO 213 Drugs: World’s sources of supply, ill. 214-220, 222-237 Drug trade and the glory of Venice.......-..... 219 Duluth, Minnesota: Steel: industry, ill....... 127, 128 Duma Ilall, Russian soldiers and civilians in the, Pils. to bro eid Site onten cite Oriaeteaes cae ical EREK Oe Onion 114 Dutch West Indies: I‘irst foreign salute to an MRCSCAN NERocooedeooobodod boodD sooo UU Gono Oo 204 io) pad WarliestunecOndsotea cha nnil1e eseyeterectclel lel ete lolol ell evels 70 Bari, W@ tie Cralkio@r (ies oecconsocaddcounoGacnS 307 Ffasthampton, L,. I.: Birthplace of John Ifoward IPTG Aida Sao ce eon OD oepOmOUCD On ORE a operon mee 449 elsastaismlcastrandmavVestiisi Wiestanrereicis ttelciclensierc le 213 Kast side, New York City, ill......... sgoguaHSooO 237 Kdinburgh, Hills near: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure MGB) Sousa coconococo odo MOU Oso boleeccgoe 518-535 iducational conditions: Russia.........:.-.. 244, 251 Iificiency the key-note of the cantonment lay-out. 427 Egypt, Cairo: El Khurunfish, a factory.......... 165 Egyptian famines under Mohammedan rule..... ees sey ptianepyramideailleneme sprees eiciele cies. 80 Islectricvcans) citliss siNuUSsiasiil leessnsere cteyeierereeveioiie Al Electric crane working on a battleship, ill........ 152 Klectro-magnet crané: Loading steel rails, ill... . 144 IslevatorsGrains Biuftalo, Ne Nic, ile. ciecrere ever ee 203 i Khurunfish, a factory: Cairoy Bey pts. crs ies-t- 165 Kmblem of our unity, The: President Wilson’s IilagaDayradd ness sijmnsie clestertters «cero eo ereves eiesree 303 Employees, Bethlehem Steel Company, ill........ 132 Emporia, Kansas:: Birthplace of ‘‘What’s the Mat- tenmwithilWansSasicrrais ccnbe syabwen chars ois clerorsuaterstorieree 462 Endwotatheuwlcanthwchomthesnememeetencce ences 397 England conta:ned “eleven great cities’’......... 390 England, London: St. Paul’s Cathedral, ill....... 302 England he story of famines in......c.+.ss0- 81 Englshmiospitalsyinieltaly ee eemmericiene: cic cee 5 Engineer, Danish: Emil) Zuschlag..........--.-- 16 Isruditershoemaker,,An:" Russiascs. sci orice vec 247 Europeans have not learned to eat corn......... Ig! Europe, Flags of Asia, Africa, and. .ill. (colored), 354, 355, 358; text, 372 Europe’s fate hung in the balance, When........ 92 EUnOpersmnrstaccolint sofeelibetsi ssc ceeteieate 397 EX mperormofelkussiay alles seas cen scat ee one 06 Exports of food; UW. S.> Pre-war....--oocsseeece 189 “pr Faces remade, Mutilated: Italian front........... 5! Factory, El Khurunfish: Cairo, Egypt........... 165 Factory inspection, Ice-cream: Leavenworth, Kans., Wy SC CODEO OO OC OR DICED ORION Te CEE et een 263 Factory where government flags are made, ill..... 406 Family, Large: Yasnayah Polyanah, Russia, ill... 2 Famine among tbe French Grisaderses erates 83 Haninewmoanliesturecordsnofiaseics sees oeereen oe 70 Haminesoftelosephrsdaviaericicec es cea ones cee 70 Famine relief complicated by caste in India...... 88 Famine relief work, Augustus Cesar one of the earliesteehiefs of systematic.....+-.:0scccca.. 72 Famines, Fearful, of the Past. By Ralph A CYIEES ~ Jb 5 B.Go TEATRO BBD SEG OE Sire ie nee 69 Mamirremsniirererseilles cosas foc crete co 72, 73, 76-78 Farmer had a voice in price- -Axing a yatcVeretas er atone: cetea 204 Farmingdale, L. I.: Milking time, ill............ 206 Farm scenes in Scotland, ill. (rotogravure insert), 518-535 Harmimtractorss) Building albicans 5 s+ ccs ciee 150 Harreachine tide of; war, elheaas 55 cee osc cee cies 215 Fatamid army, Nasir-ed-dawla, Commander-in- Clie Cem thea raterets ares e ois ee win tunisia nialarn Ne ceerecale 77 Fate of Europe hung in the balance, When the... 92 Father of Russian literature: Lomonosov........ 251 miatsemiavewan the wares alls. s.0 6 2) oo 204, 205 FEARFUL FAMINES OF TIIE PAST: HIS- TORY WILL REPEAT ITSELF UNLESS THE AMERICAN PEOPLE CONSERVE THEIR RESOURCES. By RAPE cA: MOISES NEM saal ose on hots GIANG cla ce. cialalcionemrnieces Gone 69 Federal aid for States in building good roads.... 487 Ferdinand, King of Roumania, ill............... 120 SCARE SRA os Se Ee ee eS ee 213 FEW GLIMPSES INTO RUSSIA, A. BY Bie NOV E BOHR OBE. . =. .iseciececes 238 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Fifth avenue, New York City, ill............ 440, 464 Finland, the coast near Helsingfors, ill.......... 28 Kireman canningshisecorny cops lea eee 201 Fireman, Woman: Trans-Siberian Railway, ill.... 106 Fireplace, Irish kitchen, ill....... Ma dadseriatotaretenee wole 74 Kirst-aid™ post in) the trenclressalll.s qa ec racrart 516 First curb on the middleman, England........... 81 Farstdyill- Camp Meadevs Midea ills carson 432 “Virst Salute to the Stars and Stripes’: Moran PAIN Ein Se ieesess ecards ite eee meee ill., 290; text, 301 Fish: Drying. cod at Gloucester, Mass, illGeeeeee 212 Fisher, Carl G., and the Dixie Highway......... 493 Tishing industry: Oyo, Wissseoocecns 208, 209, 212 lit partner for an honor league, Russia a........ 238 lag and defenders of liberty: New York City, ill. 440 Elag-draped! cofins: US. soldiers) sllkmee ace ee 287 Vlags, French: On soldiers’ graves, ill....-....-- 510 Ilagemakersssillieaserc scm eieeeraiere 406, 407, 420, 474 Flag, Mammoth: G. A. R. parade, Washington, Dp Cie allizsspeceiaoneyeteretstavetensiniene ote teed aera Penne 412 FLAG ‘NUMBER, OUR: Flags of all nations, with 1,197 illustrations in full colors. BY BYRON McCANDLESS AND GILBERT GROSMENOR: Biia ccevsesrst tite oes oho ee eo FAS Dlageraisedvover (Campy Dixie. classes 442 Flags and school children: United States, ill.. 408-410 Ilag salutes, Usages in.....:..:.- Goud oDCH0dG.000 408 lags which signalized America’s entrance into thet world@warj illic nk. Sectors are cererain eterno 302 Flag that inspired the ‘“‘Star Spangled Banner,” ill., 291; text, 306; ill. (colored), 310 Plag woven by milli workers; ill... tele series 4it Flea hunting by the plague eradicators: U. S. Public? EHealth® Service milli erences eee ete Tleecing pilgrims: Only industry of Jiddah, Arabia a “FLOWER OF PARADISE, THE”: THE PART WHICH KHAT PLAYS IN THE LIFE OF THE YEMEN ARAB. BY GEHARTE ESBMOSE Rea sitoncicic siccetonieirrere 173 Iood' administration: (Egy ptie.- cc. cece eee 75 Food-administration posters, ill..... 194, 195, 204, 205 FOOD ARMIES OF LIBERTY, THE BY HERBERT HOOVER aitetveece oe ere 187 Food, Conserve: Fearful famines of the past..... 69 Rood? ior Russian canmiess ilccee eee eieciaeie 35, 39 Food, Russian peasants selling, AL] cp.) s) os Dapetet ern 109 Food sold at fabulous prices: Egypt.............. 79 Food, Soldiers’: National Army cantonment...... 428 Food, The Weapon of. By Ilerbert Hoover..... 197 Foote, John, M. D. The Geography of Medicines. 213 Isormosa,. Busy: scenes) in} ile .8) pies eee 234 Fortescue, Major Granville, U. S. A.: Training the New) Armiesvof. Wibertyco20 scien sce oon 421 Fort, Arabian: En route to Mecca, ill........... 159 Fort, McHenry, National flag which flew over: METZ APIS, (ctor ara ie el storercvereloveielercketetancteleve sherelaetee tre 291 Fort Nassau, captured by Americans, 1776....... 294 Fort of Orange, Dutch West Indies: First foreign salute, toyanvAmericanfilag: oi steieisie leer 294 Fort Riley, Kans.: Camp Funston............-. 462 Fort Schuyler now, Rome; Ne oN. cicteteiis terete erie 301 Fort Stanwix, The improvised Old Glory of...... 300 Fort Worth, Tex.: ‘Camp? Bowie)... telee 473 France;Bamities (Of sas. 2 seictas loess socio eee ee 82 France, Lorraine: Where the First Americans Have Fallen. By Harriet Chalmers Adams.... 499 France’s first official salute to the American flag, ill., 290; text, 301 “France, Somewhere in’: Refugees, ill.......... 87 Krance = War, SCeness: ilamieriiateieteieietie etter 502, 503, 505-507, 510-516, 518 Francis, Ambassador, in Russia, ill.............. 94 Franciscan friar’s historic marrative............. 388 Franco-Prussian war, Paris during its seige in the 84 Freedom and liberty to the Russian peasants are taken! Jiterallycset-ie aiserey> ial eelellisecrioe seienene 105 “Freedom 1s mot self-willicicactea alae etait 39 Freezing point of steel is above the boiling point of water: «=...» -kc eer eee eet eileen 154 Fremont, Camp: Menlo) Park, (Galiias2-- ee eee 476 Frémont, John Charles: Soldier, explorer, and po- litical. leadéri3: Aas cisce ees cee eee eee eee 476 French army’s first salute to the Stars and Stripes on French-soil; Wino cceea eee eaee teens 300 French court, Suffering due to the extravagance of thésics ooo 6 2 eee eee ee eee 84 French crusaders. Famine among the..........-. 83 FRENCH LORRAINE, IN. BY HARRIET CHALMERS: ADAMS: {o-c.-s---eeeeeee -.. 499 French opera star: Marthe Chenal, ill.........-.. 505 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXII, 1917 IX Page French soldiers marching on the Rue Royale, ill.. 548 FROM THE TRENCHES TO VERSAILLES. BY] CAROE VINM CO RIS Ve rortertcyo lenskeieieiererecesole 535 Fumigating ships with carbon monoxide to destroy Wea bS oll eve rele oe ete rote tacos toneheelekoliole oleliel er fok= (eel ievielevohedsl ol 20 Funeral of an Italian soldier in the Alps, ill..... 55 Funston, Camp: Fort Riley, Kans............--- 462 Funston, Frederick: General MUG iSeeAm ac ree eee 462 Furnaces, Steel mill, ill............----.--- Var ews 3 Fustat, Egypt: Famine.............-.--+eeeeeees 75 Coe Gadsden, Christopher: Presents the Gadsden flag ROMCONSLESS rae ieee eteneie el arelereie che ele ter stelle one 289 Gaelic exorcism against rats..........-.--.--+.- 15 Galician front, Cartload of bread on the, ill...... 39 Galician front, Russian in trenches on the, ill. 37 Galicia, Russian advances in: Austria- Hungary... 93 Gallatin Valley, Montana: Wheat field, ill........ . 202 Gallery of Battles, Royal Palace: Versailles, France, - ie % oss cese+s 86 Irish, America among the first to aid............. 86 Irish cobbler potatoes grown in Maine, ill........ 196 Irish mother knitting socks, ill.................. 74 Iron-ore capital: Hibbing, Minn................. 121 Iron range, Minnesota: Open-pit mine, ill........ 124 [ronethataowsplikeamiliceanes seer ee ooo eee 144 “Tsba”” or hut, Russian: Near Moscow, ill....... 36 Islam, Mecca thepeinticholenGiec set ee se 163 Italian canteen in American church entertains PAMMETICATIMSATIONS saver isi crclete welsvore sie cierc/atayeteieln aves 65 Italian Front, Leiiters from the. By Marchesa Louise de Rosales to Ethel Mather Bagg....... Italian soldiers in the Alps, ill... 46, 49-56, 58-62, 64- 66 Italian soldiers provided with skis, WG ARAGGoRae ‘50 61 Italy: The glory of Venice and the drug trade. 219 Ivan Bounin, Russian eel Hig ain AOS dom anomie 249 SS] fale ESO Andrew: Seventh President of the United SUELO. (G3 6 ciclo OR Ob GSO HIE ene oe areata 52 Wackson Camp: Columbian 5. Ceces soe ese caein colt bes favaswuinrdeny bearers, in, ill'icc.cs. os csee oe ecco es 219 Thelum, Down the: Kashmir, India, ill........... 218 Jiddah, Arabia: Port of Mecca.................. 161 Jones, John Paul: Raises the first American EES 8 Sak tence CG a ae 288, 299 Joseph, G’awhar a Mohammedan................ 75 iloseph’s day, Vhe famine of. ....... 2. ccc.2c0ecc 70 TOSepNeSidin, lhe Roman: oo: 25 sa.is << Seimei 71 Jovinus defeated the Teutonic hordes sixteen cen- RUE S IED MANINE Neo tr crs ter Secs aot ne 500 Judas, The profiteer a modern: cK? Ka'aba, House of God: Mecca. C ; .text, 163; ill. Karagour Glacier, Central Caucasus, Russia, ill... 43 Page Kashmir, India: Down the Jhelum, ill............ 218 Wearnys Camp es oan) Diegoy Calificcen ieee 475 Kearny, Stephen W.: Lieut. in the War of 1812.. 476 Kerensky, Russia’s Man of the Hour: His First Speeches and Proclamations......... text, 24; ill., 25 Kerensky’s government will never make a separate MEA coccvccccoo00GéaC0 ddoobopoddMDCOONCOSCC 118 Kerensky’s order to attack SOTO DOO OOTOD OS. 0000 41 Kerensky, the point of focus on which to rally.... 103 Key, Francis cott: “The Star Spangled Banner” 5 20D Key-note of cantonment lay-out, efficiency........ 427. “Khadem” or outcast Arabs, ill............ rastchete 180 Khaticarrier, of Yemen illiiyerserscseretertelcvescletekieerers 165 Khat, the Part Which it Plays in the Life of the Yemen Arab. By Charles Moser............-- 173 Khyber Pass: Caravan enjoying a rest, ill........ 226 Kief, Russia: St. Vladimir Monument, ri eee es 241 Kingdom, The: vanished: Polonia’; ss scrrelerserieneten 389 King Ferdinand of Roumania, ill....... ae clos face NEO King of Arabia, New: Husein Ibn Ali........ il., 169; text, 172 Kiss, A goodbye: Soldier leaving his family, ill... 430 Kitchen fire-place: Ireland, ill.................-. 74 Kneading) irons likeidoughmineccsceioe errr 147 “Knight of the Ocean Sea,” Noyes’ ...........- 221 Knight, Plebeian: Spurius Maelius.............. 71 Knitting socks, An {Irish mother, ill............. 74 Knott; Proctor: Prophecy .-< . << -iciers sce see oe 301 Men behind the hammers imbued with patriotic Silber CeO OO OOO DOD TOO d GOd GOD ECU cerdio 26 442 Men (200,000) are now working solely to feed MENS CO GoO OOOO DUOUD OOS MODDNUOOD LOO OAD ODUOODCE 12 Mendoza City, Consecration of the flag in: Argen- Leben (oi (OJ IO OOD OO DAT ODO COOEOCOOUOGS © c 357 Menlo Park, Cal.: Camp Frémont............... 476 Men, Neckless: Middle Ages...............--2-. 399 Merchantman, Steel: Newport News, Va., ill..... 140 Merchantsiot VienicesyDhetyscrteteienieiciin ste cieverelocl= 221 Mesahba Rangene Mainnesotalerccierjevstckerelceketevolel-tatotelare 122 Mesjid el Haram: Sacred Mosque, Mecca........ 163 Mess line at a National Guard encampment, ill... 210 Mexico’s soldier-priest, Miguel Hidalgo.......... 357 Michie, R:. E. L.: Brigadier General, ill......... 95 Middle Ages, Heroic flags of the...ill. (colored), 370; text, 388 Middleman, First curb on the: England......... 81 Mudnightsisuriss heirs sveracctcrcteretetotel-teleketenetoteneteiekerler 399 Migration of nats sroiterstorcreetcieiec ake Noletetelovoretaielere 5 Military highways and ships safeguarded Rome fLromiitamineemcierercieielerereele eevee reels Rushers oioweienciete 73 Military Highways, The Immediate Necessity of. ByAn GPBatchelderrejntericcrer-wtclortercleletet a sierele 477 Military motor-truck test over the Dixie Highway, i Tie mae Arora Oona MmcOncoe Ana GowS Soot 481 Milking time: Farmingdale, L. I., ill.......... 206 Mill-workers, Flag woven by: New Hampshire, ill. 411 Mina, Valley of, Arabia: Encampment of pilgrims, = WEG Sto ToC O ODP EOONOOO DOO Oe OOON COO OO EUUOOO 166 Mine; 4 Coalevser. ci aayenvmret step ea bepoveieusnens pate atereorseeraters 135 Mine, Hull Rust: Hibbing, Minn................ 121 Mines, Iron-ore: Minnesota Range, ill........... 124 Minister of Foreign Affairs, Russian: M. I. Terest- ehenke seal cecicttavetctonevierslowtelerieteieretacciete Teheve¥es 155 Minneapolis, Minn.: Building farm tractors, ill... 150 Minnesota Point and Duluth Harbor, ill......... 127 Miram, M.: Préfet of the Department of Meurthe and Mosellen citi diene sctepotntomroc siren ate eiolaeiciotenis 504 Model ot rat-proof house: U. S. Public Health SERVICE a ro ou caee ca eee eaters epee pate 18 MoeKiipstickeStorymotenicnc vector incieecie 215 ‘Mohammedan Joseph, G’awhar a........ OOOH 75 Mohammedan rule, Egyptian famines under...... 75 Mohammed’s prophecy fulfilled.................. 157 Motizz2) Caliphisigi gyip tees arictociercien niece soo 3 Monaco—smallest nation on earth............... 375 Monarch, A mythical: Prester John.......... a3 05 Monts Civetta, Dolomite Alps: Above the clouds, UO area atc MOO OU OOO OO OOOO DOOM OUODOCOODOG 48 ‘Monte Cristallo, Dolomite Alps: Above the clouds, BN S, Satecl rte rahe ca. alae a cetinelie eva ellavels (otave abalenereboreteyer sono 48; 49 Monte Pelmo, Dolomite Alps: Above the clouds, DUD. Ficae a tatpsre cis son diol eneneyaichoomasarsrotare sree Oe 48 Montgomery, Ala.: Camp Sheridan.............. 470 Monument, St. Vladimir: Kief, Russia, ill....... 241 Morale, Developing that subtle something........ 431 Moran, Edward: Marine painting, ill............ 290 Morgabnthevyoungers.cecmie eerie eae 213 “Morning crank’: Ambulance drivers, Morris- towns: INKL allt oarcversrc: colores rome sree icone 428 Morris, Robert: United States Minister of Marine. 288 Morristown, N. J.: Ambulance drivers, ill....... 428 Moscow, American Mission arriving in: Russia, UD Speteucveltes aya taveyay ele ralsroas, ata hehs eucteroetee oR oe Oe eT: 252 Mioscownserenskyaatiy cee eee 26 Moscow Peoples’ Bank formed: Russia.......... 250 Moscowa Russiantisbasmonsnutnill emer 36 Moscow, Russian school-boys in, ill.............. 30 Moser, Charles: Formerly American Consul, Aden, Arabia: “The Flower of Paradise”’......-. BOBS BYR} Mosques Prophetis-Medinateneas tetera nee 17I Miosqtiemmoacred:mAra biaeimirscnieee etce aeireiane 163 Mosquito breeding, Control of, ill........ 272, 274-277 Mosquito war, A seventy square-mile battlefield INLWealePaparateKKePorevstsreteteretenak vette ECT eee 264 Motor transportation, Practical tests of.......... 491 Motor-trucksseNilitarycdl lisence cee 479, 481 Mountains asibeniaseil lame eee ae 225 Mukalllay “Arabia: Water! fronboallesseccmee teens 217 XIl Page Mule-back, Hospitals on: Italian front........... 62 Mules used to work a North Carolina road, ill... 489 Mummies as medicine........... Be cs ee yat cet tava Munition factories, American: Women workers, ill. 136 Mural decorations, Religious: Church doorway, - FRUSS tamer dtpat tele taye che rete chores siete ere, ons leveconeisileve stereepe 112 MiinscovyaCompaniyarch eiprrerrse aiscierenciaeieeiecie rae 235 Mushet, Robert F.: Scotch steel maker.......... 151 Mirsicaluinstruments; Banyo, illlsc.--- ee cee ceccrl- 458 Musical instruments: Bagpipes, ill.............. 513 Mitisiciansmussiallnyeice tice meee coca eee. 251 Musicminwcampsdllicpieet ete oem bere cleierereas 458 MustansinmCalipha Egy ptacm ceeds accor ce: cess 77 My rihesouncemofa tli aa-ise sires oafomio cei es rere rare 217 Mythical monarch, A: Prester John............. 395 coNT Nancy bhesbattlesofehrancen .eielsceiy scien e sete 515 Nancy works on in spite of bombardments: France, ill., 502; text, 504 Napoleon, Bedroom of: Versailles, France, ill.... 545 “Napoleon, Last moments of’’: Versailles, France, db. copdocoevnnDd0o00D DODD DD UOUCHOOBUGUDanOOOS 44 Nasir-ed-dawla, Commander-in-chief of the Fata- : MIC ATIN Yvette oko vole erence fatcsteralchoeieiiolclave avers freee 77, National Army, Camp Lee, Virginia’s Home for the. By) Mayor’ Granville: Fortescue)... 5.2... «1 421 National Army, cantonments\.. 52... .s«0++.+02-see 446 National Army Cantonments, America’s New Sol- dier Cities. By William Joseph Showalter...... 439 National efficiency undermined by high prices..... 199 National Geographic Society, Flag of the......... ill. (colored), 335; text, 340 NationalaGuardycampsenciiniecidceneet einer 467-476 National Guard Camps: America’s New Soldier Cities. By William Joseph Showalter.......... 439 INationall Guardsmensuilloe scl. deni eine 210, 298, 444, : 453, 456, 464, 468 Nation of volunteers needed: Food conservation.. 194 Nation-wide campaign for health. By Rupert Blue 255 Nation-wide intercourse provided by good highways 498 Naval flags of the with: GOS OD SEINE DS Ons text, 369; ill. (colored), 347, 350, 351 Navy, and Government Departments, The Fizes 3 OLMOU TALIM Ys terenceys Gicte oc nra ncieta oat steninisinige text, 305: ill. (colored), 310, 311, 314, 315, 318, 319, 322 Navy ceremonies of raising and lowering the COMB > aaagnarooudonosusoee: text, 406; ill., 282, 283 NavyvaebarlyeAmenicateccciecciscienen cin cones anne 287 Necklessmmeneeter ser ilove vie teetoruis, srauerlcteneni atone 399 Wegroidnriversin his: goat-cart, illic: c.csccss ec ee 493 Nelson, Edward W.: Chief of the U. S. Biolog- IcalEOUGVeya muheyRat Pestsi.j-telesiiceis nce bine ie I New Orleans rat plague, ill.. 5, 6, 8, 10-12, 16, 17, 22 Newport News, Va.: Launching a steel merchant- TN les Sasa daa. code b Ome ea BO ean eae 140 Newport News, Va.: Ship under construction, ill... 145 INewshoveeRussianoills ase anche ee ee toa 117 ISNT (camp) stimulated men to special ef- OL Citetalyiatelelatelatevalalals/aloln! o\sre/al ele) <] ala \eVale/=,areicl esis 156 Punishment for a rebel, Terrible: Egypt.....---- 75 Pure American blood at Petersburg......------- 429 Pyramid, Egyptian, ifl....--.-- +++. sere reer eens 80 Pyramid of soldiers, ili.......-- teense eee eeee 447 Pyramids of wheat ready for shipment, ill....... 190 QO” Quantico, Va.: Marines at bayonet practice, ill... 466 5) pL Rail mill, ill........----- 2s eee eee ees teens 138, 139 Railroad. warehouse, Rat-proofing: New. Orleans, AIL Beewocuocdos sou somaen ooo modu cece ce ceee 17 Rails, Loading steel: Electro-magnet, Wiraisnondo 144 Railway coach, Imperial Russian, il]... . 2... ee eee Jor Rairbow Division going into camp, alee specevonsie ste 468 Ranch in Montana, A cattle, ill.-..-..-...+----- 188 Ratbane, A poisen squad preparing, WMoocanacdo II, 12 Rat pest, The, ili.......---. Ranta ooeooouU 2, 4-6, 8-22 200,000 BY EDWARD W. NELSON.......+---+++-eee I Rat-proofing buildings, ill.......- Goagododiadade 16-19 Rats eaten for food during a famine.......... 86, 89 Rats, varieties and distribution OL ean cee retre I Ready for the call: Scottish deerhounds., ill. (roto gravure insert)......6+.eeeeeee errr eens 518-535 XIIL Page Rebel, Egyptian, Terrible punishment for........ 75 Red Cross station in the trenches, ill.... ....... 516 Red Cross unit on the Italian front, ill.......... 60 Redicredii Sean Avaric cccctesroratonr Welle loe?eteia teroeee 396 Red Sea, Twilight on the shores of the, ijl....... 16t Red, White, and Blue, The Biblical origin of the.. 302 Reed, Joseph: Military Secretary American Revo- DUtLOra a eickoreis crovecs oroeroistovere siolecotelar aleve eietalevere 287, 280 Refugees: Erancesmilliyysnereeccer nee onbeere 87 Refugees from Hun-destroyed villages: France... 504 Reindeer caravan, Siberia, ill................... 225 Religious ceremonies: Soldiers attending service, WitoarouuoodoomesooodacbaloLodaudbacda$ 74650 Religious pictures: Church entrance, Kremlin of tae Moscow mille mernverreitetepieiejcloloietorerstetcicio tie care 112 Religious services before altar of snow: Italian usoldiersyingthewAl ps5 iilljereps sereieleleteloeretelol tee ole 53 Revenveirs: Cleaning storage: Leavenworth, Kans., Soe |) ee een Ani tae nian Sais eciaco 254 Reservoirs: Famous tanks of Aden, Arabia, ill. 160, ey Reésorcinvinhair tonics .\.tsrereeiclersiciteleleisieralelete eieieiele 231 Resources, America’s, and the Allies’ needs....... 90 Restaurants infested by. rats. -i-) 1 eleterelere = 8 Revolutionary scenes in Russia, ill............. 96, c 112-115)118, 119 Revolutionary times, Censorship in.............. 289 Revolution, the most remarkable in history, Rus- SUAM case paseeeteecors eh ce eteke aera ie ae Ce nloeeraraeretonevatere 99 Rice crop, Harvesting the: Louisiana, ill......... 192 Richvlandvofesburkeysudhemenccrcciiet cseriiceeee 392 Rigard, Madame Amelie: Sister Julie............ 517 Ritual observed by orthodox pilgrims: Mecca..... 171 Roach, John, Captain: American Revolution...... 297 Road building, Government object-lesson in, ill... 483 Road building by government experts............ 495 Road cost and maintenance, Proper distribution of. 493 Road-mender-atiworkanllevacreraciletociocieiiereeioaieiere 491 Roads in the United States, ill.. 478, 480, 482, 484-497 Robilant, Contessa de: Aiding the Italian soldiers. 63 Robinson, Isaiah: Captain of the Andrew Doria.. 294 Robbing) eter: to)\paysbauliyaaceicecee cee ork 231 Rockford; lice Campe Grantee diets aie eee 459 Roll-call\ for, +heroes:) Russia, ill... icc cicieeie eleele 44 Roller-chairzouting-joRussiayertl leer verereicierelel-rteiein 245 Roman) Joseph slain; cde. cs ete ctereicrsiclerereteleisiel 71 Romanoff, Nicholas: Ex-Emperor of Russia, ill... 96 Roman senators after the defeat of their army at NRC rn cae nsae Gib E Gob OTE s GOn Oooo OAS 71 Rome, N-jYs;) formerly Hort) Schuyler.ascen eo. ee 30K Rome safeguarded from famine by ships and mili- tanya igh waysirdclerycreselercterer terete keciereeraereeeee 73 Root, Elihu, in Russia, ill....... 94, 95, 107, 112, 117 Rosetta stone, Hiding place of.............. PGoao SUK} Roumanian Army, High Command of the, ill..... 120 Roumania;spatheticiplighta.m cme eee centers 119 Royal Palace, Versailles, France, ill......... 537-539, 541, 544, 545 Rue Royale, French soldiers marching on the,. ill. 548 Riwinsjpboatic etl lair spat teveurtet sherds erie terer- 502, 507, 514 Ruler of new Kingdom of Arabia: El Husein Ibn A ill., 169; text, 172 Ruler of Roumania, King Ferdinand, ill......... 120 Russia, A Few Glimpses into. By Lieut. Zinovi Pethko ftv: mice cte cistern eens iaiciieeeeeris 238 Russia, American Mission to, ill... 92; 94, 95, 105, 116 RUSSIA FROM WITHIN: HER WAR OF YES- TERDAY, TODAY, AND TOMORROW. BY STANLEY WASHBURN..... MAS Ter rsochetss gt Russia has earned the Western. Allies’ undying GRAtituUdem a Aarievensicpedaroratnvercetelorerse erecta totes 93 Russia likéned to a crab changing its shell.../.... 105 Russiansarmies;,hoodytor gil lero ere 35,39 Russianartillery.on themroad salle cea ce 40 Russian: Caucasus: Scenes;-alli 22% je. oc oc 38, 41-43 Russian Imperial Geographical Society founded Huvign ood poor OG oUO CO pUUCO De ddd osnobdbunsnododS 251 Russian ‘‘isba,’’ or hut, near Moscow, ill......... 36 Russian mounted guard, Galician front, il]....... 390 Russian nature is always democratic............. 238 Russian officers’ watching the Germans from an observatione position milllereccryrcnnntockeretclerielerciers 27 Russian peasant girls harvesting, ill............. 85 Russian peasant, Hunger and the..-............. 89 Russian peasants’ fundamental concept of the MS Cate iariaitaremraroierapsie fate rcrelsicusjeie levelejereleisy soereie or reeiore 100 Russian revolution the.most remarkable in_his- POR Ys wteeece Verso. sete rons iapersiene (yee Psteicko ere aayateloine tacts 99 Russian school-boys in Moscow ill.,............ 30 Russians in trenches on the Galicran front, ill.... 37 Russianssloveutomtal keener etiel-beacieiiel iors 249 Russian soldiers, ill..../.:...25, 27, 34- 37, 39, 40, 44 Beli Page Russian troops, American newspaper correspond- jent addressing; ice ion. le cine inne ies eel 34 Russian Turkestan, Novi Urgentsch: Native scene, Ws SerqsoenoK PPV CrP Terre rence acetals ls eveicvoke aie sveteteterene 232 Russian wolfhounds, ill..............-.---- soo0g LS) Russian women soldiers, ill............... 97, 98, 102 Russia, Scenes in, ill...... 239-242, 245, 246, 248, 252 Russia’s ex-Emperor, ill.......... Se heres eee eens 6 RUSSIA’S MAN OF THE HOUR: ALEXAN- DER KERENSKY’S FIRST SPEECHES ANID SP ROCIANMATION Si cic «isc sce sjecce ce 24 S42 St. Dié, France, where America was named...... 518 St. Eustatius, Fort of Orange: First foreign salute to an American flag........ Foo boosenaduT Obed OS 294 St. George, type of the warrior saint............ 239 St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Soldiers attending service fate News vorke Cityoeslleteeie cme rae doganaias 443 St. Patrick was born in Scotland..............-- 379 St. Paul’s Cathedral, Stars and Stripes receivea ratty s ILO lals ca cbooacloduacnoTet text, 286; ill., 302 St. Vladimir monument, Kief, Russia, ill......... 241 Sacred cities freed from Turkish yoke: Arabia... 171 Salamancavat, the battle of Otumbat.. «- --2i-11- cle 356 Salle de 1’Oeil-de-Bauf: Palace of Versailles, ill.. 538 Salt Lake City school children forming the flag, ill. 408 Salmonenshings) Oregon, ilieeccscesce eee ce 208, 209 Salutes to the American flag, The first....... ill., 300; SalutestaOSagespinietlagierraveysiterersicicietecierereroreerererereare 408 Saluting the flag: Star Spangled Banner, ill..... 285, 290, 300, 410 San Antonio, Texas: Camp Travis..ill., 426; text, 462 ‘Sand-bag dugout) Y¥. M. CoA. hut, all... -.3....2- 457 SanwDiezouCalses Camp akearmyiereclercleocisloierelsieierare 475 Sanitating civil zones around cantonment areas, BU Rerere cisiellesisione sit 254, 256, 258-260, 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, 270, 272, 274-277 Santals perished during Orissa famine........... 88 Sault Ste. Marie, Wheat steamers in the locks, ill. 198 Scaffolding around a ship under construction, ill.. 145 Scales: Weighing opium; Persia, ill.............. 231 Scenes in a cellar during a bombardment........ 509 SCHOOL DOYSHIN MOSCOW?) Alt -ioleseoieiesclcievelnere cheteleeiore 30 School children and the United States flag, ill... 28s, 408-410 Science) knows) little’ about ‘khat; 3.0.0 ..c50..0.0 173 SOONER, NESE oh ovidsdocsusuadsapeoauGoKdooT 251 Scotch collies: The Campbells are coming, ill. (roto- PAV UN MINISE LD) le tereia ckeleke oveNojeterelstelevensicvetersiiehotet= 518-535 Scotch Highlanders playing their bagpipes, ill.... 513 Scotch terrier puppies: Over the top, ill. (roto- BRAVUILEMINSELE)Mehetchels cbse lereieyelciersisieiars. ois\cielere 518-535 Scotland, Scenes in, ill. (rotogravure insert).. 518-535 Scotbmbluch wl scplmmiusSiasnillis 20 accesso cies = 92, 94, 95, 103, 116, 117 Scottish types, ill. (rotogravure insert)....... 518-535 cate clouds: The Cadore district, Dolomite Alps, - We 66s OSM OD ODOD OOOO BOO OD OOCRO DCE Pre 4 wealvof theperesident: WU. 9. Avs. i...c eos text, 306; ill. (colored), 310 Seal of the United States and its uses..text, 305, 306; ill. (colored), 310 meldenssoamuels Powderhorn... o.cca.ee.ee one 302 Selected men: National Army, ill........ 430. 432, 434 Semaphore messages, Sending and receiving, ill.. 405 Sentiment among soldiers, A touch of...°....... 546 Sentinel to guard hens: Italian hospital.......... 63 Sentry, as his evening vigil begins, ill........... 463 Sergeant who sneezed, The story of the......... 429 sevier. Camps Greenville, So ©@.e..006 00s cslac ene se 467 Newer cals conn indian: heliters.. oc. sceeue lke. 469 Sewers, Snap-traps in surface: New Orleans rat ESS TUG SES eA eB ee Oe ee ee ee ee a 10 Sewing: Children making a flag, ill.............. 474 Sewineastars wonuthechapy illacwnse cece seis & 420 Sliavineysoldiersoim camps aloo) oss. cs wee ae cee 450 hleausmclippingasteelerla cts cick Socks cee sees 155 Sheep, Black-face: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure in- STIS. BS ajo Oe Gs cis SECO SIO tCTE eed ee 518-535 slielhy, Camp= MMattiesbure, Miss.:......<.s..... 472 Shelby, Isaac: Colonel, Revolutionary soldier..... 472 Shells for the European battle front, ill.......... 143 Sheridan, Camp: Montgomery, Ala.............. 470 Sheridan, Philip Tlenrv: General, Civil War...... 472 Sherman, Camp: Chillicothe, Ohio............... 455 Sherman, William Tecumseh: General, Civil War. 455 MANES, Damaus pine-tree....4.6. 6502s .ccs ec cece 349 THE NATIONAL “GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE : Page Ships and military- highways safeguarded Rome . from) famiinelic ston steers chess oeieitoliee ne cree 73 Shipspintestedabyarats-y-ee oe yore nesters Shipssore lle eee eae 125, 128, 129, 134, 142 Ships protected against rats, ill............... 20, 21 Ships; sSailtier77ounilleees ecco Ce nee eee 290 Ship: Steel merchantman, Newport News, Va., ill. 140 ShipsUsgSs Navyaulley eee eee eee eee 282, 283 Ship under construction: Newport News, Va., ill. 145 Shiraz, Persia: Opium industry, ill...... Peer 229-231 Shoemaker, An erudite: Russia................. 247 Shoemaker, Scotland, ill. (rotogravure insert). 518-535 Showalter, William Joseph: America’s New Sol- dier Cities. cnceinan Glace eee BHOOESO ROS CSO 439 Showalter, William Joseph: Industry’s Greatest Asset—Steel ...... Wekaleyareuciarersivosuisie seer ee 121 Shrapnel steel, Rolling bars for: Pennsylvania riebtU Us tl PA OH Carr CHO NARH Ano ddccoS 136 Shrine in a bazaar in Petrograd,-ill............. 45 Shrine, Mohammedan: Mecca............... text, 157; ill., 168, 170, 172 Shrine of Austrian royalty: In French Lorraine.. 504 Shrine where America was christened: France.... 518 Siam; Founder, of: Naccaien- soe eon 377 Siberia: Yakut girl’s costume, ill. ............... 250 Siberia: Yakut reindeer caravan, ill............. 225 Signal bridge: Sending and receiving semaphore messages willie. crsaieieysomivaee ee eee 405 Signaling device, An‘early..........--..cc-ceee: 393 Signalseseieetere text, 317, 320; ill. (colored), 319, 322 Significancesof oun colors. fesse eee 301 Singapore, Massing ithe fectiailli)cy. yee 220 Sister Julie, a heroine among heroes............. 517 Skirmish line of Italian skimen advancing in at- tacky Allien eteediae ec Ce eae 61 Skis, Italian soldiers provided with, ill......... 50, 61 Slacker, Awaking the: Scotland, ill. (rotogravure INSEKE) Mists ote.arsiene ote ereero Ee ee 518-535 slavelitradesinwArabiacdecncmen eee ee 161 Smallpox epidemic strangled: Arkansas.......... 267 Smokers, Opium-p bersiasalle ey ee ee 230 Snap-traps in surface sewers: New Orleans’ rat DEStiy 11M cry aererseereperers meee eee 10 Snow. altar: Open-air religious services in the Alps, Wt ais CON OCOOOUOOGOOOLUDE NOG bE dObtoet es bodn we Snow trenches in the Alps, ill................. 46, és Social intercourse not allowed among. Russian Students oaivisys crete a ete aetsi ce eae 244 Socialism, The looming shadows of.............. 207 Societies organized for the destruction of rats. 16 Soil defenders, Russian heroes as................ 240 Soldier Cities, America’s New. By William Jo- Soldiers’ and Workingmen’s Delegates: Russia... 103 6, 550 Soldiers’ coffins draped with Star Spangled Tee e en, ill cs\ ees ajersreisiare hetecee a ee ee 287 Soldiers, French, ill..:....... 501, 506, 512, 518, 548 soldiers; (graves: France, illosepeee eee 510 the First American. By Harriet Chalmers AGaMS: cisiecceitiatalcleee eel eee eee 499 Soldiers, [talianyin ithe Alpss.-seee eee text; 477 : : ill., 49-56, 58-62, 64-66 Soldiers, Roumanian commanders, ills eee 120 Soldiers, Russian, ill...... 25, 27, 34, 37, 39, 40, 44, 92. 975 98, 102, 103, 107, 112, TI4, 115, 118, 119, 246 Soldiers: Scotch Highlanders, ill................ 513 Soldiers, United. States, ill........ 210, 211, 298, Aen. 428, 432, 434, 440, 443, 444, 447, 448, 459, 453, 454, 458, 460, 463, 464, 466, 468, 471, 481 “Song of Hiawatha” translated in Russian....... 240 Song, The /SBlighty/co ee 538 Sook Canal 7Poeksleorkapl ese ee 142 Soochow, China: Chinese druggist and his chem- 1Sts (UN oes col ste eer ae eee ee 236 soomlocks-: Oresshipseeaneee ee text, 125; ill., 129 OD) ei0's nia ante Sin iaialsiaren(ealgn cone eee ee eee Soy-beans on the docks at Dalny, Manchuria, ill. . ee Spanish moss growing on live-oak trees: Georgia, TAS Nahe iminlinictelinion oie EE EP OIG cir, * 406 Spartanburg, S. C.: Camp Wadsworth......_.... 467 Speculation engendered by over-demand: Food... 199 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXII, 1917 XV _ Page Speechmaking has become the national pastime in RHE SooscousvudcuUOd God0b band og 6ONo OI0d0R9 . 110 Speke, J. H.: Discovered Victoria Nyanza, 1858.. 395 Sentise IRmesey, Mls ccedesccodssuosdoooc sees 245,246 Spotsylvania County, Va.: Road scenes, ill....... 497 Spring of Zem Zem: Arabia.........-..-.------ 163 Spring, Protecting a: U. S. Public Health Service, Be Wk oooooudsboonsbd oo DU CONC eOmOS OOOO apes Nokes 2 Spurius Maelius killed by Servilius Naat erieiete 71 Stairway to observation post in the Alps, ill. Standardization hastens cantonment construction. » 425 “Stars and Bars’ of the Southern Confederacy, ill. (colored), 338; text, 344 Starsgand Stripes. wbinth day gotta s-i0 olen ec)e suece sve 295 Stars and Stripes, The correct display of the..... 404 “‘Star Spangled Banner,” Original: U. S. National Wincsimy iNleeaoos soadbounoassoodnagoosopeadD 291 Star Spangled Banner, The flag that inspired.ill., 291; * text, 306 State flags of the United States............ text, 325; ill. (colored), 323, 326, 327, 330, 331, 334 Station-mistresss) Mrances 1ll\ oo. cikers aie shatete sieepei- leis 510 Station scenes, Russian, ill.......... eerie LOO MDL LO Station, Teliferica: On a mountain top in the Alps, A airste yo opat sack tao veratanehaliniatacrove clavevoie assioiaterniay oes SOG Ce LS Statue: “Last moments of Napoleon,” ill........ 544 Steamemn nitislis Britannic) illo ss eerste een 148 Steamers Wheatsnllie sneer. Sy cekeh She 198, 200, 203 Steam shovels used in iron mines.......-....... 122 Steel cables strung from peak to peak: Dolomite PAN seen Mee srecrtakevaueieleyovslecaiolete ore tnverererereierelelexs 51, 55, 66 Steel industry in United States rl lecrerereterecie- 122, 124, : 126-150, 152-156 Steel, Industry’s Greatest Asset. By William Jo- Sephy.showalter. Russiansaille.- ae seeoteeeee ee ee 242 Women harvest the khat crop: Arabia........... 179 Women help, How the Russian..... ill., 106; text, 243 Women soldiers, Russian, ill....... - 97, 98, 102, 246 Women workers, American, ill...... - 136, 201, 206 Women workers in France, ill.. 503, 507, 510, 511, 512 Woodstock Iron Company founded Anniston, Ala. 470 Workmen quartered in camps they were building. 441 IWorldtflagss2o00-yearsagoncr. sicicyenie coon ee 399 World, Naval flags of the.......... ill. (colored), 347, oO, 1; text Wounded! coldieralinlthevAlps: alleen ian a Wrestling: “‘Battalion of Death,’ Russia, ill...... 246 Wrightstown; Now): :) Camp) Dixjo-c1-ceeeceeee 450 Writing home while in the trenches, ill.......... 515 Wa HusiChinasNativel doctor; lle. .n eee 214 cee Kaccasfounderwof Siamese eeenieeeioeeeieaee 377 Xomo Calle, Dolomite Alps: Snow trenches, ill 64 SENT, Yakut. girl’s costume: Siberia; illi-c ace scissors 250 Yakut reindeer caravan, Siberia, ill............ Bo eras Yaphank, Long Island: Map of Camp Upton..... 437 Vardstick, “Americais mentale epee eee eee 93 Yasnayah Polyanah, A Russian family at, ill..... 32 Yellowstone National Park: Bears, ill. (supple- sy aoopppecosoo Ans quote oosbodsoesoSonNsS 9! Yemen Arab, The Part which Khat Plays in the Lifeyof ‘the; | By Charles Mosers-4--e ee eee 173 Memen’ khat carrier allteen-ee eee nee enee 165 Y. M.-C. A; buildingsalle- s2-eoe ee een 448 YW. Mi: G5A: hut) atithel front, ailencoee ee eee 457 Youngstown, Ohio: Steel plant, ill..... Bnoaaciocs 135 Yungyang. Hsien, ‘China’; Coolie aiia-> eee 227- “gz Zahir, (Caliphate lof- rey pt. =i ee eee eee 75 Zanzibar-) Clove industry sille: een anes 222, 223 Zanzibar, Loading lighters at, ill................ 235 ZemZem, Spring Of: mwArabia-- eee eee eee 163 ent City of the Unsalted Sea”: Duluth, Minn., 1) SE eRe er tas Seineae soe siae soma 12 Zone of supply gradually narrowing: Food....... ats Zuschlag campaign against rats: Copenhagen, ill. 13-15 Zuschlag, Emil: Danish engineer................ 16 Zwemer, Dr. S. M.: Mecca, The Mystic......... 157 VOL. XXXII, No. 1 THE NATIONAIL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE | ia WATE WASHINGTON SGI ONY PES The Labor of 200,000 Men in the United States Required to Support Rats, Man’s Most Destructive and Dangerous Enemy By Epwarp W. NEeELson CHIFF- OF THE Use S? Biorocican SurRvEY Readers of the GEocGRAPHICc will recall with pleasure Mr. Nelson's informative article on the Larger North American Mammals, published in this magazine in November, 1910, and illustrated by a remarkable series of four-color reproductions of paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes. The following article embraces informa- tion obtained by Mr. Nelson during years of research and study of mammals, especially rats and squirrels. A third article by this author will be published in an early issue of the GEoGRAPHIC, his subject being the Smaller North American Mammals, illustrated by a second series of 32 pages of color illustrations repro- duced from Mr. Fuertes’ paintings. OUSE rats are extremely nu- H merous and are world-wide in distribution. Atthe present time they destroy annually hundreds of mil- lions of dollars’ worth of foodstuffs and other property, and through the distribu- tion of bubonic plague and other diseases cause the deaths of untold numbers of human beings. These facts being known. why should we delay in vigorously using known methods for the elimination from our homes and communities of these wasteful and loathsome pests? The common house - frequenting rats are of three species, the brown, the black, and the roof rat. All are believed to be natives of Asia, whence they have spread to most parts of the world. In their re- lations to man their habits are so similar that they may be included in one account. The larger size, abundance, more general distribution, and aggressive predominance of the brown rat, also known as the Nor- way and wharf rat, has led to its being generally known as “the house rat.” So far as known, these rodents are always and everywhere thoroughgoing pests, with no usefulness to man. The history of the brown rat is an ex- traordinary one, unequaled by that of any other mammal. It was unknown in Eu- rope until 1727, when vast hordes of them swam the Volga River. A year or two later it arrived in England on ships from the Orient. Since that time it has steadily extended its distribution by means of ships and other transportation agencies, and by migrations overland, until it shares with mankind nearly all parts of the earth from Greenland to -atagonia and around the globe. It is a sturdy, fierce, and cunning ani- mal with extraordinary fecundity. These characteristics have enabled it quickly to (11-01 Sased 99s) 1ea4 9u0 JOF wnispaq JO apdoad ay} poe} 0} pooy Ysnous ‘o00‘000'oo0zg FO anyeA dy} 0} poo} saqeisg powuy) oy} ur AoIjsop avad yovo set Jey} poyeunjso st Ff SIV AG GHAOULSAG NOLONIHSVM UVAN ATHIT V NI Nwoo SIVA AC GHAOWLSUAd NOLONITISVM UVUIN ATITINWOO V ASIAING [BoIsoorg *S *—Q wort sydvisojoyg AMEE RAG sey Sel 3 overrun and occupy new territory despite the never-ceasing warfare waged against it by man and the Sommpe stolen of “other mammals. The smaller black rat and roof rat for- merly existed in most parts of the Old World. ‘They preceded the brown rat also in America, but when the latter ar- rived were promptly reduced by it to a secondary position or exterminated. Black rats still exist in some parts of the United States, and roof rats are common with the brown rat in the milder climate of the Southern States. IT MAY HAVE TWELVE LITTERS A YEAR The greater size of the brown rat read- ily distinguishes it from either of the other species. It averages from one to one and a half pounds in weight and about 18 inches in length. Occasional giants of its kind occur, however, as shown by the capture, near Canterbury, England, of one huge individual weigh- ing over four pounds and measuring 22, inches in length. With an abundant food supply brown rats increase with almost incredible rapid- ity. hey have from three to twelve litters a year, each containing from six to more than twenty young, the average being about ten. The young begin to breed when less than three months of age. Rats are nocturnal and as a rule keep hidden during the day in holes and other places of concealment about buildings or in burrows which they dig in the ground. Within their retreats they make warm nests of shredded fibrous material, often cut from costly fabrics, in which their naked and helpless young are safely brought forth. After careful investigation the United States Public Health Service estimates that the number of rats living under nor- mal conditions in our cities equals the human population, but that in country districts they are relatively three or four times as numerous. This estimate is practically the same as that obtained some years ago in Great Britain and Ireland, Denmark, France, and Germany. At intervals, as the result of especially favorable conditions of food supply and weather, extraordinary in- creases of rats occur over considerable areas and the damage by them is enor- mously increased. A vivid realization of the multitude of rats which thrive as parasites on man’s industry may be gained from the results of local campaigns against them. In 1904 a plague of rats occurred in Rock Island and Mercer counties, Illinois, and during the month ending April 20 one man killed 3,445 on his farm. During the campaign of the Public Health Service against the bubonic plague in San Francisco from 1904 to 1907, inclusive, more than 800,000 were killed; and in New Orleans, during 1914 and 1915, 551,370 were destroyed. During the winter and spring of a single year more than 17,000 rats were killed on a rice plantation containing 400 acres in Georgia, and by actual count 30,000 were killed on another plantation containing about 1,200 acres. Ona farm of about 150 acres on Thompson Island, in Boston harbor, 1,300 occupied rat holes were counted and other rats were living about the farm buildings. At a large meat-packing establishment in Chi- cago from 4,000 to 9,000 have been killed yearly. AMAZING NUMBERS INFEST GRAIN VESSELS Islands in the tropical or semitropical seas furnish ideal conditions for rats, and in many instances they have in- creased until they have become intoler- able pests, threatening the total ruin of the inhabitants. On one sugar-cane plan- tation in Porto Rico 25,000 rats were killed in less than six months. In Jamaica an effort was made to sup- press them by introducing the mongoose, which resulted in the establishment of a second pest. In the Hawaiian Islands the introduction of the mongoose caused the rats to take refuge in the tree-tops, where many of them have nests and have arboreal habits, like squirrels. Wherever present on these islands the mongoose has rendered it exceedingly difficult to raise domestic fowls of any kind. As has long been known, rats are very numerous on ships. After the fumiga- tion of a grain vessel at Bombay 1,300 From a painting by Poussin. eee ce i a Ltnatinilinaa's’ Photograph from Boelter ILLUSTRATING THE “BLACK DEATH” PLAGUE, A RAT-SPREAD DISEASE DURING THE MIDDLE. AGES IN EUROPE, WHICH COST 25,000,000 LIVES (SEE PAGE 13) dead rats were found, and the fumiga- tion of the steamship Minnehaha at Lon- don yielded a bag of 1,700. In eight years 572,000 were killed on the London docks, including those on the ships. As reported to Parliament by the Fam- ine Commission, in 1881, a rat plague ex- isted in southern Deccan and the Mah- ratta districts of India. Bounties were paid for destruction of rats and more than 12,000,000 were killed. On many occasions, both on the mainland as well as on islands, the unlimited increase of rats has finally led to the almost total loss of crops and other food supplies and resulting famines. One of the most amazing accounts of the abundance of these animals comes from the Island of South Georgia, on the border of the Antarctic east of Cape Horn. For some years summer whaling operations have been conducted at this island and great numbers of whale car- casses, after being stripped of the blub- ber, have drifted ashore. The short cool summers and long cold winters of this region preserve the bodies from rapid decay and the rats which have landed from the ships find there a never-ending surplus of meat. As a consequence they have multiplied until they now exist literally by millions. They make their nests in the grass and peat back from the shore and swarm along well-worn roads they have made on the mountain sides. THEY MARCH LIKE ARMIES The ready adaptability of rats to their surroundings is one of the qualities which has enabled them to conquer the world. On the approach of warm weather in summer large numbers of them leave buildings and resort to fields on farms, or to the outskirts of the towns, where the growing vegetation, particularly cul- tivated plants, afiords them an abundant food supply until the approach of winter. At the beginning of cold weather they return again to the shelter of buildings, Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service WRECKING A BUILDING IN THE CENTER OF THE: NEW ORLEANS PLAGUE. DISTRICT When New Orleans was threatened with bubonic plague buildings were razed to the ground in the effort to exterminate the rodents which carried the germs of the dread dis- ease. The structure shown above was a combined stable and junk warehouse, which, with several other buildings, was surrounded by a two-story brick wall. In the inclosure there was a small house for the stableman, the ground floor of which was only six inches above the level of the court. When this floor was removed 54 of the total of 86 rats captured during the wrecking of all the buildings were killed, and of these 20 were found to be plague infected. where they find the harvested crops ready for their consumption. When the food supply suddenly de- creases, following a period of plenty dur- ing which the rats have greatly increased in numbers, a migratory impulse appears to affect the entire rat population over large areas and a general migration takes place. At such times the rats are extra- ordinarily bold, swimming rivers without hesitation and surmounting all other nat- ural obstacles. The first invasion of Eu- rope, when rats swam the Volga, was an instance of this kind. Experiments by the U. S$. Public Health Service have shown that when released in the water of a harbor rats may swim ashore for a dis- tance of 1,500 yards. An observer in Illinois, who saw a more local migration, states that he was passing down a road in the moonlight one night in the spring when he heard ab rustling in) a) field near: bya ooonma great army of rats swarmed across the road before him, extending as far as he could see. This district afterward suf- fered severely from the presence of these pests. The extent to which rats wander from centers of abundance was well illustrated in New Orleans by experiments of our Public Health Service. One hundred and seventy-nine marked rats were re- leased at a point in the residential part of the city. In less than 60 hours one of the marked rats was captured in a trap about a mile from the point where it was liberated, and within two weeks others AUIJNANS Sty} 0} poyoofqns o19M sassvoied paseurepunN ay} ATUO Jnq ‘ddIAJaG YIeaET oyqnd *S ‘Aq, ayy Aq sdes} ur pornjdes o19M sjuapos ZEQ‘0OU'I Fd9TAIOS YEE WGN sy} FO Yeys Jeorsoporsayseq oy} Aq JouueUW sty} Ul poutWeX diam sje1 OLo‘ZPy ‘Z161 ‘ee A[NE 0} ‘P61 ‘Q AjN[ wos, SNVHITYO MUN :SHSSVOUVO LNYGOW FO NOLLVNIWV Xi ‘IVOIDO’IOINMLOVE DOAIOS YIRIFT qn, "S "wos Ydessojoyg wy ADTEUS) UAV 12D Sap 7 were taken at various points in a direct line up to a distance of four miles. Rats are excellent climbers, as every one appreciates who has seen them about barns and other buildings. They have also demonstrated their skill in this in the Hawaiian Islands and elsewhere. In cities they have been seen to climb iron pipes for the purpose of entering buildings, to travel from one house to an- other on telephone wires, and to perform other extraordinarily ingenious feats in maintaining themselves. THEIR DEPREDATIONS- COVER WIDE-RANGE It is impossible to ascertain with pre- cision the total losses resulting from the depredations of house rats. It is, how- ever, practicable to secure information on which to base reasonable estimates of losses from this source. Rats are prac- tically omnivorous and their depreda- tions cover a wide range. -They feed in- differently upon all kinds of vegetable and animal matter. They dig up newly planted grain, de- stroy it while growing, and also when in the shock, stack, crib, granary, mill, ele- vator, warehouse, wharf, and ship’s hold, as well as in the bin and feed trough. They eat fruits, vegetables, and meats in the market, destroying at the same time by pollution far more than is consumed. They destroy enormous numbers of eggs and poultry, as well as the eggs and young of song and game birds. In addi- tion, they invade stores and warehouses and destroy groceries of every descrip- tion, as well as furs, laces, silks, carpets, and leather goods. They cause many disastrous fires by gnawing matches, by gnawing through lead pipe near gas meters, or by cutting the insulation from electric wires in order to secure material for nests and by gath- ering oil-soaked rags and other inflam- mable material in their nests; flood houses by gnawing through lead water pipes; ruin artificial ponds and embank- ments by burrowing, and damage foun- dations, floors, doors, and furnishings of dwellings. As disease carriers they also cause enormous commercial losses, especially through the introduction of bubonic plague and the resulting suspension of commerce. With the introduction of plague they become directly responsible for business disaster as well as for an appalling mortality. _ The extent and variety of their activi- ties may be indicated by citing instances of depredations by them. Much the greater part of losses from these pests is in foodstuffs, which, as already indi- cated, are destroyed at every stage from the time the seed is planted until they are ready for human consumption. A ’PERSISTENT PLAGUE Letters received from different States by the Biological Survey report that in places the freshly planted grain has been dug up so persistently by these pests that it has necessitated a second and even a third replanting. When the corn crop is ripening, they again attack it and some- times destroy the entire crop in small fields, as was the case in a field on the outskirts of Washington, shown on page 2. When corn or other grain is in the shock, rats take shelter under it and do great damage. The State Commissioner of Health, writing in 1914 concerning conditions in southwestern Virginia, states that rats consume something like Io per cent of the grain raised in many of the counties and have destroyed 75 per cent of the young chickens and turkeys. The year this statement was made this section of Virginia marketed $70,009 worth of do- mestic fowls. Similar complaints from all parts of the country as to the destruc- tion of chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese on farms, and of eggs, both on farms and in storage, indicate an impres- sive aggregate loss in these items. A farmer writes from Iowa that his immediate section is terribly infested with rats, which are very destructive to grain in store. He adds that they are under- mining the premises with their holes and practically ruining buildings by gnawing holes everywhere at will. Another farmer in Iowa writes that he lost about 25 per cent of 2,000 bushels of corn held in cribs. Grain stacks are favorite resorts for these animals and hundreds of them fre- quently gather there, wasting the farm- i # New QALERNS DURRANTINE! , Marcy 18, 1914 Resuct oF FUMIGATION OF ; “CABIN OFS.S. ETHELHILDA “ DOESA Cat KEEP A Snip Free QF RATS ? ONE CAT AND TWENTY-FOUR RATS, THE RESULT OF FUMIGATING THE CABIN OF A STEAMSHIP This cat, an exceptionally good ratter, rats. In fumigating yielded a bag of 1,700 rats (see pages 3-8). er’s substance. In barns and stables they boldly rob cattle, horses, and chickens of their feed, frequently exacting heavy toll. Poultry ranches often suffer extremely heavy losses, rats sometimes killing hun- dreds of young chickens, turkeys, rate and geese, and even the full-grown fowls. A commission merchant 1n Washing- ton stored 100 dozen eggs in a covered wooden tub in his warehouse and at the end of two weeks discovered that the rats had made a hole in the side of the tub near the cover and had carried away more than 70 dozen eggs without leaving any shells or other sign that a single egg had been broken. ~The» ingenuity rats show in stealing eggs is notorious. It is a mystery how they manage to carry away unbroken such smooth, round ob- jects, even taking them up stairways and over other obstacles. The number of useful birds nesting on the bushes which fall victims to rats is ex- tremely large and is one of the many kinds of injury done by these pernicious animals which cannot be computed. Prob- ably few frequenters of the countryside have returned to look into a bird’s nest to observe its condition without many times finding it destroyed and fragments of egg shells lying about. Unquestion- ably a large percentage of such nests lo- cated in the neighborhood of buildings have been raided by rats. On one of the small Danish islands it insect - eating ground or in low was supposed to have kept the cabin free from she was overlooked. The fumigation of the steamship Minnehaha has been authentically recorded that the progeny of a single pair of rats, which escaped from captivity, in two years time exterminated a great colony of birds for which the island had been noted. Fresh fruits and vegetables are de- stroyed in the greenhouse, garden, and field; also during transportation on boats and cars and in markets. Cultivated flowers also are destroyed in greenhouses and gardens, as well as after they are cut for the florist. MARKETS, RESTAURANTS, THEIR FAVORITE All ships are known to be infested by rats, and the number killed by fumigation on a single vessel has been known to reach 1,700. ‘taking into consideration the vast number of vessels engaged 1 commerce throughout the world, in all of which rats are continually destroying food and other property, it is evident that the sum lost in this way is enormous. One steamer on a 29-day voyage from India to Antwerp had 44,000 out of 46,- 000 sacks of grain cut open, entailing an estimated loss of $2,200. A large milling company in Louisville, Ky., recently asked advice as to controlling the rats and mice on their premises, stat- ing that it has cost them $3,000 a year to repair grain sacks aed by rodents. The kitchens and store-rooms of hotels and restaurants are favorite resorts for these pests, which waste and defile far AND ABODE SHIPS = . . JG Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service FLEA HUNTING BY THE PLAGUE LRADICATORS To determine the season of the greatest plague danger, the officials of the U. S. Public Health Service carefully examine a large number of the rats caught. In this picture a dead rat is being combed to discover the number and variety of fleas on its coat, the insects having first been killed by chloroform. These data are compiled and plotted as a curve of “flea incidents,” showing graphically the season of greatest danger. more than they eat. One of the last plague-stricken rats found by the Health Service officers in San Francisco was hid- den in a sack of peanuts on the third floor of a warehouse. In 1898 a large packing-house in Chi- cago had 3,360 hams destroyed by rats. They are also known to attack living ani- mals, and fat pigs have died as a result of having holes eaten in them. They oc- casionally gnaw the hoofs of horses until they bleed, and Carl Hagenback was obliged to kill three young elephants ow- ing to incurable wounds made on their feet by rats. When confined in cages the larger rats commonly kill and devour the smaller and weaker ones. A large department store in Washing- ton at one time lost as high as $30 a night in damaged goods, and a hotel in the same city averaged a loss of $75 a month in damaged linen. One merchant in this SNAP-TRAPS IN SURFACE In New Orleans snap-traps were placed under the culverts in An observer will note that a mouse or rat usually runs along the edge of a wall; therefore the trap is placed against the wall and not at some distance from it. the surface storm-water sewers. city had 50 dozen brooms, worth $2. dozen, destroyed, and another had worth of fine china broken in a single night. A harness dealer lost $400 worth of horse collars in a season. Mail sacks and other bags of all description have holes cut in them, and ivory on shipboard or on the docks is gnawed and its value seriously reduced. In addition to the losses of foodstuffs and merchandise, rats seriously injure buildings, sometimes by burrowing and persistent gnawing almost destroying the foundations. They cut holes in the floors, walls, doors, as well as in chests, ward- robes, bookcases, and closets. Through rat infestation buildings are sometimes rendered uninhabitable, forc- ing the tenants to abandon them and caus- = oe Photograph from U. S$. Public Health Service SEWERS Io ing heavy losses to the owners. An en- tire block of small houses in Washing- ton was deserted for this cause, resulting in the loss of $2,000 in) rents. —(@ccasion= ally a building is so undermined and weakened by these pests that it must be torn down. INCREDIBLE NUMBERS IN AUSTRALIA House mice sharea world-wide distribu- tion “wath: atseuancde while much smaller, are to be= meluded= with the rats as wast- ers of food and de- stroyers of other com- modities. | Occasion- ally they increase in numbers until they rival the rats in their destructiveness. Any campaign for the sup- pression of the rat pest should, as a mat- ter of course, include house mice. The potentiality ex- isting in these small animals to cause great losses of foodstuffs is now being demonstrated in Victoria and New South Wales, Australia, where dur- ing the last few months a plague of mice has developed. Enormous numbers of mice have swarmed about huge stacks containing millions of sacks of wheat, riddling the sacks and causing the stacks to collapse. The Melbourne Leader of May 26, 1917, states that “in some centers the ravages of mice are so great that huge stacks erected some months ago now re- semble heaps of debris.” ‘The President of the Chamber of Agriculture estimated that the loss might exceed £100,000. In New South Wales the Wheat Board began a campaign against the mice by double fence traps. The catch for two nights in one place is reported to have Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service A POISON SQUAD PREPARING RATBANE These men are spreading bread with a poisoned paste, which is very effective as a rodent exterminator. This was used successfully in New Orleans in 1914 when a plague epidemic threatened. totaled seven tons weight of mice. At Denmark, one-half the size of South another point 56,000 mice were caught Carolina, estimated her losses in 1907 at in four nights. A later report: states that about $3,000,000. ‘The same year the the mice had turned their attention to the losses in the rural districts of Great Brit- seed in. some districts where sowing had ain and Ireland, not counting those in begun and as a result of their depreda- towns and on ships, were estimated at tions further sowing operations had to $73,000,000, and a capital of about $10,- be discontinued. 600,000 was profitably employed there in Dr. Danysz, of the Pasteur Institute of the industry of supplying means for their Paris, estimated the damage from field destruction. In 1904 the losses in France mice in France during 1903 to approxi- were computed at $40,000,000. mate £1,000,000. The United States has nine times the combined area of the three countries mentioned, and investigations indicate that the direct annual losses sustained Rats have been pests so long that they here undoubtedly equal, if they do not have been taken for granted by the pub- exceed, $200,000,000, with a great ad- lic, much as is the weather or the forces ditional sum in indirect losses, including of nature. While people are often pain- the effect on the public health and com- fully aware of individual losses, they are merce from the diseases carried by rats, unaware of the vast total which these in- and the necessary expenditures in com- dividual sums aggregate and the conse- bating them. ‘The foregoing figures are quent need of community action against based on pre-war prices and are vastly the authors of such far-reaching eco- greater under present valuations. nomic drains. In Europe, about 1907, after careful HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS OF DOLLARS DESTROYED ANNUALLY BY RATS II Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service THE POISON SQUAD SETTING OUT These men, who are chosen especially for their reliability and carefulness, are setting out to distribute the poison “croutons.” investigation, the estimated average an- nual loss caused by each rat was com- puted to equal $1.80 in Great Britain, $1.20 in Denmark, and $1 in France. In the United States the average is undoubt- edly much larger than in any of the coun- tries named, especially at present high prices of food and other merchandise. There is no doubt that a very large number of rats subsist wholly on garbage and waste which is of no value, but the damage caused by rats in numerous places amounts to many dollars each a year; probably $5 a year would not be an over- estimate for the average loss caused by each rat living in a dwelling, hotel, res- taurant, or other place having ready ac- cess to food supplies. Assuming, roughly speaking, that as estimated the rat population in the United States is 50,000,000 for the cities and 150,000,000 for the rural districts, it will require the destruction of property by each rat of only a little more than one- fourth a cent a day to make the aggregate great sum estimated as destroyed by these pests yearly in this country. I2 A record is kept of each place where poison is placed. In 1907 a careful survey was made of the damage done by rats in Washington More than 500 business establishments, including factories, stores, livery stables, hotels, and restaurants, were visited. As a result of this inquiry the total losses for the city were estimated at $400,000 yearly. A similar inquiry in Baltimore indicated that the annual losses in that city were about $700,000. 200,000 MEN ARE NOW WORKING SOLELY TO FEED THE RATS A more definite idea of the losses from rats may be gained by considering what it means in human effort. Taking the average yearly returns on a man’s labor in agriculture, as shown by the census of I910, it requires the con- tinuous work of about 150,000 men, with farms, agricultural implements, and other equipment, to supply the foodstuffs destroyed annually by rats in the United States. In addition, rats destroy other property, mainly of agricultural origin, the production of which requires the work of about 50,000 men. OFFICIALS RECEIVING RATS KILLED BY CHILDREN DURING A CAMPAIGN THEM IN COPENH Photograph from Zuschlag AGAINST AGEN “By a small reward to the juvenile members of the family for as captured, the pests may be kept down and the primitive (see page 17). This gives a total of 200,000 men, with their equipment, in this country, whose economic output is devoted solely to feed- ing and otherwise providing for rats. If a small fraction of this army and the money involved could be concentrated in a continuous national campaign against these pests a vast saving could be achieved. By a nation-wide effort to increase rat- proofing of structures, and to cause a stricter guardianship of food products, combined with the destruction of rats, the number of these pests could be so greatly diminished that the losses from this source would soon be reduced one-half. Rats should be exterminated not only to stop the tremendous losses of food and other property, to which attention has already been drawn, but in order to protect humanity from some of its most dreaded diseases. It has been conclu- sively proved that these rodents are prac- tically the sole distributors of the bu- bonic plague which is communicated to human beings from infected rats by means of fleas. 13 joys of the chase experienced by the young trappers” THEY SPREAD THE PLAGUE The history of the plague runs back several centuries before the Christian era. There were particularly deadly out- breaks of it in Europe during the Middle Ages. In the fourteenth century it killed from two-thirds to three-fourths of the penne of several countries, and it has been estimated that 25,000,000 people died in Furope from ‘this disease, which was known as the “black death.” Sir James Crichton-Browne, president of the Society for the Destruction of Vermin, has recorded the fact that in 1907 2,000,- ooo deaths from the rat-borne plague oc- curred in India. The bubonic plague appears to have periods of quiescence, or what might be called periods of incubation; but. it possible that these periods of inactivity may be due to the great reduction in the rat population due to the disease. Sud- denly it appears to become virulently active and spreads with startling rapidity. This accounts for its recurrence at vary- ing intervals since the dawn of history. is Photograph from Zuschlag RATS BEING OFFICIALLY COLLECTED IN COPENHAGEN DURING THE ZUSCHLAG CAMPAIGN The chronicles of the sea, before the development of steam power, contain many grisly tales of plague ships drift- ing helplessly on the ocean, their crews stricken with the mortal disease which we now know must have been carried on board by rats.. The serious menace from this source still ‘exists in the face of all our modern knowledge. In the fifteen years following the out- break of plague in Canton, China, in 1894, this disease was discovered on 156 ships, and 51 countries are known to have been infected through its distribution by commerce. The disease was introduced into the United States at San Francisco, where, in order to control it, the United States Public Health Service made a successful 14 campaign against rats, which resulted in rat- proofing much of the city, and thus mate- rially bettering condi- tions. Meanwhile, unfor- tunately, the plague- bearing rats had passed the disease on to ground squirrels living abundantly in the hills surrounding San Francisco. Ow- ing to the wide-spread distribution of ground squirrels in the United States, their proved susceptibility to this disease greatly in- creases the danger of future outbreaks of the “plague rin) this: country. When it was learned that the “bw b,omake plague is a rat disease which is transmitted to human beings by fleas, it became possi- ble to fight it with in- telligence. Owing to the universal distribu- tion of rats and the increase of commerce between communities, the need of incessant vigilance to guard against sudden outbreaks of the plague is evident. Only through the elimination of these rodents, or a very great reduction of their numbers and their control, can the world feel secure from this dread dis- ease. Although the upkeep of quaran- tine precautions and other defensive measures against rats in the ports of the world, as well as in interior cities, amounts yearly to a great sum, it is worth all it costs. In addition to transmitting the bubonic plague, the house rat is known to convey infection of trichinosis, septic pneumo- nia, epidemic jaundice, and rat-bite fever. It is also afflicted with rat-leprosy, a dis- ease so like human leprosy that they are scarcely distinguishable, and the relation- | Foreningen {fil lovordne pane = = Photograph from Zuschlag OFFICIAL RAT-COLLECTING WAGON IN COPENHAGEN DURING THE PUBLIC CAMPAIGN AGAINST THESE RODENTS ship of the two is still undetermined. Owing to the fact that rats haunt drains, garbage deposits, and other accumula- tions of filth, it is unquestionably a poten- tial distributor of diphtheria, typhoid, scarlet fever, and infantile paralysis. THIEVES OF FERTILE BRAIN Since the early days rats of one species or another have been a burden to man- kind. The burdensome abundance of rats in Europe during the Middle Ages is indi- cated by the numerous legends which have come down from that time. The popular folk tale of the Pied Piper of Hamelin and, its variants originated in the’ thirteenth century. The’ tales of wicked men being devoured by swarms of rats sent as a punishment for their misdeeds and the account of the death of Bishop Hatto by an attack of these ro- dents in a tower where he. had taken refuge run back to the tenth century. They were such persistent pests at that time and so difficult to control that many efforts were made to rid communities of them. ‘They were anathema and persist- ent efforts were made to ban them by bell and book, as well as through exor-: cisms and other mystic ways of the BlackwArtss: : A translation of an old Gaelic exorcism against these rodents might well express the farmers’ feelings at the present day. One stanza reads: “No corn in sheaf, nor barley snugly stacked, Could serve thy turn; but all my garnered grain, In well-filled sacks, is next by thee attacked. And all is spoiled, thou thief of fertile brain; And all my sacks are nibbled, too, and holed— A sight most aggravating to behold.” In 1745 the first modern attempt to control the rat pest by law was made in the English colony of Barbados, in the West Indies. Another law was passed in 1880, on the West Indian island of An- tigua. ; Since that date increasing appreciation of the enormous economic losses caused by these animals, as well as the discovery that rats are primarily responsible for the distribution of bubonic plague and other RAT-PROOFING OLD WOODEN STRUCTURE: Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service NEW ORLEANS A cement wall sunk in the ground two feet and extending one foot above will shut out rats from harboring places in many structures diseases, has led to much and increasing agitation against them, and to the passing of many laws and regulations for their control. Emil Zuschlag, a Danish engineer who had studied and become thoroughly im- pressed with the great economic waste produced by rats and mice, organized a Danish society which had a membership of more than two thousand men of stand- ing and influence for the purpose of com- bating these rodents. ‘The activities of Zuschlag and the proof he gathered of the enormous destructiveness of rats led to the passage, in 1907, of the Danish rat law. Zuschlag also formed a second so- ciety, entitled “L’Association Internation- ale pour la Destruction Rationelle des Rats,” in which every country of Europe was represented officially or otherwise except Great Britain. In the latter coun- try was organized for a similar purpose “The Incorporated Society for the De- struction of Vermin.” Subsequently, England and other countries in Europe and elsewhere passed laws promoting the destruction of rats. THE OPPORTUNITIES FOR OUR CITIZENS Rats have been for so long a time a part of man’s environment that he has finally come to accept them more or less asa matter of course. As the result, not- withstanding the enormous losses from them, it is difficult to awaken the vast majority of the public to the gravity of the situation in order that a continuous and earnest campaign may be made for their suppression. Rats are quickly responsive to the con- ditions of life in every locality, and where poorly kept buildings exist and food is plentiful they will continue to abound. The householders or community abolish- ing sheltering places of rats and guarding food supplies from them, and trapping the resident animals, will soon have a marked diminution in their numbers. They will, however, continue to be an- noyed by the inroads of rats from neigh- bors, thus strongly evidencing the need of a still wider campaign against them. Any person failing to abolish, rat shelters on his property is maintaining a public nui- sance, menacing not only his own prop- erty and the health of his family, but that of his neighbors and the community at large. On premises where rats occur traps should be used persistently to keep down the number, as they will continually come in from elsewhere. By a small reward to the juvenile members of the family for rats captured the pests may be kept down and the primitive joys of the chase ex- perienced by the young trappers. The popular estimate of the usefulness of cats and ferrets in catching rats and mice is very much exaggerated. The personal relief to be had by per- ‘sistently trapping rats on the premises is indicated by the results at a suburban summer home near Washington, where from fifty to sixty (and several hundred mice) are captured each year. Without this reduction in numbers rats would in- crease and render conditions extremely burdensome. Photograph from U. §. Public Health Service A RAILROAD WAREHOUSE IN NEW ORLEANS Showing method of rat-proofing by a concrete wall. conditions which are ideal for the rats. The part not walled is a sample of Civic organizations which desire to better conditions in their communities have no more fertile field before them than that of controlling rats among the markets and establishments dealing in produce and other food in their cities. A large part of the food supplies of nearly all of our communities is handled in places swarming with rats and mice. Produce dealers are usually located on contiguous premises, usually in old build- ings under which the ground is honey- combed with rat burrows and the walls are so riddled with holes that rats pass freely from store to store through entire city blocks. Here meats, poultry, fish, fruits, and vegetables are dealt with in great quantities. For a large part of each day rats in almost unlimited numbers swarm in and over this food, eating some of it, and polluting quantities of it which pass on to the consumer. These repulsive conditions prevail largely because property owners desire to avoid the expenditure necessary to rat- proof buildings. This could be done at so small a cost that it is a discredit to civilization that communities of intelli- Photograph from U, §. Public Health Service MODEL OF RAT-PROOF HOUSE These diminutive buildings, designed by the U. S. Public Health Service, are used in instructing the general public how to comply with the rat-proofing ordinances, which have been adopted in many American cities since Surgeon General Blue’s epoch-making work in California. Note how the underpinning of the doorstep is cut away so that rats and mice can find no shelter underneath. There is a heavy wire grating over the ventilation opening in the foundation wall and a section of the side wall is cut away to show the brick or con- crete “stop” between the joists to prevent rats from getting into the box between the outer and inner walls and there having safe harborage. gent people should tolerate such unsavory and unhealthy conditions. OUR U. S. PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE LEADS THE WAY Ordinances should be passed and rigid- ly enforced forever to end this situation. The cost of the proper rat-proofing meas- ures would quickly pay for itself in the 18 saving of foodstuffs, and would warrant increased rent to the owners, in addition to conferring a lasting benefit on the com- munities involved. Surgeon General Blue’s dictum that “rats must be built out of existence” well indicates the importance of rat-proofing in the war against these rodents. One of the most effective campaigns Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service RAT-PROOFING BARNS AND STABLES BY ELEVATION OF CONTENTS The baled hay in this case has been raised so as to give rats no place to hide ever conducted against rats has been that cf the United States Public Health Serv- ice for the purpose of eradicating bu- bonic plague from San Francisco and New Orleans and to prevent its gaining a foothold in other American ports, but the results were much less than they might have been with more extended cooperation. Zuschlag and others who have given the rat question serious study have agreed that it will be extremely difficult to secure the far-reaching results so de- sirable in the control of this public men- ace except by international action. ‘The fact that when rats are destroyed in one area they tend to reinfest it from sur- rounding regions greatly lessens the ef- fectiveness of local campaigns. For this reason, while local campaigns are useful and extremely desirable in relieving local conditions, the final great public relief will come when the campaign is broad- ened to international proportions. At this time, when all civilized nations are care-ridden with the fear that gaunt Hunger may stalk through the world, it 1g 1s essential that foodstuffs be safe- guarded as never before. To accomplish this the main sources of preventable waste should be located and controlled. The foregoing pages have shown that among these elements of waste the house rat stands preeminent and deserves the most serious attention. RATS SHOULD NOT BE TOLERATED AT TIME WHEN THE ENTIRE WORLD FEARS A WORLD FAMINE A The remedies against this pest are com- paratively simple and may be put in ef- fect to advantage by every householder, as well as by mercantile establishments and organizations. For modern commu- nities to continue to harbor these loath- some parasites is merely to prolong the survival of careless methods of individ- ual and community housekeeping inci- dent to barbarous times. Every health officer and every well-informed person knows the extending menace these pests present to himself and neighbors. Why, then, should we not cease feeding and sheltering them? FO 9sodind oy} JO} s[eAJOUL poje}s Je poyesiumny oq pynoys oyjes} Av dy} sOJaq pue jy10d OJUT SaUIOD dIYyS 9Y} UsYyA\ oUOp SI SII, "(€z osed ‘}x0} 008) ,sovjd 0} 90¥ M Jd Wosf potiofsurs} SHY} o1v puv Woy} UL 1OGIvY YOIYA syet oy} Surfoajzsap JoyeM pur[UL pure ‘[eJseod ‘Sulos-vas UL pasesus sdiys ]TV,, ‘popeojun si Os1vd ‘SJUIPOT OY} O} DATIONAJSOp AIOA SI Jnq ‘OS1ed 31} UlIvY, JOU SsOp AT 0} sdrys Jo spjoy ey} Oyur poduind pure ‘pajoos ‘poysem Sst “‘poqse M oq ISIMIDYIO P[HOM YSIYM ‘s SIVA WHT AOWLSHA OL WATXONOW NOs *syeI oY} TPL Re} N} 9NIAIIG YYPaFT Oqng oy} wo1ry ses youunyy aivo HIM SdIHS DNILVVOIINOA Vy Oo a wee ee Photograph from U. S. Public Health Service GUARDS PLACED ON THE HAWSERS TO KEEP RATS FROM BOARDING THE SHIP On the lines by which a ship is tied up to the wharf are placed metal disks which look like the “messengers” boys send up on kite strings. and prevent rodents from landing or taking passage by way of the hawser. These disks are two feet in diameter The ship is “breasted off’ with a spar, seen in the background, which is also guarded by a similar sheet of metal. As an additional precaution, the gang-plank is painted white for a space of twenty feet. This is guarded by a quartermaster when in use and elevated when not. It should be kept in mind that so long as good shelter and plenty of food are available rats will thrive and increase. Under such conditions trapping alone will be ineffective, since unless otherwise controlled the supply of rats will be in- exhaustible. Use concrete, wire netting, and sheet metal to rat-proof buildings, and keep food and foodstuffs within rat- proof containers (or buildings), and the number of rats will naturally diminish. Then by means of traps or poison the survivors can be readily eliminated from the premises. Rat-proofing in some degree, as well as extra care in safeguarding food sup- plies, whether in the granary or pantry, should accompany all efforts to eliminate rats. By these methods the householder may free himself from their obnoxious presence. It may be stated here that many claims have been made as to the effectiveness of different serums and viruses for the de- struction of rats by spreading contagious diseases among them; but extended ex- periments, particularly in this country, have, so far as the writer is informed, failed absolutely to give the desired re- sults. The reliable and successful reme- dies lie in the use of concrete and other modern building materials, with effective traps and poison used thoroughly in act- ive, individual, community, and national campaigns. ORGANIZED EFFORTS ARE NECESSARY The only really satisfactory way of handling the rat problem is by organized efforts. This is particularly true, owing to the fact that even with all property owners doing their duty many public and my AS Wess USE ey , |For MEL ! ai Sly TD a NS “} ADMIRE THES OPEN CANS, All fl Photographs from U. $. Public Health Service STREET-CAR POSTERS USED IN NEW ORLEANS DURING THE RAT CAMPAIGN BY THE Ul Ss eRUBEIC ETAT IRE Sh RVLCE UI ROUT \ ase) THE RAT! cal AN Via — Tox mace mae Coes) semi- public places will remain to be 2. Funds may be raised for the pay- treated. Here is where civic organiza- ment of premiums or prizes for killing tions, including boards of trade, may take rats in contests arranged under local or- leading parts. Rat- -proofing and the for- ganizations or committees. mation of rat clubs for killing these ro- 3. The campaign can be enlarged by dents may be promoted in addition to en- civic organizations, not only securing couraging individual efiorts. The fol- neighborhood action, but by their assist- lowing suggestions are for action along ance in bringing about more general these lines action. The public may be educated in 4. Voluntary cooperation for the pub- methods of rat-proofing, protecting food lic welfare in this matter should bring supplies, and trapping and poisoning rats about municipal ordinances as well as and mice. State and National legislation. A begin- to i) ANOS, TRAILERS) 23 ning of such legislative action has been made in the United States, notably in New Orleans and San Francisco. The State of Indiana has a drastic law providing for the destruction of rats on all premises, and giving the Governor authority to set aside one “rat day” in spring, when the public should join in a general effort to destroy these pests throughout the State. Unfortunately this law makes no provision for rat- proofing as well as killing rats, and until amended will be seriously defective. Meanwhile, through lack of proper pub- lic sentiment behind it, the law is not being enforced. Measures for the control of rats should provide for certain fundamental require- ments as follows: New buildings should be made rat- proof under rigid inspection. Existing rat-proof buildings should be closed to rats by wire mesh or fine grat- ing over all windows and doors accessible to them. Old buildings not rat-proof should be remodeled and concrete, wire mesh, and other material used to render them practically rat-proof. Harboring places, such as old sheds, piles of trash, old lumber, wooden side- walks, open stone walls, and garbage dumps, should be abolished. All garbage and food waste on which rats may feed should be protected from them and promptly removed. All markets and other public buildings should be promptly rat-proofed and fre- quently inspected. All ships engaged in sea-going, coastal, and inland waterway traffic should be fumigated at stated intervals for the pur- pose of destroying the rats which harbor in them and are thus transferred from place to place. So-called civilized man has had with him from barbarous times a variety of vermin, including insects and mammals, nearly or quite all of which are carriers of deadly diseases. Only within a com- paratively few years have advancing knowledge and public sentiment com- bined to bring about any considerable efforts to subdue and eliminate these pests. The public is rapidly awakening, however, to the dangers involved in them and is becoming more and more deter- mined in its efforts to control these causes of enormous losses, both in property and human life. Through the efforts of Dr. L. O. How- ard and others, the house fly—the “‘ty- phoid fly,” as it has been well termed—is now under the ban of general public dis- approval. The Spanish War developed the fact that the mosquito was the carrier of yel- low fever. Another type of mosquito is known to be the carrier of malaria. The European War has brought to aimost universal public knowledge the fact that body lice are carriers of the deadly ty- phus, and many diseases are known to be carried by other insects. Among these deadly carriers of death and destruction none equals the house rat in its tremendous drain on the pros- perity of nations by its destruction of food and other property, while at the same time it is the deadliest of all to mankind as a disease carrier. Within historic times it has caused the death of untold millions of human beings and its devastations are still in progress. There is little doubt that the time will arrive in the not distant future when persons maintaining rat-breeding resorts on their premises will be looked upon with the same disfavor that now visits those who harbor vermin of a lowlier degree: *A bulletin giving brief practical advice for rat-proofing structures and for destroying rats has been published for distribution by the Bio- logical Survey, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. Written inquiries for expert information on these subjects may be directed to the same address. RUSSIA’S MAN OF THE lslOUIR Alexander Kerensky’s First Speeches and Proclamations HOSE who, like Plutarch, seek for parallels in the lives and char- acters of men whose genius directs the fate of nations, will find many inter- esting points of similarity between the Man of Destiny of the French Revolu- tion and the Man of the Hour in Russia’s day of liberation from the oppression of autocracy. Napoleon was in his 31st year when he became First Consul of the French Republic; Kerensky, premier of the Russian cabinet and now exercis- ing the powers of dictator in order to restore order in the empire, is just 36. Throughout his career Napoleon suf- fered from an incurable internal malady, supposedly cancer of the stomach; Ke- rensky is also tortured by a disease (sup- posedly tuberculosis of the liver) which prevents his working at fever heat more than a few weeks at a time; then he is forced by weakness to recuperate for three or four days in a sanitarium in the Crimea. Napoleon’s judgment of men was in- stant and almost infallible; Kerensky is reputed to possess the same faculty to a marked degree. The accompanying addresses and proc- lamations, translated for the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MacazINE from official copies in the offices of the Russian Embassy at Washington, are their own best commentary on the incisive, force- ful style of Kerensky, the impassioned orator. His exhortations to the soldiers of the new Russia have much in com- mon with the inspiring appeals of Na- poleon to his troops before the Battle of the Pyramids and elsewhere. In personal appearance Kerensky is described as a man of medium height, with close-cropped brown hair, flashing brown eyes, and a face which in repose has a strained, almost embittered, ex- pression, but which lights up magically with a broad, generous smile. Recent pictures of the premier show his right arm in a sling, but no news has been allowed to pass the Russian censor as to how the nation’s foremost revolutionary figure was injured, whether by a bullet at the front or by the attack of some anarchistic enemy among his own people. The Provisional Government of Russia came into existence on March 14, 1917, as a result of agreement between the Ex- ecutive Committee of the Duma and the Council of Workmen and Soldiers. The new government was composed mainly of representatives of Liberal po- litical views—the views of the Russian middle class. Alexander Kerensky, who was the only member of the Provisional Govern- ment to represent the Socialist parties, took the portfolio of Minister of Justice. He appeared as the link between the govy- ernment and the broad Russian masses. Immediately following the announce- ment of the organization of the Provis- ional Government, Kerensky delivered two addresses—one before the Council of Workmen and Soldier Deputies and the second before a mass meeting of soldiers and citizens gathered in front of the Duma. In these speeches the Minister explained the motives which induced him to become a member of a cabinet com- posed mainly of representatives of the middle-class parties. SPEECH BEFORE THE COUNCIL OF SOLDIERS AND WORKMEN “Comrades, do you believe me? Do you have faith in me?” (Cries from every part of the chamber, “Yes, we have! Yes, we have!”) “I speak, com- rades, from the very depths of my heart. I am ready to die should it become neces- sary.” (General excitement and a great deal of applause, followed by a continu- ous ovation. ) “Comrades, in view of the organization of the new government, I felt it my duty © International Film Service ALEXANDER FEODOROVITCH KERENSKY (IN THE AUTOMOBILE), AS MINISTER OF WAR, REVIEWING RUSSIAN TROOPS AT THE FRONT “On the tips of your bayonets you will bear peace, right, justice, and fair play; in straight ranks, strengthened by discipline of duty and undying love to the revolution and country, we will go forward, free sons of Russia.” the republic’s army to assume the offersive. immediately, without awaiting your for- mal sanction, to reply to the invitation extended me to assume the responsibili- ties as Minister of Justice.” (Stormy applause.) “Comrades, representatives of the old government are now in my power and I have made up my mind not to give up control over them.” (Loud applause, erties “Correct.”) ~\ received the invita- tion and became a member of the Pro- visional Government as Minister of Jus- 25 In these words Russia’s Man of the Hour inspired tice.” (Applause and cries “Bravo!” ) “My first step was the issuing of an order calling for the immediate liberation of all political prisoners, without any excep- tion; also that our comrades, the deputies of the social democratic faction now in Siberia, be escorted here with honors.” (Thunderous applause and great enthu- S1asm. ) “In view of the fact that I have as- sumed the responsibilities of the Minister of Justice prior to receiving your formal 26 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sanction, I now resign as vice-chairman of the Council of Soldiers and Workmen ; but I stand ready to again assume that title should you find it necessary.” (Ap- plause and cries, “You are welcome to it!) “Comrades, having entered the cabinet of the Provisional Government, I remain the same man as I was—lI remain a re- publican.” (Loud applause.) “I made it plain to the Provisional Government that I appear as a representative of de- mocracy, and that the Provisional Gov- ernment must regard me as the spokes- man of democracy’s demands. Com- rades, time is not waiting. Every minute is dear. I call you to organization, dis- cipline; I ask you to extend help to us, your representatives who are ready to die fom the people: SPEECH TO THE SOLDIERS AND CITIZENS “Comrades, soldiers and citizens, I am the member of the Duma, Alexander Kerensky, Minister of Justice.” (Loud and enthusiastic cheers.) “1 declare in the presence of all of you here that the new Provisional Government has as- sumed its responsibilities and duties in agreement with the Council of Soldiers and Deputies. “The agreement made between the Ex- ecutive Committee of the Duma and the Executive Committee of the organization of Soldier Deputies has been approved by the Council of Workmen and Soldier Deputies with a majority of several hun- dred against fifteen.” (Great applause and cries “Bravo!’’) “The first step of the new government is the immediate publication of the act of full amnesty. Our comrades of the sec- ond and fourth Duma, who were illegally sent to the wilderness of Siberia, will be immediately liberated and brought here with honors. “Comrades, in my power are now all the representatives of the ex-Council of Ministers and all the ministers of the old order. They will answer, comrades, for all crimes committed by them before the people in accordance with the law.” (Cries “Without mercy!” ) “Comrades, free Russia will not stoop to those humiliating means of struggle which characterized the acts of the old regime. No one will be punished with- out trial; all will be judged in an open peoples’ court. “Comrades, soldiers and citizens, every step taken by the new government will be public. Soldiers, I beg of you to codperate. Free Russia has become one, and no one will succeed in tearing free- dom from the peoples’ grasp. Do not mind the exhortations coming from the agents of the old order. Pay attention to your officers. Long live free Russia!” (Thunderous applause and cries “Hur- rah!) THE FIRST PROCLAMATION OF THE MIN- ISTER OF JUSTICE TO THE PEOPLE “Citizens! So far every order coming from the Provisional Government, and having in view the complete defeat of the old regime and the establishment of the new order, has been executed by the peo- ple without bloodshed. The honor of the nation demands that the first radiant days of liberty be not befogged by thoughtless and intolerable acts of violence ; such acts must be avoided in spite of the natural unrest of citizens. “Conscious of the greatness of the moment, all citizens must voluntarily take all the necessary steps tending to preserve the liberty of every individual without the slightest exception. Be it known to all that the guilty will be put to just trial, which will result in punishing all according to their deserts. “Citizen A. KERENSKY, “Member of the Duma, “Minister of Justice.” KERENSKY AT MOSCOW A few days following the organization of the Provisional Government, Keren- sky, at the instance of the government, visited Moscow. His arrival there was the occasion of many demonstrations and festivities given in the honor of the new order and the Provisional Government. In reply to the greetings and addresses made at his reception, Kerensky spoke as follows: “T can scarcely find words in reply to your greetings, addressed through me to Photograph by George H. Mewes, courtesy of London Daily Mirror WATCHING THE GERMANS FROM AN OBSERVATION POSITION The General of Division thinks he has located a battery of 12-inch Skoda howitzers and has asked his aide to have a look the Provisional Government. What I have lived through during those days of grandeur! I have always fulfilled my duty, and if I have done what I have done, it was only because I knew that the Russian people is a great people ; that the Russian democracy is a great democ- racy. I am here as her tool, and by rea- son of this 1am happy. I act because of my faith in the people and democracy. I step firmly along a great wide road be- cause I well know the workingmen, the peasantry, and the whole people. “T am here in the name of the Pro- visional Government, which came into being and assumed the great govern- mental powers, called forth by the people and the Duma. I come -here bearing greetings. I came here to let it be known that we are placing ourselves at the dis- posal of the entire nation, and that we will fulfill the will of the people to the very end, up to the time of the assem- bling of the Constitutional Assembly. I came here to ask of you, Shall we go to the very end?” DOES NOT WANT TO BE THE MARAT OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION At one of the numerous mass meetings held in Moscow in Kerensky’s honor he was asked about the fate of the Russian dynasty. In reply the youthful minister said: “Nicholas II is resigned to his fate and has asked the help of the Provisional Government. I, as Minis- ter of Justice, am holding his fate, as well as that of his dynasty, in my hands: but our marvelous revolu- tion was almost bloodless, and I do not want to be the Marat of the Russian revo- lution. There should be no place for vengeance.” e are also many sub- ide between Helsingfors Ther Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor iv Petrograd to the sea, and about 40 miles w ADDRESS TO THE ARMY, CON- CERNING THE PROBLEMS OF THE PROVISIONAL, GOVERN MENT Soon after the organi- zation of the Provisional Government, Petrograd be- came the Mecca for=nu- merous delegations sent from the front by the vari- ous parts of the army. The delegates were sent to the capital with a view of as- certaining the program of the Provisional Govern- ment, as well as the gov- ernment’s relation to the Council of \Vorkmen and Soldiers. One of these delegations Kerensky ad- dressed as follows: “The greatest problem facing the Provisional Gov- ernment at this time is to uphold the unanimity of mind and action of the Russian nation at this the crucial hour of our lives. At the present moment nothing threatens the solu- tion of the problem. Be- tween the Provisional Goy- ernment on the one hand and the Council of Soldiers and \Workmen on the other, there is today full wuna- nimity both as regards prob- lems and aims. If there is some disagreement, it only relates to questions of tact, to questions of what can be done today and what may be postponed until tomor- 4 GFORS “ TIELSIN any hundreds of small rocky islands. AR 4 4 4 > from its head nez THE COAST OF FINLAND, NI ulf is about 250 miles lone oO be) The The shores of Finland bordering on the Gulf of Finland are dotted with m ledges, merged rocky and Reval. RUSSIA'S MAN row. But these tactical differences are at present being gradually overcome and will, I hope, all be overcome by mutual consent. “The Provisional Government has at its command full governmental powers. “But in solving our problems we are in need of criticism and control; therefore do not be dismayed and do not think that criticism and control by the public is in- terfering with our work. We are the more in need of control and criticism by the Council of Soldiers, Workmen, Peas- ants, and Officers’ Deputies, because they all represent the people and the Russian democracy. “Tt may be that you are somewhat dis- turbed by noisy agitations. Certain words appear to be the evil of the day. But we, the Provisional Government, are not in the least dismayed by such manifesta- tions. “We believe in the common sense, in the iron will of the people—to march to salvation and not to ruin, because no one desires to bring about his own ruin. We believe that in the end constructive prob- lems and not isolated party slogans will triumph. “Tf we do not at this moment give the army all that it needs it is not because we do not want to, but because we can- not. : “The old régime has left everything in a state of chaos; coal has disappeared from the market, metals have disap- peared, and the population was starving. Money was dwindling down in value, the nation was being impoverished, and this brought about the high prices. In this shape we have come unto our inheritance. “However, we assume the responsi- bility because we believe that the people will understand the impossibility of cre- ating at a moment’s notice all from noth- ing. We believe that the people, having become the master, will endeavor to grasp the cause of the country’s needs. Our belief has not deceived us; the peo- ple have without hesitation set about or- ganizing life. And the army does not as yet get all; but still it already gets more than has been the case under the old regime. @©F THe HOUR 29 “As to the agrarian question, all that [ can say is that by reason of my views and convictions | am in sympathy with the slogan, ‘Earth and Liberty.’ The people must get Earth and Liberty in their full scope. In this respect the Provisional Government has committed itself through ‘definitely’ assumed obligations. We feel it is our duty to state that the question of the new forms of land ownership can be solved by the Constitutional Assembly only. “T assure you that the question of land will not be solved without the consent of the front. “For centuries we have grown accus- tomed to wait without getting anything, and now we want to get all without wait- ing a single day. To transform an Asi- atic monarchy into the freest republic on earth, endeavoring to avoid mistakes made at various times in western Eu- rope, is a problem that cannot be solved in the course of a few days. ‘The solu- tion of the problem requires, if not years, at least several months. “And we will effect our purpose by striving toward it with all powers at our command; but we must be on the look- out not to overreach it in our dash for- ward, else we are most likely to over- reach the aim and leave it behind us. Therefore our nearest and-primary ob- ject must be the organization of the masses. “Tt is only the organized masses that march to their goal not as dreamers, but as people engaged in the erection of a new State, with full knowledge of the work at hand. Remember, that the ulti- mate result depends on our perseverance and power of self-control. “You must not be dismayed by talk of a counter-revolution. No counter-revo- lution is possible, for the simple reason that there is no imbecile who will dare to rise against the will of the entire army, the entire peasantry, the entire labor de- mocracy, and the will of entire Russia. “We will attain all, provided we can grapple with the only danger facing us, provided we can battle with those who will take a notion of reaching out a hand from outside, and thus help the hidden BISShY JO [edo yUsrOUR dy} UT EH Moqrg Aq ydessojoyg IOUIASOIL) OY} UO [UPFAIPUL [eyosersjzvd oy y, saovjd d1410}s1y oY} 0} sjidnd siy Sulj1Oosa sl OYM ‘Jo}SVLUITOOYIS dy} SI Jo] MODSOW NI SAOG-"IOOHOS NVISSONU ‘hai ~ = Sarees Re poner ‘ ‘mae, Miateis " mee cn . a wi ion, aa x~— RUSSIA’S MAN OF THE HOUR OL reaction; those who will want to van- quish the front, to vanquish liberty. “The first word voiced by the Provi- sional Government concerning the war was the rejection of annexation, the re- jection of aims of robbery, the rejection of that which is named Imperialism. But we demand, and we will make our de- mands known to those who will not listen to them, that we have a right to a free life and a right to our place on earth, which we will yield to no one. “No soldier, no sailor of any govern- ment has the rights that you have. Out- side of your regiment you are absolutely free. But great rights impose great du- ties. I have no doubt that you will fulfill these duties—your debt to the nation and democracy.” A LEADER WILLING TO STEP ASIDE In spite of Kerensky’s enormous popu- larity with the masses, his activities as a member of the Provisional Government have been frequently criticised by ex- tremists. The criticisms were also voiced within the Council of Deputies. This moved Kerensky to address the Council as follows: “T have heard there are rumors afloat among you to the effect that my attitude toward the old authorities and the Im- perial family is gradually weakening. I have heard that there appear among you people who dare to express a lack of con- fidence in me. “T warn all who speak thus that I will not permit a disbelief in me, and through me insult Russian democracy. “T ask of -you to either exclude me from your midst or to give me your full confidence.” (Great applause and cries, “Bravo!’) “You accuse the Provisional Government and myself of being too in- dulgent with the members of the Imperial family ; you say that we leave them free and treat them with consideration. “T was at Tsarskoye Selo, where I met the officer in command there and spoke with the soldiers. ‘The commandant of the Tsarskoye Selo Palace is a good friend of mine, in whom I have absolute confidence. ‘The garrison promised me to obey all my commands. “You doubt because there are several members of the Tsar family who are still at liberty, but at liberty are those only who in common with you have protested against the old régime and the rascalities of Tsarism. Dmitry Pavlovich is free because he, too, struggled with the old order up to the very last. He worked out a plan to kill Rasputin, and therefore he has a full right to remain an officer of the Russian army in Persia. “Comrades, soldiers and officers, re- member that the work of the Provisional Government is one of enormous responsi- bilities. The Provisional Government stands for liberty, right, and Russian in- dependence, and it will stand there up to the very last. The equal responsibility for the fate of our country rests on us, on your Provisional Government. In the name of your debt to the country, we must all work together in full unity.” (Stormy applause.) “I became a mem- ber of the Provisional Government as your representative and I endeavored to the utmost of my power to champion your interests and opinions. “T worked for your good, and I will continue doing so as long as you believe in me and as long as you are frank with me; but there appear people who want to create enmity between us. Remember that it is the duty of all of you to con- tinue your good work, and if you will I shall work together with you; if this be not your wish, I shall step aside. I want to know, Do you believe me or do you not?” (Great applause, culminating in an ovation. Cries, “You are welcome! You are welcome! We believe in you!) KERENSKY’S SPEECH ABOUT THE POLITICAL CRISIS The first cabinet, as is well known, came into being as a result of a decision arrived at during a conference held be- tween the Duma and the Council of Sol- diers and Workmen Deputies. Never- theless there was much discrepancy be- tween this cabinet and the political status of the great mass of soldiers and work- men which today represents the backbone of the revolution. At the time when most of the ministers were representatives of the Russian middle class, belonging to her NO SdVO HWIM DNIGNVIS NAW WIVHT AHL JO WN IVATNAO WHY SI WILWI YN, :NVWHOVO)D SIH GINIVIG€0 AOLSIOL HOIHM WOU ‘VISSAY “HVNVA‘IOd HVAVNS LV ATINVA NVISSON GH [TOMSSeID *S “ET worz ydess0j0yg RUSSIAS MAN OF THE HOUR liberal parties, this the people’s element was represented in the government by only one man—Kerensky. These circumstances caused lack of confidence toward the government among the great masses and in the army. ‘The people regarded the cabinet as composed of “bourgeois.” The government had no great prestige and was lacking in power. The circumstances, however, “required a strong concerted authority which would have the power to carry out all decisions arrived at. This brought about a political crisis which led to the formation of the new coalition government. During those days soldier and officer delegates from every part of the front held their first congress in Petrograd. It was before this congress that Kerensky delivered the following address: “Two months have elapsed since the birth of Russian freedom. I did not come here in order to greet you. Our greetings have been dispatched to your trenches long since. Your pains and your suffer- ings were one of the motives prompting the revolution. We could no longer en- dure the imbecile lavishness with which the old order spilled your blood. I be- lieved throughout the two months that the only power which can save our coun- try and lead her on the right path is the consciousness of responsibility for every word and every act of ours—a responsi- bility resting on every one of us. This belief I still hold. “Comrades, soldiers and officers, I well know what your feelings are there in the trenches, but I also know what is going on here. Possibly the time is near when we shall have to say to you, “We cannot give you all the bread which you have a right to expect of us and all the ammuni- tion on which you have a right to depend,’ and this will not come about through the fault of those who two months ago as- sumed before the tribunal of history and the whole world the formal and official responsibility for the honor and glory of our country. “The situation of Russia at present is complex and difficult. ‘The process of transformation from slavery to liberty does not, of course, assume the form of a parade. It is a difficult and painful (SO) (SU) work, full of misconceptions, mutual mis- understandings, which prepare a field for cowardice and bad faith, turning free citizens into human dust. “The time of the isolated countries is past. The world has long since be- come one family, which is frequently torn asunder by internal struggles, but which is. nevertheless bound together by strong ties—economical, cultural, and others. “Should we, as contemptible slaves, fail to organize into a strong nation, then a dark, sanguine period of internal strife will surely come, and our ideals will be cast under the heels of that despotic rule which holds that might is right and not that right is might. Every one of us, from the soldier to the minister, and from the minister to the soldier, can do whatever he pleases, but he must do it with eyes wide open, placing his devotion to the common ideal above all else. “Comrades, for years we have suffered in silence and were forced to fulfill duties imposed upon us by the old hateful might. You were able to fire on the people when the government demanded that of you. And how do we stand now? Now we can no longer endure! What does it mean? Does it mean that free Russia is a nation of rebellious slaves?” (Uneasiness all over the hall.) “Comrades, I can’t—I don’t know how I can tell the people untruths and conceal from them the truth! “T came to you because my strength was giving way, because I am not longer aware of my previous courage. I haven’t the previous confidence that we are not facing rebellious slaves, but conscious cit- izens engaged in the creation of a new Russia and going about their work with an enthusiasm worthy of the Russian people. “They tell us that the front is no longer a necessity ; fraternizing 1s going on there. Do they fraternize on the French front? No, comrades. If fraternize, then let us fraternize on both sides. Have not the forces of our adversary been transported to the Anglo-French front? And has not the Anglo-French offensive been halted already? As far as we are concerned, there is no such thing as a Russian front; AN UNUSUAL SIGHT: AN AMERICAN Photograph from Stanley Washburn NEWSPAPER CORRESPONDENT ADDRESSING RUSSIAN TROOPS AT THE INVITATION OF THEIR COMMANDER there is one front, and that is an Allied front. “We are marching toward peace, and I should not be a member of the Provis- ional Government were it to disregard the will of the people as far as ending the war goes; but there are roads wide open and there are narrow, dark alleys, a stroll through which might cause one to lose both his life and honor. “We want to hasten the end of this fratricidal war; but to this end we must march across the open, straight road. “We are not an assembly of tired peo- ple; we are a nation. There are paths. They are long and complex. We are in need of an enormous amount of perse- verance and calm. If we propose new War aims, then it behooves us to conduct ourselves so as to command the respect of both friend and foe. No one respects a weakling. “T regret that I did not die two months ago. I would have died then happy with the dream that a new life has lit up in Russia ; hopeful of a time when we could respect each other without resorting to the knout ; hopeful that we could rule our mpire not as it was ruled by our previ- ous despots. “This is all, comrades, that I care to say. It is, of course, possible that I am mistaken. The diagnosis that I have made may turn out to be incorrect, but I think I am not so much in error as would appear to others. My diagnosis is: [If we do not immediately realize the tragedy and hopelessness of the situa- tion: if we do not concede that the imme- diate responsibility rests on all; if our political organism will not work as smoothly as a well-oiled mechanism, then all that we dreamed of, all to which we are striving, will be cast several years back and possibly drowned in blood. I want to believe that we will find the so- lution for our problems, and that we will march forward along the open and bright road of democracy. “The moment has come when every one must search the depths of his con- science in order to realize whither he himself is going and whither he is lead- ing those who, through the fault of the 34 ‘jurjd o8eioy pue pooy jurzsoduit ue se odoimsy puke voliouy OUT poonporjUL wooq ATJUOIII Sey pur ‘uedef pue eulyd Ur Solinjudd 1OJ UMOIS UDoq Sey 4[ ‘SsuUOTVeU [RJUApIIIO JO so[dood oy} Aq pozrusooat sulaq Ayjenpeas o1v soitodoid oAniaynu sy pue ‘ssourdef oy} JO JoIp oy} Ur yeow Fo sovjd ay} Saye} UvIq-AOS OIL, TNOW WIELVA NVadOWNA AHL NO SHINY NVISSOX AOA GANILSHdA ‘AN’IVG LV SM00d HHL NO SNV#@d-AOS Auvdurody SMON OJOY wojsog wo.1sz ydessojoyg as ST ce A RUSSIAN “ISBA” t. : i = ies ree is 6 ‘ Photograph from H. S. Cresswell IN A VILLAGE NEAR MOSCOW Far from a railway, these “isbas,” or huts, are thatched, while the modern “isbas,’ near a railway, are tin-roofed and usually flat-roofed, as a protection against sparks from the engines. old government, which held the people in darkness, regard every printed word as law. It is not difficult to play with this element, but the game is apt to be brought too far. “T came here because I believed in my right to tell the truth as I understand it. People who even under the old régime went about their work openly and with- out fear of death, those people, I say, will not be terrorized. The fate of our country is in our hands and the country is in great danger. We have sipped of the cup of liberty and we are somewhat intoxicated. But we are not in need of intoxication ; we are in need of the great- est possible sobriety and discipline. We must enter history so that they may write on our graves: ‘They died, but they were never slaves’ ” FIRST ORDERS BY THE OF WAR NEW MINISTER As a member of the Coalition Cabinet, Kerensky took the post of Minister of War and the Navy. One of the main problems facing the new government was the consolidation of the war strength of the Russian army. It was desirable that the big task of reorganizing the Russian troops be as- sumed by Kerensky, who was most pop- ular with the Russian soldiers. His first order to the Russian army and navy was as follows: “Having assumed the military powers of the country, I declare: “First. The country is in danger, and a duty devolves upon every one to ex- tricate her from it, regardless of difficul- ties. I will therefore refuse to accept resignations prompted by a desire to avoid responsibilities in this grave hour. “Second. Those who have voluntarily left their military and fleet units (de- serters) must return at the appointed time (the 28th of May). “Third. Those guilty of violation of this order will be punished under the full severity of the law. PuRtErabh by Seales Washburn RUSSIANS IN CAREFULLY CONSTRUCTED TRENCHES ON THE GALICIAN FRONT A few hours after this picture was taken the enemy launched a successful drive against this position and only six of the defenders escaped uninjured, while the trench itself was reduced to debris in the course of a two-hour bombardment preparatory to the enemy’s advance. “To read this order to all companies, squads, batteries, and crews on the battle- ships. “A. KERENSKY, “Minister of War and Navy.” ORDER OF MAY 25 “Warriors, officers, soldiers and sailors! In this great and sad hour in the life of our country, | am commanded by the will of the people to take my place at the head of the Russian armed forces. Infinitely heavy is my new burden; but as an old soldier of the revolution, submitting to the severe discipline of duty, I have as- sumed before the people and the revolu- tion the responsibility of the army and fleet. “All of you warriors of free Russia, from soldier to general, are fulfilling a glorious debt, the debt of defending revo- lutionary Russia. By defending Russia you are at the same time battling for the 37 triumph of the great ideals of revolu- tion—for liberty, equality, and fraternity. “Not a drop of our blood will be spilled in the name of untruth. “You will march forward where your leaders and the government will direct you, not for the purpose of conquest and violence, but in order to save free Russia. “Tt is impossible to drive away the enemy while standing in one place. “On the tips of your bayonets you will bear peace, right, justice, and fair play. In straight seals, strengthened by dis- cipline of duty and undying love to the revolution and country, we will go for- ward, free sons of Russia. “Without discipline there is no unity of action; without discipline there can be no salvation. The fate of our liberty de- pends on whether the army and fleet will fulfill their duty to their country up to the very last. By vanquishing Tsarism the army has performed a great deal, having shown how one must love and battle for liberty. But I believe that the army will perform still greater deeds; they will show how to understand liberty, cherish her, and die for her. “Let the freest army and fleet in the world prove that in liberty there 1 strength and not weakness; let them forge a new and iron discipline of duty, and let them raise the battle strength of the land; let them add to the will of the people that grandeur of might which will hasten the hour of the realization of the people’s hopes. “Forward to liberty, land, and free- dom! “He who will look about, pause, and go back will lose all. “Do not forget, you warriors of the revolution, should you fail in your efforts to defend the honor and greatness of your country, your names will be con- denned. “Difficult is the task before you, but 1S 38 Photograph by Elisabeth Randolph Shirley A CHURCH AT TIFLIS, CAUCASUS you will fulfill it conscious of the pride that you are carrying out the will of the revolution. Your names, your pains, will be sanctified by free Russia. Your chil- dren will remember with pride and rev- erence the army of the revolution. By the will of the people you must clear your country of devastators and ravag- ers. I call upon you to perform this deed. Is it possible that you, too, will not heed me? Comrades, with you lies the mind and the heart of revolutionary Russia. et the thought of this inspire your hearts with new decision. “Brothers, I greet you in the name of the Russian revolution ; I bow before you in the name of the great Russian people! “To read the order to all companies, squads, batteries, and to all the crews on all men-of-war. “A. KERENSKY, “Minister of War and Navy.” RUSSIAN MOUNTED GUARD DIRECTING In the early part of June, Kerensky undertook a tour along the entire front. He did it in order to speed the work of reorganizing the army and put it into shape for the coming offensive. Every- where the Minister discussed the war with the soldiers, endeavoring to prove to them the necessity of continuing the struggle with the German militarism and in order to safeguard Russian freedom and the conquest of the revolution. Dur- ing one of these discussions the following scene took place: “RREEDOM IS NOT SELF-WILL” A soldier asked the Minister whether it will not be necessary to attack the Ger- mans in order to consolidate the con- quests of freedom. The Minister in re- ply said that an attack would be a matter to be dealt with by the higher com- mandant. Whereupon the soldier said, “If we advance, we shall all perish, and dead people need neither freedom nor land. That is why the government must hasten to make peace.” ees from Sens Washbars THE ENTRANCE OF A CARTLOAD OF BREAD INTO A TOWN ON THE GALICIAN FRONT The soldier was about to go on with his argument when he was sharply inter- rupted by the Minister. “Freedom does not mean the self-will of each and every one,” said Kerensky severely, “and the power instituted by the revolution is a real power. Russian sons have during decades past perished on the gallows; they have not given their lives in order to have the first coward that comes along place egotistical interest above the interests of the country and people. “A real revolutionary never thinks of personal advantage or safety. “His great happiness is to die for the common good. “He who is afraid of his shadow is not worthy of freedom. “Mr. Colonel,” added Kerensky, ad- dressing the commandant of the regi- ment, “make it known in tomorrow’s order that this soldier is freed from the army. He is at liberty to go home, but every one will know that he is a coward, who refused to defend the Russian land.” “Permit me, Minister,” replied the Col- 39 *SOTTUT 00ST J9AO JO dt ve ‘eag Yer sy} O} aqeq dy} WIoIf Spus}xo Ajr1oqr] FO osnevs oy} Ul UleJUTeUT JsNU SUOTTI osoy} JUOIF OY, “TAN STU} UT ysed Seissny St jt Yystpdurosse 0} Us FO suUOTTIUE yn ol ldodda ISIMAN GH NI faa HMANWOS,, AdvOw AHL NO AWITILLAV NVIssnad SOMOT “E] O81095 Aq ydessoj0yg ‘JAD 0} Saodeds apqeqrwut{{ GEORGIAN WOMAN IN COSTUME: onei, “to have five or six other men of our regiment accompany this soldier to the rear; we have not many of them, but they disgrace the regiment.” “No,” said the Minister, “ time one is enough.” “And you comrades,” continued Ke- rensky, addressing the other soldiers, “can it be possible that you share the opinion of this soldier ?” “No,” thundered the soldiers in reply, “we do not agree with him. We will up- hold you. We will all die if need be.” ido-=not, doubt it) comrades...) csavd Kerensky. in the mean- KERENSKY’S ORDER TO ATTACK Kerensky’s efforts were not in vain. Inspired by his exhortations, having full confidence in leaders like Brussiloff and Korniloff, reorganized along new and democratic lines, the Russian army as- sumed the offensive against the enemy in Galicia. On the eve of the attack Kerensky ga the following order: “Russia, liberated from the chains of slavery, is firmly resolved to protect, at all cost, the rights of honor and liberty. Having had faith in the fraternal feelings ve 41 ger. Todor aph by Elisabeth Randolph Shirley TIFLIS, CAUCASUS of nations, the Russian democracy has called the warring countries with an ar- dent appeal to cease the carnage and to conclude an honorable peace, securing tranquillity for all nations; but, in re- sponse to this fraternal appeal, the enemy has proposed to us treason. “The Austro-Germans have offered to Russia a separate peace and tried to blind our vigilance by fraternization, hurling themselves at the same time against our allies with the hope of crushing us after their defeat. Being now convinced that Russia will not allow herself to be tricked, the enemy is threatening us and concen- trating troops on our front. ‘Warriors, our motherland is in dan- Freedom and revolution are in peril. ‘The time has come when our army must accomplish its duty. Your commanding general, beloved through victory, pro- claims that each day lost adds new strength to our enemy, and that only an immediate decisive blow can disrupt the plans of the foe. “Therefore, being fully conscious of the great responsibility of the country, 11 the name of the free Russian people and its Provisional Government, I call upon the armies, strengthened with vigor by Sofiu asenbs Oo/ A[ivou FO koie [v}O} B SUIIIAOD ‘suIeJUNO Snseoned 9st} Jo UoT}IS [eIJUaD oY} UL SJOINeIS PoIpUNY ouTU UY} oJOU ay} FO Byte) VISSOU “SASVONVO IVALNAO : LSHMEHLAOS AHL OL SNIVINAOW GNV UAIOWID VLQONO'T a =“ , fy Mi ” ae ae é i ee Cee Bete slip 33 3 Sc gece * VI FO VANV NV SNXAOD GNV ONOT SHTIW POS O10} A Aq ydessojoyg a WA flies S WHIOV TO wT WI IW {htvaos LL 2 VISSOYL ‘SASVOOVO ‘TIVALNAD “AHIOVID UNOOVAVS JO ‘VIVA-HOI AHL 43 AJIOIT JO sNVd oY} UT [[e-[[OI [RUT] OY} PotOMsUe PY S1oyO IIT, OM} UY} o10l JO AURdUIOD & JO PoUleWT JeYPY [fe JOM ‘o]}LY LV Jo}Fe JOJO SUIPULWIMIOD J19Y} A [[VO-]JOI oy} OF SuLIOMSUL “WOW MOF OSoy Ty, ~ SHOWA WO ‘TIVO-TIOU V ‘poipuny SOMO ‘FT 951005 Aq ydeisojoyg 44 ey Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor SHRINE IN A BAZAAR IN PETROGRAD The average Russian carries his religion with him into the field, into the trenches, and into the marts of trade. His places of worship are not merely the great cathedrals which have been reared with lavish hands by the old régime. At the outbreak of the revolution it was feared by many that, as the head of the Orthodox Church, the hold of the Tsar upon the masses would counteract the people’s passion for liberty, but conscience and politics have been successfully separated. the revolutionary genius, to start the of- fensive. ‘The enemy must wait before celebrating victory. “All nations must know that it was not through weakness that we talked peace. Let them know that liberty augments our forces. Officers and soldiers, you must Ot realize that all Russia is blessing your acts on the field of honor. In the name of liberty, future prosperity, and in the name of a lasting and honorable peace, | command you, ‘Forward!’ “A. KERENSKY, “Minster of War and Navy.” ‘QovyAINS MOUS Prey oY} UO jno peysnd sjuswe]suejue s[qvj10d oy} pue ‘poyoe}je o1IM oY} ‘SoyUII, 9Y} Ul payONA}suUOD dIe sasIOY-MvLS UBPOOA\ a]}}] ‘SIq} JUoAOId OF, *do} oy JIAO dURAPR ATIpvat PjNod Awi9Ua VY} 4I SJaAO0D MOUS doap 94} UOYM “JoJUIM UT nq fasodind s}t SaAtas SYDOI dy} OJUL PojuoWod S}sod 0} pauoysey ST YIYM “OTM oY} JOWUINS UT “JUOIZ UL Poyjosjs sjUsWo]SuL}US VIIM-poqied oY} yn “Flos}_ Yous} oy} JOU Sf MOUS ay} SSO1De dUIT YALp oY, HAOUVY WOU NAHS SV “LOIMLSIG {XOdVO WHY, NI SHHONAML NVIIVGI JO WNIT [Sui UOISSIT AILPLIP UI[LI]T Oy} Jo Asojinos Aq ydesisojoyg 46 LETTERS FROM THE ITALIAN FRONT By Marcuesa Louts—E pE Rosartes To Erue, Matruer Bace EAR L——: D Did I tell you some time ago of two Sicilian peasants who had never done anything but work the earth before the war? Each has lost his right arm, and has since learned to wood-carve so well that both have been employed by a great firm which manufactures fine fur- niture and frames, and they earn seven or eight francs a day. These two men wanted to take me to the front, because they feel I have so many precious things. to distribute, and they are enchanted with the comfort bags. How can I thank you for your gen- erous gift of the anesthetic novo caiene? It is thoroughly practical in those tiny boxes, each one of which contains suffi- cient for so many operations. I am tak- ing it up to the front personally, and I have put aside some rubber gloves to take up also. Your rubber sheeting goes off this week, all cut up into go-centimeter lengths, with four rings in the corners, of metal. Thirty of the sheets went up to the Trentino hospitals, in which the Contessa is interested—a front where there has been so much fighting lately. Some I sent to Contessa I., a splendid woman, one of the most active in Italy, for her hospitals in Bologna and near Gorizia. Others were sent to a new hos- pital, where C. has friends among the nurses and doctors and where there are 1,000 beds of half-ill and half-wounded men. You cannot, I think, realize what a luxury all rubber goods are here in Italy and the joy they give. Mrs. M. is send- ing me cases that are doubly precious, for there are things on the list like cat- gut or crinoline that simply can’t be had for love or money. I am now erecting two barracks for a restaurant, where the officers can eat at a fixed price and cheaper. The barracks and the tables are going to be constructed with my savings, and the walls are being 47 decorated with the colored pictures of the Domenica del Corriere. I am also instituting a bath for the soldiers. All the plans are ready. You will see how nicely it is coming out. I hoped in your last letter to receive the announcement that you had sent me some gauze as protection against the flies. It is very hot here, and the hospitals are full of wounded. There are no venti- lators, and these poor boys suffer from the heat, and especially from the flies. You will understand they cannot always manipulate their hands, either because they are wounded or because of being tied in abdominal bandages; therefore they have no way of “shooing”’ away these trying pests. The netting would protect the soldiers, and so they could be comfortable even in the daytime. In these days of feverish and exacting work you will read that we are going for- ward. Recently I organized a ceremony in the graveyard—discourses and a funeral mass. ‘The school children strewed mar- guerites on the tombs of the fallen heroes. In my recreation hut I have from 300 to 400 soldiers every evening. They are happy. I give them a cinematograph show ; then they play tombola, oca, domi- noes, etc. I am arranging the marionette theater and hope to have it ready soon. I cannot tell you how keen was my en- thusiasm when I received your cases and your-dear letters. I had everything im- mediately put in the little rustic room ahead of mine, and we will distribute the material where the greatest need is. Everything is precious here. We are full of work, and your tamarinds with this heat and your iron frames to keep the bed covers from touching the wounded men are very practical. Work is certainly not lacking, and I assure you that I have passed through a month which forever will be impressed on my life. We are much exposed to shells, and sometimes they wound the men at the ps ae rT Via ak Photograph by courtesy of the Italian Military Mission SEA OF CLOUDS FROM MONTE CRISTALLO: THE CADORE DISTRICT, DOLOMITE ALPS This view, taken from above the clouds on Monte Cristallo, which is over 10,000 feet high, shows the peaks of two other famous mountains known to Alpinists all over the world— Monte Pelmo and Monte Civetta, both over 10.000 feet. very door. Lately two hand grenades fell 30 meters away from the hospital; but we are all calm and think that God will protect us in this mission of love. Our splendid soldiers give us such a great ex- ample of courage and sacrifice, patience and faith, that one near them feels un- worthy. Our hospital is the most advanced in this zone, and therefore we receive the most gravely wounded. Naturally we cannot do everything that we want to; but I think it would be worse if we were not here, and with the moral part, coupled with the help at the bedside, we can com- fort so many stricken bodies, so many poor lacerated hearts. I have not written so frequently of late because I am dead tired when I at last get to my room. I fall asleep quickly, but we are often awakened at night by gas attacks and must go down to safety with our gas masks on. So one sleeps when one can. My soul has been obliged to go through a process of adaptation to the surroundings, to the visions, to the continual surprises ; but little by little one acquires the courage to face it all. RECEIVES ONLY THE GRAVEST CASES Since arriving here I have never had time to write any letters except to B. and to Mother, because the work and suffer- ing we face are so overwhelming and de- mand every waking moment. I cannot even begin to tell you what I suffer every day, for my poor wounded are all the gravest cases. It seems this is the most advanced hospital where there are women nurses working, so you can imagine the amount we found to be done and which, little by little, we are accom- plishing, according to the means we have at our disposal. And then every day we have visits from enemy. shells, which prove indeed that we are in the War Zone. But who thinks of danger when work- ing for stricken brothers? I write in the hall of the hospital; it is the first day I have had a moment's res- pite, for here it is a continual coming and going of wounded men, who arrive either to die after a very short time, or after a few days to be transported to hospitals farther from the front. One needs a Photograph from Prof. Giorgio Abetti ARTILLERY OBSERVERS ON MONTE CRISTALLO These men are at a height of about 10,000 feet and are observing activities in a similar Austrian position only 600 yards away in a straight line, byt on the other side of a deep declivity, great moral courage, which I am able to give, little by little, with prayer and faith in all that is good. “THE ENEMY IS BEING DRIVEN BACK” It is quite impossible for me to write to you coherently tonight. Qyp > (6 2e)/ ) c sp A) . ¢ 5 - 7 x I . 4117 OL Owor) jo OV] oud uo DGVI[IA v uulOly AOC, yuvsvod ve Aq MOUS wots PpoAtvo SeM pue JOLTSIp d1OPv,) oy jo SUTVJUTOCL U.olY oy ul SI Ave SIU T, MAISNGUIIO NV JO HAR FHL NO MONS JO UVLIV NV ALOATa SHOLTAMHS SQOLO TA } YAvIsO}JOY | Away uvipeyy fowordng opurwo) wo. 53 AN ITALIAN ARTILLERY OBSERVATORY IN THE DOLOMITES A stairway is built almost to the top of the peak and a tunnel drilled through the vertex. Climbing up in safety on their own side, the observers make their way through the tunnel to a point where they can overlook the positions of the enemy. Photographs by courtesy of the Italian Military Mission A FIELD ARTILLERYMAN AND HIS PET IN THE DOLOMITES _ Artillery positions high up in the mountains are frequently embrasures blasted out of the solid rock, with the front filled in and only a small opening left for the mouth of the gun. on 4 TRANSPORTING THE WOUNDED BY THE TELIFERICA The teliferica car provides the most comfortable vehicle for the men wounded at the front, and this is the easiest stage of their long journey back to the base hospitals ie Photographs from Comando Supremo, Italian Army BUNERAL OF AN ITALIAN SOLDIER IN THE ALPS _To their snowy graves are carried the bodies of Italy’s Alpine heroes who have given their lives for their country. If time and opportunity permit, they are sent back whence they came, but more often they are buried with full military honors in the ice and snow of the glaciers. o5 COMMANDER’S This picture of a commanding officer’s ing a blizzard in the mountains. really the weekly sleet. The wash hung out to dry, opening QUARTERS ON CIMO between the two men in the Photograph by courtesy of the Italian Military Mission PALOMBINO: DOLOMITE ALPS headquarters hut was taken on a morning follow- At the right, but caught in the storm and covered,with frozen what looks to be simply icicles and snow is foreground is the entrance to the tunnel which leads to the artillery observation post on the opposite side of the peak toward the enemy. in two days, but shall be here for four, seeing hospitals, orphanages, and estab- lishments for the mutilated. We are just off to a soldiers’ club, at whose head is a remarkable priest. A. splendid woman, who does wonder- ful work here, thinking I wanted to see everything, brought me yesterday to the hospital where they make over poor wounded and demolished faces, and all the doctor’s pet faces, in the process of healing, were shown me. I was extremely interested; but the sight of one or two Was quite sufficient to demonstrate what wonders had been achieved, and I did not want to see more. But there was no way out of it; I had to stay. In a way it was good for me to learn at first hand what real suffering means. After seeing the faces in process of restoration, I was taken into the medica- tion room, where men were having their healing limbs treated in agonizing ma- chines to prevent them from becoming permanently stiff. They were wailing ae moaning from pain; two of them elling. Coming out from under the in- acne of chloroform after his opera- tion, one kept begging and begging, “Oh, let me die. Oh, let me die; I can stand no more.” One had a broken spin young officer. PHONOGRAPHS CHIEF DELIGHT OF SOLDIERS A soldier, with my cases of hospital supplies, instruments, etc., left Rome day before yesterday for a tiny village near Gorizia. Another sack went off yester- day to the high Alps in the Cadore, car- ried, I think, by the four Garibaldi broth- ers. M. and I are busy at present trying to bring aid to the Italian prisoners in Austria and helping to start recreation ADAP IBIRES, EURO UME TESOS, IP AUEIVAING 11 UN a0: oy huts all along the Italian front. A few already exist, but hundreds are needed. The Austrians have them all along their lines, six kilometers behind the fighting zone, I am told, which is a proof that they are not a luxury, but an absolute necessity. They exist, as you know, in great numbers along the French and English fronts in France. The secretary of the Y. M. C. A. France is here—a delightful young en- -thusiast—and we are doing all we can to get permission for him to work here. Mr. Davis told me the other day that in one of his huts in France one Sunday morning 10,000 letters were posted. So you can imagine how the paper bills mount up. Oh, if you could have seen 14,000 sol- diers, as I did in the little village where [ was stopping at the front, coming down from the terrific fortnight’s fighting in the trenches! They were quartered in the village and in tents in the surround- ing muddy fields—deep, sticky mud char- acteristic of the Corso. There was much rain, thunder-storms, and a cruel north wind blowing; yet all the diversion they found awaiting them was the osteria (bar). What they absolutely revel in is phonographs, but these are too expensive to ask for. The inhabitants of this village were all Austrians until a short time ago, for we were on conquered territory and always spoke of going back to Italy. Sign-posts by the road still exist with Austrian des- ignations upon them. We arrived in the midst of a great at- tack, taking place about six kilometers away. The Austrians fired on our little village before our arrival and just after we left, but not during our stay. The cannon roared and thundered day and night, and the sky at night was ablaze with flashes of explosions, enemy search- lights, green signal rockets, etc. After about three days the fighting ceased and the men came down from the hills to rest. Then it was that my heart ached that there were no recreation huts, warm and bright and cheerful, for them to go to. A few days before we left an even greater attack began. It started at night, during a thunder-storm, and it was quite impossible to say which were re- sounding peals of thunder and which the firing of the 305’s. By the time we reached Rome the papers were full of re- ports of the amazing advance the Italians had made. BEAUTIFUL VWXPRESSION ON FACES OF THOSE WHO HAVE BRAVED DEATH Such an extraordinary sensation, being surrounded by thousands of men who for months have faced death day and night! It gives a peculiar and very beautiful ex- pression to many of the faces. ‘The church was crowded, all seats taken and aisles packed, when they came down from the trenches and before they returned. I have never been so moved and impressed and could not bear it more than once. Many who had just arrived had not had time for a bath and change, so the uniforms were tattered and stained and the fortnight’s (they generally remain about, 2 fortnight wat, a time simi sthe trenches) beard was still upon the young faces. They knelt for half an hour at a time, immovable as images, in front of the different altars, praying to their fa- vorite saints and madonnas in thanksgiv- ing or supplicating for protection. The church was lit only by the candles they had bought, very short or very long, ac- cording to the number of “soldi” they could afford to pay; and then, with the organ, they sang a beautiful song com- posed since the war, “Oh, Santa Ma- donna prega per noi.” One cloudless, sunny afternoon I shall never forget. In the little cemetery, just outside the village, the sound of the ar- tillery was continuous, but rather far away, Over our heads Italian aéroplanes were flying, and suddenly from the blue came a strange rattle, an Austrian mit- raliatrice, that was trying to bring them down. Several soldiers were working silently at some tombs of their comrades ; one with a portrait bas-relief made by the simple soldier friend. In a corner of the cemetery other soldiers were busy digging new graves to have them ready for the men who were fighting a few kilo- meters away and would not return alive. Mingled with the sound of, the spades was a little song of the soldier outside of ‘syoryqe astidims Aq suojyisod Auoua Suoss aye} pue siaarosqo Aq pojyo}apun spjay-Mous oy} JOAO paeMs0y doodio9 ued Ayred |yeus AJaaneaeduiod v UOTIOTOD gAt}I0}0I1d sty} A “SIOIe]S IY} JOAO QOURAPe Ad} UIYM SWIIOFIUN ALdY} DAO S}INS d}IYM UOP suURTe] oY} APIGISIA It9Yy} VONpet OF, ALIHM NI GvVID SdOOUL ANIdIV NVI'TIVWLI Auly uelypery ‘owesdnsg opuewos uio1z ydessojoyg me 58 ‘QAVJAVM UILJUNOW UT JUoIOYJo pur pouresy ‘sjsodxo JO Awe ywoass w sey uoeU dy} Avpo} fssoourey -unoul pourel Jo pasodwos ‘urdpy oy} popes sdroo snowy ynq [Jews AjoAteieduios & FO poysisuod sdoo.1}.ureyunow ATUO Ss ATP] IPM OY} v1OJo “MUOIADAO OF UOIUATJULFUT UIT] Apsey oy} JOFZ year 007 suraas apoejsqo Ou yA ‘ssorjIOF o[qeusoidui ysowye uv pr Suryeu ul uvusr Jo Ajmuosut oY} OUOpNoO sey oInjeN “JooF OOO'LT PU OOO'TI UddMJOq UOTeAd[O UL SuIAeY ‘JUOIF URITe]] JY} UO sUTeJUNOU jsoys!Iy IY} FO UO ST SIT, OTTHNVAV AHL NO MOVILV NV YOd WHIOVIO AHL SSONOV INIONVACV Awsy uvyezy ‘owaidng opurwog wosz ydesr80,0yg 59 DEVOTED ALLIES OF MANKIND These dogs carry food and messages between the solitary sentinels and their base camps in the Alps. Often the path is destroyed by avalanches, but the intelligent animals find the best way down by instinct and seldom fail in their mission. Photographs from Comando Supremo, Italian Army \ RED CROSS UNIT ON THE ITALIAN FRONT The Italians are very appreciative of the work done by the Red Cross and several of its members have been decorated by the Italian Government for acts of especial bravery 60 i Photograph from Comando Supremo, Italian Army THE SKIRMISH LINE OF ITALIAN SKIMEN ADVANCING IN ATTACK These troops, mounted on skis, can descend upon an enemy position like a flock of great white birds, bringing a message of disaster to their foe. forward in sk the cemetery gate, singing as he looked for the mules. And the never-ending procession I saw every time I looked out of my bedroom window! Day and night the camions went up on one side of the little street taking munitions, bread, etc., while thou- sands of mules and men tramped by, the mules bearing water and food for the soldiers, and brightly painted Sicilian carts carrying fodder for the mules. On the opposite side of the street came down another procession, made up of empty -camions to be loaded again and Red Cross ambulances bringing in the wound- ed. Through our tiny village 120,000 loaves of bread passed each day. SOLDIERS BATTLE AMID ARCTIC COLD IN TH, HIGH ALPS I was talking to a young nurse, 21 years old, who came down from a hos- pital in the high Alps by toboggan last week. At noon, when hanging out her sheets to dry in the sun, they often freeze 61 In this picture they are creeping skirmish formation, firing as they go. stiff. The sentinels must sometimes be changed every ten minutes, so as not to die with the cold. Some of the men are fighting on peaks, where supplies can reach them only by the teliferica (you know, the baskets slung to a wire that pulls them up thousands of feet), or by cords and ladders up perpendicular walls of rocks. This afternoon I attended a party at the Villa Mirafiori, where there are about 83 wholly helpless victims of the war. They had a lottery and some gifts. Kind friends gave me 45 francs, with which | was able to buy a number of gifts for them—knives, pipes, etc. Four of the boys had lost both hands—strong, com- petent-looking men, so good and patient and serene. It is terrible to be so en- tirely well otherwise and yet so helpless. I am giving a marionette show at the villa in a few days. There is no form of entertainment so popular. I gave one for 450 soldiers last week in the big hos- pital here. The men were almost hys- ’ teal ‘by cag , vy TAM Whe (2 ee < : ye 4 ene) Photograph by courtesy of the Italian Military Mission THE WAY TO AN OBSERVATION POST IN THE CADORE DISTRICT These stairways were constructed for hundreds of feet up the almost impassable heights from the barracks to the artillery observation posts in the uttermost crags of the Dolomites. In the section shown there are more than 300 steps covering an ascent of perhaps a hundred yards almost straight up. The observatory at the top is about 9,000 feet high and 1,600 feet above the nearest barracks. 62 terical with merriment for nearly two hours. I am soon giving a show for a hospital in which Contessa Cadorna is especially interested. The show costs me between 50 and 60 francs each time, but it is money well spent. HOSPITAL ON MULE-BACK FOLLOWS TROOPS Since becoming one of the representatives of the Surgical Dressings Committee (Contessa de Robilant is the other repre- sentative), I find myself in touch with several hundred hospitals all over Italy, especially up at the front, and you cannot imagine how agonizing it is to be sud- denly in this position and with comparatively so little to dis- tribute. Our work is recognized by the War Office, and we are given all sorts of rights of free transpor- tation to the front, of course. Contessa de Robilant goes up about once a month to the hos- pitals herself, and has arranged for soldiers to take up our sup- plies about once a week. Her husband is the general who com- mands all the troops up in the Dolomites. Two of her daugh- ters, splendid girls, nurse in a hospital which is packed upon mules and follows the army every time it advances. _They work high up in the mountains, and are in Rome on leave now, as the snow is so deep in the ad- vanced posts where they are sta- tioned that there is at present no fighting. The cold is so intense that their sheets freeze at noon when they hang them out to dry in the sun. They have 200 men or so come down daily from the trenches to get baths and changes, and I try to send them woolen clothes, fresh socks, etc.; for when there is an ample supply of these the men leave their soiled ones to be washed and mended and return greatly refreshed. The girls are so pretty and such competent RELI ERS PROM He -lEAV EAN PRON 65 little nurses, just over 20 years of age! They came down from their hospitals on sleds a few weeks ago, as many of the roads were deep in snow. > Before going to the front they were nursing in a hospital down in the plains. When the soldiers in a ward where one of them was engaged heard she was leav- ing, they cried like children, hiding their heads under the sheets lest their com- panions should see them and make sport of their tears. Through the Contessa de Robilant, I am in touch not only with all the hos- pitals in the Dolomites, but also with those in Albania and Saloniki and in the Corso. In fact, in the matter of being in close touch with the hospitals our organ- ization is perfect. Our work is sanc- tioned by the War Office, which permits us to send our things up to the front very quickly and satisfactorily by special sol- diers. It is wonderfully satisfactory to have such facilities, but heartrending not to have a great deal more to send. A great and terrible advance is ex- pected by every one in a month or six weeks and everybody is getting ready for it. Our dear overgrown waiter, who serves us dinner upstairs, will be enrolled tomorrow. He makes me think of the story of Alice in Wonderland: so tall, just a child, and possessed of such im- mense hands. He has spent most of his life in Trieste in a café serving coffee. When war broke out he was interned. Then he escaped from the internment camp and got back to Italy, his real home being near Udine. And now he philoso- phizes as he clears away the things at night: “Who would ever have thought it, Signora, nearly three years ago? And instead of being finished, as we thought it naturally would be, it seems as though it were just going to begin.” A SENTINEL TO GUARD HENS I went to a hospital of 1,200 beds to- day. All cases in Rome go there first and then are distributed according to their ailments. Some stay permanently in the hospital while convalescent, and sometimes batches of wounded Austrian prisoners arrive in the great place. They always interest me. One is not allowed, as a rule, to talk to them; but I have con- versed with them several times. The colonel at the hospital made a rather touching appeal the other morn- ing. He had built a chicken-house in the hope of having as many eggs for the hos- pital as possible, and wanted 50 hens im- mediately. M. presented him with 4o day before yesterday, and we went over to receive them and to pay on delivery. An expert among the wounded soldiers, a peasant, was found, and he chose those fowls he was sure would lay immediately. You would have been amused at the whole scene—the farmer and wife, in costume, ona little cart, under a huge um- brella, arriving in state from the coun- try, the very long discussion on the dif- ferent points of each chicken, the crowd of soldiers, and the nuns gathered about the group. The chicken-house had just been completed, but the key had not been made; and so, to provide against any of the hens being stolen, a poor soldier had to stand sentinel all night. I heard a story recently from an AI- pine in Rome that you would like. A sentry in the high Alps, over 9,250 feet above sea-level (St. Moritz is 5,500), is on duty three hours and stands under a little roof, the snow falling steadily. Whenever this sentry or the one who re- places him is relieved, he has to be dug out by his companions. A long passage is shoveled out of the snow up to the little cave under the roof. The Italians have had no idea of, and no means of knowing, the amount of wonderful supplies being distributed in Italy by the clearing-house (I mean the Italians officially) ; but now they begin to know and are indeed impressed and appreciative. The Contessa has the lists of all that has been distributed since the beginning of the war, and is publishing them abroad, by word of mouth and in the papers. The gentlemen of the clearing-house were so kind and nice to me this morn- ing. Sita has just gone to Sagrado, a small village, formerly Austrian, on the Tsonzo, near Gorizia. The hospital is right within sound and sight of where SNOW TRENCHES AT THE TOP OF XOMO COLLE, A HIGH PEAK IN THE CADORE, DISTRICT Snow in the mountains is both an advantage and a disadvantage. It makes marching difficult and exposes the armies to the terrors of the avalanche, but it makes trench digging easy and provides a ready breastwork. Photographs from Comando Supremo, Italian Army AN ITALIAN SNOW TRENCH IN THE TRENTINO Guns like this can be brought into effective positions only over the best of roads. Photograph from Comando Supremo, Italian Army TRANSPORTING A BIG GUN IN THE CADORE DISTRICT The Italians are probably the most remarkable mountain-road builders in the world, and the highways they have constructed at the front and back to their bases have excited the admira- tion of all who have seen them. Their military road building serves as a fine example for America’s unpreparedness in the matter of a system of military highways. the terrible fighting is going on. It is about a quarter of an hour from where we were stopping with Ramiro last au- tumn. She has all the gravest cases that are brought in from the battle and can- not travel. She appealed for several things urgently, among others ‘‘archetti reggi-coperte,’ iron frames to keep the bed covers from touching the wounded men, and the kind clearing-house people told me I might order 100 immediately. ITALIAN CANTEEN IN AMERICAN CHURCH ENTERTAINS AMERICAN, SAILORS You read perhaps of a transport ship, English, sunk a while ago in the Medi- 65 terranean; 400 lost. The survivors are at Savona being looked after. English hospitals are being opened at the front in Italy, for some English guns are there now assisting in this terrific battle. I think they are going to try to transport men to Saloniki by land as much as pos- sible, so as to avoid the sea. [I am going this week to the station to meet the Eng- lish troops. A canteen—which I shall also see this week—has been opened here in the American Methodist Church and school-rooms. ‘They tell me the rooms are beautiful, and it promises to be the best club of the kind in Europe. The other day it was full of English soldiers DY} SUIUIOOUOD SOV} MOT “SWILIIP JsoP[IM SIY SSoU[NJosn UL PapsddXod IAL O} sUloas Yt ynq ‘osn JuosoId s}I pajsaSsns ysay Suravy yA poypo.so SL ULI] JO Jooursue Sunok y ‘oleysiem ouldyy Ul s}ysiey Jooys oy} sulyeyOsou JO AjssasoU JTOY} OF Hf Jdepe OJ suvITeIT oY} 1OF pourewmos yr ynq ‘SopIs ureyunouw dn pue susseyo ssosoe spersoyeul Surjsodsuvs} JOFZ pjioM oy} JO sjied snowiea ur poz Nn sem AvMuIeI} [eLIOe ay} JEM oY} a10FOq "PlO} oq O} WILUIOI [IM WOTINIJSUOD S}I UI SEO SupJoourSud Jo ][e} Surypisy} @ JOAO St TEM sty} UdYM Inq 4no UdAIS UDdq dAvY Wess dy} JO JWd}xO dO, NIVINOQOW V NO NOLVLS VOI V SSET "J “AT SSI] Wor ydvsisojoyg Ce E Rr ROME Abele ay Ale LAIN Eile © IN 67 and sailors and some American sailors! You can’t think what a sensation that gives me. A woman working there spoke as though they expected a number of Americans soon. I am sending you some _ post-cards. The Capitol Museum is closed, but Ma- nolo had it opened one Sunday morning and brought some of his pupils to see the statues. These pupils look quite happy and normal in the photo; as a matter of fact, they are all minus legs and one has lost a hand besides. They are learning to draw and carve, and Manolo means to lead them in practical directions, so that they can use their talents indus- trially and earn a good living. Some are highly gifted. Mother and I have been spending the afternoon at the new club for English and American soldiers and sailors, and talking and chatting with some fine Irish and English sailors today. This is the anniversary of Italy’s dec- laration of war. I will write later and tell you of the procession we are going to see in a moment. It is nice that this great national fete day should be prac- tically on my birthday, the 24th; but I think the first shot was fired on the 25th. Seventy-five shipwrecked Englishmen, many officers among them, are expected any day now in Rome. Mother and [ are going to help receive them. We do not know whether they have just been shipwrecked or whether some days ago. NURSES UNDER FIRE I shall be relieved when Dians arrives safely in Italy. The inclosed letter may interest you; it came tonight from Sita. She has nursed a good deal in Milan since the war, and last Christmas was at the front, among some of the very worst cases; some she could not talk or tell me about, they were so terrible. The worst case she spoke of was under a tent, so shot to pieces he could not be moved at all. She had just to sit beside this heap of human shreds and do what she could to help and comfort him during those last terrible moments. I hope she will keep up her strength, so as to stay on now, for she is doing very good work, I imagine, and the hospitals with women have so many details attended to that are neg- lected in those which have only men on the staff. Contessina di R. left her hospital, where comparatively little was going on, and went to Gorizia for this advance. During the worst part of the fighting she worked three days and three nights with- out changing her clothes. Her hospital was struck, and she moved the wounded to cellars which were fire-proof, as the building had been a bank. She slept, after the rush the first night, in an old castle. This also was struck by the Aus- trians in the night, and the unoccupied wing was demolished. A splendid, brave girl; no nerves! She said the noise of the bombardment was deafening. The Alpini on the Dolomites mostly live in the valleys below and their wives mend their socks. A little wool saved many men’s lives the other day. It was reported to camp hospital in X, 4,800 feet high, that some wounded had been caught in a snowstorm at an Alpine pass. The road was blocked, the temperature many degrees below zero. We phoned through the mountains for the Alpini, and promised to rig every man in new socks, scarfs, and woolens who would bring back a wounded soldier. The men disappeared and nothing was heard of them for eight hours, when, one by one, they returned, each carrying a wounded man on his back, so that not one was left behind. Don’t you think that was a price- less bundle of wool? Such feats happen daily. Nobody here knows what those men are enduring, and the spirit that keeps them up we can never repay. Our Surgical Dressing Committee has been splendidly organized now by the Contessa di Robilant. We are in one of the most beautiful old palaces of Rome, one in which the German Emperor was once entertained, and expressed great envy of the ball-room, saying that he could never return the hospitality in any room in Berlin that could compare to this! Photograph by American Colony, Jerusalem A FORERUNNER OF FAMINE: LOCUSTS IN THE LARVA STAGE The armies of men are not the only legions which spread desolation over fertile fields. There is no more dreaded precursor of famine than the locust, whose hosts destroy every grain of wheat and blade of grass growing in their path. Since the days of the Seven Plagues of Egypt this insect has been a synonym for crop failure and consequent famine. > CO FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST History Will Repeat Itself Unless the American People Conserve Their Resources By Rartpo A. GRAVES IVE us bread!” is the despairing (5 cry which today comes across the seas to. America in a score. of tongues from three hundred million peo- ple who stand on the brink of the abyss of starvation. All the resources of the nations of Eu- rope and Asia Minor have been diverted for three years from gainful pursuits to the destructive activities of war. Men have been forced to put aside the hoe and scythe ; fertile fields have been gashed by trench and blasted by shrapnel until they can serve no purpose save as graves for the slain; the plowshare has been beaten into the sword, the fertilizer converted into high explosives. Thus have the agencies of plenty been made to breed havoc over land and sea. What is in store for mankind if Amer- ica fails to respond with all her food re- sources to this call for help? The fearful famines of history reveal to us what may happen—nay, what inevi- tably must happen—now, as in the past, with the difference that whereas famines of a bygone age took their toll in thou- sands, the famine of today, if it ma- terializes, will compute its death roll in millions. Grim, gaunt, and loathsome, like the three fateful sisters of Greek mythology, war, famine, and pestilence have decreed untimely deaths for the hosts of the earth since the beginning of time. A veritable trinity of evil,-the three: are as one scourge, equal in their devastating power and in their sinister universality. Twentieth century civilization, with science and industry for its allies, grap- pled with these potent forces of destruc- tion, and there were those who, as re- cently as the early summer of 1914, be- lieved that the good fight had been won; that never again would the pleasant places of earth be baptized in the blood of a peaceful people; that never again would ravening plague, following through the fields harvested by cannon, claim its vic- tims by the tens of thousands ; that never again would the silent specter of hunger stalk through the world with but one na- tion to stay its progress. But the era of permanent peace is yet to be won by the sword of democracy, and science finds that she still has her battles to wage against the armies of con- tagion mobilized in the charnel houses of ravaged nations. AMERICA ALONE CAN DEFEAT MAN'S THIRD FOr There is still a chance, however, to de- feat mankind’s third great foe—famine. Is the struggle to feed the world worth the sacrifice which America will be called upon to make? Here are presented a few pages from history’s black chronicle of the suffering and the degradation which famine has wrought in every clime and among every people. If to save mankind from a recurrence of these horrors is a goal worthy the industry and the re- sources of our republic, the answer is plain. A survey of the past shows that war, pestilence, and famine always have been related, sometimes one and sometimes another being the cause, and the other two the effect. Where one of the trio has occurred the others, sometimes singly, but usually together, have followed. The primary cause of famine almost invariably has been a failure of food crops. This failure has often resulted from a variety of natural causes—long- continued drought, blasting hot winds. insect armies, earthquakes, severe and untimely frosts, and destructive inunda- tions. 69 70 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE But war also brings in its train crop shortage by withdrawing from the fields the men required to till the soil, and by devastating harvest land in order that an enemy may be vanquished through star- vation. Even when the fires of conflict have burned themselves out, the grip of famine frequently has remained upon a land be- cause the husbandman either cannot or will not immediately resume his product- ive function. Oftentimes a whole peo- ple’s industrial fiber has been impaired by the hardships of war and by moral de- generacy incident to camp life, so that a full generation has been required to re- store their country’s thrift and enter- prise. Pestilence is the inevitable handmaiden of both famine and war, for the dead of the battlefield breed contagion which finds easy victims among those whose powers of resistance have been sapped by lack of nourishment. Thus the three great agencies of whole- sale destruction constitute a terrible tri- angle, each force coordinating with the other two; and famine is the base line. EARLIEST RECORD OF A FAMINE Among the earliest authentic records of history is the famous “stele of fam- ine,’ recently discovered carved on a tomb of granite on the island of Sahal, in the first cataract of the Nile. Egyptol- ogists differ as to its exact antiquity, but there is evidence to prove that it was chiseled in the time of Tcheser (or To- sorthrus), who held sway over Egypt nearly two thousand years before the time of Abraham. “T am mourning on my high throne,” lamented this monarch of ancient times, “for the vast misfortune, because the Nile flood in my time has not come for seven years. Light is the grain; there is lack of crops and of all kinds of food. Fach man has become a thief to his neighbor. ‘They desire to hasten and can- not walk. The child cries, the youth creeps along, and the old man; their souls are bowed down, their legs are bent to- gether and drag along the ground, and their hands rest in their bosoms. The counsel of the great ones of the court is but emptiness. Torn open are the chests of provisions, but instead of contents there is air. Everything is exhausted.” Thus runs the first chronicle of man- kind’s suffering in days of famine. A period greater than that which stretches between the Crucifixion and the present day elapsed after the famine of Tcheser’s reign before Joseph arrived to hold sway over this same land of Egypt. As the chief administrator for one of the Hyksos Pharaohs, he prepared for seven lean years which were to drive his broth- ers and his aged father, Jacob, out of Canaan, down into the valley of the Nile in search of corn. THE FAMINE OF JOSEPH’S DAY While the suffering which accompanied this famine was perhaps in no degree comparable to the devastation wrought by the failure of crops in subsequent pe- riods of the world’s history, no other has a stronger hold upon the imagination of western civilization, for the details of the dearth are set forth in Biblical records of engrossing interest. It was during Joseph’s administration that there was inaugurated the system of land rentals in Egypt which has survived to this day in many parts of the earth, notably in India. By the end of the sec- ond year of the famine the people had given to the Israelite all of their money and all of their cattle in exchange for corn. ‘They had naught else with which to purchase food except their land. This they eventually surrendered and the Pha- raohs became the great land-owners of the Nile Valley, while the peasants be- came serfs, paying thereafter to their masters a full fifth of the yield of their farms each year. In all, ten famines are recorded in the Bible; but none, save this in which Jo- seph plays so important a role, was of more than restricted significance, either as to territory or influence on history. One of the other nine, however, is worthy of mention for its romantic in- terest—a ten-year famine which drove Naomi and her husband out of the land of Judah into the country of the Moab- ites. At the end of the decade of crop failures, when the widowed and child- FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST TAL bereft sojourner decided to return to her own people, the literature of the world was enriched for all time by Ruth’s matchless expression of woman’s loyalty and devotion to woman in her “Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after thee.” Two other biblical famines are note- worthy as preludes to the depravity to which hunger brought mankind in suc- ceeding generations. The first authentic record of cannibalism as a result of fam- ine is found in the sacred recital of the siege of Samaria by Ben-hadad, King of Syria, in the ninth century before the ~ dawn of the Christian era: “And as the King of Israel was walk- ing upon the wall,” so runs the account in the Second Book of Kings, “there cried a woman unto him, saying, Help,. my lord, O King. This woman said unto me, Give thy son, that we may eat him today, and we will eat my son tomorrow. So we boiled my son, and did eat him; and I said unto her the next day, Give thy son that we may eat him; and she hath hid her son.” It was in this same famine that it is recorded an ass’s head was sold for four- score pieces of silver (probably about $50) and “the fourth part of a cab of dove’s dung [a pint] for five pieces of silver.” A hundred years after the Samarian famine Rome’s dawn upon the horizon of history was signalized, according to Plutarch, by a frightful pestilence and famine. Blood or crimson-colored 1n- sects fell from the clouds; disease, star- vation, and the sword ravaged all Cam- pania. From this baleful beginning Rome’s early history was punctuated by a succes- sion of famines, pestilences, and wars; but none marked by any outstanding severity or event which focuses human interest until the middle of the fifth cen- tury before the Christian era. Beginning 450 B. C., however, there was a series of famines extending over a period of nearly twenty years. In one season of particular severity thousands of desperate people flung themselves into the Tiber to escape the terrible suffering of hunger. It was to such distress that the ple- beian knight, Spurius Maelius, minis- tered, importing corn and selling it at low rates or giving it away to the starv- ing. ‘This charity made him the idol of the common people and therefore an ob- ject of suspicion to the patrician class. The latter professed to see in such bounty an attempt on the part of the public benefactor to make himself king. THE ROMAN JOSEPH SLAIN In this supposed extremity an appeal was made to Cincinnatus, who had re- cently returned to his farm and his plow after his brief dictatorship, during which he had saved Rome... Maelius refused. to appear before the dictator; whereupon Servilius Ahala, Cincinnatus’ master of horse, discovering the knight in the ‘crowd in front of the. forum, struck him dead. Thus perished the Roman counterpart of Joseph, with the difference that Mae- lius was perhaps a self-seeking philan- thropist, whereas the Israelite in the land of the Pharaohs sought no personal ag- grandizement, but profit for his king. Some fifty years after the death of Maelius, the Gauls, led by Brennus, brought all three of the great scourges of mankind—war, pestilence, and famine— within the very walls of Rome. Con- cerning this period the historians of a later era wove a series of heroic legends as picturesque as the Arthurian tales. It was at this time that the Roman senators, after the defeat of their army at Allia, put on their robes of office and seated themselves in their accustomed places to await in silence the arrival of the barbarians and their own death. The imposing austerity of the city fathers for a moment struck the invaders with awe; but when one of the soldiers plucked the beard of a senator and was smitten by the outraged patrician, all the inhabitants were put to the sword and the city re- duced to ashes. Marcus Manlius and a faithful band still occupied the citadel, however, and for seven months they held it in the face of dire famine. ‘The ranks of the in- vaders in the meantime were ravaged by pestilence, caused by their failure to bury ORPHAN BOYS Photograph from Foreign Missions Library OF INDIA, WHO OWE THEIR LIVES TO THE PROMPT RELIEF MEASURES ADOPTED IN THE FAMINE OF IQOO In spite of the fact that its peasants are among the most frugal in the world and its wheat fields, under favorable conditions, are among the-most fertile, India has suffered more from famine than any other country. The density of population in certain areas and the absolute dependence of crops upon an abundance of rain account for the toll which starvation has exacted in this vast empire for 2,000 years. the bodies of their victims. It was dur- ing this siege that the Roman youth, Pontius Cominius, swam the Tiber “on corks,” and by a secret path scaled the garrison hill, bringing important news to Manlius. In the morning the path was discovered by the enemy, and the following night the Gauls began the ascent, their secret at- tack being frustrated only through the cackling of the geese in the temple of Juno, which awakened Manlius in time for him to hurl the leading assailant down upon his comrades and thus save the citadel. Famine and pestilence continuing, the Romans finally agreed to ransom their desolated city for a thousand pounds of gold. In the process of weighing the treasure they protested against the cheat- ing of the barbarians; whereupon the Gallic leader cast his sword into the scale, crying, “Vae victis” (Woe to the con- 72 quered), an admonition which, as the present European conflict proves, has not lost its significance in the more than twenty centuries which have rolled over the war-racked world since that direful day. One of the earliest chiefs of system- atic famine relief work was Augustus Czsar, who was at war with the Par- thians when summoned back to Rome by the disaster of 23 B. C., when the Tiber overflowed, causing wide-spread suffer- ing. The starving plebeians proclaimed him dictator and urged him to assume control of the corn supply, which he did with exceptional skill and industry. He sent ships to many quarters of the Mediter- ranean to collect corn, and placed his grandson, Tiberius, in charge of the work of unloading the grain at Ostia and trans- porting it to the capital, all of which was done with great dispatch. © Underwood & Underwood A FAMILY OF FAMINE SUFFERERS IN INDIA In twenty-three famines which occurred in India between 1769 and 1900 more than 25,000,- 000 natives perished. Some of the most terrible periods of distress have befallen the empire at times when the British Government believed that it had solved the problem of famine relief. AND MILITARY HIGHWAYS SAFE- GUARDED ROME FROM FAMINE SHIPS From the time of Augustus, through- out the days of the empire, Rome seldom suffered from famine—a striking con- trast to the frequency of this afiliction in the days of the infant republic. The na- tion’s sources of supply were now so numerous and her far-flung provinces so fruitful that when crops failed in one quarter there was sure to be a bountiful harvest in some other part of the Roman world. Two other factors which con- tributed materially toward preventing shortage in food supplies throughout the empire were the excellence of the mili- tary highways and the splendid fleets which sailed the Mediterranean. In striking proof of the manner in which the empire’s transportation system served to check the ravages of famine, Pliny relates that when, during Trajan’s reign, Egypt experienced a low Nile which threatened a great dearth, imme- diately corn ships were dispatched from other provinces and wide-spread suffer- ing was prevented. “This vain and proud nation,” writes the Roman _ historian, “boasted that though it was conquered it nevertheless fed its conquerors. But this most fruit- ful province would now have been ruined had it not worn Roman chains.” Of course, there were some exceptions to this general rule. There was, for ex- ample, that terrible period of suffering from 79 to 88 A. D., when the Roman world seemed to be shaken to its physica! foundations. In addition to the devas- tating drought and famine which swept over the Italian peninsula, during which 10,000 citizens are said to have died in one day at Rome, there followed the shock of earthquakes and the cataclysmic eruption of volcanoes. Herculaneum and Pompeii were overwhelmed with volcanic ash and lava at this time, and Syria and Africa were blighted by pestilence and famine. Photograph by A. W. Cutler THE DINNER POTS ARE NO LONGER EMPTY IN THE COTTAGES ON THE CONNEMARA COAST OF IRELAND Extreme poverty reigned in the Emerald Isle years ago when the potato crop was a failure, thousands dying when resulting famine set in. Happily, conditions are greatly im- proved among the Irish peasantry today. Although it is apparent that she could use them to advantage herself, this mother is probably knitting socks for her soldier son in the trenches of Flanders. FEARFUL. FAMINES OF THE PAST 75 Tacitus left grim pictures of the dis- tress and suffering which afflicted the civilized world in that era, when houses were filled with dead bodies and the streets with funerals. A peculiar feature of the famine and pestilence which visited the Roman proy- ince of Apulia a hundred years later was the amazing swarm of locusts which filled the air and covered the ground. Sicinius was dispatched with an army to try to battle with the winged pests. Thou- sands of peasants lay down to die on the highroads, and so dire was the pestilence which accompanied the famine that even the vultures refused to feed upon the fallienge This scourge of starvation and pesti- lence extended as far west as England. During a brief period 5,000 people died daily in Rome, where the only method of combatting disease was the practice of “filling the noses and ears with sweet- smelling ointments to keep out the con- tagion.” It is not improbable that the suffering of this time was a “flareback” from the pestilence of 166 A. D., which had been borne to Rome from Arabia, where, ac- cording to Ammianus Marcellinus, it had emanated from the foul air which es- caped from “a small box opened by a Roman soldier, Pandora-like, at the cap- ture of Seleucia.” Not only did famine .and pestilence spread from Arabia to the banks of the Rhine, but also “inundations, caterpillars, vapors, and insects,” leaving in their wake decayed and deserted villages through- out Gaul. EGYPTIAN FAMINES UNDER MOHAMME- DAN RULE Probably in no other country in the world has a people been brought to such a low ebb of morality or become so com- pletely lost to all semblance of rational humanity as in the series of famines which swept over Egypt during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, under Mohammedan rule. A low Nile in 967 A. D.. resulted in a famine the following year, which swept away 500,000 people in the vicinity of the city of Fustat. G’awhar, a Mohammedan Joseph, founded a new city (the Cairo of today ) a short distance from the stricken town and immediately organized relief measures. The Caliph Mo’izz lent every assistance to his lieutenant, sending many ships laden with grain; but the price of bread: still remained high, and G’awhar, being a food controller who had no patience with persuasive methods, ordered his sol- diers to seize all the millers and grain dealers and flog them in the public mar- ket place. The administrator then estab- lished central grain depots and corn was sold throughout the two years of the famine under the eyes of a government inspector. In taking these steps to mitigate the suffering of the Egyptians the Moham- medan viceroy was far in advance of the European rulers of his day, but in allow- ing the natives to cast their hundreds. of unburied dead into the Nile, thereby tainting the waters all the way to the sea, he failed to evince any glimmer of under- standing of the laws of sanitation. TERRIBLE PUNISHMENT FOR A REBEL During this famine and the subsequent plague a petty official of lower Egypt re- volted against G’awhar. The rebellion was suppressed with some difficulty, but the leader was finally captured in Syria. As an example of the fate which would befall all rebel leaders in times of na- tional calamity, G’awhar made the un- happy captive drink sesame oil for a month, after which his skin was stripped from him and stuffed with straw, then hung upon a beam and displayed through- out the country. There was no G’awhar to conduct the relief work during the next Egyptian famine, which came in 1025, during the Caliphate of Zahir. The suffering, there- fore, was much more wide-spread. It became necessary to prohibit the slaugh- ter of cattle, and there was no meat to be had anywhere, as fowls, the common meat of Egypt, had quickly disappeared. The stronger among the population turned brigand and began to prey upon the weaker members of society. Cara- vans and pilgrims were attacked and Syr- ian bands began to invade border towns. ‘JaSuUNY JO sIP O} dARIS JY SNOW AJMOU SIY MOT[® JOU [[IM JOUMO dy} OSNeddq ynq ‘AoUOW dseyoind dy} JO ayes oy} 10F# AyUO jou “pjoyssnoy ay} JO sjf4ls oY} ][es 0} sueUINY puUe quatpadxe Yyyoq yt puy sjuoted 10F {4soq sorey A[JUINDIIZ OYM pyotyasnoy 9y} JO J9}YSnep oY} SI jt OUTWIe; FO Sout} UL JNq ‘49qSIS SITY JO Jey} uey} Joystiq yonut aq 0} pasoddns st Aoq, ssauryd dy} JO JO] oY II61-O161 wo MANIWVaI ASANIHO SHI, NI NOMLVAUVIS GNV WIINIM ONIOVA SUCISSIJY USIII0g Jo pavog ‘QOURI.T JO OZIS oy} Baie ue UL poysitod suol]Iw oulu euIyd JO Uoprer) oy} Sse UMOUY JOIIjSIP 94} UL SoouTAOId INO} pojorpye yoy (QZR1-SZR1) Yeap JO sre9d 9014} 94} SulING] ‘asaulyD oO0O0‘COO'SP Ud9q DALY O} PoajzeUT}so st {[O} yjeap oy} OFgi pure ‘oPgI ‘IIQI ‘OIgI JO SouTWIey Jwois ANOF oy} Uy] ayo ave LON SI GNHY HHL? MYOM UAH, wl iors sydersojoyg LOd (HAVH SNIVd WHONNI SUPPLIANTS FOR PUBLIC BOUNTY IN TIMES OF FAMINE: big © Underwood & Underwood INDIA One of the difficulties which the British Government has encountered .-in. its. relief. work in India has been the problem of caste. In-the great Orissa. famine thousands of. Santals perished in the midst of ample supplies before it was discovered that a peculiar tenet of this tribe forbids its members to touch food cooked by Brahmins. The more enlightened native princes have been quick to cooperate with the British officials in aiding the starving millions, a notable instance being the foundation of the “Indian People’s Famine Fund” by the Maharaja of Jaipur, who contributed $6c0,c00 to the charity out of his private purse. People flocked to the palace in masses, crying piteously for relief at the hands of the Commander of the Faithful; but no help was to be had in that quarter, for the palace itself was so short of provi- sions that when the banquet for the Feast of the Sacrifice was spread the slaves of the royal household broke in and swept the tables. Slaves began to rise in revolt in all parts of the country and it became necessary for citizens to organize com- mittees of safety for self-protection, the government granting permits to kill the bondmen. ‘The vizier, el-Gargarai, was himself imprisoned in his own house. With an ample Nile in 1027, however, the period of suffering came to an end. A third and far more terrible famine came in 1064, and, like that which af- flicted the land in the days of Tcheser and of Joseph, lasted for seven fearful years. ‘To the hardships of starvation 77 were added the miseries of civil warfare. Nasir-ed-dawla, commander-in-chief of the Fatamid army, upon. being deposed by the Caliph Mustansir, quickly gained the support of bands of Arabs and Ber- bers. Black regiments were soon in con- trol of all upper Egypt. Forty thousand horsemen of the Le- wata Berbers descended upon the delta of the Nile and swept all before them, cutting dikes and destroying canals with the malign purpose of spreading starva- tion. Both Fustat and Cairo were cut off from supplies, and to add to all these tribulations the Nile failed to come to a flood in 1065. ‘The result was indescrib- ably terrible. The peasantry, not daring to venture into their fields for fear of the armed bands of brigands, were unable to carry on any agricultural pursuits; so that the dearth of one year’s harvest was. pro- “paynqunsip AJOSIM Suraq JeoyM pure Suryjop ‘pre 10y [eadde oy} 0}-A]sno19uas papuodsas pysoM ws9}saM qJOYUM OYJ, “IIOI-O1OI UL JoWIM OJOAVS AjjeNshuN ue Jo sdiysprey oy} o1aM BUIYD UL poofZ JO dS¥zIOYS ay} Aq Pouorsvdd0 ssa.]sIpP oy} 0} poppy SUAWIMANS ANINVA NHAMS JO ATINWA'V OL ONIHLOTO ONILAGIULSIC LNVISISSV SIH GNV YOLO%dSNI HSHUNIHO SUOISST]NT USTOIOT JO pivog wo.1j yde130}0yg FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST 79 longed into seven. Prices soared to heights probably never before reached in the Near East. A single cake of bread sold for 15 dinars (the value of a dinar is slightly more than $2.50), five bushels of grain sold for 100 dinars, and eggs were scarce at a dinar each. Cats and dogs brought fabulous prices, and women, unable to purchase food with their pearls and emeralds, flung the use- less jewels into the streets. One woman, according to a historian of the time, gave a necklace worth 1,000 dinars for a mere handful of flour. The caliph’s stable, which had numbered ‘10,000 horses and mules, was reduced to three scrawny “nags.” HUMAN FLESH SOLD IN OPEN MARKET Rich and poor suffered on equal terms. Finally the desperate people resorted: to revolting cannibalism. Human flesh, which was sold in the open market, was obtained in the most horrible manner. Butchers concealed themselves behind lat- ticed windows in the upper stories of houses which looked out upon busy thor- oughfares. Letting down ropes to which were attached great meat. hooks, these anglers for human flesh snared the un- wary pedestrians, drew their shrieking victims through the air, and then pre- pared and cooked the food before pre- senting it for sale in the stalls on the street level. This seven years’ reversion to savagery induced by starvation had its companion period of suffering and degradation in the same country during the years 1201 and 1202. A gruesome picture of the harrowing events has been preserved in the writings of Abd-el-Latif, a learned Bagdad physician who lived in Cairo dur- ing the days which he describes in such horror-awakening detail. Whole quarters and villages became deserted during the famine which fol- lowed the low Nile of 1200 and 1201, ac- cording to this chronicler, who maintains that the starving populace ate human flesh habitually. True, the punishment meted out to those detected in the crime was death at the stake, but few criminals were caught, and the custom could be practiced with impunity by parents who subsisted on their own children. Men waylaid women in the streets and snatched babies from their mothers’ arms, and the literal physician recites at length the various dishes into which the murderous kidnap- pers converted their infant forage. The very graves of Egypt were ran- sacked for food. The roads became death traps, while flocks of vultures and packs of hyenas and jackals mapped the march of the cannibal outlaws. Of course, the piles of unburied dead bred pestilence of a virulent type. It is recorded that in a single month one piece of property in Cairo passed to forty heirs in rapid succession, so sweep- ing was the mortality. In this famine man seems to have plunged to the utmost depths of degrada- tion and suffering. Vastly different were the scenes which accompanied the severe Egyptian famine of 1264, chiefly because there had arrived in the country a man of rare administra- tive ability—Bibars, a native of Kipchak, between the Ural Mountains and the Cas- pian. It is well to study Bibars, for, com- ing shortly after the two anthropopha- gous debauches of the Egyptians, his con- duct of affairs demonstrates what a firm hand might have been able to accomplish in the preceding emergencies. A tall, robust figure, Bibars won from a historian of that period the tribute that “as a soldier he was not inferior to Julius Cesar, nor in-malignity to Nero.” Yet he was.a sober, energetic, and resource- ful executive, just to his own people and lenient toward his Christian subjects. This former slave, who brought only £20 when sold at auction, because of a cataract on one of his eyes, was the real founder of the Mameluke Empire. He met the famine situation promptly and vigorously, regulating the sale of corn wisely, and compelling his officers and emirs to support the destitute for three months. Nor did he stop with these measures. With astonishing forethought, consider- ing the age in which he lived and the people over whom he ruled, he attempted by scientific isolation to eradicate con- tagious diseases. Brothels and taverns Photograph by Earle Harrison FORTY CENTURIES LOOK DOWN UPON A LAND OF ALTERNATE STARVATION AND PLENTY Since the beginning of recorded time Egypt has been a land of plenty when the Nile has overflowed in its proper season; but when the waters have failed to cover the great valley, instead of being the granary of the Near East, this country of the ancient Pharaohs has been a region of direst suffering. So FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST 81 were closed and many other measures were taken looking toward a healthier and a cleaner Cairo. FAMINES IN ENGLAND The story of famines in England has been a gloomy one from earliest times. At the beginning of the eighth century a dearth, which extended to. Ireland, drove men to cannibalism. It was not until the reign of Aethelred the Unready, however, that “such a famine prevailed as no man can remember,” from 1005 to 1016. ‘Those chroniclers who were wont to see bad conditions at their worst declared that half the population of the larger island perished. But it must be remem- . bered that much. of the mortality of this period was occasioned by the wars be- tween Aethelred and Sweyn the Dane, the latter being forced by the famine to retire from England for a time. Naturally, the era following the adv ent of William the Conqueror was one of wide-spread starvation and pestilence among the English peasantry. During the last thirty years of the eleventh cen- tury, nine were years of dire distress. So great was the dearth in 1069 that the peasants of the north, unable longer to secure dogs and horses to appease their hunger, sold themselves into slavery in order to be fed by their masters. All the land between Durham and York lay waste, without inhabitants or people to till the soil for nine years, says Beverly, ‘and another writer accuses the destitute of cannibalism. There were many sections of England which were unaffected by this famine, however, and had there been better means of communication and conveyance of supplies the suffering would have been greatly mitigated. A factor which con- tributed to the seriousness of the situa- tion was the burden of taxes exacted by the conquerors. Peasants became dis- couraged, realizing that the fruits of their labor were taken from them as fast as earned. There were sporadic periods of suffer- ing during the succeeding reigns of Wil- liam Rufus and Henry J, in the civil wars of Stephen’s times, and under Henry II. But the next dearth which especially quickens the sympathy was that which befell the people in the days of Richard Coeur de Lion, the Crusader. There is a brief reference to the ‘famine of this period in “Ivanhoe.” Starvation was followed by a pestilen- tial fever which sprang “as if from the corpses of the famished.’”’ Ceremonial burial was omitted except in the cases of the very rich, and in populous places the victims were interred in shallow trenches, a practice followed at a later period when the Black Death killed its millions. While backward seasons were contrib- uting factors, the responsibility for the two great famines of Henry III’s reign is to be laid at the door of the govern- ment itself. In the first of these (1235) 20,000 persons are said to have died in London ‘alone. The suffering in 1257- 1259 was even worse, for the whole king- dom had been drained of its coinage by the taxes which the king had levied to pay German troops and to buy electoral votes for his brother, the Earl of Cornwall, who was a candidate for the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire. FIRST CURB-ON THE MIDDLEMAN It was during this famine that England for the. first time imported from. Ger- many and Holland grain to alleviate the suffering of her poorer classes. The Earl of Cornwall himself sent sixty shiploads of food, which was sold for his account to the starving. More grain was brought into the country than had been produced the previous season in three counties. The following year (1258) there was a bountiful harvest, but destructive rains caused the heavy crops to rot in the fields, and even the grain which was gathered became mouldy. The first ordinance in English history designed to curb the greed of the middle- man was_ passed during this time of shortage in food supplies. Few English kings have lived through greater periods of distress than Edward II, who was scarcely able to secure food for his own immediate household when the heavy rains of 1314 spoiled the har- vests. Misery was wide-spread and in- tense; the dead lined the roadsides; 82 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE everything imaginable was eaten—dogs, horses, cats, even babies. The jails were crowded with felons, and when a new criminal was thrown into a cell he was seized upon by the starving inmates and literally torn to pieces for food. With the exception of the present world war, perhaps no other calamity that ever befell the human race can be compared with that of the Black Death . and the accompanying famine, which afflicted all western civilization during the middle decade of the fourteenth cen- tury. Its toll has been variously esti- mated at from one-fourth to three- fourths of the entire population of Eu- rope. Certainly it was not less than 20,000,000 people. There always has been a certain degree of doubt as to the exact origin of this plague; but one of the most circumstan- tial hypotheses is that the seeds of de- struction were sown in northern China, when a great inundation destroyed the erops and hundreds of thousands became the victims of starvation. Rats spread pestilence abroad. One of the first places in Europe where the Black Death appeared was at a small Genoese fort in the Crimea, the western terminus of the overland Chinese trade route. The Tatars were besieging the fort at the time, and Chinese merchants took refuge there. The siege was lifted by the investing army, which fled from the plague, thus. spreading the infection southward into Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Ships from the Euxine carried the contagion to Constantinople and to Genoa, and thence it radiated, fanshape, throughout the Mediterranean littoral. THE BLACK DEATH IN ENGLAND In August, 1348, England’s first Black Death victim succumbed in Dorsetshire. By November it had reached London. By the summer of 1349 it had dragged its pall of putrefaction over the entire is- land, including Scotland. Norwich, which had been the second city of the kingdom, dropped to sixth in size, more than two- thirds of its population falling victims of the scourge. Cultivation of the fields was utterly impossible, and there were not even enough able-bodied laborers to gather the crops which had matured. Cattle roamed through the corn unmolested and the har- vest rotted where it stood. Out of the situation which resulted from the impoverishment of the labor re- sources of the kingdom grew the first great clash in England between capital and labor. ‘The peasants became masters of the situation. In some instances they demanded double wages, and whereas formerly land- owners had paid one- twelfth of every quarter of wheat as the harvesting wage, they were now forced to pay one-eighth. Parliament hurriedly passed drastic laws in an effort to meet the new condi- tion. Statutes provided that “every man or woman, bond or free, able in body and within the age of threescore years, not having his own whereof he may live, nor land of his own about which he may oc- cupy himself, and not serving any other, shall -be bound to serve the employer who shall require him to do so, provided that the lords of any bondsman or land-ser- vant shall be preferred before others for his service; that such servants shall take only the wages which were customarily given in 1347” (the year prior to the first appearance of the plague). Violation of the statute meant imprison- ment; and it was further provided that any reaper, mower, or workman leaving service should be imprisoned. If work- men demanded more than the regulation wage, they were to be fined double, and the land-owner who paid more than the - prescribed sum was to be fined treble that amount. Runaway laborers were to be branded with an “F” as a perpetual sign of their falsity. No bail was to be ac- cepted for any of these labor offenses. It is not within the province of this article to review the political turmoil which this legislation brought about. Suffice it to say that it resulted in pre- cipitating one of the most distressing times in the history of constitutional gov- ernment since the Magna Charta was wrested from King John. FAMINES OF FRANCE No country of Europe suffered more from famine between the eighth century FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST 83 and the close of the eighteenth than France. The failure of crops from nat- ural causes entailed far fewer hardships, however, than the gross injustice of the country’s kings and courtiers. From 750 to the French Revolution, the land scarcely recovered from one period of dearth before some untoward event plunged it into new woes. From 987 to 1059, during the early stages of feudalism, forty-eight famines devastated the peasantry—an average of a famine every eighteen months. The year 1000 was a time of extraordinary suffering, for the whole country was seized with a panic, fearing that the world would come to an end during this the millennial year. Thousands went on pilgrimages, deserting their homes and their fields and obstructing the whole nor- mal course of existence. ‘This was the first wave of the great national movement which found expression a century later in the Crusades. The fear of the end of the world hav- ing passed with the end of the millennial year, it was revived with even greater in- tensity when the 1oooth anniversary of the Crucifixion approached. ‘The mis- eries of mankind in Gaul at that time were incredible. The whole course of nature seemed to be upset, and there was intense cold in summer, oppressive heat in winter. Rains and frosts came out of season, and for three years (1030 to 1032) there was neither seed time nor harvest. Thousands upon thousands died of starvation, and the living were too weak to bury the dead. ‘There were many horrible instances of cannibalism, and human flesh is said to have been ex- posed for sale in the market at Tournas. In their maddened condition the peasants exhumed human bodies and gnawed the bones. One of the harrowing incidents of the time, which will give some idea of the insanity which suffering induced, oc- curred in the wood of Chatenay, near the town of Macon. A traveler and his wife stopped at a hut supposedly occupied by a holy hermit. Scarcely had they entered the abode, however, when the woman dis- covered a pile of skulls in the corner. She and her husband fled to the town, and when an investigation followed it was found that the hermit had murdered and partly devoured 48 men, women, and children. Grass, roots, and white clay were the ordinary articles of food for the poorer classes during these terrible years, and as a result the sufferers almost ceased to resemble human beings, their stomachs becoming greatly distended, while almost all the bones of their bodies were visible beneath their leathery skin. Their very voices became thin and piping. Packs of raging wolves came out of the forests and fell upon the defenseless peasants. It seemed as if mankind in France could never recover. But sud- denly the fields brought forth grain in abundance and the peasantry responded with astonishing virility. FAMINE AMONG THE FRENCH CRUSADERS France suffered greatly from famine and pestilence during the Crusades, but like the other nations which participated in the eight attempts to wrest the Holy Land from the Mohammedans, the most spectacular instances of privation oc- curred among her armies in Palestine and Egypt rather than among the people at home. During the first crusade, plague, supplemented by famine, destroyed 100,- ooo men, women, and children between September and December of the year 1097. During the crusade against the heretics in 1218, one-sixth of the assailants per- ished at the siege of the Egyptian city of Damietta, while only 3,000 (some his- torians say 10,000) of the 70,000 inhabit- ants of the beleaguered place survived. In the eighth and last crusade France lost her king, Louis IX, and his son, Jean Tristan, both of whom were stricken with the pestilence which broke out at Car- thage. That indefatigable Walloon chronicler, Froissart, gives a simple but effective ac- count of the four years’ famine which fell upon France in the middle of the fourteenth century. “During that time,” he writes, “the merchants nor others dared venture out of town to look after their concerns or to take. any journey, for they were attacked and killed what- 84 te NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC NINE AZINE ever road they took. The kingdom was so full of the Navarrois [adherents of the King of Navarre] that they were masters of ali the flat countries, the riv- ers, principal towns, and cities. This caused such a scarcity of provisions in France that a small cask of herrings sold for 30 golden crowns. Many of the poor died of famine. ‘The lower classes suf- fered particularly for salt, which was highly taxed in order to secure the money with which to pay the army.” Of course, much of the suffering of this period in France was due to the fact that the whole country, like England, had had its vitality sapped by the ravages of the Black Death a few years previously. “In 1437 a great famine swept over France and many other Christian coun- tries,’ records Enguerrand de Monstrelet. “Tt was a pitiful sight to witness multi- tudes in the large towns dying in heaps on dunghills. Some towns drove the poor out of their gates, while others received all unfortunates and administered to them as long as they were able. Foremost in this act of mercy was Cambray.” This dearth lasted for two years, and it resulted in many strict regulations gov- erning the sale and distribution of corn. Embargoes against the shipment of grain out of the communities in which it was raised were not unusual. The city of Ghent was especially active in dealing with the situation. An order was issued prohibiting the brewing of beer and all other liquors in which grain was used, and another conservation measure was the killing of all dogs belonging to the poorer people, in order that these classes might have the food that otherwise would have gone to the pets. SUFFERING DUE TO EXTRAVAGANCE OF THE FRENCH COURT The closing years of the reign of Louis XIV were marked by general suffering among the laboring classes throughout France, not so much on account of the failure of crops, but because of the op- pressive burden of taxation necessitated by the extravagance and wastefulness of the French court. In some districts as much as three-sevenths of the peasant’s daily wage was seized by the tax-gath- erer. In the Duchy of Burgundy three- fourths of the people lived on barley and oaten bread. Emigration and death re- duced the population until every seventh house was empty, and unusually small families held out little promise for the future rejuvenation of the country. The streets of towns and cities were thronged with beggars clad in indecent rags. One of the greatest privations to which the peasants were subjected was the loss of their cattle, all of which were eaten. When a severe winter came, the wretched creatures were deprived of the warmth which they were accustomed to derive from sleeping side by side with the beasts. Madame de Maintenon was accused, perhaps unjustly, of making a fortune out of France’s miseries by trafficking in corn. She was mobbed in her carriage by the hungry crowd as she rode out of Versailles, where the living skeletons of men and women clamored daily for bread and could with difficulty be kept from the presence of the king. For a hundred years thereafter caricaturists depicted Frenchmen as tall, gaunt, lan- tern-jawed creatures, in contrast to the well-fed figure of the English John Bull. The French Government officials made many sporadic efforts to better condi- tions, but their methods of dealing with the situation seemed only to magnify the distress. For example, they doubled the tolls on roads, and thereby put an end to what little commerce remained; ridicu- lous tariffs on foodstuffs aggravated the populace and many riots followed. Gar- risons revolted and had to be given large bounties to return to their duties. One of the most terrible periods of starvation which any city has undergone in modern times befell Paris during its siege in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Thousands of refugees had flocked to the capital from the surround- ing districts as the Germans advanced, vet there was not sufficient food within the fortifications to feed the normal pop- ulation of the city. No provision had been made for the possibility of military disaster; the French Empire’s only ex- pectation had been an immediate triumph of its armies in the field. The severity - ei ee WHEN THE SEASONS SMILE ON RUSSIAN WHEAT LANDS Russia is one of the world’s greatest granaries, and it is the elimination of its wheat crop, owing to the exigencies of war, which has caused so large a responsibility to devolve upon America—the responsibility of feeding most of the nations of western Europe. 86 1s0g, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of the winter added its hardships to the horrors of famine. The civilian popula- tion was reduced to the most desperate straits. Dogs, cats, and rats were sold for food at extravagant prices and they were deemed rare luxuries by the starv- ing. When the garrison finally capitu- lated and the Germans marched down the Champs Elysees, on March 1, many foreign nations joined in spirited rivalry to revictual the stricken city, but it was many weeks before the distress of the people could be relieved. IRELAND S MANY FAMINE WOES Ireland has been a land of many woes, and not the least of these have been the famines which from time to time have taken such heavy toll of the island’s man- hood. As early as 963-964, an intolerable famine visited the country, and parents are said to have sold their children in order to get money with which to buy food. On at least three occasions the peasantry has been driven to cannibal- ism. The most notorious instance oc- curred during the dearth which accom- panied the wars of Desmond, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth in England. The poet Spenser, who was an eye- witness to. the distress of the time, says that the famine slew far more than the sword, and that the survivors were un- able to walk, but crawled out of the woods and glens. “They looked like anatomies of death; they did eat the dead carrion and one another soon after, inso- much as the very carcases they spared not to scrape cut of their graves. Toa plot of watercresses and shamrocks they flocked as to a feast.” Ireland’s greatest hours of travai! were postponed, however, until the two great famines of the nineteenth century, brought about in both instances by the failure of her potato crops. The famine of 1822 was but a prelude to the desolation which swept over the island in 1845-1846. The earlier failure of the potato crop should have fore- warned the people of the disaster which they were constantly inviting, and many reformers preached for years against the practice of neglecting the cultivation of all grains in favor of the American tuber. “While the agriculturalists of the con- tinent were suffering from overproduc- tion, a grievous famine arose in Ireland in 1822, showing the anomalies of her situation, resulting from the staple food of her population differing from that of surrounding nations, or the limitation of her commercial exchanges with her neighbors,” says Wade’s British History. “Her distresses from scarcity were ag- gravated by the agrarian outrages, origi- nating in the pressure of tithes and rack- rents on the peasantry and small farmers. Several. of the ringleaders of these dis- orders were apprehended by the civil and military powers and great numbers exe- cuted or transported.” This period of stress in 1822 proved to be the rapids above the great cataract of calamity over which the Irish people plunged in 1845. .In ‘the: latter yearn a pestilential blight of unexampled severity caused the whole potato crop to rot. Three-fourths of the population of the island was entirely dependent upon this staple for food at that time. The result- ing suffering can scarcely be imagined. AMERICA AMONG THE FIRST TO AID THE TRISH As soon as the seriousness of the situ- ation was realized aid was rushed to the starving people from all quarters of the globe, America being among the fore- most sending food. The British Gov- ernment established relief works, and throngs of peasants rushed to get “the Queen’s pay.” In March and April, 1847, 2,500 died weekly in the workhouses alone. Thou- sands of starving peasants poured into England, many dying of famine fever while on board the emigrant ships. The total death toll was between 200,000 and 300,000. Owing to deaths and emigration, the population of the island was reduced from 8,300,000 in 1845 to 6,600,000 six years later, and has been declining stead- ily ever since, until today it is about 4,300,000. The pages of India’s history are black with the blotches of famine. This vast and densely populated peninsula has been the very haunt of hunger for ages. Its Photograph from Paul Thompson SOMEWHERE ON THE ROAD “SOMEWHERE IN FRANCE” Before the war these refugees were “a bold peasantry, their country’s pride,” adding to the nation’s wealth and a people’s plenty by the cultivation of rich fields. homeless, a drain upon the world’s food resources rather than a productive element. must make good the loss of their labor. peasants are among the most frugal in the world and its valleys are among the most fertile; but it has suffered more from lack of food than any other nation on the face of the earth, not even except- ing China. And yet, if so intelligent and discrimi- nating a chronicler as Megasthenes, am- bassador in India from the court of seleucus between 317 and 312 B. C., may be believed, up to that time there had never been a famine in this land. The uncertainty of the seasons since the dawn of the Christian era develops a far dif- ferent story. FAMINE’S TERRIBLE TOLL IN INDIA In the ancient chronicles of Indian courts little space is given to the suffer- ings of the common people; hence the 87 Today they are America early accounts of famine are meager ; but occasionally a single sentence from a poem or a historical sketch is illuminat- ing in its very brevity. For example, we find the line, “The flesh of a son was preferred to his love,” grimly suggesting the practice of cannibalism in times of dearth. There are records of whole provinces being depopulated as early as 1022 and 1052 A. D., while at about the time that the Black Death was making its appear- ance in Furope a famine of such severity swept over Hindustan that the Mogul emperor himself was unable to obtain the necessaries for his household. In 1630 a devastating drought afflicted the province of Gujarat and whole cen- ters were depopulated. A Dutch mer- chant, returning from Swaily, reported 88 THR NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE that of 260 families only 11 had sur- vived, while in Surat, a great and crowd- ed city, he saw hardly a living soul, but at each street corner found piles of dead with none to bury them. Unlike the famines in other. countries, where there is frequently a variety of factors contributing to the failure of crops, in India the shortage almost in- variably results from an absence of rain. The country is wholly dependent for food upon its countless small farms, which are worked on practically no capi- tal. Local credit is in the main unorgan- ized, and in times of stress millions of laborers are thrown out of work. The success of India’s crops from year to year depends upon two monsoons—the southwest, or the rains, and the north- east, which brings the winter rains. For a month or two before the rains (April and May) the greater part of the penin- sula fairly gasps in the heat. The soil is baked and cultivation is impossible. With June comes the monsoon, which contin- ues until the latter part of September. After the first showers the peasants plow their fields and sow the autumn harvest of millet and rice. The spring harvest, which consists largely of wheat and bar- ley, is sown in October and November. Not only do droughts disarrange this schedule, but prolonged rains, accompa- nied by east winds, cause the wheat to rust, while hot west winds cause the swelling grain to shrivel on the stalk. The first of the Indian famines to at- tract wide-spread interest in the western world was the great catastrophe of 1769- 1770, during which it is estimated that fully 10,000,000 souls, a full third of the population of Bengal, perished. Like all the famines, it resulted from a failure of rain, supplemented by maladministration on the part of the East India Company. The famines which occurred from 1780 to 1790 are worthy of note, because it was during this period that the British began to organize relief for the destitute. Lord Cornwallis, by his administrative ability as governor general in this trying time, here managed to regain some of the laurels which he had lost by his defeat at the hands of the American colonists during the Revolutionary War. In the twenty-two famines which oc- curred in India between 1770 and 1900 more than 15,000,000 natives perished, and some of the most terrible years—no- tably the famine in southern India in 1876-1878, when 5,200,000 starved in British territory alone—have befallen the empire just when the government be- lieved it had almost mastered the prob- lem of relief. CASTE COMPLICATES INDIAN FAMINE RELIEF Great Britain has had many difficulties to overcome in handling the Indian food situation, not the least trying being the ever-recurring problem of caste. Occupation is still preserved among the Indian natives by inheritance and tra- dition, so that the diversion of labor to industrial pursuits has been an almost impossible task. The supply of agricul- tural labor constantly outruns the de- mand, thus keeping the wage scale ex- tremely low. Caste also prevents people from leaving crowded districts and going to sparsely inhabited regions, of which there are many. In time of distress the restrictions which caste throws about rescue and re- lief work would be exasperating if they were not so tragic. For example, in the terrible Orissa famine thousands of San- tals perished, in the midst of ample sup- phes furnished by the government, before it was discovered that there is a peculiar tenet of their faith which forbids them to touch food cooked by Brahmins. It was also discovered that skilled weavers would not go to the ordinary relief-work camps for fear that the hard labor would cause them to lose the delicacy of touch which they value so highly. CHINESE FAMINE WHICH STARTED THE BLACK DEATH China is another land which famine seems to have marked for its own. Here the difficulty is not so much a matter of crop failures as the excess production of the human crop from year to year. Ex- istence is a perpetual struggle for food in the Celestial Empire, and the smallest deviation from a maximum yield de- stroys the margin of safety between “barely enough” and “starvation.” BEAR MULE bAMINES OF LAE PAST 89 The four years between 1333 and 1337 constituted a period of unimagined suf- fering throughout China, and it is highly probable that it was in this era that the seeds of disaster were sown for Europe’s Black Death, which appeared in the fol- lowing decade. Famine and pestilence laid the whole country waste.. Excessive rains caused destructive inundations, and according to Chinese records 4,000,000 people perished from starvation in the neighborhood of Kiang alone. Violent earthquakes occurred in many parts of the kingdom; whole mountains were thrown up and vast lakes formed. The fury of the elements subsided and the rav- ages of famine ceased in the very year that the Black Death reached England. The four famines of 1810, 1811, 1846, and 1849 are said to have taken a toll of not less than 45,000,000 lives. In 1875- 1878 four provinces in northern China, the district known as the “Garden of China,” suffered a failure of crops ow- ing to lack of rain, and in an area about the size of France nine millions perished. Two recent periods of dearth in China which awakened wide interest and elic- ited generous’ contributions from the United States for relief work were the famines of 1906 and 1911, when floods in the Yangtze River basin affected 10,- 000,000 people residing in an area the size of the State of Kentucky. During both of these famines parents found it necessary to sell their daughters, not only to obtain food for themselves, but in order that the children might not starve. They were usually sold to wealthy families, in which they became slave girls. Early in the period of distress girls of 10 to 15 years of age brought as much as $20 each; but when the food shortage was most severe the customary quotation in the slave market was 60 cents each, while in one instance a father is known to have accepted 14 cents and two bowls of rice in exchange for his child. No other race is as docile as the Chi- nese in times of famine. ‘Their resigna- tion in the face of calamity is amazing. For instance, in the food shortage of 1906-1907 a starving army of 300,000 peasants camped beneath the walls of the city of Tsinkiangpu. The grain ware- houses of the town, a place of 200,000 inhabitants, were overflowing with wheat, maize, and rice, and these supplies were constantly on display; yet there were no riots. The thousands outside the walls sat themselves down to die, while those within continued to transact the ordinary affairs of every-day life. TIUNGER AND THE RUSSIAN PEASANT Next to the proletariat of India and China, the Russian peasant feels the pinch of poverty and hunger more keenly and more frequently than any other citizen on earth. One of the earliest famines in Russia of which there is any definite record was that of 1600, which continued for three years, with a death toll of 500,000 peas- ants. Cats, dogs, and rats were eaten; the strong overcame the weak, and in the shambles of the public markets human flesh was sold. Multitudes of the dead were found with their mouths stuffed with straw. Three Russian famines of compara- tively recent date were among the most severe in the history of the country. They occurred in 1891, 1906, and 1911. Dur- ing the ten years following the first of these periods of dearth the government allotted nearly $125,000,000 for relief work, but the sums were not always ju- diciously expended. In 1906 the government gave 40 pounds of flour a month to all persons under 18 and over 59 years of age. All peasants between those ages and infants under one year of age received no allowance, and it became necessary for the younger and older members of the family to share their bare pittance with those for whom no provision was made. The suffering was intense and the mortality exceedingly heavy, but the available statistics are not wholly reliable. The famine of 1911 extended over one- third of the area of the empire in Europe and affected more or less directly 30,000,- 000 people, while 8,000,000 were reduced to starvation. Weeds, the bark of trees, and bitter bread made from acorns con- stituted the chief diet for the destitute. This was unquestionably the most wide- 90 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE spread and most severe famine that has befallen a European nation in modern times. Both North and South America have been happily ignorant of extensive fam- ines since the days of Columbus. There is a more or less apocryphal account of a great drought in Mexico in the year 1051, which caused the Toltecs to migrate, and in 1877 a scarcity of rain exposed 200,000 people in the northern provinces of Brazil to suffering; but with these exceptions the pinch “of hunger in the Western Hemisphere has been felt from time to time in restricted areas only. From this kaleidoscopic picture of suf- fering undergone during some of the most direful periods of world history it is apparent that there is nothing grandi- ose or heroic about death from starva- tion; neither is there glory to be gained, nor medals of honor or military crosses to be won in the battle for food. The casualties in the struggle are enormous, the compensation nil. No monuments are raised to the victims, no pensions pro- vided for decrepit survivors. The suffer- ing of those who succumb is pitiful be- yond description, and the individual’s anguish inevitably is intensified by the necessity of witnessing the agony of his loved ones who perish with him. AMERICA’S TASK To allay the pangs of world hunger and to banish famine from the earth is Amer- ica’s task and her determination. Early last spring, when it became evi- dent that all Europe would be largely de- pendent upon the United States for its food during the coming autumn and win- ter, an appeal was issued to the American people to utilize every available acre of ground in the production of foodstuffs. Farmers were urged to increase the yield of their fields by ‘employi ing every agency of science and industry; dw ellers in towns and cities were asked to plant vege- tables in their garden plots; those who had no ground on which to produce food- stuffs were enlisted in the cause when they agreed to limit to their necessity the consumption of food. But the object is only half achieved. Having grown the foodstuffs, it is im- perative that all practical means be em- ployed to gather and preserve the fruits of the soil and of man’s labor. ‘These “bumper” crops of vegetables, raised in places which formerly were unproduc- tive, can play no part in feeding stricken Europe unless they supply our own needs, thus releasing non-perishable grains for exportation. THE ALLIES NEEDS AND AMERICA’S RESOURCES It is estimated that the Entente Allies will require 550,000,000 bushels of wheat from America this year, if the efficiency of their armies on the battle fronts is to remain unimpaired and if the civilian populations of France, England, and Italy are to be maintained in full bodily vigor, in order that they may produce the munitions and supplies essential to the successful prosecution of the war against Germany. If the United States should consume its normal amount of grain, the quantity available for export from the 1917 har- vest would fall short of the requirements abroad by 259,000,000 bushels. But this deficit can be made good, without serious privation to Americans, by the exercise of economy, thrift, and ingenuity—econ- omy, in avoiding all waste; thrift, in gathering the vegetables which have been produced in such abundance this sum- mer, and ingenuity in preserving, curing, canning, and drying for winter use all the perishable foodstuffs and fruits not re- quired for immediate consumption. The goal in this great campaign against waste 1n America is the safeguarding of all humanity against the suffering “and the social and moral degradation which a world-wide famine would entail. The American Government is earnestly enlisted in this supreme effort, its food administration bureau having taken over the large problems of price control and regulation of the exportation of food- stuffs; but the essential, the vital prob- lem of food conservation remains the re- sponsibility of each household. Only by the sacrifice which the individ- ual American makes will the welfare of another individual across the Atlantic be assured. Never before in so literal a sense is each man in this country the surety and the keeper of his brother abroad. VOL. XXXII, No. 2 THE NATIONAIL WES WASHINGTON GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE AUGUST, 1917 RUSSIA FROM WITHIN Her War of Yesterday, Today, and ‘Tomorrow By STANLEY W ASHBURN For THREE YEARS SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT WITH THE Russtan ARMIES OW that the United States of N America is committed to the ; prosecution of the great war to its final conclusion in every respect as deeply as are the other Allies, it is of paramount importance that the Ameri- can people have as full and complete an understanding as possible of all of the factors in the war which make for final victory. Russia with her great front, which, including Roumania, extends from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and which today is detaining somewhere between two and three million enemy troops, is such an important part of the whole theater of op- erations that what is going on in Russia becomes of the most vital interest to all of the Allies, and perhaps to the United States more than any of the others. In the final analysis the defeat and elimination of Russia would mean that ultimately the vacancy made by the ab- sence of her troops on the eastern front would have to be filled by substituting American troops on the French or some other front where pressure might be brought against the forces of the Central Powers. It would be folly to minimize the dan- gers of the present situation in Europe; but equally is it criminal and harmful for us to magnify these dangers by the unin- telligent acceptance by press and people of this country and of the countries of the Allies of rumors of disaster and stories of a pessimistic nature about Rus- sia and her future. It is, of course, stupid at present to attempt to prophesy what is going to hap- pen in Russia; but it 1s legitimate to trace briefly what has happened in the past in Russia, and from the precedence of her history and the knowledge of the present in some measure gauge an estimate of the future. UNFAIR TO JUDGE RUSSIA BY DAY-TO-DAY EVENTS In all war situations, both at the front and in the political centers, one must ex-. ercise the greatest possible restraint in making any day-to-day judgments. So vast are the political and military changes that occur almost overnight in all of the warring countries that one must guard against any conclusions save those based on fundamental elements gathered over long periods and attuned to the perspec- tive of the war as a whole and to what we know of the detailed history of the armies and people engaged therein, not for the last few months, but for the en- tire length of the war to date. This per- spective is more necessary in judging Russia than in forming opinions of any © Harris & Ewing COMRADES IN A STRANGE LAND General Hugh L. Scott. Chief of Staff of the United States Army and a member of the American Mission to Russia, surrounded by privates of the Russian Army. In the new European republic the campaign service hat is unknown; officers and enlisted men alike wear military caps. During the visit of the Mission the orderlies of the American officers were instructed to wear caps also, in order to establish their military status. of the other nations. It is as unfair and misleading to judge Russia and the Rus- Sian people and their part in the war from what is going on from day to day in the new republic as it would be to judge the mentality of an individual who, having undergone a long and serious Operation, is just coming out from ether. Before we can fairly judge the Rus- sians at all we must wipe from our minds the daily news, and with impartial vision carefully weigh the knowledge and ex- perience which we have: of Russia in character, not only in the past three years, but from her history as a whole. We must then, as far as we can, understand the Russian point of view of today; try to realize what the situation is from this people’s standpoint and what capacity they have of acting other than they are now doing. Then, knowing as we do cer- tain definite factors, we can judge for ourselves what we may anticipate from Russia in the future. In an article in the GrocrapHic Mac- AZINE for April, I made some reference to Russia in the war and her contribu- tion. In order that we may fully appre- ciate what she has already done and the extent to which the Russian people have already, irrespective of the future, earned the gratitude of all of the Allies, it seems worth while briefly to recapitulate her achievements. FATE OF EUROPE HUNG IN THE BALANCE WHEN THE In August, 1914, when Paris was in danger, the Russians almost overnight threw an army into East Prussia, which moved with such success that Berlin was flooded with refugees fleeing before the Cossacks. At a moment when the fate of Europe seemed to hang on the opera- tions in the West, the German high com- mand detached six army corps (240,000 men) from the armies on the western front and dispatched them against the RUSSIA FROM WITHIN 93 Russians. Ten days later the French and English checked the Germans on the Marne. The Germans sent to East Prus- sia inflicted a defeat on Russia which cost the latter 165,000 men. But Paris was saved. Later in the year, when the Ger- mans were driving on Calais and Eng- land, another Russian sortie through Po- land was launched. Between November 1 and December 15 nearly sixteen Ger- man army corps were detached from other operations and sent against Russia. Again there were retirements in the East, but again the Allies profited in the West, for the Germans did not take Calais and England was not threatened from that quarter. Operations the Germans against Russia occupied from December, 1914, to April, 1915. The troops forming these contingents represented forces which might otherwise have been attacking in the West. In the spring of t915 Russian advances in Bukovina and Galicia so threatened the stability of Austria and Hungary that the Germans-were obliged to devote their entire summer's campaign to reestablishing the Austrian morale and driving the Russians back. To do this required between 35 and 4o German army corps, not. to speak of depot troops to the extent of perhaps half a million sent to replace losses. The world looked upon 1915 as a year of Russian disasters; but too many superficial observers forget that during all that summer the surplus which repre- sents the difference between the capacity to resist and the capacity to attack was operating all that time against the Rus- sian army. The result was that England and France had almost one whole year in which to beat their plows into swords and their untrained manhood into sol- diers. The British and French armies and various offensives of 1916 and 1917 are the direct outcome of Russia’s con- tributions of the preceding year. It is clear, then, that the Russian sacrifices of 1915 have been almost as potent in their effects on the world situation as was the battle of the Marne significant in the campaign of 1914. The Russian offensive of 1916, in which Brusilloff captured nearly half a million enemy prisoners and 500 guns, again destroyed the initiative of the enemy and relieved pressure on the Ital- ian front. The contribution of Rou- mania, disastrous as it has proved to that unfortunate little country, diverted to the south, at a time when the Germans would otherwise have had them available for attacking England or France, no less and perhaps more than 30 German divisions. RUSSIA HAS EARNED WESTERN ALLIES UNDYING GRATITUDE Let the fair-minded student carefully weigh all these facts and ask himself whether or not Russia has in the first three years earned the undying gratitude of her partners in the West. Before he presumes to sit in judgment on Russia of today let him consider what this con- tribution has cost the East during the last three years. It is difficult to estimate exactly, but it is perhaps not far from the facts to say that there have been called up in the past three years in Rus- sia between 12,000,000 and 14,000,000 men. Probably 7,000,000 can be charged off as permanently ineffective through death, wounds, disease, and lost as pris- oners to the enemy. If we allow three members in the family of each, directly affected, we have 21,000,000° civilians upon whom the burden of war has fallen with crushing effect. Add to this num- ber the 15,000,000 refugees who have been driven into the heart of Russia by German invasions, and include the per- sons who have sustained serious losses consequent to the war. The total comes to the stupendous aggregate of 43,000,- 000, a number almost equal to the popu- lation of the United Kingdom or, to bring it nearer home, more than one-third the population of the United States. Such is the price that Russia has so bravely paid to date in her effort to cooperate with the Allies! OUR MENTAL YARDSTICK America has not yet begun to shed her blood in the cause. Perhaps it would be fair for Americans to review in their minds what Russia has done and suffered before they in any way judge the Rus- sian situation of today. Russia has made poziusooa1 Apisea a1 ‘UOISSITY OY} JO URWATeYD OOY NYY pue ‘sroursy Jopessequry ‘309g |e dy uy “AovsIOOINe JsuIese v[SsnIj}s 9Y} JoJUa 0} SI[QNdo1 JoplO oy} poyenzov YY suosea SsSUIIOyyeS YONs ye sem JI pue “Pjoy o1aM sIYy} OF Ie[rUIIS SuOT}dos9 Touot) Io [ey MOT JUOTT I 9} Solje UeISSnyY Toy} 0} UMOUY IpPCUL SULITIOWIY 9} JeYy I pue sSurjaour snosownu o1qndat Mou oY} 0} UOISSIPY ay} JO PSA oy} Surmnd avVuoOULad JO AGVUL JO duVOd AHL GNV VISSNY OL NOISSIW NV 4098 *] YSN] [e1suer) Jo Asajyino09 ydeisojoy OIVANV WHY JO SYAANAIN 4 i i 04 JO ‘DIY “YT “AL “AL [elouey Joipesiig pur JY} JO JOIYO-Ul-TopuvwUIWIOD 91} oY} Fe : ‘QUT (OOTATIOS WILT [eUOTVUIOJUT @ ae (0) “AULLY UPIIOWY 94} ‘WQ008 *]T YSNET [esousy Joffe] + eissny 0} UOISSIT UvolIoUTW 9} JO peey Yooyy, ny !AuIy uvissny I [ISnIg SIXOTY [esouar) !sieyy USO JO JoysTUIJY UvIssNyY “OyUoYIsotoy, “T “JN JUST 0} Ifo] WOAYT STIdOUd NOIAWTAOS CNV WHAT OMY JO SHAILVINUSHAdAa = = _ ae = aS Courtesy of Illustrated London News “FAREWELL! A LONG FAREWELL TO ALL MY GREATNESS!” Closely guarded, Nicholas Romanoff, the ex-Emperor of Russia, is seen seated on the stump of a tree felled by his own hands. Before his removal to Siberia the dethroned monarch, surrounded by his wife and children, resided comfortably, under military observa- tion, in the palace of Tsarskoe Selo. A Paris correspondent writes: “At meals with his children, or some specially invited guest, Nicholas is always in pleasant humor and never makes the slightest allusion to his downfall.” To one of his associates in captivity, however, he is said to have observed, “I am hardly less free now than formerly, for have I not been a prisoner all my life?” 96 © Underwood & Underwood FUR AND FEATHERS: MASCOTS OF THE HEROIC RUSSIAN WOMEN’S “BATTALION OF DEATH” The advent of the woman soldier fighting for liberty in the armies of New Russia has been one of the most inspiring developments of the war since the overthrow of the Romanoff dynasty. These young women patriots have already set their brothers in arms a magnificent example in loyalty, obedience to military authority, and bravery under fire. these sacrifices and is,asa matter of fact, necessary to understand the average still fighting, while America has not yet point of view of their 180,000,000 odd begun. It is my purely personal point of population. It must be understood that view that the Russians have by their con- of these millions the vast majority are tribution saved Europe, even if they fight of the peasant class and can neither read no more, though there is reason to be- nor write. At the beginning of the con- lieve that they will continue, in spite of flict they knew little or nothing of the losses and political confusion, to battle issues of the war, but came to the colors until the end. in the slow, unemotional, and negative We have, however, reached a point way that they always go to war. It is where the Allies can win without Russia. foolish to say that the war was popular Her staying in the war represents a sav- in Russia. No war is ever really popular ing in time and a saving of human life in any country. and treasure rather than any difference in the final issue. The collapse of Russia in 1915 or 1916 might have lost the war; but that moment has, in my judgment, Perhaps the attitude of the average passed. Let us, therefore, recognize the Russian is illustrated by the remark a services of Russia in the years agone and_ peasant made to me when asked if many appreciate them before we consider the had gone from his village to the war. situation of the present. “Nearly all of military age,” he replied. In order to realize what the Russians “And were they glad to go to the war?” are now going through politically, it is I asked him. “Who would go to war “NOT WILLING TO GO, YET THEY WENT WILLINGLY”’ 97 95 3 = Pei a | © International Film Service, Inc. RUSSIAN WOMEN SOLDIERS AT WORK Although they have recently acquired skill in firing a rifle and attacking with a bayonet, these Russian girls of the “Battalion of Death” have not forgotten how to manipulate pots and pans. gladly?” he asked mildly. “Well, then,” I queried, “were they willing to go?” For a time he hesitated and then said, “They were not willing to go, yet they went willingly,” which exactly represents the attitude of the Russians toward the war at its beginning. For the first six months they were fighting a battle for the Tsar between his government and that of the Kaiser. After that the war shifted to a combat between the German army and the Russian army, for the peasant of the East took grave exception to the Teutonic method of conducting warfare. Day by day and month by month, as wounded went home to tell of German 98 frightfulness, and as refugees by the mil- lion circulated through the villages of Russia, the feeling against the Germans became more and more bitter and the de- sire in the hearts of the peasants to see them beaten at all costs became more and more profound. It has taken perhaps two years for this feeling to develop among the peasants of Russia, and it is, I sincerely believe, the feeling through- out the nation, or it certainly was prior to the revolution, before the crafty Ger- man propaganda came to befog the issue in the untutored peasant mind. During these early days of the war an efficient government on the part of the old régime would have made the power RUSSIA, FROM WITHIN 99 of the Tsar, as well as his personal popu- larity, unshakable. If ever a man missed the chance of being called ‘““The Great,” it is the unfortunate Nicholas. But while the wish of the people to continue the war was steadily growing up throughout Russia, the government itself was sowing the seeds of its own undoing. Every one has been amazed at the sud- denness of the collapse of the old régime ; but such a collapse was logical and inev- itable sooner or later. The Emperor’s government was undermined by the com- plete incompetence of its administration. In time of peace it might have gone on in the same hit-and-miss way for years and the peasants would have taken but a meager interest, as few would have felt directly the results of mismanagement in any greater measure than normally. Wide-spread revolutions in Russia have been difficult, because it has been impossible to reach all of the people at the same time on the same issue. The war, however, did reach all the people at themsame time. Atter a year Or -two nearly every individual in Russia had been directly or indirectly touched in some way. The soldiers at the front knew that they had no ammunition and few rifles in 1915, and they knew that this shortage was due to the bad manage- ment of the government. The people knew that the railroads were not operat- ing properly, and that, as a result, many of them were obliged to go without food and fuel during the winter months. This, too, was charged to the government of the Tsar. The scandals in regard to the monk Rasputin became common prop- erty, and by the fall of 1916 all of Rus- Sia, save the bureaucracy, favored mem- bers of the autocracy, and the pro-Ger- mans, was of the fixed conviction that the people’s troubles were due to this in- competence. THE MOST REMARKABLE REVOLUTION IN HISTORY Step by step this universal opinion had developed in Russia until it had become practically unanimous in cities, in the country, and in the army. There was no wide-spread cry for revolution, no de- mand for a new Tsar, nor any national demand for the cessation of the war. All the people wanted. was a decent govern- ment, which would continue the war effi- ciently and in the interim enable them to live somehow or other. There has never been such a remark- able revolution in history. It has not rep- resented plot and intrigue and ambitions of individuals. It represented merely the united desire of 180,000,000 people to carry on a war in which they believed, with the minimum of misery and with the maximum of competence. Through stu- pidity in some quarters and intrigue and treachery in others, the Tsar steadfastly refused to make the concessions required to conduct the war and permit the people to live. Pressure in the Duma became acute. The Emperor ordered it dis- solved. It refused to dissolve. Troops were called out to restore order in Petro- grad, where bread riots had started a chaotic situation. The troops, being but boys three or four months in uniform, were of the people in opinion and de- clined to shoot. Authority ceased, and the Emperor, having nothing behind him, accepted the ultimatum that he abdicate. Practically, without any serious con- vulsion, the Empire disappeared. I sup- pose one must call it revolution, but it came so easily that it is hard to believe it such. The change came like a ripe apple falling from a tree. A few days of kill- ing and hunting down policemen who were loyal to the government marked the end of any serious disorders in Petro- grad. The rest of Russia quietly ac- cepted what Petrograd had done. ‘The old order had disappeared overnight. Now let us consider what remained. When the bread riots started there was apparently no party or class in Russia that was planning for the immediate overthrow of the Tsar; all that any one wanted was a more liberal and efficient government. Even the leaders of the Duma did not dream that the change could be brought about without any ef- fective resistance on the part of the old régime. It ail came in a day or two, and the Provisional Government and its com- mittee of twelve suddenly found itself in control of the destinies of the former Empire. F 2 Photograph by C. S. Stilwell A BREAD LINE IN PETROGRAD Russia’s food shortage difficulties during the last nine months have been brought about not by the failure of wheat crops or a shortage in the grain markets, but by disorganized transportation facilities. It was an army of hungry revolutionists which overthrew the Romanoff dynasty. THE RUSSIAN PEASANT’S FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE Now, in all of the centuries past there have been just two ideas in Russia which, in the minds of the peasants, have stood for the State. They were the Tsar and the Church, of which the Emperor was the head. The psychology of the Russian of the lower class is extremely simple. It is necessary for the Russian to see in order to appreciate anything. The men who created and built up the Greek Orthodox Church in Russia no doubt clearly realized this phase of the Slav mind, and hence that religion has been founded on the worship of God through the pictures of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints.. The direct conception of an abstract idea seems hardly to exist in Russia. Hence the Church provides the almost innumerable list of saints whose pictures, or ikons, are the me- diums through which the peasant mind conceives the idea of his God. As travelers in Russia will recall, there is in almost every public room some ikon, and all over Russia the mind of the peo- ple has in this way been focused. In an analogous way, the idea of the State was expressed to the people in the person of the Tsar and in the institution of the Church. Pictures of the Emperor were as common as the ikons and exercised almost the same function toward the gov- ernment as the religious pictures did to- ward the Church. It is clear, then, that the Emperor and the Greek Church rep- resented the keystones of the arch of government in Russia. In a day, and with the country entirely unprepared in thought for any such change, the Emperor ceased to exist, and the Church as a political influence was eliminated. As far as the millions of common people in Russia were con- cerned, the State as a whole practically ceased to exist. They had never thought of the national idea save in terms of Church and Tsar, and with both removed their minds lapsed into immediate solu- tion where any tangible conception of the State was for the time being difficult, if not impossible. It is obvious that any government to be strong and effective over any length of time must represent the combined strength of the individuals that compose it. Ina week, Russia, as far as the opin- ion of the bulk of her people was con- I00 4° TABLE UPON WHICH NICHOLAS II SIGNED HIS ABDICATION In the years to come this bit of furniture in the imperial Russian railway coach will be of as great historic interest as the table shown to visitors at Fontainebleau, upon which Napoleon signed his abdication in favor of his son, the infant King of Rome, 103 years ago, and then (so the guide explains to the credulous), in a fit of rage, threw the pen upon the table, leaving the great blotch of ink on the top. cerned, was in a state of complete chaos. The masses did not in the least realize the significance of what had taken place, nor were they able to express themselves or their genius through the new medium which was suddenly established. The committee of the Duma, which took charge of the Provisional Govern- ment, faced the most difficult problem which any group of men has ever en- countered. It was their task to keep the war going while the minds and opinions of the people were readjusting them- selves to an entirely new standard as to what the State actually was. Had there been no war under way, there is not the slightest doubt but that the problems would have been worked out without friction or disorders of any sort, for the people left to themselves would have gradually developed new and working institutions to fit their own needs. GERMANS QUICK TO PROFIT BY -BREAK- DOWN OF THE OLD ORDER But the people were not left to them- selves. The breakdown of the old order in Russia gave to the Germans the chance which they were quick to seize for their own profit. IOI In the first days of confusion thou- sands of German agents and _ spies swarmed through Russia, worked their way through the lines and began the hugest program of propaganda which the world has ever seen. It is difficult to say what the Germans have spent in Russia ; but the figure which is accepted as being accurate in well-informed circles in Pet- rograd approximates 48,000,000 roubles since the revolution. Almost at once parties were formed to attack the new government and to inter- fere in every way with the conduct of the war. Agitators from Germany openly preached peace at any price and circu- lated every form of malicious and in- sidious fallacy which could undermine the strength of the government. There grew up in a somewhat obscure fashion in Petrograd the body known as the Council of Workingmen’s and Sol- diers’ Delegates, which took upon itself the uninvited task of acting as critic of the new government. I have never heard by what authority this body exists; but as nearly as one can discover it grew from a small and informal body of men of all classes, anxious to help in the revo- lution, to a committee of above 2,500 in my VISSOY WHUT FO USAVO HHL OL SHAT MIMHL GLLVMOUSNOO AQH) AHHM “IVUGAHLVO SVVSI MIS NI SHOIAMHS IVIOddS WOYI ONINNALAY ~HLVaAd IO NOMIVILVE IPAS “SD Aq ydes30j,04 S.NHNOM NVISSOW HEL ) ‘ Sees : FE ET i IRE ae se ORE pera ee E pa Be at, es ith, Se 4 isd on a i OS Me bith ive Soe ee a ve 102 Photograph by C. S. Stilwell GENERAL, SCOTT, TWO SIKHS, AND A GROUP OF RUSSIAN SOLDIERS AT AN ASTIATIC WAY-STATION ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY The character and the stamina of the American officer and of the Russian soldier are familiar to the world, but neither is the simple Sikh of the Punjab to be despised as a fighting entity. Inspired by a militant religion, he is acknowledged to be the finest soldier of the East. Hardy, brave, and obedient to discipline, he is said to be steady in victory and unyielding to the death in defeat. group. number, which acquired such power and influence that it came to dominate the original committee of the Duma, the lat- ter having adjourned and exerting no in- fluence whatever on the situation. The Soldiers’ and Workingmen’s Delegates forced reorganizations in the govern- ment and at every crisis have directed the changes in the Ministry. The great committee at once split into many groups, the most objectionable be- ing that party of extreme radicals calling themselves the Maximalists or, as the Russians say, “Bolshevik.” It is impos- sible and unfair to brand these people as German agents, but it is a safe assertion to state that they have always played the German game. From them have ema- nated all of the crazy ideas which have reduced Russia to confusion and de- stroyed the morale of the army. The Maximalists would have division of the lands, immediate cessation of the war, friendly relations with Germany, entire destruction of government, and in fact Note the large military caps worn by the Russian school-boys in the almost every form of radical idea that anywhere or at any time has preyed upon the civilized world. These few at once created a split among the Socialists, the sounder ones going in support of the new government, while the old element continued to preach doctrines which, in any other time, would have been branded as sedition. This group, which has been making most of the trouble, has been reduced in strength until it now comprises probably less than 15 per cent of the whole body and can be discounted save for the damage already done. KERENSKY THE POINT OF FOCUS ON WHICH TO RALLY The coming to the fore of Kerensky has given the government a point of focus on which to rally, and it has now become a question as to whether or not the army at the front can maintain itself in being, as a whole, while the men at the rear with Kerensky organize the govern- 103 CHINESE OFFICIALS AT HARBIN WHO WELCOMED TO ASIATIC SOIL THE AMERICAN MISSION ON ITS WAY TO PETROGRAD Photographs by C. S. Stilwell BURYAT PRINCES ASSEMBLED TO GREET THE AMERICAN MISSION UPON ITS ARRIVAL IN MANCHURIA A Mongolian race, residing in the Baikal Lake region, the Buryats long opposed the advent of the Russians; but in the closing years of the seventeenth century they finally submitted to their European overlords and are now considered among the most peaceful of Russian peoples. 104 © International Film Service, Inc. MILITARY MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN MISSION TO RUSSIA IN THE APARTMENTS OF THE FORMER TSAR ON THE IMPERIAL TRAIN IN WHICH THEY TRAVELED FROM VLADIVOSTOK TO PETROGRAD Seated at the left, beside the table on which Emperor Nicholas I1 signed his abdication of the Russian throne, is Brigadier General (then Colonel) William V. Judson. To his left is Major Stanley Washburn, for three years special correspondent with the Russian armies. The two officers seated on the divan are Major R. Le J. Parker and Major M. C. Kerth, American military observers detailed to Russia. and Captain E. Francis Riggs, also a military observer, is seated at the extreme right. the numerous handsome furnishings of the car. Lieutenant Colonel Bentley Mott is standing Note Among its permanent fixtures are twenty- seven thermometers, sixteen barometers, and eight clocks of elaborate design and beautiful workmanship. ment and restore internal conditions to the normal. Russia in the past few months can be likened to a crab changing its shell. The crab is a perfectly healthy one, and given the opportunity unmolested it will surely and certainly grow a new and impervious shell. But in the interim the crab is ina delicate position. It is now the task of the army and the men rallying around Kerensky to keep the crab protected until the new shell has grown, when all danger will have passed in Russia. Persons returning from Russia express great optimism as to the outcome for a sound and permanent democracy, and 105 their judgment is perhaps based on the study of what the Russians have not done in this period of confusion rather than what they have done. The situation in Russia since March has been one of the most remarkable in the world’s history, and if any one has in the past felt apprehension of the Rus- sian character as a world menace, the lesson of the last few months should for- ever dissipate it. Here we find an im- mense country suddenly told that there is no longer an Emperor, and that they aeminee: Now, freedom and liberty to the Rus- sian peasants are taken literally. To the Udy} OALY OYM “ILA-UI-SIO}SIS YSI]suy pur yuss,y Joy FO a[diosrp AyJIOM v dy} UO SurAsos Aq ‘suorsrAo1d puv suountu yy polyddns sorumse oy} 6 Auew Ul ynq ‘AJIOqI[ JO 9sned oy} 0} pue ArjZUNOD AVAM'‘TIVY NVINHAIS-SNVUL FHL NO NVI Jjostoy sulaoid st uewom uldo UNV S) Bl Joy OF UOTJOAIP JOY suraoid ULUIOM UVISSHY, JO Uopinqd oy} JO ore oq} SI = ‘SoYOUIT} OY} UL papaou Uda JO soovid ayy SI} OATOWOSIO] UIIOqIG-suRI] & JO JapUd} YS Joy SUILUNSSe OYS SI SorjIArjOV [eLysNputr .yieoq, JO uoyrqiyeg,, oy} ur Ajuo JON LSISSV NV SV DNIAWHS NVWOM NVISSOY V "ate ond 100 | PAN 107 Photograph by C. S. Stilwell SENATOR ROOT ADDRESSING SOLDIERS AT PERM IPMS *S *D Aq ydes8o104q AVM'TIIVY NVIVAAIS-SNVAL NO cose £ sip ie as —* rl Ss B MYOM LV SHHNOSIYd NVWYAD ee 108 ANAOS NOLLV ALS x - 109 ot 5 vee HET Ul PAA U5 BEP eae ATTERNOON moujik, or peasant soldier, “freedom” means individual liberty in the most widely accepted sense rather than politi- cal liberty. It means to him that he is free to do exactly what he likes, to come and go as, when, and where he pleases; it means that the railroads, the street- cars, and the public property are free. Hence, the soldiers at once began to bask in this new freedom, and for months rail- roads and street-cars were black with troops in all parts of Russia, riding everywhere because they had, as they be- lieved, the right to ride. The police van- ished in a day, and citizens who were designated by bands on their arms and who were entirely unarmed became the guardians of the peace and order of the country. SPEECHMAKING HAS BECOME THE NATIONAL PASTIME Now mark what happened. Practically nothing. Liberty and freedom did not to the Russians represent any form of dis- order or lawlessness whatever, and it is a safe venture to state that in European Russia there has been less crime and dis- order than before the war. STATION SCENE: Paoeon byiGsS: Stilwe ell VYATKA The entire population has taken the summer off to celebrate their new liberty and to talk it over. Speech-making has become the national pastime. During the summer, when the nights have been short and one can read a paper at midnight, the discussion of public affairs has gone on day and night in the main streets of Pet- rograd. Ina perfectly good-natured way the situation is discussed from every angle. The extraordinary part of the speech- making and the crowds is that all views are equally applauded. A pro-Ger- man orator will be greeted with loud cheers, while the man who mounts the barrel and denounces him will get an even greater ovation. One at last comes to the realization that the applause is not for sentiments expressed, but for the fact that there now exists the opportunity for free expression of opinion. All summer long the Germans with their propaganda have been attacking this extremely vague opinion of the man in the street, using every method within their power to force him into the making of an independent peace. He is told that there are to be no annexations and no indemnities, and that further sacrifices IIo can yield him no profit. He is assured that ‘the Germans are and always have been his real friends, and that they stand ready and willing to finance him and help him rebuild Russia. A thousand subtle measures are used to persuade him that England made the war and that he has fought it, and that the food crises in Rus- sia are due to the British blockade. Again he is told that the Tsar made the war, and now that the Tsar is gone, there is no reason for him to continue in it. From every angle and in every way his slow mind has been attacked by the Teu- ton influences to make the worse appear the better cause; and in spite of it all, and notwithstanding the losses and dis- asters and miseries of the past three years, the Russians have not made peace, their armies are still fighting, and their people, though confused, are still show- ing the inclination to hold on until the end. At the front, the German influence was even more pernicious than it was at the base, for here the soldiers were allowed to fraternize with the enemy. Literature was prepared for them in Germany, printed in Russian, and passed between the lines. They were told that they had won their liberty and their freedom, and Photograph by C. S. Stilwell TRAVEL ON THE TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY that the policy of their government was “no annexations and no indemnities,” and then they were asked why they were fighting, a question difficult for the simple mind to answer. Again the kindly Germans warned them that the lands of Russia were about to be distributed, and if they stayed in their trenches they would miss this dis- tribution entirely, while the stay-at-homes got all the prizes; and still enough Rus- sians remained in the trenches to offer a front 1,200 miles in length to the line of the enemy forces in the East. THE GERMAN POLITICAL. DRIVE A FAILURE In the meantime, through the unwise orders relaxing discipline in the army, the morale of the Russian troops began slow- ly to deteriorate, and by this decrease in efficiency the position at the front became a serious one. Yet throughout there has been a background of solid common sense, for in spite of all that has happened, and all that the Germans have done in the way of propaganda, they have not achieved their purpose in their political drive on the Russian people any more than they achieved their purpose in their military drive of IQ15. The wonder is not that Russia failed ELIHU ROOT LEAVING A CHURCH IN THE FAMOUS KREMLIN OF MOSCOW The peculiar religious pictures on each side of the doorway are mural decorations characteristic of many of the sacred buildings of the Slavic Empire Photograph by Paul Thompson SOLDIERS OF THE REVOLUTION BRINGING IN A CAPTURED POLICEMAN OF THE OLD REGIME: PETROGRAD _ “Practically without any serious convulsion the empire disappeared. The change came like a ripe apple falling from a tree. A few days of killing and hunting down policemen who were loyal to the government marked the end of any serious disorders in Petrograd. The rest of Russia quietly accepted what Petrograd had done.’ L12 © Paul Thompson MEN AND WOMEN OF PETROGRAD WILO, WITHOUT RESORTING IN ANY MARKED DEGREE TO THE UNRESTRAINED VIOLENCE OF MOB RULE, OVERTHREW A CENTURIES-OLD DYNASTY AND BECAME FREE Soldiers and civilians assembled before the Duma eagerly, but in orderly fashion, waiting to learn what would happen next in the course of the most amazing revolution the world has ever seen. Photograph by C. S. Stilwell HOLIDAY SCENE AT VYATKA 113 a ‘SBUISS[ S}t JO JUJWIAO[UD SB [JOM Se So9dYIIoVS ‘sotrunjsoddo sv [JOM Se SUOTJeSI]qO sjrejus UOTBAJISIId S}t JeY}—sSUvIW WOPsd1} JeYM O} SB Bapl o}UYOp AU JNOY}IM 4nq ‘so01f 919M Ady 3e2Y} plo} ATUoppns Mou ataM OY4M pue AVID0jNV FO JaMOd dy} JopUN paysNsd Usaq peY Solinjusd JOJ OYM suUvISsNnY JO Sasse[D [[e JO SpueWap dy} A¥seS OF }1OHo Si Ul JUIWIUIOAOL) [CUOISIAOIG OY} Pooky YSIYM suoyqosd pyOfij[Nur oy} JO Popl 9UIOS PIOYL [IM Isv[quiasse o[qeyIeUat SIYy} UL S9dV} oY} JO ApNis y AHOUVNOW FAHY YO MOUHLNYAO AHL UALIV ATINOHS TIVH VWOd AHL NI SNVIIIAID GNV SUNHICGTIOS NVISSOY uosdwoyy [neg © 114 ae) WHWUTXe -dar jy ‘S[e@nprArpur yo suoniquie puv onsriyur pur joyd poyuosoddos you sey Ff *AIOYSIY Ul UOTPM[OADA o[qQVyIvulat B YONS Usoq JXADU sey dA] tr oy} pue {1 AV UDO uosdworyy, [neg Aq yde 1S ‘g0u0}0dUI09 oe OSIUL JO WINUITUILE OY} YPM ‘padoljaq Ady} YOIYM UL JVM B® UO AtIvd 0} o[doad OOO‘O00‘ORI JO d1ISsep poyun sy} AjaIoW Pouosar Ytd “LO “IOMLNOD GUINIVS SLSINOLLA'IOAWN GAL WAIAV ATALVICHNINE VNOG HH, WO SONOWHL, 00d oe, | 115 “YOIUIODIY “ET snai9 pue ‘oueig ‘y sopseyD ‘ueounq sewef {Yes fo JoryD ‘099 “J YysnyY [esoues) Jofeyy fuewsieys Yooy nylyA ‘surely “yy plaeq sJOpessequiy ‘uou -Ud]x) “E] Sowel jeuwpy sesy ‘WOW “W UYof ‘uorjsogq “Y Jenures ‘TJassny pseMpy saftey :3F2] OF WYSit WorZ pajywog “Po AopUog “J, JouopTOD jue -uajnery {SIpiy, Je [nsuoo uvdtieury pue Arejo19as JUR\sISse ‘YUNWS AqYSHOTIM “+ 9WO Usia10{ uvISsNyY oY} FO gyoeye “AvsueYy ep uoIR| : yyrIG JO Joryd 94} 0} opre “arysIy “JT “A “Y [eJouer) Joipesiig { (Asseqwa UedIIOWY 94} 0} syoe}ye AIeU[IW se PeIso1jag Ul UTeUdI O} patiejop) uospn( ‘A ‘WM [eloues) Joipesiig Suesow “V Yysny SN ‘S ‘A ‘JIND ‘Sg wOYOH Wossing ‘UoUUD|H [eIIWIpPY 0} aple “‘paryutog “q eALY JueUsnar’yT ¢ AreqoI -098 ‘SapIJ [ISeg {UOIssIPy oy} 0} Arezas9as juR\sIsse ‘UINqyseMA AdUrIg 1OfeI :1J2] 0} IYSTI WoIy Surpuejg “RISSHY 0} UOISSIFT URoTIOWY 3Y YL, NOILVN SNINMXAOD-JVTAS LSHMAN AHL OL 43099 “] YSnyy [etsussy jo Asaqinood yderisojoyg 116 to take a more active part in the campaign of 1917, but that she has remained in the war at all, in spite of the sinister influences that have been brought to bear against her. Crisis after crisis has been weathered in Petrograd, and in the latter part of July there came the Ger- man blows in Galicia, which at this writing seem to have produced results neither greater nor less than they have always produced in Russia, namely, a re- tirement of the Rus- sian army to a new line of defense. The military re- verses have produced a political crisis in Petrograd, which Ke- rensky has again stemmed, and once more the ship of the Russian state has its head into the seas and is slowly moving on again. ; The world should have realized in April that Russia could not contribute anything to the war this year other than holding fast on her present line while her people adjusted themselves to their new conditions. After three years of misery and disaster, Russia was entitled to this breathing spell per- haps, and because she has not contributed to a coordinated advance this year is no reason for us to conclude that she is fin- ished for all time. In judging Russia we must remember that again and again we have had crises which at the time seemed as crushing as the present situation. When I first went to Russia, in the fall of 1914, people were talking of the disaster in East Prussia as being a fatal blow and laying open the way tO Petrograd. Ini 1o915. for six fe % ig ELIMU ROOT, GENERAL HUGH L. SCOTT, NEWSBOY AT A WAY STATION NEAR MOSCOW © Harris & Ewing AND THE UBIQUITOUS Evidently the street urchin of Russia is no more impressed by proximity to greatness than his brother gamin of the New World. The Russian “newsie,” cap tipped rakishly over his right eye. and carries his papers in a portfolio, like an artist or a cabinet minister. true to the spirit of the day, wears a military months 14 lived in nothing but disaster and retreat, while my days were filled with dead and wounded men and my nights lighted by the flames of burning villages. Every road was choked with fleeing refugees and retreating armies. The world at large said that Russia was finished, and in 1916 Brusilloff ad- vanced for 70 days, taking half a million prisoners ! When Warsaw fell we heard on all sides the tale of an independent peace— a tale which never was justified by sub- sequent events. The Galician drive of 117 REVOLUTIONARY SOLDIERS CHECKING UP PASSES © Paul Thompson OF THOSE DESIRING TO ENTER THE DUMA GROUNDS “The Committee of the Duma, which took charge of the Provisional. Government after the overthrow of the old régime, faced the most difficult problem which any group of men has ever encountered. It was their duty to keep the war going while the minds and the opinions of the people were readjusting themselves to an entirely new standard as to what the State really was.” 1915 was the end of Russia. The Ger- man papers said it, and even during the Russian successes and victories of “1916 German prisoners kept insisting to me that the Russians were defeated in 1915, and that the victories in Volhynia were being won by Japanese infantry and French guns. Late last fall, when the disaster of Roumania overtook us, we again heard the same wails of the pessimists, that at last Russia would stop. But after a few shudders in Petrograd the situation passed and Russia again continued on her way and her army still kept the field. Now, it would be folly for me to assure the readers of this magazine that there is no possibility of Russia going out of the war; but what I do urge is that we all consider Russia in the past and judge the present situation from our knowledge of Russian character in this war. We know that the Russians have patience, forti- tude, and courage equal to any people in the world. We have seen them face de- feat and discouragements year after year since the beginning of the conflict, and after every tidal wave of misery we have seen them emerge, pull themselves to- gether, and struggle on once more. KERENSKYS GOVERNMENT MAKE A SEPARATE WILL PHAGE NEVER There is not the slightest chance that the government headed by Kerensky will ever make an independent peace. ‘The question is how long he can maintain his government in power. What may hap- pen in the future is speculative; but I think one can say, without reservation, that his hold on the government. is stronger now than it has ever been. The first flush of the new liberty has worn off, and the people of Russia are perhaps beginning to realize that liberty does not 118 PARADING BEFORE THE WINTER PALACE IN PETROGRAD In striking contrast to the terrible bloodshed which marked the overthrow. of autocratic monarchy in France a century and a quarter ago, the Russian revolution was accomplished with astonishing orderliness. There was no looting whatsoever. All the priceless art treas- ures of the deposed Tsar’s palaces in Petrograd and at Tsarskoe Selo remain intact. mean the freedom of the individual to abandon work and do nothing. Perhaps it is too soon to say that the crisis has passed in Russia; but it does seem as though the fallacies of the Ger- man propaganda were being recognized and its strength being diminished. ‘That we will have more crises in Russia is be- yond doubt; but we in America must view them without panic or undue pes- simism, trusting in the character of our allies as shown in the past, helping them morally and materially where we can, and sympathizing with them in this their first great trial at democracy. The retirements of the Russian army need alarm us only to the degree in which such movements threaten to end the war. In France or in Flanders the loss of ter- rain threatens the issue, but in Russia the only vital objective of the enemy is the Russian army itself. The loss of food- producing territory in Galicia and Po- dolia is, of course, regrettable; but as 119 long as the army: keeps getting away we need not be too fearful as to the issue. It must always be remembered that the greatest help Russia can give us is by fighting at the same time that we are fighting, and, broadly viewed, it is of relatively small moment whether she is fighting in Poland or whether she is standing on a line in front of Kiev, Mos- cow, and Petrograd. THE PATHETIC PLIGHT OF ROUMANIA The winter in Russia promises to pre- sent many hardships, and we must, with evenly poised minds, watch with solici- tude and concern, helping where we may her struggles during the next six months, bearing in mind always that with an army of 3,000,000 enemies in the heart of her great country next spring, she may help us end the war next year; but with Russia at peace at least two years must elapse before a supremacy in the King Ferdinand stands near the extreme left of the picture, leaning on a cane. General Averesco, commander-in-chief of the officer wearing the numerous decorations is Roumanian forces. West, based on man power, will enable us to force a military decision. In inviting sympathy for and patience with the unfortunate Russians in_ this their moment of extreme trial, one must not forget the plight of poor little Rou- mania, whose fortunes are bound up with Russia. Roumania entered the war with her eyes open as to what would happen if she failed. She had been led to believe that the Germans could not send above ten divisions against her, and they sent thirty. The Roumanians have played the game as they were urged to do, and as a result now hold but a quarter of their Photograph from General Staff, Roumanian Army THE HIGH COMMAND OF THE ROUMANIAN ARMY The country, and that small relic threatened. In spite of it all they have held true to the cause, and are fighting harder and better today than when they first entered the campaign. We have to her as to Russia the moral obligation of support, both in sympathy and in material, where transportation facilities will permit. Both of these countries, according to their ca- pacities, have contributed all that was in them to the cause, and whatever happens, be it good or bad, the part both have per- formed in wearing down the enemy that we might ultimately deal with them must be neither overlooked nor forgotten. INDUSTRY’S GREATEST ASSET—STEEL By WILLIAM JosEPH SHOWALTER URELY that is a stranger alchemy S than was possessed by the genii who peopled the days of the Ara- bian Nights, which can take crumbling brown hematite ore from the ranges of Minnesota, friable black bituminous coal from the heart of the mountains of Pennsylvania, crushed gray limestone from the quarries of Ohio, soft red cop- per from the mines of Montana, downy white fiber from the fields of Alabama, pungent drab dust from the nitrate re- gion of Chile, impalpable yellow sulphur from the beds of Louisiana, and, adding to them the level-seeking impulse of N1- agara’s waters, compound potions out of whose fumes rise guns and swords and shells and explosives which must con- quer the power that has made the whole world afraid. And yet, stripped of its confusing de- tails, such is the wonderful story of the making of the vast quantities of the fun- damental munitions of war and of the great task which falls to the lot of in- dustry in the world’s common cause against Germany. It is a magic tale in which fact outruns fancy, truth makes fiction an unimaginative fabricator, and the real appears more strange than the extravagancies of a dream. But when we have seen the yielding hematite, as soft as a sand pile, becoming crucible steel, whose hardness is adamantine; when we have watched the odors from the coke oven becoming pent-up power mightier than ten thousand. demons; when we have beheld the cotton of the field become so highly explosive that it must first be tamed before it is docile enough for use even in the biggest of guns, then we will appreciate some of the weirdly wonderful transformations that science, applied to industry, can produce. THE GENESIS OF STEEL The present article deals only with one phase of this marvelous story—the mak- I2I ing of the steel for the guns and shells which America will use in her war against the Kaiser and his cohorts. It naturally begins at Hibbing, Minn., the iron-ore capital of the world and the richest village on the planet; for here is located the Hull Rust mine, a hole in the ground which rivals Galliard Cut at Panama. Most streets in Hibbing begin at one man-made precipice and end at another; for, not content to be the proud possessor of the biggest iron mine in existence, this enterprising little metropolis has gath- ered several other sizable ones around her as a hen gathers her brood. In 1910 the population of the iron town was less than nine thousand, and yet it had a street-lighting system as ornamental as that of Cleveland, Minneapolis, or De- troit, and far more beautiful than that of the nation’s capital. Great bronze posts surmounted by groups of four or five arc lights make the village—for it is too rich and prosperous and content to aspire to the role of town or city—appear the last word of modernity in municipal lighting. The streets are paved, and everybody seems to have an automobile; so that street-cars would be about as necessary as a fifth wheel to a wagon. Going up to Hibbing from Duluth, one gets his first idea that the ore capital must have money to burn, for in the parlor cars and day coaches alike appear signs which warn against playing cards for money in railroad trains. To get some idea of Hull Rust mine. imagine a great terraced amphitheater cut out of rolling ground, half a mile wide and nearly two miles long. Dump Gatun Dam into it and there would still be a yawning chasm unfilled. Put a ten- story office building into its deepest trench and the top of the flagpole would barely reach to the line of the original surface (see page 124). AN ORE STOCK PILE AND HANDLING MACHINERY: CLEVELAND, OHIO Many furnaces are located on the banks of navigable waters and the ore is unloaded directly on their stock piles. As the lakes are navigable only from the latter part of April to December, great mountains of ore must be piled up in reserve for the winter season. This is delivered to the blast furnace by cranes and other apparatus. aA ORE HANDLED LIKE SAND Ordinarily one thinks of mining as an occupation for human moles that bur- row in the ground and bring out hard ores from cavernous depths. But when Nature laid down the Lake Superior ore ranges she made burrowing and blasting unnecessary for the most part. In the Mesaba Range—and, by the way, there are as many ways of spelling that word as there are of pronouncing Saloniki— the ore has largely the consistency of sand, and lies so close to the surface that it would be as foolish to burrow instead of digging as it would be to tunnel in- stead of cutting in building a railroad through a small knoll. There is a gen- eral rule among the ore miners up Me- saba Range way that it is profitable to dig rather than burrow where there’s not more than a ton of soil above for each ton of ore beneath. When one who has visited Panama reaches Hibbing he can almost imagine 122 that Uncle Sam is so:enamored of the job of removing mountains with the faith of enterprise that he has decided to repeat his Isthmian performance in Minnesota; for they certainly do “make the dirt fly” up there. Uncle Sam bor- rowed their steam-shovel idea when he tackled Culebra Mountain, and handled it so successfully that all of the world’s excavation records fell before his work there. But with the quickened demand for iron and steel that the world war has engendered, the pennant to the world’s champion diggers has passed back from the Chagres River to Lake Superior. Yardage was king at Panama, but ton- nage is czar on the Minnesota ranges. At Panama the question was how big a hole could be dug in a day; in the iron- range region it is how many tons of ore can be sent down the lakes a season. It’s somewhat uncanny to see a whole battery of steam shovels biting into the soft red stuff that looks like a cross between the sand pounded out of red sandstone by ENDUS TRY SEGRE WEE Si ASS ls he aie rivers and the loamy brown clay of the fields, and to realize that it is the raw material which will determine the fate of nations and mayhap transform the course of the world’s history. And how they do make hay when the sun shines up on the iron ranges!’ Pan- ama had its rainy season, but the iron ranges have their snowy season, begin- ning in December and ending with Easter, when that festival happens to be late enough. They have only eight months in which to meet the vast demand of the nations for iron and steel, and that de- mand last year called for nearly 67,000,- ooo tons of ore from them. That meant more than 46,000,000 cubic yards of ma- terial, or nearly one and a half times as much for the average month as the best month in Panama’s history can show. Think of it—more material dug out, loaded onto cars, transhipped to ore boats, and carried a thousand miles in eight months than Panama was ever able to take out and haul an average of ten miles in fifteen months! INTENSIFIED LABOR-SAVING How do they do it? They do it with the most wonderful lot of man-elimi- nating, time-saving, obstacle-conquering machinery ever put to a thousand-mile purpose. The Hull Rust mine, to begin with the ore in the ground, is a series of terraces, or benches, as the engineers call them, from the banks to the bottom. On each of these Brobdingnagian steps there is room enough to maneuver a steam- shovel and a railroad train, and up and down the line go the shovels, shifting their positions as they eat into the bank, and loading a big ore train in less time than a child with a toy shovel could fill a little red express wagon. Day and night the work goes on—two tons to the shovelful, five shovelfuls to the minute, and five minutes to the carload. Not long ago a steam-shovel loaded 7,689 tons of ore as a single day’s work. The ore cars on the iron ranges are of the regulation pressed steel, bottom- dumping, 50-ton coal-car type, and they run in trains a third of a mile lone. The railroads from the mines down to Duluth, 123 Superior, and Two Harbors are of the best construction, hike the main lines of our biggest eastern roads. ‘The trains crawl through the hills and vales that Proctor Knott declared, in his celebrated speech in Congress, would not, except for the pine bushes, “produce vegetation enough in ten years to fatten a grass- hopper,” but where today, nevertheless, there are communities in which farmers are now growing three and four hundred bushels of potatoes and thirty bushels of wheat to the acre. Where gold and silver were located on the map Knott made fa- mous, one now finds the richest iron mines of the world—mines that beggar the bonanzas of California. The haul from Hibbing to Duluth is 8o-odd miles. Just before the trains reach Duluth they come to Proctor, the biggest ore yard in the world. Here they run across a scales unique in the history of the art of weighing. There would be an endless congestion and a consequent shortage 1n steel were it necessary to stop each car on a scales and weigh it; soa weighing mechanism has been devised which permits the tonnage of cars in motion to be registered. A train slows down as it approaches and passes over the platform at the rate of from five to eight miles an hour, the weight of each car being automatically recorded as it passes. From Proctor the trains run down to the huge unloading piers at Duluth. These piers are vast platforms built out over the lake, nearly half a mile long and wide enough to accommodate two tracks, which are at the height of a six-story building above the water. Beneath the tracks is a series of pockets, holding some two or three hundred tons of ore each. The ore is automatically dumped into these pockets and the train starts back to Hibbing (see page 128). Even while the trains are dumping their burden ships are alongside with huge spouts in every hatch and a hatch every 12 feet, with ore flowing down out of the pockets like water out of a funnel, at the rate of some 80 tons a minute, as a rule, and as much as 300 tons as the exception. "(221 o8ed 99S) pues ox] ‘sfaaoys-wies}s Aq dn padooos st a10 ay} JO ySOJY “AIA JseT UOM Sid spyioM oy} Jo Jey UeYy} a10W sonpord 0} [qv SBM So}¥1G poytU~) oY} AYM suOsvoI ay} JO oUO sI yey} PUY ,/2a10 MOK }UdAeY 9M ‘sINOK se [NJUdTd sv [vod pue ‘UOTezZIULSI0 Ino puv ]]Iys mo pue Arouryseu ANOK 9AVY OM JI UdAD,, ‘sddn1y JOZ JasvuvU & Potepoap 9UO ,SIMOA SB ISI] Se SadVUIN] DAVY 9M JI UAT, 6c“ SHONVA VLIOSANNIW HHL NO SHNIW LId-NadO 91d AHL JO ANO JO NOILYOd V JO MUIA Joyseyey “gq “T Aq ydessojoyg Bo 9 Se a ty tae RT CS sg Oo I24 INDUSTRY’S GREATEST ASSET—STEEL AN OLD SALT’S OPINION These ore ships are a story in them- selves. They remind us of the exclama- tions of an old Cape Cod-salt who beheld one for the first time: “Now clap your eyes on that! D’ye call that a ship? Why, I’m telling you a loggy lighter with a tenement-house on one end and a match factory on t’other would look better’n that rum-looking craft. How’d the skip- per and the chief engineer ever get ac- quainted? And what if one of ’em wants a chew of tobaccer from t’other? And you say the skipper bunks in the skys’l fo’c’stle forward while the cook and ship’s boy has the quarterdeck? Well, I wouldn’t ship as rope yarn on such a bloody drogher!” The big freighters do in general outline fit the oid salt’s sketchy description. Some of them are more than 600 feet long and only 60 feet beam. With offi- cers’ quarters and bridge in the bow and crew’s quarters and engine-room in the stern, and all of the rest of the ship with- out superstructure of any kind, and with a flat deck with hatches spaced six feet apart, a salt-water sailor might well re- gard them as uncanny apparitions of the unsalted seas. The William P. Snyder, Jr., 617 feet long and 64 feet beam, draw- ing about 20 feet 6 inches of water, when loaded to capacity, broke the world’s bulk freighter record in 1916, carrying 13,694 tons of ore on one trip. These big ships, in spite of the fact that they are able to work only eight months and notwithstanding the wonder- fully low ton-mile freight rate they offer, are veritable gold mines. With the prog- ress in the art of bulk freighter construc- tion that a quarter of a century has brought forth, miracles of efficiency have been wrought. Vessels of the largest type are operated today with engines of the same pattern and power as were fitted into ships of one-third their tonnage two decades ago. Indeed, so economical in operation are the big ore carriers of to- day that they use only a shade more than half an ounce of coal in carrying a ton of freight a mile—a statement so remark- able that one could not believe it except upon the authority of R. D. Williams, editor of the Marine Review. Another 125 authority puts the cost of operating such a ship at between $200 and $300 a day. Even at the latter figure and ten days to the trip, with cargo only one way, the cost of a trip to the owners is only $3,000, while the receipts were $6,000 last year, and at this year’s rate will be $10,000. But even at a dollar a ton, moving ore a thousand miles in these vessels costs only one-sixth as much per ton-mile as mov- ing it on the railroads. PROCTOR KNOTI’S UNMEANT PROPHECY As one stands at Duluth today and sees the endless procession of ships that glide down the lakes, with their cargoes of po- tential steel and promised victory, and then reflects upon the picture the great satirist, Knott, drew of the state of the nation, in the event of a foreign war, without Duluth and “the prolific pine thickets of the St. Croix,” there comes a realization of how the jest of yesterday may be the solemn-.truth of today. Without the iron and steel and wheat of the region he joked about, we might in very truth come to find all our ports blockaded ; all of our cities in a state of siege ; the gaunt specter of famine brood- ing like a hungry vulture over our land. It is hard for the mind to grasp what the iron ranges of the Lake Superior re- gion have meant to us. They give the nation ali but one-sixth of its iron and steel, and made possible until a few short months ago the production of a pound of iron at a cost of less than three-fourths of a cent. Our railroads, our steamship lines, our factories, all the things that make America potentially the strongest nation on God’s green earth, draw their life from the iron ranges. Last year they contributed enough ore te make a wall around the United States a yard thick and 8 feet high. Since they were first opened up they have supplied enough ore to inclose the country with an ore pile of natural slope with a base wider than the road-bed of a standard double- tracked railroad. One senses something of this vast traffic as, stopping for a day at the Soo locks, he sees that wonderful procession of ore carriers sweeping down through the great ship stairs and back again, as if they were “OSULTLT sopeos oy} pue OA} 10 sid e dn syoid YIyM Youseur oy} 07 dom, STOU SPpe ULUISUPID OY} PUL “YINU OO} ATIISIS St o1dY] MON “avd oy} OJur doip ,ssid,, Jo toquinu Ssurpuodsois109 & pue judtiMod JO jiq Aut} v JO syno uodnoasay} ueuroue.s9 MT, . OYys puvsnoy} ougQ,, ‘no sjjeo soyeos oy} ye ue oy, “lesns yo seq v yno SUIYSIOM 109018 OY} JO ouO spurtttot ssoosoad SUIYSIUY oy} pur ‘SonMUPND JOeVXO 0} Popvoy o1v SIR) “PpasPefet ploy o]qISIAUL oy} pue “fo pourn} St JUosimo OY} “IVI oY} OJUL UMOP Joy St JouSeU oy ‘punoie SSuIMsS Wav oy} , ssid, sursoype JO SUO} S}I pue jouseu oy} dn sqjnd ayqeo oy Ud, “syooy surddess yooqs JO JY} Sv JVOIS sve toOMOd d]q “ISTAUL JJ9S}I_ OJUN SoYL} JOUSPLU JIOUL 9Y} Pure ‘poaouwl SE 1OAQT of} & .Sord,, oY} YA. JoRJUOD OJUL UMOP JouSPeLU oY} Sdoip ayqeo oy} ‘oprd oY} 19A0 Jno $9068 WIL SUFI] OT. eo & SuIpeoy auvsIo v YoNS Yo}eM 0} Sunsosoqut SI 7} ‘OURID IJOUSPWU-O1}DOJO UB Aq Po;pPULY SPA TeJOLU TO ULeIUNOLUW. sit Wark } ! ray) L I II I l J : hy OTVIANG VV NOI Old JO SNOL NOITIIN V 10 WaLuvaAG V Spouusy ysnyJ Aq ydes30j,0yg Oe ae ee ag sy eC or . 126 6 m are : 5 : “a1 ba haere C 5 : _ FPS sypvo SyOdoO.NoUL [vsoUTU oy} sv (fag poyesuy) oy} Jo Ay yyusZ oy, OF doUBAQUO JOqIvVY oy} Sueds pur “Ysiy JooF SRI puv suo] yoo} SOE St 4] “soqwIG popu 9} UL Pury s}t JO ouO AJUO dy} St o.ANyoId sty} UL UMOYS asplIq oy, “plfoMw oy} UL sytod OM) AYO AU ULY} ISvUUOY SUIOSINO 19}VI1S V JE DAVS Ava JSP] SJUOLUIYS Uless puv o10 Sunn] “Ose sivod OAL -AJUDM} ATUO JNANO [V}O} S.pP]IOA oy} ULY} oSeUUOY UI JoJVIIS SVM OIOI UL S9}VIC pou oy} ul uo sid Jo yndyno ay} yey} ozI[RoI1 OY prey st yy MOIGUVIT WLATAd GNV NIOd VLOSHNNIW WO LVNIOd MuVd qinyNa ‘etzuoypoyy Aq ydersojoyg : EW LEY) (a Yh ~~ DSR SMS aes 127 “(€z1 o8ed 90s) ploy s.diys at} Oyur AjytAv13 Aq passed SI 910 94} YOIYyM YySsnosy} synods 9y} YM 49UUOD jeUY} sjoyood ayy our podump oq 0} Apeas YOOp 9y} UO S1Vd dy} 9}ON “ANOY UL UL SO} OOD'OT pseoqe oye} 0} }eOq a0 SIq B 1Of gouewsosiod jeuondaoxo OU SI }{ ‘ajnuIUL B suo} B/E JO ‘soynUTUT dAY-AjUIM} UT suo, ZSP6 pivoge yoo} A404 “7 WDYIYA JOYYSIII1f JY} UsyAr “O0O1 Ul opel sem SUI[pULY IIO JOJ P1OIII S.PJIOM IY, “SUOT su eB F[ey A[JeIU SI SYOOP Soy} JO ysosre] oY, HIN1NG NI SYAId ALHAONOOD GNV ‘IHMLS IVaID AHL AO UNO LV VANWVALS AAO NV DNIGVO'T Joyseyeg ‘q “I Aq ydessoj0yg 128 ‘UNS OY} OF YIP ot} WOT JYStoty JO PLO] UO}-00g UY SuT[NeY Jo jeY} 0} JUaTeAInbo JUSUIAOUT VY pazwasoidot 9UOTe SYSO] OOS oy} YSnory} sSurssed yysio1z oy} 1vdk ysve’] Zsoyv’T yeasty oy} 0} samo voowy yonu moy Avs ued OY AA SMOOT OOS HHL LV dN Gall SdIHS AYO }YaVMOOTA NVOINAINV NV sunog “yy Aq ydersojoyg Udy aS VA URS eee ; | Pe | os iste iMag 129 et Ae BESSEMER CONVERTERS AT WORK As pig iron comes from the blast furnace it still possesses certain impurities, such as carbon and silicon. The mission of the Bessemer converter is to get rid of these. It is a huge egg-shaped steel container, lined with fire-brick, and mounted on trunnions so that it may be tilted and its liquid contents poured out. By means of a blower a tremendous supply of oxygen is driven through the molten metal, taking off with it all the carbon as it goes. \fter the blower has been turned off, a scientifically measured quantity of carbon is added to give the contents the characteristics of carbon steel (see text, page I5I). 130 Si gaia Photograph from Brown Brothers TAPPING AN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE IN A MODERN STEEL MILL When an open-hearth furnace is tapped a big ladle is brought into position, a workman runs a crowbar through the clay stopper holding back the molten metal, and it runs out like buttermilk from a churn. What slag accompanies it rises to the top as oil on water and overflows the sides when the ladle becomes full of the melted steel. is picked up by a crane and its contents dumped into molds to harden into ingots. Once filled, the ladle This is the first process in making the major portion of the country’s steel and is now almost exclu- sively used in making steel rails an endless chain turning round sprockets at the head and foot of the lakes, with the Soo locks as an intermediate support. GLORIFIED WALKING BEAMS When the big ore carriers arrive at the lower lake ports— Lorain, Cleveland, Ashtabula, Conneaut, Erie, and Buf- falo—they hasten up to the ore-handling plants, every hatch open and ready for the unloading. Gravity may load a ship, but it has never yet unloaded one, and so machinery does the work. Instead of the old way of hoisting shovel-filled buckets by horse-power and dumping them into the wheelbarrows of picturesque long- shoremen, a method by which it cost 50 cents a ton to get the ore from hold to car or pile, today gigantic unloaders, the most modern of them grabbing up 17 tons at a mouthful, save so much labor that it costs in some cases less than five cents to take a ton of ore out of the hold and put it on the small mountain the ore folk call the stock pile, or in empty rail- road cars waiting on the track hard by. The Hulett unloader reminds one of a glorified walking beam of the sidewheel steamboat variety, with one of the legs left off.. Instead of the other leg con- necting with a crank shaft, it has a won- derful set of claws at the lower end, and above them an ankle of startling agility. These great claws open and shut by elec- tricity, and they take up 17 tons with as much ease as you might close your hand on an apple. The operator is stationed inside the leg just above the claws and gets all the sensations of riding a roller- coaster, as he jumps in and out of the ship hour after hour (see page 134). When the claws are full, the operator turns a lever; the walking beam seesaws back to the opposite position; the load 131 FARM-FIGH T=: FINANCE : S iam ¢ y ANOTHER VARIETY OF MEN BEHIND THE GUNS These men are twice men behind the guns in the cause of America. They subscribed more than five million dollars to the Liberty Loan, and they are doing their bit to furnish the battle front with the artillery that must ultimately hammer an unstoppable hole through the lines of the enemy. comes out of the hold and is dumped into a bin. From this bin it flows by gravity into big coal and ore cars to be hauled to the furnaces, or else is delivered to the buckets of the great cantilever bridge, which carry it across to the big stock pile. Once it took a week, with a regi- ment of men, to unload a small ship, whereas now half a day and a corporal’s guard can send the biggest ore carrier afloat on its way empty. There are several other types of un- loaders, some of them having huge hori- zontal beams reaching out over the hatches of the ship and forming track- ways for the big buckets that run out to the end on carriages, and then drop down on a cable into the hold for a load of ore. Whoever has watched a farmer store hay away in his barn with a modern hay fork will understand the roles the beam and the cable play. The mining and navigation season be- ing only eight months long, the ships must bring in enough ore to keep the fur- naces running during the additional four 132 fe LORS ® Photograph from Bethlehem Steel Co. FOURTEEN-INCH GUNS AND TURRETS UNDER CONSTRUCTION Such big guns as these can send a projectile weighing two-thirds of a ton flying through space at an initial velocity of 20 miles a minute. They require some 600 pounds of powder for each shot, and give the projectile a twist that makes it whirl as it flies—a complete turn for every 30 feet it travels. months, and so the red ore pile is seen everywhere at lake ports and furnace plants. Many of the furnace plants are right alongside the unloading docks and save the cost of railroad haul. But there are still millions upon millions of tons of ore that must take a second ride by rail before it can reach the hour of its trans- formation into pig iron. Having followed the ore from the mine to the furnace stock pile, omitting any account of underground mining and mill- ing because of their relatively small con- tribution to the total ore production, and also omitting the story of the concentra- tion of lean ores, let us now watch the assembling of the other materials that go into the furnace. MAKING COKE FOR BLAST FURNACES The coal comes in the main from Penn- sylvania and West Virginia. A famous coal region that furnishes coking coal is the Connellsville district. Let us go to Standard Mine No. 1 there and have a look. It sends up 50 tons of coal every 133 “(1€1 aSed osye 90s) [Iv4 prvodreys ay} Suope ssoy} pue aspiiq dY]} UO OMY OY} OSTe BION “-SUO] Aep ye 10yesado yayonq sev pfoy oy} FO yO Pe Tt SOAIP oY fJopvorun ys1y tj} JO So] OY} Ul URUE oy} 9}ON “Soqnurur Aj1OJ pue sinoy so1y} ur opid yOVJs Cy} OF diys @ JO poy ay} WoT 910 JO SUuO} Cgo‘1I SB YONU Sev PotiofysuBsy SPU sjuvis Asnq osey} Jo Atoyned VW ‘g81vYOsIP 0} Apart si pue ‘Fost pelly Sey ‘IMOp Udaq SBY YJIMOF oY} + [NFY out Ss} Surye} JO Joe oy} ur st suo psy ot} ‘jnyzoyonq sy dn suriq 0} SurmuiSaq st puoses sy, “waop sdip Wivaq-BUL[eM 9y} USYM PLO] & qeis o} Apeer sr ‘uedo JoxIN W0}-ZI S}t YWM ‘punosrBa10F oy} UT TapBoTUn oy, ‘yusuidinba surpeoyun 94} FO K10js oho Ue S][9} PUL JOPYSIe1y oye] & JO SUOISMOUNP Sursodwuit oy} JO vapt SuIyIys eB UO je VUO SOALS MOA SI, WILHOIA AVI V WOU ALO AHL OJNIAOWTY WAACVOINOA WTO 134 hour. Going down the shaft to the bot- tom of the mine, one finds a subterra- nean village, with a windowless office building as a part of the equipment, The whole village is electrically lighted, and it is easy to imagine one’s self in an un- derground Latin-American plaza, with stores all around. The streets run off in every direction; but instead of street-car lines there are coal trains drawn by steam engines that have no fire-boxes. Strange sort of locomotives, eh? Well, you see, fire has no place down in a mine, and so they generate the steam up on top of the ground and send it down through pipes to the engines. A huge locomotive, with a 50-car train tagging on behind, and with never a bit of smoke, makes the streets of this underground world look eerie indeed. Here the foreman will probably show you the mine stable, with its. well-fed horses and its sleek-coated mules; nor does he forget to call your attention to Jennie, the mine dog, with her little brood of puppies, as happy and as playful as if their eyes had first opened in the sun- shine instead of under the glow of elec- tric-light bulbs. And then you will want to see the pumps, for the water comes into the mines twelve times as fast as the coal goes out, flowing from a host of underground springs. ‘To pump water day and night, winter in and summer out, at the rate of I0 tons a minute, is no Old Oaken Bucket job. On top of the ground are the beehive coke ovens. Here ail the volatile matter is burned out of the coal, usually in 48 hours’ burning, and the carbon or coke is left behind. As the coal comes up the mine shaft it is dumped into a bin, out of which it flows by gravity into an endless chain of little cars which run along on top of the ovens and charge them. After an oven is charged with coal it is then sealed, except for a little aperture at the top of the door which regulates the burn- ing process. When all the volatile mat- ter has been burned out, the door is opened and a great mechanical scraper goes in and scrapes out the coke. But the great war has taught the coke producer what a terrible waster of the nation’s resources he has been. ‘Twenty- eight per cent of every ton of coal put in a beehive oven goes up in odorous gases, ONE OF THE GREAT STEEL PLANTS AT YOUNGSTOWN, OHIO 135 Photograph from Press Illustrating Service, Inc. WOMEN DOING THEIR BIT IN AMERICAN MUNITION FACTORIES 136 Sst SE S S Snes BaOteeeenn from Prestolite Company A GIGANTIC PRESSURE PRESS FOR STAMPING CYLINDERS OUT OF STEEL PLATES AT ONE OPERATION This industrial titan, one of the most powerful engines in the world, exerts a pressure of 800 tons upon a sixty-inch steel plate, converting it into a cup having a diameter of 42 inches, the thickness of the steel being one-fourth of an inch. 137 Photograph from Brown Brothers THE FINISHING SECTION OF A BIG RAIL, MILL After the rails have been rolled and heat-treated, they are sawed into proper lengths and sent through a straightening department, where the holes for the fishplates are punched unregarded in former years, but im- mensely valuable to a world that desper- ately needs them. From a ton of coal there may be extracted five gallons of tar, 20 pounds of sulphate of ammonia, and from 1.1 to 3.7 gallons of benzol, with a small quantity of toluol, to say nothing of 10,000 cubic feet of gas. In other words, the odors of the bee- hive coke oven, if properly handled, are worth, at current prices, from two to four dollars for every ton of coal— worth more indeed than the coal itself sold for before 1916. In addition to this wonderful saving, it was found that an improved type of oven, such as is neces- sary to save what would otherwise go up in smoke, produces 75 pounds of coke for every 100 pounds of coal, whereas the beehive oven gets only 65 pounds of coke out of each 100 of coal. It is esti- mated that in 1913 alone, a year of nor- mal prices, the natural wealth that went up in smoke was approximately as great as. the total earnings of all the working- men engaged in the manufacture of au- tomobiles and agricultural implements. PROFITS FROM THE TAR-POT The by-product coke oven overcomes all this. With 40,000,000 tons of coke required annually, and each ton repre- senting a possible saving of materials now worth at least three dollars a ton, it will be seen what a boon the new type of oven 1s. In making by-product coke the bitumi- nous coal used is ground to a very fine grain. It is then dumped into the ovens, a battery of which may be said to re- semble a series of giant lockers arranged side by side, about 12 feet tall, 37 feet in horizontal depth, and tapering in width from 18 inches at one side to 21 inches at the other. Great heating flues surround each oven and soon make the coal white hot, driving off all of the gases. These gases pass out through a pipe in which they are made to surrender the ammonia and tar they contain. About half of the gas, after being thus deprived of its load of tar and ammonia, is forced to return to the task of heating the oven for future charges of coal, while the other half is 138 Photograph from Brown Brothers STEEL RAIL PASSING THROUGH A ROLLING MILL After the liquid steel has been poured into the ingot mold and has cooled sufficiently to become hard, the mold is slipped off, and a long-armed crane picks up the ingot and sets it down in a small pit, where it is heated for an hour and a half, so that it will become of uniform texture and hardness throughout. Then the temperature is raised and it is tem- pered to rolling-mill softness. Then the crane comes back and lifts it over on the bed of the mill. Trembling and writhing as if in anticipation of the stress it is about to endure, it plunges in between two big rollers, each a yard in diameter and ten feet long. Once it gets through these, it is long and slim, mayhap like a pancake, mayhap like a rod, mayhap like a bar. Again and again it goes through rollers of varying shapes, finally coming out either as a steel rail, a rod, or a plate, according to the shape of the roller and the number of rollings. available for driving the blast engines of the furnace, illumination, etc. When the coal has given off all its gases, a huge electric ram comes up, the door of the oven flies open, and the ram begins to push. On the other side of the oven another door swings open and out into a steel car the glowing carbon falls. An electric engine picks up the blazing load, and down the track it goes to the quenching station. Here, amid a great hissing and an immense cloud of steam, the coke is cooled down by a big stream. Then it is hauled away, dumped into a se- ries of small bins, picked up in regulated quantities on an endless belt, and carried to a grader and screener. Thence it goes to the blast furnace, where it is mixed in proper proportions with limestone and ore, and the last process in pig-iron mak- ing begins. How much the country may save in its natural resources is shown by the won- derful plant of the United States Steel Corporation at Gary, Ind. In a recent year more than a million tons of coal were saved—more indeed than is re- quired to furnish light and heat and power for the nation’s capital. The third ingredient of the metallurgi- cal wizard’s boiling cauldron, the blast furnace, is limestone. Soul-mates and affinities there are a-plenty in the chem- ical world, but none more striking than limestone and the impurities in iron ore. The metallurgist knows the weakness of 130: LAUNCHING A STEEL MERCHANTMAN AT NEWPORT NEWS, VIRGINIA No war in history has had more “ifs” and “buts” about it than the one America is help- ing to wage today; and perhaps the most threatening is the submarine “if.” Can America and her Allies turn out enough steel and wooden ships to counteract submarine destruction until the Allied armies are victorious in the field? ’ American industry answers “Yes,” and with the conviction that grows out of never yet having met a situation it was unable to master. the bonds that bind the foreign materials in the ore to their companion iron when stressful times come. He knows that, given half a chance, they will find affini- ties and elope, and that’s what he wants them to do; so in limestone he provides the affinities. SOUL-MATES IN BLAST FURNACES The modern blast furnace is a tremen- dous and spectacular institution. At the top it takes in coke and ore and limestone 140 and turns loose two streams of molten material at the base. It is a large circu- lar, silo-shaped affair, some 90 feet high, kept going day and night, Sunday and Christmas alike, year in and year out, when it does not give way under the strain. The coke, limestone, and ore are mixed in proper proportions and carried up to the top of the stack and dumped in. Down at the bottom of the furnace a tre- mendous air blast is driven in by huge engines, under a pressure of as much as LOADING ORE INTO CARS AT ASHTABULA, OHIO The most massive ore-handling machinery in the world is in use at this great lower lake port. town, and other blast furnace points. almost as soon as it is out of the hatchway. another load, the bin, which is mounted on wheels, moves away and dumps its contents into waiting cars, as seen in the picture. to receive it. anism is seen in the picture on page 134. 16 pounds to the square inch. A veri- table inferno results, and the blast causes all the oxygen in the air to unite with the carbon and leave through the gas pipes. The ore and the limestone melt under the ordeal and the foreign matter in the ore unites at once with the molten lime- stone. Being lighter than liquid iron, I4I Here come untold millions of tons of ore to be transhipped to Pittsburgh, Youngs- The big Hulett unloader dumps its burden into a bin While it is diving down into the hold for By the time another mouthful is ready the bin is back The cars are standing under the rear end of the unloader, as that big mech- these newly wedded soul-mates rise to the top of the bubbling cauldron as oil rises to the top of water or cream to the top of milk. .There are two holes in the lower part of the furnace. Out of the upper one of these, when tapped, come the affinities, now liquid slag, which soon hardens and is shipped away to be made into prosaic cement. ‘punossyoeq oly} ul Surysvoidde sdiys Josuassed oyv] Siq 94} 9}0N “papoou St jt UY JIA1aS SUIMO} SIy} wasoysiod sn} JeueD COS 941 1V “S|[@M Yo] oy} uO syvsy uO sSuTje1adoO SoUISUD SUIMO} ITI}D9J9 Aq poAout o IVNV) OOS :MOOT XOd TO NO WINVALS AYO NV ONITIOd 4 sunox “yy Aq ydeis0j0§ { oe oy seaeermmeees IV STOULBO a] Uy S 12 LUPL v d 1V 142 NO pouAN} si [JOYS poysruy oy} [yun PpoAloo1 Ss SULOLOF ysno OU} OU} OY} WIOrT ‘SOIIOJIV] UPLAL SUTAICA ‘suoryeaado oS 01 oF WOOLY Os1opun QO} DALY s]jeys WL SL *poaMoy]]e st OS IO JUD dod 1 A|[UO JO JYSLoM JO JIULTIVA V7 ‘SOULNNVND AOA O1L d4INjJoOeJ NUCL [Joys LNOWN LLY NVAdOUN Wy, VO. STIMHWS ONIHDIMWIM GNV DNIMOHHO ‘DUT SDOAIOG SUNLASNIT ssoig wo1z ydersojoyg JO spu eULdp ol, 143 me ares ite eos cece s: A A ee 5a III CLELLE, ona Hie “ | = — ==) ARAL) A/S : = SS =a Very | ps cant . | 3 xi ‘ S 2 300 MILES © 1 rae j OUTLINE MAP OF ARABIA 181 THREE WISE MEN Photograph from Charles K. Moser . OF ARABIA Merchants and scholars of Aden may be crotchety in the forenoon, but after they have partaken of their daily sprig of khat they are geniality personified, and any one of them would buy your horse for the price of an elephant. whips waving and turbans awry; there are flashes of color from rich men’s gowns, as they hurry to select the choic- est morsels, the clack of oryx-hide san- dals, and the blunt beating of tomtoms. When the camels arrive, the market filled with a restless, yelling mob. Bed- lam has broken loose, but it is a merry, good-natured bedlam. is LIVELY SCENES AT After the khat is weighed on the gov- ernment scales and duly taxed again, it is divided into bundles the thickness of a man’s forearm. Then the sellers mount tables and auction it off. Each bundle fetches its own price. “Min kam! Min kam!” cries the auctioneer, waving a bunch above the outstretched hands of the crowd. “How much! How much! will you give for this flower of paradise? "Tis sweet as a maiden’s eyes; ’tis like bees’ breath for fragrance; ’tis—’ “One anna” (two cents) yells a con- temptuous voice THE AUCTION to O thou miserable little tick on a sick camel,” shrieks back the seller, “may my nose grow a beard if it is not worth two rupees at the very least.” “Bismallah! ‘There is not two rupees’ worth in all thy filthy godown, budmash.” So go auctions the world over. Back and forth they hurl revilings, other voices break in with “Thou scum! farthing bids, and the “flower of paradise” sells at last for six cents. Sometimes two merchants fancy the same bunch of sabari. It is worth perhaps a rupee, but they bid the price up and up till every one else stands by to keep the fires of their rivalry alive with cheers. Finally one is silent, and the other, crowing like a cock over his vic- tory, pays his six or maybe ten rupees and ‘passes out with the prize under his arm. In an hour the place is all but deserted and the foot-marked, earthen floor lit- tered with debris. Now come the hadjis, the venders of firewood, all the despised castes, like scavengers, to buy the refuse for a few pice. But out in the streets may be seen hundreds happily wending homeward, a bundle of the precious leaves under each arm, their jaws work- ing and their eyes full of a delicious content. It is close on to noon, and you will not see them again until after 2 o'clock. Go to the house of a Mohammedan merchant (the Jews and other sects do not use khat) between those hours and say that you have urgent news for him, or that you have come to buy a lakh of rupees worth of skins. His servant meets you on the veranda and is very sorry. Master is unutterably sick (here he be- gins to weep), or his sister’s husband’s aunt’s mother died this morning and he is doing no business, or certainly he has gone to Tawahi, but will assuredly be back by 3 o’clock. Will the sahib wait? At that very moment your friend is in the mabraz at the top of the house, smok- ing his hubbuk and chewing khat leaves, and he will not be disturbed. Of course, if you are so lucky as to be on very friendly terms with him, you may be allowed to go up. Then, whatever your news, it will not shock him, and you may buy his goods at your own price. I went into the house of the merchant Abdul Kadir Mackawi and was taken up to the mabraz, where he and his revered uncle sat catching glimpses of Allah’s rose gardens. He allowed me to take a photo- graph, and when I came away he gave me a pot of honey. I know now that Abdul Kadir Mackawi is my friend in- deed. MABRAZES, THE PUBLIC CHEWING HOUSES In Aden the mabrazes of the rich are private and often furnished with oriental luxury. Among the Somalis and the com- moner Arabs the mabraz is a well-venti- lated room, hired and furnished for their favorite diversion. The habitué of the public mabraz leaves his house at the ap- pointed hour with his khat tied up in a bright shawl and conspicuously displayed ; he wishes all the world to know that he goes to enjoy himself. In the mabraz rugs have been laid on the floor and pil- lows arranged against the walls. Each man can occupy the space belonging to his pillow and no more. By his side is placed the tall narghili, or hubbuk, of the Se i ae is. a Photograph from Charles K. Moser THE BOWL WHICH CHEERS BUT SELDOM INEBRIATES With a loaf of bread and a bowl of khat, your Arab, unchivalrous though the confession be, needs no “thou” beside him to make his wilderness a paradise enow, Omar Khayyam to the contrary notwithstanding. East, two water pots or chatties on cop- per stands, and a bowl of sweets. When the mabraz is comfortably filled with cus- tomers, a servant lights the water pipes, some one produces the Koran or com- mences a story, and the afternoon’s pleas- ure begins. Occasionally the tarabs (a kind of three-stringed viol) are played for the amusement of the guests, instead of readings from the sacred books; also it happens at times that a favorite singer is present. Whenever the listeners are particularly pleased, which is not infre- quent, they interrupt the music with loud shouts of “Tai-eeb!” or “Marhabba! mar- habba!” which is to say, “Good!” or the more approbative, “O friend, excellent indeed!’ In these days it is not uncom- mon to find phonographs in the public mabrazes dispensing the classic songs of Egypt. But the coolies, the bhisties, or water- carriers, and the hadjis are not found in the mabraz. You will see these despised ones in the humbler coffee shops, sitting on charpoys in a circle, each with his little 183 Photograph from Charles K. Moser THE CLIMAX OF ARAB CONTENTMENT The Yemen prototype of Honest Jack Falstaff takes not his ease in his inn with a flagon of sack to soothe and sustain him, but in his mabraz, where, with the aid of juicy khat leaves, he catches glimpses of Allah’s rose gardens. riously furnished as the private establishment shown here. The public mabrazes are not so luxu- They correspond to the taverns of the western world or the coffee-houses of the eighteenth century. water chatty beside him, and in the center of the circle two or three mudaheen (street beggars) singing their loudest. When the khat is finished each guest pays the shopkeeper a half penny and does not forget to throw a pice to the mudaheen. In Aden, khat chewing also takes place in the evening, after sunset prayers have been said. The evening scene differs from that of the afternoon only in the flaring lamps and candles and the red glow from smoking narghilis that throw into black relief the recumbent figures on the mabraz floor. If the mabraz is of the Syeds, descendants of Mohammed, there is no music, but only the droning sing- song reading of tales about the old prophets and the glory of Islam. Khat customs differ somewhat in the different towns of the Yemen. In Ho- deidah only the lower classes, the servants of European merchants, and the girls who hull coffee berries chew khat before 4 o’clock. This is the “official hour” when native business ceases. Charpoys, water pipes, and sweetmeats are brought out into the shade before the street door. The men of the household and their male friends sprawl sociably on the charpoys, the ingredients for the promotion of goodly fellowship ready to their hands. A graybeard sits in their midst expound- ing from the sacred book, or conversation lively in character, but subdued in tone, entertains the company. The aged, the palsied, even the dying, are brought down on their beds from the top of the house to partake of this feast of reason and flow of wit. Inside the latticed windows the women sit, munching the second best leaves and listening to the scraps of wis- dom that float to them from the company below. At Sanaa, where the climate is always delightfully cool, there is no inter- ruption of business for khat chewing. During all hours of the afternoon the busy merchant picks heedlessly at the green bundle beside him, and a cud of much proportion constantly wads his cheek. 184 Aaa, EOSIN No Yemen wedding would be complete without khat. When I asked my Arab boy what part it played in the marriage feast, he wrote out his version of the matter in (his) English for me. As I am sure he did it better than I can, I take the liberty of quoting his version here, verbatim: THE PART KHAT PLAYS AT A WEDDING “From 12 at noon all the people invited will begin to come, not in crowds, but by threes and two, into the makhdara. The seats inside here for the people to sit on are long pieces of rafters resting on empty cases of kerosene oil and laid with beautiful carpets and pillows. They col- lect the pillows and carpets from their relations and the empty kerosene cases from the shopkeepers. Madayeh, or water bubbles, are also ready; but rich men like to bring their own to show off. Lot of little water chatties are also kept ready filled, and lot of murbkhs (fire- pots) will be seen outside the makhdara with a dozen boys, fans in hand, ready to refill with tobacco and fire on the first calle on, Yay yi-yall or Boys!) nich people will be seen nicely dressed, um- brella in hand, fine shawl on shoulder, a boy after him with the bubble, little cock- shaped water jettie, etc., on their way to makhdara. Reason why rich people like to get everything from home is that all things they use for khat eating are spe- cially made and very amusing, so they like to be proud of them in large assem- blies. “Well, when the makhdara is full up, khat distribution will go on and khat chewing begins. The way how they dis- tribute it is that as soon as a man has come in the marriage makers will politely come to ask him whether that man is rich or poor and take him to a seat where they will make him sit and put a bunch of khat in his hand. About 1 o’clock the tarab man with his company will be seen going to the makhdara. A special place wide enough to seat ten men is provided for them and the bridegroom sits among them. And now the singing begins. On this occasion two tarab men play, and one little drum, the songsters being the tarab men only. Suddenly noise of fall- OHEARADISE 185 ing rupees is heard, and by finishing time in the evening hundreds of rupees may be seen gathered. All this is for the tarab men. “Just at 4 o’clock ‘Asha,’ evening food, will be ready. As soon as the food will be brought in nobody will touch it till one of the relations of the bridegroom will shout out, “Bismallah!’ or ‘Begin in the name of God.’ Suddenly they will all be seen got up with the Asha (usually fried rice with mutton or mutton pillau) hardly touched. Well, it is a rotten cus- tom among the Arabs on marriage cere- monies that as soon as one has got up all will follow him, and they never be eating more than two minutes. The custom among the Indians is quite contrary to this. They when they have finished what is brought to them will not get up, but shout for more till their bellies are quite full. Now, again, sounds of rupees will be heard the second time, when they will be found washing their hands and com- ing out of the makhdara. All this money now collected goes to the father of the bridegroom. The same thing what hap- pened in the afternoon takes place at night. ‘The next morning piles of khat branches and rotten leaves may be seen outside of the makhdara.” NEVER USED AS A BEVERAGE IN YEMEN Contrary to the general opinion held by those who pretend to know anything about it at all, khat is mever used as a beverage in the Yemen, but the fresh leaves are invariably chewed. The young- est leaves are the best. They have a sweetish, slightly astringent taste, not unpleasant to the European palate, but certainly not alluring. When brewed, they lose most of their strength and the flavor of the decoction is much like that of those grapevine “cigarettes” which most of us enjoyed (?) in boyhood days. The old leaves are tough and ought to tan a leathern tongue. Just what is the exact toxic effect of khat on the human system has never yet been ascertained. It is certainly a stim- ulant with a lively and nearly immediate effect upon the brain and nerve cells; the gloomiest man becomes cheerful under its influence, the most enervated active. 186 Withal, I have been unable to learn of a single case of immediate or harmful re- -action such as invariably follows the use of other stimulants. It is true that ex- cessive indulgence in khat, especially on the part of the novice, produces a sort of intoxication, with symptoms similar to those observed in alcoholic cases. The victim staggers, his speech becomes fool- ish, and he acts as if in a sort of amiable frenzy. Occasionally he has headache and nausea. But such cases are exceed- ingly rare and the symptoms invariably depart without leaving any apparent ill after-effects. To the charge that khat eating affects the heart seriously, sufficient reply is re- turned when it is said that notoriously few Yemen Arabs die of heart disease, and yet they constantly perform feats which are supposed in civilized countries to put severe taxes on the heart’s action. One great evil, however, that does result from long-continued and excessive khat eating the Yemen Arab admits, and the statements of Turkish doctors in the Ye- men support him: it appears to cause impotency. Nevertheless this singularly endowed plant deserves more consideration at the hands of science than it has been given. No one in the world would desire to in- troduce the khat habit into civilized com- munities, where there are too many simi- lar habits already ; but its power to allevi- ate suffering, to revive depressed nerves and strengthen exhausted muscles—with- out apparently giving rise to dangerous reactions—certainly suggests that if it THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE were brought to close study and admin- istered under proper control it might work magical benefits upon thousands of brain-harried and nerve-worn humanity. At least, a plant capable of giving so much pleasure to one people ought not work much disaster upon another. THE AUTHOR’S SACRIFICE FOR SCIENCE Once, filled with the fervor of sacrifice for science, I determined to try eating khat for myself; to get roaring, howling drunk on it—or catch those vaunted glimpses of a Moslem’s paradise. My servant procured me a huge supply of leaves and I fell upon them hungrily, pencil and notebook in hand. For two hours I chewed. I reduced that pile of leaves to bits of stems and a few old- seasoned veterans, and then my tongue, harried like a hide in a vat, rose up in rebellion. It filled all my mouth with a protest so bitter that I had to surrender. Nothing had happened. But late that night I was still awake. The excited brain would not let me rest. Nerves and muscles ached for arduous tasks. At last, determined to “walk it off,” I slipped out of bed and went across the silent, dreaming town to where lights and faint strains of song told of a mabraz still open ; and there, through the trellised windows, I saw old Raschid, the khat drunkard, with his red beard. In the midst of the somber, shadow-steeped fig- ures he swayed, as though dizzy with the sound of his own voice, chanting the Song of the Khat Eaters. AN APPEAL TO MEMBERS Your attention is earnestly directed to the two-page announcement, near the third cover, of the desire to establish a National Geographic Society Ward in the American Ambulance Hospital, Neuilly, Paris, France. There is a great need for this practical demonstration of preparedness, for the hazard to life and limb is to be reckoned with. interested, and all contributions, small and large, will be welcome. Every member should be There will be no overhead expenses incident to this fund. Every dollar will be expended for the purpose designated. VoL. XXXII, No. 3 | TBE WASHINGTON SEPTEMBER, 1917 = NATTONAIL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE THE FOOD ARMIES OF LIBERTY By HerBertr Hoover That the great world war will be won at last on the battlefield of food be- comes increasingly evident as the months go by. And that 1s a battlefield where the highest and the lowest, the youngest and the oldest, the weakest and the strong- est, may do equally valiant service in the cause of our country. Herbert Hoover, the man who saved Belgium from starvation, is now, as National Food Adminis- trator, the general-in-chief of the food armies of Liberty. In two momentous addresses recently deliwwered, he has strikingly pointed out how we may be soldiers in the American food army, how we will help the cause of Liberty by enlisting, and the dark consequences that may ensue unless we do enlist. They constitute anew drum-beat to duty; they sound a new note on the great subject of individual responsibility. The NAtTiIoNat, GkoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, seeking to send the mes- sage to the uttermost reaches of the country, publishes these addresses in full in this and the succeeding article. It hopes every member of the Society will join the movement to make the food army of America 100,000,000 strong. sons why we are pleading with the American people for stimulation of our food production, for care, thought, and economy in consumption, and elimi- nation of waste. Further, I wish to re- view the methods by which these things may be accomplished. Briefly, the reasons are simple. Our Allies are dependent upon us for food, and for quantities larger than we have | HAVE been asked to review the rea- ever before exported. They are the first line of our defense; and our money, and ships, and life blood, and, not least, our food supply, must be of a common stock. If we cannot maintain our Allies in their necessities, we cannot expect them to remain constant in war. If their food fails, we shall be left alone in the fight, and the western line will move to the At- lantic seaboard. It is thus a matter of our own safety and self-interest. It is more than this, it is a matter of humanity, that we give of our abundance that we relieve suffering. It is not difficult to demonstrate their needs, the volume of our obligation, and the necessity of great effort on our part. In normal pre-war times, Engiand, Ire- land, France, Italy, and Belgium were to a large degree dependent upon imports for their food supplies. They yearly im- ported over 750,000,000 bushels of grain, together with vast quantities of animal and fat products. Belligerent lines have cut off their supplies from Russia, Bul- garia, and Roumania, and the demands of Germany on surrounding neutrals have reduced the supplies froin those quarters. DISTANT GRANARIES MADE INACCESSIBLE Of more importance, however, is that the submarine destruction of shipping has necessitated that the farthest distant mar- ‘sovds O81ed-uULId0 d][qLITEAV oY} ISeyULAPL 4soq 9Y} 0} OZTIIN OF AVA Vv UT peoiqe paddiys oq uvd Yor spooy poze.1}UdIUOD 9} JO 9UO SI Joo “Spd SOY IMO JOF Ysnoua os.1v] snjdins e ayqereae oAvy 0} ‘ajdoad uMO ANO yO uoT}I9}01d oY} 19qFe ‘SI woqoid ino usp YOS Jsoqzpy Aq ydeasojoyg - . a ee Re G Q ‘ C = Y ‘ ‘ - . ~ snjdins o8iey e ‘edd yXOU DALY [fA pue ‘MOU DALY IM JOF ‘OUTLULE JO OUO JOU st wWoyqord seoLoUy VNVINOW NI HONVaY V D LEP HOOD VARI S OF fib RAW kets should be wholly or partially aban- doned. The great markets of Australia and the Indias are now only partially ac- cessible, and gradually the more remote markets will be more and more restricted until a year from now, when our own’ new ships will be in numbers to help. The last harvest in Argentina was a failure, and until the next harvest, even that contribution to their supplies is cut off. Beyond this again, much food is lost at sea; perhaps ten per cent of the actual shipments are sunk en route. Therefore, the load of even normal im- ports is thrown upon North America— the nearest and safest route. Of no less concern than the dislocation of markets and the losses at sea is the de- crease in production among the Allies. If forty million men are taken out of pro- ductive labor and put into war and war work, there can be only one result, and that is diminution in production of food. Further contributing causes to this diminution are the lessening in the amount of fertilizer which is available, through shortage of shipping and losses at sea, and the consequent reduction in the productivity of the soil itself. This year the decrease in production stands out in more vivid silhouette than ever before. We have had a stock-taking by the va- rious food administrators and depart- ments of agriculture in Europe, and they find that the production of cereals this year has diminished about 525,000,000 bushels of grain below normal. ‘This shortage in production, added to normal imports, gives 1,250,000,000 bushels of grain that must be imported by the Allies during the next twelve months, if con- sumption is kept normal. Their cattle, sheep, and hogs have di- minished by over 30,000,000 animals, and these reductions are bound to go on with increasing velocity, because short supplies have necessitated eating into the herd. A BURDEN WE MUST CARRY How great the burden upon the United States is may be made clear by a few figures: During the three-year pre-war period we averaged an annual export of 120,000,000 bushels of grain and 500,- 000,000 pounds of animal products and 189 fats. During the last fiscal year we ex- ported over 400,000,000 bushels of grain and 1,500,000,000 pounds of animal prod- ucts and fats. (See also page 197.) During this period we really over-ex- ported—we, ourselves, are selling our animals faster than we grow them, and our stock of foodstuffs Just prior to har- vest was relatively the lowest in our his- tory. As the causes of Europe’s shortage grow in intensity, our load this next year must be of much greater weight. As our harvests and those of our Al- lies are now measurable, we now know the size of the world’s larder for the coming winter, and it will measure in- sufficient unless we can reduce our con- sumption and waste. Our Allies are making every possible effort to reduce consumption and elimi- nate waste. Most of the principal staples are dealt out to the public under one kind or another of a restriction. Fines up to $500 are levied on persons who throw away stale bread. But despite all these efforts, there is not such a reduction in national consumption as one might ex- pect. Besides the men in the trenches and the men working ten to eleven hours daily in the shops, millions of women have been drawn into physical labor, and all of these require more food than they required un- der normal conditions in pre-war times. The result is that while the saving in food is appreciable, it is not as much as one would expect. There is one feature of all these efforts toward conservation in Europe that stands out vividly—the non-working pop- ulation is in large part composed of the old, the women, and the children; they are the class upon which the incidence of reduction largely falls. The people in war work are in national defense, and they must have the first call on all supplies. Therefore, any failure on our part in sup- plying food will fall upon the class to whom our natural sympathies must be the greatest. But there is a point below which it cannot fall and tranquillity be maintained. We have a general limitation on our food supplies to the Allies, and that is ‘Sol[W Ino 0} Juowdrys Joy Iesns pur ‘yiod ‘faaq GeoyM Suravs sny} ‘snontajnu Aqjenbo 91v Yor “919 ‘uro9 ‘saoyejod ‘auoy Ieou UMOIS So[qeJosoA PUe S}INIF Aypedtourid yvo 0} So}seM PlOAv OF Jnq ‘AJooIF Jeo O} S][JaM OO} JOU Jnq ‘AJOSIM OAL 0} SI WIE Jy, “WoresysIUTLUpYy Poo ey} JO StoquioUl 91e OYM LattOM puke ust FO dno1is pozYySts-1ey oy} FO OPOW & st ,AAJOS O} SI 9AVS OL, (S61 WOVa WHS) WIaISSOd SIH SUMVIN AVG V HOVIS UMOA ONIAVS :AdOUNH OL LNANWAINS MOT AGVAN VATA UOLAJSIUIWIPY POo,y wo1y ydersojoyg ‘ C é Ree ee pe Pe ee he ee 7 ate sh pe Cte Ne ES ee > ge as i Se aed bn ay * 190 THE FOOD ARMIES OF LIBERTY that the condition of shipping requires that all the foodstuffs sent shall be of the most concentrated sort. ‘Therefore, the commodities which we have to send are most advaniageously limited to wheat, corn, beef, pork products, dairy products, and sugar. If we consider our own supplies, we find that we have enough of corn. We have a great surplus of potatoes, vege- tables, fish, and poultry. These latter commodities do not lend themselves to shipment either from bulk or other reasons. We cannot increase, or even maintain, our present exports of wheat, beef, pork, dairy products, and sugar without reducing our consumption. WE MUST EAT THE KIND OF FOOD THAT CANNOT BE EXPORTED The logical and sensible first step in adapting our supplies to Allied needs is to substitute on our own tables corn, po- tatoes, vegetables, fish, and poultry for those staples we wish to export. ‘The proportion of our national diet in vege- tables is very low, and it will not only do no harm to increase it, but in fact will contribute to public health. Space does not permit that I should give you the position here of each staple in the national and international situa- tion. I may, however, describe briefly one or two of them. We of the United States normally raise for export about 80,000,000 bushels of wheat. Canada produces something like 100,000,000 bushels of wheat for export. Europe must import this year 525,000,- 000 bushels of wheat if they are to main- tain their normal bread supply. (See page 189.) With our normal export of 80,000,000 bushels, we can go but a short distance toward accomplishing that end. If, however, by conservation we increase our export to 200,000,000 bushels and Canada increased hers to 125,000,000 we shall then come within 200,000,000 bush- els of the solution of the problem. By conservation and by substituting 20 to 25 per cent of other cereals in Eu- rope’s war bread and by some imports from far-distant markets, the problem may be solved. but the margin is so nar- row that any failure on our part to pro- 191 vide an extra 120,000,000 bushe's of wheat risks disaster to the whole cause. For us to increase exports of wheat from 80,000,000 bushels to 200,000,000 bushels means that we must make a sav- ing of about 20 per cent in our wheat consumption. That is not a great bur- den for our people to bear. EUROPEANS HAVE NOT LEARNED TO EAT CORN This means an average saving of one pound of flour per person per week out of their five pounds’ consumption, and it is not asking much of our people that they should substitute other cereals to that extent. Now a number of inquiries arise with reference to different phases of this ques- tion, and one is why Europe does not take the corn instead of the wheat? For one hundred years the wheat loaf has been the basis of life in Europe, with the exception of Italy. The art of house- hold baking has long since been lost. Most of the bread is baked by bakers. For this reason alone it is almost impos- sible for our Allies to substitute corn bread, which cannot be distributed by bakers. Furthermore, the actual house- hold machinery of baking—ovens, etc.— has long since been out of existence in most European homes. Furthermore, if we are to ship corn, we must ship it in the form of the grain itself, for cornmeal does not keep well, and European countries have but little facilities for milling the corn. They are mixing cornmeal in the wheat flour; but there is a limit beyond which cereals can- not be mixed in the wheat loaf and have the bread rise, and that limit is some- where about 25 or 30 percent. They are using higher milled wheat than we for economy’s sake, and mixing it with other cereals. It makes war bread far less palatable than our corn bread. WE USE FOUR TIMES AS MUCH SUGAR AS OUR ALLIES Another case in point is sugar. We import between one-half and two-thirds of our sugar from the West Indies. The Allies formerly drew sugar from Russia, Germany, Austria, and Java. They are now compelled to bring their demands to “Rod & SALT[OP UOT[IU Us} JoqR YIIOM Suraq ‘9}e1G IY} FO Sofdvys Jvots 9914} oY} JO 9UO *ULOD [UB TeSNS YIM ‘St Jl PU UOTPAT}YNS II 0} Pa}OAIP Pur] JO Sostoe OOO‘OOF JDAO SLY PURISMO*T “S}SIUOIBAIOSUOD POOF ay} Aq o][qGissod 1sUUeL AJOAD UL PISeINOUI SUToq SI JIYM JOF Soynyysqns sv 9sn J19Y4} pu ‘oOURpUNGe UL SvY VOTLIOLUIW YSIYM suIeIS dy} 91v JLoyMYONG puv ‘AI ‘UIOD OTY VNVISINOT ‘AWIMOND LV dOWO HOM AHL ONLSHAIVH Japurxs[y “J “J wo1y ydessojoyg aT Mas TaeaE UTES 192 THE FOOD ARMIES OF LIBERTY 193 our market, and, therefore, we must re- duce our consumption if we are to leave enough for them. We consume from 85 to 90 pounds per person per annum. The Allies have placed their population on a sugar ra- tion of from 21 to 25 pounds per person. Even this cannot be supplied without re- duction on our part, and France has asked us to export them 100,000 tons of our supplies at once ; otherwise they must stop the ration altogether. That we should refuse France is unthinkable. Besides substitution the other great need is to save waste—the gospel of less buying, serving smaller portions, the clean plate, to use our food wisely in economy. ‘There are a hundred avenues of saving—if we inspect the garbage can. Again, there are commodities in which we must reduce consumption. If we are to supply the Allies and ourselves both with sugar and fats over the next winter, we simply must reduce the consumption. By fats we mean lard, bacon, butter, cream, lard substitutes, and soap. We consume nearly double the amount of fats that we need and we waste a fabu- lous amount. There are other features of food con- servation of national importance. One of them lies in the whole problem of na- tional saving. Wars are paid for out of the savings of a people. Whether we meet that expenditure now or after the war, we will have to pay it some day from our savings. The savings of a people lie in the con- servation of commodities and the savings of productive labor. If we can reduce the consumption of the necessary com- modities in this country to a point where our laborers can turn to the production of war materials; if we can secure that balance and get to the point where we can free our men for the army, we shall have solved one of the most important economic problems of the war. If we are to carry on this war and carry it on without economic danger, we must carry a major portion of 1t now dur- ing the war from the savings which we make at the present time. If we reduce the waste and the unnecessary consump- tion of food by a matter of only six cents a day, we shall have saved two billions per year. Conservation has other bearings as well. There are the great moral ques- tions of temperance, self-denial, and self- sacrifice. We have been a most extrava- gant and wasteful people, and it is as truly intemperance to waste food as it is to take unnecessary drink. Next year, in order to maintain our Allies in war, we must make even further efforts to increase the export over last year, and it is obvious that we not only cannot do so without conservation, but that unless we do have conservation we must expect higher prices. It is often said that high prices are themselves a conservation measure, but they are a conservation measure of the nature of famine. It is conservation in favor of the rich and against the poor. The rich will have all the food and va- riety they need, but the poor must, under this form of conservation, shorten their food allowance and diminish their stand- ard of living. The only real conservation is one by which the whole population, rich and poor alike, take their part in the pro- vision of these necessary supplies. This can only come about either by forced measures from the government, by which all are placed on ration and the available foodstuffs equally divided, or alternatively, by a great voluntary effort of self-denial by ich the added supply can be obtained without vicious action or conservation through price. A CALL TO PLAIN LIVING IN EVERY HOME Another bearing of the problem lies in that we have had growing in this country a class of the population given over to more or less idleness and a great deal of extravagance. There grows out of this a certain amount of class feeling, in a country where there should be no class division. There is now an opportunity for that class, by a reduction in its scale of living, to demonstrate its fidelity to the national cause and its willingness to share its full portion of the national burden. In so doing that section of our people will have demonstrated something more than mere saving—it will have demon- SAVE. BUTTE by not serving too much to each person SERVE INDIVIDUAL PORTIONS. A pound makes 48 one-third ounce pieces. Hotels Have Learned that there ts the least wactc from one-third ounce pieces ONE OF THE The Food Administration has many activities, but only one purpose: like wheat, substituting more plentiful articles of equal nutritive value. ican people to save concentrated foods, Photograph from Food Administration GREAT STAPLES TO BE CONSERVED to lead the Amer- beef, pork, sugar, and dairy products, by Our duty is to send as much concentrated food as possible to our Allies this winter, utilizing every cubic foot of available ocean-shipping space to the best advantage. strated a willingness to serve in our na- tional necessity, even to the matter of personal sacrifice. There is a phase of this entire work which has appealed greatly to us here, and that is the whole question of national service. Here is an opportunity for every man, woman, and child in this country to contribute immediately and directly to the winning of the war. It should be possible to show to the entire population that there is at least one point in which all may serve in this struggle. There should re- sult not only saving, but the sense of sery- ice, a sense of contribution to the war it- self, anda proof of loyalty and support in each and every individual. 194 There is no force by which conserva- tion could be imposed upon the American people. Conservation can be accom- plished in some countries by iron-clad law, or by forcing legal limitations on every individual in the country, but in our country that is not only unfeasible from the governmental point of view, but it is against the instincts of the people. A NATION OF VOLUNTEERS NEEDED We may accomplish the same result vol- untarily if we can give the people a stimu- lus in the knowledge that every individual has here a definite service to perform. We have, therefore, never considered this problem from the viewpoint of force, CHICKEN FAT Ss often wasted. THelrenchtiousewile thinks it iS the finest shorlening lor cakes, Photograph from Food Administration CAKE WITHOUT BUTTER; CHICKEN USED INSTEAD All over this country there is being waged a campaign of visualized publicity to promote the conservation of food through substitution. displays in codperation with hundreds of mercantile associations. This is done through the medium of window ‘These displays of the com- parative nutritive value of various foods are governed by the briefly defined policy of the Food Administration, that our national problem is to feed our Allies by sending them as much food as we can of the most concentrated nutritive value. we have considered it always from the viewpoint of voluntary effort. We have asked all to join us as voluntary workers, as we are to effect by a democratic move- ment the results which autocracy has only been able to effect by law and organiza- tion. Indeed, we feel there is a service here greater than the actual saving and the actual practical result. There is the possibility of demonstrating that democ- racy can organize itself without the neces- sity of autocratic direction and control. If it should be proved that we cannot secure a saving in our foodstuffs by vol- untary effort, and that as a result of our failure to our country we are jeopardiz- ing the success of the whole civilized world in this war, it might be necessary for us to adopt such measures as would force this issue, but if we come to that unhappy measure we shall be compelled 195 to acknowledge that democracy cannot defend itself without compulsion—which is autocracy and is a confession of failure of our political faith. If we can secure allegiance to this na- tional service in our 20,000,000 kitchens, our 20,000,000 breakfast, lunch, and din- ner tables; 1f we can multiply an ounce of sugar, or fats, or what-not per day by 100,000,000 people, we have saved 180,- 000,000 pounds in a month. If we save a pound of flour per week, we save 125,- coo,000 bushels of wheat per annum. It is this multiplication of minute quan- tities—teaspoonfuls, slices, scraps—by 100,000,000 and 365 days that will save the world. Is there any one in this land who cannot deny himself or herself some- thing? Who cannot prevent some waste? Is not your right to life and freedom worth this service? ‘s]]O1 PUL pLotq JO Suryeur oy} ur ‘inoy 7eoyM YIA\ JUd}XO 90S 0} Os[e pue ‘ssurppnd puv sayvo jo Suryeu oy} ur posh Ajapi Suloq SI InoH 07eJ0g “INI9I 0} Ajay] JOU o1e IeIA 4se] JO sootid ysiy oy} pue dots ojejod Jodumq e udseq sey o10y} IVAaA SIT, “WONeIISIUTLUpy poo] dy} Aq popuslUOdeS AT[VIIIdSo AINUDISISIL Ip sagarg oy} oie ‘Ai}[nod pue Yysy YPA ‘sayquja99A J9Y}O puv ‘saseqquo ‘svod ‘sdiuin} ‘suvaq ‘so0}e}og ANIVIW NI NMOUD SHOLVTOd WHIGAOO HSIeI nore ate er arma eS Me Nai pho OT Tee cay 196 THE WEAPON OF FOOD By Herspert Hoover OOD has gradually, since the war began, assumed a larger place in the economics, the statesmanship, and the strategy of the war until it is my belief that food will win this war— starvation or sufficiency will in the end determine the victor. The Allies are blockading the food from Germany ; and the surrounding neu- trals are under pressure to export their surplus both ways and to reduce their im- ports. The Germans are endeavoring to starve the Allies by sinking the tood ships. Short production and limitation of markets cumulate to under-supply, and all governments are faced with reduction of consumption, stimulation of produc- tion, control of prices and readjustment of wages. The winning of the war is largely a problem of who can organize this weapon—food. THE ZONE OF SUPPLY ‘GRADUALLY NAR- ROWING As to our more intimate problems, to effect this end, it must be obvious that the diversion of millions of men to war re- duces the productive labor of the Allies, and in consequence the food production. Also the destruction of food at sea, and of still more importance, the continuous destruction of shipping, has necessitated the gradual retreat in area from which overseas food supplies can be obtained to any given country. Thus there has grown not only a limi- tation of supplies, but an accumulation in inaccessible markets. The result of these cumulative forces is that North America is called upon, by both Allies and neutrals, for quantities of food far beyond its normal export ability. What this tax upon our resources amounts to is evident enough from the fact that during the past fiscal year we have increased our grain exports from 120,000,000 bushels—the three-year, pre- war average—to 405,000,000 bushels. This year the Allied production is re- duced by 300,000,000 bushels over last year, and we must therefore meet a much ‘larger demand. Our exports of meat and fat products have increased from pre- war average Of 500,000,000 pounds to 1,500,000,000 pounds for the last fiscal year. And owing to the decrease in their animal herds, the Allies will require still more next year (see page 18Q). PRODUCTION MUST BE QUICKENED AS WELL AS CONSUMPTION CUT DOWN If the extremely high prices thunder- ing at every door were not a sufficient demonstration, it 1s possible, by actual figures, to prove that we have been ex- porting many commodities actually be- yond our capacity to produce. ‘Taking the three-year pre-war period as 100, we find in pork, for instance, the number of animals on hand on the 30th of June this year is variously estimated at from 92 to 98. The slaughter of animals during the year was at the rate of 179; the exports were at the rate of 215, and the natural consequence is that the price is at 250. During the past year we have exported every, last ounce of which the country during this period was capable of pro- ducing, and our national stock of cereals and animal products, proportionate to our population, was at the beginning of this harvest the lowest in our history, and many of us have been under the keenest anxiety lest we would face absolute short- age. This anxious period is now happily passed. The demand in many commodities dur- ing the coming year is beyond our capac- ity to furnish if we consume our normal amounts. The necessity of maintenance of the Allies as our first line of defense and our duty to humanity in feeding the neutrals demand of us that we reduce our every unnecessary consumption and every waste to the last degree—and even then the world dependent on us must face privation. (See also pages 187 and 189.) Owing to the limitation of shipping, we must confine our exports to the most con- 197 Photograph by A. E. Young WHALEBACKS LOADED WITH WHEAT IN THE LOCKS AT SAULT STE. MARIE On September 1 the exportable reserve of wheat in Australia was estimated to be 135,- 927,000 bushels; in India, 80,538,coo bushels; in Argentina, 26,107,000 bushels, and these re- serves will be materially increased by the production of the next few months. If these stocks were available for the Allies, the wheat problem of North America would immediately be solved. Australia, however, is three times as far from Europe as is the United States, and therefore three times the tonnage is required to transport an equal quantity. Added to this, the submarine danger is twice as great. THE WEAPON OF FOOD centrated foodstuffs—grain, beef, pork, dairy products, and sugar. We must control exports in such a manner as to protect the supplies of our own people. Happily we have an excess of some other commodities which cannot be shipped, particularly corn and perish- ables, and we can do much to increase our various exports if we can secure sub- stitutions of these in the diet of our peo- ple; but above all we must eliminate our | waste. Our first duty lies to our Allies, and if they are to sacrifice a share of our food to neutrals, and if this is also the result of our own savings and our own productive labor, these neutrals should expect to fur- nish equivalent service in other directions to the common pool against Germany. Populations short of food hesitate at no price, and in those commodities where there is demand beyond supply, whether food or otherwise, the old law of price- fixing by “supply and demand” is broken. SPECULATION ENGENDERED BY OVER- DEMAND Such an over-demand gives opportu- nity for vicious speculation and presents an instability to trade which necessitates ° widening margins in distributing profits and great damage to the consumer. It results in marking up the prices of mil- lions of articles upon the shelves and en- gages the whole of the distributing trades in inherent speculation. It is upon this question of price that I wish to dwell for a moment. We have all listened to the specious ar- guments of the siren of high prices; it is heralded as the mark of prosperity and to possess economic advantages ; it 1s advocated as a conservation measure. It is true, high prices reduce consumption, but they reduce it through the methods of famine, for the burden is thrown on to the class of the most limited means, and thus the class least able to bear it. There is no national conservation in robbing our working classes of the abil- ity to buy food. High prices are con- servation by reducing the standard of living of the majority. It works no hardship on the rich and discriminates against the poor. 199 Real conservation lies in the equita- ble distribution of the least necessary amount, and in this country we can only hope to obtain it as a voluntary service, voluntary self-denial, and voluntary re- duction of waste by each and every man, woman, and child according to his own abilities ; not alone a contribution of food to our Allies, but a contribution to lower prices. We have and will retain sufficient food for all our people. There is no economic reason why there should be exorbitant prices. We are not in famine. It is ob- vious that our people must have quanti- ties of food and must have them at prices which they can pay from their wages. HIGH PRICES LEAD TO STRIKES, DISORDERS, RIOTS, AND UNDERMINE NA- TIONAL EFFICIENCY If we are to have ascending prices, we must have ascending wages. But as the wage level rises with inequality, it is the door leading to strikes, disorder, riots, and defeat of our national efficiency. We are thus between two fires—to con- trol prices or to readjust the income of the whole community. The verdict of the whole of the world’s experience is in favor of price control as the lesser evil. There are few who will dispute the ad- vantage of such regulation as will elimi- nate speculation and extortionate profits. This is difficult to disassociate from fix- ing of prices, yet a great deal may be done by simple regulation and the organ- ization of trades to police themselves under government patronage—to put reg- ulations into force as will protect the legitimate and patriotic trader—for no one will deny that speculation against the consumer is a vicious crime in our pres- ent state. The large question of the hour is price- fixing, because the suspension of the law of deriand and supply as an equitable economic law is forcing our hand in every direction. The total experience of Europe has demonstrated that many methods of price control, such as maximums and minimums, are a fallacy, and in them- selves stimulate evasions and generate economic currents, which, while they may be a temporary palliative to a situation, ‘oyap ueadoany oy} dn oyvur 0} pasvajar dq plhom 19};e] dy} FO YSnous roy 10} djnyISqns B s¥ diay posti d1dM UIOD JI PUL YeayM JO 9UO O} Bo UI Pasivs UID JO sfaysnq ImoFJ are stay, “YnIspooy todosd B sv usd s}d9IIe YIYyM uoeU uvodoinsy ATUO oY} St ATeIT “NOY yoYM JO YOM SAeTOP Vv UL UY} [POL UIOD JO YOM sTe]JOP PUL oN]PA SATILIINU AOL ST d19U} 99e} JO JoyevUt v sy ‘(161 a8vd 99S) poog se UsOD JO aNTeA oy} pULissopun jou op sajdoad toy JO¥ ‘pear sAO¥ JeoyM uodn systsur edoimyy NOWNH AMV'L OL VOIMAIAS AMV’ WOM SMOO'] HHL NI ONINHMO'T SMOVEWIVHM LVAHAN sunox “yy Aq ydeisojoyg 200 ae Photograph from Food Administration WASHINGTON FIREMAN CANNING HIS CORN CROP Many of the fire-fighters in the nation’s capital did their bit this past summer by raising produce on vacant lots adjacent to the fire stations. This patriotic fireman harvested his crop and carried it to the nearest community canning center, where he donned a gingham apron, rolled up his sleeves, and “put up” his winter’s stock of this delectable food. ultimately wash away the very founda- tions of production and distribution. Of European experience in price-fix- ing practically but one formula has re- mained, and that is the fixed specified price for every stage of a given commod- ity, from its raw to its finished delivered state, based as nearly as may be on the cost of production and reasonable return on capital. We will find, as we go on with the war and its increasing economic disruption, that first one commodity after another will need be taken into control. We will, however, profit by experience if we lay down no hard and fast rules, but 1f we deal with every situation on its merits. So long as demand and supply have free play in a commodity, we had best leave it alone. Our repairs to the break in normal economic control in other com- modities must be designed to repair the break, not with a view to setting up new economic systems or theories. 201 PRICE-FIXING AND PRODUCTION It appears to me we can divide our commodities roughly into four classes: First. Those commodities of which we produce our own supply and for which there is no export or import business of such consequence as to influence the whole, such as corn, .potatoes, onions, apples, and many others. Here the law of demand and supply still reigns, and we can well leave them alone, provided no person or persons attempt to upset the normal flow of barter, and then we can best deal with the person. Second. Those commodities the export demand for which dominates the price. Here it is possible as a first step to regu- late the export price. In such a class I may mention wheat and flour. Nor have we much choice. as to the matter of these commodities, for under the agreements between our government and the Allies our government must pur- ‘]GISSOd IJOADIOYA NUIW IY} UI STeat9d Jay}O SuIjNWYSqNs “AjIssodIU JO WINUITUTUT 94} 0} JBaYM JO 9sn ay} Suronpar wio1z ouI0d UR poos jsour oy} ‘aSvaioe s9}v018 ve SsuImos st yorym ‘A[ddns oy} SuIseatUI JO JOUUPL SNOIAQO 9} O} UOIjIppe uy (461 pue 6gr ‘dd 90S) PIOWY YON uodn UMOIY} SHY} Sr uoTjeyndod UBI[IATO at jo YON pue sotlwse ssny 94} SUIPIe} JO Uaping syy, “eIpuy pue eiyersny wos, sjsodut 94} JO YONUW YO sSuryns sapiseq ‘uonenzs sryy pesueyp Ayeais sey ieA\ “j[ey-euo ynoqe sourly pue “peoiq Joy JO¥ Atessoosou UleIS oY} YJANOJ-9u0 Jnoqe sasier A]eUIOU UIeyIIG year) VNVINOW ‘AU'TIVA NILWTIVS NI GIA LVIHM V udspITYOS wWaq ry Aq ydeis0j0yq ‘ulels y[nq se sovds YON sv ddI} SotiNbot urers payors ‘diys ve uy ‘sseq oy} JO yYSsIom pue onyea ot} JOF SuOoNpat Iejun 0} peo] pure ‘siajpury jo do9104 aBiv] e olinbet ‘soyoy YsSnory} sso; esneo GystomM JYSia1Z oY} OF ppe pure oos¢ JOWIV] OY} Jsod dod JeayM Ooo'oI$ v OF ssvq ‘UlRIS JO SUI[purYy oy} UL FoquyT pu’ oSVAL OJVUTLUTI SIOJAD[D UlopoyY “‘Ydvasojoyd oyy ur umoys ,,‘So],, 10 ‘ajnYyd oy} YSno1y} no poduind st qeoy M ‘JOSsaA oY} pvojun OF, GHUMOLS SI NIVYOD WH. WOIHM NI ‘OIvigad Lv UOLVATTH LVIHM HONH V Jopuerg "FT weiyptAA Aq ydersojoyg 203 REMEMBER JACK SPRATT Why serve the fat to those who dont eare for 1b dthe lrimmings saved ffom six slices of ham will shorten this gingerbread Photograph from Food Administration “FATS MAY WIN THE WAR” We are said to consume three times the fats necessary for proper nutrition chase or direct the purchase of Allied supplies in this country, and as these pur- chases in many commodities dominate the price, we are face to face with price de- termination whether we will or not. Third. Commodities where internal de- mand exceeds the supply and where direct exports alone do not sufficiently influence the price; and here we are driven to price-fixing at once, to which coal has already fallen. Fourth. Commodities where our im- ports control the price. We can in some instances control the volume and price of imports so as to regulate price, and it is obviously in our interest to export as little of our money as we can. In all control of price, there is one dominant factor. The very need of price control is proof of insufficient produc- tion, and in war the necessity itself tran- scends the cost. Therefore, the constant dominant thought in price must be the stimulation of production. There is, however, a point at which stimulation is attained. To get ninety per cent of volume of production costs one price, and the need of the commodity to 204 secure each advancing unit of production towards one hundred per cent becomes a problem of balance in the necessity for the commodity against the burden of the consumer. We have in the Food Administration put into action a form of price control through purchase of the exports of wheat and flour. The government must buy or contract the buying of wheat for export ~ and the export volume controls the price. We were immediately confronted with price determination. THE FIRST TIME IN HISTORY FARMER HAD A VOICE IN PRICE-FIXING FOR THE To determine it we called in the farmer himself, and gave him the majority of the commission, to determine a fair price. We gave him the national balance and prayed him to weigh carefully and justly. For the first time in history he had a voice in fixing price, and unanimously de- termined $2.20 per bushel, with certain differentials on locality and grade. We then created a voluntary engine of our best commercial men to carry this de- cision into effect, and to eliminate all speculation, and to reduce the cost of dis- tribution, in hopes of finding relief to the consumer. We can now measure the re- sults. ‘The farmer will receive about 60 cents per bushel more for his wheat than his average last year. Sixty cents. per bushel is-equal to about $3 per barrel in flour. The price of wholesale flour is today $3 per barrel less than the last four ‘months’ average. So here is the measure of fedueed speculation and distribution charges—$3 per barrel increase to the farmer and $3 ‘decrease to the consumer. The Food Administration has no pow- ers to fix prices except through the ex- port buying, the power to buy and sell certain commodities, and the further power to enter voluntary agreements with producers. A ‘case of the latter lies in sugar, where we agree with 95 per cent of the beet producers that they shall fix the price at a certain figure, and we pro- pose to reinforce this by the control of imports, and if necessary to enforce other measures against the five per cent if they fail to fall in with the majority. Each and every commodity has its own situation; each must be handled on the merits and with least interference by gov- ernment that will effect purely war ends, vel Photograph from Food! AGL AN OBJECT-LESSON IN THE CONSERVATION OF FATS “Starvation or sufficiency will in the end determine the victor in this war” and each by cooperation with the industry itself. LITTLE POWER OVER PRODUCER RETAILER AND One illusion in the mind of the public I am anxious to dispel: The Food Ad- ministration, through its own authority and the codperation of other government agencies, can accomplish a ereat deal, but it is limited absolutely to that area of commerce between the producer and the retailer. We are stopped in law within this area; we can only use influence on both the retailer and producer, and de- pend upon their patriotism. — In this area ‘we can only regulate the flow of trade and hold it to moderate profits and ex- cise speculation. This is an economic step short of price control—except where we can accomplish price control by the indirect means I have quoted above. In the Food Administration we intend to confine ourselves to ten or twelve fun- damental staples—those food commodi- ties that make up the basis of life—we take no interest in the luxuries or even semi-luxuries. We have laid down certain principles of codperation with the busi- ness community, and if we are to succeed on these lines we must have their support. We are asking the various trades in 05 WHEN THE DEBUT © Underwood & Underwood ANTE DESERTS THE BALL-ROOM FOR THE DAIRY One of the most important fields of endeavor open to women in the present national crisis is the management of farms and dairies. where this picture was taken, girls are taught the most ture’s farm at Farmingdale, L. L., advanced methods of scientific dairy management. On the New York State School of Agricul- The loyalty, diligence, and intelligence of such workers will be of material aid in preventing the price of butter soaring to $1 a pound in the United States, as it has in European countries. these particular staples to cooperate with us in organization of the trades to the end that all transactions shall be direct in the normal flow of distribution; that speculation shall be excised; that goods shall be sold both by producer and dis- tributor at least at a reasonable and nor- mal charge over cost, or even without profit. THE PROFITEER A MODERN JUDAS It appears to us that no right-minded man in this community wants extra profit from the war. If he does he should be branded with the brand of Judas for sell- ing the blood of our sons for profit. The Food Administration today is di- rected by a body of 250 volunteer repre- sentative business men, producers, and experts, and up to date it has held over 200 conferences with representatives of trades and producers. We have asked them to help in formulating plans to con- serve, to stimulate production, and, above all, to regulate distribution. Most have been helpful, and in instances where or- ganization has been completed the devo- tion of the business men has been above all praise, and in some cases we have so far failed to secure this cooperation in a discouraging way; but I am not, in view of the success in some lines, prepared to say that the experiment is either a success or a failure. But let no one be under the illusion that selfishness or greed has disappeared from this great republic. There passes over my desk daily a sickening mass of evidence of individual, sectional and class avarice and self-interest, backed by demand and threat, that is illuminated by rarer instances of real support in the gigantic task of government in this crisis. We wish for cooperation in service 206 © Keystone View Co. THRESHING OATS IN ILLINOIS Codperating with the Food Administration are thousands of retail stores located in every part of America. tures and slogans. They display cards in their show-windows bearing food-conservation pic- One which is being widely used shows four jars containing corn meal, rye flour, oatmeal, and barley and under them the words, “Eat more corn meal, rye flour, oatmeal, and barley—save the wheat for the fighters.” from our commercial community. We wish to stamp our commercial community with the stamp of service in public inter- est. Compared with the sacrifice of our sons and brothers, it is but little to ask. And it is a service which, if given now, will not be without interest returns for the future. ‘This interest in a thousand- fold will come in two directions. THE LOOMING SHADOWS OF SOCIALISM If we receive this support, we will have demonstrated the falsity of radical claims as to the necessity of socializing our in- dustries. If we fail we will have given impulse to these demands and ground for their complaints. One looming shadow of this war is its drift toward socialism, for with the gi- gantic sacrifice of life the world is de manding a sacrifice of property, and we will surely drift to that rocky coast unless we can prove the economic soundness and 207 willingness to public service of our com- mercial institutions. It is worth while examining the de- velopments in Russia from this point of view. Here no practical or effective form of commercial regulation or distribution was undertaken. In consequence of spec- ulation, profiteering, and the failure in commerce to serve public interest, the condition of the industrial classes became so intolerable as to steam the hotbed of revolution. Justifiable as this revolution may have been and as great a cause of liberty as may result, no one can deny that the whole trend of this revolution has been socialistic, and the latest phase is a de- velopment into practical socialism. This strain in the revolution, | am convinced from much experience in Russia, was the reaction from failure of the govern- ment and the commercial classes to meet their public duty. ‘odoinyy] JO Sortuse 9y} pod} 0} pur[suyY MON Woz JOS udoq oAvy Jonposd sty} JO suo} Fo SpUvSNOYT, *1OJULAL S14} JOF Popuolutmosat st Ys UszZorfZ JO Woreztayjndod oy} Jof JUOWOAOLU opIM-uOLVU YW ‘sUOHLU J9Y}O dy} JO dWIOS puIyog avy puRys om ysy fo uolduimsuos 94} Ul “sodevoyo Ay[eNsn pur ouosayoyM sv ysnf sae YoryM oOUT KULLU Sv SOLU] [V4oAOS syoo[SoauU pue SOMOIA Mof Vv ATUO sMOUY oTPand [Vtousas dy} 9sMVdooq “YS YM sEYLLUVZ ore OYA aJdoad 0} UdAd ‘Surystuojse st poof JO¥ posA oq uvo YyoryM ysy oUOSoTOYM JO JOquuHU yy, LIN AHL WOdd NOWIVS AHL ONIAOWAY :NOOXYO UHAIM VIAINN’IOO AHL NO ONINIAS-TAVH SorIoYsty] JO Nvoing *S "¢ worz ydessojoyg VHAIM VIGINANION UHL NI LHOAVO NOW IVS MOONIHD GNNOd-O9 V HIM AOD V JOTI[IPY pue sting Aq ydessojoyg Ad[eqV,O Atusypy Aq ydeisojoyg z mare Ln - SUIVHOMI WHT WOT LVHIN ONIAVS AG UVM AHL NIM CTAH TVIIM SMVALS LAGIVH has Gly 209 ‘dIndoUIS OU aAvY SYOOD dues sy, “pay ate oy} [JOM Moy JO UOoTeorpur ue sr sjezdsoy divs oy} ur LoL Fo JoquINU [[eUIS AJoUIIyxX9 OY, “YW SuryjoS st oy puv pooy AjAwoy yo sonnurnb yeois sormMbDot JoIpjos oy} JO YJoa eoiskyd ayy, “ue} dsap v uo udye} savy pue dn pouspsey MoU oe soovy aed pur purely 7fZOS IIA Siay1OM doyJo PUL SYIoJI 19M OS SUOT JOU OYM Vol oY, “Stays AULIe MoU INO Fo ]][B Je INA 9[qQviivaul ay} st 41 FO Ayuojd pue posedoid qjam ‘pooy pooy LNANdANVONA GYVND JIVNOILVN V LV UNIT SSHW ‘IVOIdAL V uosduoy y, [neg Aq. ydesz0j}04g 210 ¢ ‘(Loz osed 4x0} o9s) ..d1nINZ oy} AOF susanqat JSoIOJUT NOYYM oq Jou TIM ‘Mou UDAIS FI YIM DOTAIOS BSE JL puy “Hse O} of] Inq st yt ‘sroyOIq puv suos IMO JO dIYLIOes oy. YWA porvdwuoy,, “AULIv WONVAdosuoo-pooy oy} UL Suysitus Aq Apoy uvs waoszrun ur oAsos jouuvs OYM osoyT, “AT[NY -foayd uonenys ATOAO JoJsvtu puv yoout AY} ynq ‘seojvjod Sursod oy ‘sysez [VIussuOSUN ALU SophypouL SMoOTpo} Prpudyds osayy yo yom ILL, MSVL AHL NI GISVONA A’'TISOD UNV AWNLOId WH NI NHI MALT GNV “GUNVd U& LSAW SHOLVLOd FO SGUNGNOAM AMATVINIMV GTI WO AMALLVG SIUM TO TVNUAIIVdd AVVNIIOND WH, NI pOOAtapuy_ XY pooa.topuy © -- eee “ . sccm % mrsigie 211 CODFISH DRYING IN TELE SUING: © H. C. White Company MASSACHUSETTS GLOUCESTER, Gloucester is the leading fishing port of the country, and is especially noted for its trade in cured fish, chiefly cod, haddock, and other “sround fish,” which are caught on the banks lying off the New England coast and the British provinces. THE UGLY ALTERNATIVE IS A GOVERN- MENT OF THE GERMAN TYPE The other end to be attained is of pro- found importance. The alternative to failure of our commercial system to main- tain its place and at the same time serve public interest is rigid autocratic govern- mental organization of industry of the German type. Such organization is au- tocracy itself; it breeds bureaucracy and stifles initiative, and thus democracy, at its birth. We must organize—we must mobilize— our every national energy if we are to win this war against the organization perfected by autocracy. Either we must organize from the top down or from the bottom up. One is autocracy itself; the other, democracy. If democracy cannot organize to accomplish its economic, as well as its military defense, it is a false faith and should be abandoned. The Food Administration has appealed to the commercial community to march with it to an organization democratic in its inspiration and vital to our defense. If we succeed, we shall have assisted our commercial institutions to their own stability in after years, and beyond this they will have proved that democracy is a faith worthy of defense. i) THE GEOGRAPHY OF MEDICINES War’s Effect Upon the World’s Sources of Supply Joun Foott, M. D. HEN the war cloud burst in Europe a sudden paralysis of credit temporarily engulfed the Western World. As business relations were restored, ocean travel resumed, and traders set aside the sense of danger, cer- tain secretive individuals crossed from Europe, keeping to themselves and avoid- ing smoking-room conversation, using the wireless overmuch, and receiving daily a€rograms in private code. They were speculators, gamblers, these ner- yous, anxious-looking unknowns, not dealers in war materials nor food, but speculators in drugs—the kind of things that you and I so frequently buy in the corner drug store. To gain possession of existing stores of German manufactures, and especially German patented chemicals, was the game these gentlemen played, and at such enormous profits as to make the plungers in “war brides” of later davs seem con- servative bankers by comparison. For instance, the speculator who in July, 1914, invested $1,000 in antipyrin, used exten- sively in headache remedies, would in 1915 or 1916 have a profit on his pur- chase of $19,000, with no possible chance of a slump in the market. This was prac- tically true of all patented German medi- cinal chemicals in general use, as well as many substances necessary in the arts and sciences. No merchant sells more diversely born or more widely traveled merchandise than the pharmacist, and accordingly no business is so quickly disorganized when trade routes are disturbed as the import- ing and distributing of drugs; for the ar- teries of trade are like the arteries of the human body—sensitive throughout to any change in the volume of flow in even the most remote branch. The law of supply and demand applies likewise to drugs; therefore it would be as natural to expect a rise in German chemicals as to look for an increase in the cost of coal if all the mines stopped working for a year. 213 For a time no marked change occurred in drugs imported from neutral lands, for there were large stocks on hand; but as trade routes were disturbed by the closing of old markets and the difficulties of transportation increased, due to haz- ards of the sea, and consequently ware- house stocks were exhausted, slowly but surely came the upward swing in the cost of dozens of crude drugs and their by- products—drugs which are gathered in strange nooks and in hidden corners of the world as far from the clash and the turmoil of battles as ever they could be. “RAST IS EAST AND WEST IS WEST” It is many a weary mile from the an- cient Persian city of ‘Herat, in Afghanis- tan, to the Western war front, as it is from the Western war front to the East Side of New York, and the men of the Four Tribes had never heard of Moe Klipstick, nor of the druggist at the cor- ner of Third avenue; yet each was re- lated to the other in terms of world com- merce, and I will tell you how. Morgab the Younger, like his ancestors of the Four Tribes! went down yearly from the old city of Herat, midway be- tween the mountains and the Persian desert, to the arid plains, which, after the rains, waxed rich in verdure, because it was here that, with much back-bending, he incised the Ferula root and obtained its milky gum, which he sold to traders in the market- place of his native city that they might, in turn, send it far away, whither and why he knew not nor cared. Around the caravan fires at night he had heard mutterings of a great war be- tween the Russians and some other un- believers, and though trading was better since the Russian railroad had come to within 65 miles of Herat, across the mountains, yet he did not like those Mus- covites; so, Allah be praised! let them fight among themselves; it was well they should. It could not hurt him! Months passed, and one day, after an absence on the plains searching out and A NATIVE DOCTOR AT WU HU, American patients would probab ly not thrive under © Mrs. i 12, Kimball CHINA, WITH HIS MEDICINES SPREAD ON A SHEET Chinese medical treatment; but at the same time the American drug store would lose some of its best medicinal materials were China cut off from trade with the United States. collecting that which he could sell, he found his way back to the ancient city of his birth, sweating beneath a back-load of reeking asafcetida gum, and even his calm Eastern mind was disturbed and rendered uneasy to find the market-place glutted with the ill-smelling stuff he had toiled so hard to obtain. Everywhere was merchandise and ey- erywhere profane excitement. Gaunt camel drivers from the across the moun- tains in Turkestan murmured, first spit- ting upon the ground in testimony. of 214 their contempt for the Christian dogs; how the Russian railroad had refused to transport their great bales and boxes; others told how the boats on the Oxus were already overloaded and left great piles of freight to spoil on the docks. From Kabul came whispers of the Pa- than preparing to war in strange lands and having no time for trade. Certainly ill luck stalked at will throughout the land of his fathers. In the cool of the evening, when the sun had set and he and his fellows gath- WHERE DRUGS ARE SOLD: BEERSHEBA, ARABIA “Gum tragacanth—used as a substitute for gum arabic in medicine and the arts, of which Aleppo, an ancient Syrian drug market, where Venice had warehouses in her golden days, i the trade center, is shipped through Aden or the ports of India” (see text, page 235). ered together to discuss the strange hap- penings unknown before in their lives, there came forth strange tales of the deadly perils to ships on the seas—since across the far deserts, in the Persian Gulf, strange sea monsters lay in wait for peaceful traders and destroyed them from below. And Morgab, because he was weary and penniless and very sick at heart, cursed Something—he did not know what—for the calamity that had come to him unbidden. THE FIRST PINCH It was fully a year later when Moe Klipstick, who resided in Manhattan, hurried to the drug store at the corner of Third avenue to buy a remedy beloved of his fathers, so that his little daughter— one of the myriad that swarmed in a reeking tenement—might be protected against infection from infantile paralysis. (Such is the pathos of ignorance! For did not pharmakon originally mean magic ?) 215 But lo! when he asked for five cents’ worth of asafoetida, which was to be put in a bag and suspended about his daugh- ter’s neck, the drug-store “doctor” told him abruptly that he could not sell such a small quantity, since asafoetida had gone up “on account of the war.” Stag- gered and humiliated by this unexpected catastrophe, Moe Klipstick slunk from the store, nervously fingering his solitary coin. When the tiny girl was taken sick a few days later and her restless little feet grew limp and inert, Moe Klipstick raised up his patient voice in puzzled protest at the militant Russia from which he had fled, but which still pursued him and de- nied him strong-smelling medicines to save the life of his baby. THE FAR-REACHING TIDE OF WAR So the many strange conveyances for drugs—dromedary caravans in Persia and Arabia, side-wheel steamers in the reaches of the Amazon, spice trains in © Underwood & Underwood A FAST FREIGHT IN CEYLON Nux vomica is another important drug that comes from the far-away regions of the earth, and reaches western nations only by the long hauls that high ocean-freight rates largely preclude in these days of submarine warfare. It consists of the dried ripe seeds of a small tree which grows in India, Hindustan, Java, Sumatra, Malabar, Ceylon, and North Australia. The tree resembles our dogwood, and its fruit looks like a small orange. ‘The flat seeds, sometimes known as dog buttons and crow figs, have the pulp removed from them by the natives. Strychnine is much prepared from nux yomica. Aleppo, bullock carts in Ceylon, dog sledges in Siberia, swift dahabiehs on the Nile flood, great lumbering junks bump- ing along on the thousand-and-one yellow streams of China, pannier-laden coolies in Formosa—all sooner or later were to feel the paralyzing influence of the world War on peaceful trade and exchange. And even in the far places, out at the very rim of the world, strange tribesmen were to cry aloud in outlandish tongues against this invisible clutching thing which, while they wondered, took away their bread. It was the trade in drugs and spices which made Venice from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century the most im- portant commercially and the richest city in Europe, and it was the loss of this commerce which caused her rapid deca- Photograph by O. W. Barrett WINNOWING MAFURRA SEEDS FOR EXPORT AT CHAI-CHAI, ON THE CROCODILE, OR LIMPOPO RIVER: PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA The seed contains about 60 per cent of oil and tallow and is worth about $25 to $35 per ton f. 0. b.; about 3,000 tons are exported (mostly from Inhambane) and at least 100,000 tons are left to decay. The tree is Tvichilia emetica, a relative of the Mexican mahogany. : EUGHEROR GRP, Roe nt wwe * bovis ies i ae Photograph from Charles K. Moser THE WATER FRONT AT MUKALLA, ON THE INDIAN OCEAN, COAST OF ARABIA Myrrh comes from a tree developed in the form of an undergrowth in the Red Sea coast, where vegetation is scant, water scarce, and temperature high. Myrrh is formed like cherry-tree gum, or from artificial incisions through the thin bark. It is at first a juice, then oily, soft, yellowish, golden, finally hard and reddish. It is collected mostly by the Somali, both at home and across the Aden Gulf, in Arabia, and formerly entered commerce by way of Egypt. It is now, in normal times, carried to the great fair of Berbera, there purchased by the Banians of India, and shipped by way of Asia to Bombay, where it is assorted into grades and put into chests and sent to the markets of the world. 217 "(S1z o8ed 4x0} 998) ,asuvyoxXo puv opes} [nyooved uo IeM PLIOM yrois oy} 10) Cova yayai suizsjesed OU} [92F OF 919M J9}P] 10 JOUOOS []B—LSOUTIO,T UL SoLJOOD Wopey- -saruued PUY) JO stuvatj}s MO]JIA 9UO PUL PURSHOY} oy} uo Suoye surdumq syunf sursoquiny wos “pooy efIN oy} UO SyoIquyep FJIMS “VIoqig Ur soSpoys Bop ‘uo]Ao) Ur syavo xorg ‘oddepy ul suresz 9o1ds ” ‘WOZeULY oy} jo SOIvIL oy} ul SIOUIPOIS JeFy Mops “eIqVsIV pur BIS 19 ul SUBPARIVO Aiepowoip—ssnap 104 soourvAdAUOd oSURIYS Aueut ot OS HL NMOG MIWHSVM NI ‘WOTHHL ger pre ‘ —— przsydeys xy ouinog Aq yde1s0j0yg 218 Geitiate SS © Mrs. H. P. Kimball BURDEN BEARERS IN JAVA | The Dutch East Indies have for centuries supplied the Western World with much of its spices and more of its raw drugs. baskets as these. dence and the passing of her riches and her glory. THE SUBMARINE, THE AEROPLANE, AND CASTOR OIL, Tt is not generally known that most of the castor bean from which castor oil is pressed comes to the United States from India. Indeed, our annual importation in normal times is nearly a million bushels. The Orient has always produced this “delicacy” of our childhood days, and it is interesting to remember that the Ebers papyrus, an Egyptian medical manuscript, written when Moses was a young man, speaks of the medicinal virtues of the castor plant. Today importers are viewing with ap- prehension (and children with joy) the castor-oil situation. Not only is produc- tion lessened, but with the difficulties of sea transportation from India are increas- ing with the lack of ships. In fact, earth, heaven, and ocean seem to conspire Tens of thousands of tons have gone to market in such against castor oil; submarines are am- bitious to send it to the bottom of the sea, while aéroplanes demand it as a lubricant in large quantities. Therefore, with our ambitious air program and our diminish- ing supply of oil, we have reason to study the situation a little. However, the castor plant will grow rapidly almost everywhere; it is fre- quently seen cultivated in our gardens. The machinery for crushing is also avail- able; so if a shortage really becomes in- evitable, the Department of Agriculture will be able to incubate another infant industry. THE GLORY OF VENICE AND THE DRUG TRADE The story of Venice is so essentially romantic that to mention commerce in connection with it seems out of drawing. Yet it was as merchants that the Vene- tians were famed. The traffic in spices and aromatic drugs began to assume vast 219 ‘SoAvo] oy} fo stloljI0.0p Surjesiodeaa Aq posvdoid osye st jy ‘stiotstout [vloynae uo W1OF Ady Se Potoyyes des JO sivo} otj—urntdo OY] YOU UMOLS SI J] ‘suorjdriazdso1d ITARYZVI puev suo} FO SuOT]IUL FO Sud} Ut polnsy sey You ‘Aymbiyue vor Jo Snip v st sy, “sooye st sdo19 st JO 9UCG “SOUTSIPoUl [vqtoy fo Joonpoid juryztodut uv st stodesurg Jo purjst oy, AUOdVONIS ?- LAAT AHL ONISSVIN uspeIn ‘Vy Aq ydeisojoyg ee as aa ee N proportions in the Middle Ages, as the people of Europe became educated to a hunger for the spicy flavors of the East. From India and China and Persia came not only silks and laces, but, more im- portant, spices and oils and drugs, and Venice was quick to realize the impor- tance of having this commerce pass through her port.: The knowledge of medicines used by the Moors and Arabs, which was brought back by the Crusaders, helped to educate the people of many lands to the uses of balsams and spices of the Oriental mar- kets. The embarkation point for Pales- tine was Venice. The Venetian mer- chant marine profited well by furnishing transport service, and during the Fourth Crusade, finding the Crusaders unable to pay their passage money, the Venetians forthwith enlisted them as soldiers in a war against their Christian neighbors, the Dalmatians, and the Infidels got off scot- free! THE MERCHANTS OF VENICE Acre, held by the Crusaders as a Chris- tian bulwark in the Holy Land from 1191 to 1291, has a custom-house record of great quantities of rhubarb, musk, pepper, cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves, aloes-wood, camphor, frankincense, nutgalls, and gin- ger which were stored there en route to Venice. The Venetian merchants rolled in wealth, for they fared far and wide and their galleys were known on every sea. luge storehouses were erected wherever they traded—as far away as Beirut, Ajaccio, Aleppo, Alexandria, and even in the thirteenth century they im- ported from these places myrrh, sandal- wood, camphor, indigo, and spices. In the fourteenth century Venice fought Genoa for trade mastery, and thence for- ward was supreme. Daru in his “History: of Venice’ estimates and translates the value of Venetian exports in the fifteenth century as $10,000,000 annually—a sum larger that a billion in these times. She possessed at this time 300 great man-pro- pelled galleys, or argosies, and several thousand smaller vessels, with 45 large war craft. In the Rialto was the center of Vene- tian commercial life. Here Shakespeare pictured his Antonio, whose mind he rep- 221 resents as “tossing on the ocean” with his argosies. Across the Alps went Ger- man caravans from Venice; up to Hol- land and Belgium sailed her Flanders galleys, precursors of our armed mer- chantmen, each rowed by 180 oarsmen, with arckers for protection against pi- rates. Venice met at Bruges the mer- chants of northern Europe, though some galleys also went to London and South- ampton. Venice served Europe well as a carrier, but she exacted heavy toll in payment. THE DECADENCE OF VENICE A MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY The monopoly of Venice was resented, as is inevitable; her prosperity was en- vied. ‘This is why all the explorers of that period sought a short ocean route to India. Columbus, it will be remembered, sought the “spices of the Indies” rather than a new land. So from the hour when, on May 20, 1498, Vasco da Gama fulfilled the ambition of his Portuguese sovereign, blazed a new trail in the un- charted deep and sailed into Calicut, after rounding Cape of Good Hope, the com- mercial greatness of the Italian port was doomed. When the news reached Venice that Portuguese carracks laden with spices had come into the harbor at Lisbon with- out the necessity of touching at Venice “the whole city was disturbed and as- tounded,” so says the ancient chronicler, Priul; in hisdiary: They had ample cause for worry, for they faced the in- evitable. THE WARS OF THE CLOVE How Venice warred on Portugal; of the later wars between Portuguese, Span- ish, Dutch, and English to assert su- premacy in the spice and drug trade; of the long voyages, with decimation of the crews by pirates, by mutineers, and by the often fatal and always horrible scourge of scurvy—these tales belong to the he- roic age of the seas, and have furnished inspiration to many a poet and novelist. Noyes’ “Knight of the Ocean-Sea,” sing- ing the praise of the English navigators, has caught well the spirit of those daunt- less adventurers: ‘(Zee ‘d yx} 908) , ARMB YSLM PNOD POO] JO s}UIIIO} JOU SB SUOIJVU SUC SsoUt9}}Iq YONS UMOIS PLY SSouJOIMS s}I JO WO “JoMOY-AT[IS AvpHoyavd v JO YJMOIS oY} uodN JUspuoddap jsow]e owOod9q ALY 0} pottoss AUTJSOp S.P[IOM dj} Jey} SuMsiyUL pue ‘uo LIjOSoU ‘UOVAodNLA Yount OS FO s.eM oyeulysqo pue soqqqeq poyoyid Aueut Os Jo osned oy} Ussq pey (SAO]D 9u}) [HSId snotIJIIOpO yer} AsNjUII YIUooJUoAS oY} FO SuTUUTSoq oY} UY,, UVAIZNVZ NI DNIAUC HAO BREAKING CLOVES FRO M THE STEMS: .ZANZIBAR The clove, as we know it, is the partially developed bud of a tree which grows to a height of about 15 feet. are gathered and dried, turning from red to brown, Once dried, the cluster of cloves is broken from the and the calix the stem of the clove. These buds are produced in great profusion in clusters. These clusters The unexpanded corolla forms the head stem by pressing them against the palm of the hand. The woman in the middle foreground is demonstrating the process. “Marchaunt adventurers, chanting at the wind- lass, Early in the morning, as we slipped from Plymouth Sound, All for adventure in the great New Regions, All for Eldorado and to sail the world around! Sing! the red of sunrise ripples round the bows again. Marchaunt adventurers, O sing, we’re out- ward bound, All to stuff the sunset in our old black galleon; All to seek the merchandise that no man ever found!” Well might he sing of Drake, and Hawkins, and Greenville, and Oxenham meeting, with their little 200-ton ships, the great galleys of Spain and defeating them! But the prizes they captured were galleons laden with cloves, and ginger, and pepper, and frankincense, and drag- on’s blood, and cinnamon, and when these cargoes were found they asked not for doubloons. Motley, in his “History of the United Netherlands,’ emphasizes this point very 223 ‘SUI[[Y S}I UL s}UoUTJUOD dA FO S9dINOSdI dt} uodn []eo Aeul uotjdiiosoid a[suis YW “aye} IM SUTOIpout oy} dsOduIOd YSIYM Ssury} oa odtut puvsnoy} v WOIJ—evdIIZV JO SaqSBAr dY} ‘Joqr], JO Saydvot ATOUO] oY} “VIIOqIS FO spr ol} ‘neoyeid sty ol NOTANO ‘OPWOIOD JO GOOHYOTHOIAN AHL NI ANAS IVNVO V DUIOYSIVET plorey] wos ydersojoyg I } ‘ apounf oayqeajou ro ee Pe) ol uUIOD §$ 2) 3) [) WO.A] ANOS 224 -SPOUl posto: \ Us yUIO1 VV ‘pury Sue oyYM B Aq pon UdJM JdaNXa snoOsaSuLp IUIOIPOU S.ULUT I}TYAL DADT[AG SOATILU dT, “WHY TOF ,94nd urled,, Jo [nJuoods & 4no ainseoW O} BuIsOp Jo jAe 9} UT LOUD [JAA a1OY}Z SBAL dUO OU PUB Yyors sem AOq VY “UMOZ YORYs AUT] V UL IYSIPOP YIM popley Suroq JO s{jo} uorso1 nye A oy} Worf ApPIAv1y ‘OSIVI AO} JO Jed & Se BOLIOLUW UL opel soUToTpo JUOJed YIM YoRG oWiOd Ud}JO JOYIVUL O} SSHAP ML ATIVI YOIYM SULALILI oY, NIVINOQOW MNSNVAOHMWVIA AHL INISSOWD NVAVUVO YAAAGNIAY LHOIAY LAMVA V “Ty dayYeA\ wory ydeisojoyg s, SSVd WHAAH 226 we A CGOLIE BRINGING IN A LOAD OF TU-CHUNG BARK (Eucommia ulmoides Oliv.), A VALUED TONIC MEDICINE: YUNGYANG HSIEN, CHINA “And even in the far places, out on the very rim of the world, strange tribesmen were to cry aloud in outlandish tongues against the invisible clutching thing which, while they wondered, took away their bread” “The world had lived in former ages,’ he says, “very comfortably with- out cloves.” But in the beginning of the seventeenth century that odoriferous pis- til had been the cause of so many pitched battles and obstinate wars; of so much vituperation, negotiation, and intriguing, that the world’s destiny seemed to have become almost dependent upon the growth of a particular gilly-flower. Out of its sweetness had grown such bitter- ness among nations as not torrents of blood could wash away. A common- well. 227 (see text, page 216). place condiment it seems to us now, easily to be dispensed with, and not worth purchasing at a thousand human lives or so the cargo, but it was once the great prize to be struggled for by civilized na- tions. And so Venice and Alexandria pun- ished the nations who took their spice trade away with the unholy spell of war, a curse that all through history has both preceded and followed ever y marked change in the trade routes of the world. The changes in drug prices which have SSejo-Ysiy ey} poyeurMop ‘odoiny Jo apes} winido ADYIN, JEM 2} BOfog “POIILU OY} UL OSH [LUSIPatt JOF apes Jsoysiy] oy} Potop!suod SNOINIWOdG S.NVUINS AHL NI AOVId-LANaVN V panes iUy TY Se) > i gete ' ie Gigs us pe SEZ U doq Suo] sey wnido ystyiny come in this war are due chronologically to the blockade of Germany, in relation to the enormous chemical manufacturing industry of that country; to speculation in existing stocks at the outbreak of the war; to the congestion of transportation both by land and sea and terminal facili- ties in belligerent countries; to the re- moval of blockaded shipping from world trade, causing a shortage in sea trans- ports; to the destruction by commerce- raiders of shipping and cargoes and the high marine insurance and freight rates ; to the diversion of labor to war purposes from trades concerned with the gather- ing, marketing, or manufacturing of drugs and medicinal substances, and to the accumulation of stocks of drugs by army organization. SOME PRICES COMPARED It is interesting to compare some of the prices per pound quoted in wholesale drug trade bulletins in July, 1914, and then a year later. Bleaching powder or “chloride of lime’’—used in the arts and as a dis- infectant advanced from 13 cents to 9 cents per pound; sal-soda or washing soda, from 60 cents to 85 cents; nitrite of soda, valuable both as a medicine and HOGeditss MeTOSen, from. hieOO to 3.25)5 chlorate of potash, from 15 cents to 45 cents; oxalic acid, from 13-cents to 50 cents per pound; quinine, from 16 cents to 50 cents an ounce; caffeine, from $4.25 to SII.50 an ounce; epsom salts, from 134 cents to 334 cents a pound; oil of wintergreen (artificial), from 55 cents to $3.60 a pound; permanganate of potash, a disinfectant, from 14 cents to $1.50 a pound; sodium salicylate, used for rueumatism, from 65 cents to $4 a pound; thymol, a specific for hookworm, from $1.20 to $6.50 an ounce; antipy- rin, from 30 cents to $3.00 an ounce ; phenolthalein, used both as a chemical re- agent and as a laxative medicine, from 80 cents to $48 a pound. These are chemicals, many of which came from Germany, and their advance was usually a direct result of the law of supply and demand and of speculative hoarding. A ROSE BY ANOTHER NAME Eos is a compound of salicylic acid almost universally used for all kinds of aches and pains, and until recently the yatent on the drug was held by a German to VO YY ey Photograph by Alfred Heinicke A “POPPY PEEPER” COLLECTING POPPY JUICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF OPIUM : SHIRAZ, PERSIA These trained observers look within the flowers to judge of their maturity firm. Shortly after the outbreak of the war it began to rise spasmodically until, under its unpatented title, it caromed from 32 cents a pound to $1.25 a pound. For be it known, aspirin, of a lineage slightly different from the German ar- ticle, sometimes traveled incognito as acetyl-salicylic acid, and was identical in everything save name and price. HARD ON THE BALD-HEADED Carbolic acid is really the parent sub- stance of these aspirin and_ salicylate preparations, and, as everybody knows, it is also an excellent and much-used surei- cal antiseptic—two good reasons why the price should gyrate when war broke out; and gyrate it did. From 25 cents a pound Photograph by Alfred Heinicke OPIUM SMOKERS IN A PERSIAN TEA HOUSE—OPIUM AND SWEET TEA, VERY SWEET, WITHOUT MILK, IS TAKEN DURING THE SMOKING: SHIRAZ, PERSIA AN OPIUM EXPERT EXAMINING SAMPLES Great shipments of opium from a thousand sources find their way to central points, where examinations by trained men decide its ultimate destination and price to oN) (o) poo | Photograph by Alfred Heinicke WEIGHING THE ONE-POUND LUMPS FOR THE FARMER: OPIUM CULTIVATION SHIRAZ, PERSIA “Opium in February last had jumped to $19.05 a pound as compared with $8.05 in 1913 and $11.05 in 1915. The tremendous use of anodyne medicine to relieve the pain of the millions of wounded Has undoubtedly had a stimulating effect on the price of opium and morphine” (see text, page 234). to $2 the pendulum oscillated. Now it is cheap once more at about 75 cents a pound, not more than 200 per cent higher than in 1914! The war bore heavily on bald-headed and nervous people. Practically all hair tonics nowadays contain resorcin—a coal- tar product we have always allowed Ger- many to make for us, and another cousin to carbolic acid. From $2 to $32 rose the price of a pound of resorcin, putting a sudden damper on the enthusiasts of intensive scalp culture. And the bald found it costly to be nervous over this advance, since bromide of potassium, long used to calm excited nerves, ad- vanced from 50 cents to several dollars, and at one time it touched $12 a pound! These excessively high prices were spec- ulative phenomena, and did not hold at the maximum level, though bromides are still $1.20 a pound and resorcin $24 a pound. Practically all remedies for the round- 231 worm of children contain santonin. San- tonin ballooned to dizzy heights in a few months—from $13 to $75 a pound. It is now relatively cheap at about $50 a pound. But as a pound would supply about 11,000 doses, we do not need this drug in carload lots! ROBBING PETER TO PAY PAUL Some chemicals have advanced more recently for indirect reasons. For in- stance, a rise in sulphuric acid is attrib- uted to the fact that iron pyrites come largely from Spain, and the war has had a sinister effect upon Spanish commerce. As pyrites are used to manufacture sul- phuric acid, their price and the price of the acid rose proportionately to the ef- fectiveness of the underseas boats. The rise in copper had an indirect effect on certain phases of the chemical industry, as copper and sulphuric acid were largely used to generate sulphuretted hydrogen, a very valuable reagent in the laboratory. *O]S9I1T, puv vddo( Ysnoiy, pyj1om OpIs]NoO oY} PoyIvet yt A[TOWIIO, “JONIVUL oy} FO JNO AjoitjUS MoU st pue ‘OUTS Ul SMOG YJUADIOJOS jsoq oy, “uledg puv ‘99915 ‘odoyy poor) JO odvy ‘oos010py “FdAoay ‘VIIA ‘viqeiy Ur ATUIVI SMOLS YA ‘UOTOUU -19}VM B SUT{QUWosot JURTd & WOT} SoWlOd JT “AVAL oY} Aq JO 3nd ynq [je Ud0q SLY “OUTITPSU UT STZAVYIVO a[qenjeA sour oY} JO 9UO ‘YJUADOTOD NVISUNYNAL NVISSAY ‘HOSINHOUN IAON :LYVO AALLVN V GNV SHSNOH dTISIIYD “YW ey Aq ydesso0joyg “SOTAUNOS polly Aq poambot soiyuenb pojyuapssoidun ay} FO Ypnq oy} yYstuiny 0} oAry vuIy) pure vIpuy ‘YO yno useq sey Ayddns ysyAMy, oy} IUIG “UONRZI “PATS FO UOPposeUlIY oY} UL JUOTF U1IJSOAA\ IY} JO SOAVIS OY} JULIA} PUR sjeyidsoy ot} sfdood oy ust sAvIG FO SUOT][IU oy} JO suTed [e}IOUU 94} poyAs sey yoryM tinido oy} FO YONU sourod vUIYyD FO JAvoYy ay} WO VNIHO -SONUYCd HO WAITS V equi “d “H “SLI © PACKING Photograph by FE. H. Wilson, Arnold Arboretum BARK IN CHINA At one time Ceylon excelled in the cinnamon industry, but coffee largely has replaced it, thus restricting to the neighborhood of Colombo the principal cinnamon gardens; however, South China has become equally interested in the cultivation, and as a result produces much valuable bark. The cultivation of cinnamon begins with the planting of seeds in prepared soil, four or five in each hill. In five or six years the trees are ready to produce bark. barking season begins in March and ends in June. The The bark is removed and allowed to fer- ment and then scraped. When dried, it is exported loose or in bundles, with split bamboo bands from Canton, Hongkong, Calcutta, and Colombo. A cheaper substitute has been evolved as a result. be multiplied almost infinitely ; they touch almost every phase of the development of the war. The effect of closing many markets for products of neutral countries must also be considered. A good example in the trade is copra, or dried cocoanut kernel, from which cocoanut oil is pressed. Madras, India, a shipping center for this article, reports a decline of 51 per cent in the quantity exported in 1916. Germany and Russia were extensive users of copra; also Belgium. A decline of 27 per cent in the exports of oil of sesame and essential oils in 1916 was also noted in Madras. The use of palm oil in Eng- land in the making of artificial butter has resulted in greatly increased production and a market which will probably be per- 233 These indirect effects might | manent-—showing that “it’s an ill wind, ies “THE HIGH COST OF TWILIGHT SLUMBER” Some of the most remarkable advances. in price are seen in vegetable drugs. Russian henbane is a source of hyoscine, or scopolamine, an ingredient in the much-exploited “twilight sleep” prepara- tion, and this drug jumped from 8 cents a pound in 1914 to $3 a pound in 1916. Belladonna, from which atropine is made—atropine the handmaiden of the eye specialist—was cultivated for com- mercial purposes in Germany and Eng- land. The cutting away of the German supply caused the price to rise from 50 cents to $1.75 a pound within the first year of the war. Now England is mak- ing efforts in intensive cultivation of belladonna and other botanical drugs, and Inazo Nitobe Spheres tanh from De BUSY SCENES IN FORMOSA “After the Japanese-Chinese War, dustry. instituted for the replanting and care of trees” the \rlington drug gardens, located near Washington, D. C., conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture for the experimental cultivation of me- dicinal plants, have been more than a suc- cessful experiment and it did not require the war to make their utility apparent. OPIUM AND THE BLOCKADE It will be noted in scanning the quota- tions that products to which England has direct sea access have had a definite but not spectacular increase in price. Opium increased in price very gradually from $9.05 in July, 1914, for crude gum, to $35.00 per pound today. In the case of opium adequate production and well or- ganized distribution came into play to sta- bilize the market. But storehouse stocks for medicinal purposes were gradually exhausted and the war shifted to opium producing countries, depleted their man power, and finally threatened the trade routes. The ring about the Central Empires soon included Constantinople—probably w Japan obtained control of the Formosa camphor in- Although the Formosa forests are practically inexhaustible, forestry measures were (see text, page 236). the largest single exporting center for the poppy juice. “Moreover, Turkish, or, as it is known, Constantinople opium, has always been considered the highest grade obtainable for medicinal use. Persian opium probably ranks next in importance, though both the Indian and the Persian products are now largely used in the manufacture of morphine. China’s im- mense crop was, until recent times, con- sumed within the empire, while Egyptian opium was exported to English chemical houses to some extent. Even Bulgaria produces some opium, and it is found in most of the various ports in Asia Minor. But Turkey dominates the Kuropean sup- ply of high- grade gum. Now, the fontaine’ of crops, the shortage of ships, the tightening of the blockade, and the disorganization of trade arrange- ments is having the inevitable result. Opium in February, last, had jumped to $19.05 per pound, and today it is $35 per pound, as compared with $8.05 in 1913 and $11.05 in 1915. Only limited quanti- ties are sold to each dealer even at this price. Heroin, or dia- cetyl morphine, a de- rivative of opium, used almost exclusively in cough medicines, sells today at $14 an ounce. The tremendous use of anodyne medicines to relieve the pain of the millions of wound- ed has undoubtedly had a stimulating ef- fect on the price of opium and morphine. Gum tragacanth — used as a source of mucilage in medicine and the arts — of which Aleppo, an an- cient Syrian drug market, where Venice had warehouses in her golden’ days, is the trade center—ts shipped through Aden or the ports of India. The increased price in products of this type was approxi- mately 100 per cent during the first year of ies war, but it con- tinues to rise day by day. THE MUSCOVY COM- PANY Concerning Aleppo there is some interest- ing correspondence in the records of the old English Muscovy Company. Edwards, one of their factors, writing in 1566, said: “Therein are many Venetians who buy gall, tallow, saffron, skins, cotton, wool and also will serve us of ail kinds of spices, we giving them sufficient warning to fetch it in the Indies and will deliver it to us in Shamaky.” And as there is nothing new under the sun, another factor tells about the light Russian oil which now, when it is refined, we prize so highly as a medicine: “There is a great river,” he wrote, “which falleth into the Caspian Sea by a town called Bachu whereunto which is a strange thing to behold. For there issueth out of the ground a large quantity of oil, which oil Commercial aloes comes to us in tin-lined boxes, tubs, monkey and goat skins from Zanzibar by way of Bombay and in small calabashes from the West Indies. UL Photograph by F. J. Koch LOADING LIGHTERS AT ZANZIBAR cases, casks, they fetch from the uttermost bounds of all Persia, it serveth all the country to burn in their houses. This oil is black and is called Nyfte. There is also by the said town of Bachu another kind of oil which is white and very precious ; it is supposed to be the same that is here called petroleum.” What if the ancient adventurer could have been granted a vision of the oil-burn- ing submarine and super-dreadnaught ! He would have thrown his spices to the winds. ‘Today men are fighting for that oil as in his day they fought for cloves! Another article of commerce which fortunately we do not use today in medi- cine was shipped from Alexandria. Ar- CHINESE DRUGGIST AND HIS CHEMISTS: SOOCHOW, CHINA Although thymol occurs in the oils of horsemint, thyme and wild thyme, which are com- mon in many parts of this country, the world important drug, so essential in the treatment of the hook-worm disease. goes all the way to India for its supply of this It is prepared from ajowan oil, a volatile product obtained from the seed of a plant that is cousin alike to celery and coriander. thur Linton, in his scholarly monograph in the Journal of the American Pharma- ceutical Association, quotes from Hak- luyt a letter of a traveler of the sixteenth century who visited Cairo: “Without the city,’ he wrote, “are to be seen divers pyramids among which are three marvelous great tombs. Out of them are daily digged the bodies of an- cient men not rotten but all whole. And these dead bodies are the mummies which the Phisitians and Apothecaries do, against our will, make us to swallow.” Dried mummy was a favorite remedy in the sixteenth century; it is something to know that patients were made to swallow it against their will! THE CAMPHOR INDUSTRY Camphor, which is important not only in medicine but in the arts and manu- factures, was an example of efficient pro- duction and control of output. After the Japanese-Chinese War, Japan obtained Oo control of the Formosa camphor in- dustry. Although the Formosa forests are practically inexhaustible, forestry measures were instituted for replanting and care of trees; 2,000 police were fur- nished to protect workers and large re- fining plants were built. Workers were paid a fixed sum. The distribution of the entire product was let by contract and the right of sale awarded an English firm, the latter contracting to conduct the sale of camphor in New York, London, Ham- burg, and Hongkong, and to accept from Japan a definite amount of camphor each year. The closing of the port of Ham- burg has not, however, demoralized the trade. In July, 1914, American refined camphor sold at 44%4 cents per pound in barrel lots. In 1916 it had advanced to go cents. Tragacanth, used in making mucilage and toilet creams, advanced from $1.20 to $2.25; sesame oil from Alexandria, from 38 cents per gallon in 1914 to 65 cents in 1916. Aloes advanced scarcely at all in the first two years of warfare. The varieties coming from Fast Africa and from the West Indies are used in medicine. There are many species of aloe and the commercial product is an ex- udation from their leaves. So many sources are available that aloe was fig- uratively as well as literally a “drug in the market.” The price of Norwegian cod-liver oil is an index of submarine efficiency. «lin 1914 the oil sold for 60 cents a gallon; in 1916 for $5.50. Perhaps the German scarcity of animal fats has also some- thing to do with this increase. ‘The rise in price and scarcity of the much-used Russian mineral oil in the first year of the awa wall be remembered)” Here, again, America has been able to utilize native products to supply the deficiency. BATAVIA—THE ANCIENT QUEEN EAST Batavia, as of old, is still a great ex- port center for the spice and drug trade, as it was when it was fortified as the cap- ital of the “Spice Uslands,’ and was known as the “Queen of the East.” In those days, when every sea voyage was a perilous undertaking, it was only natu- ral that a warlike community should as- OF THE 237 Photograph by A. W. Cutler THE CORNER DRUG STORE ON THE EAST SIDE, NEW YORK semble in such a place. And so pictur- esque soldiers of fortune and adventurers from all parts of the world gathered about its canals and in its white walls, besides Dutch and Japanese, many Ger- mans, Portuguese, French, Chinese, and Moors; for, of course, being a Dutch city, it was intersected by canals, and, being a rich community, it was fortified. With its picturesque and adventur- ous population, its quaint architectural scheme, and its gleaming snow-white ramparts outstanding like a finely chis- eled cameo in the glare of the tropical sun against the turquoise ocean, it was a dream City, of the tdeparted days of piracy and buccaneering. A garrison of a thousand men was there in the seven- teenth century, and an equal number to guard the Dutch monopoly of the cinna- mon trade in Ceylon. Today the old for- tifications have crumbled ; the old “city” proper is no more. The Dutch still maintain their impor- tant position in the spice trade, but in- stead of sailing vessels fast steamers now ply between Batavia and Amsterdam via the Suez Canal, and Amsterdam re- mains a great drug exchange. New York, Hongkong, and “Singapore are ports of great importance in the world’s drug trade, and the London docks are loaded 238 with odorous bags and bales of the same. aromatic drugs, and ginger, and pepper, and cinnamon, and nutmegs that once came a nine-months’ journey around Af- rica in tiny galleots, manned by half-pirat- ical crews who braved desperate battle and shipwreck and the spotted death of scurvy to follow the lure of the sea and carry the “odor of far-fetched spices” to the trading ports of the Western World. Re WW. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. So, Aiouen neither Morgab, in Herat, nor Moe Klipstick, in New York, could understand the reason why, and even the druggist at the corner of Third avenue was unable to explain it, there isa direct and intimate relation between war and the corner drug store, and the price of hair tonic in New York may fluctuate with the tide of battle on the battered fields of Flanders. GLIMPSES INTO RUSSIA By Lieur. Zinovi1 PECHKOFF HE PRESIDENT of the United States, in his message delivered to both houses of Congress, in which he asked for the declaration of a State of war with Germany, said: “Russia was known by those who knew it best to have been always in fact demo- cratic at heart, in all the vital habits of her thought, in all the intimate relation- ships of her people that spoke for their natural instinct, their habitual attitude toward life. “Autocracy that crowned the summit of her political structure, long as it had stood and terrible as was the reality of its power, was not in fact Russian in ori- gin, in character or purpose. And now it has been shaken and the great, gener- ous Russian people have been added in all their native majesty and might to the forces that are fighting for freedom in the world, for justice and for peace. Here is a fit partner for a league of honor.” These are great and true words ex- pressed about my country. When I read them I was thrilled, and my heart re- joiced at the profound penetration of the President into the heart and soul of our people. FIT PARTNER FOR HONOR LEAGUE Russia is “a fit partner for a league of honor.” Russia does not seek conquest and has not perpetrated aggression. Russia has been always the defender of the small and oppressed Slav nations. Bulgaria, Servia, Roumania, and Greece all owe their independence to the help of Russia, who waged wars against the Turk that they might be free peoples. Wars that were planned by the autocracy were sel- dom successful and never popular. Russia always stood as one man for the defense of right and principles. The people know what it means to suffer for an ideal. Our best men and women have undergone for years and years most ter- rible sufferings in the prisons, in exile; and many paid with their lives. The Russian nature is rather passive and very peaceful; but once a Russian is aroused nothing can stand in his way; he will go to the end. Russian nature is peaceful: but woe to the enemy! No sacrifice 1s too great for the cause of liberty. RUSSIAN NATURE IS ALWAYS DEMOCRATIC THE Russian nature is democratic and not ageressive, and has always been so, from the earliest part of Russian history. Our folklore, our legends, the popular poetry of the old ages of Russia, have always told of the Slay nature being extremely democratic. The popular poetry and re- ligion of Russia are remarkable for the profound love of peace and democracy. After the end of paganism, as before it, warlike subjects played very little part in the religious thoughts of the mass of the Russian people. Even when the pa- © meen, SRS, Esse ‘es ek ree foe x é A ‘ gan divinities of the Russian Slavs were Christianized they did not. on that ac- count lose their pacific character. For example, let us take St. George, the type of the Warrior Saint. Of this steel-clad warrior, lance in hand, mounted on his great charger, the Russian peas- ant has made a useful auxiliary in his laborious life. He has given St. George the care of the village pasture. In the spring of each year, on the 23d of April, which is St. George’s Day, the peasants of all Russia lead into the fields © Underwood & Underwood A CHARACTERISTIC COUNTRY HOUSE IN THE HEART OF RUSSIA their herds of cows, their horses, their sheep, exhausted by the long winter's stay in the byre. Early in the morning of this day the peasants and their women- folk make the rounds of the sown fields, begging St. George “to rise early in the morning, to open the soil and to sprinkle dew on the clover and grass.” Then they take out their flocks and herds, which they drive with branches of willow blessed in the church, and pray to the “kindly George to guard their herds in the fields and the woods from the 239 THREE YOUNG LADIES OF NIZHNI NOVGOROD PHOTOGRAPHED BY THEIR OWN REQUEST greedy wolves, the cruel bears, and every ill beast.” In the Germanic epics Thor, the patron of the toilers, is constantly overridden by Odin, the warrior. It is just the con- trary in the Slav epic. The best loved and the most popular hero of the Rus- sian ‘“‘bylinas” (legends) is Iya Mouro- metz, “the Peasant’s Son.” This is the epithet which invariably accompanies Ilya’s name in all the “bylinas.” RUSSIAN HEROES AS SOIL DEFENDERS Ilya, according to the popular tales, performed a great many exploits in the defense of the Russian soil. Having received from his father, the aged peas- ant, the commandment ‘“‘to plot nothing against the Tatar nor to kill the Chris- tians, and to do good and not evil,” [Ilya tries religiously to observe these com- mands and uses his strength only to struggle against evil and the enemies of his country. He is a peasant warrior who seeks neither aggression nor conquest and who accepts battle only as a means of legiti- mate defense. The hero of the Russian legends is, above all, the defender of the native soil. All through the Russian epics you see the heroes as the guardians of the people’s independence, but by no means the op- pressors of other people. Whenever the numerous Mongol tribes in ancient times would assail Russia, the princes of the various Russian States would call the “bogatyrs,’ who always personified the people, to defend the Russian soil. They would leave their plows, their peaceful tilling of the land, gather to the prince, drive away the enemy, take no rewards, nor acquire any privileges by their defense, and afterward would not 240 ae Photograph from ae Photo News Gianeay THE ST. VLADIMIR MONUMENT AND THE RIVER DNIEPER: KIEF, RUSSIA Sixty-two feet high, cast in bronze from the design of Baron Klodt, 1853. The relief on the lofty pedestal represents the baptism of the Russian people. is the figure of the saint holding a cross. it was erected in Above In 988 St. Vladimir adopted Christianity and mar- ried Anne, sister of the Greek Emperors, Basil and Constantine, and on his return to his own country he caused his people to be baptized. form a military caste around the prince, but would return immediately to the soil. If one studies closely the Russian epic, he comes to the conclusion that the Rus- sian nature, being very peaceful, always unhesitatingly, as a matter of natural duty, stands up as one man for the de- fense of his country and of what he thinks is right. And so it happened in this war. A UNANIMOUS RESPONSE TO THE WAR’S CALL From the very beginning of the pres- ent war the spirit of the Russian people, of the peasants especially (who form three-fourths of the population of Rus- sia), was really marvelous. The rapidity 241 with which the mobilization was carried on in Russia surprised not only the whole outside world but Russia itself. A people never responded so unanimously to a war call as they did in Russia at the time of the first mobilization. There are times in the history of the human race when people, more by intui- tion than by reasoning, are able to com- prehend a situation. More by intuition perhaps than by reasoning the Russian people, and particularly the peasants, un- derstand that this war is different from other wars; that it is not only a question of mere defense of homes, towns, of wives and children, but also some great principle is at stake—a principle which means the creation of a new epoch. JOoJo OY} Suowe oq sAvAyP [JIM punoysjoM uvissny aTIOM oy} SdJI41TO JULULS ul Hq “LUSTIGS T, MOAYJLIAO APU 90d AHL LO SLVYOOLSINV SOTIVUOTL TOAD YT 242 A FEW GLIMPSES INTO RUSSIA All through our history we can see that at certain stages the mass of the popula- tion has been able to absorb ideas in- tuitively — ideas that perhaps have not been even clear to the most enlightened part of the country—and it was the case in the beginning of this war. The Russian peasants, of whom every- body thinks as being ignorant and in the dark, understood the righteousness of our cause from the beginning. The activities of the peasant communities throughout Russia have proved this understanding. For example, many of the peasant com- munities which before the war asked for remission of taxes, being too poor to pay them, when war started would gather up their last money and come to the taxa- tion offices in the town, there to wait upon the official and offer to pay off their taxes. When the official, surprised at such a zeal, would say: “But no, your community is granted for three or five years remission of taxes.” The peasants would shake their heads and answer: “Oh no, your honor, please accept the taxes. We want to pay them. We no more ask for the remission.” “OUR COUNTRY NEEDS HELP” Sometimes the official, annoyed at such persistence, would order them away. They would remain in the town, sleep perhaps in the market-square, and the next day again come to the office, again bow to the official and ask him to take the taxes, and when the officials would ask them: “But why do you want to pay, if the remission is already granted ?” they would say: “Oh! no, that was before the war. Now the country is in war; now the country needs money, and who would pay if the peasant does not pay?” In many of the peasant communities they organized reading clubs for the pur- pose of gathering in the evenings and reading newspapers and discussing the situation. Sometimes they would have to send a man on horseback or in a wagon for 10 or 15 miles to the town to bring a newspaper. Then some young man or school boy, surrounded by all the old men and women and children of the village, would read aloud the paper, and hot dis- cussions would take place. They knew 243 all; they knew about Serbia; they knew about Belgium. In one community the peasants decided to do something for the Belgians. ‘They started to collect money and they co!- lected a very “large” sum—z9 roubles (about $14); then the community gath- ered at a meeting and debated as to whom this money should be sent, and they de- cided to send it to the King of the Bel- gians. So they wrote him a letter, saying: “Dear King, Your Majesty: We, the peasants of this community, know what wrong has been done to your people. We know how they must suffer and we also know your heart is aching for your ‘peo- ple; and so, Your Majesty, we decided to help you and your people. We send you this money; distribute it equally among your people.’ It is naive; it is primitive ; yet it shows the spirit of the people. WOW THE WOMEN HELP The women in the villages at the same time started in different ways to help those called to arms and the soldiers at the front. The peasants possess a very good sense of organization. ‘This has been observed all through the war. The women in the villages, for example, organize themselves into groups of seven, according to the days of the week. ‘They work in turn to help the soldiers at the front. One woman gives up all her time one day a week, while her six neighbors do all the housework in her home for her, work in her field, and look after her children. Many similar manifestations of organi- zation could be related. The Russian peasant is not so ignorant as people think him to be. He is striving for education earnestly, and for the last twenty-five years, with the development of the railways, with the building up of industries in the towns where he goes to work, with the establishment of more and more schools by the ‘“‘zemstvos” (county councils), the peasant has taken an in- creasingly important part in national life. No one can imagine how hard it has always been for the peasant to satisfy his yearning for knowledge. Schools not being in every village, the peasant chil- O44 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE dren sometimes have to walk three and more miles, in the darkness of an early winter morning, through wind and cold and snow, to school, and trudge back to their homes in the dark at nightfall. Sometimes the village where the school was desired was so poor that the in- habitants did not have a building for the school, but formed one in a peasant’s house; in one room the peasant and his family would live and in the other room would gather some thirty or forty boys and girls for their lessons. TEACHING REGARDED A NOBLE CALLING Our best young men and women, for the last twenty-five years, have regarded the mission of a village teacher as an apostolic mission. ‘These young people, the best students of our universities, leave the university, sacrifice their ca- reers, their comforts, and go into the re- motest provinces in the far-away villages of Russia to bring light, knowledge, and education to the peasants so long de- prived of it. It was indeed an apostolic mission on the part of the teacher. He would be everything to the peasant; he would not only teach the children, but the peasants, men and women, would come to him for everything they needed, for all the advice that he could give them, even on domestic questions. There were communities that could not pay the teacher at all, that would collect some small sum of money only twice a year, at Christmas and Easter, and hand it to him. In some villages the peasants would “feed” the teacher in turn—one day the teacher had food at one house, another day at another house. But these hard- ships would not depress the spirit of the teacher and his faith in his mission. When he went to the village he knew what conditions he would meet. There were other hardships: the gov- ernment officials would regard the teach- ers 1n most cases as “dangerous” men. All the good work that a teacher was do- ing was always hindered by some petty oficial. Only certain books were allowed to be read to the Sane and only cer- tain books, permitted by the government, could be given to the peasant to read, and if it were found out that the teacher gave other books he would be impris- oned, and even exiled to Siberia. Many and many of these young men and women during the last twenty-five years paid with their lives for their good work. I have had personal friends who paid that price. A YEARNING FOR KNOWLEDGE The striving for education in Russia is really very great. The majority of our students in the universities are young men whose fathers are peasants—work- ing men, small shopkeepers. On the whole, the people could not afford to pay for education, and the students have to go through the university by earning their own living, and even in the high schools many of the students have to earn their way from the age of twelve and thirteen. They go to school in the morning and in the afternoon work somewhere, often doing manual labor, and at night they study. They would go practically pen- niless to the big university cities, having had only a handful of money to pay the expenses of the journey. Many of them would live seven or nine students in one room, sleep on the floor, and go for weeks and weeks without having what we are accustomed to call a meal. I know cases where seven students had only four pairs of shoes among them and three or four overcoats, and they would go to the univ ersity by turn—one day one would put on shoes and overcoat and another day another student—and so they would live in the winter, study- ing, and studying hard, and in the sum- mer they w ould go to the villages and work as laborers, to gather again just enough money to take them to the uni- versity, buy some books, and continue their education. The university life in Russia is quite different, or at least was quite different, from the Western or American univer- sity life. No games, no sport, no socie- ties—associations were not allowed—and all social intercourse of the students was forbidden by the government. Circles of various branches of study had to gather secretly ; and yet, with all these obstacles, Photograph from Topical Press Agency A ROLLER-CHAIR OUTING A LA RUSSE Instead of being trundled about in rubber-wheeled rolling chairs propelled by a minion dressed in duck, the leisure folk of Russia are whirled about tn chairs equipped with run- ners, for which an expert skater dressed in fur furnishes the motive power; and instead of the familiar boardwalk of the American seaside resort the course of this promenade is the frozen waters of the river. every year more and more young men from the villages and small towns came in search of an education. A LAND OF VILLAGES Russia is a country of villages and small towns. The life of a small town is really interesting. On the surface it is very calm; yet everybody is striving to- ward a different life, toward a life much broader, both materially and spiritually. I remember one small town, about 120 miles from Nizhni Novgorod—a small town where every house was surrounded by a garden—where everything seemed calm and inactive, the streets empty; everybody just lived from day to day, quietly obeying all the rules and restric- tions—orders given to them from higher up. Life seemed peaceful and that peace uninterrupted and everybody appeared content. But that calm was only on the sur- face. From the first day of our arrival 245 we began to discover quite a different condition in the town, and the character of the inhabitants became more and more disclosed to us as we lived there a few months. One day an old priest came to the house. He said that he welcomed people of education to his neighborhood. He had heard from the men “who carried our baggage from the station that we had many cases of books. Perhaps he could read the books that he had not yet read. He said there was no library in the lo- cality and no one from whom he could borrow good books. Being a poor priest, he could not afford to buy books, or even to go to the city for them. A. PRACTICAL PRIEST The town was situated on a river, and above the town there was a tannery. The hides were washed in this river, and the town, not having a sewage system, had to drink the same water. Of course, dis- “JOUOSIAG UAV} SI 9YS JUAD dy} UT 9sN O} LUNISsej}0d Jo OpruvAD JO dSOp ¥B soltivo yoRsy ‘osnjydeo peoip Aoy} nq “Yop JO Vo} JSoYSIS oY} WOU oq OUT OS UdsWIOM JURTTRA dso], “PojPotjol LIssHY JO UO ay} o]IYA UO FYSnoF Ady, “ArOJsIY Apvo.aye st pUOry U1d}Se4[ OY} UO spoop\oAvIq Joy} JO A10}S [HJropuom oy, ,Yoc[ JO uolyeyrg oy, JO SYUVA oY} Ul Poyst[Uo OAR SassR]o ]]P FO S[ALS uBIssnyY ‘UOT ee -NfOAoa ay} Aq posdsuy “JUOAF UsTOJSeAT OY} UO DOTATOS OATJOR JOF FY SoApIsSWI9Yy} dooy 0} SurpJsarm Yeoq] JO wore e_,, OOTY oY} JO UDO WHIG’10S WOOd V ‘TIL SIMVIN AV'Td ON GNV LHI ‘VIV poomM.aropuy) N poom.aapuy) O) ve) 24 A FEW GLIMPSES INTO RUSSIA eases spread every summer. ‘This priest decided to find a way for the people re- siding there to get good water. He knew the country well, having lived there all his life; he knew of small streams and brooks around the town, and he had an idea of connecting the various streams and brooks into one large stream and of finding means of establishing something like a primitive pipe-line to bring pure water to the town. So he and his man-servant started to work. They were digging ditches and working on the scheme every day for five years. Then, finally, they succeeded in connecting some of these streams and rivers and establishing a pond of very clear and fine water. The priest went here and there trying to get the rich peo- ple to build pipes. In the meantime he procured and stud- ied books on hydraulics and was able to draw up quite an elaborate plan of sew- age disposal for the town. He struggled eight years more. Nobody would listen to him. The rich were not interested be- cause they could send their horses and have their water brought to them in bar- rels from a stream ten miles away. Only the poor people suffered. Finally, after persisting for eighteen years, this priest found means of getting a few thousand dollars and bringing water to the town. All the children of this priest went to the city. His older son was a doctor in Petrograd; his eldest daughter studied medicine in the University of Moscow; one of his daughters was in the Univer- sity of Lausanne, Switzerland, and the voungest in the high school in the town. The father had written two books on re- ligion. AN ERUDITE SHOEMAKER There was another man in the town, a shoemaker, who lived in a suburb on the other side of the river. Once this man came to our house and announced that he was a shoemaker; perhaps we would have some work for him. Yes, work was given him; but he would not go away, and everybody saw that he wanted to tell something, which he either did not know how to tell or did not dare to tell. Finally he said: “I heard you have 247 many books.” “Yes, what about it?’ He said: “It is so nice to have many books.” “Yes.” “Iam very fond of books.” And after a pause he said: “Do you have books on astronomy?” We were all sur- prised. We asked him why particularly on astronomy, and he said: “Because that’s what [I am especially interested in.” He was taken to the library and a popular pamphlet on astronomy was given him. He looked at it and said: “Oh, no; that is for children.” Another book was given him—also a popular book. “Oh, that I have read long ago.” Still another book was given to him, “The Astronomical Evenings of Klein.’ “Oh, yes; that’s a fine book, but I have read Ite Then he was asked to be seated, and we questioned him: “But how is it that you, a shoemaker, have such an interest in astronomy, and where did you learn even to read?” He said: “Until I was seventeen I could not read or write. I had no schooling; there was no school in the village where I was born, but I al- ways wanted to know things; and ever since I was a child I have wanted to know about the skies and the stars, and when I was small I decided that when I grew up I would begin to learn to read and to read something about the stars. A COBBLER ASTRONOMER “At the age of sixteen I came to this town and there was a student who had come from the city, the deacon’s son. He stayed all summer, and I told him: ‘You know so much and I know nothing,’ and he taught me to read, and it was so nice to know how to read. It was like speak- ing constantly to a clever man, and I found that you can dispute with books as with living persons. I would read a book and then, nights I would dream about it, and if there was something I could not understand in the book and if something puzzled me, and if I couldn’t agree with something written in the book, I would dispute the whole night in my dreams with the author, and I almost would hear him talking to me. : “T always tried to get the picture of the author of every book I read so that | might know his face, and his eyes, and see Photograph by Elisabeth Randolph Shirley TIFLIS: CAUCASUS No other country has so many races and nationalities within compact dominions as Russia. Occupying more than half of Europe and nearly two-fifths of Asia, its sweep in- cludes the cradle of the Aryan race to the lands where Oriental civilization appears to have had its birth. Slav, Lithuanian, Latin, Iranian, Armenian, Finn, Samoyed, Turko-Tartar, Tunguz, Mongols, Georgians, Yukaghirs, and Chukchis are all to be found living on native heath within the great republic’s borders. how he looked; and finally my dream to know about astronomy was realized, and the third year after I learned to read the same student, a good boy, in prison now, sent me the first books on astronomy, and since then,’ he said abruptly, “I have learned something. I went twice by foot to Nizhni Novgorod. I worked five years to collect money to buy a lens to construct a telescope, and I succeeded. I have it now on my roof, and I tell you it is won- derful!” And the next week we visited this man, entered his simple log house where, in one room, he lived, with his wife and four children, and in another room were shelves of books and his shoemaking im- plements. In one corner of the house there were a few steps leading to a kind of primitive tower, where we saw a not less primitive telescope. Tn every town where I went I always found people of that kind, not having means to educate themselves—the gov- ernment not only not providing them 248 means of education, but hindering in every way—yet they were striving, suf- fering, and persisting in their strivings, and working and achieving things that would seem almost impossible, under the circumstances, to achieve. Russians in general read a great deal. They love books, and the average Russian is accustomed not only to take books from the library but to buy them for his home, to talk to his friend about the book he has just read, and always wants to share a book with some one and to discuss it, to dispute over it. RUSSIANS LOVE TO TALI Speaking of “discussions” or “dis- putes,” the following is a very character- istic trait among Russians: When a man invites you to have tea with him in the afternoon, he writes you a note, saying: “Please come and have a cup of tea with me ; we are going to dispute.” It has many times been observed by foreigners who come in contact with the A FEW GLIMPSES. INTO RUSSIA Russian intellectuals that they talk much. ‘This is true; they do talk too much. Perhaps it can be explained by the fact that for years and years they have not been allowed to act, and therefore all their energies were devoted to talking, which served as an outlet to their accumu- lated knowledge, so to speak. But this talking has in itself brought about very good results—that is, people were enabled to formulate more precisely their ideas about things—and when favorable time for action came then they were able to put their words in action. Many of the foreign authors are just as well known in Russia as in their native country. It would take too long to re- late all the translations, so I will con- fine myself, as it may interest the Amer- ican people, to a few American authors who are known to the Russian people as well as to the Americans. Mark Twain is, of course, as much a Russian author as an American author. Every- thing that he has written has been trans- lated into Russian and therefore has been widely read. LONGFELLOW AND MARK TWAIN BELOVED IN RUSSIA Longfellow is just as well known, per- haps, as Mark Twain. His poems have been translated into Russian, not in prose but in the same form as written, even the rhyme and the rhythm of the verses hav- ing been preserved. A well-known Russian poet, Ivan Bou- nin, translated “The Song of Hiawatha,” and if one reads a stanza in English and then in Russian, he will see that the rhyme and rhythm have not been changed by the translation, but are the same. This is true also of Edgar Allan Poe’s writ- ings. His poems were translated by an- other famous Russian poet, Constantine Balmont, and not only his poems but all his short stories also have been translated into Russian, and his works are very much appreciated and loved. Walt Whitman’s complete works have been translated ; William Dean Howells is as well known in Russia as in America. In 1907 Jack London’s complete works were translated; they appear in twelve too | 249 volumes in Russian and have had a tre- mendous success, the edition having been repeated six times in one year. ‘The essays of Emerson are widely read; the books of William James, especially his “Principles of Psychology,” are known to every intelligent Russian. The lives’of many Presidents of the United States have been translated into Russian and their histories are tamiliar to the mass of the Russian people. The “Life of Washington,” the “Life of Gar- field,” “From the Log Cabin to the White House,” etc., are known by everybody in. Russia who reads, and I need not add that “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” is known to all Russians, not only by those who read. In Russia books are published in edi- tions not of one thousand or five thou- sand copies, but in editions of ten and twenty thousand, and if an edition is re- peated, a book often has a sale of about 80,000 copies a year. The Russian youth begins to read very early. I remember that when I was four- teen years af age we had circles for the purpose of self-education, and we studied economic questions—sociology ; and when I was fifteen and sixteen we studied in our circles philosophy—Kant, Schopen- hauer, Fichte, Hegel, and the French Hu- manists. It sounds rather “abnormal” for “per- sons” of that age to be occupied with such questions, and some may have doubts as to the seriousness of our readings, but I have never felt myself so grown up and so able to understand things clearly as thremeanes It may be that the Rus- sian youth in those days—fifteen or twenty years ago—felt intuitively that he had a great responsibility toward his country and that upon the youth of twenty years ago would fall the great task of reorganizing his country and bringing her institutions to the level of other democratic nations. FIFTY MILLION COOPERATIVES The cooperative movement in Russia was a great help to the education of the rural districts. It celebrated its jubilee in 1915, the first codperative society having been sanctioned in 1865, during the great reforms, when the serfs were freed, and a by W ae L. Beas ne A BACK VIEW OF A RICH YAKUT GIRL, Ss COSTUME, SHOWING WIDE BAND OF FINE SILVER-WORK: SIBERIA when the Zemstvos—local self-govern- ment—were introduced. In the first forty years the progress made was slow. It is during the last ten years that the success of the cooperative societies has been specially marked, so that today the movement, with a mem- bership of 11,299,404, has reached a po- sition which is claimed to be far ahead 250 of that of all the countries of western Europe. The number of people in Russia di- rectly touched by the movement must be between 40 to 50 millions, or about one- third of the population. The grouping of the various codper- ative societies into unions was for a long time opposed by the government—the first union having been sanctioned in t9o1. But it was not until 1911 that these unions received powers to carry out their natural financial operations. In that year the Moscow Peoples’ Bank was formed, with 1,327 credit societies as the shareholders. This bank has since be- come the most important organization for financing agricultural machinery purchases, for the sale of agricultural produce, and of the cottage ‘and Kus- tarny manufactures. Other important unions are the Ekat- erinburg unions (74 societies), in the Urals, and the Siberian Union of Butter ‘artels’_ (318 artels in 19"2)).—Ahestunn. over of this union in 1914. was 14,000,000 roubles. In other branches cooperative societies have been formed for the pur- chase and distribution of agricultural machinery and implements. Attempts have also been made to or- ganize the collection, transportation, and sale of fruit, vegetables, and eggs on a cooperative basis. In South Russia there are several cooperative flour mills, and a number of societies have been formed for the construction of country grain- elevators; the largest elevators are being provided by the government. COOPERATION’S GREAT INFLUENCE The intluence of the codperative move- ment and of its phenomenal development is being felt in every part of Russia. That it will ultimately modify profoundly the conditions of life, the business habits of the peasantry in a progressive modern sense, is beyond question. Especially will this be so when a liberal measure of national education is introduced to em- phasize and add to the moral effect which cooperation is known to exert upon those who practice its principles. The Russian peasant, both by tempera- ment and by habit, responds naturally to cooperative effort, and it is here that his genius finds self-expression. The pres- A FEW GLIMPSES INTO RUSSIA ent time is a unique opportunity for its spread, when the renunciation of the vodka habit is leaving the peasant with financial resources on a scale hitherto undreamed of by him. The cooperative societies have opened many schools, not only elementary schools in the villages, but they have in many Russian towns established profes- sional schools—agronomical schools for teaching the peasants intensive farming. They also helped to establish schools of technology, libraries, etc. A UNIVERSITY WITH .7,000 STUDENTS During the last fifteen or twenty years there has been a growth of so-called popular, or free, universities, with even- ing courses for those who work during the day. A popular university of this nature was endowed by a rich man in Moscow, Scheniavsky, about ten years ago. It started in a small building and ‘had a limited program of study. A few years later the affluence of those who desired to attend the university was so great that the Moscow people decided to extend the activities of the institu- tion, and later a magnificent building was specially constructed for the purpose. Now the institution is attended by more than 7,000 students at the day and even- ing courses, with more and more branches being added to its course of study. Russia has given to the world great men in every branch of human thought. In literature our folklore is one of the richest in the world. Our modern litera- ture dates from the eighteenth century. Lomonosov by his work on the Russian language paved the way for style and composition. He was a fisherman’s son, from a northern district of Kholmogory, of the province of Arkhangelsk. His father often took him to far-off towns, and from his early boyhood he had access to books and had a great de- sire for knowledge which he could not satisfy in his native town, and when sev- enteen years of age he stole away with a caravan of peasants going to Moscow, and there he started his new life. He was a man of great learning, and the Uni- versity of Moscow, in 1755, was founded 251 under his influence. He is called the father of Russian literature. The names of Pushkin, of Lermontoy, Gogol, Turgueniev, Dostoyevsky, Gorky, and Tolstoi are known to the whole world. From the second half of the nineteenth century Russian music has had world prominence. Glinka, Dargomijski, T'schai- kovsky, Moussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky- Korsakov, Rachmaninov, Glazunov, Stra- vinsky, and Skryabin are known to every lover of music in the whole world. Our painters are not so well known to the world, but a few of them have world- wide fame, such as Repin, Serov, Vasnet- zov, Vereshtchagin, and Aivazovsky. FAMOUS RUSSIAN SCIENTISTS In science, mathematics, the two names which stand highest are those of Lobach- evskuy and Minkovsky. These two in- vestigators illustrate the type of bold originality which marks the Russian in- tellect. The former was the discoverer of the new non-Euclidean geometry, which has revolutionized science. Be- sides these important names, among many others in the science of mathematics is that of Imsheretsky, who did work on differential equations in regions previ- ously untouched in western Europe. In physical science Lebedev is a physi- cist of the first rank to whom we owe the detection, by means of most difficult and ingenious experiments, of the minute pressure exerted by light upon a reflect- ing surface. The works of Egoroy on spectroscopy, the works of Umov on light—to mention but two of the names of Russian work- ers—show with what vigor the science of physics is being pursued. In astronomy Russia has taken an 1m- portant place ever since Peter the Great built the observatory at Petrograd. The most famous Russian men in astronom- ical science and research were Glasenapp and Kovalsky on double stars and Belo- polsky in spectroscopic analysis. Geographical explorations and research have been pursued actively in Russia since the seventeenth century. The Rus- sian Imperial Geographical Society was founded in 1845, and has established © Underwood & Underwood e to a railroad car to get a peek at the crowding clos both soldiers and civilians, Russians, members of the American Mission arriving in Moscow A FEW GLIMPSES INTO RUSSIA branches in all of the outlying parts of the Empire. Among chemists one of the greatest names in modern times is Mendeléjeff. By the publication of his well-known pe- riodic law of the elements he changed the whole current of thought in the chem- ical world. In biological science the Russians have acquired a leading position in many branches ; among zoologists Kovalevsky’s work, with that of Metchnikoff, Salen- sky, Korotney, and others, find their place in every zoological text-book. In physiology Russia has one of the greatest of living authorities—Pavlov— who was one of the earliest to receive the Nobel Prize. When, a few years ago, I visited Can- ada I discovered in the city of Toronto two students of the university who were studying hard at the Russian language, preparing themselves to enter the Petro- grad University to study under Pavlov. In branches of philosophy and sociol- ogy the Russians have made very impor- tant contributions. In psychology the re- searches of Bekhterev, among others, have received wide recognition. The Russian names which stand highest in this field are Solovyev, Lavrov, and Mik- hailovsky. UNDERSTANDING OTHER NATIONS Plechanov has a European reputation as a writer on sociology. Chuprov, Struve, and Tugan-Baranovsky are among the names familiar to every economic stu- dent; and there are others and many of them. We know so little about one another. Even in our private, personal life we do 253 not give much attention to our friends, and we are always rather inclined to underestimate a person than to overesti- mate him. We more easily find fault in others than merit, and this attitude of mind is still more true in our attitude toward other nations. We do not come into close contact with other nations. We do not know the soul of other nations. Many people have lived in France and seemed to know France, vet when the trying days came to her, did the world know her people? They ex- claimed, “But it is a new France!” | No, it is no more a new France than anew Russia. It seems new because the people did not know the natural spiritual resources that France possessed, and still less do people know about Russia; and Russia, coming into the family of free- governed nations, Russia finally being able to express openly to the world the thought of her people, will add to the security of humanity against any evil and intrigue; and a free Russia, by her de- velopment, will never become a menace to other nations, because the character of the Russian people is most pacific. Russia is for liberty, Russia is for brotherhood, Russia is for the good of the world, and the Russian people are ready to endure in this terrible war still greater sacrifices that they, in common with our Allies and with our new great ally, the United States of America, may establish in the world righteousness, truth, and liberty. A wonderful life confronts us. We have to be thankful to God to live in such a time where life offers for every man and woman wonderful opportunities to live and to die for a great cause. "S$}eIS PIU, oy} UL SIOALI dy} [JB FO dAOUWa1 07 INoysip ysout oy} ATqeqo1id st 19}eM JOADY LinosstpY ey} UL pnw suy sy, “uoMe1ddo dy} SutstAsodns o1e J0}e] Oy, “9TAIS UeoE Wn *S “AQ oy} woz S]PIOIYO pure 10} OY} Wor Aynp piens UO StoIP[OS I1v UltoOfIun UF USttt OT, ‘Auvduod) TOE N\ YJIOMUIAL’T IY} JO SATOA -JOSOI ISCIOJS ol} Je oANssoid oll] Je 19}VM Y}IM WWO}}JOG pue SopIs oY SuIqqnsos pue Suiseq surp}jas Ate~puosas ay} WOT} PNW SUTAOWIOI JO FIOM 9Y} sMoys oinjord sit, “sul[NeYA.AO PoposoU ‘YJOMUDALI’T JO AO oY} PUB JOF OY} OF YOG JoVVM poystuinZ YOryM Yuvyd toyeM APO oy} Jey} puNno;Z AY} ‘YIOMUDABS'T JAO.Y FO AjttUTXOId 9}eIpPoUUUT OY] UL payenyIs ArjZUNOD oY JO UOTe}TURS dt} TOAD YOO} IIAIIG YIYVIFL ON *S “PF, oy. UoYy AK ANVdWOD WIVM HINOMNAAVAT AHL JO SNIOANHSHM AODVAOLS AHL LV SNISVGd ONITLLHS AVVGNOOUS HAT WOW GAW ONIAOWIHE. y Ww CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER Disease Weakens Armies, Cripples Industry, Reduces Pro- duction. How the Government is Sanitating the Civil Zones Around Cantonment Areas. A Nation- wide Campaign for Health By Rupert BLue SURGEON GENERAL, U. S. N SPEDE cf the remarkable ad- | vances which man has made in the creation of devices for the taking of human life, in spite of the wanton man- wastage of the past three years, it has been apparent from the beginning that the vital factor in the winning of this war 1s man power. Therefore, hand in hand with the plans for human slaughter, op- erations have been put in force for hu- man conservation. -Long before the entry of our country into the war, those who were giving thought to the matter realized that, should the United States be forced into the conflict, it would be necessary to encom- pass not only the fighting man with every health safeguard which modern science has devised, but, what was perhaps even more important, that it was absolutely es- sential to maintain at the highest state of efficiency the health of the farmer, the industrial operative, the transportation employee, and all the rest of the general public upon whom the soldier must rely for food, clothing, and weapons. If the soldier and the sailor are to be kept well, the civilian with whom they come in contact must not be permitted to have a communicable disease, and the civil environment which the fighting man enters in search of recreation must be kept in a clean and wholesome condition. The problem naturally divided itself into two sets of responsibilities: First, those devolving upon the strictly military authorities. This comprehended all those measures which would be exercised by medico-military and line officers, for the reduction of the health hazards of the PUBLIC HEALTIE: SERVICE combatant forces. Their food, drinking’ water, clothing, and environment, whether afloat or ashore, required careful atten- tion; the disposal of waste, the destruc- tion of noxious insects, the maintenance of bodily cleanliness, the sanitation of the zone over which the military exercised jurisdiction—these were the duties de- volving upon the medical departments of the army and the navy. The second set of responsibilities rested upon the shoulders of the health wardens of the general public. The U.S. Public Health Service and the health organiza- tions of the States, the municipalities, and the counties, working in cooperation and by the utilization of all the forces at their command, had to perform a similar func- tion for the civilian population, but over much larger areas and without the ad- vantage of the stern authority of military discipline. Rural communities, which for genera- tions had employed only the most rudi- mentary methods of excrement disposal, had to be led into the paths of sanitary righteousness ; areas whose names were a local byword for malaria had to be ren- dered free of mosquitoes; the water sup- ply, sewage disposal apparatus, and scav- enging systems of large cities had to be put in an efficient state. THER PRELIMINARY SURVEY As soon as the entry of America into the war became imminent, a plan of oper- ation was laid before the Secretary of the Treasury, the Hon. W. G. McAdoo, the nation’s health representative in the Cabi- net, and received his approval. When 255 “Joquiajdag Ul syooM OM} JsIY OY} pue ysNSNY UL YooM sey oy} Sump AvM sity} UL poywuTovA oaoA\ suOS -1od 000'F FAQ “YOM dy} UT patodjUNJOA suvrIshyd [eoo’y ‘sjuvoydde [Je 0} oUTDIvA JO UONLVAYsIUTLEpPe ddI OY} YOo}IopuN do1Alog Yyyeop] oque ‘S°f OWL, “JoAoy proydsy ysurese uOQvuova oY} oAtooas 07 SupEM o1e s[S pur sSoq jooyos-ySiy yo oul Suoy sip, *ouope yyromuodvor] yo Apo OY} UL poJtodot o49M sosed gz Jsnsny ur yoom ouG “JoWUMS puv Surids oy} Surimp AyuNod pue Apo YIOMUDALO-T UL patimI90 sosLo O0z IAQ : OINUdI Ide GIOHdAL WUWAMS AVHA V ONILHOL GHA’IOANI TLMOMNUAVUT [MOT LOO0dV GNNOW AYLNOOD HIN JO NOLLVLINVS AHL FO NOISIANWMIdAS AH, eee! Be CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER the War Department had made available the list of places at which troops would be congregated for training, steps were immediately taken to determine the san- itary conditions existing in the zones around the cantonments. The sanitary work which is now being carried on would have been necessary, no matter what locations were chosen for the cantonments. Unfortunately, public education in the protection of health has not become sufficiently wide-spread for the Secretaries of War and of the Navy to have chosen situations in which active sanitary work would not have been needed. In the descriptions of insanitary condi- tions which follow, the reader should bear in mind that their existence is not a reflection upon those having charge of the location of the camps, but rather on our people as a whole, who still need much public health enlightenment. CONDITIONS CRYING FOR REMEDY This need is not confined to any one section of our country. For example, in one of the Northern cantonment areas, located in one of the richest and most thickly populated States in the Union, the report of the preliminary survey showed that the city was absolutely unprepared to house the increase in laboring popula- tion during the construction period of the cantonment. The city had no building code. When the hordes of workmen be- gan coming into town many of the people began taking roomers, and the poorer portion of the city became overcrowded ; men were quartered in lofts; in some instances there were two or three men ina bed and several beds in a room; bath- ing facilities were entirely lacking or in- adequate ; ventilation was notably absent. The jail was so overcrowded that fre- quently four men were placed in a single cell. There was only one public convenience station in the city. This was so revolt- ingly insanitary as to disgust any decent person. Asa result, extensive soil pollu- tion of the streets and alleys took place, and it was no uncommon practice for strangers to seek admittance to private homes for the purpose of utilizing their ho Ot ~!I toilet facilities. The toilets in saloons were grossly dirty; the toilets at the rail- road stations were reported to be inade- quate, foul-smelling, infested with flies, and horribly dirty. Only 40 per cent of the houses in the city had sewer connections. Open privies in the vicinity of wells abounded. Garb- age was placed in open boxes and old lard cans. Manure bins were generally floor- less, almost always open to flies, and con- tained a liberal admixture of household refuse, tin cans, and kitchen garbage. The milk ordinances were not en- forced ; milk for the most part was pro- duced in insanitary dairies, and the city did not require pasteurization prior to sale. Fruit and food stands were not adequately protected from flies. In the soda-water stands and ice-cream parlors which grew up like mushrooms just outside the cantonment there was an entire absence of screening and _ practi- cally no toilet facilities. ‘There were no means for washing glasses. Both in the city and the rural districts surrounding it, the health administration lacked personnel and funds, and was in- adequate to meet the ordinary needs of the community, let alone the extraordi- nary conditions produced by the presence of the cantonment. | To quote another instance: In a South- ern city, located in an extra-cantonment zone, the health department consisted of a part time unsalaried city health officer and one sanitary inspector who received $85 per month. The total annual appro- priation for civic health activities was $4,500, of which $3,400 was expended for teams and drivers for the removal of garbage and night soil. TWO CARLOADS OF GARBAGE CANS NEEDED Only 47 per cent of the population was supplied with city water. The city sew- age emptied into a small creek within the corporate limits and one mile from the heart of the city. Sixty-six per cent of the population used surface privies, in the inspection of 1,200 of which, not one was found in a sanitary condition. The garbage collection was insanitary and infreauent, and garbage cans were so little used that within the first month of "YIOM [BINA oy} UL dOUaIINDIO Aep-AIOAD UL d9IB UOLJEUIIOBVA JO} Pojqusosse ozIs sty} JO sdnois “yIOM dy} JO Jolqo ay} s[dood ody} 0} Sururyjdxa oy ‘AyuNuIUTOD sry} UL YIOM JToYy} ur suvoIskyd UI UMOYS ‘ApUMUTOD dy} FO Jsorid o1jOYWwO ey, “Ysysousy yeods Jou op puv sojod ov yde i a4} 0} 90uR JSISSE JWOIS FO Ud9q SLY ‘PUNOASOIOF Ifo] OY} Sojoyd sty} Ur uMOYS suOsiod oY} FO TV AT]VoTJOVIG NOdTIVWS LSNIVOV NOILLVNIDOVA GNV &NIOOVA GIOHdAL-IINV J3O ASOd GIN AIHW MAINOWN OL, GUTANASSVY “IMId dIWVO WOU SHTIW PAI LOOayv 6 SVSNVMUV “ALNOOO IMSVTN d QHOUVN WVAN SNOSMAd FO dNOUD V 258 A CLOSE-UP VIEW OF THE VACCINATING OPERATIONS ; ALSO SHOWING ONE OF THE EIGHT CARS USED BY THE SERVICE ‘The priest on the front seat is recording the names of those vaccinated. Scientific Assist- ant R. E. Porter is standing, administering anti-typhoid vaccine. the table, is vaccinating a boy against smallpox. Dr. R. P. Harris, sitting at Note the area covered with todine on the arms of the boys in line waiting for their typhoid vaccination. the campaign, at this point, two carloads were sold to property-owners. The milk supply was obtained from ten small, grossly insanitary dairies, located in the city itself or in its immediate out- skirts. All the ice-cream was manufac- tured under dangerously insanitary con- ditions. ‘There was no inspection, super- vision, or regulation of the city’s single abattoir. Stables were conducted in the heart of the city without restriction. Mosquito-breeding flourished. Malaria, typhoid, and dysentery were of common occurrence. These are only two examples chosen at random. They are capable of endless repetition. Lest the reader take alarm at the thought of troops being quartered in proximity to conditions such as are de- scribed above, it may be stated that al- ready in these two situations there has been a marked improvement, and many of the insanitary conditions have been entirely corrected. The first step was to make rapid pre- liminary surveys in each area to deter- mine existing conditions, the additional measures and organization which would be required to exercise adequate sanitary control, and the extent to which State and local resources were available to ac- complish this. For this purpose survey parties, consisting of commissioned medi- cal officers, sanitary engineers, epidemi- ologists, and scientific assistants, were hastily thrown into the field. THOUSANDS OF SQUARE MILES UNDER SANITARY SURVEY The magnitude of this single operation may be sensed when it is realized that for the army alone there are sixteen Na- tional Army cantonments and sixteen National Guard camps, in addition to many military zones in which smaller 259 -uloid puv osnoy ot} ‘pozoidop sny} srxvjAydoid proyd4y ay} 0} uorrppe uy OY} SUIVUIDIVA OIV OSINU SSOT) POY PUL TIO IAIIG YET yqng ou, JNANWNOLNVOD V ONIGNNOYAS LOIMSIG Vv NI NOILLWINO ‘a[qissod jr “SOTPILUL 2) 6 ‘uonIpuos A Ivjiurs & ur jnd useq Avy sast esvosIp OY} JO Pkoids oY} WUT 0} JapsO UT ssoquiat s9Y}0 SOY} FO 9UO UY SUNSIND ALOU ST JAF proydAy Jo osvo V * Ae ONI CIOMdAL-ILNV S11, ISNTATS ay = > CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER bodies of troops are to be collected, and that in each instance these surveys, of necessity, covered several hundred square miles. When it is taken into consideration that in these locations cities having a mili- tary population of from 40,000 to 80,000 men have been rapidly created in a few weeks; that the inhabitants of these new- raised cities have been brought from every corner of the Union, and that many of them, in spite of the utmost precau- tions, carry in their bodies the causal agents of disease, and that existing towns near cantonments suddenly receive a large influx of artisans, laborers, and their families, and those who inevitably follow in the train of armies, it is seen that the potentialities of the sanitary situation were very grave. In the aggregate the amount of work which had to be done to meet the requirements of these conditions was stupendous. Immediately upon the arrival of the sanitary survey party upon the scene, ac- curate information was obtained as to the purity of the public water supply, the effi- ciency of the sewage system and the scavenger service, the safety of the milk and other foods sold to the general pub- lic, the thoroughness of the prevention of communicable disease, the presence of disease-bearing insects, and the general sanitary condition of the environment in contiguity to the cantonment and those areas which troops might reasonably be expected to visit. Mosquito - breeding swamps were carefully surveyed; the en- gineering measures coincident to their drainage, oiling, etc., were carefully con- sidered. In the rural districts each home was visited, the purity of the well water determined, and the efficiency of house- hold conservancy investigated. A study was made of the State and local health machinery at hand and the extent to which local funds were avail- ‘able for the purpose was noted. An esti- mate was made of the amount of work which would be necessary to place and maintain the area in question in a good sanitary condition. ‘he officer in charge of the survey party made definite recom- mendations as to the extent to which local, State, and Federal funds should be 261 expended for the purpose, and the num- ber and character of the personnel neces- sary to accomplish the desired result. These surveys were made in codpera- tion with State and local health authori- ties, and upon their completion, if it was believed necessary, an offer was made for the conduct of further work. WELL EQUIPPED AND EFFICIENT STATE ORGANIZATIONS Some of the State health departments were so well supplied with funds and have such efficient health organizations as to be able to administer the problem with- out assistance, and were anxious to re- lieve the general government of its duty in this respect. In such instances, a copy of the report of the survey was filed with them, and they continued the administra- tion of health affairs in the extra-canton- ment zone, which is visited from time to time by an officer of the Public Health Service in order to observe the progress of the work in hand, and to codperate in an advisory capacity should it be neces- sary. In other zones the States were able and willing to carry on the work, but de- sired the assistance of experts in meeting special problems. In such an instance an officer was left permanently in the zone in an advisory capacity. In the great majority of situations. however, the health authorities felt that it was a proper function of the general government to carry on the work, that by such a plan nation-wide uniformity of action would be secured, and the finan- cial burden borne by the country as a whole, which is responsible in large part for the necessity for added sanitary labor. In this connection it mav be pointed out that practically none of the State legisla- tures were in session, and that they had already made appropriations which they believed adequate to meet the ordinary sanitary needs of their respective States. In such a situation the State Board of Health, no matter how efficient and highly organized, was without means of meeting the extraordinary conditions which have been created. In these places, upon the request of the State and local authorities, an officer of HOLAMILS > HWIVHH OVIaNd “S “1 HH fO Sauvo AMNOLVAOIV T AHA, ¥ TO HNO FO Mil A MOLT NI 262 AT LEAVENWORTH THERE WERE MANY SOURCES OF THE TYPHOID FEVER EPIDEMIC; ONE OF THE MOST POTENT OF THESE WAS THE MILK AND ICE-CREAM SUPPLIES This picture shows the dairy inspector and an official of the U. S. Public Health Service in the act of taking a sample of cream from one of the largest ice-cream factories in the city. the Public Health Service was detailed in charge of the extra-cantonment zone. Most of the States requesting this co- operation created in the extra-cantonment zone a civil sanitary district, and dele- gated to the representative of the Public Health Service sanitary police power in that area. THE AREAS AROUND THE CAMPS UNDER PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE CONTROL At the time of writing this article the following National Army extra-canton- ment zones have been surveyed and turned over to the administrative control of the Public Health Service: Camp Lee, Petersburg, Va.; Camp Jackson, Colum- bia, Ss. C.; Camp Gordon, Atlanta, Ga.; Camp Pike, Littl Rock, Ark.; Camp Zachary Taylor, Louisville, Ky.; Camp Dodge, Des Moines, Iowa; Camp Fun- ston, Fort Riley, Kans.; Camp Lewis, American Lake, Wash.; Camp Sherman, Chillicothe, Ohio, and Camp Travis, Fort Sam Houston, Tex. The following Na- tional Guard camps have been surveyed and turned over to the administrative control of the Public Health Service: Camp Greene! Charlotte, N. 1. Camp Wadsworth, Spartanburg, S$. C.; Camp McClellan, Anniston, Ala.; Camp Sevier, Greenville, S. C.; Camp Wheeler, Macon, Ga.; Camp Sheridan, Montgomery, Ala. ; Camp Shelby, Hattiesburg, Miss. ; Camp MicAnthutaWacorslex i CampnZocan: Flouston, ex.) Camp) Bowie.) ‘Hort Worth, Tex.; Camp Beauregard, Alex- andria, La., and Camp Hancock, Augusta, Ga. In addition, similar arrangements have been made at Leavenworth, Kans., at which exists Fort Leavenworth, a large army post; Chattanooga, Tenn., near which Fort Oglethorpe is situated, and in Elizabeth City and Warwick counties, Virginia, lying between the York and the James rivers. ‘The last named situation is one of great military importance, be- cause of its relation to the army, the navy, and the large ship-building indus- 263 264 tries. It was considered very essential that extraordinary measures be taken for the health protection of this zone. The mode of procedure and the oper- ations which have been carried out in the vicinity of Little Rock, Ark., may be considered as fairly exemplifying all of the work, but each of the cantonment zones presents an individual problem. WORK AROUND CAMP PIKE, LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS The site selected for the National Army cantonment at Little Rock, Ark., comprises a tract of some three thousand acres, about four miles north of Little Rock, on the opposite side of the Arkan- sas River. The camp is situated on a plateau about 500 feet above sea-level, and approximately 200 feet above the river plane. About one-half a mile away is the city of Argenta. In addition to the area set aside for the cantonment proper, ten thousand acres to the northward of the cantonment have been designated as a training ground. The surrounding coun- try is rolling, partly open, partly wooded ; the soil consisting of surface soil, clay, and gravel, with some small boulders upon a sandstone bedrock. In places the land is low and marshy. Three civil di- visions are included in the sanitary dis- trict: the city of Little Rock, the city of Argenta, anda portion of Pulaski County. A SEVENTY SQUARE-MILE BATTLEFIELD IN A MOSQUITO WAR The major sanitary problems in the dis- trict were the eradication of malaria and the effective control of the other com- municable diseases. The former required for its accomplishment the extermination of Anopheles mosquitoes in the whole area, particular attention being paid to mosquito-breeding within the range of mosquito flight from the camp. In addi- tion, it was necessary to supplement these measures with the control of the infected and the infectible civilian population in the district ; in other words, to break the chain of malaria infection by the control of the disease-carrying insect on the one hand, and the killing of the malaria para- site in the infected human being on the other. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The territory which had to be rendered mosquito - free covered about seventy square miles, in all of which were numer- ous and prolific breeding places for the Anopheles. ‘Though the country was nat- urally well drained by water-courses of ample fall, considerable difficulty was an- ticipated in the proper channeling of these streams by reason of the rocky character of their beds. The great obstacle, how- ever, was the matter of tifne, since only about two months were to elapse between the beginning of the work and the oc- cupation of the cantonment. The control of the other infectious diseases required close sanitary supervision of the entire area and its population by an efficient health organization. Since three civil divisions were in- volved, the question naturally arose as to whether there should be three health bodies or one central, consolidated or- ganization administering the entire sani- tary district. Early in June the sanitary survey was completed. The report covered the water supply, the sewage system, the public health administration, the collection of mortality and health statistics, and the prevention of the communicable diseases, not only for the cities of Little Rock and Argenta, but for the surrounding rural area in Pulaski County as well. It was necessary to drain mosquito- breeding pools, channel water-courses, and eliminate, by filling or otherwise, many places not capable of such treat- ment, or, if this was not possible, to de- stroy the larve by careful oiling at least once in every seven days during the mosquito-breeding season. FEivery case of malarial fever had to be recognized promptly and reported, screened, and treated; and the general public, by edu- cational measures, had to be induced to screen their houses and porches, and, where necessary, to take quinine in small doses at regular intervals. CLEANING OUT DISEASE In Little Rock and Argenta the con- demnation of unsafe wells and springs and the substitution of the public water supply was necessary. There were over 5,000 open, insanitary privies in the two TALKING IT OVER This picture shows an officer of the Public Health Service in the act of cxplaining to one of the residents of an extra cantonment zone the necessity of putting his premises into a sanitary condition. The art lies in making the people themselves actually want to do the work recommended. Much better results can be obtained in this way than are possible by perfunctorily ordering them to do it. cities to be discarded and replaced by modern sanitary conveniences. Data had to be collected regarding all cases of com- municable disease; adequate diagnostic laboratories to be installed, and complete epidemiological studies made in each case of reported illness. Isolation, disinfec- tion, and the institution of prompt pro- phylactic measures against epidemics ; the frequent inspection and rigid supervision of food supplies, especially milk, cream, and ice-cream, and of all places where 265 food was sold; the pasteurization of the milk supply; the scoring of dairies; the careful inspection of each rural home and the education of the general public for the purpose of engaging its assistance in this mighty task—these were but a few of the activities the necessity for which was pointed out in the report. On the 27th of June a sanitary officer of wide experience took charge of the work in an advisory capacity. The fol- lowing day the local authorities made a suse TE rece ‘y 4 ra 4 5 x x f y ce 4 4 ( TAKING A SAMPLE OF WATER FROM AN INSANITARY WELL IN THE CITY LIMITS There are 2,491 wells in the city of Little Rock, the water from which must be examined before they can be officially condemned and closed by the Board of Health. Epidemiologist J. C. Geiger, U. S. Public Health Service, is shown in this picture, with a water-sample bottle, ready to collect water for bacteriological examination. ‘The two small cylinders in the right foreground on top of the well curb are the metallic cases for the water-sample bottle. CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER formal request that the Surgeon General of the U. S. Public Health Service estab- lish administrative jurisdiction over all the sanitary work in the extra-canton- ment zone surrounding Camp Pike. The Governor, the State health officer, the mayor of Little Rock, the mayor of Ar- genta, the county judge, and the Little Rock Board of Commerce sent individual requests for this service. PATRIOTIC STATE OFFICIALS It speaks well for the intelligence of this community that in a time of national stress it should so willingly and logically lay aside all questions of State sover- eignty and local control, and place the burden of responsibility where it be- longs—upon the shoulders of the general government. That they were not actuated by an in- ability or unwillingness to expend local funds will be shown in a moment. The city of Little Rock immediately pledged $3,000 for beginning work within its jurisdiction, and a few days later, feel- ing that its contribution was insufficient, raised the sum to $22,000. The Little Rock Chamber of Commerce, actuated by a fine sense of its responsibility to the community, voted $50,000 for the prosecution of sanitary work, and in an- nouncing this allotment of funds stated: “This organization wants to go on record as being heartily in accord, and will lend its financial support, in making this cam- paign a success, and we hereby tender our cooperation along these lines.” The city of Argenta, a town of about 16,000 inhabitants, not to be outdone, ap- propriated $3,000 for the first six months’ work. The way in which the officials of the community recognized their duty is reflected in a letter from the Hon. Lee Miles, the county judge: “I am sorry that I have been in no position to give you some definite information. I have abso- lutely no appropriation out of which this money can be paid and have no money at all; but I am going to raise the money some way to put up the coun- ty’s part.” The county appropriated $1,500. On July 29 the Public Health Service assumed administrative charge of the zone and immediately began active oper- 267 ations. Cooperative arrangements were made with the sanitary officer of the cantonment proper, a large force of la- borers was employed, a circular letter was mailed to every physician in the county requesting his cooperation, and in a few days the work was in full swing. GETTING THE WORK UNDER FULL SWING It was realized that in order that it might achieve the highest success, the project required the hearty and _ intelli- gent approval of the general public. The newspapers of Little Rock were enlisted in the cause; public addresses were de- livered to the Rotary Club, the Little Rock City Council, the Argenta City Council, the Lions’ Club, the Negro Chau- tauqua, and at the moving-picture houses throughout both cities. An exhibit was placed in a large department store on the busiest corner, showing in large mod- els the adult and the larval forms of the mosquito. Twenty thousand circulars of sanitary advice were printed, and one hung in every house in Pulaski County. The rental agents were asked to cooperate, and 10,000 small circulars were printed to be handed out with rent receipts and sent as inclosures with the regular mail. Free vaccination against smallpox, ty- phoid, and paratyphoid fever was offered to the general public. All mill producers living in the vicin- ity of Little Rock were called to a meet- ing of the Board of Commerce. They were impressed with the urgent necessity for the proper sanitation of their dairies and the vaccination of their employees against smallpox and typhoid fever. This they agreed to do. It being discovered that the area around Carlisle, Ark., was shipping milk into the zone, a similar meeting was held there, with similar re- sults. A SMALLPOX EPIDEMIC STRANGLED The erection of the cantonment caused large numbers of camps for laborers to spring up in the zone. These were in- spected at regular intervals and instruc- tions given regarding the sanitary pre- cautions to be observed. Many of the laborers and camp followers were vacci- -ROTECTING A SPRING In this picture are shown the methods used by the Public Health Service in preventing the water in a spring from becoming polluted by surface drainage. A concrete box has been built around the spring and the wooden forms for holding the concrete are just being re- moved. The concrete box will be provided with a water-tight cover. The laborers on the hill above are digging a ditch to pass surface drainage around the spring. was made appearance of two cases of that disease in the neigh- borhood of the cantonment. Large num- bers of small stands for the sale of food and soft drinks were hastily put up. These were inspected, and all which were being operated in a manner dangerous to health were required to comply with sanitary regulations or cease business. The ditching and draining of the area > was rapidly pushed until in many in- nated against smallpox. This immediately necessary by the stances only a small series of pools ex- tending to the headwaters remained. These were oiled until their contents evaporated. In other places this was not practicable and top minnows for the de- struction of larve were planted. Every premises in the rural district was carefully surveyed, and in each case thor- ough instructions were given regarding the installation of sanitary devices for human excreta. On these visits anti- typhoid vaccine was carried along in a CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER small ice-box and all persons interviewed were urged to accept free vaccination against typhoid fever. Samples were taken of the water supplies. ‘These were subsequently examined bacteriologically, and if found to be unsafe for human con- sumption, the well was placarded and the owner instructed as to the manner of putting it in sanitary condition. TIOUSE-TO-HOUSE VISITATIONS A week after the first visit the officer returned to observe what improvement had been made and to give expert advice regarding the necessary changes. At this time the second dose of anti-typhoid vac- cine was given. ‘This visit was repeated for the same purpose at the end of three weeks. The following report of the rural survey work done in Pulaski County for the week ending September 15, 1917, will give some idea of the amount of work which is being accomplished : Total since Week work began Number homes visited...... 205 1,405 Number public addresses... 12 14 Number cards distributed... 100 100 Individuals vaccinated against stnallpox.s...:..: 442 1,810 Individuals vaccinated against typhoid...ss2-+.- 3,087 7,905 Blood specimens for malaria 54 108 Number of certificates of WEIGCIIRNGKONN nGobe seceded 337 667 Agreements signed.:....... 152 152 In the city a similar campaign was go- ing on. Every home within the corporate limits was visited and careful records made of the condition of the premises. The yard, the cistern, the outhouses, the well, the breeding places for mosqui- toes—all these received careful attention. Additional sanitary ordinances were en- acted by the city council, and every means was taken to abate insanitary nuisances. The following is a table of notices served during the month of August: Notices Served in Little Rock During August AL GF aTiils yeep ee See Ae NNR oR AR RINNE To install fly-proof privies.............. 1,289 To install automatic flush closets con- nected with sewer and city water and HAMOVE UNA oaoncadscadseucneccdoodcCS SRORCLOSENCISLEL TIN Hay nen eRe eN ate 06 To install fly-proof container for manure. Miscellaneous notices served............ Total 269 THE ACME OF PUBLIC SPIRIT Not one person on whom these notices were served refused to comply. Four hundred and ninety-two returned their cards with the statement that the work was already started; 287 returned their cards with a request for further instruc- tions. The control of the milk supply was a work of considerable magnitude. The extra-cantonment area in question was supplied by 312 separate dairy farms, dis- tributed over a zone having a radius of about 25 miles. Upon the request of the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agricul- ture detailed an expert from the Market Milk Investigation Section of the Dairy Division of the Bureau of Animal Indus- try to cooperate in the inspection of the dairies. The value of this assistance can scarcely be overestimated, and has al- ready resulted in a marked improvement in the milk supply. Mention has been made of the vaccina- tion of dairy employees. On September 1, 683 of these had completed anti-typhoid ~ vaccination ; 176 had had two doses and 89 had had only the first dose; 587 had been vaccinated against smallpox. Argenta is also rapidly approaching the sanitary ideal. During the month of Au- gust complete inspections and reinspec- tions were made throughout the city and 1,230 notices were served to connect with sewers and city water. It should be re- marked that in the case of trust com- panies and large owners of property one notice in many instances covered four or five premises. Other notices served were as follows: To install fly-proof privies.......... fee) 3338 To install fly-proof manure bins......... 384 Novabolishiwater containers: meciec socials A430 To repair wells and pumps.............. 215 Hovatlile wre lise eens es ees Cee ee eer ye gs 122 To remove garbage and rubbish......... 232 Of the 2,967 notices served during the month of August, the majority have al- ready been obeyed. Four hundred and fifty school children have been vaccinated against smallpox. Eighteen soda-water fountains, 8 barber shops, 2 miscellaneous food industries, 19 groceries and meat markets, 3 bakeries, confectioneries, and CONSTRUCTION OF SANITARY PRIVY, SHOWING DOUBLE CHAMBERS AND EXIT O DRAIN: EXTRA CANTONMENT ZONE, CAMP ZACHARY TAYLOR (SEE PAGE 277) 270 CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER ice-cream factories, and 18 hotels and restaurants were inspected. FINANCING THE WORK It soon became evident that the funds at hand were entirely inadequate to meet the situation. Seventy-six thousand five hundred dollars was secured from local sources; the Public Health Service added $30,000. But even the $106,500 thus se- cured could not meet the demand for rapid, wide-spread, continuous effort. At this time the American National Red Cross, which under the terms of its fed- eral charter is authorized to conduct sani- tary operations in time of pestilence, feel- ing that it was its duty to assist as an emergency measure in the operations which had as their ultimate object the protection of the health of troops, came forward with an offer of assistance. A bureau of sanitary service was cre- ated, with headquarters at Washington, and an officer of the Public Health Serv- ice placed in charge. Upon the recom- mendation of the Surgeon General an allotment of $6,800 was made for the extra-cantonment zone at Little Rock. The method of procedure is for the Red Cross to form a sanitary unit, of which the Public Health Service officer in charge of the zone is the director. A local financier is chosen as the business manager, and a chief sanitary inspector, assistant inspectors, public health nurses, bacteriologists, and clerks are appointed by the director of the Red Cross bureau of sanitary service. Foremen and labor- ers are employed locally by the director of the unit. Parenthetically, it may be stated that sanitary units have been formed at all of the places in which the Public Health Service is conducting extra-cantonment sanitary operations. DAILY: HEALTH BULLETINS In order to attack an enemy, it is nec- essary to know where that enemy is. One of the functions of the Public Health Service is to collect data relating to the prevalence of communicable dis- ease, in order that sanitarians throughout the United States may know what dis- eases to guard against. These reports 271 are received daily from all parts of the United States, and, in addition, Ameri- can consuls throughout the world keep the Public Health Service informed as to the sanitary conditions prevailing at the points at which they are stationed. This latter information is used in the operation of the maritime quarantines. Once a week this material is published in the Public Health Reports, and thus made available for immediate use. As soon as war was declared an ar- rangement was made with the Surgeon General of the Army and the Surgeon General of the Navy whereby they were forwarded daily a complete résumé of the reports received by the Public Health Service. It soon became evident, how- ever, that in the administration of the extra-cantonment zones it was necessary to establish a series of model sickness registration areas, so that prompt and ef- fective steps might be taken to stamp ou disease among the civilian population be- fore it had had opportunity to spread to troops or to gain a foothold in the extra- cantonment community. Each officer in charge was, therefore, instructed to make all necessary arrange- ments with the physicians within his zone, to report immediately all cases of certain communicable diseases occurring im) “them practice. 9) Card. forms and franked envelopes were supplied them for forwarding this information. A simi- lar arrangement was made with the un- dertakers to check up those cases which died without medical attendance or in which a report had not been made. A reciprocal daily interchange of informa- tion regarding the occurrence of com- municable diseases in the cantonment and in the extra-cantonment zone was ar- ranged with the sanitary officer in charge of the camp. The information received of disease occurrence among troops is regarded as confidential and is used only as a means of checking up diseases in the surrounding area. All of the data collected in this way is summarized in a morning report and forwarded to the Public Health Service Bureau in Washington. Here it is care- fully spotted on maps and collected into one daily report, copies of which are for- PUY pepoJuL oy} Jo Of} UTYIIA O}MHso soot YOIAVL AYVH ]O.1.UO0S oY} YIM soinsvot asoy} jUowejddns o4 jdouy sulivoq-elieyeut oy} FO UoNRorpe. OVZ dNVO “ANOZ INHWNOLNVO VULXa Aress 9 oY} Ud9q SPY sztj}stp dures oy} ul Gl dd9U Usd SLY] jt ‘UOT}Ippe uy] HL NI MUYOM OLINOSOW-ILNV :HOLIG GHdVaO ATLNY ‘uoreyndod ueiyrAro ‘sdures 9} Wo1fF JYSIY 07, suloyqord Aaeyues sofeur aGooful ayy nbsotw JO ossurs oy} FO ou OW CONSERVING THE NATION’S MAN POWER warded to the medical departments of the army and the navy. THE HEALTH CAVALRY MOVES ihe value of this; service’ cannot be overstated. It was reported, for ex- ample, that an epidemic of typhoid fever had broken out at a city from which 100 drafted men were about to depart to a cantonment in a neighboring State. There were about 15 new cases each day, and two cases occurred among the drafted men. Immediately the laboratory car “Wy- man,” with its full complement of officers and men, was dispatched to that point. All water, supplies, ice-cream, and milk were carefully investigated. The source of the epidemic from a leaky storage reservoir was discovered, a chlorination plant was installed while repairs were being made, and the outbreak promptly snuffed out. In the meantime, the Sur- geon General of the Army ordered the drafted men held until their vaccination against typhoid should have been com- pleted. During this period it was possible to discover other infected individuals. Thus, not only were measures taken for the prevention of the introduction of ty- phoid fever into a cantonment, but, what is perhaps even more important, infected individuals were prevented from travel- ing interstate and spreading the disease among civilian communities. In July, a typhoid fever epidemic broke out in the immediate vicinity of an army post at which some 12,000 soldiers were stationed. A survey developed the fact that the sewage disposal system in the civil community was very primitive and the water supply extremely insanitary. There was no local health code; the milk supply was uncontrolled and the scav- enging system extremely bad. Operations were immediately begun. The bad conditions obtaining at the pump- ing station, settling basins, and reservoirs were corrected; plans were put in force for the extension of the sewer and water mains; the food depots were put in a sanitary condition; the dairies were in- spected; epidemiological investigations were made of the cases of typhoid fevor ; over 4,000 people were vaccinated against 273 the disease in the first week of opera- tions; the medical inspection of school children was instituted, and the entire community placed upon a sanitary basis which it never knew before and which it will probably never forget. AN ICE-CREAM PARLOR BECOMES A TYPHOID DISPENSARY At another place, which is visited weekly by several thousand officers and enlisted men of the army, there was an explosive outbreak of typhoid fever. The death rate was high. The bulk of the cases were traced to a single ice-cream factory. Several occurred among per- sons who had been vaccinated against typhoid fever. This simply meant that while these in- dividuals were protected against the dose of typhoid bacilli which they would ordi- narily receive from infected water, in this instance the dose in the ice-cream was so massive as to break down entirely the immunity which had been artificially created by the vaccination. The epidemic was immediately checked, but a campaign for better health is still being intensively waged in this zone. The movement of large numbers of people, which was inevitably coincident to the erection and occupation of the can- tonments, necessitated extraordinary pre- cautions lest there be a spread of infec- tious disease through the medium of rail- road trains. On the 1st of August a letter was ad- dressed to every railroad president in the United States, urging upon him the neces- sity for supplying adequate and sanitary toilet accommodations for the traveling public in the railroad stations in and around cantonments. ‘The file of the re- plies received is a remarkable exposition of the genuine interest which the trans- portation companies take in matters of sanitary improvement. ONLY ONE SLACKER RAILROAD These ofiers of cooperation soon took tangible form in actual build‘ng opera- tions, and, so far as is known, only one railroad refused to install the needed 1m- provements. In this instance the Public Health officer in charge of the extra-can- tonment zone laid before the officials of ‘popsodap oq ALU Sdido0 OjMbsoUl (Oty AY UL SULULLO | SOIppo JuoAId 0} SB os syuvg YSNO. OY) SUILULULI} pue WPRIt}s ot} WOt{ SUOTPILYSYO [[VUIS otf} SULIROTO YIOM JR SURG GULLYOUp {re} SMOUS MOTA SIU, “OUIPIIIG oOyMDSOUL JudAdId on S13 ABM & ons ul ASULUIS qsed out OuLINp IIOY op] ut PoOULPpUe UL toad oAL SUIVAIp Yoatp usdo JO sop Og UvY} WOW “OAL due.) Ul ured} OF atTOD oARY OYM Us SunoX Au0 JO spuvsnoy} oY} Splvnoofes shy} puv osvastp oy} FO S19 -1¥9 9Y} SAOA]SOp oto SuUTpodId WOTY SoO}JINDsoll 9Y} SUIUSACIG “BIIvpeur UlOIF PotoYNs oAvY WIVITS SIY} SUOTR SULAT ojdoad s.ivoX SURI 10) NIM OLLOOSOW WO 'TOMTNOD YA, NOW MOOU TTT dO ALIO MH NI NVIUMIS NedO NV DNTHOWLTO 74 2 LETTING IN THE SUNSHINE BY CUTTING CAT-TAILS AND DRAINING SWAMPS: In order to rid a community of the malaria scourge, it is necessary to do away with mosquitoes. This can best be done by destroying their breeding places. ‘The picture shows the digging of a ditch in order to drain an area of stagnant water in which hundreds of thorsands of mosquitoes were breeding in an extra cantonment area. FISHING FOR MOSQUITO LARVA IN A CAT-TAIL SWAMP: EXTRA CANTONMENT ZONE, CAMP ZACHARY TAYLOR 275 Ba ON STREAMS WHERE THERE IS A PERMANENT FLOW OF WATER, DRIP-CANS ARE INSTALLED ’}O FURNISH A CONSTANT FILM OF OIL FOR SUCH STREAMS The box lid, now turned down, is closed and locked after the The can is filled with oil. faucet on the drip-can is adjusted so that from twenty to thirty drops of oil per minute fall upon the water surface all drip- through a small opening in the bottom of the box. can boxes are opened with one master-key. The padlocks on The photograph was made on Swaggerty Creek, within the limits of the city of Little Rock. the company the necessity for adequate toilet facilities. No action was taken. Again he brought the matter to their at- tention, this time in writing. Still there was no result. The case was taken into court, and the railway company fined $50 and directed to start work immedi- ately. In reporting this incident to the Bureau, the officer in charge expressed his regret at being obliged to take this course of action, because, he said, “I had hoped to conduct this entire cam- paign without a single arrest.” Space does not afford to tell the story in its entirety—to describe the methods 276 by which over 60,000 civilians in the extra-cantonment zones alone have been voluntarily vaccinated against typhoid fever since the rst of July; of the way in which the medical inspection of schools has been instituted at various points; of the methods pursued in securing the active codperation of recalcitrant coun- cilmen in the passage of milk ordinances which had hitherto been opposed by reason of financial interests in the dairies. Whole rural communities in which a few months ago not a single family was supplied w ith sanitary outhouses, now dispose of their excreta in concrete VIEW SHOWING OILING OPERATIONS FOR THE CONTROL OF MOSQUITO BREEDING Such pools as cannot be drained are sprayed with a mixture of one-half kerosene and one-half crude petroleum once each week. Tor this work knapsack hand sprayers are used, which enable the oilers to throw a stream of oil a distance of 20 to 30 feet. vaults, and parenthetically it may be re- marked that the cost of construction of these vaults has been reduced from over $50 to an average cost of $12.07, includ- ing labor and material (see page 270). WATCHING FOR SPUTUM-BORNE DISEASES The work, of course, is being con- tinued. In fact, it may be said to be just beginning. Of necessity all the year round there must be a fight against the excreta- borne diseases. From the 15th of Feb- tuary to the 15th of September there must be a ceaseless war upon the mos- quito. From the 15th of September to the 15th of April, the time in which peo- ple are herded most closely together, ie) every known measure must be taken to control the acute sputum-borne diseases. By acute sputum-borne diseases is meant mumps, measles, whooping-cough, cerebro-spinal meningitis, and that horde of general infections embraced by the term “common colds.” The great rem- edy which society possesses in the combat against these diseases is general education in personal hygiene, so that infected indi- viduals will take due precaution to pre- vent the transference of their disease- bearing sputum to others. Of course, everything which is being done in this campaign helps to control tuberculosis, and it may be predicted that one of the by-products of the war will 278 be a decrease in the great white plague. When all is said and done, the cure and prevention of this disease lies in the full dinner-pail and all that goes with it, and coincident with the rise in wages and the increase in employment there will be an increase in food, and an improvement in housing, clothing, and all of the other things which tend to counteract the mis- eries of human life. The energetic campaign which is being waged in cooperation with the strictly military authorities against those insid1- ous social diseases whose occurrence is such a threat against organized society and the successful conclusion of the war deserves a word. COMBATING INSIDIOUS SOCIAL DISEASES Suffice it to say, that through the ad- ministration of the vice law by the War Department and the frank education of the general public by the Public Health Service, much is being accomplished. This problem is being handled solely on the basis of the prevention of the spread of communicable disease. When it is realized that the diseases comprising this group are largely spread by chronic carriers, and that contact, either direct or remote, is the method by which this spread occurs, it is realized that there need be no more hesitancy in frankly combating them than obtains in the case of the other diseases which are spread by contact; for example, small- pox, which, terrible as it is, does not even remotely approach the disastrous effects which the social evil works on the pres- ent generation as well as those yet un- born. Dispensaries are being established for the cure of civilians who have these diseases and are therefore potential dis- tributors of them. Healthful recreations are being pro- vided by the War Department to coun- teract the allurements of vice. The gen- eral public in the extra-cantonment zones is being organized in an attempt to con- trol the spread of these entirely prevent- able diseases. Some of this work is being done entirely by the War Depart- ment; some entirely by the Public Health Service, and all of it is being done in complete and close codperation between the two departments. That there is great THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE need for this work there can be no doubt ; that it will do great good is equally true. BETTER NATIONAL HEALTH A BY-PRODUCT OF THE WAR One thing is certain, the work which is now going on is building permanently for a better public health. It is laying the foundations for an improvement in com- munity conditions which we have every reason to believe will gradually spread throughout the United States. In each of the places in which the Public Health Service is now conducting its operations a strong and enduring health machine is being built up. Just as soon as the local community will take this over, it will be transferred. The model morbidity regis- tration areas will, it is hoped, gradually expand peripherally, until by the meet- ing of their borders they will coalesce and we will have in America a system for the collection of disease data, the like of which the world has never seen. This campaign means much more than the present protection of the public health. It is a gigantic demonstration of what can be accomplished in the pre- vention of disease. Just as the work which was done in the control of malaria at Panama set a standard for all the world, so the present operations will lead to sanitary campaigns in zones which at present are only rather remotely con- cerned with the war movement. In the areas in which the government is now conducting this wholesale on- slaught on communicable disease there will be a lowering in the sickness rate, a decrease in the number of deaths, an im- provement in the efficiency of the whole community, with a consequent added prosperity. Results such as these can be obtained at any place in the world in which the people and their health guard- ians are willing to work actively and in- telligently. One thing this war has taught us: men are not so cheap as we once thought them. Human life and human efficiency are the two most precious things on earth. If out of this awful labor of war a strong public health sentiment for the entire na- tion can be born, then will our sacrifices not have been in vain. PRACTICAL PATRIOTISM EMBERS of the National Geo- graphic Society will be highly gratified to learn of the many important ways in which their organiza- tion has been able to cooperate with the national government in this critical hour of our country’s history. When the draft law was passed, a tre- mendous burden was thrown upon the offices of the Provost Marshal General in the mailing of special instructions to thousands of officers throughout the country, where 10,000,000 men were to register. making stenciled addresses for the Gro- GRAPHIC were offered. The offer was ac- cepted at once, and the entire force of young men employed in the addressing department volunteered to work day and night in making the thousands of stencils which the government required, and the work was thus completed in record time and without expense to the War Depart- ment. Several hundred young ladies of the staff have made innumerable sweaters, neckpieces, and socks for our sailors and soldiers, and bandages, towels, sheets,etc., for the Red Cross, and have, further- more, equipped themselves for emergency by taking special courses in first-aid nurs- ing. The entire staff of the Society’s offices was placed at the disposal of the Secre- tary of the Treasury during the First Liberty Loan campaign, in order that each of its 610,000 members might re- ceive by mail the government’s appeal, to which there was a phenomenal response. AIDING THE RED CROSS On the day the announcement was made of the campaign to raise one hun- dred million dollars for the American Red Cross, the Director and Editor of the Society took from the presses the forms for the issue of the Nationat GeEo- GRAPHIC MacaAziIne, then ready, and re- made the issue completely, in order that the Society’s members might be told of the imperative needs of the Red Cross, of that which must be achieved during the coming months, and of the funds re- In this emergency the services of all the graphotype machines used: in> quired to prepare for such a tremendous task. This movement was given splendid impetus by printing in the Society’s mag- azine, while the $100,000,000 campaign for funds was at its height, special arti- cles and addresses by Henry P. Davison, Chairman of the War Council of the Red Cross; lan Malcoim, member of the Brit- ish Red Cross, and of the House of Com- mons; John H. Gade, of the American Commission for Relief in Belgium; Her- bert C. Hoover, the Food Administrator, and former head of Belgian Relief Work; Frederick Walcott, of the Food Administration; Newton D. Baker, Sec- retary of War; General John J. Pershing, commanding the American expeditionary forces in France; former President Wil- liam “Howard Latt, and” Eliot “Wads; worth, Executive Secretary of the Amer- ican Red Cross, and others. In the same issue of the Magazine full-page advertisements were published gratis for the American Red Cross fund, tor, the Ye MCA War bund. andetor the First Liberty Loan. THE PATRIOTIC FLAG SERIES One of the most important contribu- tions to be made by the Society to-the cause of America at War will be the publication of a special “Flags of the World” number, containing the most ex- pensive series of four-color plates ever printed by any publication in the history of the magazine industry. It will be a popular digest of patriotism as exempli- fied in the national emblems, past and present, of our own and of all other countries, each subject absolutely accurate as to design and color, a total of more than one thousand color illustrations, be- sides numerous pages in black and white. The standards, pennants, and insignia have been assembled by the foremost flag expert of the American Government, and probably the foremost authority on na- tional ensigns in the world. The descrip- tive and historical text accompanying the flags will represent six months’ of ex- haustive research by the magazine staff. The color work alone in this issue will cost $60,000, and the number will be the world’s most thorough and authentic text-book on the flags of seven centuries. 280 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC WARD An activity of the Society which is ap- pealing with special force to its patriotic membership is the announcement of the plan to establish in the American Ambu- lance Hospital at Neuilly, France, a spe- cial National Geographic Society Ward, consisting of twenty beds. ‘This Amer- ican hospital is housed in a splendid four- story building surrounding a_ beautiful court. It is now accommodating 1,500 patients daily in its main building and its auxiliary institutions. This hospital was established by Amer- ican subscriptions, and the Geographic’s ward will be a notable addition to this magnificent humanitarian institution for the relief and care of young Americans who will bear the brunt of battle against the Huns. In inviting contributions to this fund from its members the Society gives assurance that there will be no over- head expense in the handling of the con- tributions, but that every dollar sub- scribed will be devoted to equipment and maintenance of the ward. THE LIBERTY LOANS In the campaign for the Second Liberty Loan of $3,000,000,000, just launched, the Society was one of the first organizations to proffer, without cost, the pages of its magazine, the GEOGRAPHIC, to the gov- ernment—an offer which was accepted, as upon the occasion of the successful flota- tion of the First Liberty Loan of $2,0c0,- 000,000. The National Geographic Society has subscribed from its reserve funds $100,- ooo to the Liberty Loans. In the great work of bringing home to the people of America the imperative need for the conservation of the nation’s food resources, no agency has been more whole-hearted or more effective than our Society, whose more than 600,000 mem- bers have been and are being kept in closest touch with the National Adminis- tration in its great educational campaign. Through the pages of the GrocRAPHIC the Food Administrator has been given the opportunity to speak directly to those gathered at the firesides of more than half a million of the most representative and influential American homes. In a similar manner, guardians of the nation’s health, and especially of the health of the national army now as- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sembled for training in the cantonments scattered throughout the land, are speak- ing through the pages of the GEOGRAPHIC to the great civilian population in the vicinity of these cantonments, explaining how the health of the new army can be safeguarded by civilian codperation. And, as the needs of the nation grow greater in these stressful days, the ad- ministrative headquarters of the Society in Washington is daily finding new ave- nues of activity and usefulness. CONTRIBUTING SUBSCRIPTIONS TO OUR ARMY AND NAVY The GrocrAPHIc is now being sent gratis to the reading-rooms, libraries, the Y. M. C. A. and Knights of Columbus buildings in every aviation camp, army and navy camp, cantonment, and officers’ training camp in the United States, while the boys i in khaki “Over There” are tike- wise receiving OUR magazine regularly, their spirits heartened by the illuminat- ing illustrations and comprehensive arti- cles telling of what is being done on this side of the Atlantic to help them in their great undertaking to make the world safe for democracy. When the “Flags of the World” issue of the GrocrapHic comes from the press (the next number), ten thousand copies will be donated by the Society to the two arms of the service—5,000 copies going to the navy and 5,000 to the army. The heads of both branches of the service have already expressed their sincere ap- preciation of the valuable and useful gift of the most complete and authoritative work on flags and insignia ever compiled in any country—a work which will stir the patriotic pride of every American, whether in civil or military life. Thus is its power for practical patriot- ism being exercised by the National Geo- graphic Society, the largest scientific or- ganization in the world—an organization established not for profit, but for the dif- fusion of geographic knowledge and for the furtherance of the enlightenment, entertainment, and happiness of the citi- zens of the United States of America. These ends can only be achieved in an atmosphere of security, freedom, and peace, and to aid in guaranteeing these requisites of human happiness the GEo- GRAPHIC is enlisted with all its resources and the combined patriotic fervor of its whole membership. VoL. XXXII, No. 4 WASHINGTON OCTOBER, 1917 TWInUE, _NATIONAL GEOGRAPIIIC MAGAZINIE OUR FLAG NUMBER LAGS symbolize the noble aspira- tions and glorious achievements of the human race; they epitomize the romance of history; they incarnate the chivalry of the ages. Their origin is divinity itself ; for when, at the beginning of recorded time, Jeho- vah made a covenant with man, prom- ising that never again would He send the . waters to cover the face of the earth and destroy all flesh, He unfurled the first flag—the multihued banner of the rain- bow—which he set in the clouds as a symbol of security and an assurance to all future generations of His watchful 7Care: ~' And. since that day man has, in his finite way, employed his earthly banners as emblems of faith, of hope, and of high resolve. ~ Around the bits of varicolored bunt- ing which the people of each land nom- inate as a national flag, there cluster thoughts of loyalty, of patriotism, and of personal sacrifice which have enabled the world to move forward, from the days when each individual struggled for him- self alone, like other wild animals of plain and mountain side, until, through com- munity of interests and unity of effort, mankind has been enabled to rear the splendid structure of twentieth century civilization. When the savage began to emerge from his isolation and took the first steps to- ward becoming a social creature, profit- ing by association and codperation with fellow human beings, one of his first needs was a sign or a symbol whereby he could distinguish, during primitive battles, between creatures of his own tribe or family and those of enemy tribes. A peculiar type of club, a splotch of colored clay on the body of the warrior, and later some rude device on his clumsy shield served for a time the purpose of insignia. Eventually these bits of wood, bodily ornamentation, and shield signs were re- placed by the skins of animals attached to poles so that they might be held high in the air and recognized at a distance. From such crude beginnings it is easy to trace the evolution of the flags of civil- ized man. Today, while it is true that we are thinking of the flags of our own and of other nations in relation to sanguinary strife, these emblems of armies and na- vies have a deep and noble significance far removed from their use in leading men to battle. In reality flags are the bul- warks of idealism. AN INSPIRATION TO PERSONAL SACRIFICE The flag epitomizes for an army the high principles for which it strives in battle. Were it not for the ideals which it keeps ever before the soldier he would be bestialized by slaughter. It keeps men’s motives lofty even in mortal com- bat, making them forgetful of personal gain and of personal revenge, but eager for personal sacrifice in the cause of the country they serve. With full realization of what the stories of the flags of the world mean, each to its own people, and with the belief that Americans will be inspired by under- ; “MOq OY} 3@ (FP) Yoel oy} pue Us9}s dy} Je Surdy st (1) usIsua jeuoTeU dy J, “Kavu ay} FO drys ev sassed uSoroaocs v Jo jUaptse1g oy} UayM AUOlaII9 oY} Fo Javed v ‘fret oY} SuruuvI ose ‘uLysIp ATjenbo poords ‘uotuvas oy J, : MALAYA NO quowyiedaq AAtn ‘SQ Aq ydeisoj0yg CS = a a Biya Z he. = “y ae Kr os os * WD se * nlitsy be =e Sain ‘ x ” sy an ee ee Sn ee : ee af ee < genes 3% grey . _— oe ino Saree a cal, Ke 2 Sie ~ — er : - . > : . ‘3 fooorttcte mee os : : “ ae 1 78) iS] Photograph by Paul Thompson THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES ON BOARD A BARGE WHICH FLIES HIS FLAG AT THE BOW WHILE TAKING HIM FROM THE “MAYFLOWER” TO THE FLAGSHIP (SEE ALSO PAGE 324) The President’s flag (No. 2, page 310) is one of the most difficult flags to make, requir- ing the labor of a skilled seamstress for an entire month. Every detail of the eagle, each feather and each scale, must be carefully embroidered. On two days of the year the ships of the American Navy are “full dressed,” as are the battleships shown here. ‘Those occasions are the Fourth of July, the birthday of the nation itself, and the Twenty-second of February, the birthday of him who will ever remain first in the hearts of his countrymen. ‘To “‘full- dress ship” is also permissible as a matter of international courtesy, when in foreign ports, upon the occasion of the visited country’s national holidays or in honor of the presence of their men-of-war. standing and appreciating the motives, the traditions, and the sentiments which have given birth to these various symbols of sovereignty, the NaTionat, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE presents this issue, devoted to the flags of all countries. In the present world struggle, in which the United States of America is now en- gaged, we of this land hold to the ideals represented in the history and the promise of the Stars and Stripes—the ideals of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness safeguarded for all mankind. And though many must fall in the achievement of those ideals, a noble and imperishable good will endure as a monu- ment to their sacrifice. History can be- stow upon such soldiers no higher en- 283 . comium than that of Defenders of the Flag. In the presentation of 1,197 flags in their accurate colors and design, the Na- TIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE issues the most expensive as well as the most in- structive and beautiful number in the whole history of periodical literature. THE BIG TASK OF MAKING THE FLAG NUMBER In assembling the flags of the world, in choosing the correct from the spurious designs, and in mobilizing, so to speak, the flag lore of our own America, as well as in the research which has made it pos- sible to present here many flags pregnant with historic associations, the National 284 Geographic Society has been fortunate in having the enthusiatic cooperation and active professional services of the fore- most flag expert of the United States Government and probably the leading au- thority in the world on flag usages among maritime nations — Lieut. Commander Byron McCandless, cf the United States Navy. Lieut. Commander McCandless was the flag officer of the American fleet at Vera Cruz in 1913, and in the performance of his duties there he found that the signal officers and enlisted men were handi- capped in their work by the non-existence of a flag book. Being far removed from a printing establishment, the ingenious officer met the condition by chiseling flag plates from leaden sheets and printing in color a book of flags with a hand- press installed on the flagship. This unique publication attracted wide atten- tion among naval officers, and the de- mand for copies of the work became so great that the improvised flag plates, made of soft metal, soon wore away. Lieut. Commander McCandless was in- duced by the National Geographic Society to undertake, with the consent of the Sec- retary of the Navy, the assembling of the flags of the world for this issue of the GrocraPHic. In view of the value’ of this flag material to the government, the Society has donated 5,000 copies of the Flag Number to the United States Navy and 5,000 copies to the Army. In addition to the expert services of Lieut. Commander McCandless, the Eid- itor has had the assistance of John Oliver La Gorce, the Associate Editor; of Wil- liam Joseph Showalter, Ralph A. Graves, Franklin L. Fisher, and other members of the editorial staff in the months of research work necessary to. secure the historically accurate data descriptive of the more than 1,200 flags in colors and in black and white. Thus, through such concerted effort, it is possible to present in this issue the most complete and au- thoritative work on flags ever published. The engraving of the coats-of-arms and devices appearing on many of the ban- ners and the preparation of all the color plates in their accurate proportions, as well as the notable achievement in rich THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE color printing, have been accomplished through the mechanical efficiency and ar- tistic cooperation of the Beck Engraving Company of Philadelphia. In the proc- esses of color printing it was necessary to operate the presses in daylight only, in order that the tints and shades might be kept true for each of the 23,000,000 pages (32 pages of color in each of more than 700,000 copies of this issue of the magazine ). The Flag Number, like all the other is- sues since the founding of the magazine twenty-nine years ago, owes its attractive typographical appearance to Messrs. Judd & Detweiler,. Inc., of Washington, D. C. THE WORK OF PRINTING Every one will readily appreciate that the cost of our flag number far exceeds the moderate price at which it is dis- tributed to members of the Society (one- twelfth of the annual membership fee), a sum not sufficient to cover the bare cost of the paper, engraving, and _ printing.’ This deficit is made good from the So- ciety’s educational fund, but for addi- tional copies the price will necessarily be 50 cents each. So vast has grown the membership of the National Geographic Society that one finds it hard to realize how wide-spread is the geographic interest it has engen- dered or how many magazines must be printed before each member can receive his or her copy. ‘Two striking illustra- tions of the Society’s numerical strength have come home to the Editor in the is- suance of the current number. With one of the largest color printing plants in America engaged in producing the 32 pages of flags in colors, it took 75 work- ing days—three months—to print these alone. The attention of the reader is directed to the little vacant spaces after flags 640 and 666, respectively (pages 350-351). These blank intervals do not seem to be more than negligible; and yet, running through the entire edition, they occupy more than 700,000 square inches of space, or 1,728 pages the size of the NATIONAL GrocRAPHIC Macazinre. Put side by side they would form a ribbon of paper twenty miles long. GILBERT GROSVENOR, Editor and Director, : National Geographic Society. INDEX TO FLAGS AND INSIGNIA a Illustration Text Subject Page - Page ARICIN THES Gocaghock onal dCObUROOGUUODOd bobo bono OO OU oOo ao DUOO GO er), atte, GlOU 372 Jay, HAS Ge Whrovlterel ShehASooocobooonucCsaoUGoenUoDDOoOOCOGUGaoS mA 308, 309 ASIN THES TylsawooooodiscocoogodoD ono Odaoposn dado od ol CoDOoDUS OME Bh GiOy Stats) BIOL BOL British Empire flags . Sleeve tokene cle velioyeheter eosin oi ieks eee OM ako OOOO: 378 IMUISILR ADL Acipryee eee cneh en ueneverebenspaer renee sevens rele siniehern sisv te een oheil onion OOS 383 DYMO. Cie (CHO “S64 coon o ceodooobodo UAH OOOO OODOOOeGbDO Che 381 Correct dimensions of United States flag......................---+ 312 404 CortectsdisplaymworwUnited estates lacie yoii hacer nene heen rotor 404 IDWURO Neh THES Gaia dgudmobo oO Ed oo DUD ODDO OOO ODIO OOo oO bOO OOH aa ish Gms GO 372, 388 Macs eraMouseinwAMerican whiStO Vin cis. cyetretore ctcner eds prance elsUe het tielsl OOO) Ooo yore 341 tee OO 388 Geography of middle ages told by flags...................... Insignia of uniformed forces of United States..................... 414-419 413 WR EIES OE TAME IME ae Ci ye aie ae aaa dg “ ; Marine Corps flags of United States....... Ole 313, 316 National Geosraphicm SOCletyy eh asia. cicne ts ous doneneieh a leietel cneliebevelosclele ele tou ene) OOO. 340 Nene VES Ge Tie hiOeblars coooduoooobeoodde boo ooo Uomo Ooo Coos Eis Baus axa 369 Naive Macs Ok pWMmitedsiStates scr semis cie cu cicbetuse e deaseie siele ieteleloitel LOOMS soo 313, 316 QAI SATINE Ei Cam opal ao Sut ee eee ee ee eA ene Sits ia eH oe weeeaere tyne eo tee O 361 Simi GinGl Majo: JENGA? Oegsiacoasodgocecbodcesopoouecbosaqnuoe go el) 286 BAe eI Neh OOO 825 StatemiacsronmUmitedans tacesiia-uuseesteerhemedcreneuictererelt= SALUTING THE FLAG IN SCHOOL, The salute to the flag fosters a spirit of unity and loyalty among the future citizens of the land, regardless of the many racial stocks from which these children may have sprung. Happily, educators are rapidly appreciating the importance of such outward symbols and ceremonies, and it is hoped that the time is at hand when such patriotic customs will be universally adopted in our public and private schools. 285 THE STORY OF THE AMERICAN FLAG The text and illustrations of this Flag Number, in its entirety, are protected by copyright, and all rights are reserved S IF in augury of that perpetual x peace for which all mankind hopes as the outcome of the world war, immediately following the entrance of the United States of America into the great struggle to secure democracy for all peoples and freedom from the menace of militarism for all nations, the Stars and Stripes were received gratefully and reverently into that historic shrine of the English-speaking race—St. Paul’s Ca- thedral, London—there to be preserved among the hallowed banners of the hosts of liberty (see page 302). This epochal event marked the alli- ance, in a sacred cause, of the two great self-governing Anglo-Saxon nations just 140 years after the birth of that Star Spangled Banner in the travail of the conflict which severed the American Re- public from the British Empire. From the embattled pinnacle of high resolve and lofty idealism where the American flag has always floated, the course of its rise may be surveyed—an inspiration to the patriot, an enduring emblem of hope for the oppressed. The story of the Stars and Stripes is the story of the nation itself; the evolution of the flag is symbolic of the evolution of our free institutions; its development epito- mizes the amazing expansion of our boundaries and the dev elopment of our natural resources; its glorious history is the history of the people whose sover- eignty it signifies. In the embryonic days of the republic, when the Thirteen Original States were still feeble British colonies bordering the western shores of the Atlantic, there were almost as many varieties of banners borne by the Revolutionary forces as there are today races fused into one liberty-loving American people. The local flags and colonial devices (Nos. 361-366, 377-422) displayed in bat- tle on land and sea ace the first months of the American Revolution proclaimed the attitude of the people of the several colonies in their grievances against the Mother Country. When Bunker Hill and Lexington were fought, some of the staunchest patriots were still hopeful that an adjustment of the difficulties with the home government could be effected, and although on June 1S gS General Washington had been appointed commander -in- chief of the Continental forces raised, or to be raised, “for the defense of American liberty,” the Continental Congress nearly a month later (July 8) addressed’ an appeal to King George in which the petitioners styled themselves “Your Majesty’s faith- ful subjects.” DISINCLINED TO SEVER ALL TIES Disinclined to sever all ties with Eng- land, yet bitterly resentful of the treat- ment accorded them and unyielding in their determination to resist further op- pression, when it became necessary to adopt an ensign for their newly created navy, in the autumn of 1775, the revolt- ing colonies chose a flag that reflected their feeling of unity with the Mother Country, but at the same time expressed their firm joint purpose to demand and obtain justice and liberty. The events which resulted in the estab- lishment of the Continental navy, and thereby the birth of the first flag repre- sentative of the thirteen united colonies, constitute one of the most picturesque chapters in American history. At the be- ginning of October the Continental Con- gress, sitting in Philadelphia, learned that two unarmed North Country-built brigs were sailing from England loaded with arms, powder, and other stores destined for Quebec. As the colonies were in sore need of powder and possessed neither factories for its manufacture nor ships for bringing it from abroad, Congress 286 THE BANNER UNDER WHICH THEY FOUGHT AND FELL IS NOW THEIR “MARTIAL SHROUD They went forth to battle and gave their lives to liberty. Theirs the hardships, theirs the sacrifice, theirs the honor, ‘nor shall their glory be forgot while Fame her record keeps.” instructed General Washington to apply to the Council of Massachusetts Bay for the two armed vessels in its service, to man them and to dispatch them with all speed in the hope of intercepting the mu- . nitions-laden brigs.. The aid of the armed vessels of Rhode Island and Connecticut was also promised the commander-in- chief in this important enterprise. General Washington, of his own initia- tive, had already purchased two vessels, which he had fitted out, officered with army captains, and manned with soldiers. These ships were the Lynch and the Franklin. By November 1 four addi- tional cruisers had been added to the fleet—the Lee, the Harrison, the Warren, and the Lady Washington. Of this little fleet only the Lee, under command of John Manley, met with sig- nal success in the bold undertaking. On November 29 it captured the brig Nancy, with a precious cargo of 4,000 muskets, 31 tons of musket shot, 3,000 round shot, several barrels of powder, and a 13-inch 287 brass mortar, subsequently called “Con- gress,’ which was to play an important part in forcing the evacuation of Boston. One of the colonial ships, the Lady Washington, was captured on December 7 by H. M.S. Fowevy, and her colors, still in the Admiralty Office in London, are described as bearing a pale-green pine tree on a field of white bunting, with the motto, “An Appeal to Heaven” (301). This flag was flown by all the ships under Washington’s command at this time, the design having been suggested by the commander-in-chief’s military secretary, Colonel Joseph Reed, who wrote, on Oc- tober 20, 1775, that-he wished to “fix upon some particular color for a flag and a signal by which our vessels may know one another.” THE EARLY AMERICAN NAVY Prior to the receipt of the news of the capture of the Nancy the Continental Congress had appointed Esek Hopkins commander-in-chief of the navy built by THE EARLIEST PERFECT REPRESENTATION OF THE GRAND UNION ENSIGN (SEE NO. 364) The flag is a part of the decorations appearing on North Carolina currency of the issue of April 2, 1776 Congress as distinguished from the sol- dier-manned fleet under General Wash- ington. Immediately following his ap- pointment Commodore Hopkins (the first and only commander-in-chief the navy ever had) set sail from Rhode Island in that colony’s armed vessel Katy and ar- rived in the Delaware River on December 3, 1775. The same day the commodore assumed the formal command of the little squadron which the Congress had placed under him. PAUL JONES RAISES ‘THE FLAG The manner in which that command was assumed is of signal importance, in that the ceremony marked the hoisting of the first truly American flag. And the distinction of having released the banner to the breeze belongs to that daring spirit, John Paul Jones, one of the chief among heroes in the hearts of American naval officers and seamen. Jones, at that time senior lieutenant (corresponding to exec- utive officer in the navy today) of Hop- kins’ flagship, the Alfred, in a letter to “the United States Minister of Marine, Hon. Robert Morris,” preserved in the Library of Congress, thus describes the historic event: “Tt was my fortune, as the senior of the first Lieutenants, to hoist myself the — Flag of America (I chose to do it with my own hands) the first time it was dis- played. Though this was but a slight Circumstance, yet I feel for its Honor, more than I think I should have done, if it had not happened.” A line is drawn through the words in parentheses and the word “myself” has been inserted. This was the flag (364) which after- ward figured so extensively in the litera- ture of the day as the Congress Colors, from the fact that it first floated over the navy controlled by Congress. Also known as the Grand Union Flag and the First Navy Ensign, it was the Colonial stand- ard from that day until it was superseded by the Stars and’ Stripes, im 1777-00 consisted of thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, typifying the thirteen colo- nies, with a union bearing the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew combined (the national flag of Great Britain, 361) and signifying the Mother Country. There has been much confusion about 288 ANBUR, SROIRNG (Ol IM S0R, IMUSIC AUN] LENG, the flags which were displayed on the Alfred on that historic December day. The statement is often made, and cor- rectly, that Commodore Hopkins hoisted the Gadsden flag (398)—a fact which impresses some historians as a contradic- tion of John Paul Jones’ assertion. Ref- erence to naval usage, both of that day and of this, however, clarifies the sup- poséd discrepancy. Flagships display three flags—the ensign, flown at the stern; the flag of the commanding officer, displayed at the mainmast; and the jack, which flies from the jackstaff at the bow. The Gadsden flag (of yellow silk and bearing a coiled rattlesnake with the motto “Don’t Tread on Me’’), used on the Alfred as the flag of the commodore commanding the flect, was presented Feb- ruary 8, 1776, to the Congress by Col. Christopher Gadsden, a delegate from South Carolina to the Continental body and: one of the committee of three ap- pointed on October 15, 1775, to report on the fitting out of two armed vessels. When ‘that report was made, two weeks later, Colonel Gadsden was one of a com- ‘mittee of seven appointed to fit out four armed vessels. The jack displayed on the Alfred on this occasion was a small, nearly square flag of thirteen alternate red and white stripes, bearing a crawling rattlesnake with the legend “Don’t Tread on Me” beneath it (365). CENSORSHIP IN REVOLUTIONARY TIMES No mention of the ceremony of Com- modore Hopkins’ assumption of com- mand of the little Continental fleet is to be found in the Philadelphia newspapers of that period. Indeed, the silence of the colonial press about the eight vessels fitted out, officered, manned, and sent to sea was as complete as was that of the American press of 1917, when General Pershing’s expeditionary force embarked for the fields of France. The intelligence reports to the British Admiralty were very explicit concerning the event, however. In minutest detail these reports described the ships of the fleet, how they were painted, the number of guns, officers, and men—all accurately supplied by the enemy’s secret-service 289 agents in the colonies. For example, the following report, under date of January 4, 1776, was sent from Philadelphia : “This day, about one o’clock, sailed the ship Alfred and the ship Columbus with two brigs. Alfred carries 36 guns, 9 and 12 pounders; 60 marines and about 200 sailors. Columbus about the same num- ber of men and 32 guns. The two brigs carry 16 guns. ‘They sailed with five or six merchant ships loaded with flour from the Congress. Hopkins commands the Alfred. She has yellow sides, her head the figure of a man, English colours, but more striped. ‘The Coluz bus is all black, except white bottom, with no head. Com- manded by one Whipple.” HOISTING THE GRAND UNION FLAG AT CAMBRIDGE One month after its baptism in the breezes, from the stern of the Alfred, the Grand Union Flag (364) was raised at Cambridge, Mass., on the very day that the Continental Army began its official existence—January 2, 1776—and General Washington is authority for the explana- tion that it was displayed “out of compli- ment to the United Colonies.” It was two days after this event that Washing- ton wrote to his military secretary, Joseph Reed, through whom he kept in touch with affairs at Philadelphia: “We are at length favored with the sight of His Majesty’s most gracious speech, breathing sentiments of tender- ness and compassion for his deluded American subjects ; the speech I send you (a volume of them was sent out by the Boston gentry), and, farcical enough, we gave great joy to them without knowing or intending it, for on that day (January 2) which gave being to our new army, but before the proclamation came to hand, we hoisted the union flag in com- pliment to the United Colonies. But be- hold! it was received at Boston as a token of the deep impression the speech had made upon us and as a signal of submis- sion. By this time I presume they begin to think it strange that we have not made formal surrender of our lines.” Although displayed on the Continental Army’s first birthday, neither the Grand Union Flag (364) nor the Stars and "YIOX MON ‘O1ING e10poeyy, JO Asojino0d Aq paonpojdas ‘UOuryse AA ‘WNasnyy jeuolyeNT 9Y} Ul UeIO;Y paeMpyy Aq sSurured ourreur SnOWIe} dy} JO QUO SI UOTEISHT! ayy, *(10€ ased 99s) adoimy ul paspayMouyoe ysiyg souepusdepul ULSTIOWIY Sse SHYT, ,oqndas 19430 Aue jo 10 pueljoH JO [espe ue UdAIs 9q 0} J4NOD YIUDIY ay} Aq pozis1oyne dynes aues eqi,, ‘Jonborg soy eT [eswpy WOIF SUNS dUIU JO ajnj[eS B UINjor UT PoAtooet pue ‘g//1 “Pr Areniqoy uo Avg uoslaqinG ul Joop Youary oy} 0} suns £1 yo oyyes v pery “dabuny dy} Surpuevuruiod ‘souof neg uyof SAdIWLS ANV SUVS AHL OL ALN’IVS LSNIT AHL ueloTy pieMp+yT © "(gof assed 99S) wayjue [euoljeu oy} MOU st YoIYM Wood snowy sty o}01M OY UOdnd1dyAA “APULY SIVIS OY} 99S O} PoT[I4y} SUM oY SuLUAOUL OY} Ul “YIEL ay} JO JYyStu oy} Sulinp ‘osuajop ss0wyeg ‘AsuappOW Woy JO JUotUprequIog ay} poyo}ear oy “drys Awious uv pivod uo pourejaq "PIQI ‘soquia}dag ur s10UNeg uo yorje oy. Surinp Joop Ystag oy} 01 ‘sony JO sey v dJopun ‘purita sAdyp WOoS souesy JO 41038 ay} sMOuYy Aoq-[ooys uvooUIy AOA ‘dorredat yova JO Y1OM oy} Suryoayo ul pasn oioMm ‘aAnjoId oy} FO JYSII oy} Je ‘sey oy} UO sSv} oUYM OY, “Sor s}t Surpusw pur ssuueq oy} Surs0jso1 UMOYS 912 UIWOMOI[PsaoU jJoOdx9 UOT}eIYSHIII oy UT “WOPSUTYSBAA JV UMosnyT [RUONeN “S “fF oY} UL paddosoid Ay[Nyored st TIQI JO AVAA OY} UL AsUdPI JOT JOAO MOY YSIYM Sey [euorjeu oy, WHUHINV ‘IVNOILVN UNO FO «UINNVd GYTIONVdS UVAS,, IVNIDIYO AHL -UINLI] SUIARM []S sodije pue SUIMAT 2Y STIILET © 201 THE FREMONT FLAG When General John Charles Fremont, surnamed “the Pathfinder,” @© Harris & Ewing made his way across the continent in the ’40’s, his mission was one of peace, but the arrows in his army flag sug- gested war to the Indians of the plain. crossed with the arrows in the talons of the eagle. Therefore he inserted the calumet, or pipe of peace, It is interesting to note that the army. did not carry the Stars and Stripes until the period of the Mexican War (see pages 307-308 and flag 22). Stripes (6), adopted by Congress a year and a half later, was carried in the field by the land forces during the Revolu- tionary War. The army carried only the colors of the States to which the troops belonged (see flags 394, 396, 403, 400, 410, etc.) and not the national flag. 4! THE FIRST VICTORY OF THE AMERICAN FLAG It fell to the lot of the newly created Commodore Manley (the officer who had commanded the Lee and captured the ordnance ship Nancy) to carry the Grand Union Flag to its first victory. Com- manding the Hancock, Manley captured two enemy transports, placed prize crews aboard, and then, with only 16 men left on his own ship, he engaged an armed vessel in sight of the enemy fleet at Bos- ton and succeeded in bringing his prizes safely into Plymouth. Following this daring exploit Manley received a letter written at Cambridge, on January 28, 1776, by General Washington, who de- clared that the commodore’s achievement merited “mine and the country’s thanks,” and promised him a “stronger vessel of war.” On Major Samuel Selden’s powder- horn of that period is a carving showing Boston and vicinity. The British fleet is depicted on one side of Boston Neck, while Manley’s symbolical ship Amaraca, flying at the stern the Continental Union flag as its ensign, and at the mainmast the pine-tree flag as the commodore’s flag, is shown on the other side. The mortar carved on the horn is the famous “Congress” gun captured by Manley on the Nancy. The first occasion upon which any American flag floated over foreign terri- tory was on March 2, 15470. Commodore Hopkins, of the Congress fleet, organized an expedition against New Providence, in the Bahama Islands, for the purpose of seizing a quantity of ‘powder known “o be stored there and of which both Gen- eral Washington and the fleet were in 292 spaces as Photograph from Central News Photo Service, official naval photograph VICE-ADMIRAL SIMS WITH BRITISH AND AMERICAN STAFF OFFICERS AT THE HOISTING OF THE AMERICAN VICE-ADMIRAL’S FLAG (65) AT ADMIRALTY HOUSE WHEN HE TOOK TEMPORARY COMMAND OF QUEENSTOWN AND DISTRICT Vice-Admiral Bayley’s flag (606) is being hauled down 293 Wis So Se NAVAL OPERATIONS “SYLPH” FLYING THE FOUR-STAR FLAG OF ADMIRAL, BENSON, CHIEF OF (64), ON THE MAINMAST, AND THE FLAG OF VICE-ADMIRAL BROWNING, OF THE BRITISH NAVY (606), ON THE FOREMAST Our naval jack (4) is flying at the jackstaff, but the motion of the steamer has given the stars a striped effect great need. Two hundred marines were landed, under the command of Captain Nichols, supported by fifty sailors, under Lieutenant Weaver, of the Cabot. The Providence and the Wasp covered the landing party. Fort Nassau was taken and a great quantity of military stores fell into the hands of the expedition. A correspondent of the London “La- dies’ Magazine,” who was in New Provi- dence at the time of the capture of the fort by the American forces, under date of May 13, 1776, described the colors dis- played by the marines and sailors as “striped under the union (the British union of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew) with thirteen stripes” (364), while “the standard (the commodore’s flag) bore a rattlesnake and the motto “Don’t Tread on Me” (398). THE FIRST FOREIGN SALUTE TO AN AMERI- CAN FLAG The first salute ever fired in honor of an American flag (the Grand Union en- sign) was an eleven-gun volley given by the Fort of Orange, on the island of St. Eustatius, Dutch West Indies, on No- vember 16, 1776. The salute was in ac- knowledgment of a similar number of guns fired by the Andrew Doria (see also page 401), one of the original vessels of Commodore Hopkins’ fleet, which had been sent to the West Indies, under com- mand of Captain Isaiah Robinson, for a cargo of military supplies. The commander of the near-by British island of St. Christopher, hearing of the salute, protested to the Dutch governor of St. Eustatius, Johannes de Graef, who promptly replied that “in regard to the reception given by the forts of this island, under my commandment, to the vessel Andrew Doria, I flatter myself that 1f my masters exact it I shall be able to give such an account as will be satisfactory.” Whereupon the British commander re- sponded that “the unpartial world will judge between us whether these honor shots, answered on purpose by a Dutch fort to a rebellious brigantine, with a flag known to the commander of that fort as the flag of His Majesty’s rebellious sub- jects, is or is not a partiality in favor of those rebels.” The British governor then forwarded 204 iw ! CBU apa an eee } Hy y F| bs é Ld Gi. : 6 y ro iia del Se ne ART ee le ouaene by Brown Brothers LAUNCHING THE U. S. S. “MICHIGAN” In times of peace the launching of a battleship is a gala event, attended by elaborate ceremonies and witnessed by enthusiastic throngs proud of the privilege of seeing the “mar- riage to the sea” of another man-of-war destined to uphold the honor of America. In times of war, however, no such crowds as attended the Michigan’s launching are admitted to the shipyards, for an enemy might, with a bomb, undo the labor of years and destroy a formidable unit of our growing sea power. to London a report of the affair, accom- panied by affidavits that the brigantine “during the time of the salute and the answer to it, had the flag of the Con- tinental Congress flying.” The British Government protested sharply to the States General of the Republic of the Netherlands. The Dutch demurred at the asperity with which England de- manded an explanation, but immediately recalled Commander de Graef from St. Eustatius. Thus the first salute to the new ensign was disavowed, although the Holland Republic recognized American independence shortly thereafter. In the literature of the Revolution fre- quent reference is found to a “plain striped flag” (404). Official correspond- ence shows that whenever this flag was used afloat it was as the badge of mer- chant shipping and privateers and not as the ensign of the regular commissioned vessels of the navy. How long the Grand Union Flag was in use has never been definitely established; but official records of the navy fail to show that any other ensign was used until after the Star Spangled Banner’s adoption by Congress. BIRTHDAY OF THE STARS AND STRIPES It was nearly one year after the repre- sentatives of the United States of Amer- ica, in General Congress assembled, had pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor for the support of the Declaration of Independence that the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew, emblematic of the Mother Country, which had formed the union of the Continental Union flag (364), were discarded and re- placed by a union composed of white stars in a blue field, “representing a new constellation” (see flag No. 6, page 310). The date of the birth of the Stars and Stripes. was June 14, 1777, and its crea- tion was proclaimed in a resolution of the *(60b-goh saSed osye dos) Surjnyes pur S1O[OD OY} SUV] UW pojsljua pur ssodyjo ][e ‘poked si WoyJue [euoT}eU dy} Se AWUSIP YA Pue ATMO]S PotTIMOT SI USISUd JY} ,,S10[09,, JosuNS FV “SUIe JUdSoId Sol1jUeS OY} puke AvP 9} FO PANS oY} puke ojN]LS pues USISUD JY} JIVJ SIOOJO [JY “A]JAVUIS poqSIOY SI Sey oy} pue woyJue [eUOIeU oY} sAvid pueqd oY} ,,S40jO9,, SUIUIOU JV “dAISSOICIUL JSOU 940 PotOaMOT pue posiet si Usisua oY} UIYM UOISsIWUOD Ul dIYys V plvoge saIUOUldJto9 ou, «WNOZINV,, ‘S “S “0 AHL ONINOISSIN NOD uosduroy y, [neg Aq ydeisojoyg THE STORY OF THE AMERICAN: FLAG Continental Congress. While the resolu- tion appears in the records without any account of preliminary discussion and without any designation of specific rec- ommendation, the order in which it is in- corporated in the business of the day leads to the assumption that it was re- ported by the Marine Committee, for it is sandwiched in among several naval mat- ters. This portion of the official journal for the day reads: “Resolved, That the Marine Commit- tee be empowered to give such directions respecting the Continental ships of war in the river Delaware as they think proper in case the enemy succeed in their at- tempts on said river. “Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alter- nate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, rep- resenting a new constellation. “The Council of the State of Massa- chusetts Bay having represented by letter to the president of Congress that Captain John Roach, some time since appointed to command the Continental ship of war Ranger, is a doubtful character and ought not to be entrusted with such a command; therefore “Resolved, That Captain John Roach be suspended until the Navy Board for the eastern department shall have en- quired fully into his character and report thereon to the Marine Committee. “Resoluved,. That Captain John Paul Jones be appointed to command the said ship Ranger.” Thus it would seem that not only was the first flag of the Continental Congress (364) displayed for the first time from a naval vessel, the Alfred (see page 288), but that from the navy (in the person of the Marine Committee of the Congress of 1777) the nation also received the Stars and Stripes. MANY THEORIES AS TO THE ORIGIN OF THE STARS AND STRIPES There have been advanced almost as many theories as to the genesis of the Stars and Stripes as there were stars in the original ensign. Many hold to the view that the new flag borrowed the stripes from the ensign (364) raised by 290 John Paul Jones on the Alfred on De- cember 3, 1775, andthe stars from the colonial banner of Rhode Island (396) ; others maintain that the idea for the flag came from Netherlands, offering in sup- port of this claim the statements of Ben- jamin Franklin and John Adams, who went to Holland to borrow money for the struggling colonies and who told the Dutch that America had borrowed much from them, including the ideas repre- sented in the flag. Whatever their origin, there is no per- suasive evidence in the official records of the time which would lead to the con- clusion that the Stars and Stripes were in use before the resolution of June 14, 1777. It is true, however, that the paint- ings of Trumbull and Peale do point to its earlier use. But, as to the flags ap- pearing in their paintings, it should be recalled that an anachronism could be readily excused in the case of Trumbull, because he had left the colonies while Washington was before Boston and was abroad for seven years. Peale’s picture of Washington crossing the Delaware, with respect to the colors carried, is be- lieved to be a case of “artist’s license.” The well known story of Betsy Ross, so-called maker of the Stars and Stripes, is one of the picturesque legends which has grown up around the origin of the flag, but it is one to which few unsenti- mental historians subscribe. There was, however, a Mrs. Ross, who was a flag- maker by trade, living in Philadelphia at the time of the flag’s adoption. BILLS RENDERED BY A FLAG DESIGNER A more authentic individual connection with the designing of the flag is to be found in the official records concerning Francis Hopkinson, one of the delegates to Congress from New Jersey, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and a member of the Marine Committee. In November, 1776, Hopkinson was ap- pointed one of a committee of three to “execute the business of the navy under the direction of the Marine Committee.” He resigned as a member of the Navy Board in August, 1778, but continued to take an interest in naval affairs, as shown Photograph by Paul Thompson THE GUIDON, TROOP F, NEW YORK NATIONAL GUARD Each troop of cavalry in the American forces carries a guidon—a small flag cut ‘‘swallow- tail” (23). with the regimental designation in figures. white stripe. It consists of two stripes of equal width, the upper being red, the cavalry colors, The letter of the troop, in red, appears on the Two guidons are supplied to each troop—a silken banner carried into battle, on campaigns, and upon occasions of ceremony, and a service flag of bunting to be used at all other times. in the following letter to the Board of Admiralty more than a year later: “GENTLEMEN : It is with great pleasure I understand my last device of a seal for the Board of Admiralty has met with your Honours’ approbation. I have with great readiness upon several occasions exerted my small abilities in this way for the public service, as I flatter myself, to the satisfaction of those I wish to please, viz., The flag of the United States of America 4 Devices for the Continental currency A Seal for the Board of Treasury Ornaments, Devices and Checks, for the new bills of exchange on Spain and Holland. A Seal for Ship Papers of the United States A Seal for the Board of Admiralty The Borders, Ornaments & -Checks for the new Continental currency now in the press, a work of considerable length. A Great Seal for the United States of Amer- ica, with a Reverse. “For these services I have as yet made 208 Dihe ShORY. OL MAE NMERICANTHIEAG no charge, nor received any recompense. I now submit it to your Honours’ con- sideration whether a quarter cask of the public wine will not be a proper and a reasonable reward for these labours of fancy and a suitable encouragement to future exertions of the like nature... .” Subsequently Hopkinson rendered an- other account to the government for the various designs mentioned above, together with numerous others, the first item on the list being “the great naval flag of the United States.’ On this occasion he asked for $2,700 compensation. Later he rendered a third account, itemizing the charge for each design, and followed this with an explanatory note which throws an interesting light on the financial status of the nation at that time, for he says: “The charges are made in hard money, to be computed at 50 for one in Conti- nental.”’ This claim was never paid, a board which passed on accounts reporting that it appeared that Hopkinson “‘was not the only person consulted on those exhibi- tions of Fancy, and therefore cannot claim the full merit of them and is not entitled in this respect to the full sum charged.” Also the board was of the opinion that “the public is entitled to those little assistances given by gentlemen who enjoy a very considerable salary under Congress without fee or further reward.” ADMIRAL CHESTER’S ACCOUNT OF A COLONIAL FLAG-BEE Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. Navy, has suggested that John Paul Jones may have had a share in the design. He says: “This young officer of the Continental Navy had just returned from a successful cruise at sea in command of war ships, during which he had captured a number of the enemy’s vessels, and was in Phila- delphia at the time Congress was con- sidering the question of a national flag, as a member of a Board of Advisers to the Naval Committee of the House of Delegates upon matters relating to the country’s sea forces, of which the ques- tion of a suitable distinguishing mark to 299 be worn by war vessels was one of the most important. “Possessing a most attractive person- ality, Paul Jones was lionized by the ladies of the city and patronized by some of the leading delegates to the Conven- tion, who called upon him to advise the legislators regarding the design for the flag; he thus had much to do with secur- ing the passage of the act of Congress fixing its characteristics. “Soon after this event took place, Cap- tain Jones received his appointment to command the Ranger, one of the Conti- nental frigates about to proceed abroad, and with the act of Congress containing his commission in his hands he proceeded with all haste to Portsmouth, New Hamp- shire, in which port the Ranger was fitted out. Here he was received with more distinction, even, than at Philadelphia, for Portsmouth being one of the principal seaports of the country, its inhabitants were more interested in ships which were to fly the flag and the men who were to man them than were those living in the capital of the colonies. “At Portsmouth Paul Jones attracted about him a bevy of girls who formed a so-called “flag-bee,” who with much pa- triotic enthusiasm and many heart thrills wrought out of their own and _ their mothers’ gowns a beautiful Star Spangled Banner, which was thrown to the breeze in Portsmouth Harbor on July 4th, 1777, less than three weeks after Congress had so authorized.” NEW ENSIGN’S FIRST ACTION AT SEA The story of the first time in history that the Stars and Stripes went into ac- tion at sea is told in the picturesque lan- guage of the American officer who com- manded the ship which displayed the new ensign—Captain Thomas Thompson. In command of the Raleigh and the Alfred, Captain Thompson sailed for France from Portsmouth, and on September 2, 1777, captured the slow Nancy of the Windward Island fleet, which had out- sailed her. Having possessed himself of the Nancy's signal book, Thompson, on sighting the fleet two days later, deter- mined to attack with the Alfred, but as © Underwood & Underwood THE FRENCH ARMY'S FIRST SALUTE TO THE STARS AND STRIPES ON FRENCH SOIL Section V-14 of the American Ambulance Corps, a team of Leland Stanford Jr. Uni- versity students, had the honor of bearing the first American flag officially sent from the United States to the French front. this vessel was a poor sailer and the wind had changed, the Raleigh went in alone, passing many merchant ships of the convoy. When within pistol-shot of the commodore’s ship, recognized by means of the signal book, Thompson records: “We up sails, out guns, hoisted Con- tinental colours and bid them strike to the Thirteen United States. Sudden surprise threw them into confusion and their sails flew all aback, upon which we compli- mented them with a gun for each State, a whole broadside into their hull. Our second broadside was aimed at their rig- ging, which had its desired effect. In about a quarter of an hour all hands quitted quarters on board the British man-of-war; we cleared the decks totally. Had not the wind favored him and we drifted leeward, he could not have fetched us and I should certainly have sunk the ship.” Thus occurred the baptism of fire at sea of the new flag, at the hour of sunset on September 4q777 THE IMPROVISED OLD GLORY OF FORT STANWIX Just one month previously (August 3) the new flag had been under fire on land, 300 INELS, SOR OW INSUS, ANIWOTIRIKCAUN) JRL 301 at Fort Schuyler, which stood on the site of the present city of Rome, N: Y. On August 2 a force composed of British and Indians attacked the fort, which was de- fended by Col. Peter Gansevoort with some 600 men. In the afternoon rein- forcements—200 men of the Ninth Massachusetts Regiment under Lieuten- ant Colonel Mellon—arrived by way of the Mohawk River from Albany, bring- ing ammunition and supplies. They also brought with them news- paper accounts of the newly enacted flag resolution, and immediately the fort was ransacked for material with which to make the new national emblem. The am- munition shirts of the soldiers furnished the white stripes; a red petticoat belong- ing to the wife of one of the men sup- plied the red stripes, and Captain Abra- ham Swartwout’s blue cloth cloak was requisitioned to provide the blue field of the union. In Avery’s History it is set forth that the flag was made on Sunday morning and was displayed the same afternoon from a flagstaff raised on the bastion nearest the enemy. Then the drummer beat the assembly and the adjutant gen- eral read to the defenders the congres- sional resolution “particularizing the in- signia of the flag of the new republic.” There are vouchers extant showing that the Continental treasury reimbursed Cap- tain Swartwout for the loss of his cloak, but the red petticoat remained a gift of the humble soldier’s wife to the first of the Stars and Stripes to undergo fire. FIRST SALUTE TO THE STARS AND STRIPES All Americans recall with especial pleasure and pride that the first official salute to the Stars and Stripes was ac- corded by that nation to which, more than to any other, the United States owes its existence—France, the blood-ally of our darkest days, now, in turn, valiantly succored by us in her hour of sorest need. Again John Paul Jones figures as the chief actor in this flag episode. He sailed from Portsmouth on November 1, 1777, as a bearer to France of the glad tidings of the surrender of Burgoyne. Here is the officer’s own account, contained in a ‘nation that sets it forth. report to the Marine Committee of Con- gress, of how the salute was obtained: “T am happy in having it in my power to congratulate you on my having seen the American flag for the first time recog- nized in the fullest and completest man- ner by the flag of France. I was off their bay (Quiberon) that day, the 13th (of February), and sent my boat in the next day to know if the Admiral (Admiral 1a Motte Picquet) would return my sa- lute. He answered that he would return me, as a senior American Continental officer in Europe, the same salute which he was authorized by his court to return to an Admiral of Holland, or of any other republic, which was four guns less than the salute given. I hesitated at this, for I had demanded gun for gun; therefore I anchored in the entrance of the bay, at a distance from the French fleet, but after a very particular inquiry on the 14th, finding that he had really told the truth, I was induced to accept his offer, the more so as it was an acknowledg- ment of American independence. ‘The wind being contrary and blowing hard, it was after sunset before the Ranger got near enough to salute La Motte Picquet with thirteen guns, which he returned with nine. However, to put the matter beyond doubt, I did not suffer the Jnde- pendence to salute until the next morn- ing, when I sent word to the Admiral that I should sail through his fleet in the brig and would salute him in open day. He was exceedingly pleased and returned the compliment with nine guns” (see page 290). THE SIGNIFICANCE OF OUR COLORS America’s most gifted poets and ora- tors have vied with one another in setting forth the significance of the red, the white, and the blue of the Star Spangled Banner. In the words of Henry Ward Beecher: “A thoughtful mind; when it sees a nation’s flag, sees not the flag, but the nation itself. And whatever may be its symbols, its insignia, he reads chiefly in the flag the government, the principles, the truths, the history, that belong to the The American flag has been a symbol of Liberty, and men rejoiced in it. aay steamers cars Photograph by Central News Photo Service FLAGS WHICH SIGNALIZED AMERICA’S ENTRANCE INTO THE WORLD CONFLICT BEING BORNE INTO ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL BY THE FIRST AMERICAN TROOPS TO REACH LONDON AFTER THE DECLARATION OF WAR WITH GERMANY These Stars and Stripes were blessed in the great English shrine and are to be preserved for all time, together with those of our Allies, whose national emblems, like our own, are waving over the hosts fighting for the world’s liberty (see page 286). “The stars upon it were like the bright morning stars of God, and the stripes upon it were beams of morning light. As at early dawn the stars shine forth even while it grows light, and then as the sun advances that light breaks into banks and streaming lines of color, the glowing red and intense white striving together, and ribbing the horizon with bars efful- gent, so, on the American flag, stars and rey de beams of many-colored light shine out to- 302 gether. And wherever this flag comes and men behold it they see in its sacred emblazonry no embattled castles or in- signia of imperial authority ; they see the symbols of light. It is the banner of Dawn.” BIBLICAL ORIGIN OF THE RED, WHITE, AND BLUE Charles W. Stewart, superintendent of naval records and library of the United THE STORY OF THE AMERICAN FLAG States Navy Department, to whom the GEOGRAPHIC is indebted for helpful ad- vice and criticism in the compilation of the data published in this number of the magazine, advances the following theory of the origin of the colors employed in the national ensign: “The flag may trace its ancestry back to Mount Sinai, whence the Lord gave to Moses the Ten Commandments and the book of the law, which testify of God’s will and man’s duty; and were de- posited in the Ark of the Covenant within the Tabernacle, whose curtains were blue, purple, scarlet, and fine-twined linen. “Before the ark stood the table of shew-bread, with its cloth of blue, scar- let, and white. These colors of the Jew- ish Church were taken over by the early Western Church for its own and given to all the nations of western Europe for their flags. When the United States chose their flag it was of the colors of old, but new in arrangement and design. and they called it ‘The Stars and Stripes.’ “Our flag is of the colors red, white, and blue. Red is for courage, zeal, fer- vency; white is for purity, cleanness of life, and rectitude of conduct; blue is for loyalty, devotion, friendship, justice, and truth. The star is an ancient symbol of India, Persia, Egypt, and signifies do- minion and sovereignty.” THE CALL OF THE FLAG Hon. Frederick C. Hicks, in the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1917, thus portrayed the meaning of the national ensign: “The flag of America does more than proclaim mere power or acclaim a great and glorious history. Its folds wave a benediction to the yesterdays of accom- plishment and beckon the tomorrows of progress with hope and confidence; it heralds the noble purposes of a mighty people and carries a message of hope and inspiration to all mankind. Its glowing splendor appeals to us to demand inter- national justice and arbitration; it com- mands us to self-sacrifice and to univer- sal obligation of service, which alone can maintain equality of rights and fullness of opportunity in our republic. “Tts stars and its stripes voice the spirit 303 of America calling to a nation of indom- itable courage and infinite possibilities to live the tenets of Christianity, to teach the gospel of work and usefulness, to advance education, to demand purity of thought and action in public life, and to protect the liberties of free government from the aggressions of despotic power. This is the call of the flag of the Union in this hour of crisis and turmoil, when civilization and the laws of nations and of humanity are being engulfed in the maelstrom of death and destruction.” THE EMBLEM OF OUR UNITY President Wilson in a Flag Day ad- dress said: “This flag, which we honor and under which we serve, is the emblem of our unity, our power, our thought and pur- pose as a nation. It has no other char- acter than that which we give it from generation to generation. The choices are ours. It floats in majestic silence above the hosts that execute those choices, whether in peace or in war. And yet, though silent, it speaks to us—speaks to us of the past, of the men and women who went before us, and of the records they wrote upon it. “We celebrate the day of its birth; and from its birth until now it has wit- nessed a great history, has floated on high the symbol of great events, of a great plan of life worked out by a great people. We are about to carry it into battle, to lift it where it will draw the fire of our enemies. We are about to bid thousands, hundreds of thousands, it may be millions, of our men—the young, the strong, the capable men of the na- tion—to go forth and die beneath it on fields of blood far away. “Woe be to the man, or eroup of men, that seeks to stand in our way in this day of high resolution, when every prin- ciple we hold dearest is to be vindicated and made secure for the salvation of the nations. We are ready to plead at the bar of history, and our flag shall wear a new luster. Once more we shall make good with our lives and fortunes the great faith to which we were born, and a new glory shall shine in the face of our people.” THE MAKERS OP IES) IILAG ” By Franxiin K. Lane, SecreTARY OF THE INTERIOR HIS morning, as I passed into the Land Office, The Flag dropped me a most cordial salutation, and from its rippling folds I heard it say: “Good morning, Mr. Flag Maker.” “T beg your pardon, Old Glory,” I said, “aren't you mistaken? I am not the President of the United States, nor a member of Congress, nor even a general in the army. I am only a government clerk.” “T greet you again, Mr. Flag Maker,” replied the gay voice; “I know you well. You are the man who worked in the swelter of yesterday straightening out the tangle of that farmer’s homestead in Idaho, or perhaps you found the mistake invthat Indian contract in Oklahoma, or. helped to clear that patent for the hope- ful inventor in New York, or pushed the opening of that new ditch in Colorado, or made that mine in Illinois more safe, or brought relief to the old soldier in Wyo- ming. No matter; whichever one of these beneficent individuals you may hap- pen to be, I give you greeting, Mr. Flag Maker.” I was about to pass on, when The Flag stopped me with these words: “Yesterday the President spoke a word that made happier the future of ten mil- lion peons in Mexico; but that act looms no larger on the flag than the struggle which the boy in Georgia is making to win the Corn Club prize this summer. “Yesterday the Congress spoke a word which will open the door of Alaska; but a mother in Michigan worked from sun- rise until far into the night to give her boy an education. She, too, is making the flag. “Yesterday we made a new law to pre- vent financial panics, and yesterday, may- be, a school teacher in Ohio taught his first letters to a boy who will one day write a song that will give cheer to the millions of our race. We are all making the flag.” “But,” I said impatiently, “these people were only working!” * Delivered on Flag Day, 1914, before the employees of the Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Then came a great shout from The Flag: “The work that we do is the making of the flag. “T am not the flag; not at all. I am but its shadow. “T am whatever you make me; nothing more. “T am your belief in yourself, your dream of what a people may become. “T live a changing life, a life of moods and passions, of heart-breaks and tired muscles. “Sometimes I am strong with pride, when men do an honest work, fitting the rails together truly. “Sometimes I droop, for then purpose has gone from me, and cynically I play the coward. “Sometimes I am loud, garish, and full of that ego that blasts judgment. “But always I am all that you hope to be and have the courage to try for. “T am song and fear, struggle and panic, and ennobling hope. “T am the day’s work of the weakest man and the largest dream of the most daring. “T am the Constitution and the courts, statutes and the statute-makers, soldier and dreadnaught, drayman and _ street sweep, cook, counselor, and clerk. “T am the battle of yesterday and the mistake of tomorrow. “T am the mystery of the men who do without knowing why. “T am the clutch of an idea and the reasoned purpose of resolution. “T am no more than what you believe me to be and I am all that you believe I can be. “T am what you make me; nothing more. “TI swing before your eyes as a bright gleam of color, a symbol of yourself, the pictured suggestion of that big thing which makes this nation. Mystarsandmy stripes are your dream and your labors. They are bright with cheer, brilliant with courage, firm with faith, because you have made them so out of your hearts; for you are the makers of the flag, and it is well that you glory in the making.” 304. Dekh PiCNGsy OF TOUR ARIMIYS NAW Y 73ND GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS For illustrations see the corresponding numbers on the colored flags, pages 310 and onward 1. Unrrep States Frac AND ENsicn.—On July 4, 1912, following the admission of Ari- zona and New Mexico into the Union, two stars were added to the Stars and Stripes, giv- ing the banner its present composition of 48 stars, representing the States of the Union, and 13 stripes, commemorative of the Thir- teen Original Colonies which achieved the na- tion’s independence. (See pages 286-304 for the history of the American flag; pages 303- 304, 404-413 for the uses of the flag, and de- scriptive text under flags 6, 7, 8, 361, 362, 364, and 367 for the evolution and development of the Star Spangled Banner. ) 2. PresipENt’s FrLac.—When the President visits a vessel of the United States, the Presi- dent’s flag is broken at the main the moment he reaches the deck and is kept flying as long as he is on board. If the vessel can do so, a national salute of 21 guns is fired as soon as possible after his arrival on board. Upon de- parture, another salute of 21 guns is fired, the President’s flag being lowered with the last gun of the salute. When the President is em- barked in a boat he usually directs that his flag be displayed from the staff in the bow of his barge (see page 283). When he passes in a boat flying his flag, vessels of the navy parade the full guard, four ruffles are given on the drum, four flourishes are sounded on the bugle, the National Anthem is played by the band, and officers and men salute (see page 282). When the President is embarked in a ship fly- ing his flag, all saluting ships, on meeting her at sea or elsewhere, and all naval batteries, fire a national salute on passing (see page 324). Previous to the present order there were two designs displayed on flags and on colors to be used in the presence of the Commander- in-Chief of the army and the navy. The navy design was of an earlier date than that of the army, and consisted of the coat-of-arms of the United States, as shown in the Great Seal (3), upon a blue ground. ‘This happened to be al- most identical with the infantry colors (sce 11). The President’s colors were designed to be distinctive from the infantry colors, and consisted of a blue ground with a large crim- son star, outlined heavily with white. Within the star was to be seen the coat-of-arms of the United States, and outside the star within its angles were powdered small stars to the number of the States in the Union. The dou- ble display of flags and colors at the Grand Army Review in 1915 caused considerable comment, and as a result the suggestion was made to the President that the navy flag might fittingly be made distinctive from the infantry colors by the addition of four stars—one in each corner. The flags of an Admiral and of a General bear four stars, as a sign of com- mand. ‘The President approved of the idea, but directed that the coat-of-arms, as shown on the President’s seal (see 5), be used upon the President’s personal flag and colors. 3. Tus Great SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES.— The Great Seal was adopted by the Continental Congress June 20, 1782. Arms.—Paleways (perpendicular stripes or divisions) of thirteen pieces, argent (white) and gules (red); a chief (upper part of the escutcheon), occupying one-third of the whole azure (blue); the escutcheon on the breast of the American eagle displayed proper (repre- sented in its natural colors), holding in his dexter (right) talon an olive branch, and in his sinister (/eft) a bundle of thirteen arrows, all proper (natural colors), and in his beak a scroll, inscribed with this motto, “E Pluribus Unum”? (Out of Many, One). Crest——Over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a glory (circle of light), or (gold), breaking through a cloud, proper, and surrounding thirteen stars form- ing a constellation, argent, on an azure field. Reverse—A pyramid unfinished. In the ze- nith an eye in a triangle, surrounded with a glory, proper. Over the eye these words, “Annuit Coeptis’ (He [God] has smiled on our undertakings). On the base of the pyra- mid the numerical letters MDCCLXXVI, and underneath the following motto, “Novus Ordo Seclorum” (A New Order of Ages). Accompanying the report, and adopted by Congress, was the following: The escutcheon is composed of the chief and pale, the two most honorable ordinaries (d- visions). The pieces, paly (equal in width and of two colors, alternating), represent the sev- eral States all joined in one solid, compact entire, supporting a chief, which unites the whole and represents Congress. "The motto alludes to this union. The pales in the arms are kept closely united by the chief, and the chief depends on that union and the strength resulting from it for its support, to denote the confederacy of the United States of America and the preservation of their union through Coneress. The colors of the pales are those used in the flag of the United States of America; white signifies purity and innocence; red, hardiness and valor; and blue, the color of the chief, signifies vigilant perseverance and justice. The olive branch and arrows denote the power of peace and war, which is exclusively vested in Congress. The constellation denotes a new State taking its place and rank among other sovereign powers, The escutcheon is 305 borne on the breast of an American eagle without any other supporters, to denote that the United States ought to rely on their own virtue. Reverse—The pyramid signifies strength and duration. The eye over it and the motto allude to the many signal interpositions of Providence in favor of the American cause. The date underneath is that of the Declara- tion of Independence, and the words under it signify the beginning of the new American era, which commences from that date. The reverse of the seal has never been cut and has been allowed to go unused officially to the present day. USES OF THE GREAT SEAL When the Continental Congress made the obverse of the great seal of the national arms it intended that the device should pass into common use among the people, as the flag has done, and like the flag, the arms at first met with general approval, which soon gave place to an acceptance of it as an emblem of the power and sovereignty of the United States. The seal itself has, of course, a very limited use, which is strictly guarded by law. The Secretary of State is its custodian, but even he has no authority to affix it to any paper that does not bear the President’s signature. At the present time the seal of the United States is affixed to the commissions of all Cabinet officers and diplomatic and consular officers who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate; all ceremonious ‘communications from the President to the heads of foreign governments; all treaties, conventions, and formal agreements of the President with foreign powers; all proclama- tions by the President; all exequaturs to for- eign consular officers in the United States who are appointed by the heads of the governments which they represent; to warrants by the President to receive persons surrendered by foreign governments under extradition trea- ties; and to all miscellaneous commissions of civil officers appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, whose appointments are not now especially di- rected by law to be signed under a different seal. 4. Jack.—Vessels at anchor fly the union jack from the jackstaff (the staff at the bow) from morning to evening colors, The jack hoisted at the fore mast is a signal for a pilot (220). A gun may be fired to call attention to it. Hoisted at the mizzen mast or at a yard arm it denotes that a general court martial or a court of inquiry is in session. When a diplomatic official of the United States of and above the rank of charge d’af- faires pays an official visit afloat in a boat of the navy, a union jack of a suitable size is car- ried on a staff in the bow. When the Naval Governor of Guam, Tutuila, or the Virgin Islands of the United States embarks in a boat, within the limits of his government, for the purpose of paying visits of ceremony in his official capacity as Governor, a union jack of suitable size is carried on a staff in the bow of the boat. The union jack at the main was the flag of the Secretary of the Navy from 1869 to July 4, 1874, when the present flag (49) came into use. r When worn out, jacks are surveyed and burned in the same manner as ensigns. ‘The proper size of jack to display with an ensign is that corresponding in dimension to the union of that ensign (see drawing, page 312). Yachts may display the union jack while at anchor at the jackstaff from 8 a. m. to sunset, when wash clothes are not triced up. 5. SEAL OF THE PrESIDENT.—This is the per- sonal seal of the President, and the press from which it is made has been in use for many years. The device is to be seen in the Presi- dent’s flag (2), in bronze, in the floor of the entrance corridor of the White House and in the favorite stick-pin of the President. 6. Our First Stars AND STRIPES, adopted by act of Congress June 14, 1777 (see page 207). In its resolution Congress did not direct a spe- cific arrangement of the thirteen stars. In the navy it became customary to place the stars so as to form the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew, an arrangement distinctly illustrated in Rhode Island’s banner (396). THE FLAG THAT INSPIRED THE “STAR SPANGLED BANNER” 7. ‘THE ELAG WITH 15 STRIPESHANDEETS Srars.— When Vermont entered the Union (March 4, 1791), followed by Kentucky (June I, 1792), it was felt that the new States should have the same representation in the design of the flag that the original thirteen States pos- sessed, and Congress accordingly passed the following act, which was approved by Presi- dent Washington on January 13, 1794: “Be it enacted, etc., That from and after the first day of May, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-five, the flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and that the Union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field.” In this flag the stars were arranged in three parallel rows of five each, with the blue field resting on the fifth red stripe. This was the national flag for twenty-three years. It was in use during the war of 1812, and, in September, 1814, waving over Fort McHenry, it inspired Francis Scott Key to write the “Star Spangled Banner.” Key was aide to General Smith at Baltimore and had gone aboard H. M. S. Min- den in the harbor to arrange an exchange of prisoners. While being detained pending the bombardment on the morning of September 14, 1814, he wrote the anthem. The arrangement of the stars in the Fort McHenry flag is the navy arrangement, that particular flag of immense size having been specially made by Mrs. Mary Pickerskill under the direction of Commodore Barry and Gen- eral Striker. The flag is now in the National Museum at Washington (see page 289). The missing star is said to have been cut out and sent to President Lincoln. This is the flag that encouraged our brave lads in our war against the Barbary pirates. It was the first ensign to be hoisted over a fort of the Old World. On April 27, 1805, after a 3006 © Underwood & Underwood GUARD TO THE STANDARD On silver bands, encircling the lance from which the regimental standard floats, are engraved the names and dates of the battles in which that regiment has played its heroic part. Each standard, therefore, epitomizes the glorious past of its command, and the men over whom it waves would gladly give their lives rather than have these shining symbols of victory tarnished by defeat (see page 308). bombardment of the batteries and the town of Derne, Tripoli, by the Hornet, Nautilus, and Argus, the landing party of marines and blue- jackets stormed the principal works, and Lieu- tenant O’Bannon of the marines and Midship- man Mann hauled down the Tripolitan flag and hoisted the fifteen stars and fifteen stripes in its place. It was our ensign in the Battle of Lake Erie (see 306) and was first carried in a man-of- war by Captain Porter in the Essex, around Cape of Good Hope, August, i800, and by Commodore Porter in the ‘Essex around Cape Horn on his famous cruise in 1813. It was the flag flown by Jackson at New Orleans. 8. The requirement that a new stripe be added to the flag for each new State, however, soon proved embarrassing, with the result that U. S. Congress on April 4, 1818,. decided to return to the original design of thirteen stripes, and passed the following ‘law: “Sec, 1. Be it enacted, etc., That from and after after the fourth day of July next the flag of the United States be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; that the union have twenty stars, white, on a blue field. “Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That on the admission of every new State into the Union one star be added to the union of the flag, and that such addition shall take effect on the 4th of July next succeeding such admission.” Twenty-eight States having been admitted since the enactment of this law, our flag now contains 48 stars. There have been numerous laws enacted concerning the flag since that time, but none of them has departed from the fundamental principles of the law of I8r8. It is interesting to note that the army for many decades did not carry the Stars and Stripes in battle, though it was used as a gar- rison flag. The land forces carried what was known as national colors, or standards, of blue, with the coat-of-arms of the United States, comprising an eagle surmounted by a number 307 of stars, emblazoned thereon, with the desig- nation of the body of troops (see 22). ln 1834 War Department regulations gave the artillery the right to carry the Stars and Stripes. The infantry still used the design of 22 until 1841, and the cavalry until 1887, when that branch of the army was ordered to carry the Stars and Stripes. The history of the flag indicates that the Stars and Stripes were not officially carried by troops in battle until the period of the Mexican War, 1846-1847. THE ARMY FLAGS The flags used by the United States Army to designate its several branches are divided into two classes—colors and standards. The colors are used by unmounted troops and the standards by mounted forces. The principal difference between them is that the standards are smaller and have no cords and tassels, be- cause large flags and cords and tassels would hinder the movements of the mounted stand- ard-bearer. Every regiment of engineers, artillery, infan- try, cavalry, etc., is supplied with one silk na- tional standard or color (17) and one silk regimental standard or color (TI, 13, 15, 18, etc.). The silk national and regimental colors or standards are carried in battle, campaign, and -on all occasions of ceremony at regimental headquarters in which two or more companies of the regiment participate. The official designation of the regiment is engraved on a silver band placed on the pike or lance. When not in use, colors and standards are kept in their waterproof cases. In garrison the standards or colors, when not in use, are kept in the office or quarters of the colonel and are escorted thereto and there- from by the color guard. In camp the colors or standards, when not in use, are displayed in front of the colonel's tent, the national color or standard on the right. From reveille to re- treat, when the weather permits, they are un- cased; from retreat to reveille and during in- clement weather they are cased. In action the position of the standards or colors will be indicated by the colonel, who may, through their display, inspire enthusiasm and maintain the morale. He may, however, hold them back when they might indicate to the enemy the direction of the main attack, betray the position of the main body, or tend to commit the regiment to defensive action. In the presence of the enemy and during the “approach” the standards are carried cased, ready to be instantly broken out if their in- spiration is required. In addition to the handsome silk -flags, a national color or standard made of bunting or other suitable material, but in all other re- spects similar to the silk national color or standard, is furnished to each battalion or squadron of each regiment. These colors and standards are for use at drills and on marches, and on all service other than battles, campaigns, and occasions of cere- mony. Not more than one national color or standard is carried when the regiment or any part of it is assembled. _ The colors of a regiment will not be placed in mourning or draped, except when ordered — from the War Department. Two streamers of crape 7 feet long and about 12 inches wide at- tached to the ferrule below the spearhead will be used for the purpose. The names and dates of battles in which regiments or separate battalions have partici- pated are engraved on silver bands and placed on the pike of the colors or lance of the stand- ard of the regiment or separate battalion, as the case may be. For this purpose only the names of those battles which conform to the following definition are considered, viz: Bat- tles are important engagements between inde- pendent armies in their own theaters of war, in contradistinction to conflicts in which but a small portion of the opposing forces are actu- ally engaged, the latter being called, according to their nature, affairs, combats, skirmishes, and the like. The names and dates of battles which it is proposed to have engraved on the silver bands are submitted to the War Department, which decides each case on its merits. At least two companies, troops, or batteries of a regiment or separate battalion must have participated in a battle in order that the name of the battle may -be placed on its colors or standards. A company, troop, or battery does not re- ceive credit for having participated in a battle unless at least one-half of its actual strength was engaged. The Adjutant General of the Army furnishes each company, troop, and battery with a suit- ably engrossed certificate setting forth the names of all battles, engagements, and minor affairs in which said company, troop, or bat- tery participated, with the dates thereof, and showing, as nearly as may be, the organiza- tions of the United States troops engaged therein, and against what enemy. his cer- tificate states that the names and dates of these battles are engraved on silver bands on the pike of the colors of the regiment or battalion, or the lance of the standard of the regiment or battalion, as the case may be, excepting in the case of companies which have no regi- mental or battalion organization. This certificate is suitably framed and kept posted in the barracks of the company, troop, or battery. ; Whenever in the opinion of a commanding officer the condition of any silk color, stand- ard, or guidon in the possession of his com- mand has become unserviceable, the same is forwarded to the depot quartermaster, Phila- delphia, Pa., for repair, if practicable. Should it be found that its condition does not warrant the expenditure of funds that may be involved, the depot quartermaster returns to the officer from whom received and furnishes a new color, standard, or guidon. Upon receipt of new silk colors, standards, or guidons, commanding officers cause those replaced to be numbered and retained by the organization to which they belong as mementos of service, a synopsis of which, bearing the same number, will be filed with the records of the organization. 308 g. The President’s colors in design are sim- ilar to the President’s flag afloat (2), but are made of silk, with heavy silk embroidery and bordered with gold and silver fringe, with red, white, and blue cord and tassels, and a gold eagle on the pike. The colors are displayed when the President is in the presence of troops as commander-in-chief. to. The colors of the Secretary of War are used in the same manner as the President’s colors when the war minister is the ranking official in the presence of troops. 11. The infantry colors are carried by the several regiments, each with its own particular designation on the scroll below the eagle. 12. The Assistant Secretary of War’s colors are used in the same way as those of the Sec- retary of War when he is the ranking official present. i 13. The colors of the coast artillery corps have a red field, where those of the infantry have blue; otherwise they are the same as the infantry colors, except for the yellow scroll and the crossed cannon. 14. The Chief of Staff has colors with a field made up of a red and a white triangle, the red triangle having its base on the staff. On the center is the familiar spread eagle of the national coat-of-arms imposed upon a large white star; a small white star on the red and a red star on the white complete the design, except for golden fringe, cord, and _ tassels. This flag is flown when the Chief of Staff is in the presence of troops the ranking officer. 15. ‘The engineer colors are red, the lettered scroll being white, bearing above it the engi- neer device, a castellated fort. 16. The colors of the corps of cadets dis- penses with the familiar red and blue for a field, gray being substituted therefor. Instead of the coat-of-arms there is an escutcheon bearing the national colors, with a cap of Mars on the field, and surmounted by an eagle. The cadet colors are fringed with yellow and black and gray. 17. The national standard used by mounted troops and the national colors used by un- mounted troops are exactly alike, except that the colors are larger and have cords and tas- sels, as on the President’s colors. 18. The cavalry standard has a field of yel- low and, except in size, is otherwise like the infantry colors, without cords or tassels. 19. The field artillery standard is like the coast artillery colors, except that the crossed cannon between the eagle and the scroll are omitted. 20. The mounted engineers’ standard has the castellated fort to distinguish it. 21. The standard of the United States Sig- nal Corps is distinguished by the wig-wag flags between the eagle and the lettered scroll. 22. This is the national standard as used by our light artillery in the War of 1812. The artillery did not carry the Stars and. Stripes until 1834, the infantry until 1841, and the cav- alry until 1887. 23. This is the guidon used by each troop of cavalry. The figure shows the regiment and the letter the troop. 24. The guidon of the field artillery is dis- tinguished by crossed cannons. army control. 25. The word “Mounted” above the castel- lated fort proclaims the mounted engineers’ guidon. 26. The guidon of the mounted engineer section does not have the panel bearing the word “Mounted.” 27. The signal corps guidon bears the wig- wag flags. 28. The aéro squadron’s guidon duplicates that of the signal corps, except that the flying eagle is added. 29. Telegraph company guidons show the wig-wag flags with a thunderbolt. 30. This triangular pennant serves as the guidon of the motor-truck company. 31. The field hospital guidon bears the ca- duceus of Hermes given him by Apollo and supposed to be a magic wand which exercises influence over living and dead. This guidon is lettered =) Elk 32. Ambulance companies have a guidon like that of the field hospital service, except that the lettering is different. 33. The field hospital flag is the familiar red cross on the white field. A rectangle be- low shows the night signal. 34. The guidon of the cavalry and light ar- tillery during the Civil War. Prior to that war the cavalry used 23, and on the adoption of 34 General Sheridan made 23 his personal colors. Upon becoming Secretary of War he retired 34 from use and restored 23 as the guidon of the cavalry as it had been prior to the great conflict. 35. When a lieutenant general of the army is in an automobile or aboard a boat officially the three-starred flag of command is shown. 36. The auto and boat flag of a major gen- eral is like that of the lieutenant general, ex- cept that it has two stars instead of three. 37. The brigadier general’s automobile and boat flag bears the one star of the brigadier’s rank. 38. The chief umpire in military maneuvers in times of peace bears a flag with a saltire cross upon it, like that of St. Andrew. 39. The flag of an artillery district com- mander bears crossed cannons with a shell im- posed upon the intersection. 40. The flag of a post commander carried in the bow of a boat in which he is embarked officially is a pennant with thirteen stars in the blue, with a red fly. 41. The ambulance flag is a white field and a red cross. The night signal is shown below the flag. 42. The ammunition trains of the United States Army display a triangular pennant. which is accorded the right of way in time of battle. 43. The camp colors of an army are I8 by 20 inches and displayed on an ash pole 8 feet long and 1% inches diameter. 44. The white field with its centered cross proclaims the chaplain. This flag is used for field service only. 45. The transports under Quartermaster’s Corps, U. S. Army, fly this flag. 46. This is the distinguishing flag of mine- planters and submarine defense vessels under It consists of a field bearing 309 + + + Ot + % + + >t >t + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + >t + + + + + + + + + + > + + + + + 2 PRESIDENTS FLAG COLL ih hhh ddd dtd ddddihe \ GiIRIEAIT Sie7NEw Sy /\ |} g FLAG—JULY 4. I818 ee |) 2 Ye RS Ga i) : : Prrere ALLA tes - Se Fy 5 8 a 7 117 [J15 ENGINEER COLORS CORPS OF CADETS COLORS 311 UNITED STATES ENSIGN x kk i ne ll 2 | WHITE AkKKKk | BLUE FIELD = enc Uk kkk e | l : WHITE S kkk —; << Ww. RED s | ‘< * * * WHITE = | KCx— G G + Mk = : SF a ap ET = s & WHITE g Oy e RED 5 | \ | WHITE ‘ 2 Dal = : RED af iS 1 WHITE pe Ee | E * 1 | RED & L at Al —= === = B (Fry) —= ae No| A a aCe ep E FCs J Ki 4] | FEET REE | FOOT FEET FEET | RRS | FEET | FOOT FEET REET BEET | 1 | 20 S). pee oz | O77 15:20) | 1:90) || 897 |79e has asa ARMY SIZES 2/19 |3610 | 903 | 877 | 10.23 | 1444] 181 | .850 | 1.70 |i 3) 146 | Nos. |. 5 and 8 3 | 14.35 | 27.27 | 619 | 662 | 773 110.91 | 124 | 642 | 1.28 | .883-| 103: A\I219:| 23.16] 579 | 563 | 656 | 9.26) 1.16 | 545] 109 |. 751-| 938 BOAT FLAG SIZES 5/10 |19 | 475 | 462 | 538] 760] 95 | .449| 90 | 616.769 Noes Sh ttm lil eimel Ke 6| 894] 1699] 424] 413 | 481 | 6.79] 848] 400 | 798} .55i-| 687} 7|-5.14| 977 | 244| 237 | 277 | 391 | 488] 230 | 459] 317| 395 FOREIGN ENSIGNS eulme 9.50 | 237] 231 | 269} 380] 475] 224 | 449) 308) .385 fal al B SUS clleCICON mora lale2ul a rOONWme > cealnuscosl arse: | vesicle miele in ian FEET i0| 290] 551 | 138 | 1.34 tee | 220] .275| .130| 260| 208] 223 Placer MR ate Nne2S7al\ 4 S0nl eas | 1009 | 1.28 |° 1.80 | .225 | OS aI GO|) aise | VRIES GOs OG al COIs sevilla EO On ei24 | 059) | aly 094 | 101 | UNION JACK. ; Dix ‘ H | | x * > ae of | x * kit | FIELD / > x x* Kik G 3 : WHITE STARS / S ss. ; x * Kit | ‘ / | , | xk tk ee elutes k > ent — ' UNION JACK SECRETARY | ADMIRAL, |SENIOR OFFICER on or tHe NAVY |VICEADMIRAL etc] PRESENT Nol vAL |B Se Lo Le SEE FLAGS 498 53| SEE FLAGS 647066] SEE FLAG 68 | reer | FEET FOOT FOOT | FEET | FEET | FEET No. A B A (ay. A B | 2 | 10.23 | 14.44 902 .850 | 1.705 1.805 | 1.170 | FEET FEET FEET ] FEET FEET | FEET 3 | 7.72 | 10.91 | 619 | .642 | 1.281 |1.238| 883 | | 10.20) 1440] 10.20 | 14.40 | 8.00] 6.40 | 4 | 656] 926 | 579 | .545 | 1.089) 1.158! 751 2 | 7.73 | 10:88) | ° 7.73 | 10:88 |)“ 6:56n7 525 16] 481 | 679] 424 | .400| .798| 848] 551| |4 | 360] 513 | 481] 677 | 490 | 390 | 7 | 277| 391 | 244 | .230| 459 | 488] 317) [6 | #460) | G51) A DIAGRAM AND TABLE TO SHOW THE EXACT PROPORTION AND POSITION OF EACH FEATURE OF THE STARS AND STRIPES, ACCORDING TO THE REGULATIONS OF TITE ARMY AND NAVY 312 thereon crossed cannons and a mine, with the words “Submarine Defense.” _ 47. Army vessels engaged in the ordnance service fly this distinguishing flag. — 48. Vessels in the engineer service fly flags bearing as a distinguishing mark the castel- lated fort which is the emblem of the Engi- neer Corps. 49. The flag of the Secretary of the Navy consists of a blue field bearing four white stars, one in each corner, and a centered an- chor. When that official is aboard any vessel of the navy his flag is displayed at the main mast and when on a boat it is displayed from a staff in its bows. 50. This is the major commission pennant _of the United States Navy. It is flown at the main mast of all of the larger ships of the navy as long as they are in commission, except when they have an officer above the rank of captain aboard, when the flag of command takes its place. 51. The seven-star pennant is flown by the lesser ships of the navy when in commission, such as submarines and other small craft. It is used by captains of ships as their pennant, and is carried in the bows of boats on which they are embarked on an official visit. 52. The national colors of the United States Marine Corps bear on the middle stripe of red the words “U. S. Marine Corps.” Regiments carry them together with the regimental colors. 53. The flag of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy is white with blue stars and blue anchor, an interchange of the colors of the Secretary’s flag. It is displayed at the main mast when the Assistant Secretary is the rank- ing officer present. 54- This pennant is carried by vessels of the naval militia while in commission and is displayed at the main mast, unless the com- manding officer has the rank of commodore, when 73 replaces the pennant. 55- The colors of the United States Marine Corps are kept at headquarters in Washington. They bear in Latin the motto, “Always faith- ful.” 56. The flag of the United States naval re- serve is displayed on vessels which have been given a certificate that they belong to the re- serve forces. 57. When the navy lands its men as infan- try for shore duty, they carry a blue flag upon which is centered a diamond of white, bearing a blue anchor. 58. When an Ambassador of the United States goes aboard a vessel of the navy on official business the boat upon which he is em- barked bears in its bow the navy jack. ‘The jack is also used by the naval governors of Guam, Tutuila, and the Virgin Islands of the United States when afloat within their juris- diction. The jack is nearly always the canton of a nation’s ensign when the latter has a can- ton as one of its features. 59. The -regimental colors of the United States Marine Corps has a field of blue upon which is imposed an anchor, and over this the Western Hemisphere surmounted-by the Amer- ican spread-eagle. Scrolls of red above and below the design proclaim the number of the regiment and the name of the corps. 60. Vessels of the naval militia display this flag at the fore mast as a distinguishing mark. The flag consists of a blue ground, a yellow diamond imposed thereon, bearing the blue anchor of the navy. 61. When the navy lands artillery battal- ions for shore duty the flag they carry has a red field, with a centered diamond of white, upon which appears a red anchor. 62. The colors of the United Statés Naval Academy have a blue field, gold fringe, and a centered white diamond, bearing an anchor in white and blue. These colors are carried with the national colors by the regiment of mid- shipmen. 63. The colors of the United States Marine Corps carried between 1830 and 1850 had a white field, gald fringe, and bore an elaborate design in the center, at the top of which was the legend, “From THE SHoRES oF TRIPOLI TC THE Hatis of Montezuma,” having reference to the engagements the marines participated in from the beginning of the T'ripolitan War and the ending of the War with Mexico. 64. The flag of the senior admiral of the navy is blue and bears four stars in the form of accross. This flag is displayed at the main mast of the admiral’s flagship, taking the place of the commission pennant (50) used on ves- sels other than flagships. It, along with those of the vice admiral, rear admiral, and commo- dore, is called a flag of command. The flags used today correspond to the Gadsden flag (398) flown by Esek Hopkins when he took command of the navy at Philadelphia, Decem- berist775% 65. The flag of the vice admiral has three stars. ; 66. A rear admiral’s flag has two stars. 67. The flag of a commodore has one star and is a burgee. There are no commodores in active service in the American navy, although there are several. on the retired list. That grade has been abolished from the naval service. 68. When vessels of the navy are together and no flag officer is present, the senior officer hoists at the starboard main yard arm a blue triangular pennant as a badge of command. 69. The flag of the Major General Com- mandant of the Marine Corps has a red field with two white stars in the lower half and above them the eagle-crested hemisphere im- posed upon an anchor which is the emblem of the corps. 70. A junior admiral in the presence of a senior flies a flag similar to that of the senior admiral, with the exception that the field is red instead of blue. 71. A junior vice admiral in the presence of a senior vice admiral flies a red flag bear- ing the three stars of his rank. 72. Rear admirals of junior grade fly a red flag bearing two stars while in the presence of rear admirals senior to them. 73. The commodore of the Naval Militia carries a broad pennant, the upper half blue and the lower half yellow, on the blue half of which appears a five-pointed star. 74. When a consul goes aboard a vessel of the navy on.official business, a blue flag with a centered letter “C” inclosed in a circle of thir- 313 23 GUIDON—CAVALRY 26 GUIDON ENGINEERS MOUNTED SECTION 28 0 \|27 GUIDON-SIGNAL CORPS JU SE MOLOnETO aes GUIDO AERO SQUADRON 33 FIELD HOSPITAL AMBULA ANCE CO. UIDON—CIVIL WAR HIEF UMPIRE AUTO FLAG 37 BRIGADIER BOAT & AUTO 6MAJOR GENERAL 39 ARTILLERY DIST BOAT & AUTO FLAG 1} 36 COMMANDER [| SSLIEUT GENERAL BOAT & AUTO FLAG ~ — y- Totti 40 POST COMMANDER BOAT FLAG f) Y44. CHAPLAIN 43 CAMP COLORS | || ASSISTANT U.S NAVA ee) ne SEC. NAVY 50 COMMISSION PENNANT U. S. NAVY 13 STARS ER 64 ADMIRAL 65 VICE ADMI 57 BATTALION RAL 66R COMMISSION INFANTRY 70 ADMIRAL JUNIOR) _ COMD 1182 q COMD ESTROYER FLOTILLA DESTROYE DIVISION R WAFFIRMAT R 194 VE 7} ViCE ADMI RAL 72REAR A PENNANT NAVAL MILITIA FAR ADMIRAL 67 COMMODORE Les DMIRAL 73 CO! SUBMA COMDR QUARANTIN RINE 83 DIVISION PREPARATORY 84 ANNULLING DIS BATTLE ERG iesNiGyaceeW 90 MAN OVER BOARD BREAK DOWN 85 DIV 97 315 MMODORE DIVISION COMDR POSITION SION GUID CHURCH PENNANT CONVOY mM ACADE Tray TTT kahit takknznhee khhthhitk | kat kathik kkktkkthk kknknkhkhn fas : Qre|= ESENT 68 PRE 74 CONSULAR NAVAL MILITIA.eE CECA CR To THOT DLT TOTUT {TNT Patti te reer ett et SH = NATIO NAL COLORS Wu. SM. C COLORS 1830 O-50 POST COMDR U.S. M.C BOAT FLAG OP SaheS ny D IDON AND TRAIN teen white stars flies in the bows of the boat in which he is embarked. 75. The flag of a brigadier general of the United States Marine Corps is similar to that of a major general (69), except that it carries one star instead of two. 76. The flag of the commander of a de- stroyer flotilla is a swallow-tail pennant of plain white bordered above and below with blue. 77. The commander of a submarine force has a triangular swallow-tail pennant bordered above with blue and below with red. 78. The commanders of district patrol forces carry a swallow-tail pennant having a white field bordered by red above and below. 79. Section commanders of the patrol force carry a smaller duplicate of 78, with the num- ber of the section in Roman numerals thereon. 791%. The division commander of the patrol force carries a red-bordered white triangular pennant with the number of the division in Arabic notation. 80. When submarines are operating in times of peace a submarine warning flag is flown on ‘their tenders, while the submarine itself bears on one of its periscopes a small metal flag of the same design. 81. The boat flag of a post commander of the United States Marine Corps is a triangular pennant of blue and red, blue at the hoist and red in the fly, with thirteen white stars on the blue and the insignia of the Marine Corps on the red. 82. Destroyer division commanders carry a white triangular pennant bordered with blue, with their numbers indicated on the white field. 83. The flag of a division commander of the submarine force is a white triangle bhor- dered with blue at the top and red below, showing the number of the division in red on the white. 84. The battle efficiency pennant is one of the most coveted trophies of the American navy. There is one for each class of ships, such as battleships, destroyers, and submarines. The ship of a given class which, during the preceding year, has shown by her practice and performance the ability to hit most often and quickest, to steam the farthest with the least expenditure of fuel, water, etc., to run longest without breakdown, and which otherwise gives evidence that she might be expected to give a better account of herself in a battle than any other vessel of her class, is awarded the privi- lege of flying the battle efficiency pennant dur- ing the ensuing year. There is the keenest rivalry between the competing vessels of a class, and this little red triangular flag with the black disk is prized next to victory in bat- tle itself. 85. This flag is flown by vessels engaged in convoy duty. When ships are engaged in ma- neuvers Or are maneuvering in compound for- mation, this pennant is an indication to the other vessels of the division to take bearing and distance from the ship bearing it. 86. Hospital ships fly the Red Cross flag, and under international law they are immune from attack, unless it can be shown that the ship flying it’ fails to respect all of the provisions of the international compact made at Geneva. 87. This is the flag under which the marine corps moves quartermaster’s supplies for its men. 88. The interrogatory flag is used in signal- ing when one ship wants to make a signal in the interrogatory form or to announce that it does not understand a signal. 89. The preparatory flag is displayed with a signal in order that preparations may be made to execute the signal itself uniformly and simultaneously. When the signal alone is hauled down, the ships having made ready, execute the signal. It is also hoisted when the ceremony of hoisting the colors in the morning and taking it in at sunset is the next thing on the program. It is raised five min- utes before the ceremony begins. Upon being hauled down by the flagship, all ships execute the colors ceremony simultaneously. go. This flag is displayed either to counter- mand the last signal made or the one then be- ing shown. gt. This pennant has two uses. Its first use is in answering a call for a semaphore or wig- wag message, being hoisted half way when the ship is ready to receive the message, and all the way when the message has been completely received. It is then hauled down. Used thus, it might be said to be the “Aye, aye, sir” flag of the navy. Its other use is as a decimal or divisional flag in flags indicating numerals and > quantities. g2. This is the “No” flag of the navy. It is used to negative a request, or to say “No” to a question. 93. The brigade pennant of the United States Marine Corps has a swallow-tailed blue field, with the number of the brigade and the initials of the corps in gold. 94. When a ship asks permission of the flagship to do this or that, the force com- mander hoists this flag with the number dis- tinguishing the vessel making the request, as a sign that it has been granted. 95. The yellow flag, as is well known, is the one which proclaims that there is conta- gious disease aboard. 96. This flag has two uses. Hoisted at the main mast, it means that the vessel displaying it is engaged on dispatch duty. It is always carried in a roll at the fore mast of vessels in formation, so that it can be displayed, or “broken out,’ as the sailors say, instantly, to indicate an accident or derangement on board that vessel and to warn other ships to keep clear. Hoisted half way, clear of the smoke- stack, it indicates a man overboard. 97. The church pennant is always displayed when divine services on board are in progress. 98. The cornet flag, displayed at the yard arm, calls all vessels present to receive a sema- phore or wig-wag message. Displayed at the fore mast, it is notice to all officers and men to come on board at once. 99. The guidon of the United States Marine Corps has a blue field, is gold fringed, and bears in gold on the field the initials of the corps. 100. This flag, displayed with r1o1, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, and 111, indicates that they represent in value the numerals given below them. If those flags are not displayed in connection with 100, they have other mean- ings, both in the navy code and in the inter- national code. tog. Displayed with a numeral signal, this flag summons the boat which has been assigned that particular number to return to the ship. Displayed alone, it recalls all boats then absent from the ship on which it 1s flying. 112. These are the semaphore flags used in the navy. 113. These are the wig-wag flags used in signal operations ashore and afloat. 114-115-116. These pennants are used to repeat the first, second, and third flags in the hoist. 117. This is a pennant very much in use, and when a ship is at anchor especially wel- come to the crew. It is the meal signal. When a ship is under way it indicates that the vessel is making more than standard speed for some purpose or other. When hoisted below the admiral’s flag on his flagship, it indicates that that officer is about to leave. 118. This pennant is displayed from the yard arm of a flag officer’s ship when he is absent. 11g. The powder flag is displayed at the fore mast when a ship is taking on board powder or munitions. It is also carried in boats and lighters used in transporting ammu- nition. 120-171. These flags are used in designating various divisions and ships of the naval forces. INTERNATIONAL CODE OF SIGNALS 172-197. The international code of signals is a great universal dictionary which makes communication everywhere intelligible, regard- less of the tongue spoken by those using it. A ship using a signal book printed in English can communicate with a vessel using a book printed in French or Italian as easily as if the second ship were using an English book. The international code of signals consists of twenty-six flags—one for each letter of the alphabet—and a code pennant, By means of these flags 375,000 different signals can be made. This code was adopted by international agreement in January, 1901, and is almost en- tirely based on a system of signaling by flags devised by the British Government in 1856. The code consists of nineteen square flags (179-197), two burgee flags (172-173), and five pennants (174-178) and the code or answering pennant (213). When hoisted under the ensign (1 for United States, 829 for Great Britain, 743 for France, etc.), the code pennant (213) denotes a signal taken from the international code. When hoisted by itself at the masthead, or where it can best be seen, it is the answering pennant. One-flag signals are for use only between vessels towing and being towed. The flag is then exhibited by being held in the hand or by hoisting at the stay or fore shrouds or to the gaff, according to circumstances. _Two-flag signals are urgent and important signals, and are made by the code pennant over one flag, or by combinations of any two flags Eaton Ye ww NI Three-flag signals are general signals, in- cluding compass signals and signals designating moneys, measures and weights, decimals and fractions, auxiliary phrases, etc. Four-flag signals are geographical, alpha- betical spelling table, or vessels numbers sig- nals. 198-205. These are yacht flags, indicating respectively the absence of the owner, the pres- ence of guests, the owner’s dinner, the crew’s meals etc: 206-209. ‘These figures show how the dots and dashes of the United States army and navy wig-wag code are made by flag-wavers (see illustration on another page). 210-212. These are the semaphore flags of the United States army, the boy scouts, and the British forces. The boy scouts of Amer- ica, several hundred thousand strong, and tens of thousands of boys who do not belong to that organization, are fast learning to com- municate with one another by means of flags. 213. A ship wishing to make a signal hoists her ensign (1 for United States, 829 for Great Britain, 743 for France, etc.) with this code flag under it (see note under 172-197). 214-217. ‘These figures show the numbering and coloring of buoys as seen coming from the sea, and illustrated by the alliteration “red, right, returning.” 218-219. These figures represent respect- ively the masthead light required by the inter- national rules of the road for steam trawlers and the area required to be covered by the starboard and port running lights, the mast- head and optional range lights, and the stern lights of steam vessels. 220-223. These are the day signals for a pilot, the first being the jack, in this case the United States jack, at the fore, the next two flags showing the signal P. T. and S. respec- tively, 4nd the third the distance signal, con- sisting of balls and cone. 224-229. Signals of distress include the S. O. S. call—three dots, three dashes, and three dots—the inverted ensign, etc. A continuous sounding with any fog signal is also a signal of distress. 230. Night pilot signals include flashes of one minute duration at frequenting intervals, or a blue light showing every fifteen minutes. 231-233. Night signals of distress are made through gun fire at intervals of one minute, by flames from a tar or oil barrel, rockets, or bombs. COAST GUARD SIGNALS 234-238. All manned Coast Guard stations of the United States are equipped with inter- national code flags, and are prepared to send or receive signals in that code or by means of the International Morse Code. Practically all the stations are provided with means of tele- phonic communication through which the tele- graph lines may be reached. The following signals, recommended by the International Marine Conference for adoption by all institutions for saving life from wrecked vessels, have been adopted by the Coast Guard of the United States: Upon the discovery of a wreck by night, the station crew will burn a red pyrotechnic light 103. 104 7 105 106 2 107 7 — ‘ 13\ SEMAPHORE FLAGS WIG WAG FLAGS roy oO tS) Ez tH NUMERALS 101 100 Tl X 9 BOAT RECALL ato 10 tt EUIMIE Sree MEAL no REPEATER REPEATER FLAG OFFICER FLAG OFFICER 114. FIRST 115 SECOND 116) IRD 117. LEAVING 118) ABSENT iG | BATTLESHIP DESTROYER SUBMARINE DIVISION GUARD & 1250 DANGER IDE DESIGNATING 120 FLAG 121 FLAG 122 123 124 GU NAVY LIST CALE CALL FLAGS PENNANTS 1133 J 141 R _ Ww wn rc _ w a z 129D & ANY NAvaL DISTRICT VESSEL oe x Zs 146 X AND OWNCOMMAND IE E b wo J 4 : 140 1 FORCE COM'DRS. c t INTER— NATIONAL CODE FLAGS #173 B YACHT FLAGS a GUEST FLAG WH COAL 203 205 @ OS AMBULANCE “BRITISH OES: ARMY ED STARBOARD HAND BUOYS ODD NUMBER SPAR MIDDLE GR BUOYS PILOT SIGNALS DISTRESS SIGNALS SOS S553 3 SS EEs ati ; INVERTED a Lesley SC OE a7 | \228 |) 299 Vee XS NIGHT PILOT SIGNALS “as CONTINUOUS SOUNDING WITH ANY FOG SIGNAL ; == Sa 211 \ FLASHES leet) ORG 1 SG AMES: 3 W WATER 204 A Seow DURATION O INUTE FREQUENTINTERVALS [i AT INTERVALS ir : Gninockens —P2—__——_, Z “y ; OF ONE MINUTE ; : 57 BS) OR BLUE LIGHT, - SHOWING EVERY © 15 MINUTES -230 DONT LAND OWN BOATS LAND HERE J. 1245 246 | RITISH 243 BELGIUM RUSSIA GERMANY TURKEY oe S INFANTRY COMPANY SIGNAL FLAGS MILITIA AND VOLUNTE Bi) ON 7 | } FIELD ARMY W955 | SECOND BATTALION THIRD BAUIALION FURST Sie SECOND ARMY HEADQUARTERS DISTINGUISH) NG FLAGS 7 ji TANTERNS 252 25 FS P - \NTRY. aoa ER IN AN ISION 356 BRIGADE 0578 RIGA’ 3 EA DIV XX OE OE» BX “1 < vs aici rc 319 or a red rocket to signify, “You are seen; as- sistance will be given as soon as_ possible’ (234). A red flag waved on shore by day, or a red light, red rocket, or red roman candle displayed | by night, will signify, “Haul away” (235). A white flag waved on shore by day, or a white light swung slowly back and forth, or a white rocket or white roman candle fired by night, will signify, “Slack away” (236). Two flags, a white and a red, waved at the same time on shore by day, or two lights, a white and a red, slowly swung at the same time, or a blue ‘pyrotechnic light burned by night, will signify, “Do not attempt to land in your own boats; it is impossible” (237). A man on shore beckoning by day, or two torches burning near together by night, will signify, “This is the best place to land” (238) Any of these signals may be answered from the vessel as follows: In the day-time, by wav- ing a flag, a handkerchief, a hat, or even the hand; at night, by firing a rocket, a blue light, or a gun, or by showing a light over the ship’s gunwale for a short time and then concealing it. 239-246. The insignia of the airplanes of the various countries are here shown. The United States makes use of the five-pointed star, Great Britain still retains her three crosses of the union jack, Germany marks hers with the Prussian black cross, and Turkey displays the familiar star and crescent. 248-253. These represent the company sig- nal flags of the U. S. infantry and of the militia and volunteers. 254-261. Distinguishing flags and lanterns of army headquarters. 262. The flag of the Secretary of the Treas- ury, who is Commander-in-Chief of the Coast Guard and Public Health Service, has a blue field with crossed anchors in white centered thereon, the design surrounded by thirteen white five-pointed stars. This flag is flown when the Secretary of the Treasury is aboard vessels of the Treasury service. 2035 sbhes Us S. Coast Guard flag was adopted in 1799 for the Revenue Cutter Serv- ice, now merged with the Life Saving Service into the Coast Guard. The sixteen vertical stripes proclaim the sixteen States that were in the Union at the time the design was adopted; its red eaSfe, with the stars above and the escutcheon on‘ its breast, bespeaks the Federal service. The badge on the seventh red stripe bears a shield surrounded by the motto, “Semper Paratus 1790” (Always prepared). It appears on the flag to show that it represents the Coast Guard. ‘The same flag without the badge denotes the custom houses of the United States. In time of war the Coast Guard oper- ates aS a part of the United States Navy and then uses the flags and pennants of the naval service. 264-265. The design of the arms on the flags of the Secretary and Assistant Secretary of Commerce are. identical, except for the transposition of colors. It is taken from the official seal of the department and shows on the upper part of the escutcheon a ship at full sail and on the lower part a lighthouse illu- mined. The service flag is hoisted at the fore mast on holidays, on occasions of official cere- ~ monies, when entering a port after an extended ~ voyage, and at any other time when the na- tional ensign is hoisted. At no time should a service flag be displayed without the national ensign. - These flags are shown as follows: 268, 272, 276, 280. 266. The Assistant Secretary of the Treas- ury has the same flag as the Secretary of the Treasury, except that the colors are trans- posed. His flag is never flown in the presence of the flag of his ranking officer, 262. 267. The pennant of the U. S. Coast Guard has thirteen stars and vertical red and white stripes. It was adopted in 1799, and is always displayed by Coast Guard cutters in commis- sion. In time of war the Coast Guard oper- ates as part of the U. S. Navy and wears the commission pennant of the navy. 268. The service flag of the Bureau of Navigation, with its white ship in a red disc on a blue ground is flown by all vessels of the Navigation Service during daylight hours. 269. The flag of the Commissioner of Navi- gation is blue, bearing a full-rigged ship in white in the center. It is flown on Department of Commerce vessels when the Commissioner of Navigation is on board. - 270. The flag of the Customs Service is the same as that of the Coast Guard, except that the badge of the latter is omitted. 271. The jack of the Coast Guard Service is a reproduction of the canton of the ensign of the same service. The jack of the Coast Guard is used only at parades on shore. Since the national ensign has been used as the en- sign of the Coast Guard, the old Coast Guard ensign is used only as a distinguishing flag, and the only jack displayed on vessels of the Coast Guard is 4. 272. A white fish on a red diamond im- posed upon a blue ground constitutes the flag flown by the vessels of the Bureau of Fish- eries. It was adopted in 1806. 273. The Commissioner of Fisheries has one of the newest flags in the Federal service. Tt is a blue banner with a white fish in the center and was adopted July 22, 1913. 274. The flag of the U. S. Public Health Service was adopted in 1894. It is the inter- national yellow quarantine flag with the serv- ice shield thereon. ‘The fouled anchor stands for the seamen in need of assistance, and the caduceus represents the herald or physician who is to bring restored health, 275. This is the flag of the senior officer present, and is flown in the Coast Guard to indicate that the ship which displays it bears the force commander. 276. The flag of the Bureau of Lighthouses is a white triangular pennant, red bordered, and bearing in the white field, parallel with the staff and next to it, a blue lighthouse. 277. The flag of the Commissioner of Lighthouses has the white field and blue light- house of the service flag placed upon a square field of blue. 278. The Surgeon General of the U. S. Public Health Service flies a flag of blue, bear- ing the fouled anchor, of the official shield of the service. The design is white. 279. Coast Guard cutters patrolling the anchorage grounds of the large harbors of the United States fly at their jackstaff a flag of white upon which is imposed a blue anchor. 280. The service flag of the Coast and Geo- detic Survey consists of a blue field upon which is imposed a disc of white, bearing within its circumference a triangle of red, 281. The Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey has a flag with a blue field bearing a white triangle on the half next to the staff. This triangle, which is equilateral, proclaims the great work of fundamental sur- veying in United States waters, which is the chief activity of this bureau. 282. The 30th Congress, August 7, 1848, au- thorized ‘That all such licensed yachts shall use a signal of the form, size, and colors pre- scribed by the Secretary of the Navy, and the owners thereof shall at all times permit the naval architects in the employ of the United States to examine and copy the models of said yachts.”’ 283-284. The commission pennants of the Coast and Geodetic Survey are here shown. They are flown at the main mast while the vessels are in commission. 285. The Secretary of Labor has a flag upon which are the four stars that the President and other members of his official family have on their flags, together. with the seal of the De- partment of Labor. This includes an escutch- eon surmounted by a spread eagle, and bearing on its field the plow and other devices which proclaim the dignity of labor. 285. Vessels of the U.S. Immigration Serv- ice display a pennant whose field is of white, bordered with blue and lettered with red. It is of a swallow-tailed, triangular design (or burgee) and bears, in addition to the lettering, the seal of the department to which it belongs. 287. Vessels belonging to the U. S. Postal Service fly a red, swallow-tailed, triangular pennant (or burgee), bordered with blue, bear- ing the American spread eagle and inscribed with the words “United States Mail.” 288. The United States power-boat squad- rons carry a flag like the yacht ensign, except that it wears perpendicular blue stripes where the yacht ensign has horizontal red ones, and has a red canton where the yacht ensign has one of blue. = U. S. WEATHER FORECAST FLAGS AND STORM WARNINGS 289-300. 280, white flag, indicates clear or fair weather. 290, blue flag, indicates rain or snow. 291, white and blue flag (parallel bars of white and blue), indicates that local rains or showers will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general. 321 292 always refers to temperature; when placed above (289, 290, 291) it indicates warmer weather; when placed below it indicates colder weather; when not displayed, the indications are that the temperature will remain stationary, or that the change in temperature will not vary more than four degrees from the temperature of the same hour of the preceding day from March to October, inclusive, and not more than six degrees for the remaining months of the year. 293, white flag, with black square in center. indicates the approach of a sudden and decided fall in temperature. When 203 is displayed. 292 is always omitted. When displayed on poles the flags should be arranged to read downward; when displayed from horizontal supports a small streamer should be attached to indicate the point from which the flags are to be read. In the United States the system of weather signals is very complete, information of the approach of storms being received from vari- ous stations in the United States, and even throughout the West Indies. These warnings are published at the various seaports by the display of flags by day and by lanterns at night; also by bulletins and reports furnished to newspapers. E,very effort is made by the Weather Bureau of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture to give these warnings as early as possible at all points where they may be of service to mariners and others. Storm warnings are displaved by the United States Weather Bureau at 142 stations on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and at 46 stations on the Pacific coast. (294) Small-craft warnings——A red pennant indicates that moderately strong winds are ex- pected. : (295, 206, 208, 209) Storm warnings—A red flag, with a black center, indicates that a storm of marked violence is expected. The pennants displayed with the flags indi- cate the direction of the wind: Red, easterly; white, westerly. The pennant above the flag indicates that the wind is expected to blow from the northerly quadrants; below, from southerly quadrants. (297) By night a red light indicates easterly winds, and a white light below a red light west- erly winds. (300) Hurricane warnings—Two red flags, with black centers, displayed one above the other, indicate the expected approach of a tropical hurricane, or one of those extremely severe and dangerous storms which occasion- ally move across the Lakes and northern At- lantic coast. Small-craft and hurricane warnings are not displayed at night. ll SECRETARY TREASURY _ | S COAST GUARD u U = 262 263 S a . _—e BUREAU LIGHTHOUSES aes zi Sirois COMMISSIONER 276 ATES VESSE QR “Oo N277 LIGHTHOUSES WEnaCuSWRWiak EIA Io ANG: RICULTURE WESTERLY WINDS 298 or | T4con EASTERLY WINOS = i, e~—-S—SO eee | emmy Xe\e) | s | } \. : | 300 4 WARNINGS DECEMBER 7.1787 PENNSYLVANIA DELAWARE NEW JERSEY Sigs PEP; MASSACHUSETTS 305 30 CONNECTICUT SOUTH CAROLINA | 308 MARYLAND aaa ig ae 323 “‘diysopyeq oy} Aq pory Sutoq si suns Iz JO 9ynyes [eusp -said ayy, ‘sSep yeusis yo moqures sy pue ‘yor! syt ‘usisus ysasrey sy SurAvydsrp “passaip [[M} ‘drysopyeq UeoLoWy UPR SI punoiso10F [e1JU9. oY} UT aes SEIU UICL OY} WOT SOI YOIyM sey siy Aq pojworpul Sutoq psvod uo jUusptsot1q oy} JO aussoid yy ‘“amoyKCvyy “S *S “fy 9} Uses St Fo] OY} OT, TAAT AHL SMAIARA AAVN HHL JO FAIHO-NI-AWGNVWWOO AHL NUH M uosdwuoy y, [neg Aq ydessojoyg | t SS] oe) _Z OUR SONS PLACES IPNGIES 323 Wo Boal,” ioe tate first time in the history of the United States, the flags of our 48 States are reproduced in colors in one publication. The flags have been arranged in the order that the respective States joined the Union. If the first numeral of each num- ber be omitted, the relative age of the State is at once ‘apparent ; for instance, Michigan, 326, is the twenty-sixth State , Maine, 323, the twenty-third, and Okla- homa, 346, the forty-sixth. Unless otherwise stated, both sides of a flag are the same in design. These flag emblems combine much that is beautiful, historic, and inspiring, and cannot fail to thrill the heart of every American ; but an observer may perhaps wish that there was not such a uniformity in design. About one-half of the States 301. DrELAWARE—A commission consisting of the Secretary of State, the President pro tempore of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, created under the laws of Delaware, for the purpose of selecting a State flag and colors, made a report in 1914, which, while not adopted by the legislature it- self, has been accepted as official. It consists of a field of colonial blue, upon which is im- posed a diamond of buff which bears the coat- of-arms of the State of Delaware. Underneath the diamond there appears the following in- scription: “December 7th, 1787.7 A flag has been recorded in the office of Recorder of Deeds for Kent County and a duplicate filed in the office of the Secretary of State at Dover. 302. PENNSYLVANIA.—With a field of blue of the same shade as that of the flag of the United States, the State flag of Pennsylvania, officially described in the iene of June 13, 1907, bears the coat-of-arms of the State in the cen- ter on both sides. The length of the staff is nine feet, including the brass spearhead and ferrule. The fly of the flag is six feet two inches and its width four feet six inches. The edges are trimmed with kno‘ted fringe of yel- low silk, two and one-half inches wide. A cord with tassels attached to the spearhead is eight feet six inches long and composed of white and blue silk strands. The coat-of-arms of the State consists of a shield with a ship sailing on an ocean in the upper third, two plows in the middle section, and three sheaves of wheat in the lower section. ‘Two harnessed horses rampant support the shield; an eagle with out- stretched wings forms its crest, and below it is a streamer carrying the motto, “Virtue, Liberty and Independence.” use the same blue ground with the State seal inscribed in the center, with the re- sult that these flags are all so similar that it is very difficult to distinguish one from the other at a short distance. Such designs as Maryland, 307; Ar- kansas, 325, and California, 331, etc., are easily distinguishable at considerable dis- tances. Many of these flags are soon to fly on Furopean battlefields for the first time in history, borne by the National Guard of the several States, now mustered into the Federal service. Some of these State emblems will receive their baptism of fire, and to the men fighting under these colors will be entrusted the proud dis- tinction of winning the first silver bands which encircle the staffs of their regi- mental standards, thus perpetuating the story of each unit’s worthy achievements. 303. New Jersty—Under a resolution ap- proved March, 1806, the flag of the State of New Jersey is of buff color, having in the cen- ter thereof the arms of the State properly em- blazoned. This flag is the headquarters flag of the Governor as Commander-in-Chief, but does not supersede the distinctive flags which are or may hereafter be prescribed for differ- ent arms of the military or naval. service of the State. When the measure was pending in the New Jersey Legislature, a memorandum was submitted showing why buff was chosen. This memorandum states that in 1779 the Con- tinental Congress by resolution authorized and directed the Commander-in-Chief to prescribe uniforms both as to color and facings for the regiments of the New Jersey Continental Line. Accordingly, General Washington in general orders directed that the coat of such regiments should be dark blue, faced with buff. Later it was ordered that the flag of the State troops should have a ground to be the color of the facing. Thus the New Jersey flag became buff under orders of the Father of his Country. The memorandum also states that Washington elected buff facings for the New York and New Jersey troops, because New York and New Jersey were originally settled by the Dutch, and Jersey blue ‘and. buff figured in the Netherlands insignia. It was display ed in view of the combined “French and American armies in the great culminating event of the Revolu- tion, the capitulation of the British army under Cornwallis at Yorktown. 304. GEorGIA adopted a State flag in 1870. It has a perpendicular blue bar from top to bottom next to the staff, with three horizontal bars—red, white, and red. On the blue per- 325 | NEW HAMPSHIRE ~ 310 VIRGINIA VERMONT he NINES SEs LOUISIANA mi AYDAGDOT EDI OQUONTQOTY OTTO TEPER) NTN TT Mh INDIANA MISSISSIPPI (\ 321 MAINE MISSOURI 323 324 pendicular bar appears the coat-of-arms of the State. This coat-of-arms has three pillars sup- porting an arch with the word “Constitution” engraved thereon. The three departments of government are supposed to be represented by the three pillars. On the pillars are engraved the words “Wisdom,” “Justice,” “Moderation,” these words being supposed to typify the leg- islative, executive, and judicial branches of the State government. -~- 305. CoNNEcTICUT’s colors consist of a dark blue background, bearing the State seal in the center. The seal has three grape vines, repre- senting the three original colonies of Connecti- cut — Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Beneath the vines is the State motto, “Qui transtulit sustinet.” The Connecticut State flag was adopted by the General Assembly in 1897. Its dimensions are five feet six inches by four feet four inches. The Latin inscrip- tion is a survival of the Nutmeg State’s Colo- nial banner and, freely translated, means, “He who brought us over sustains us.” 306. MassAcHusrrrs.—By a law approved in 1908 the flag of the Commonwealth bears on one side a representation of the coat-of-arms of the State, upon a white field, and on the other side a blue field bearing the representa- tion of a green pine tree against a white back- ground. When carried as colors by troops, or otherwise, the flag is bordered by a fringe and surmounted by a cord and tassels, the fringe, cord, and tassels being of golden yellow. The staff is of white ash or wood of similar light color, tipped with a spearhead of gilt. The coat-of-arms was authorized under a law of 1885. It consists of a shield having a blue field, with an Indian man, dressed in shirt, hunting breeches, and moccasins, holding in his right hand a bow and in his left hand an arrow pointing downward, all of gold; in the upper corner of the field above his right arm is a silver star with five points. The crest is a wreath of blue and gold, whereon, in gold, is a right arm, bent at the elbow, clothed and ruffled, with the hand grasping a broad sword. The motto is “Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem.” 307. MaryLtAnp.—One of the oldest flags in the world at the date of its official adoption, the State flag of Maryland is unique in design and striking in its history. Although it was the flag of the proprietary government of Mary- land generations before American independ- ence was dreamed of, and has continued in use from that day to this, it was not officially adopted until 1904. It represents the escutcheon of the paternal coat-of-arms of Lord Balti- more. After reciting that it is eminently fitting that, by reason of its historic interest and meaning, as well as for its beauty and harmony of colors, the flag adopted should be one which from the earliest settlement of the province to the present time has been known and distin- guished as the flag of Maryland, the resolutions then provide that the first and fourth quarters consist of six vertical bars, alternately gold and black, with a diagonal band on which the colors are reversed; the second and third quarters consist of a quartered field of red and white, charged with a Greek cross, its arms terminat- ing in trefoils, with the colors transposed, red being on the white ground and white on the ~~ red, and all being represented as on the es- cutcheon of the present great seal of Maryland. The flag always is to be so arranged upon the staff as to have the black stripes on the diag- onal band of the first quarter at the top of the staff. It is to be displayed from the State House at Annapolis continually during the ses- sion of, the General Assembly and on such other public occasions as the Governor of the State shall order and direct. 308. SoutH CaroLina’s flag is reminiscent of secession times. Following that State’s withdrawal from the Union, its “legislature de-_ cided that it was a separate nation and should havea national banner. A resolution was there- fore adopted in 1861 providing that “the na- tional flag or ensign of South Carolina should be blue, with a golden palmetto upright upon a white oval in the center thereof, and a white crescent in the upper flagstaff corner of the flag.” Two days later a resolution was adopted by the two houses providing that the white medallion and golden, palmetto be dispensed with and in their place a white palmetto in- serted. From that time to this South Carolina has had a blue flag, with the white crescent and the white palmetto. When the State en- tered the Confederate Union its national flag became the State flag, and continues such to this day. In 1910 a law was made providing that State flags should be manufactured in the textile department.of Clemson College and. sold at approximate cost to the people. Another provision is that the State flag shall be dis- played daily, except in rainy weather, from the staff of the State House and every court house. one building of the State University, and of each State college, and upon every public- school building except during vacation. Any person who maltreats or desecrates a flag of the State, wherever displayed, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction pun- ished by a fine of not more than a hundred dollars or imprisonment for not more than thirty days. 309. New Hampsuire had no State flag au- thorized and described by law until 1909. In that year an act was adbpted providing that the flag should be blue, bearing upon its center in suitable proportions and colors a representa- tion of the State seal. The inscription is as follows: “Sigillum Republica Neo Hantoniesis 1784” (Seal of the Commonwealth of New Hampshire). ‘The shield is surrounded by a wreath of laurel leaves with nine stars inter- spersed. When used for military purposes, the flag is to conform to the regulations of the United States. Under this law New Hamp- shire’s flag is to be displayed above the State House whenever the legislature is in session, and during meetings of the Governor and coun- cil when expedient, and upon such other occa- sions as the Governor may designate. During the Civil War, New Hampshire regiments car- ried yellow-fringed white flags, with blue and white cords and tassels, bearing on one side the State coat-of-arms and on the other that of the United States. 310. VirGINIA’s flag is of blue bunting, sixteen by twenty feet, with a circular white ground in the center, in which the seal of the 328 State is placed. The State convention of 1861 passed an ordinance providing that “the flag of the Commonwealth shall hereafter be made of bunting, which shall be a deep blue field, with a circle of white in the center, upon which shall be painted or embroidered, to show on both sides alike, the coat-of-arms of the State as described by the convention of 1776, for one side (obverse) of the seal of the State.” This seal portrays Virtus, the genius of the Com- monwealth, dressed like an Amazon, resting on a scale at one hand and holding a sword in the other, treading on Tyranny, represented by a man prostrate, a crown fallen from his head, a broken chain in his left hand, and a scourge in his right. In the exergue the word “Vir- ginia’ appears over the head of Virtus, and underneath the words “Sic semper tyrannis” (Thus ever to tyrants). The seal of Virginia was prepared by a committee of which Richard Henry Lee and George Mason were members, and was adopted on the fifth day of July, 1776, one day after the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed. 311. New York adopted its present State flag in 1909. The law provides that it shall be blue, charged with the arms of the State in the center. These arms, dating from March 16, 1778, rival in beauty the insignia of any other State in the Union (see also 394). On the shield is the sun rising in golden splendor be- hind a range of three mountains. At the base of the central mountain a ship and sloop are shown under sail, about to meet on a river bordered by a grassy shore. An American eagle with outspread wings, rising from a globe showing the north Atlantic Ocean with outlines of its shores, forms the crest. The shield is supported on the right by a blue-robed figure of Liberty, her hair flowing and decorated with a coronet of pearls. In her right hand she holds a staff crowned with a Phrygian cap of gold. At her feet a royal crown is cast. The figure on the left is golden-robed Justice, crowned with pearls, her eyes bound, and in her left hand the familiar scales. On a scroll beneath the shield is the motto, “Excelsior.” No State has been more careful in guarding the national flag, as well as its own emblem, from desecration or improper use than the Em- pire Commonwealth. Its laws are most explicit and far-reaching in providing penalties for the misuse of official flags for advertising purposes, or for defacing, trampling upon, or mutilating State and national colors and standards. To stimulate patriotism and reverence for the na- tional flag, the New York legislature has di- rected that “it shall be the duty of the school authorities of every public school in the sev- eral cities and school districts of the State to purchase a United States flag, flagstaff, and necessary appliances. and to display such flag upon or near the public-school building during school hours, and at such other times as school authorities may direct.’ When the weather does not permit the flag’s display in the open it is placed conspicuously in the principal room in the school-house. _ 312. NortH Carortna.—The law. prescrib- ing the present State flag was enacted in 188s. It provides that the flag shall consist of a blue union containing in the center a white star with the letter “N” in gilt on the left and the letter “C” in gilt on the right of the star, the circle containing this design being one-third of the union. The fly of the flag consists of two equally proportioned bars, the upper red and the lower white. The length of the bar hori- zontally is equal to the perpendicular length of the union. The total length of the flag is one- third more than the width. A law enacted in 1907 provides that the State flag shall be flown above every State institution and public build- ing except in inclement weather. It also pro- vides that the several Boards of Supervisors of the counties shall either display the flag on the court-house staff or drape it behind the judge’s stand. These Boards may display the flag on such public occasions as they deem proper. 313. RuopE Isranp.—Although some au- thorities believe that the stars of the American colors originated in Rhode Island’s colonial colors (see also 396), it was not until 1877 that this State came to have an official flag. The flag law was revised in 1882, and again in 1897, when the existing banner was established. It is of white, five feet six inches fly, and four feet ten inches deep, on a pike, bearing on each side in the center a gold anchor twenty-two inches high, and underneath it a blue ribbon twenty-four inches long and five inches wide, or in these proportions, with the motto, “Hope,” in gold letters thereon, the whole sur- rounded by thirteen golden stars in a circle. The flag is edged with yellow fringe. The pike is surmounted by a spear head, its length being nine feet, not including the spear head. The flag of 1877 used blue for anchor, motto, and stars, red for the scroll, and white for the field. That of 1882 had a blue field in which a golden anchor and thirteen golden stars were centered. The flag of 1877 had as many stars as States, but the later flags went back to the original thirteen. 314. VERMONT'S flag, adopted in 1862, con- sists of thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, with a canton of blue, on which rests a single star of white, with the State coat-of- arms thereon. The scene represented on the coat-of-arms is an actual mountain and harvest landscape in Vermont. The outlines of the } ‘mountains are those of Camel’s Hump and Mansfield, as seen from Lake Champlain. While the records of Vermont disclose no au- thority for a coat-of-arms or a ‘flag prior to the act of September, 1866, this device appears on a State seal procured in 1821 under the order of the executive by Robert Temple, Esq., then the secretary of the Governor and Council. 315. KeENtTUCKy.—So far as a careful search of the records of the State reveal, Kentucky has never by legislative action adopted an off- cial flag. In 1880, however, a Board was con- vened by general order, under the Adjutant General, to consider and report a flag design for the use of the State guard. Its report was adopted with some modification, and by general order a State flag was prescribed for the guard and reserve militia when called into service. This consists of a blue field with the arms of the State embroidered in the center. On the escutcheon appear two men apparently shaking hands. The escutcheon is surmounted 329 MICHIGAN SEX OT ‘ CALIFORNIA REPUBLIC CALIFORNIA 332 MINNESOTA WEST VIRGINIA 335 NEBRASKA a3 NORTH DAKOTA 339 hl KANSAS (UNOFFICIAL) /\ 334 NO STATE FLAG ier a ee H ie he eaters S UE oye! \2 NEVADA \ 4 SU NEVADA Lag 336 COLORADO 338 TTT = MT Ee Ee TT | | SOUTH DAKOTA 340 331 by an eagle bearing in its beak a streamer carrying the legend, “United We Stand, Di- vided We Fall.” It is said that the original intention of the seal was to represent two friends in hunter’s garb, their right hands clasped, their left resting on each other’s shoul- ders, their feet on the verge of a precipice, which gave significance to the legend. But the engravers for the State have uniformly dressed the figures more to suit their ideals, with vary- ing heraldic effect. The escutcheon is sup- ported by four United States flags, a drum, and a cannon. 316. TENNESSEE.— This unique flag was adopted in 1905. It consists of a fly one and two-thirds times as long as it is wide. At the outer or free end is a blue bar separated from the red field by a thin white stripe. Superim- posed upon the red field is a circular disk of blue separated from the field by a thin circle of white, its width the same as the width of the white stripe separating the blue bar from the red field. Upon the blue of the circular disk are arranged three five-pointed stars of white, distributed at equal intervals around a point which is the center of the blue field. Tennessee was the third State to join the Union (after the original thirteen), a fact which the three stars recall. 317. Onto has the only pennant-shaped flag among all the States. The law making it the official ensign of the “Buckeye State” was adopted in 1902. The outer quarter of the field is swallow-tailed, the field itself consist- ing of five stripes—three red and two white— red at the bottom and top. At the staff end of the field is a triangular blue canton with the base resting on the staff and the apex reaching half way across the field. On this canton is a large circular “O” in white, inside of which is a red disk. Seventeen stars, representing all of the States at the time of Ohio’s entrance into the Union, appear grouped around the circular “O.” All of these stars are five- pointed. 318. LouistANA—Those who contend that the Stars and Stripes were used unofficially long before they were adopted by the Conti- nental Congress, on June 14, 1777, can point to the history of the Louisiana State flag as show- ing that banners are often used unofficially long before being officially adopted. It is said that this flag is a hundred years old, having become the unofficial flag of Louisiana about the time of the War of 1812, yet it was not legally adopted until July 1, 1912. The meas- ure making it the flag of the State is simply a Statute of ratification, and sets forth that it shall consist of a solid blue field with the coat- of-arms of the State, a pelican feeding its young, the ribbon beneath, also in white, con- taining in blue the motto of the State, “Union, Justice, Confidence.” The law provides that the flag shall be displayed on the State House whenever the General Assembly is in session and on public buildings throughout the State on all regular holidays and whenever other- wise decreed by the Governor or the General Assembly. 319. InpdIANA—Although the-legislature of the State of Indiana declared in 1901 that its oficial banner should be no other than the American flag itself, it reconsidered this action in 1917 and adopted a State emblem. The field of the flag is blue; its dimensions are five feet six inches fly by four feet four inches on the staff, and upon the field is centered a flaming torch in gold, or buff, with nineteen stars. Thirteen stars are circled around the torch, representing the original thirteen States, In- side this circle is a half circle of five stars below the torch, representing the five States admitted to the Union prior to Indiana. The outer circle of stars is so arranged that one of them appears directly in the middle at the top of the circle. The word “Indiana’’ is placed in a half circle over a large star, typifying the State, which is situated just above the flame of the torch. Rays from the torch radiate to the three stars of the outer circle. This banner is to be carried in addition to the American flag by the militia forces of Indiana and in all pub- lic functions in which the State officially ap- pears. 320. Mississippi is one of the States that have had more than one-flag. The old flag was white with a blue canton with a single white star thereon. On the body of the white was a green tree. The flag was fringed with red and the pike was surmounted by a toma- hawk. After the Civil War the State adopted a new flag. This consists of a blue, white, and red field, the red at the bottom, with a red canton reaching down to the red stripe of the field. A St. Andrew’s cross with thirteen stars is imposed upon the canton. The tomahawk of the old flagstaff is replaced on the new pike by a regulation spear head. 321. IttiNnors’ State flag was authorized in the year 1915. The law provides that the re- production of the emblem on the great seal of Illinois be permitted when reproduced in black or in natural colors on a white background for use as a State banner. The seal of the State of Illinois was adopted in 1810, the year after the State was admitted to the Union. In the center is an American eagle perched on an American shield; back of the shield and help- ing to support it is an olive branch. In its beak the eagle holds a scroll containing the motto, “State Sovereignty—National Union.” 322. ALABAMA’S colors were adopted by the act of February 16, 1895, which provides that the flag of the State shall be a crimson cross of St. Andrew upon a field of white; the bars forming the cross shall be not less than six inches broad, and must extend diagonally across the flag from side to side. The flag shall be hoisted on the dome of the capitol when the two houses of the legislature are in session, and shall be used by the State on all occasions when it may be necessary or con- sistent to display a flag, except when in the opinion of the Governor the national flag should be displayed. It is said that the pur- pose of the legislature in enacting the State flag law was to preserve in permanent form some of the more distinctive features of the Confederate battle- flag, especially the St. Andrew’s cross (see 375). This being true, the Alabama flag should be square in all its lines and measurements and conform to the well-known battle flag of the Confederacy. 332 323. Marne’s present flag dates from the year 1909. It consists of a field of blue, the same color as the blue field in the flag of the United States, the flag being five feet six inches long and four feet four inches wide. In the center there is embroidered in silk on both sides the coat-of-arms of the State, in propor- tionate size. The edges of the flag are trimmed with modern fringe of yellow silk two and a half inches wide. A cord and tassel, to be attached to the staff at the spearhead, is eight feet six inches long and composed of white and blue strands. The length of the staff is nine feet, including the brass spearhead and ferrule. The laws protecting the State flag are the same as those protecting the national flag. Any one who uses it for purposes of adver- tisement or who mutilates, tramples, or other- wise defaces or defiles it, whether public or private property, shall be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than fifty dollars. 324. Muissourt formally adopted an official flag in 1913. It is rectangular in shape, the vertical width being seven-twelfths the hori- zontal length. The field consists of one red, one white, and one blue horizontal stripe of equal width, the red at the top and the blue at the bottom. In the center there is a band of blue in the form of a circle inclosing the coat- of-arms in the colors established by law. The width of the blue band is one-fourteenth the vertical width of the flag, and the diameter of the circle is one-third the horizontal length of the flag. In the blue band there are set at equal distances from each other twenty-four five-pointed stars, Within the circle ona ground of white is the coat-of-arms of the State. The sinister (left) half of the circular shield shows the American eagle as it appears upon the great seal of the United States. The upper dexter (right) quarter is blue, with a white crescent. The lower dexter quarter is red, with a grizzly bear. It is. supported by two grizzly bears. 325. ARKANSAS as early as 1876 used an of- ficial State flag- at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. This was a red field bearing the arms of the State. But this design was never recognized by the legislature. Instead, in 1913, a committee, of which the ‘Secretary of State was chairman, examined a number of designs and selected one for the emblem of the Commonwealth. This the General Assembly adopted by concurrent resolution, approved February 26, 1913. It consists of a red field upon which is imposed a blue-bordered white diamond bearing the word “Arkansas” and three five-pointed ‘stars, in blue. On the blue border of the diamond are twenty-five five- pointed white stars, which proclaim the fact that Arkansas was the twenty-fifth State to be- come a part of the American Union. 326. MicHicANn’s present flag dates from 1911, when an act was passed to adopt and pre- scribe the design of the coat-of-arms and a State flag, and their use, and also to prohibit their desecration in any way. The law pro- vides that the flag of the State shall be blue, with the coat - of 4 arms superimposed on the center. The coat-of-arms consists of the de- vice and inscription of the great seal of-the State presented by Lewis Cass through the con- stitutional convention held preliminary to its admission into the Union. Only the words “The Great Seal of the State of Michigan, A. D. 1835,” are omitted. The coat-of-arms consists principally of a shield with the device “Tuebor” (I will defend), supported by an elk and a moose, rampant. An American eagle with wings outstretched forms the crest. On the lower part of the shield is a rising sun and a man, dressed in rustic garb, standing on a peninsula, his right arm raised and his left resting on a gun stock. On an unending scroll below appears the motto, “Si quaeris peninsu- lam, amoenam, circumspice” (If thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, look around). 327. Froripa has had several State flags, but the present one dates from 1899. In that year the Florida Legislature adopted a joint reso- lution providing that the dimensions of the flag should be three-fourths as wide as long, and that in the center of the field should be placed the seal of the State, its diameter to be one- third the length of the flag and its ground to be white. Red bars with the width one-eighth the length of the flag extending from each corner toward the center to the outer rim of the seal. In the seal appears a view of the sun’s rays, a highland in the distance, a cocoa- nut tree, a steamboat on water, and an Indian woman scattering flowers in the foreground. The words “In God We Trust” appear on the inner rim of the device. Florida’s seal was adopted by the Constitutional Convention of 1868 and has been ratified by succeeding con- ventions. 328. Trexas.—The lone star flag of Texas dates from the days of the Republic. The third Congress of the embryo nation fixed its design, which has never been altered... It con- sists of a blue perpendicular bar next to the staff, one-third the length of the flag, with a star of five points in the center. The other two-thirds of the flag is made up of two hori- zontal bars, of equal width, one white and the other red, the white at the top. Some years ago a hoodlum committed an act of desecration against the flag, which was roundly punished by a native Texan. The State legislature was so pleased with the performance that it passed a special act commending the man who. had thrashed the offender. 329. Iowa is the latest recruit to the list of States having an officially adopted flag. On May 11, 1917, the State Regent of the Daugh- ters of American Revolution submitted a de- sign to the War Council of Iowa, which promptly approved it. The design was copy- righted and the committee having charge of its preparation was extended a vote of thanks by the Council. The flag as adopted consists of a field of white, on the upper half of which is an eagle in natural colors in flight, carrying in its beak a long pennant upon which appear the words “Our Liberties We Prize And Our Rights We Will Maintain.” Below this pen- nant appears in large block type the word Iowa. The national colors are preserved, the field being white, the lettering of the motto blue, and the word Iowa red. The flag will be of regulation size and form, and copies of it are to be widely distributed by the Daughters of the American Revolution throughout the State. 333 TTT TT MONTANA l WASHINGTON (UNOFFICIAL) 341 342 AS Ri WYOMING f 344. jum iS DON TENTH EY TATTY OCS OKLAHOMA i A 346 t ‘ NEW MEXICO ARIZONA ot/ 348 N. G. DISTRICT COLUMBIA 350 351 | GOV. PANAMA CANAL ZONE 352 MINDANAO & SULU SEAL ALASKA 355 353 SECRETARY OlF THE INGE RIOR 357 PORTO RICO 356 330. WISCONSIN’s State flag was officially adopted in 1913. The law provides that it shall be of dark blue silk, five feet six inches fly and four feet four inches on the pike; the State coat-of-arms is embroidered on each side in silk of appropriate color and design, and the edges of the flag are trimmed with knotted fringe of yellow silk two and one-half inches wide. The pike is nine feet long, including the spearhead and ferrule; the cord eight feet six inches long, with two tassels composed of blue and white silk strands intermixed. Service flags may be of bunting or other material, of such size as may be required, and the coat-of- arms may be represented otherwise than by embroidery. 331. CALIFORNIA in IgII adopted what is popularly known in the State’s history as the “Bear Flag,” as the official ensign of the “Gol- den Gate’ Commonwealth. The law provides that the Bear Flag shall consist of a white field, with a red stripe at the bottom one-sixth as wide as the field. In the upper left-hand corner of the field is a single red star, and at the bottom of the white field the words ‘“Cali- fornia Republic.” Above these words appears a California grizzly bear upon a grass plat, in the position of walking toward the left of the field. The bear is dark brown in color and in length equal to one-third the length of the flag. The Bear Flag dates from the days of the California pioneers and commemorates the biggest bear known to science, the California grizzly, now extinct. 332. Minnesota adopted her State flag at the same time that she provided for a State flower. The ground is of white silk and the reverse side of blue silk, bordered with bullion fringe. In the center is the State seal wreathed with white moccasin flowers and a blue ground. The red ribbon of the seal, bearing the motto, “L/Etoile du Nord” (Star of the North), is continued through the wreath entwining the blossoms and fluttering over the lower portion of the flag. The seal bears in gold 1819 and 1893, the dates, respectively, of settlement and of the adoption of the flag; also, in variegated gold, is the date 1858, the time of the admis- sion of Minnesota into the Union. Below, in gold letters, is wrought “Minnesota.” Grouped around the seal are nineteen stars, so arranged that they appear to form the points of a five- pointed star, of which the seal itself is the central portion. Four of the points are made up of four stars each; the fifth point, at the top, 1s made up of three stars, one of them larger than the others, typifying the North Star and representing the “North Star State.” The choice of the number nineteen was made because Minnesota was the nineteenth State after the original thirteen admitted to the Union. The standard of the flag is surmount- ed by a gold gopher and tied with a gold cord and tassel. 333. Orecon followed the example of a majority of her sister States in devising her flag by making the field blue with a fringe of gold. The size of the flag is five feet six inches fly and four feet four inches on pike. The yellow fringe is four inches deep and the cord and tassel are blue and white silk intermixed. The length of the pike is ten feet, including the spearhead. The arms of the State are em- broidered or painted in the center with the number and arm of the service of the regiment underneath where it is used as a regimental flag. The arms consist of an inseription sup- ported by 32 stars, the number of States in the Union at the time Oregon was admitted, and divided by an ordinary with the inscrip- tion, “The Union.” Above this inscription is an elk with branching antlers, a wagon, Pacific Ocean, a British man-of-war departing, and an American steamer arriving. Below the inscrip- tion is a sheaf, a plow, and a pick-axe. The national shield forms the crest. The figures 1859 proclaim the date of the admission of Oregon into the Union. 334. KANSAS is another State which, ac- cording to the most careful research, has not officially adopted a flag. The military officials, therefore, have provideda blue flag upon which is centered the coat-of-arms of the State, Ag- riculture is represented by the plowman in the foreground, commerce by the river and steam- boat in the background. Above the plowman is a wagon train westward bound, following. the course of empire. A herd of buffalo is. seen retreating, pursued by two Indians on horseback. Around the top is the motto, “Ad astra per aspera (To the stars through diffi- culties). Underneath the motto is a cluster of thirty-four stars, representing the States in the Union at the time of the admission of Kansas. 335. West VircintA.—The St. Louis World’s Fair was responsible for. the adoption of West Virginia’s State flag. The West Virginia State Commission at that exposition found it neces- sary to adopt a flag and special design to dis- tinguish West Virginia from other States of the Union represented. ‘Therefore, it under- took the task of designing a flag itself. The following year the legislature ratified this de- sign, amending it only by the addition of a fringe or border of gold or orange. The law provides that the proportions of the flag shall be the same as those of the United States ban- ner; that the field shall be pure white, upon the center of which, on the obverse side, shall be the great seal or coat-of-arms of the State, with the motto, “Montani Semper Liberi’ (Mountaineers always freemen), and beneath that, in a scroll, the legend, “State of West Virginia.” On the reverse side of the flag ap- pears a sprig or sprigs of rhododendron maxi- mum, or big laurel, the State flower, having a blossom and leaves. The field of pure white is bordered by a strip of blue, and this in turn by a strip or fringe of old gold. The flag of the State is to be employed on all occasions where a special display of the State’s individ- uality shall become necessary or be regarded as appropriate. 336. NevapA has had several State flag laws, but the one now in force dates from 1915. The flag it authorizes consists of a blue field, in the center of which is placed the great seal of the State of Nevada as designed in 1912. The seal is given a scroll border, and the words “The Great Seal of the State of Nevada” are omitted. Immediately above the seal is the word “Nevada” in silver-colored, block Roman capital letters. Immediately be- low the seal, and in the form of a scroll, are 336 the words “All for Our Country.” The scroll is red and the lettering gold. Above the center device is a row of eighteen gold-colored stars arranged in an arc, and below it a row of eighteen silver-colored stars, arranged like- wise. Each star has five points, one point be* ing placed up. On the seal appear a range of mountains with a sun rising behind them, a railroad train passing a bridge, a cabin and team of horses, a plow, and a sickle. 337. NeBRASKa’s State flag consists of the coat-of-arms or seal on a yellow field. The present seal was adopted in 1867 and is thus described: The eastern part of the circle shows a steamboat ascending the Missouri River; the mechanic arts are represented by a smith with hammer and anvil in the foreground; agricul- ture is pictured by a settler’s cabin and sheaves of wheat; in the background a train of cars is seen heading toward the Rocky Mountains. Around the top of this circle, in capital letters, is the motto, “Equal Before the Law.” 338. CoLorapo has given considerable atten- tion to its State flag. There was legislation concerning a banner for the Centennial Com- monwealth in 1908, but the present flag dates from roit. It consists of one white and two blue stripes of equal width and at right angles to the staff. The width of the flag is two- thirds of its length. At a distance of 1/36 of the total length from the staff end of the flag there is a circular red “C” of the same color as the red in the national flag of the United States. The diameter of the letter is one-sixth the width of the flag; the inner line of the opening of the letter “C” is three-fourths the width of its body or bar, and the outer line of the opening is double the length of the inner line. Completely filling the letter “C” appears a golden disk. Attached to the flag is a cord of gold and silver intertwined, with tassels, one of gold and one of silver. The law creat- ing the flag provides that it shall be used on all eccasions when the State is officially or publicly represented with the privilege of use by all citizens on all such occasions as they may deem fitting and appropriate. All pro- visions of the State laws regarding the misuse of the national flag are made applicable to the abuse of the State colors. 339. NorrH Daxota’s flag was adopted in -I9tr. Its origin is almost entirely unknown. The Blue Book of the State says that it was the flag of the territorial militia, and that it is first remembered at Huron, South Dakota, when it was unfurled at an annual encamp- ment. That authority also states that it is not known who designed the flag, nor is it discov- erable when it was first used. With its yellow- fringed blue fly charged with a coat-of-arms that borrows the eagle from the national seal, North Dakota follows the example of half of the States in the placing of its arms on a blue, gold-fringed flag. 340. SourH “Daxora’s official flag dates from 1909. The law adopting it says ‘that the State flag shall consist of a field of blue one and two-thirds as long as it is. wide, in the center of which shall be a blazing sun in gold, in diameter two-fifths the width of the ‘flag. Above this sun shall be arranged in an are, in gold letters, the words “South Dakota,” and below the sun in the arc the words, in gold letters, “The Sunshine State.” On the reverse of the blazing sun shall be printed the great seal of the State. The edges of the flag ‘shall be trimmed with a fringe "of gold, The Sta ff shall be surmounted by a spear head, to which Shai be attached a cord and tassels of suitable length and size. In practice the seal of the State is placed on the obverse side of the flag and the blazing sun on the reverse, which, while following the general principle of flag designing, seems to be the opposite of the in- tent of the law. 341. Montana’s flag was adopted in 1905, the law providing that it shall be of a blue field, with a representation of the great seal of the State in the center and with a gold fringe along the upper and lower borders. ‘This is a copy of the flag borne by the First Montana Infantry, United States Volunteers, in the Spanish-American War, except that the device “First Montana Infantry, U. S. V.” is omitted. The seal of the State consists of a brilliant sun setting behind a range of mountains; in the foreground is a plow and miner’s pick and spade. Below the pick and spade is a scroll reading, “Oro y Plata,’ which means “Gold and Silver.” ; 342. WASHINGTON State has never officially adopted a flag, but the military authorities have provided one with a green field upon which is centered the seal of the State. The vignette of General George Washington is the central figure and beneath it are the figures “7889.” Around the vignette is a yellow circle bearing the legend, “The Seal of the State of Washington.” 343. IpAnHo’s laws forbid all military or- ganizations within the State from carrying any other flag or device than the national flag and the flag of the Commonwealth. The latter was authorized by the tenth legislature in 1909, al- though the details of the design were left by the lawmakers to the Adjutant General, it being prescribed only that the banner should have a blue field charged with the name of the State. The dimensions, as well as the addition of the coat-of-arms above the ribbon with its legend “State of Idaho,’ have since been de- termined upon by the proper authority. The coat-of-arms consists of a circular device within a yellow border, the main feature of which is a moose-crested escutcheon showing a blazing sun rising above three mountain peaks and a river in the foreground. The supporters are a miner with pick and shovel and a woman bearing the scales and the torch of liberty. Beneath the shield appear a sheaf of wheat and two horns of plenty. Above the crest is a scroll of white with the legend in red, “Esto Perpetua” (May she be perpetual). 344. WyomiNc’s flag is one of the new- est of the State flags. It was created under a law passed on the last day of January, 1917. That law provides that the width of the flag shall be seven-tenths of its length; the outside border is red, its width one-twentieth the length of the flag. Next to this red stripe is an inner stripe of white whose width is one- thirtieth the length of the flag. The remainder of the flag is a blue field, in the center of which is a white silhouetted buffalo, the length of 337 | “a et 5 FLAG OF CA80T THE RAVEN OF THE VIKINGS FLAG OF COLUM ENGLAND 358 STANDARD OF S 360 , R HILL. FLAG SSC Se aay Say Se 363 XX : = DONT Gi VE UP THE SH#P ¥, 364 FIRST NAVY ENSIGN 365 FIRST NAVY JACK Wa SNS Nar KE CAMBRIDGE FLAG \ Sia ao 366 PERRY'S FLAG—LAKE ERIE ENDICOTT FLAG 1634 382 FLAG ESCUTCHEON ENSIGN NEW ENGLAND x 1737 NEWBURY, MASS 384 COR IMOwETRVE 389 FLAG NOMA SCOTIA | DONT TREAD ON ME GADSDEN FLAG LIBERTY TREE AN APPEAL? TO GOD 399 |e ESET. ins FLAG 1776 403 402) WESTMORE-— 408 N. H. REGIMENT GATINO!IS REGT. JW (FRENCH) FLAG || AN APPEALTO HEAVEN [a WASHINGTON S CRUISERS $ ISLAND SOUTH CAROLINA NAVY ENSIGN SAINTOGNE R 1} (FRENCH) DONT TREAD ON ME MASSACHUSETTS NAVY LIBERTY FORT MOULTRI FLAG 406 WW BUCKS OF AMERICA FLAG ofr FRANCE FRENCH FLAG 1365701574 |] CHAMPLAIN & DE GRASSE FLAGS FAMOUS IN AMERICAN 423 NAPOLEON'S FLAG LOUISIANA 1803 HISTORY ERICAN ALASKA AM which is one-half that of the blue field. On the ribs of the buffalo appears the great shield of the State of Wyoming in blue. The diam- eter of the shield is one-fifth the length of the flag. Attached to the flag is a cord of gold with gold tassels. All penalties provided by the laws of the State for the misuse of a national flag are applicable to the State flag. 345- Uran's flag, consisting of a blue field with a border of gold and a design in the center, was adopted in 1911. The design was revised in 1913. It consists now of a device in natural colors, the fundamental portion of which is a shield surmounted by an eagle with outstretched wings. The shield bears a bee- hive, on each side of which grow sego lilies and above which is the word “Industry.” At the bottom of the shield is a green field bear- ing the date 1847, with the word “Utah” above it. Two American flags on flagstaffs, placed crosswise, are so draped that they project be- yond each side of the shield, the head of the flagstaffs in front of the eagle’s wings, and the bottom of each staff appearing over the face of the draped flag below the shield. Be- low the shield and flags and upon the blue field is the date “1806,” the year in which the State was admitted to the Union. Around the entire design is a narrow circle of gold. 346. OxkLAHOMA.—The law under which Oklahoma adopted an official State flag was enacted in 1911. The flag authorized under it consists of a red field, in the center of which is a five-pointed star of white edged with blue, with the figures “46” in blue in the middle of the star. This number proclaims the fact that Oklahoma was the forty-sixth State to become a part of the Union. The Oklahoma flag de- parts from the usual in its pike head. Instead of the regulation spearhead, an eagle at rest, facing the direction of the fly, stands guard over the colors. 347. NEw ying elements unique in eve ee the official flag of the State of New Mexico was adopted shortly after the Commonwealth became a member of the Union. The banner has a turquoise blue field, emblematic of the blue skies of New Mexico; it has a canton consisting of the flag of the United States in miniature in the upper left-hand corner, designating the loyalty of the people of the State to the Union; in the upper right-hand corner of the field a figure 47, the forty-seventh star and State in the American Union; in the lower right-hand corner is the great seal of the State, and upon the field run- ning from the lower left to the upper right- hand corner are the words “New Mexico” in white. When the flag law was passed it was ordered that the embroidered banner attached to the bill should be deposited with the Secre- tary of State to be faithfully kept by him in the archives of the Commonwealth. 348. Arizona—A bill making the flag of the battleship Arizona the banner of the Com- monwealth for which it is named failed to pass the State Senate in 1015, but a similar bill was adopted early in 1917. As finally de- scribed, the upper part of the flag consists of thirteen segments or rays, alternate red and yellow; the lower part is a solid field of blue, while upon the center is imposed a copper star. It was objected at the time of the adoption of this design that it contained nothing charac- teristic of Arizona; that it infringed upon the ensign of Japan, and that the effect of a star against a rising sun was a severe straining of astronomy. A “substitute bill was prepared and offered to the upper house of the legislature, but the original form became a law, thus es- tablishing one of the most striking of the State banners. 349. The flag of Hawaii preserves the crosses of St. Andrew, St. George, and St. Patrick, and carries eight stripes. Some of the Southern States retain the cross of St. Andrew, but Hawaii is the only American soil over which float the three crosses which were the cantonal feature of the first flag of the United Colonies of America (364). 350. ‘The flag of the National Guard of the District of Columbia has a rectangular field, the fly end of which is swallow-tailed. Cen- tered thereon is a small hatchet, whose alleged manipulation in connection with an apocryphal cherry tree is reputed to have put the Father of His Country to a very trying test in the matter of veracity. The designations of the forces appear on scrolls above and below the hatchet. 351. The banner of the National Geographic Society is a flag of adventure and conquest; a flag of adventure because it is ever carried beyond the horizon of known scientific fact, in the hope that there may be found some new truth that will make mankind freer in the solu- tion of the problems that ever confront the race; it is the flag of conquest because it has gone to the tops of high mountains, to the in- most recesses of regions unexplored by civil- ized man, to the craters of volcanoes whose fiery depths have never been surveyed -by the human eye. Those who have had its support have conquered polar ice and polar seas, have mastered many of the secrets of glacial action, have lent a hand to the solution of the great problem of vulcanism, have unearthed the holy city of the Incas, have rescued venerable trees of California from the only enemy they ever “feared—the man with the ax and the saw. Its colors, typifying earth, sea, and sky, proclaim the illimitable reaches of the fields of interest over which it flies, and the vastness of the work of exploration and diffusion of knowl- edge, in which it has played no small part, and to which its future efforts shall ever be dedi- cated, 352. ‘The Governor of the Panama Canal Zone flies a rectangular flag upon which is centered the seal of the Canal Zone. ‘This consists of an escutcheon which shows a ship under full sail passing through Gaillard Cut, at the point where it divides Gold Hill and Contractor’s Hill. Below the escutcheon is a streamer bearing the now familiar words, “The land divided, the world united.” The escutcheon and streamer are grounded upon a circle of white. 353. The seal of the Territory of Alaska is a circular field bearing in the background a sun rising over snow-capped, embattled moun- tains. In the right foreground are the waters that wash the shore of “the territory, bearing two sailing vessels. To the left is a pier, 340 EEE rudely constructed, and an outpost of civiliza- tion. In the foreground is a team of horses. Around the whole is inscribed, “The Seal of the Territory of Alaska.” 354. The coat-of-arms of the Philippine Is- lands was adopted in 1905. Its principal fea- ture is an escutcheon showing the national colors of the United States. “Imposed upon this escutcheon are the arms of Manila on a shield, the upper half red and the lower blue. Upon the upper half of this shield, in gold, is the castle of Spain, with blue windows, and - on the lower half a sea-lion bearing in its right paw ahilted sword. The crest is the American spread eagle, and beneath is a scroll with the words “Philippine Islands.” 355. The coat-of-arms of Mindanao and Sulu was adopted in 1905, along with those of the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico.’ It con- sists of the escutcheon of the United States, upon which is imposed a Moro war vinta sail- ing an Indian sea. Above the escutcheon is the American spread eagle mounted on a wreath, supported by the ‘crossed weapons of war of the Indian seas, and below the device is a scroll bearing the words “Mindanao and Sulu.” 356. The present coat-of-arms of the Island of Porto Rico, adopted in 1905, is a restoration of the original arms of the Spanish colony of “the rich port.” Therefore it is in all its parts reminiscent of Spanish times. On a green cir- cular field is a lamb of silver on the red-bound book and bearing the cross-crowned banner of Christ. This is the device ascribed to St. John. Above the lamb are the gold-crowned letters F and I—Ferdinand and Isabella. .Surround- ing the green field is a white border edged with gold. Upon this border are the castles of Castile, the crowned red lions that proclaim Lebn, the crosses of Jerusalem, and the stand- ards of Spain in the days when the star of her fame was at its zenith. 357. The flag of the Secretary of the In- terior, with its light green field bearing in the center a golden buffalo and a five-pointed star in each quarter, stands for many of the na- tion’s activities and much of the world’s prog- ress. The Department whose chief it pro- claims fosters the priceless fruits of American inventive genius, aids and safeguards those who have made America the foremost min- eral-producing country of the earth, supervises the pension. system through which is dis- charged the national duty toward those who have fought the battles of the Republic, spon- sors the cause of justice to the Red Man, who has given a continent to civilization. ‘This De- partment directs the national aspects of Amer- ican education, and thus leads Western civili- zation to a new era; it is saving to posterity the inestimable boon of majestic forests and untouched stretches of primeval nature; it is reclaiming millions of acres of unproductive land and tapping the bare rocks of waste places with the wand of irrigation. Also it has dis- tributed an empire to the pioneers of the West and transformed a million square miles of idle territory into a wealth- and strength-produc- ing region of infinite national value. FLAGS FAMOUS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 358. THE RAVEN OF THE’ VIKINGS. — Five hundred years before the arrival of Columbus in the New World, Eric the Red is supposed to have guided his ships, square-sailed, deco- rated with curiously carved figureheads, and manned by hardy Norsemen, to the shores of Vinland (Labrador, or Nova Scotia, or the New England coast), and there planted for a brief period this banner with the strange de- vice of “a raven, with wings extended and open bill, upon a white ground.” — 359. FLAG oF CoLuMBUS, STANDARD OF Spain.—A quartered flag of red, gold and sil- ver—the standard of Castile and Leon—is gen- erally accepted as having been the first Euro- pean banner flown on American soil. This truly regal standard was planted on the beach before the startled gaze of the awe-struck abo- rigines when Christopher Columbus, richly clad, set foot on shore on October 12, 1492, and, in the name of their Catholic majesties, Isabella and Ferdinand, formally took possession of the island which he called San Salvador, but which is believed to have been what is now known as Watling Island in the Bahamas. 360. Frac of Casot, ENGLAND. — Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot), the discoverer of North America, had many points in common with his contemporary, Columbus. They were both Genoese, both believed the earth to be round, and that'the east could be reached by sailing west, and both finally set out on their voyages of discovery under the flag of a foreign mon- arch. Cabot’s flag was the royal standard of England, the red cross of St. George on a white ground, and his patron was King Henry VII, whose enthusiasm for the enterprise was quickened by the news that Columbus had found the East in the West. It was on June 24, 1497, that this flag of England was planted in the New World (probably on the northern extremity of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia), and the explorer took possession of the coun- try in the name of England’s king. 361. This was the union flag which prob- ably was displayed from the main mast of the Mayflower that bore the Pilgrim Fathers to Plymouth in 1620, and on the ships which brought the English settlers to Jamestown in 1607. These vessels also displayed St. George’s cross (360) at the fore mast and the red ensign (382). The union flag had come into existence in 1603, when James VI of Scotland ascended the throne of England as James I, thus uniting the two countries under one sovereign after centuries of warfare. He ordered all ships to display this flag at the main mast. They con- tinued to use their own ensigns and jacks, how- ever—English ships 1123 and 1127, Scottish ships 1131 and 831 (note 1132 for Scotch de- BANNERS—INCAS BEFORE PIZARRO AZTEC STANDARD BATTLE OF OTUMBA A 425 ARMY. OlR TRIE: ANDES | ae BOLIVAR Pea OF HIDALGO ie {Qe pao) a) ORDER OF CHRIST || || TEXAS FLAG W441 (NAVAL) fo | = CORRIENTES | GUATEMALA | ENTRE RIOS 1} 446 © 447 Hk 448 FLAGS FAMOUS IN AMERICAN HISTORY 342 BOLIVIA ENSIGN 454 458 BRAZIL ENSIGN COLOMBIA ENSIGN 462 ARGENTINA PRESIDENT 451 457 ARGENTINA ADMIRAL SHORE 460 CHILENATIONAL & MERCHANT CHILE COAT ARMS COSTA RICA ENSIGN 466 CUBA ENSIGN 470 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 474 ENSIGN ECUADOR ENSIGN 478 COSTA RICA MERCHANT 467 COSTA RICA COAT ARMS 469 CUBA COAT ARMS CUBA CAPTAIN OF FLEET 471 CUBA U SECRETARY OF NAVY DOMINICAN REPUBLIC ADMIRAL 477 475 MERCHANT DOMINICAN REPUBLIC DOMINICAN REPUBLIC COAT ARMS l | 5 ECUADOR COAT ARMS ECUADOR MERCHANT 479 |) DOMINICAN REPUBLIC COMDG OFFICER'S PENNANT Ly 343 sign of union flag). After the union of par- liaments in 1707 this was the only flag officially used on land over forts and public buildings in the English colonies. With the addition of designating numerals above a small crown at the intersection of the crosses, it became the “King’s Colors” for regimental troops. 362-363. CoNTINENTAL AND BUNKER HILL. The illustrations show two replicas in Annap- olis of flags said to have been carried at Bun- ker Hill. The Trumbull painting of the battle of Bunker Hill shows 362, while others show 363. 362 was probably formed from the Eng- lish ensign, shown in 1123 (in use prior to 1705), by omitting St. George’s cross and sub- stituting the pine tree, which was the symbol of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (see also 301, 399, and 401). 363 was made by inserting a pine tree in the upper left quarter of the old blue English ensign’s, canton (1125). 364. This was the flag hoisted by John Paul Jones on December 3, 1775, as the navy ensign of the thirteen colonies, when Commodore Esek Hopkins assumed command of the navy built by Congress. It was also hoisted by General Washington January 2, 1776, as the standard of the Continental Army and remained as our aational flag until the adoption of the Stars and Stripes, June 14, 1777 (see history of ‘Stars and Stripes” elsewhere in this number). 365. Our First Navy JacK.—Hoisted De- cember 3, 1775, the same day that John Paul Jones hoisted 364 as the ensign of our new navy and that 308 was raised at the main mast as the flag of the Commander-in-Chief, Esek Hopkins (see 398 and 400). 366. Prrry’s Frac, LAKE Erte.—At the bat- tle of Lake Erie, September 10, 1813, Oliver Hazard Perry, who was in command of a fleet which he had been forced to construct in fever- ish haste from virgin timber, unfurled from his masthead this challenge to sturdy Ameri- canism—the dying words of brave Captain Lawrence. Under its inspiration the men fought gallantly through one of the most nota- ble naval engagements of the war, enabling Perry at its close to send the famous message to General Harrison, “We have met the enemy and they are ours—two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.” 367. Although so distinguished a citizen as S. F. B. Morse proposed at the outbreak of the Civil War that the national flag; the Stars and Stripes, should be cut in twain, the North retaining the upper six and one-half stripes and those stars above a diagonal line extend- ing from the head of the staff to the lower corner of the canton, while the South should be given the lower six and a half stripes and the stars below the diagonal line on the can- ton, the remainder of each flag being white, neither the North nor the South saw fit to fol- low such a suggestion. The Stars and Stripes carried by the armies of the North during the last years of the Civil War had thirty-six stars in the union, as shown in 367. When Lincoln became President, however, there were only thirty-four States, which were impersonated at the inaugural ceremonies by thirty-four little girls, who rode in a gaily decorated car in the procession and sang to the new President, “Hail, Columbia.” 368. The artillery during the Civil War car- ried a standard with thirty-six stars arranged three stars at the top, three at the bottom, and a lay-out of thirty in six horizontal lines of five stars each. It will be noticed that this flag, like 367, was adopted after West Virginia and Nevada had entered the Union. i 369. The design on the colors of infantry regiments during the Civil War was almost a counterpart of that borne on the standard of the War of 1812 (see 22). It shows an eagle displayed and bearing upon its breast a shield, with a scroll in its beak and another below it, upon which appeared the designation of each regiment. Above the eagle are thirteen golden stars arranged in two arcs. 370. The regimental colors of the United States artillery during the Civil War were yel- low. Upon the field were centered two crossed cannons with a scroll above and below bearing the designation of the regiment. 371. This flag is the famthar “Stars and Bars” of the Southern Confederacy and was used from March, 1861, to May, 1863. ° 372. This jack of the Confederate States was made to correspond with the provisional flag of the Confederacy, known as the Stars and Bars. It probably was flown by ships of the seceding States until 1863, when the navy jack (374) was prescribed by the Secretary of the Confederate Navy. 373. This ensign was probably displayed by me ships of the Confederacy from 1861 to Id03, 374. The navy jack of the Southern Con- federacy, used after May 1, 1863, had an ob- long red field, with a blue St. Andrew’s cross bordered by white and having three stars on each arm and one at the intersection. It was merely the square canton of the second flag of the Confederacy elongated, so that its length was one and a half times its width. The battle flag of the Confederacy during the same period was ltke this navy jack, except that-it was square, and all four of its sides were bordered by a white stripe one and a half inches wide. The battle flag carried by the in- fantry was forty-eight inches square, that by the artillery thirty-six inches, and that by the cavalry thirty inches square. 375. The national flag of the Confederacy between May 1, 1863, and March 4, 1865, had a white field twice as long as wide, with the battle flag as its union. 376. The Confederacy’s national flag, adopt- ed March 8, 1865, was the same as that adopted May 1, 1863 (375), except that one-half of the: field between the union and the end of the fly was occupied by a horizontal bar of red. 377. Hupson’s Frac—When Henry Hud- son glided into the unsailed waters of New York harbor in his little Half Moon, this flag was his ensign; thus it is supposed to have been one of the first European flags reflected in the waters of what is now the busiest port on earth. It was the flag of the Netherlands, with the letters A. O. C. added to the central stripe. These were the initials of the Dutch East India Company, “Algemeene Oost-Indise Compagnie,” under whose auspices Hudson sailed. Later it floated over the little huts built by the East India Company on Manhattan Island for the fur traders. But in 1650 the orange stripe on the Netherlands flag became the red stripe of today’s banner (775), and with the.withdrawal of the East India Company’s interests from New Netherlands this flag disappeared from our waters and shores. 378. DutcH West InpIA Company.—In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was formed and, with other valuable concessions, was given control of the fur trade of the New World by the States General of Holland. Thus this flag decame dominant in the waters around New York in 1622, and continued so for forty-two The letters G. W. C. are the initials of . years. the company, “Geoctroyeerde West - Indische Compagnie.” In 1650 the orange stripe was changed to red in accordance with a similar change in the national flag of Holland. It was not until the conquest of New Netherlands by the English in 1664 that this flag disappeared from our northern shores. 379- St. George on the English flags was a source of question to the stern religionists of the Massachusetts Colony. John Endicott, with Spartan directness, attempted to settle the matter by cutting out a part of the red cross on the Salem ensign in 1634. This led to long- drawn litigation. Fear of offending the mother country struggled with the.seeming idolatry of a cross on a flag. Finally it was decided to “render unto Cesar’ his own, and inasmuch as the fort of Castle Island,at Boston, was maintained in the King’s name, his colors were allowed to fly there, It was not until 1651, however, that the general court of Massachu- setts gave official sanction to the use of the flag with its cross. This illustration of the Endicott flag, with its distinguishing blue ball in the first quarter of the canton, shows it before the mutilation. 380. Krnc’s STANDARD IN: 1635—The de- signs on this royal flag, which was in use dur- ing the early settlement of our country, are especially suggestive and carry us back to the very roots of English history. Each little symbol found its place on the flag through some noteworthy event in the ever- changing fortunes of early England. ‘he harp on the third quarter is the ancient symbol of Ireland (see 839), which Elizabeth, success in dealing with the island, added to the royal ensign. On the second quarter ap- pears the lion 76f Scotland (see 838), in token of that country’s union with England. The first and fourth quarters of the shield alike bear the three lions and the three fleurs-de-lis. Two of the lions were introduced by William Il from the arms of his native Normandy. Authorities differ as to the origin of the third lion, some maintaining that it was added by Henry II in honor of his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, who brought him as a dowry ‘three provinces in France. Edward ITT, on assum- ing the title “King of France,’ in 1340, quar- tered with the lions the fleurs-de-lis on a blue field.. It remained for James I, in 1603, to combine these various symbols into the form seen here. , 381. THree County Troop.—It was in 1659 - that three counties of Massachusetts—Suffolk, Middlesex, and Essex—raised a company of Enpicorr’s Frac.—The red cross of ° in token of her’ cavalry called the Three County Troop, which continued its organization for twenty years or more. ‘Their standard is not known to be in existence at present; but a most interesting drawing of it and the original bill of cost for it) ane preserved in the British Museum. The legend in the drawing reads: “Thre County Trom,” apparently a mistake in copying the word troop from the original banner. It prob- ably waved above the brave Colonials in King Philip’s War of 1675 and 1676, 382. Under the red ensign many of Eng- land’s. greatest admirals won the victories which made the island kingdom mistress of the seas. This is the famous “metéor flag of Old England,” and until the union of the lang- doms of England and Scotland under one par- liament, in 17 707, it was the ensign of the Eng- lish colonies in America. It was especialh dear to the New England colonists, who cher- ished its brave traditions as their own. 383. A Coronta, Frac. 384. Nrwsury Mass. 388. New ENcLAND, 1737. 390. TAUN- ton FLAG.—To one interested in watching the growth and development of customs or -in tracing the symbolic expressions of the ideas Oval people, there is no more fascinating study than the growth of our own flag. Naturally, the Colonists used at first the flags of the homeland (such as 361). But slowly the en- vironment of this new, spacious country, working in connection with the deep religious consciousness of the people, wrought itself into visible form in the flags. At Taunton, Mass., was raised, in 1774, flag number 300, the red. union English flag com- mon at the time, with the addition of the watchword of America—the magic watchword that now, after nearly a century and a half. bids fair to become the watchword of the world. In 383 a stronger feeling of separation is indicated in the plain red flag with the pure white. canton. In 384, the flag of Newbury. Mass., the cross is retained, but the color of the field has changed to the green of the New England forests. Then, in place of the British cross, we see coming into prominence the sturdy native American emblems. A pine tree on a white ground was a symbol of many qualities con- spicuous in the lives of our New England an- cestors. Simple, austere, and bearing withal a stately dignity, it fittingly expressed the ideas of the times. Moreover, it proclaimed the patriots’ love for this newest homeland with its pine-clad hills. And so it was that the pine tree waved over many a hard-fought field in those trying years. Joined with St. George’s cross, it appeared on the blue banner of Bun-~ ker Hill (363). Frequently the pine tree gave place to a globe, as in the New England flag of 1737 (388). Again, the pine tree alone occupies the-- white canton of a red flag, best illustrated by . 362, the Continental flag of 1775-1777. These historic flags picture to us in striking form the feelings and the hopes as well as the spirit of Oy 384. (See 383.) 385. ANpRos’ F1Ac—In 1684-the charter of Massachusetts was annulled and the home 345 GUATEMALA. ENSIGN 482 483 HAITI COAT ARMS 486 GUATEMALA COAT 487 HAITI ENSIGN 490 NICARAGUA COAT ARMS 498 =. == PERU 4 ENSIGN & PRESIDENT 502 506 SALVADOR COAT ARMS 510 l HAITI MERCHANT 491 495 >» PERU COAT ARMS 499 ARMS HONDURAS COAT ARMS 488 492 PANAMA COAT ARMS 496 PARAGUAY COAT ARMS Wl PERU MERCHANT 503 VENESIIE COAT ARMS 511 1 ) 346 485 MEXICO COAT ARMS 489 MEXICO MERCHANT 493 PANAMA 497 y PARAGUAY ENSIGN 501 URUGUAY Pe 508 VENEZUELA ENSIGN 312 PARAGUAY ADMIRAL, 505 URUGUAY COAT ARMS VENEZUELA MERCHANT 513 yYOaVvNdDa SES) WMZVYa WOIS713a8 0tS 61S ovI4 LNASaYd LINVNN3d Tvyiwayv AVYIWwaVv AAWN Lonid Move Y3d4IO YOINAS BYODOWWOD NOISSINWOD yvay ASIA AWuINWaY AYVLEYOSS government organized all of New England as a royal domain. In 1686 Edmund Andros ar- rived as Governor of the province. The flag under his rule was the red cross of St. George on a white field with a gold crown in the cen- ter. Under the crown appeared the letters J. R., the cipher of King James. But in 1680, with the arrival in England of William of Orange, the colonists deposed Andros, and this flag was consigned to the oblivion of banners no longer expressive of the feelings of a de- veloping people. 386. Nova Scotra—Nova Scotia was’ the New Scotland, just as the Massachusetts group of colonies was the New England, for even in the days of King James there was no Great Britain, but the two separate countries. And that is why the vertical cross of St. George appeared on the Andros and other New Eng- land flags, while the diagonal Scottish cross of St. Andrew marked those of Nova Scotia. The center of the flag-is marked by the crown and cipher of James Sixth of Scotland and First of England. He it was who united the two crosses into the union flag of 1606, the very year in which he gave the first royal grants of land in North America, under which permanent settlements grew up. It was not until: 1801, long after the Stars and Stripes were known on every sea, that the red diag- onal cross of St. Patrick, in recognition of Ireland, was added to the combined crosses, thus making the familiar British union jack of today. 387. EscutcHEoN ENnsicn.—Early in the life of the New England Colonies it was seen that the merchant ships of the mother country needed a special flag to distinguish them from the King’s ships. In 1701 we find this order from the Admiralty Office at Whitehall, Lon- don: “Merchant ships to wear no other jack than that worn by His Majesty’s ships, with the distinction of a white escutcheon in the midd] le thereof.” The “Governors of His Maj- esty’s plantations” were ordered to ‘oblige the commanders of their merchant ships to use this and no other. The merchant ships, how- ever, continued to fly the various flags endeared to their commanders by old associations. Many of them seem to have preferred the usual red or blue New England flag which had a red St. George’s cross and a glol ye (388) or tree (363) on a white ground. in the upper left- hand corner. 388. (See 383.) 389. CoLtoneL Mourrrie’s Frac. —In Sep- tember, 1775, Colonel Moultrie, having received orders from the Council of eee) to take Fort Johnson on James Island, C., thought a flag necessary; so he dev ised a ie blue flag WwW ith a white crescent in the upper corner next the staff, this design being suggested by the blue uniforms of the garrison and the silver cres- cents which the men wore on their caps, in- scribed with the words “Liberty or Death.” Colonel Moultrie in his memoirs says that ‘ ‘this was the first American flag displayed in the South” (see also 406). ago. (See 383.) 391. WASHINGTON’s Navy, 1775.—This was the flag flown by Washington’s six cruisers in 1775. The Lady VV ‘ashington, a brig fitted out in 1775, was captured by H. M. S. Fowey on December 7 of the same year, and her colors were placed in the Admiralty Office in Lon- don. They are described as bearing a pale green pine tree on a field of white bunting, with the motto, “Appeal to Heaven.” After the Continental "ensign (364) came into use by Washington’s fleet, January I, 1776, this white flag and. green pine tree, with variations (399), was adopted April 20, 1776, as the ensign of the vessels of the Massachusetts navy (see 309 and 401; see also the history of our Stars and Stripes, printed elsewhere in this number). 392. Brprorp Frac.—Probably the most in- teresting flag of all the colonial period is this standard of the Bedford Minute Men, carried by them at the battle of Concord. It is small, being only about 2% feet square, but carries woven among its faded threads the love and veneration of a grateful America. Wrought in silver and gold on a red ground is an arm appearing from a cloud, with the hand holding a sword. The scroll is in gold with the motto, “Vince Aut Morire”. (Conquer or die). It now has an honored place among the relics of the Historical Society at Bedford, Mass. It bears a‘striking resemblance to the Ostend Fight en- sign (1144). 393. PHILADELPHIA LicHt Horse. —This standard, presented to the Philadelphia troop of Light Horse by Capt. Abraham Markoe, and still displayed at the troop’s anniversary din- ners, is one of the first American flags in which thirteen stripes were used. This banner was carried by the Philadelphia troop when it acted as escort to General Washington from Philadelphia to New York on his way to Cam- bridge, there to assume command of the Con- tinental Army. The Philadelphia troop was composed of 28 men, who equipped themselves at their own expense. Captain Markoe re- signed his commission as captain of this orga- nization late in 1775, in obedience to an edict of King Christian VII of Denmark, who for- bade any of his subjects to engage in the war against Great Britain. Before tendering his resignation, however, the commander presented this ‘standard to the troop. 394.. New Yorx.—The armed ships of New York are reported to have used this flag in 1775. .The beaver reminds us eloquently of the prominent part the lucrative fur trade played in the early history of the colony. The glow- ing accounts brought back by Hudson of the rich harvest of valuable furs to be secured led Holland to authorize the trading companies which colonized New York. .The beaver was used on the seal of New «Netherlands and found a place on the seal of New York City. 395. BENNINGTON.—At the battle of Ben- nington, Vt., August 16, *I1777, 2,000 Green Mountain boys, under Gen. John Stark, practi- cally annihilated the forces under General Baum, sent to capture stores and to overawe the country. The loss of these troops was partly responsible for the failure of Bur- goyne’s carefully planned campaign and was one of the events that léd.to_ the open recog- nition of our country by France. 396. Ruove IsLaNp.—Fashioned from white silk with thirteen stars on a canton of blue and showing a blue anchor surmounted by the iv) motto of the State, ‘‘Hope,”’ on the center of the field, this regimental banner of Rhode Is- land easily takes high rank as an attractive flag; nor is it lacking in interesting historic associations. Carried safely through the in- tense struggle of Brandywine, at Trenton, and at Yorktown, it now rests in the State House at Providence, mute witness to the heroism of those who bore it to final victory (see 313). 397. Linkep Hanp.—Thirteen mailed hands grasping the thirteen links of an endless chain formed one of the early representations of the spirit of unity in the colonies. It recognized the sentiment of “United we stand,” and fore- shadowed the “E Pluribus Unum,” soon to ap- pear as our motto. The number thirteen was prominent on many of the early standards. A common variation shows a mailed hand grasp- ing a bundle of thirteen arrows. THE RATTLESNAKE FLAGS 398. GanspEN Frac. 400. SoutH CAROLINA Navy. 405. CuLpepeER Mrnut&é Mern.—The rattlesnake device was seen again and again on our early flags. One writer of the time quaintly stated that as the rattlesnake’s eye exceeded in brightness that of any other ani- mal, and she had no eyelids, she might there- fore be esteemed an emblem of -vigilance; that inasmuch as she never began an attack, nor, when once engaged, ever surrendered, she was therefore an emblem of magnanimity and true courage. We are bound to suspect, however, that it was the deadly bite of the rattler that was foremost in the minds of the revolutionists who used the banners. The “Don’t tread on me,’ seen on all four of the rattlesnake flags (365, 308, 400, and 405), lends color to this view. But it was not only the qualities of the snake itself, but also the ease with which symbolism could be added, illustrated in the use of the distinctive thirteen rattles, that in- creased the number and variety of the rattle- snake flags. “’Tis curious and amazing,” in the words of the writer quoted above, “to ob- serve how distinct and independent of each other the rattles of this animal are, and how firmly they are united together. One of the rattles, singly, is incapable of producing a sound, but the ringing of thirteen together is sufficient to alarm the boldest man living.” Flag 398 was presented by Colonel Gadsden to Commodore Hopkins to serve as the latter’s flag as the commander-in-chief of the fleet con- structed by Congress, and was hoisted at the main mast of the Alfred December 3, 1775. At the same time John Paul Jones hoisted the union striped flag (364) at the stern (see his- tory of Stars and Stripes elsewhere in this number). On the same day 365 was hoisted as the jack of the navy. Thus 364, 365, and 398 are the most historic flags of the U. S. Navy prior to the adoption of the Stars and Stripes. The Southern colonies seemed especially fond of the device. South Carolina adopted for her navy the red and blue stripes crossed by the gliding snake, as seen in 400. Loyal and energetic enthusiasts in the cause of liberty, the people of the Piedmont region of Virginia rallied to the support of the Con- tinental Congress. Culpeper County was a center of organization and her minute men typified on their spirited banner (405) their fearlessness and. independence. THE LIBERTY AND PINE TREE FLAGS 399. Liserty TREE FLAG of 1776. 401. Massacuuserts Navy.—In all early accounts of colonial activities, liberty poles and trees bear an important part. A wide-spreading live oak. in Charleston, near the home of Christo- _pher Gadsden, made.a shelter under which the leading spirits of the day often met to discuss political questions, and there the Declaration of Independence was first read to the people of the city. The Sons of Liberty, meeting under the fine old elm in Hanover Square, gave Boston her Liberty -Tree. Under its shade a notable meeting was held just previous to the destruction of the tea, which led Gen- eral Gage to order that it be hewn down, In- asmuch as the felling of a venerable tree al- ways touches tender chords in the thoughtful, it is not surprising that the loss of this one fanned into flame the very embers of discon- tent that Gage had hoped to-stamp out by its destruction. On flag 399 appears the well- loved and ae mous Liberty Tree. This was an emblem often used. The solemn motto, “An Appeal to God,” tells us of the quiet firmness with which our forefathers “highly resolved” to claim the birthright of freedom for themselves and their children. The sentiment first appeared in the “Address of the Provincial Congress of Mas- sachusetts” to Great Britain, the closing sen- tence of which began, “Appealing to Heaven for the justice of our cause.” Through the long years that have passed since they won their victories, the greater task has developed for us, not only to hold with equal steadiness and firmness the great principles upon which our nation stands, but also to fight with equal fortitude and sacrifice that these gifts may be extended to the oppressed of all nations. When in 1652 the colony of Massachusetts first established a mint, the general court or- dained that_all pieces of money should bear on one side a tree, thus bringing into being the famous pine-tree shillings. In “April, 1776, the Massachusetts. council passed a resolution as follows: “Resolved, That the colors [for the sea service] be a white flag with a green pine tree and the inscription, “An Appeal to Heaven. ” Flag 391 had previously become familiar on the seas_as the ensign of Washington's cruisers. The English newspapers of the time contain many references to this striking ensign. In 401 an extra significance is added by the coiled snake at the foot of the tree and the oft-used “Don’t tread on me.’ 400. (See 308. 401. (See 3009.) 4oz. The Westmoreland County Battalion of Pennsylvania was raised in 1775 by John Proctor and is still preserved in New Alex- andria, Pa. It is a British, ensign of red silk, with the addition of the coiled rattlesnake and the familiar legend, “Don’t Tread On Me.” 349 — tS9 sso OOIXAW sy 69 = SGNV1TYSHLAN ¢cv9 bb9 89 679 SOsIae|S T19 T09 SONVYSA c6S. IN3S3Yd YS9I4550 YOINSAS. LNVNN3d NOISSINWOD iAYOGOWWODS 8r9 ANON ceo v79 (Has) £19 350 Z09 909 @ 86S L6S ; | 68S 88S | TvyiInav TvyiInav AAWN yva4 ASIA TvyInNaY AYVLIAYOIS aa ha Oe pe OL Le STZ vil OZ SIL } = €1Z TLL LIZ OLL vOL £02 602 = vISSNY £89 : 889 — 989 $89 $89 £89 i oe ee 829 LL9 949 — z99 669 | LNASS3Yd YS0IsSSO BYOGCOWNOD LNVNNAd WHIWaAY LOIId WoOve YOINAS NOISSINWOS ASIA TVYINAY AYVLAYOSS 403. CoNNEcTICUT FLac.—The activities of 1775 and 1776 emphasized the need of colors .to distinguish the various troops. Soon after the battle of Bunker Hill the States began to make colors for themselves. Connecticut, with this flag, was one of the first. Her motto, “Qui transtulit sustinet,’ of which a free translation is, “God, who transported us hither, will sustain us,” was put upon one side of several flags of the time, with “An Appeal to Heaven,’ the Massachusetts motto, upoa the other. This shows almost the identical form of the permanent Connecticut flag (305). 404. MERCHANT AND PRIVATEER ENSIGN.— Those dashing privateers, whose exploits made such entertaining reading in the history books of our childhood days, flew this ensign of thir- teen stripes. “striped flaggs” in contemporary British litera- ture prove its prevalence. The color of the stripes varied according to the fancy of the commanding officer. Merchant vessels nearly always displayed this flag. 405. (See 308.) 406. Fort Mouttrit.—rThis flag flew from the southeast bastion of Fort Moultrie (then called Fort Sullivan), in Charleston Harbor, during the famous Revolutionary battle of June 28, 1776. Early in the attack the sky- colored emblem fell outside the parapet. Ser- geant William Jasper, crying out, “Don’t let us hight without a flag,’ vaulted over the wall under a rain of bullets, secured the flag, fixed it to a staff, and, triumphantly planting it firm- ly in place, leaped down within the parapet to safety. Three ringing cheers greeted his re- turn. After an intense artillery attack lasting ten hours, the British forces were compelled to withdraw, and the next day the entire fleet left ‘Charleston Harbor. The name of the fort was changed to Moultrie in honor of the gallant defender.: This victory left the Southern States secure from invasion for more than two years. This flag is identical with Colonel Moultrie’s earlier flag (389) first raised in September, 1775, with the addition of the word ‘Liberty’ in white letters. 407. Puraskt—Brave and gallant Count Pulaski, who gave his life for our cause.in 1779, fought beneath this banner. A Polish count volunteering as a private, distinguished by his coolness and courage at the battle of Brandywine,—he was made Chief of Dra- goons, with the rank of Brigadier-General. The Moravian Sisters, of Bethlehem, Penn- sylvania, embroidered this flag for him. One side bears the words “Unitas Virtus Forcior” (which last word, by the way, should be for- tor), “Union makes valor stronger,” encir- cling the letters U. S. The other side bears the motto, “Non Alius Regit,” “No other gov- erns,’ with the all-seeing eye in the center triangle. Pulaski raised his own independent corps of infantry and light cavalry, and later commanded the French and American forces at the siege of Savannah, where he was mor- tally wounded. Thus fell, at the early age of 31, one of the many heroic foreign brothers who fought with us for liberty. 408, 409. NEw HampsHirE REGIMENT — These two New Hampshire flags belonged to the Second Regiment of the State. They were Many references and prints of taken at Fort Anne by the British Ninth Regi- ment of Foot, commanded by Lieutenant Colo- nel Hill, a few weeks before the decisive battle of Saratoga. After the surrender of Bur- goyne, Colonel Hill carried them to England, where they were treasured by his descendants, finally falling into the hands of Col. George W. Rogers, of Wykeham, Sussex. From him they were purchased in 1912 by Mr. Edward Tuck, and presented to the New Hampshire | Historical Society. ‘They are of the same size, | approximately five by five and one-half feet. The buff flag (408) with a golden disk in the center bears the motto, “We are one.’ From the disk radiate thirteen rays and thir- teen thin lines, each line touching a golden ring in the outer circle, with each ring bearing the name of one of the thirteen States. In the upper left corner are eight red and pale blue triangles which form two crosses. The blue silk flag with the gold fringe (409) \ bears the letters N. H., with“ ond Rest.” below them on the small red shield in the center. The motto on the scroll is significant, “The glory, not the prey.” The two crosses com, bined in the upper corner are of red and gold\ These two New Hampshire flags are prob- ably the only ones now in existence which were captured during the Revolutionary War 4to. First PENNSYLVANIA RtFLEs.—“A deep green ground, the device a tiger, partly en- closed by toils, attempting the pass, defended by crimson field”—thus reads the description of the standard of the, First Pennsylvania Rifles in the words of Lieutenant Colonel Hand, written March 8, 1776. During the war this regiment served in every one of the thirteen colonies, and this banner waved at many a a hunter with a spear (in white) on a: famous battle—at Trenton, Princeton, Brandy-| wine, Monmouth, only a few. 4Il. this national flag, known to have been used as a regimental flag in the Revolution, sheds a bit of light on the “darkness surrounding the ex- tent to which the stars and stripes were used at the time. It is certain that this identical flag was carried by the Third Maryland Regi- ment at the battle of Cowpens, in January, 1778. William Bachelor was the color-bearer,. It is made of thin cotton, and is remarkably well preserved. long, and almost a yard wide, and is: now in the flag room of the capitol at Annapolis. It is the only instance of the use of the “Stars and Stripes” as a color (i. e., by land troops), and Yorktown, national or regimental, during the Revolution- | ary War. that of 1812, and the Mexican War (See history of Stars and Stripes printed else where in this number.) 412. Eutaw STANDARD.—This square of brilliant crimson formed the battle flag of Col William Washington’s cavalry troop, and led the way to victory at Cowpens and at the final battle of the Revolution, Eutaw Springs, in 1T781—two decisive battles of the war in the South. Tradition tells a quaint story of its origin. It seems that Colonel Washington, on a hurried ‘visit to his fiancée, Miss Jane Elliot, of South Carolina, mentioned that he had no flag. With quick flashes of her scissors, she 352 to mention) Turrp MaryLlaAnp.—The existence of It is a little over five feet’ cut a square of gay, red damask from the back of .a drawing-room chair, saying, “Colonel, make this your standard.” It was mounted on a hickory pole and borne at the head of his troops till the end of the war. In 1827 it was presented to the Washington Light Infantry of Charleston by Mrs. Jane Elliot Washington, in person, and is one of our most treasured banners. 413. Gatinois REGIMENT. 414. SAINTOGNE REGIMENT. 415. Roya, DEux Ponts.—A num- ber of French regiments were sent to America during the Revolutionary War. All served with gallantry and distinction, Savannah and Yorktown both being honored by their ener- getic and fearless fighting, The flags of all -these-regiments followed one general pattern, the basic idea being a white flag with colored triangles making squares in the corners and leaving a white cross extending across the cen- ter. They were about four feet square and the colors were painted on them. The Gatinois regiment (413) was formed in 1776 out of two sections of a famous old French regiment of Auvergne, and in honor of its gallant conduct at Yorktown was ever after known as the Royal Auvergne. The blue, red, green, and yellow triangles of ~ the flag of the Saintogne regiment (414). speak eloquently of dashing courage and hearty loy- alty at Yorktown. Each arm of the St. Andrew’s cross:in the Royal Deux Ponts (415) bears° the golden fleur-de-lis of France, while a crown holds the center. Quartered on the flag are the arms of — =the Duke of Deux “Ponts over red and blue stripes. Rochambeau, a French count, with the rank of lieutenant general, was in command of the 6,000 troops sent to our aid. He displayed a fine spirit throughout the war, maintaining his soldiers as part of the American army and holding himself as entirely under Washing- ton’s command. (See “Our First Alliance,” by J. J. Jusserand, Nationa GrocrapHic Maca- ZINE, June, I917.) 416. ANspAcH.—Three Ansbach Bayreuth colors are now in the chapel at West Point. They were among the German colors captured “ at Yorktown, All are similar in main design, made of heavy white damask, embroidered in colored silk. On one side is the red Branden- burg eagle, with the words, “Pro Principe et Patria” on the scroll above. ‘The other side shows the green laurel and palm, with the monogrammed letters S. ET C. A., the first four letters of which stand for “Sinceriter et Constanter” and the last for Prince Alexan- der, then reigning. It is supposed that eigh- teen German colors were surrendered at York- town; but the others are missing. 417. NEw York RecImMENt.—It is surprising to note how few regimental flags used in the Revolution are in existence today. ‘This is the most elaborate and detailed of any of them. It was made in 1778 or 1779, and is approxi- mately six feet square, of dark blue silk with a blue fringe, and bears on each side the arms of the State. These arms from that far-away day to this have remained practically un- changed in general design. The two figures are clad in costumes of the day. The dresses are of. cloth of gold, with red mantles. This regimental color was carried by Col. Peter Gansevoort at Yorktown. ‘This is the same Colonel Gansevoort who was in command of Fort Stanwix, or Fort Schuyler, when he caused to be hoisted the first Stars and Stripes over a fort or garrison of the army, August 3. 1777. (See History of Stars and Stripes in this number.) 418. Bucks or AmeEricA.—John Hancock whose presence in Lexington was an addi- tional cause of the sortie that led to the fa- mous battle, and who, with Adams, was espe- cially excepted in the pardon issued on the 12th of June, 1775, by General Gage, as being “of too flagitious a nature to admit of any other consideration than that of condign pun- ishment,” yet lived to a ripe old age, and be- came the first Governor of the State of Massa- chusetts. After the close of the Revolution, one of his official acts as Governor was to pre- sent this banner to the colored company, called the “Bucks of America,” in acknowledgment of their valor. The flag is badly faded now, yet shows unmistakable signs of former beauty. The stars in the blue union were gilded. In size it is a little over five feet long by three and one-half feet wide. Notice the “Buck” under the green tree. 419. TAtLMADGCE’$ Dracoons.—Many a dar- ing exploit of Major Tallmadge, of Connecti- cut, and his dragoons adds-luster to this flag. On September 5, 1779, without the loss of a man, Tallmadge captured 500 Tories at Lloyd’s Neck, on Long Island. His men fought~at Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. This pink flag of very thin silk is about two and one-half feet square. The two wings on the center disk are of silver, while the ten rays are golden. ‘The canton deserves especial men- tion, as the thirteen stripes are made by six strips of white ribbon sewed to the silk of the flag. It is remarkably well preserved. 420.- WesBB’S REGIMENT.—This little flag be- longed to the troops under Colonel Webb, un- doubtedly the Third Connecticut Regiment, which during the course of the war was made up from the depleted Second and the Ninth. It is a small, tattered, yellow flag. A pink rib- bon ties the green wreath, while the sword is painted the color of steel, and the “I” is black. An old account of the colors of the various Connecticut troops states that the flag of the first regiment was yellow; so it is possible that originally this was the banner of that unit. 421. The golden lilies of France (reduced to three in number by Charles V in 1365) were borne by many intrepid explorers anxious to expand the dominion of the Bourbons in the New World. Joliet and Marquette, the pioneer missionaries who rediscovered the Father of Waters, and La Salle, Iberville, and Bienville, who figured so conspicuously in the history of the exploration and colonization of Louisiana, all bore the fleurs-de-lis in the wilderness. 422. FRENCH FLAG, CHAMPLAIN AND DE GrassE.—This was the ensign of daring Sam- uel de Champlain as he sailed down the lake that bears his name. It was also the flag of Count De Grasse, who, with his fleet of twenty- four ships of the line, sailed from the West 353 => t | 738 ABYSSINIA DENMARK ROYAL STANDARD ie Ria. sae GREECE ENSIGN 729. ALBANIA 735 BELGIUM MERCHANT 737 CHINA NATIONAL Th a 739 DENMARK ENSIGN i | SS ST ee oe DENMARK—ICELAND 0 FRANCE NATIONAL 743 11744 FRANCE GOVS. COLONIES 745 RESIDENCE INDO-CHINA ce LIEUT. GOV. 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OFFICER | JAPAN MAIL FLAG 758 759 760 761 =I WJAPAN REPAIR SHIPS 763 CHOSEN (KOREA) 764 LIBERIA COAST GUARD SHIPS _ 767 — 768 LUXEMBURG MONACO NATIONAL " 770 , F | oi MOROCCO 771 MONTENEGRO 774 772, MILITARY Sea NPS aN |NETHERLANDS NETHERLANDS MUSCAT—ZAN ZIBAR—ARABS 776 STANDARD PRINCE 778 781 as ABOVE ENSIGN FOR _ 779 GOVS SURINAM '780 NETHERLANDS GOV GENERAL OF DUTCH INDIES] NETHERLANDS i & CURACAO W = lJ 782 REPAIR SHIPS aS aR a ok OL > ey) | i f a 8) | i) ZB | 783 NORWAY ROYAL STANDAR (1784 NORWAY ENSIGN N HANT 786 NORWAY \) NORW ENSIG I ORWAY MERC l ee OW ENE 788 PERSIA MILITARY ENSIGN gH T ERSIA IMPERIAL 787 | — SS 791 PORTUGAL ENSIGN 792 PORTUGAL 793 PORTUGAL | = PRESIDENTS GOV. GENL PROVINCE a 794 POLAND Indies in the summer of 1781, entered the Chesapeake, and met the fleet of Admiral Thomas Graves, compelling him to return to New York for refitting and repairs. Then, by blocking the mouths of the York and James rivers, he succeeded in cutting off communica- tion between the British forces at Yorktown and those at New York, and thus assisted ma- terially in causing the famous surrender that closed the war (see Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC MacGaZINE, June, 1917, pages 527-548). - 423. Napoteon’s Frac, Louisiana, 1803.— Among the many changes of flag that helped to make romantic the early history of Louisi- ana, this of Napoleon stands out as memorable because it was hauled down to give place for “Old Glory” on the 20th of December, 1803. Each of the colors of this flag is woven into the tissue of French history by myriad threads. The blwe banner of St. Martin was first used by the.kings of France in the fourth century, and for 600 years was carried into battle as a sure omen of victory. Next came the well- loved Auriflamme, the gold-broidered banner of St. Denis. This in turn gave place to the “cornette blanche’—a plain white flag emblem- atic of the Virgin Mary, carried by Joan of Arc, and later adopted by the Bourbons. : So it was not purely an accident that the choice of the populace storming the Bastille, in 1789, should have been the tricolor; and it is easy to see how the historic associations, as well as the beauty and simplicity of the banner itself, made it the permanent emblein of France. It was fourteen years after this tricolor had become the national flag of France that the remarkable and startling chain of events, oc- curring a quarter of the way around the world from our Father of Waters, made it possible for us to purchase the wonderful Louisiana country. é 424. Russran-AMERICAN CCMPANY, ALAS- KA.—Although the Alaskan coast was explored in 1741, it was not until 1794 that the first, and even then only partially accurate, chart of the Alaskan mainland was made. [Kodiak ‘was set- tled.in 1784, and in the succeeding years pri- vate traders raided and robbed the Indian villages,. until the teign of lawlessness was checked by the formation, in 1799, of the Russian-American Company, which remained dominant in Alaskan matters for sixty years. And thus it was that while the young Amer- ican Republic was getting on its feet and meet- ing its first problems of administration and expansion this white, blue, and red standard was flaunting in the sunshine from many a ship through the long days of Alaskan sum- mers and flapping from the flagstaffs of many a trading post under the steely glitter of the long’ winter nights. In 1867 the Alaska pur- chase placed our own starry flag on those valuable far-northern shores. 425. AztTEC STANDARD—BaTTLE oF OtTuUM- BA—History says that Cortes and his Span- lards, with their allies, the Tlaxcallans, were on the verge of defeat at the battle of Otum- ba, when the Spanish leader, descrying the gorgeously decorated litter of the Aztec gen- eral and observing that he carried the battle standard lashed to his back, summoned several cavaliers and, praying to Santiago (429), they fought their way to the Aztec’s side. Cortes overthrew the general and Salamanca cut the standard from his back. The loss of their. emblem demoralized the Aztec forces and turned the tide of the battle. Cortes after- ward presented the standard to the Tlaxcallan chieftain, Maxixca, as a reward for his -aid and friendship, and the Spanish King caused it to be represented on Salamanca’s coat-of- arms. ‘This illustration of the standard, which was called the Quetzalteopamitl and was com- posed of a golden sun surrounded by the’ rich- est plumes of the quetzal (see 487), was taken from the picture writings of the Tlaxcallans, shown in the Lienzo of Tlaxcalla (see 426). 426. BANNERS, Mexican.— The Lienzo of Tlaxcalla is a document of great importance, as it represents in hieroglyphics the principal events of the conquest of Mexico painted by the Indians themselves. It is on long bands of linen and is divided into 86 illustrations by perpendicular lines. The Tlaxcallans were a flerce mountain people, implacable foes of the Aztecs, and became the staunch allies of Cortes aiter their armies were decisively defeated by the Spaniards on their way to Tenochtitlan. In numerous of these illustrations Cortes and his cavaliers are shown in battle, dressed in their armor and astride their prancing steeds, while by their sides are shown their Tlaxcallan allies, armed with their crude native weapons and carrying their beautiful banners (426) cleverly constructed of precious metals and bright-colored plumes, mounted on wooden staffs and lashed to their backs to allow free use of both arms. 427. BANNERS—INCAS. BEFORE PIZARRO.— “The Children of the Sun,” as the Incas were called, lived among the mountain fastnesses of Peru and were as cultured as the Aztecs of Mexico. Their country has been called the “Ophir of the Occident,’ and well it deserved the name, for its treasures of precious metals exceeded the dreams of avarice. Like the Az- tecs, these ancient Peruvians used the gaudy plumage of tropical birds for decorative pur- poses, and this sketch of two old banners illus- trates the feathered halyards and trimming. These ‘Sun-worshipers also had great rever- ence for the rainbow, and used a representa- tion of it in their royal insignia. An old de- scription, referring to the ceremony incident to the recognition. of the heir-apparent, says: “Being recognized as of age, he was given command of his father’s armies and was en- titled to display the royal standard of the rain- bow in his military campaigns.” 428. Cortes STANDARD.—‘“The hardy and romantic adventurers who followed in the wake of Columbus were not merely sordid gold hunters; they were the descendants of soldiers who had for centuries fought in the holy wars of the Cross against the Crescent, and in their veins flowed fhe blood of the knight-errant and Crusader. Gold they sought with eagerness and without scruple; but they wanted glory almost as much as they wanted gold, and in the pursuit of both they carried aloft the banner of the Church.” Around the edge of this standard of Cortes. there appears in Spanish: “This standard was 356 _the Apostle St. James (Santiago), a -~-tude of combat, mounted on a white horse. ‘the reverse si : and it was ‘not discovered until 1872 that this that carried by Hernando Cortes in the Con- quest of Mexico.” It now hangs in the: Na- tional Museum at Mexico City—a relic of the stirring times when the present city was Te- nochtitlan, the Aztec capital and the scene of \fontezuma’s grandeur. Another standard carried by Cortes was, according to :Prescott, “of black velvet, embroidered with gold, and emblazoned with a red cross amidst flames of blue and white, with this motto in Latin be- neath: ‘Friends, let us follow the Cross; and under this sign, if we have faith, we shall conquer.’ ”’ 429. Pizarro.—This is the banner of Pi- zarro, which the people of Cuzco, the royal city of the Incas, presented, in 1824, to Gen- eral de Sucre, the trusted lieutenant of the liberator Bolivar and the victor of the battle of Ayacucho, which broke the power of im- perial Spain in South America, De Sucre, in turn, presented it to his commander-in-chief, who gave it to his native city of Caracas, Venezuela, where it is now treasured. This standard is said to have been carried by Pi- zarro when he entered Cuzco, a conqueror, in 1533. It hung all those intervening years in the cathedral of the ancient Peruvian city. In a letter to Bolivar, de Sucre said: “I present to you this standard which Pizarro bore to Cuzco 300 years ago; a portion of the ma- terial is in shreds, “but it possesses the merit of having led the conquerors of Peru.” Strictly speaking, the flag is really a banner, or fanion, such as was generally used in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. On one of its faces of scarlet damask the arms of Charles V are embroidered; on the other is represented m-an atti- When ae ee was received in Caracas, consisted only of white satin, was not: a part of the flag, but a covering to protect | its most interesting face, upon which is painted and embroidered the figure of the mounted warrior. The red cross of Santiago appears on his coat-of-mail, but the hilt is all that remains of the sword in his hand. 430. Pizarro—General San Martin, “the liberator of the South,” believed this flag to be the standard of Pizarro; but old documents relating to the founding of Lima by the Span- ish conqueror seem to prove that it was the banner of that city. The escutcheon granted fe Lima by Charles V, in 1537, appears on the ag. g The Municipal Council of Lima presented the standard to San Martin in 1821, after his successful campaigns in Chile, and\in his fare- well proclamation to the Peruvians the follow- ing year, prior to his departure” for Europe, he said: “I have in my possession the standard which Pizarro bore to enslave the empire of the Incas. I have ceased to be a public man, but by this alone I am rewarded with usury for ten years of revolution and war.” In his last testament he provided that “the standard which the Spanish bandit Pizarro waved in the conquest of Peru be returned to the said Re- ee THE LIBERATORS OF LATIN AMERICA 431. SAN Martin.—Flying this flag, Gen- eral San Martin came north into Peru with his Ejercito Libertador, or liberating army, in 1820, after having effected the complete over- throw of the nonraligh in Chile. Forces sent against the liberator joined his army, and in Lima even the Viceroy’s secretaries were revo- lutionists at heart. General San Martin en- tered the capital on July 12, 1821, and was pre- sented with the flag of Pizarro (see 430) ; on July.28 the proclamation of independence was issued in the:-Plaza Major. — After laying-the foundations of a republican government, the Protector journeyed north to Guayaquil, Ecuador, to confer with General Simon Bolivar, who had accomplished inde- pendence for the Northern States of South America. Then San Martin returned to Lima and, after placing the government in the hands of the first constituent congress, retired to Eu- rope, the recipient of every honor within the gift of a grateful people. 432. Army oF THE ANDES.— This silken “Banner of the Sun,” as it was called, with its beautiful, embroidered design and edges deco- rated with precious stones, was made for San Martin’s“Army of the Andes by the women: of Mendoza City, which lies at the foot of the --Chilo-Argentine:Cordillera on. the Argentine side. The revolutionary leader carried it over -the snow-covered mountains into Chile, which he liberated. The flag was publicly donsediated in Men- doza City with elaborate ceremony on January 5, 1817. As it was unfurled a salute of twenty- one guns was fired, the populace shouting, “Long live our Argentine country.” General San Martin then, holding aloft the banner, ex- claimed in a vibrating voice, “Soldiers! Swear to uphold this standard and die, if necessary, in its defense, as I swear to die!” “We swear to do so!” came the response, amid a triple “discharge of musketry, followed by a salvo of twenty-five guns. The design of the badge on the field of blue and white is practically the same as the muesient Argentine coat-of-arms (see 453). 433. Botivar—Under this flag Simon Boli- var, the liberator, broke the Hold. of imperial Spain upon its provinces in northern South America early in the roth century. Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru owe their inde- pendence to him and he is worshiped as a na- tional hero in these countries. It is said that while visiting the United States on his return journey from Paris, where he had been an eye- witness to some of the stirring scenes of the last days of the French revolution, he was first impressed with the desirability of political in- dependence, and, returning to Venezuela, he began the military operations which freed his native land. 434. BANNER or Hipatco.— Viva America, viva religion, death to bad government,’ was the war cry of Mexico’s soldier-priest, Miguel Hidalgo, who, shortly after the American ‘col- onies had attained their independence, led the popular revolt against Spanish rule in the country to the south of us. His flag was the sacred banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe, the 357 ROUMAN 795 STANDAR 799 RUSSIA ENSIGN RUSSIA ADMIRALTY 803 vv AADAAAAL Y PA Av ANAVANA A A A.A 807 SERBIA ROYAL STANDARD “ROYAL STANDARD 821 SPAIN CAs GENE BE EE i 2 . : : 825 ‘(EDEN ROYAL STANDARD ————— ed ROUMANIA ENSIGN 800 RUSSIA C IN C NAVY 804 SERBIA MERCHANT 808 812SIAM MERCHANT = | {ee 797 ROUMANIA MERCHANT 801 RUSSIA VOLUNTEER FLEET 805 RUSSIA MINISTER OF WAR \| 809 RUSSIA TRANSPORT NAVY 813 || SIAM ROYAL STANDARD i] | 798 AERONA ROUMANIA COAST GUARD 802 RUSSIA CUSTOMS FLAG RUSSIA— TRANSPORT 810 CIVILIAN CREW Se Y PAIN MERCHANT 819 SWEDEN MERCHANT 827 SWITZERLAND 820 TUNIS— ST GEORGE'S CROSS | ST ANDREW'S CROSS 830 ENGLAND 831 SCOTLAND | \ ST PATRICK'S CROSS 832 IRELAND BLUE ENSIGN) 836 RED ENSIGN NAVAL RESERVE VESSELS MERCHANT 835 eck FE, +e = =| | esau MeN THE RED DRAGON STANDARD OF SCOTLAND |] STANDAR WALES H. M LIEUT, COUNTIES } 844 DIPLOMATIC 842 843 FUNCTIONARIES B41 STANDARD ROYAL FAMILY ADMIRALTY VESSELS 846 POST OFFICE VESSELS 848 849 KING'S 850 TRINITY HOUSE HARBOUR MASTER . ENGLISH LIGHTS 4 COMMISSIONERS 853 } 854 2 855 NORTHERN PUSIIMSIOUSES 10) } PILOT JACK 858 LLOYD'S SIGNAL || PACIFIC CABLE BOARD 857 4 STATIONS AND BOATS 859 860 patron saint of Mexico, and was flown in tri- umph for a time; but disaster overtook him and, with several of his generals, he was shot to death at Chihuahua in 1811. Two subse- quent revolutions were also’ led by priests, Padres Morelos and’ Mier, and they, too, met Hidalgo’s fate. They died upon the threshold of success, however, for Mexican independ- ence of Spain was accomplished in 1821. The banner of Hidalgo is preserved in the National Museum in Mexico City. 435. ‘TREATY oF TORDESILLAS. ="Thesé flags appearing on maps of the sixteenth century in- dicate the division of territory for exploration and conquest by Spain and Portugal effected by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Pope Nicholas V had given the Portuguese exclusive right to the * ‘road to-the Indies” in 1454, but he had in mind only the coast of Africa. Com- plicating the situation came-the discovery of land in the west by. Columbus, who believed that he had found the eastern shorés of Asia. Pope Alexander VI, a Spaniard, was appealed to.and he drew a line north to south a hundred leagues west of the Azores, giving the Span- iards the right to all that lay beyond. The Portuguese protested and tke diplomats met at Tordesillas, Spain,’ with.the result that the line was shifted 270 leagues farther west, approxi- mating the soth meridian of longitude west of Greenwich. This line-strikes South America at the mouth of the Amazon, and the Span- iards therefore laid claim to the greater part of the continent and sought to exclude all other nations. This probably explains why Portugal secured only Brazil from all this vast domain. 436. OrpER or CuHrist.—This flag is*to be found on old maps of Brazil, where ‘it indi- cates the control of territory by the members of the Brazilian section of this ancient order, which was instituted by Denys, King of Portu- gal, in 1231, to expel the Moors from Betica, adjoining Portugal. According to eighteenth century historians, the order “added many gal- lant Countries in Asia, Africk, and Brazil, to the domains of Portugal, and so improved their own Estates, that all the Isles in the At- lantick do belong to them; besides the Rents of the Mine of St. George in Guinea, amount- ing to 100,000 Ducats of yearly Income.” 437. Braziz Emprre.—Driven from their kingdom by the invading armies of Napoleon, the royal family of Portugal in 1808 took ref- uge in Brazil, and for the first time in the his- tory of the world a colony became the seat of government of its mother country. The prince regent, coming to the throne as Dom John VI, raised this standard of empire. In 1889 the colonists threw off the imperial yoke and estab- lished a republic, retaining in their national -ensign (see 458) some of the characteristic features of the empire flag—the yellow dia- mond and the green field. The shield and im- perial crown of the old flag, however, were replaced by the blue globe and the republican motto, “Ordem e Progresso.” 438. SpanisH Frac In Mexico—The old flag from which this illustration has been made was carried by Spanish troops in the war of Mexican independence and it now reposes, among other relics of that struggle, in the mu- seum at Mexico City. Its peculiar design is an adaptation of the raguled cross of the Span- ish Bourbons, which may also be seen in the earlier flags of Ostend and Biscay (1143 and 1146), but with an added feature of crown- crested coats-of-arms on the ends of the cross. 439. Mexico Frac.—Migrating Aztecs, suc- cessors to the Toltecs in Mexico, in 1325 came to the shores of a lake in the valley of Mexico, or Anahuac, and there, as had been foretold by their oracle, “they beheld, perched on the stem of a prickly—pears which shot out from. the crevices of a rock that was washed by the waves, a royal eagle of extraordinary size and beauty, with a serpent in his talons and his broad wings open to the sun.” This deter- mined the location of Tenochtitlan, now the City of Mexico. From this legend was devised the coat-of-arms which appears in the center of this flag, adopted when Mexico became in- dependent, in T82I (see new coat-of-arms and. Mexican flags 480-492-403). 440. ALAMO FLAG. Tis 3 was thes flag ‘hae: floated in 1836 over the historic mission for- tress, the Alamo, at San Antonio, when Texas was fighting for her independence. For twelve days the garrison of 178 Americans held-out under the heavy bombardment of a force of 4,000 Mexicans. On the 6th of March the gar- rison was so weakened that the Mexicans were able to make assaults. | Twice beaten back, the invaders were successful at last only through sheer weight of numbers. They gained an en- trance to find but five of the brave defenders alive. These Santa Anna ordered bayoneted in cold blood. The war cry, * Alamo,” ing the Texans to ultimate victory. indicated the adherence to the constitution of 1824, and for this reason the numbers were used in place of the eagle, serpent, and cactus of the Mexican natioral flag. 441. Texas Frac (NavaL)—When Texas seceded from Mexico and became an inde- pendent republic, the first flag that seems to have been adopted was the naval flag, with its single star and. thirteen stripes, the latter evi- dently borrowed from her neighbor to the north, the United States. The date given for this is April 9, 1836, antedating by several months the adoption ‘of the first national stand- ard of Texas, the design of which was “an azure ground with a large golden star central.” As to the origin of the lone star there are several legends. “One gives the honor to Henry Smith, head of the Provisional Government, who is said to have sealed his State papers with the impression of a brass button on his coat, which had in relief a single star sur- rounded by an oak wreath. Another story gives the credit to a Mrs. Venson, who pre- sented a flag with that device to a Texas regi- ment in 1836 (see State flag 328). 442-443. NEw GRANADA (CoLoMBIA).— These were the flags of New Granada, the confederation of South American States now mainly embraced in the Republic of Colombia. In 1863 these States effected a closer union and changed their flag from three broad verti- cal stripes of yellow, blue, and red to the pres- ent Colombian flags (shown in 462-463). The old and new ensigns (442 and 462) are much echoed over many a battlefield, lead-< 360 Remember the | i The date alike except for the change in stripes, for they both have the coat-of-arms and thé same col- ors. The eight-pointed star is on both mer- chant flags (443 and 463), but on the latter it is placed on an oval shield. 444. Ecuapor.—This flag of Ecuador when it was a part of the Republic of Colombia had as its coat-of-arms a design which was very similar to that used at present (see 480). ‘The circle of seven stars in the upper part of the blue stripe represented the seven provinces of the republic. 445. SoutH Prru.—The flag of this coun- try was in existence but a short time, for the Peruvian - Bolivian Confederation, to which South Peru belonged, only endured about two years. In the process of evolution which brought about the present South American na- tions, stirring events occurred with great ra- pidity and States formed by political factions were dissolved almost overnight. This par- ticular confederation was inaugurated May 1, 1837, and consisted of three States—North Peru, South Peru, and Bolivia—with a presi- dent for each and with General Santa Cruz as the supreme director, or dictator, of the whole. [t was dissolved following severe fighting and the overthrow of the dictator. | 446. GuatTeEMALA.—Conquered in 1525 by the Spaniards under Don Pedro de Alvarado, who became famous as Cortes’ chief lieutenant THE FUAGS OF 450. The flag of the Pan-American Union | is a pennant adopted in 1907 and embodies all’ of the colors of the twenty-one republics of the Western Hemisphere. 451. The national banner of the Argentine Republic was devised in 1812. The Congress of Tucuman formally recognized it as the standard of the new Argentine Republic, then officially designated “The United Provinces of the Rio de La Plata.’ The Argentine banner is something more than: merely the national flag of that Republic. It is associated in a » large measure with the glories of Latin Amer- ica, for, under the leadership of General de San Martin (see also 431) and General Bel- grano, it helped to free Bolivia, Chile, Peru, and Ecuador. This flag has three stripes, sky- blue at the top and bottom and white in the middle. In the center of the field is a golden representation of the sun. 452. The merchant flag of. Argentina, known as the “Bandera Menor,” or flag of peace, is exactly like the national ensign, except that the blazing sun is omitted. 453- The presidential flag of the Argentine Republic consists of a banner upon which the national coat-of-arms is emblazoned. ‘The es- sential principle of the coat-of-arms is that of an ellipse divided by the horizontal diameter, the field of the upper half being sky-blue and that of the lower half white. In the center of the upper section is a carmine liberty cap, sup- ported by a vertical golden staff, held upright by two clasped hands. Around the ellipse is a 261 in the conquest of Mexico and was dispatched by him to effect the conquest of the lands to the south, Guatemala continued under Spanish rule until 1821, when independence was at- tained. The Guatemala of those days con- sisted of the whole of Central America, and it was not until 1839 that it broke up under civil wars into the five republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The flag shown in the illustration was the standard adopted May 31, 1858, which preceded the present ensign (see 482). 447-448-449. . ENtRE Rios, CorrIENTES, Santa Fr.—These were the flags of the Span- ish settlements established in what is now Ar- gentina. In the days of the viceroys they were under the control of a government located at Buenos Aires, which in turn was under the authority of the vice-royalty of Peru. Later Buenos Aires became the seat of its own viceroy, having authority over the Argentine Confederation, composed of these three States and the territory now occupied by Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. Entre Rios, Corri- entes, and Santa Fe are still in existence, their flags today having the same relative impor- tance of our own State flags. The golden sun in the center of the Entre Rios flag is still used in the same position on the ensign of modern Argentina (see 451). PAN-AMERICA _border consisting of a wreath of two inter- -twined laurel branches. At the apex there is a representation of a golden sun. 454. After Bolivia was liberated by the sword of Gen. Simon Bolivar (see also 433), a national flag and coat-of-arms were adopted. The national ensign consists of three stripes— red at the top, gold in the middle, and green at the bottom. .The red denotes the animal kingdom, the gold the mineral kingdom, and the green the vegetable kingdom. In the cen- ter of the field is placed the national coat-of- arms. 455. The merchant banner of Bolivia is a duplicate of the national ensign, with the coat- of-arms omitted. 456. Bolivia’s coat-of-arms is elliptical in form. In the center appears the mountain crest of Potosi, celebrated for its traditional mineral wealth; beneath this are an alpaca, a sheaf of wheat, and a breadfruit tree. In the upper part is a rising sun with light cloud ef- fect. At the apex is the inscription, “Bolivia.” On each side of the oval are three Bolivian banners, a cannon, two rifles with fixed bayo- nets pointing upward at an angle; on the right is an Inca battle-axe and on the left a liberty cap; above all, as a crest, is the condor of the Andes between two branches of laurel and olive. 457- The flag of the Argentine Admiral ashore is blue, with three stars next to and parallel with the staff, and an anchor in the center of the field. = as GIBRALTAR MALTA CYPRUS H.COM. 861 862 863 ; 864 865 866 867 CANADA—BADGE 871 869 878 NOVA SCOTIA 875 NEW MANITOBA 877 PRINCE BRITISH 874 BRUNSWICK 876 EDWARD 1. COLUMBIA as 3 884 = BERMUDA BAHAMA SOMBRERO AND JAMAICA TURKS AND LEEWARD 880 ISLANDS BAHAMA LIGHTS 883 CAICOS ISLES ISLES NaN Sj So . 2 se, 887 ee 892 Se BARBADOS WINDWARD ST. LUCIA ST VINCENT BRITISH BRITISH 886 ISLES 888 889 890 GUIANA HONDURAS ‘@> /* f w SiAaht hi | | < ) / = ee ay WH. is / \ 893 895 TRINIDAD FALKLAND HIGH FIJI & TOBAGO ISLES WESTERN PACIFIC ELLICE ISLES Tt >. | | J oa a 7 { t : 900 GOVERNOR 901 | 902 N. ZEALAND 903 N. ZEALAND NEW ZEALAND BLUE ENSIGN RED ENSIGN R NT BRIT.SOLOMON BRIT.RESIDENT COMMISSIONER COMMISSIONER |.-PROTECT. GILBERT AND NE R RARATONGA —ENSIGN i} TONGA—ENSIGN TONGA—STANDARD - TONGA—CUSTOMS 904 u 905 - 906 907 GOV GENERAL 908 : AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIA RED ENSIGN | 911 910 AUSTRALIA BLUE ENSIGN TERRITORY PAPUA TASMANIA ARAWAK 923 STRAITS LABUAN SETTLEMENTS 924 930 ENS FEDERATED MALAY STATES { 934 ENSIGN—PERAK JOHORE | 938 7, ate FAS ZI eer 4A le=e || 942 KEDAH RAJAH OF Ss 922 MAURITIUS SEYCHEBEES 928 929 WEIHAIWE] 927 ENSIGN PAHANG JACK MALAY STATES 932 ENS NEGRI—SEMBILAN 931 933 = ae KELANTAN 937 ane 936 KELANTAN ENSIGN—SELANGOR 935 940 PEREIS 941 RAJAH PERLIS SULTAN JOHORE 939 945 TRENGGANU 943 SULTAN KEDAH 11944REGENT KEDAH 363 458. The present flag of Brazil was largely inherited from the extinct empire. It consists of a green field, twice as long as wide, on which a diamond-shaped figure is inscribed in yel- low. The green represents the vegetable king- dom and the yellow the mineral. The blue circle within the yellow diamond, studded with stars, is a representation of the heavens at Rio, when the constellation of the Southern Cross is at the meridian. The words stamped in the course of the terrestrial orbit mean “Order and Progress.” f 459. The President’s flag of Brazil consists of a blue field, with the national coat-of-arms in the center. The large five-pointed star typi- fying the unity and territorial integrity of the nation is bisected in such a manner that one of the halves of each point is green and the other yellow, symbolizing respectively the vege- table and mineral wealth of the country. The blue circular’*band inscribed within the> star contains twenty-one small silver stars, remind- ers of the twenty States of the Brazilian Union and the neutral city of Rio de Janeiro. The five large stars in the center of the coat-of- arms represent the constellation of the South- ern Cross. The entire shield is upheld by a vertical sword, in the center of whose hilt on a red field is set a star. The shield is encircled by two branches of coffee and tobacco plants as emblems of the country’s agricultural wealth, while the straight golden rays, radiating in all directions outward and upward beyond the shield, denote the rising of the sun—that is, the glorious future and destiny of Brazil. In- scribed below are the words “Estados Unidos do Brazil” (the United States of Brazil) and the date of the establishment of the republic, November 15, 1889. 460. October 18, 1917, will be the centennial of the Chilian flag. October 18, 1817, Gen. Bernardo O’Higgins, the supreme dictator of Chile, decreed its adoption. It consists of a field, the lower half of which is red and the upper white, with a blue canton in the upper left-hand corner occupied by a large _five- pointed silver star. 461. The banner of the President of Chile consists of the national ensign with the coat- of-arms of the country thereon. The condor and guemul supporting the shield represent the strongest and most majestic bird of the Chilian Andes and the most peculiarly Chilian quad- ruped. The tuft of three feathers which crowns the shield was formerly used as a spe- cial mark of distinction on the hat of the Presi- dent of the Republic, as a representation of the supreme executive dignity of the nation. In the old days of wooden ships the sailor who first succeeded in boarding a warship of the enemy and came out of the action alive was rewarded by being crowned with a naval dia- dem of gold. Copies of this crown appear on the head of the condor and the guemul. The inscription on the coat-of-arms means “By Right or Might.” 462. Colombia inherited its flag and coat- of-arms from the Republic of New Granada, of which it is the successor. Following the death of Simon Bolivar, the Colombian Union, set up by him, which consisted of the present republics of Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, and Panama, ceased to exist,and New Granada, one of the succeeding States, adopted what is now the coat-of-arms and the flag of Colom- bia. The upper half of this flag is yellow, the lower half divided between light blue and bright red, the red strip being at the bottom. On the ensign is embroidered the national coat- of-arms. 463. The merchant flag of Colombia is a replica of the national ensign, except that in- stead of the coat-of-arms there appears a bright red oval surrounding a small field of blue, upon which is imposed an eight-pointed star. : 464. Colombia’s coat-of-arms consists of a shield divided into three horizontal sections, the upper section displaying upon a field of blue a golden pomegranate tinged- with red, with the leaves and stem of the same color. On each side of the pomegranate is an in- clined golden cornucopia, the one on the right pouring out toward the center gold coins and the one on the left overflowing with the fruits of the tropics. The middle section of the shield is platinum colored and bears a red lib- erty cap supported upon a lance. The lower section represents a silvery-waved ocean, di- vided by the Isthmus of Panama, with full- rigged ship in both the. Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea. The shield is supported by four national banners. The crest shows the condor of the Andes with extended wings, from its beak hanging a laurel wreath to which is attached a streamer bearing the inscription, in Latin, in black letters, “Liberty and Order.” 465. For a description of the coat-of-arms of Chile, see 461. 466. Costa Rica’s flag is made up of five stripes, blue at the top and bottom, red-in the center, and white between the red and blue. The red stripe is double width. The national coat-of-arms, in diameter equal to the red stripe, is placed in the center of the field. 467. The merchant flag of Costa Rica is a duplicate of the ensign except that the coat- of-arms is left off. 468. As revised by the decree of 1906, the coat-of-arms of Costa Rica represents three volcanoes and an extensive valley between two oceans, with a merchant ship sailing on each of them. On the extreme left of the line that marks the horizon is a rising sun. On the upper part of the field are two myrtle palms, half covered and joined by a white .ribbon which contains the following inscription in gold letters: “Republica de Costa Rica.” The field between the peaks of the volcanoes and the myrtle palms contains five stars of equal size arranged in an arc. The crest of the shield is a blue ribbon interlaced in the shape of a crown and bearing in silver letters the inscription, “America Central” 469. The quarantine flag of Cuba is yellow, with a black anchor and Greek cross superim,; posed upon the center. z 470. The Cuban patriotically calls his na- tional flag’ “La-Estrella Solitaria,’ or “The Lone Star.” This banner became the official emblem of Cuba on the 20th of May, 1902. It consists of a field with three blue and two white horizontal stripes, with a solitary star set in the center of a red equilateral triangle 364 ~~ of the republic’s history. imposed upon the staff end of the field. The “lone star” is taken from the banner of the old Republic of Texas, the equilateral triangle from Masonic symbolism. 471. The flag of the Secretary of the Navy of Cuba has a “blue ground and an anchor in white in the center. 472. The national coat-of-arms of Cuba was adopted during the revolutionary period It has the form of an ogive shield and is divided into three sec- tions, two of which are‘in the lower two-thirds of the shield. In the left half of the lower two-thirds are three blue and two white stripes of the Cuban flag. Inthe right half is depicted a characteristic landscape OF rural Cuba. The upper third of the shield shows a sea with two rocky capes, between which is a golden key ~~ closing the*strait thus formed, signifying that Cuba, with her fine geographical position, is “the key to the Gulf of Mexico. The golden disk of-the sun, rising out of the waves of the “sea and shedding its rays in all directions, rep- resents Cuba, redeemed by the blood of mar- _tyrs and heroes, with a bright and glorious future before her. The shield is supported by fasces surmounted by a crimson liberty cap on which appears a five-pointed star. Two inter- -~ twined branches, the one of evergreen oak and the other of laurel; denoting respectively en- during strength’ and vitality - ‘and victory, én- - circle “the right: and left sides of the shield. 473- The - flag of the Captain of the fleet of Cuba is a blue triangular pennant with an anchor in white imposed on it. 474. When the people of the eastern part of the island of Haiti threw off the yoke of the Haitian Government and established the - Dominican Republic, they. designed a flag which consists of a field crossed in both direc- tions with white. The upper quarter next the flagstaff and the lower quarter at the free end are blue, while-the lower quarter next the staff and the upper quarter at the free end are pened In the national ensign the coat-of-arms “Of the Dominican Republic appears on the white cross. * 475... The merchant flag of the Dominican Republic i is like the national ensign except that” . the coat-of-arms is omitted. : 476.. On the shield of the coat-of- arnis of © -= the Dominican Republic appear the Cross, the Bible, and the colors of the country. Below ae a streamer with the inscription, “Dios,_ _ Patria, Libertad’”—“God, Country, Liberty. De “These words were the secret password of “La ~Trinitaria,” the patriotic society which é ‘inau- a feurated the. revolution that resulted in: the. freedom of the republic. Stunts 477- The admiral’s flag of the Dominican ~ Republic is like the national ensign (474) eX- cept that the outward third of the fly is swal- low-tailed. 478. Under a legislative decree. entered in 1900 the national flag of Ecuador is the old Venezuelan flag of 111. The duily difference between it and the Colombian ‘flag (462) is that the Ecuadorean coat-of-arms appears in- stead of the Colombian. The law provides that the flag raised over the national buildings, warships, fortresses, and those hoisted by che diplomatic and consular agents of the republic =hayforce” in foreign countries, shall bear the coat-of- arms of the nation in the center on the yellow and blue stripes. 479- The Ecuadorean law of 1900 provides that the flag used by individuals and merchant shipping shall be the national colors without any insignia. The flags flown over municipal buildings have, under that law, a circle of white stars on the blue stripe, of a number equal to that of the provinces which compose the republic. 480. The coat-of-arms of Ecuador consists of an oval shield, supported by the colors of the republic, in the upper part of which is a representation of the sun, with that part of the zodiac in which are found the signs corre- sponding to the months of March, April, May. and June. At the left of the shield is a repre- sentation of Mount Chimborazo, washed by a river on which floats a steamship. The shield rests on consular fasces, the emblem of repub- lican dignity, and is crowned by a condor with outstretched wings. 481. The commanding officer’s pennant of the Dominican Republic is triangular, with the representation of the national colors still pre- served. 482. The present national flag of Guate- mala is-one which was provided under a de- cree of 1871, restoring the colors fixed by the National Assembly in 1823. It consists of three vertical stripes of equal ‘dimensions, blue and white, the latter in the center. The national ensign bears the coat-of-arms of the country on the white stripe. 483. The merchant flag of Guatemala is like the national ensign except that the coat- of-arms is omitted. 484. The National Congress of Honduras in 1866, made the flag of the republic that of the’old Central’ ‘American Federation—two blue stripes:and one white stripe between, placed horizontally, and in addition a group of five stars, five-pointed, in the center of the white field. In the national ensign these stars are replaced by the coat-of-armg:and regrouped so _ as to form a curved row of five stars below the escutcheon. 485.. The * ‘Honduras “merchant flag, which “the law saysi.is the national fldg, as distin- guished from the war flag; has the five stars so grouped in the center of the white stripe as to form an “X.” 486. The coat-of-arms of the Republic of Haiti was established under the constitution ‘of. 1843. ItecOnsists of a palm surmounted by the cap of -EAberty and ornamented with a ., trophy of arms, with the motto, “L’Union fait (In union there is strength). When “President Soulouque established himself as Emperor Faustin I, he modified the coat-of- arms, but it was restored in. 1861 and has since remained unchanged. 487. Guatemala’s coat-of-arms dates from 1871. .It consists of a shield with two rifles and two: swords of gold entwined by laurel branches.: On:the-scroll are the words “Liber- tad, r5 de Setiembre de 1821” (Liberty, 15th of "September, 182T,). Above the scroll is a quetzal; the national bird of Guatemala, corre- sponding to the American eagle. It is said that this bird never survives captivity, even when 365 | 948 INDIAN MARINE | 951 CONSERVATORS | 950 LOCAL INDIAN BOMBAY 952 || WITU—PROTECTORATE MARITIME GOVTS 953 = = > gre | SSI LZ ) \ & | KL Og | 1h Naar | DN | l E> OTT 6011 OLVD VNIHO TOIT VAVL OOrt IH13a ValODOS VOOAW OTT Pa ea 6601 8601 i |i B tee VNOIOVYES NVONIAWYV VIOONOQG NS0SW3YL YVNV9YO VANINS vana NOYODOL VONAWNSOTINS P2601 S60T y60l T60T 0601 6801 8801 L801 —~_ 9801 area > - > , vy VISNS ODDOYOW NVHOSIYaG VLNAD VNILNVLSNOD VOYOrVW SINOL VOIYsAV WdIyL TWNdIYL we E> > > > I» » > > | r VLAWONOL NOHON1 VIYONVX3AT1V LdiADa SNOSVWVG Watlvsngyar VINAWYV OOSVNVS VINOYNL OINND OHONINOD ras L901 — p90! f £901 ——CoOn 1901 ViIndant VITVLVS S3qGOHHY AYVIONONH INSAYVN VNIXOad VINOAV19S4 AdINSA ANIDIS ING VN 0901 8SO- ' Ssot i) wf SOT SICSOL Secor AWOY ViONE'S ANNOSGYVN NOSVYV VAVNVYD GNV1I9SN3A GNV1LODS AVYMYON VIGNV1LODSD NSGSMS g¢q7 NOaq pane LyOt ie BS CD bbOl co Sim, 6/01 E> ye i CFO fee =" LEO GNv10d VINV4ASLIT VINAHOSG ANVWHS9 SHAGNVW14 SONVYS ASNONNOL SAYUVAVN ANNOAVE aAV9NLYOd 3A1Lsvo | ZE01 WO! an IN Nah SSSSESISD a > > gD | > | 1121 VICE 1156 "1170 1177 Xt Wy) — | ALGIER 119] ADMIRALL DOUBLE FRENCH ENSIGN 1149 MIDDLEBURGH SWEEDS MERCHANT 1163 JERUSALEM ENCHYSEN PORTUGAL MERCHANT 1184 11 ll 1l22REAR ADMIRALL anes INDIA COMP = HOLLANDS 36 ENSIGN ENGLISH 1123 ENSIGN sear ia GUINY COMP 30 ENSIGN 1 — 11 1124 vice ADMIRALL er) — see Dati 113 1 ad SCOTCH 3) ENSIGN Percosnine: 138 JACK FIGHT BRETAGNY —=y we nn — 1157 i i AMOY CHINA 1185 / NORMANDY 41158 DANTZICK 5 ENSIGN VENICE 41179 TITUAN COLOURS 1193 2 — af} a "|| REAR 1125 ADMIRALL FLAG OF 1126 DEFIANCE i} | | = [StTCEORGES JACK SCOTCH IRISH UNION, FLAG 1133 ENSIGN ;-——___—_—— f | ; if | 4 J HOLLAND HOLLAND ieee 1139 SAILING TNO hie Sl ae ANDEGENOA SPANISH FLAG ZEALAND COLOURS 1152 BREMEN 1166 DEANS MERCHANT 1173 SABEEY COLOURS 1194 GS OF THE WORLD TWO HUNDRED YEARS AGO: Sl HAMBURGH 1154 LUBECK 41153 PICARDY 1161 iid GENOA 68 ENSIGN ROSTOCK LUNENBURGH 1174 SAVOY PORTUGAL 1181 JMAN-OF-WARR > 1182 CAMPHEN ENSIGN u 1188 SALLEY MOCO ARABA (MOROCCO) 1196 IN 1705 EYLIGELAND 1155 SWEEDS DUI es RR BENGAL RAND MOGUL TRIPOLY 1190 THE FLAGS OF EUROPE, ASIA, AND AFRICA 728. The flag of Abyssinia consists of three horizontal stripes, the uppermost green, the middle yellow, and the bottom red. This ban- “ner flies over that part of Africa which was known in Bible times as Ethiopia. It is the emblem of authority of a government which has been called a sort of feudal monarchy. The Emperor’s title is “King of Kings.” Cer- tain parts of the country are ruled by princes, some of them appointed by the Emperor and others self-constituted. Some of these princes have retinues of supporters who are perpetual warriors and whose usefulness lasts as long as there are any insubordinate tribes to pacify. The Abyssinian army, numbering about 150,000, is largely composed of cavalry and is well adapted for swift movement, as it is not in- cumbered by any commissariat, its maintenance being obtained from the inhabitants of regions through which it passes. 729. The flag of Albania has a red field, upon which is imposed a black double-headed spread eagle. This flag dates from 1913, in which year a council of six members, chosen by the powers of Europe, set up the principal- ity as an offset to Serbia’s desire to possess a port on the Adriatic Sea. Austria resented Serbia’s designs on the ground that the small nation would cut off the dual monarchy from an outlet to the Mediterranean in a way as prejudicial to her interests as the closed Dar- danelles were prejudicial to the interests of Russia. 730. The coat-of-arms of Andorra, one of the four vest-pocket nations of the world, has a quartered shield bearing thereon the episco- pal miter, the crozier of Urgel, the red and yellow pales of Aragon, and two belled cows. Andorra is under the joint sovereignty of France and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel. It is governed by a council of twenty-four mem- bers elected for four years by the heads of families in each parish. The council elects a first and second syndic to preside; the execu- tive power is vested in the first syndic, while the judicial power is exercised by a civil judge and two magistrates. France and the Bishop of Urgel each appoint a magistrate and a civil judge alternately. The permanent delegate of the prefect of the Pyrenees-Orientales ‘has charge of the interests of France in the re- public. 731. A century ago Napoleon declared, “I recall a miniature republic lost in a corner of the Pyrenees.” ‘Today the hero, the conqueror, and the soldier, merely a handful of dust, is often recalled by Andorra. But in its mild- ness, its weakness, its isolation, the republic has found strength, and its colors float upon the breeze as independent as they were a cen- tury ago, when they waved over an island of peace in the great sea of human carnage dur- ing the Napoleonic wars. For nearly six cen- turies it has been thus. The war between France and England, begun at Crecy and Poi- tiers, did not move the tiny country. Queen Isabella and Ferdinand left it unmolested. Charles V, dreaming dreams of empire as great as those of Charlemagne, did not crush it upon his way to the Netherlands or to Italy. Philip II, weaving his web of expanding power around so many principalities, cast no entang- ling thread about it. Cynical Louis XI did not deign to harm it, and Louis XIV, although he ordered that there should be no more Pyre- nees, left it undisturbed. It was a spectator of the Carlist War in Spain in 1833 and of the contest between France and Germany in 1870. 732. Built upon a rampart of rocks and hid- den upon the southern slope of the Pyrenees, liberty has found a home in Andorra for a thousand years. Appreciating the services ren- dered by the Andorrans in his campaign . against the Moors, Charlemagne gave them a charter of freedom and permitted them to gov- ern themselves. Louis the Pious confirmed these rights, and from that day to this the tiny country has been self-governed under its own code of laws. The Spanish Bishop of Urgel holds spiritual supremacy and looks after edu- cational matters and religious instruction France exerts a temporal influence by appoint- ing the provost from the department of Ariege to control the military activities of the repub- lic. The blue, yellow, and red flag of Andorra, with its coronet in the center, is the youngest thing in the nation. It is only fifty years old, having originated in the reform of 1866 to emphasize the autonomy of the valley; but neither of the co-suzerains has approved it. It is displayed when the council is in session. 733. The flag of the Chinese army has a red field upon which is centered a black star bearing eight yellow points, with nine yellow disks on the body of the star. This is the flag of the republic and is entirely different from the one flown by the Chinese armies in the past. 734. The royal standard of Belgium. con- sists of three vertical bars—black, yellow, and red—with black next the staff. The national arms are imposed upon the middle or yellow bar. These arms consist of a golden lion on a black ground. Its tongue and jaws are red. The shield is ensigned with the royal crown of Belgium and the supporters are two golden lions. The motto of Belgium is “L’Union fait la force’ (Union makes strength). The black, yellow, and red of the Belgian flag are the colors of the Duchy of Brabant, and were — adopted in 1831, when the monarchy was founded. 735. Belgium’s merchant flag is a duplicate of the royal standard, except that the coat-of- arms is omitted. 736. The flag of the Chinese navy under the republic is red, with a blue canton in the upper corner next the staff, upon which is a large white sun with rays emanating in the form of small triangles. This flag succeeds the one in 372 which the dragon, on a yellow field, was shown in the act of devouring a red sun. 737. China’s national flag, which is also used in the merchant service, consists of five broad horizontal stripes, the uppermost red, the next yellow, the next blue, the next white, and the one at the bottom black. These colors stand respectively for China, Manchuria, Mon- golia, Tibet, and Turkestan. 738. The royal standard of Denmark con- sists of a swallow-tail red fly with the danne- brog, ot silver cross, upon it. The origin of this cross is said to date from 1219, when King Waldemar, at a critical moment in his career, averred that he had seen this cross in the heavens. He asserted that it became strength for him and saved Denmark. At the intersec- tion of the dannebrog is the coat-of-arms. The first quarter of the shield represents Denmark, with three blue lions, crowned, on a golden ground powdered with red hearts. The second quarter represents Schleswig, with two blue lions on a golden ground. ‘The third quarter stands for modern Sweden and shows three golden crowns on a blue field; Iceland is rep- resented by a silver hawk on a red ground; the Faroe Islands by a silver goat walking on a blue ground, and Greenland by a silver polar bear on a blue ground. The fourth quarter proclaims Jutland, a blue lion at the top on a golden ground with ten red hearts below; Van- dalia has a golden dragon on a red ground, and Holstein is represented by three leaves of nettle and the three nails of the Passion of Christ. The supporters are two savage men wearing green wreaths and holding wooden clubs (see also 1172). 739. Denmark’s ensign is the same as the royal standard (738), except that the national coat-of-arms is omitted. It is the oldest na- tional ensign in existence. 740. The merchant flag of Denmark has a red field with a white cross upon it, and omits the swallow-tail feature of the ensign. 741. The flag of Iceland is of the same di- mensions as the Danish merchant flag, the field being blue and the cross red, with thin white stripes separating the red of the cross from the blue of the field. THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE 742. The flag of the President of France consists of the French tricolor, with the initials of the President in gold on the white stripe. 743. The familiar and inspiring tricolor of France dates from the year that gave the United States its Constitution—1789. ‘The best authorities are doubtful as to the true story of its origin, but there are three principal theories as to the derivation of its combination of colors. The first of these, and the most au- thentic, is that after the taking of the Bastille, when Lafayette had been appointed by accla- mation commander-in-chief of the National Guard, he devised for the Guard a new cock- ade made of the white of the royal family and of the colors of Paris time out of mind, which were and continue to be red and blue. From this cockade, most historians believe, came the French national flag. Another version links the tricolor with the three historic flags of . France—the blue of the Chape de Martin, the red of the oriflamme, and the white of the Bourbons. It will be recalled that the Chape de Martin was supposed to be the original cloak which St. Martin divided with a beggar at Amiens, which act was followed by a vision of Christ making known to the angels this deed of charity. The chape was in the keeping of the monks of Marmoutier, and Clovis carried it when he conquered Alaric, while Charlemagne bore it at Narbonne. When the kings of France transferred the seat of government to Paris, the local saint, St. Denis, was held in high honor, and gradually the plain scarlet banner, known as the oriflamme, and kept in the abbey church, supplanted the blue of St. Martin as the national colors. ‘The oriflamme appeared for the last time at the battle of Agincourt, in 1415. The Huguenot party in France adopted the white flag, and when Henry III, himself a Protestant, came to the throne he made it the royal ensign. His successor, Henry IV, the first king of the Bourbons, adopted it as the national flag. The third ac- count of the tricolor’s origin is that it is copied from the shield of the Orleans family, as it appeared after Philippe Egalité knocked off the fleur de lis. During the first and second em- pires, the tricolor became the imperial stand- ard, but in the center of the white.stripe was placed the eagle, while all three stripes were richly powdered with the golden bees of the Napoleon family. The flag of France today waves over territory nearly one and a half times as large as that covered by the United States. French colonies have a total of ap- proximately 4,500,000 square miles. Among the flags of the earth, only the Union Jack and the banner of Russia float over more territory. 744. The flag of the French Governors of Colonies consists of a blue field with a canton of white and red in the quarter next to the flagstaff, a blue stripe as wide as the white and the red stripe separating the canton from the staff. This flag is to be flown below the national ensign. 745. The flag of French Indo-China and of the Lieutenant Governor of Senegal is a dupli- cate of the flag of the French Governors of Colonies, except that it is swallow-tailed. 746. The flag of Greece consists of nine alternate stripes of blue and white, four white and five blue, with a canton of blue in the upper corner next the staff, upon which is im- posed a white cross bearing at its point of in- tersection a Greek crown. ‘The colors of the flag, white and blue, were derived from the arms of Otto of Bavaria, who was called to the throne of Greece in 1833. ‘The motto of ne nation reads, “My strength is my people’s ove.” 747. The merchant flag of Greece is a dupli- cate of the ensign, with the exception that the crown is omitted from the cross in the canton. 748. [he ambassadorial flag of Italy con- sists of a white fly, upon which is superim- posed, in a line descending from the upper corner next the staff to the lower corner of the fly, three blue six-pointed stars. 749. When a merchant ship is taken over by the Italian navy, it flies a triangular pen- nant, the base half of which next the staff is 373 blue and the apex half white. Upon the blue is placed a crowned anchor, proclaiming the government and the navy. 750. Italy’s royal standard consists of a square blue field on which is centered the na- tional coat-of-arms. A crown appears in each corner of the flag outside the encircling collar of the Annunciation. Within this collar is a crowned black spread-eagle on blue. On its breast is an oval shield bearing a silver cross on a red ground, the arms of Savoy (see also 1181). ‘The collar itself is composed of a se- ries of red and white roses and the letters F. E. R. T., meaning “Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit” (His firmness held Rhodes), this being a tribute to Amadeus the Great from the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, in 1310, for his help against the Saracens at the siege of Rhodes. The pendant of the collar of the An- nunciation bears a design representing that holy event. 751. When Napoleon made the northern provinces of Italy into a kingdom, in 1805, he gave it a flag of three colors—green next to the flagstaff, white in the middle, and red at the fly end. ‘This flag disappeared when Na- poleon was overthrown, but was revived when Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia and a representative of the house of Savoy, became king. ‘Today Italy’s ensign consists of the Savoy arms, surmounted by a crown, on the central white vertical stripe of Napoleon’s green, white, and red. 752. ‘The Italian merchant flag is an exact duplicate of the ensign, with the exception that the crown is omitted above the arms. 753. The flag of the Governor of Eritrea, the Italian colony in Africa, consists of a white field upon which are imposed the arms and crown of Italy. 754. The flag of the Emperor of Japan con- sists of a red field upon which is centered a golden representation of the yellow chrysan- themum. It is essential that the flower should invariably have sixteen petals. While the use of this flower as a badge is not necessarily confined to the imperial family, its members alone have the right to use the sixteen-petalled form. If used by any other family, society, or corporation, it must be with a number of petals less or more than sixteen. 755. The flag of the Japanese crown prince is like that of the emperor, except that the chrysanthemum is centered in a_ rectangle formed by a line of white on the red field of the flag. 756. The Japanese ensign consists of a ris- ing sun, slightly to the left of the center of a white field, with rays radiating to all points of the compass. Both the sun and the rays are red, and the device is generally known as the sunburst. 757. Lhe Japanese merchant flag is white, of rectangular form, with a rayless “red sun in the center, its diameter approximately half the width of the field. 758. The Japanese guard flag is of white, with two horizontal parallel dancetty lines in red across it. A ‘ ‘dancetty” line is zigzag, re- sembling the “worm” of a rail fence, w ith. deep indentations. 759. The Japanese transport flag is identical with the Japanese guard flag, w ith the excep- gen that the dancetty lines are blue instead of red. 760. The Japanese commanding officer’s flag is a swallow-tail white, with the red sun and four rays, two vertical and two horizontal. 761. This flag, flown by all ships under Japanese registry carrying mail, consists of a white field with two horizontal red stripes, separated by a narrower white stripe occupy- ing the upper half. The lower half is quar- tered by a red stripe, which, with the lower of the two horizontal red stripes, forms a T- square. 762. The flag which distinguishes a Japa- nese repair ship is the same as that displayed by a transport, with the exception that the bot- tom and top of the white field are bordered with red stripes. 763. In i910 the Kingdom of Korea was. abolished by Japan, whose influence in this ter- ritory had been recognized as paramount by the treaty which ended the Russo-Japanese War. The name of Chosen was given the State, and the red and white of the Japanese ensign were utilized in the flag adopted. 764. The national ensign of Liberia, which is also the merchant flag, has eleven horizontal stripes of red and white, red at the top and bottom, with the blue canton in the upper cor- ner next to the flagstaff, on which is super- imposed a large white star. This flag was adopted at the time the Republic of Liberia was established, in 1847, by colonists from America. 765. The flag of the President of Liberia consists of a square blue standard upon which is imposed a shield containing the red and white stripes of the national colors, and above it the five-pointed star of the republic. 766. The coat-of-arms of Liechtenstein (see 767) consists of a shield imposed upon the mantle of the Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, with his crown forming the crest. On the escutcheon, which is quartered, are the arms of Silesia for Ritberg; the second quar- ter of the shield, with its six stripes of red and gold, and green crown of rue cutting them diagonally, represents Khuenring; the third quarter, half red and half silver, is for Trop- pau; the fourth quarter, of gold, with its black harpy crowned, represents East Frisia. At the point of the shield in blue is a golden hunting horn, representing Jagerndorf; the small red and gold shield in the center, imposed upon all four quarters, represents Liechtenstein itself. 767. With its field shared by yellow and red, the latter occupying the lower half, the national banner of the principality of Liechten- stein flies over a nation having an area of 65 square miles. This miniature principality lies between Austria and Switzerland. It consists of Schellenberg and Vaduz, formerly fiefs of the Roman Empire. Schellenberg in 1699 and Vaduz in 1712 came into the possession of the House of Liechtenstein and were set up as a principality by Emperor Carl VI in 1719. After the break-up of the empire in 1806, the princi- pality was incorporated in the Rhine Confed- eration. When the map of Europe was remade after the Napoleonic wars, it became a part of the German Confederation and remained so from that time until 1866, when the Confedera- tion broke up. Since then it has not joined 374 itself with any other nation. There is no pub- lic debt and the inhabitants have not been liable to military service since 1867. 768. With its tricolor of red, white, and blue in three horizontal bars, red at the top and blue at the bottom, the flag of Luxemburg flies over a country that did not raise a hand to check the invader in 1914. An alien army now passes over its soil at will and unresented. The population of Luxemburg is approximately 260,000, and it is governed by a reigning Grand Duchess and a Chamber of Deputies. The Grand Duchy was included from 1815 to 1866 in the Germanic Confederation. By the treaty of London in 1867 it was declared neutral ter- ritory and its integrity and independence were guaranteed. 769. The Prince of Monaco flies a flag con- sisting of a white field upon which is a crowned shield, covered with lozenge-shaped figures of red and silver, surrounded by the collar of the order of St. Charles, instituted in 1863. The shield bears as a pendant a Maltese cross. The supporters are two monks with swords. The motto placed over the shield is “Deo Juvante” (God Helping). MONACO—SMALLEST NATION ON EARTH 770. The red and white flag of Monaco floats over the smallest nation on earth, The entire area of the territory, whose symbol of authority it is, is only eight square miles. A\I- though it is smallest in area, there are three smaller in population. It has 23,000 inhabit- ants, as compared with 5,231 for Andorra, 10,716 for Liechtenstein, and 11,513 for San Marino. Monaco is a small principality on the Mediterranean, surrounded by the French de- partment of Alpes-Maritime, except on the side toward the sea. After 968 A. D. it belonged to the house of Grimaldi. The reigning prince was dispossessed during the French Revolu- tion, in 1792, and died in 1795. In 1814 the principality was reéstablished, but placed under the protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the treaty of Viennain 1815. In 1848the towns of Mentone and Roccabruna (now known as Roquebrune) revolted and declared themselves free. The prince thereupon ceded his rights over them to France and the principality thus became geographically an enclave of France, when the Sardinian garrison was withdrawn and the protectorate established in 1815 ended. The prince was an absolute ruler until 1911, when a representative government was set up. 771. The State flag of Montenegro has a red field bordered with white. In the center is the royal coat-of-arms, with its double- headed spread-eagle in silver and holding in its talons a scepter and an orb, A small shield on the breast of the bird contains the letters “A J,” and underneath the eagle is a golden lion passant. The initial H is the Montene- grin N and refers to Nicholas, the King. “T” is the Roman numeral, the letters together standing for Nicholas I. 772. The military standard of Montenegro consists of a square field of red bordered with white, a Greek cross centered upon the red. The cross bears at its intersection the “H |” of the Montenegrin coat-of-arms. 773. The naval flag of Montenegro is a tri- color with red at the top, blue in the middle, and white at the bottom in horizontal stripes. On the blue is a gold crown, below which are the letters “H I.’ The merchant flag is the same as the naval ensign, except that the letters and crown are omitted. 774. Morocco’s flag now consists of a red field upon which is imposed a five-pointed star of striking design. This star proclaims the passing of ‘Turkish influence in Morocco. Under the old régime the familiar crescent of the Mohammedan world was borne on the Mo- roccan flag where the star is now imposed. The old flag of Morocco was red, bearing what appeared to be scissors, but which were in reality crossed yataghans. 775. ‘The national flag of the Netherlands consists of three horizontal bars, red at the top, blue at the bottom, and white between. © It is national flag, ensign, and merchant flag—all in one. In the sixteenth century it was orange, white, and blue, the orange being in honor of William the Silent, Prince of Orange. Both the victories of Van Tromp and De Reuter were gained under the present colors (see 377). 776. The royal standard of the Netherlands is buff quartered by a cross of blue. In each buff quarter there is placed a hunter’s horn in blue, and upon the intersection of the cross is the royal coat-of-arms, consisting of a blue ground dotted with golden billets and bearing a crowned golden lion rampant. The lion grasps in one paw a naked sword and in the other a cluster of arrows. ‘The shield has for its crest a crown. 777. The standard of the Prince of Nether- lands is the reverse of the royal standard (1776) in its coloring. The cross is buff and the quarters are blue. Instead of the hunter’s horns of the royal standard there are golden lions like the lion of the coat-of-arms, which appears in the center of the cross in both standards. 778. The flag of the Arabians, also typical of Muscat and Zanzibar, is scarlet. Elsewhere the red flag is the emblem of mutiny and dis- _order, and was carried recently by the Revo- lutionists of Russia during the eventful days which marked the overthrow of the Romanoff dynasty and the establishment of a republican form of government. ‘The red flag was a widely used national emblem two centuries ago, Spain, Venice, Genoa, Tetuan, Salley, and Camphen being partial to it (see 1141, 1188, 1193, and I194).: 779. ‘The Governors of Surinam and Cura- cao bear a flag which has the national colors of the Netherlands, with the addition of two white disks in the red stripe near the staff. 780. The merchant reserve of the Nether- lands bears a flag which is like the national ensign, except that an anchor and a crown are imposed upon the middle of the white bar. In order to make room for these, an arc is cut out of the blue stripe at the bottom and the red stripe at the top and the white stripe enlarged accordingly. 781. The ensign of the Governor General of the Dutch East Indies is a triangular swal- low-tail pennant showing the national colors of the Netherlands and attached to the flag- staff by the means of a toggle. 375 782. Repair ships of the Netherlands fly a flag with the regulation red, white, and blue bars, the staff end of the red bar giving way to white and forming a canton upon which is placed a red anchor capped by a crown. 783. The royal standard of Norway has a red field upon which is centered a golden lion rampant holding a battle-ax. 784. Norway’s ensign is red and three- tailed, a blue cross edged with white extending to a point between the swallow-tail. It thus preserves the shape of the Swedish ensign, from which it was fashioned, that ensign hay- ing a yellow cross on a blue field (see 826). 785. The merchant flag of Norway is like the ensign (784), except that the swallow-tail effect is omitted. 786. ‘The senior admiral’s flag of Norway consists of the ensign with the addition of a saltire cross of white in the upper quarter next to flagstaff. 787. The imperial standard of Persia con- sists of a blue square field with the national colors in a small canton in the upper corner next to the staff. In the center is a white circle on which the Persian coat-of-arms ap- pears, showing a lion holding a sword, a rising sun in the background, and the crown of the empire above the lion. The lower half of the circle is bordered by a wreath. 788. The military flag of Persia is unique in that it embodies a very pale shade of green and a delicate shade of pink as the upper and lower hues of its tricolor. The middle stripe is white and bears the Persian sword-carrying lion with the sun peeping over his back. The crown of the empire is imposed upon the green stripe. The wreath rests upon the pink. 789. The ensign of Persia is like the mili- tary flag, except that the crown and wreath above and below the lion are omitted. 790. The merchant flag of Persia is the same green, white, and pink arrangement as seen in the ensign and military flag of the nation, but without the Persian lion. 791. The colors of the flag of Portugal are green and red, the third of the field next the staff green, and the two-thirds at the fly end red. The arms of the country are centered on the dividing line between the two colors. These arms consist of a large silver shield upon which are five small blue ones arranged in the form of a cross, each of them bearing five plates of silver. Around the shield is a red border upon which are placed seven golden castles. Alfonso I defeated five Moorish princes in the historic battle of Ourique and adopted the five small blue shields to com- memorate his triumph. The five white spots on the small shields represent the five wounds of Christ, in whose strength Alfonso believed he had defeated the infidels. The red border of the shield was added by Alphonse III in 1252, after his marriage to a daughter of the King of Castile. The circle of gold upon which the shield and its border are imposed, together with the green of the flag, which is that of the cross and ribbon of the Knights of St. Benedict of Aviz, commemorate the fame of Prince Henry the Navigator. 792. The flag of the President of Portugal is solid green, with the Portuguese coat- of- arms in the center. 793. The flag of the Governor General of the provinces of Portugal is white, with a strip of green placed horizontally across the field and the coat-of-arms centered on it. 794. The flag of the dependent Kingdom of Poland (so nominated after the N Japoleonic wars) has a white field with the blue cross of St. Andrew, which proclaims Russian suzer- ainty. Upon the red canton is a crowned spread eagle. 795- Roumania’s flag has three vertical stripes, blue next the flagstaff, yellow in the middle, and red on the fly. In the standard the blue and the red bars are narrow and the yellow very wide. Upon the yellow is placed the national coat-of-arms, a canopy of ermine on which is a crowned shield. On the quar- tered field of the shield appear a golden eagle displayed on blue, a lion’s head in gold dis- played on red, a golden demilion issuing from an antique crown on red, and two dolphins in gold displayed on blue. There is also a small shield of pretense quartered in white and black. The shield is supported by golden lions ram- pant. The motto, “Nihil sine Deo” (Nothing without God), is below the shield on a ribbon. Fee crowns appear, one in each corner of the ag. 796. The Roumanian ensign is like the standard, except that the three stripes are of equal width, and crowns in the four corners of the flag are omitted. 797. Roumania’s merchant flag is blue, yel- low, and red, like the ensign, except that the arms are omitted. 798. The Roumanian coast guard flag has the national colors, together with an anchor, above which is a crown on the yellow stripe. RUSSIAN FLAGS 799. The ensign of the Russian navy is a blue cross of St: Andrew upon a field of white. The Russians venerate St. Andrew as their patron saint, believing that it was he who se- cured the adoption of Christianity by their an- cestors. It has been asserted that he preached in Scythia. Peter the Great, under his name and protection, in the year 1608, instituted St. Andrew’s as the most noble order of Knight- hood of the Empire. Andrew is also the patron saint of Scotland, but there the cross is white upon a field of blue (see 831). 800. The white, blue, and red horizontal stripes of the Russian merchant flag are remi- niscent of the day when Peter the Great was learning ship-building in Holland. The Dutch flag is a tricolor of red, white, and blue. Peter, in ‘making his flag, turned these colors upside down, but was afterward advised that he was flying the flag employed by the Dutch as a sig- nal of distress and disaster. He thereupon re- vised his flag, putting the white at the top and the red at the bottom, with the blue between. 801. The flag of the volunteer fleet of Rus- sia is the same as the merchant flag, except that there is a trumpet in the center of the blue field. 802. Russia’s customs flag consists of a blue field with a canton in the upper corner next the staff showing the merchant flag in minia- ture, while in the lower corner next the staff are two combination caducei and tridents, crossed. 376 803. The flag of the Russian admiralty con- sists of four anchors interlocked and arranged in the form of a St. Andrew’s cross. 804. The flag of the Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Navy is flown only while the country is at war. It consists of a white fieid upon which is imposed the blue cross of St. Andrew, the upper quarter nearest the staff being occupied by a canton consisting of a white-bordered blue cross of St. Andrew and a white St. George’s cross on a red field. A blue anchor is centered in a white field im- posed upon the insection of the crosses. 805. The flag of Russia’s Minister of War consists of a white field with a red canton on which is imposed the blue cross of St. Andrew and the white cross of St. George. Here again the Russians reverse the British in their in- signia, the latter placing the scarlet cross of St. George on a field of white, while the Rus- sians place a white cross on a field of scarlet. Below the canton appears the shield with crossed muskets and cannons. 806. The flag of Russia’s aéronautic service is like that of the Minister of War, except that the fly is shorter and the shield in the lower left-hand corner is omitted, while a red-winged anchor is added in the lower right-hand corner. 807. The royal standard of Serbia consists of a field of red, blue, and white, surrounded by an indented border of the same colors. Upon the field, which is square, is centered the coat-of-arms of the country. This consists of a red shield within a crowned ermine canopy. The shield bears a silver eagle displayed, hav- ing upon its breast another shield with a silver cross and the date 1804. The supports are two natives holding flags of the colors, while the motto is “Spes mihi prima Deus” (My hope is God first of all). 808. The Serbian merchant flag is red, blue, and white, like the Russian merchant flag in- verted. The latter flown as a signal of distress might be mistaken for the Serbian merchant emblem normally dispiayed. As Servia has no seaport and no merchant navy, 808 is largely a flag of hope for a navy. 809. Russia’s transport navy flies a blue flag with a white canton upon which appears the blue cross of St. Andrew. 810. Russian transports employing civilian crews fly a blue flag with a union next the flagstaff in the upper corner, showing the colors of the country. 811. The flag of Siam consists of a scarlet field on which is a white elephant. The ele- phant is in full trappings and harness and stands on a platform. In the upper corner next the hoist appear a pagoda-crowned anchor and a wheel. ‘The elephant recalls the tradi- tion of the founder of the nation. Before Xacca, the reputed founder, was born, his mother dreamed that she had given birth to a white elephant. The Brahmans affirmed that Xacca, after undergoing 80,000 reincarnations, finally did actually become a white elephant, and as such was received into the company of the celestial deities. On this account the white elephant is held a sacred beast, and the Siam- ese rejoice to place themselves beneath so po- tent a protector. 812. The merchant flag of Siam now con- sists of a field of five stripes—red, yellow, red, white, red. The central red stripe is broader than the other four stripes, which are of equal width. This flag replaces the old red flag upon which was imposed the white elephant of Siamese tradition without any trappings or harness and without the anchor and wheel of the national ensign, The merchant flag is of recent origin. The flag book of the United States Navy, published in 1914, and that of the British Admiralty, published even more re- cently, show the elephant flag instead of the new striped one. 813. The Siamese emblem of royal au- thority, the royal standard, has an orange-hued field upon which is represented an image of the East, a man eagle. ‘This standard is of comparatively recent adoption. Formerly there was used a blue flag having a red border. Upon this was imposed the royal coat-of-arms, which consisted of an escutcheon portraying a three-headed elephant in the upper half and the white elephant and crossed swords in the two quarters of the lower half. 814. This is the coat-of-arms of what claims to be the oldest State in Europe—San Marino. Next to Monaco, it is in area the smallest independent country in the world. It has thirty square miles of territory and a pop- ulation of 11,513. The coat-of-arms consists of three hills in gold upon a field of blue. These hills are Monte Guiato, Monte Cucco, and Monte Gista, each bearing a castle sur- mounted by a plume. The shield has a gold crown asacrest and is surrounded by branches of laurel and oak united by a ribbon inscribed with the word “LrsErry.” 815. The merchant flag of San Marino, which, though that of a belligerent, the little republic having dared to declare war against the Central Powers, has probably never yet been encountered by a German submarine be- cause, as may well be imagined, the merchant navy of the mountain republic is not large. 816. The ensign of the Republic of San Marino consists of a field the upper part of which is blue and the lower half white. The coat-of-arms is centered on it. It is this flag that the soldiers of San Marino carry when they march to the aid of their ally, Italy, 817. The royal standard of Spain proclaims more of the glory of the empire that was than of the country which now exists. It consists of a purple field upon which is imposed the Spanish coat-of-arms. ‘This bears the lion of Leon and the castle of Castile. It also bears the arms of Aragon; the device of Sicily; the red and white stripes, which proclaim the arms of Austria; oblique stripes of yellow and blue within a red border, which tell of the flag of ancient Burgundy; the black lion on the golden ground, which is the heraldic bearing of Flan- ders; the red eagle, which is the device of Antwerp; the golden lion of Brabant; the fleur-de-lis and checkers of ancient Burgundy: the arms of Portugal, and the fleur-de-lis of France. The whole is surrounded by the collar of the Golden Fleece. 818. The ensign of Spain is yellow, bor- dered at the top and bottom by a stripe of red. On the broad yellow stripe is an oval shield bearing a crown and showing the arms of Castile impaling Leon. 819. The merchant flag of Spain consists of 377 five stripes, three yellow and two red, yellow at the top and bottom. ‘The central stripe is wider than the others. The flag bears no de- vice, but the colors are those of Aragon and Castile. 820. The flag of Switzerland consists of a red field with a white cross. When the Red Cross was recognized at the International Con- ference at Geneva, in 1863, a distinguishing badge was devised for times of war and peace. It will be noticed that the colors adopted are those of Switzerland counterchanged, the red cross being in a white ground. 821. The Captain General of the fleet of Spain flies the familiar red and yellow colors with an anchor placed horizontally on the yel- low bar. 822. Spanish ambassadors fly a swallow-tail flag made up of white, red, and yellow. The third of the flag next to the staff is white and red, white at the top and red below. The mid- dle bar of the flag is yellow and upon it two crossed tasseled pencils are imposed. The third of the flag at the fly end is red. 823. The flag of a Spanish minister is like that of an ambassador, except that instead of the pencils there are three blue disks on the yellow bar. 824. The military and naval service of Tunis has a flag consisting of a red field, upon which is centered a white disk having a ‘diam- eter half the vertical width of the flag. Upon this disk a red crescent and a red star are imposed. The flag is inherited from Turkey, although it is no longer under Turkish domination. 825. The royal standard of Sweden consists of a blue flag bearing a yellow cross. ‘This flag is swallowtailed and the horizontal arm of the cross in the fly projects. Upon the inter- section of the cross is placed the coat-of-arms of the country. 826. The ensign of Sweden is like the royal standard, with the exception that the coat-of- arms is omitted. 827. The merchant flag of Sweden is a rec- tangular blue flag, bearing the yellow cross. The blue and yellow were regarded as colors of freedom and independence at the time they were incorporated in the Swedish flag. 828. The standard of the Bey of Tunis isa fearfully and wonderfully made flag. It con- sists of seven horizontal stripes—red, yellow, red, green, red, yellow, red—the green stripe being double the width of the others. The stripes do not extend the full length of the flag, but join a narrow green stripe next to and parallel with the staff. Every red stripe has four yellow-centered green disks and four yellow stars arranged alternately. On every yellow stripe are four red stars and four black disks with red centers arranged in the same way. On the broad central green stripe is a double-pointed dagger with white blade and red handle, gold and red stars being distributed about it. This flag is a western variation of the old flag of the days of Moslem authority. In those days there were thirteen stripes in- stead of seven. Tunis is now under French dominion and the tricolor is the supreme ban- ner of the land. THE ERLAGS OF THE BRIPISH EMPIRE 829. The national flag of the British Empire, the union jack, combines the crosses of St. George (830), St. Andrew (831), and St. Pat- rick (832). When the union of the two crowns of England and Scotland took place upon the accession of James VI of Scotland to the Eng- lish throne as James I, the cross of St. An- drew, the patron saint of Scotland, and that of St. George, the patron saint of England, were combined, and all ships were ordered to fly at their maintop the new flag, while at the fore- top the English were still to fly the red cross of St. George and the Scots the white cross of Andrew. This was the first union jack (361), as it is generally termed, though, strictly speaking, the name of the flag is “great union,” being a jack only when flown from the jackstaff of a ship of war. James I always signed his name “Jacques,” and it is believed in many quarters that the jack and the jackstaff of the navy de- rived their names from that fact. Others con- tend that “jack” was used as early as the close of the sixteenth century, Lord Howard’s ships in their attack upon the Spanish Armada, in 1588, are described as carrying a “jack” on the jackstaff, the?r jack being a small edition of the red cross of St. George. That St. George’s cross was placed over St. Andrew’s was distressing to the Scots, who 9 made it the subject of an appeal to the King (see 1132). But even a king cannot solve all of the problems of heraldry. That art has no way of making two devices on a flag of equal value. If they be put side by side the position next the staff is more honorable than the one re- mote from it, just as the upper portion of a flag is more honorable than the lower. After the death of Charles I, the union of Scotland and England was dissolved and the ships of parliament. reverted to the use of the simple cross of St. George, while those of Scotland took up the cross of St. Andrew again. When Cromwell becanie protector he restored the union flag, imposing the Irish harp upon its center. After the- Restoration, Charles II removed the harp, and so the original union flag was revived and continued in that form until 18or1, when, upon the legislative union of Great Brit- ain and Ireland, the cross of St. Patrick was incorporated. To combine these crosses with- out losing the characteristic features of each was not easy. Each had to be distinct and at the same time retain a border which would denote its original ground, To place the red cross of St. Patrick on the white cross of St. Andrew would have obliterated the latter, and vice versa. Therefore it was decided to make the white broader on one side of the red than 378 the other. tion of the arms of St. Patrick’s cross, but permits the Irish and Scottish crosses to be distinguished from one another. The union jack flies from the jackstaff of every man-of war in the British navy. With the Irish harp on a blue shield displayed in the center, it is flown by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. The Governor General of India adds to it the star and device of the Order of the Star of India and flies it; colonial governors add the badge of their colony in the center and fly it; diplomatic representatives use it -with the royal arms in the center. As a military flag it is flown over fortresses and headquar- ters, and on all occasions of military cere- mony. ‘The admiral of the fleet hoists it at the mainmast of a man-of-war as his flag. 830. The red cross of St. George is reputed to have originated during the Crusades. The story goes that while engaged in a great battle the soldiers of England were wearied and, seeing that the number of enemies did not de- crease, began to despair. At this critical mo- ment an infinite number of heavenly soldiers, all in white, descended from the mountains, the standard bearers and leaders of them being St. George, St, Maurice, and St. Demetrius. When the Bishop of Le Puy first beheld them he cried aloud to his troops, ‘““There are they, the succours which in the name of God I promised you.” As a result of the miracle the enemies turned their backs and lost the field, there being slain one hundred thousand horse, besides foot innumerable, and in their trenches such infinite store of victuals and munitions were found that the Christians were refreshed and the enemy confounded. This great victory at Antioch led to the recovery of Jerusalem, and during the Crusades England, Aragon, and Portugal all assumed St. George as their patron saint. The cross of St. George was worn as a badge over the armor by every English soldier in the fourteenth century, if indeed not in earlier times. It was the flag under which the great seamen of Elizabeth’s reign traded, ex- plored, and fought; it was the flag that Drake bore around the world; and to this day it is the flag of the British admiral (see 605). 831. St. Andrew has been the patron saint of Scotland since about 740 A. D. How he came to be such has never been satisfactorily settled. When he suffered martyrdom, in the year 69 A. D. at Papras, his remains were care- fully preserved; but in 370, Regulus, one of the Greek monks to whom they had been en- trusted, learned in a vision that the Emperor Constantine was proposing to move them to Constantinople. In compliance with the in- structions received in the vision, Regulus at once visited the shrine and removed the arm bones, three fingers of the right hand, and a tooth, and, putting them into a chest, set sail with some half dozen companions. After a stormy voyage the vessel was dashed upon a rock and Regulus and his companions landed on an unknown shore and found themselves in a gloomy forest. The natives there listened to their story and gave them land on which to build a church for the glory of God and the enshrining of the relic. This inhospitable shore proved to be that of Caledonia (Scotland). 379 This breaks the continuity of direc- 832. Authorities agree that, devoutly as mil- lions love it, the use of St. Patrick’s cross is in defiance of all ecclesiastical usage and cus- tom, because St. Patrick never suffered mar- tyrdom, but died in his bed at the ripe age of ninety. It is said that he was never canonized, and that his sainthood, like his cross, is due to popular error. It has been suggested by some that the X-like form of cross, both of the Irish and of the Scots, is derived from the sacred monogram of the labarum of Constantine, where the X is the first letter of the Greek word for Christ. This symbolic meaning of the form might readily have been adopted in the early Irish church and thence carried by missionaries through Scotland. Another sug- gestion is that the red cross on a white field was the heraldic device of the Geraldines, dat- ing at least from Maurice Fitzgerald, the erandson of Rhys, the great King of South Wales, who landed in Ireland in 1169 on the invitation of King Dermod of Leinster, and that it is in fact a banner not of St. Patrick, but of the Norman Invader, which was adroitly held up to the people of these islands as dis- tinctive of the patron saint. St. Patrick was born in Scotland, near where Glasgow now stands, The date of his birth was about the middle of the fifth century. His father was of good family, and while the fu- ture saint was under the paternal roof divers visions revealed to him that he was destined for the great work of the conversion of Ire- land, at that time steeped in idolatry. He re- signed his birthright and social position and took the burden of the Irish upon him. Or- dained a deacon and priest, he was ultimately made a bishop, in which capacity he traveled over the whole island, founding monasteries, and filling the country with churches and schools and with piety and learning. Tradi- tion has it that he found Ireland a land of barbarism and left it a seat of learning and piety. It continued for centuries a center of mental and spiritual light. 833. With its three golden lions represent- ing England, its red lion rampant standing for Scotland, and its golden harp for Ireland, the royal standard was first hoisted on the ‘Tower of London on the first day of January, 1801. How England came to be represented by three lions is not entirely clear. Two lions were assigned as the arms of William the Con- queror, a lion each for Normandy and Maine, but there is no distinct evidence that he bore them. Asa Crusader, Richard Coeur de Lion’s banner bore two lions combatant, but on his second great shield three lions passant guard- ant appear. ‘The date of this shield is 1195, so that for nearly seven and a quarter centuries, with the exception of the days of Cromwell, the three golden lions on the red field have typified the power of England. The rampant lion of Scotland dates from the time of William the Lion, about 1165. It be- came a part of the royal standard in 1603. The Scots did not like the idea of their lion being placed in the second quarter any more than they relished the thought of St. Andrew’s cross being placed under that of St. George. They claimed that after the death of Queen Elizabeth the Scottish crown virtually an- nexed the English, and felt so bitter about it that for many years after the union on all shields devoted to Scottish business, and on the flag displayed north of the Tweed the arms of Scotland were placed in the first quar- ter, as they are on the monument to Queen Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey (see also i013) The early standard of Ireland contained three gold crowns on a blue field. Henry VIII substituted the harp, and James I finally placed it on the third quarter of the royal standard. The Earl of Northampton, writing in the reign of King James I, suggested that the best rea- son that he could observe for the use of the harp was that it resembled the country it typi- fied in being an instrument that cost more to keep it in tune than it was worth. The royal standard is hoisted only when the King is actually within the palace or castle, or at the saluting point, or on board the vessel which flies it. The King’s regulations say: “The royal standard, being the personal flag of a sovereign, is not to be displayed in future on board His Majesty’s ship or on official buildings, as has hitherto been customary on His Majesty’s birthday and other occasions; but it shall only be hoisted on occasions when the sovereign is actually present or when any member of the royal family is present, repre- senting the sovereign.” 834. The white ensign, bearing the red cross of St. George with the union flag of the Em- pire as its canton, is the fighting flag of the British navy. When at anchor in home ports the British ships hoist their colors at 8 o’clock in the morning in the summer-time and at 9 o'clock in the winter, and when abroad either at 8 or 9, as the commander-in-chief directs. On the hoisting of the ensign all work stops and all ranks must get on deck, standing at the salute as the band plays the opening bars of the national anthem, the man at the hal- yards timing his pulls, so that the ensign reaches the truck at the last note of the band, just as it reaches the deck in the evening, when it is played down. The regulations pro- vide that British ships shall not on any account lower their flags to any foreign ships whatso- ever, unless the foreign ships shall first or at the same time lower their flags to them. 835. The blue ensign of the British Empire is now flown by naval reserve vessels, public off- cers afloat, the consular service, the government vessels of the several colonies, by hired trans- ports, by hired surveying vessels commanded by officers of the royal navy, by commissioned officers serving as mail agents, by the Fishery Board for Scotland, by the Pacific Cable Board ships, by Lloyds (in boats), by the Indian Ma- rine, and by Royal Naval Reserve. The privi- lege of flying the blue ensign is also allowed to British merchantmen commanded by officers on the retired list of the royal navy, or by officers of the Royal Naval Reserve, on condi- tion that either officer commanding the ship is one of these, that ten of the crew belong to the reserve, or that the ship is in receipt of an admiralty warrant. Yacht clubs (except the royal, which flies the white) fly the blue ensign. When flown by ships belonging to the British public service, it bears in the fly the seal or 380 badge of the office to which the ship is ac- credited. For example, hired transports fly it with a yellow anchor in the fly (see 846) ; the ordnance department of the War Office displays it with a shield on the fly bearing a cannon and cannon balls (see 854). 836. No other flag in the world flutters in the breeze of as many ports or sails as far and wide as the red ensign of the British Mer- chant Marine. At the beginning of the present war nearly one-half of all of the cargo- and passenger-carrying ships of the earth sailed under these colors. It is not improbable that more than half of all the passengers and car- goes sailing the seven seas were carried upon them, for no nation’s ships were more effi- ciently handled. At that time the tonnage of the British Merchant Marine was more than four times as great as that of Germany. 837. Uther Pendragon, father of King Arthur, had a vision of a flaming dragon in the sky. This his seers interpreted as mean- ing that he should ascend the throne. After his accession he had two golden dragons fash- ioned, one of which he carried into battle. The Anglo-Saxon kings were impressed with the image and incorporated it into their arms. Not until the twentieth century was it officially restored, <3 proper only to the race of Uther Pendragon. Under the reign of Edward VII it was incorporated into the armorial bearings of the Prince of Wales. 838. The lion rampant with the tressure, which is the device of Scotland and which is seen in the second quarter of the British royal standard, first appeared on the seal of King Alexander II about 1230 A. D.. Without modi- fication in color or form, it was borne by all the sovereigns of Scotland, and on the acces- sion of James VI to the throne of England as James I, in the year 1603, it became an integral part of the king’s standard, and has so re- mained to this day. 839. The story of the harp of Ireland, which appears on the blue field of the Irish standard, has been told in the account of the history of the British royal standard (833), on which it appears in the third quarter (see also 1133). 840. The three golden lions of the standard of England are, as told in 833, of doubtful origin. Certain it is that, except for the break which occurred in the years that Cromwell was Protector, they have typified the might of Eng- land for seven hundred years. 841. The royal family’s standard of the British Empire is the same as the royal stand- ard (833), except that it has a white border and bears as an escutcheon of pretence the arms of Saxony (998), proclaiming the conti- nental origin of the royal family. As the name of the reigning family has been changed re- cently, it is probable also that its standard will be changed in this same particular. 842. The flag of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland is the national flag of the British Em- pire, with the golden harp of the Irish on a blue escutcheon at the intersection of the crosses. 843. The County Lords Lieutenant, when on land, fly the union with a crown over a sword borne horizontally along the middle arm of St. George’s cross. Each county of Great Britain and Ireland has such a chief official, who controls the appointment of justices of the peace and issues commissions in the local military organizations, and in earlier times was charged with the defense of his county in case of disturbance. 844. The flag of British diplomatic func- tionaries is that of the Empire, bearing upon the intersection of the crosses a white shield surrounded bya garland. The shield is charged with the royal arms—that is, the lions of Eng- land, the red lion of Scotland, and the harp of Ireland—in the quarters corresponding to those of the royal standard (833), with a lion and a unicorn, rampant, for supporters. 845-860. These are the flags of various de- partments of the British Government. BRITISH COLONIAL FLAGS The union jack (829) is the national flag of the colonies as well as of the mother country, and, although it is a rule more honored in its breach than in its observance, no other flag is to be flown ashore. The ensigns are, strictly speaking, maritime flags and are not supposed to be displayed ashore. According to British flag law, the union jack, in its plain condition and without emblazonment or badge, is the only flag an individual or corporation in Brit- ish realms may properly fly. However, since the shipping of the principal colonies is accus- tomed to fly the red ensign with the badge of the colony represented in the fly (see 871, 911, 968, etc.), this flag is frequently, if not indeed usually, displayed by the people of the several colonies as their particular flag. Vessels bear- ing colonial governors or other administrative officials of badge-possessing rank fly the union jack with a badge of the colony placed within a wreath at the intersection of the crosses. Vessels of the colonial public service display the blue ensign with the badge of the colony from which it hails in the fly. 861. The badge of Gibraltar is a castle and key, appropriate to the strategic position of this natural fortress. An inscription on a scrall below represents Mount Calpe, Calpe being the ancient name of the European Pillar of Hercules as distinct from Ape’s Hill, the African Pillar. 862. The badge of Malta is a gold-bordered shield of white and red, and not the eight- pointed silver cross of the Hospitallers (see 1169). 863. The badge of Cyprus has two red lions adapted from the antique. 864. The badge of the Isle of Man consists of an escutcheon upon which are three tri- corporate running legs. ‘They are joined at the upper part of the thighs and flexed in a triangle. Once these legs were the arms of Sicily, but they were bare; when appropriated by the Manxmen, they were first supplied with hose, later incased in armor, and _ finally equipped with spurs. 865. Alderney’s badge is a green medallion bearing a golden lion crowned and rampant. 866. Jersey contents herself with a badge showing the three lions of England. 867. The badge of Guernsey shows the three lions of England with the addition of a sprig at the top. 868. The flag of the Governor General of Canada consists of the national flag of the British Empire with the arms of Canada, sur- rounded by a wreath and crowned, imposed upon the intersection of the crosses. 869. The badge of Canada has a shield quartered. In the first quarter is the shield of Ontario (872), in the second of Quebec (873), in the third that of Nova Scotia (874), and in the fourth that of New Brunswick (875). The provinces of Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, and British Columbia do not appear, having joined the Dominion after the arms were de- vised. Around the escutcheon are intertwined wreaths and above it the crown of the Empire. 870. ‘The blue ensign of Canada is the Brit- ish blue ensign with the addition of the es- cutcheon of the Colonial Government imposed on the fly end. 871. The merchant flag of Canada is the red ensign of the British merchant marine, with the shield of the Canadian Government imposed on the field. _ 872. Ontario’s badge has an escutcheon, the upper third of which bears a cross of St. George on white and the lower two-thirds three maple leaves on green. 873. The badge of Quebec is an escutcheon of gold with a horizontal bar of red in the center. At the top of the shield are the lilies of France, which proclaim the old French do- minion. The lion of England on the red bar proclaims the present rule, and the maple leaf at the bottom is the emblem of Canada itself. 874. Nova Scotia’s badge is an escutcheon of gold with a horizontal bar of blue in the middle. The bar bears a silver salmon. Above and below the blue stripe are thistles, which are reminiscent of Scotland (see also 386). 875. Bearing the golden lion of England at the top and the ancient lymphad or galley be- low, the badge of New. Brunswick has the same colors in its field as that of Quebec. 876. Manitoba’s badge is an escutcheon bearing the cross of St. George at the top on white and a natural-colored buffalo on green below. 877. Prince Edward Island, which joined the Dominion in 1873, has for its badge a shield which bears the British lion at the top on red and two trees, one large and one small, on white. The inscription is “Parva sub in- genti” (The little under the great). 878. British Columbia’s badge consists of a shield bearing the union jack at the top and a rising sun below, its rays extending over five blue and white horizontal stripes which occupy the middle section of the shield. 879. Newfoundland is Great Britain’s “senior colony,” being the earliest discovered, though not continuously occupied, of British overseas dominions. Its badge is a Mercury introduc- ing to Britannia a kneeling sailor who has just landed from a boat. “These gifts I bring you” is the inscription. At the top are the words “Terra Nova.” 880. Bermuda’s badge is a white shield on which is represented the wreck of the Sea Venture, under Sir George Somers, in 1609. There is shown a cliff loftier than the ship’s masthead, and the imposed escutcheon bearing the scene is supported by a red lion. 381 881. A large and two small ships within a garter surmounted by a crown constitute the principal device of the badge of the Bahamas. On the garter are words which tell us that the pirates have been expelled and that business has been resumed. This is the badge of the group of islands which include what is now known as Watling’s Island, believed to have been the first landing place of Christopher Columbus, who called it San Salvador. 882. The badge of Sombrero and Bahama Lights has a blue field bearing a ring of red inclosing a lighthouse shedding its rays. The ring is crowned and inscribed “Board of Trade.” Above the crown is a scroll bearing the word “Bahamas.” 883. Jamaica’s badge shows an escutcheon bearing St. George’s cross and surmounted by a lizard. Upon the cross are distributed, one at each arm and one at the intersection, five pineapples. The escutcheon is supported by two Indians, 884. The Turks and Caicos Islands, which are close to the Bahamas, have an escutcheon which consists of a full-rigged sailing ship in the background, a man making salt in the mid- dle foreground, and the name of the islands below. 885. On the badge of the Leeward Islands appears in the middle distance a mountainous coast, skirted by a full-rigged ship; in the foreground is another ship; on the shore a pineapple, larger than either ship, and three smaller ones. Above the whole appear the British royal arms. 886. Britannia, robed in blue, red, and er- mine, and ruling the waves from the backs of two sea-horses, forms the principal scheme of the badge of Barbados. One sea-horse in this badge has a blue tail. 887. The Windward Isles have a badge which makes use of a garter encircling a blue field, upon which is placed a quartered shield— red, yellow, green, and purple. The device is crowned. The motto is, “I Pede Fausto,” “Make a propitious beginning.” 888. St. Lucia, the chief coaling station of the British fleet in the West Indies, has for a badge a landscape in which appear the Pitons, twin mountains of the island, and the ever- bubbling voleano Soufriére, with a land-locked harbor in the foreground. The Latin motto below describes this harbor as “Hardly a faith- less guard for ships.” 889. St. Vincent’s badge has a classical group showing a woman holding a branch and another kneeling before the altar of the law, upon which she is placing a wreath. The badge bears the motto, “Pax et Justicia.” 890. Discovered by Columbus on his third voyage, Grenada seems to have taken his ship in full sail and running before a spanking breeze toward the island, as its badge. The in- scription “Clarior e Tenebris” means “Brighter out of the darkness,” and doubtless refers to the fact that Grenada is beyond the hurricane line. 891. The badge of British Guiana, the Brit- ish Empire’s continental holdings on the coast of South America, consists of a clipper in full sail surrounded by a garter of gold. 892. The facts that British Honduras is a mahogany colony, that it belongs to the British Empire, and that it is given to trading, are brought out in the shield of the colony, which is circular, one-third of it being devoted to the display of the tools of mahogany logging, the second third showing the union jack, while ge remaining third bears a full-rigged sailing ship. 893. Trinidad and Tobago have a badge which shows a mountain in the background, a frigate in the left middle ground, and a blue ensign on a jetty in the right middle ground. A boat, a smaller ship, a house, and several spars showing behind the jetty complete the picture. Below, on white, is a Latin inscrip- tion meaning “He approves of the people unit- ing and entering into treaties.” 894. A white bull standing in tussac grass and a frigate in a river close by form the badge of the Falkland Islands, lying off South America and belonging to England. 895. The smaller British islands of the Pa- cific are under the control of the Western Pacific High Commissioner. His badge is the crows of the Empire above the letters W P 896. The main feature of the badge of the Fiji Islands is an escutcheon bearing at the top on red the British lion. Below is the red cross of St. George on white. The quarters thus formed bear specimens of the vegetable and bird life of the islands. ‘The shield is supported by two Polynesians wearing skirts of straw and standing on a scroll upon which is inscribed a motto in the native language. The crest is a native catamaran in full sail. 897. The resident commissioner of the New Hebrides has as a badge a disk of white en- circled by a wreath of green and red and bear- ing a crown with the words NEW HEBRIDES around it. 898. The Protectorate of the British Solo- mon Islands has a simple badge, consisting of the royal crown, surrounded by the three words on a white field, BRITISH SOLOMON ISLANDS. 899. The British Resident of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, in the southern Pacific, has a badge which consists of a white field bearing below the letters B R, above which is a crown. g00. The Governor of New Zealand flies a flag which consists of the national flag of the British Empire, bearing at the intersection of the crosses the badge of the island (gor). gor. New Zealand’s badge is a wreath-en- circled design of white, bearing four stars in the form of a cross, with the letters N Z in the center. The stars are emblematic of the southern cross, which appears in the skies over New Zealand. go2z. The blue ensign of New Zealand bears the southern cross on the fly, the stars being red with white borders. 903. The red ensign of New Zealand bears the southern cross in white stars of five points. 904. The ensign of Paratonga, which flies over sundry islands in the Pacific, has a field consisting of three stripes, the upper and the lower red and the middle one white. Upon the white stripe are three five-pointed blue stars. 382 905. The Friendly Islands of the South Pa- cific, constituting the Protectorate of Tonga, have an ensign with a red field and a white canton in which appears the cross of St. George. g06. The standard of the Protectorate of Tonga has a quartered field, the first and fourth gold, the second red, and the third blue. The first quarter bears three six-pointed stars. The red quarter bears a crown. The third quarter bears a flying dove. On the fourth quarter are three “big sticks.” Upon the center is a six-pointed white star bearing a small St. George’s cross. 907. The customs flag of the Protectorate of Tonga consists of a field the upper part of which is blue, the lower part white, with a white canton, upon which is imposed the red cross of St. George. On the white part of the field are the initials H M C, proclaiming His Majesty’s Customs. AUSTRALIA’S FLAGS 908. The flag of the Governor General of Australia is the familiar union jack bearing upon the intersection of the crosses a wreath- encircled, crowned star, which is the badge of the Commonwealth. gog. The star of Australia originally had six points, one for each of the original States, but was altered to include a point for the Northern Territory. The present badge of the Common- wealth is therefore a seven-pointed star, with a crown above, set within a laurel wreath. gio. The blue ensign of the Commonwealth of Australia has a large seven-pointed star be- low the union, and on the fly end five small stars representing the Southern Cross. The Southern Cross exercises a strong appeal to the people south of the Equator. Even Humboldt felt its influence and said that in the solitude of the seas it was hailed as a friend from whom he and his companions had long been separated. This constellation never sets in Australia (see also 835). QII. sioners, issued in 1903, vessels registered in Australia were authorized to fly the red ensign or merchant flag of Great Britain “having in the center of the lower canton next the staff and pointed directly to the center of the St. George’s Cross a white six-pointed star, indi- cating the six Federated States of Australia,” and in the fly the Southern Cross, as in the blue ensign. In 1908 the desirability of adding a seventh point to the star of Australia, for the Northern Territory, was recognized, and merchant vessels were authorized to fly the red ensign as pictured here. g12. A blue Maltese Cross coming down from the order of St. John and bearing the crown of the Empire on the intersection forms the badge of Queensland. 913. New South Wales has for its badge a St. George’s cross on white, with the lion of the British Empire on the intersection and four golden stars of the southern cross on the arms. 914. The State of Victoria in the Common- wealth of Australia has for its badge a blue field bearing the constellation of the southern By a warrant of the Lords Commis-— cross, with the royal crown of the Empire above. g15- South Australia has made the white- backed piping crow take the place of the Amer- ican spread eagle on her arms. The badge of that State consists of a yellow field bearing the piping crow displayed. g16. The celebrated black swan, which was first discovered on western Australia’s principal river, since named the Swan, has served to typify in the popular mind the contrariety of the southern continent’s flora and fauna to those of the rest of the world. This bird rep- resented on a circular gold field has been ap- propriately chosen as the badge of western Australia. 917-_ A red lion passant upon a circular white field serves as the design on the badge of Tasmania. g18. The badge of the territory of Papua is a white disk, with the name of the territory below and the crown of the British Empire above. g19. The flag of the North Borneo Company is a British union jack, bearing upon its inter- secting crosses a red lion, on a field of gold. g20. Sabah, a small settlement on the Ma- lacca Strait side of the Malay peninsula, and included within the State of Selangor, has a governor whose flag is yellow, with a red lion centered, in what the exponents of heraldry call a passant guardant attitude. g21. Sarawak, a territory of some 42,000 square miles on the coast of Borneo, has a yellow flag upon which is imposed a cross of St. George, the half of which, next the staff, is black instead of the regulation red. Upon the intersection of this cross is superimposed a crown. 922. The flag of the Rajah of Sarawak is like that of the country he rules, except that the arm of the cross next the fly is split apart, and each section tapered, extending to a corner of the fly. In 1842 Sir James Brooke bought a large territory from the Sultan of Brunei. He ruled this country for a long time as the Rajah of Sarawak, his nephew succeeding to the posi- tion in 1868. The population of Sarawak is estimated at 500,000 Malays, Dyaks, Jayans, Kenyahs, Muruts, with Chinese and other set- tlers. 923. The Straits Settlements, a British col- ony which comprises Singapore, Penang, and Malacca, on the Strait of Malacca, has for a badge a red diamond with three crowns on a three-armed field of white. 924. Labuan, which was formerly the small- est colony in the British Empire, being about the size of the Isle of Wight, but which has since been incorporated in the Straits Settle- ments colony, has a badge which shows a brigantine sailing past a very high rock, beyond which is rising a golden sun. 925. The badge of Ceylon, whose authentic history goes back to the 5th century B. C, when an invasion of Hindus from northern India established the Sinhalese dynasty, has a pagoda, in front of which is an elephant. The background is blue and the foreground green. surrounded by a diamond-studded border of red and gold. 383 926. Hongkong’s badge shows a_ harbor scene in which appear a junk and a tea clipper. Hongkong is a Chinese city, now under British sovereignty, and possessed of a naval base of first magnitude. 927. Weihaiwei, a British holding on the Chinese coast, is represented by a badge upon which appear two mandarin ducks on the banks of a stream. 928. The motto of Mauritius proclaims it, “The star and the key of the Indian Seas.” On its badge, which is a quartered shield, azure and gold, appear the symbolical key and star and a galley. The supporters are a red and white dodo on the dexter side and a red and white antelope on the sinister. Each of the supporters has a stalk of sugar cane in front of it. Mauritius is an island in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles from Madagascar, having about 720 square miles of territory and about 377,000 inhabitants. 929. Seychelles and its dependencies consist of ninety islands and islets, with a total esti- mated area of 156 square miles, lying along the coast of Africa. They are represented on its badge by a tall palm tree, with a smaller tree near by and a turtle at its foot, and the motto Finis coronat opus. 930. The ensign of the Federated Malay States is one of the comparatively few ensigns of the world that use black. The field consists of four horizontal stripes, white at the top, then red, yellow, and black in order. Upon the center is an oval of white bearing a running tiger. The Federated Malay States are Perak, Selangor, Negri-Sembilan, and Pahang. They occupy a large portion of the Malay peninsula and are under British protection. 931. The jack of the Federated Malay States has a unique design. It preserves the colors of the Malay States ensign, but uses them as triangles instead of stripes. The red triangle has its base on the staff; the black triangle, its base on the fly; the base of the white triangle is at the upper edge, and that of the yellow at the bottom. The apexes of the triangles meet in the center of the flag. 932. The ensign of Pahang, one of the four Federated Malay States, has a field the upper half of which is white and the lower half black. Pahang has 14,000 square miles of terri- tory and a population of 118,000. 933. The ensign of Negri-Sembilan, one of the four Federated Malay States, consists of a yellow field, with‘a union bearing two triangles, one of which, its base resting on the staff, is black, and the other, its base resting on the yellow field, is red. 934. Perak, also a Federated Malay State, of three horizontal the lower black, and has an ensign consisting stripes, the upper white, the middle yellow. 935. The ensign of Selangor is yellow and red and is quartered. The first quarter is red and bears the star and crescent of the Moham- medan world; the second quarter is yellow, the third yellow, and the fourth red. Selangor is about the size of Delaware and has a popula- tion of 300,000. 936-945 (inclusive). These are the flags of the Malay States not included in the Federa- tion. They are all under British protection. The relations of Johore with Great britain are defined by a treaty dated December 11, 1885, amended by agreement on May 12, Igf4, in which the Sultan agreed to accept and to act upon the advice of a British officer called the general adviser. The rights of suzerainty, pro- tection, administration, and control of the other four States were transferred from Siam to Great Britain by the Anglo-Siamese treaty of March 10, 1909. The State of Kelantan, on the east coast of the peninsula, with an area of 5,870 square miles and a population approxi- mating 300,000, is represented by 936 and 937. ensign and merchant flags respectively. There are only four post-offices in the entire State. The flag of Johore (938) is black, with a red union bearing the star and crescent of the Mo- hammedan religion. The flag of the Sultan of Johore (939) 1s white, bearing a crescent and star in blue, the star being nine-pointed. Perlis flies a yellow and black “flag (940), the upper half yellow and the lower ‘black. The Rajah of Perlis flies a yellow flag (941), with a shield inclosed within a wreath. The flag of Kedah (942) is red, with a green crescent and a shield half surrounded by a wreath. That of the Sultan of Kedah (943) is yellow, with a green shield, a red crescent, and a green wreath. The Regent of Kedah flies a green flag (944), bearing a yellow shield, crescent, and wreath. Trengganu has a flag (945) the staff third of which is white and the remainder black. 946. The Governor General of India flies the familiar union jack, with the star of India, crowned, at the intersection of the crosses. 947. The badge of India consists of a five- pointed star inclosed within a garter and sur- rounded by golden rays, as a sunflower. Above is the crown of the Empire. 948. The Indian marine flies the blue ensign of Great Britain, with the star of India in the fly. 949. The jack of the Indian marine is the union jack on a field of blue. 950. The flag of the local Indian maritime government is the blue ensign of Britain, bear- ing on the fly a golden lion, rampant, carrying in its forepaws the crown of Empire. g51. The flag of the Conservators of Bom- bay has seven horizontal red stripes separated by thin white stripes. The central red stripe forms with a perpendicular bar the red cross of St. George, on which is centered the seal of the Conservators, consisting of two small es- cutcheons leaning together on a field of white and having a crown above them. 952. The flag of the Trustees of Bombay, a body which has in charge the light-houses and other shipping activities on the Bombay coast, has a blue cross placed on the field cor- responding to the red cross of St. George. This cross quarters the field, the first quarter bearing a ‘light- house, the light represented by rays of red, and the other three quarters bear shipping scenes along the coast. 953. The Witu forest lies within the pro- tectorate of British East Africa. Its flag is a red field upon which is centered a union jack, about half as long and half as wide as the field itself. 954. British ascendency in Egypt dates from the 18th of December, 1914, when the govern- 384 ment of the Empire deposed the reigning Khedive, on the ground that he had adhered to the King’s enemies. The British protectorate has been recognized by France. The new Egyptian flag of red has three white crescents, with the horns toward the fly, and each con- taining a five-pointed white star. This flag was the personal standard of the Khedive and now takes the place of the former national flag, which was distinguished from the Turkish by having a star of five instead of six points. 955- The flag of British East Africa is the national banner. of the Empire, bearing upon the intersection of the crosses a red lion, ram- pant, or aggressively walking forward on his hind legs. A passant lion, as shown in 917, 1s one walking ahead on all fours, with right paw uplifted; encircled by a wreath. 956. Armed vessels of the British East Africa Company carry the blue ensign of Britain, with the red lion of East Africa on the fly. 957- The East Africa merchant flag is of the familiar red ensign type, with the red lion, rampant, in a white disk on the fly. 958. The Somaliland Protectorate in East Africa has an area of about 68,000 square miles; its population is about 300,000, mostly nomadic, almost entirely Mohammedan. The badge of the protectorate bears the head and shoulders of a Kudu, one of the antelopes of that region. 959. The Nyassaland Protectorate, which was formerly known as British Central Africa, with an area of 39,000 square miles and a popu- lation of 1,100,000, has a badge which shows a tree on a diagonal yellow, white, and black background. 960. Nigeria, with approximately 336,000 square miles, an area as large as New England and Texas together, has a population of about (7,000,000. In r900 a proclamation was issued which, without abolishing domestic slavery, de- clared all children born after January I, 1900, free; it also forbade the removal of domestic slaves for sale or transfer. The badge of this protectorate has a red field, upon which are imposed two interlocked triangles in the form of a six-pointed star. In the center is the crown of the British Empire. 961, 962, 963. An elephant in front of a palm tree, with mountains in the background, forms the device of the badge of West Africa, with the initials “G’ for Gambia, “S. L.” for Sierra Leone, and “G. C.” for Gold Coast, mak- ing the badge representative of each of the subdivisions of West Africa. 964. an Indian merchantman on a green sea, steer- ing between two high cliffs. St. George’s cross on the ensign of the ship is reminiscent of days long ago. c¢65. The Governor General of the Union of South Africa flies the national flag of the Brit- ish Empire, with the coat-of-arms of South Africa in the center. 966. The badge of the Union of South Af- rica consists of a shield quartered and showing the figure of Hope for Cape Colony, two gnus St. Helena has a badge which shows. for Natal, an orange tree for the Orange Free State, and a trek wagon for the Transvaal. The gnus and the orange tree are on gold, and Hope and the wagon on red and green respect- ively. The crest is a lion and the supporters antelopes; the motto, “In union there is strength.” 967. The Union of South Africa has as its official flag the blue ensign of Great Britain, with the coat-of-arms, as described in 966, on the fly. 968. The merchant flag of the Union of South Africa, which is made up of Cape Col- ony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State, is the red ensign of Britain, bearing the Union’s coat-of-arms in a. white disk on the fly. 969. The badge of the Cape of Good Hope shows a shield bearing on red a golden lion, rampant, and supported by a gnu and an ante- lope. On a scroll below the shield is “Good Hope” in Latin. 970. The badge of Natal shows two gnus, the odd-looking African antelopes, with the imperial crown above. ‘The export of gnu hides is an important industry in Natal, and the number of these animals has been greatly reduced by hunting. 971. The Orange River Colony, before it became the Orange Free State of the Union, had on its badge a springbok in alert attitude. 972. Before the formation of the South Af- rican Union the badge of the Transvaal showed a lion, couchant, resting on the veldt. 973. Rhodesia’s badge has a blue field, with a golden lion grasping an elephant’s tusk in its right paw. The name of this colony, as well as the letters B. S. A. C. appearing below its device, recalls the means by which this region was secured and developed for Great Britain, namely, Cecil Rhodes’ British South Africa Company. 974. The High Commissioner of South Af- rica has as his badge a blue disk with the ini- tials S$. A. H. C. and a crown above. 975. This shows the wreath used around the badges of the colonial possessions when imposed upon the union jack, at the intersec- tion of the crosses, to betoken the presence of the colonial representative on the ship flying it. "There are a few notable exceptions—the wreath around Canada’s badge is not the regu- lation laurel, but 1s made of maple leaves (see 869) ; that around New Zealand’s badge con- sists of two fern leaves (see 901); the Union of South Africa has a wreath of mimosa -(see 956), while India’s star is circled by the garter which in turn is surrounded by the blazing rays of a sun (see 947). When the badges are used on the blue and red ensigns they are not sur- rounded by wreaths, except in the case of the blazing sun of India. 976. The badge of military officers afloat, ass for, instance, | when crossing the English Channel, or when going to the Saloniki front, has a blue field, upon which are inscribed in gold the initials “G. R.” (George Rex), sur- mounted by the crown of the Empire. 977-986. ‘These flags are used by the various British officials. 385 FLAGS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, BULGARIA, GERMANY, AND TURKEY The ensign of Austria-Hungary has three horizontal stripes, red at the top and bottom, with white between. Upon the white stripe are imposed the shield of Austria next the staff and of Hungary next the fly. Above each shield is the crown of its kingdom. The Hungarian crown differs from the Austrian, being that of St. Stephen. The Austrian shield repeats the red, white, red-striped design of the flag, and was the device of the ancient dukes of Austria, dating back to the twelfth century. 988. The merchant flag of Austria-Hungary was introduced in 1869 by a commission ap- pointed to blend the flags of the two countries. As the Hungarian flag is red, white, and green, the blending was accomplished by mak- ing the bottom stripe of the Austro-Hungarian ensign one-half green. Thus the half of the merchant flag containing the Hungarian shield preserves the distinctive Hungarian tricolor. 989. The imperial standard of Austria- Hungary consists of a yellow field bordered with small black, red, and white triangles rep- resenting flames. It is square and in the center are placed the arms of the Austrian monarchy. These consist of a black double-headed eagle crowned, the double head indicating the former Holy Roman Empire. Over the eagle appears the crown of Austria. In one claw the eagle holds a sword and scepter and in the other an orb. On its breast appears a shield divided equally into three vertical portions. The red lion rampant on a golden ground in the first section represents the House of Hapsbureg; the silver section on a red ground stands for Austria; the three eaglets in silver on a red band upon a golden ground are reminiscent of Lorraine. The shield is surrounded by the colors of the Order of the Golden Fleece and of Maria Theresa. On the wings of the eagle are the arms of the eleven provinces. This flag commands a different salute from any other in the world, it is believed. Under Aus- trian naval usage the Emperor is saluted by twenty-one guns followed by fifteen hurrahs. A minister of state or field marshal gets nine- teen guns and eleven hurrahs; a general thir- teen guns and seven hurrahs; a commodore eleven guns and three hurrahs, while ambassa- dors, archbishops, consuls, and others all have their definite share of gunpowder and requi- site allotment of shouting. goo. The royal standard of Bulgaria is a square red flag bordered with black and green triangles, upon which is emblazoned the royal lion of the coat-of-arms of the country. On the body of the lion is a shield having a blue field bearing a series of diagonal and horizon- tal lines. gg1. The ensign of Bulgaria is white at the top, red at the bottom, and green between. In a canton appears the golden lion rampant of 987. the Bulgarian arms, upon red. The lion is crowned. 992. Bulgaria’s merchant flag is of white, green, and red, white at the top ‘and red at the bottom. 993. Germany’s imperial standard has a cross, black with white border, the field being yellow, and the intersection of the cross bear- ing a shield containing the arms of Prussia surmounted by a crown and surrounded by the collar of the Order of the Black Eagle. The yellow field of the flag is diapered Over in each corner with three black eagles and the crown. The arms of the cross reach out to the four edges of the flag and bear the legend, “Gott Mit Uns, 1870,” the date commemorating the origin of this standard. 994. The standard of the King of Prussia very closely resembles the imperial standard, except that the field of the flag is red instead of yellow. The cross which this flag and the preceding one bear is the cross of ‘the Teu- tonic order and dates from the close of the twelfth century. 995. The ensign of the German Empire has a white field, upon which is imposed a large black cross, having at its center a circle in black outlines containing the black Prussian eagle crowned. The arms of the cross quarter the flag. In the canton there is the merchant flag in miniature, upon which is superimposed the black cross of the Teutonic order (994). 996. The merchant flag of Germany, con- sisting of three bars, black at the top, white in the middle, and red at the bottom, dates from 1867. In that year it was decreed that the flag of the North German Confederacy should be black, white, and red, and when the twelve southern States joined the federation the same flag was continued as the merchant symbol of the Empire. Prior to 1867 no German national flag had ever flown upon the ocean, each of the various States and free cities having its own special colors (see also 1153, 1154, 1166, etc.). In a speech delivered that year the Minister of the Crown stated that the combi- nation of colors was emblematic of a junction of the black and white Prussian flag with the red and white ensign of the Hanseatic League. 997- The standard of the King of Bavaria has a field of blue and white lozenges, upon which is centered the coat-of-arms of the kingdom. ‘This bears a quartered shield with a golden lion, crowned, on a field of black. representing the Rhine Palatinate in the first quarter; the second quarter is red and silver tor the Duchy of Franconia; the third quarter has eight stripes of silver and red crossed by a pale of gold, for the Margravate of Burgau; the fourth quarter has a blue lion rampant, crowned with gold, for the County of Vel- dentz. Upon all is a fusiform of striped silver and blue, which represents Bavaria. Above this 386 device is the royal crown, supported by two lions regardant, each of them gold crowned. The whole is upon a royal mantle, which, in its turn, is crowned. 998. The standard of the King of Saxony reproduces part of the heraldic device found in the arms of the ruling family, namely, a green crown of rue cutting diagonally across ten alternate black and gold bars. g99- The flags of the maritime States of Germany are black, white, and red, black at the top and red at the bottom, with an anchor and crown in the center, where the white stripe is swelled out to accommodate them, and with the badge of the respective States, 1003-1008, inclusive, as a canton in the upper corner next the staff. toco. The imperial marine flag is like those of the maritime States, except that the badge is omitted. toor. ‘The standard of the King of Wurtt- emburg is yellow with three half horns of a stag in black, antlered. In each of the four corners of the standard is a crown. tooz. ‘The Grandduchy of Hesse has a standard consisting of three horizontal stripes, red at the top and bottom and white between, with the white stripe larger than the others. Upon the white stripe is a blue shield charged with a lion having a forked tail and striped with red and white. The standard has a crown in each of its four corners. 1003. ‘This badge, with its black eagle, placed as a canton on the flag of the German mari- time States, proclaims that the ship flying it belongs to Prussia. 1004. .The badge of the free city of Bremen is red and bears an antique key of silver. It is crowned with gold. 1005. Placed in the canton of the flag of the maritime States of Germany, this badge proclaims the authority of Oldenburg. On it is a shield the first quarter of which, made up of red and yellow stripes, represent Olden- burg; the second quarter, a gold cross on blue, represents Delmenhorst; the third quarter, a golden cross surmounted by a miter on blue, represents Lubeck; the fourth quarter is checky, of four rows of red and white, and proclaims Birkenfeld. In the point of the shield is a golden lion, representing Jever. 1006. ‘The badge ‘of Hamburg is a red square upon which is placed a castle having three silver towers, over an anchor. 1007. Mecklenburg’s badge has a yellow field upon which appears the head of a black buffalo with red mouth, white horns, and golden crown. too8. The badge of Lubeck has a_ black double eagle displayed, its tongue, beak, and claws red, and its breast charged with an es- cutcheon halved in white and red. 1009. When the flag of the imperial marine of Germany omits the golden anchor and crown from the middle stripe of white and substitutes the crowned black eagle of the EKm- pire, it proclaims that the building or vessel displaying it is under the jurisdiction of the Foreign Office. toro. When the flag of the imperial marine has this badge substituted for the anchor and crown, it means that the ship or building dis- playing it is under the jurisdiction of the other departments of the German Government. 1o11. This badge, in place of the anchor and crown on the flag of the imperial marine of Germany, transforms it into the flag of the postal service of the Empire. to12. Merchant vessels in the naval reserve of Germany bear the black, white, and red flag of the German merchant marine, with the black cross on the end next the staff. 1013. The landes flag of Prussia consists of a white field bordered at the top and bottom with black and bearing on the half next the staff the displayed black eagle of Prussia. 1014. The flag of the German Governors of East Africa and Kiao-Chau was the merchant flag with the eagle of the Empire on the cen- tral white stripe. The former colony has now been practically conquered by British forces and the Japanese have taken charge of Kiao- Chau. tors. The flag of the commander-in-chief of.the naval forces of Germany has a square white field occupied by the black cross, with guns arranged in the form of a saltire thereon. 1016. The flag of the inspector general of the German navy has a red-bordered white field with the black cross quartering the white. 1017. The ensign and merchant flag of Turkey consists of a red field upon which is imposed a white crescent moon and a five- pointed star. The Turks adopted this device when they captured Constantinople in 1463. It originally was the symbol of Diana, who was the patroness of Byzantium. When the Turks adopted the crescent as a badge of triumph it promptly fell into disuse in the western world, and they secured a complete monopoly upon it. Though originally a pagan symbol, it re- mained throughout the rise and development of the Greek Church a special mark of Con- stantinople. Even to this day in Moscow and other Russian cities the crescent and the cross may be seen combined on the churches, the object being to indicate the Byzantine origin of the Orthodox Church. The origin of this quarter moon dates from the time of Emperor Philip, the father of Alexander the Great. While he was trying to take the city he set his soldiers to work on a dark night to undermine the walls, but the crescent moon appeared in time to reveal the design to the people and Philip was thwarted. In acknowledgment the Byzantines erected a statue to Diana ‘and made the crescent moon the symbol of their city. 1018. ‘The personal flag of the Sultan of Turkey, which corresponds to the royal stand- ards of other monarchies, or the President’s flag in our own country, is scarlet and bears in the center a device which changes with each succession to the throne. ‘This device, accord- ing to tradition, originated in the fourteenth century, when Sultan Murad, being unable to write his name on a treaty, dipped his open hand in ink and pressed it on the document. In the spaces of the figure thus made the scribes wrote his name, the title Khan, and the epithet “Eiver Victorious.” Now, the name of the reigning sovereign, within the same figure, appears on the flag, ‘surrounded by a rayed halo of somewhat starlike form. 387 to1g. The chief of the staff of the German navy flies a flag of white fully quartered by a black cross, upon whose intersection is im- posed a disk of white, a circle of gold rope, and a sword. 1020. The flotilla flag of the German navy consists of a swallow-tailed pennant, hung free from the flagstaff and bearing the black cross. to21. The Sultan of Turkey flies a different flag afloat from that which is borne for him ashore. As commander-in-chief of the Turk- ish naval forces he has a red banner upon which is centered a white anchor with a blaz- ing sun in the center of each quarter of the flag. 1022. ‘The religious flag of Turkey is green instead of the familiar red of the ensign and merchant banner. It bears the usual crescent and star in white and is the banner that is borne upon all religious occasions. It has been under this banner that untold thousands of Christians in the Mohammedan world have suffered at the hands of the followers of Islam. 1023. The customs banner of Turkey is of the same general design as the national ensign, except that the star and crescent are inclosed in a rectangle made of a thin white stripe close to and parallel with the border. 1024. The flag of Crete is quartered by a white cross, The first quarter is red and bears a five-pointed star in white, while the other three quarters are blue. This was the flag of the high commissioner appointed by Great Britain, Russia, France, and Italy, and later proposed by Greece with the permission of the Powers, who governed the island before its annexation to Greece. HEROIC FLAGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES The Geography of the Earth as Known in Medieval Times Symbolized in 06 Historic Standards (Nes. 1025-1120) HE earliest representation of the flags of all nations is to be found in an illuminated manuscript of a Franciscan friar, a native of Spain, who was born in 1305 and who, according to his own claim, wrote his monumental “Book of the Knowledge of All the King- doms, Countries, and Lordships that there are in the World and of the En- signs and Arms of Each Country and Lordship; also of the Kings and Lords Who Govern Them,” after having visited all the places which he describes. Geographers and historians hesitate to accept the friar’s claim as literally true, but it is evident that he was a great trav- eler and a close observer, and though he is prone to weave legend and hearsay into his narrative, there is, nevertheless, a re- markable fund of information in this priceless manuscript, written a century and a half before Columbus discovered America, and which now reposes in the Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid. “In the name of God the Father and Son and Holy Ghost, three individual persons in one essence. I was born in the Kingdom of Castile, in the reign of the very noble King Don Sancho, when the era of the world, ac- cording to the Hebrews, was 5,065 years, and the era of the deiuge 4,407 years, and of Nebu- chadnezzar of Chaldea 2,502 years, and of Alexander the Great of Macedonia 1,617, and of Cesar, Emperor of Rome, 1,343, and of ARTIST AS WELL AS ‘TRAVELER The manuscript of the anonymous Franciscan whose travels extended as far east as Java, by way of Mecca, was edited by the Spanish scholar Marcos Jimenez de la Espada, 40 years ago, with the aid of Don Francisco Coello, the eminent geographer. It was recently published in English, together with the flags (see page 371), by the Hakluyt Society. The devices are very beautiful and rich, both in color and in design, the Fran- ciscan evincing great skill in reproducing in some instances the banners and in oth- ers the coats-of-arms of the kingdoms and principalities which he visited. The story of these flags of the world 570 years ago and of the ‘kings and coun- tries over which they waved is best told in the words of the Franciscan himself, who makes no attempt to differentiate be- tween what he actually saw and what he heard (the numbers in the text refer to the corresponding flag on page 371). Christ 1,304 years, and of the Arabs 706, on the 11th day of the month of September. “There are in the Kingdom of Castile 28 cities and many other towns, castles, and vil- lages. Know that this Kingdom of Castile and Leon has all the seacoast of the west as far as Bayona the greater, and borders on Navarre and Aragon and Granada. The ensigns of the kings aa this kingdom are a flag “with two castles and two lions quarterly (1025). 388 “T departed from the Kingdom of Castile and went to the Kingdom of Portugal, where I found four large cities, and three great rivers flow across it. This kingdom borders on the western sea and the Kingdom of Castile and Leon. The arms of this kingdom are castles all round and quinas (shields with five white circles, representing the five wounds of the Saviour) in the middle (1026). “T went to Bayona (Bayonne the greater, which is in Gascony. It is seated on the west- ern sea, near the Pyrenean Mountains (Pyre- nees). The Lord of this Bayona has for his flag white with a cross red” (1027). At the time of the Franciscan’s visit Bayonne was under the King of England, and the flag was therefore the St. George’s cross (830), adopted by Richard Cceur de Lion during the Third Crusade. “T left Bayona and entered Navarre, a very rich kingdom, in which there are three great cities. Three great rivers flow through it. The king of it has for a sign the flag as follows” (1028). At the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, in 1212, Sancho, King of Navarre, and his knights broke the chain which defended the approach to the tent of “En-Nasir,” the Almohade Sul- tan. The victory which followed resulted in laying all Mohammedan Spain at the feet of the Christians. From that time the kings of Navarre bore the chain on their coat-of-arms and on their flag. “T departed from Navarre and crossed the Pyrenees. On the left side of these mountains is the noble city of Tolosa (Toulouse), where the liberal arts are studied, and the lord of this Tolosa has for his sign a red flag with a cross of gold (1029). “T left Tolosa and turned along the coast of the country of Burdeo (Bordeaux), and then fo Rochela (la Rochelle),-.a rich city of France, and thence I went to the point of Sanmae, which is in the province of Bretanea (Brittany) ; thence to the Gulf of Samalo (St. Malo), and thence to the province of Nor- mandia (Normandy). All these are in the Kingdom of Francia (France), where there are many cities, towns, and villages. that the Kingdom of France borders on the Mediterranean, where there is a city called Narbonne, and on the Alps of Alsace and on the coasts of Flanders, and all the coasts of Gascuena (Gascony) to the Pyrenees. The King of France has three fleurs de lys of gold (1030). “T left Paris and went to Roan and Chalon, and thence to a city on the coast which they call Diepa (Dieppe), and I left it and reached a rich city called Cales (Calais), which is in the province of Picardy. Know that from this Cales to the island of England is a short cross- ing of eight miles (leagues ?). I departed from Cales and went to the country of Flan- ders, to a noble city, Brujas (Bruges). The lord of that country has a flag—gold with a black lion (1031). “Thence I crossed a great river which they call Rinus (the Rhine), which passes by Co- lona (Cologne), a great city of Germany. In this city they say that the three Magian kings are interred who worshiped Jesus Christ in Belem (Bethlehem). But when I traveled in Know ~ the Empire of Cataya (China) I was in a city called Solin (Saba?), and they showed me three highly revered monuments, and they were in honor of the three Magian kings who adored Jesus Christ, and they said that they were na- tives of that city. In this Germany there are some very high mountains which they call the German Alps. The Emperor of Ger- many has for his device a flag—yellow with a black eagle crowned (1032). “T departed from Colona and went to a city called Colanda (Holland), in the Kingdom of Frisia. I then passed over a great river, Albia (Elbe), rising in the mountains of Boemia (Bohemia). Here the German Sea forms the great Gulf of Frisia, and in that gulf there are four islands. The King of Frisia’s device is a flag—gold with three long black lions (1033). Th ‘the Kingdom of Boemia there are seven great cities, the largest called Praga (Prague), where ‘they crown ‘the King of Boemia. This Praga is all surrounded by a lofty range which they call the Mountains of Boemia. In the middle there is a great plateau and in its center is the city, surrounded by a great river called Albia. ‘The King of Boemia has for his de- vice a flag—white with a red lion crowned (1034). “T left Boemia and went to the province of Sant Nurio (Sandomir), and to another the name of which was Curconia (Cracow) and Culman (Culm), which are great provinces between Germany and the greater sea, and though it may be that they are inhabited by Christians, still they are schismatics; and I ar- rived at two great cities between the greater sea and the Sea of Germany, called Litefama (Livonia) and Catalant (Courland). It is a very populous land and the king of it has for a device a white flag with this sign (1035). THE VANISHED KINGDOM “T entered the Kingdom of Polonia (Po- land), where there are five great cities, the largest being Santa Maria (Mariempol), where they crown the kings. The King of Polonia has for his design a green flag with this sign in red (1036). “T left the Kingdom of Polonia and went to the Kingdom of Leon, which the Germans call Lumbrec (Lemberg), in which there are five great cities. It must be known that this King- dom of Leon (Galicia) borders on the prov- ince of Rumenia (Livonia) and with the King- dom of Suava (Swabia). The king has a green flag with a red cross (1037). “After this I turned to the other coast of the German Sea (Baltic), to the part of the Trasmontana, being the land of Europe I will mention further on. I entered a great prov- ince they call Suevia (Sweden) and found the city of Roderin (Roggerwick), very rich and populous, though the land is very cold. It has in it nine cities. The King of this Suevia has for his device a yellow flag with two red lions facing each other” (1038). A few years before the visit of the Fran- ciscan the first union between Norway and Sweden had taken place under the three-year- old king, Magnus, who, however, lost both kingdoms before his death. “T left the city of Roderin and, going on 3890 board a ship, I passed to an island they called Gotlandia, which is in the German Gulf, and on this island there is a great city called Bisuy (Wisby), in which there are 90 parishes, and the island is well peopled. There is a smaller island called Oxilia. The king of these islands has a flag of gold and purple bars” (1039). It was in the century preceding the Fran- ciscan’s visit that the wealth of the city of Wisby, or Bisuy, as he called it, became pro- verbial, and an old ballad relates that “the Got- landers weigh gold with 20-pound weights and play with the choicest gems. The pigs eat out of silver troughs and the women spin with gold distaffs. A few years after the friar’s visit Wisby was attacked by the King of Den- mark, who after a bloody battle, in which 1,800 peasants fell trying to defend the gates of the eity, took possession of the whole island. “T ascended the lofty mountains of Noruega (Norway), which is a very strong kingdom containing three great cities. They call the largest Regis (Bergen), where they crown the kings. And be it known that this Noruega toward the north is uninhabited, and that the year makes one day for six months and an- other six months’ night, and there are men who have their heads fixed on their breasts with no neck whatever, but I did not see them. The king of this Noruega has for his device a flag—gold with a black lion (1040). “T departed from Noruega in a ship of the English, and we shaped a course west and came to an island, very large, called Salanda, which is at the entrance of the Gulf of Frisia, already mentioned. The island of Salanda (Zeeland) is very populous and has four great cities, called Salandi (Copenhagen), Risent (Ringsted), Escondin (Stor Hedding), Alenda (Lealand). The king of this island has for his device a flag—gold with a black lion, as in Noruega (1040). “T left the island of Salanda (Zeeland) and we made a long voyage, arriving at another island called Tille (Telemarken, in the south of Norway), and from thence we came to the island of Escocia (Scotland) and found in it three great cities—one called Donfres (Dum- fries), another Eneruic (Edinburgh), another Veruic (Berwick). The king of this Escocia has for his device a red flag with three long lions of gold” (1041). The explanation for the Franciscan’s con- fusion of the arms of England with those of Scotland is quite simple. His visit took place during the reign of David Bruce, who married an English princess, and he probably saw her arms on a flag in Scotland and assumed it to be the device of the reigning monarch. ENGLAND CONTAINED “ELEVEN GREAT CITIES” “TJ departed from the land of Escocia and came to the Kingdom of Inglaterra (England). Know that it is a very well populated country and that it contains eleven great cities: The largest, where they crown their king, is called Londres (London). ‘The king of those lands has for his arms, on a flag quarterly, in two quarters, fleurs de lys, gold on a field azure, be- cause the king is of the house of France, and in the other two quarters, in each one, on a field gules (red), three ounces gold” (1042). The “ounces” which the friar depicts in his device for the English king, it will be ob- served, are almost identical with the “long lions” which he erroneously credited to Scot- land (1041). “T left Inglaterra in a boat and reached the island of Irlanda (Ireland), which is a short crossing of a mile (!). They say that for- merly it was called Ibernia. In this island there is a great lake, and they say that the lake brings good fortune, because many en- chantments were made on its bank in ancient times. The king of this island has the same arms as the King of Inglaterra (1042). “Being in Irlanda, I sailed in a ship bound for Spain, and went with those on that ship on the high sea for so long that we arrived at the island of Eterns (Faroe Islands), and another called Artania (Orkneys), and another called Citilant (Shetland Islands), and another called Ibernia (Iceland). All these islands are in a part where the sun (never?) sets in the month of June and they are all peopled. In Ibernia there are trees and the fruit that they bear are very fat birds. These birds are very good eat- ing, whether boiled or roasted. The men in this island are very long lived, some living 200 years. They are born and brought up in a way which makes them unable to die in the islands, so that when they become very weak they are taken away and die presently. “In this island there are no snakes nor vipers, nor toads, nor flies, nor spiders, nor any other venomous things, and the women are very beautiful, though very simple. It is a land where there is not as much bread as you may want, but a great abundance of meat and milk. The king of this island has for his device the same flag as the King of Noruega (1040). “After this I departed from the island of Ibernia in a ship, and voyaged so far over the western sea that we sighted Cape Finisterre and arrived at Pontevedra, in the province of Galicia (Spain). Thence I went to a town in the Kingdom of Castile, as I mentioned be- fore, which they call Tarifa. It was founded by a very powerful Arab named Tarif. Near this town Albuacen, king of all the land of the west, was defeated and conquered by the very noble king, Don Alfonso of Castile, who pillaged all his tents and took his treasures, his women, and his horses.” (This was the battle of Salado, in which the King of Castile, Alfonso XI, defeated Abu-l-hasan Ali, King of Morocco, on October 28, 1340.) “T departed from Tarifa and went to the city of Aljezira (Algeciras), where is the rock of Gibraltar, being places in the dominions of the King of Castile. “T went to Malaga, a very luxurious city of the Kingdom of Granada. In this kingdom there are three cities. The grandest, where they crown the kings, is Granada. ‘This king- dom is bounded by the Mediterranean and the Kingdom of Castile. The device of this king is a red flag with Arabic letters of gold, such as Mahomad, their prophet, bore” (1043). The friar made an altogether excusable er- ror in copying the Arabic inscription, which should read, “No conqueror but God.” “I departed from the Kingdom of Granada 390 and went to the Kingdom of Aragon, a very rich and well supplied kingdom. T found five great cities in it. The chief one, where the kings are crowned, is Zaragosa (Saragossa). It is bounded by Navarre, Castile, France, and the Pyrenees. The king has for his device nine pales gules and or” (1044). (Nine strokes red and gold.) There is a picturesque legend concerning the adoption of this device. Far back in his- tory an heiress of Aragon married the Count of Barcelona, and the gold shield of the latter was adopted by the kingdom. After a battle, however, Raymond Berenger, Count of Barce- lona, wiped his bloody fingers down the shield and thereafter it became “or with five pales gules”—gold with five red strokes. “T left Barcelona and went along the coast to the country of Ampuria, and thence to the city of Narbona (Narbonne), which is by the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. The lord of it has a white flag with a red cross like that of Tolosa (1029), and in each quarter a sign like this (1045), for this city belonged to Ray- mondo Conde de Tolosa. “T ascended the mountains. and down to Genoua (Genoa), a very rich city on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The lord of it has for his device a white flag with a red cross, and with the word ‘Justicia’’”’ (1046). It was about the time of the Franciscan’s visit that Genoa elected its first doge, Simone Boccanera, I5 years after whose death, in 1363, the republic city engaged in one of its many disastrous wars with Venice, during which the Genoese galleys reached the very threshold of their rival in the Adriatic and could have dic- tated a most advantageous peace had they not boasted that they would “bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark.” “T departed from Genoua and entered Lom- bardy, where there are many great and rich cities. I left Lombardy and came to Pisa, a land very fertile with a temperate climate. It has a flag gules (red)” (1047). Pisa had reached the zenith of its power during the century preceding the friar’s visit. Its red flag had been banished from Corsica by the Genoese in 1300, and 23 years later the kings of Aragon supplanted it with their own over Sardinia. “Leaving Pisa, I came to Tuscany, in which there is a city called Florence. The lord of it has for his device a white flag with a red cross. I went from Tuscany to the noble city of Rome, which is the head of the empire of the Romans. The devices of Rome are a red flag with a gold bar, on which are letters” (1048). (S. P. O. R.—Senatus Populusque Romanus— the Roman Senate and People.) TRANSPLANTED LILIES OF FRANCE “T left Rome and arrived at Naples, a very luxurious, well supplied, and pleasant land, in which are the provinces of Pulla (Apulia) and Calabria. There are many rich cities. The King of Naples has for his device a purple flag with gold fleurs de lys, for he is of the house of France. Above is a red slip which they call a label (1o4c). “T departed from Naples and went over to the island of Sicily, a short passage. It is very luxurious and well supplied. There are in it 391 eight large cities. This Sicily has a flag parted per saltire (the field divided into four parts by two lines), two quarters argent (silver or white), with eagles sable, the other two bars gules and or, for the king is of the House of Aragon (1050). T went to the Stay On Venecia, which is, at the head of the gulf on the sea. The lord.of this Venice has for his flag—argent, a winged lion gules like the lion of St. Mark” (1051). The friar omits the words “Pax tibi, Maree, Evangelista meus” (‘Peace be with thee, Mar- cus, my evangelist”), which are supposed to be inscribed on the open book or scroll held by the lion. “T departed from Venecia in the same galley and coasted along the side of Esclavonia (Croatia- Slavonia), passing by a city called Aquylea (Aquilea), and another called Triesa (Trieste). The king of this Esclavonia has for his device a yellow flag in halves; the red half near the hoist has a white star and the other half is yellow (1052). “In the Kingdom of Esclavonia there is a very high mountain called Boxina (Bosnia), where four rivers rise. All these rivers enter the Kingdom of Ungria (Hungary) and unite with the great river Danube, which rises in the Alps of Germany. Now this land of Boxina (Bosnia) marches with Germany and Ungria, and the mountains are in its center, and they are mountains well peopled, with a well sup- plied land; but they are not Catholic Chris- tians, and the king of these mountains has the same arms as those of the King of Esclavonia (1053). “T departed from Boxina and went along the coast to the city of Jara (Zara), thence to Sinbochon (Sebenico in Dalmatia), and thence to Narent (in Dalmatia, at the mouth of the Narenta) (1054). “With this Narent there marches a city called Dulcecno (Dulcigno), which, with the adjacent mountainous country, is very pleasant and well supplied. In these mountains two very great rivers rise—one called Dranoya (the Drave), the other Pirus (Epirus or Drina)— which flow into the Kingdom of Ungria, fall- ing into the great river “Danube and forming in Ungria ten islands. They call the first Ungria. La Mayor, whence the Kingdom of Ungria took its name. “Know that in this Ungria there are many rich cities. The Kingdom of Ungria (Hun- gary) marches with Greece and Germany, Esclavonia, Bolonia (Bologna), and Burgaria (Bulgaria). The flag of this kingdom is part- ed per fess (that is, in two equal parts), upper half with fleurs de lys of France, because the king is of the House of France (Louis I of Hungary, 1342-1382, came, in ce male line, from Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis), the lower half bars gules and argent (1055). “T departed from the Kingdom of Hungary and went along the coast to a city called Durazo (Durazzo). There I took ship and proceeded to the island of the Morea (the Peloponnesus, the peninsula portion of the mainland of Greece). In it there are seven great cities (1056 and 1057). “T left the island of the Morea and went to the island of Rodas (Rhodes). This island belongs to the order of St. John” (1058). The Knights of the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, afterward known as the Knights of Rhodes and the Sovereign Or- der of the Knights of Malta, came into exist- ence in Jerusalem during the First Crusade. After its expulsion from the Holy Land at the fall of the Latin Kingdom, the order was estab- lished in Rhodes in 1309, where it was holding sway at the time of the friar’s visit and where it remained until 1522. “T left the island of Rhodes and went to the island of Candia (Crete), and thence to an- other island they call Negropont (Eubea), which the Venetians conquered. I left the en- trance to the greater sea and Constantinople, which I will describe further on, to my leit, and went to the city they call Satalia (Adalia), of Greek Christians. This Satalia is part of the province of Naturi (Anatolia). The King of this Satalia has for his device a flag with bars wavy argent and purpure and over all the sign of Solomon’s seal” (1059). Adalia, known in ancient times as Attalia, played a conspicuous part in the history of the eastern Mediterranean during the Middle Ages. It was from this port that Louis VII sailed for Syria in 1148, and it was the assembling point for Richard Cceur de Lion’s descent upon Cyprus during the Third Crusade. THE RICH LAND OF TURKEY “The city of Satalia and others as far as the lesser Armenia are all in the province of Turquia (Turkey), which was called, in an- cient times, Asia Minor. In it there are many lordships and provinces which it would be hard to enumerate, for this Turquia extends to the greater sea, and be it known that it is a very rich land, well supplied with all goods. The king of this province has this flag for his de- vice (1060). “T went along the coast of this Turquia to a city called Corincho (Kongos). The king of this land has a black flag with five white crosses (1061). “T departed from Corincho and went to the city they call Feradelfia, or Feradelfin (Phila- delphia), which marches on that of ‘Troy, which in ancient times King Menelaus of Greece destroyed. Troy was the head of all that Asia Minor which they now call Turquia, and its device is a flag half white, with a red cross, the other half yellow, with a red square (1063). “In this Turquia there is another province they call Cunio (Iconium, modern Konia), in which there is a rich city called Cunyo, with much territory, and the king has a flag with bars wavy argent and gules” (1064) (silver and red). Following its conquest by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century, Konia became one of the most brilliant cities of the medieval world. Many splendid mosques, palaces, and tombs adorned the place, which was sur- rounded by a wall two miles in circumference. Beyond the city proper spread the gardens and villas of a numerous suburban population. From the splendor of the city sprang the Turkish proverb, “See all the world, but see Konia.” “There is also another province called Sau- asto (Sebastia, or Siwas), anciently Sausco, from a city of that name which was the head of all the cities. This city of Sauasco was the ancient Samaria, though now it is Sauasco, head of the kingdom, with a white flag having five red crosses (1064). In the time of the Franciscan Siwas, known in ancient times as Megalopolis-Sebastia, was enjoying its second period of prosperity, hav- ing been rebuilt by the great Sultan Ala-ed- din Kaikobad I. Fifty years after the friar wrote his “Knowledge of the World,” Siwas’ flag was trampled in the dust by the impla- cably cruel Tamerlane, who buried alive 4,000 of its inhabitants. “T entered Armenia the Less, which is all surrounded by very Ligh mountains, and.within the mountains there is a plain country in which there are 360 towns and villages and castles.” This reference should not be confused with the Armenia of today. The Franciscan is re- ferring to a small principality founded in 1080, which gradually grew until it became the in- dependent kingdom of Lesser Armenia. It was a Christian State set in the midst of Mos- lem principalities and gave valuable assistance to the Crusaders, although it was hostile to the Byzantine rulers. It had a tempestuous existence extending over a period of about three centuries. “On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, in the place where it ends, you must know that anciently this Armenia was called the island of Colcos; for in this Armenia an arm of the sea enters in which there is a small island called Porto Bonel (in the Gulf of Alexandretta, or Iskanderun), and here was the temple to the enchanted golden sheep which bewitched Jason the Greek. “After this Armenia is the island of Chipre (Cyprus), and in this Chipre there are four great cities. The King of Chipre has for his design a flag parted per pale argent five crosses gules and purpure (purple), two fleurs de lys palewise, because he is of the House of France” (Armenia the Less, 1065, and Cyprus, 1066). At the close of the twelfth century the reigning prince of Cyprus provoked the wrath of “Rick hard Ceeur de Lion by ill-treating the. Crusaders. The English monarch thereupon captured the island and sold it to the Knights Templar, who in turn sold it to the French crusader, Guy de Lusignan, titular King of Jerusalem. It was Hugh IV, one of the ablest of the Lusignan dynasty, who was governing Cyprus at the time of the friar’s visit. This was the sovereign to whom Boccaccio dedi- cated one of his ‘works and who brought about an alliance with the Pope, with Venice, and the Hospitallers, which resulted in the capture of Smyrna, in 1344. After visiting many of the cities of Syria and Palestine, including Jaffa, Acre, Czsarea, and Ascalon, the friar says of Jerusalem: “Know that in this Suria (Syria) is the city of Iherusalem, which was sanctified by the holy temple of Salamon (Solomon), built there, and was consecrated by the blood of Ihesu Christo. This land was anciently called Cananea after Canaan, son of Noe (Noah). Afterward it had the name of Judea after Juda, son of Jaco 392 (Jacob). Know that this province was taken by the French when they made the conquests beyond seas. The device of this province is a white flag with red crosses, like this” (1067). Sir Clements Markham, vice-president of the Hakluyt Society and translator of the Franciscan’s Book of Knowledge, notes that there was no authority for these five crosses gules in the arms of Jerusalem. The correct arms were metal on metal; argent a cross po- tent or (gold) between four lesser crosses or. “Suria marches with the land of Jafet (Japhet), and this Jafet borders the very rich city of Damasco (Damascus), well supplied with all things. Near this Damasco flows the river Eufrates. The king has a yellow flag with a white moon (1068). “Esipto (Egypt) borders on Suria. I came along the coast to a port called La Risa (the Port of Risa). And I took the road to the west and came to Damiata (Damietta), a noble city surrounded by the river Nilus (Nile). Know that here the King of France was de- feated and a prisoner when he went to make conquest beyond sea (Louis IX, defeated at Massura, near Damietta, in 1250). On the banks of this river Nilus is situated the great city Alcaira (Cairo), where the kings of Egipto are crowned. The device of this. king- dom is a white flag with a blue moon (1069). THE HIDING PLACE OF THE ROSETTA STONE “T left Alcaira and went to the coast where is the city of Alexandria, which is noble and rich. From this Alexandria to the isle of Roxeta the distance is ten leagues, all peopled with villages. (Rosetta is the Egyptian town made famous for all time by the discovery near here of the “Rosetta Stone” in 1799, the inscribed block of basaltic rock which unlocked the secrets of hieroglyphic writing.) The king of this Alexandria has for his device a yellow flag and in the middle a black wheel in which is a gray lion (1070). “T departed from Alexandria and went by the coast to a city called Luchon (Lucha), where the king has a yellow flag with a white moon (1071). “Leaving Luchon J came to Mon de Barcas (Barca) and Bona Andrea (Apolonia), which is in Berberia (Barbary), and thence to Tolo- meta (Ptolemais), on the seashore. The king has for a device a white flag with a yellow sash on a lance (1072). “From Tolometa I came to Puerto Magro (the mouth of the river Magra, ancient Cyni- phus), and thence to Tripul (Tripoli), of Ber- beria. It is called Tripul because it is bounded by the Triplicana Mountains. This Tripul is a rich city and the king of it has for his de- vice a white flag with a green palm tree and two red keys (1073 and 1074). “T went from Tripul to Rahasa (Ras Maja- bes), Capiz (Gabes), and Faquiz (Alfaques), and thence to Africa (Mahdia, in Tunisia), a rich city. Know that 26 miles from this Africa is a great tower called Ligem, and from this tower to Alcairahuan (Kairowan) there are 40 miles. At this Alcairahuan the king of all Africa toward the west, named Albohacem (Abu-l-hasan Ali), was defeated and all his tents were pillaged. The King of Africa has for his device a white flag with a purple moon” (1075). The Franciscan’s mention of the battle be- tween Abu-l-hasan Ali and Ahmed, near Kairo- wan, which occurred in 1348, is of special in- terest, as it is the latest date mentioned by the chronicler. The friar probably did not visit Kairowan, for with the exception of Mecca and Medina it is the most sacred of cities in the eyes of Mohammedans, and up to the time of the French occupation, in 1881, no Christian was permitted to pass through its gates with- out a special permit from the bey.) “T went thence to Cucia (Susa, in Tunisia, built on the site of the Roman Hadrumetum), and thence to Tunez (Tunis), which is a great and rich city, well supplied with all things, and is the head of all Berberia (Barbary). ‘The flag of the king is white with a black moon (1076). “I went to Bona (old name, Hippo), where St. Augustine was bishop. It is a rich city. The king of it has a white flag with a black moon (like Tunis—1076). I departed from Bona and went to the city of Constantina (Constantine), which is all surrounded by a river. The king has a flag parted per fess white and yellow (1078). “T left Constantina and arrived at Bugia (Bougie). It is a very strong and ancient city. The king has for his device a red flag with a yellow cross-bow” (1080). AN EARLY SIGNALING DEVICE Long before the Franciscan’s visit to Bou- gie it had become the greatest commercial center on the North African coast and had attained a high degree of civilization. There is evidence that the heliograph was used here for signaling from special towers as early as the middle of the eleventh century. During the century following the visit of the friar it became the stronghold of the Barbary pirates. “T went from Bugia to Arguer (Algiers), thence to Brischan (Bresia), a city on the sea- coast. The king of it has a white flag with a sign like this (1082). “T departed from Brischan and went to the island of Mayorcas (Majorca), in which there is a noble, rich, and well supplied city. The king has for his device a flag with bars vert (green) and sable” (1077). The colors which the Franciscan ascribes to the Kingdom of Majorca constitute internal proof that he visited the country prior to 1375, for in that year the island was annexed by the King of Aragon and its flag, of course, as- sumed a red-and-gold hue (see 1044). “T entered Numedia as far as the river of Muluya until I arrived at the strong city of Cepta (Ceuta). Know that Cepta is opposite to Algezira (Algeciras) and Gibraltar, places of the King of Spain. The gulf of the sea, called the strait of Azocaque (Strait of Gibral- tar), passes between Cepta and Gibraltar. The king of this city has for his design a red flag with two white keys (1079.) “I departed from Cepta and went to the noble city of Fez, where the kings of the Bena Marin (kings of the lineage of Beni Merin) always reside. At Fez their kings are crowned 393 and reside and they have a flag all white (1081). “Thence I went to Nife (Anafi?) and Aza- mor. Know that in this province is the very noble city of Marruecos, which used to be called Cartagu the Great (Carthage, a mistake in which the traveler confuses Morocco with Tunis). A consul of Rome named Scipio Africanus conquered it in the time of the sov- ereignty of the Romans. Afterwards the Goths, who were the lords of Spain, were the sover- eigns here. The King of Marruecos has for his device a red flag with a chess-board black and white (1083). “T climbed the mountains of Cucia La-Alta (western Atlas), which is a country well sup- plied with everything. ‘These mountains are very high and it is a most dangerous land, for there are not more than two very perilous passes. The king has for his device a flag— white with a black lion’ (1084). The friar’s next objectives were various points along the West African coast as far as the Senegal River, traveling always in a “pan- filo”—a galley used in the Mediterranean dur- ing the Middle Ages, equipped with two masts for sails and one row of oars. He next visited many of the islands in the Canary and Madeira groups. Returning to the mainland, he joined a party of Moors who were crossing the Sa- hara with gold for the King of Guinea. He continues : “We came to some very great and high mountains in the middle of the Zahara (Sa- hara), and afterward we traveled a very great distance over the desert until we came to an- other mountain (oasis?) called Infurent (Ze- fran). Here I parted from these Moors and joined some others. I then went to Sulgu- menca (the ancient town of Segelmessa, now Tafilet), a rich city in the Zahara, near a river which comes from the clear mountains. The king of it has for his device a white flag with the root of a green palm tree, in this manner (1085). “T went with some Moors over the Zahara until we arrived at Tocoron (Tamagrut, on the river Dra), which is a city among some mountains. The inhabitants are negroes, and the King of Tocoron has for his device a white flag with a black mountain in the middle, like that of the King of Guynoa (Guinea) (1086). “Thence I went to Tibalbert (Tibelbelt, south of the Atlas), a city on some very high moun- tains; thence to another mountain, which is under the King of Guynoa (Guinea), and thence to Buda, a well-supplied city, also on the top of a mountain. Know that the city was peopled by a king of Tremecen; for he was bad and did evil things and the people wanted to kill him. So he fled, with his treas- ure, to this place and founded this city of Buda (an oasis south of Atlas). Its flag is white with a red moon (1087). “Afterwards I departed from Buda and went by the Zahara to another mountain called Ga- nahe (Ghana), in which there is a rich, well- supplied city of the same name. It is the head of the kingdom, where they crown the kings. And the King of Guynoa (Guinea) has a gold flag with a black mountain in the middle (1c88). GOLD-MINING ANTS AS BIG AS CATS “Of Guynoa there is much to say. It con- tains seven mountains well peopled and land yielding abundantly as long as there are moun- tains; elsewhere it is all Zahara. Two ranges of mountains extend to the Rio Del Oro (Senegal River), and there they collect the ivory teeth and the gold in the ant-hills which the ants make on the river banks. The ants are as big as cats and dig out much earth. This kingdom marches with the Kingdom of Or- gana (a kingdom on the upper Senegal), in which also there is much desert. Organa is the head of the kingdom, where the king is crowned. The King of Organa has for his device a white flag with a green palm tree and two keys (1089). “T traveled for a very long distance on camels, until I arrived at the kingdom they call Tremecen (Tremizen, or Telensin, which extended along the Barbary coast between Me- lilla and the present seaport of Bougie), which borders on the river Nilus (Nile). ‘They live always at war with the Christians of Nubia and Etiopia (Ethiopia). There are in this kingdom five large places inhabited by negroes. Know that these inhabitants of this kingdom of Tremecen peopled it from Berberia (Bar- bary). The king has for his device a purple flag with a white moon (1090). “Thence I went to another kingdom called Dongola (west of Nubia), marching with the deserts of Egipto (Egypt) and the river Nilus. It is a country well peopled with Christians from Nubia, but they are negroes. It is a rich land and very well supplied and with many fruit trees. The land has a very hot climate. The King of Dongola has for his device a white flag with a cross like this” (1091). After revisiting Cairo in company with some Genoese merchants whom he met in Dongola, the Franciscan journeyed to Damieta (Dami- etta), where he embarked for Ceuta. He dis- embarked and journeyed through Morocco, crossed the Atlas Mountains, where he_ met some Moorish traders and embarked with them on a galley for another cruise down the west shore of Africa. After leaving the mouth of the Senegal River ‘““we went on for a very long distance,” continues the friar, “always keeping in sight of the coast, leaving behind us the Islas Perdidas (the Atlantic Islands), and came to an island inhabited by many people. “They call this island Gropis (Galpis, of the Bissagos group, off the coast of Portuguese Guinea). It is a well-supplied island, but the people are idolaters. They took us all before their king, and wondered much at us and our language and customs. The merchants who armed the galley made much profit. The king’s device is a white flag with the figure of his idol” (1092 and 1093). The Franciscan now left the Moors and journeyed to towns in the Soudan and Sene- gambia. He marvels at the gold, the amber- gris, and the ivory which come from this torrid region, and declares that the Mountains of the Moon, also called the Mountains of Gold, are supposed to be the highest in the world, and that the five largest rivers in the world have their sources in these lofty regions. He gives 304 no picture of the flag of this kingdom, which he calls Gotonie, and designates as ‘one of the largest in the world,” but describes the device as “some yellow sashes on a spear.” His nar- rative continues: “T departed from this Kingdom of Gotonie (Soudan and Senegambia) and arrived at a gulf connected with the sea, and in the gulf there are three islands. I crossed this gulf until I came to a great city called Amenuan (Miniana and Amina, regions north of the Kong Mountains). It is a very great and populous kingdom, with a land supplying all that is good, but the people are heathens and believe in idols. The kingdom contains eight great cities, one of which is Amenuan, in which the king always resides and is crowned. The king has a white flag with an idol (1094). “In this Kingdom of Emenuan there enters a branch of the river Eufrates (Niger—the friar does not confuse this with the Mesopo- tamian Euphrates, but assumes two rivers with the same name). ‘This river forms three branches, one entering the middle of the King- dom of Amenuan and the other branches flow- ing round the whole kingdom, the width in some places being two days’ journey. When I crossed this great river I first made a long journey along its banks, which are very popu- lous (referring evidently to the river Benue, a tributary of the Niger). A MYTHICAL MONARCH “T came to a great city called Graciona, which is the head of the Empire of Ardeselib, a word meaning ‘Servant of the Cross.’ The Ardeselib is defender of the Church of Nubia and Ethiopia, and he defends Preste Juan (Prester John), who is Patriarch of Nubia and Abyssinia.” Prester John, to whom the Franciscan re- fers, was a mythical Christian potentate, whose mame appears many times in the chronicles of the Middle Ages, and he is endowed with many attributes of greatness, wisdom, and magic. Originally he was supposed to be a monarch of Asia, his capital being somewhere in India. During the fourteenth century, however, the mythical Prester John’s domain was_ trans- ferred to Africa, and he then became the Chris- tian king of Abyssinia. “Preste Juan rules over very great lands and many cities of Christians. But they are ne- groes as to their skins and burn the sign of the cross with fire in recognition of baptism. But although these men are negroes they are still men of intelligence, with good brains, and they have understanding and knowledge. Their land is well supplied with all good things, and excellent water of that which comes from the Antarctic Pole, where, it is said, is the earthly paradise. They told me that the Genoese whose galley was wrecked at Amenuan and who were saved were brought here. It was never known what became of the other galley which escaped. The Emperor of Abdeselib has for his device a white flag with a black cross like this” (1095). The friar’s reference to the Genoese galley relates to the voyage of Vadino and Guido de Vivaldo, navigators who set sail in 1821 in an attempt to reach India. One of them reached a city in Ethiopia called Menam, where the crew was imprisoned and none ever returned. “I departed from Graciona and traveled over many lands and through many cities, arriving at the city of Malsa (Melee, or Melli?), where the Preste Johan (Prester John) always re- sides. “This is a well-peopled and well-supplied land. From the time I came to Malsa I heard and saw marvelous things every day. I in- quired what the terrestrial paradise was like, and wise men told me that it consisted of mountains so high that they came near to the circuit of the moon. No man has been able to see it all, for of twenty men who went not more than three ever saw it, and that they had never heard tell of any man who had ascended the mountains. “They further told me that these mountains were surrounded by very deep seas, and that from the water of those seas come four rivers which are the largest in the world.” Perhaps this is a vague reference, based on hearsay, to those noble lakes which constitute the reservoirs of the Nile and Congo basins— Albert Edward, Tanganyika, Nyassa, and Vic- toria Nyanza. It was not until centuries later that these lakes were definitely located. In fact, Victoria Nyanza, which, next to Lake Su- perior, is the largest fresh-water lake in the world, was not discovered until 1858, by J. H. Speke, while seeking the source of the Nile. “The waters which descend by these rivers make so great a noise that it can be heard at a distance of two days’ journey. All the men who live near it are deaf and cannot hear each other, owing to the great noise of the waters. “In all time the sun in those mountains is there day and night, either on one side or the other. This is because half those mountains are over the horizon and the other half are over the horizon, so that on the top of the mountains it is never either cold nor dark, nor hot nor dry, nor moist, but an equable tem- perature. All things, whether animal or veg- etable, can never decay nor die. “They told me many other secrets of the stars both as regards judgments and magical virtues; also concerning herbs, plants, and minerals, and I saw several marvelous things. The Greeks call this place Ortodoxis, and the Jews Ganheden, and the Latins Paraiso Ter- renal, because there is always a good tempera- ture. The device of Preste Johan is a white flag with a black cross (1096). I departed from Malsa and took an eastern route.” The Franciscan was the first writer to locate the mysterious Prester John in Abyssinia. “IT went for a very long distance, meeting with people of many beliefs and with strange manners and customs which it would take long to describe, until I came to a gulf of the Sea of India which enters into the land fifty days’ journey. In this gulf there are three very large islands, called Zanzibar (probably an error of the copyist for Acibar), Alcubil (Ku- ria Muria), and Aden (peninsula), which is the largest and the most populous. It lies against Arabia, and here the Red Sea begins, and penetrates the land westward forty days’ journey.” On its shores are many cities, towns, and villages. 395 A RED RED SEA “When the ships come from India they ar- rive at Aden and pay a tithe of their merchan- dise, because between the island Aden and the point of Aden there is a rich city. Then there is a very narrow place to pass, and a ship then enters the Red Sea and discharges its cargo at a city they call Sacam (Suakin), belonging to the King of Caldea. “This Red Sea is so called because the bot- tom consists of red ochre which makes the water red. By this sea the Jews passed when they went forth from the Egyptian captivity of Faraon the King (Pharaoh). Presently I entered Caldea, which is all surrounded by two very great rivers, rising in the mountains of Toro (Taurus). One is called Cur (a mistake for Tigris) and the other called Eufrates, but not the one of Nubia. Both these rivers reach the Indian Sea in the gulf they call the Black Sea (Persian Gulf). This Caldea is a rich, populous, and well-supplied land. “Know that in this province is the Tower of Babel, which the giants built in the center of a great plain, the Agra de Senabar (Shinar), and here was the great city of Bauilonia ( Baby- lon), which is now destroyed, of which the lord was Nabucodonusor (Nebuchadnezzar). “T crossed an arm of the Eufrates and en- tered the province of Baldaque (Bagdad), in which there is a great city which they call Bandacho (Bagdad), and Nabucodonusor (Nebuchadnezzar) was king of these prov- inces. I departed from Bandacho and went to Mesopotamia. I left Mesopotamia and went to a city where the river Cur (Tigris) forms a great island called Ansera, in which island there is a great city. Beyond this river is the site of the city of Niniue (Nineveh), which was destroyed for its sins. Know that this re- gion contains very extensive lands, many cities and villages, and is all encircled by the two great rivers called Eufrates and Cur (Tigris). From the borders of the Red Sea to the shores of the Persian Gulf as far as Aquysio (Kishm) we cannot give different devices because Cal- dea and Baldaque are all in one lordship and it is all one region. “T crossed the river Cur (Tigris) and made a very long journey until I came to Arabia, traversing a great extent of land and arriving at the city of Al Medina (Medina), where Mahomat was born. Thence I went to Me- chan (Mecca), where is the law and testament of Mahomat in an iron chest and in a house of calamita stone. For this reason it is in the air, neither ascending nor descending. Know that this Mechan is the head of the empire of the Arabs. Its device is a red flag and on it Arabic letters in gold (1097). “T departed from Mecha and traveled over the Kingdom of Arabia onwards until I arrived at a very large city they called Fadal (Fartak), on the shores of the Sea of India. I remained there sometime and then went on board a ship and passed a very large and well-peopled island called Sicocra (Socotra). ‘There is in it a very large city also called Sicocra, under the rule of the King of Arabia. This same island the ships touch coming from India laden with spices. ters (1098). It has a red flag with Arabic let- THE WEALTH OF INDIA “I then traveled with some merchants for a very great distance and arrived at a kingdom of Delini (Delhi), belonging to the kings of India. It contains extensive lands, very rich and populous. The cities I came to were nine. Know that in this Kingdom of Lini (Delhi) the pepper and ginger and aloe ripen, and many other spices, of which there are great harvests, which are taken over all the world. They call this province India the sandy (Sind and Raj- putana), and the color of the people is black. They use Turkish bows. They are a wise people, with good memories, and learned in all kinds of knowledge. The device of the king is a white flag with a gold pale (1099). “I departed from the Kingdom of Dilini and entered that of Viguy (Bijaya-nagar), which 1s on the other coast of the Indian Sea. Be- yond this kingdom there is an island in the Indian Sea called Sagela (Ceylon), in which there is a great and rich city. In this island there are workings whence gold, silver, and other metals and very large rubies come; others smaller. This kingdom marches with the Empire of Armalec (Bengal), with the Kingdom of Linj and with the Indian Sea. “Know that this Indian Sea is a branch which joins to the great eastern sea. Some say that it covers all the world up to the west- ern sea. Wise men say that as far as the Ant- arctic Pole there is a great land forming a tenth part of the whole earth. ‘The learned call this land Trapouana (Sumatra), marching with the island of Java and extending to the westward along an arm of the great sea which surrounds the whole earth and of which the Indian Sea is part. “Know that in the islands of Java and Tra- pouana there are 45 extensive regions, the greater part desolate, owing to the great heat of the sun. But in the inhabited parts they gather much pepper and many other spices. Here are the great griffins and the great cock- atrices. The king has for his device a white flag with a gold wand. “Afterwards I departed from the Kingdom of Viguy and passed over a gulf of the Indian Sea, which they call the Gulf of Bengala (Ben- gal), because on its shore is a great city called Bengala, of the Empire of Armelec, and it is the capital of the kingdom. TI passed thence to the Kingdom of Oxanap (Burma?), which is on the shore of the Indian Sea. Along the shores of Oxanap the sea is green; it is an arm of the Indian Sea between this Oxanap and the island of Java. The King of Oxanap has for his device a white flag with a pale of gold (similar to Delhi—1ogg). “I departed from Oxanap, went on board a ship with some merchants, and sailed over the green sea until we came to the island of Java, a very great island in the Indian Sea about 40 days’ journey in length. The island is very populous, but there are no cities, because all the people live in the country and gather spices, pepper, and odoriferous gums. It is a very hot land. The people are black and they adore 396 the Emperor of Cathay (China), whose image they have on their flags (1100). “On leaving Java I returned to Oxanap and took the way to the Kingdom of Armalec, whose device is a white flag with a pale of gold (simi- lar to Delhi—1ogg). I departed from the Em- pire of Armalec and traveled by land for a great distance over a well-peopled country, with flocks, but no cities nor towns, because all the inhabitants live in the country. TO THE END OF THE EARTH “At last I arrived in the Empire of Catayo (China), where all the cities are on the shores of the eastern sea, which joins with the Sea of India. ‘This sea of the east is full of reefs and islands, and to the eastward there is no news of any lands, only waters, as in the west- ern sea. “Know that Catayo (China) is the end of the earth in the line of Spain. ‘This empire is irrigated by three great rivers, which rise in the Montes Caspios (Himalaya Mountains) and are led off into many parts. They call the largest of these rivers Magot (Hoang-Ho), for it rises near the castle of Magot (the Great Wall), which is one of the gates of encircled Tartaria (Tartary). They call this emperor Gosman Imperator Morroy, and Grand Can, Lord of the East. His device is a gold flag and in the middle an emperor seated, in white cloths, with an imperial crown on his head, in one hand a Turkish bow, in the other a golden apple (1101). “T departed from the Empire of Catayo to- ward the north, up the course of the river Magot (Hoang-Ho), and traveled for 65 days. I did not find town nor city. The land is en- tirely inhabited by tribes with flocks. It is all a plain country and has no stones nor trees nor people who eat bread, but only meat and milk. ‘Thence I reached the Montes Caspios (Himalayas) of Magot. “Know that these mountains are of immeas- urably height and surround Tartaria from sea to sea, and. there is only one very narrow pass. Here there is a castle built of magnet iron throughout, for nature made it in this manner and it reaches to the clouds. At its foot rises the river Magot. On the other side there is another castle which is as high and built of the same stone, called Got (Gog and Magog, men- tioned in Ezekiel xxxviii). The castles are very high on the top, so that ten thousand men can reside in each of them. Between the two are the Iron Gates which shut the entrance to artatia. “Within this Tartaria there are countless tribes who do not observe any of the com- mandments of God, except that they do no evil one to another. ‘They are very confident and great fighters, both on foot and on horseback, insomuch that Alexander was unable to con- quer them or to enter their country by the mountains, for they shut and fastened those iron gates by placing great rocks against them, and they were closed for a long time. Even- tually they removed the obstruction, coming out and conquering a great part of the world themselves. From that lineage came all those of the Empire of Catayo. “From that lineage also came those of the empires of Armalec, Mesopotamia, all the Per- sians, those of the Empire of Sara (Caspian), as well Turks and Tartars, Saracens and Goths. Some of them turned to the law of Abraham and others turned Moors. The wise men of Tartaria say that when 7,000 years of the era of Adam are completed they will be lords of the whole face of the earth and will make all peoples conform to their law and their freedom. This enclosed Tartaria forms a fourth part of the whole earth. “In the Empire of Catayo there is a king- dom called Scim (perhaps a kingdom of hear- say), which borders on the Kingdom of Sar- magant (Samarkand), Bocarin (Bokhara), and Trimic (Tibet). The flag of its king is white, with a figure of the sun in the center (1102). EUROPE’S FIRST ACCOUNT OF TIBET “The Kingdom of Trimic (Tibet) is all sur- rounded by mountains, which give rise to many fountains and rivers. Those who are born here have very long lives. ‘They are men of clear understandings and good memories, learned in the sciences "and live according to the law. They say that the men who first heard of sci- ence and learning were these, and that the Per- sians heard of those things from them. For this reason they deserve honour above all other men; for others do not equal these in learning or science.” This is the earliest European account of the people of Tibet. “T departed from Magot, where I had re- sided for sometime, and traveled with some companions, 25 days’ journey to the westward, to the city of Bocarin (Bokhara), where the king always resides. Here I met with mer- chants who came from Catayo and traveled with us, 35 days’ journey, to another city, called Cato, the head of a kingdom with very exten- sive territory (probably | a region bordering on Siberia). But all the people live in the coun- try, except the people of one city where the king lives. These two kingdoms have for a device a yellow flag with many white stars (1103). “We departed from the Kingdom of Cato and traveled a great distance without finding town nor city, yet the country was inhabited and with many flocks. We came to a moun- tain which is a spur from the Montes Caspios and extends to the Sea of Sara (Caspian). This mountain is 125 days’ journey long. “We crossed it by a very high pass and again traveled a long distance over a country with- out cities or towns until we came to a great city called Norgancio (Khiva), in the Empire of Uxbeco (Shah Usbek, who reigned during the first half of the fourteenth century over a vast region stretching from the Dnieper to the Ural Mountains). The King of the Norgan- cio has for his device a white flag with the sign of Uxbeco Emperor of Sara (on the Cas- pian) red” (1104). Journeying westward by way of the Caspian Sea, which he crossed in a ship belonging to Christians, the friar visited Armenia. His re- cital continues: “Then I went to see the mountains of Ar- menia the Greater, where the ark of Noe 397 (Noah) arrived when it escaped the universal deluge. This mountain is of salt stone as white as crystal. Know that it is one of the highest mountains in the world. able to ascend it, though attempts have been made many times. These mountains are in the Empire of Persia. All round the country is inhabited by Armenian Christians, who are the guards of the emperor, and he places much trust in them. “I departed from Armenia and came to the great ay of Toris (Tabriz), which is the capi- tal of the Empire of the Persians. It is one of the grandest cities in the world, well supplied, rich, and in a good climate. For this reason the Persians are wise and very well versed in all the sciences. They have learned men with a profound knowledge of the stars. The Em- peror of Persia has for his device a yellow flag with a red square in the middle (1105). “T went over a great part of Persia, going thence to the Kingdom of Saldania and its rich and noble city (Sultanieh?). Its king has for a device a yellow flag with a red square (sim- ilar to Persia’s—1105). “T departed from Saldania and went with some merchants a long distance until I came to the city of Ayras (Shiraz), called by the Tartars Sarax, where the Empire of Persia ends. It is a well supplied city, rich and very ancient. They say that in this city was first discovered the astronomy or law of the stars, for this city is in the line of the center of Persia. The cities I have visited in Persia are Casar (Kazan), Serrans, Thesi, Spaor (Ispa- han), Jorjaman (Georgia), Spalonero (Raze- lain), Saldania (Sultanieh), and Toris (Ta- briz). “Tn this last town is where Besnacayt, the Emperor of Persia, was crowned. His empire extends from the Sea of Sara (Caspian) to the Persian Gulf, where is the city of Hor- mixio (Ormuz), and from the Mare Mayor (Black Sea) to Aq:isio, also on the Persian Gulf. Its length is 125 days’ journey and its width from the river Cur to the city of Siras (Sari?) roo days’ journey. Benascayt, Em- peror of Persia, assembled a very great host and went to fight with Uxbeco, Emperor of Sara (the Caspian). “There arrived more than a million and a half of cavalry. Then Benascayt promised some Armenian monks, whom he consulted, that if he won the battle he would become a Christian. The Armenian Christians who came with him marched with a cross before them, and, God helping, he conquered. Uxbeco was defeated and his cavalry pillaged and their women captured. The conqueror advanced far into the enemy’s country. “After this I left Persia with some mer- chants who came from Catavo (China). Thence ‘we traveled for a great distance with- out coming to any city, for all the inhabitants lived in the country. “T came to a city called Tripul of Suria (Syria), which is on the shore of the Medi- terranean (not the Tripoli of North Africa, previously mentioned). There I embarked in a ship of Christians and went to Chipre (Cy- prus), thence to the Morea, and thence to Creta, Negropont (Eubcea), and a kingdom of No man has been - Greeks which they call Salonica, bordering on Macedonia, where the great Alexander reigned. The King of Salonica has for his device a red flag with a yellow cross and four chain links (1106). GALLIPOLI IN AN EARLY CAMPAIGN “Thence I went to a city called Galipoli, which is on the shore of the gulf between the Mediterranean and the greater sea. By this way the French passed when they conquered Suria. Thence I went along the seacoast to a city they call Recrea (Heraclea), and thence to the city of Constantinople, a rich city, the cap- ital of the empire, where they crown the kings. Here there is a church of God called Santa Sofia, which is very wide, lofty, and beautiful. “Before it there is a tower of stone which has not been ascended. On the summit of this tower there is placed a knight with his horse of metal. It is very large, and he has on his head an episcopal cap (probably a nimbus or crown). It is in honor of the Emperor Con- stantine. His right hand is extended toward Turquia, which was formerly called Asia Minor, on the other side of this gulf of the sea. The Emperor of Constantinople has for his device a flag quarterly, first and fourth argent a cross gules, second and third gules a cross, or (gold) between four chain links or (1107 and 1108). “T left Constantinople and entered the Mare Mayor (Black Sea), proceeding along the coast on the left hand to a great city called Vecina (Vidin). Here nine rivers unite and fall into the Mare Mayor. These nine rivers make a great commotion before this city of Vecina, which is the capital of the kingdom. It has a white flag with four red squares (1109). eal proceeded along the shores of the eastern side of the Mare Mayor (Black Sea) for a very long distance and arrived in the Kingdom of Sant Estropoli (Sebastopol), which is in- habited by Comanes Christians. Here there are many people who have Jewish descent, but all perform the works of Christians in the sac- rifices, more after the Greek than the Latin Church. The king has for his flag—gules a hand argent (1110). “T left Sant Estropoli and went to Gorgania (Georgia), which is between the Mare Mayor (Black Sea) and the Mar de Sara (Caspian), a very extensive land of the Empire of Uxleto (Uzbeg). I then went along the shore to the city of Trapesonda (Trebizond), where I re- mained for some time. This empire borders on Turquia, but the people are Greek Chris- tians. The Emperor of Trapesonda has for his device a red flag with a golden two-headed eagle. “T departed from T'rapesonda and arrived at the Kingdom of Semiso (Samsun), a large and populous territory bordering on ‘Turquia and the Mare Mayor. The king has for his dev ice a white flag with a sign like this (1112). “IT came to Feradelfia (Philadelphia) and found a rich and well supplied city. It is in Turquia, anciently called Asia Minor. ‘The king has for his device a flag parted per pale, argent and azure and on a field argent a cross gules (1113). 308 “T departed from the Kingdom of Feradelfia and went to another kingdom, called Stologo (Hypsili, in Asia Minor), which contains ex- tensive territory near the sea. The king has for his device a red flag charged with a black wheel (1114). “T left Stologo, traveling by land with some merchants; went across all Turquia and came to the city of Sauasco (Siwas?). Leaving that place I crossed a river, traveled over Jorgania (Georgia) until I arrived at the Sea of Sara, at a city called Deruent (Derbent). I went along the shores of the Sea of Sara (Caspian). “T entered a great province called Roxia (Russia), in which there is a city called Xor- man(?), the capital of the kingdom (1115 and 1116). It is bounded by the great lake of Tanay, which is three days’ journey in length and two broad (an imaginary body of water in which most medieval geographers believed). Three very great rivers flow from it. One of these, the Nu (Dwina), bounds a great prov- ince called Siccia (Scythia), a very cold coun- try. In this Siccia there is a great city, the capital of the kingdom, called Nogorado (Nov- gorod). ‘The king has for his device a red flag with a white castle (1117). “T came to Maxar, a kingdom in which there are three great cities—Casama (Kazan), Lasac (Lechel, in the province of Kazan), and Mons- caor (Moscow). This King of Maxar (Oren- burg) has for his device a purple flag with white stars (1118). “From Maxar I went to the Kingdom of Siluana, which they call Septen Castra, and the Greeks call it Horgiml (Transylvania). It is encircled by two great rivers—the ‘Turbo (Dniester) and the Lusim (Dnieper). ‘The king has for his device a green flag with a red scimitar (1119). The people are schismatic Christians. THE MIDNIGHT SUN “Ascending the river Tir (Dniester) toward the north, there are two very large provinces called Yrcania and Gotia (northern Russia), whence the Goths came forth who entered Spain. It is called the land of Nogulaus. The people are strong and warlike, but their coun- try is very cold. ‘This Gotia and Yrcania march with the lofty mountains of Trasmon- tana (mountains of Norway). “Tn these mountains the north star is seen in the middle of the heavens, and throughout the year there is daylight for six months and night for six months. It is uninhabited, yet they say that men are met with whose heads come out of their shoulders, having no necks whatever. ‘Their beards are on their breasts. and their ears reach to the shoulders. There are also found in this land very great bears and wild beasts, as I have already related. These two provinces of Yrcania and Gotia were peopled by the Godos, who came from the closed Tartaria, from the castle of Got and Magot (Gog and Magog), when they deliber- ated on the siege of Alexandre and the con- quest of the greater part of the world (device of Yrcania—1120). “I went to Flanders, and from there to Se- ville, the city from which I first started.” Thus ends the recital of the Francis- can’s wanderings. PENNANTS OF PATRIOTISM 200 YEARS AGO (Nos. 1123-1197) English author who lived during the last half of the seventeenth cen- tury, had never heard of the anonymous Franciscan friar who wrote his “Book of Knowledge’ (see page 388) about the year 1350; and yet Beaumont has left to pos- terity a work on nations and their flags which strangely parallels the book of the Spanish churchman, save that whereas the latter’s volume is beautifully hand illumined with the colored coats-of-arms of the nations of earth in his day, the Englishman relies upon somewhat crude black and white copper plates, with the letters R (red), W (white), Y (yellow), etc., chiseled out to indicate the colors. The flags reproduced on page 371 of this issue of the GEocrAPHIC have been prepared in colors, in large measure from the black and white drawings which Beaumont included in the third edition of Pes: John Beaumont, an his book, published by John Motte in London in the year 1701. ‘The full title of the work is: “The Present State of the Universe, or an Account of the Rise, Birth, Names, Matches, Children, and near Allies of all the present Chief Princes of the World. Their Coats of Arms, Mottos, Devices, Liveries, Religions, and Languages. The Names of their Chief Towns, with some Computation of the Houses and Inhabit- ants. Their Chief Seats of Pleasure, and other Remarkable things in their Do- minions. ‘Their Revenues, Power, and Strength. Their respective Styles and Titles, or Appellations. Also An Account of Common-Wealths, relating to the same Heads. The Third edition continu’d and enlarg’d, with the Effigies of all the Crown’d Heads of Europe; as also the various Bearings of their several Ships at Sea.” 399 There are three British ensigns—the white, blue, and red. To understand the use of the red, the white, and the blue ensign in the British navy, it is necessary to know the organization of the huge fleets of that day. In a fleet there were the center, the van, and the rear. The admiral of the fleet, with the union flag at the mainmast of his flagship, commanded the vessels of the ‘center,’ and they were re- quired to display red ensigns (1123), referred to countless times in history as the famous “meteor flag of Old England” on account of its red field and the red cross of St. George. The vice-admiral of the white, with his white flag (1121) at the fore of his flagship, com- manded the vessels of the van (fore), and they displayed the white ensign (1124). The rear- admiral of the blue, with his blue flag (1122) at the mizzen of his flagship, commanled the vessels of the rear (mizzen), and they wore the blue ensign (1125). So that the ensigns indicated the squadrons, and the colors and the positions (main, fore, and mizzen) of the ad- mirals’ flags the ranks of the commanding admirals. This practice was of long standing, and of course came from the English navy, there being practically no Scottish navy. This is all made clear by examination of the ad- mirals’ flags, 1121 and 1122, and the ensigns 1123, 1124, and 1125 of the year 1705 (two years before the union of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew). At the time of our Revolution the same flags of rank and the same ensigns were in use, but with the union flag of England and Scotland in their cantons. ‘These ensigns continued to have this significance until 1864, when the red ensign disappeared from the place of honor in the British navy, the white ensign (834) be- coming the exclusive ensign of the navy, the blue ensign (835) for public vessels (with a badge in its fly) and naval reserve vessels, and the red ensign (836) became the exclusive property of the merchant marine. The red flag of defiance (1126) has for cen- turies been the symbol of revolution and of mutiny. Queen Elizabeth chartered the East India Company in 1600. Its flag (1129) has peculiar interest for America, as some historians de- clare that it was the parent banner of our Stars and Stripes. Benjamin Franklin is re- puted to have urged its adoption at a dinner which he and Washington attended on De- cember 13, 1775, and at which he is said to have declared: “While the field of your flag must be new in the details of its design, it need not be entirely new in its elements. It is fortunate for us that there is already in use a flag with which the English Government is familiar, and which it has not only recognized but protected. I refer to the flag of the East India Company.” The East India Company’s banner at that time was slightly different, however, from the colors shown here (1129), for in 1707 the union between England and Scotland took place and the St. George’s cross was combined with that of St. Andrew. The East India Company flag vanished from the seas in 1858, when the British Government took over its functions. The Guinea Company (also a chartered trad- ing organization of England) carried its check- ered red and white ensign (1130) up and down the West African coast for many years. In 1663 its vessels brought from Guinea the gold from which the first English “guineas” were coined. The Scottish ensign (1131) and Scottish Un- ion flag (1132) recall an interesting bit of con- troversy between the subjects of “South Britain and North Britain,’ as the English and Scotch were then designated. With the union of the two countries under James I, it became neces- sary to devise a new flag. A royal ordinance of April 12, 1605, recites the following: “Whereas some difference hath arisen be- tween our subjects of South and North Britain, traveling by seas, about the bearing of their flags,—for the avoiding of all such contentions hereafter, we have, with the advice of our council, ordered that from henceforth all our subjects of this isle and kingdom of Greater Britain, and the members thereof, shall bear in their maintop the Red Cross, commonly called St. George’s Cross (1127), and the White Cross, commonly called St. Andrew’s Cross (831), joined together, according to a form made by our heralds, and sent by us to our admiral to be published to our said subjects; and in their foretop our subjects of South Britain shall wear the Red Cross only, as they were wont, and our subjects of North Britain in their foretop the White Cross only, as they were accustomed” (see also 829). The Scottish Union flag (1132) carries the quarrel a step farther. The Scottish superim- posed the white cross on the English red; the English, on their side, superimposed the red cross on the white. The Irish ensign at the beginning of the eighteenth century (1133) bore the cross of St. George in the canton and a gold harp on a green field, thoroughly appropriate for the “Emerald Isle.” HOLLAND'S FIVE FLAGS In his “Book of the Universe,’ Beaumont ascribes five flags to Holland at the dawn of the eighteenth century (1134, 1135, 1136, 1139, 1140). Holland became an independent State in 1579, and in 1599 its flag was officially designated as orange, white, and blue, in three horizontal stripes, these being the colors of the great leader, William, Prince of Orange. In some manner never satisfactorily explained (see 377 and 775), the orange became red early in the seventeenth century, and it was under the tricolor (red, white, and blue) that the naval heroes Tromp and De Ruyter fought their many brilliant sea engagements with the English between 1652 and 1654. Concerning the city of Amsterdam (1137) two centuries ago, Beaumont furnishes the following unique description: “Amsterdam is the most considerable city of all Holland; the houses are generally built of brick, and it’s built on piles like Venice. As to what propor- tion of bigness this city bears to London I have no exact account. Amsterdam for riches, trading, shipping, fair streets, and pleasant habitations scarce yields to any other city of the world. The whole town being in a low, 400 marshy ground, the water is let in through all the considerable streets, and it’s all built upon piles, or high fir trees, driven down perpen- dicularly so close together that nothing can be forced betwixt them.” With the exception of Amsterdam, perhaps no other town in Holland had more right to a flag of its own than Flushing (1138), for it was in this seaport that the standard of liberty was first raised after the “Water Beggars” had taken Briel in 1572, the first overt act of the Dutch in their war against Spanish supremacy. Concerning Genoa, whose red flag (1141) was identical with that of the scarlet emblems of Venice and Spain, Beaumont gives this picturesque description at the close of the seventeenth century: “The State of Genoa is, like that of Venice, govern’d by a Doge or Duke, with this Ex- ception, that the Office of the Duke of Genoa lasts but for three years, whereas the other is for life. He has for his Ordinary Guard five hundred Germans. Controversies between Citizens are adjudg’d by a Court called the Rota, consisting of Lawyers, not Natives of Genoa. They are under the Protection of the King of Spain (hence the identity of the Spanish and Genoese red flag). Genoa was under the Government of several Princes till the year 1528, when Andrew Doria established there the Form of Government observ’d to this day, which is Aristocratical. There is seen in the Town the statue of Andrew Doria, mounted on a Horse of Cast Copper, with this Inscrip- tion on the pedestal, Liberator Populi.” (It was after this liberator that the brig Andrew Doria, the first vessel to obtain a salute for the American flag, was named—see page 205.) Tradition says that Russia derived its blue, white, and red flag (1142) in the following manner: Peter the Great, while learning ship- building in Holland, adopted the Dutch ensign (1136), merely reversing the colors. But the Russians were not flattered by this, for it made them appear like “Dutchmen in distress” (the sign of distress being an inverted flag). Sub- sequently the order was changed to white, blue, and red (the present Russian merchant flag— 800), but in 1701 the Czar of Muscovy (Peter) had only added the blue cross in the white stripe to distinguish his flag from the Dutch distress signal. OSTEND’S BRAVE BANNER Ostend, the last stronghold of the Dutch in South Netherlands against the Spaniards, well deserved the distinction of a fight standard (1144) as well as an ensign (1143). This little fishing village, of scarcely three thousand souls at the beginning of the seventeenth century, withstood one of the most remarkable sieges of history, the chroniclers of that time being amply justified in comparing it to the siege of Troy. It resisted the Spaniards for three years and seventy-seven days (July 5, 1601, to September 20, 1604), and it is computed that one hundred thousand lives and four million dollars were sacrificed in its reduction. All the engineering skill and resources of the age were employed. Targone, a famous Italian engineer, invented a great floating battery to close the harbor, and a fortress on wheels with a draw-bridge to span water gaps (forerunner of the twentieth century tank cars). The defenders used great bonfires and hoops of flaming pitch to light the battleground dur- ing night attacks. Earthworks were mined and countermined. Red-hot shot were fired into the city. To prevent conflagrations, the garri- son covered all the houses with sod. When there was no more earth suitable for the con- struction of fortifications, the besieged turned to the graveyards, exhuming their heroic dead and using their bodies as ramparts for the living. When the town finally hauled down its flag it ‘was with the honors of war, granted by Spinola, the chivalrous Genoese commander of the Spanish forces, who gave a splendid ban- quet to the republican officers in his pavilion. The Spanish flag (1145) is of special interest at this period of history, for it recalls the War of the Spanish Succession, which followed the death of Charles II, in 1700, the last of the Austrian (Hapsburg) dynasty to sit on the throne of Castile and Leon. Beaumont rec- ords: “On the first of November, 1700 N. S. (New Style), died Charles II of Spain, after a long illness, or rather after a diseased life of almost 4o years. In his pretended last will, he is said to have left the Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin of France, his heir and successor to all his dominions, who immediately took upon the title of Philip V, King of Spain, etc. “But the German Emperor acknowledging him as such.” . . The coat-of-arms which Beaumont places on the Spanish banner (1145) is far from com- plete, for the King of Spain at the beginning of the eighteenth century bore the insignia of Castile, of Leon, Aragon, Sicily, Granada, Portugal, Algarve, Austria, Ancient Burgundy and Modern Burgundy, Brabant, Flanders, and of Antwerp, capital city of the Holy Empire. Surrounding the large shield may be seen the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece. The King of Spain, as one of his minor titles, was known as the Lord of Biscay. The Bis cay ensign (1146) was a white cross “raguled” on a red field. The raguled cross in heraldry is described as “trunked” or having many cuts, resembling two ragged staffs in the shape of a cross. The Spanish Bourbons used it as their insignia; hence it appeared on the flag of Ostend (1143), a Spanish possession. The New England ensign (1147), with the pine tree in the first quarter of the St. George’s cross, was the first distinctively American flag of the American colonies. It should be re- membered that this is an ensign and was used by vessels only (see also 362-364, 379-390). The national flag of the colonies was that of the mother country, the union flag (361). The French’ galley standard (1148) was of red with numerous fleurs de lys in gold. In the center were the arms of France. Beau- mont recites that “the arms.of France in the days of Pharamond and his three successors were gules (red) three crowns or (gold). Clovis the Great altered them to azure (blue) is far from 401 strewn with flower-de-luces or, and Charles VI, who came to the crown in 1380, reduced the lilies in his coat-of-arms to three.” White became the national color of France during the Hundred Years War. Later the Huguenot party adopted the white flag, and when Henry III, himself a Protestant, came to the throne, in 1574, it became the royal en- sign. In the following reign (Henry IV) it became the symbol of the * French Bourbons. Thus the French ensign (1149), a simple white banner, came to be the basis of many of the French flags (see 1150, II5I, I157, 1158, 1159, 1160, and 1161). The ensign (1149) was the flag under which Cartier sailed on his voyage of exploration to Canada, and the emblem which floated from the flagship of Admiral De Grasse, whose victory off Yorktown was a most important factor contributing to the suc- cess of the American Revolutionary War (see 422). Joan of Arc bore a white flag with gold embellishments at the Battle of Orleans. The French cornet (1159) is distinctive only in its swallow-tail shape; in modern signaling it is usually called a burgee. The blue crosses in the banners of Province (Provence) (1150), of Bretagny (Brittany) (1151), and Normandy (1158), and the blue stripes of Picardy (1161) recall the fact that from earliest recorded times until the seat of French Government was removed to Paris (when the red of that city’s patron, St. Denis, was adopted) blue was a favorite color of the Franks. It was under the plain blue flag known as “Chape de St. Martin” that Clovis won his great victory over Alaric in 507, and Charlemagne bore it at Narbonne. This was supposed to be the original cloak which St. Martin, while stationed at Amiens, divided with a beggar; the following night he had a vision of Christ making known to his angels this act of charity (see also 743). Marseilles had a white ensign of its own, with a white cross on a blue square in the first quarter (1160). The Zealand colors (1152) are, naturally, those of Holland. On the white bar is the distinctive feature, the red lion of the Zealand (Zeeland) coat-of-arms. In the same manner the flag of Middleburgh (1156), the capital of Zeeland, had the colors of Holland, with its own gold tower in the white band. The Hanseatic League, the famous federa- tion of North German towns which controlled the commerce of northern Europe during the Middle ages, had for its colors red and white, two of the three colors which survive in the flag of modern Germany (996). The chief city of the federation was Lubeck (1153). Ham- burg, also an important city of the league, bore a red flag with a white tower (1154), while Bremen’s emblem (1166) was a red and white chess-board. Rostock, not content with the league’s red and white, added blue (1167), thereby giving her citizens the same occasion as the Russians for complaining that they ap- peared like “Dutchmen in distress” (see note on the flag of the Tsar of Moscovy—1142). Dantzick (Dantzic) employed the league’s red, but placed upon that field three gold crowns, arranged vertically (1165). The Munich flag (1164) had an unfortunate color combination, the yellow frequently fad- ing out, leaving the banner a French white (1149). Lunenburgh (Luneburg) was one of the most important towns of the Hanseatic League. Its flag (1174) included the red field common to Hamburg and Dantzic, but with a winged Pegasus in gold as the distinctive feature. The flag of Heyligeland (Heligoland) (1155) is of especial interest at this time on account of the tremendously important role which the scraps of land (it was one island up to 1720, when a violent eruption of the sea severed a neck of sand and made two islets of it) are playing in the present war as an impregnable naval and submarine base for Germany. Heli- goland was a fief of the dukes of Schleswig- Holstein i in 1705, but the free city of Hamburg frequently held it in pawn for loans advanced to the dukes. In 1807 England obtained it from Denmark, and 27 years ago made the great mistake of ceding it to Germany. The Swedish man-of-war ensign (1162) and Swedish merchant flag (1163) 200 years ago were virtually the same as today (826 and 827), with the exception that the blue in the modern standards is of a much lighter shade. The Genoa ensign (1168) is identical with the St. George’s jack (1127). THE MALTESE CROSS Few flags of history can rival in romantic interest the red banner with its eight-pointed white cross (1169), emblem of the island of Malta. The eight points of this famous Mal- tese cross are supposed to represent the eight Beatitudes. In their monasteries the Knights of Malta wore black habits with Maltese crosses over their hearts. In war their coat- of-arms was crimson with the white Maltese cross, like the flag. The flag of Jerusalem (1170) at the begin- ning of the eighteenth century contained the same five crosses which the Franciscan monk pictured in 1350 (see 1067), save that the cen- tral cross at the later period quartered the flag, and the “Croisettes,”’ as they are called in French, occupied the four quarters. Tuhen (Thuin, Belgium) was one of several cities of the low countries whose device at the beginning of the eighteenth century was a white swan (1171). The Danish man-of-war (1172) and mer- chant flags (1173) are the oldest national em- blems now in use, their history dating back to the year 1219, when Waldemar is supposed to have seen a cross in the sky while leading his troops against the Liv onian pagans. The flag is known as the Dannebrog (Strength of Den- mark). On the time-stained walls of the medi- eval church on the island of Heligoland there is still to be seen a painted Dannebrog. The city and district of Surat, the green flag of whose Grand Mogul (1175) was distin- guished by two gold scimitars, was the site of the first factory (trading post) established by England in India, a seed which has developed into a great Eastern Empire. Bengal’ s Grand Mogul bore a white flag with a red scimitar (1176) two centuries ago. It was at this time that the Fast India Company purchased from the great grandson of Shah Jahan (builder of the Taj Mahal) the group of Bengal villages which grew into the city of Calcutta. Now an unimportant fishers’ town, Enchysen (Enkhuizen) once well deserved the right to have a flag of its own (1177). Long ago it harbored the fleets of Charles V and Philip II of Spain, when their word was law in all the low countries. Its banner preserved the yellow and red of Aragon. The flag of Legorne (Leghorn) (1178) con- tains the five red roundels (little circles) pe- culiar to the arms of the Great Duke of Tus- cany, who derived a large share of his reve- nues from this seaport. The winged lion of St. Mark (1179) is as familiar to students of flags as the eagles of the Roman Empire and the dragon of St. George in British heraldry. It is placed on the Venetian red flag (1141) in honor of the patron saint of the republic. St. Mark, while on a missionary journey to Italy, according to a very ancient legend, was stranded on the Rialto when it was still an uninhabited island. Here the future greatness of Venice was re- vealed to him in a vision. The lion was the commonly accepted symbol of the saint in all early Christian art. The Pope’s colours (1180) include the red field (red being the color of the livery of the Holy Father also) with the white cross of Cal- vary and the white lamb, the significance of which are apparent. THE BANNER OF SAVOY The white cross on the red field, device of the House of Savoy (1181), has played an im- portant role in the history of Europe. Beau- mont gives this account of its adoption by the dukes of Savoy: “This coat was given to _ Amadeus the Great by the Knights of Rhodes in 1315, with these letters in lieu of a motto, ‘FL E. R. T’—that is, ‘Fortitude Ejus Rhodum Tenuit’ (His valor has saved Rhodes). The occasion was that Amadeus V, surnamed the Great, forced Mahomet II, Emperor of the Turks, to raise his siege at that time from before the city of Rhodes. The said cross is the cross of St. John of Jerusalem, whose knights at that time were owners of Rhodes.” The Portugal man-of-war (1182) and mer- chant flags (1183 and 1184) bore the samé dis- tinguishing features—five shields with the five circles representing the five wounds of Christ, the castles surrounding the inner shields and the armillary sphere, reminiscent of that na- tion’s maritime prowess in the sixteenth cen- tury, 200 years ago, as they do now (see mod- ern flags 791, 792, and 793). The broad, deeply notched border, differing in color from the field of the flag, is one of the peculiar characteristics of many Chinese banners (see 1185 and 1186). Tunquin (Tong- king or Tonquin) was a place of great interest to geographers 200 years ago. It was de- scribed as containing 20,000 cities and towns, “and many more there would be, but that many of the people choose to live on the water than on the land; so that the greatest part of their rivers are covered with boats which serve them instead of houses.” Silks, according to the eighteenth century report, were worn in Ton- quin by rich and poor alike. Anchonia’s (Ancona) red and white stripes (1187) indicate its reliance upon the Pope. The province, with its capital of the same name boasting the finest harbor on the south- west coast of the Adriatic, was a semi-inde- pendent republic during the Middle Ages. Camphen (Kampen) was one of the impor- tant members of the Hanseatic League. Its ensign (1188) was the simple red field seen in the Hamburg, Luneburg, and Dantzic flags, but without any coat-of-arms or symbol such as distinguished the devices of its sister cities. Today Kampen is a thriving little town in Hol- land, with a population of about 20,000. Its days of glory were in the fifteenth century. {ts red field charged with a golden crescent, the flag of Tunis (1189) was for centuries one of the most important banners of the Moham- medan world. ‘Tunis rose in importance as Carthage declined. It is still the largest city in North Africa, outside of Egypt. Tt began to blossom following the Arab conquest, and became the chief port for pilgrims from Spain on their way to the sacred city of Kairowan. Between 1350 and 1705 the flag of Tripoly (Tripoli) underwent a complete change. At the beginning of the eighteenth century its banner of white and green bands (1190) was floating over the marine nest of the notorious Tripolitan pirates, the scourge and terror of the Mediterranean. A century later America was to fight its first foreign war against these sea robbers. Algier (Algiers) (1191 and 1192) was also a haunt of Barbary pirates during the six- teenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. _ The outlaws of this port were not suppressed completely until 1830, when on the 4th of July of that year a French army under General de Bourmont effected the city’s capture. In the very year that Columbus discovered America a band of Andalusian Moors built the walls of the town of Tituan (Tetuan) (1193), the only open port of Morocco on the Medi- terranean Sea. Sallee (Salli), whose red flag (1194) is almost identical with that of Tetuan, was once the haunt of the Salli Rovers. It also had another flag of unique design (1195). The flag of Moco Araba (Mocha, Arabia) (1196) was of great importance two centuries ago, for at that time Mocha was one of the greatest coffee ports of the world. The Christian crosses which adorned Con- stantinople’s flags (1107 and 1108) at the time of the visit of the Franciscan friar in 1350 were long since replaced by the crescent of the Mohammedan Turk, as shown in the flag of 1705 (1197). 403 THE CORRECT DISPLAY OF THE SiVaks AND STRIPES HILE there is no federal law in force pertaining to the man- | ner of displaying, hanging, or saluting the United States flag, or pre- scribing any ceremonies that should be observed, there are many regulations and usages of national force bearing on the subject. In raising the flag it should never be rolled up and hoisted to the top of the staff before unfurling. Instead, the fly should be free during the act of hoist- ing, which should be done quickly. It should be taken in slowly and with dig- nity. It should not be allowed to touch the ground on shore, or the deck of a ship, nor should it be permitted to trail in the water or in the dust. It should not be hung where it can be contami- nated or soiled easily, or draped over chairs or benches for seating purposes, and no object or emblem of any kind should be placed upon it or above it. A. common but regrettable practice at public meetings is to drape the flag like a tablecloth over the speaker’s table and then to place on the flag a pitcher of ice water, flowers, books, etc. Another equally careless practice, and, unfortu- nately, quite common, is to tie small United States flags to the bottom of a stage curtain; when the curtain is raised the flags are lifted aloft and are effect- ively displayed, but when the curtain is lowered, so that the stage scenes may be shifted, the flags trail in the dust of the stage floor. The flag should not be festooned over doorways or arches. Always let the flag hang straight. Do not tie it in a bow knot. Where colors are desired for dec- orative purposes, use red, white, and blue bunting. The flag should not be hoisted upside down, other than as a signal of distress at sea, when it may, if necessary to ac- centuate the distress and make it easily recognized at a distance, be knotted in the middle of its length, forming what is called a “weft.” International usage forbids the display of the flag of one nation above that of any other with which it is at peace. Such an act 1s considered an insult in times of peace, and is always followed by a de- mand for an explanation and apology. When the flags of two or more nations are displayed, they should be on separate staffs, or on separate halyards of equal size and on the same level. The flag should never be raised or low- ered by any mechanical appliance. When the national colors are passing on parade, or in review, the spectator should, if walking, halt, and if sitting, arise and stand at attention and uncover. When flags are used in unveiling a statue or monument they should not be allowed to fall to the ground, but should be carried aloft to wave out, forming a distinctive feature during the remainder of the ceremony. Where the national flag is displayed with State or other flags, it should be given the place of honor on the right. Its use should be confined as much as possible to its display upon the staff. Where used as a banner, the union should fly to the north in streets running east and west, and to the east in streets running north and south. Old, faded, or worn-out flags should not be used for banners or other second- ary purposes. When no longer fit for display, the flag should be destroyed privately, preferably by burning or other methods lacking the suggestion of irreverence or disrespect. Over only three buildings in America does the national flag fly officially night and day continuously—over the east and west fronts of the National Capitol and over the adjacent House of Repre- sentatives and Senate Office Buildings. The two emblems over the Capitol (storm-flag size) are replaced every six weeks, the wear and tear, due to wind and rain, being excessive. Over the Senate and House of Repre- sentative wings of the Capitol the flags 404 *ritin’”’ with flags. Photograph by U. S. Navy Department SENDING AND RECEIVING SEMAPHORE MESSAGES ON THE SIGNAL BRIDGE Bluejackets are never graduated in the “two R’s” of warship education—“readin’ and The radio and the wireless telephone have accomplished marvels in facili- tating communication between the units of a fleet, but the semaphore and the wigwag flag still have their place in the service. fly only while those bodies are in session and during a recess. At adjournment, either at the end of a day’s work or for a session, they are lowered. When the Stars and Stripes float from the flagstaff of the White House, from sunrise to sunset, it is indicative of the presence in Washington of the President. An act of Congress passed in 1905 provides that a trade-mark cannot be reg- istered which consists of or comprises “the flag, the coat-of-arms, or other in- signia of the United States, or any simu- lation thereof.” An act passed in 1917 provides penalties for the desecration, mutilation, or improper use of the flag within the District of Columbia. The Department of Justice has held that any alien enemy tearing down, mutilating, abusing, or desecrating the United States flag will be regarded as a danger to the public peace or safety within the mean- ing of the President’s proclamation of April 6, 1917, and will be subject to sum- mary arrest and punishment. At every military post or station it is the practice in the army, each day in the year, to hoist the flag briskly at sun- rise, irrespective of the ‘condition of the weather, and to lower it slowly and cere- moniously at sunset, indicating the com- mencement and cessation of the activities of the day. While the flag is being low- ered the band plays the national anthem, which for the army and navy is the “Star Spangled Banner.” If there is no band present the field music sounds “To the colors.” Officers and enlisted men out of rank face toward the flag, stand at atten- tion, and salute. (For a description of army flags see page 307 and onward.) A military force 1 is said to be accorded “the honors of war” when, after a spe- cially honorable defense, it has surren- dered its post, and is permitted by the terms of capitulation to march out with 405 Photograph by Brown Brothers INSURING ACCURACY IN A FACTORY WHERE GOVERNMENT FLAGS ARE MADE The United States Government uses thousands of flags annually, not only the Stars and Stripes and the various flags and pennants of its own army and navy officers and civilian officials, but the flags of other countries as well. foreign flags, for ceremonial purposes. test all buntings. the next in salt water. must be sunlight. strength. colors flying, bands playing, and bayonets fixed. It retains possession of the field artillery, horses, arms, and baggage. The French, Russian, and other governments require that in every case the commander of the place must not surrender until he has destroyed all flags; but this must be done before signing the capitulation. General Stoessel destroyed all Russian flags at Port Arthur. The Hague rules of land warfare for- bid the improper use of the flag of truce, of a national flag, or of the military in- signia and uniform of the enemy, as well as the distinctive badges of the Geneva Convention. In practice it has been au- thorized to make use of the enemy’s flag and uniform as a ruse, but not during a combat. Before opening fire these must be discarded. Whether the enemy’s flag can be displayed and his uniform worn 406 Every warship of our navy carries 43 The flag-maker in a government ensign factory must Sample lots are soaked and washed with soap in fresh water one day and They are then exposed to weather for ten days The colors must not fade or The flag shown above is the Portugal ensign (791). , 30 hours of which “run.” The material is also tested for its to effect an advance or to withdraw is not settled. NAVY CEREMONIES OF RAISING AND LOWERING THE COLORS Shore stations under the jurisdiction of the Navy Department display the na- tional ensign from eight o’clock in the morning to sunset. The same is true of ships at anchor. Ships coming to anchor or getting under way before or after the regular hours hoist their colors if there be sufficient light for them to be seen. Unless there are good reasons to the con- trary, ships display their colors when fall- ing in with other men-of-war or when near land, particularly when passing or approaching forts, lighthouses, or towns. The ceremonies aboard a ship in com- mission when the ensign is raised and lowered are most impressive. At morn- Photograph by Brown. Brothers CUTTING FLAG STARS BY MACHINERY Five-pointed stars are used exclusively on our national flags today, but in the early days of the Republic the six-pointed star frequently appeared. Until 1842 the stars of the Great Seal of the United States were six-pointed, and they are still to be found on the “Liberty” side of many of our silver coins. ing “colors,” the band plays the national anthem, at the beginning of which the ensign is started up and hoisted smartly to the peak. All officers then face the ensign and salute, and the guard of the day and the sentries come to present. If there be no band, the field music sounds “to the colors.” If the ship happens to be in a foreign port the national anthem of that country is played following the raising of the ensign. ‘Then follow the national anthems of the ships of war present, in the order of rank. At sunset “colors” the ensign is started 407 from the peak at the beginning of the national anthem and is lowered slowly and with dignity. All officers and en- listed men face toward the colors. If in uniform, covered or uncovered, or in civilian clothes, uncovered, they salute at the first note of the anthem, retaining the position of salute until the last note of the anthem. If not in uniform and coy- ered, they uncover at the first note of the anthem, holding the headdress -oppo- site the left shoulder, and remain in that position until the last note of the anthem, except in inclement weather, when the THR LIVING EMBLEM OF OUR Photograph by Paul Thompson NATIONAL UNION On many occasions and in many places throughout the United States the effective climax of a civic pageant is the formation of a mammoth living flag by school children wearing the red, white. and blue. children of Salt Lake City. headdress may be slightly raised. The same marks of respect are shown to the national anthems of other countries. At “colors,” pulling boats passing near a man-of-war, of any nationality, lie on their oars, and steamers stop their en- gines, the coxswains saluting and mem- bers of the crew outside the canopy stand- ing facing the colors and saluting. THE USAGES IN FLAG SALUTES On board ships of the navy it is cus- tomary for officers and men whenever 408 oO The great emblem of liberty shown above was formed by the school reaching the quarter-deck, from aboard boat, from a gangway, or from the shore, to salute the national ensign. They stop at the top of the gangway, or upon arriv- ing at the quarter-deck, face the colors and salute. On leaving the quarter-deck the same salute is given. This is distinct from the salute to the officer of the deck. When warships enter a port where there is a fort or battery displaying the national flag, or a commissioned ship of war, they display at the main the flag of the country in whose waters they are, Photograph by Paul Thompson SCHOOL CHILDREN OF NEW YORK OBSERVING AMERICANIZATION DAY IN CITY HALL PARK In this wonderful assemblage, truly representative of patriotic Young America, there are, perhaps, children whose forebears have come to our shores from all of the nations of the earth; and it is these children of alien races who are uniting and cementing a heterogeneous people into an indivisible and invincible force which, under the Stars and Stripes, is today battling for the liberty of the world. and salute it with a national salute of twenty-one guns. The ships of the United States Navy do not salute forts and cities of the United States, and do not fire salutes in honor of any nation, or of any official of any nation, not form- ally recognized by this country. It is customary to fire salutes only between 8 a. m. and sunset. ° They are never fired between sunset and sunrise. During the present war salutes have been dispensed with as between allied countries. The United States today requires that no ship of the navy shall lower her sails or dip her ensign unless in return for such compliment. A dip is made by quickly lowering the ensign and without pause quickly returning it to the peak. A flag or an ensign at half-mast is the universal sign of mourning. Before be- 409 YIOK MON JOOYDS YsStE{ SUIAIT UOJSuTYyse AA Poyeoipep AJ[MOU OY} DAOGR popINjuN suyoq o1e sodisjg pue sivjg oy} se uOTLINTes UL pozydN soo1oA a]qo1} FO snsaoyD Surplsy} ve pue pasieidn spuvy Jo vos y QT NVOIMANV AHL ONILOIVS NAYATIIMD ‘IOOHDS NVOINANV uosdwoyy, [neg Aq ydeisoj0yg AN (Cc1€ as8vd 90s Svy ano fo suorjso0dosd 4991109 10,J) “Joog QE Aq Qz st UOIUN dy} JO Pjoy sy, “y1vdv soyout 6 yooy b pooryd ore puv JOJOWIVIP UL PALA JUO DIV SAv}S OT, *9ZIS UL JooF FO A OF St puv spunod oOO2 SYsIOM UOTZVAISH][I VAOCKL oy} UL BLY oly, ‘UsISuo VuoVU AIDAD AOF poaMbos Swlg]qua 99VIG YP oy} JO O} SOUTYOVUT UDALIP-1OJOLU OSH MOU salloyovy SLY oy} ‘spuLap SHOUIIOUID JUDIE DY} JO dovy oy} UL nq ‘JoypV puv orp FO spoo} oAtyuAd oy} poAo[dua JdYeUI-IV}s V APOIO “SdLIJUNOD Usla1of¥ JO ssvy 1OF puvuwlap oy} pouayomb sJoyyany SLY SOI]Y oUoJUY OY} FO SUOTSSIL SNOLIVA dy} FO BLOW Ul [BATIIe sy], ‘PJOM oy} WorZ ADVIDOJN YsIueq 0} JapsIO UL sodJOF PouTOl sey soyeyS pou) oy} YSIYA YIM suonVU uvodoinsy oy} []e FO ssvy oy} yng ‘siouueg poysurdg 41v}g ATUO Jou—ssey JOF puvluap [euswoUsYyd B YONS Udeq doy} svy ArqUNOD sty} JO AIOJSIY OY} UL BIOJOg JOAN “SULINJLJNULU Sey St VIOWY [LII|sNpUL Fo ,Sopliq JeM,, ouINUDS dy} JO suo ATqvuOTsonDuy) ULUSA IV MAN WISIHONVIN LV SYHMYOM-TIIN AT dA ACV GNV NXAOM OV'TA [[VYsrepy “VW UeprepyT wor ydessojoyg g KK KK * x * * ¥ * % KK KK HK + x Ix « 4iI ‘QOUBISIP OY} UL UIIS 9q US [][B O} AVTIUIeZ Os AjJOqI’T JO sWIOG OYJ, “ACAA [IAID 9Y} JO osoOd oY} JOqye sIedk AY “J ‘qd ‘uosuryseA ur pray ‘OTqnday sy} Fo Aur SUIMAT NH SIIIey © ’ TV puevir) oy} fo uoluno I ol | } i (fo) NOINO WH MOA LI ulinp ‘ory O ‘UoyuRy FO SuetajaA Aq anUDAY vIURA;ASUUDg dn pattivs seM adUURG JRoIs SIY L, HAMHSAAd OL LHONOT OHM NAW Ad ANYOT OVI ILOWWVN 412 INSIGNIA OF UNIFORMED FORCES OF UNITED STATES ing placed at half-mast the flag must al- ways be raised to the top of the staff, and before it is lowered from half-mast it must likewise be hoisted to the top. WHEN A FLEET FARES FORTH TO BATTLE At the command “Clear the ship for ac- tion,’ the battle ensigns are mastheaded and final preparations are made for bat- tle, and under no circumstances is an ac- tion to be commenced or a battle fought without the display of the national en- sign. When an enemy’s ship strikes her colors in battle, the commanding officer of the man-of-war to whom she struck 413 is required to continue the action with other ships of the enemy, but takes pos- session of the surrendered ship as soon as possible. Striking the flag is an indication of surrender. The articles for the govern- ment of the Navy of the United States require the punishment by death, or such other penalties as a court- martial may adjudge, of any person in the naval serv- ice who strikes, or attempts to strike, the flag to an enemy or rebel without proper authority, or when engaged in battle treacherously yields or pusillanimously cries for quarter. THE INSIGNIA OF THE UNIFORMED FORCES OF Tak UNITED Presented in the six succeeding pages are the insignia of the various branches of the United States Army and Navy and of the organizations cooperating with them. By means of these il- lustrations one may identify the rank and arm of the service of the wearer of practically any American uniform seen during the period of the war—information which is of especial value at this time, when the young men of America are flocking to the colors and donning the uni- form of our country to help in the titanic strug- gle to make the “World Safe for Democracy.” By direction of the Secretaries of War and Navy, officers and men wear only the service uniform for the duration of the war, dispensing with the handsome dress uniforms which give color to elaborate peace-time social functions in all the capitals of the world. Brass buttons have generally been discarded, and in their place in the Army and Marine Corps the more subdued color of bronze is in keeping with the somber olive drab of the field uniforms, reduc- ing the visibility of the forces to a minimum. In the comparatively short time we have been at war several important changes have been made and new branches and officers created. Generals Pershing and Bliss have been raised to the rank of full general—a grade vacant since the Civil War; and while no Admiral of the Navy has been appointed to succeed the late Admiral Dewey, Admirals Benson, Mayo, Caperton, and Knight have been made full ad- mirals, and Admirals Sims and Coffman Vice- Admirals—grades recently revived by act of Congress in order that our officers may rank with the men of the Allied Forces with whom they are cooperating. The U. S. Marine Corps, “the soldiers of the sea,” operate, as usual, under the general direc- tion of the Secretary of the Navy. The pri- vates of this fighting force wear caps as a part of their field uniform while on board ship. On land they follow the style set by the army and wear the field service hat, with the difference, however, that they wear no colored cord, but STATES have their metal corps device fastened to the crown. At the front they, as well as the men of the army, are wearing the shrapnel helmet. During times of peace the U. S. Coast Guard, acting under the Treasury Department, polices the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards, and its cut- ters are the foes of smugglers and other law- breakers. It also performs life-saving service on these shores, enforces the sealing laws in northern waters, and patrols the sea lanes of commerce for icebergs and derelicts. In time of war the Coast Guard automatically becomes a branch of the navy. The U. S. Public Health Service is an es- pecially important organization in war times, and its men in uniform are performing a valu- able service in safeguarding the health of sol- diers at home by creating the best sanitary con- ditions in the territory surrounding the great encampments. Many patriotic societies are cooperating with the military forces to lessen the soldier’s hard- ships, and chief among these is the American Red Cross, which is facing an enormous task in caring for the sick and wounded, besides fur- nishing + numerous comforts for the men in the field. This great organization is vastly in- creased in personnel, and a field uniform, with appropriate insignia, has been recently adopted for its officials abroad, the essentials of which are shown on page 410. With the forces in the field, both in this country and abroad, are hundreds of men who are dispensing the hospitality of the Y. M. C. A. and the Knights of Columbus, and are looking out for the “welfare of the soldiers in every manner their ingenuity. can devise. These men are distinguished by insignia worn on semi- military uniforms (see page 410). Nore.—The Italian airplane insignia, painted on wings of machines, are like the French, No. 240, on page 319, except that the centers are green, 414 INFANTRY. . . CAVALRY .. . “ ARTILLERY . . MEDICAL... . GENERAL OFFICERS. «36,5 5 = ALL OTHER OFFICERS __ ._ ~~ RESERVE OFFICERS TRAINING CAMP ,. RED, WHITE AND BLUE CORD . LIGHT BLUE CORD . YELLOW CORD . SCARLET CORD . MAROON AND WHITE CORD THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SERVICE CAP All Commissioned Officers ; SERVICE HAT ___ Worn by Officers in field and all Enlisted Men. » » GOLD CORD ~ »» GOLD AND BLACK CORD CAP DEVICE _ ENLISTED MEN ALL COMMISSIONED OFFICERS ENGINEERS .-s 4 . SCARLET AND WHITE CORD ORDNANCE. «. BLACK AND SCARLET CORD SIGNAL CORPS . « ORANGE AND WHITE CORD FIELD CLERKS . . BLACK AND SILVER CORD QUARTERMASTER CORPS. BUFF CORD GENERAL GENERAL LIEUT. MAJOR BRIG. COLONEL LIEUT. MAJOR CAPTAIN FIRST SECOND (OLD) (NEW) GENERAL GENERAL — GENERAL COT ONE (GOLD) LIEUT LIEUT INSIGNIA OF RANK ON SHOULDER LOOPS COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE U. S. ARMY (A) REGULARS (B) RESERVES | (D) NATIONAL GUARD INSPECTOR GEN'L’S DEPT. GEN'L'S DEPT. y MEDICAL DEPT. = DENTAL CORPS SANITARY CORPS VETERINARY CORPS Y AMBULANCE CORPS @& NURSES CORPS COLLAR DEVICES COMMISSIONED OFFICERS A.B, C or D is worn in conjunction with the appropriate corps device The U.S, is worn on each side of collar and the corps device back of it (A) NATIONAL (B) NATIONAL ARMY GUARD PORT RICO PHILIPPINE REG'T SCOUTS Note: A, B or C is worn on right side of collar On left side is button denoting arm of service GENERAL STAFF JUDGE ADVOCATE Le ORDNANCE CR: CORPS & & (C) NATIONAL ARMY ENGINEER- AIDE TO GEN'L S Number of Stars CORPS Indicates Rank SIGNAL CORPS ADJUTANT GEN'L’S DEPT. QUARTERMASTER'S DEPT. FIELD ARTILLERY COAST ARTILLERY OVERCOAT SLEEVES GENERALS HAVE STARS OF RANK PHILIPPINE COLONEL . . FIVE STRIPS OF BRAID SCOUTS BO EISS LT. COLONEL. . . FOUR“ “os Ss MAJOR EG maces THREE “ CHAPLAIN CAPTAIN Seah WO mo: FIRST LIEUT.. . . ONE STRIP MACHINE GUN BATTALION COLLAR DEVICES COMMISSIONED OFFICERS (See note on opposite side of page) WEST POINT INTERPRETERS SLEEVE INSIGNIA RESERVE TRAINING CAMPS (C) REGULAR ARMY SERVICE SCHOOL CAVALRY ian" ; DISCIPLINARY RECRUITING INTERPRETER INTELLIGENCE BARRACKS SERVICE iz (GUARD) BATTALION POLICE = COLLAR INSIGNIA ENLISTED MEN,U. S. ARMY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4 REGIMENTAL _ BATTALION REGIMENTAL FIRST SERCEANT COLOR SERGEANT SIGNAL CORPS SERGEANT MAJOR SERGEANT MAJOR SUPPLY. SERGEANT SERGEANT FIRST CLASS MASTER ENGINEER QUARTERMASTER MASTER ELECTRICIAN 2 | SENIOR GRADE SERGEANT ORDNANCE SERGEANT SERGEANT CORPORAL SENIOR GRADE : P Gj GUN COMMANDER OBSERVER FIRST CLASS MASTER GUNNER MASTER ENGINEER CHIEF MECHANIC COAST ARTILLERY COAST ARTILLERY HOSPITAL SERGEANT COAST ARTILLERY FIELD_ARTILLERY CHIEF PLANTER COOK SADDLER HORSESHOER BADGE for EXCELLENCE COAST ARTILLERY EC ONER ne) IN TARGET PRACTICE CHEVRONS AND SLEEVE INSIGNIA OF NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND ENLISTED MEN,U. S. ARMY Conforming in color to arm of service (See hat cord colors opposite page) ~ OBSERVER MILITARY AVIATOR Junior Military Aviator and Reserve Military Aviator without Star ENLISTED MEN ENLISTED AVIATOR NLISTED MECHANICIAN INSIGNIA OF AVIATION SECTION, SIGNAL CORPS, U. S. ARMY Note: Military Aviators and Observers wear U. S. and crossed flags of Signal Corps on collar, and Enlisted Men regular Signal Corps buttons on collar The Insignia of Military Aviators and Observers are embroidered in silver thread with gold U.S. and worn on left breast, Enlisted Men on sleeve 13 416 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SERVICE UNIFORM CAP ALL COMMISSIONED OFFICERS Gold Braid Design on Visor as shown for Flag Officers Gold Braid Design similar for Cent's and Com'and'rs Staff Officers with raak of Rear Admural or Captaias have strip of plain Gold Braid Lt Commanders, Lieutenants and Ensigns have no Gold Braid on Visor MEDAL OF HONOR © CAP DEVICE ALL COMMISSIONED OFFICERS SHOULDER COLLAR (Blue Service Coats) SLEEVE (Blue Service Coats) (Overcoats and White Service Coats) ADMIRAL ADMIRAL OF THE NAVY OF THE NAVY ADMIRAL VICE ADMIRAL REAR ADMIRAL COMMANDER = & CIEUT. COMMANDER LIEUT. COMMANDE LIEUTENANT LIEUTENANT unior Grade) ENSIGN ENSIGN ENSIGN COLLAR, SLEEVE AND SHOULDER INSIGNIA OF COMMISSIONED LINE OFFICERS OF THE U. S. NAVY SLEEVE SLEEVE SHOULDER In other respects like regular FIRST c SECOND CLASS service except Staff Officers corps colors are broken in) MIDSHIPMEN aiddle. CAP DEVICE NAVAL AVIATORS GOLD BAR PIN WORN ON LEFT BREAST Naval Aviators wear uniform resembling Marine Corps field ser? vice but with regulation cap and shoulder marke on service coat MEDICAL OFFICERS Maroon Velvet Between Stripes ~ PAY OFFICERS White Cloth Between Stripes PROFESSORS OF MATHEMATICS Olive Green Cloth Between Stripes NAVAL CONSTRUCTORS Dark Violet Cloth Between Stripes CIVIL ENGINEERS "Light Blue Velvet Between Stripes DENTAL OFFICERS Orange Velvet Between Stripes CHAPLAINS STAFF OFFICERS’ CORPS DEVICES Note: The anchor and the star indicate Line Officers In the collar insignia Staff Off- cers substitute for the anchor the device of the corps to which they belong Onthe shoulder marks and sleeves the appropriate corps color fills the spaces between the stripes and the star is omitted, NAVAL RESERVE FORCE Worn on collar in lieu of corps’ device. In other respects same, as regular service THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A17 WARRANT OFFICERS CAP CAP DEVICE—WARRANT OFFICERS CAP DEVICE—PETTY OFFICERS PETTY OFFICER'S CAP UNITED STATES NAVY U.S. NAVAL RESERVE FORCE NAVAL MILITIA CHIEF SAILMAKER CHIEF PHARMACIST : CHIEF PAY CLERK MATE SHOULDER MARKS—CHIEF WARRANT OFFICERS, U. S. NAVY (For Warrant Officers Omit Stripe) CHIEF BOATSWAIN CHIEF CARPENTER BOATSWAIN GUNNER CARPENTER SAILMAKER CHIEF GUNNER CHI 4 MACHINIST MATE c CHIEF MACHINIST CHIEF PHARMACIST PTUARM SCI i eer ag CLERK INSIGNIA OF RANK ON SLEEVES OF WARRANT OFFICERS, U. S. NAVY BOATSWAIN CARPENTER SAILMAKER GUNNER MACHINIST PHARMACIST PAY CLERK MATE 20 Years Service—Silver Chief Boatswain, Gunner and Machinist—Silver Device, Gold Star Less than 20 Years’ Service—Gold Boatewain. Gunwer end Machinist_-Gold Device, Silver Star. COLLAR DEVICES OF WARRANT OFFICERS,U. S. NAVY ciuet Carpenter. Sailmaker, Pharmacist and Pay chek Sie Carpenter, Sailmaker, Pharmacist and Pay Clerk—Gold TURRET CAPTAIN COMMISSARY BLACKSMITH MASTER-AT-ARMS BOATSWAIN’S "MATE GUNNER'S MATE SUARTERMAS IES MACHINIST'S MATE ELECTRICIAN STEWARD CARPENTER’S SAILMAKER’S MUSICIAN YEOMAN PRINTER PHARMACIST'S MATE STOREKEEPER GUN CAPTAIN MATE RED CLOTH a8 Worn Above ae : Pointer Indicates Ist Class : BUGLER moe 2. : EXPERT SEAMAN GUNNER RADIO OPERATOR SHIP’S COOKS RIFLEMAN BAKER GUN POINTER TORPEDOMAN NAVY oe DISTINGUISHING MARKS ON SLEEVES OF PETTY OFFICERS U.S.NAVY alesdliene Those Marked X Also Worn by Enlisted Men Not Petty Officers QUARTERMASTER MACHINIST'S MATE DISTINGUISHING MARKS PETTY OFFICERS OF AVIATION SERVICE CHIEF BOATSWAIN GUNNER QUARTERMASTER MASTER-AT-ARMS FIRST CLASS SECOND CLASS THIRD CLASS { RATING BADGES, PETTY OFFICERS U. S. NAVY Used with Appropriate Distinguishing Marks Shown Above DISTINGUISHING MARK, ENLISTED MEN, NAVAL MILITIA A418 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ADJUTANT AND. PAYMASTER'S QUARTERMASTER'S INSPECTOR’S DEPT, DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT MARINE.GONNER OF U S.MAR Cc A Seana ee ie ee aie COLLAR ORNAMENTS STAFF AND WARRANT OFFICERS FIELD SERVICE. HAT FIELD SERVICE CAP : : Worn on Shore with Field Service Uniform Officers and Enlisted Men U- S- MARINE CORPS DEVICE Staff Officers Wear both Corps and Department Device 3c : ) 5 Ww lilristsienakGspeiand x IEC AINGA econo Cee Whebrcesbed Commissioned Officers Collars Warrant Officers Wear Department Device Only COLONEL LT, COLONEL MAIOR CAPTAIN FIRST LIEUT. SECOND LIEUT ‘WARRANT ores RANK INSIGNIA COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE U.S. MARINE CORPS ON OVERCOAT SLEEVES SECOND LEADER DRUMMER PAYMASTER’S TRUMPETER OF BAND ‘ DEPT (With Three Chevrons) GUN POINTER —_ DRUM MAJOR GUNNERS (Whth Three Chevrons) With Three Chevrons) DISTINCTIVE SLEEVE MARKS ENLISTED MEN OF THE U. S. MARINE CORPS Note: The U.S. Marine Corps follows generally the Insignia of the U S. Army, with the exceptions shown above Shoulder loop insignia is the same as for similar rank in the army, but besides being worn on service coat is also worn on overcoat shoulders. WARRANT OFFICER'S PETTY OFFICER'S CAP DEVICE CADET'S CAP DEVICE U S COAST GUARD SHIELD Cor DEVICE, COMMISSIONED OFFICER'S AP DEVICE piesa Used like Navy Star on Sleeved Spee $ f Lane Officers and superim- i posed on Callavanzhere UNITED STATES COAST GUARD GCOLEAR(Blue!Service/Coats) SLEEVE (Blue Service Coats) SHOULDER (y nie cereceas cae -. < CAPTAIN COMMANDANT CAPTAIN COMMANDANT CAPTAIN COMMANDANT BOATSWAIN Silver Leaf—Senior Captain Ww | eens : : q = qual Stripes—S. Capt Gold Leat~—Coptain Farplsrupees Sealer Cannin | Ga ae % = SENIOR CAPTAIN AND CAPTAIN SENIOR CAPTAIN AND CAPTAIN SENIOR CAPTAIN AND CAPTAIN Two Bars—First Lieutenant Two Stripes—First Lieutenant One Bar—Second Lieutenant One and One-half Stripes—Second No Bar—Third Lieutenant Lieutenant One Stripe—Third Lieutenant | | ates out? Nias LIEUTENANTS One Stripe —Third Lieutenant OFFICERS be ara ae BENE Orr Cer iw — Tv MARINE GUNNER CARPENTER I Brown Velvet Between Stripes (3) aS ob COLLAR DEVICES OF CONSTRUCTORS CONSTRUCTORS Stripes as Shown—Senior Superin- Ries WARRANT OFFICERS Gold Leaf—Semor Supenintendent ae tendent | wo Bars—First Lieutenant Two Equal Stripes— First Lieutenant One Bar—Second Lieutenant One and One-half Stripes—Second U. S. COAST GUARD Lieutenant 4 One Stripe —Third Lieutenant y | DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS Green Cloth Between Stripes DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS Anchor Only—Third Lieutenant COLLAR, SLEEVE AND SHOULDER INSIGNIA OF COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE_UNITED STATES COAST GUARD LIEUTENANTS LIEUTENANTS Silver Leaf—Engineer-in-Chief Gold Leaf—Captain Two Bars—First Lieutenant One Bar—Second Lieutenant No Leaf or Bars—Third Lieutenant No Anchor Leaves in Center—Cadet ENGINEER OFFICERS ENGINE Stripes as Shown—Engineer-in-Chief Half Width Center Stripe— Captain Two Equal Stripea—Firet Lieutenant One and One-half Stripes —Second Lieutenant CONSTRUCTO DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS MASTER-AT-ARMS No 1 SURFMAN ELECTRICIAN ELECTRICIAN YEOMAN WHEELMAN SIGNAL BAYMAN Ist. 2d and 3d Class QUARTERMASTER (Hospital Corps) MACHINIST CARPENTER SAILMAKER BLACKSMITH COXSWAIN WATER TENDER SPECIALTY MARKS PETTY OFFICERS U. S. COAST GUARD (Worn with rating badges similar to those at foot of page 417) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 419 COLLAR WORN ON EACH SIDE COLLAR WORN ON EACH SIDE BACK OF U. S CAP DEVICE _ UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE SURGEON ASST. SURG. SENIOR SURG. eee peek: ASST. SURG. PROFESSOR QUARANTINE CHAPLAIN INTERNE GENERAL GENERAL (SILVER) HYGIENIC LAB. INSPECTOR = "SURGEON (GOLD) INSIGNIA OF RANK ON SHOULDER LOOPS & eee zz = oa A Bone J ST. SURG. SENIO G SURCEON ae Aap G., (Middle stripeihalf width) ASSED A ASSISTANT SURGEON ~ ‘SURGEON (@) PROF. HYG LABORATORY QUARANTINE INSPECTOR PHARMACIST PHARMACIST Gd CLASS) NOTE Cachets of Clerks’ (2d CLASS) SLEEVE MARKS ON OVERCOATS and Pharmacists also PHARMACIST worn on service coat. {Ist CLASS) STATION ENGINEER MARINE. ENGINEER FIRST COOK EMELOYES SUE VIS MARKS (Maroon ell) SURGICAL NURSE ERE AZEIaS & YARDMAN. SPECIALTY MARKS (Maroon Silk) MESSENGER LAUNDRYMAN NIGHT SHIPKEEPER _ BOATSWAIN WATCH UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE ~COXSW AIN SPECIALTY MARKS (Maroon Silk) THE GENEVA CROSS SHOULDER LOOP SLEEVE MARKS 3 MAJORGENERAL.. . .2STARS COLONEL .. . ete BRIGADIER GENERAL 1STAR LT. COLONEL . CAP DEVICE MAJOR AMERICAN RED CROSS 5 Aw rere stir “ « CAPTAIN 362 © FIRST LIEUT. .1 WORN IN AMERICA WORN ABROAD COLLAR SLEEVE SLEEVE INSIGNIA Y. M. C. A. SECRETARIES KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS SECRETARIES Photograph by May L. Smith MAKERS OF THE FLAG Then conquer we must, when our cause. it is just, And this be our motto: “Jn God is our trust.” And the Star Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 420 VoL. XXXII NOVEMBER—DECEMBER, 1917 TOBUE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC | MAGAZINIE TRAINING THE NEW. ARMIES (OF “hI BERD Y Camp Lee, Virginia’s Home tor the National Army By Major GRrAnviLLe Fortescue, U. S.A. ert E. Lee be-watching over the National Army cantonment named in his honor, that spirit must follow the training of the eightieth division with warm pride. Perhaps a certain wistful- ness would be mingled with that pride, for these loose-jointed Virginians tramp over the ground their fathers made. fa- mous in the last battles for the Confed- eracy. The Petersburg crater, where the bones of Northern and Southern soldiers lie buried as they fell, is but a musket- shot distant from the American flag fly- ing today above division headquarters, and grass-green earthworks, built to de- fend the city of Richmond, were leveled to make place for the thousand buildings of Camp Lee. City Point, General Grant’s advanced base in the operations against Richmond and the Army of Virginia, which culmi- nated in that pathetic episode staged in Appomattox Court-house, lies six miles northeast of the cantonment, while Pe- tersburg, where the ill-fated General A. P. Hill maintained headquarters until he was killed, is three miles to the west. S HOULD the spirit of General Rob- BLEEDING WOUNDS OF OUR CIVIL WAR HAPPILY HEALED The significance of naming Camp Lee lies deeper than the simple honoring of a splendid Southern soldier and Christian gentleman. Behind that honor lies the fact of the American nation strongly united. The bleeding wounds of the frat- ricidal conflict of 1861-1865 are healed, leaving not the faintest cicatrix behind. Here, on the ground where that bloody national struggle reached its climax, Vir- ginians proudly wear the uniform of the United States Army and loyally salute the flag that now symbolizes freedom throughout the world. In the struggle which the nation faces, the South vies with the North in giving its all for the cause. Virginians these men are through honorable. tradition, but today, before the proud State title, they place their claim to being Americans. When the benefits that come to the na- tion through the creation of the National Army are ultimately catalogued, the fact that it has welded the country into a homogeneous society, seeking the same national ends and animated by the same national ideals, will overtop all other ad- vantages. The organization of this se- lected army fuses the thousand separate elements making up the United States into one steel-hard mass. Men of the North, South, East, and West meet and mingle and on the anvil of war become citizens worthy of the liberties won by the first American armies. Here in Virginia the last vestiges of sectional divergence disappear, and in ‘AaquNOD oY} FO AIOYSIY OY} Ur Joy[ered JNoyIM JUoWADTIe SUIP[INq & UI poyNsor oAeY YIM suryd poziprepurys dy} poyoojfaod ‘Autre oy} JO sd1og JO|SeUlIoJIeENG) oY} FO UWOISIATC, JUOWIUOJUL) OY} YIM Surjyeriodoos ‘sysipeisods assay], ‘“Stop[iInq pue sjoo}yore ‘sjtadxo asviaMes pure Ajddns-19yeM ‘SIOUUP[G-UMO} JSOWIIOF OY} UOTPRYMNSUOD OJUL paleo JE Alu [RUOT}VN Poywato AJMOU S}I SUISNOY FO YSe} oY} PouiMsse JUSWUIIAOS oy} UdYA\ ({cv Aovd AUS) SHINOW AUHL NV SSHI NI GaHSiTd -WOODV ONIMVINIAGNA NV “SINVIIAVHNI 000‘SV JO ALIO NHIGIOS V OLNI WAVE SOONYdSONd V ONIAHANOD NI SdalS LSuIM WH iss] «SIS PIU oy} yop Avpo} yey} sori Arey yea1S QI oy} jo WOHVAII 91 JO A10}S OY} YUM pareduros UdyM ysoatoJUT UT [IVZ VYSe[Y UL pue JsoAA OY} UT sdured SulurUT yo sy}MoIB WoOOsYSNUI dy} JO so[v} aL» WWI SAVG Mat V INAINWNOLNVO FHL Auvdwoy surjerjsny[y prozyooyy Aq ydessojoyg : : ‘ CEES \ NM ~ ae ~~ os ~~ NS cS BLANCO a eae 423 ‘JUOIF SuUNYSY oy} Sourfd-Ays YIM opeos 0} Wem AQuaTedut OYM sjuspnys Bunod ayy Aq podedsip d1e jSotojJUT pue useIsnyyus Jsousdy OYJ, “SAAS UONeIAe JO} dOIP SuljMII01 & JO Avaz OU SI dIOY YP, “AsQUNOD oY} SuNIOp sysod Sururesy uoeAe snowed ay} ye yo pouiny SUIoq IIB SIOWIAR pal]yG ‘“surssoid d1our sawuiosaq ware pue yuowdmbs ssiow 10J purwop ay} Aep YyoRyy “SIRSUPY MOU UO SULYAOM stoyuodre) AVG AMAA WIOAMVT MOND S'IOOHOS ONINIVYL NOLLVIAV SoINANNUAAOD AHL, al PpooMs1spuy ¥ poomispugq © 424 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE those camps, where the hedge-podge of European immigration assembles, Pole, Galician, Greek, and Sicilian are woven into the woof of the nation. But before analyzing in detail the na- tional transmutation brought about by the call to arms, let us consider how the War Department, for the whole of this gigantic work has fallen upon that exec- utive branch of the government, met the physical problem involved. The tales of the mushroom growths of mining cities in the West and in Alaska fail in interest when compared with the story of the creation of the 16 great mili- tary cities that today dot the United States. National life is turned from its channels. Whole populations gather, move, and gather again in new centers to begin life that to them is as new as would be the conditions of the mining camp to the tenderfoot. HOW THE BUILDING OF 16 SOLDIER CITIES BEGAN But in the cities of the National Army cantonments no detail was left to hazard. The garish, irregular outline of the bo- nanza camp, that symbolized its equally loose and careless organization, finds no duplicate where our citizen soldiers train. Everything is regular and in order here, and the first view of one of these camps must impress the selected soldier with the system that created them, the system combining the fundamental element of military life—order through efficiency. To understand something of the sys- tem employed in the construction of the National Army cantonments, it is neces- sary to go back to the very beginning of the plan of creating the soldier cities. That plan was the outcome of the pool- ing of ideas by the best town-planners, water-supply experts, sewerage experts, architects and builders summoned from the length and breadth of the United States to meet and consult together at Washington. When these gentlemen ar- rived in Washington they found a quar- termaster colonel and three assistants struggling with the colossal task of cre- ating 16 cities, each of 45,000 population. These officers had taken over the work in the line of duty, and were pushing bravely forward with the outlines of an organi- form to one model. 425 (2) zation far beyond the scale of the Steel Corporation. STANDARDIZATION HASTENS CANTONMENT CONSTRUCTION The civilian experts volunteered their help, and out of their joint deliberations the plan and specifications of the stand- ardized division cantonment were evolved. In order that the work might proceed with regularity and speed, every detail of construction from the elevation and in- terior of division headquarters to the specifications for train stables and sheds was fixed to standard. Walls, windows, doors, even locks and hinges, must con- It was decided to provide for every detail of barrack-build- ing, road-building, sewerage construction, pipe-laying, and street-planning with the greatest care in one model cantonment, and then to let that carefully considered scheme hold for the building of all 16 camps. The ground, or the terrain, as it is called in military phraseology, would in some cases necessitate variation in the outline of the streets of the camps; but the standardized shape was to be similar to the letter “U,” division headquarters to be situated at the bend of the letter and the soldiers’ houses to spread regu- iarly through the branches (see page 437). It is seen at once that this plan gives a highly centralized city location. Although the measured outline of the branches of the; “U” equal 2% miles, and sometimes more on the ground, all units are com- pact, in themselves and closely united to headquarters. Of additional military advantage is the fact that the camp is located so that the receiving depots and supply warehouses are built facing rail-. road spurs, paralleling the long side branches of the “U,” thus making for the rapid distribution of supplies in the present, while assuring the facile em- barkation of troops in the future. THE “MAIN STREET” OF .THE SOLDIER CITY dhis is the ideal outline. Needless to say it has been varied. There are “V”’- shaped camps, which maintain the same principle, while Camp Lee resembles a huge “J.” These. variations are due to the accidents of the ground selected for 426 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS LION: T NEARING COMPLE’ 4 4 4 CANTON MI CAMP TRAVIS 4 4 BUILDINGS OF ‘THE the cantonment; for, as far as practical, buildings are erected along the high points. The “main street” of the soldier city winds from end to end through the trace of the outline. This is a broad avenue, separating the officers’ quarters from the barracks of the soldiers, about 100 feet wide and more than 2% miles in length. Branch streets, running at right angles to this boulevard, separate the battalions of the division, wider avenues the reg- iments,’ these latter serving as “fire- breaks.’’ Remember, in a city where all the buildings are of pine, a fire-break is an obvious precaution. These battalion and regimental streets are about 200 yards long, and form in themselves compact social areas. Keeping this general plan of the sol- dier city in mind, consider the different municipal problems involved in provid- ing homes,. food, water, and sanitary ac- commodations for as many people as live in Atlantic City, or Augustay (Gaon Haverhill, Mass., or Lincoln, Nebr., or Bay City, Mich., or Sacramento, and you begin to grasp what the War Depart- ment has effected. in each one of the selected cantonment sites; then multiply by sixteen for the total labor involved. Actually, the soldier cities were built by contract. Firms of long standing in contracting work involving building in all phases considered the War Depart- ment plans. Agreements were reached with reliable firms in the different States where cantonment areas were located, and within three weeks from the time the last blue print of barrack plan was traced, work on all the soldier cities com- menced. A PLACE THAT STOOD: STILT OR) ELAr iA CENTURY In June, 1917, the site of Camp Lee was much the same as it had been in the days of the war between the States, with -one notable improvement—a _ concrete road 14 feet wide ran through the center of the site, from the town of Petersburg to the Dupont powder plant settlement at Hopewell; but the main feature of the landscape presented the same aspect as when the gray-coated soldiers camped here. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 427 A few scattered farms, wood-covered hills, and stretches of close underbrush patched the gently rolling country. The glistening rails of the Norfolk and West- ern Railroad trailed over this ground to City Point. The site was as bare of the elements that constitute a city as any farm area you may glimpse from the window of a speeding train. Such was Camp Lee before the first timber was cut or the first nail driven. Behold today that barren area trans- formed. In your imagination, climb with me to the top of that spindle-shanked water tower that now dominates the scene. Below us are the shining metalled roofs of a thousand houses; grouped as regularly as battle lines of an army, they stretch away in two curves to the east. A broad belt of road divides the lines of the houses through the center. On one side of this belt are the low structures of the officers’ quarters, the administration buildings, and the hospitals; on the other side rise the soldiers’ two-storied barrack buildings. These stand in sets of fours, the number necessary to house a _ bat- talion, one barrack to a company. Be- yond the company barracks are other structures—a house for the band, the regimental general store (where the sol- dier can buy anything from a cone of ice cream to a set of safety-razor blades and know that the profits thereof will go to- ward buying extras for his mess),and the buildings of the Young Men’s Christian ‘Association. Flanking these are the warehouses. EFFICIENCY THE KEY-NOTE OF THE CANTONMENT LAY-OUT The men who planned these cities sought no esthetic municipal effect; utility was the key-note throughout, and the grenadier-like formations of the row following row of buildings might be criticised on the score of monotony; but for convenience of the officers and men who are working and training 14 hours each day to the end of creating the Na- tional Army, they closely approach the ideal. The new soldiers live within three minutes’ march of their work. They have but to cross the main camp road, pass the _ officers’ quarters, and they parade a drill ground suitable for the work of any unit from a squad to a regiment. In a word, officers and soldiers live with their work. In their unpainted rawness, the houses of this city again bring to mind the new mining camp; but no mining camp ever boasted the water, light, and plumbing installments of the cantonment. You will search in vain for architectural embellish- ment in any building from one end of the cantonment to the other, but in every barracks and quarters you enter you will find all the items included in the general term modern conveniences—from elec- tric lights to shower baths. ‘These con- veniences, which in the United States we have come to look upon in the light of necessities, temper the raw and Spartan simplicity of the buildings. THE OFFICERS QUARTERS The officers’ quarters have no advan- tages not vouchsafed the men, except the very necessary one of privacy. Their quarters are long, low buildings about 25 feet wide by 150 feet long. The bat- talion commander—remember, the bat- talion is the cantonment street unit—lives in two rooms at one end of this building, his captains and lieutenants have each one room throughout its length, and in the end is the battalion mess and kitchen. The arrangement is ideal in its simplicity. Parallel to the row of officers’ quar- ters are the regimental offices, where the colonel, the adjutant, the sergeant major, the supply officers, and staffs conduct the business of the regiment. Here again all is subordinated to utility. Each office is a bare-boarded room, but the never-ceas- ing tinkle of the typewriters, the ring of the telephones, and the hurrying of order- lies indicate the activities of organization in full swing. The office buildings face the row of company barracks, the homes of the men of the National Army. All are of the same outline—lramed structures, 120 feet long by 40 feet wide and two stories high. At one end of this boxlike build- ing a short extension holds the kitchen. Such is the house where the men sleep and eat; they have all outdoors in which to work and play. 4 8 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from Press Illustrating Service, Inc. AT MORRISTOWN, NEW JI WY 4 ‘) 4 RSI XERCISE 4 I ] 4 x MORNIN TILIEIR ‘ x TAKIN( DRIVERS AMBUI,ANCI CRANK 4 1 MORNING N 4 4 “ TT Entering the door of the barracks, in the center of its long face, on the left is a door leading into the mess hall. This eating room occupies about half of the lower floor and is separated from the kitchen by a broad serving table. WHAT THE-SOLDIERS HAVE TO EAT At the meal hours—six, twelve, and six for breakfast, dinner, and supper—the men enter the hall in line and pass around the serving table, where the cooks and “kitchen police,” as the helpers are called, pile the metal mess plates . with steak, potatoes, rice, and fill the cups with coffee as the men pass. This, with the bread and butter already on the tables, which fill the mess hall, is the average breakfast. Din- ner will be stew, with mashed pota- toes, boiled onions, peas, bread and butter, a pudding or pie for desert, and tea, coffeee, or lemonade to drink. Supper will consist of fried bacon, cold canned salmon, potato salad, a vegetable, bread and butter, and peaches or some other pre- served fruit with which to finish. This is a typical menu for an ordi- nary day. Whenever the occasion Warrants, some little extra is added to the meal. The American soldier is the best fed soldier in the world. Opposite the mess hall, on the lower floor of the barracks, is the first squad room or dormitory. Here, along the walls and down the center, iron cots are ranged, each with its bed-tick filled with fresh straw. Two olive-drab army blank- ets cover the bed, and if these are not enough, the soldier will throw his army overcoat over the blankets. In the original building plans for these sleeping quarters, each soldier was to have a locker to hold his ex- tra shoes, shirts, shaving outfit, and other little knickknacks permitted by the regulations. Being on a war footing, these extras were few enough, but the Surgeon General of the Army struck off the lockers from the barrack furnishings, pre- sumably on the ground they were THE NATIONAL insanitary, and no substitute has yet been provided. Light and air are the features of the sleeping quarters. About 50 men sleep in the same room. THE COMPANY BUSINESS OFFICE Cutting off one corner of the squad room is a small room, about ten feet square, fitted with a desk, a stool, a table, and pigeonholes. From this room the business of the company is administrated. It is the office of the first sergeant. The second story of the barracks is given over entirely to sleeping quarters, and is large enough to hold in comfort one hundred cots, while in emergency 25 more could be accommodated. The up- per story squad rooms in general appear- ance are similar to large. school dormi- tories. Many of the men of these Virginia regiments never before saw the luxury of the lavatory conveniences that are built in a small house flanking the barracks— hot and cold shower-baths, wash-boards, every item that modern plumbing pro- vides. Many hotels in the country dis- tricts do net boast the style of lavatory here built for the soldiers. As this is a work army in every sense of the word, in the barracks there is not as much space devoted to recreation pur- poses as otherwise might be expected. If it were not for army traditions, the mess hall could serve as a lounge, reading and writing room for the new soldiers, and some captains have so far broken with tradition as to allow the men to use the mess hall for these purposes when the kitchen and cleaning work is done. But what with the buildings erected at the instance of the Young Men’s Christian Association and the Knights of Colum- bus, the men of the National Army find a club at the home door. Beyond the line of barracks is the building for the regimental exchange, which is a sort of village store in each little community, and bey ond this is the regimental warehouse, w here the clothing and equipment of the soldiers are stored before being distributed. With this summary of the streets and houses of the soldier city, let us pass to the story of the people living here. GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 429 PURE AMERICAN BLOOD AT PETERSBURG Perhaps Camp Lee, and certainly the 159th Brigade, can claim in its enlisted personnel the purest American blood of any camp throughout the country. Most of these Virginians trace their lineage back to the days of the colonies, and the only noticeable strain that in a few in- stances colors the Anglo-Saxon is a trace of the Indian. Should an Englishman read over the localization order for this brigade he might imagine it a call for his home soldiers. Men from Middlesex, Surry, and Kent are in one company; in an- other Westmoreland, Northumberland, and Northampton have furnished quotas, and scattered throughout the other bat- talions are soldiers from the counties of Lancaster, York, Warwick, . Bedford, Richmond, Sussex, Southampton, and Isle of Wight. Company roll-calls sound like a lesson in English history—Buck- ingham, Brunswick, Cumberland, Bath, and Halifax—or in literature, for one company has a squad composed of Addi- son, Arnold, Johnson, and Meredith. One given to philosophizing would have had much to reflect upon could he have seen these descendants of the first Royal Virginia colonists gathered in a hollow square around the division headquarters flag on the anniversary of the composi- tion of the national anthem and heard them sing the “Star Spangled Banner.’ That ceremony marked a cycle of civili- zation. But this camp is a true cross-section of our country, and it would not be fair to allow partiality for our native stock to blind us to the qualities of the Pennsyl- vanians and West Virginia miners who ane, Selected tor the:-other units’ of the division. OF THE SERG SNEEZED ADIBDEY 6 SNORE LANL WHO These are the sediment of the melting pot. The description is not meant as a reflection on the quality of the men, but rather for the aptitude of the classifica- tion, Among) them ‘are -found Poles, Lithuanians, Greeks, Syrians, Italians, and even Austrians, who have no place here; all the conglomerate mass of hu- Photograph by Paul Thompson A GOODBYE KISSs “Just that break with his home community is the hardest trial the new selected man has to bear. In a night he is torn from his family, his father, his mother, often his wife and children, and translated to an environment at once strange and difficult. He arrives in the cantonment a prey to acute homesickness. Once safely past this term of trial, and the new soldier finds life is a succession of interesting and instructive movements.” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 431 manity that during the last decade has made its way to American shores. In- stead of the old English names of Cox and Boggs and Padgett that predominate in the Virginia brigades, the first sergeant struggles with a list of polysyllabic letter combinations usually ending in “vitch” or “ski.” The report goes that one first sergeant of the Pennsylvania company sneezed during his calling of the roll and six men answered “Here!” This may be soldier’s hyperbole, but the fact remains that in many instances the aid of an in- terpreter is necessary in order to get through the routine of daily work and drill. : But it is just these handicaps that bring out the spirit and ingenuity of the officers training the troops. English or, as some prefer to call our idiom, “good American” is the only language permit- ted, and with constant molding, with that atmosphere of loyalty which always sur- rounds a military camp, this heterogene- ous element is gradually being absorbed into the sinew of the new army. American history, patriotism, honor for the flag are all part of the daily in- struction of the recruit. Some of the officers have ordered the playing of the “Star Spangled Banner” on the company gramophones to be a daily ceremony ; and during this ceremony the men stand with head uncovered at attention. DEVELOPING THAT SUBTLE SOMETHING— MORALE All this is by way of developing that psychological asset, morale. It will be news to the layman to hear that there is now a corps of psychologists in the army who are to make a study of the mental and spiritual side of the organization. Before the results of their investigations are available our National Army must be ready to do its share in France, so even when he takes up the physical training of his new recruit the officer begins the training of his soul. This training is forwarded by subtle steps, so that the recruit’s average of morale is advanced without his actually being aware of what takes place. Before he has been with his company two days he boasts that he belongs to Company “A” with that tinge of pride which speaks the germination of loyalty. I heard a recruit of less than a week’s service whose O. D. shirt still held the creases of the box, telling a soldier of the 47th New York Militia that he was number one of the front rank of the “E” company of the 317 Infantry, with a pride and condescension that left the usually loquacious Brooklyn soldier speechless. There is nothing in the Drill Book or Army Regulations that instructs the young officer in the method of instilling this most valuable spirit in his men, but without exception officers work in a hun- dred ways to develop it. It is the funda- mental quality of success in war. THE WORK OF THE PROVOST MARSHAL/’S OFFICE To return to the initial stage of the changing of the citizen into a soldier, the highest praise is due General Crowder, the father of the National Army. This officer 1s without exception the hardest working man in the Army of the United States. His capacity for 18 and 20 hours daily work has stood him in good stead in solving the administrative and legal technicalities involved in the operation of the selective training law. His was the work of creating an entire system to meet the will of Congress and the Presi- dent, in the matter of making our army. The smooth working of the whole con- scription operation is the eloquent testi- mony of how well General Crowder ac- complished his task. Beyond his special ability as a creator of armies—this officer can claim to be one of the few masters of pure English—his conscription procla- mation will remain a classic example of the correct and forceful use of the mother tongue. When General Crowder put the ma- chinery of the call to arms into opera- tion, he opened the flood gates and poured the best physical specimens of our nation into the training camps. No American could see these crowds assem- ble without feeling the surge of a wave of pride in his nation. Strong, upstand- ing, clear-eyed, solid men they are, types i) of the best the country produces. ‘WOpaalf JO AWAY OY} UL JUN JUaTOYso ‘pnoid e& samtosaq Ap yond oy pure “pots st wisiyoryed Juayey sry “noy 2Y} JO yards oy} 0} spuodso1 oy Skep Mo} vV UL Ing “AYHSOY Jotoos JO jou Fr ‘uorordsns Fo guo aq O} 4de st ysty I Staoyjo AuedUIOD SitT PIPMO} apnyye siy AjUMWUIOD JeInI & WOIF St oy J] ‘“OUIPIOSIP Arey pue uOTeUIOF AreyyrUE UL 9dUETIOdXa JstY S}MIIII OY} ‘S9SVI SOUL UT “ST 4] ANWIANVW “AVAW dNVO :'‘TIINC LSU HE VAIS 0JOY Iospos’y sqng worsy ydeisojoyd 432 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A HIGH ORDER OF MAN MATERIAL The selected men, as a rule, are far above the average in intelligence and ex- perience and education of the class that formerly drifted into the regular army. Without any disparagement of the older branch of the army, the present recruit, brought into service under the selective law, will improve the tone of the whole service. He is not attracted to the milt- tary life from motives of excitement or other motives not so worthy, but he 1s brought into the army through the op- eration of a law that does not omit church members from the selected quotas. In the old regiments, church members were the exception rather than the rule. The tone of the new army can be judged from the interest shown in it by such organizations as the Young Men’s Christian Association and the Knights of Columbus. The captain of the regular army, ac- customed to the class of recruits received during the last few years, looks at the present selective army “rookies” with envy. Take atypical company. The age of the 150 men who have already re- ported averages 24 years and 8 months. The first six squads—that is, the first 48 men in the company—are all over 5 feet 11 inches. Nearly all the professions are represented ; a lawyer, a hospital attend- ant, and a tutor answer the roll, as well as storekeepers, clerks, salesmen, me- chanics, artisans, and farmers, not to overlook that very important member of army life—cooks. One company boasts six cooks, an un- heard-of situation in the regular service, where the feeding conditions had become so unsatisfactory under the old system that a professional school of bakers and cooks has been organized of recent years. Graduates of this school are on duty at the camps in order to help out the new men, and I have seen a recently arrived “selected” recruit cook showing a grad- uate of the bakers’ and cooks’ school a new wrinkle in frying potatoes. EVERY TRADE REPRESENTED With good fortune a captain may find an expert stenographer and typist drafted in his company, who will serve as clerk; = carpenters, barbers, tailors, all those use- ful members of society, will go to make up the quota of 250 men in a company, and it is not rare to find telegraphers, train dispatchers, builders, painters, and workers of all kinds. When the selected men are mustered into the service, it is the duty of an officer to make a record of their professions and special qualifications, so that by a simple turning to the statistics the suitable men for any work that arises may readily be found. Out of 150 men questioned in one company, 105 could drive Ford auto- mobiles. The captain of a company is not, as a rule, fortunate enough to find the work- able proportion of the qualified men he needs for the smooth administration of his organization, but through the aid of this statistical record he can exchange an extra cook for a stenographer, a super- fluous barber for a mechanic or carpen- ter; for you must understand that a com- pany must be able to maintain an inde- pendent, self-contained existence. MAKING A SOLDIER IN SIX MONTHS There is an army proverb to the effect that the non-commissioned officer is the backbone of the service, and in the for- mation of his company the captain first looks for material that promises to make these important soldiers. In this regard, results that seem startling to the old-time regular are sometimes accomplished in the National Army. I have seen a com- pany commander lucky enough to find the raw material for a first sergeant, mess sergeant, and supply sergeant at the first sifting of his selected men; these were men who had held responsible positions as section boss, steward in a hotel, and small storekeeper in civil life, and their training fitted them, with a few weeks study, to enter on the work of non-com- missioned officers in the army. They are far from knowing the niceties of the drill, but their progress is rapid, and out of their experience and innate ability they quickly fall into the roles of authority. That the average American can be turned into a good. infantryman with six months’ training has long been a theory of mine, and T look forward with con- fidence to seeing this theory confirmed out dwies 0} sSursuojeq [euosiod Aueu SulIq 0} AUIy [euOTZeNY MoU sIy SuIsI1dwiod UDdUT dy} 9S8eINOUD jou pIp wes apup yng ‘odoin 07 di1y punor v 107 o8eSSeq yo Junowe yews y . LHINOT SMAH VAIO VIAHL HOIHM WOT ALYHEIT HHL ONIGUVADHIVS FO ASINdYALNA LV LID 4aHL NOdN MUVAWA OL WHOVA “ANVO NI ONIAINNV NOW GaLOWTAS pooMiopuy) Y pooMiapug, © Wi : 434 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE of the results of the training of the Na- tional Army. It must be added, in order to keep the balance true, that the dragnet of draft sometimes brings to the camp men who fall below the standards of the American city or country life. One company re- cruited from the hills of Virginia has 30 men in 150 who cannot read and write; another eleven. Here is the other side of the picture. But no sooner do these men settle in their companies than they are sent to school—a long-deferred op- portunity—and each night, after the drills of the day are ended, they are taught by one of their officers the rudiments’ of reading and writing. Asa national asset, the broadening and educational develop- ment sure to result from military train- ing, combined with the mixing with folks from other sections of our country, will outweigh any temporary economic loss. One company of the Virginia brigade mustered a recruit who had never seen an electric light or a trolley system till he joined. Bear in mind that the sanitary stand- ards of the army are the highest. Here is another educational feature incidental to the training of the selected men in the cantonments. From the moment the re- cruit arrives in camp, from the moment he is ordered to take a bath before ap- pearing before the surgeon for his medi- cal examination, he is drilled in the de- tails of personal hygiene. In this age of universal hot and cold running water in all cities, one is prone to forget that in some of the rural districts the old-fash- ioned Saturday night weekly bath is still the custom; and, if any other more ur- gent matter displaces the bath hour, ablu- tions are postponed a week. PUTTING PRIDE INTO THE HILL COUNTRY RECRUIT The hill districts of Virginia are no- toriously backward in educational facili- ties and all that follows in the wake of schools—instruction in the care of the teeth, the person, the home—and recruits from the feud counties are at first be- wildered by the many exactions making for cleanliness in a cantonment; but con- tact with other clean, smart well set-up soldiers teaches the new recruit the de- 435 sirable results of cleanliness. The prov- erb that “cleanliness is next to godliness” is not without its psychological justifica- tion, and as an aid to the implanting of discipline it 1s second only to the refine- ments of the drill exercises. As a corollary of this cleanliness of person, the new soldier learns to keep his barracks, his bunk, his kitchen as spick and span as a New England home after spring cleaning. The civilian having only the slightest knowledge of the duties of a soldier knows that a dirty rifle is a mili- tary offense, but few understand that the barracks, the soldier’s home, the kitchen, the lavatory, and the grounds are in- spected each day so that dirt in the sense of grime is foreign to the soldier’s exist- ence. The men quickly come to under- stand the virtue of keeping themselves and their homes free from dirt, and it is certain they will carry this knowledge back to their home communities when their period of soldiering is over. DOWN IN THE VALLEY OF DESPONDENCY Just that break with his home com- munity is the hardest trial the new se- lected man has to bear. In a night he is torn from his family, his father, his mother, often his wife and children, and translated to an environment at once strange and difficult. Habit is the strong- est element in the lives of most men, and in wrenching him from his daily habits of eating, sleeping, working, playing, meeting his friends, expressing his opin- ions, we play havoc with the recruit’s world. He arrives in the cantonment a prey to acute homesickness. Many of these men struggle to hold back the tears the first night in camp—some do not wholly succeed—and the first few days of army life seem to promise nothing but misery. What adds to this gloomy outlook, re- ducing the selected soldier to a physical state below his mental plane, is the ty- phoid inoculation and vaccination. From personal knowledge, the writer can pro- nounce the typhoid inoculation, especially the second dose, a most depressing ex- perience. Add the pain and discomfort of an infected vaccinated arm to this con- dition, and the morale of the soldier falls to the vanishing point. Here is the time 456 when he contemplates desertion. The guns of a firing squad executing the death sentence—for death may be the penalty for desertion in time of war—would be a relief the woebegone recruit believes. Once safely past this term of trial, and the new soldier finds life a succession of interesting and instructive movements. He begins to look around him, trying to appraise his companions and those awe- some persons, his officers. He soon finds that his companions are of the same pat- tern as the folks back home, and he grad- ually comes to realize that his officers are vitally interested in his welfare and com- fort. Work he must, for the making of any army under high-speed demands, leaves little time for loafing, either on the part of soldier or officer. This work is out of doors. It has some of the elements of a game, and the recruit soon perceives the pleasure of executing the drill with ac- curacy and precision. And when the drill periods are over, he comes to his ample and wholesome meals with a zest that testifies to the daily betterment of his physical condition. By the time his uni- form is given him he feels germinating within him the first seeds of pride i in him- self, his company, his country. DEVELOPING REAL AMERICANISM That is the outstanding feature of this selected army, the rapidity with which the men develop pride in their American- ism. It may be that here in Virginia this virtue is present in a higher degree than elsewhere, but under any circumstances its presence is the strongest proof that the whole idea and principle of the National Army is justified. No one can come into contact with the sturdy Americanism of the men gathered in any cantonment without feeling confidence and pride in the future of our country gained in no other way. And that is the result of all this social and economic revolution brought about by the creation of a National Army. It turns the youth of the country into better Americans. Patriotism develops through the atmosphere of the cantonment. It is practical patriotism, too, as has been proved in the way the new soldiers have THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE bought the latest issue of Liberty Bonds. That the men of the National Army give back to the government part of their pay is tangible proof of their approval of the draft and its consequences. They have had the time to test some of the results of this country-wide sacrifice. Today the selectman is the staunchest advocate of military training. He has learnt the moral value of discipline. The physical benefits he has gained are shown in clear eyes, flexible muscles, and up- right carriage. PATRIOTISM NO LONGER A LIP SERVICE But more than these is the spiritual force that lives and grows in the breasts of the soldiers of the National Army; the value of that force, in the future ad- vancement of Americanism, cannot be totaled in dollars and cents. Patriotism is no longer measured in lip service. Woe to the crafty politician who outrages this spirit now engendering. in the hearts of the nation’s soldiers by ranting reference to our country and our flag. Men of the new army feel as they never before felt the soul appeal of those words, which have become truly sacred. Virginia, with so many historical asso- ciations as background, is fitting soil for the growth of this new spirit. Camp ee shelters men of the finest type of Amer- icanism the United States can boast. The training these men receive, the work they do, and the thoughts of what lies before them, make for a strong realization of ideals heretofore but vaguely felt. These ideals are crystallizing into a national consciousness; for what develops here in Camp Lee must develop through the same motive agencies. in all the other cantonments eS the United States. With this quickening. of spirit in over a million of the youth of the country will come a pride of race and a sense of na- tional honor that will make the men of the new army worthy guardians of that liberty bequeathed by our forefathers. And when the last. sacrifice is de- manded these men will willingly make it, knowing that, both as Virginians and Americans, it is their privilege to die that liberty may spread throughout the world. Oh PUL CoH seBvq §—SAILIO UAIATOS UNO AO ANO JO dVW V oe Bie ta CrOYTIVY \ ) SSS SS GNYTSL ONO? SS DS E ooog Sali 87N7e1S % ¥ y, ‘A‘N ‘AGNV'ISI DNOT “MNVHdVA ‘NOLdA dNVO Giri Fl loolon Lope! 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ONITISNS 14 I 4 ea | Sfaes ‘NNIW \ v Veeeere VAViNON a £8 ue gh! Qs EI « Qh Ysa ‘sunaT chung NsoWee Meleg en ‘ \ £ 0) « SDKAT ‘Savy dung > v pS es \ | Nou « “uDy ‘Uogsung Lutny I “4 hy uojphny, hung ee Uw TAC ae ek pinoy ‘abpog dungz Ho o« « ‘QO ‘UnUdleys dung a “DW ‘apoypy AUDI T it “ ‘YL ‘AY Mung) 9) «4 ‘DO “Uuopsoy durog 9 i PN 217 M09 DS [ier stameance NY ‘JuDnly tun) doo« « QS uosyonr dung (3 (eer i AWN ‘Uojdp dun) ual sdoon ‘yoy uwasng dun q uoLf sdoo1 DA ‘aaT dung V wos sdo0.n ‘ssopy ‘sumag tung AMERICA’S NEW SOLDIER CITIES The Geographical and Historical Environment of the National Army Cantonments and National Guard Camps By WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER raising a vast army of citizen- soldiers, and had formulated plans for calling that army to the colors, the Quartermaster General was con- fronted with the problem of housing the army adequately during the long process of converting it from an unorganized multitude of individuals into a highly de- veloped fighting machine. Colonel I. W. Littell, since promoted to a brigadier generalship, an assistant of General Sharpe, the Quartermaster Gen- eral, was in charge of that branch of the Quartermaster General’s Office known as the Construction and Repair Division, and it therefore fell to the lot of Colonel Littell to take charge of this great task. For years Colonel Littell had gone about his work just as a hundred other colonels had done, and his appointment to the heavy task of housing all the new mili- tary forces was his first introduction to the world at large, even as the appoint- ment of Colonel Goethals as builder of the Panama Canal brought a new national figure upon therstage. There is no record of what Uncle Sam said to the builder of his soldier cities, but the facts in the case would have war- ranted his giving these instructions: “T have placed in the Treasury of the United States, subject te your order, a sum of money which is equal to all the gold produced by all the mines of the world during the past year. With this money I want you to house my armies while I get them into shape. In the first place, I want you to build 16 great mili- tary cities in as many sections of the country. These 16 cities must be capable of housing a population equal to the com- bined population of Arizona and New Mexico. There must also be stable room to care for as many horses as there are in the State of Oregon. A FTER the Congress had decided on “Furthermore, you must establish hos- pitals to take care of as many sick and wounded people as are to be found in all the hospitals west of the Mississippi River in normal times. “Nor is that all. You are to provide all of the mess halls and other general buildings for all of the 16 National Guard mobilization camps. And while you are doing that you will not forget your reg- ular work of expanding and keeping in repair the housing facilities of the Nese lar Army posts. “Nor will you overlook the fact het as soon as all that work is under way you will be expected to undertake the con- struction of the two big concentration camps from which the American army will embark for France and through which its supplies will reach the front. “Yes, I know it is a large order—in fact, a tremendous proposition—but these are tremendous times, and I'll have to ask you to execute it within four months. Of course, I realize that you will, in its execution, spend the money three times as fast as the world mines its gold, but at the same time I expect you to render an account which will show that every penny has borne an honest burden.” A NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENT IN HISTORY OF BUILDING THE Such was the order. It has been exe- cuted as the American Army always has executed its orders—to the letter! The story of the 16 National Army can- tonments surpasses anything else in the history of building. Such, indeed, has been the transformation wrought at these cantonments that the world might well have believed it all magic had it not heard the rhythmic blows of 25,000 ham- mers driving home 1,200 miles of nails a day; had it not seen enough lumber go from the country’s mills to these camps 439 “ONSIIJUL UdI[e JO $}NSort oy} WAZ ATQUNOD. DY} PUofosOF OF YIYM YYWM SuodvaMm SeoIOWY oq }SHUT senses] asuayap owWOY poztuRS10-[JoOM pue syuoUnIVdep soIPod poJuosne ‘og -ynoyyA dof uado dt UeY] osNed SUONeU dy} WAPY 0} 910 JOP sey UIYM 9OF JosS oy} AT pue vISSHY UT “OUl]-9]}eq oY} UO OAL pur pPoojd YA SP [JOM SB SiopsIOq INO UIYWM oNSrajyUr Jo suodeaM oy} YA s}ysy Auewdor) yey} puNoy sey Booty “oouattodxo yo jooy ds SurAzidun oy} uy AONHAV HEIAIT NMOG ONIHOUVNW ALMHAIT JO SYHANATHG uosdwoy y, neg Aq ydeisojoyg 440 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE to make a boardwalk four feet wide— runners and all—from Palm Beach to Bagdad via Bering Strait and the Arctic Circle; had it not witnessed the move- ment to their sites of enough material and supplies to load a string of cars reaching from Portland, Maine, to Port- land, Oregon, via Boston, Cleveland, Chi- cago, Minneapolis, and Spokane. Consider a weekly pay-roll twice as large as the monthly pay-roll at Panama when the canal work was at high tide, and paid off in two hours, where three days were required to pay off the big ditch force. Reflect upon the fact that the expenditure for the 16 cantonments for the month of August was $52,000,- ooo—nearly nine tons of gold, or more than was ever paid out in'a whole year on the Panama Canal, until now the world’s greatest undertaking ! IMPORTANT DETAILS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF CAMP SITES There were many things to consider in the choice of locations. Each camp had to be contiguous to a city, in order to in- sure a labor and material market within reach, opportunities for camp leave to mitigate the tedium of the military grind, and satisfactory railroad facilities. ‘The topography of the surrounding country, the available sources of an ample water supply, and the problem of drainage were also important considerations. Some of the sites departed just enough from level to insure good drainage, and for the most part were fine and _ pros- perous farms, as at Camp Grant, Rock- ford, Ill.; Camp Sherman, Chillicothe, Ohio, and Camp Dix, Wrightstown, N. J. Others were covered with undergrowth and scrub forest, as at Camp Devens, Ayer, Mass.; Camp Upton, Yaphank, N. Y., and Camp Pike, Little Rock, Ark. Others were on military reservations, as at Camp Funston, Fort Riley, Kans., and Camp Travis, Fort Sam Houston, Tex. At Camp Lee, Petersburg, Va., 25 farms were occupied. At Camp Jackson, Co- lumbia, S. C., a negro church had to be razed and several old tobacco barns burned. With the sites selected and 160 of the biggest sawmills in the United States turning logs into planks, joists, rafters, 441 and studding at an incredible speed, the cities themselves were ready to begin ris- ing from the ground. The railroads of the country, already sore pressed for rolling stock, already taxed to what seemed well-nigh the limit of war-time demands on peace-time fa- cilities, set aside 30,000 cars for canton- ment material transportation, and vast quantities of lumber were moving east, west, north, and south to the camp sites. In a single day there was unloaded at Des Moines 1,890,000 board feet of lum- ber, the equivalent of 300 miles of 12- inch boards. One day a one-story office building, some trenching machines, some teams and trucks, and a chaos of materials, and in 48 hours a respectable village. In two weeks the village had grown to a town, and in two months the town became a city. How the work marched along may be told in the story of Camp Funston. On June 20 a contract for the building of the cantonment was let. For the next 15 days there was little done, because the site was not definitely chosen. ‘There were four available sites on the Fort Riley Reservation, and a civilian board was named to select one of them. The de- cision was not made until July 5. Meanwhile the local construction quar- termaster, having an inspiration that the site which was finally chosen would be the one, as well as a feeling that taking a chance was better than living out a de- lay, told the contractor to erect build- ings for the quartermaster, the field au- ditor, and the contractor. ‘These were ready when the site was fixed, and were the only buildings standing on July 5. when the real work began. By July 10 the Union Pacific Railroad had a siding completed two miles long, and later in- stalled more than eight miles additional. WORKMEN QUARTERED IN CAMPS THEY WERE BUILDING The buildings followed the standard plans from Washington, which specified that all northern cantonment structures have outside walls and ceilings lined with paper, and that they be wainscoted and lined inside with wall board; all lavatory buildings should have concrete floors and foundations (see also pages 425-427) 442 The men at Camp Funston did not stop for Sunday, but worked to hours a day seven days a week, with Saturday after- noon off. They worked 65 hours a week and were paid for 80 hours, at Kansas City union labor prices. Four thousand eight hundred men were housed and fed at Camp Funston when the work was in full blast. The govern- ment allowed them to be quartered in buildings which were already finished, ex- cept for the wall board work and top flooring inside. ‘Three hundred commis- sary employees, cooks, waiters, and room attendants were required to care for that half of the force which lived at the can- tonment, the other half living in neigh- boring towns and surrounding country. The army of builders ate two carloads of beef a week and other things in pro- portion. Meals were furnished at 30 cents each, the men being required to purchase a week’s tickets at a time. This was exactly the rate charged the Ameri- cans at the line hotels on the Panama Canal. Quarters were provided free, ex- cept that each workman upon first en- tering the bunk-house deposited a dollar, which was returned to him when he finally left the job. Special efforts were made to keep the workmen contented and happy. One of the barracks was turned over to the Y. M. C. A., which established outdoor motion- picture shows, where three times a week the best films were shown, free to all comers. A band and an_ orchestra were organized and baseball teams were equipped. CAMP NEWSPAPER STIMULATED MEN TO SPECIAL EFFORT The spirit displayed in the construction of all the cantonments was an inspiration to every one who witnessed the work. A healthy rivalry among the 16 con- tractors was in evidence everywhere. The contractors at Camp Dix published a construction weekly, which served to fire the zeal of the men there, even more than the Canal Record stirrei the big army of diggers at Panama. Inthe Camp Dix News the editor put everything of interest to the force, from a description of the cantonment and the week-to-week THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE story of the work’s progress, down to a picture of a bare-skinned Chihuahua dog, the camp mascot, and a piece of advice to an unnamed youngster working in camp not to neglect writing to his mother. Through this newspaper the contrac- _tors appealed to their men to help put Camp Dix “first under the wire” of com- pletion. “There are 16 entries,” said the appeal, “in the most spectacular race that American contractors have ever been called upon to enter. We have a good start and a fair field and we need only supply the stamina.” So, even in build- ing good sportsmanship had its place. MEN BEHIND THE HAMMERS IMBUED WITH PATRIOTIC SPIRIT The men behind the hammers soon caught the spirit of the times. At Camp Dix the contractors divided their organi- zation into 10 groups, each with a section of the camp to build. Soon the 16-can- tonment national sweepstakes event had a side attraction—the 10-section Wrights- town race. Each group at Camp Dix was as keen “to put one over” on its rivals as each contractor was to bring his canton- ment under the wire first. One day one of the competitive groups of camp builders bethought itself of the fact that there ought to be a flag flying over its section. The hat was passed, and from water boy to section superintendent all “chipped in” to buy a starry banner and a flagpole. With telegrams from the President and the Secretary of War to be read, with speakers of note to set the event in an appropriate wreath of words, and with a band to bring the thrill which the na- tional anthem inspires, Old Glory was hoisted into place. Soon every other sec- tion had its flag, each raised with appro- priate ceremony, and all unfurled to the breezes through the initiative of the hard- working carpenters themselves. There was cooperation everywhere. Even the thousands of negro laborers at the Southern cantonments became im- bued with enthusiasm for their work and heartily supported every effort to keep the camp sites up to the 100 per cent mark in sanitation, although sanitary science is well-nigh a sealed book to them. Can © Underwood & Underwood THE SIXTY-NINTH REGIMENT GOING TO A SERVICE AT ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, NEW YORK Whatever may be the sacrifices, however bitter the sufferings that CITY await our country on the path of war which she has so unwillingly yet so resolutely taken, one compensation can- not fail to result from the experience of seeing her bravest and hest dedicating their lives to the Great Cause. you imagine several thousand Virginia negroes, in the midst of the watermelon season, with the Hanover crop in all its luscious luxuriance hard by, and not a rind to be found on a camp site thousands of acres in extent? It may have tried their souls to abstain, and yet the site of Camp Lee was as free from watermelon rinds as it was free from polar bears or African lions. ONE CAMP BAKERY’S CAPACITY 80,000 POUNDS OF BREAD A DAY With such a spirit as this pervading every cantonment, little is the wonder that in less than four months enough buildings were erected to make, if placed end to end, a continuous structure reaching from Washington to Detroit. To appreciate the dimensions of the cantonments they must be considered in their units. Camp Devens, for instance, with one exception the smallest of the 16, That compensation will be a refined and ennobled American soul. has a refrigerator plant capable of mak- ing 20 tons of ice a ‘day, besides keeping many tons of food chilled to the freezing point. Its beef cooler will hold 120 cat- tle. The bakery has a capacity of 40,000 2-pound loaves of bread every 24 hours. The auditorium of the Y. M. C. A. has a seating capacity of 2,800 men—nearly one and a half times as many as any theater in the nation’s capital. In small things as well as large the story of the military cities runs into amazing proportions. The 16 canton- ments required 350 carloads of cooking ranges for nhc equipment, 2,500 car- loads of heating stoves, and 112,000 kegs of nails. Sold at ordinary retail price. the total product of their bakeries would amount to something like $125,000 a day. MAKING WASTE PAY A problem which early arose in plan- ning the cantonments was that of dispos- 443 SEVENTH NEW YORK REGIMENT BOARDING The National Guard forces have where all is canvas except mess-halls Photograph by Paul Thompson THE FERRY TO GO TO SPARTANBURG been mobilized in 16 tented cities (see pages 467-475), Y. M.C. A. buildings, ete. Long before the present war was dreamed of, these men believed that America’s safety lay in the direction of prepared- ness, and undertook to give a share of their time to putting their opinions into practice. And the account the National Guard troops in France have given of themselves shows that the time they sacrificed at home is turned to Uncle Sam’s ing of the wastes. Had it been decided to burn the garbage and other refuse of the camps, the installation of huge in- cinerators would have been necessary ; but happily the idea of the salvage of wastes, something of which armies never thought before this war, was conceived by a Na- tional Guard officer from Delaware. This officer wrote the War Department saying that from his experience in hand- ling troops he believed a great saving benefit abroad. could be accomplished by collecting and selling all garbage and refuse. The suggestion appealed to the Quar- termaster General, and the Delaware offi- cer was called to Washington and as- signed the work of developing a plan to conserve the waste materials at the sev- eral cantonments. Under his plan all such materials are sorted and placed in separate cans—one for garbage, one for bones, another for 444 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE fats, another for grease, and others for paper, tin cans, bottles, etc. The garbage from 13 of the canton- ments is fed to hogs. Experience has shown that the garbage incident to the feeding of from 10 to 15 men will feed one hog. On this ration it has been found that the hogs take on a pound of flesh a day for the first 150 days. The garbage from a cantonment is, therefore, sufficient to feed approximately 4,000 hogs, which would show a gain of more than 9,000 tons of meat per year for the 13 canton- ments, if the stock is kept up to the max1- mum number. In the three remaining cantonments the garbage is reduced to grease, which is used in the manufacture of soap, candles, and glycerine. The bones gathered will first have the grease extracted and then will be ground into bone-meal for fertilizer. The bottles at each cantonment will be sorted, steril- ized and used again for commercial pur- poses. It is estimated that each canton- ment will yield about five tons of waste paper a day. The waste materials from the National Army cantonments and embarkation camps have been sold to contractors for $446,000. In addition to this, the stable manure has been sold for $198,000, mak- ing a total of $644,000. Thus not only has there been a salvage of nearly $700,- 000 from wastes, but an additional sav- ing of $700,000, which, under the old sys- tem, would have been expended in the in- stallation of incinerators. To this must be added the saving of $362,000 in the annual cost of operating these inciner- ators. HOW DIRT HAS BEEN OUTLAWED If an army marches on its stomach, it keeps itself in health by its water supply. Nowhere else is cleanliness such a virtue as in the life of the soldier. Until that lesson was driven home by the ever- higher ratio of deaths from disease than from gun-fire, the value of water, good water and plentiful good water, was not appreciated. But when wars were over and statistics analyzed it was found that more men were killed and injured in their battle with uncleanliness than with the foe in front of them. 445 So dirt was outlawed. Uncle Sam pro- vides in his big cantonments, his training and concentration camps, a water supply capable of meeting any demand that the ends of cleanliness may make. The story of the construction of the water systems of the several cantonments may be told in general terms by describing the system at Camp Dix. The supply at that camp comes mainly from New Lisbon, more than three miles distant. It is taken from the north branch of Rancocas Creek, the headwaters of which drain wooded, uncultivated land, on which cedar, scrub oak and pine grow. The soil is black and white sand, and through it the water percolates into the drainage substrata. In many places the cedar predominates, and the water com- ing in contact with its needles and roots is given a slight amber tinge and acquires a faint but pleasant cedar taste. GIANT TRENCHING MACHINES USED TO LAY WATER MAINS The three pumps which lift the water out of the creek and drive it three miles across country and up into the huge storage tanks of the camp have each a daily capacity of 1,500,000 gallons of water. Each pump is driven by a steam turbine which occupies scarcely more space than the chassis of an army motor truck, but which is powerful enough to do the work of a thousand men. Every minute of the day and night, it drives a thousand gallons of water up a figurative hill 245 feet high, to the top of the high- est water tank in Camp Dix; and it has to fly around at the rate of 83 revolutions a second to do its work. A 16-inch cast-iron water main, more than three miles long, carries the water to the camp. Giant trenching machines, walking forward at the rate of 120 feet an hour, dug a ditch up hill and down dale four feet deep and 20 inches wide. After the trenching machine came the pipe-layers and caulkers, and behind them the trench-refilling machine, which brought up the rear of the procession, with a filled ditch dragging out behind it. A giant steel tank 127 feet high,.on the camp site, holds 200,000 gallons of water and each of three reserve wooden tanks 4146 holds a similar volume. From these tanks the water is conveyed to more than 10,000 faucets, sinks, shower-heads, water-closets, and fire-hydrants by 28 miles of pipes. And these figures are exclusive of the remount station and the base hospital water systems. It was originally planned that the main pipe line should be of California redwood stave pipe, so as to spare iron for more warlike purposes, but the wood did not arrive fast enough and iron mains had to be requisitioned. Redwood pipe was used at as many of the camps as traffic conditions would allow, for not only does water flow through wooden pipe with less friction, and therefore in greater quantity for a given diameter of pipe, but it keeps cooler in summer and is less liable to freeze in winter. Redwood pipe has been known to be serviceable even after half a century of use. The staves are held together by heavy galvanized wire wrapped at a tension of 7,000 pounds. Before being laid, the pipe is coated with asphaltum. Despite the utmost precautions taken to insure the purity of the water supply and the elimination of the menace of con- tamination from sewage, and in spite of all that is done to hold contagion in check by vaccination and isolation, men in the army still need hospitals. There is no place for home nursing in company bar- racks or officers’ quarters. HOSPITAL BEDS FOR EVERY HUNDRED MEN THREE Each cantonment has at least 1,000 hospital beds, and some have 1,600. It is estimated that, with adequate provision for emergencies of training-camp life, three beds will suffice for each 100 men. Eternal vigilance is the price of health in the army, and each hospital is equipped with the most modern of laboratories, where water specialists, food specialists, meningitis specialists, typhoid special- ists—in fact, every kind of specialists— labor who can aid, with argus-eyed mi- croscopes, in the great work of detecting anything and everything that might threaten the health of the men. Above all things, Uncle Sam is determined that the men he has called to the colors shall have but one enemy to fight, and that THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE disease shall not be permitted to play the role of ally to the foe. WHAT AN AROUSED DEMOCRACY CAN DO The building of the military cities to house American armies while on the home soil was an unprecedented task, executed in the face of unheard-of diffi- culties, with unrivaled speed and in an unparalleled spirit. It is America’s an- swer to the world that has mistaken her natural love of peace for an unwilling- ness to go to war, even for its preser- vation. It shows what a democracy, aroused to necessities of the hour, can do. It shows that the genius of organi- zation, which is the secret of twentieth century success. in war, dwells under American skies, and that the spirit of ’76 never dies, but only lies dormant in the years of peace. THE NATIONAL ARMY! CANTON- MENTS CAMP DEVENS The cantonment at Ayer, Massachu- setts, known as Camp Devens, houses the forces of the National Army drawn from New England. It lies to the north of the town of Ayer, on a site that was largely occupied by second-growth scrub timber. The ground is open and porous, as well as rolling, thus insuring good drainage. The site was selected with an eye to hav- ing a force quartered near Boston, which is only 30 miles away, to defend that city in the event of any military emergency. The town of Ayer has an unusual his- tory,as the history of New England towns goes. It is one of the most youthful of all the municipalities east of the Hudson River, having acquired a corporate ex- istence and a name in 1871. ‘The rail- roads of northern Massachusetts found convenient crossing points in that neigh- borhood. First there came a signal tower. then a village, and then a community, which tired of being called “The Junc- tion” and wanted a real town name. This camp has the lowest average tem- perature of any of the cantonments. On the other hand, it has more cloudless days than any other with the single ex- ception of Deming, New Mexico, which is in the “sunshine belt” of the South- Men, © Underwood & Underwood PLAY-TIME IN CAMP Friendships between men from different parts of the country, soundness of body developed by sport, drill and good food, better standards of hygiene instilled by military life, education through schooling and through broadened experience—all these must be credited to the account of the United States with War when the National Army returns to civilian life. 447 4SIY IY} WOI, PapMosI ‘sjUo} oY} pue ‘Aulie pojjeip oq} JO 4sIy 9Y} YIM punois oy} uO JIM Spool S$ JUDUIUIOAOS 94} [Hun pojiejs oq Jou pynoos S19 YIOM UBB] jf LOY S}FIYsoxeUA pue ‘sSurpjinq [ooyds ‘sasnoy peuopurqe ‘VO CW (A PAPA 0} FYSI9 WOT SPM UOTPIOOSSY 94} Inq ‘poyajdwod atom “dja ‘sayqeyS ‘sfeyrdsoy ‘syoeireq oy} pue PdAtos a SSUIp[Ing ssayy, “duies piensy [euoieN pue juswuoULD YyORa ye poasMboad o1e sty} OF Ie[IWIS ssurpyinqg SNICGTING “V (D0 ‘W °A AWUV NV NI GMO AOVAHAV NV UOljeIOOssY UTSIIYD Sud SunoZ wosz ydess0j0yg Qik hen ’ 448 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE west. Camp Devens’ average tempera- ture is 47 and it has an average of 200 cloudless days a year. The smallest except one of the 16 can- tonments, Camp Devens is larger than the neighboring cities of Taunton, Wal- tham, Quincy, and Pittsfield, being in a class with Fitchburg and Newton. The men who get camp leave are in easy reach of many places famous in American history. Concord and Lexing- ton, Cambridge and Charleston, and a hundred other places are there to stir men’s souls to the spirit of the hour, and to enable officers to say in 1917 what Cap- tain Davis said in 1775, in America’s first battle for liberty against a German king: “T haven’t a man that’s afraid to go.” Camp Devens is named in honor of Brig. Gen. Charles Devens, a native of Massachusetts, whose distinguished serv- ices before Richmond in the Civil War brought him the brevet rank of major general. He was Attorney General of the United States under President Hayes. CAMP UPTON Camp Upton, which houses the Na- tional Army troops from the metropoli- tan district of New York City, is situated in the very heart of Long Island, about half way between Brooklyn and Mon- tauk Point and equidistant from the sound and sea. It is on the Long Island Railroad, between the villages of Yap- hank and Manorville. The region around the camp affords the usual Long Island scenery—a broad, open, level iandscape, with many flourishing villages and well- kept country places. Between New York and Camp Upton lies what has been pronounced the most intensely cultivated region in the United States. The soil is rather poor, but the proximity of the greatest market in the country makes this region a medium par excellence for transforming sun and soil, fertilizer and water, into market vege- tables. At no point on Long Island is there an elevation of more than 391 feet and the temperature rarely falls below zero and seldom goes above 90, owing to the tempering influences of the sea. Snow usually lasts for a few days only, and the spring temperature is nearly al- 449 ways 5 degrees above that of the main- land. It ranks third among the canton- ments and camps in the number of cloud- less days, having an average of 188 a year. Camp Upton is situated. in a striking region. The whole island is founded on rock, although it outcrops only at Long Island City and Astoria. »During the glacier age a vast sheet of ice from five to ten thousand feet in thickness flowed out from the region of the Great Lakes and shaved a pathway to the sea, in a southeasterly direction, overflowing the highest mountains of New York and New England, as is shown by’ the fact that to this day evidences of its eroding passage are to be found on the summits of these mountains. ws Before this moving mass of ice all life disappeared. The glacier moved very slowly, perhaps not more than 100 feet a year, or a mile in 50 years. After a jour- ney lasting 25,000 years, it reached the ocean and the vast wall of ice stretched across the Atlantic border from New Jer- sey to the Arctic Sea. A huge mass of earth and rocky debris, known as the terminai moraine, piled up in front of the glacier. The ice melted and the debris, which had been scraped from the mountains, was dropped, a por- tion of it now forming the backbone of Long Island. Again the ice advanced, going just a little farther the second time, and the second range of hills was formed, extending from near Huntington to Mon- tauk Point and Block Island, and includ- ing the region surrounding the site of Camp Upton. Much of the debris of this second melting was in the form of a very thick mud, which flowed southward to- ward the sea and formed the present slightly sloping and very fertile plains of the island. There are historical associations on Long Island as interesting as its geologi- cal history. At Easthampton stands the house in which the man who wrote the hymn common to the English-speaking world, “Home, Sweet Home,” was born— John Howard Payne. This cottage is a modest structure, standing on the main street near the center of the village. At Huntington, not many miles from SHAVING A MAN WITH A aan Te tlt ee ss ee Photograph by Paul Thompson STRONG BEARD No, a drawing-knife is not the usual implement with which the company barber removes the soldier’s beard. But it does help make a fine picture to send to the folks back home Camp Upton, is a monument commem- orating the unselfish devotion of Nathan Hale to his country when General Wash- ington entrusted to him the task of ascer- taining the movements of the enemy. After gathering the information he was betrayed and taken to New York and hanged. His last words were: “I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.” Many a Camp Upton soldier will journey hither and repeat those words in his heart as he dedicates his life to the duties of the present hour. Camp Upton is named in honor of Col. Emery Upton, who was born at Batavia, N. Y., in 1839 and was graduated from West Point in 1861. He was three times wounded in the Civil War—at Bull Run, at Spottsylvania Court-House, and at Opequan. For gallant conduct at Win- chester under General Sherman, he was brevetted major general of volunteers. After the Civil War he served as lieu- tenant colonel of the 25th Infantry, Reg- ular Army, and later as colonel of the 4th Artillery. He prepared a system of tac- tics for the service, and from 1870 to 1875 was commandant of cadets at West Point. His writings pertaining to mili- tary preparedness are classics of their kind. CAMP DIX Camp Dix, where the National Army from western New York, New Jersey, and Delaware is in training, is located near the town of Wrightstown, N. J., on the Delaware River side of the water- shed that divides the State into east and west Jersey. The elevation above sea- level is approximately 100 feet. One would have to travel far to find more beautiful fields or better-kept farms than those which had to be transformed into a training camp for the Jersey and neighboring troops. Stretching across the State from the Atlantic Ocean below Sandy Hook to Salem, on the Delaware, and passing through Burlington County, in which THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Camp Dix is situated, is the marl region of New Jersey. The marl (an earthy, crumbling deposit consisting chiefly of clay, and greatly valued as a fertilizer) is found at various depths and sometimes lies in beds 30 feet or more thick. The ground above it is rich and highly pro- ductive. When the construction forces started to work on the buildings for Camp Dix they found themselves among great fields of growing corn and ripening wheat. Some of the farmers were very reluctant to move away from homesteads which had been in their families since the days be- fore Washington crossed the Delaware; but the military authorities were patient with them and afforded them every con- sideration that the exigencies of the hour would permit. It is told that one farmer took the money he received and made a long-deferred trip with his family to the West. When he came back the transfor- mation was so marked that, although he and his father and his father’s father had lived and worked upon his farm, he found difficulty in finding his way around While Camp Dix is situated in a rich agricultural community, it has the advan- ‘tage of being contiguous to the pine-bar- ren regions, where ideal grounds for tar- get practice are available. Thousands of acres of these pine barrens have been cleared, so as to permit the training of men in the handling of big guns, as well as small arms. Gen. John A. Dix, in honor of whom this camp was named, was an ensign in themWar of 1662-at.the age of 14; and lived to become major general of volun- teers in the Civil War: As the President of the Union Defense Committee during the latter conflict, he organized 17 regi- ments and was instrumental in saving Maryland for the Union. At the out- break of hostilities he was Secretary of the Treasury. Two revenue cutters were ordered home from New Orleans by him. One of the commanders refused to obey. He was ordered placed under arrest, and Secretary Dix telegraphed the now famous command, “If any one attempts to haul down the American flag, shoot him on the spot.” 451 CAMP MEADE Camp Meade was built for the National Army forces drafted from eastern Penn- sylvania, Maryland, and the District of Columbia. It has a housing capacity greater than that of any city in Mary- land except Baltimore. Indeed, its popu- lation is twice as large as that of the State’s second city—Cumberland. Situated midway between Washington and Baltimore, the climatic conditions are largely the same as those prevailing at Camp Dix, New Jersey. The average annual temperature is 58, and there are 131 days of cloudless weather a year, with 124 days partly cloudy. The region around Camp Meade is a quiet, pastoral community, but when the men secure camp leave they are only an hour’s ride from Baltimore or Washing- ton. Only a little more than 20 miles away is Annapolis, capital of the State and dear to the heart of every American as the home of the U. S. Naval Acad- emy, where such defenders of the Na- tion’s flag as Farragut, Dewey, Sampson, and Evans were graduated. Within 50 miles as the crow flies are Gettysburg and Antietam, two of America’s greatest bat- tlefields. Camp Meade was named in honor of Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, the commander of the Union forces at the battle of Gettysburg, where the tide was finally turned against the Southern Con- federacy by the defeat of Gen. Robert E. Lee’s forces and the shattering of South- ern hopes of success on Northern soil. General Meade was born in Cadiz, Spain, of American parentage, the year that Na- poleon was defeated at Waterloo. After the war citizens of Philadelphia presented him with a house, and after his death, in 1872, a fund of $100,coo was raised and presented to his family as a testimonial to his services in saving the Union. CAMP LEE Situated three miles due east of Peters- burg, on the electric railroad to Hope- well, the magic munition city, and on the Norfolk & Western Railroad’s main line to Norfolk, Camp Lee, housing most of the troops of western Pennsylvania and 452 all of those from Virginia and West Vir- ginia, is, with the single exception of Camp Lewis, the largest of all the Na- tional Army cantonments. It accommo- -dates 46,400 men, which makes it the third municipality in point of size in the Old Dominion. Only Richmond, the capi- tal, and Norfolk, the chief seaport, are larger. It is twice the size of Newport News, which is doing so much in forging America’s answer to submarine losses. The climate is fairly equable, the average annual temperature being 58 degrees, as compared with 47 at Camp Devens, 51 at Camp Upton, and 54 at Camp Dix. About 139 days of the year are clear and 118 partly cloudy (see page 421). The geography of the Petersburg re- gion made it important in the history of the nation. Situated on the Appomat- tox River, 20 miles from its confluence with the James, it is the converging point of all the main highways and railroads from the south, the southeast, and the west. Its strategic value gave it a role in Revolutionary operations and made it in many ways the key to the Confederacy. The region in which Camp Lee is lo- cated is richly historic. Twenty miles north is Richmond, capital of the Con- federacy. Less than forty miles away, is Jamestown Island, scene of the first per- manent English settlement in America. A few miles farther will bring the pil- grim to Williamsburg, where met the first elected legislative body in America. Fifty miles to the east is Yorktown, where the French threw the weight of their arms heavily in the balance and helped America achieve her independ- ence. Only 60 miles away is Newport News, with its big embarkation camp from which the men who are now training will sail for France and the fighting front. Camp Lee was named for General Robert E. Lee, the brilliant chieftain of the Southern Confederacy, who, born in 1807, the son of “Light Horse Harry” Lee of the Revolutionary Army, lived to become universally acknowledged one of the great captains of military history. CAMP JACKSON Located in the heart of South Carolina, with its southwestern corner only four miles from Columbia, the State capital, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Camp Jackson, where the National Army troops from the two Carolinas will train, has a mild climate, with an average tem- perature of 63. The weather conditions are similar to those on that part of the French front where it is expected Amer- ican troops will be sent. The camp site is drained by Gill Creek, and Wildcat Road had to be closed for more than two miles to permit the building of the cantonment. Camp Jackson is within 100 miles of - the National Guard Mobilization Camps at ‘Charlotte, N.C. Spartanbures Sai Greenville, S. C., and Augusta, Ga. . Columbia is South Carolina’s railroad as well as geographic and political center. It is located on the east bank of the Con- garee River, at the head of navigation, and is on the dividing line between what is known as the red and sand hills re- gion and the piedmont district. It is in a section noted for its sanitariums and winter resorts. Camp Jackson is named in honor of Andrew Jackson, seventh President of the United States. North and South Carolina both claim to be the State of his birth. North Carolina says he was born in the Waxhaw settlement, in Union County, N. C., while South Carolinians claim that distinction for a spot near Waxhaw Creek, in Lancaster County, S.C. Jackson always gave the latter as his birthplace, and his most thorough biogra- pher thinks that the weight of evidence favors his South Carolina origin. His father died in Union County a few days before his birth, and his mother went to live with her sister in Lancaster County. The controversy hangs on the issue of whether he was born before or after the mother went to her sister’s home. 3 CAMP GORDON Camp Gordon, where the National Army forces from Georgia, Tennessee, and southeastern Alabama are being trained, is situated 914 miles north of the heart of Atlanta, Ga., on the main line of the Southern Railway from Washington. In the extreme northwest part of the camp is Silver Lake, one of the most beautiful bodies of water in the South. At the gate of Camp Gordon are Ogle- thorpe University and Humphries Park. Photograph by Paul Thompson WALL SCALING: CAMP WADSWORTH Many of our National Guardsmen saw active service on the Mexican border during the past year, and they were, therefore, far advanced in the schooling of warfare when the present great emergency arose. Upoti entering camp they were qualified to take an intensive training course which was not possible in the National Army cantonments. Thousands of Guardsmen showed such rapid progress under the tutelage of their own officers and of experts loaned by our Allies that they have already entered the ‘ ‘post-graduate schools of war” in the training camps behind the French front lines. 453 ‘SUIUIRIY SUC 9UO peYy dAvY dIURUIOJIOd Poytids Siy} SUIAIS a1e OYM Ud dYyy “[[lIp JO puly Siu) Je S]aoX9 TaXOq [NJ[[E]JS B pu ‘saSTdI9xX9 JOUOART JY} O} ILPMUIS SI JI A9sSNvIaq S}UaUIUOJULD pue sdiued dy} Je poseimooud jsour y10ds oy} si Suixog SUMOIMMAO LNAGOLS AG TITYC LANOAVA GHONVACV pooMispu~ Y poomsapug © a NT Ae : THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The capacity of this cantonment is 40,- 150. It disputes with Macon and Au- gusta for the honor of being the third city in Georgia. The soldiers quartered there will have very few winter rigors to undergo. While the mercury in the thermometer has occasionally fallen be- low the zero point, a really cold day is rare, and the average temperature for the year is 61 degrees Fahrenheit. Only 106 days in the year are sunless, while 111 of the sunny ones have no clouds on the horizon. Atlanta, host to the Camp Gordon forces, 1S a young city. Accustomed to municipal history which is nearly al- ways rooted in the colonial era, it seems strange for Easterners to think of At- lanta having no place on the map until its first inhabitant settled there in 1839. The village was originally calléd Termi- nus, from the fact that it was at the end of the Georgia Railroad, but in 1843 it was incorporated under the name of Marthasville, a designation it forsook in 1845, in favor of Atlanta. At the out- break of the Civil War the erstwhile railhead settlement had a population of 15,000, and became a strategic point dur- ing that conflict. In 1864 it was the ob- jective of General Sherman’s offensive from Chattanooga. Capturing the city on September 2, he began his march to the sea on November 15th. Camp Gordon was named for General John B. Gordon, one of the ablest officers of the Confederacy. His grandfather was one of seven brothers, all of whom fought in the Revolutionary War. When the Civil War began he was engaged in mining work in Alabama and was with- out military training. Organizing a com- pany which called itself the “Raccoon Roughs,” he became its captain, and rose through successive grades to a major generalship. He was made a brigadier for his distinguished conduct at Malvern Hill, Seven Pines, and Sharpsburg. He held the “farthest east’? record of the Confederate forces, having, before the battle of Gettysburg, penetrated as far as Wrightsville, on the Susquehanna. After the war he was elected Governor of Georgia and also served in the U. S. Senate. CAMP SHERMAN Camp Sherman, built to shelter the National Army forces mustered into the Federal service from Ohio and a small section of western Pennsylvania, is lo- cated at Chillicothe, Ohio. Chillicothe is one of the big cross-roads of the State of Ohio. The Norfolk & Western and the Baltimore & Ohio main lines from Columbus to Norfolk and from St. Louis to Philadelphia, respectively, cross here. The Ohio & Erie Canal, which connects the waters of the Great Lakes with those of the Ohio River, passes by the city. The camp is situated about three miles northwest of Chillicothe, in one of the finest farming belts of the Buckeye State. The 1,g00-acre site is practically level, there being not more than 25 feet differ- ence between the elevation of any two points in the whole area. The site paral- lels the Scioto River at a distance of about half a mile from its bank. The camp headquarters is located in an old southern Ohio mansion which stands in the big parade ground. In the average year Chillicothe has 130 days in which the clouds hide the sun all day. There are about 100 days of sun- shine and 135 partly cloudy. The aver- age temperature is higher than that of most northern cantonments, being 53 de- grees. Camp Sherman was named in honor of General William Tecumseh Sherman, the hero of Chattanooga. His father died when he was nine years of age, and he was reared in the family of Thomas Ew- ing, whose daughter he married in later years. In 1856 he predicted the Civil War, saying that “unless people both North and South learn more moderation, we will see sights in the way of civil war.” Resigning the superintendency of a military school in Louisiana when that State seceded, he returned to his home in the North and volunteered for service. By successive steps he rose from colonel to be a major general of volunteers. Later he was made a brigadier general in the Regular Army and given command of the Western forces by General Grant when the latter became Commander-in- chief. After the fall of Chattanooga he 456 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE invaded Georgia. Captur- ing Atlanta, he issued or- ders for all of its people to, leave, he venplmete ficials protested, which led to the oft-repeated saying ascribed to him, “War is hell.’ What he actually said was “You cannot qualify war in harsher terms than I will; war is cruelty and you cannot re- mies tte a CAMP TAYLOR Camp Taylor, located beyond the city limits of Louisville, KyJ2 41s) the training camp for the di- visions of the National Army which will come out of Kentucky, Indiana, and southern Illinois. No part of the camp is more than seven miles from the heart of the city, all of it except the maneuver grounds, in- deed, lying close to the™ five-mile line from the center of the town. Its sewerage and water sys- tems connect with those of Louisville and it gets its electric light from there. None of the camps has been laid out with more attention to ideals of city: planning than Camp Tay- lor. There are some beau- tiful groves of trees and commanding knolls attract the eye. The average tem- perature at Camp Taylor is 57, with 107 as the high- est summer heat on record and 21 below zero as the lowest winter cold. It has an average of 107 days of full sunshine and 118 of unbroken cloudiness a year. Louisville illustrates the effect of geography on his- tory. It is situated at the falls of the Ohio River. In the year 1778 General George Rogers Clark was © Underwood & Underwood cured and the National Guard camps would have , this one was met and solved and the canvas was produced. The fo) But, like the other problems NATIONAL GUARD IN CAMP < -d camps and the Regular Army were as great a problem as the lumber and labor needs NEW YORI 4 1 ¥ is tenting tonight—Over There. THI decided that sufficient tenting material could not be se it was nearly e for the National Army. Indeed, ” The quantities of canvas required for the National Guat to have buildings like thos at the cantonments. “Rainbow Division <= Photograph from Young Men’s Christian Association A YOUNG MEN’S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION HUT AT THE FRONT According to the account of an English officer who has been there, when the young soldier, weary and muddy, first comes out of the trenches “he wants to go home to mother. Of course, he can’t; so he goes to the Y. M. C. A. hut.” This hut is a sand-bag dugout covered with turf, ten feet long and seven feet wide, with a roof high enough for men to stand upright in the middle. sweep over this refuge constantly. floating down the Ohio, his boats loaded with soldiers for the conquest of the Illi- nois country. When he came to the falls he concluded that what was afterward known as Corn Island, but which has since been washed away, would be an ideal cantonment site for the training of his raw recruits, since it was safe from Indian raids and desertion would be difficult. He brought some twenty emi- Planks laid on boxes form a counter, where cocoa and biscuits are served; there are writing and reading material and a talking machine. Shrapnel and shells grant families with him and built log cabins for them. After training his men he resumed his voyage ‘down the river, leaving the emigrant families behind. They finally moved off the island and set- tled in a bend of the river on the Ken- tucky side and there founded the city of Louisville. Fifty miles away is Hodgenville, where Abraham Lincoln was born. Within three 457 ; ‘aut AuL puv “YOIVUt 94} uo ‘Aejd ye SJIOM je SUISUIS 9SeINODUD 0} SI SJapuRWIWIOD dues Jo Ad[Od ay} pue ‘SUIS O} SIIIP[OS dy} YI} OF JUdIUJAVdIC AeA 94} Aq sua -uojuRD pue sduies ay} 0} JUaS o1V SIapva] SUOG ‘a[P41OUI—ssaooNS $s ALUIe UL O} [eI}UaSsa aT}qns jeYy}y dn surpyinq ur jyaed asa] ve sAvyd isn JINASILVId LV GNV@ ONIMLS GNV dN’ID AHID V uosdwotry, neg Aq ydess0}0yg WwW THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE hours’ ride is Mammoth Cave, the world’s greatest caverns, which served America in her first war for liberty as the mines of Minnesota are serving her now, fur- nishing the saltpeter then unobtainable elsewhere, even as Minnesota furnishes the iron ore today. Camp Taylor was named for Zachary Taylor, twelfth President of the United States and hero of Buena Vista, where he won a notable victory over Santa Anna, the Mexican leader, in 1847. CAMP CUSTER Situated in the environs of Battle Creek, famous for its breakfast foods and rest cures, Camp Custer, which is given over to the National Army forces from Michigan and eastern Wisconsin, is the smallest of the 16 cantonments. ‘The Kalamazoo River runs past the camp site, and the barracks are ranged along the crest of a hill, shaped like a boomerang. At the end of the parade ground there is a beautiful flower garden, planted by the ladies of Battle Creek. Although the camp is the smallest of the cantonments, it is a sizable place. Eleven hundred buildings, a half-million- dollar hospital, 20 miles of sewerage, 16 miles of water pipe, 8 artesian wells, with a combined flow of 4,000 gallons a minute, are not mean figures. The hospi- tal, with its 59 buildings, is laid out around Eagle Lake, a beautiful sheet of water. Some fifty miles from the shores of Lake Michigan, a hundred miles from Lake Erie, and about forty from the In- diana State line, Battle Creek has an ideal location as a mobilization center. Battle Creek was not on the map be- fore 1850, being incorporated as a village in that year; but as a junction point of the main lines of the Grand Trunk and the Michigan Central railroads, it soon began to flourish. Camp Custer was named for General George A. Custer, who was killed in a battle with Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, June 25, 1876. CAMP GRANT Located about five miles south of Rock- ford, Ill., to the east of Rock River, and connected with that city by a magnificent 459 concrete highway, Camp Grant, which is the training quarters for the men who will constitute the divisions to be drawn from northern Illinois and all except the Lake Michigan shore counties of Wiscon- sin, is one of the most northerly of the 16 cantonments. It has more sunny days than any other of the 16 cantonments, with 274 cloudless or only partially cloudy ones annually. Camp Grant is bounded on the west by the Rock River, and fronts the north bank of the beautiful little Kishwaukee River for a distance of half a mile. Rock- ford, with a population of 60,000, was so enthusiastic about having a cantonment near it that a fund of $100,000 was raised to improve conditions there. The Cham- ber of Commerce built some 400 resi- dences on a tract outside of the canton- ment to be used as homes for the officers. No city has shown a heartier hospitality to the new National Army forces than Rockford. This cantonment was laid out with an eye to preserving the natural beauty of the site. A magnificent fringe of trees stretches along the banks of Rock River and has been preserved for park pur- poses. Some rare old farm houses have been utilized as officers’ quarters. A circle drawn around the camp at a distance of 80 miles will pass through Chicago and Milwaukee, cross the Mis- sissippi at Dubuque and embrace an area in lowa within the Big Bend of that river between Dubuque and Davenport. This territory embraces magnificent farming land and the great dairy region of which Elgin is the center and from which an- nually come hundreds of millions of pounds of golden butter. Of course, everybody knows for whom this camp was named—Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, chief military hero of the North- ern armies in the Civil War and after- ward President of the United States. CAMP PIKE Camp Pike, situated eight miles north- west of Little Rock, Ark., houses the National Army forces drawn from Ar- kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and west- ern Alabama. Here an up-to-date mili- tary city of 42,000 capacity had virtually ‘paynqisqns usoq savy $309 apsurs sdurvo Sut -UIe1} SIIOJO oy} Ul pasn syuNq JoyxSep-sjqnop oy} JOY “SMopulM JOBIe] YIM syovsseq A1OJS-OM} [ROIWUOUOI d1OW ay} Jdope 0} Poplosp A]asTAL SEM J] ‘sjuauUOJULD oy} 10} pasodord ATjeUursI1O USISOp oy} JO SI punossyoeq oy} Ul surpyMq A10}S-OUO OY} pu DUDS SINqs}e][q we SI SIYy, SUNN SAHOO INUGALS HHL YOL SASSHALLV IN pooMiapuy) Y pooMszapu¢ © tt THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE to be built in the midst of a wilderness. Ground was broken for the camp on July oth. The site was almost entirely cov- ered with second-growth timber, the near- est railroad was five miles away, and sup- plies had to be brought by truck from Little Rock over hilly highways. A vast deal of rock was encountered in ditching for water and sewer pipes—nearly 75 per cent of the total excavations, in fact. Labor was scarce, as Camp Funston, in Kansas, had an earlier start and had secured most of the available supply. But the contractors ranged far and wide, even into the Mexican States of Chihua- “hua and San Luis Potosi, with the result that all handicaps were overcome. This camp has little level ground, resembling Camp Ayer and Camp Gordon in that re- spect, and many heavy grades in the road system result. The 75 hospital buildings cover 47 acres of ground. Little Rock, which plays the réle of host to Camp Pike, is the largest city in Arkansas. It was settled in 1814, be- coming the seat of the territorial gov- ernment in 1820, although at that time it’ had a population of only 20 people. Situated on both banks of the Arkan- sas River, the city takes its name from the rocky promontory which rises to a height of some 50 feet above the river. It was called Little Rock in contradistinc- tion to the bold precipice, some 3 miles above and about 500 feet high, which was known as Big Rock. To the west of the city and of Camp Pike the foothills of the Ozark Mountains rise, but to the east are fertile cotton fields and corn lands. The Arkansas River is navigable to boats of considerable draft as far as Little Rock, while steamboats of shallow draft go as far as Fort Smith, 165 miles to the west. At the outbreak of the Civil War the State was hopelessly divided in sentiment. The upland people, living west of Little Rock, were Unionists and the cotton-ter- ritory folk, living east, were Secession- ists. Camp Pike stands near the line of cleavage. Camp Pike is named in honor of Gen- eral Zebulon M. Pike, an American sol- dier and geographer. Born in Lamber- ton, N. J., in 1779, he spent his boyhood 461 in Pennsylvania, and in 1805 started from St. Louis on an expedition to locate the source of the Mississippi. He was successful. Later he followed the Mis- souri and Osage rivers into Kansas, then went southward to the Arkansas, pro- ceeding through Kansas and Colorado to the present site of Pueblo, and viewed Pikes Peak (since named in his honor). While searching for the Red River he lost his way and wandered into Mexican ter- ritory across the upper Rio Grande. He was arrested, taken to Chihuahua, and, after some delay, escorted back to the border. In the War of 1812 he led Amer- ican forces into Canada and was killed at York by falling rock when the retreating force blew up a powder magazine. He died while his nomination for brigadier general was pending. CAMP DODGE Troops from four States are being trained at Camp Dodge, 11 miles north of Des Moines, Iowa. These troops in- clude all of the National Army forces from Iowa, North Dakota, and Minne- sota, and those from a middle belt of Illinois. Military scenes are not new to the neighborhood of Camp Dodge, for the site embraces the Fort Dodge State rifle range and maneuver grounds of the lowa National Guard in peace times. The camp lies on both sides of the Des Moines River and occupies an area of about 3,500 acres. Many other cities sought the can- tonment, but Des Moines showed that it enjoyed 3,000 hours more of sunshine a year than any rival site. It has 259 days of all or part sunshine. Its average an- nual temperature is 48 degrees. Des Moines is one of the great railroad centers of the Middle West. It is the capital of the State, and its name signifies “Of the Monks.” Founded 71 years ago, it is now a city of 100,000 progressive citizens. Camp Dodge was named for General Grenville M. Dodge, a civil engineer who helped to make the Platte Survey, one of the first railroad surveys toward the Pa- cific. He was an officer in the Civil War, rising to the rank of major general of volunteers. In 1864 he commanded the 462 Sixteenth Corps of General Sherman’s army in the campaign which resulted in the fall of Atlanta. Later he was given command of the Department of the Mis- -souri. He became chief engineer of the Union Pacific in 1867, and of the Texas and Pacific in 1871. He served a term in Congress, and in 1898 was appointed by President McKinley as chairman of a commission to investigate the charges of departmental mismanagement in the Spanish-American War. CAMP FUNSTON It devolves on Camp Funston, located at Fort Riley, Kansas, which stands at the confluence of the Republican and the Kansas rivers, to accommodate the Na- tional Army forces from seven States— Missouri, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan- sas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. The men who will train at this camp may well feel that they are closer to the heart of the United States than any of the other military forces of the nation, for at Fort Riley stands the Ogden Monument, proclaiming the exact geographic center of the United States. The military reservation on which Fort Riley stands, and on which Camp Fun- ston was built, embraces nearly 20,000 acres. A military road connects Fort Riley with Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, about 25 miles above Kansas City. This road was completed in 1854. Later it was extended westward to Bridgers Pass, between Nebraska and Utah wort: Riley, iscthe seat. of ithe United States Cavalry and Field Artil- lery schools, which accounts for the big area embraced in the reservation. Camp Funston can accommodate 41,- 000 people—a city as populous as the State capital. To the south of the camp runs the Kansas River and to the north are grass-covered hills. It would be diffi- cult to imagine a more striking location for a camp. The fertile valley of Kan- sas’ middle river sweeps eastward, and one gets the feeling of the boundless reaches of America as he surveys the scene from the green hills to the north. The county adjoining Riley on the east is Pottawattomie, home of John Brown. Sixty miles to the southeast is Emporia, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE where “What’s the Matter with Kansas” had its birth. Camp Funston is named for General Frederick Funston, who died only a few months ago at San Antonio, Texas. Born at New Carlisle, Clark County, Ohio, in 1865, the son of an artillery officer in the Civil War, his boyhood was spent on a Kansas farm. He was educated at the State university, became a reporter and then a special agent of the United States Department of Agriculture, where his work took him across Death Valley, into the heart of Alaska, down the Yukon alone in a canoe and up the 141st me- ridian to the Arctic Ocean. Later he traveled in Mexico, then went to Cuba, where he joined the cause of Cuba as a captain of artillery. While campaigning with Gomez and Garcia he was wounded, and, seeking to return to the United States, was captured by the Spaniards, who condemned him to be shot. Upon be- ing released he returned to the United States. At the outbreak of the Spanish- American War he raised the 20th Kansas Volunteer Infantry Regiment. He was sent to the Philippines, where, on a small raft, he crossed a river under heavy fire and established a rope ferry that enabled the Federal forces to win an important victory at Calumpit. For this act of bravery he was awarded the Congres- sional Medal of Honor, and later organ- ized the expedition that captured Agui- naldo. “His more “recent ‘Setvicessees. pecially as commander of the American forces on the Rio Grande and as the head of the expedition to Vera Cruz, are well known. CAMP TRAVIS San Antonio has the unusual honor of having four military camps—Camp Travis, housing the National Army con- tingent from OKahoma and Texas ; Camp W ‘Ison, housing contingents of Regular Army forces on the Mexican border ; Fort Sam Houston, a Regular Army post; and Camp Kelly, an aviation camp. The city’s popularity with the army is deserved, as it has seasonable weather for military training every month 1 in the year. Its average temperature is 68% andiits lowest is 4° above zero. Furthermore, it © Underwood & Underwood THE SILHOUETTED SENTRY AS HIS EVENING VIGIL BEGINS _ Back of him, in the gathering dusk, is seen a tiny segment of a vast tented city. As silently as the shades of evening fall, the spirit of resolution rises in every loyal heart that America shaii never quit the fight until she knows that the fruitage of her warfare is lasting peace. occupies a strategical position with ref- erence to 2,0co miles of turbulent and somewhat unfriendly -border. Camp Travis lies immediately to the east of Camp Wilson, along the Austin road. It adjoins Fort Sam Houston, which is second in importance among the military reservations in the United States. The men at Camp Travis are training on historic soil. The city is the largest in the Lone Star State, situated about 140 miles inland from the Gulf of Mexico, at Rockport, and the same distance from the border city of Laredo, on the Rio Grande. The railroads centering there lead south to Laredo, southeast to the Gulf, west to Eagle Pass and El Paso, and northeast to the principal cities of the Mississippi Valley. The city is a quaint combination of old Spanish and modern American architec- ture. It is beautifully laid out on a plateau over 600 feet above sea-level, a few miles below the wonderful chain of crystal springs trom which the San Antonio River flows. Seventeen iron bridges span the river, which meanders for 13 miles through the city. The public plazas, with their subtropical trees, their chile concarne and hot tamale stands, and 463 poomMsopuy) Y poomsopuy, © {22M oy} Jnoge yonur os yey y,uppnoM ojdood UT ‘YS 0} pash OYA ULL dy} PUY OF SI W sv opoRpods SUT[IIY} sIy} UL oNnUSAW ” ul yeyt ‘Vror jo sXkv P pouoqy SI [Uoun ot} WRT JO wNOSIp ALAS IASTIopovALYS oy} NAWSGIVND ‘IVNOILLVN MUYOA MUN WOT ,AO-GNUS,, V 7) ej ey m AY? 0 SY ae : TIAOISTIP OF} yNouIp sv st 3] 404 THE NATIONAL GROGRAPHIC MAGAZINE their debouching streets with liquid Cas- tilian names, make one think of Monterey and Chihuahua, which were, before. the passing of the Diaz régime, about as much American as San Antonio is Span- ish. The city was born of the fierce rivalry between France and Spain for the pos- session of the rolling prairies of Texas. Both sent expeditions of exploration to this region. The Spaniards established missions and held the territory. When Texas revolted against Santa Anna, in 1835, the city was taken by the Texans, whose garrison included Wil- liam BY iravas ‘and: Davy. Crockett. The city fell and Travis and his com- mand, numbering 179, fortified them- selves in the Alamo, with their rifles and 14 cannons. The siege lasted 10 days, with 6,000 troops against the devoted 179. When the place was finally captured every defender left alive was butchered, but they had accounted for a casualty list of 1,600 among the Mexicans. In 1842 the Spaniards took the city a second time and marched off its most prominent citi- zens to dungeons in Perote Castle, State of Vera Cruz. A few days later it was retaken by Hays and Caldwell, never to fall into Mexican hands again. Col. William B. Travis, for whom Camp Travis is named, was born in Edgefield County, South Carolina, in 1811. He studied law, moved to Alabama, then to Texas. He became a colonel in the Texas army in 1832, was captured by the Mexi- cans, and released. How gallantly Colo- nel Travis, at the age of 25 years, con- ducted his defense of the Alamo is a story which has fired the imagination of Amer- ican school boys for three-quarters of a century. CAMP LEWIS The biggest cantonment, both in ca- pacity and in the number of States whose troops it will house, is Camp Lewis, 17%4 miles south of Tacoma, Washington, at Dupont, on the Northern Pacific Rail- way, and on the splendid Pacific highway. It has quarters for 47,650 officers and men and stables for 15,000 horses. It will be the training school of ali the Na- tional Army forces drawn from the eight 465 States of Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, Nevada, and Utah. ; This site has long been regarded as the finest military training ground west of the Rocky Mountains. It has more en- tirely clouded days than any other can- tonment site, yet it enjoys the most equa- ble climate of the 16. Even Camp Travis, in a latitude 1,200 miles farther south, sometimes shows a winter thermometer only 4 degrees above zero, while the low mercury mark for Camp Lewis is 9 de- grees above. The warm winds of the Japan current make the climate of this region so equable that Washington has been given the sobriquet of the Evergreen State. 3 Within a few miles of the camp site every kind of. obstacle that nature op- poses to soldiers may be found. The low ranges of the Cascades are hard by; Mt. Rainier is not faraway. ‘The soldiers, therefore, may practice on any kind of terrain, from Alpine heights to level sa- vannas. . Camp Lewis is situated in the great Puget Sound Basin, between the coast and Cascade ranges of mountains. In its highest parts this basin scarcely rises more than 500. feet above sea-level, and for more than half of its length is pene- trated by the southern arms of Puget Sound—a body of water which forms one of the finest systems of harbors in the world. Camp Lewis was named for Captain Meriwether Lewis, one of the leaders of the famous Lewis and Clark Expedition, through which the American people gained their first knowledge of the great Northwest. Lewis was born near Char- lottesville, .Va., in 1774. He enlisted in the forces sent to put down the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, entered the Regular Army as-a lieutenant in 1795, became a captain in 1797, and Thomas Jefferson’s private secretary in 18ot. While President, Jefferson sent a con- fidential message to Congress asking an appropriation for an expedition to plant the American flag on the territory from the Mississippi to Puget.Sound. After the appropriation was in hand he ap- pointed Captain Lewis and Captain Clark “AeM 94} UsdO ACU S}ooH Pol|[V 94} JoAdtoyM suoHeiodo Sulpury 10f Apeotl MOU 91e puke ‘puNnoIs pojsa}UOD UO pu] JsHw JY} 910] Aue jO paensueA oY} Se 9At9S 0} poures} Used QALY AST], “BITATIS BOS JIAO 1OF SITIO} SUIJYyoY IJe[Nse1 swe su, JO UOApeNbs SurAy oy} payee Uaaq aAvY YSU OALzIeM [eIIOe JO JAP oY} 910J0q ‘yEYM O}N}I}SUOD OYM USUI oY} UeY} SUNS pojouOdeq po[pueY JOAD Ud JO jO] JoIpinys ON VINIONIA ‘OOILNVNO :H01LOVYd IHNOAVG LV SANIVVW QdAIVG 0JOY_ JoSpe’] W[qng wo1j ydess0j04g 7 466 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE to lead the expedition. They started up the Missouri in the spring of 1804, fol- lowing that river to its source, and then struck down the Columbia River to the Pacific. They returned by the same gen- eral route, exploring many adjacent val- leys on the way. Captain Lewis was afterward appointed Governor of the Territory of Louisiana. THE NATIONAL GUARD CAMPS CAMP GREENE Camp Greene, training ground for the National Guard of the New England States, lies partly within the city limits of Charlotte, N. C. The elevation here is about 720 feet, with an average tem- perature of 60°. The record high tem- perature is 102°, and —5° is the mer- cury’s lowest mark. Charlotte is on the Piedmont and North- ern, the Southern, the Norfolk Southern, and the Seaboard Air Line railroads. It is situated in the gold-mining region of the State, has many cotton mills, clothing and other manufactories. Electric power is cheap here. The population is about 35,000. Charlotte was settled about 1750, and became a county seat just before the war for independence. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence, which is held to have anticipated the Jeffersonian document, was signed here in May, 1775. Camp Greene is named for a New Eng- land hero of the American Revolution— Nathanael Greene, of Rhode Island. He was trained as a Quaker, but was one of the first to take part in military prepara- tions of the Colonies. So extraordinary were the conditions under which the American Army was organized, that Nathanael Greene went under fire for the first time as a major general. His most noteworthy service to the American cause was rendered after he took command of the Army of the South, in October, 1780. ‘There he gained his ends more often by retreats and losing battles than by victory, and won a medal of honor from Congress, a tribute from his Commander-in-Chief to the “peculiar abilities of General Greene,” and the ac- knowledgment by his distinguished op- 467 ponent, Cornwallis, that he was “as dan- gerous as Washington—vigilant, enter- prising, and full of resource.” CAMP WADSWORTH The former National Guardsmen of the Empire State are being trained at Camp Wadsworth, about six miles south- west of Spartanburg, S. C. One extrem- ity of the site lies at Fair Forest, a station on the line of the Southern Railway to Atlanta, and the national highway, which passes through Spartanburg, runs close to the camp. This region has an average annual temperature of 61°, with —4° as the average lowest temperature and 104° as the average highest. The elevation is about 875 feet. This location averages less sunshine than any other camp site, with 164 days clear or partly cloudy each year. It is the center of a cotton manu- facturing district. About ten miles away is Cowpens, one of the important battle- fields of the Revolution. In October, 1917, Camp Wadsworth was the largest of the National Guard cities. Its population was more than one and a half times as large as Spartanburg, and Charleston was the only city in the State which housed more inhabitants. Camp Wadsworth is named for J. S. Wadsworth, a New Yorker and a gallant soldier of the Civil War. From March to December, 1862, he was military gov- ernor of Washington, D. C., and was de- feated during the same year in the cam- paign for governor of New York. He played a conspicuous part in the battles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, and Gettysburg. On May 6, 1864, while lead- ing a division in the battle of the Wilder- ness, he received a mortal wound and died two days later. He was brevetted a major general of volunteers for heroism in this battle. CAMP SEVIER The federalized National Guardsmen from ‘Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina are being trained at one of the most delightful camps in the South. The maneuver grounds and the site of Camp Sevier occupy about 2,000 acres where were, until recently, dense woods of oak and pine and fields of corn and ‘OOURIY, UL [PATIIG OfFeS toy} JO SMou oy} Aq A[jUadat PpoUdppe[S J19M JWOY je Sivo~{ ,UOlsIAIq] MOqUT JO pun 4siy ay} posodwiod ‘sutures JO poliod & 1OF PUPIS]T SUO’T UO AID JUD] & 4, SUIALII® 91a] UMOYS 9 Iv oUumM u dNVO OLNI DSNIOD NOISIAIG MOGNIVY HHL JO GYVND AONVAGV FHL DOIAIIS 010Yg SMON Jerqueag Aq ydeisojoyg dUISp Ten= . eyy,, oyt ) [® uOl}t 2 N Jou 10F ODL 468 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE cotton, about six miles northeast of Greenville, S. C. The country is rolling, and the camp boasts pure air, pure water, and no mosquitoes. ‘The main line of the Southern Railway to Washington di- vides the camp proper from the maneuver grounds. Paris station is located just at the boundary of the encampment. ‘The maneuver field is crossed lengthwise by a stream of considerable size. This region has sunshine on 254 days of the average year. Its annual mean temperature is 58°, and —5° is the record low temperature. The cool mountain air tempers the summer heat, which seldom goes above 97°. Greenville, the nearest town and the county seat, was settled in the year of the Declaration of Independence and in- corporated in 1831. It is of considerable industrial importance and is noted as an educational center, with four colleges. Four railroads run into Greenville, con- necting it directly with Knoxville, Co- lumbia, Charleston, Atlanta, and Wash- ington. Col. John Sevier, for whom this camp is named, became famous as an Indian fighter, and was made a brigadier general under Marion in 1781. He proclaimed himself governor of the “State of Frank- lin,’ in the territory which is now Ten- nessee, when North Carolina wished to cede those western lands to Congress. The “State of Franklin” collapsed, but Sevier’s conduct did not prevent his be- coming later a member of the North Carolina Senate, and still later (1790), representing that State in Congress. He enjoyed the unusual distinction of having been sent to Congress at different times by two States, for he represented Ten- nessee from 1811 to 1815, having pre- viously served in that State’s Senate and for three terms as Governor. CAMP HANCOCK Camp Hancock, the National Guard home for Pennsylvania troops, adjoins the southwest city limits of Augusta, Ga., and comprises 2,000 acres, on which are 800 permanent buildings. The Georgia Railroad to Atlanta runs along the south- ern border of the site and connects with the Southern Railway’s union station in 469 the city. A: lake formed by the south fork of Rae Creek lies at the northwest- ern extremity of the camp. Augusta’s climate has all the charms of the Sunny South. Two hundred and sixty-seven days of the average year are clear or only partly cloudy; the lowest winter temperature is three degrees above zero, the maximum in summer is 105°, and the mean temperature is 64°. The city is one of the most popular inland winter resorts in the United States. Augusta was founded in 1735 by the English philanthropist and soldier, James Edward Oglethorpe, to whom the colony of Georgia was granted by George II. For nine years Oglethorpe labored to es- tablish in this wilderness a colony which would remedy the evil of debtors’ prisons in England. He was the guiding spirit in the administration of the colony and its defender against the hostile tide of Spanish colonists and Indians on the south. Financial obligations incurred in promoting the colony compelled his re- turn to England, but he retained his in- terest in American affairs and was one of the earliest to assure the first ambassador of the independent United States to Eng- land of his regard for the new nation and his satisfaction that the difficulties be- tween it and Great Britain were at an end. The city stands at the head of naviga- tion on the Savannah River, making pos- sible an all-water connection with eastern markets. Nine railroads give it further commercial advantages. It has many in- dustries, among which cotton manufac- ture predominates, giving the city the name “the Lowell of the South.” Winfield Scott Hancock, for whom this camp is named, ranks high on the roll of American soldiers. A West Point grad- uate, he earned a first lieutenancy in the Mexican War. Commissioned a briga- dier general of volunteers at the begin- ning of the Civil War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Regular Army during that conflict. At Williamsburg his conduct was mentioned by General Mc- Clellan as “superb.” Hancock’s Division is credited with having saved the Federal forces from a rout at Chancellorsville. He was wounded at Gettysburg, where he won distinction for his judgment and A7( tactical skill, qualities which were sternly required for the part he later played in the Wilderness campaign. He saw more service during the Reconstruction days, and was the unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency against Garfield. A Penn- sylvanian by birth, he is appropriately honored in this camp for Pennsylvania’s soldiers. CAMP WHEELER Camp Wheeler lies seven miles south- east of Macon, Ga. Here the National Guard troops of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia are in training. The Macon, Dublin and Savannah Railroad crosses the camp and connects with the Southern Terminal in Macon. Macon is the center of an extensive cotton trade and has steamboat connec- tion with Brunswick and Savannah. The climate is generally mild and pleasant, with an average annual temper- ature of 63°. The record high temper- ature is 104°, while winter rigors may hardly be said to exist, the lowest mark of the mercury being 10°. The elevation is between 300 and 4oo feet. In the av- erage year about 246 days are clear or only partly cloudy. General Joseph E. Wheeler, for whom this camp is named, was born at Augusta, Ga. A West Point graduate of 1859, he became one of the ablest cavalry leaders of the Confederate army, and rose to the rank of lieutenant general. After the war he served for 19 years in Congress, then, returning to the army, commanded a U.S. cavalry division in the Spanish- American War. After two years more of service, commanding a brigade in the Philippines, he was commissioned a brig- adier general and retired in 1900. He died in 1906 and was buried at Arlington. CAMP MC CLELLAN Five miles from Anniston, Ala., is lo- cated Camp McClellan, the encampment for the National Guardsmen of New Jer- sey, Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia. A great ex- panse of maneuver grounds extends north and east from the encampment. The advantages of this location for military operations were recognized sey- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE eral years ago, and the National Guard of eight Southern States held their field maneuvers here in 1912. Camp and town are surrounded by the foothills of the Blue Ridge. The record high temperature is 103° and the annual average 61°. The lowest record of the mercury is 9° above zero. The sun shines on 208 days of the aver- age year. Anniston was founded in 1873 by the Woodstock Iron Company, and for ten years existed merely as a part of that company’s business. This camp bears a name that is con- spicuous in the military annals of the United States. Major General George B. McClellan was a West Point graduate of 1846. In the Mexican War he was bre- vetted first lieutenant and later captain for gallantry. Between the Mexican and the Civil War he was one of three officers commissioned as military observers in the Crimea, and then leaving the army he be- came first an official of the Illinois Cen- tral and afterward president of the St. Louis and Cincinnati Railroad. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was ap- pointed major general of volunteers and made a successful campaign in West Vir- ginia. After the first battle of Bull Run he was placed in command of the Army of the Potomac, having been commis- sioned a major general in the Regular Army, and in November, 1861, he became commander of the Army of the United States. In the presidential election of 1864, McClellan was Lincoln’s opponent, and was defeated by a popular majority of about 400,000. Thereafter he was oc- cupied chiefly with engineering enter- prises and served one term as Governor of New Jersey, declining renomination. CAMP SHERIDAN Camp Sheridan, occupied by troops of the National Guard of Ohio and West Virginia, lies north of the city limits of Montgomery, Ala. The sun shines in Montgomery about 260 days a year. The average annual temperature. is 65°, with 107° as the greatest summer heat and 5° above zero as the record in low temperature. The hostess city of this encampment is Photograph by Earle Harrison TRENCH WARFARE AT A TRAINING CAMP The men spend a day and a night in these training trenches, eating and sleeping there. The object is to reproduce faithfully the conditions on the French front, and although the realism is not carried to the point of supplying shot and shell, rats and mud, no one can complain that this preparation for the actual battle-line is too theoretical. 471 472 also the State capital. It is situated at the head of navigation of the Alabama, and built for the most part on the high bluff above the river. With its many fine old- fashioned residences and beautiful gar- dens, Montgomery retains some of the leisurely charm of plantation days, but in other respects it is typical of the new South. It is a great inland cotton mar- ket, and has a fortunate location with regard to timber and deposits of iron and coal. Its manufacturing interests are im- portant. No State was more zealous in the Seces- sion movement than Alabama, and it was from Montgomery that the telegraphic order to fire on Fort Sumter was de- spatched. The Confederate Government was inaugurated by Jefferson Davis in the State House here, on February 18, 1861. Today this “Cradle of the Con- federacy” is welcoming the sons of two Northern States who are to be defenders of the honor and ideals of North and South alike. Camp Sheridan is named for General Philip Henry Sheridan, whose brilliant part in the Civil War is familiar to every American. CAMP Camp Shelby, where the National Guardsmen of Indiana and Kentucky are encamped, is located about ten and a half miles southeast of Hattiesburg, Miss., with its 15,000 inhabitants. The camp site was heavily wooded. About 180,000 stumps had to be blown out in the course of construction. The camp is oblong in shape and comprises something more than three square miles, with a target range one mile square adjoining it on the east. SHELBY The Leaf River flows southeast from Hattiesburg and the tributary Jacobs Creek enters the camp grounds. The average temperature for the year, in this region, is 67°, with 103° as the greatest summer heat. One degree below zero stands as the extreme record in low temperatures. Although only 226 days a year are clear or only partly cloudy, a smaller total than in most of the -south- eastern camps, 177 days are cloudless. This camp is neea eel for a Revolution- ary soldier, Colonel Isaac Shelby. A na- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tive of Maryland, at the age of 24 he became a leutenant under his father’s command. By 1777 he had risen to the rank of colonel; he played a distinguished part in the battle of King’s Mountain and served in the Southern campaign under Greene. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1778 and later a member of the North Carolina egislature. He was a member of the Con- stitutional Convention, and in 1792 Gov- ernor of Kentucky, after playing an im- portant part in bringing that State into an existence separate from Virginia. As governor he served two terms, and then, in a crisis of the War of 1812, returned to military service and went to the relief of General Harrison in Canada, with 4,000 Kentucky volunteers. He received a medal from Congress for his services in the battle of the Thames.- His name and fame are commemorated in the South and West, where there are nine Shelby counties. CAMP BEAUREGARD Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas National Guard forces are spending their preparation period at Camp Beauregard, adjacent to Alexandria, La. Camp Beau- regard is located in the heart of the long- leaf pine district, with forests stretching in every direction for some 75 miles. In the immediate vicinity of the city, to the north of the Red River, are cotton, sugar, and alfalfa fields, while south of the river there are rich farming districts. Alexandria has a war history of inter- est. In the spring of 1863 Admiral Por- ter, with a fleet of river boats, cooperated with General Banks in driving the Con- tederates westward. In 1864. the town was again occupied by Union troops, as a concentration camp for the land and water forces to be sent against General Kirby Smith at Shreveport. The gun- boats passed up the river toward Shreve- port while high water prevailed, but were caught above the falls at Alexandria and would have been lost but for the timely work of Lieut. Col. Joseph Bailey, who constructed a dam which saved them. Camp Beauregard was named for Gen- eral P. G. T. Beauregard, of the Con- federate Army. Born in New Orleans in ° THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE in 1818, he was graduated from West Point in 1838. In the fall of 1860 he was appointed superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point, a position he resigned to enter the Con- federate Army. He began the Civil War by his bombardment of Fort Sumter. He was second in rank at the first battle of Bull Run, and at Shiloh succeeded Al- ‘bert Sidney Johnston when the latter fell. He was with Lee at Petersburg, and later went West, surrendering with Joseph E. Johnston. After the war he was offered first the command of the Roumanian armies and later of the Egyptian forces under the Khedive of Egypt, but declined both offers. He died in 1893. CAMP LOGAN Five miles west of Houston, Tex., is the Illinois Guardsmen’s Camp Logan. This location has the highest average annual temperature of any National Guard encampment, 69°, the mercury’s highest record being 102° and the lowest 15° above zero. ‘The sun shines here about 256 days a year, of which 120 days are partly cloudy. Houston is a city of 94,000 inhabitants. It is a railroad center of importance and has direct water communication with the Gulf at Galveston, about 50 miles to the southeast, by way of the Houston Ship Channel. The city is a prosperous dis- tributing market for cotton and lumber, and exports cotton-seed oil, rice, and sugar in large quantities. The city is named for Sam Houston, soldier and leader in the early history of Texas, second president of that Republic, and later governor and senator from the States. [tawas: tounded inthe. year of Texas’ independence, 1836, and was the capital of the Republic in 1837-39 and 1842 Camp Logan commemorates an Illinois military leader. John Alexander Logan was a member of Congress at the out- break of the Civil War and resigned his seat to enter the army as colonel of the 31st Illinois Volunteers. He distin- guished himself in the Vicksburg cam- paign as a division commander, and was the military governor of the city after its capture. After the war he was again 473 elected to Congress, serving one term in the House and two in the Senate. He was the Republican vice-presidential can- didate on the ticket with James G. Blaine, and was reelected to the Senate by Illi- nois after the Democratic presidential victory. CAMP MAC ARTHUR Camp MacArthur, northeast of the city limits of Waco, Tex., is the training ground for the guardsmen of Michigan and Wisconsin. Waco is a city of about 33,000 inhabitants and is situated on both sides of the Brazos River. Artesian wells supply waters of widely known medicinal properties. Texas climate offers a rather wide range of temperature, the highest record at Waco being 109° and the lowest 5°. The annual average is 67°. Camp MacArthur bears the name of a distinguished general, Arthur Mac- Arthur, a native of Massachusetts. His military service began in 1862, and during the Civil War he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel of volunteers, and was awarded a Congressional medal of honor for gallantry in the battle of Missionary Ridge. Following the close of the war he entered the Regular Army and saw service in Cuba and in the Philippines, holding the position of governor of the Islands and commander of the Division of the Philippines. Upon his return to the United States he became assistant Chief of Staff, and was in command at different times of the departments of Colorado, of the Lakes, of the East, and of the Division of the Pacific. CAMP BOWIE The National Guard forces of Texas and Oklahoma were mobilized and are being trained at Camp Bowie, near Fort Worth, Tex., in the northeastern section of the State. It is in the center of a vast stock-raising and agricultural region and is one of the leading meat-packing towns of America. Having 11 trunk-line rail- roads, with 16 outlets, Fort Worth is the great distributing point of the Southwest. The city was merely a frontier post in 1849, and in 1873 had only 1,100 popula- tion. ‘Today it is a busy metropolis, with more than 75,000 inhabitants. Photograph by Edwin R. Jackson FLAG-MAKERS They are the flag-makers of the future, for the flag represents just the character and ideals of American citizens. The care and development of the children’s minds and bodies must not be neglected in the stress of war. It is the one portion of our national affairs to which the motto, “Business as usual,” can be safely applied. 474 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Camp Bowie was named for James Bowie, by courtesy a “colonel,” who was born in Georgia and died in Texas. He took part in the Texas Revolution and fell at the Alamo. The bowie knife gets its name from this intrepid frontiers- man. In an encounter with some Mexi- cans he broke his sword to within 20 inches of the hilt, but found that upon sharpening the point he was able to do such execution in hand-to-hand combat that he equipped all of his followers with a similar weapon, since known as the bowie knife. CAMP DONIPHAN Situated near the town of Lawton, Kans., in the county of Comanche, on the Fort Sill Military Reservation, Camp Doniphan is the place of training for the National Guard forces of Kansas and Missouri. Here also is located a field ar- tillery training school for the Regular Army. In 1901 Lawton, as a part of the Comanche Indian Reservation, was opened for settlement. By the day set for the opening 25,000 people were encamped near the vacant town site, forming a tent frontage eight miles long. The lands re- leased at that time were larger than the State of Connecticut and within three months had a population of 50,000. Camp Doniphan was named for Col. Alexander William Doniphan, of the First Missouri Cavalry. He was born in Kentucky in 1808 and died in Missouri in 1887. During the Mexican War he led an expedition across the Rio Grande, and was marching in the direction of Chihua- hua when he was attacked unexpectedly by 4,000 Mexicans. Although greatly outnumbered, he routed the attacking forces and captured Chihuahua. Before the outbreak of the Civil War, Colonel Doniphan was one of the commissioners to a peace convention which met at Wash- ington and sought unsuccessfully to find a basis of compromise upon which both sides could unite and thus avert the then impending military struggle. CAMP CODY At Camp Cody, New Mexico, troops from North and South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Minnesota are being AT5 trained. The camp is situated partly in- side the limits of the little plains city of Deming, less than 40 miles from the Mex- ican border. ‘The site offers an expanse of flat country between a branch of the Southern Pacific Railway and the Santa Fe. A plentiful supply of pure water is raised from wells by electric pumps. Deming has 255 cloudless days a year and sunshine on 308 days; it averages more sunshine than any other camp site. The elevation here is about 4,300 feet. Fifty-nine degrees is the annual mean temperature, with 110° as the highest rec- ord of the mercury and 9° above zero as the lowest. The city is a health resort and the trade center of a mining and cattle-raising district. ‘The award of the camp site necessitated the moving of rail- road stock yards for sanitary reasons. This camp was named in honor of Wil- liam F. Cody, last of the great American scouts, whose fame justly ranks with that of Daniel Boone, Davy Crockett, and Kit Carson. CAMP- KEARNY Camp Kearny, 15 miles north of San Diego, Cal., where the Nationai Guards- men of California, Nevada, Utah, Colo- rado, New Mexico, and Arizona are sta- tioned, is in a country which has some of the aspects of southern France—the gray olive orchards, the mulberry trees of the silk-growers, sparkling blue sea, and golden sunshine. Nature has lavished beauty, fertility, and an almost perfect climate upon this region. ‘The coldest month has an aver- age temperature of 54° and the warmest month averages about 70°. Between San Diego and the camp site is the old Mission of San Diego, the first settlement of white men in California, dating from 1769. Pacific Beach and Coronado Beach offer the pleasures of the seashore, combined with semi-trop- ical gardens of brilliant color and beauty and modern hotels and comforts. The harbor of San Diego is one of the finest in the world. Acres of parks and gardens add to the natural beauty of its situation. Commercially it profits by sev- eral railroads and steamship lines. Its present population of about 51,000 is al- most triple that of 1900. 476 Camp Kearny was named for General Stephen W. Kearny, a lieutenant in the War of 1812 and a prominent figure in the Mexican War. In 1846 he hecame a brigadier general and was given com- mand of the Army of the West, with which he conquered New Mexico. He then entered California, with instructions from the Secretary of War to set up a civil government. Later he was ordered to Mexico, in 1848 was appointed Gov- ernor of Vera Cruz, and subsequently of Mexico City, where he contracted a fever from which he died after his return to the States. CAMP FREMONT Camp Frémont is situated at Menlo Park, 33 miles from San Francisco, on the Southern Pacific Railway’s coast line. It was intended for the use of National Guardsmen of Washington, Oregon, Mon- tana, Idaho, and Wyoming, but inerore its completion difficulties arose with the local authorities as to the kind of sewerage sys- tem to be installed. The controversy de- layed the work of construction, necessi- tating the distribution among other camps of the Guardsmen originally allotted to this mobilization center. Now practically completed, there are no Guardsmen to oc- cupy the camp. It is being utilized, there- fore, to house artillery, cavalry, and in- fantry detachments of the Regular Army. Menlo Park is a district of beautiful residences and grounds; one mile east is Palo Alto, the station nearest to Leland Stanford University, while to the south runs the lovely Santa Clara Valley. The average annual temperature is 58 degrees, and the variation from this throughout the year is slight. The San Francisco region has sunshine 283 days of the year and an average of 141 cloud- less days. Camp Frémont honors a name noted in the spectacular, romantic days of early California and the \West. John Charles Frémont, an American, son of a French father, was distinguished as a soldier, ex- plorer, and political leader. His career as an explorer began about 1837, when he took part in railway surveys in Geor- gia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. His next survey took him farther west and secured him an appointment as second THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE lieutenant in the Topographical Corps, Us So A In 1842, with 21 men, he made his first expedition to the far West, Frémont Peak, of the Wind River Range, receiv- ing its name in that year. The following year he commanded a second expedition, with the object of supplementing the work of Commander Wilkes on the Pa- cific coast. Frémont’s report, published in 1844, created a sensation. His third expedition became of vital importance in the acquisition of California. Upon the refusal of the Mexican officials to allow him to continue his exploration, he forti- fied his party near Monterey, thus taking the first step of the Mexican War in Cali- fornia. When the settlers of the turbu- lent Sacramento Valley replied to Mexi- can threats of expulsion by the capture of Sonoma and by hoisting the “Bear Flag,’ Captain Frémont took command, creating an American military occupation. His part in the following events was complicated, and after the war he re- signed from the service, feeling that he had been deeply wronged. He led a fourth and a fifth expedition to the Pa- cific, neither of which yielded important results. He was appointed a major gen- eral at the outbreak of the Civil War and resigned from service for the second time in 1864. His devotion to the project of a Pacific railway involved him in financial ruin during the panic of 1873. From 1878 to 1882 he was Governor of Arizona. In 1890, shortly before his death, he was re- appointed a major general on the retired list. Frémont River, Frémont Pass, and the town of Frémont, Ohio, all commem- orate his name. PRACTICAL PATRIOTISM The National Geographic Society has contributed a subscription to the Na- TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE to every Y. M. C.'-A. and Kmights of Columbus reading-room and every Camp Library (upwards of 1,000 copies) im each of the National Army Cantonments, National Guard Camps, Regular Army Mobiliza- tion Camps, Aviation Camps, Embarka- tion Camps, Naval Camps and Training Stations throughout the United States. THE IMMEDIATE NECESSITY FOR MILITARY HIGHWAYS By A. G. BATCHELDER EXECUTIVE CHAIRMAN AMERICAN AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION possesses potential military value, for each dollar saved in the cost of transportation counts in the sum total of war saving. The expense per mile in carrying a bale of cotton in Texas or a bushel of wheat in Minnesota to the near- est market or shipping point figures in the cost to him who uses the finished product. While we proudly proclaim on all occa- sions our greatness in every line of de- velopment, we have been woefully dila- tory in giving thought and attention to a subject that is vital to the progress of civilization. In short, millions of dollars annually are being literally thrown into the ditch through careless and decentral- ized management of our highway sys- tem; and yet we laugh at the thought of any European country trying to compete with us! | ee highway in the country now HIGHWAY TRUNK LINES ESSENTIAL FOR RAPID TRANSPORTATION OF TROOPS AND SUPPLIES From the two and a quarter million miles of road in the United States there should emerge a number of great high- ways, requiring federal consideration in cooperation with the several States, in such manner as to bring forth ultimately a national road system similar to that which has blessed France and added so materially to her wealth, in the proper distribution of her products—aye, and saved her very existence as a nation when the Hun leaped at her throat. We are just learning how to select these national highways, relieve the States of a part of their road burdens, and at the same time produce great arteries of com- munication which will fit into a logical plan of nation-wide military defense. Certain of these roads must have a spe- cial military importance; others will have only an indirect value. The whole system constitutes a vast network of thorough- fares, each having its special function in meeting the nation’s maximum require- ments. When reference is made to a “military highway” it does not follow that this must be a road over which heavy ord- nance will be moved or over which thou- sands of soldiers are to be transported. Our needs for defense in the present emergency are diversified and far-reach- ing and have to do with all means of communication. The “second line of defense” is a com- prehensive term. It has been truly said that the practical value of a highway in- creases as its connected mileage multi- plies—town to town, county to county, and State to State—until we link the sey- eral sections and thus engender national understanding and cooperation, ridding ourselves of localisms and even shatter- ing the old disintegrating nightmare of otates melts. A PROBLEM WOULD BE NO GREATER IN DARKEST AFRICA Bring to mind a long stretch of road extending from Washington to Atlanta, along which are located six cantonments and training camps, housing nearly 200,- ooo soldiers; picture it as it is, with many disabling and discouraging miles which try man and vehicle to the utmost, practically impassable during inclement weather, punctuated with bog holes and skidding surfaces, alternating between sticky clay and rock- strewn patches, seemingly unimproved since the Civil War. Less than 800 miles separate the cap- ital of the country and the chief commer- cial city of the South. Over a real high- way this distance could be covered in 48 motoring hours; a caravan of self-pro- pelled vehicles could transport a powerful 477 ‘osje ‘aATOSqO }YSII oy} OL ay} SI Jo] auia1}X9 oY} 7V ‘uoeuojuL pue Gysiy ‘ramod Surkaauod ‘soit suoydejay pue “Ydevrsoje} ‘S1}o9]9 9418 peaytaAo jey} -paads [ny ye Suruuns sivo JaBusssed jo ules, puke sAHOWODdO] & SI 9AOdR Joy URqUID oY} UO aI ‘Q31eq [BRULI UMPIP-SN} oy} ST i “QUIJIVI OTIJDIJ9 YOe1}-9]qnop wv suns YIIYM oplsoeq “IoATI ploryd &@ uO s0URD oINseald “KEMYSIY sIqowojne prpusj[ds oy} Ssutod Us], UMOYS 918 SpOOS A[PJIOM SIy sj1odsuvs} puv S[IACI} ULIIOWW 9} YY Ul SAVM BAY ydeisojoyd [ensnun sry} uy QNISSIW SI ANOIV UNVIddIV HHL } es, 478 Renoce ee from Office of Public Reeds AN ARMORED CAR AND AUTOMOBILE TRUCKS ON THE TEXAS BORDER “We are just learning how to select national highways, relieve the States of a part of their road burdens, and at the same time produce great arteries of communication which will fit into a logical plan of nation-wide military defense.” army from one threatened city to the other in that length of time, just as the Huns have frequently moved great bodies of troops from one frontier to another as the strategy of the hour required. Did not France save both Paris and herself by virtue of a national road sys- tem which permitted her quickly to shift her defenders and their equipment by taxicab from the entrenched camp of the capital to a vulnerable point in the enemy’s advancing line? WHY NOT COOPERATE AS A NATION IN- STEAD OF AS, A COLLECTION OF STATES? The most progressive of our lawmakers, realizing the vital importance of a splen- did highways system for America, are advocating broad, constructive legisla- tion whereby the national government will assume an active interest and part- nership in building those roads which connect the States and which facilitate commerce between the 48 units of which the country is composed. Intimate relations between the inhab- itants of various zones are now sadly handicapped by State lines, imaginary partitions which compel or invite conflict- ing and selfish laws and in consequence retard the nationalizing influence of the automobile, whose advent has proved as epoch-making as steam or electricity. The projected Bankhead Highway is an illustration of what can and should be. The construction of this great medium of commercial and social intercourse, from Washington to Los Angeles, an all-year southern route, through latitudes where snow is never a serious handicap and along which no mountains are encoun- tered, would create a living, pulsating example of a federalized road such as is essential in this war-time period of our history While it is the occasional traveler who uses a railroad between its extreme term1- nal points, the rails must be laid for the entire distance in order that inter-related and overlapping traffic, both passenger and freight, can be handled. If this is the situation in regard to railroads, how 479 ‘ymq ore Aoy} YOM Ysno1yy J} souRyus “euTjOIeD YON ‘Ajuno,) SainquappoypY ur ‘sty} se sfeaysry pipusyds yong “1oumMsuos AyunwUI0D oY} FO TPVeM [EIS pue [eLoyeUr oT SPOIOUL PROTTOSEM SI] 0} Ppe O} Jot oy} spursod peor poOs V YOM WO}OI FO a]vq ATOAY d1VUIT]N ay} 0} }SO9 oY} Sosvaloap pue yyo1d siq so SqyO% dood) JO ALAOY AHL STHAVYL SSHUNONd JO NOISSsHOUd COENy Speoy [qn Jo soyjO wo.sz ydersojoyq (7) € JO owl} ul Surars 1 -UOD }S9} AUG “uu Vy WON VY > ‘ ua ‘soJNUTLU od1OYJO[S 2 ATAVS c cf pue sinoy S$ ut (0) Teg, on seo) Seam AHH SV SALV.LS ‘(16h ased 998s) uvu asd bezd JO AouOoW Ur puv djnNoOI PROITeI OY JOAO SanoYy poysyduooov sem did} oy, ‘juowdinbs ploy [NF jy} YM SAoIplOS QT Suysodsuvs, JO pojsis IVP Worf ‘AVMYSIFT OIXIC] 9Y} IOAO 489} YONA}-10JOW Are IW oy} UO j.AVYS oY} JOFZ APR GHLINO {HI HAVS AVI S ie + ¥ ISOduNd AUVITTIW YT AHDNONH GOOD Sdvouw 48 ‘KiJa,J Siodiepy{ Teou St 0yes-]]0} sty, ‘SaIvJYySNO1OY} dy} JoAO Suissed uossad AsoAD WiOIF []O} V SuUTJIeXa ‘suUOIR| JoqCor oy} JO o[dwiexse oY} SUIMOTIOF o1B So}v}G INO JO Mo} & SACMYSIY IyqGnd,, peweusiw Jy} UO ‘sej}svo 9soy} FO MOpLYs oY} Ul Suissed JO ,asaltAtid,, ay} OF JO} AAvoy BV popoVXo SeM otOT]} ‘I9Ipjos 10 “Ysotad ‘JUeYyIoU 9 oq “JopoAVI} Yea wWo1F puR “oyyery [IP uodn oho [nFyeM ke ydoy Ady} SpjoySuosjs asoy} WOT ‘edIOWUIOD FO SABMYSTY OY} POpURUTUIOD YTYM Sofjsey Ut SOATISUIIY} PoT[eISUL S}YSIUY puvstiq Ose sivosA JO spoIpunyy “eIUIS ITA 389A SAVG ‘IVGNAI AHL NI SHOlLOVUd NOUVA VWAAGOW WO OTTAA V jdv1s0joY g 3 Iouljyeg Aq v OSG RIES Auedwiod peorpiey o1yO Ny Oe = aX 482 "PUD ALTIUS VOALIS AVE LOMO Jo Jivd oy} UO JYOMOYUZoro | “Culuivm yao Ar pue AjUappns oUvd WY} 1OF psou oy} yNq “oInjny oY} Ul AvfZ pottioos sosodind AsvzyIUr 10f¥ JUoWAOTdWs IM9Yy} IOF UOISvIDO oY} LOYA dW} % 4B poJON.sUOD o10M SpeOt TFT “WOT Jay Je pode] UNFT 9Y} USYM—ouLA,T POARS YITYM SAVMYSIY JO Wo}ShS JUooyUsSeur Joy sv yt [ded ysoavss JO snoy say UT VIOYOHD NI GvOW NOSSHI-LOAldoO TNAWNUAAOD V ONILOAMLSNOO SPLOoY SQN FO sO wo.rz ydersojoyg SHRED 8G i 482 «peor Aq aqissaoov a1e ‘A1}UNOD INO JO SSoU}SVA dI]} JapIsuOd NOK UdYAd ‘sjassv YONS Mo} A\Ory yok $998 PUL 9UIOD O} PIOM JOM dy} OIFAUT 0} Woy} Surssassod ArjUNOD uvsdOAN] AUB ISNVI P[NOAL JLY} SUONIVIPV ITUOIS DALI SO}VYG INO Jo jsojy,, NOLLVZITIAID ULONYA SAVMEHOIEH ouTjugTVA HY wvujyng Aq ydessojoyg ie) ery) SPIMSUNAG JO s}1pysyno 24} UO ‘pror AJUNOD UUAT SIYy} AOF OOVJans piey v sv pasn 9q 0} ‘puvs pu AL] SUIXIUE UDdS oq ALU S}OTAUOD OINJOId OY} JO WYSLI oy} OF, “so}eM -OPl} OF JYSMOAG OAV Sot} OY} YONA JOAO spvOr oY} AOTC O} St ‘punofZ UDG SLY jt “YsOd SIy} JOMOT OF AVM OUG “AT SUIZeLUe pojUNOW sey sat} Jo *‘SPBVOIIVA SUOIVU OY} JO UOTJINAJSUOD OY} UL posn oq O} S9}V}G poyUy) oy} Jnoysno1y} poddiys o19M JSOD 94} S}]So1O} ouId ANO UL oSRvaIOP OY} WAL AY} YM ‘pavoqvas oy} 0}, sdurvo asquimy-ourd oy} Wor Soij-ssOI9 AVAUOD OF YMNOG dy} U! posH SVM J41vS-XO OY} IBAA JIAID OY} o10Jaq Suo’T MOLOM WOT GNV WONdOUd SVAWAVA WI TO NOMVIMIOdSNVUT, WOT SWIOLIGA NMVUG-XO HOLM YAO ‘AVOU LULd VIOWOWD SLILL LSTMNOL GHWOLSNOOV VMN UIVIN NVO UNOTV d@ NOOS ‘VIM _‘Quadds,, 0V0U I ACVUU th Sproy oqng JO so1IyO worayz yde Photograph by Manning Brothers WHEN OUR AMERICAN ROADS ARE GOOD THEY ARE VERY, VERY GOOD A superb concrete highway in Wayne County, Michigan. Such thoroughfares as these are an asset not only to the communities which they serve directly, but to the whole nation. AND WHEN THEY ARE BAD THEY ARE HORRID! A stretch of “highway” through the Chapawamsic Swamp, Va. Such quagmires cost the State thousands of dollars every month and impede national prosperity to a degree which cannot be computed in money values. 486 Photograph from Office of Public Roads WHAT REAL ROADS DO FOR THE PEOPLE “In comprehensive transportation plans it is now essential that highways be given equal, if not greater, consideration than rail lines. of the ‘tributary roads, which means rug much more insistently it must apply to highways building in connection with those roads within a State which unite with similar roads in adjoining States; for if we are a nation, why should inter- course cease or hesitate when a State’s border 1s crossed? FEDERAL AID FOR STATES IN BUILDING GOOD ROADS Under the provisions of the Federal Aid Road Act, achieved by the distin- guished Senator from Alabama, John H. Bankhead, the money contributed from the national treasury, to which the States add a like amount, can only be expended upon roads over which United States mail is delivered or may be delivered. There exists no provision whereby mili- tary needs can be taken into considera- tion, and the present situation demands the early passage of a law which will grant to the Secretary of War authority to build roads used by the army. The Chamberlain-Dent bill gives the Secretary of War authority to build military roads Main arteries must accept the multiplying traffic ged construction and systematic maintenance.’ into the authorized cantonments and camps from nearest railroad or water transportation centers. At ‘the present time he is authorized to spend millions for building the camps, but not a cent to construct a road within their limits nor to connect them with anywhere else. The War Department thus finds its hands tied when it comes to obtaining a more com- plete line of communication with its sol- dier cities in the Southland, where for years the problem of roads has scarcely been touched, owing to the poverty of a great many counties, as well as slowness of the people in realizing the importance of all-year highways. Not until the motor-road travelers be- gan to multiply and gradually extended their journeyings from county to county, and then from State to State, did we be- gin seriously to consider and viéw things from the national standpoint. True, the number of our States had gradually increased until there were forty-eight, connected in a way which at times betrayed startling defects in na- 487 Photograph by Putnam & Valentine CALIFORNIA 1S DEVELOPING A SPLENDID HIGHWAY SYSTEM “The projected Bankhead National Highway is an illustration of what can and should be. The construction of this great medium of ‘commercial and social intercourse, from Washing- ton to Los Angeles, traversing the Sunny Southland throughout the entire distance, would create a living, pulsating example of a federalized road, such as is essential in this war-time period of our history.” 488 USING A DRAG IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF A ROAD IN NORTH CAROLINA “Under the provisions of the Federal Aid Road Act, achieved by the distinguished Senator from Alabama, John H. Bankhead, the money contributed from the national treasury, to which the States add a like amount, can only be expended upon roads over which the United States mail is delivered or may be delivered.” tional cohesiveness. While the Civil War had settled certain fundamental problems, there yet remained at issue many points in which Federal and State contact pro- duced explosions in the nation’s combus- tion chamber. States grudgingly gave up what they considered their “rights,” yet citizens generally came to recognize that the whole must be greater than any one of its parts if it is to survive and actually flourish in the form of a united nation. YOU GENERALLY LIKE YOUR NEIGHBOR—— WHEN YOU KNOW HIM A\cquaintanceship does much to dispel prejudices and dislikes, and so the in- crease 1n the number of self-propelled vehicles and the building of thousands of miles of roads, facilitating the comings and goings of the people of the several States, have brought about a country- wide understanding among citizens of all sections and awakened true nationalism. Having within a State established the proposition that the more thickly popu- lated and wealthier counties must aid and cooperate with the poorer and less devel- oped sections, it was only a step farther to contend that the older and richer States must give of their accumulations and strength to the less populous and less prosperous commonwealths. While a man in a certain State might pay a considerable income tax, it does not follow that all of his investments and all of his profits accrue within the confines of the particular State in which he lives. Therefore, a part of what he pays should be employed in the development of the whole country and not confined to the federal co6peration which specifically re- lates to his State. We must, in the final analysis, think in national terms. A NECESSITY FOR COMMERCIAL DEVELOP- MENT; VITAL IN WAR From Calais, in Maine, to Miami, in Florida, our Atlantic coastline has a length slightly in excess of 2,000 miles. From Puget Sound to San Diego our Pa- 489 THE EAST, WEST, NORTH, AND SOUTH BECOME ONE WHEN ROADS LINK THEM A highway in one of our Southwestern States which has a grade falling 1,000 feet in one and a quarter miles 490 THE PRICE OF GOOD ROADS, LIKE THAT OF LIBERTY, IS ETERNAL VIGILANCE Having built a highway, it is sound economy to keep it in perfect condition. Here a road- mender, with his supply train to the left, is seen repairing cracks in the highway surface. cific coastline is several hundred miles shorter. Two broad, well-built highways paralleling these coastlines, supplemented by a large number of lateral feeder roads, would serve the purpose of establishing military defense arteries advertising dis- tinctly that we were ready for any callers who might pay us an unfriendly visit, and in addition these interstate avenues would meet the commercial and social needs of the regions through which they passed. Roads of this character would link our seaports in such manner as to encourage coastal commerce and the amplified use of our waterways in relieving the exces- sive demands upon other means of trans- portation. In the motor truck we have obtained the land vehicle with which com- mercially to abridge distance and reduce in no small degree the unprofitable handi- cap of freight terminals. PRACTICAL TESTS OF MOTOR TRANS- PORTATION Not long ago the feasibility of motor- truck transportation was demonstrated between Atlanta, Ga., where the Quarter- master’s Supply Depot for the Southeast- ern Department is located, and the can- tonment at Fort Oglethorpe, just outside of Chattanooga, Tenn., a distance of 130 miles, over a road that can only be called ita, seven invdry weather ©One-test consisted of transporting in a motor truck a detachment of 18 soldiers, with their full field equipment, from point to point in 5 hours and 32 minutes (see page. 481). Taking into consideration the time lost via the railroad route in entraining switching delays, and marching the men to the station, the truck traversed the dis- tance in three hours less than the time made by rail and, moreover, delivered the men exactly where they were wanted. The cost figures also present some in- teresting facts, the saving being estimated at $2.84 per man over one of the routes between the two points and $2.89 per man over another 14 miles shorter, but boast- ing several stretches of inferior road. When it came to supplies, the five two- ton trucks met the situation quite eco- nomically, the cost being $7.97 per ton against $9.59 in carload lots by rail. Of 401 WSHRUOHEU Ont} PovayxVMe PUR SUOIJIIS [TB JO Suoziy Suowe Surpurys -TOpUN IPIM-AT}UNOD B Jnoge jYsnosq savy ‘So}e}G [eIVAVS ay} Fo ajdood ay} Jo sSuroB pur ssurwoo oy} Suyeyyioey ‘spros JO Saji FO spuesnoy} Fo SUIP]INg oy} puke sopyoa pofjedosd-jyos JO soquinu ayy UI asvatoUt ay} OS puke ‘soyI[sIP pue sooipnfosd jodsip 0} Yon ssop diysoouvjurenboy,, GYVOND SANVIS HVad SHMId HOIHM YHAO AVMHDIH OdVUYOTIOD GIGNATdS V doys yye1p Aq ydessojoyg mane oS 492 Photograph from Office of Public Roads AN ACCEPTABLE HIGHWAY FOR GOATS AND GEESE, BUT NOT EXACTLY ADAPTED TO THE NEEDS OF ARMY AUTO-TRUCK TRANSPORTATION course, the figures include the cost of transfer to the railroad station from the warehouse. The saving in time was greater proportionately in the freight demonstration than in carrying the sol- diers. A FAIR DISTRIBUTION OF THE BURDEN Now consider the familiar question of the proper distribution of road cost and maintenance. ‘The weather conditions for the test were ideal; in wet weather, the thing simply couldn’t have been done. Unreasonable in the extreme would be a contention that the counties of Georgia and Tennessee should build and maintain this federal-used stretch of highway, which must be available 365 days in the year in order to make it a reliable means for army transportation, and build it to stand up under heavy military lorries as well as passenger automobiles. Not only must the States help the coun- ties through which the route passes, but the National Government must come to the help of the States, and, if necessary, accept entirely the burden of mainte- nance during the progress of any war which necessitates the construction of these training camps and cantonments and presents the problem of providing daily thousands of tons of supplies and equipment. Atlanta and Chattanooga are both on the line of the Dixie Highway, which ex- tends north to Nashville, Louisville, In- dianapolis, and Chicago, and which has an eastern division extending from De- troit to Cincinnati, thence to Knoxville and Chattanooga. It is only just that mention should be made of the fact that Carl G. Fisher, of Indianapolis, who origi- nated and had much to do with the splen- did progress of the Lincoln Highway, was also a prominent factor. in the advance- ment of the Dixie Highway, projects that are not created to run by any particular individual’s garden gate, but to link coun- ties and States into a nation. NOW IN USE FOR WAR PURPOSES HIGHWAYS Certain sections of the Lincoln High- way serve a valuable interstate purpose 493 : ; Sdelg [esoaos oy} tM tolesado0d ur WoeIopisuos elapey Suriimbar ‘stemysiy yeo13 JO Joquinu & sS1oWa Pymoys s19y} SayeyS Powuyy 94} UL peot yO So éLOIANOD FHL OF TAAMWVIVAH AXON ANO YO GAYAGNYA Wa GINOO ALVAS NHL Of SAOIAMHS ‘TOWASN AMOW VHA [It UOT Jaj1enb ev pu OAM} ot} wolyf,, 494 Photograph from Office of Public Roads LOWERING THE COST OF LIVING: TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES, FEDERAL-AID ROAD BETWEEN PORTLAND AND BRUNSWICK, MAINE “From Calais, in Maine, to Miami, in Florida, our Atlantic coastline has a length slightly in excess of 2,000 miles. hundred miles shorter. From Puget Sound to Tia Juana, our Pacific coastline is several Two broad, well-built highways paralleling these coastlines, supple- mented by a large number of lateral feeder roads, would serve the purpose of establishing military defense arteries, advertising distinctly that we were ready for any callers who might pay us an unfriendly visit.” in the traffic congestion of the present hour, particularly with reference to the passage of motor trucks over the road from Northern factories down to the National Capital. Many an automobile factory is delivering its cars to agents by sending them over the road, thus releas- ing hundreds of freight cars for the all- important transportation of foodstuffs and war material. The passenger automobile now counts asa transportation asset which can hardly be disregarded in any comprehensive handling of transportation problems which are certain to become worse before they are better. PRACTICAL ROAD-BUILDING BY GOVERN- MENT EXPERTS Several years ago the United States Office of Public Roads and Rural Engi- neering constructed experimental roads in the outskirts of Washington, D. C. During the past six years they have been given systematic attention, including a census of the traffic which has passed over them. On one stretch of Connecti- cut avenue near Chevy Chase circle a traffic record in 1916 covering a 24-hour period showed 509 motor-propelled vehi- cles and 50 horse-drawn vehicles going north, and 392 motor and 48 horse vehi- cles traveling in the opposite direction. On the Rockville Pike, in Montgomery County, Maryland, a 24-hour period pro- duced 233 motor cars and 28 horse-drawn vehicles going north, and 242 motor- driven and 24 muscle-drawn vehicles go- ing south. On the Mt. Vernon road, in Alexandria County, Virginia, the traffic records supplied an even more prepon- derant majority in favor of the motor- driven vehicles, there being 577 automo- biles as against 13 horse-drawn wagons 495 VIEW OF ONE OF THE FAMOUS CHATHAM COUNTY ROADS Savannah, Ga., is noted for her more than 150 miles of automobile roads in and about the city, reaching the many beautiful resorts within a radius of from 5 to 12 miles. These roads, arched by live oaks, stately pines, and beautiful magnolias, from which hang graceful pen- dants of gray Spanish moss, present a most pleasing and picturesque sight—one which no artist can reproduce on canvas. On these roads some of the most important automobile races ever held have been run. 496 SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VIRGINIA, BEFORE This is the type of road that is proving a terrible liability in the business of nation-buiiding SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VIRGINIA, AFTER And here is a real asset, not only to the farmer who uses it every day, but to all the people who buy that farmer's produce 497 498 one way, and 430 motor vehicles and 12 wagons in the other direction. A 16-hour period over the Russell road, also in Al- exandria County, produced only 2 horse- drawn vehicles and 104 motor-driven cars going north, and 3 horse-drawn vehicles and 107 motor vehicles going south. It would appear from these statistics that one can safely prophesy the early passing of the horse as a means of trans- portation on most of the principal roads of the country. Economically the horse is being relegated to the fields, for man’s great friend performs useful service on the farm and doubtless always will. If each automobile takes the place of a team of horses, the 4,250,000 cars now in use in the country would release 21,- 250,000 acres of land for the production ef foodstuffs, since it has been shown by actual scientific tests that it requires five acres of land to support one horse per annum and only three acres per man. This released land would therefore supply the needs of 14,000,000 men—a total in excess of the forces employed in the present war by all the Allies. GOOD HIGHWAYS PROVIDE A MEANS OF NATION-WIDE INTERCOURSE While the commercial aspect of road- building in relation to the transport of produce from farm to market and mer- chandise from factory to consumer prop- erly demands great consideration, the fact should not be overlooked that road travel presents social advantages which are as essential to the development of a nation as is the accumulation of dollars. An intimate knowledge of a man’s own State, such as is gained by road travel, makes for the betterment of citizenship generally. The man who visits adjoining States has brought to his attention the needs of other sections of the country, and inevitably his viewpoint assumes a national character. Most of our States have scenic at- tractions that would cause any European country possessing them to invite the whole world to come and see; yet how few, when you consider the vastness of such assets of our country, are accessible by road; and while it is true that, viewed entirely from a dollars-and-cents stand- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE point, some of our highways might not be considered commercially important, their construction 1s essential if American citizens are to enjoy the beauties which Nature provides; and to be a bigger and broader people we must get close to Na- ture now and then. AS ESSENTIAL TO A NATION’S PROGRESS AS POPULATION In comprehensive transportation plans it is now essential that highways be given equal, if not greater, consideration than rail lines. Main arteries must accept the multiplying traffic of the tributary roads, which means rugged construction and systematic maintenance. Just as every county should have north- south and east-west connections with neighboring county seats, each State should have interstate communication with adjacent capitals and large centers of population, until a truly country-wide road circulation for all purposes is pos- sible. That the Federal Aid Road Act must produce real results in order that the Na- tional Government shall continue its high- ways cooperation with the several States. is a fact which must be apparent to any student of transportation problems. This plan will collapse if the money supplied from the federal treasury is expended by the States in such manner as to leave indefinite evidence of this much needed partnership. Such practice would give those who oppose the federal venture forceful argument for its discontinuance. The Secretary of Agriculture deserves much commendation for his insistence that the federal money shall be spent upon highways which enter into the creation of State road systems. Not a few of these roads have a military significance; all of them have to do with food prices. It is incumbent upon the States to pur- sue a policy which shall demonstrate that federal funds are not wanted for local road-building, but are to be employed in highway construction which has to de with the ultimate establishment of a na- tional system. This means that every county in a State cannot be given small sums from the federal appropriation, the expenditure of which would leave scarcely a trace of highway benefit. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The average man gives his first thought to his immediate locality, but in this age the scope of his understanding must ex- tend over his State, then encompass the entire country, and finally he must realize that the United States is now a partici- pant in the international arena, playing a commanding part. Such a role is pos- sible only when a large majority of the 499 people can sense our changed status in regard to the destiny which awaits the greatest republic of all—a republic in which all citizens recognize that no longer can the individual live for himself alone, and that the only policy to pursue is one of practical altruism, whether it has to do with individuals, municipalities, States, or nations. IN FRENCH LORRAINE That Part of France Where the First American Soldiers Have Fallen By Harrier CHALMERS ADAMS HIS is the story of my journey to Nancy, Lunéville, and Gerbéviller, in Lorraine—that part of France where the first American soldiers have fallen. I entered the French military zone as a war correspondent, equipped with a magical little yellow book which carried my photograph and the facts about my nationality, place of birth, magazine af- filiation, and residence at home and in Paris. It had ushered me safely past in- numerable gendarmes and sentinels on the way to Compiegne and Rheims, even to front-line trenches in Champagne ; now it brought me to Nancy, in northeastern France, the most beautiful town in the Republic, capital of historic Lorraine. On this particular trip the passport permitted a traveling companion, so an American girl engaged in Paris war work went with me. This was her first glimpse of that mysterious precinct known to few civilians beyond its guard-girded_ bor- ders—“The Military Zone.” This zone, extending 500 miles, from Flanders to Switzerland, stretches south nearly to Paris, taking in the towns we passed en route to Nancy—Meaux, Cha- teau Thierry, Epernay, Chalons, Révigny, Bar-le-Duc—all gateways to the front. This is the road the Americans have fol- lowed on their way to the trenches. It was a momentous ride by rail to Nancy. In the gray mist of early morn- ing the great Paris Gare de l’Est was thronged. There were trench-worn men, coated with mud, just back from the front, relaxed and hungry, their arms around wives and sweethearts. There were grave-eyed men, in clean, faded uni- forms, starting out again after their six days’ leave. I can never forget the faces of the women with them. No tears, but they looked as Joan of Arc might have looked ten minutes before she was burned at the stake. TRAVELING COMPANIONS ON THE TRIP TO THE FRONT One soldier led a snappy fox-terrier to wage war on the rats in the dugouts. Another was festooned with loaves of bread. Standing in line with us, awaiting inspection of passports, was a young American ambulance driver on his way to the front. His uniform stood out against the mass of horizon blue—van- guard of our khaki-clad hundreds of thousands who will march the bloody road. We two were the only women on the train. ‘The soldiers dropped off at every station. We passed the River Marne, tree-bordered, grasses swaying in its tide, and skirted the famous battlefield. From 500 the railroad the peaceful hay - stacked fields, vine-covered walls, and russet-tiled roofs showed no trace of that mighty struggle; but I had covered the country by automobile and had seen modern roofs over shell-torn homes. I had seen the graves among the new-mown hay—white crosses with the tri-color; black crosses with the letter “A” for Allemands. And near by a sign for the farmer to heed: “In agriculture, respect the graves of the dead.” Near the town of Meaux there is an imposing marble monument which marks the site where the guard of Paris fell. There are holes in the cemetery wall through which they thrust their rifles, those heroes who rushed out from the capital in more than 1,000 taxicabs on that fateful September day. We passed Epernay, the door to Rheims, where a battalion was on the march, and came to Chalons. Here many officers left the train to motor to Ver- dun—spick and span, with blue cloth put- tees to match their uniforms, all carrying canes. ‘The American ambulance driver left with them. “T don’t know where I’m going,” he told us, “but ’m on my way. I'm sure to be on the right road if I’m helping the French.” A GLIMPSE OF A TENTED HOSPITAL Near Bar-le-Duc hundreds of tired sol- diers were resting at farm houses, and there was a solid mile of motor trucks, camouflaged in wavy colors and laden with munitions. At the station ten Mis- souri pack-mules had their heads out of box-car windows. A group of zouaves sat on the platform winding strips of khaki cloth around their red _ fezzes. They intended to be on the safe side. We came to a vast tented ambulance hospital under the spreading branches of trees—trees filled with mistletoe, sugges- tive of Yuletide joy; and here was pain. We entered a hilly country. Passports were again inspected. We were in French Lorraine. A famous Frenchman has called Lor- raine “the most beautiful burial ground in the world.” Flanders is a mud-hole and Champagne is all chalk, but Lorraine THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE is an enchanting land, with harmonious hills and noble trees and fern-bordered streams rushing to the Rhine. The quaint villages which escaped the German on- slaught perch on the hillsides like Christ- mas toys and the humblest vegetable patch is a garden. But there are tombs in every flower- strewn field, for no region on earth has suffered more from fire and sword. All the races of Europe have coveted Lor- raine since the days of the Romans. When the Kaiser waited in the forest with his 10,000 cavalrymen for word from his victorious army that he might cross the frontier and make a triumphant entry into Nancy, he was but following in the footsteps of earlier barbarians who have swept across the Rhine. WHERE JOVINUS DEFEATED THE TEUTONIC HORDES SIXTEEN CENTURIES AGO Near the highway, not far from the German border, 1s a memorial shaft which reads: ~ Here, in the -year 7262: Jovinus defeated the Teutonic hordes.” And here the Huns were driven back by the French in September, 1914. It was late afternoon when we reached Nancy—eight hours from Paris. An offi- cial detained us half an hour in his office, while the passport was again scrutinized. Going outside the station to look for a cab, we saw a mass of ruins across the street—all that was left of a once popular hotel. Many other ruins stared at us on the way to the Place Stanislas. The proprietor of the Grand Hotel on the Place said he could give us rooms and we would find a restaurant across the way. He had) no= cave; eanemexe plained, and there were bombardments. There had been a cellar, but it had been out of commission since the house next door was hit. We asked the maid who showed us the rooms when the last bom- bardment had occurred. “Sunday,” she said, “or maybe it was Monday. They come so often I lose count.” “Why do you stay here?’ I asked. “Because I have four brothers in the trenches, and we all must be soldiers,” she replied. We sent a letter of introduction to the Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams HOME COMFORTS WELL BEHIND THE LINES 6 s . . e . . ‘Flanders is a mud-hole and Champagne is all chalk, but Lorraine is an enchanting land, with harmonious hills and noble trees and fern-bordered streams rushing to the Rhine” 501 ‘STETJII OY} ©} ALAMOS sJULGeYUT OOO'OOI PUL SpUNOS UISdO} OT, “[JaYS SUIUIOIUO dy} Spyetoy Yt ‘pnojo ayyM yuRysIp a} 1OF YOR 07 AYO OY} JOAO pseNs so9aoy sourjdore YUoI IYSYACp Up “BurUseM OU dq ULI dI19q} UOYM YYStu ye AyuPUL oUIOD s]poys soy, ‘aURI OTIU-Oc B DALY YSIYAM ‘suns [njroMmod jsour soysog oy} Aq papsequiod st pue yuOoIZ ay} WoIF soit dAY Ue a1OUr aT}II] & St AOULN,, UNANGYVANOL AML WALIV SUepy SIOW]eYD Josep] wio1z ydesSoj0yF In re, Se > cay: 502 SOUT} Poqriosaid oy} ye Ss jodap au} v puev ‘Ajivp [vos JO JUNOWRL UI}. v S) cS) e) I 10} [PUUIvE Jo100d oY} Jo ouo [ovo poMoT[e svt JUIWUTOAOL) YIUII.T OY} Stav oq S WAOJ—IOULIT JO SIIP[OS ay} Jo ‘) MOPIM JO SOAIM dY}—sjoyseq pue IVOD WO NOILVY YISHT VOL ONILTIVM AONVA FO NAWOM DNIMYOM SES NN Sa ie d- f9 Syor ] q ial YIM UIWIOM JO duly] 31) snoyndod dIOW dt} UT 03 c J O04 Préfet of the Department of Meurthe and Moselle, and an hour later M. Mir- man called—a splendid man, bearded and in unform. All town officials wear unt- form in the military zone. At the be- ginning of the war M. Mirman was Minister of Public Health in Paris. Be- ing past military age, he volunteered for any service, and was sent to Nancy, then in great peril. He was the first to reach the murdered villages in the foothills of the Vosges, where he buried the dead and comforted and sustained the frantic sur- vivors. On his breast is the decoration which France gives to her bravest. WORKS ON IN SPITE OF BOMBARDMENTS NANCY Nancy, he told us, is a little over five miles from the front, and is bombarded by the Boches’ most powerful guns, the 380 millimeter, which have a twenty-mile range. The shells come mainly at night, when there can be no warning. In day- light French aéroplanes hover guard over the city to watch for the distant white cloud which heralds the oncoming shell. The tocsin sounds the alarm and the 100, 000 inhabitants scurry to the cellars. On every house with a cellar a great cross is painted, the double cross of ancient Lor- raine. Few people have left town. Trams are running; shops are open. Nancy has her work to do and keeps at it doggedly. Also, she houses and feeds 3,000 ref- ugees, mostly old women and little chil- dren, who have crept over the fields in terror from their cannonaded homes still nearer the German line. The number in- Greases. “Tomorrow Madame Mirman will take you to see the refugees,” the Prefet told us, “and we hope you will dine at the préfecture in the evening.” In pitch darkness we two, strangers to the 380’s, groped our way across the Place and felt for the door of the restau- rant. We entered a well-lighted room, all warmth and cheer. The windows were heavily curtained that no gleam of light might be detected by prowling enemy air-craft. Many offi¢ers were dining ; the food was excellent, the prices Seeanchie This condition I found THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE throughout France, the marvel of every American who has been over during the war. A tall, straight man, with iron-gray mustache, rose to leave the room; all the others stood up and saluted. At midnight I opened my window and peered into inky gloom. ‘The air was heavy with danger; the arc of a search- light. pierced the sky, for an instant illu- minating the shrouded scaffolding pro- tecting a statue in the center of the Place, that of Duke Stanislas Leczyski, father- in-law of Louis XV. . Not a foot- step on the street below. I heard a dis- tant cannon boom. Next morning we went for a walk. Few cities in Europe are as architectur- ally beautiful as this ancient capital of the Duchy of Lorraine, the Land of Lothair, named after a grandson of Charlemagne, united with France in 1766. Kach of a hundred gates and facades is worthy a pilgrimage to Nancy. In the cathedral many women in black were praying before lighted candles. The stained glass windows were broken and mended with paper. Three houses across the street were in ruins. Yet the park near-by was the picture of peace. Shafts of sunlight slanted through the chestnut trees and a black- robed priest sat on a bench in the shadow telling his beads. AMONG THE-REFUGEES FROM HUN- DESTROYED VILLAGES We went to the narrow old chapel where 84 Dukes of Lorraine are buried. It was closed, but we rang a bell and a woman in black let us in. There is a fine Rubens over the altar. The tombs are protected by sandbags. The glass of windows and dome is shattered rad any moment the maniacal Hun may send a shell to demolish the whole. On a marble slab near the altar we read: “Here Marie Therese Charlotte of Austria, September 11, 1628, came to pray. “Here Francois II said, ‘By blood in heart I belong to Lorraine.’ “Here Marie Antoinette, May 17,1770,. came on her way to Paris to marry Louis XVI and knelt at this altar.” The shrine of Austrian royalty! Here Elizabeth, wife of the late Emperor \«X N DKM[Q\A ADKOqQ»>» » \ \ BRO Qs AG EGR KP ceo, Adams riet Chalmers cae rom Har phf OR gra Photo NEAL Ab !? ¥ Mar Al L OG C 1D, ANCE, TH 1 opera star ‘UP, SONS OF FR: ¢ eillaise, an p Ss satl al immort e the i gin sin le ’ I Frenc enal, the great trassburg, in 17 arthe Ch M 10t d att at the home of an ? 1S et de y Roug by 92, a S WARMING WINE IN A FRONT-LINE TRENCH DURING A QUIET HOUR Whereas too many cooks may spoil a broth, here the problem lies not in the cooking, but in the distribution of a gill of grape juice among three collaborating chefs Se &: — ae Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams GRIM PROOF OF WAR’S TOLL Undismayed by the loss of their loved ones, by the wrecking of their homes, or by the pinch of hunger and the blight of frost, these old women contribute their bit toward the fighting efficiency of undaunted France—they make sandbags for the trenches. On the way to the front our boys pass these shell-riddled homes every day. 507 Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams WHEN PEACE AGAIN BROODS OVER EUROPE THESE LOVELY DAUGHTERS OF ALSACE WILL BE CITIZENS OF FRANCE The wreaths of immortelles some day will be removed from the statue of Strassburg which stands in the Place de la Concorde, in Paris, symbolizing the grief of France for her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In that day the great Republic will take to her arms - again her Alsatian children who for nearly half a century have wept for La Patrie. Francis Joseph, prayed that she might rest. Even a savage would revere and preserve the ancestral tomb of an allied tribe! Madame Mirman motored us to the barracks on the outskirts of the city, where the refugees from the Hun-de- stroyed villages are housed. We found as many as ten in one room—grand- mother, mother, and children. With food and stove supplied, this was luxury com- pared with life in their ruined village, but with the shortage of coal throughout France this winter, there is great suffer- ing, I fear, in those bleak barracks in Nancy. The old women make sandbags for the trenches. One told me she had made 80 ina day. The children attend school, the boys learning trades, the girls domestic 08 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE science, that they may look out for them- selves later on, as most of them are orphans. An American fund in Paris hopes to send a Christmas present this year to every one of these 2,000 homeless children. I asked them to sing and 50 sad-eyed little ones stood up and piped, “Aux morts pour la Patrie.” I could not keep back the tears. I talked with a young woman who was very ill and learned she had been at work in a munition factory in another part of France. I have seen as many as 6,000 women in one of these vast arsenals, and frail girls carrying weights which only strong men should lift. Yet I glory with them in their sacrifice. The women of France have shown us the way. Un- trained women who have never before rolled a bandage face unflinchingly the most grewsome wounds in their hospital service; to release men for the trenches they perform the most menial tasks, such as removing town garbage. Service and Unity. This is the keynote of France. SCENES IN A CELLAR DURING A BOMBARDMENT We left the children playing in the great open square of the barracks and motored back to town. Our automobile was driven by a soldier-chauffeur. I had just remarked that this was the most perfect weather I had known in France when the tocsin shrilled its warning. The soldier stopped the car, jumped off and helped us out and we all bolted for the nearest house with the big Lorraine cross. An old man opened the door and many other people rushed in with us. We had barely reached the cellar steps when the first crash came. I have never heard anything as omi- nous as the sound of those Titanic shells, each crushing out homes and human beings. There were 27 of us in the cellar, our aged host and the soldier the only men. One little boy held a dog in his arms and a girl of ten grasped a cage with a pet canary. We sat on boxes. There was a light, and over in one corner I saw a keg and a sack, evidently containing water and food; and a pickax. How, I wondered, could we dig our way out with that one 509 pickax, should the house be struck! There was an agonized expression on the faces of some of the women whose chil- dren were not with them. Madame Mir- man tried to lighten the strain by telling how her baby girl had wakened, as they carried her down to the cellar the night of the last bombardment, looked about and said, sleepily, “Encore! The bad Boche!” By my wrist watch the shells fell every seven minutes. The bombardment lasted three-quarters of an hour, and we re- mained in the cellar for some time after the last crash, which sounded much nearer than the others. We wanted to be sure the -French guns had temporarily silenced the foe. In the post-office, later, I had a near view of a shell of the 380— a mammoth affair; a little larger, but not as pointed nor as graceful in outline as the French 370 on exhibition beside it. When we reached the street, boys were already flying kites, hoping to rival the planes overhead. Lorrainese children have become accustomed to bombard- ments. Once 90 shells came in one day. And, too, there are sometimes shells dropped by the wicked Taubes, which dodge like hawks among the aircraft of the tri-color. THE EVERY-DAY STORY LORRAINE IN BLEEDING We visited the hospital. Few of the injured had survived. In one bed lay a woman, whose moans were heartrending. “Tt isn’t her physical suffering alone,” the Sister of Mercy told us; “it is her mental torture. She saw her four chil- dren die in the flames.” By the next bed knelt a man in trench- stained uniform, crepe on his sleeve. His face was buried in the waxen hand of a little golden-haired girl. “He is just back on leave,” they told us, “and she will not live the day out.” All the others of his family had been killed outright. This is the every-day story in bleeding Lorraine. It was a brave dinner at the Mirmans. The Colonel of Lorraine was there; on his breast the Military Cross, the Cross of the Legion of Honor, and the “Croix de Guerre,” with five palms, which must be about the record in “citations.” “However on earth did he win them , LOJOSIT} IY} YIM SIOIP[OS Joy Sjootsd due1 yy Ul DINJEN ‘Yyjop Ul UdAT ‘SoTSTep o}YM ‘staMopyUIOD onfq ‘sarddod pos —SUIMIOO]| 218 SIOMOP PJIM SoAVIS 9Y} UM “sURUIOY, oY} JO SALp oy} QUIS OUIVIIO’T PoJaAOD 9AvY adoINy FO suoyeU oy} [[Y “psoMS pure 914 WO1} IIOU PoJOJNS SLY UOLSII OU JOF ‘Play A1OAD UT SQUIO} 91 JIOUY,,, QNNOYD ONIGNVO IVNUALA SANVI NO swepy siowyeyo JoLALTT wosz ydes30j0yq ‘stoyoyedsip ulet} pur ‘sy1o[9 JYSio1y ‘s1ojONpuod ‘sjuose JoyII} Se SpeorIel oy} UO JUoUAOTdWIa Suiydad9" Aq JUOTF OY} Je SOruuie ey} surxjddns ur jaed Juejroduir uv surkeyd o1e ooue1yy JO UDOM oy SSHULSIN-NOLLVLS V SV AUTNOOD UTE ONIAWHS ST WHS SUILPY SIow]VyD Jorlazeyy wor ydesrsojoyg id IO Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams FORTY THOUSAND FRENCH WOMEN ARE WORKING ON TRAINS, RAILROADS, AND STREET-CAR LINES And they go about their work cheerfully, finding in helpful service to their country a panacea for the sorrows and privations which they undergo all?” I whispered to my fellow-country- woman. “I think he must break all rules—go over the top and call for his men to fol- low,’ she suggested, with an admiring glance. Certainly this keen-eyed, clear-skinned colonel was the most soldierly man I met in France, where all the officers are splen- did, in their caps as red as the battlefield and their uniforms as blue as the sky. The Commandant of Verdun was an- other dinner guest; and a New Yorker, just arrived in Nancy in the interests of the Lafayette Kit Fund, which supplies warm underwear and “smokes” to the poilus. “One of our guests may be a little late,” the hostess said; and he arrived a few moments later—a young lieutenant, in dark blue, with the insignia of the bird on his sleeve. He had flown over from Paris with a message and would fly back after dinner. SII SIVLIdSOH NI SV sUIBpYy SIOWLYD JoIIePT wo.sz ydvasoyoug TTHM SV SNYAENVO NI pe Y [AUIS HONVAUT FO NAWNOM Gt TING wey, 512 SWILPY STOW ][LYD JoIILTT wors ydessojoyT AN Gs o13 P]HOM oy} Ul punoss jeling [nyignveq jsou dy}, SUIIIO’T paj[eo sey ULUIYIUDI,[ snouIey y INANGIVAINOd NVINUAISD V UILTV AVALAWNGAS HONAY : NOH AHL GaMad TAISNV WH sWEPY S19W LY D Jolley] wo1y Ydersojoy 514 Bi & Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams WRITING HOME: A TYPE OF CAP NOW USED BY AMERICAN SOLDIERS AT THE FRONT The steel helmet, worn by our men, fits over the cap It was fascinating to hear of the battle of Nancy from men who had made his- tory. They painted a vivid picture. The Prussian army was ordered to take the city at any cost. The Kaiser himself was waiting to ride, with banners flying, to the Place Stanislas. THE BATTLE OF NANCY If the hills of Amance were taken, the road was clear. On swept the Huns. “Deutchland tber Alles,” intoned by thousands of voices, blended with the , hurricane of artillery fire. Unprepared France threw the shells of her 75’s and countless precious lives against the foe. By the grace of God, the French held Amance. This was the worst day the Kaiser ever had. If he had won Nancy, he would have won Paris. Next morning a messenger arrived, asking, in the Emperor’s name, an armis- tice of 24 hours to bury the dead. It was granted. The French expected another assault, but the Kaiser returned to Berlin. When in his capital, by the way, he is within ten hours by express train of every point on his frontier with the ex- ception of Alsace-Lorraine. From a plateau beyond Nancy one can see on the far horizon the cathedral spires of Metz, capital of lost Lorraine. In plain view are the German villages near the frontier—the frontier since 1870. “The Boche,” said our host, “is only a few minutes away by aeroplane.” In plain view from this plateau are the trenches in the vicinity of the Rhine- Marne Canal, where in the eafly morn- ing of November 3 the Germans raided a salient held by American soldiers, and our first blood sacrifice was made in the front-line trenches in France. There are many French towns that we will know better before the war is over. If you have not already made its ac- quaintance, let me introduce you to Lune- ville. It lies southeast of Nancy in the foothills of the Vosges, within sight of those purple peaks which mark the south- ernmost point of the French trenches. DESOLATION WHERE ONCE STOOD PROSPER- OUS, HISTORIC LUNEVILLE Lunéville is a gray, industrial town of 20,000 souls, prospering before the war in its manufacture of railway carriages and motor cars, chinaware and chemical salts. A gorgeous chateau is all that re- mains of its former glory, when the dukes of Lorraine made it their playground. In their day this palace was gayer than Versailles, and its gardens were noted throughout Europe, serving Watteau’s 515 cis. Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams A FIRST-AID POST AT THE ENTRANCE TO FRONT-LINE’ TRENCHES At the very gates to the inferno of battle wait the stretcher-bearers, ready to dash forth and rescue the wounded and dying. pupils as a model when they painted the gorgeous fetes of the Far) East." Dhe chateau is now occupied by the mayor, M. Keller, who played an important role during the German invasion of the town. Madame Mirman motored us out to Lunéville. Although she is the wife of the préfet of this whole department and known by sight to every sentinel on the road, the automobile was halted every quarter of an hour for inspection of pass- ports and information as to where we were bound. In the fields women were mowing hay. I was reminded of a woman I had seen near Rheims. A shell struck a near-by haystack, but she kept on mowing. We ascended a tortuous road to the summit of the hill of Léomont, where a decisive battle had been fought. There Was a most comprehensive view, back over the plain of Nancy, north and east over the French front. In a hollow, at our feet, lay a ruined village which is now being restored through the gen- erosity of a group of wealthy Calitfor- nians. Here is pain, but here also are healing hands From this hill to the one opposite, the battle had raged. We picked up frag- ments of French and German shells, and the soldier-chauffeur explained “which was which,” one being bluer than the other. There were many graves on this hill, and above one I saw a soldier’s tat- tered cap hanging on the little white cross. “T placed it there over two years ago,” Madame Mirman said, “when I came out with my husband. He buried the dead. We did not know the boys’ names, but we marked each cross with the number of the regiment, wherever we could.” THE TRICOLOR BLOOMS ABOVE THE DEAD OF FRANCE On the graves wild flowers were blooming—red poppies, blue corn-flowers, white daisies. Even in death, Nature in France greets her soldiers with the tri- color. Lunéville shows the hoofmarks of the Hun, those terrible 20 days when the enemy was master of the city. The town- hall and the préfecture were destroyed, the industrial section burned, shops pil- 516 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 517 laged, homes looted, men and women mur- dered. Cultured people, like the Kellers, tell the story quietly ; but their eyes have a dangerous gleam. “I would gladly have given my life,’ the mayor said, “if 1 could have spared my _ fellow-citizens those horrible atrocities.” Unarmed men fired on; an old woman run through with a bayonet; a mother driven insane at seeing her son stabbed and her daughter carried off by drunken soldiers—such stories are so common in the foothill towns of the Vosges that the very air is polluted. The birds in the chateau garden have almost forgotten how to sing since the Prussians passed that way. But on this road there is an even sadder sight than grave, silent Luneéville. It is the skeleton of Gerbéviller, the Pompeii of France. Pompeii was wrecked by the might of God; this town by human hate. To reach the most spectral ruins 1 saw in all France, we crossed a bridge which will flame in history, the one held by the 75 chasseurs. THE CHASSEURS WHO ARE TRAINING AMERICAN TROOPS We have an especial interest in the chasseurs, for they have been training our American boys at the front. No soldiers of France are as picturesque as these sun- burnt, fiery-eyed men of the Alpine and Pyreneean heights, who have left the stain of their loyal blood on every frontier they have touched. The Germans call them “the blue devils,” and say they can run faster than the chamois, but it is the Boche who runs when they come his way. They ALemaaiMenmya care-treen lotam munieandera story of one who fired in a kneeling posi- tion instead of lying flat on the ground. When asked by a fellow-soldier why he was so foolhardy, he explained that he had a bottle of wine in his pocket and it had no cork. Dinnesithe wbattle vor Worraimen 75 chasseurs were posted at the bridge which leads to Gerbéviller. As the Ger- man column hove in sight they tore up the pavement, threw breastworks across the bridge, and stationed their machine guns. ‘This was in the early morning. At four that afternoon a lone chasseur fired the last round of ammunition and slipped away to join his companions, 51 of whom had survived. For eight hours 75 Frenchmen had held off 12,000 Ger- mans. Angered into fury by the machine guns, which had held them so long at bay, the Prussians entered the town, firing and burning every house they passed. Like many French towns, Gerbéviller was built on one long main street, with lanes lead- ing from it. Only stark walls stand. Oil was poured into the cellars to make more of a blaze. If the people remained in the houses, so much the better. SISTER JULIE, A HEROINE AMONG HEROES ihe tnenigeessnavyeverepe backyOnta mangled wall I saw the sign: “Café of the Ruins.” A girl in black was placing a bunch of wild flowers before the broken image of the Virgin on the wall of what was once a church. Only one building in the town stands—the humble little hospice which shelters Sister Julie, one of the great heroines of France. We rang the doorbell and a Sister of Mercy ushered us into a narrow hallway, and then into a little sitting-room with oil-cloth on the table, and a few stiff- backed chairs. There was a_ battered organ and an ancient chest and two pic- tures of religious subjects on the wall. I can see every detail even now, for this was the setting of the woman who de- fied the whole German army. She sat upright in her chair with hands crossed—a short, plump woman past 60, with bright hazel eyes, rosy cheeks, and a firm mouth. Sister Julie, whose name before she was Mother Superior was Madame Amélie Rigard, has a most au- thoritative air. Beneath the cape of her black habit gleams the cross of the Legion of Honor, pinned there by the President of the Republic, who, with many other dignitaries, made a pilgrimage to this re- mote village to decorate this little old woman. Sister Julie speaks rapidly, with an oc- casional gesture. She told us of the 75 chasseurs—how the first to be wounded were brought to her house. She took off the ammunition belts and sent them back by a nun to the bridge. When the houses Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams DECORATES ONE OF HER COUNTRY’S DEFENDERS A FLOWER OF FRANCE across the street were fired, she went out to a German officer and said, “Don’t you dare to burn my house. I am car- ing for the wounded. If you spare my house and’ the people in it, I will care for your wounded, too.” And she kept her word. She mothered the homeless population. The stories she told us made me sick with horror. AT THE SHRINE WHERE AMERICA WAS CHRISTENED Back of the ruins are shacks erected by the government to house 800 refugees THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE who have returned to their old haunts. The women had just come in from the hop field. They were poorly clad and in need of new hob-nailed shoes. One poor old soul offered me her only chair. She said she was very grateful to have a home again and was comfortable when it was not cold. “But, O, Madame, if only you could have seen those pewter plates over the fireplace in my house that was burned. They — be- longed to my great- great-grandmother.” A mecca of mine lay beyond Gerbéviller, in the mountains of the Vosges—the old town of St. Dié, where America was named; but it was under heavy bombardment just then and not at home to visitors. Many of our boys have already seen the places I have described, and some of the Young American Lafayettes may wan- der through St. Dieé’s narrow streets and, if it has withstood the German shells, even enter the old house where America was put on the map. America is on the map to stay, and all the Young American Lafayettes are in France to stay until the day of victory. Since my return from the war zone I have been traveling throughout the United States, feeling the pulse of Amer- ica. I am convinced that, although the awakening is slow with many, we are at last becoming united and will stand the test ; that in the struggle to maintain those principles on which our nation rests we will exhibit the same fortitude and spirit of self-sacrifice I met in French Lorraine. Photograph by W. Reid BONNIE PRINCE CHARLIE «NVANHONOTd AHL OL AW GNHNWODO NAM Od I LVHL SHQVaL AHL .V AO,, Pley “AA 4q ydess0}0Yg ‘s}Svaq 9]GOU ds9Y7 Buloq o4vo [vIdods s9Y ‘WILY dy? JO SaIWNp ay} swUOjed ‘ota} ;NyYyWey Joy Aq patueduios0e ‘aime y otuuy Ulepour sty} ‘JAvdYIJaaMS JOIP[OS VWOS 0} UDAIS 9nJ1} dsIWOId Jaz] wid YAH NI ONITHUVdS AAOT ‘WOOT .AAHLNOA NI), aM “AM Aq ydesso 04g MOOG—AYXHMVIG—AYHXMOIH SNVHdeYO GANVTHIH Pla “Mm Aq ydessoj04g ry 4 % SGNHIYH LSA S.NVIN Prey “AX AG Ydesso0jOYg ,, Pewelep oq Al JUSLUYSTUOSy 9A9 JoSva puv Iea poyoud yey} uy] ,, 5,j00d 9u} 10) SuIsod oq 0} Wises ‘ouysyqeg ‘ajAojsoqy jo s80p Surjiods ysoye AjjusIyIUseur asoy pL YaHMOVIS AHL ONDIVMV Pry “AA 4q ydessoj04g “‘Yysinquipy jo APUIOIA ay} UT ST]TY 84} UO SpuNOYsAZap YST}}OISG jo Yord y TIVO HHL WOH AGVAA Prey “Ay Aq ydeis0j,04g Photograph by W. Reid “GIVE ME BUT ONE HOUR OF SCOTLAND, LET ME SEE ID ERE I. DIE” After the contemplation of such a scene of peaceful beauty the native of the Highlands recalls with amused superiority the acrid Dr. Johnson’s declaration that ‘‘the noblest prospect which a Scotchman ever sees is the high road that leads him to England.” Photograph by W. Reid STRONG, STALWART, UPSTANDING Such Scottish types as this village blacksmith inspired Burns to philosophize: ‘Princes and lords are but the breath of kings; An honest man’s the noblest work of God.” Photograph by W. Rei OVER THE TOP! ies ready to explore anyman’s land. ier pupp Scotch terr , Three points of interrogation >peuotay PSIYIUTLE YS Yy oie 3s0q sop jo pos01q STyy MOU oymM vsoyy pue ‘OT][OO oy} jo Ppyjou uolryOANpP pue (USsTO1OY jo SOIIO4S oy) J1V Sso[ Juno) “UI 4 Sptoy Ajy101pe pue PAOIP FOYIO Woy syeurUe UMO sty soye1edos AT[NpP{S voe[d Jox1eW papMosy 1 ur pue ‘dooys yenprarput oy} MOU OF SOLUOD UOOS oy ‘90H B Jo diys “UeIpPseNsd oY) YITM Jose psoydoys sry Aq paysn.aquy ‘Ayneoq sry syenbo sduasyjaquI stpy “Zop daays JPUOTIIPLAY S,PJIOM OY) SI OJOS YOIOIG ay, | YJNINOD ANV STTAEd NV AHL st PRY “AM Aq Yderz0}04g ‘SOYSHoPIVILYO SuIysMSuljstp ose ‘punoss oy} 0} soydvas uayjo yotym ‘acvay Asrey pue susoy jesids Moy] ‘oSivy Sj] “pur| Bulzei3 pasodxa *pjIM uO SoATIYy 99¥j-yIEIq VY], “puv]}JOIG puY purj3uq uaanjaq aul] Alepunog ay} ‘S][IY JOLASYD oy} WOIy slUTU S}I SBATIOpP YDIYM “JOIASYD SNOW] s10UI sy} UY} Jolprey st pur]JOIG jo doays aovy-yoRIq ay L MOUYNOWOL SNVLYAVLI GNV SCIVW Id prea “AM _Aq ydeiz0j04g fe? hil AEP De, ot pues podsdsn4a Ay} 01 ow syuy yey purg [ey ey) oun 49,9 ue) puey [ejsow yeyM [sous Au jo pur] ‘pooy oy} pue ureyunou oy} Jo puey ‘poom Adseys pu yay UMOIG JO purT,, sal SE rersis OWAVUL ONILLONU.LSAO «, UMOUY Stoyze} JO oul] STY We UUM ‘Quo0q jo [[N} puke say jo [NY ‘pso1q ajqou ev jo pure *yorjq “su0l4s,, :,,ISIOP{ Poojg,, S,[JeMusoyd jo se Ajnsy sev pres aq AvUI YI pURTJOIG JO 9]}7VI asay) JO ATINVA TVAOU AGNV IIH V ‘advospury syr jo AjaueA pue AyNeaq 9Yy} Ul PUL]I9Z}IMG 0} UdAV JOU SPJaIA pUR]}OIG ‘asi03 Uapjos puv Joy Joy ajdind josapjuLM oIseLU YM JURY Soviq Joy SYST asionbin} YW Surmoys _ syoo],, jinbues} Joy susays JoATIs jo s][ejzajeM YIM Zuny Sapls tray} PUe S}SILU Ul Paysvur ,,Sudqg,, Joy JO SyiluLUNS oY | GIIM GNVTYOOW GNV “ANVT ‘NIVINAOW GIN. PPA “M Aq ydesR0} 04g Photograph by W. “T AM, INDEED, SIR, A SURGEON TO OLD SHOES” ‘Long may the hardy sons of rustic toil Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content.’ FROM THE TRENCHES DO) VERSATEIEES By CaroLtyn Corey ESTERDAY afternoon I took ) thirty-two soldiers to Versailles. make this trip’ three times a week. On the other days | am guide in Paris for our men from the front. It is such fun that I object strenuously to any reference to this as my ‘war work.” iPmect= ther men at aiBlichty.2 his word, really Indian, means a “corner of home.” In this particular instance it is a club where all English-speaking fighters are made welcome. An adored piano works overtime and a phonograph rests only during the change of records. Best of all, enormous plates of thinly sliced bread and butter and huge cups of strong hot tea are served in a great big room, where, as one kid put it, “every table has a cloth.” French soldiers get home leaves every four months. But I’ve had boys with me who were out of line for the first time in a year. They were the lucky ones; for many that I meet tell me they are free for ten days after sixteen, seventeen, and even nineteen months. If their first ex- cursion happens to take place on the day of arrival, they are more frightened of me than of all the shells and “shrap” they’ve ever faced. Not the least of my task is to put them at their ease. I succeed best when I talk their “lingo.” I’ve learned a lot of it from their predecessors and am learning more every day. Ifa chap says to me: “Gee, it’s good to hear your slangwidge,” I know he’s my friend. And when an- other insists that I’m “a regular guy,” then the ice is broken for all of us. THE SOLDIER ON LEAVE IS GLORIOUSLY EXTRAVAGANT Lucky days we find taxis quickly. The distance to the station is not great, but we never walk, for the soldiers “like to let the chauffeur do the work.’ And be it known that no drunken sailor and no newly-made millionaire was ever so glo- riously extravagant as our retur ned friend in khaki. The street gamins of Paris discovered this early and flock about us in droves, demanding “One penny, please,” in very good English. And I’m sure the one who throws the big copper coins is at least as happy as the one who picks them up. When the first taxi comes along I pile five happy youngsters into it—four inside and one with the driver. I give the ad- dress and they are off. The hailing of the taxis and the filling of them stops all traffic. Men, women, and children stop dead in their tracks and sometimes their remarks are worth hearing. Occasionally we are delayed because two pals,refuse to be separated. If there is a seat\3n one taxi and another in a sec- ond, I call attention to that fact. 1 tell them that the ride is less than ten minutes long. But invariably another car must be found. After all, why should a fellow leave his mate? The ticket-seller at the station hows me now and actually smiles. He told me the other day that some time he would like to go with me, too, for though born in Paris he has never been to Versailles. He counts out thirty-two second-class military tickets. He stamps each one with a great flourish and hands them to me with a gallant bow. I used to get quite upset at first, but after twice for- getting to purchase a ticket for myself, and having again to stand in line to get it, | soon learned to remain calm. I buy second-class tickets because I must. ‘There are few first-class carriages and my thirty-two would more than fill them up. But, in spite of explanations, all of the thirty-two pile into the first. And when the conductor comes around, they pay the additional fee with such an expression of “Put me out if you dare” that nothing ever happens. So for all of 535 ) HES ARE FORGOTTEN IN THE QUIET BEAUTY OF VE A ROYAL BACKGROUND FOR MR. ATKINS PORTRAIT a) ‘N SATLLES thirty-five minutes they revel in the nearly forgotten luxury of red plush seats. THE PERSONNEL OF THE PARTY An absurd little whistle goes toot” and the train pulls out. I close my eyes for a minute; for the placing of the men in the taxis; the wrangling with the drivers who don’t want to take us because it is the lunch hour, and who demand, “Ts it that a human being must not eat at this hour?” the buying of the tickets to the accompaniment of the remarks of the people around me; the blowing of cheap smoke into my face during the pro- ceeding, and my fear that one of my boys will make good his threat and “knock their dern nuts off ;’ the dealing out of the tickets with the admonition of “Don’t lose this, for you'll have to give it up at the gate ;” the seeing that every chap has a seat—well, as I said above, I lean back and close my eyes for a minute. Then I sit up and look about me to dis- cover how many Canadians, how many toot, H. C. White Coa THE ROYAL PALACE FROM THE PLACE D ARMES: VERSAILLES, FRANCE Le Grand Monarque, as French historians have dubbed Louis XIV, employed 36,000 men and 6,000 horses for years in leveling the ground for the gardens and park and in building the Acueduc de Maintenon, which supplies the Palace of Versailles and its famous fountains. with water from the Eure. : New Zealanders, and how many Aus- tralians are with me today. I usually have a goodly sprinkling of “Scotties,” too. But they tell me they are not Scotch at all—just plain, ordinary “Canucks,” or, in loving soldier slang, “‘Nadies.”’ When every window has been pried open, every cap or large felt hat has been placed in the racks, on the floor, or far back on close-cropped heads, and es- pecially when cigarettes and pipes are burning merrily, I begin to feel we are really started. Invariably at this time one will come to me and say longingly: “Say, lady, don’t you know any new rag time?” And when I must reluctantly ‘admit that I don’t, because “I have been over here as long as you,’ he murmurs something about “You, too, doing your bit,’ and besins! to tear ott an old onex* 50, to the accompaniment of the turning wheels the lusty young voices roar such old stand-bys as “Tye got a sneaky feelin’ round my heart that I want to settle 537 Photograph by EF. Lamy SALLE DE L’OEIL-DE-BGSUF (HALL OF THE BULL’S EYE) : PALACE OF VERSAILLES So called on account of the oval window where the courtiers of Louis XIV used to await the waking of the monarch in the adjoining apartments. Once the scene of many intrigues, this salon is “some dugout” to the 20th century soldier on leave from the front-line trenches. down.” And there is always heartfelt feeling in “Gee, how I’d like to be, Gawd, how I want to be, down on the farm.” THE BLIGHTY’ SONG We stop for a minute or two at a sta- tion and I hear many comments. Here are a few: “I gave her a smile, and as soon as she saw my gold tooth she said, “Oh, ze millionaire.’”’ And “If this damn war keeps me in the trenches another year, 'm going to desert, I am.” At which a wild chorus rises up of “Yes, you ain't.” Then, in a very soft, drawl- ing English voice, one boy says: “Aus- tralia is as much a farming country as France; and after what I’ve seen here, I'll never vote for conscription at home. Suppose my sisters had to plow!” Again the train pulls out, and a voice, almost girlish in freshness, sings: “The roses round the door make me love mother more.” After he has finished some one starts the “Blighty” song. It 538 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 039 goes like this: “Please take me across the sea, where the old Al- lymongs can’t get me; "Cause, my, my, my! I don’t wanna die, but I wanna go ho-ome.” It is repeated over and over and over, and long afterwards, when I am again alone, it rings in my head and my heart. Auncnyecl aie. Weert sailles, I scurry back and forth on the plat- form to see that no one is left behind. For once a lad fell asleep and had to be prodded out at the last moment. He admitted frankly that he’d had two bottles of whisky and a hard night. He asked me __ stupidly, “What’s ‘Vursales’ anyway?” Later in the afternoon he prom- ised to take a Turkish bath, or, as he told it, “a bunch of ’em.” In spite of my dras- tic warning, there is often a scared-looking soldier who tells me shamefacedly that he has lost his ticket. I, in turn, tell this to the man at the gate. smiles indulgently and assures me that “all American soldiers can pass through,” which doesn’t make a hit at all, especially with the Australians, who on account of their soft hats are often taken for “Sammies.” More than once have I heard a “Go to the devil” in response to “Bon jour, cher Americain.” When the strap which holds the hat to the head is worn before the ears, the wearer is from far-off Kangaroo Land; but when it’s worn behind the ears, he’s a Yank. And you mustn’t mix ’em up, either. For the short walk to the castle we do BED-CHAMBER OF LOUIS XIV AT VERSAILLES, FRANCE “Tt’s a funny, flat bed, and one chap said with a grin, ‘If Looey had aie one drink he couldn’t get onto it, and if he took two he couldn’t stay on. not go two or four abreast, but all to- gether; for I find that a man on leave tries to forget everything military. What he wants to do least of all is to walk. He hates it almost as much as he hates the rain, and he hates the rain like poison. At the front he must get wet and muddy. In town he loves to be dry and clean. In spite of his loathing for foot exercise, I know, however, that the average soldier is willing to walk miles on the trail of some interesting scrap of history or even a charming bit of scenery. 540 In the center of the huge courtyard I gather them all about me and give a short, a very short, description of the palace. Every one listens carefully and the intelligent ones ask questions. When I call their attention to the original cob- blestones some one remarks, “‘I’d like to meet the gink that invented them. Bet he never had to wear ten pounds of iron in his boots.” When I say that the palace cost four million pounds I hear, “Wrap it up.’ And when I say slowly and dis- tinctly that there are rooms for ten thou- sand guests, I hear a sigh and “I'd like to stay here for duration.” We go into the Salle de Congrés and I tell the story of how it was built and ab-so-lute-ly finished in three months, and I hear a grunt of disbelief and a bass voice saying, “It takes a Frenchy that long to cook a steak.” When I an- nounce that the guide is a veteran of the Franco-Prussian War, as they can see by his military medal and his empty sleeve, one generous fellow yells, “Every fellow hand him a franc.” But I object vigor- ously and tell them that that would never do; it would be establishing another pre- cedent, and goodness knows enough have already been established here for the man in khaki; at which the wit of the crowd pipes, “At least you'll let me kiss him.” Now, thanks to the kindness of the French Government, the chateau is opened to my thirty-two. We enter into all the magnificence that was Louis’s through the great wide doors, not, however, wide enough to accommodate the eager troop of veritable children, who crowd and push and joke and swear. MR. ATKINS STUDIES ART We halt a second before the big pic- ture of Louis XIV, because several want to take “a peek at the ‘kink’ who was responsible.” And as all of Versailles is essentially Louis, after awhile it gets to be a game, this hunting for and finding of Louis in bronze, marble, and oil in all sorts of poses and costumes; so much so that one day when one of my guests took some snap-shots of the party, another said, “We mustn’t tell Looey; he'd hate so to be out of it.” THE NATIONAL ‘GEOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE We ascend the gorgeous marble stair- case, the favorite one of Marie Antoi- nette, and I try not to smile when a miner from the Yukon refers to her as “Marie Antonio.” Lord love him, he’s going to see everything and know who’s who and why. At least that’s what he tells me. An Australian mutters that his favorite staircase is the one that leads off the boat at Sydney, and a second, and a third, and a fourth agree with enthusiasm. We wander slowly and awesomely through the grandeur of the gallery of battle pictures. We examine attentively the picture depicting one of the first victories of France, in the year 496. I never forget to point out the trench hel- met, so like the one in use now, and em- ployed, as another picture proves, early in the thirteenth century. I always re- member to halt the entire company be- fore the battle of Lens, which took place in 1648, on the 2oth of August. The date and month are of importance, be- cause it was on almost that very same date and month of this year that Canada started to get back Lens. STEALING SHY GLANCES AT THEMSELVES IN THE BALLROOM MIRRORS And when I ask mischievously, “Boys, are we or are we not going to do it?” well, I'll venture to say that the great room in which we stand never echoed to deeper or sincerer emotion than during the second when positive voices shout, > Wesarela We are taken through many of the private rooms of the court. We see Louis’s bedroom. It’s a funny, flat bed, and one fellow says that “if Looey had one drink he couldn’t get onto it, and that if he took two he couldn’t stay on.” I point out the little balcony leading from this room, where Marie Antoinette addressed the Parisian mob, and I tell them that in answer to their cries for bread she asked them why they didn’t eat cake. This always brings a laugh, just as does the story that in the beginning of this war the Kaiser said Versailles was to be the summer hqme of the Crown Prince. Here I refrain from repeating the remarks, THE GALLERY OF BATTLES, ROYAL PALACE: VERSAILLES, © Keystone View Company FRANCE _ “We wander slowly and awesomely through the grandeur of the gallery of battle pictures. I never forget to point out the trench helmet, so like the one in use now, and employed, as one picture proves, early in the thirteenth century.” We see the ballroom, of a size and splendor never equaled in the history of the world. We walk the entire length and my thirty-two steal shy or defiantly bold glances at themselves in its mirrored walls. I hear a voice say, “Some dug- Ot gnanduarainw «Gee. lid jlike to) stay, here for duration.” I turn around and for the first time get a good look at the one the others have dubbed the “Infant.” I call him to me on the pretense of showing him the view from the windows. I talk rapidly, so that he may not be too ill at ease. After a few minutes he tells me he is from Provi- dence, R. I.; that he is just seventeen and has been on active service for more than a year. When I ask how he got in so young, he smilingly admits that he ran away from home, lied as to his age, and that he’s mighty ¢ glad he came, except for the discipline. “That’s pretty hard on a man, you know.” I look at him again and I see that he is straight, and strong, and very intelli- gent. I see also that he has a baby mouth and an almost loving way of staring at me. So I decide to take him under my wing—and I do so. I scold him in all earnestness when he insists upon sliding S41 sbi Fiz. © Griffith & Griffith LAKE AND FARM OF MARIE ANTOINETTE: PALACE OF PETIT TRIANON, VERSAILLES, FRANCE In the nine or ten rustic cottages which dot the shores of this beautiful little artificial body of water the care-free Marie Antoinette and her irresponsible retinue played at leading “the simple life,” Soothsaver.” on the highly polished ballroom I forgive him when he winks the wickedest possible manner. floor, but at me in WHERE BEAUTY BRINGS A TRAR After we've seen what seems like miles of beautiful old rooms, and furniture, and rugs, and tapestries, we tip our guide in true soldier style. Then we sally forth into the fresh, sweet-swelling openness of the gardens. We all heave a huge sigh to leave behind the close, hot air of in- doors. We breathe deeply for very joy of living and being away from “Fritzie,” in whom we all admit there’s “a mighty good kick yet.” We saunter slowly to the top of the superb marble stairs, where we just natu- rally stop. Somehow I can never stand on this particular spot with my soldier friends without feeling a great lump in my throat. Sometimes a boy will almost whisper, “Beautiful,” or “Bonza,” if he is an Australian, which means everything that is good ; but mostly they say nothing. Sometimes I see a kid surreptitiously ut which came into fashion with the publication of Rousseau’s “The Village take off his cap, and once I saw a tear; it was in the eye of a man who had been an artist at home; now he is assistant camp cook. Now we descend the great white steps, thirty-two pairs of army boots clang- clanging and one pair of high heels al- ways in the lead. Once more I gather them all about me, the ‘‘Infant’’ closest of all, and we feast our eyes upon the beauties of the fountain of Latona. I tell them what it means. Every fairy tale begins in the same old way; so here goes: “Once upon a time, when the goddess whom you see at the top of the fountain was wandering in a little village, she was very thirsty. She came upon a lot of women and children and begged them for a drink. But they refused and laughed at her. So she called upon Jove, and he, with one wave of his hand turned them all into turtles and frogs, just as you see them here.” And all around me I hear, “What a charming tale,’ and “Nonsense,” and “It ‘ud take a lot o’ this to kill me.” Ny © Keystone View Company MARKE-PLACE IN PEACE TIMES: VERSAILLES, FRANCE It was the lavish hand of Louis XIV which made Versailles one of the famous show- places of the world. It is of especial interest to Americans now fighting in France. When granted occasional leave from the trenches they naturally go to Paris and flock to the great chateau, which is said to have cost $100,000,000 apart from the forced labor exacted under the old feudal system. Versailles before the outbreak of the war had a population of 60,000. AT THE GROTTO OF APOLLO From here I steer them in the general direction of the Grotto of Apollo. I announce our destination when a big, breezy farmer from New Zealand ven- tures: “Oh, yes, that’s the place where Louis is getting washed by those women.” And I pretend not to hear him nor the “S-h-h-h-h-h” from every side. As we approach the grotto, the guide, another old soldier, still wearing his long sword, comes up to us with a look of “come into my parlor, said the spider to the fly.” He, too, knows me now and is my friend. So he unlocks the high bronze gates while humming a naughty little song, and we step from the brilliant sun- shine of the open garden into a bit of exquisite old forest, delightfully cool and absolutely still. I hear a sighing, “Is this really true?” and a cursing, “Oh, how my feet hurt!” We come to the grotto, and immediately my thirty-two weary wanderers fall upon the grass in attitudes of—I might almost say abandon. I reel off the story of the pretty rocks, which, 543 © H. C. White Company LAST MOMENTS OF NAPOLEON”: PALACE OF VERSAILLES, FRANCE ce Something akin to awe masters the Tommie as he stands before this block of insensate marble, which depicts with such solemnity the final hour of that restless genius at whose word princes and principalities sprung into being; dying, his only realm of rule the crumpled map upon which he traced the boundaries of his former conquests. “though you’d scarcely believe it, are not natural at all, but artificial.” I talk on, and on, and try to make my little lecture entertaining, for by this time I know that everybody present needs a rest. So we take it here, under the old, old trees, which almost meet over the ever-present statue of Louis, this time in the company of his ministering maidens. Even the custodian obligingly sits down and waits patiently until I again give the sign to “fall in.” He knows that “permissions” to Paris THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Aine (Semtee, ior lye told him about that. He knows that the biggest and best fight- ing man is only a tired little kiddie at heart, and he knows above everything else that some of today’s num- ber are seeing their last bit of beauty. Pretty soon, after a hasty glance at my watch, I.say: “On our weary way. On with the mad pursuit of Art and Information.” Then, with a great stretching of arms and legs and a few ill- disguised yawns, we pass again through the high bronze gate, all but the smiling guide poorer by a few pen- nies. We wander through long avenues of stately plane-trees whose bark has disappeared, eaving the bare and beautiful yellow of the trunk to remind us that autumn is again with us. We pass and admire the fountains of the Four Seasons, the stunning one of Hercules, and the pretty one called “The Sheaf of Wheat.” We are on our way to the handsomest one of all, that of Apollo in his chariot drawn by high-stepping, splashing horses. Now we come to a little lane which I love. It is narrow and shadowy, and so still that the rustling of the ivy leaves which cover all the trees seems almost loud. “THE TINIEST LEAF FOR THE ONE WAITING AT HOME” I stop in the center of the roadway, and when the last straggler has caught up I again make a little speech. I say: BEDROOM OF NAPOLEON : VERSAILLES, FRANCE The over-seas soldiers on leave and off for a “look-see” at Versailles have no compunction about referring to Louis XIV as “the kink who was responsible,” but in the simple apartments of the “Little Corporal” their bearing is always one of respectful admiration. “Boys, the French have a: pretty saying that ‘the smaller the ivy leaf, the dearer the love.’ So I want each’ one of you to find the tiniest leaf possible and send it to the one that’s waiting at home.” Be- fore I have finished I find myself alone. Every homesick soldier is keen in his search, sure that his leaf is going to be the smallest. One after another comes to me and asks, “How about this one?” or “Won't you please look at mine?” And the lump in my throat gets bigger and bigger as I watch these hardened warriors so intent upon his foolish, though touch- ing, little game; for I know that every lonely eallenr is thinking, not that in one or two or more days he’s going back to what in stoic derision he terms miaomes but that some one, somewhere, is thinking about him and worrying about him and loving him too. The joker of the party comes to me with a perfectly enormous leaf, which he informs me he has plucked for his and when I ask him if he has a mother-in-law, he answers: “No, but I might have one some day.” An- other young devil shows me a leaf even larger, and when I naturally ask who is to get that, he says, “It’s for the Kaiser.’ And a third presents a leaf so small that I smile at its absurdity in a hand so big and hard. His mouth quivers ever so slightly as he tells me it is for his mother, who is the only one on earth who cares for him. By and by thirty-two infinitesimal ivy leaves are carefully placed in thirty-two safe places. Did I say thirty-two? Well, I should have said thirty-four, for I catch one chap hoarding away three. I laugh- ingly admonish him to be careful not to send them all to the same town, for “girls will tell, you know.” By way of reply he pulls a post- card photograph out of his pocket and says, “Here’s why I must have three,” and I see the picture of a nice- looking young woman and two babies. mother-in-law ; z) O46 A TOUCH OF SENTIMENT AMONG SOLDIERS -A red-haired, peppery - looking little man is horribly embarrassed because in putting his leaf into his note-book some- thing has fallen out. It is, he tells me, the last thing his wife gave him—a thing which had been a pink rose, a paper one, if you please. She had made it herself and thrown it into the train window when he waved goodby, more than two and a half years ago. Somehow this little touch of sentiment seems to have drawn us all closer, and we resume our tour the better for our short mental visit home. ‘The “Infant” seems pretty silent until he spies a stand where weak lemonade, warm beer, and small cakes are to be bought. He returns with hands full of the latter, and when I reprimand him, because he knows we are all to have refreshments later, he tells me that never could he wait that long. So we eat the hard ginger cookies as we watch some small boys sailing tiny boats in a fountain. The “Infant” tells me, in a burst of confidence, that he’s got a boat “just like that” at home. His mother is saving it, though he doesn’t know why. We stroll along leisurely, to stop a mo- ment before a huge likeness of Louis in marble, disguised as a Roman emperor. The “Infant,” playing with the naked toes, begins: “This little pig went to market, this little pig stayed at home.” As I give his arm a little squeeze I ask him if he ever gets homesick. He admits it freely. And when I want to know if he has ever cried, I see him hesitate for just a second ; then he bursts out in a very fury of rage: “Yes, I cried when a guy killed the Fritzie who was my meat.” A BATTLE ROYAL OVER THE MENU After a hasty look at some of the things which the guide-book says one must see, thirty-two pretty tired young men sink into chairs under red and white striped umbrellas in front of a charming little restaurant. Two remained outside, so I send a runner to find out if they are neither hungry nor thirsty. He returns at once with the two; also with an ex- planation, interlarded with many swear words, that “of course, they are both; THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE but they thought you were going in to see some blankety blank art.” Now comes a battle royal. It is indeed difficult to discover how many want ham, how many beef, and how many veal sand- wiches. I know that no one wants cheese. Cheese is a horror second only to “‘posie,”’ which is marmalade, and “Charlie Chap- lin wedding cake,” which is hardtack. I ask one boy what he will have, and he answers unsmilingly, “Hot waffles ;’”” a second says his will be “Strawberry shortcake,” and a third wants “A barrel of beer and a quince.” When the thing seems to be growing hopeless I tell every fellow who wants ham to raise his hand. One boy raises both, and when I demand why, he tells me, “Because I want two.” Next we take up the question of the drinks and by and by we get that settled. The little white plates, the pearl-handled knives, and the dainty, clean napkins are so enjoyed. Some one remarks that the latter would make good souvenirs. Of course, he’s a “Canuck.” He'll tell you himself that “the English fight for honor, the French for glory, and the Canadians for souvenirs.” He goes farther and swears that the general understanding on the field is that when a Fritzie is found lying on his tummy it’s a sign that he’s been “picked,” so no use bothering with him. Some one is heard to say: “Voolyvoo, shoot the salt, cherry,” and some one else remarks that he “likes the sample.” I don’t believe many things can disappear with greater rapidity than a thinly cut, delicious sandwich in the hands of a hungry soldier. Before the last bit is eaten the order for a second round has been given. The waiter’s mad attempt to get the order right makes a New Zealander remark that “this will be in the communique tomorrow.” Another, apro- pos of nothing, says that Paris is the only part of France worth fighting for, and that if it were left to him, he’d give the dern country to the Boches and apologize for the looks of it. SENDING SOUVENIRS HOME A dozen others take advantage of the wait to ask me if I could possibly send their books of post-cards home. I assure THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HAT them that I will do so gladly. At which a middle-aged man, who has _ hardly spoken during the afternoon, wants to know if I ever send parcels for the men. I tell him I do it every day in the week. After a second’s hesitation, he says: “But perhaps, lady, you wouldn’t care about wrapping up this particular thing.” I insist upon knowing what he means. He explains: “I’m a seafarin’ man meself, lady. I bin purty near all over this here world. An’ ever’ place I bin I brought a souvenir from. Yesterday I got a corkin’ good one. I visited the big crematory ; I got there jest in time to see a dead one goin’ in the heater. It wasn’t long afore I saw the thing pulled out. I hops in and grabs a little bone. It was hot. Wouldn't you like to see it?” After the second sandwich we have cakes all around—lots of them. ‘Thirty- two fighters can eat quite as many cakes as thirty-two small boys, maybe more. When everybody’s “got a light” we begin to feel really acquainted. No one seems in a hurry to move. Everything is so peaceful that I haven’t the heart to an- nounce that we’re going to miss our train unless we start. Anyway, there are other trains and the sunset on the artificial lake is very beautiful. The long expanse of grass, so prettily called the “Green Carpet,” is restful to eyes accustomed to shell holes and the devastation of northern France. Unconsciously we become very still. I don’t know how long we’d remain here contentedly dreaming were it not for the waiter’s very obvious desire to clear the tables. So I reluctantly call for the bill, which is immediately taken from me by a big, jolly, monkey boy. He glances at it, falls back in his chair and screams: “Quick, quick, give me my gas mask.” He divides the total by fifty-two, for of course the “commanding officer” does not pay. When she attempts to do so, there is a perfect tumult of protestation, and a “Don’t insult us like that, please,’ from all sides. THE RETURN TO PARIS When the waiter has been made de- liriously happy over the size of his tip, we get up lazily and a little sadly. We saunter leisurely for a parting look at Apollo and his car and his big bronze horses. We look for the last time at the row-boats on the lake and at all the dreamy beauty around us, and in the stillness of the summer evening we fol- low the wide path back to the palace, now a marvel of old ivory in the soft light. It is so easy to imagine the vast terrace filled with ladies in wide skirts and gentlemen in white knickers. But we are brought back to stern reality by the whir of an aéroplane over our heads and some one almost moans, “You can’t get away from it.” We again cross the old, cobble-stoned courtyard and come again to the tall bronze gates. The artist remains behind a moment to study their carving. We continue on to the right, and in a few minutes are back in the station. A busy, buzzing little sergeant counts up for me as the men come along. When I am positive that not one has fallen by the wayside, I again buy thirty-two tickets for soldiers and one for the one a nice boy calls “The Queen Bee.” Again there is the scramble for seats in the train, and just as the whistle blows, I jump in my- self, assured that no one is left behind. BACK TO THE FRONT In a short thirty minutes we are back in town, and once more I stand with my afternoon’s companions about me. They shake my hand, and each in his particular way tells me that it has been a perfect day. They don’t all express it that way, of course. One says, “Top hole;”’ an- other calls it “Bonza ;” a third, “Sim-play Tippin: 2 and: 1a. fourths some “trip: Here, without the slightest warning, the “Monkey Boy” proposes “three rousing cheers” for a much embarrassed little lady. They are given so lustily that small boys and old ladies and men of all ages hasten towards us to find out what it’s all about. A first taxi appears. I pack five into it, give the various addresses to the chauf- feur, and to shouts of “See you tomor- row in ‘Blighty,’ sister,” I wave them off. A second car pulls up at the curb and five more leave me, pleasantly tired and seem- FRENCH SOLDIERS MARCHING ON ingly happy, and oh, so grateful. Each new taxi takes its load, until presently only the “Monkey Boy,” the “Infant,” and myself are left. The baby soldier doesn’t seem to mind that the big fellow’s arm is around his shoulder—in fact, he seems to like it. I direct our driver to take me home first, because they want a longer ride, they tell me. As we speed along, in spite of my best efforts the conversation lags; then dies utterly. A deep gloom seems to have settled upon my two companions, and suddenly I begin to understand; for I know the look which says, “I am leaving all this behind.” I sense the hearta che behind the smiling face. I feel the utter cruelty of it all, so I don’t talk about it. When it comes time for us to part I only ask, “And so you two are going out to- night?” he brave little ‘ Tnfant” grins painfully as he tells me: “‘Yes, for us it’s on Photograph from Harriet Chalmers Adams THE RUE ROYALE over the top and the best o, luck? som say, “God bless you.’ Tt’s all one can say, you know. THE MID-WINTER NUMBER The unprecedented achievement of suc- cessfully completing 23,000,000 pages of four-color, as represented in the 700,- 000 copies of the Flag or October Num- ber of the NATIONAL GrocRaPHic MaGa- ZINE—work which could only be done in the hours of daylight, because of the ne- cessity for perfect registration—together with delays in delivery, owing to the conge stion of transportation, seriously retarded the varly completion of that truly remarkable issue. It therefore has been deemed advisable to incorporate the contents of the November and December GEOGRAPHIC in this one issue, as the mid- winter number. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DAY THE WHITE HOUSE WASHINGTON 14 December, 1917 My dear Mr. Grosvenor: The Flag Number of the National Geographic Magazine is indeed most interest- ing and most valuablee I Sincerely congratu- late you on the thoroughness and intelligence with which the work has been donee It consti- tutes a very valuable document indeed. Cordially and sincerely yours, lv Mr. Gilbert He. Grosvenor, Director, National Geographic Society. apis AJaAd WOIZ jf Y-Y-Y-Y-S, dy} JOU Wry Ievay 0} JOU pudjoid | Puy “pur[voZ MON WI} JoUTeF Az901q & SOINJUDA ‘UdWOM 9SOy} Aq poysea Sul}Je3 st A007 sJoyM doeTd oy} Sjey} ‘sad YO,