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VS SSCS9 ' ‘Vevey eer ee Serer tea tees ‘y svyeryererere yes Sy ee ere en yererrecereat peporet yreveresee ryorees eververeererrerntt deererrer ieee an ereeeveterets | baeaitt apevtetetad Veer veeeenee “Syyr vy verter gy ree yyy ii, “Svyverret See ‘eps ‘ i evar erate aepavagrues eet ee? seuett seseevereecegger ett RUERRURAURAR AL i verve 5 c , . asi geeseget wiht eee Gee rite teeeveauaatae gereaeeeagereye Aygrvveddaaayet Aevurvea daadaeryyer gaat aaage EE OL vapea eee: Lg saverressecaeg es edags WIVEEAE LLORES R ERA Re geeeeevevereaeey Y overuseaireetet + seavesaavvaae wh Waived: J Lagapenvaa vat yeageeias sabe pet careeae a peeseeease vespssateebeeee the Crevvayey ea eae th shaaetapa aa ge? ppeaee eure : 7 4 eeppepeeaaeeet bebe pb ypeteeasee saab tis veeeeuaee aay ae PYLE) aL aR RR Rene pase bgardeeai ass arabaeaee vrevepeaeee eee yee areattt ; \/ Veer aes RE veaaee peebeeeaaaabe 2 ” > , > PEE Tee © P Fig to ae! peuabaseeetbatasgyy SSOP EYER THT $ sareve nants - shee eee pappaaaavaee yraderaes aarececeeny! aegre f ) ‘ ease ee i ease PER UN) SAREE eeaeeecuaeee ‘ t gaeecaaseb ads i eaanee 5 t To Y vy vapeegaee hay, eer ev ueeaneces seats yaevageveeere cyeeeeisa eee ee bepaaeetanee saves qaaeeeeas veybeees abe . euperadedates aedeebabarieteee ? thebb beds quseegeeeeeeees tal peneee eee ee ahead Tey eeaeeeneaessecaeet Copeaaseeaceeevenacet warety vadereda LEAR BAAS i eee e tes wo ear eet teenage Waveney peer teeter R Vee Vere Cube Ueda Eee eae aT ele paageabar ’ : : pasha: : 3 pestar ene aeeeeete h ered aeretens TIARU ARR gaaedereecens erbith i t CUR RARA AAA IIASA AS ie ‘ pavertagere phipedibertag seiserte aeretareee tieeee u ‘ espersbatite aearreet? geqaecreds Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson 4 ‘ t + + . 3 } b ‘ Y mt iN ' i {14 } * f * : + es , 4 — A i os ni y My r : " i rib aadaan Td Meine *, pil Rs ift- —naal : ; | ee a “( Mt * AY. | GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE peat ] pie a || mp aseallill nal a tint veal Tail | PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. oI yy} " | : NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY GEOGRAPHIC ADMINISTRATION BUILDINGS SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. JOHN E. PILLSBURY, President HENRY WHITE, Vice-President O. P. AUSTIN, Secretary GILBERT GROSVENOR, Director JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE, Vice-Director GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, Associate Secretary JOHN JOY EDSON, Treasurer EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR AND DIRECTOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE, Associate Editor and Vice-Director WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER Assistant Editor 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. HOWARD GORE Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major General U.S. Army GILBERT GROSVENOR Editor of National Geographic Magazine ROBERT FE. PEARY Discoverer of the North Pole, Rear Admiral, U. S. Navy GEORGE OTIS SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Sur- vey O. H. TITTMANN Formerly Superintendent of U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey HENRY WHITE Member American Peace Com- mission, and Recently U. $8. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. RALPH A. GRAVES Assistant Editor BOARD OF MANAGERS 1918-1920 CHARLES J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company — JOHN JOY EDSON Chairman of the Board, Wash- ington Loan & Trust Company DAVID FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Explo- rations, U. S. Department of Agriculture C. HART MERRIAM Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. AUSTIN Statistician GEORGE R. PUTNAM Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 3p Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photographer GRANT SQUIRES Military Intelligence Division, General Staff, New York FRANKLIN L. FISHER Chief of Illustrations Division 1919-1921 WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT Ex-President of the United States FRANKLIN K. LANE Secretary of the Interior C. M. CHESTER Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, For- merly Supt. U. S. Naval Ob- servatory FREDERICK V. COVILLE Botanist, U. S. Department of Agriculture RUDOLPH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor The Evening Star T. L. MACDONALD M.D., F. A.C. S. Ss. N. D. NORTH Formerly Director U. S. Bureau of Census JOHN E. PILLSBURY Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, For- merly Chief Bureau of Navi- gation ORGANIZED FOR “THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE” ‘l'o carry out the purpose for which it was founded thirty-one years ago, the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles-or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Magazine can use, generous remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be ad- dressed: Editor, National Geographic Magazine, 16th and M Streets, Washington, D, C. Important contributions to geographic science are constantly being made through expeditions financed by funds set aside from the Society’s income. For example, immediately after the terrific eruption of the world’s largest crater, Mt. Katmai, in Alaska, a National Geographic Society expedition was sent to make observa- tions of this remarkable phenomenon. So important was the completion of this work considered that four expeditions have fcllowed and the extraordinary scientific data resultant given to the world. In this vicinity an eighth wonder of the world was discovered and explored—‘‘The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,” a vast area of steaming, spouting fissures, evidently formed by nature as a huge safety-valve for erupting Katmai. By proclamation of the President of the United States, this area has been created a National Monument. The Society organized and supported a large party, which made a three-year study of Alaskan glacial fields. the most remarkable in existence. At an expense of over $50,000 it has sent a notable series of expeditions into Peru to investigate the traces of the Inca race. The discoveries of these expeditions form a large share of the world’s knowledge of a civilization which was waning when Pizarro first set foot in Peru. ‘l'rained geol- ogists were sent to Mt. Pelee, La Soufriere, and Messina following the eruptions and earthquakes. The Society also had the honor of subscribing a substantial sum to the historic expedition of Admiral Peary, who discovered the North Pole April 6, 1909. Not long ago the Society eranted $20.000 to the Federal Government when the congressional appro ation for the purchase was insufficient, and the finest of the giant sequoia trees of California were thereby saved for the American people and incorporated into a National Park. Copyright, 1919, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. CONTENTS American Berries of Hill, Dale, and Wayside Azores, The: Picturesque and Historic Half-way House of American Transatlantic Aviators. By Arminius T. HAEBERLE, formerly American Consul at St. Michaels.. Chicago Today and Tomorrow: A City Whose Industries Have Changed the Food Status of the World and Transformed the Economic Situation of a Billion People. By WiLiiAM JosEPH SHOWALTER Ce ee ee er Cone-dwellers of Asia Minor, The: A: Primitive Pepin Who Live in Nature-made Apartment Houses, Fashioned by Volcanic Violence and Trickling Streams. By PRRSOTELUNGTON (OTERRETI oto eco lsteie hy clete sia Sis.k o's Geied ot hiss dlanec a%k) a OS ee Pevil-ishing in the Gulf Stream. By JouN Oniver La GorRCK.........5. 02.0000. 00s- Helium, the New Balloon Gas. By G. SHERBURNE RoceERs, United States Geological SEINE? ood Sig GRRE ee cle Bic rape ae ita ech se een a ara aR 7 Gee ae Hunting Big Game of Other Days: A Boating Expedition in Search of Fossils, in Alberta, Canada. By Barnum Brown, Associate Curator of Vertebrate Paleon- tology in the American Museum of Natural History..................... 0000 cees Indiana’s Unrivaled Sand-dunes—A National Park Opportunity. By OrpHrus Moyer SCHANTZ eeorseecseeser eee eee ee eee ee sree eee Geo sn ee ese eo ee ee ce ee oe eee see ee esos eo eee oe eB Hee Oy Industrial Titan of America, The: Pennsylvania, Once the Keystone of the Original Thirteen, Now the Keystone of Forty-eight Sovereign States. By JoHN OLIVER FLL UGIOTE TRS Ep ea eae i Bsc 4.15 Cae oe ne Cre League of Nations, What it Means and Why it Must Be, The. By Wit11am Howarp warnreex- resident of the United States:....<....000cce dds cascecoesensvaceneeue® Mankind’s Best Friend: Companion of His Solitude, Advance Guard in the Hunt, and Pulysorothe renches. By ERNEST HAROLD: BAYNES. ............0..08 244. 5eece5 050 Medicine Fakes and Fakers of All Ages: Strange Stories of Nostrums and Kingly @aacks in Every Era and Clime. By JoHn A. Foorr, M. D...........:...4...-.. 514 430 367 43 185 67 Millennial City, The: The Romance of Geneva, Capital of the League of Nations. By PETE ACIEG RAVES other co i Mere Gel tx cuenta gd ak Woxle shied akemechoate RIT eh hs Sly te Murman Coast, The: Arctic Gateway for American and Allied Expeditionary Forces MEP VOLtnerh Muropean JRUSSIAg . 5 oo ey Os ats Ses aioe uw bo + ele a bee Hee eee were Sls eles North Sea Mine Barrage, The. By Capt. Recinatp R. Betxnap, U. S. ne Pee tne @agthe Erail_of a Horse Thief. By Herpert W. GLEASON.....:....5.-.0000cesc0ee+s Our Common Dogs. By Louis AcaAssiz FuErTES and ErNEstT Haroip BAYNES........ Sagacity and Courage of Dogs: Instances of the Remarkable Intelligence and Unselfish Devotion of Man’s Best Friend among Dumb Animals....................0-0-00- Sarawak: The Land of the White Rajahs. By Harrison W. SMITH.............-...- SHrerpoiilens——ahe banans- Of Dogkind:, oi) os. Seka och acedee cs eee eee eee ee: Sight-seeing in School: Taking Twenty Million Children on a Picture Tour of the World. By Jessie L. Burratt, Chief of School Service of the National Geographic Seat tyme ea a ee ts EN oe ee GUO ceo nd Jia a Roem wa ome oe te ln Ten Thousand Smokes Now a National Monument, The. The President of the United States Sets Aside for the American People the Extraordinary Valley Discovered and: Explored by the sNational Geographic: Society . 2... 6 6.665 ee ek ws Who Shall Inherit Long Life? On the Existence of a Natural Process at Work Among . Human Beings Tending to Improve the Vigor and Vitality of Succeeding Genera- HONS ee Vir PD AGEEXANDERY GRAEDAM SSELI ania) Sei discos cco sss as cmwmlaige ne sale cam cieee 457 331 85 349 201 253 110 275 489 359 ioe eh da VOL. XXXV, No. 1 WASHINGTON JANUARY, 1919 THE NATITONAIL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE CHICAGO TODAY AND TOMORROW A City Whose Industries Have Changed the Food Status of the World and Transformed the Economic Situation of a Bilhon People By WILLIAM JosEPH SHOWALTER AutHuor oF “New YorK—THE METROPOLIS OF MANKIND,” ETC. fib IN sea Salle, the intrepid \\ French explorer, standing on the shore of Lake Michigan, surveyed, with the prophetic eye of the _ geographer, the site of what 1s now Chi- cago, the fourth city of the world, he is reputed to have exclaimed: “This will be the gate of empire, this the seat of com- Mieheews | So definitely do the forces of geogra- phy give direction to the currents of his- tory that this explorer, surrounded by what must have been an unprepossessing site, a vast region as yet peopled only by Indians and bison and wolves, was able to look forward through the years and to see arising a teeming metropolis, the center of an empire whose richness beg- gars description, whose influence upon civilization challenges estimate, and whose future promises achievements that no careful writer would attempt to de- tail, lest today he seem an enthusiast and tomorrow a short-sighted prophet. YOUNGEST OF THE WORLD'S CITIES OF MILLIONS Other cities theré are that outrank Chi- cago in size—London, New York, and Paris are larger—but there is not today on the face of the globe a single metrop- olis with as many as a million inhabitants that is as young as Chicago, with her two and a half millions. The Portuguese court was living in Rio de Janeiro before Chicago was more than a lakeside village of fifteen ram- shackle houses. Buenos Aires was the seat of a bishopric before La Salle first saw the shores of Lake Michigan. ‘Tokyo and Osaka, Canton and Peking, Calcutta and Bombay, Moscow and Petrograd, Vienna and Budapest, Berlin and Ham- burg—all these were fair-sized cities when the site of Chicago was still an unpeopled marsh. Geography made Chicago. Its posi- tion at the foot of the Great Lakes re- sulted in its evolution as the farthest inland terminus of navigation of the in- land seas. All railroad lines of the early history of the northern part of the great Mississippi Valley converged on this one point as unerringly and as necessarily as caravans seek passes in crossing moun- tain barriers. Made what it is by the processes of geography, Chicago soon returned the compliment by helping geography trans- form other regions. Its slaughtering and Photograph by C. R. Faulkner LASALLE BR aSPALUES IN “LINCOLN -PARK: CHICAGO La Salle was one of Colonial America’s men of vision. Yet Chicago has outrun even his broad comprehension, and the day will come when a Lakes-to-the-Gulf waterway will be an accomplished fact. Then will Chicago ship its cargoes to all the world by water, if it does not even rival the cities of the Clyde and the Mersey as a shipbuilding center. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 3 packing industry has changed the center of gravity of the meat-producing world, giving American-grown meat to Briton, Frenchman, Belgian, Swede, Norwegian, Spaniard, Greek—to any one who has something to give America in exchange. Its agricultural-implement industry has revised the economic status of more than ‘half of the inhabitants of the earth—the hum of its sowing machinery figuring in seed-time operations for a billion people, and the click of its harvesting machinery Tesounding on every continent, if not in- deed in every country within the confines of civilization. Its sleeping-car industry has entirely revised the geography of travel, bringing hundreds of places separated by moun- tain and plain close to each other—even to the extent of enabling half of the peo- ple of America to be within shut-eye- town distance of the great Middle West metropolis. RIVAL WONDERS OF THE PAST AND FUTURE Situated in the very heart of the world’s most fertile and prosperous val- ley, at the natural cross-roads between the industrial East and the agricultural ' West, the ore-producing North and the cotton-growing South; possessing the cheapest water transportation on earth and the finest railway facilities in the world, it was inevitable that Chicago should grow; and it is equally inevitable that it will continue to grow. Indeed, one hesitates as to which were the better story, the wonder-tale of the ninety-five years that have sufficed to convert the village of sixty inhabitants into the metropolis of two and a half millions, or the bold plans of far-seeing city-builders who are doing the initial work toward making Chicago a fit place of abode for the five million inhabitants it expects to have before the dawn of the middle decade of the twentieth century. It is interesting to pause for a bird’s- eye inventory of what the city is today. Fourth in population, it ranks first among the world’s great urban centers in many ways. No other place butchers as much meat, makes as much machinery, builds as many cars, manufactures as much furniture, sells as much grain, or handles as much lumber. A casual investigation shows that it is America’s principal piano market, its chief mail-order center, its leading stove market. The city has the busiest street corner in the world, the most traveled bridge in existence, the largest depart- ment store on the map, the largest art school on the globe. It has so many buildings that if placed in a row they would reach from New York to San Francisco; furthermore, the city normally grows at the rate of ten thousand houses a year, leading even New York in the vastness of its con- struction program. AN EMPIRE IN ITSELF One soon finds that Chicago is a little empire in itself. Thirteen American States have fewer churches; thirty-seven have smaller populations; many States have fewer miles of roads than the Windy City has of streets. It has more telephones than Montana has _ people. There are nations whose postal business is not nearly as great as that handled by the Chicago post-office; countries by the dozen that spend less money for govern- mental purposes; even continents that move less freight than is carried into, out of, and through this one city. Having added two million people to its population in thirty-five years—more than live in the entire State of Kansas— it was inevitable that the city should en- counter many knotty problems in provid- ing for the well-being of such a host. Time after time it enlarged its bound- aries, improved the transportation sys- tem, recast sanitary arrangements, and revised fundamental plans in one way or another; but just as often it has had to take further steps as necessary and as radical as those taken before. The city had to raise the whole business district fourteen feet to insure drainage; it had to reverse the flow of a river to secure proper sanitation, and it had to establish an entirely new water system to meet ever-growing needs. And yet today it is up against harder problems than ever. The men who made Chicago were not as far-sighted as the 4 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE one who discovered its site. He looked down through the years and saw in the vista of the future a world-city, while they built only for their day and time. So Chicago, like Topsy, “jes’ growed”; and instead of being one great, well- planned, carefully laid out ‘city, tor I Inu Aq poyaUUOS [JV 91v AUT, 9 ACMAV d &@ 4s “AHH uo UVd NOLONIHSVM WOW ALN LOId IVAOLSV 110} OU S € yemM Ane il \Y iG] 2) TOU I M OUO SI tudyshs Yared s oseorys IEA WZ, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CITY’S CHIEF ASSET ALSO ITS GREATEST HANDICAP When a survey of the city preliminary to the creation of the Chicago Plan was made, it at once became obvious that the railroads were the municipality’s greatest handicap as well as its greatest, asset. In times gone by they had been allowed to get control of almost any land in the city they desired; and the competition be- tween them was such that each played for the best position. When the game ended, it left the metropolis little more than a series of oases of residence and trade in a desert of railroad terminals and freight yards. The central business section, broadly bounded by the Chicago River on the north and west, the lake on the east, and Twelfth Street on the south, is hemmed in on all sides by terminals and yards, which even thrust themselves inside this area and leave only about a quarter of a square mile of territory absolutely free. The immense amount of trackage in the heart of the city simply made the original street system a scrap of paper. North and south, streets became lost here and there in the great maze of railroad trackage. Wabash Avenue is a through street for less than a third of the length of the city; Dearborn disappears for sev- eral solid blocks; La Salle is closed for six blocks at one point and for shorter distances at other places; similar condi- Hons prevall wath menehenceto evequanee remaining streets east of the south branch of the river, while conditions as serious obtain beyond that stream. With east and west streets a similar situation prevails. From Twelfth Street northward, Eleventh, Ninth, Seventh, and Congress streets have been unable to break the steel barrier, while Quincy gets lostat the river: HOW THE RAILROADS ARE HELPING So the first problem was to plan for the creation of new railway terminal and yard layouts, permitting the east and west and north and south streets to pur- sue their orderly way. At first the rail- roads were against the proposals, but latterly they have fallen in with them. The railroads west of the Chicago River agreed to a reconstruction of their terminals. The Northwestern has already finished its monumental depot, and the roads entering the Union Station, led by the Pennsylvania, have laid out a termi- nal svstem and prepared plans for one of the finest railroad structures of the kind in the world. These plans involve the construction of streets and viaducts for the benefit of the city valued at six million dollars, and the payment of a million and a half dollars additional into the municipal treasury. Likewise, the Illinois Central is pre- paring to build a magnificent new station of monumental type, south of Twelfth Street, and large enough to take care of all the railroads now entering the city from the east and south that are not in- cluded in the Union Station group. This great terminal will be two miles long and from six hundred to seven hundred feet wide. It will provide twenty main tracks and accommodate trains on three levels in the station itself. One of these levels will take care of the electrified suburban service. CHICAGO RIVER TO BE STRAIGHTENED Coincident with the vast improvements that are destined to grow out of a fre- vision of the city’s railroad layout will come a straightening of the south branch of the Chicago River. It is proposed to cut out a big bend in the channel, thus redeeming 194,000 square feet of ground, worth enough, at prevailing real-estate values, to pay for the improvement. Such an improvement would permit the exten- sion of four principal north and south streets through the railroad district. In order to relieve the unsightly situa- tion of a freight transfer yard at Chi- cago’s front door, the Illinois Central has agreed to establish a great freight ter- minal at Markham. ‘This will leave only a local freight station on the water front and will largely eliminate one of the city’s worst eyesores. The general idea of the Chicago Plan is not only to develop the Lake Front as the front yard of a great metropolis, and to secure new traffic channels leading into and out of this business district, but also i i Photograph by Kaufmann & Fabry Co. THE ST. GAUDENS LINCOLN, IN LINCOLN PARK : CHICAGO Lincoln Park, on the North Side; Jackson and Washington, on the South Side; Douglas and Humboldt, on the West Side; and Grant, on the business district water front, are Chi- cago’s principal parks. The Chicago Plan proposes to unite the three big lakeside parks by a magnificent series of drives and lagoons. I3 Photograph from Chicago Architectural Photo Company ONE OF CHICAGO'S MICHIGAN AVENUE BUSINESS BUILDINGS Built firm and on broad foundations, Chicago’s big office structures have about them that air of solidity that characterizes the whole city. 14 Sea skate, See SS, eS, Reon ARR. Photograph by International Film Service A (CEPY WITTY A RIAL, FROND WARD Grant Park, with its temple-like colonnade, its Art.Institute, and its statuary, is a front yard of which any city might be proud. The realized Chicago Plan will make it a veritable dream of civic beauty. 16 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Kaufmann & Fabry Co. MICHIGAN AVENUE’S STATELY STRUCTURES AS SEEN FROM THE LAKE , and Grant Park, as it is to be, will make this section of the water front , and architecture to be found anywhere in the world. one of the most beautiful combinations of lakescape, landscape ’s business district is all within four blocks of Lake Michigan Chicago to provide a series of diagonal ave- nues that will permit every quarter of the city to reach every other quar- ter without going around two sides of a square. ‘The plan can best be visualized by reference to the map on page 40. im the execution of ther planmene widening of Twelfth Street was first undertaken. This is one of the prin- cipal east and west thoroughfares. It was a narrow, cluttered street, but one of the main arteries through winich’ the: West Side reached=irie Wake Front. “At an) expendignneyon about five million dollars, buildings were razed or moved back and a splendid thoroughfare developed. The Michigan Avenue improve- ment, came next. The beautiful highway, with its connecting arteries, unites the North Shore with the Soutmoside. “For years this thor oughfare has been the pride of Chi- cago and the admiration of all who visit the city. As a part of the Lake Shore drive that links the woods of southern Wisconsin with the plains of northern Indiana, it is a magnifi- cent street, yet it has one impossible section. THE BUSIEST BRIDGE IN THE WORLD That section is at the crossing of the Chicago River. The Indians in the olden days called this immediate vicinity by a name that meant “the place of the wild onion,’ and di a smelled as bad then as it does now, the name was not a misnomer. Yet here converges what is believed to be the densest traffic that crosses any bridge in the world. A break in the Avenue at Ran- dolph Street makes a jog leading to the Rush Street bridge, which is about as homely a structure as the eye could see, being an old-fashioned, single - span drawbridge. Other streets besides Michigan Avenue lead to it from both sides of the river; and morning, noon, and night it is the neck of a traffic bottle, al- ways blocking vehicular movement both by reason of its smallness and because the draw frequently is open THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 17 to permit the passage of vessels into and out of the river. 2 After the river is crossed, the Avenue does not recover its equanimity for sev- eral blocks. It meanders along through Carroll Avenue, then through Pine Street to Lincoln Parkway, which in turn be- comes the Lake Shore Drive. Under the new improvement plan the jog is cut out by the razing of scores of buildings; a new double-decked bridge will be built, and there will be a separa- tion of team and truck traffic from light wemenlam tiatuc, the latter using the upper level and the former the lower. The need for a double-decked bridge at this point was shown in a recent investi- gation. London Bridge heretofore was supposed to hold the world’s record for density of traffic, with 7,578 vehicles crossing it in twelve hours. But a count at the Rush Street bridge showed that it carried a thousand more vehicles in eleven hours than London Bridge carried in twelve. The waste of money occasioned by - inadequate traffic facilities m the past reaches astonishing proportions. When it is remembered that on the eight cross- ‘ings of Michigan Avenue between Wash- ington and Indiana streets fifty thou- sand vehicles were counted in eleven hours, as compared with thirty-five thou- sand in twelve hours at eight of the busiest crossings in London, the cause of delays will appear. And when one gets into a taxi that registers the time lost by traffic delays and bridge waits, as well as the distance covered, he receives a very pressing ap- preciation of what the sum of these de- lays must mean in dollars and cents. In a single year, in terms of one team or motor car, the delays amount, at these crossings, to the remarkable total of more than a hundred thousand days. Think of a hundred thousand days of waiting with the taximeter running all the time! The new part of the Avenue will be double-decked from building line to build- ing line. The approaches to the two-level section will be by very gradual slopes, and one will hardly realize that he is passing from the city grade to an upper level. The public entrances to all build- ings will be from the upper level, the lower being reserved for freight han- dling, etc. The third important project in the se- ries of unit undertakings of the Chicago Plan is that of doing away with the un- sightly produce market in South Water Street. The Federal Government has ordered all bridges spanning this part of the Chi- cago River to be raised, and as Water Street is parallel thereto, it would become nothing more than a series of ramps un- less treated in some unusual way. So it is proposed to acquire all property be- tween Water Street and the river, and to utilize it for making a very wide thor- oughfare on the bank of the river, with two levels, in keeping with the new levels on Michigan Avenue. This improvement will keep at least fifteen thousand vehicle trips a day out of the sadly overworked Loop District. CHICAGO, THE INLAND “SEASIDE RESORT” OF THE FUTURE To be a manufacturing and commer- cial metropolis and at the same time an inland Atlantic City is a privilege vouch- safed very few cities in the world. Yet Chicago is destined to have a water front that might make many a seaside resort envious. To secure the full benefits of her situ- ation, the city is undertaking to connect her three great lakeside parks. Already Lincoln Park has edged a narrow way southward along the beach until there is a wonderful curving stretch of green reaching to Grand Avenue and making a four-mile parkway unbroken and un- marred. From Grand Avenue southward this stretch of green will be pushed onward, crossing to an island outside the inner harbor, and thence back to the mainland and Grant Park. From this: park to Jackson it is proposed to reclaim nearly thirteen hundred acres from the lake, on a stretch of about five and a half miles. The reclaimed area will consist of an outer park of 850 acres and an inner one of 432 acres, separated by a lagoon 600 feet wide. Based on the lowest prices paid for land in the same section by the “OUIT}-IOU ‘ S 3-DY}-jjO-dooy e€ USI oJOyT, “o1Mupe 0} Ajotot jou pure -UINS dy} Ul SIOMOP JO SIaMO I[qL}IIOA IIe Woy} JO sWOS puUe ‘WoYy} JO Aue Ul USIS Ssv1IS-9Y}-YO yf USI le I ash 0} ae J19M sone See ae asoy} UeY} URL FO APO ay} O} JNj}Sot 91OW IO BAO 9Y} OF SuIseo[d o1OW Syed sey Bolo UI AyD ON OOVOIHO :ANHOS Mavd V Jouyney “yO Aq ydessojoyg THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 19 Illinois Central Railroad, the value of the ground thus reclaimed will be forty-six million dollars. But it will cost the city nothing! All that Chicago will have to do is to con- struct the necessary retaining walls, with the consent of the Federal Government, and then collect $3,000,0o00—more than enough to reimburse the city for these walls—from the people who need a dumping ground. When this ground has been reclaimed, and Grant Park connected with Lincoln Park, there will be a lakeside playground some fourteen miles long. The people of every section of the city will be brought within a you - don’t - have - to - transfer street-car trip to the Lake Front play- ground; and Chicago, indeed, will be its own Atlantic City. One need only ride along the Lake Shore Drive and Sheridan Road to see how beautiful such reclaimed ground can be made. GEHIGCACO S MAIL POUCH Another element in the transformation of the Chicago of yesterday into the Chi- cago of tomorrow is the question of an . adequate post-office. A vast proportion of the nation’s mail between the East and the West passes through Chicago, mak- ing it of national as well as of local con- cern that adequate facilities be provided. Heretofore the federal authorities have never been able to look far enough ahead, with the result that before a new post- officé was completed the city had already miumerown. it. In*the early eighties a building was erected on the site of the present post-office, and had to be torn down ten years later because of its in- adequacy. Then the present structure was erected, and for ten years, while it was building, the city had to get along with a makeshift. The present structure is not yet two decades old, but everybody realizes its utter inadequacy. So Chicago induced the railroads plan- ning to build a new Union Station to move their site two blocks further south than they had intended, leaving two mag- nificent squares between that station and the Northwestern Station. Nearly two- thirds of the mail handled in and through Chicago passes between the railroads using these two terminals. The volume of the postal business of the city reaches almost unbelievable pro- portions. ‘Two billion pieces of mail are handled annually, and the receipts are greater than those of any other post- office in the world. The business done at this one office is eight times as great as that of the entire postal system of Nor- way and four times as great as that of the Kingdom of Holland. The parcel- post business exceeds that of any other five cities in the United States. The site and building of the present post-office cost the government one mil- lion dollars. Such has been the enhance- ment of realty values that it is estimated to be worth twelve million dollars to- day—the enhancement of value alone being sufficient to take care of the con- struction of the proposed new two-block post-office. Since the present building was completed the postal business of the city has quintupled. Having seen the results of a pinch- penny policy in the past, Chicago is now asking the government to put up an ade- quate post-office outside of the Loop District. | THE AMAZING LOOP DISTRICT That district, not more than a quarter of a square mile in area, has only nine- teen streets in it, with street-cars on all but four of them. It is entered daily by twenty-odd thousand street-cars and more than 130,000 vehicles. A million and a half people traverse its streets every day, and a quarter of a million work there. To get the post-office out- side of this jammed district is agreed by all to be one of the prime requirements of the Chicago Plan. Undertaking improvements that in the end will cost some two hundred million dollars, improvements that will make the City, One Of ereater swealth and hetter health, improvements that will make it compare with any other city on earth in the development of the esthetic side of the life of the community, improvements that will serve as an inspiration and as a model for urban development for all communities, the people of Chicago ask the nation to help them only by giving them an adequate post-office, for which they pay many times over, and to recog- IO ‘URSOTS SOsedIyD st ,ssourddey pue yieoy S,apdood oy} 10f¥ JUOIZ oye] Y,, ‘a19y} MOTG SAvMiL Sazd01q dy} PUL ‘Yovoq SuIYy}eq v JO Os SOWMUIUT U9} UTYFIM SI 9UO ynq ‘solUTjIUOS Joy A}YSIUE Sjos Jf “OSeITYD uvy} ojdood sy JOJZ soiqtplovy Suryjeq ssuy sey pyjom oy} ur AyD ON OOVOIHD :HOVad DONIHLVa ANNAAV NOGNAYW'IO, SOIAIISG WII [euotjeusojuy Aq ydessojoyg 20 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Ja nize their rights to water for sanitary purposes and to the water front for a playground. NO* KEEP OFF THE CRASS’ IN CHICAGO The city annually spends five million dollars for park purposes; more per capita, perhaps, than any other city of the first order in existence. There is not a “keep off the grass” in the entire park system; and all recreational facilities are free except the boats in the lagoons. At the two golf courses in Jackson Park a third of a million balls were teed off in 1916. ‘Twice as many people play on the long course in Jackson Park as play on the long course at the historic links at St. Andrew. No charge is made for playing, and there are locker accom- modations for three thousand, while some sixty an hour can be started in play. Frequently players have remained up all night in order to get a chance to tee off next day. There is a “swimming hole” within walking distance of every boy in Chi- cago; and even with the fine municipal bathing beaches of the lake front not far away, these mid-city park lagoons are ‘always in use, providing joy for the hearts of the kiddies who visit them. SHIFTING WATERS FROM ST. LAWRENCE TO MEXICO Long ago Chicago discovered that if it were not to develop into a hotbed of typhoid fever and other diseases of the intestinal tract it would have to devise some way of keeping the water of the lake front free from pollution. A mount- ing typhoid rate, making the city more nearly a pest-hole than a proper habita- tion for man, demonstrated that it could not continue to mix sewage with drink- ing water by draining the sewers into the lake. So, heroic measures were taken to end the pollution. The Chicago River was forced to give up an age-long right to contribute its water to the St. Lawrence, and was made to flow across the divide separating the Great Lakes from the Mis- sissippi River. Thus waters that nor- mally ran into the Gulf of St. Lawrence were dispatched into the Gulf of Mexico and made to carry the burden of Chi- cago’s sewage as they went. This was accomplished by the construc- tion of a drainage canal 36 miles long, from the south branch of the Chicago River to the Illinois River at Joliet. This waterway, 24 feet deep, and 64 feet wide in rock and 202 in earth, has a fall of 4o feet. It serves the triple purpose of drainage, navigation, and power develop- ment. Its construction was begun in the World’s Fair year and cost nearly sev- enty million dollars. It was built larger than the requirements of the hour for drainage, and sooner or later will form a part of the waterway that will permit river steamers to ply between the Lakes and the Gulf. When the State legislation authorizing the canal was passed, a provision was incorporated providing that, in order to prevent the sewage from becoming a nuisance and a menace to the country through which the canal passes, there should be a flow of 333% cubic feet per second for every hundred thousand peo- ple. Realizing that the population would probably reach three million by 1930, the city provided for a flow of 10,000 feet per second, with an ultimate capacity of 14,000 feet. But the Secretary of War, under his control of navigable waters, stepped in and fixed the flow at 5,000. Later, when it was proposed by the city to construct a branch to drain the Calumet Lake dis- ‘trict, the question of the effect on the water level of the Great Lakes brought in. On the ground that a greater flow would cut down the lake level, the Sec- retary of War kept down the allotment; so Chicago was between the devil of State law and the deep sea of Federal order. Although pointing out that Lake Michi- gan was higher in the ten years follow- ing the opening of the canal than in the ten preceding; and although showing that it was higher by fifteen inches in January, 1917, than it was in January, 1916; and, further, that it was higher in 1916 than it had been in any January since 1876, the Sanitary District authorities were unable to convince the Secretary of War. Was ‘pjJom oy} ur yods soyjo Aue ur Urey} I19Y Yorq s.toyoynq ay} 07 quo savy s[eUUe dIOP, “OSeTYD FO PISIP UMOYSUIe OY} UI SI sper} ay} JO Javay 94} Puy “Jeo sArjUNOD oY} FO sdUaSo1d JY} UI S}eos oe dye} JIojS pure ‘UOT ‘proig ‘POoLIOUIY Ul ysojeats oy} sit AsjSNpul Suryoed-jeow pue sulsoyysnels oy} “Onpoid oY} Jo anjea oy} LI poshseo}y IVHW GAY LHOAWISNO FO MWIOANASHY FHIHO S.NOILVN HHL “SGUVAMOOLS NOINN AHL Tole) Aiqey ) uuewjney Aq ydersojoyg 22 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Ze A friendly suit, which is still pending, was brought in the Federal courts to determine the relative powers of the State, the city, and the Federal Govern- ment in the premises. Upon its outcome hinges the question of whether or not Chicago can send enough Lake Michigan water down the Mississippi River to pro- tect the lake from pollution. Through the Sanitary District, which now comprises a territory of 358 square miles, covering the region from the town of Wilmette to the Indiana line, the city is both a real-estate operator and the owner of a power plant. Nine great aluminum wires carry 42,000 horsepower cityward from the hydro-electric plant above Joliet. They supply one county, twelve municipalities, and many private concerns, besides furnishing the city it- self with power for pumping water out of the lake into the city mains and the canal, and for lighting the fourteen thou- sand arc lights used in the municipal system. “sTC SEMPER TYPHOID!” _ The result of the opening of the drain- age canal was phenomenal. Typhoid, which had reached a degree of prevalence . that was truly alarming, began to sub- side immediately, and Chicago, but lately the most unhealthful principal city in America, soon was cutting down its death rate faster than any similar community anywhere. No man who knows the his- tory of the conquest of water-borne dis- ease by the building of this canal can fail to appreciate the triumph of the sani- tarians. They said they would cut the typhoid rate in half, but they actually sliced off more than 90 per cent of it! Like all great world cities, Chicago has many problems still unsolved. Most seri- ous of these is the urban transportation situation. With more passengers to carry than all of the steam railroads of the United States together, and with the great bulk of the cars that carry them entering the narrow confines of the constricted business district, it was inevitable that a heroic revampment of conditions would be needed. | Some very striking steps of coop- eration between the various companies operating the urban transportation lines have been taken in the past. These com- panies were urged to believe that uni- versal transfers would redound to their respective advantage. Very dubious on the subject, yet imbued with the general spirit of codperation for the city’s wel- fare, they agreed to try it, merging all of the surface lines, for purposes of op- eration, into one system and all of the elevated lines into another. TRANSPORTATION AND WATER PROBLEMS The result’ was greater profits than ever before, and the experiment did much to remedy the situation. But much water of development passes under the bridge of progress in Chicago with the lapse of a few years, and now the city is where nothing but a radical extension of both elevated and surface lines, with subways added, and universal transfers established between elevated, surface, and subway lines, will suffice. A plan was prepared by a commission representing the city, and accepted by the transportation interests, providing for the requisite extensions, and for the oper- ation of all the lines under a board of trustees appointed by the people, with a definite guarantee to all stockholders of a fair income. Every commercial and pro- gressive organization in the city was be- hind the plan, but somehow it failed of a majority in the November referendum. It is quite plain, however, that Chicago must soon face the transportation prob- lem that handling an overwhelming popu- lation involves. The water situation also presents some- thing of a problem. In a recent number of the GrocraPpHic (see “New York— The Metropolis of Mankind,” July, 1918) it was shown that Gotham’s great aque- duct system carries enough water to slake the thirst of the whole world. Chicago, with half as many people, uses more water than New York. The reason for this. OF CoUunse, is-that (Chicago. is) the home of heavy manufactures and New York of light, the former demanding much more water than the latter. The per capita use in Chicago is two and a half times that in New York. The combined water and sewer mains. DA THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE RSTRRUR ciceoeciesnwncomenchinsiiacis cg RIES rat Photograph by Kaufmann & Fabry Co. A RIVER THAT WAS FORCED TO FACE ABOUT When Chicago grew populous, its death rate kept pace with its physical expansion until the city decided to send the waters of Chicago River into the Gulf of Mexico instead of per- mitting them to continue flowing into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Since then Chicago has been showing the world what sanitation can accomplish (see text, page 21). of the city are longer than the combined length of the Ohio, Mississippi, and Mis- sour fivers, lhe annual volume, (or water flowing through them would fill a cistern a thousand feet in diameter and a mile deeper than the deepest trench in the ocean. THE CITY GOVERNMENT'S ANNUAL PAY- ROLL, $39,000,000 Another problem that vexes the great lakeside metropolis is that of its govern- ment. [here are 22) local eoveramenta in the city, having no central control and no central responsibility. There is much duplication, considerable lack of co- operation, and not a little antagonism. The result is that Chicago spends an- nually $39,000,000 for salaries alone. Be- tween the county and the city there are five separate, independently organized courts, with concurrent jurisdiction in many particulars, and yet with their re- spective powers so limited that frequently cases arise where no one of them has sufficient jurisdiction to adjudicate all questions involved. There are six sepa- rate clerk’s offices where half the number might suffice. The cost of the endless round of elec- tions that result from this scattered au- thority is almost unprecedented. The outlay for a recent year for Chicago and Cook County was approximately $2,000,- 000. The cost of a city election is about $700,000, and of a judicial plebiscite about $200,000. And Chicago likes elec- tions, if one may judge by the number she has. With such matters as these pressing, Chicago voted overwhelmingly in favor of a State constitutional convention, and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE GENERAL GRANT MONUMENT, ILLUMINATED, IN LINCOLN PARK: i) Ur Photograph by International Film Service CHICAGO No city on the map of America was more patriotically devoted to the aims and end of America’s participation in the world war than Chicago. In Liberty Loan subscriptions, in Red Cross work, in War Fund drives—everywhere the city went over the top at home with the same enthusiasm that sent her sons after the Huns abroad. Already plans are in the making fittingly to commemorate in bronze and marble her heroes’ achievements on the battlefield. will go there resolved to secure a simpli- fication of her governmental machinery and a concentration of responsibility. But the story of the great metropolis of the Middle West is only half told with the recital of its problems and its plans. One might turn to many aspects of the city’s activities and find rich fields of interest. A chapter could be written on the two conventions a day that is Chi- cago’s average and the ten thousand dele- gates a week the city entertains. Another might be written on the babel of voices one hears upon its streets, for there are more than thirty distinct nationalities abiding within its confines. Only two Irish cities have more Irish, only one Bohemian city more Bohemians, and only 26 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE one city in Norway, one in Sweden, and one in Poland has more Norwegians, Swedes, and Poles, respectively. Still another chapter might be devoted to the railroads, for Chicago is preemi- nently the world’s railroad capital. Here centers nearly half the railroad mileage of the nation. The trackage within its limits would reach from New York to Sam Mranciseo. | SOmle smiteen mumaned trains arrive and depart every day; yet not a single one passes through. More sleeping cars roll into the city every morning than into any other city in the world. Fourteen. States in the American Union have less main-line mileage sree Chicago has trackage. MACHINERY THAT IS FEEDING THE WORLD Chicago’s manufactures especially claim attention because, as pointed out in the beginning, they have served to revamp the economic and travel geography of the world. So remarkable has been the growth of these industries that they have made a thousand millionaires the while they have enriched the whole world. First in the order of their founding and in its service to humanity is the har- vesting-machine industry. When Cyrus McCormick invented his reaper, back in the quiet little valley of the Shenandoah, little did he dream that in less than four- score years the whole grain-producing world would resound with the click of its sickles, and less did he foresee the tre- mendous growth in the world’s popula- tion that certainly would have brought starvation but for the reaper. And when Deering boldly staked the earnings of a lifetime on the Appleby binder and on Manila twine, he did not foresee how great a service to humanity he was ren- dering. Yet today a single agricultural machin- ery plant covers 229 acres, has a floor space of 4,000,000 square feet, employs 9,000 men and women, makes 200 tons of twine a day, and turns out a farm ma- chine every thirty seconds. Within Io minutes’ motor ride, another big plant _ employs 7,000 people and does a business only a shade smaller. A binder every two minutes and a mower every time the clock ticks off 60 seconds is the record of the latter plant when it concentrates on these two types of machines. When the reaper was invented there was still left the problem of binding the grain, gathering the sheaves and shock- ing them. Then came the twine binder and the elimination of hand binding. But gathering the sheaves was a piece of very hard work for the small boys on the farm. Before them was the binder, kick- Ie Out bie sWeayesias masteas four spir- ited horses could walk, and behind them the shockers, always with a “hurry up, boys,” as counsel. When the bundle car- rier came, the kiddies of the farm sang peans of praise to its inventor. But still there was the problem of shocking. It takes two hard-working men to shock behind an ordinary binder with an ordinary field of wheat. For years the harvester companies saw these men working and took it as a challenge to their labor-saving genius. At last Chicago is able to offer the world a mechanical shocker. ‘The new machine shocks wheat like a veteran, setting up the sheaves and putting on the caps as if it were human. It is a sight to see the different types of implements made by the Chicago farm- machinery factories. One might think that a mower is a mower before going there, but it will soon be found that there are mowers and mowers. Here is one geared to cow power, another for water- buffalo; there one made for horses, and over yonder one to be pulled by a tractor. One is made for extremely low cutting and another for very high) Oneyhasea very long cutter-bar, for smooth ground and a sturdy team, and another a very short one, for rough ground and a light team. Also there are binders that merely cut and bind the grain and others that cut, thresh, and bag it. Some of the ma- chines must cut stalks as heavy as a lead pencil, while others must take care of stalks that trail on the ground like shoe- strings. THE TWINE THAT BINDS THE WORLD'S SHEAVES Not less interesting than the harvester industry is its complement, the manufac- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 27 © International Film Service CrLEY. HALL AND; COUNTY BUILDING :: CHICAGO Chicago has twenty-six governments and near-governments within her borders, each with its own independent functions. in many fair-sized cities. Elections alone cost as much here as all activities cost A State constitutional convention has been called, one of the pur- poses of which is to consolidate the governing bodies in the city into one organization. ture of twine. More than 150,000 tons of this product are required to bind the world’s grain, and without it every grain binder in existence would lose half its usefulness. The bulk of this twine is made from sisal fiber, which comes from Mexico. The plant from which it is ob- tained is known as the henequen and is closely related to the century plant. The remainder is made of the manila fiber, which comes from the Philippines, or from a mixture of the two fibers. The process of transforming fiber into twine begins with the opening up of the ereat bales as they come from Yucatan. After inspection and mixing, the fiber is put through a series of machines which comb it out into long ribbon-like slivers, becoming smaller and thinner and softer with each operation. Once sufficiently erties a hie: es eae ® OJUI jsoI dt} J49AUOD 0} pue yUO OSLIIY,) IY} JOpuy) “puNnoI8910} JY SII OY} UL SpieA PeoIpIey LOILSId SSHNISNG §S DdIAIIS WII [PUCT}eusajuy Aq ydesZ0j,0g 1f JOJUM OY} UO V9 6 Q Oo eyIeI} |e 6 a[qissod se ivy sv [v4qUod Stoul]] 94} Jo ‘OJCUIWITS 0} poo1 1ojos & pue YIeVg Jur ODVOIHO FO CNH YAMO'T AHL AO MAIA AAA- t=] Oo S ‘(ZI 9 Sed ‘ 3X0} 99S ) AtMqns e Ayjeorjorsyed sey [esjuad sioul]] ey} ‘ur[g AOLVIAV NV i It) JO UOoIjDeS eB SMOYs dinjzord sIyy, 28 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 29 combed and softened, the slivers are car- ried to the spinning room. Here they enter a machine which has a bobbin so placed that as it revolves it twists the sliver and converts it into twine. ~When the bobbins are full they are re- moved and sent to the balling machine. This machine takes the twine from the bobbin and by a peculiar winding oper- ation makes the balls of twine one see in the harvest field. Lite In the whole twine factory, with a ca- pacity of 200 tons a day, there is no dust to be seen, for suction ventilators draw it away and keep the plant, which otherwise would be dustier than an old- fashioned grist-mill, as clean as a pin. As the twine is spun and balled, it is initialed by the operatives to show who had charge of the several machines em- ployed in its making. Random balls se- lected by inspectors are unwound on reels, so that every strand may be exam- ined for defects and tested for tensile strength. For when a ball of twine goes to the harvest field it must be good or a twine manufacturer’s reputation is ruined. If, after all these precautions, a ball that is bad should get into the market, the sys- tem of records kept at the mill will en- able the manufacturer to trace the defec- tive product back to its beginning and tell the bale from which the fiber came, who inspected it, who spun the ball, who wound it, and all. It has often been asked why twine manufacturers do not use other fibers instead of going to far-off Yucatan or farther-away Manila. For answer one must go to the cricket and the grasshop- per. Those little creatures can tell why they eat every other sort of fiber known except manila and sisal. One manufac- turer spent more than a million dollars trying to make a flax twine that did not taste good to grasshoppers and crickets. But he found their appetites versatile, and that with them only sisal and manila are taboo. Would you measure the size of the world’s grain crop? Then, remembering that there are still vast areas in the back- ward regions of the earth that have not yet heard the merry music of the binder, you should pause to reflect that the an- nual harvest in the lands where binders do operate requires 150,000 tons of twine, and that each pound of this makes 700 feet. A little problem in arithmetic shows that the whole amounts to forty million miles. Think how small an item twine is in the making of our daily bread, and yet the annual use of it calls for enough to make sixteen hundred strands reach- ing around the earth. | THE DEATH MARCH OF THE ANIMAL ARMY Chicago’s hold on the slaughtering and packing of meat is only less striking than its supremacy in the harvester and twine industries. One-fourth of all the meat animals that leave the farms and ranches of the United States are bound for the butcher’s blocks of the lakeside metrop- olis. Would you visualize the vast size of the animal army that annually marches into Chicago to pay the bloody sacrifice that the human appetite requires of it? Then pause and watch it pass by, single file. Here comes the cattle contingent, two and a half million strong; head to tail the line would reach from Chicago through the North Pole to the Russian coast. ‘Then follow the hogs, seven mil- lion of them—a solid procession of pork long enough to reach from the southern shores of Lake Michigan via Mexico City and Panama to the mouth of ‘the Amazon River. Even the sheep brigade is not a mean one, for the bell wether of the flock would be coming up to the Chi- cago Drainage Canal when the last one in the line was leaving the Panama Canal. The stockyards of the city have a ca- pacity of 75,000 cattle, 300,000 hogs, and 125,000 sheep. More than 60,000 people find employment in Packingtown, and a million dollars change hands on the aver- age day in the barter and trade of the stockyard. The story of the conversion of the live animal into meat and the hundred and one by-products is too well known for repetition here. No need the pros and cons of costs and profits in the meat in- dustry be considered. But certain it is that when Gustavus Swift and Philip D. o0) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by International Film Service INSPECTING A SECTION OF CHICAGO'S FREIGHT TUNNELS Chicago up to date has taken the opposite view of her transportation problems from that held in New York. New York puts her merchandise on the surface and her rapid transit below ground. Chicago puts her freight below ground as far as possible and keeps her people on the surface as much as possible. houses with the freight stations. Freight subways connect all the principal business But even then Chicago’s teaming traffic is very heavy and a heroic revision of her street system has been demanded. The city has some sixty miles of freight tunnels and some three thousand cars. Armour went west and set up their pack- ing plants at Chicago they revolutionized the meat industry of a nation and affected that of the world. A steer weighs only a little more than half as much dressed as on the hoof, and a refrigerator car can carry more than twice as much) as a stockwear, Vile say- ing in transportation charges that has resulted from the substitution of the re- frigerator car, with its load of dressed beef, for the stock car, with its load of live cattle, amounts to an enormous total. Then comes the economy of the sal- vage of the waste product. The neigh- borhood slaughter-house annually wasted millions of dollars worth of offal that cannot be utilized profitably in small plants. The Chicago packers pioneered in the utilization of these wastes, and they have made vast fortunes by saving what formerly was thrown away. A TRAVELING HOTEL WITH 26,000,000 GUESTS ANNUALLY It is no great distance that separates Packingtown from Pullman either on the map or in the relation of the one to the other. Packingtown would be a strictly local affair without the refrigerator car, and Pullman would have no place on the map but for the sleeping car. Imagine a hotel with 260,000 beds, 2,960 office desks, and a total registra- tion of 26,000,000 guests a year. And imagine it having 8.000 negro porters carrying a stock of linen valued at $2.- 000,000 and using some $60,000 worth THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 31 Photograph by International Film Service AN ELEVATOR FIRE IN CHICAGO Some of the biggest grain elevators in the world are located in Chicago, and when fire breaks out among them the souls of the firemen are put to the test. But Chicago has a fire- fighting system worthy of the city’s size, and never again can a Mrs. O’Leary’s cow work such destruction as in 1871. of soap annually. Such is the Pullman Company, as typified by the cars in the service. But back in Chicago these cars are made. When one rides thinks that this is wrong or that the other thing might be improved, it is with little realization of what steps have been taken LOmSeciike thie mperhect cam ) On aytrack near the main entrance to the shops there is a modern sleeper. In this every prac- ticable suggestion from every source is in them and incorporated, in preparation for the monthly meeting of the committee on standards. This committee examines them one by one. ‘Those that to their practiced eyes are obviously unsuited are at once eliminated. The others are passed on for the verdict of the traveling public, which renders a judgment in due time. The Pullman shops remind one some- what of a shipbuilding plant. Here are mighty girders, eighty-one feet long and oo THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Kaufmann & Fabry Co. A VIEW OF SOUTH WATER STREET IN THE EARLY MORNING: CHICAGO South Water Street is perhaps the busiest and at the same time the most antiquated public produce market in the world. The foodstuffs of the entire city pass through this market. Nearly three million cases of eggs, twenty million pounds of butter, seven million boxes of oranges, seven million bushels of potatoes, and one million barrels of apples change hands annually. The place has been called the city’s vermiform appendix and is slated for elimination in the execution of the Chicago Plan. weighing nine tons each. Each of these will form the keel of some new Pullman. To it nine sills are riveted, with floor beams, etc., making a complete under- form weighing seventeen tons. On this the superstructure is built, and then the roof deck is swung into position by a crane. One of the major items in the con- struction of an all-steel Pullman is the insulation of the car. ‘This insulation consists of a combination of cement, hair, and asbestos, packed into every cubic inch of space between the inner and outer walls of the car and between the upper and lower coverings of the floor. One man with a wheelbarrow could trun- dle at a single load all of the wood that THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oa enters into one of these seventy-ton hos- telries on wheels. Once the Pullman car was built of wood. ‘The best cabinet-makers in the world were employed, and the ends of the earth were visited in search of fine woods for the interior work. But when the steel car came into vogue the song of the bandsaw was stilled, the planer’s plaintive hum was heard no more, and instead there arose, as the poet of the plant has written, “the metallic clamor of steam hammer and turret lathe, and the endless staccato reverberation of an army of riveters.”’ AN INSPIRING TALE OF BUSINESS Selling goods to six million customers a year, handling a hundred thousand orders a day in ordinary times, and in rush times nearly twice as many, nothing but the most phenomenal system would stand the strain that the mail-order busi- ness of the world’s greatest mail-order house involves. The story of how the vast flood of orders flows in and the del- uge of merchandise flows out is an in- spiring tale of business. The main plant covers fifty acres and has more than ninety acres of floor space. From the mechanical letter-opener that can dispose of 27,000 pieces of mail an hour to the shipping room, where the merchandise finally starts on its way to- ward the customer, nothing but organi- zation raised to the nth power could cope with the vast volume of business that sweeps through the great institution. Here is an order from Farmer Smith, of Jonesville, Kentucky. It contains nine items. The letter-openers send his check to the cashier and the order and letter to the auditor. one of a batch of twenty-five such orders. One of a hundred clerks reads the order and decides how the shipment shall go— whether by parcel post, by express, or by trereht. -. From the auditor’s office the orders go to the entry department. Here five hun- dred girls, operating billing machines, make out orders for each department. Farmer Smith’s order affects seven de- partments, so seven tickets are made out. Next the orders pass to the scribing de- The latter receives them as partment, which makes out all shipping labels, box markers, bills of lading, etc. The next step takes it through the great card-index room. Here a record is made and kept of what Farmer Smith has ordered, what money he has sent in, and all information about him that would bear on future transactions. Through a series of endless-belt conveyors the orders are distributed to the girls at hun- dreds of filing cases—each order to the appropriate case—where the record en- tries are made and where the routes of shipment are determined—if by freight, by what road; if by express, by what company ; if by parcel post, in what zone. Then the order goes to the distribution department, where the schedule of its transit through the shipping department is made up. Somewhere down in one of the buildings is a great room, marked off into many sections. In each of these sec- tions there are many baskets, and one of these is set aside for the reception of the goods ordered by Farmer Jones. Now, of course, where from 1,200 to 2,600 orders every ten minutes are going through, no basket can wait long for all the items in an order or there would be confusion worse confounded. FACH ORDER FILLED IN TEN MINUTES So every order is filled on a ten-minute schedule. The distribution office writes on each ticket of the order the ten-minute period within which all the merchandise must be in the particular basket assigned to Farmer Smith. Gravity and endless- belt conveyors carry the various items to the designated place, one by one, and from all parts of the merchandise build- ing. After the order is assembled—and you may bet your last dollar that it will not be more than ten minutes from the time the first item arrives to the time the last one puts in its appearance—the bas- ket is sent off by gravity chute to the packers. 3 Meanwhile the tickets that were made off early in the routine have gone back to the billing room to be consolidated into one order, which, in turn, goes back to the packer who checks up the merchan- dise and sends the bill out with the ship- ment. Mechanical conveyors then carry 34 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by International Film Service, Inc. A LINE WAITING 20) PLAY -GOLE IN JACKSON (PARK: CELICAG@ Chicago plays as earnestly as it works, and the public golf links in Jackson Park are reputed to be the busiest in the world. More balls are teed off there than at the historic links of St. Andrew. Many a golfer has sat up all night, so as to be sure to get into the game on the morrow. the packed orders to loading platforms— parcel-post shipments to one platform, express tO nother, cteumulene Tey ane again separated, each railroad and each express company having a special section where the packages intended for them are assembled. In the case of parcel-post packages, belt conveyors carry them to an assorting room, where they are prop- erly bagged and labeled, so that the pos- tal service can handle them in bag lots until they reach the point nearest their destination where mail-bag lots are broken up. In the rush season this institution han- dles as many as 20,000 orders an hour. The number of employees is greatly aug- mented at these times, and the cream of each enlargement is added to the perma- nent list, with the result that the force is always kept efficient. The annual turnover of an institution like this is almost past belief. Even in peace times, before the costs of produc- tion had been lifted to unparalleled heights by the competition of Mars, the ledger of one mail-order house at the end of the year is said to have shown total sales reaching to nearly $200,000,000. A DEPARTMENT STORE WITH 46 ACRES OF FLOOR SPACE There may be one or two other depart- ment stores in the world outside of Chi- cago that have outgrown a full city block, but certainly no other such store has out- . grown as large a block nor occupied more floor area than Chicago’s leading estab- lishment. The square bounded by Wa- bash, Washington, State, and Randolph streets 1s a big one—how big may be gathered from the statement that the basement sales-room of this institution covers four acres of ground, while the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oo Photograph by International Film penuics THE COLISEUM DURING A REPUBLICAN NATIONAL CONVENTION: CHIGAG 30 - Chicago has nominated a majority of, the Predideqte ‘of the United States since. the first _ nomination of Abraham Lincoln. main aisle on the main floor of the estab- * lishment is nearly 400 feet long. And yet the structure covering that block, 13 stories high, with four base- ments below, is unable to accommodate that vast retail business built up by the merchant prince of the Middle West; so across Washington Street there is a sec- ond building, big enough in itself for a princely business, housing a man’s de- partment store. Imagine a retail business that requires The city ‘actes of floor space, yet of*such high class* that more than 60 running “miles of carpet? ‘are laid down to maintain’'the quiet s elegaii¢e of the establishment: “Ea anc army of§ shoppers so numerous: tht 77- passenger elévators are sadl y-overworked when high-water mark “is athed and a volume of: purchases that-requires 16 big freight lifts to handle it.” Picture a store that even in slack times has 10,000 employees and in rush seasons has to add 3,000 extra sales and delivery "]O0) SE jf 910M SMOUY ODRD -I4Q Ul vIIIaUY suNOX IW0d s]jads joy oy} UsyM PUY “9UO A1DAI JO DIUPYSIP SUINTLAL AsV UTYPIM ‘sorqIOey osnoy-yyeq YM Jood yAed v st 9194} AVID BY} FO JoJeND KATIA UT “SUOT}IPUOD URqIN 0} dJOY SuUILUIWIMS PJO 94} JO saydioutid oy} JO uoreodde au} UT saddI[aq A[YSno10Y, OSvoryD Our A Z OOVOIHO ‘MUVd YAWIVd NI TOOd DNINWIMS : @INIW SI YLIVM AHL NI NO HINOD,, eet aioe peers en Se NEARER IA AN SE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE od people. Consider the size of an institu- tion that can meet the wants of a quarter of a million people in a single selling day in the big season. Then you will begin to get some idea of the vastness of this wonderful temple of trade. It is a business of such propor- tions that it carries some 62,000 open ac- counts per month and 100,000 per year. Its stock of goods on hand is worth enough to ransom a king and diversified enough to supply every essential need of a man or woman from the cradle to the grave. A trip from the flagstaff to the tunnel basement of this department store is an pexpeuience oe can never forget, A stock-taking at the end of the journey would reveal that the visitor had been on his feet seven hours, had visited 150 sales departments, had surveyed wares valued in eight figures, and had outhiked an army on the march. FURS OF FABULOUS PRICE IN COLD STORAGE Several upper floors are not used by the selling departments, but are utilized for divers and sundry purposes that we -ordinarily do not associate with merchan- dising. Immense cold-storage vaults con- taining furs valued at $4,000,000 are on the one hand and vast refrigertors con- taining provender sufficient to feed a whole army division are on the other. Here is a shoe shop that makes the vil- lage cobbler appear ten centuries out of date, and there a department that can mend the rarest rug or restore the plain- est carpet that a cosmopolitan trade may send in. Here is a whole floor given up to res- faurants, tea rooms, grills, ete. Four thousand people may find table room and tempting bills of fare at a time. There isn’t a taste or a fancy, from those of the bluff business man of the Middle West to those of the staid society leader and the whimsical debutante, that is not stud- ied and provided for. As one marches down through the mazes of buzzing activity there are many sidelights that show the bigness of the in- stitution and its atmosphere in striking ways. For instance, the store, aiming at once to display its wares and to help its customers, has installed 27 full-sized resi- dence rooms, which are furnished in ap- proved designs from time:to time. Here is one furnished as a living-room, there one as a guest-room; here another as a nursery, and there still another as a den. Yet so large is this store that these 27 rooms become all but lost, and scarcely figure in any bird’s-eye survey of the es- tablishment. MAKING FRIENDS FOR THE FUTURE When one comes down to the chil- dren’s floor it is soon evident that the firm is wide awake to its own future. There are scores of rooms equipped with about every sort of plaything that the most imaginative kiddie in all Chicago could conjure up. ° Yes: indeed our _ little friend,” the firm seems to say, “come right in and have a good time. You may break something now and then, but that’s all right. We want you to feel that this store is your friend. So jump right in.” And maybe the kiddies don’t accept the invitation! ‘They enter into the spirit with such glee that when they have be- come men and women they could not be pried away with a crowbar from trading there. Does it cost much to maintain such a policy? Go to the toy hospital and look at the staff of people working there; go to the toy morgue and see the daily accumulation of victims ready for the potter’s field. Yes, it is very expen- sive. But untold thousands of those who are today the store’s best customers were but yesterday the kiddies who visited the “Soyland of toyland in the little-girl-and- boy-land” of that emporium. One might write a whole article about such an institution. There is the credit system, where a financial Who’s Who that is practically an open sesame for bad debts.is maintained. Mr. Black comes in to buy a pair of shoes he wants charged, and Mrs. White purchases some lingerie and says, “Charge it, please.” The sales- folk make out the tickets in the usual routine way, and send them through pnetimatic tubes to the credit department, which maintains an endless array of slips placed in frames like the room assign- ‘o]qISSOd JUOIIDADTYOe UL YONS soyvu Jomod YJU 9} 0} podojaaAsdgp UoTezIuesio AJUQ “sojnUIU OF FO potiod ve ULY}JIM UIOOI UTe}IOD & JO UOTJDIS UIL}I9N V UT Jose UIL}IOD V YIVOI JSNUI JopiO UdALS & UT Wop AtoAO JOA “OSHOY JopsO-[IeuUl OSeVITYD eB FO jJUsIASL -UVLU 94} SJUOLJUOD JY} Yse} oy} st Aep SuLyIOM oY} JO sojnurtt OI ATOAD sjustuyIedap [V1OAVS S}I Yonos1y} StopsIO OOS‘ 0} OO? 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TON. fe Ms. Av ONYYD AY PUDLD 07 9S’ aYDT MOL 299198 79(0.87-01, ry ana 417 J SUG Ll IER OOOO SNA Sse: | | SMG UGS = UPATA OPVOTHO =NOILVLS=NuOauv ad] SS ———— [ea = | Se Eee) ee - LS, J7, | UL Oo ceri S scliatantnaiatitaitin LS 00 U1 Ln % | _ one il anes Y a= is , By Z =| Ais ae —e Va We Pn oo LISI a a ie inal ele | Treat ill ae ives = —————— Sn | ES GND jee | Nees 40 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Al MERCHANDISE “SHOOTING THE CHUTES” IN A CHICAGO ESTABLISHMENT (SEE TEXT, PAGE 33) ment boards of hotels, each slip carrying the rating of a customer. By the time the packages are wrapped, the sales tickets have gone to the credit department, and Mr. Black and Mrs. White have been submitted to the acid test of the financial Who’s Who. If the ticket comes back properly checked the packages are delivered and the two cus- tomers depart without realizing that their debt-paying reputation has been thor- oughly scanned in the interim. If the tickets bear a different notation, the salesfolk politely tell the customers that they can arrange the charge matter with Mr. So-and-So. Before that no question MAIL-ORDER is asked and no word spoken. ‘The Who’s Who heard a silent appeal and rendered an inaudible verdict. Another feature of this mercantile es- tablishment is its delivery system. Cov- ering nearly 400 square miles of territory and making some 30,000 deliveries a day as an average, it is natural that efficiency should be the keynote of its operation. The handling of the orders as they are collected in the basement of the establish- ment and then separated according to delivery routes is but little less compli- cated and yet equally as efficient as the methods at the mail-order house men- tioned previously. 492 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A few years ago this store had both horse-drawn and motor vehicles in its delivery service. ‘The question of the relative cost of the two kinds of trans- portation frequently arose, and it was finally decided to put it to the test of ex- pert accounting. The costs for a long period were kept, and when the balance- sheet was made up it was found that the horse had lost out by such a decisive showing that the whole service was mo- torized. In times gone by Chicago has been re- garded in the East as a place inhabited by the rough-and-ready type of American more concerned with the amassing of piles of money than with the development of the finer phases of life. When it is remembered that fourscore years ago the city had little more than a name, and was WithOoumuantallroad Oka canals athat at could not boast of a sewer nor of a paved street; that there were but few sidewalks; that mudholes deeper than usual were marked by signs reading, “No bottom here—the shortest road to China !”—when these things are remem- bered, and then with them is contrasted the splendid city, with its world-serving industries, its great business institutions, its wonderful city-betterment plans, its beautiful art institute, its famous musi- cal organizations, its internationally fa- mous universities, one must feel thank- ful that there was a rough-and-ready day in the city’s history during which the foundations of culture could be laid deep and lasting. With an educational system following the same lines as the New York system, with a financial district that is as solid and as substantial as the rock of Gibral- tar, with a health department that has probably made the most thorough study of the tuberculosis situation ever under- taken by any major municipality, Chi- cago occupies no secondary role among the big cities of the world. CHICAGO'S SOLICITUDE FOR THE DEAF No city in the country has done as much in the fitting of its deaf children for normal lives as Chicago. ‘The fore- most authorities have long since realized that the only way to teach speech to the deaf in any way that will make it valu- able to them is to have them use it out of the class-rooms as well as in school. The child that learns to make use of signs is prone to resort to them, since speech and lip-reading are difficult at first. Such children are in the selfsame boat with the child that studies French in the class-room and leaves it behind elsewhere. Unless one learns to think in French, it takes an effort to use the language. And no child can think in a foreign tongue who utilizes it no further than the class-room. Chicago realizes this, and has devel- oped all of her public education of the deaf accordingly. Practically every deaf child is being taught under the more mod- ern system—a system for which the coun- try owes a debt to Dr. Alexander Graham Bell. The city has acknowledged this debt by naming its principal day school for deaf children in his honor.* Chicago is a city with a past, whose “I will” spirit has overcome many an obstacle to its progress; a city with a present that meets every test that war or peace puts upon it; a city with a future of the richest promise. The late James J. Hill, whose services as a constructive geographer contributed so much to the development of our na- tional resources and the building of our inland empire, understood well the oper- ation of the fundamental laws of geog- raphy, and thereby was able to forecast and capitalize the future. Before he died he declared that within a generation the Pacific coast would be the home of twenty million people, and that Chicago, the cross-roads between the two _ sea- boards, would have five million. One who studies Chicago cannot es- cape the feeling that Hill was a modest prophet and that the city’s splendid achievements of yesterday and its won- derful accomplishments of today augur the fulfillment of plans for tomorrow which will be a source of pride to every American. * Under the leadership of the “American Association for the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf” (of Washington, D. C.), three-fourths of the deaf pupils in the schools of the United States are being taught the new method of communication, and Illinois’ metropolis leads the procession with a 100 per cent enrollment in schools using that method. fe beAGuUi OF NATIONS, WHAT IT MEANS AND Vere MUSE BE By WILLIAM Howarp TAFT Ex-PrrsIpDENT oF THE UNITED STATES HE first attempt, after the begin- ning of the European war, to for- mulate and state a general plan for a League of Nations to secure per- manent peace after the war was made in Philadelphia on the 17th of June, 1915, in a convention of some three hundred or four hundred prominent men inter- ested in the subject and coming from all parts of the country. They organized themselves into what was called a League to Enforce Peace. They declared it to be desirable for the United States to join a League of Na- tions, binding its members: First, to submit all justiciable ques- tions to a judicial tribunal for hearing and judgment ; Second, to submit all other questions arising between them to a Council of Conciliation for hearing, consideration, ‘and recommendation ; Third, jointly to use forthwith both their economic and military forces against any one of their number making war against another before submitting the is- sue to either the court or the Council of Conciliation, and, Fourth, to hold conferences of nations to formulate and codify rules of interna- tional law to govern in the decisions of the judiciai tribunal. This program was enlarged and made more atnbitious at a meeting of the gov- erning body of the League on November 24, 1918. It then declared that the initi- ating nucleus of the membership of the League should be the nations associated as belligerents in winning the war. It declared further: First, that the judgments of the inter- national court on justiciable questions should be enforced; Second, that the League should deter- mine what action, if any, should be taken “* An address delivered by William Howard Taft before the National Geographic Society, in Washington, D. C., January 17, 1910. 43 in respect to recommendations of the Council of Conciliation in which the par- ties concerned did not acquiesce ; Third, that provision should be made for an administrative organization of the League to conduct affairs of common interest and for the protection and care of backward regions and international places and other matters jointly adminis- tered before and during the war, and that such administrative organization should be so framed as to insure stability and progress, preventing defeat of the forces of healthy growth and changes, and pro- viding a way by which progress could be secured and the needed change effected without recourse to war; Fourth, that a representative Congress of Nations should formulate and codify ‘rules of international law, inspect the work of the League’s administrative bodies, and consider any matter affecting the tranquillity of the world or the prog- ress or the betterment of human rela- Ons: Fifth, that the League should have an executive council to speak with authority in the name of the nations represented and to act in case the peace of the world is endangered. NATIONS SHOULD BE REPRESENTED IN PROPORTION TO THEIR RESPONSIBILITY It further declared that the representa- tion of the different nations in the organs of the League should be in proportion to the responsibilities and obligations that they assume, and that rules of interna- tional law should not be defeated for lack of unanimity. It will thus be seen that the American Association has become more ambitious in its aims since its first declarations, be- cause under the first declaration it did not propose to enforce judgments of the court or in any way to deal with the rec- ommendations of compromise. ‘The ex- ercise of force of the League was to be ke A VIEW OF DANZIG, WHICH THE NEW POLISH REPUBLIC DESIRES AS ITS OUTLET TO THE SEA AND TO WORLD COMMERCE The photograph shows the Langer Markt, which, with the Langgasse (Long Street), constitutes the finest thoroughtfare in this quaintly beautiful city of 140,000 inhabitants. ‘The medieval town hall, with its lofty clock tower, is one of the most interesting buildings in West Prussia. 44 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 45 directed only against a nation beginning war before submission to the Court or the Council. In England, after the organization of the American League, a British League of Free Nations Association was formed, proposing a Court and a Commission of Conciliation, the use of force to execute the decisions of the Court, and the joint suppression, by all means at their disposal, of any attempt by any State to disturb the peace of the world by acts of war. It looked to the immediate organiza- tion of a League of Great Britain and her then allies, with a view to the ultimate formation of a League of Nations on a wider basis, including States at present neutral or hostile. It excluded the Ger- man peoples until they should bring forth works meet for repentance and become a democracy. It contained a provision for action by the League as trustee and guardian of uncivilized races and undeveloped terri- tories. It proposed as a substitute for na- tional armaments: an international force ~ to guarantee order in the world, and pro- : posed a further function for the Council . of the League in supervising, limiting, © and controlling the military and naval forces and the armament industries of the world. HOW FRANCE JOINED THE MOVEMENT Late in 1918 a French Association for the Society of Nations recommended that the Society of Nations should be open to every nation who would agree to respect the right of peoples to determine their own destiny, and to resort only to judi- cial solutions for the settlement of their disputes ; That the use of force be reserved ex- clusively to the international society itself as the supreme sanction in case one of the member States should resist its de- cisions ; That the allies should form their asso- ciation immediately and should work it out as completely as possible in the direc- tion of sanctions of every kind—moral, judicial, economic, and in the last resort military—as well as in that of promul- gating general rules of law. The French Society further provided that the Society of Nations thus immedi- ately formed should control and conduct the negotiations for the coming peace. It will thus be seen that the League of Nations, as conceived by its proponents in three of the four great nations that have won this war, has substantially the Same Structure. It inelides’ a court to decide justiciable questions, a Council of Conciliation to consider other or non- justiciable questions and to recommend a compromise. It calls for the organiza- tion of the combined economic and mili- tary forces of the world to enforce the judgments of the court, and to deal with a defiance of the recommendations of the mediating council as the executive body of the League shall deem wise. JUSTICIABLE AND NON-JUSTICIABLE QUESTIONS DEFINED The distinction between justiciable and non-justiciable questions is generally clear, although it may sometimes give rise to disputes. A justiciable question is one that a court would take up for decision and ad- judge upon principles of law. A non- justiciable issue is one in which the claim asserted and denied is not rested on legal right, but is based on a policy which the claimant seeks to maintain for its own safety and for the general welfare. Such non-justiciable claims are to be weighed by the Council of Conciliation in the light of considerations, not of posi- tive law or juridical equity, but in the light of conventional rules of decency, courtesy, neighborly feeling, and morality which the common brotherhood of na- tions and their general welfare require. Illustrations may be given. The Mon- roe Doctrine of the United States was a declaration by the United States that its interests and safety required that it should exclude from the Western Hemi- sphere interference by European or other governments to overturn any independ- ent government in this hemisphere; that it should prevent further colonization by any foreign government in this hemi- sphere; and this has been amplified to prevent the transfer of territory in this hemisphere to any foreign government. The object was to avoid disturbance of the peace by the ambitions and in- trigues of European nations against the French Official Photograph NATIVES WEAVING MATS IN WHAT WAS FORMERLY GERMAN WEST AFRICA, CAMEROON “Germany has been as murderous in dealing with the backward tribes of her colonial possessions as she was in Belgium and in northern France.” Scandals in the maladministra- tion of Cameroon and in the oppression of the natives under German rule came to light in 1906. Three weeks after the outbreak of the world war British troops from Nigeria crossed the German frontier into this colony, and on February 18, 1916, its complete occupation by the British and French, working in coOperation, was announced (see page 57). 46 Photograph from Pictorial Press A STAIRCASE LEADING TO THE TOMB OF A NATIVE CHIEF: CAMEROON At the beginning of the world war Germany’s Cameroon possessions embraced an area of 305,000 square miles—more than four and a half times the area of all the New England States. The native population about equaled that of Massachusetts, but less than 2,000 whites lived in the colony. Although the Imperial Government had been in control of the territory for 30 years, less than 200 miles of railway had been constructed in this, one of the richest regions of tropical Africa, 47 “(ZS a8ed 90S) JUaWUIaAOT) [eIIoduy dy} 0} S219}UI Ady} ,,PoUSIsse,, Jo}e] SYJUOUT MofF B pue puelerfend FO Sforyo oy} ITM Ajeat} & PouUsIS SJULYDIOU [e1OAVS UsYM “VEgI Ul SULUTIOx) 66 is MIdWH NVM FHL JO ANO'TIO) NVOIMMIV ISAM V ATAANUOL NOOWINVO AO HOV'ITIA V NI SAHALLVN ydeisojoyd [erloujO yously THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 49 political and territorial integrity and in- dependence of the governments in this hemisphere. The policy has promoted the peace of the Western Hemisphere. It has pro- moted the principle of self-determination here, and it has minimized for the United States danger of conflict with European and other nations. It does not rest, how- ever, on the legal right of the United States. It is based on no principle of in- ternational law which the United States could invoke in a court. So, too, the question of whether the Japanese or the Chinese shall be admitted to the United States or shall be admitted to naturalization in the United States is not a question involving principles of in- ternational law. Every nation by international law is given the absolute right to admit whom it will and to exclude whom it will from its shores or from the privileges of its citi- zenship. The claim of the Chinese and the Japanese to admission or to citizen- ship must rest on the issue whether neighborly feeling and good-fellowship and international brotherhood require this country to admit races like the Chi- nese and the Japanese, with their racial ‘ qualities and traditions, to share with the present residents of this country the ma- terial benefits of residence here or the political advantages of its citizenship. In issues over the Monroe Doctrine or Chinese or Japanese exclusion the case must go to the Council of Conciliation. liecam have no place in a court. The question how a recommendation of such a council adverse to the Monroe Doctrine or Oriental exclusion would affect either must depend on the provision for dealing with recommendations of the council in the plan of the League. MeGCASH LOST AND WON BY THE UNITED STATES Let me give a concrete case of a judg- ment of a court, of a recommendation of a commission or Council of Conciliation, and a settlement in accordance with the recommendation. The United States, by a transfer from Russia, became the owner of the Prybi- loff Islands, in the middle of the Bering Sea. Upon those islands was the breed- ing place of the largest herd of fur-bear- ing seals in the world. ‘They were a val- uable property and a considerable annual income was derived by the United States from the sale of the fur. Canadian schooners began what was called pelagic sealing. ‘They shot the seals in the open Bering Sea. This indis- criminate hunting killed the females of the herd and was decimating it. Revenue cutters of the United States, by direction of the government of the United States, seized such sealing vessels, brought them into a port of the United States, where were instituted proceedings to forfeit them. Great Britain objected on the ground that the United States had no legal juris- diction to do this. ‘The case was sub- mitted to an arbitration. The treaty con- tained a provision that the arbitrators, should they reach the conclusion that the United States had no legal right, might recommend a basis of compromise. The United States asserted its right, on the ground, first, that it had territorial jurisdiction over the open waters of the Bering Sea by transfer from Russia, which had asserted, maintained, and en- joyed such jurisdiction, and, second, that it owned the seals while in the sea in such a way that the Canadian schooners were despoiling its personal property. The court of arbitration held against the United States on both points, decid- ing that Russia never had any territorial jurisdiction over the open Bering Sea to transfer to the United States, and that when the seals left the islands and swam out into the open sea they were the prop- erty of no one and were subject to cap- ture by any one. The judgment of the court, therefore, was against the United States and awarded damages. Pursuing, however, the recommenda- tion of the treaty, the court made itself into a council of mediation. It said that while the killing of seals in the open sea was not a violation of the legal rights of the United States, of which the United States could legally complain, it was nevertheless a great injury to the com- mon welfare of the world to destroy this greatest seal herd of the world, first, be- cause the fur was valuable and useful for the garments of men and women, and, Iso} FO WOLLIOJSOI OY} JOF eo[d V JopIsuod O}F SuIsnyol ul saypy ewoywy oy} seytysnl AYN SuIpjoy JO JoursseueWSsTU Ss AUBUIIOT) OF 4SP1JUOI SulAjyeis Ul Usad sey sloyMosfa pue Ie) _ ‘IOISAUL JO OPI} 9} SUIWIUO}S UT SoTulIe YUSTT oY} qsisse 0} sdoos} aAtj}eu st Jo pue ‘poo} SU. “PpUeIOyIOU dy} IsUTeSe J[OAIT P[NOM ‘epuesedoid ueissnig sem }I oouRIy Uodn Yee Joy PoyuNey] AuUeUIIOx) UI MA UOTeU UPUIId4) dq} 0} SeTuO[OD YIYM JWowoseuewmsiu—eoiipy oA pue Isey UT S -seSepeyy ur sours fo Aoijod [eruojoo sueumny of L yo Ajddns aAsosot Si FO “YWeIM FO 9104S SH FO dAv8 uoIssossod YueIy AloAo “prey Aq pewosiod “eslipyy Url Ssatuojes YyoUeTy o4F 4et) uoneyedxa JUIPYUOD 94} Y}IM WVOSVOVAVW LATINVUVIN WHOL JO AONVd OLISVNWAD HAL ae 50 ‘LOTOYNS SITY} JO 9VF O1Se1} JY} UL PoIYor o1v se sasvajno yons JO UOHHodot oy} JSuIese vuoWITW Piensayes p[nod suorWeNY JO onSvo’y YW ‘19 [PF] Pjwom yang, ou pue s8e1 sz9sy Jo oyds ur uewom suOspury ve SP oYS 1OF ,,g9STOM JO—IIIESSEUL IO UO!JAJLS,, : SUIS ‘oININF dy} OJUL SHOOT oYs Jnq ‘suosiod us} sdeysod 107 peosq yo Ajddns s Aep ev sey oys ‘ WI AUNOG SVH WIM ANV NVHI YALIAG VINAWUV JO LIMIdS AHI SUSSaudXad dNOWD SIND NI WOOT IVAILNAS AML SUIPITIIM 'O ‘IN 4q ydeisojoyg 52 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SEIS Scr gakaS: RR KURD COOLIES AT AMARA, A TOWN IN IRAK-ARABI ON THE BANKS OF THE TIGRIS The Entente Allies are to establish many new republics in Europe and in Asia, thereby releasing oppressed peoples from the yoke of Prussian militarism and Turkish barbarism, and at the same time forming a series of buffer States, which will make impossible any further aspirations of Germany for the control of middle Europe and the Near East. second, because the destruction of the herd would destroy valuable and useful industries in the preparation of the seal pelts for use. Therefore, they said it was good form and in the interest of the world that the four nations concerned should agree upon a compromise, by which the United States might continue to maintain the herd and sell the seal pelts gathered on the islands, and that pelagic sealing should be stopped, but that the United States, in consideration of the other three Mations festricting their ‘citizens tem pelagic sealing, should divide with the other three nations some of the profits of the herd. Accordingly, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, and the United States made such a treaty, which is still in force, and under which the herd has been restored to its former size and value. Here we have an THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 53 example of a court passing on questions of legal right and deciding them against the United States. Then we have the court changing itself into a council of mediation and recommending a compro- mise, prompted by considerations of de- cency and good form and the public wel- fare of the world, which the nations ap- pealed to have adopted and embodied in a treaty. VIRTUALLY TWO LEAGUES PROPOSED The American, English, and French plans all show a purpose to create a smaller League of the allied nations fight- ing this war, who are, so to speak, to be charter members of a larger League, which they are to form by inviting other nations into it as they show themselves ime tO. exercise the privileges the League will give and to enjoy its protec- tion and to meet their obligations as members. The American plan refers to these allied nations who won the war as the initiating nucleus of the larger League. Fach plan looks to the enforcement of judgments and leaves open to the League the question what shall be done with ref- - erence to compromises recommended and not acquiesced in. Each one looks to a congress of nations to declare and codify international law. | One of them provides for the reduc- tion of armament; the others omit it. It does not appear in the American plan. I may say that this was not because the ultimate reduction of armament was not regarded as important, but because it was thought that this feature of a League of Nations might meet serious objection until the League should be shown to be an effective substitute for the insurance which reasonable preparation for self- defense gives against unjust foreign ag- gression. The purpose of this war was to defeat the military power of Germany and to destroy any possibility in the future of her instituting a war of conquest against the world. It was to make the world safe for democracy and to allow races and peoples oppressed by the imperial central powers to establish independent, popular governments. This purpose was shown in the four- teen points of President Wilson, set forth in his message of January 8, 1918 The armistice made those fourteen points a diagram of the purposes of the allies to be embraced in the treaty, subject to two modifications by the Entente Allies, one in reference to the freedom of the seas and the other in reference to indemnities. If the points of the President’s mes- sage are carried out, there will be created an independent State of the Ukraine, an independent State of the Baltic provinces of old Russia, an independent State of Finland, an independent State of Poland, including Russian, Austrian, and German Poland, with a strip running through East Prussia connecting Poland with Danzig, the port upon the Baltic Sea. There will also be created a republic of the Czecho-Slovaks, including Moravia, Bohemia, and Slovakia—a State lying between Germany on the north and Aus- tria and Hungary on the south. In addition, the Jugo-Slavs are to be created into an independent republic. Palestine is to be set up as an autono- mous State, and so, too, are Armenia and the Caucasus. In this wise Germany will be hemmed in to prevent her extending herself into Russia, and her ambitious plan of con- trolling middle Europe to Bagdad and the Persian Gulf will be made impossible. THE ALLIES PLEDGED TO LAUNCH MANY NEW REPUBLICS ; The allies are thus to launch on the troubled seas of new national life half a dozen or more republics whose peoples have never had any training in self-gov- ernment. Our experience with Cuba, in which we gave her self-government and had to take her over again after two years for another period of two ‘years, should teach’ ts. how, "tneertam is) the fate) of such new republics unless they have a protector who can aid them to stand upon their feet. Self-government is a boon, but it is, as resident ) \Vilsouy says,, Caaracter. People need training in it in order to make it useful. We allies are now to sive ibigthtiro Seven, or eignt children, whose steps we must lead gently in order that they may learn firmly to walk. We "(19 98ed yxd} 99S) UOIJeIsSeYUoS 1O JOLT Je1oues e FO 9Sed dU} UT ydooxe ‘o1oydsiwiap{ U1d}saMA PY} 91 POUYUOS 9q PjNOM soi}IAIje Seoltauy ‘asodind usyeRUl Joy} JAeMY} OF SUOTYN JO oNsvo’T 9Y} JO sioquiout uvadoiny ay} JO Ajnp oy} oq pynom p ‘pyiom oy} Jo doved ay} Uo}eoIYy} Ulese pPjnoys s9Mod Arey JojstuIs @ Aq posidsur ‘sdoor yons Fy] AINILSHIVd :VEATHSYAAG YVAN SNIVId GIYV AHL NO AWIVAVO HSIMUOAYL ATEN MA “AX (D wtorz Ydersojoyg ss opt GR eae teat: b, 54 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE aD have seven Cubas under our parental care, and we must maintain an organiza- tion of the League and an active agency of the League to prevent their self-de- struction. More than this, their very existence creates humiliation and resentment in the peoples of the empires out of which they are carved, and these new peoples natu- rally cherish hatred against the people of the central countries because of the past outrages to which they were subjected. Between the old and the new we shall find jealousies and ambition and selfish- ness. Even with their present imperfect existence as governments, some of these peoples are already in war in the Ukraine, in Poland, and in some parts of the Slav country. We fought this war and are reorgan- izing these new governments for the purpose of maintaining a democratic peace; but if continual quarrel and war are to succeed this change on the map of middle Europe, the purpose of the war and the treaty will fail. How can these new States be enabled to maintain their self-government and be saved from fighting with their neighbors? Only through the supervision of a League of the Allies. A SHOW OF FORCE NECESSARY TO INSURE PEACE The treaty will be as long as the moral law. It will define access to the sea and will delimit in various ways the powers and the rights of the countries within the sphere of war. Immediately upon the signing of the treaty the question of in- terpretation and application to facts that could not be anticipated will arise. Interpretation of a treaty and applica- tion of it are ordinarily judicial questions as between nations. Indeed, it is the commonest form of a justiciable issue. The interpretation must be authoritative, and it cannot be given except by a court acting under the authority of the League of Nations making the treaty. Doubtless other questions will arise as between these newly created countries and the old ones which a court may prop- erly settle. But not only will legal ques- tions thrust themselves forward for solu- tion under the treaty, but there will also be many non-justiciable questions of pol- icy between the new and old States that will clash. Therefore, a Council of Con- ciliation will be as necessary as a court. If peace is to be maintained, the judg- ments of the court must be enforced and the recommendations of the Commission of Conciliation must be given weight. For this reason alone the League will have to make arrangements among the members so that their joint economic pressure can be exerted and, where nec- essary, war may be declared and a suff- cient force furnished by one or more of the allies to compel respect for the League court and its other agencies. Only by economic pressure and force or a show of force can the quarrels growing out of the jealousies of the new and old nations be suppressed. Another reason why the League must maintain a potential military force is to suppress Bolshevism, that enemy of hu- man civilization. We have promised, in the President’s message of January 8, to enable Russia to get on her feet and to establish a gov- ernment of her own framing. The Bol- sheviki have Russia now by the throat and are preventing a constituent assem- bly through which alone a democratic form of government can be established, and through which alone a majority of the people of Russia may give expression ~ to their desires as to the form of their government. : Again, we are to draw the boundary between the Balkan States. That bound- ary has often been drawn in the recent history of Europe, but has rarely stayed drawn. The bitterness between the Bul- garians and the Slavs and the Ruma- nians, the Greeks and Italians, has often manifested itself in the past. One of the great difficulties in settling the terms of this peace is in the proper division of ter- ritory between these Balkan nations and Italy. After the treaty is made, boundary | questions will be justiciable questions, and they can only be settled authorita- tively by the League court. | Moreover, the League will have a new function to perform, indispensable in the carrying out of the treaty. It must ex- ercise local government through agencies “(SS o8ed ‘yx0} 90S) [ref [pt Aje01} oy} pur Tem oy} FO ssodind oy} ‘adoin’y oppprur Jo deur sy} UO asueYS sIy} Pasoons 0} o1e IeM pue jJatienb yenurjyuos Jt ynq faoved o1}eIIOWIp & SUIUTeUTeU FO asodind 9y} JO} S}USWUIZAOS MoU oSoq} SUIZIURSIOII 12 pue 1e@M sIy} JYSNOF oN dvdoVad OINI AMINA AHL 2: VIAGNd AVGOVE-OL-NITYAA AHL GHYALONNd HOIHM SHOUOT HSIN AHL WO CUVNONVA HHL 56 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE aa to be selected by it and to be under its general direction. The German colonies must thus be governed, and so, too, must Constantinople and the country in its im- mediate vicinity. INTERNATIONAL CONTROL FOR GERMAN COLONIES It will not be satisfactory to all the allies to turn either the German colonies or Constantinople over to any nation. Germany has forfeited her right to the colonies by her mistreatment of them in the past. She has been as murderous in dealing with the backward tribes as she was in Belgium and in northern France. Were we to turn her colonies over to Great Britain or France, it would soon be charged that the trustee was exploit- ing the colonies for the benefit of its home people. . The acquisition of these lands by one or another government would give the appearance of selfishness to the aims of the allies in the war. What is true of the German colonies is also true of Constantinople. It must be internationalized. The Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosporus must be under the guardianship of a government that represents equally all the allies who won this war. ~Only so will the government be satisfactory.. Only so will the management secure peace. We must have, to make the treaty ef- fective, a League of Nations with a court, a Commission of Conciliation, joint eco- nomic pressure and an agreement to use military force, and an executive agency to administer governments and trusts which should be international in their character. ‘The situation, therefore, re- quires the institution of a League of Na- tions such as the American, English, and French plans suggest. This is the natural way in which insti- tutions are born and developed. Men do not create them by academic discussion and because of a general perception of their usefulness. They are usually forced into political existence by conditions which defy the traditions of the past and overcome by their inevitable character the objections that conservative men oppose. Fortunately, the safest and most prac- tical way to create a general League of Nations is through a limited League hav- ing the Great Powers as its charter mem- bers. It would be exceedingly difficult to call a convention of all nations and therein frame the constitution of the larger league. The vanities and jealousies of the smaller nations, whose life and peace and happiness it is the chief purpose of the general league to protect, would nev- ertheless be very likely to prevent the possibility of any such general organiza- tion. SMALLER NATIONS MIGHT DEFEAT THE PLAN The smaller nations would be so in- sistent on a general and equal representa- tion in the governmental branches of the League as to defeat its organization on any reasonable plan. During my administration there was an attempt to create a World Court, and the plan halted and failed because it was impossible to agree with the smaller nations to any feasible method of select- ing the judges. Each nation insisted — that it should have a permanent member of the court, and this would have required a court of absurd and impracticable size, like a town meeting, indeed. With the allied nations as charter members, and with the protection to the smaller nations that the League would offer, the charter members can lay down in advance the feasible lines upon which a general league must be formed, and then admit the other nations to the priv- ileges of the League on condition of their accepting its then structure. The branches of the League would naturally be, first, a congress, or quasi- legislative branch; second, the court; third, the Council of Conciliation ; fourth, the administrative agency, and, fifth, the executive council. ALI, NATIONS TO BE REPRESENTED IN GENERAL CONGRESS All nations should be represented in the general congress, but the representa- tion should be determined by the charter members in accordance with the popula- tion, political importance, and responsi- bility of each applicant. The congress would enact and codify, subject to the 58 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE LONG HAIR FOR CHILDREN, LONG EARS FOR GOATS, AND LONG MANTLES FOR WOMEN ARE THE FASHION IN THE STREETS OF BAGDAD “The Allies are to launch on the troubled seas of new national life republics whose peoples have never had any training in self-government. They must be led gently in order that they may learn firmly to walk” (see page 53). approval of the nations, international law and adopt other general rules of policy for the conduct of the League. The court should not be representative at all. It should consist of great jurists, learned and able in the law, of high character and much experience. The court should have nothing to do with political policies, should have no repre- sentative character or constituencies. Its sole function should be to decide the issues presented on pure questions of law and fact. The Council of Conciliation, however, may well be representative, because it 1s a negotiating and mediating body. It should have a few permanent members, and in addition temporary representa- tives of the countries who are interested in the specific controversy to be mediated. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 59 REPRESENTATIVES OF A NEWLY FREED PEOPLE: MESOPOTAMIA “The veiled girl at the left is a betrothed Jewess. She is accompanied by her mother and the two younger daughters of the family. The executive council will have the duty of enforcing the judgments of the League where they are defied, and of considering what action should be taken in respect to recommendations of com- promise by the Council of Conciliation in which one of the parties does not ac- quiesce. The executive council should be composed, therefore, of those nations who are willing to assume the responsi- bility of furnishing armies to the League when necessity arises. These, in the na- ture of things, will be the Great Powers, or the charter members of the League. Under such an arrangement a League could be made to work. The fact that the smaller nations are not represented in the executive council would not work to their disadvantage, because they could be confident that the greater nations would not unite against them. The inevitable diversity of interests between the greater nations would be their security. OBJECTIONS TO A LEACUE. OF NATIONS What are the objections to a League of Nations developed in this way and thus constituted? The first and chief objection is that the United States ought not to bind itself to make war upon the decree of an executive council in which it has but one vote out of four or five. What authority and duty does the ex- ecutive council have in the League? It will be its duty to see that judgments ame executed: Why should we object if called upon to declare war and make our contribution to the police force to maintain peace by enforcing a judgment of an impartial court? Such a judgment is not the re- sult of the vote of other powers than our own. It is merely a decision on princi- ples of international law as between two contending nations. We have heard a great deal during this campaign of international justice. "(SS a8ed 4x0} 90S) _possoid -dns oq suoneu plo pue Mau ot} Jo sarsnoyeaf oy} JO nO SuIMoIs sjotrenb oy} Ue 9dI0J JO MoYs ® SIuVd NI NOISSHS NI MON SALVOH'THA AOVAd AH, AO SGNVH AHL NI SI ANNLNAT AHL “WINUSIN HSIMYAL po aonipmnltanion 60 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | 61 Why should we favor international jus- tice and then refuse to furnish the ma- chinery by which that justice can be de- clared and enforced? What risk do we run? It is said that we ought not to be called upon to enforce a judgment against a Balkan State, so far away. Doubtless, different zones of executive activity for the different great powers might be established for convenience. Thus, except in the case of a general riot or conflagration, our activity might be limited to the Western Hemisphere, while the. European nations would take over central and eastern Europe and Asia. SAFEGUARDING MEMBER NATIONS FROM THE NECESSITY OF MAKING WAR With reference to the enforcement of recommendations of compromise, the ex- ecutive council should consider whether it is a case in which peace would be pro- moted more by economic or military en- _ forcement than merely by international public opinion. If, in such a case, it is thought that a majority of the executive council should not control the right to call for military execution of the compromise, such action might be limited to a unanimous decision of the executive council. This would prevent the imposition of the burden of war by the determination of the League members upon any nation without its consent. Or the enforcement of such a compromise, if determined on by a ma- jority of the executive council, might be left to that majority. AN ANSWER TO SENATOR KNOX Senator Knox, in his criticism, seemed to anticipate that the United States was to be drawn into the war against its will by a majority vote of a convention of heterogeneous nations. No such result could follow from the organization of a League as indicated above. ‘The assumption that the votes of Elaitt, or San Salvador, or Uruguay could create a majority forcing the United States in a war against its inter- est and will, under a practical League of Nations, is wholly gratuitous and un- founded. It would be left to the vote of an executive council of the great powers, and even then the United States, under the modifications above suggested, could not be drawn into war against its will. .. NO CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION VIOLATED The next objection is that the United States cannot through its treaty-making power bind itself to make war in any future contingency. The argument is based on the constitutional requirement that Congress shall declare and make war. : I confess that I cannot see the slightest force in this contention.. The treaty- making power can bind the United States - to make war. It has done so. The legis- lative arm, the Congress of the United States, must perform the promise or it’. cannot be performed. The promise to pay money is exactly analogous to a promise to make war. The treaty-making power binds the gov- ernment to pay whatever sum it deems — just and proper, as where the treaty- making power bound this government to pay $20,000,000 to Spain for the Philip- pines. That promise had to be performed by Congress, because under the Consti- tution Congress is the only power to make the appropriation. PROMISES ALREADY MADE WHICH ENTAIL OBLIGATION TO MAKE WAR Congress may repudiate either obliga- tion and dishonor the promise of the nation; but that does not invalidate the promise or render it unconstitutional any more than a man’s letting his note go to protest renders the original obligation in- valid. We have already made promises that may entail the obligation ‘on us to make war. We have promised to guarantee the political and territorial integrity of Panama, as we have of Cuba. If any nation were to attempt to overthrow Panama or Cuba, or to take any part of the territory of either, we would be un-- der obligation to make war to resist this aggression. These obligations were entered into by the treaty-making power, but they are to be performed by Congress and to be per- formed by Congress in a constitutional way—that is, by declaring and making war. JEWISH WOMEN ON THE STREETS OF BAGDAD With the signing of the Armistice of November 11, the world awoke from its troubled night- mare of a Europe and Asia manacled by Germany from Helgoland to Hindustan. 62 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ie 63 Objectors who rely on the Constitution seem to assume that the League plans contemplate a permanent international police force, constantly under command of a Marshal Foch, who may order the international army to enforce a judgment or a compromise without the prelimina- ries .of declarations of war by the League members. ‘This is wholly gratuitous and no plan justifies it. When force has to be used, war will be begun and carried on jointly, in the usual way. MAKING THE MONROE DOCTRINE INTERNATIONAL The third objection is that it will im- peril the Monroe Doctrine for us to enter into such a League. ‘The whole purpose of the. League is to suppress war and prevent the oppression by war of the smaller nations. ‘The Monroe Doctrine is to prevent the unjust making of war against, and the overthrow of, the in- dependent nations in the Western Hemi- sphere by European or other foreign powers. _ The League of Nations merely extends the principle of the Monroe Doctrine to the entire world. Instead of imperiling it, it would strengthen the Monroe Doc- trine, because in case of its violation the obligations of the League would require all the great powers to unite in the main- tenance of the Monroe Doctrine. A violation of the Monroe Doctrine as against the United States would in every class of cases but one be a direct viola- tion of the legal rights of one of the na- tions of the Western Hemisphere. It would be a case for the League court, brought by the assailed nation against its aggressor. The judgment would be one which the United States would have the function to enforce, acting exactly as it would in enforcing the Monroe Doctrine independently. AN OBJECTION THAT HAS FRIGHTENED MANY PEOPLE There is, perhaps, one class of cases whcih would not be reached in this way, and that is where a nation of the Western Hemisphere would sell out its territory or a part of it to a European or Asiatic government. If this is a real danger, which may be doubted, we can be sure that the great powers would be quite willing to insert in the treaty that the United States should be given a right to object to such a sale. Indeed, Colonel Roosevelt expressed the view that the League of Nations would be willing to adopt our Monroe Doctrine as part of the principles of the League, and I concur in this view. ‘The Sstate- ments of Lord Robert Cecil, a spokesman for the British Government on this sub- ject, justify it. Again, the formidable plea is made that by entering a League of Nations, such as has been suggested, we are part- ing with the sovereignty of the United States as a nation. This has frightened many people; but the objection is like so many other objections. It is a mere con- fusion of definition, and when analyzed it ceases to be serious. What is sovereignty? It is the right of the people associated in government to do what they please as a government. It is the freedom of action of govern- ments. It is the liberty of governments in a community of nations. It is quite analogous to the liberty of the individual. INTERNATIONAL LAW IS THE RULE LIMIT- ING NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY What is the desirable liberty of the individual? We describe it as liberty of the individual regulated by law. What does that mean? It means complete freedom of action of the individual lim- ited by such legal restrictions as will enable every other man in the same com- munity to enjoy equal liberty. That is what one branch of the law is for. It is to regulate the rights and duties of the in- dividuals, the one toward the other. It is the impairment of the sovereignty of one individual for the benefit of all the others, so that all may enjoy equal sovereignty. So it is of governments, and nations, and peoples. ‘They are members of the family of nations. International law is the rule by which their sovereignty is limited, so that they may live together in peace in the world. We do not propose to limit the free- dom of action of a nation in the League to Enforce Peace by anything more than AN UPPER CLASS JEWESS OF MESOPOTAMIA Palestine, the homeland of the Jews, is one of the new States which probably will rise from the disintegrating ruins of the empire of the Ottoman Tanks.) lt Mieis tosen@thes irs security must be guaranteed by the League of Nations. Photograph by A. W. Cufler IT IS THE IDEAL OF THOSE WHO SPONSOR THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS THAT ALL THE WORLD BE MADE AS SAFE FOR FUTURE. GENERATIONS AS IT IS TODAY FOR THIS BASHFUL MISS OF SHROPSHIRE, ENGLAND 66 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the rules of international law or those of decency, moral conduct, and good form. What we propose in the League is merely to give a sanction to such rules of inter- national law and decency and moral con- duct and good form by providing machin- ery of international courts of justice and conciliation such as to bring needed pres- sure to bear on the lawless members of the community of nations, so that they shall keep within the law. A PROTECTION AGAINST THE FOOTPADS AMONG NATIONS This is in analogy to our domestic courts of justice and our instrumental- ities for conciliation in domestic commu- nities. It is not an impairment of sover- eignty. It merely stabilizes the sover- eignty of every nation by enabling the great and small nations equally to enjoy the benefits of international law without maintaining armed forces to secure their rights, to prevent murder and robbery, and to drive off the footpads among the nations, as travelers and householders of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had to go armed always to protect them- selves. It is to protect the sovereignty of the smaller nations and to relieve the greater nations from the burden of their self- protection that the League of Nations is to be formed. In the sense in which the word sover- eignty is used in this objection, every treaty restricts the sovereignty of a na- tion, Every time it agrees to do any- thing, it binds itself and its freedom of action, and in this extreme definition of the word the League of Nations would bea limitation upon the sovereignty of the countries entering into it. A BUGABOO TO BE DISREGARDED BY SERIOUS MEN But in the true, broad, and liberal sense, sovereignty is a matter of degree, and where a nation retains complete free- dom of action within its borders and only yields by its consent to regulations for the maintenance of the principles of mo- rality and international law to be sanc- tioned by an association of nations, it does not yield its sovereignty at all. The argument is a mere bugaboo and’ ought not to attract the support of serious men. The final objection is that in entering into such a treaty we would be violating the traditions of Washington and Jeffer- son, sacredly followed down to this war, to avoid entangling alliances in opp: or in Asia. We have been able to live until the last four years and keep out of European wars, but this war has developed clearly that no general European war could hap- pen again without involving the United States. This country, with its enormous re- sources, would be resorted to by all bel- ligerents for food, ammunition, and war supplies, and this participation by the United States in the essential mainte- nance of the war will always put her in opposition to one country or the other and create a friction that ultimately will drive her into the contest, if it lasts long enough. THE ATLANTIC OCEAN DOES NOT - SEPARATE The Atlantic Ocean is not a separation from Europe. It is a means of communi- cation and transportation. In Washington’s and Jefferson’s day we were a month or six weeks from Eu- rope. Now it is but a week in transpor- tation and but a few minutes in point of communication. We are the greatest nation in the world: ereatest in population of a high average intelligence, greatest in natural resources, and greatest, as we have shown in France, in our potential military power. This power enjoins upon us the obligation to the rest of the world to do our share in keeping the peace. It is a very narrow view of our inter- national duty which would prevent our keeping the rest of the world out of the danger of war. We are no longer a “small struggling nation of four millions of people, as we were in the early part of the last cen- tury, but we are now the world’s great- est power, and we should not wish to avoid the responsibility which that entails upon us. MEDICINE FAKES AND FAKERS OF ALL AGES Strange Stories of Nostrums and Kingly Quacks in Every Era and Clime by jou A Poor:, vl. DD: AutHor. oF “THE GEOGRAEHY OF MrpriciInEs”’ HATEVER King Solomon had \\ in mind when he said, “There is nothing new under the sun,” to a great many people his reputation as a wise man is based on that one remark. “Nothing is new excepting what has been forgotten” was the historic reply of Marie Antoinette’s dressmaker when the queen demanded an absolutely original gown. But this point of view is so un- usual as to be considered epigrammatic. Guy de Chauliac, a famous surgeon who lived 600 years ago, wrote a surgical text-book which is now only a historical Ciiositiyeana at the end: of it he ex- pressed the belief that probably no fur- ’ ther progress in surgery would ever be made. In fact, each generation has been conceited enough to think that it knows much more than the preceding one; that it is, in fact, more progressive. CURE-ALLS AS OLD AS CIVILIZATION Accordingly, we are quite surprised, or even amazed, when, as happens every now and then, some “ologist” emerges from his excavations, or his library, and announces, for example, that the Baby- lonians had artificial teeth and bridge- work, or that the Pompeians, just before the eruption of Vesuvius, were wrestling with the problem of suffragette pickets. The fact is that we have kept on dis- covering and forgetting, and then redis- covering, ever since man began to think, Most new things, as a rule, have been received with more or less distrust at first, forgotten, and then rediscovered and acclaimed. However, this generality has one marked exception in cure-alls and patent medicines. Cure-alls we have al- ways had with us—these and the drug 67 fakers and substitutors. The slogan of “something just as good” is older than Babylon and Tyre, older than Crete, per- haps as old as Egypt. That over-used and abused word, psy- chology, is called upon nowadays to cover things as antipodal as the rat-like cunning of a yeggman, and Dr. Freud’s interpre- tation of an iridescent dream. It has ac- quired so many meanings that its very diffuseness has made it almost meaning- less. So it will not explain matters sim- ply to say that our hunger for nostrums is a question of psychology, and that the nostrum venders must necessarily have been psychologists. There are, to be sure, many kinds of psychologists nowadays; yet to most of us only two main groups exist—the theo- retical and the practical. The theoretical kind we visualize as college professors who try to take our minds apart and put them together again, and invent names for our different kinds of thoughts that we would never recog- nize the poor things by. The practical or applied psychologists are individuals who specialize on figuring out how people are going to think about one certain thing. The inventor of poker must have been one of these, P. T. Bar- num another, but nostrum venders were the deans of this school of psychology. ALL ARE BELIEVERS IN MIRACLES Truly, the explanation of the perennial youth of the “cure-all,” of its endurance throughout the ages, is not an easy matter, since this endurance is deeply grounded in a weakness of human nature common to all peoples and all times—possibly in our primeval instinct to live. No one wants © Underwood & Underwood CURE-ALLS AND NOSTRUMS ARE OLDER THAN BABYLON ITSELF The ancient Babylonian laws, called the Code of Hammurabi, contained penalties for mal- practice and quackery, and also stipulated the amount of the fee which a physician might charge, the fee varying according to the ability of the patient to pay. 68 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 69 THE PYRAMIDS The greatest names in medicine invented hicras. OF EGYPT: FORTY CENTURIES LOOK DOWN UPON NOSTRUM IN THE WORLD—THE MEDICINAL COMPOUND KNOWN AS HIERA THE OLDEST Scribonius Largus, physician to the Emperor Tiberius, is reputed to have had a “hiera” of such marvelous powers that when he died a diligent search was ordered in an effort to find the secret formula. to die; few actually are ever convinced that they are going to die. We are all really believers in miracles, and until comparatively recent days med- icine and magic were closely associated. The Greek word “‘pharmakon” meant not only drugs, but also magic. We would all like to believe that somewhere is a fairy draught which once taken will make us free of pain, free of ills, young and vigor- ous. We have a secret sympathy with Ponce de Leon, who sought the fountain of youth and the alchemists who searched for the Elixir of Life were men like our- selves. Perhaps here we have stumbled on the “psychology” of our ready acceptance of cure-alls. “The medicines of every generation are ridiculous to the succeeding one,” said a wise observer. Yet many a nostrum that started out as a secret formula, in, the course of less than a generation became a recognized drug, used by the regular physicians. There have been many such legitimized children of the pharmacopceia, of various degrees of antiquity, and at least one compound the use of which begins in pre- historic times and has continued down through the ages, even to the present day, changing very little in its constituents and not at all in its name. In England it is called hiera-picra, or powder of aloes and canella. Aloes is the active in- eredient, and in every one of the numer- ous formulas except one aloes has always remained. A_NOSTRUM CHANGELESS AS THE HILLS If William Hawkins, of London, 1917, owned a magic carpet which would trans- Photograph by Katherine W. Stewart GREAT PALMS ON THE SITE OF ANCIENT MEMPHIS: EGYPT The walls of Memphis have crumbled and disappeared, but one of the nostrums prescribed by her learned men of medicine has come down through the musty centuries practically unchanged and is used today. Ptah Hotep, who wrote his proverbs 6,000 years ago, prob- ably knew of it and used aloes in some form. LO Ss THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE port him back to the city of WDamaseus about the year rooo, in that ancient Syro- Aftab; City 7 hesmecd only seek out a Jew- ish drug vender in the bazaar and _ whisper vhieray and itera picra,not much differ- ent from what is used today, would be forth- coming. “None other than . the? exact, or mula. Of >the ahear Arab doctor, Aven- zoar,’ the Jew would murmur. | Let -him. then” go back to Rome mmpihe day of Julius Czesar and visit a “medicina” kept by ‘one of the many Greek practi- tioners. who flocked to the capital—bar- bers, corn - doctors, hair-dressers, herbal- ists, and other irreg- ular quacks—and he could on demand re- ceive “hiera” and be _assured that it was the secret formula used by the priestsyon A&sculapius, “stolen from the temple, my lord,” the, “ey amen, Greek would whisper. Let him even go to Alexandria when it was building, or back to Memphis when the Pyramids were being planned, and the word hiera would evolve this same compound of aloes—the oldest nostrum in the world. And though possibly tasting a little differ- ent, it would have the identical action of the compound dispensed by the modern Lon- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 71 don druggist under the name of “hiera- pica.” The greatest names in medicine in- vented Mieras. Scribonius Largus, physi- cian to the Emperor Tiberius, had a “hiera’”’ so wonderful that when he died diligent search was made and a reward offered for the discovery of the formula. Back in the obscurity of mythology it took its origin, being used in the rites of 7sculapius, the god of medicine, by the Greek priests. Greek doctors, Roman doctors, Ara- bian doctors, monkish doctors of the middle ages, and even modern doctors, had “improvements” on this eternal medicine, and all of these secret improve- ments were imitated by the quack doc- tors in every country and every period in the history of the world. Think of it—the dried juice of a common oriental plant marching down the musty centuries and enduring, while “Kings and realms Passed into darkness and were lost Ptah Hotep, of Memphis, who lived and wrote his proverbs 6,000 years ago, and over 2,500 years before King Solo- ‘mon, probably knew of and used aloes in some form. Beside antiquity like this the house of Hapsburg is infantile and the Hohenzollerns simply pre-embryonic. 1» THE ANCIENT LINEAGE OF COLD-CREAM Most people at some time or another use cold-cream. It seems quite a modern luxury, indispensable alike to peer and peri, and adapted to many and varied uses. In fact, one traveler tells recently of having some of his cold-cream eaten by a fat-hungry valet in Germany. So we are inclined to regard it as a fairly modern product. And yet “Unguentum Refrigerans,’ cold-cream, has come down to us from Roman days. ‘The first formula is attributed to Galen, who lived and wrote 1n the second century. What we use today is practically the same, though “Doctor” Galen’s original for- mula was imitated and “improved” hun- dreds of times. He In the mellow days of the Renaissance, to be a monarch was even more exciting than it is now. New poisons were bought as eagerly by “liberal” citizens of that Photograph from C. L,. Aab A FAMOUS CURE-ALL OF THE DARK AGES The medieval medicine man, upon securing such an Egyptian “antique,” would (to trans- late his announcement into the modern ver- macular) have advertised to his patients the re- ceipt of another large consignment of dried mummy, imported in its original mummy case, direct from the tombs of the ancients on the banks of the Nile—a sure panacea for all the ills that flesh is heir to. « SMIde[Nosey JO sjsotid oy} Aq posn epNwIOZ yo199S ay}, se POs own s s1esx) snynf JO ,UISIpaul,, URWIOY oY} FLY} spoj1e owes oY} Sursuadsip sem OOO! seIK ay} ur AW qery-o1hG JUdIOUe oY} Jo Ieezeq 34} Ul It pros oym IQPUSA SHIP oY J, “JUSIPITSUL aArjoe 9} SI sooTW ‘Aep jyuasoid oy} 0} ponuuos sey pue Soull} SI410}styoid ur uesaq punodwod siq} Jo asn ayy, : OOV SUVHA | GNVSNOHY, V SNOSVWVd NI dIOS SVM ‘AVGOL JO VAOVNVd UVINdOd V OL SUNAIGHYONI “IVILNASSH SLI NI UVIIWIS ‘VAOId-VuaIH 194S9YD “WW AQ[OD [e1IWIpy-1e2y WoIZ Yder1S0joyg CeO 2 ‘SJUIPN}s [POIPout JOF JOS 919M UOT -vonpa JO spivpurys Yysiy pue ‘poystund AjatoAes sem AdoyovNbD !ssouisnq Snip dy} J9}Ua 0} paMoyje jou a19M suvloishyd ‘topso sty Aq ‘ssnip simdutt JO ayes oy} IJOJ sonyeuod SurprAoid soaioep pojyesf~nuioid o9F{ “oYUIY} poouvApe ue seM ‘1O1odWiIa UPWIOY J9}e] pue ATINIG JO BUY “Yoopos yy AYAINYO HINADININL, FHL JO ANTIM “Ud AHL ‘TI MOIMAGCAYA AO ALIO NOILV NOOO HHL ‘ONWWATVd 73 74 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A MEDICINE-SHOW MAN OF THE MIDDLE AGES Testimonials and public demonstrations of the curative powers of nostrums were the methods employed by quacks of the middle ages, as chronicled in this painting. As it is true that human nature is much the same from generation to generation, so the practices of charlatans vary little through the centuries. the intelligence of the clientele rises. period as spring medicines used to be by us, and to a king a meal in those days was as perilous an undertaking as a yachting cruise in a mine field would be today. It is not surprising, therefore, that many nostrums were invented with the avowed purpose of neutralizing any poison that might be taken internally. Mithradatium was the name of the ereat antidote or Roman pharmacy It had from 40 to 50 vegetable ingredients, few of which had any real medicinal value except opium, and these drugs were blended with honey. It remained for Nero’s physician, An- dromachus, to. put the finishing touches to this wonderful compound. Androm- achus added viper’s flesh to the formula Refinements of humbuggery are adopted only as and called his new compound Theriaca. He wrote some verses dedicated to Nero, describing this medicine and claiming virtues for it which in our day would subject him to prosecution under the Anti-trust Act. Evidently he believed he had created in this one compound a veri- table pharmaceutical monopoly. A MEDICINE WITH A MONOPOLY ON DISEASES Galen, one of the fathers of medicine, went even further. He recommended it as a cure for all poisons, bites, headaches, vertigo, deafness, epilepsy, apoplexy, dimness of sight, loss of voice, asthma, coughs, spitting of blood, tightness of breath, colic, the iliac passion (appendi- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 75 6c PADUA, ONE OF THE CENTERS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VENETIAN TREACLE IN THE MIDDLE AGES Theriaca, or Venetian treacle, was, the great antidote of Roman pharmacy and was used throughout thie a ages in various modifications for almost every conceivable illness. It was officially recognized by English Ts until 1788. The university cities of Italy were the centers for its manufacture until Venice obtained a practical monopoly oi the whole export trade in drugs. citis), jaundice, hardening of the spleen, tells of a letter of Helias Patriarch of stone, fevers, dropsy, leprosy, melancholy, Jerusalem, to King Alfred, expressi ng all pestilences, etc. Nowadays he would concern for the King’ s illness and recom- probably have included coupon thumb, mending “Tyriaca” as a valuable ae golf shoulder, and movie eye. The specific was first made at Con- As Galen’s writings dominated medical stantinople, then at En and | thought for over 1,500 years, it is not Venice, when i surprising that this advertisement made nopoly of the auc trade of faa This Mithradatium, or Theriaca, a valued © Venetian Treac , as it came to be called, remedy. Every physician of note for’ was sold at oe prices. Evelyn, in his centuries afterward claimed some im; diary, ae of purchasing some “‘trea- ring seen the cere- provement on the original formula. cle” in Venice aiter having And the “genuine formulas” or the mony of its compounding. “improved formulas” were hawked about In Queen Elizabeth’s time there was by many a nostrum vender, until all sorts much complaint in England of the dear- of precautions were taken to hedge the ness of Venetian Treacle, and of th making of this preparation with an ‘elabo- spurious treacle sold by nostrum vender rate ritual of a ceremonial nature. Tt was about this time that English te An old English book of “Leechcraft” macists began to presume to make their (seth ‘SoA pue squl] [ely nse. JO UONUSAUL 9Y} pojnqiszye st WY 0} pue ‘Sjje-aano se souoys 1e0z9q pue AWUWNUW polip JO osN dy} Jsurese Pojsojoid off ‘osSeYyOWsyY JUSAVId 0} Soinjesi] JO osn oy SUIAIAOL ‘988 SIY JO UOosINS AJE[IW SNOW} JSoUL oY} oureseq aFY oTJUoIdde S.toqieq & se ofl] UeSIq ‘AINjUI) Y}UII}XIS 9Y} JO puda 94} 0} SUIUUTSIq oY} Wor; JsOWU[e poAT] OYM ‘oleq oastoiquiy SHMOLVOIT GALOLIISHAS AH “IIO DNIIIOgd HLIM SEHWIT GALVIONdWV JO SNH HHL ONIAVAS FO AOI LOVad ANT GANOGNVdV AuVd ASIONANV NHHM NOISVOOO AHL SHIOINOYHD HOIHM IONIIJNIVd SQOWVA V THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE vari One theacic. |opies mad! been! sene tO Venice to worm out the exact identity of the ingredients and the process of their manipulation, and finally a suitable prod- uct was made at home. The making of treacle was an occasion not to be taken lightly. Witness the re- corded speech in the “Chronicles of Phar- macy’ of one Laurence Catelan, Master - Apothecary of Montpellier and Apothe- cary to the Prince of Condé, which was delivered when he prepared a batch of - Theriaca at Montpellier on September 28, 1668. } To the assembled multitude Master Catelan enumerated the regulations which compelled him to prepare this great remedy in public in the presence of the ““llustrious professors of the famous Uni- versity of Medicine.” All this pomp and circumstance was, of course, a pure drug- inspection procedure, invented to discour- age the vending of spurious products. Master Catelan proceeded to relate the wonderful history of Mithridates, who had rendered himself immune to all poi- sons, and of the formula he had left to posterity. | THE FABLE OF THE POISON-PROOF KING This Mithridates, concerning whom Master Catelan spoke, known in history as Mithridates the Great, King of Pon- nocmasmbpOnl 104 i. C. and, next to Hannibal, was the most dangerous foe against which the Roman Republic had to war. After wars lasting 26 years, Pompey’s armies finally conquered him. ' Mithridates was reputed to have been immune from poison because of a com- pound which he had prepared and which he took each day; so that when, being defeated, he attempted suicide, no poison of the many he tried would cause his death. Consequently he had to call in one of his soldiers, who killed him with a spear. Such was the fable. Stories of Mithridates’ medical lore had long been told the conquering Ro- mans, whetting their curiosity. They searched eagerly amongst his papers at Nicopolis and found, it is true, some medicinal formulas, but none of any great value. It is quite likely, though ' Master Catelan firmly believed in its au- thenticity, that this legend originated in Rome much later and was disseminated ext 10) pine meadine matter | by the nostrum venders, who made Mithrida- tium Antidote and sold quantities of it. But Master Catelan related the Mithri- datium fable with almost devotional zeal, and told, as well, the later history of the compound, dwelling particularly on the many improvements made in it and lead- ing up to its present pinnacle of perfec- tion. The speaker then rested, while some soft music was played. SAVING ALEXANDER FROM THE VENOM- SATURATED SLAVE GIRL Resuming, Master Catelan told many marvelous tales of princes who had es- caped poisoning by immunization. One incident, on which he dwelt with special emphasis, concerned Alexander the Great. An Indian prince who hated Alexander sent to him as a gift a beautiful slave girl whose system had been so saturated with aconite that she fairly reeked of poison. It was thought that Alexander, struck with her beauty, might kiss her and be poisoned by her surcharged ve- nom. But Aristotle saw her first, recog- nized by her flaming eyes that the girl was a poison-carrier, and by sending her away saved his patron’s life. After this the lecturer naturally took another rest and there was some more music. The virtues of the half-hundred in- gredients were then dwelt upon, which took up the remainder of the day. The actual mixing of the drugs took place on the following day, but the final ceremony was not concluded for nearly two months. Such was the elaborate program for the manufacture of this compound. The manufacture of English theriaca was as much due to the prevalence in the market of adulterated products as to the high price of the imported article. Many protests of the guilds are recorded against the false treacle which was being sold in England. From the point of view of medicinal value, however, the false product was probably quite as effectual as the true, both being almost worthless. That the medical profession was slow to realize dY} Ul SOWINJOA ssofad1Id 94} JO 9UO SE YOO SII, "UOJSUTYSEAA Ul “VW “S “—) ‘[esoUar) UOISING oY} JO AleIqI] ‘SyOOI OULIpsu SuUIANq sr1owojsnd YM doys s Aredayjode-Arepidey ve Dee ee pe yy ul jidnd e& Suljonijsur UMOS 5 10}0p UI Joyoee} & sMoYys osed puey-}fo] oy} FO yey soddn oy [DIp 394} pue souoj}s JO 9sn 2 I [I I I ; eee od oS Ri 39 und ane 2 det PUegeenpieieny JON Ne eopelezoy noaetot S Opusras bdpe nthe Hos Quenainy po eatery sasusidsoy soqindd peSirey oul ipid £) tfinje HSuncc oud siv9 cay “spidey Ole tt yueFaahG cates sab BUNA sone fgsideyEMpe oe -amunousi MUON 9) sONtD Lope LNADADIO® Suivi wept pidejse 38g thtrogn snp eteqnans REE EI AUNTIE ¢ EUMNDAS dots s eSsare seid genie: OPUS eluTt Leayoo 53726. ons; 18 GAN O83 IBS Ese ORB ie « SIS Up eats ents ming deny, e “SoMOUBLdCr *abpequge hia) tts Nag Sone we5y auSonr Sy ymodday ipaSen eb edu: 3H UP G0 b Od SLB etw go winds tgs odoin EwIQEIE Mi ubsdie yisie gH 30 SpINe yulpanudecy Pewussiu th eons penbpine thie ge iaIte Hopmaiues jobra pray eine: Stee cours 2801 enudard UpvouD ox tum noes Hous oqnrd 9391p ade aes ymAG 2) EAOMPS WIpide; wapIIIEL OS EHD sinSusy pid syst sab teijyonadpa filed ote sLopoiite soapy snms nogiq iip.bye sine og ysadnd pikaaning LounT ye) WYOUss uler rinjoge ames POL IeIspoureSuEy sa enbyeoscanG: I31 13, P'O) O3pe CLES Hyo) ipimyusnies SHO}OD ISLINIIGe OfeD ded snjune poop pesiiopge “Of ONODIe) Neu sopide soptadiioi ps onbinaanusued ‘Saynow its b side; Nor ehee-onne typ) ag oper ir aiay sty yo oni Gllttg Sus} RopOs IeUATOM SA injox Ig “at>}otO sAQiuY ME Wo Laapucaregy ye finbioine Gumi ob pe PIAY Fd o O98 90 sei #) pp but orem sur PiGKI@ MIepeekinges INI vg _ orgy enguyped staipiles 36 olin -opueRegge pee eid LHD) Log eddy tepnipse my ene OU sHingenENs senators Gunes AMID BHO TS stial ul on sig 96 cee ‘sand enqipitey JA SMU pT tinh pene one oe neeepeRpED Hi eiitieeH jute 2 ques oees SaqAbIEns sppendss9 onic one ba Oippionenb reve; meen ay Mer Mp ima jeod sopriey ec ae Bis Noni uppideym snbsueyant POING Joi sym 2 ines itil Fer cene auna acto aS, #n on any anes ica : : ange eoipSumont 6 > / He Iagy cin; nui A DMP RURONING eis Ft a8 eqn pojomiius; jPutineu68Heqen SuiMmigs Iie ound SUP | Cae “nnuacdores f “stigipide gq OKO IRE LET SPLLPEOPIRRIER ERE CL. Ld — a : e ~ 99980 8 : ; at MRR CO NIREIL NE A TOOLS: AIC SSO RAED S808 BROT AO TEEN IAD OD SEEPBA S78 OR CIEE net ICBO LEELA SOE GE LOTFI EES LOE LRA G: 78 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 79 this can be inferred from the fact that the compound was officially recognized by the English pharmacopceia until 1788. “A THIRTEENTH CENTURY FORERUNNER OF DR. WILEY Emperor Frederick II of Sicily, in 1240 or 1241, published the first pure food and drugs act. He was about 700 years ahead of Doctor Wiley, for he specified strict regulations of the standard of drug purity, and provided for drug inspectors, and fined all offenders. _ The practice of medicine was also regu- lated. A physician was required to have a diploma from a university before he could study medicine; then he took a three-year course in the school of medi- cine and one year practice under a prac- ticing physician. Special postgraduate work in anatomy was required if he was to do surgery. ) All this was in the so-called “dark ages.” Even the fees of physicians and pharmacists were strictly regulated by law and were in purchasing value about the same as the charges of the present day. Physicians werc not allowed to own drug-stores and drug adulterators were severely dealt with. ' The idea of gencral antidotes for pot- sons was a very ancient and very gen- erally accepted belief. Some of us prob- ably remember the “mad-stones” which not so very long ago were applied to mad- dog bites to “draw out the poison.” These mad-stones were unquestionably direct traditional descendants of the be- zoar stones of ancient days. BEZOAR STONES RENTED TO PLAGUE VICTIMS Bezoar stones acquired their reputation in the East, among the Arab practitioners. Avenzoar, a great Arabian writer on medicine, who lived in Seville about the year 1000, was the first European prac- titioner to write about these supposedly wonderful stones. But a little over a century ago the Shah of Persia sent his brother monarch, the Emperor Napoleon, three. bezoar stones aS a very proper precaution against the effects of poison. Bezoar stones were used as a general antidote against poisons, from four to ten grains being given at a dose. Exter- nally they had a wide variety of uses, being applied in fevers, in various skin diseases, and even as a cure for leprosy. Nobles and princes carried them about in jeweled boxes as amulets. Wily specu- lators, in times of epidemics, as during the plague in Portugal, rented them out at the equivalent of about £5. a day, re- quiring a bond for their return. Many kinds of bezoar were sold, but the most valuable were the Oriental kind, lapis bezoar orientale. This came from Persia and was obtained from the intes- fines of a Persian: wild eoat. It was merely a sort of petrification formed by the digestive juices about some foreign substance in the goat’s intestines. But the medical authorities of that day thought that the stone was formed by some mysterious medicinal plant on which these animals fed. A certain Oriental ape also yielded bezoar stones. The directions were first to catch your ape and then give him an emetic. Similar stones were obtained from the llamas of Peru, and from the Swiss chamois. But the Eastern prod- ucts commanded the market, and were said to have sold for ten times their weight in gold. THE SALE OF IMITATION BEZOAR STONES EXPOSED Naturally, this supposedly valuable stone would be imitated. It was, and a certain Mr. Slare, a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in London, read a paper in 1714, in which he exposed the substitution. One wholesale druggist told Mr. Slare he had 500 ounces of bezoar in stock, and Mr. Slare, being an old- time statistician, estimeted that it would require the slaughter of 50,000 goats annually to supply this one dealer. As no such terrible mortality had occurred among the Persian goats, Mr. Slare asked the pertinent question: “Where did they Pee iit. In the records of the Royal Society of Apothecaries, May 25, 1630, is the fol- lowing entry: ‘“Pretended bezoar stones sent by the Lord Mayor to be viewed were found to be false and counterfeit and fit to be destroyed, and the whole 80 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE table certified the same to the Lord Mayor.” Ambroise Pare, a great military sur- geon of the 16th century, is credited with discontinuing the practice of searing the stumps of amputated limbs with boiling pitch, and instead successfully using liga- tures to tie the bleeding vessels. He did mot believe im =the virtues) (om ibezoar stones. One day when he was in at- tendance on King Charles IX at Cler- mont, a Spanish nobleman brought a bezoar stone to the King, assuring him that it would protect him against all poi- sons. A WISE PHYSICIAN, A CREDULOUS KING, AND AN UNFORTUNATE COOK Pare says his monarch sent for him and asked if there was anything which could act as a general poison antidote. Pare replied that, as various poisons dif- fered in their nature, the antidotes would necessarily differ. But the nobleman per- sisted in his statement and aroused the desire of the King to test the virtues of the stone, which he proceeded to do in a ruthlessly conclusive manner. The Provost of the Palace was sum- moned and asked if he had in his charge any criminal awaiting the execution of the death sentence. The Provost be- thought himself of a cook who was to be hanged for the theft of two silver dishes. The King thereupon sent for the cook and proposed to him that in place of hanging he should be given a poison, to be followed by the universal antidote, and if the antidote proved efficacious he would be given his liberty. The cook gladly consented. An apothecary was instructed to pre- pare a draught of deadly poison. This was administered and followed by a dose of the powdered bezoar. The unfortu- nate victim died in horrible agony seven hours later, in spite of all Pare’s ei- forts to relieve him. The pharmacist had given him bichloride of mercury. An autopsy was then performed and Pare demonstrated to the King that the bezoar had not the slightest effect in counter- acting the corrosive action of the poison. “And the King commended that the stone be thrown in the fire, which was done,” Pare succinctly concluded. It is not stated whether the Spanish nobleman suffered the same fate, but he must at least have had an uncomfortable hour or two. QUEEN ELIZABETH THE PATRON OF PATENT MEDICINES The patent-medicine business in Eng- land, viewed as a distinct trade monopoly, really took definite form during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Both Elizabeth and James I abused this assumed arbitrary power of granting monopolies of various sorts, until great discontent was produced amongst the people. The Statute of Mo- nopolies, passed in 1624, regulated all such grants, placing authority in the hands of Parliament. The period of duration was likewise limited to 14 years. In the beginning, specifications of meth- ods or formulas were not required; but during the period of Queen Anne appli- cants began to be required: to; ilemmicse specifications. As secrecy was an impor- tant element in the success of nostrums, this ruling tended to discourage the pat- enting of medicines until in 1800 medici- nal compounds were patented but rarely. Of course, the term “patent medicine” nowadays is a misnomer, as few of these preparations are patented. The property right is protected by copyrighting the label or registering it as a “trade-mark,” thus preventing competition in the use of the name of the preparation. CENTURIES-OLD FAVORITES STILL SOLD The oldest patent preparation still made in large quantities in Great Britain is probably Anderson Scot’s Pills, pat- ented under King James Il in 1687. Formulas of these pills appeared in all the manuals on pharmacy published in Kurope: and «America im eatrlien days: Their activity depends largely on aloes. Duffey’s Elixir, invented by a clergyman, the Reverend Thomas Duffey, in Leices- tershire, in 1675, is still advertised and sold, and the old-fashioned advertise- ment in which the bottle is wrapped states that the elixir was “much recommended to the public by Dr. King, physician to King Charles II,’ an argument some- what belated, to say the least. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE : 81 Haarlem Oil, a turpentine compound, made first in 1672, and Godfrey’s Cor- dial, a preparation of opium, advertised iin 1722, are still bougnt by the public. Goddard’s Drops was a remedy to which Salmon, a contemporary of Charles II, refers as “the true medicine which was purchased of the Doctor by King Charles the Second, so much famed throughout the whole Kingdom and for which he gave him, as it is reputed, fif- teen hundred pounds sterling.” Other writers state that Charles paid £5,000 for the formula. The formula consisted of a distillate “of humane bones or rather scales,” which were to be “well dryed.” These were distilled until “a Flegm, Spirit, Oy], and Volatile salt were obtained.’ The product was digested in the earth for three months, digested at a gentle heat for 14 days, and the “oyl” separated and bottled. DRIED MUMMY A POPULAR REMEDY Animal products were much used in medicine from the sixteenth to the eigh- teenth century. Dried mummy was a favorite remedy. The importation of mummy was an industry of some com- mercial importance and several writers of that day caution against the use of spurious mummy, giving directions as to what distinguishes the good from the poor product. There was much substitution here, and ‘one Jewish dealer was found to have done an extensive trade in bodies dried in imitation of the genuine article. One of the most picturesque careers in medical charlatanry of a more modern day was that of St. John Long, a hand- some and clever Irish quack, who prac- ticed in London early in the nineteenth century. He had attractively furnished offices in Harley Square and pretended to cure many diseases, notably tuberculo- sis, by the application of a liniment and the inhalation of a vapor. His consult- ing rooms were crowded with fashion- able and noble patrons and he was re- puted to have an income of £65,000 a year. A FIFTEENTH CENTURY WHICH SHOWS THE METHOD OF EXTRACTING A CURATIVE TOADSTONE ILLUSTRATION The idea of a stone in the head of the toad was not confined to the literature of medicine. Shakespeare spoke of adversity, “which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, wears yet a pre- cious jewel in his head.” He was tried for manslaughter twice. Once he was required to pay a fine of £1,250, which he produced from his pocket and counted out, afterward driv- ing away from the court in the carriage of the Marquis of Sligo. At the second trial he was acquitted. He died in 1837, at the age of 37, from pulmonary tuber- culosis, the disease which he purported to cure. The formula of his liniment after his death was sold for £50,000, but never sustained its previous popularity. It was composed principally of turpentine, acetic acid, and egg yolk. Even the English Parliament has been gulled by the “cure-all” vender. In 1739 an act was passed “providing a reward to Joanna Stephens upon the proper discov- ery to be made by her for the use of the publick of the medicines prepared by her for the Cure of the Stone.” The formula, when published, con- sisted of a solution of the products re- ‘SUTDIPIW FO seapr juaIoUe ysour oy} JO skep usspouwr ut je WaVd ‘Ivy NOILLVN AMID 1D": ATAINS 8 ST UPL SUTDIpau UeIpUT oUL V ONIYALNG f \ pet THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 83 sulting from calcining egg shells and garden snails. An alkaline vegetable de- coction and some pills made from cal- cined snails and some burned vegetable taesmeomprised the “cure. : Elorace Walpole is said to have taken this awful mess in the belief that it helped him. Lime water would have been just as efficacious. THE QUACKS WHO TREATED BEASTS AND BISHOPS ALIKE : ‘The Taylors, known as the Whitworth Doctors, inventors of the Whitworth Red Bottle and the Whitworth Drops, flour- ished at Whitworth during the same pe- riod. The original Taylor was a farrier, who was also an unqualified veterinarian. He died in 1802. His young brother, his sons, and their descendants all prac- ticed surgery, mostly irregularly, although some of them were qualified. The older brothers applied horse remedies to hu- man beings, treating man and beast alike. People came to these ignorant men from every quarter of England, crowding the small village near Rochdale. Duchesses and princesses and bishops—all came to the Whitworths; rarely the “Doctors” went to London. The fame of the Whitworths still lin- gers in rural England and the sale of the “remedies “continues. Nostrum makers have not confined their attention to the humble citizen. Some of the most notorious quacks have been favored by royalty. John Ward, who manufactured Ward’s Pills and Ward’s Drops and many other remedies in Paris and London, had no medical training, but included among his patients Lord Chesterfield, Gibbon the historian, Fielding the novelist, and was so well thought of by George II that the King opened a dispensary at Whitehall and paid Ward to treat poor patients there. When, in 1748, a bill was introduced in Parliament to restrict the practice of medicine, the act contained a clause spe- cifically exempting Ward from its penal- fies. o. Queen Charlotte on one occasion asked . General Churchill if it was true that Ward’s medicines once made a man mad. “Ves, Madam,” said Churchill; “his name A DRAWING WHICH DEPICTS THE ADMIN- ISTRATION OF A BEZOAR TO CURE A VICTIM OF POISONING ’ An illustration from “Hortus Sanitatis,’ published in 1491. ‘‘Mad-stones,” which only a few years ago were applied to “draw out the poison” from mad-dog bites, were direct tradi- tional descendants of these Bezoar stones of the ancients. is Mead.” Richard Mead was the regu- lar physician to the King. g The history of nostrum making in America, of the fortunes builded on it, and the frauds practiced on the credu- lous public, has been well told by other writers—so well told that as a nation we are ceasing to be the greatest nostrum users in the world. The alcohol medicines, the cocaine medicines, the opium medicines, and their less actively harmful associates, the sar- saparillas, etc., have had their day, and their use has declined in every section of tie: county.» Mhe Council on Pharmacy of the American Medical Association holds the members of that influential body to a strict code of requirements in the matter of the kind of drug com- pounds they prescribe, and even com- pounds not advertised to the public must nowadays toe the ethical mark. 84 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Il IS NOT NECESSARY TO GO BACK TO MEDIEVAL TIMES TO FIND WITCH DOCTORS ; THEY ARE PLYING THEIR PROFESSION TODAY IN NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA But in civilized countries, the day of the medical charlatan is at an end. Occasionally there are “flare-ups,” but when secrecy about formulas and practices was abolished it became impossible for pretenders to hold sway over popular imagination for any length of time. Today, the physician who refuses to share with the world his knowledge of a discovery that will benefit mankind suffers social and professional ostracism. THE DOOM OF THE NOSTRUM SOUNDED Today, despite “flare-ups” like Fried- man’s tuberculosis turtle cure and enthu- siasms like “twilight slumber,’ the ex- ploiting of specific remedies is on the decline. The vogue of the Wards and the Whitworths has passed away. Standards of regulation of the purity of drugs, rigidly enforced ethical codes among physicians, prescribed and stand- ardized formulas in national ‘“‘pharma- copceias” or formularies, and, most of all, campaigns in magazines, both lay and medical, to instruct the people in public health and sanitation, especially in the United States, have sounded the doom of the nostrum and the cure-all. No more are outlaw remedies made legitimate and admitted to) the Pharmacopecias re mannlc prescribing of drugs is being put on a rational basis and the explanation of the reason why medicines produce certain ef- fects 1s becoming more and more of an exact science. ‘The magical lure of an- cient pharmacy has departed. There are today no secrets in medicine, and the physician who makes a discovery that will benefit the human race must either share it with his fellows or suffer social and professional ostracism. VOL. XXXV, No. 2 WASHINGTON FEBRUARY, 1919 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE THE NORTH SEA MINE BARRAGE* By Carr. Recinatp R. Betxnap, U.S. N. easily near their dens. That is the action which our Navy Depart- ment urged against the enemy submarine campaign. : From the moment of entering into the war, our Navy advocated strong offensive measures to block the German bases, so that no more submarines, or very few, might get out, and those returning might be caught and destroyed. Now, the German forces were very strong for operations near their own coast, and although the British destroyers were constantly planting mines in the Helgoland Bight, they could not prevent the German mine-sweepers from keeping channels open through these mine fields. GS ess beasts are trapped most ELEMENTS WHICH AIDED THE ENEMY AND ; HANDICAPPED THE ALLIES The enemy even had special vessels called barrage-breakers, and they were also very much assisted by bad weather, fogs, and variable currents, which handi- capped the Germans much less than the British, who had to operate from a start- ing point farther away. There was also the Skagerrack passage between Denmark and Norway, where no barrier could be placed without violating * An address delivered by Capt. Reginald R. Belknap, U. S. N., before the National Geo- graphic Society, in Washington, D. C., Feb- ruary 7, 1919. Captain Belknap was the officer in direct command of the American Navy’s “mine-laying squadron. neutral waters. Consequently, the enemy submarines could always use this channel going to and from their bases at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven. Any barriers that the allied navies could place near the German coast and near the Skagerrack were so close to the German bases that the enemy could at any time break through at some point by suddenly attacking there with more force than the allies could maintain over any one section of the whole line, so far away from the bases in Great Britain. Just as ina game of football, no matter how strong the line is, a wedge of two or three players to- gether, striking the line in one place can nearly always break through before more men can get there to stop them: That was the situation eighteen months ago. There were mines in plenty near the German coast, forcing all enemy craft to | be very careful and now and then doing them some damage; but the submarines could still go in or out. The barrier close to the German coast could not be made effective AN AMERICAN INVENTORS IDEA ADAPTED BY THE BUREAU OF ORDNANCE As soon as America went into the war a flood of inventions poured into Washing- ton—all kinds of schemes for winning the war. Among them was one by an Amer- ican electrician, which, though unsuited for naval purposes in the form in which submitted, had one part that was adapta- ble to a submarine mine, offering great CALEDONIAN CANA SCOTLAND ~_ s Firth of Forth Edinburgh MERCATOR PROJECTION | SCALE OF NAUTICAL MILES 50 100 PARIS B24 Pe peers Ss FE R A N C E CHART OF THE NORTH SEA, SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE MINE BARRAGE LAID BY THE AMERICAN AND BRITISH MINING SQUADRONS When this mine barrage was found to be effective, Germany realized that her submarine warfare had failed and that the ultimate defeat of her land forces was inevitable (see also’ detailed map of the mine field on page 109). 86 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 87 HOW A MINE IS ANCHORED AT THE DESIRED DEPTH BELOW THE SURFACE OF THE SEA The progress of a mine after it is thrown overboard is shown in Figures 1 to 6. When a mine is dropped overboard, the mine proper (A) floats, while the box-like anchor (B) slowly sinks. anchor sinks. Inside the anchor is the mooring wire (F), which unwinds from a reel as the The reel is unlatched (E) by the downward pull of a plummet (C) at the end of a cord (D), which is made the same length as it is desired to have the mine stay below the surface. The plummet, being nearly solid metal, sinks faster than the more bulky anchor box (see Fig. 3), thus keeping the cord (D) taut. As soon as the plummet strikes bottom, how- ever, the cord slackens and the reel in the anchor box is locked, thus preventing any more mooring wire from unwinding. The anchor continues to sink, pulling the mine case under the water until the anchor strikes bottom, as in Fig. 6 (see text, page gI). possibilities, especially against subma- Rees. © ’ After putting it through some tests, the Naval Bureau of Ordnance felt confident that here was what they were looking for. It was not long before the British naval authorities came to think so too, and a joint operation was projected, to be un- * The inventor to whom the author refers was Mr. Ralph C. Browne, of Salem, Mass., whose design for a submarine gun was adjudged im- practical. One of the elements of this gun, however, was recognized by Commander S. P. Fullinwider, U. S. N., and his assistant, Lieu- tenant Commander T. S. Wilkinson, Jr., U. S. N., in the Bureau of Naval Ordnance, as having great possibilities if adapted to a mine against submarines. Mr. Browne gladly ac- ceded to the Naval Ordnance Bureau’s request to collaborate with its experts in the develop- ‘ment of such a mine. dertaken by the mining squadrons of the two navies. The plan was to plant a mine field across the North Sea, from Scotland to Nor- way, a distance of 230 miles, or as far as from Boston to New York. It was a bold scheme; some said foolish, impossi- ble. Nothing like it had ever been un- dertaken. Moreover, for lack of time, tens of millions would have to be spent outright, by the British as well as our- selves, before a single mine could be tested complete—most unusual proced- ure, requiring great administrative cour- age on the part of Rear Admiral Ralph Earle, Chief of the Naval Bureau of Ordnance, upon whom the odium would have fallen had the mine proved a fail- ure. But it was the only way to make an 88 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ‘AMERICAN BLUEJACKETS ADJUSTING THE DELICATE MECHANISM WHICH CHANGES A MINE FROM A HARMLESS, INSENSATE BALL OF STEEL TO CONCENTRATED CATACLYSM FOR ANYTHING WHICH TOUCHES IT effective barrier that could be maintained against attempts to break through (see maps on pages 86 and 109). If mines of previous types were used their number was prohibitive, impossible to manufacture or provide with explosive within two years, under existing condi- tions, not to mention the task of planting; but the new American mine would do more than twice what the others could, and the joining of our mining forces with the British would more than double the means available. From the outset, the operation was seen to be of great magnitude, with a mass of detail requiring constant fore- sight and careful adjustment. Besides the bigness, other features promised great difficulty, such as deep water, 300 to 900 feet, danger to the mine-layers from their own mine fields in bad weather and fog, and inexperience of the large proportion of new personnel. Fortunately, our Navy had been de- veloping a mining force for nearly three years. It was small but well trained, and it looked upon difficulties only as things to be overcome. -On the strength of its own experience, this force was confident that the large operation could be accom- plished. Likewise, the British, with their three years’ experience in the war and knowl- edge of North Sea weather, felt sure it could be done. Difficult in many ways, seen and also unseen—venturesome, arduous, and very hazardous—it was all of these beyond any doubt; yet, if only half successful, the operation would go far toward beating the submarines, and it could be done. So it was undertaken. From the President down, every one in authority was strong for it. = COmArR AE All these preliminaries take time, and the new invention itself had to be put through severe trials before we could feel sure enough; but by the end of October, THE ORDER: THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 89 STORED LIKE GIANT EGGS IN A GIGANTIC CRATE Aw arehouse containing some of the 70,117 mines which were laid jointly by the British and American mine-laying squadrons in the North Sea. The actual casualties inflicted on the enemy submarine fleet probably will by American ships. Four-fifths of the mines were laid never be known, but the Germans themselves are said to admit the loss of 23 undersea boats in this area. The British admiralty staff hold that the surrender of the German fleet and the armistice were caused largely by the failure of the submarine warfare (see text, page 109). 1917, the definite order was given to go ahead. The Secretary of the Navy, Jo- sephus Daniels, expressed the desire for the best efforts of all who might be con- cerned, and offered his own further ac- tion or influence whenever needed. Cooperation in the fullest measure was necessary from the start. Over 500 con- tractors and subcontractors were soon engaged in the manufacture of the many parts, small and large, that go into the make-up of a complete mine. Besides being a rush order all through, the task was complicated by the necessity for keeping parts of the mine secret. Some pieces had to be made here and others there and both kinds sent to a third place to be joined, and all of the parts were finally delivered at Norfolk, Va., for shipment to Scotland, where the complete mines were to be assembled and adjusted, ready to plant. Such a manufacturing task would de- mand the utmost care in ordinary times. The hurry and pressure and disturbances due to war conditions added many diff- culties ; yet, so great was the interest and so well was the operation’s importance understood, there was no halting nor slighting of the work anywhere. A submarine mine of today consists of a mine case, shaped like a ball or egg, about one yard in diameter, and an anchor in the form of an iron box about two feet square, connected by a wire rope mooring cable the size of one’s little finger. The mine case contains the charge of high explosive—3o0o0 pounds of TNT in our mines—and the firing mech- anism. When assembled, the mine case is mounted on the anchor, the combination standing about five feet high and weigh- ing 1,400 pounds. The anchor has four small wheels, like car wheels, to run on steel tracks, and thus the mines may be easily moved along the decks to the launching point. WHEN THE MINE GOES OVERBOARD When the mine goes overboard, the mine case floats on the surface, while the ) sou ‘pury JOAUT 0} [ret Aq pue sasieq [eueos Aq popreMIO; 9 ANWILOOS CHHONANA-LSIN-ANV-904 NI @SVd ‘IVAVN ‘S (0 V TV ONINMOW WhVNIM TAM V JOIS JO 3SeOd ysvay}1OU ay} UO 6 jrede soft Wi jY.s19 ynoge “yang Aeropy uo uado sioqiey ssayy, “yyy Ajrewo1) wo ‘UOPIOSIIAUT pure JOM $dO81ED d} DUdY} PUL PURT}OIG JO dPIS }soM dy} UO PapeOTUN SBA [eIIOJeU UII UBIO On THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 91 TRUCKING TONS OF TNT AT. AU. \S. NAVAL BASE IN SCOTLAND These black globes of imprisoned death will be attached to their box anchors and then trans- ferred to the mine-laying vessels of the American Navy. box-like anchor slowly sinks. Inside the anchor the mooring wire is wound on a reel, which unwinds as the anchor goes down. This reel is unlatched by the downward pull of a plummet at the end of a cord, which is made the same length that it is desired to have the mine stay below the surface. Thus, if the mine is romper t5 feet beneath the surface, the plummet cord is 15 feet long. The plummet, being nearly solid and quite heavy, about 90 pounds, tends to sink faster than the more bulky anchor, thus keeping the cord taut; but as soon as the plummet strikes bottom, its cord is at once slackened, releasing the latch, locking the reel, and preventing any more mooring wire paying out. The anchor continues to sink, pulling the mine case under water until the anchor strikes bottom. The mine case is thus finally moored always at the desired depth beneath the surface, no matter how irregular the ocean bed may be. The mermaids would see our sumimer’s work like a vast field of tulip buds 50 feet or so under water, swaying on their long, slender stems. The mine cases are buoyant enough to pull straight up from their anchors ordi- narily, but in a current they are swayed away from the vertical, which drags them down somewhat deeper than intended. For this reason, any locality where the currents are strong is unfavorable for a mine field. This was one of the difficul- ties the British Navy had to contend with in closing the Straits of Dover To receive the large amount of mine material and general supplies that soon began to collect, a large steamship pier was taken over at Norfolk, to serve as a storage as well as loading point. Near by a plant: was constructed for charging the mine’ spheres with explo- sive—great steam kettles for melting the TNT, which was poured into the spheres. Then these would move along on a con- veyor, slowly, so that by the time the sphere reached the end it was cool enough 92 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THOUSANDS OF MINES AND MINE ANCHORS STORED IN CAMOUFLAGED SHEDS PREPARATORY TO BEING TRANSFERRED TO MINE LIGHTERS These mines were sown like peas in the furrows of the North Sea for a distance of 230 miles, as far as from Boston to New York. either to load into a waiting ship or to put away in store. CONSTANT DANGER IN THE WORK This work was a constant dan- ger from fire risk and the poison- ous fumes of the molten explo- sive. The sailors in attendance had to wash their heads and necks thoroughly afterward. Several were overcome seriously in the course of the work, and one man died ; but the rest quietly stuck to it, as if they liked it. There was a great transporta- tion problem involved, originally estimated to absorb the use of 60,000 tons of shipping for five months. Beginning their sailings in late February, a group of 24 steamers, managed by the Naval Overseas Transport Service, were constantly employed, with two or three departures every eight days, carrying mine material and stores for the northern barrage. It was through a submarine sinking one of these ships, the Lake Moor, with 41 of her crew, that our operation suffered its greatest, almost the only, loss of life. Meantime the British naval authorities were preparing de- pots for us in Scotland? ihe mine material was to be unloaded on the west side of Scotland; some cargoes at Fort William, at the western terminus of the Caledonian Canal, and some at Kyle, on Loch Alsh, opposite the Isle of Skye. Thence the cargoes would be forwarded by canal barge and by rail to Inverness, and to Inver- gordon, on Cromarty Firth, re- spectively. ‘These harbors open on Moray Firth, about eight miles apart, on the northeast coast of Scotland (see map, page 86). A single depot would have been better, as far as assembling the mines was concerned, but the limited transporting capacity by canal and Highland railway made two assembling points necessary. A TRAINLOAD OF AMERICAN MINES PROCEEDING TO THE EMBARKING QUAY The big steel bubbles strewn about in the foreground are each filled with 300 pounds of TNT, one of the most powerful explosives used during the world war. TRANSFERRING MINES FROM RAILROAD CARS TO LIGHTERS A mine, shaped like a ball or an egg, is about one yard in diameter. With its iron box anchor, two feet square, and its wire mooring cable, it weighs 1,400 pounds. 93 94 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE LIGHTERS CONTAINING MINES GOING ALONGSIDE THE “SAN FRANCISCO,. FLAGSHIP OF THE AMERICAN SQUADRON: INVERNESS FIRTH, SCOTLAND The San Francisco and the Baltimore each carried 350 mines at a time, while four new ships could carry 860 each, two others 610 each, and the remaining two 350 (see text, page 96). Our Captain Murfin was sent over in November, 1917, to supervise the prepa- ration of these bases and be in charge of them when completed. The buildings, grounds, and adjacent vacant land of two idle distilleries afforded good accommo- dation for offices, men’s quarters, mess- rooms, kitchens, and storage and ample space for erecting the mine assembly and storage plant. When finished, these bases could to- gether prepare 1,000 mines a day. Cap- tain Murfin had twenty officers and a thousand men at each base and two out- lying detachments, of three officers and sixty men each, at the unloading points— Fort William and Kyle. With every reason to establish the mine-field barrier at the earliest possible date, the estimated rate at which the new mines could be manufactured was taken as the basis for determining the capacity of the new mine-laying squadron. ‘It was expected that the output would be 1,000 mines a day, and that one mine- laying operation could be accomplished at best in five days for the round trip. Hence the mine-laying squadron should have an aggregate capacity of 5,000 mines. THE MINE SQUADRON We had two ships to begin with—the San Francisco, Capt. Elenry Vo Butler: and the Baltimore, Capt. Albert W. Mar- shall. They were fine old war horses, dating back 28 years, but sound in wind and limb and as responsive as any thor- oughbred. They and the gunboat Du- buque, Commander T. L. Johnson, a ves- sel much too small for the North Sea operation, constituted the original mine squadron under my command. We had been developing and training in the art of mine-laying for over two years and were prepared to undertake any operation of the kind. As if in an- ticipation of this véry war operation, we had planted a three-line mine field just below Sandy Hook one fine day in De- cember, 1916—200 loaded mines. We did not tell the press about it, as it might have caused anxiety, and we took them all up next day. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 95 TAKING ABOARD A CARGO OF CANNED VOLCANOES - The flotilla of American warships which laid the North Sea mine barrage was appropriately called the “Suicide Squadron.” This and other appropriate exercises, together with many and varied tasks and experiments given us to do, produced a set of working principles, a well-seasoned skill, a self-reliant spirit, and a united, resolute confidence, all based on actual accomplishment, which made this small mine force an invaluable nucleus for the project in hand. It was the more valu- able because a substitute was nowhere else obtainable. The Allies had done considerable mine- laying, but not on the scale nor in such a way as to be of much use as a guide in the gigantic operation ahead. In fact, when the Baltimore was sent over, early in March, 1918, in advance of the others, in response to an urgent request for a vessel to help lay a field of British mines in the North Irish Channel, she was ready to do it immediately on arrival, and as soon as the mines were received she proceeded to lay the whole field alone, without any assistance or preliminary trials. This was a good sample of our quality, which strengthened the confidence of our British colleagues. The great task of the whole prepara- tion was to expand this small force into 96 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE GRAND FLEET AND. ITS FLOTILLA OF PROTECTING DESTROYERS IN SCAPA FLOW This magnificent harbor in the Orkney Islands was one of the headquarters of the British home fleet before as well as during the war. a large squadron equally capable. No matter how superior and numerous our mines might be, the success of the barrier depended on its being properly planted. NO TIME TO WASTE There was no time to waste. Eight merchant ships of suitable size, speed, and condition were soon taken over; a special training camp for their officers and men was established under the direc- tion of the San Francisco, and the Balti- more took up experimenting with various features of the new mine. The captains and officers of the new ships were ordered in connection with converting them, taking some of the Du- buque’s officers, since she would not be employed. Commander Johnson was sent over to London at the same time with Captain Murfin, with a long memorandum of in- formation to bring back as soon as he could—everything we could think of as useful to know about the preparations and local conditions at the base from which we were to work. . One most important step for early set- tlement was to provide elevators in the new ships. .In a ship about 4oo feet long, the size of ours, about four-fifths the length is available for installing mine tracks. Four such tracks on one deck hold about 350 mines, and, using two or more decks for mines, the total load could be increased accordingly (see page 105). Four new ships could thus carry 860 mines each, two of them 610, and the re- maining two 350 each. With 350 more in the San Francisco and Baltimore, we would have a total of 5,700, giving a rea- sonable margin over the requisite 5,000, for contingencies. If all the mines’ in a ship) couldiibe raised. to the launching deck rapidly enough for all to be planted in a continu- ous string, it would result in a great sav- ing of time and great saving of space in the mine-field area, besides making better mine fields than if the mines were laid one deck-load at a time, in comparatively short strings. The British had tried elevators, but with little satisfaction. For our ships, Naval Constructor Beuret called in the Otis Elevator Company’s representatives NINE OF THE TEN SHIPS WHICH COMPRISED THE AMERICAN SQUADRON OUTWARD BOUND ON A MINE-LAYING EXCURSION WATCH AND WARD FROM THE SKIES While laying the North Sea mine barrage, the American warships were in constant danger of attack from the submarines, whose death traps were being set. To give warning of such attacks, dirigibles hovered guard over the fleet. 97 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the very first day, and we thrashed it out together. The result was an excellent installation of six ele- vators in each of the largest ships ; four elevators in the two next largest. One of the Otis Company in- spectors was enrolled as a reserv- ist for the squadron to assist in the installation, care, and opera- tion of the elevators. ‘These in- stallations proved entirely satis- factory. Q@ut of the 32) clevatons, only one failed—just once during the whole period of service. Like all other work during that winter, ours suffered from the ab- normal fuel, traffic, labor, aad weather conditions. ‘There were many vexations, but by doing all possible to anticipate and avert delays we managed to get five ships completed, making in all 4,000 mines capacity, early in April. I left Washington then and took command of the mine squadron again, on board the San Francisco at Hampton Roads, and on April 12 the Roanoke, Captain Stearns, and Housatonic, Captain Greens- lade, the first of the new vessels, joined the flag—an event long worked for. No account of an accomplish- G MINES (SEE PAGE 107) Note the elaborate design of the camouflage, used not with the idea of concealing the ships from the enemy, but to deceive as to the ships’ = U mine-laying, at the same time were dangled as an enticing bait before the eyes of the Ger- beyond the protection of the guns of the Helgoland fortifications. THE AMERICAN MINING SQUADRON IN FORMATION OF LINE ABREAST PLANTI Saranac, Captain Sinclair Gan- #3 ment so extraordinary should omit = © to name our full squadron, all 8», names familiar in the old Navy: 23 San Francisco, flagship, Captain Cee dal Ws Jsitlere. So Aroostook, Captain J. Harvey £3 ‘Tomb. aF Baltimore, Captain A. W. Mar- a Siaallle = Canandaigua, Commander W. OS Jel, IReymelles, = s Canonicus, Captain T. L. John- ea SOs Qu Housatonic, ~ Captain J. AV. 8 Greenslade. 3 ae Quinnebaug, Commander D. 66 Pratt Mannix. an Roanoke, Captain C. D. Stearns. ac 2m non. < S& Shawmut, Captain W. T. Clu- = & verius. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 99 AawiE OF THE STERN OF THE U. S.-S. “BALTIMORE, PARAPHERNALIA WITH WHICH A MINE-LAYER IS EQUIPPED 9) SHOWING MUCH OF THE The four placarded affairs are marking buoys ready to be dropped overboard. Smoke-making apparatus, depth-charges, and a towing-spar are also within the camera's vision. The ships’ complements totaled 4,000 officers and men. THE START IN SECRECY We may pass over, lightly enough now, the trials and vexations of the next four weeks, viz., breakdowns, losing anchors, fogs, elusive stores, men coming without pay accounts, and accounts coming with- out the men. It all wound up in four crowded days at Newport, taking final coal, water, stores, and 500 men for the mine depots. We would have been justified in stay- ing another week or two, our training to- gether had been so meager, but the sense of urgency was strong and none of us felt like waiting longer. At midnight Saturday, May 11, in all secrecy, without signals or lights, the squadron got under way for Scotland. Leaving harbor, the San Francisco was closely followed by the Quinnebaug, but off Brentons Reef we waited for the others—and waited. Presently they all appeared, and we were off—only 17 min- utes late, after all. Never shall I forget the blessed peace ‘of the next forenoon, that quiet Sunday of smooth sea and steady, uneventful steaming, headed at last toward our goal. The peace and quiet did not continue long. Soon after lunch fog shut in and the ships could be seen no more until next forenoon. It was rather early for such a test, but all ships kept together well and were in good station when the fog lifted. It was just in time, for immediately the Quinnebaug’s steering gear went wrong and she turned directly across the Housa- tonics bow, having a narrow escape. This was the beginning of a series of events which made the two weeks’ pas- sage a continuous expectancy. Fortu- nately, I had kept the Sonoma, one of the large mine force tugs, with the squadron ; SO “that when a ship broke down one morning the tug could tow her for a whole day, while the other ships re- hearsed for target firing. The German submarines that arrived on our coast May 25 were on their way over while we were crossing. I had been warned of them, and after the disabled ship was repaired the squadron spent an afternoon in gunnery practice—doing very well, considering our hasty prepara- tion. After that we felt we could give a 100 A BUOY READY TO BE LOWERED INTO THE SEA TO MARK THE LIMIT OF A MINE FIELD After each day’s work it was necessary to mark the extent of the These marks were necessary in order to safeguard the mine-layers from falling victims to their own mines. The rope coiled about the buoy is its anchor line. mine field with buoys. good account of any submarines we might meet on the surface. | THE WORST DANGERS—-TORPEDOES AND FIRE The worst dangers were torpedoes and fire. All the ships had loaded mines on board, and as they cruised only 500 yards apart, an explosion in one ship would probably disable, if not wholly destroy, the othérs, too. In due course baa weather came. The mine ships stood it well enough, but the THE NATIONAL GROGRAPENC MAGAZINE big collier Jason, in our company, began to charge about and to roll heavily. She was a sister of the ill-fated Cyclops, and, with a whole garage- full of automobiles on her after deck, the high wind made it im- possible for her to keep on the course, and for twenty hours she was lost to view. Several days later she disappeared again in a heavy squall. Four days passed without a sign, and we had almost given her up for lost, when at early daylight of the morning of arrival she came lumbering up aster, andi nadeene= gained her proper sta- tion before the time set for rendezvous. As we approached> thie | meetineue pasate nothing was to be seen up to 15 minutes be- fore 5 oclock; them two, three, five de- -stroyers emerged from the haze, and another, and others, gyrating, cutting about, chasing their tails They hadgebrerem stretched on a north and south line to al- low for our being out of our reckoning, and we, after 3,600 miles, with not a few vicissitudes on the voyage, had struck the middle of their line, right on the dot. That was indeed a crowded day, and the waters passed through were the most dangerous of any; yet so great was the sense of relief, due to near approach to destination and to the presence of the destroyer escort, that it seemed like Sunday. And, considering the utter chaos these ships had been in only two months be- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE fore, it will be understood, when each one reported herself fit for immediate service, how deep was the satisfaction and how well the future promised! Various arrangements now interposed a few days’ delay, but by June 3 prepa- rations were going full blast for the first mining excursion. This term, excursion, was adopted as a cheerful offset to the sense of danger. That there were many risks in our un- dertaking must have been plain to every- -body. One cargo of TNT had been enough to devastate Halifax, and our squadron had ten cargoes. Our course would lie through areas where it was nec- essary to search for mines constantly, and we would come frequently in the regular thoroughfare for enemy submarines. Moreover, the area where we were to mine had been publicly notified two months beforehand, to warn neutrals, and it would have been natural enough for the Germans to strew a hundred or so mines there on the chance of blowing us up. Then it was also expected that when the barrier should begin to bring results the Germans would send out more and more force to break it and incidentally destroy us. In this way we would serve as bait, eventually to draw out the German fleet. We were to have “a front seat at the second battle of Jutland.” And so it was not altogether inappropriate to dub us the “Suicide Squadron.” “STICK TO YOUR JOB AND GO UP WITH IT” The risks in prospect, however, had _been no deterrent in getting officers and men. It was a very popular operation. While the ships were fitting out, a favor- ite slogan was “Stick to your job and go up with it.” There were countless volunteers, and those who were fortunate enough to be- long to the squadron felt themselves ob- jects of envy. They buckled to and did all they could to hasten the shipyard work and their own preparation. Especially with the Shawmut, Captain Cluverius, and Aroostook, Captain Har- vey Tomb, at Boston, the officers and -men made a very substantial contribution ‘ 101 A, DEFECTIVE MINE EXPLODING PREMA- TURELY (SEE PAGE 107) Note the four dark splotches on the surface of the sea, forming a “dotted line” in the wake of the mine-layer, which is proceeding away from the geyser of spray thrown into the air by the premature explosion. They convey to the reader some idea as to how thickly the North Sea was strewn with explosives. Jaye aszigiup 4 94} poyeusis ,{ouit} s[qetoprsuos SLONM AW WIIITM NOWGVNOS ANIW AHL LOTLOVd OL NYAS JUIWI}IIX9 JY} asoy} ‘d1oY} SPM JOAITLYA,, ‘popisqns ped ve JOJ UMOP WHY daoy [[PM sesieyo WIL JO GH4dS V LV VALUVAS WONVG ANIAVIWNANS V CYVMOL ONIHSAA ‘MONS V ONILUVIS MHAVAIT LIOOSH “N “YU “ATAIAOD NIVIdVO pue ‘poddoip osam sasieyo-yydep OMT, : MUIdNVA,, “S “WH ee 102 “(R01 doud 4x9} 99S) | SHOIYS SuUIUILM IY} NO Jo] pur adoostiad e Mes UoIpenbs sno jo sdiys ay} yo auo ‘JouUIp je dnos oy} 3937e ysnf,, AWHNA AHL AGNI OL ASYNOD OVZOIZ V NI ONIAWII SdIHS AHL GNV SYAAOULSAGC ONILAOOSA AHL AI GVANdS NAYWOS WIOWS AHL ALON : NOUadvadSs ANIW HHL NO MOVILVY UNIVING ONS Nf 103 ‘(a40mujog) [[eystey uieyded |! (o9s1IUDAT UDG) Joy ureyded * (dopueUIUOD) uoipenbs) deuyjog uleydey * (ayouwnoy) suresjg ule}ded S(qnua2vys) SHItIAnT) uleyded) : BUTS ‘(bnvqauuingd) xiuueyy uleyde.) !(vibippunuvy)) spjouasy ureydeD : (JDUDADS) UouUer) uleyded) (9104 -DSNOF{) ape[Suscixt) Urey : | SWLLNVId-wNIW AAVN ‘°S ‘QO AHL dO SYMOIWIO INIGNVINNWOOD GNV YWaNVNWOD NOWAVNOS ALL dey !(yoojsou1p) quioy, ureyde) {(snomoun)) wosUYyOo, Uleyde) +s pry “eBseue) JopueUIUo,) ; SUIPUL}S ‘JYSI4 OF Yfo’] A STRING OF MINES ON THE DECK OF THE “SAN FRANCISCO” A few links in the American-forged chain which strangled the Prussian submarine snakes in their nest. five thousand of these mines (see page 96). toward hastening the construction, like Perry's men building their own ships to fight and win the battle of Lake Erie. The only thing that really bothered us was any delay in getting to the actual mine-laying. -- By June 6 all was ready for the first excursion. As far as could be foreseen, everything had been planned and ar- ranged for. Courses and distances to be steamed were listed, the formations of the ships were prescribed for various times, and a schedule was made for plant- ing mines, accurate to the second. The instructions were complete as to intentions, yet not so hard and fast as to hinder action in emergency. All the cap- tains had been in conference on board the flagship San Francisco, and Captain Godfrey, R. N., commanding H. M. S. Vampire, the escort zleader, and I had had a conference with Rear Admiral Strauss, U. S. Navy, Commander of the Mine Force. On each mine-laying excursion the American flotilla could carry a cargo of Departure was to be at midnight, the two detachments to join at Cromarty Buoy at 1 a.m. The move was kept se- cret, because news could be sent through to the enemy in 18 or 20 hours—time enough for an attack of some kind. THE HISTORIC DEPARTURE The eve of departure brings drizzling, misty weather. On board the ships the wise ones try for some advance sleep. Midnight comes, and without signals or lights or any noise but the clanking chain, the flagship gets under way and heads out. The signal quartermaster reports one ship after another under way and follow- ing. Fort George shows the signal for an open gate, and as the second ship passes out through the submarine net they all form column astern and close up to 500: yards apart. The full number of lookouts are at their stations and warned to be alert, and 106 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE -STALKING: A FAVORITE PASTIME FOR AMERICAN SAILORS ON DUTY'‘IN THE NORTH SEA 4 4 PERISCOPE Beneath his cold-weather togs and his life-belt jacket, the heart of every man-iack of them is beating with excitement—not from fear, but from the zest of the hunt for the man-made monsters of the deep. the men are now sent to the battery, making a little stir for the moment. Then quiet falls again. Small patrol craft can be dimly seen here and there on watch against danget for us. Fifteen minutes more and we see long, low forms slinking against the dark background of North Sutor, at the entrance to Cromarty. These are the destroyers of our escort ao ing out to form a screen. Close following them we count larger, higher moving shadows— one, two, three, four, five ships— all there! The heads of the two columns now reach the buoy at the same minute and the whole squad- ron stand on, without pause, to- gether. Four destroyers are ahead and another group on either side—12 in all. No signals, no lights. So we stand out Moray Firth, through the one-mile-wide channel, which is swept every day for mines. Toward 8 o’clock we pass Pent- land Skerries, near John O’Groat’s house, and steer east, and then we see coming out from Scapa Flow four British light cruisers, four bat- tle cruisers, with six destroyers, and last four battleships, with six more destroyers. They edge off to the southward and eastward, fading into the morning haze, to keep be- tween us and possible harm from Germany. It was a force of’ the same strength that supported our latest excursion in October. On the second excursion, in June, our own battleships, under Rear Admiral Rodman in the New York, were the support, making a proud sight for us, as the great squadron filed out and swept off toward an intercept- ing station. LAYING THE FIRST MINE Straight over to Norway we go, making Udsire Light toward mid- night; then off to the northwest- ward. It is a busy night and early morning, keeping the ships in sta- tion, going over the mines for final couches, watching on every hand for enemy submarines, and getting all clear for our first large operation. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 107 A GROUP OF BLUEJACKETS OF THE U. S. S. “BALTIMORE” The Baltimore was sent over seas in advance of the other ships of the mine-laying squad- ron at the request of the British, to assist in laying a field of British mines in the North Irish Channel. Immediately upon her arrival, the Baltimore reported ready for duty, and as soon as the mines were received proceeded to lay the whole field alone. At 4.27 a. m. the signal is made that mining will begin at one hour later. The crews go to mining stations, and in the flagship we look for signals reporting whether the other ships are ready. They are ready, every one. It is like a horse- race when the starter’s flag is up. How will it go, after all these months—for some of us years—of preparation? The squadron stretches a mile and a half in a beautifully straight line abreast. Several destroyers ahead have their sweeps out, to explore for enemy mines in our path (see page 98). Now the mine-planting signal is flying ; they will begin when it starts down. Commander Canaga stands, watch in hand—‘“two minutes, one minute, thirty seconds more, fifteen’—he looks up in- quiringly. All right, “Five seconds— haul down!” And in answer red flags break out on the other ships, showing that they have begun to plant. On the flagship’s bridge the call-bell rings, and from the launching station at the stern the report comes, “First mine over.” All well so far—a good beginning. Now comes the trying time for the squadron commander—the endless wait- ing, all alert, for whatever may befall. Nothing to do while all goes well, but instant decision and action in case of mishap. Hour after hour the mining goes on. The staff officers watch the scheduled events and compare the times with what they should be. A few seconds out here and there; otherwise all goes without a hitch—just as planned before leaving the United States. Some defective mines explode astern, which is startling at first, then reassuring as to the safety features of the mine. At the same time, one’s respect grows for the mine’s deadly power (see page IOI). A WORLD RECORD IN MINE-LAYING Now we watch the Housatonic, a new ship, with a new, untried installation, do- ing a string of 675 mines, one every 11% seconds throughout two hours and ten minutes Her mate stands by, ready for any interruption; but the Housatonic 108 completes the task without a break—a world record up to that time In a later excursion the Canonicus lays 860 mines in 3 hours 35 minutes without a break, making a string longer than from Wash- ington to Baltimore. At last, after nearly four hours, the schedule is finished. We stand on for a mile and then three ships drop mark- buoys. The line of ships wheels to the right and plants more buoys to pick the field up by when we return to prolong it. Now the ships reform in four columns and start back to base. Below decks the men are cleaning up, securing the gear, and getting a wash for themselves. That done, they drop in their tracks, dog-tired, and the decks are thick with sleeping forms. THE CROWDED-HOUR CLUB We hoped for a quiet afternoon that day, with a few cat-naps, handy to the bridge; but Captain Godfrey had plans for his destroyers which interfered, giv- ing them a smoke-screen exercise about 2 p. m., which sent all of us tumbling up to the guns. Then an airship claimed attention; one of our own ships had to drop behind to set up on a loose bearing, and a wide- spread smoke appeared, proving to be a convoy of fifty vessels. Finally, just after the soup at dinner, our next astern saw a periscope and let out the warning shrieks. Our ships turned together, on signal, half right, to steer away from the dan- ger quarter, while the Vampire ahead swooped down at 30 knots to drop two depth charges. “Whatever was there,” he signaled, “those charges will keep him down for a considerable time.” It was then, as we resumed our stone-cold meal, that we changed our name from mining squadron to “Crowded-hour Club.” Through the day reports had been com- ing in by signal, showing that everywhere all had gone well, without casualty, and that each ship was prepared to undertake another operation upon receiving the mines. Our first excursion was unques- tionably a decided success. There were in all 13 excursions by our squadron and 11 by the British mine- laying squadron. ‘Twice the two squad- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE rons were joined to lay their mines in company. On the first occasion om Rear-Admiral Strauss went out in com- mand of the joint force; the second time Rear-Admiral Clinton-Baker, R. N. SEVENTY THOUSAND MINES LAID On one of these joint excursions ten American ships planted 5,520 mines, the four British ships 1,300, making a total of 6,820 planted in four hours. This is the record for number. A few weeks later our squadron alone planted a field 73 miles long, making a record for dis- tance. ; The whole. barrier contained 70,117 mines, of which 56,571, or four-fifths, were ours. The average was three ex- cursions a month, though the intervals between were irregular. We steamed altogether 8,700 miles in 775 hours while on these excursions. It might be expected that with so many features alike the excursions would soon have become monotonous, but such was not the case. Each one began, contin- ued, and ended with almost the same zest as the first, and always some unusual event or circumstance brought in new interest. The absolute necessity of sustained at- tention and care in details was well un- derstood by all, so that every one was pretty well keyed up from start to finish. After 48 hours of that, scarcely losing consciousness for a moment, we would get a few hours’ sleep—too sodden to be really restful—and then on rising feel an indescribable exaltation. In this mood I would have the captains and my staff at a conference, followed by a lunch, most memorable and enjoyable mixtures of council table and _ festal board. Cooperation with our Allies was mu- tually all that could be desired, and we formed most agreeable associations. ‘The big squadrons, too, felt much interest in our work and enjoyed being detailed for our support. PASSING THE GERMAN FLEET On our way home, after the signing of the Armistice, our squadron passed through Scapa Flow, where the German fleet was interned. As our long column THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 109 No gubon— a » D= OOM 13 Wo BGS | ee American total 56571 Number of mines laid 2455 Oee i British total _ Grand total of mines laid 70117 Solid lines represent American mines Hatched lines represent British mines DIAGRAM SHOWING THE OVERLAPPING LINES OF MINES LAID IN THE NORTH SEA Only by a miracle could a submarine have made its meandering way through such a mine field without encountering disaster (also see map on page 86). wound in among the heavy British battle- ships and battle cruisers, their crews were massed on deck, cheering each mine-layer as she passed, our crews run- ning from side to side to make response. .Admiral Madden, of the first battle squadron, signaled his wishes for a speedy return home and his “regret in parting with such a splendid force, such a brave bunch.” Upon nearing the Germans’ anchorage our ships kept silent while we steamed by. On some of the German ships scarcely a man was on deck; on others the rails were filled, officers and men mingling together, to gaze on us, who had been their bait. In this way we had al- most passed them, without a sound or a sign, when the British trawlers that were holding the nets on the opposite side— had been holding those nets, in fair weather and foul, for four long years— seeing our flag and knowing our work, broke out into loud and long blasts and toots of their steam whistles. The San Francisco answered gravely by the customary three blasts of the whistle, and in succession the following ships did the same; but one of them blew her siren instead of her whistle, and that started them all off again. Going on further, making toward the entrance, we passed the battle cruiser Lion, speeding back and forth like a sen- try on post—a ready check on any Ger- man ship that might attempt a dash for liberty. THE END OF THE SUBMARINE—THE END OF THE WAR A parting message was flashed to us by the Lion from Vice-Admiral Paken- ham, “You take with you not only my personal regards, but the gratitude and admiration of the battle-cruiser force.” Quite early in the summer, after only 110 the second excursion, our work began to bring results, and morc and more reports came in of submarines damaged or lost in that vicinity, although the British policy of secrecy about submarine losses concealed the definite numbers. The actual losses will probably never be fully known; but, according to report, the Germans admit the loss of 23 subma- rines there, and the British Admiralty staff have been quoted as holding that the surrender of the German fleet and the final armistice were caused largely by the failure of the submarine warfare, this failure being admitted as soon as the mine. barrage was found to be effective. Too much cannot be said of the fine spirit of the personnel. Their work was arduous and opportunities for diversion limited, but they made the most of both and backed their work with their money, of the Fourth Liberty Loan staking $5 on each mine in our mine fields. With the mines crowding their quarters so much of the time, the men’s living conditions were very uncomfortable, but their base- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ball league, track athletics, and boat-rac- ing kept them fit and keen, and their re- lations in the towns were most agreeable. As a visiting naval officer wrote, “The whole Mine Force is short on criticism and complaints, but long on work and re- sults, and the Navy should be intensely ROG Oi Umenn~ How was it possible to navigate safely so many times through infested waters and close to mine fields, to steam so many miles together so steadily, to outdo the telephone in speed of signaling, and to handle and plant 56,000 mines, sometimes continuing through fog or darkness—all without accident? Logical and thorough preparation, painstaking foresight, admirable cooper- ation, and able leadership undoubtedly paved the way; but these alone would not have made an achievement so clean. Something more was needed, and that something included two things: first, and all the time, unquenchable optimism, and next, it had been brought home to every individual that his work could be done by only one man in the world! SARAWAK: THE LAND OF THE Whit RAJAHS By Harrison W. Smiru With Photographs by the Author ITH the recent death of Sir Charles Brooke (Gs ©. Ge \ \ the second of the white rajahs of Sarawak, there came to an end one of the most useful and unusual careers among the many that have done credit to British rule in the Far East. For nearly 49 years he governed, as absolute sover- eign, a mixed population of Chinese, Malays, and numerous pagan tribes scat- tered through the villages and dense jun- gles) Tora Lextensive Etech Monm~sommune northwest coast of Borneo. Constant solicitude for the welfare of his people won the sympathy and devo- tion which enabled this white man, sup- ported by an insignificant army and po- lice, to establish the peaceful occupations of civilization in place of barbarous tyranny and oppression. Although Sarawak has been visited by a number of celebrated explorers and the general features of the country and its inhabitants are well known, there still remain vast areas of virgin jungle to in- vite the amateur naturalist, who can hardly fail to add some new specimens to the collections of those who have pre- ceded him. BIRDS, BEASTS, AND BUTTERFLIES PRO- TECTED IN SARAWAK Here are found the argus pheasant, the leaf butterfly, and that most beautiful THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Jal NATIVE WOMEN SPRINKLING RICE AND PERFORMING OTHER CEREMONIES. IN PREPARATION FOR THE HARVEST FESTIVAL After setting aside from the rice crop the portion required for the year’s food supply and enough more for trading purposes, the remainder is converted into a rice wine, and feasts are held in one house after another. propitiate the evil spirits. butterfly of all—the Brookeana. This last-named species is comparatively rare, and at one time brought so high a price that it might have become extinct were it not for the fact that the game laws of Sarawak protect even the butterflies. The collector is allowed to take only two specimens of any one kind, whether it be bird, beast, butterfly, or orchid. Indeed, the Sarawak jungle is better protected than our forests. The jeluton tree yields a valuable gum, but if im- properly tapped the tree is easily killed; therefore, inspectors have been appointed to regulate the tapping in order that this natural resource of the country may not be destroyed. It was not the natural history of the country, however, that prompted the author to visit Sarawak; it was rather The scattering of rice about the house is supposed to the opportunity to become acquainted with primitive and interesting people, still living the simple life of their ancestors in the primeval jungle, unspoiled by con- tact with the white man. The author has been the honored guest in the houses of these people; he has re- ceived the best they had to offer. They are by no means free from serious faults, but these are disappearing, and they pos- sess many homely virtues. SEA DAYAKS, EARLY PUPILS OF PIRATICAT, MALAYS The Sea Dayaks, or Ibans, to use the native name, are the largest and most progressive tribe. Their love of adven- ture made them the ready pupils of the piratical Malays in the early days; but since their initiative has been turned into 112 SILVER HEAD-DRESS, BELTS OF SILVER COIN, AND NATIVE WOVEN SKIRT CONSTITUTE THE HOLIDAY COSTUME OF DAYAK WOMEN DURING THE HARVEST FESTIVAL SKASON useful channels, they have shown much capacity for development. ‘They are thrifty and industrious, building good houses, which are usually neat and clean. As with most of the Sarawak tribes, personal cleanliness is the rule, and the Dayaks have been known to comment on. a white traveler to the effect that, al- though he seemed to be otherwise all right, he did not bathe quite as frequently as they considered necessary. They are a fine race physically and delight in per- sonal adornment, in which they show ex- cellent taste in the use of colors for the chawat, or loin cloth, and for the bead necklaces and headdresses. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE I had an oppor- tunity of seeing them under the most inter- esting conditions by visiting at two of their houses on the oc- casion of the harvest feast. After setting aside from the rice crop the portion they require for the year’s food supply and enough more for trad- ing purposes, the re- mainder is converted into a nice wine and feasts are held at one house after another. On the morning of the feast chickens are killed, rice 1s scattered about the house, and other ceremonies are performed to propiti- ate the evil spirits. As guests begin to arrive from neighbor- ing houses, the gongs are beaten, small brass cannon are fired, if gunpowder can be ob- tained from a white visitor, and live fowls, as a token of good- will and friendship, are waved about over the newly arrived guests. The ‘sacrince yen fowls plays an impor- tant part in many ceremonies, such as that of blood-brotherhood among the Kayans when a man is adopted into the family of another, the killing of the fowl serving as a means of conveying a mes- sage to the gods. THE CEREMONIAL OF THE GREAT FEAST On the evening of the feast, at one of the Iban houses, I witnessed a rather startling performance of the sacrifice of a fowl. The great feast of the day was held at noon, and in the evening the different members of the house invited their par- ticular friends to supper in their own DAYAKS ENTERTAINING VISITORS AT A BANQUET DURING THE HARVEST FESTIVAL, Being a guest in Sarawak is not always an unalloyed joy to one with American tastes. The culinary masterpiece of the occasion is chicken a la Dayak. The fowl’s larger feathers are pulled out and some of the remaining ones burned off over a fire. Nearly all that is left is chopped fine and stewed. DAYAK WOMEN IN HOLIDAY COSTUME FOR THE HARVEST FESTIVAL The lady with the sunshade and the Seventh Avenue dressing sacque looks as if she might be the duenna for this bevy of native belles. Many semi-civilized tribes wear anklets of brass, silver, and gold, but in Sarawak Dame Fashion seems to have decreed “calflets.” 113 114 TEE NATION AY GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE SARAWAK VARIANT OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN GIRL/S PESTLE AND MORTAR FOR GRINDING CORN A girl stands at each end of the trough, giving alternate blows into the aepression in the center. Fach keeps one foot in the trough and frequently, with a rapid motion, the grain (which is rice in this part of the world) is pushed back to the center. rooms, my companion and I being enter- tained in the room of one of the more prosperous members of the community, where we seated ourselves on the floor about a great variety of refreshments served by the daughters of the house. We had not been long seated when a young man entered, and greeting another guest with good wishes for his health and happiness, held toward him with both hands a young chicken. ‘The other, recip- rocating the expressions of friendship, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE grasped the head of the chicken, and be- tween them they instantly pulled the neck in two. As an ethnic curiosity, it would be in- teresting to inquire whether there is any relation between this custom and_ that which is practiced at dinner parties in polite society, where bonbons are pulled in two and the contents eagerly examined. GOOD OMENS READ IN PIGS LIVERS At noon the most important event of the feast day takes place—pigs are killed ‘and from their livers omens for the next year are read. During the morning the pigs have been decorated with beads and charms, charged with messages to the gods, and urged to show, by the markings on the under side of the liver, what the future has in store. After the pigs are killed the livers are extracted and the learned men proceed with their interpretation of the omens. As there are always enough pigs so that some of them are sure to have livers that give good omens, the feast then be- gins with great good cheer, the women bringing out delicious new rice—brown in color and nutty in flavor—cooked in neat little individual packages made from . leaves; also various excellent vegetables from the jungle, such as the heart of several of the palms as well as the tender shoots of certain ferns, and, finally, slightly roasted pig and partly boiled chicken. The method of preparing the chicken will indicate that participation in a Dayak feast is something of an ordeal. The larger feathers are pulled out, some of the remainder burned off over a fire, and nearly all that is left is chopped fine and stewed. COCK-FIGHTING THE CHIEF PASTIME OF THE AFTERNOON Cock-fighting is the chief event of the afternoon, and on these occasions the birds are armed with sharp knives, so that the fights are usually soon over. The cock-fighting is held outside the house, in the shade of the trees, in which the small boys who climb with hands and feet find an excellent point to view the sport. Hugh Clifford, who has written most fascinating stories about the Malays, re- 115 marks that we must not too strongly con- demn cock-fighting while fox-hunting continues to be recognized as legitimate sport. The game-cocks fight because they enjoy it; the fox participates from no de- sire of his own, and must experience the keenest agony of terror with a pack of howling hounds at his heels. After the cock-fighting, rice wine be- gins to flow more freely, and boisterous merriment continues long into the night. In the years gone by, the evening’s en- tertainment might have ended with the “head dance,” with the result that some young warriors would thereby be inspired to set forth in quest of new heads to decorate their homes. The head dance is now prohibited, but it was demonstrated once for my benefit at the house of a pleasant little chief who wished to do me a special favor. THE HUNT FOR THE GREAT APE OF BORNEO I had bee. spending several days in a vain endeavor to obtain photographs of the great ape, the orang-utan—the Malay name signifying the “Man of the forest’—corrupted into “orang-outang.” Finally, my friend the chief assured me that 1f the young fellows who were go- ing about with me couldn’t find the orang- utan, he could. So, one morning, we all set out under his guidance and ended an arduous and fruitless day’s tramp by getting lost late in the afternoon in a rattan swamp—a swamp so thick and choked with the sharp tendrils of vines that progress could only be made by cutting a path through the thorns. Thanks to my compass, we found our way out, but the little chief was doubly chagrined. To make amends, he en- treated me so earnestly to accept the hos- pitality of his house that I could not re- fuse, although his was not a clean house and I was comfortably established in the shop of a Chinaman. THE RITUAL OF THE “HEAD DANCE” After my evening meal, supplemented with several delicious fruits, including the durian, which has so bad an odor that considerable courage is required when one first tastes it, and after all other A DAYAK WOMAN OPERATING THE RICE-HUSKING MILL Rice is poured in at the top and works down through the grooves as the upper part cf the mill is twisted back and forth. resources of hospitality had been ex- hausted, the chief told me he was going to show me the head dance as it used to be done. Two old women took one of the neads from the cluster hanging in the smoke over the tine. einen) the placedmsome boiled rice between the jaws, with a lighted cigarette in one corner and a quid 116 of betel-nut and siri in the other. The latter is chewed coatinuously by all peo- ple, giving the mouth and teeth a dark, reddish stain. In this way the spirit of the head was propitiated by giving it food, a cigarette, and betel-nut to chew. The head itself was then carried by the two women up and down the long ve- randa of the house, swinging it to and Rade 4 ¥ te - € : . A > EG d + - q 4 Ee cad 3 A DAYAK WOMAN WINNOWING THE RICE THAT HAS BEEN HUSKED AT THE MILL SEEN IN THE BACKGROUND Ordinarily the native women do not wear their silver girdles or brass corsets when en- gaged in labor of this kind, but pride of appearance before the camera is a feminine trait of universal application. The Dayak girl and the American belle are equally anxious to look their best when posing for the photographer. 117 118 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DAYAK COCK-FIGHTERS: SARAWAK, BORNEO Note the elaborate head-dress and the remarkable tail-like decoration worn by the native in the left foreground. fro in a stiff, awkward dance while they sang a monotonous song, calling upon the spirit of the head to bring blessings on the house. The photograph of the head, which I was able to obtain the follow- ing morning, after it had been restored to its place over the fire, shows the rice still within the jaws. ie has not becwemy jexpericnce that Dayaks make such good companions for any length of time as some of the other natives of Sarawak. On the Semundjan River, however, I became well acquainted with a Dayak who had served in the “Rangers,” the Rajah’s military force, but had resigned, preferring the comforts of his home, cultivating his own rice field and working industriously for his family. He was in all ways very atten- tive to me, of much assistance in my trips in the jungle, and very grateful for such remedies as I could give the ailing mem- bers of his family. His name was Changkok. He quite liked to be the center of any gathering, doubtless feeling that his knowledge of military affairs gave him a certain posi- tion of importance in the community, and he insisted on interrupting the progress of a sword dance one evening to show his skill with an old musket. He went through the manual of arms, calling out the orders: ~ Canny, animadse. “Order, arms,” etc., but introducing nu- merous leaps and gestures from native dances, producing a very grotesque effect. Changkok was immensely pleased with my recognition of the military orders as he rendered them in English, but my host, an old chief, was greatly bored and no little annoyed to witness such perversion of the customs of his people. Finally, Changkok appealed to me to confirm his statement that he was showing his un- appreciative friends just how the war dance is really done in Europe. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DAYAK COCK-FIGHTERS: NODE TEE TATTOOING ON THE SHOULDERS OF THE-MAN IN THE CENTER If it is appropriate for the matador to adorn himself in raiment radiant as the sun before ‘entering the bull-ring, why should not the cock-fighter of Sarawak festoon himself with beads. bangles, and bracelets before he tosses his bird into the pit! The Dayaks live in long communal houses having a common gallery or pas- sageway along one side, with the living rooms on the other. Each family occu- pies one room. FINGERS AND TOES INDISPENSABLE IN DAYAK ARITHMETIC Having occasion to ask Changkok the size of a particular house that I planned to visit, he began counting on the fingers of his right hand, calling off the name of the head of each family. He continued counting on the fingers of his left hand, then on the toes of his right foot, then, beginning on the big toe of his left foot, he paused in thought, holding the second toe. But the effort had been too much; he lost hold of the toe and had to count all over again. Probably if the problem had required a computation above 20 Changkok, like many other natives, would have had to call in another man with more fingers and toes to count on. It was an interesting demonstration of the origin of twenty as a unit in our sys- tem of enumeration—in English, a score; in French, une vingtaine. If Changkok had employed the fingers and toes of four 120 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE IN THE COCK-PIT: SARAWAK, BORNEO Cock-fighting is the principal diversion among the Sea Dayaks, and, like the Spanish bull- fight, the contest 1s usually held early in the afternoon. men he would have counted eighty, or fourscore—in French quatre-vingts, four twenties. THE LAND DAYAKS The Land Dayaks, as their name indi- cates, live inland, and they more fre- quently build their houses at a distance from the streams than is the habit with other tribes. In addition to the Malays, they are the natives of Sarawak proper— HORNE 1S, Gls” Weipetorny Iesie iaaleGl lor Site James Brooke—constituting the south- erly division of the Raj of Sarawak. They are more affected by contact with foreigners and are rather less enterpris- ing and energetic than their neighbors, the Sea Dayaks, who occupy the Batang Lupar and Rejang rivers to the north. A few Land Dayak villages in the vicinity of the headwaters of the Sarawak and Sadong rivers near the Dutch border re- main, however, little affected by foreign influence. In common with the other tribes of Borneo, their houses are long communal dwellings built on posts 8 or 9 feet from the ground, a passageway on one side giving access to the rooms, each of which is occupied by one family. The Land Dayaks, unlike the otner tribes, also build a square house on very high posts, considerably above the level of the “long “house. 77) It is seallediithe “head house” from the fact that in it are kept the heads which they have taken from their enemies (see picture, page 20) The head house 1s the general place of meeting; it is there that the Resident on his visits meets the people, and there, also, that unmarried men and boys as well as visitors sleep. It is an interesting experience, when one for the first time lies down to sleep with a great cluster of blackened skulls grinning from the rafters overhead, even when they are very old skulls (see also page 131). THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 121 A GROUP ABOUT THE COCKING MAIN: SARAWAK The man in the central foreground of the picture wears a mat made from a tiger skin; it is ornamental when he is standing and comfortable when he sits down. Many of the young people of the Land Dayaks are finely developed physically, but the women deform their arms and legs with great coils of heavy brass wire, which must be exceedingly uncom forta- ble to wear (see pages 113 and 130). PAIN GLADLY ENDURED FOR FASHION’ SAKE One evening, in the head house, a girl sitting next to me had a bad sore on her arm caused by the chafing of the wire. To my query if the wire did not hurt, she replied that it did hurt very much; whereupon an old woman observed that the wire was nevertheless very beautiful and very much the fashion, intimating strongly that | might hold my peace and not interfere with matters that did not concern me. Traveling through the Land Dayak country, as elsewhere, is by means of the rivers and jungle paths. In this district I was fortunate in being able to travel with two of the Residents on the occasion of their official visit, thus enjoying the opportunity of seeing the people at their best. On our journey to the village of Tmong we found ourselves, as darkness Was approaching, at the end of naviga- tion on a little stream, with our destina- tion an hour’s walk distant through the jungle in the rain. We could have re- mained at a near-by village; but as great preparations had been made for our reception, it was decided, in order not to cause disappointment, that we must push on. The prospect was not pleasant, for in twenty minutes it was impossible to see anything; one could only follow the noise of the man in front. Soon, however, we were met by parties of young men bear- ing great flaming torches of bamboo, who glided along the path, the red glare of the torches enhancing the physical beauty of smooth, brown skin and fluent muscles. 122 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ONE OF THE SPECTATORS AT A COCK-FIGHT The small boys climb with hands and feet and do not allow the adult population to interfere with their view of the “great Borneo game.” Sometimes the flar- ing light would reveal the trunk of a giant of the jungle tower- ing free of branches into the blackness overhead, while all the time the night in- sects were droning and booming and ticking with the cease- less clamor of the tropical night. THE PHONOGRAPH IN SARAWAK A phonograph that I carried for the pur- pose of | recondine native songs was a Source Of eit ie ae amusement. Many natives who had trav- eled to the govern- ment stations had heard the ordinary records, but none had ever heard their own language. It was at times dif- ficult to persuade any one to sing into the rather formidable- looking trumpet, but when a song had been reproduced from a record made at an- other village there was usually no fur- ther difficulty in bring- ing forward the “ar- tists” of the “house: When finally they heard their own voices issuing from the little box, their wonder and amusement knew no bounds. It is a pity no photograph could have been obtained of the bank of faces surrounding our little party, with the phono- graph in the center, when they first real- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 123 SARAWAK SOCIETY OCCUPYING A RING-SIDE BOX AT A COCK-FIGHT The onlookers are grouped on a platform at the end of a Dayak house, which is built high from the ground. The space beneath is utilized as a combination pigsty and chicken run. Note the family dog on the platform. ized that a box was talking their own language in the voice of one of their own number. ~The mechanism of the phonograph was fastened to the under side of the cover of the box that contained it, so that by in- verting the cover and fastening it to the box a good stand was provided. One evening, when I had finished and was lifting the cover, an old man touched me on the shoulder, with the remark that he wanted to have a look inside, doubtless thinking that he was going to expose some trick on my part. Another man, who had frequently been down the river to the government sta- stions and heard ordinary European rec- ords, said that there was nothing so very extraordinary in a box that simply talks the language of the white man, but that a box should be able to talk their lan- guage was indeed wonderful. On an- other occasion I heard a young Dayak ask a stranger if he had ever seen the “boxs that stalks<.. "Ne," replied: jthe latter, “I’m only an up-river man.” A GENTLE, KINDLY PEOPLE It is the general testimony of travelers in Sarawak that the Land Dayaks are a gentle, kindly people, easy to get on with, — grateful and loyal to their friends. This was certainly my experience with Juni, a Land Dayak boy. Juni was my cook and personal servant when I went up the Limbang River, and he was tireless in his devotion to my com- fort, although, it must be admitted, some- times a trifle careless; as on one morn- ing when he packed my rice, raisins, 124 ONE OF THE EXPERTS IN THE SPORT OF COCK-FIGHTING EXAMINING THE LONG KNIVES WITH WHICH THE BIRDS ARE ARMED When the cocks are so equipped, the fights are of short duration. The native in this photograph is wearing a coat of typical Dayak tex- ture and design. opened tin of milk, and biscuits in the bottom of an iron pail and then laid the kerosene lantern on top. He was much distressed when he discovered the oily condition of my lunch; but there is a phrase in the Malay language that solves all difficulties, “Apa buleh buat ?”—What can one do? As Juni had worked in the houses of some of the planters near Kuching, where he had learned both good cooking and dainty serving, he supplied my table with THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE suc h- delicacies Sas fried fish, pheasant stew, and. saladsimonr fern sprouts and the hearts of palms, but he did not at all ap- prove of my coarse, agate plates; so, quite unknown to me, he bought a pretty blue China plate in order that the products of his culinary art might be served in a worthy manner. His good humor was inexhaustible, even under inconsider- ate “(treatment wasceoml one or two of my Sea Dayak boys, who, like the Prussians, regard- ed themselves as be- longing to a superior race. The following incident shows that he possessed no small amount of intelli- gence. FIGHTING MALARIA AND SMALLPOX When planning to visit one of the coast stations where mala- ria happened to be un- usually serious, I cau- tioned my seven na- | tive boys that they must all ) provide themselves with mos- quito curtains to sleep under, explaining that it had been discovered that if one were not bitten by a mosquito he would not get fever. After thinking over my statement, Juni called attention to the fact, which I had failed to notice, that while we had been up river only those had had fever who did not have mosquito nets. He as- sured me solemnly that he thought there was something in what [ said. In this connection the natives’ willing- ness to be vaccinated is worth mentioning. Smallpox epidemics occur frequently THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CHANGKOK, SURROUNDED .BY HOME-LOVING, APPRECIATIVE DAYAK (SEE ADEA THE MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY: AN MAGAZINE 2) INDUSTRIOUS, PAGE 118) On his legs are numbers of fine rings braided from the fiber of the apin palm, much prized for ornamentation. The women’s skirts are excellent examples of Dayak weaving. Chang- kok’s head-dress is made of beadwork, decorated with the favorite feathers of the hornbill. Note the large handkerchief in, shall we say, Mrs. Changkok’s hand. Among semi-civilized peoples one seldom sees the father of the family with a baby in his arms. cnough for the natives to remember the high mortality of the unvaccinated and the practically complete immunity of the vaccinated. Any one may obtain vacci- nation free at the government dispensary Or on payment of 6 cents at the out- stations. After several years of freedom from the disease, there is some opposition to vaccination, but as soon as deaths from smallpox begin to occur, the natives are very eager for the treatment. Juni was a useful, agreeable, and trust- worthy companion for a journey in the jungle. He had adopted the Malay name of Smail because of his intention to “enter Islam’’—that 1s, to become a Mo- hammedan—but I prefer to remember him as Juni, a Land Dayak boy who is not likely to be improved by becoming a Mohammedan and trying to become a Malay. THE KAYANS, A TRIBE OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN Perhaps the most interesting tribe in Sarawak and one of those least affected by contact with foreigners is the Kayan, which occupies the head-waters of the Baram and Rejang rivers, in the northerly 126 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE NIPA PALM AND A FLOCK OF “PADI” BIRDS IN THE LOWER REACHES OF THE NIAH RIVER; THIS PALM GROWS ONLY WITHIN REACH OF THE SALT WATER: BORNEO Roofing material is made from the leaves of this plant; also cigarette wrappers. Sugar is obtained from the sap and salt secured by burning the roots. part of Sarawak, extending also into Dutch Borneo. These people for unknown generations have lived almost entirely isolated in the interior of the island. Uhere are many reasons for believing they are of Caucasic origin, having entered Borneo from southeastern Asia, where they received infusion of Mongol blood and separated from people of their own race, who were the progenitors of the present Karen tribes of Lower Burma. It appears that the Kayans came to Borneo by the way of Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, later penetrating up the rivers of Borneo. One notices the features of some Kayans that very strongly suggest Caucasic origin, this being particularly true of the upper or ruling classes, who would be most likely to preserve their racial stock un- contaminated by mixture with conquered tribes. Many Kayans have very light skin, particularly those of the interior and those who have been little exposed to the sun. The tribe believes in a large number of deities, with one supreme being at the head, thus resembling the Greek mythol- ogy. Many of the details of the methods of taking omens among the Kayans by the flight of birds and the examination of the entrails of animals present extra- ordinary points of similarity with the Roman methods of taking the auspices. While the Brunei Sultans held control of the mouths of the Baram and Rejang rivers they were able to exact tribute from the Kayans, who, in turn, terror ized the Dayaks living below them on the Rejang. These raids against the Rejang Dayaks who had accepted the Rajah’s sovereignty at last became so serious that in 1863 the late Rajah conducted a large expedi- tion against the Kayans of the Rejang, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 127 LAND DAYAK WOMEN IN ALL THEIR FINERY AWAITING THE ARRIVAI, OF A GOVERNMENT PARTY Many of the young people of this tribe are finely developed physically. The discomfort which the women endure by confining their arms, legs, and waists with great coils of heavy brass wire is the price which Sarawak femininity uncomplainingly pays to be in style. and subdued them. In 1882 the Baram River was ceded to Sarawak, and thus the remaining Kayans came under the control of the government. ‘Next to the Rejang, the Baram is the largest river in Sarawak, but, unfortu- nately, it has a shoal bar at its mouth, ex- posed to the monsoon, which makes it unsuitable for schooners and open only to steamers of light draft. Two such steamers now carry on trade with Claude- town—or Merudi, the native name— about 60 miles above the mouth. THRILLING PRACTICES OF NATIVE NAVIGATORS Entering the Baram, especially during the bad weather of the monsoon, is an experience not always entirely devoid of excitement. It is not unusual for the little steamer to run aground on the bar and be washed over by successive waves into deep water on the other side—a method of navigation that does not ap- pear to disturb the Malay pilots in the least. Along the lower reaches of the Baram, as far as the sea water is carried by the flood tide, the nipa palm, interspersed with mangrove swamps, forms a monoto- nous and almost continuous wall on each muddy bank. For miles scarcely a tree rises above the high tops of the palms to break the monotony of the swampy, al- luvial plain through which the river winds. Before Claudetown is reached the nipa palm gives place to great jungle trees, the banks) of the river ane higher, and houses of Malays and Dayaks begin to appear. ~Occasionally one passes the ruins of abandoned houses, whose former occu- pants have moved away in the search of “s1ojistA Aue JO pue sfoq 10 usw pa SI }JO] OY} 3e Wa40;F}e[d posre1 sy J, “IYSII dy} UO SIOOP VY} Aq Potojus ote (ATIWIe} YOea OF U0) sWOOI 94], | Ul pepuno d AjsnotAsid usaq SUIACY III 94} ‘PAMOUUIM 3q 0} JdI1 JO atid & YIM Jew UeILI & SI B[PpIw 9Y} IeaN liyewun JO juowyiede suidosjs ou} jem oY} SuOTe siej1OW ay} JO UO ‘preod UMOY JO SI 1OOH oY, IWIVd DNOI AO AOVTIIA AHL NI ASQOOH NVAVM V AO TNAWAONVYAV YOIWALNI 4HL : THLOH INAWIYVdVY NV .4AO VHdI S IVMVAVS 128 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE OPEN GALLERY IN FRONT OF A LAND DAYAK “LONG HOUSE”: = eae SARAW AK The platform is eight or nine feet from the ground. The higher building at the left is the “head-house,” where heads captured from their enemies are kept, where, also, unmarried men and boys as well as visitors sleep and are entertained. To the clusters of poles at the right, which mark the entrances to the rooms, each of which is occupied by one family, are attached charms to protect the inmates from disease and evil spirits. new farming lands. These ruins are al- most invariably covered with vines, which conceal everything as if a great blanket of vegetation had been loosely flung over roofs and tree-tops. . When the river is in flood, great trees come sweeping down, washed away as the waters continually change their course, so that the beaches at the estuary are piled with huge logs. A JOYOUS WELCOME AT LONG PALEI My first meeting with Kayans was on the occasion of a visit of the Resident of the Baram district to the village of Long Palei, about 130 miles from the mouth of the Baram River and about 70 miles from the government station at Claude- town. For this distance the river is navi- gable for steam launches, but a short dis- tance above the rapids begin and native dugout canoes make slow progress pad- dling in the rapid current or poling and dragging up the rapids. We spent two days making the journey from Claudetown, calling at villages on the way, and arriving at our destination, Long Palei, late in the afternoon, where we had no sooner anchored than many of the leading people of the house, including the young chief, came on board to wel- come the Resident, who had been absent from his district for several months. The unfeigned joy with which these people welcomed the return of their white ruler, whom they had learned by long association to recognize as their best friend, was a tribute of which any man could be proud. When, after the hearty exchange of greetings on board the launch, we went on shore and climbed the steps leading into the long gallery of the house, a very old man came forward and, grasping the THE SHEATH GOWN IN ITS PRISTINE LOVELINESS Western civilization has borrowed the slit skirt from the Kayan modistes, but the elon- gated ear lobes loaded with miniature quoits have yet to make their appearance on the Champs Elysees, in Piccadilly Circus, and on Fifth Avenue (see page 143). 130 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 131 THE GALLERY OF A KAYAN HOUSE DURING A CONFERENCE WITH GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS. NOTE THE ROW OF SKULLS HANGING FROM THE BEAM IN THE LEFT FOREGROUND, NEAR THE TOP: SARAWAK The formal welcome to visitors in a Kayan house is apt to be long and somewhat tedious, but the ceremony has one advantage over the customs of occidental civilization—when the guest’s health is drunk the guest gets the drink (see page 133). Resident by the arm, conducted him to the seat prepared for him in the middle of the gallery. Then the old chieftainess, Ulau, came forward to greet us. A STATELY CHIEFTAINESS The dignified presence and stateliness of the old lady gave me one of the great- est surprises I ever experienced. She maintains rigid discipline, which is char- acteristic of the Kayan household, from the chief of the house to the head of the family, and the fruits of discipline are apparent in the good manners and recog- nition of authority that, more than any- thing else, astonish the visitor, who is not Ati DAT ROOED TET ANDSNOme lt AGHhy LOT EO This Dayak dandy wears on each leg five silver rings and many small rings braided from the fiber of an indigenous palm; he has a fine bead necklace with silver buttons; his head is crowned with an elaborate millinery creation, in which is thrust a hornbill feather. Silver bracelets and a parang, or short sword, with a beautifully carved handle, complete his resplendent regalia. 132 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 133 WATER GIRLS OF DAYAK LAND These demure Rebekahs of Sarawak are provided with gourds instead of pitchers of pottery, and their well is a bamboo trough fed by the waters of a near-by spring. prepared to find such culture among Bor- nean “savages.” There are three fairly well-defined social classes in the Kayan house: the upper class, comprising the chief and his relatives, occupy rooms in the middle of the long house; the middle class, whose members are not related to the chief, oc- cupy rooms on both sides adjoining, while the rooms at each end of the house are occupied by the slaves—that is, the descendants of those captured in war. “Slave” is rather a misleading term, for in all that concerns the welfare and comfort of this third class they differ so little from the other inhabitants of the house that one without experience has difficulty in distinguishing them. Their daily occupations do not differ very ma- terially from those of the upper classes, for almost all participate in the hard labor of planting and harvesting the rice crops. The formal welcome to visitors in a Kayan house 1s apt to be rather long and tedious, but on this occasion a number of deaths had placed the house in mourning, so that our welcome was concluded with the drinking song, a unique and interest- ing performance. HOW _A GUEST TS RECHIVED IN. A KAYAN HOUSE After the guest is seated on the fresh rattan mats spread upon the floor, when the first greetings have been exchanged and the people of the house have assem- bled, squatting in a circle around the guest, the young girls bring jars of rice wine and cups, and one of the prominent men of the house, taking his place on the mat in front of the guest, fills a cup and begins the song. In a monotone, the singer voices his esteem for the visitor and his good wishes for health and prosperity, pausing fre- 134 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE KAYAN WOMEN AND GIRLS OF TAMA APING BULIENGS HOUSE ON THE UPPER TINJAR RIVER: SARAWAK, BORNEO Obesity is a badge of feminine beauty in Turkey, small feet in China, and large ears among the women of Sarawak. Some of these youthful Borneo belles have suffered a perma- nent blemish to their charms by trying to grow beautiful in a hurry; their ears have been broken in the attempt to stretch the lobes rapidly by attaching weights greater than human flesh could bear. quently to recover breath and ideas. At each pause the crowd drones out a chorus, “Ara Wi Wi Ara,” and when the singer finally has exhausted his resources in complimentary phrases, he raises the cup to the lips of the guest, who drinks, while the crowd joins in a prolonged shout until the last drop is drained. This ceremony possesses an advantage over our method of drinking a health in that among the Kayans the guest gets the drink. On certain occasions it is proper etiquette to spill a few drops of the rice wine over the rail of the gallery for the benefit of any spirits that may be lurking outside. After the drinking song had ended the welcoming of our party, the talk turned upon the news of the country, the gossip of the household, and the disputes that had arisen among themselves or with neighboring houses since the Resident’s previous visit. Throughout the evening and well into the early hours of the morning, the Resi- dent sat patiently listening to the troubles of his people, counseling and encourag- ing them and rendering his decisions in cases that were brought before him. As I understood none of the Kayan language, I was glad to be excused and return to the launch, where I had been sleeping comfortably on the deck in the cool, tropical night for several hours be- fore the Resident could leave the almost endless talk of his Kayan friends. THE SOCIAL HOUR AT BARAM The Residency at Baram is pleasantly situated on a grassy knoll overlooking the river, where about sunset we were wont to sit in the cool evening breeze, while the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 135 CHILDREN INSURE DOMESTIC HAPPINESS IN SARAWAK Many of the young gi cate design, which, at a distance, strikingly resembles lace stockings. -are skillful in this art, the flesh frequently becomes badly swollen. Resident received pleasant social visits from natives, some bringing news from up river; others calling for mere friendly gossip. This was one of the most delightful hours of the day. ‘There was the beautiful expanse of jungle and river glowing in the colors of the brief tropical sunset, with sometimes a native boat or raft of rattan drifting gently down to the Chi- nese shops or bazaar; the short silence that comes at dusk, when the birds and insects of the day cease their chirping and those of the night have not yet be- gun—all these things bringing a sense of peace that made the great world seem indeed very far away. It was on such an evening, some weeks after the visit to Long Palei, that Tama Tijan, the young chief, and a number of his men came to visit, giving me the op- portunity of returning their hospitality. Bey sang for my phonograph, and Tama girls of the Kayan tribe have their legs tattooed in a fine and intri- Although the Kayans Tijan, who is a good musician, played the keluri, a reed instrument fashioned from bamboo pipes set into a large gourd, resembling somewhat the bagpipe, but softer and more melodious (see p. 146). One of the men gave the war dance, in which the dancer, springing lightly from side to side, guarding himself with a shield covered with tufts of hair, and brandishing his parang, or short Kayan sword, exhibits the skill with which he parries the thrusts of his enemy, and finally overcomes him and takes his head. GIVING THE “AMERICAN WAR DANCE’ BY NATIVE REQUEST It was all very interesting until Tama Julan, a jolly old fellow, made the em- barrassing suggestion that, as they had been showing me how the war dance was done in Borneo,.it was only fair that I should show how it was done in America. Instead of explaining, as I ought to DAP INA TONAL GEOGRANE EMC MiG wZDNie TAMA APING BULIENG, THE KAYAN HEAD CHIEF OF THE TINJAR RIVER, ARRIVING AT A GOVERNMENT STATION have done, that we have no war dance in America, I was so foolish as to attempt, with a parang and shield, to imitate the war dance of our Indians. My deter- mination to make up in energy what I lacked in grace only added to the ab- surdity of my performance, and I finished in that distressing silence which falls on a company when something unpleasant has happened. For a moment no one could think of anything to say; but Tama Julan was equal to the occasion, exclaiming pres- ently in Malay, with great apparent ear- MeStmMess ai \Velll| it ia imamvene tommlect you in the jungle, he would run right away. Mark Twain once remarked that the happy phrasing of a compliment is one ft the rarest "of human Jeiits, and= the happy delivery of it another, so I think Tama Julan had good cause for being very much annoyed when a young fellow spoiled his tactful compliment by point- ing out that, nevertheless, while I was dancing I was all the time holding the parang with the cutting edge toward my- self. 2 Tama Julan’s desire to relieve me of the embarrassment of my indiscretion is typical of the Kayan’s courtesy and con- sideration. A COMPANIONABLE KAYAN BOY When we returned from our visit to Long Palei, the Resident induced a 17- year-old Kayan boy, Kebing, who had not been well, to come down the river in the hope that medicine and a change would benefit him. For several weeks he was my constant companion, occupy- ing with his little slave the room next to mine in the Residency, where he spread his mat on the floor to sleep. Kebing is the stepson of Ulau, the chieftess of Long Palei, and the son of THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ON THE BANKS OF THE BARAM, NEAR LONG PALEI: 137 SARAWAK, BORNEO ; The disk-shaped article which the youth holds in his right hand with his two spears is not a shield but a sun hat similar to the one on his head. His clothing is scarcely of such quality and quantity as would justify the precaution of carrying for its protection the roll of rain-proof kadjang, made of palm leaves, which he has under his left arm. a celebrated chief of former days. He has always been a great favorite with his stepmother, who has trained him so well that few boys could surpass him in gentle manners. He was for me a constant joy, always keen to see the curious articles in my baggage but never obtrusive ; always glad to hear my stories of my country or to tell me about his own. He speaks fluently two languages besides his own, and aided me much in acquiring a knowledge of Malay. A Dayak less considerate than Kebing once took delight in pointing out to me, while I was floundering about in very bad Malay, that, of course, it’s easy for the white man to learn a language, be- cause he doesn’t have to trust entirely to < his memory; when he hears a word he can write it down. The mystery of writing is naturally looked upon by the less intelligent up- river natives as a very wonderful thing, and a surat, or document, either written or printed, is an object of very great re- spect. Major J. C. Moulton gives a curi- ous example. He had been traveling with an intelligent native named Belulok when the following incident occurred: “Belulok asked my assistance in re- covering a debt of one buffalo and a quan- tity of rubber from a Kalabit here, who, he said, had been owing him that for some time. “Of course, I had no power to do any- thing of the sort and told him so; but he said he quite understood that and all he 138 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE KAYAN NATIVES IN A CANOE WITH A CURIOUS CROCODILE FIGUREHEAD Aside from some poisonous snakes, the crocodile is the only dangerous living thing of jungle or stream which the natives of Sarawak have to fear, except enemies of their own kind. wanted was an all-powerful surat—it didn’t matter what—any scrap of paper with some writing on would do, he said, as the Kalabit could not read (nor could he tor ithematter of that). sso. leave him an old envelope which bore my name and address, and with this talisman he succeeded in recovering a certain amount of rubber ($10 or $15 worth) there and then! What wicked untruths he saw fit to tell about the power of the surat I did not inquire about.” Kebing was greatly interested in my sextant, and my attempts to explain the use of it led to many interesting talks. It is always a matter of interest to ask how far it is to the Tuan’s “long house,” Tuan being the Malay title of address for the white man, and the native con- ceives of the white man living on the banks of rivers in long communal houses just as he does. TRYING TO TEACH_GEOGRAPHY TO A NATIVE In an effort to give Kebing some idea of geography, I told him it was possible to go to America by traveling either in the direction in which the sun rises or the direction in which it sets, and to ex- plain this incredible statement I scratched a map on the surface of a green orange, telling him that the sun stands still and the earth turns around. “Once every day?” he asked. ples alene plied: Well? why does at tuna? eA tavner difficult question. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE RAILWAYS AND DIRT ROADS ARE EQUALLY UNKNOWN IN THE JUNGLES OF SARAWAK: THE RIVERS ARE THE SOLE ARTERIES OF COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATION Next to the Rejang, the Baram is the largest river in Sarawak. When the river is in flood, great trees come sweeping down, washed away as the waters continually change their course, so that the beaches at the estuary are piled with huge logs. A former Resident once told Tama Bulan, a very intelligent chief, that the earth turns, but Tama Bulan protested that it could hardly be so, for one could see that it is the sun which moves; and the matter was not referred to again for several years, when Tama Bulan one day remarked that he had decided to accept the statement, for every white man he had asked said the same thing. One evening, when I was taking sights on the stars, Kebing told me the names of the constellations ; the Pleiades is ‘‘the bamboo clump” and Orion “the pig trap,” which it certainly resembles as much as it does a sword, the pig trap being simply a sharp bamboo spike which is driven into the pig and sometimes, unfortu- nately, into the man who walks against the slender vine that releases the spring. ‘PIYOO]IOAO UVsq IALY Ayqussod 1 UP[NOd Ht ‘WYsiI sulaq PUIM 94], “PUY O} spUdttfZ Iloy} OF JaATI oy} Aq Suny Ady} Yeo JOU pynod Aad wy “}seay }e SAePp INOF JO 3914} Ppeap Useq ApjUatedde pey i] NIGUEL “Gust, INU GVad GNNOA GVH AWHL DId V.ONIMOOD "OUNUOD AO SHOVU AAILIWINd PSOWN AHL TO HNO “SNVNNd ‘(ZVI a8ed 4x01 90S) YeMeIeS JO sopdood uevsed oy} JO suomednos0 Ssojwaey pue sutojsno aAr}IUtId oY} Sulho1j}sap JO Joa SLSOd GHOV Id GN NI4HO0) V N Suep oY} poztusOdet AjosIM oAeY syeler o}IYM oT GHANVO ATANOSALOWD “ADONH AO dOL NO V GHLVIOONG ATALVYOIV TA NAHI SI HOIHM I GHOWId SI AGOT AHL “AYVOLYOW NVAVM V 140 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Since the seasons so near the equator are not at all sharply distinguished by changes in the weather, it is necessary to make use of some astronomical means of determining the proper time for plant- ing rice, for it must be growing during the rainy season. THE STARS GUIDE NATIVES IN PLANTING Some tribes make the determination by noting the day when the Pleiades is first visible just before the sun rises. Among other tribes the wise men make what amounts to an altitude measure- ment of the sun at noon. ‘Two poles, decorated with carvings, are used; one is erected vertically in level ground; the other is used to measure the length of the shadow of the vertical pole at noon; when this shadow has attained a certain length, the proper time has come. Still other tribes fix the day by the al- titude of a particular star or constella- tion when it can first be seen after sun- set; this altitude is indicated by filling a bamboo pipe with water, pointing it at the star, and observing the new level of the water when the bamboo is again held vertical. Kebing once asked me what the sky is -made of—if of rock—and was much dis- gusted with my rather inaccurate reply, that it wasn’t anything. “But you can Seemiene is something there.” One of the difficulties of the Resident is to keep familiar with the names of his Kayan people, for their names are always changing. For example, if Kebing mar- ries and has a son whose name is Soring, his own name will become Tama Soring Kebing—“Tama” meaning “father of” — and he will be referred to frequently by the abbreviated title Tama Soring. If Kebing’s wife dies, he will be known as mbameeebing: ii his first’ child dies, Oyong Kebing, and so on, with several other possible titles. He will end as Lak Kebing, grandfather Kebing. The diff- culty is, that it is an important matter of etiquette always to address a man by his proper title. DHE EXCURSION (TO. MT. MULU About 35 miles to the east of Claude- town the peak of Mt. Mulu, 9,000 feet high, lying between the basins of the 141 Limbang and Baram rivers, can be seen Onewa Clear dayen Om) the sides, of the mountain rise the sources of the Milanau River, which empties into the Tutau River, and thence into the Baram, and furnishes a means of approach to the mountain. The sides of the mountain are formed of precipitous limestone cliffs, while not the least of the difficulties in making an ascent is to persuade any natives to ac- company an explorer, for they believe that such places are the abode of the most malignant evil spirits. In 1858 Sir Spen- cer St. John attempted the ascent, but was prevented by impassable barriers from reaching an altitude of more than 3,500 feet (see pages 150-153). The country about Mulu is very thinly inhabited and the jungle is old growth, so that it was with keen anticipation that I started one morning early in June for a visit to the headwaters of the Milanau River. For the first day the Resident placed the launch at my disposal, which made it possible by towing my native boat, or prau, to make rapid progress up the Baram and Tutau rivers, spending the night comfortably at the house of a Malay trader. The trader had fastened some logs to- gether and moored them to the shore, forming a small landing stage with a little shed, where one could bathe without danger from crocodiles. As the launch swung in tow ard the landing, the current caught the bow, and for a moment it seemed that we should strike the log with considerable force; whereupon a Malay on the landing cried out, Don't rum into the iceberg” Thus had the story of the Titanic, incredible to the tropical people, spread far into Borneo. The next morning, bidding good-by to my Kayan friends from Long Palei, who were to be taken part of their journey on the) launch» further up the Baram River, I made an early start in the prau, accompanied by my Chinese cook, Ah Jun, two Malays, and three Dayaks to act as my boat crew. One of my Malays was suffering from korup, a horrid skin disease that covers the body with dry, gray scales; he was 142 LAND DAYAK MEN OF SARAWAK The bamboo boxes at their belts contain tobacco, matches, and betel-nut and siri to chew. Generally the loose end of the chawat, or loin cloth, hangs from the belt, but the young swell with the bead necklace has tucked the corner of his chawat into the belt, so as to be dressed a little differently from the others. also afflicted with badly inflamed eyes, so common among the natives; but for the latter ailment I was fortunately able to give him considerable relief. He was a very good boy, however, anxious to assist me in every way. The younger Dayak, Migi, was a companionable, good-natured little fellow, with velvety brown skin, a laughing face, and handsome boyish fig- ure—a constant stimulus to the good spirits of the party. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Our first day’s jour- ney was to have taken us to a Kayan house, but unfortunately the river was in freshet and the current so strong that progress was very slow. We did “not “seach tle house, and one of the Malay boys, Bakut, a Mohammedan, took delight in teasing Migi, who had incau- tiously remarked early in the afternoon that he had seen an omen bird that assured him we should find the house just around the OKS.e abb eal, A NIGHT OF DIS- COMFORT As darkness came on and it began to rain, we found ourselves compelled to seek an eddy in the current. Fastening the prau to the bank near an old clearing, three of my crew discovered a di- lapidated hut, which they patched up for the night, while the remainder slept with me in the boat. My unhappy China- man found a spot on the muddy bank, where; in) the rai with the help of an umbrella, he cooked an excellent supper, while I, under the shelter of the palm-leaf roof of the boat, collected many beautiful moths, attracted by the light of my acetylene lamp. A black, rainy night is the best possible time for the collector, for on a clear night the nocturnal insects seem to fly high. Besides the moths, a swarm of tiny flies gathered in front of my lamp as dense as a little cloud of smoke, but for- tunately mosquitoes and that worst-of-all THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE & pests, the sand-fly, like our minges, were lacking. It rained all night, the river rising about three feet; but the dawn came clear, en- abling us to get break- fast and proceed in comfort. Less than an hour’s paddling brought us to the large - Kayan house of ‘Tama Ding—a quiet, pleas- ant old man, who, I was sorry to learn, died a few months after my visit. MINISTERING TO TAT- TOO VICTIMS I found several peo- ple ill of fever, doubt- less following the end of the rainy season, and I dispensed quan- tities of quinine pills, of which one must al- ways take a large sup- ply for the natives. Many of the young girls had recently had their legs tattooed in a fine lace design, which gives the ap- pearance at a distance of dark stockings ; the Kayans are skillful in this art, but the flesh had swollen and my store of vaseline was much in demand. One girl came to me with an arm badly swollen to the shoulder, clearly the result of infection. To my question if she had cut her finger, she first denied it, thinking it not worth mentioning, but finally acknowledged that she had done so, when I asked the reason iOteune piece OF rag tied about it. She showed great amazement at my unac- countable knowledge, when I remarked that she had probably been cleaning a fish when she cut her finger. As there was nothing, of course, that I could do, I contented myself with putting 143 MIGI, A HANDSOME DAYAK YOUTH, WHO WAS ONE OF THE IEANRENYS TOME “GIDWAS ING (ONS “ANIBUE, ANRIDE GO) IMEI, MLLUIEAGS “Migi was a companionable, good-natured little fellow, with velvety brown skin, a laughing face, and boyish figure—a constant stimulus to the good spirits of the party” (see text, page 142). a little vaseline on the tiny cut, express- ing the belief that the arm would prob- ably be well in ten days or so. It was a very safe guess, for it is surprising from what wounds and infections these people can recover with no treatment whatever, while, on the other hand, a white man will find that insect bites and cuts become infected and make bad sores unless anti- septic precautions are continually em- ployed. When, a week later, I called at Tama Ding’s house on my way down river, I 144 THE NATIONAL GROGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A TYPE OF RIVER CRAFT MUCH USED IN SARAWAK: THE MEMBERS OF THE CREW SQUAT IN THE BOW AND STERN, REACHING OVER THE SIDE TO PADDLE The roof, made of palm leaves, provides protection from rain and sun. A small dugout is fastened with rattan beside the log. found that the girl’s arm was nearly well, and that I had a reputation as the great- est Manang, or witch doctor, that had ever come up the river. DISPENSING AMMONIA COCKTAILS TO NATIVE WOMEN Every one, sick and well, wanted medi- cine, and when a bevy of cheerful old ladies, with nothing whatever the matter with them, came to me, I was somewhat at aloss. Finding, however, in my splen- did little medicme chest) ani stimepened bottle of ammonium bromide tablets, rec- ommended as a nerve sedative, I decided that it was just the thing, and proceeded to administer small ammonia cocktails. As the old ladies had been chewing the astringent betel-nut and siri all their lives, the pungent flavor of the ammonia gave them a new sensation in their tasteless mouths that pleased them immensely. They crowded around me for more, which I was obliged to refuse. To one not skilled in the use of medi- cines, the simplicity of the medicine chest carried by Beccari, the explorer, makes a strong appeal; he dispensed only quinine, chlorodyne, or tincture of Worcester- shire sauce, as the symptoms appeared to demand. The native is no homceopath— he wants his medicine strong! THE BLACKSMITH WORKS IN SECRET As I came away from Tama Ding’s house, I noticed in a shed a man forging a parang blade and two others vigorously working a simple pump, made from large bamboos, for blowing the fire. With much interest in the making of these really fine blades, I started to enter, but was quickly told that I musn’t do so, but could watch from the outside. The blacksmith’s objections were prob- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 145 A MALAY DWELLING ON THE SARAWAK RIVER: KUCHING, BORNEO In the water the owner has built a pen of small poles in front of the steps from his house, so that his family may bathe without danger from crocodiles. When floating quietly in a small canoe, men have been known to be taken from it by a crocodile. Recently a little Malay girl rescued her brother by diving into the water and pressing her thumbs into the crocodile’s eyes until the boy was released. ably based on his fear that the arrival of a stranger at the critical moment would interfere with tempering the steel. In the old days Kayans used to smelt iron and make their own steel, but now they buy European steel bars from the Chinese traders. 'Leaving Tama Ding’s house at noon, I arrived about 4 o'clock at the small house of Tama Tapan Semane, a Kayan, who, having been to a mission school, reads Malay in both Roman and Arabic char- dererseand is an agreeable host, but a generally disreputable member of Kayan society. As the river was rising rapidly and rain threatening, I was glad to make sure of a dry house for myself and boys rather than risk another uncomfortable night in the pra. Three hours’ paddling against a strong current brought us on the following morning to the farm house of Tama Saging. It was a small house built a few miles up river from his fine, large, per- manent home for the purpose of working new farm lands. To Tama Saging I brought a letter from the Resident, asking his assistance and, if possible, his own company for my trip further up river. Tama Saging him- self cannot read, but a Malay living with him interpreted the letter, which also called upon him to appear at the govern- ment office on business twenty days from the date of the letter. A KNOTTED STRING HIS ONLY CALENDAR In order to fix the date, I carried with the letter to Tama Saging a tebuku—that is, a string with twenty knots tied in it. While I had the tebuku I cut off one knot each morning, and Tama Saging later did the same, so that when all the knots were gone he would know the appointed day had arrived. 146 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE KAYAN SWORD DANCE, SHOWING HOW THE WARRIOR ATTACKS HIS ENEMY AND FINALLY TAKES HIS HEAD The man at the left is playing the keluri, a reed instrument of bamboo tubes, giving rather pleasant music (see page 135). I noticed that Tama Saging had five other tebukus hanging from the bamboo box containing his tobacco. Before I left Claudetown, word had been received from up the Baram River that the taking of omens for the planting of the rice fields was about to begin, and that in consequence the houses would be malan, or tabu, which meant that no stranger could enter them nor the occu- pants start on a journey during the next three or four weeks, while the ceremonies were in progress. The Resident cautioned me to ascertain carefully before entering Tama Saging’s house if such were the condition of af- fairs with him, for in that case I would have to content myself with the hospi- tality of a Chinese trader. Upon explaining the situation to Tama Saging, he exclaimed that his people were not like those in other communi- ties. He would only take two or three days for observing the omens and would not begin for ten days yet, anyway; so I was quite at liberty to enter his house, where he saw that I was comfortably settled, with my numerous impedimenta, in the veranda or gallery opposite his room. Visitors are always quartered in the gallery, which forms, on the river side of the long house, a common passageway for entrance to the row of rooms on the other side. As the eaves are low, the gallery is well protected from the rain and is really theshestplace tonslecep: Tama Saging’s hospitality was perfect ; but he took his time to decide whether he could go up river with me, and I suspect that he wanted at least to make sure that I would not prove a burdensome travel- ing companion. This precaution of finding out if Tama Saging’s house were tabu before enter- ing it, provided an interesting illustration of the care that Rajah Brooke has taken THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4“ ea < —; <@ —g rum) (cherry ‘ete Chen, brandy, cherry bounce, cherry cordial—these are but a few of the) nectars imanurachimed from wild black cherries. SWEET CHERRY ° Prunus avium L,. [Plate IIT] The sweet cherry is an immigrant from the region of the Caspian Sea and Euphrates River. Just when the sweet cherry landed in America is not recorded. Its naturalization papers have never been located. But it has been thoroughly Americanized. The tree has a long list of local names— among them, “bird cherry,” “brandy iaZ Zana attaining a height of 75 ‘feet, it has) a fine, rounded, pyramidal crown. when young, but as it grows older it acquires more portliness, spreading out like a field oak. Itself a wild growth, it has a distinguished progeny that acknowledge and enjoy domesti- cation—the delicious blackheart, the splendid honeyheart, the fine wax, and the acid sour cherry, all tracing their lineage to the wild sweet cherry or its cousin, the wild sour cherry. The flowering time of the sweet cherry is Photograph by Edwin Hale Lincoln A HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY LOADED WITH BLOSSOMS Crossed with the lowbush blueberry, this plant in cultivation produces a hybrid which yields blueberries as big as Concord grapes. A single bush has been known to yield half a gallon of berries (see “The Wild Blueberry Tamed,” by F. V. Coville, NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, June, 1916). az April and May. With their reddish white and pink petals in rich and fragrant profusion, the blossoms have a world of insect visitors who dance and feast away the day amid the abun- dance of nectar and pollen. Japan is par excellence’ the cherry” ‘country. It has a hundred or more varieties, with white, yellow, pink, and. rose-colored blossoms. They grow throughout the length and breadth of the empire and are planted in vast numbers every- where—in temples, castle grounds, parks, gar- dens, along streets and highways, and by ponds and rivers. A three-mile avenue of cherries planted nearly two hundred years ago by the Shogun Yoshimune, in the vicinity of Kogenal, some ten miles from Tokyo, forms a. sight never to be forgotten by the visitor. Some of the trees are 7o feet tall, with crowns. having a spread equal to their height, and with girths of trunk up to 12 feet. When William Howard Taft eee the Orient on his tour of the world before becom- ing President, the Japanese gave Mrs. Taft a wonderful collection of flowering cherry trees. These have been planted along the Speedway in Washington, and a century hence that won- derful driveway will rival the great Shogun avenue at Kogenal. HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY [Plate IIT] Who that has eaten a real blueberry roll or partaken of a piece of genuine, unadulterated, well-baked blueberry pie can doubt that Fred- erick V. Coville was right when he declared that the blueberry had the cranberry beaten, because “you can’t use cranberries without buying a turkey to eat with‘them!” This emi- nent authority has written about the blueberry in previous issues of THE GEOGRAPHIC (see the NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MacAzINnE for Feb- FUAby LOLs Ways Tons. ama) tne; 1916). THE EARLY HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY Vaccinium atrococcum (A. Gray) Heller [Plate 11h] The early highbush blueberry has practically the same range as its cousin mentioned above. It flourishes from Maine and Ontario to North Carolina and westward. The shrub has shreddy bark and its green branches are cov- ered with minute warty excrescences. The young twigs are downy, as are also the under surfaces of the leaves. "The foliage does not develop until after flowering time. The blos- soms are yellowish or greenish white, tinged with red; they are small and appear about ten days earlier than those of Vaccinium corym- bosum. ‘The fruit likewise ripens earlier. The berries are black and shine like beads, but are without the waxy bloom that serves as a nat- ural mackintosh for so many plants. AMERICAN BITTERSWEET Celastrus scandens L. [Plate IV] Member of the staff-tree family, the Amer- ican bittersweet is less a tree and more a vine, Vaccinium corymbosum L. THE NATI@NAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE with numerous common names, including “climbing orange root.’ The fruit, which is a capsule and not a berry, bursts in ‘the frosty days of fall, and, crinkling back, thrusts for- ward the bright scarlet arils inclosing the seeds. Not content to twine itself around other vegetation, this vine often outdoes the kitten that plays with its‘own tail, twisting its own stems together, frequently into a rope of great strength. It does not cling like the friendly ivy, but, with the constricting power of the python, it winds and twines about a sapling with such persistent strength that the young tree is often killed. The range of the American bittersweet is from eastern Canada to South Dakota and from North Carolina to New Mexico, the shrub being especially abundant in the Middle West. The flowers put in their appearance in June. They are creamy white, small, incon- spicuous, and scentless. The berry- like cap- sules reach their full development in Septem- ber. They remain on the stems all winter, un- less eaten by the birds. If gathered and dried on the branches before frost, they become hard and durable and will retain the bright fresh- ness of their coloring for several years. If one may judge from the use made of this plant by the primitive Indians, it has a right to be called the staff tree. When their little patches of maize and other crops failed and famine threatened, the red man resorted to the use.of the American bittersweet. SILKY CORNEL Cornus amomum Mill [Plate IV] - The dogwood family, to which the silky cor- nel belongs, is one of ancient lineage and dis- tinguished associations. Virgil refers to the javelins made of myrtle and cornel wood which pierced the body of Polydore. Pausanias men- tions a festival celebrated in honor of Apollo at Lacedemonia, which was instituted by the Greeks to appease the wrath of the god at their having cut down the cornel trees on Mt. Ida. Romulus, wishing to enlarge the boundaries of Rome, hurled his spear to mark the extension permitted by the gods. It stuck into the ground on Palatine Hill, and from the handle, made of cornel wood, grew a fine tree—an event held to foreshadow the greatness and strength of the Roman State. The silky cornel is one of the aristocrats of the family. It prefers swamps and low, damp ground, and grows almost exclusively amid such surroundings. In territorial limits it is a little less restricted; for it is found from New Brunswick to Florida and wanders as far west as Nebraska. Indigenous to North America, it is usually found in company with the true arrowwood. In the North a shrub that sel- dom grows over 10 feet tall, in the South it becomes a fair-sized tree. It flowers in June and develops fruit before frost time. The ber- ries are a beautiful pale blue with a silvery sheen. Among the common names by which the silky cornel is known are “blue-berried dog- SPICEBUSH BLack ALDER Benzoin aestivale (L.) Nees | Ilex verticillata (L.) A. Gray AMERICAN MOUNTAIN ASH ; SMOOTH SUMAC Sorbus americana Marsh. Rhus glabra L ROUNDLEAF GREENBRIER Smilax rotundifolia L. Biue CouosH BLack GUM Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. ~ Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. II WiLp Biack CHERRY SWEET CHERRY Prunus servtina Ehrh. Prunus avium L. HicusBusH BLUEBERRY EARLY HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY Vaccinium corymbosum L. Vaccinium atrococcum (A. Gray) Heller IIl AMERICAN BITTERSWEET Celastrus scandens L. SILKY CORNEL Cornus amomum Mill. BAYBERRY Myrica carolinensis Mill. IV MaPLELEAF ARROWWOOD Viburnum acerifolium L. AMERICAN CRANBERRY SHADBUSH Oxycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Pursh Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. SWEET ELDER Sambucus canadensis L. W BLUELEAF GREENBRIER W INTERGREEN Smilax glauca Walt. BUNCHBERRY Gaultheria procumbens L. CoraL BERRY Cornus canadensis L. Symphoricarpus orbiculatus Moench. VI SNOWBERRY AMERICAN HOLLY Symphoricarpus albus (L.) Blake Ilex opaca Ait. LoNGSPINE THORN HIGHBUSH CRANBERRY Crataegus succulenta Schrader Viburnum americanum Mill. VII Z ‘WA CT) 227 0¢24N G40 vinosy AYUATTAOHD AzY uoyLig vasndsndosy VIUILY AUVITAAOHD ATTAIN uoWIG (XY) Vd 4VI0ND]aW VInNOsAY AWAITAIOHD AOWIg VIli THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE wood,” “red brush,” “kinnikinnik,” “squaw- bush,” “swamp dogwood,” etc. This species has often served as a substitute for quinine, decoctions being made from the bark and tender twigs. The fresh bark is chopped, pounded, mixed with alcohol, and filtered. The resulting tincture is of a beau- tiful madder color and possesses an odor like that of the sugar cane when its juices are slightly soured. The Indians scrape the inner bark and smoke it in their pipes when tobacco is scarce, BAYBERRY Myrica carolinensis Mill [Plate 1V] Belonging to the Myricaceze family, the bay- berry is a cousin of the sweet fern and the sweet gale. It is known also as “bay myrtle” and “tallow shrub.” Its favorite place of abode is sandy soil, and its habitat extends from Alaska and Nova Scotia to Florida. It owes its names “waxberry” and “tallow shrub” to the service which it rendered to the colonists in America. Animal fats were not overplenti- ful in those days; but the farmer had a large family of children, and he believed that they could gather berries for making candles with more edification than they could play—accord- ing to the stern Puritan views of the times. Candles made from bayberry wax are more brittle and less greasy than those made from tallow. They are a curious, almost transparent green, and when the flame is put out the re- sulting odor is as sweet and pungent as in- cense. The bark and roots of the bayberry possess medicinal properties. The roots, when boiled, yield a tea reputed to be a specific for head- ache; to the bark are attributed properties valuable in the treatment of jaundice and in making soothing poultices for sores and ulcers. The Scotch Highlanders use the leaves; which are bitter and aromatic, as a substitute for hops in the brewing of beer, it being alleged that they increase the intoxicating effect of that beverage. The Highland clan Campbell wears the sweet - gale, the Scotch edition of the bayberry, as its family badge. MAPLELEAF ARROWWOOD Viburnum acerifolium (L.) [Plate IV] The mapleleaf arrowwood is a member of the honeysuckle family, having as cousins the elders, the hobble-bushes, the sweeet vibur- nums, the black haws, the bush-honeysuckles, the coral-berries, the snowberries, and the horse gentians. It is a shrub, from three to five feet high, and, except for its flowers and fruit, would pass almost anywhere as a young maple shoot. With dense, spreading foliage, the bush has a preference for the shade of woodland thick- ets. Ranging from New Brunswick and Min- nesota on the north to Kentucky and Georgia on the south, it prefers rocky, broken ground rather than damp soils. The heights back of 181 the Palisades of the Hudson are favorite haunts of the viburnum. The bayberry grows in almost sterile soil. A close relative of the snowball tree, this species bears profuse clusters of small, white, scentless blossoms. The fruit is a dark, pur- plish berry the size of a pea. AMERICAN CRANBERRY Oxycoccus macrocarpus (Ait.) Pursn. Pelate Ws] Together with blueberries, huckleberries. snowberries, trailing arbutus, and wintergreen, the cranberry belongs to the -heath family, which also embraces the azaleas, the lilacs, the laurels, the rhododendrons, the heathers, and some of the rosebays and rosemaries. The plant is a trailing evergreen, with a rather stout stem, growing from one to four feet long. It is very tough, in spite of its deli- cate proportions, and is found in open bogs and swamps from Newfoundland to western Wisconsin, with scattered colonies as far south as the Carolinas and Arkansas. Its fa- vorite haunts, however, are in Massachusetts, New Jersey, northern Michigan, and Wiscon- sin. June time is blossom time in cranberry land, and its flowers are as pink and pretty as its berries are round and red. The former are tube-shaped and pendant from slender, sway- ing stems. First domesticated about 1810, not until some four decades later did its merits become widely known and its berries find their way into the homes of the people of the nation. ‘Today the estimated production is around fifty million quarts a year—a pint for every human being in the United States. SWEET ELDER Sambucus canadensis (L.) [Plate V] Ranging from Nova Scotia to Manitoba and from Florida to Texas, with colonies in the West Indies, the sweet elder climbs mountains and gladdens valleys alike. The brittle twigs and young sprouts are full of pith, while the older stalks are nearly solid. The hardy leaves are often seen unchanged in hue, frozen stiff on the stems, in December. So repugnant to insects is the odor of the sweet elder that an eighteenth century gardener recommends that cabbages, turnips, etc., be whipped with young elder twigs to preserve them from insect ravages. An infusion of elder leaves is often used today to keep bugs from vines. The clustered flowers of the elder remind one of mellow old lace. They give off a heavy, sweetish, and to many people a rather sicken- ing odor. The flowers appear from June to August. Elder flower water is much used by the confectioner. A perfume made with the flowers, distilled water, and rectified spirits serves to flavor wines and jellies. The young buds are sometimes pickled like capers. The dried flowers contain a volatile oil, resin, wax, 182 tannin, etc., and possess stimulating medicinal properties. The juice of the elderberry was used by the Romans to paint the statues of Jupiter red on festive occasions, and in convivial history has been rather widely used as an adulterant of grape juice. Its specific name is supposed to be derived from sambuke, an ancient musical reed instru- ment—the prototype of the crude hollow-stem elder whistle of the bare-foot country boy. These same hollow stalks of the elder play an important role in every maple-sugar camp. Cut into appropriate lengths and inserted in the incisions of the tapped trees, they serve to conduct the rising sap into the waiting pail or sugar trough. No shrub is more generous with its fruit than the elder. Other crops may fail, but this plant always produces a full harvest, never yielding to the caprices of the season, be it wet or dry, hot or cold. SHADBUSH Amelanchier canadensis (l,.) Medic. Riater V4 The shadbush belongs to the rose family and is a cousin of the chokeberry, the apple, and the hawthorn. With green, toothed leaves, gray and sepia brown twigs, and red and pink fruit, it is a beauty in the fall, just as it is in the spring, when the white, pink-trimmed. blos- soms appear. Among its local names are “box- wood,” “Canadian medlar,’ “Juneberry,”’ “sand cherry,” “service-berry,”’ “sugar-berry,”’ “sugar pear,’ “bilberry,” “shadblow,” “snowy mes- pilus,” and “May cherry.” This species is a shrub or small tree varying from 8 to 25 feet in height, usually attaining its maximum growth in swamps and along river courses. Its habitat extends from New- foundland to the Gulf of Mexico and through- out the Middle West. The fruit forms in June and July, the berries varying in size from that of a currant to that of a morello cherry. When they are in season, boys, robins, and bears alike feast upon them. The color of the fruit varies from crimson, through magenta to purple or black. The wood of the shadbush is known as “lance-wood,” and many a fishing pole and um- brella handle has been fashioned from it. The Indians often made bows and arrows from it, and it is in considerable demand for tool handles. In some communities the shadbush is culti- vated, being propagated from seeds as readily as apples. It has’) been’ found “a ‘satistactony, stock upon which to graft the pear and the quince, both of these fruits maturing earlier when so grafted and the resulting trees endur- ing the winter more easily. The pemmican of the Indians was composed of deer or buffalo meat dried and pounded to a powder, to which was added dried Juneber- ries or blueberries, the mixture being then stirred into boiling fat. When cooled, the mass was molded into cakes. When the Lewis and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Clark expeditions made the first overland jour- ney to the Pacific Ocean, their provisions ran short while in the region of the upper Mis- souri River, and it was one of the Amelanchier species, alnifolia, that came to their rescue with a bountiful supply of luscious berries. WINTERGREEN Gaultheria procumbens L,. [Plate VI] The wintergreen, with its warm-hued berries, has many names: “checker-berry,” “boxberry,” deerberry,” “groundberry,” “tvy-berry,” “gin- ger-berry,” “grouseberry,” and “spiceberry,” mountain tea,” “Jersey tea,” “Canadian tea,” and “waxy plum.” Its tender leaves are known as “little Johnnies,” “pippins,” “drunkards,” and by other names of like import, though they have naught whatever about them to sug- gest stage entrances, or gaiety, or inebriety. The wintergreen is a woody vine with an underground creeping stem, from which spring erect flowering branches from three to five inches high. These branches bear at their tops crowded groups of aromatic leaves. The habitat of the wintergreen is the quiet solitude of damp woods, extendine) as tan north as Newfoundland and Manitoba. Its real headquarters are the Andes Mountains, on whose slopes it appears in nearly a hundred different species. A few species are found in Asia, but wherever it grows it will usually be found under the shade of the pines. Blossoms appear any time between early spring and late fall, and the bright-red berries seem to have all seasons for their own. They are so plenti- ful in southeastern Massachusetts that they are sometimes seen on the fruit stands in the Bos- ton markets. The spicy aromatic flavor of the wintergreen appears equally in leaf and flower and fruit. It is the active element in oil of wintergreen, used widely as a scent for soap, a flavor for chewing gum, candy, etc., and as a camouflage . for bad-tasting medicines. — One of the strange tricks of nature appears strikingly in the analysis of the oil of winter- green. How a little creeping plant can take substances from the soil and air and manu- facture them into a compound that is exactly like another preparation compounded in the laboratory of a big, deep-rooted tree, is passing strange. Yet the only difference between the oil of the wintergreen and that of the sweet birch is a slight variation of their boiling points. Well may Newhall ask, “By what al- chemy can the little checker-berry vine and a tree—the unrelated black birch—both elaborate from the elements around them the same most pleasant scent and flavor?” BLUELEAF GREENBRIER Smilax glauca Walt. [Plate VI] Cousin alike of the evil-odored carrion flower and the fragrant lily-of-the-valley; sharing its family relationship impartially with the grace- ful Solomon’s seal, the handsome wake robin, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the charming painted trillium, and the dashing tiger lily, the blueleaf greenbrier is a rustic member of the aristocratic lily family, which has its full share of worthy scions as well as its quota of black sheep. It is commonly known by such names as “saw brier,”’ “false sarsaparilla,’ and “bull bay.” Sometimes it is confused with the “cat brier.” The blueleaf greenbrier may be found from Maine to Florida and as far West as Texas. Gregarious in its tastes, it grows in thickets, where it adds much to the impenetrability of the brushy mass. ‘The plant is a persistent climber, with many irregular branchlets, and with tendrils of astonishing strength. The vine is woody, but usually is armed with slender prickles that make up in sharpness what they lack in sturdiness. In the summer, the leaves are a bluish green with a powdery bloom on their under surfaces. They are beautifully crimsoned by the cold of the late fall. The berries are black, each having two or three seeds. CORAL BERRY Symphoricarpus orbiculatus Moench [Plate VI] The coral berry is another member of the Series pictured here that belongs to the honey- suckle family, in which are included the elder, the viburnums, the snowberry, etc. It is vari- ously known as “Indian currant,” “low wood- bine,” “buck bush,” “turkey berry,” and “snap- berry,’ and is an erect shrub, growing from two to five feet high, with purple or madder- brown branches, slightly hairy in their younger days. The region gladdened by the presence of this shrub is bounded by New York and North Dakota on the north and by Georgia and Texas on the south. It is a native of the Mississippi Valley. With a preference for a normal loam or clayey soil, the coral berry thrives best in some grove- -like wood where the rivalries of the undergrowths do not make life too hard a struggle. In the summer the delicate short- stemmed leaves are a soft, neutral gray green. In the fall the bush is transformed; each branchlet, bending beneath its weight of fruit, becomes a wand of delicate red. And as each branch has many spray-like twigs, the whole forms a complex profusion of color, making it deservedly one of America’s favorite decora- tive shrubs. The Ojibwa Indians call the coral berry “gus- sigwaka-mesh” and use a decoction of it as a remedy for sore eyes. BUNCHBERRY Cornus canadensis (L.) [Plate VI] This species is the smallest member of the dogwood family, attaining a height of less than a foot. It is an immigrant, a native of East- ern Asia that came as a stowaway to America, where it has spread over a considerable area. 183 Never flaunting itself in profligate profusion in the haunts of men, it is timid as a wild turkey, seeking the cool quiet of damp, deep woods, where it lives a modest life in company with the partridge vine, the golden thread, the fern, and the twin-flower, forming a carpet that matches in color and design the rarest rugs of Kermanshah or Bokhara. The bunch- berry is equally at home in Labrador and Alaska, and in New Jersey and California, which broadly mark the four corners of its irregular range. The leaves appear reasonably early, but its delicate little greenish white flowers, with their four surrounding bracts of white that pass for petals, do not come until May. They usually remain until July, after which the plant, tired of debutante days, settles down to the duty of rearing a family of berries. These begin to appear in August, in compact clusters, dressed in as vivid a scarlet as can be imagined. They are as insipid to taste as they are glorious to sight, so far as man is concerned, but for the birds the berries seem to be “done to a turn” in the kitchen of Nature. SNOWBERRY Symphoricarpus albus (L.) Blake [Plate VII] The snowberry is a member of the honey- suckle family and is variously known as “snow- drop,” “waxberry,”’ “egg-plant,” etc. The snowberry seeks dry limestone ridges and rocky banks. It is a native of North America, but finds a home almost anywhere, spreading across the continent from Quebec to Alaska and from central Pennsylvania to Cali- fornia. The green, short-stemmed, elliptic-ob- long leaves are downy underneath. The bell- shaped flowers, which come in May and June, are pink, but so small as to be inconspicuous. The berries, which are inedible, form in clusters along the slender branches from late June until after early frosts. Their size ranges from that of a pea to that of a marble, as a substitute for which children often use them. This species is easy to cultivate. It spreads rapidly from suckers. Often it is planted with its cousin, the coral berry, and a fine green dooryard studded with snowberry pearls and coral-berry beads is a sight fair to behold. LONGSPINE THORN Cratzgus succulenta Schrader [Plate VII] This plant, growing as a low shrub in some localities and as a small tree in other regions, has a range extending from Nova Scotia through Quebec and Ontario to Minnesota, and thence southeastward to the mountains of Vir- ginia. It has a preference for rich uplands and limestone soil. The weapons that give the longspine thorn its name are numerous and grow from 1% to 3% inches long. ‘They are slender, shining chestnut-brown spines, almost as sharp as nee- 184 dles. The flowers appear in May, form in white clusters, calling the insect host with both appeal of beauty and the allurement of fra- grance. They have a great many visitors, the bees coming more frequently than the butter- flies. The berries develop in September. ‘They are garnet-colored and translucent, with a shiny, polished appearance. They are not betries, from a scientific standpoint, but belong to the apple type of fruits. They fall off when the frosts become frequent, while the leaves grad- ually assume that variegated coloring where red and green and yellow are mixed in vary- ing proportions and with gorgeous effect. Longspine thorns are sometimes used as a stock upon which to graft apples and other pome fruits. They are rapid growers, the shoot of a single year being sufficiently large to serve as a walking stick. ‘The species is one of a large group known as the hawthorns. Prior to 1899 there were about 65 species of hawthorns known, of which some 25 were in North America. At present about 600 species have been described. AMERICAN HOLLY Ilex opaca Ait. [Plate VII] The American holly occurs from Massachu- setts to Florida and from Indiana to the Gulf of Mexico, reaching its greatest abundance in the coast regions, its greatest size in ‘Texas, and its greatest beauty in the Carolina moun- tains. While in Texas and Arkansas holly trees often attain a height of 45 feet and a diameter of four feet, in the North they are rarely more than Io feet high or more than a few inches in diameter. The holly leaves sometimes hold fast for three years, usually staying until driven off by some ambitious suc- cessor. ‘They are stiff, ‘eathery, and spine- tipped. Few plants are less subject to insect tres- passers than the holly, although the leaves are a favorite food of the caterpillar of the pretty azure-blue butterfly (Polyommatus argiolus). The tree usually blooms in May or June, the flowers being small and greenish white in color. The fruit of the holly is eaten with impunity by birds, though considered poisonous to man. The rare combination of these bright, cheery berries with the shiny green leaves makes the holly much admired. Its beauty, however, is proving, as usual, a somewhat dangerous gift. Unless protected from the axes of the foliage and shrubbery gatherers, there is grave danger that it will disappear in half a century. The wood of the holly is fine-grained and is employed extensively in cabinet-making, inlay work, and the manufacture of musical instru- ments. It is also used for engravers’ blocks and for rollers for printing cotton goods. There are about 175 species in the holly group of plants, a dozen or more being found in the United States, including some that bear black berries and others that yield yellow ones. The holly’s use as a decoration is thought to THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE be a survival of the usages of the Roman Saturnalia. It was the custom, before that celebration in commemoration of the blessings of agriculture degenerated into a period of unbridled license, to send a sprig of holly with a gift, as a token of good wishes. The Chris- tian custom of decorating houses at Christmas seems to have come from the pagans. ‘The Council of Bracara forbade such decking of houses with all green things, alleging it to be a pagan observance. HIGHBUSH CRANBERRY Viburnum americanum Mill. [Plate VII] The highbush cranberry belongs to the honey- suckle family and has a fruit of the peach rather than of the berry type. This shrub grows from three to fourteen feet tall, with smooth stems and gray brown or buff branches. It is a native of Siberia, and in North America has a range reaching from Newfoundland and British Columbia to New Jersey and Iowa, being variously known as the “American guelder rose,” the “cranberry tree,” etc. It thrives best in upland soils, where the true cranberry cannot live. The familiar snowball tree is a sterile form of the highbush cranberry. The flowers of the highbush cranberry ap- pear in May and June and consist of masses of small, white blossoms. The berries of the fertile plant come in early summer. They remain on the bush all winter, their flavor being too sharp even for the bold appetite of a hungry bird. THE CHOKEBERRIES Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Britton Aronia atropurpurea Britton Aronia arbutifolia (L.) Ell. [Plate VIII] Botanists are not agreed as to the classifica- tion of the black, purple, and red chokeberries shown in plate VIII. Some assign all to a single species; others regard the red as a dis- tinct species and the purple and black as varia- tions of another. Some say all belong to the sorbus group of plants, to which the mountain ash belongs, while other include them in the pyrus group, to which the berry crabapple and the Japan quince belong. The berries of all three have the common quality of astringency, their every-day name being a tribute to their power to constrict the throats of those who eat them. ‘They occur in moist thickets and swamps from New Eng- land and Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico, growing from two to six feet high. The black species is found in altitudes as great as 6,000 feet. Its flowers appear in early summer and its berries in August, shriveling and dropping early. The purple species blos- soms from April to June and its berries ma- ture in September. ‘The seasons of the red variety are but little different. THE MARCH NUMBER OF THE GEOGRAPHIC WILL HAVE 32 PAGES IN COLOR WOE XN XAV, NO. 3 WASHINGTON MARCH, 1919 THE NATIONAL GEOGIRAP HIG MAGA ZINIE JCOPYRIGHT, 1919, BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C. MANKIND’S BEST FRIEND Companion of His Solitude, Advance Guard in the Hunt, and Ally of the Trenches By Ernesr Harotp BAYNEsS HEWN the intellectual gulf be- gan to widen, in the author’s tancy, the man stood on one side and the rest of the animals on the other. The man looked upward at the sky, and all the other animals walked off, each about his own business. “All,” did I say? All but one! The little dog sat on the very edge of the widening gulf, ears cocked, tail moving, and watching the man. Then he rose to his feet, trem- bling. “I want to go to him,” he whined, and crouched as if to leap. The pig grunted and went on rooting in the ground; the sheep nibbled a tus- sock of grass; the cow chewed her cud in calm indifference. It was none of their business whether he went or stayed. “Don’t try that jump,” said the friendly horse; “you can’t possibly make it; I couldn’t do that myself.” Olmict aim athy It, simeered the cat ; “he'll break his silly neck and serve him right.” : But the dog heard none of them; his eyes were on the man, and he danced on the edge of the gulf and yelped. And the man heard him and looked across and saw what he wished to dc. “Come!” shouted the man. Pl mrconune:; yelped the dog. And then he gathered himself and leaped. But the gulf was very wide— almost too wide for a little dog. Only his brave forepaws struck the farther edge of the chasm, and there he hung without a whimper, looking straight into— Themeyes: Of the ian sadiepinem: there came to the man a strange feeling he had never had before, and he smiled, stooped and lifted the dog firmly and placed him by his side, where he has been ever since. And this was the very beginning of the movement which, ages later, led to the foundation of the first humane society. And the dog went frantic with joy and gratitude, pledged his loyalty to the man, and he has never broken his pledge. tHe “BEGINNINGS (OL TER) PREP NDS Evie BETWEEN DOGS AND MEN The dog is the oldest friend man has among the animals—very much the old- ést. Compared with him the cat and the horse are new acquaintances. Probably we shall never know when the friendship began, but the bones of dogs lying side by side with the bones of primitive men tend to show that it was in very, very re- mote times. : And perhaps in the beginning of their acquaintanceship they were not friends; probably not. Probably primitive man 186 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE British official photograph, from Associated Illustration Agencies, Ltd. MESSENGER DOGS BILLETED BEHIND THE FRONT-LINE TRENCHES ’ once was an opprobrious description; but many an infantryman in the world war would have felt as “comfy as a king” if his rest billet had been as clean, as dry, and as sanitary as these kennels, where messenger dogs were tended with the greatest care in order that they might be in perfect physical condition when called upon to carry a message, upon the delivery of which might depend the success of an offensive (see pages 201, 239, and 257). ) (oy fo) “Quarters fit for a dog rather than a human bein had to fight the wild dogs as he doubtless had to fight all the other wild animals he came in contact with. And no mean foes would these wild dogs prove them- selves. Their speed, strength, courage, and ferocity, coupled with their probable habit of fighting in packs, must have made them very formidable enemies to unarmed men, no matter how strong the latter may have been. Doubtless in those early days the encount- ers would often end in favor of the dogs, and the man would go down and be torn to pieces by the overwhelming pack. But the man had two arms and prehensile fingers and toes, and so could climb trees which the dogs could not, and prob- ably he often escaped his ca- nine enemies in this way. We can imagine him, out of breath and badly bitten, perhaps, sit- ting up in a tree gazing fear- fully at the leaping dogs below, and wondering when he would be able to descend to get some food. : Perhaps it was while sitting thus that some great prehis- toric genius conceived the idea that by means of a branch broken from the tree he sat in he could strike the dogs with- out descending to the ground. And perhaps he carniedout this idea, drove the dogs away yelping, and the next day leaped into fame as the in- ventor of the club, the original ibigesticks) HOW THE DOGS RESPECT FOR MAN GREW And somewhat later, when the dogs had learned to dodge the blows of the club, to snatch it out of the hands of the man, perhaps, we can believe that another great genius came along and proved that by THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE British official photograph, by Associated Illustration Agencies, Ltd. A CANINE COURIER OF THE GREAT WAR This dog as a dispatch-bearer is three and a third times as efficient as a man, for in three minutes it will deliver to local headquarters the message being written by the officer, whereas a human courier would require ten minutes to make the trip. allowed to feed this dog—its keeper at headquarters. Only one man is Soldiers are not allowed to pet the animal, as its affection for its keeper must be undivided. means of a stone, skilfully hurled, dogs could be killed before they were near enough to bite. And here began the art of throwing missiles at an enemy, which has culminated in the invention of great guns which hurl projectiles for 60 miles. Under such convincing tutelage, no doubt the dogs gradually came to have a great and healthy respect for man, the one mysterious creature who could fight them with something more formidable than his teeth and claws, and while they were still at a distance, where they could not use their own. Perhaps there came ee hera mutttal respect. “Both of these powerful races were largely carnivorous and hunted for a living. Sometimes when the man was hunting, probably the dogs would follow at a re- spectful distance, and when he had made his kill with a club or a stone, or later With a spear, they would clean up the parts of the carcass which he did not carry off. Sometimes perhaps the dogs would run down and bring to bay some dangerous quarry which would have been too fleet for the man, and while they were circling about trying to avoid the death which was sure to come to some of them before the rest could break their fast, the man would come up and with his crude weapons kill their enemy, take what he needed for his own use, and yet leave them an ample feast. And because they were useful to one another in this way, we can easily imagine that the man and the dog would gradually form a sort of partnership in the chase. Again, when man lived in caves he was doubtless an untidy, not to say filthy, creature, who after feeding would toss THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Like the famous Greek repulse of Persian invaders, Photograph by Associated Illustration Agencies, Ltd. A PHIDIPPIDES OF MODERN WARFARE athlete who ran from Athens to Sparta to summon aid in the this dog scurries over shell holes and mined areas, wriggles through barbed wire, and braves an artillery barrage to carry a vital message to headquarters when telephone wires have been shot away and communicating trenches have been made impassable for men (see pages 201 and 257 the bones and other refuse just outside his home, until the place looked like the outside of a fox burrow when the hunt- ing is good. Wild dogs when they had been unsuc- cessful in the chase, perhaps, and conse- quently hungry, w ould be attracted by the odor of this. waste food and would come and canny ito. | J hey would) come: tun tively at first, but as they found they were not molested they would come boldly, and by thus disposing of refuse that would otherwise become offensive even to prim- itive man they performed a service in ex- change for benefits received. In this way man would become used to, and would even encourage the presence of, dogs in the vicinity of his home. Then, with so many wild dogs living near by, it is certain that occasionally -their dens would be found by the man cand the puppies carried home to amuse the children. Such puppies would grow up with little fear of their human hosts, and by their playful, friendly ways would probably win for themselves at least tol- erance, 1f not actual affection, and dogs would become a recognized part of the household. The puppies of these dogs would be a little tamer than their parents, and those of the next generation a little tamer still, until some of them became so domesti- cated as to have no thought of ever re- turning to the wild state. SHARING MAN’S COMFORTS When fire was invented or discovered, no doubt such dogs shared with man its comforts and its protection, and this may have strengthened their determination to throw in their lot with the mysterious beings who could create such comfort and protection for them. THE NATIONAL spring of the dog’s service in the great conflict was dauntless fidelity to its master. GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 189 Official photograph taken on the British front in France “TAKING HIS MESSAGE TO GARCIA” While the soldier in the world war was actuated by motives of patriotism, the main- Neither hazards of terrain nor of battle could stop the dumb courier when bearing a message from the front-line trenches to the keeper in the rear. The illustration shows a British war messenger dog in the front area swimming across a canal to reach his master and deliver a message. Sooner or later man would discover that certain individual dogs were swifter or stronger than their fellows and there- foremmonre Userul in the hunt. Whese would be encouraged to accompany him; the others would be left at home. The less useful dogs would gradually be elim- inated—driven away from the home or killed—and the swifter, stronger dogs re- tained. We can imagine that this process of weeding out might continue until a distinct breed of hunting dogs was devel- oped. As dogs were required for other pur- poses—for guarding property, or even for household pets—other qualities might be encouraged and other breeds evolved. The varieties produced in different re- gions would be likely to differ from one another partly by reason of the differ- ence in the wild forms from which they sprang, partly because of the difference in the lines along which they were devel- oped. In the inevitable intercourse between peoples) tom ditterent recions there would surely be an exchange of dogs, ac- cidental or otherwise, and the result would be new varieties which in the course of ages and under widely varying conditions, including finally selective breeding, might eventually produce the many widely differing breeds we see to- day. THE ANCESTORS OF OUR DOMESTIC DOG Have you ever been to a dog show? I mean a big one like the Westminster Kennel Club show in New York, with 3,000 dogs on the benches and over a hun- dred different breeds represented? If you have, perhaps you have been im- pressed, as I have been, with the marvel- ous variety of forms to be seen. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE FRENCH WAR DOG: A COURSER WHOSE WINGED FEET SPURN THE EARTH _ A remarkable “flight” picture of one of the liaison couriers trained and used by the French for emergencies when the telephone system in the front-line trenches was put out of commission by enemy artillery (see pages 201, 230, and 257). Let us recall for a moment some of the dogs we have noticed and see how widely they differ in appearance. For instance, compare a giant Saint Bernard, weighing between 250 and 300 pounds, with a tiny Chihuahua, which may barely tip the scales at a pound and a half and which can stand on the outstretched hand of a lady. Or look at the tall, lithe wolfhounds and greyhounds, built to move like the winds of heaven, and then turn toward the short-legged, crooked-jointed bassets and dachshund, and you will surely smile and probably laugh out loud. Compare a Newfoundland or, better still, an Eskimo dog, whose thick, dense coat can withstand even the rigors of an Arctic winter, with a hairless dog of Mexico or Africa, which looks cold even in the middle of summer. And we note that such striking com- parisons can be made not only in the gen- eral appearance of the dogs, but in almost every feature of them. We see ears that stand straight up like those of the Ger- man shepherd, ears that fall forward at the tips, like those of the collie, and ears long and pendulous, like those of the bloodhound, which extend far beyond the tip of the nose and sometimes touch the ground when the animal is on the trail. These and the endless other compari- sons of the many different breeds may make us hesitate to accept the conclusion which naturalists, led by Darwin, have arrived at, namely, that all domestic dogs are descended from a few wild forms, namely, wolves, jackals, and _ possibly dingos (page 194). Yet it seems that the naturalists are correct in their conclu- sions, and that the many varieties found at the bench show are but so many proofs of what Maeterlinck, and Cuvier before him, point out, namely, that the dog is the one animal which can follow man all over the earth and adapt himself to every cli- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE mate and to every use to which his master chooses to put him. THE DOG DOES NOT BOAST, OF THE FOX ON HIS FAMILY TREE For a long time it was thought that foxes should be included among the an- cestors of the dog. They are very dog- like in general appearance and in many of their habits. I have had many American red foxes in captivity, and one which I reared from a puppy became almost as tame as a dog. He followed me on my walks and had the run of the house. Foxes of this species whine, yelp, and bark, and, like dogs and wolves, smile and wag their tails when pleased, bury food which they cannot eat at the time, and turn round and round on their beds before lying down. But in spite of these similarities, and in spite of the fact that they will sometimes make friends with domesticated dogs, and even with wolves, it seems that they are not closely related to either. As far as I am aware, no one has ever succeeded in obtaining a cross between a fox anda dog. The late Mr. A. D. Bart- lett, for years superintendent of the Zoo- logical Gardens in London, after a long series of experiments and observations, not only failed to procure a cross himself, but states that he never heard of a single well-authenticated case of such a cross having been made. WOLVES, JACKALS, DINGOS, AND DOGS INTERBREED On the other hand, wolves, jackals, and dingos cross freely with domestic dogs and the progeny is fertile. I have myself seen many crosses between American tim- ber wolves and dogs. Some shown me by Superintendent Benson, of Norum- bega Park, near Boston, some years ago, were the offspring of a great Dane dog and a female wolf. They were finely built, high-strung, very wolfish-looking dogs, the characteristics of the wild par- ent distinctly predominating. In Kansas I once saw two well-grown puppies whose mother was a coyote and father an unknown dog. One was gray- ish, somewhat like the mother; the other was black. They had wolfish heads and snarled like coyotes. They were very 191 nervous and at every opportunity ran away from me with their tails between their legs. Both the American gray wolf and the smaller prairie wolf, or coyote, are easy to domesticate, though it has been my ex- perience that they never become quite as tame and tractable as domestic dogs. I had one coyote, which we named Romulus, for six years, and a good part of the time he was loose. He followed my wife and me on our tramps through the woods and over the mountains, some- times at heel, sometimes ranging out in front. He would come at a call, and if within hearing would respond instantly to an imitation of the long-drawn howl of the coyote. A PLAYFUL, AFFECTIONATE COYOTE He was very affectionate and would smile and wag his tail to express his joy at meeting us, and throw himself on his back as an invitation to us to caress him. He was playful, too, and given one end of a rope or strap would do his best to pull it away from us. While in this play- ful mood he would catch up the skirt of a coat or dress and walk along with us, proudly smiling and wagging his tail. But he was very high-strung and nervous, and if we attempted to hold him in the presence of strangers he would bite and get away as quickly as possible. Once loose he was no longer afraid and would often run right in and tear the stranger’s clothing. Most writers refer to the coyote as cowardly, but I have seen nothing which seems to justify this estimate of his char- acter. He simply isn’t foolhardy. He’s like the Irishman who said he preferred to have his enemies call him a coward to- day to having His friends say “How nat- ural he looks” tomorrow. I will give an example of what I mean. One bitter winter day I was tramping on snow-shoes through a New Hampshire forest with a coyote at my heels. As we were passing a deserted cabin, three fox-hounds which had taken refuge from the recent storm came leaping out in full cry. ~The coyote, outnumbered and taken by surprise, drifted away over the snow like a puff of gray smoke, the hounds in pur- 192 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by William Henry A COLLIE OF ROYAL ANCESTRY BECAME THE MASCOT OF AMERICAN SOLDIERS Before he “joined the army,” this dog of blooded lineage bore the name of “Bum.” Now he answers to the more appropriate title of “Bullets.” suit. But they were no match for him in speed, and after floundering along in his wake for less than half a mile they stopped, turned round, and started back. The coyote, who had been running eas- ily only a few feet ahead of them, seemed to be completely in touch with the situa- tion. No sooner had the tired dogs turned than he wheeled about, pitched into) the rear euard of the enemy, and in a running counter attack decisively whipped all three of the hounds and finally drove them back yelping into the old house from which they had come. That didn’t look like cowardice; it looked like good generalship. And it isn’t cowardice for an animal the size of a coyote to run away from an animal the size of a man, especially when the little wolf knows that in some mysterious man- ner his enemy can kill him when he is still a quarter of a mile away. That’s a com- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 193 bination of common sense and good judg- ment. THE FIDELITY OF ROMULUS My coyote, Romu- lus, was very destruc- tive to poultry, and even to the wild deer, and I finally gave him to a zoological garden, mateteceewe. died six years later, at the age of twelve. I made a point of going to see him once or twice a year, and he never forgot me. As soon as he saw me he would begin to exe- cute a strange little rocking dance, mean- while smiling and waving his brush. The keeper would unlock the door of his pen. and as I entered the wolf would rush to greet me and roll over eahis. back like a friendly puppy. Then he would throw him- self upon me, lap my face and hands, hang Pe ee onto my clothing as on oe] * Aine re Mises. though to detain me, and when finally I had to leave him, he would raise his muzzle in the air and howl discon- solately. My experience with domesticated timber wolves would tend to show that they are not so demonstratively affectionate as the coyotes. As puppies, they are rather playful, but as they get older they are apt to take themselves very seriously. They differ greatly in character. Some I have had became so savage that it was necessary to get rid of them; others were gentle and friendly as long as they lived. One big, powerful wolf I owned some- times showed marked affection for me, A DOG AND HIS MASTER PROTECTED ALIKE FROM POISON GAS AT THE BATTLE FRONT (SEE PAGE 230) Every living creature—man, dog, horse, and mule—had to be equipped with a gas mask in order to pass through the areas deluged with poisonous fumes during the world war. are seen stretcher-bearers carrying a wounded man to safety. war dogs were frequently employed in finding the sorely wounded in No Man’s Land and in leading rescuers to them. In the background The but it was only occasionally, and then only when we were entirely alone. The presence of a third person made him grimly aloof. Nevertheless, he did not fesens the niiendly advances, even of strangers, and when I took him with me on lecture trips, as I often did, he would follow me through the audience, and the smallest child present might put its arms about his neck without fear of being hurt. But he simply tolerated these ad- 194 vances; he never responded to them with so much as a smile. He was not so tolerant of dogs, how- ever, and woe to any dog that ventured to cross his path. As a joke I once en- tered him as a “buffalo hound” at one of the big bench shows. He was accepted, benched, and behaved himself perfectly, though I did take the precaution to put a wire screen between him and the public. Only once did he even threaten trouble. That was when I was leading him past a bench of the Russian wolf hounds, who instantly leaped to the ends of their chains, eyes blazing, teeth bared, while their savage barking brought every dog in the show to its feet. The great wolf whirled about facing the foremost dog, Champion Bistri © Valley Farm. The calmness of the wild brute was in marked contrast to the excitement of the dogs. As he stood there firmly on his four legs, the hair on his back and neck rising in a tall mane, menacing fangs unsheathed, and those cold, merciless eyes gazing straight into the face of his sworn enemy, I wondered what was going on in the back of that big gray head. Perhaps he was wondering how many dogs of that caliber he could account for in a fair open fight, taking one ata time. Then I dragged him off, mane tossing and with many a backward glance at the splendid dogs who were just as eager as he was to come to grips. Jackals, which in many respects re- semble our own coyotes, are found in sia ancuenimca, (lbh vakenyas ptlppies they are easily tamed. My father, who lived for many years in India, had a tame jackal which showed many doglike traits. It would wag its tail when pleased, and throw itself upon its back in affectionate submission. THE WILD DOG OF AUSTRALIA The dingo is the wild dog of Australia and may have been one of the ancestors of our domestic breeds. There is still some doubt about this, however, as it is not quite certain whether the animal orig- inated in Australia or whether it is de- scended from the dogs of Asia and was introduced by man at some very remote THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE time. In any case, it is a true dog and is easily tamed. The native name for the animal is “warrigal,”’ “dingo” being the name given by the natives to any domesticated dog of the settlers. The dingos I have seen were tawny brown in color and about the size of a smooth-coated eollie, but of more stocky build and more pow- erful jaws. I once had a dingo puppy, a lovable ball of soft rich brown fur, but alas! he died before I had a chance to study him. In the wild state dingos hunt in packs, and formerly were so destructive to sheep that the stockmen began a war of ex- termination, aided by a government bounty of five shillings for every dingo killed. Strychnine was the principal weapon used, and it was so effective that the ranks of the wild dog were thinned to a point where they were no longer - a menace. TRAINING THE DINGO On the Herbert River the natives find dingo puppies and bring them up with the children. A puppy is usually reared with great care; he is well fed on meat and fruit and often becomes an important member of the family. His keen scent makes him very useful in trailing game, ’ and his fleetness of foot frequently en- ables him to run it down. His master never strikes him, though he sometimes threatens to do so. The threats often end in extravagant caresses. And he seems to respond to this kindly treatment, for the dingo is said to be a “one-man” dog, refusing to follow any one but his master. Never- theless, the call of the wild, especially in the mating season, often proves too strong for him, and he will rejoin the pack never to return to his human friends. ne When we consider, then, the doglike friendliness of which these wild forms are capable, even in the first generation, it is not difficult to believe that they are the ancestors of our domestic dogs, with which they freely interbreed. Our belief is still further strengthened if we consider how closely many of the domesticated dogs resemble the wild forms of the same regions. The resem-_ THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE @e 199 WEARING THE CHEVRONS OF HONOR FOR SERVICE OVERSEAS A ship’s mascot is as truly essential in the maintenance of morale among bluejackets as are clean quarters, good food, and strict discipline. These tiny tykes, with their blankets bearing service stripes, are important units of the United States battleship Oklahoma’s com- plement of fighters. blance is nowhere stronger than in the Eskimo dogs of Greenland and Alaska, which are believed to be simply domesti- cated wolves. Some of the Arctic ex- plorers have called attention to the diffi- culty of distinguishing them from the wild wolves of the same region. Captain Parry, in the journal of his second voyage, speaks of a pack of 13 wolves which came boldly within a few vards of his ship, The Fury, but which he and his men dared not shoot, because they could not be quite sure that they were not shooting sledge dogs and thus doing the Eskimos an irreparable injury. A few years ago Admiral Peary kindly conducted me over Flag Island, in Casco Bay, that I might see the pure-bred North Greenland Eskimo dogs which he brought back after his discovery of the North Pole. When these animals carried their tails curled over their backs, as they usually do, there was no mistaking them for anything else but dogs, but the mo- ment they lowered their tails, as they often did, to all appearances they were gray wolves. Another striking example of this simi- larity between Eskimo dogs and wolves is shown in a photograph by Donald B. 196 MacMillan of one of his female Eskimo dogs, standing with lowered tail watch- ing a litter of puppies which she is nurs- ing. ‘The puppies, which are spotted, are evidently not pure breed, but the mother looks as much like a timber wolf as any timber wolf I ever saw. In the same way some of the dogs which in former years were found among the Indians farther south closely resem- bled coyotes. Many of the pariah dogs of India look much like the wolves of that country; in southeastern Europe and the south of Asia many of the breeds of dogs bear a close resemblance to the jackals of the saine districts, and some’of the South American dogs show a marked similarity to the small South American wolves. It was such considerations which led Dar- win to the following conclusion: “Tt is highly probable that the domestic dogs of the world are descended from two well-defined species of wolf, namely, Canis lupus and Cants latrans, and from two or three doubtful species, namely, the European, Indian, and North African wolves; from at least one or two South American canine species; from several races or species of jackals, and perhaps from one or more extinct species.” HISTORICAL, SKETCH As we have noted, there is good evi- dence that men and dogs were associated in very remote times. Among the re- mains left by the ancient cave-dwellers, half-petrified bones, some human, some canine, are found lying together. Rem- nants of dog bones have been found in the Danish “kitchen-middens’—heaps of household rubbish piled by the people of the newer Stone Age—and dog bones of later periods have also been found in Denmark. Of course, it is often impossible to form any idea of the appearance of these dogsmin) lite: but. ml owitzerlandgunere have been found records which show that a large dog differing widely from the wolf and the jackal, and which is said to have borne a resemblance to our hounds and setters, was at least partially domes- ticated by the lake-dwellers. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE That the men of the so-called Reindeer period had dogs which they used in the chase, and perhaps for other purposes, is evidenced by the crude pictures which they cut. in the rocks tow recond siren mighty deeds and adventures. One such picture, 5 feet high by 12 feet long, cut thousands of years ago in the solid quartz at Bohuslau, on the shores of the Cattegat, depicts what seems to be a hunting party consisting of men, dogs, and horses, just landed from a boat and engaged in the pursuit of reindeer. Other prehistoric artists have engraved rude figures of dogs on the surface of bones and horns; and these, no doubt, were aboriginal dogs. In fact, with the exception of a few islands, namely, the West Indies, Madagascar, some of the islands of the Malay Archipelago, New Zealand, and the Polynesian Islands, there are few parts of the world where we can- not find evidence that the dog in some form existed as an aboriginal animal. THE DOG DOMESTICATED IN EARLY TIMES In most parts of the world the dog has been more or less domesticated from very early times, though it is not until we be- gin to study the records of such highly civilized peoples as the ancient Assyrians and Egyptians that we find dogs which we can recognize as belonging to distinct breeds. : The Assyrians had at least two, the greyhound and the mastiff, the former much like our coursing dogs, the latter a large, heavy-built, powerful beast, but evidently much more active than the mas- tiffs seen in modern kennels and at the bench shows. In the Nimrod Gallery of the British Museum may be seen a bas-relief tablet showing Assur-bani-pal and his attend- ants with Assyrian mastiffs straining at the leash, and another showing similar mastiffs hunting wild horses. The ancient Egyptians seem to have been at least as familiar with dogs as we are, and on the Egyptian monuments of 5,000 years ago are figured several widely differing breeds, showing that even in those days dogs were used not only in the chase, but as companions and household pets: ; — = E,. am a Oe ds DOGS OF THE CHASE 2,500 YEARS AGO Among the ruins of Nineveh have been found marble slabs upon which are carved such scenes as this, which shows attendants with nets holding the leashes of the hunting dogs of Assur-bani-pal, the grand monarque of Assyria, magnificent patron of art and literature and creator of the great library of Nineveh. This panel proves that the hunting dogs of twenty- five centuries ago were much the same as those of today. Photograph by Paul Thompson Al, DHE, DOG SHOW > THE, SMALLEST JEONID) IBS, JENIN EIIS IP ID IBOUBICIES _ The astonishing differences in the various species of the dog family are strikingly de- picted in this picture. Wonderful Tiny, the Yorkshire terrier, in his mistress’ hands, weighs only Io ounces, while Boy Blue, the great St. Bernard, weighs 250 pounds. 198 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Some of the Egyptian greyhounds bore a striking resemblance to modern Eng- lish greyhounds. Others had fringed tails and had doubtless been introduced from Persia, where this breed, unchanged in form, is used today (see page 206). Another hound kept by the Egyptians was not unlike our great Dane. and there was a short-legged toy dog which carried fiers curled over its back. It is in- teresting to note that one kind of hunt- ing dog kept by the ancient Egyptians was called “unsu,” or “unSau,” meaning “Wolves,” perhaps indicating a knowl- edge of its descent from the wild form. WORSHIPED BY THE EGYPTIANS But to the Egyptians dogs were much more than either assistants in the chase or household pets. They were objects of veneration and worship. They appear in the friezes of the temples and were re- garded as divine emblems. Herodotus tells us that when a dog be- longing to an Egyptian family died, the members of the household shaved them- selves as an expression of their grief, and adds that this was the custom in his own day. An interesting explanation of this ven- eration associated it with the annual over- flowing of the Nile. The coming of the great event, on which depended the pros- perity of Lower Egypt, was heralded by the star Syrius, which appeared above the horizon at this time. And as soon as this star was seen the inhabitants be- gan to remove their flocks to the higher pastures, leaving the lower ones to be fertilized by the rising waters. The warn- ing was so timely and unfailing that the people called Syrius the “dog star,” be- cause it seemed to show the friendly watchfulness and fidelity of a dog. A feeling of gratitude for this service was no doubt gradually replaced by the stronger feeling of veneration and wor- ship. The dog came to be regarded as a god—the genius of the river—and was represented with the body of a man and the head of a dog. As Anubis, it became a great figure in Egyptian mythology, and its image was placed on the gates of the temples. 199 At a later period Cynopolis, the city of the dog, was built in honor of Anubis, to whom priests celebrated great festivals and sacrificed earthly dogs—black ones and white ones alternately. These dogs. and others of a reddish color, were em- balmed, and many dog mummies have been found. EGYPTIAN DOG WORSHIP SPREAD TO OTHER LANDS Dog worship spread from Egypt to many other countries, where it took dif- ferent forms. The Romans sacrificed dogs to Anubis, to the lesser dog star, Procyon, and to Pan, and the Greeks made similar offerings to propitiate Pros- erpine, Mars, Hecate, and other imagi- nary beings of whom they stood in fear. Plutarch says: “The circle which touches and separates the two hemis- pheres, and which on account of this di- vision has received the name of horizon, is called Anubis. It is represented under the form of a dog because this animal watches during the day and during the night.” Out of this idea it seems there arose two mythical personages—Mercury, or Hermes, and Cerberus, the three-headed dog supposed to guard the gates of hell. But there were humbugs even in those days, and they humbugged the dog wor- shipers even as charlatans often hum- bug Christians today. Perhaps the limit of deception was practiced on a Certain nation in Ethiopia, which is said to have been bamboozled into actually setting up a dog for its king. Clad in royal robes and with a crown upon his head, he sat upon his throne and received the homage of his subjects. He signified his approval by wagging his tail and his disapproval by barking. He conferred honors upon a person by licking his hand, and a growl might condemn a man to captivity or death. Even so, since he was a dog, his sub- jects might have expected justice and possibly mercy had it not been for the “advisers” by whom he was surrounded. These gentlemen, of course, had their own interests to serve, and no doubt served them by skilfully juggling the in- terpretations of the “king’s” commands. ‘syutod JO WSI9NIID pue suordiiosap ul pasn AjUOUTIOD se Sop oY} FO sjied Jeottojyeur dy} [[e smoys Surmeip SIU, loafans V SV GNWIGNOOIMAN HHL ONISO ‘90d V AO LAVHO ANIILAO NV Sa}ony zissesy sine’y fq 3urmesp oul’yT SP dd ae ped Sees ALY, ‘ aa Ns , ae a4 vf = We — q ) SS \): ae NSS Se ¥ : | RD. = : — Sea Ss ce ) I anaes ah ‘ \ propa \ a ee Jo YOU \ ELTON, (\ \ 1 sayjoag ~~ -— _[--------—--W/sS0 24107 Ny | \ aay 40 'ayflss 2BUldd 4g ee HAYS) We De, A : ae Sas Ne Wa) e277 cs boo “4 A, (see Yoowrs) VFOp C - | (7 SS _ WOldy : (400) -y S028) Yys01g, = t \ vai! a 2 SYOL a ee ee \ a boy 40 ‘binija IIIT 5 : & \ \ Se2 nee SA, \ We Bee ~ < p No Wipe PS ee Pa ce S i => _m Pe > = ---—-------- DFO AI ff a oe ie IVA saa yin 40 dwoays ! > aufalay 40 afZznw a ey) d sapl704r YOLS yay 474j097 0 1OF Ne S Q yaqro0g THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE WORK OF DOGS IN THE WAR It would not be fair to close this article without brief mention of the splendid work performed by dogs on the battle- fields of Europe. From the very beginning of the war, dogs have had a paw in it. When the Germans invaded Belgium the harness dogs, which up to that time had been used for hauling milk, vegetables, and other produce, began to assist the refugees in getting their children and_ household -goods out of the invaded territory. Since then they have hauled light artillery, and carts laden with blankets, bread, hay, and scores of other things for the comfort of soldiers and their horses. They have done sentry duty in the trenches and, with their masters, patrol duty out on No Man’s Land, their acute senses often making them aware of the approach of an enemy long before an un- assisted man could have detected it. They have carried dispatches through barb-wire entanglements and amid the hail of bullets, and in neat baskets strapped to their backs have delivered homing pigeons intended to carry mes- sages for longer distances. But perhaps the greatest service they have rendered has been in connection with the Red Cross, especially in the French and German armies. A part of their OUR COMMON 201 work has been to find the wounded after a battle. It is well known that when a man is wounded, usually one of his first thoughts is to get out of the way of the bullets and the shells, and if he has strength he will crawl to some comparatively safe place, often a place where it would be difficult for a man to find him, especially at night. Later, perhaps, he will be too weak to crawl out again or even to cry for help, and in many cases he would be lost 1f it were not for the dogs. Keen of scent, these animals are not dependent on eyesight or hearing, and one of them will probably find him. If it does it will take his cap or something else belonging to him and hurry back to the lines and presently return with stretcher-bearers, who will carry the poor fellow in to receive the best attention possible. Other dogs, each with a big can of hot soup strapped to either side, are sent through the front-line trenches to carry this cheering fare to the fighting men. Many of the dogs have been mentioned in the dispatches, a number have been decorated for bravery or distinguished service, and many, many more have done their bit, the biggest bit it is possible to do, and gone without a whimper where > the best men and the best dogs go. DOGS By. Louis Acassiz FUERTES AND ErRNEsT HARotp BAYNES With Illustrations by Louis Agassiz Fuertes HE dog isa species without known beginning, and of all man’s de- pendent animals the most variable in size, form, coat, and color. Further- more, no breed as we now know can be considered a species, as any dog may breed with any other and produce fertile offspring, which in itself is the very defi- nition of a species. _ The great plasticity of the present-day dog is due, of course, to this fact, and no other one of man’s domestic animals iw 3 He RES (excepting possibly chickens) presents the range of possibility and the readiness with which new. “varieties” may be pro- duced and stabilized. Thus, up to 1885 the well-known and justly popular Aire- dale was a nondescript and variable ter- rier of the lowly poacher—simply a clever, faithful, and dependable mongrel. Today no breed demands a more exact- ing set of requirements nor meets them so generally! The illustrator’s problem in preparing (2) A © Pe © O ae) e fx, = © 5 pd (ea aa) 2 FH ODPL ER HOUND 204 this series was not the production of a “standard of perfecticn” of the various “breeds” of dogs. It was to give, as far as possible, the proper appearance of ac- ceptabie types that have been dignified by a name, and to show in what way they are entitled to the friendship and care and companionship of man. Let it not be thought that it was an easy task, nor that had time, opportunity, early concen- tration, and a larger acquaintance with the field been part of the artist’s equip- ment, the result would not have been far more satisfactory to the reader and to tai It these pictures it fas been less his notion to establish types and a pictorial standard than to show the “man on the Stree ule | Cenetallsappearance sandy tne special reason for being of the seventy- odd “kinds” of dogs that seemed to the editor and the artist best included in such an exposition as this. There are, of course, other recognized varieties of dcgs, but those shown are the kinds best known. * Outstanding among the many helps in the preparation of this series are the names of many men and women who entered early into the cooperative spirit of the times and gave essential aid where it was much needed. Man is a fickle animal, and as the natural conse- quence of this trait many loves of earlier days languish and fade as newer beauties meet his eye. Thus it was impossible to get modern material on such dogs as the Newfoundland and pug, no longer extensively bred, as their day of grace is done. For these reference was freely made to books, chief among which were Leighton’s “Book of the Dog” ind Watson’s “Doe Books (inst 2 volt ed.) to “Field and Fancy,’ and to the illustrated supplements to “Our Dogs,” published in England. To his “contributing collaborators” the art- ist desires gratefully to acknowledge the help of Messrs. Skinner and Lewis, of “Field and Fancy,” and of Mr. A.‘R. Rost for informa- tion, material, and kindly criticism; Messrs. Harry W. Smith, Miss Amy Bonham, Mrs. Henin, Sampson. jm, Mins) CH. Yates) Mars. Haley Fisk, Mr. A. J. Davis, Mr. R. M. Barker, Mir AY 1k Baston,, Nine jacob, Rupenten line Major B. F. Throop, Mr. F. Gualdo Ford, Mr. FE. Kilburn-Scott, Miss Ruth Nicholls, the Mepal Kennels, and others for the generosity with which they supplied photographs and other material bearing on the dogs in which each is particularly interested. Indeed, should the artist specifically acknowl- edge each one who has contributed his share in the work, it would, he fears, occupy more space than does the finished article! THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE WOLVES AND COYOTES (For illustration, see page 202) The timber, or gray, wolf, which undoubtedly has an influence in the formation of the native Indian and Eskimo dogs of this country, for- merly occupied practically all of the northern continent of America. He is a large, strong animal, attaining a weight of probably welll over 100 pounds, His main points of differ- ence from “true” dogs are the woolly brush and the small, obliquely set eyes. In form he is close counterpart of such dogs as the German shepherd (see page 232). His coat is harsh and quite long, especially on the neck, throat, shoulders, aval intial quarters. In color he ranges from nearly pure white in the Arctic to black in Florida and the more humid regions. ‘The average color is grizzled gray and buff. The coyote is extremely similar in color, fol- lowing the changes, geographically, which char- acterize his bis and burly cousin. In weight the coyote seldom goes over 60 pounds, and an average would probably be under 4o. He is much more fox-like in general appearance, having relatively as well as actually a more slender muzzle and even bushier tail, His gait is an easy, shadow-like trot until scared or in hot pursuit, when he flattens out and Sug sy flies over the ground.+ DINGO (For illustration, see page 202) Several fine dingos have been kept in various zoological gardens in this country, those in Washington being especially typical and well conditioned. The dingo is the most doglike of any of the wild members of the canine group, and the fact that they interbreed freely and produce regularly fertile progeny is fur- ther evidence of its proximity to the dogs of mankind. He is a medium-sized animal, weighing 60 to 8o pounds, possessing all the dog’s traits of character and of physique. /shlevhas asbnoad head, moderate-pointed ears, strong, well- boned legs, and a deep chest, which fit him for the long chase. His one wolfy characteristic is the quite bushy tail, which is about half-way between what a dog of similar coat would carry and the brush of a wolf. Dingos untinctured by dog blood are self- colored red or tawny and are very fine-looking animals. ‘They are said to be readily tamable, and those the artist has known were as tame and companionable as any dog. They would come to the bars of their inclosure, ears back and tails wagging, and lick the hand of their keeper, and did the same for the artist if the keeper was present. Never having tried to + For a more detailed description of wolves and coyotes, see E. W. Nelson’s “Wild Ani- mals of North America,” with illustrations in color from paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, published by the National Geographic Society. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE force friendship nor made advances when alone, it is impossible for the writer to say how catholic their tolerance was (see also page 194). THE NORWEGIAN ELKHOUND (For illustration, see page 203) The Norwegian elkhound is one of the wolfy- looking dogs from which the shepherd dogs of middle Europe (see pp. 232 and 239) have been evolved, and is probably a more dependable dog than any of them, having been bred for the specific uses of hunting big game, and left free of the refinements and stultifications de- manded by the more effete market, which is largely dependent on the whims of wealth and caprice. The elkhound, in short, looks like a small, stocky, wide-faced German shepherd dog, standing about 22 inches instead of 26 or 27, but wearing the same strong, rough working coat of grizzled buff and brown, or wolf colors. He is a rare dog in the United States, but in northern Europe plays an important part in the life of the people of the mountainous and wooded country. He is used to some extent as a carrying and draft animal, but is unsurpassed in the rough and tumble of the hunt for such big game as bear, wolves, and elk (the “moose” of northern Europe), and is so keen of nose and so tract- able that he can easily be trained to the more subtle arts of hunting the capercailzie and black grouse. The only one the artist ever saw was the single specimen shown in the Westminster show of 1918, and no dog in the whole show made him more envious of his owner. For what Mark Twain characterized as “the pur- poses of a dog” this strong, friendly, and primi- tive-looking animal seemed a most perfect creature. He was alert, bright, and self-reliant, but willing to extend a reserved welcome to a new acquaintance. PERSIAN GAZELLEHOUND, OR SLUGHI (For illustration, see page 206) This ancient race is one of the most peculiar, most beautiful, and most puzzling of dogs. His graven image comes to us as one of the earliest of man’s essays in art, and is so easily recognizable that there is no doubt possible as to the archaic artist’s model. Possibly no dog known has changed less from our earliest knowledge of it to the present day. The first peculiarity to strike the eye is the curious combination of short, close body hair, with silky, flowing Afghan fleece on the ears and long silken feather from the stern. Other- wise he looks at first glance very like a grey- hound. But, unlike other coursing dogs, the slughi is short and straight in the body, though very long and rangy of leg. As he stands in profile 205 the outline of fore legs, back, hind leg, and ground form an almost perfect square. A fact tending to show the antiquity of the slughi is that no combination of known dogs seems to be capable of producing a creature just like him. In’ color they are almost without limit. Cream, fawn, “hound” colors—that is, black, with tan chops, legs, belly, and feather—seem to predominate, and while pictures are rather rare and the dogs practically non-existent out- side the Mediterranean regions of Africa and upper India, we have never seen any that were irregularly pied with white, as are most dogs. This argues a very dominant character for their ancient ancestors, for this symmetry of coloring, found in all wild animals, is about the first superficial characteristic to disappear under domestication; and when it persists, as in this instance, through countless generations, we may be sure of a very persistent and domi- nant character for the original wild stock. The gazellehound is about the size of a me- dium greyhound—z6 to 28 inches at the shoul- der. The falcon is sometimes used to harry the game until the dogs come up with it. THE OTTERHOUND (For illustration, see page 203) It is said that every sizable stream in Great Britain has its otter. To hunt this elusive and wily animal, a very distinct type of dog has been evolved. The requirements of the hunt demand the keenest of noses, the staunchest of “wills to hunt,” the utmost courage, and the ability to stand the roughest of wet and dry coursing. These qualities have been assembled in the otterhound, which may be described as a blood- hound clad in the roughest of deerhound coats. In general he is all hound, with long, sweeping ears, deep jaw, and deep-set eye showing the haw. He is broader in the brow than. the bloodhound and not quite so large, but he has the same fine carriage, on straight, strong, and heavily boned legs; large, sound, and partly webbed feet. The hair over the eyes is long and ragged, and there is a strong tendency toward beard and moustache. He is a great favorite in Great Britain, but is rarely seen in America. In color he may be “hound colors,” or “self-colored,” fawn, brown, tawny, or black. The working dogs are so hardened by rough work that they are not par- ticularly suitable as house dogs; when reared to it, however, their fine qualities render them exceptional companions even for children. THE GREYHOUND (For illustration, see page 211) Developed originally for great speed in the pursuit of antelope, gazelles, and desert hares, the greyhound, though one of the most ancient, is also one of the most extreme types of dog known to man. PERSIAN GAZELLEHOUND 206 IRISH WOLFHOUND 207 208 Very slender and fine of line, he still main- tains great strength, and his lovely “compen- sating” curves and streamlines of form present a wonderful example of the beauty that inev- itably accompanies a perfectly adapted mech- anism His motion is supremely graceful and easy, and in repose his elegance does not di- minish. This is a tall dog, measuring from 28 to 31 inches at shoulder and weighing from 60 to 70 pounds. The hair is short and close, revealing intimately the wonderful surface muscles. The slender legs have sufficient bone for strength, and the arched back is well muscled, though slender. The sloping shoulders allow for a long forward reach in the spring, and the chest, while rather narrow, is immensely deep, with ribs fairly sprung, giving sufficient capacity. The head, while slender, has considerable strength of jaw, and the eye is bright and re- sponsive. While not as intelligent as some dogs, the greyhound is by no means stupid. His finely chiseled head, delicate ears, and arched neck give him a distinctive and well- born appearance equaled by few dogs. The Italian greyhound is simply a diminutive greyhound. In both any color is permissible. As we look to the ancient Greeks for the highest development of the human body, so we look to the great hunting dogs of ancient line- age for the highest development of canine grace. These tall, powerful hounds, trained for ages to match their speed and strength against fleet and often savage wild creatures, have attained that beauty found only in those things which are perfectly adapted to the pur- poses for which they are used. Swiftest and most graceful of all, perhaps, is the English greyhound. Built, it would seem, of spring steel and whipcord, and with a short satin coat which offers no resistance to the wind, this swallow among dogs cleaves the air and barely touches the ground he flies over. Even the fleet English hare is no match for him in speed, and were it not that the hare has a clever knack of dodging at the moment the dog is about to overtake her, she would be quickly caught. General Roger D. Williams, of Lexington, Kentucky, who has done a great deal of wolf- hunting in the West, states that greyhounds can not only overtake a timber wolf, but will close with him instantly, regardless of conse- quences, which is more than some wolfhounds will do. WHIPPET a (Por illustration, see page 263) A grant and very swift breed of greyhound called the whippet has been developed in Eng- land, and whippet racing is*an old and favorite sport.among English workingmen, particularly in the northern and northwestern counties. The dogs are raced over a 200-yard straight- away course, and are usually handicapped ac- cording to weight and previous performance. There are two men to each dog—the handler, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE who holds the animal’s fore paws on the mark, and the “runner-up,” usually the owner or some other person of whom the dog is fond and toward whom he runs. The starter, pistol in hand, stands behind the “scratch.” The owners now run away from the dogs, each waving a rag and shouting, “Hi! Hi!” to attract his favorite’ s attention, and, still urging the dogs, take their position behind the ‘ ‘over- mark,’ which is Io yards beyond the winning post. Each handler holds his dog’s neck with the left hand, and with the right grasps the root of the tail. At a word from the starter, the handler gets ready by lifting his whippet’s hind feet well off the ground, while its fore feet remain on the mark. At the crack of the pistol the dog is literally thrown into its stride, and with the other com- petitors flashes down the track, crosses the winning mark at top speed, slowing up only as it approaches its owner, who is still frantically calling and waving the rag. Each dog wears a colored ribbon about his neck—red, white, blue, yellow, green, or black— and at the finish of each heat a flag the color of the winner’s ribbon is hoisted by the judges to announce the result. The distance has been covered in 11% seconds, or an average of 52 feet 2 inches per second for the 200 yards. Color is not a point in whippets, their sole purpose being to go as fast as possible. They come in all colors, like greyhounds; indeed, they are judged along exactly parallel lines. If anything, they are even more extreme in their peculiarities of form, being very roached up in the back and clear of limb. The ideal weight is about 15 pounds for males and 13 for females. The head shows usually some Man- chester terrier tendencies, and the tail has gen- erally longer hair along its under side than covers the rest of the dog. In spite of the fact that these slight little dogs are rather delicate and trembly, they are staunchly declared by those who own them to be very bright, affectionate, and loyal. As is generally the case, when “the fancy” takes hold of a utility breed an artificial stand- ard, based almost entirely on looks, supersedes the more erratic standard, based upon perform- ance. The English foundryman would pay more for a snipy, knobly little dog that could run like .a scared spirit than for the most graceful and cleanly silhouetted beauty at the bench show, should it lack in speed ame racing courage. SCOTTISH DEERHOUND (For illustration, see page 206) There is something about the shaggy hunting dogs of Britain that makes a particular appeal to those who are attracted to dogs. It may be the touching contrast of their harsh coat and rugged body with the soft, affectionate look in the almost hidden eye. It may be the knowl- edge of the indomitable courage and immunity from fear that is latent in the friendly creature that noses our palm and meets our advances THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE with such amiable readiness. Whatever its causes, these brave and friendly dogs, such favorites with Landseer and Burns, have surely maintained their enviable position in our re- gard. In the United States they are seldom seen, as only a few have been introduced and little done to establish the breed here. This is un- fortunate, though easy to understand, as our laws do not permit the hunting of antlered game with dogs, and our carnivorous big game demands dogs of a heavier and more aggres- sive nature than these fleet chasers of the Highland stag. In appearance the deerhound is much like a . harsh-coated, grizzled greyhound, and is an undersized counterpart of the great Irish wolf- hound, standing from 26 to 29 or 30 inches. They are self-colored, the dark blue grays being “perhaps the favorites. Cream, fawn, sandy brown, and both hght and dark brindles are perhaps more frequently seen. Any large Milonnme Ot white 1s a tault, as it- indicates a foreign strain, even though the dog be fine in other respects. The Scottish deerhound might well be de- scribed as a powerfully built, rough-coated greyhound. While not as swift as his English cousin, he has speed enough for most purposes and strength and stamina, which made him a valued partner in the chase before the days of the modern rifle. In olden times the possession of a fine deer- hound was a matter of sufficient consequence for tribes to go to war about. In a battle be- tween the Picts and Scots over one of these dogs more than 160 men were killed. The deerhound makes a wonderful com- panion. His honest, dark hazel eyes, looking Straight out from under their shaggy brows, quiet but fearless, bespeak the rugged beauty of his soul and gain at once our admiration and our confidence. IRISH WOLFHOUND (For illustration, see page 207) While not so heavy as the St. Bernard, the Irish wolfhound is considerably taller, and easily outclasses all the other big dogs for size and bulk, reaching the extreme height at the shoulder of 36 inches. A big Dane with his feet on a man’s shoulder looks about level into his master’s eyes; a wolfhound towers head and shoulders over even a tall man in the same position. The picture gives a concrete idea of how this dog should look. His immense size and shaggy, grizzled coat add greatly to his impressiveness. And, combined with these, this fine dog pos- sesses that rare union of great courage and bravery with a gentle and affectionate disposi- tome ie was used as a stardiam against wolves by the Irish shepherds of old. One can hardly imagine a more effective animal for this purpose. There are some who think the Irish wolf- hound an even better dog than the Scottish 209 deerhound. If he is, it must be because there is more of him; for, barring the fact that he is of rather more massive build, he is practi- cally a gigantic deerhound. Though of very ancient lineage and one of the great dramatic figures of canine history, he would probably have been lost to us if it had not been for the untiring efforts of Captain G. A. Graham, of Dursley, England. With the disappearance of the last wolf in Ireland, this great hound’s chief occupation was gone, and the breed as such was neglected until about sixty years ago, when there were but a few degenerate specimens bearing the distinguished name of Irish wolfhound. But Captain Graham did not hold the rather general belief that this: breed had become ex- tinct. _He was of the opinion that after the extermination of the Irish wolves the large dog used to hunt them became reduced in size and strength to conform to the lighter work required of it—that of hunting deer—and that it was now represented by the deerhound. So he bought a few specimens, still bearing the original name, and by carefully cross-breeding with the deerhound and great Dane, and later with the Russian wolfhound and some other large breeds, has produced a giant hound closely corresponding to the best descriptions and the best drawings of the favorite dog of the Irish kings. Like the deerhound, this great wolf dog has a friendly, intelligent face, which, with his physical ability to accomplish about anything which he undertakes to do, wins respect and confidence at the first glance. The Irish wolfhound figures in many legends, the best known perhaps being that of. Gelert, who has given his name to the Welsh village Beth Gelert (the grave of Gelert). The hound was presented to Llewelyn the Great, King of Wales, by King John of England in 1205. The story goes that one day, the dog having left him in the field, Llewelyn returned from the chase in an angry mood. When he reached his castle, Gelert, covered with blood, rushed out from the chamber of his little son to greet him. The king entered and found the bed overturned and stained with gore. He called to the boy, but there was no answer, and rashly concluding that the dog had killed him he plunged his sword into Gelert’s body. A further search revealed the child sleeping unharmed beneath the overturned bed and be- side it the dead body of a huge wolf, which had been killed by the gallant hound. It is said that remorse led Llewelyn to build a chapel in memory of Gelert and to erect a tombstone over his grave. At any rate the chapel and the tombstone are there to this day. All colors are permissible except part col- ored; all pure-bred dogs of this breed, how- ever, come naturally “whole” or “self” colored, and blotches of irregular white showing for- eign blood are almost invariably accompanied by other conspicuous defects. In build the Irish wolfhound should be slen- derer than the Dane and more sturdy than the greyhound. He should be strong and straight a Zz 5 © an ice 3 Oo 5 Z < D 22) 5 pe SANNOHADUD 211 Zale of limb, fairly heavy in bone, but not “leggy” ; the hair should be straight, rough to the touch, and in no sense woolly or silky. The best dogs have conspicuous eyebrows and beard. There should be no dewlap nor throatiness, as this is an active working breed, which should be al- ways in good fighting trim. BORZOI, OR RUSSIAN WOLFHOUND (For illustration, see page 210) Those who proclaim the Russian wolfhound, or borzoi, the most wonderful dog in the world have strong grounds for their opinion. Of great size, a marvelous silky coat not long enough to hide his graceful lines, speed almost equal to a greyhound’s, strength almost equal to that of an Irish wolf dog, and with long, muscular jaws, like a grizzly-bear trap, it is no wonder that he is such a favorite, and that beautiful women are so proud of his company. But the gods always withhold something even from those whom they favor most, and the borzois we have seen appeared to lack both the keen intelligence and the frank ex- pression characteristic of their British cousins. We know that the champions of the breed will differ from us in this, but the fact remains that the form of the Russian dog’s head leaves little room for brains. In Russia these hounds are used in wolf- hunting. The wolves are first driven out of the woods by smaller dogs or by beaters, and when a wolf comes into the open two or three borzois, well matched as to speed and courage, are unleashed and sent after him. They are trained to seize the wolf, one on each side, just behind the ears, and they should do this both at the same moment, so that their antagonist cannot use his formidable teeth on either of them. They hold their quarry until the huntsman arrives, leaps from his horse, and either dispatches the wolf with a knife or muzzles him and carries him off to be used in training young dogs in a large, railed inclosure made on purpose. This handsome animal should be of extreme slenderness of head, leg, and waist; narrow through the shoulders, but very deep in the chest. Pasterns and hocks well let down, and, like the greyhound and whippet, the borzoi should have the back strongly arched or roached to give play to the enormous unbend- ing spring. The legs are straighter than in the greyhound, especially at the stifle. Color is not a cardinal feature, as in Russia at least the borzoi is really used for wolf- hunting and the color is unimportant. Here and in England, however, where they are kept solely for their graceful beauty, those in which white predominates, with head and flank mark- ings of lemon, bay, brown, or black, are favor- TES: The head should be extremely slender and narrow, the coat deep, silky, and nearly straight, . the eyes full and round. Indeed, the eyes of “the best dogs look rather flat and scared to one who sees them for the first time. In spite THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of his slender, rather obsequious, appearance, the borzoi is a serious opponent when in trouble. Woolly hair, bent pasterns, straight back, “cow hocks,” and a gaily carried tail are all defects to be avoided. GREAT DANE (For illustration, see page 222) Not quite so swift as the greyhound, deer- hound, or wolfhound, the great Dane is more powerful than any of them and fast enough to overtake most things that run. At his best he is a huge dog, built on greyhound lines, but much more massive. This is probably one of the very oldest breeds, and has been used for ages in hunting all kinds of wild animals. In Germany this dog 1s still used for hunting the wild boar, but in most places he is now regarded as a com- panion and a guardian of property. The great Dane is a typical German dog, and is In fact a synonym of “Deutsche Dogge,” by which name he is known throughout central Europe. Like all oversized dogs, the Dane is given to many weaknesses, both of body and of dispo- sition. The perfect Dane is a most statuesque and magnificent animal; the ordinary one is indeed an ordinary dog. Very seldom, and for an exorbitant price, we may get a dog that lives up to the standard, with strong, straight legs and back, massive deep head, strong, close feet, and, most essential of all, even and trust- worthy temper. Far more often, though, prom- ising puppies grow up to be saggy in the back, cow-hocked behind, and rabbit-footed in front, and while elephantinely playful as 1o0-pound pups, surly and really dangerous as grown dogs. When properly housed, restrained, and exercised, they are splendid creatures. But often they outgrow the capacity of their owners to care for them, when they become the bane of the neighborhood; for the truth is they are too big and too dangerous to be al- lowed unhampered freedom, and the fright they cause, even in play, among people unac- quainted with their ways, renders them fre- quently very unwelcome adjuncts to a neigh- borhood. In addition to their power and size, they have a rather excitable and impatient dis- position, which unfits them at once as children’s playmates. There are few things which have such a- healthful moral effect upon a criminal as to find a big, resolute great Dane standing squarely across his path. If the criminal is a judge of dogs, he may read in the grim face a look which says, “You shall not pass,’ and if he isn’t a fool, he'll “go while the going is good.” A few years ago a burglar in Missouri met a Dane in this way, and either failed to read the danger sign or thought the dog was bluff- ing. He was strangled to death in front of the window by which he was attempting to enter the house, and the verdict for the dog was “justifiable homicide.” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE When one walks down the street with a great _ Dane, about half the people one meets refer to him as a bloodhound. This mistake is largely due to the fact that the managers of the nu- merous “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” shows traveling about the country usually select great Danes instead of bloodhounds as the dogs required in the play. They do this because the Danes are much bigger and more spectacular, and therefore attract more attention when led through the streets of a town before the per- formance. They also are easily excited into the spirit of the act, whereas the kind, senti- mental, and heavy bloodhounds would* walk through the part without the slightest thrill to themselves or to the palpitating audience. THE BLOODHOUND (For illustration, see page 214) The bloodhound is a dog of only medium size and, in spite of his name and reputation, is gentle and affectionate. According to some authorities, these dogs were brought to England by William the Con- queror; according to others, they were brought by pilgrims from the Holy Land. They are often spoken of as “black St. Hu- berts,’ but there were white ones and red ones also, and it is quite possible that our modern bloodhounds are a blend of the three. They probably derive their name from the fact that originally they were used to track animals which were wounded and bleeding, though they have long been associated chiefly with the tracking of men, and for the last hundred years or more, particularly with the trailing of crim- inals. The English bloodhound is simply the ex- treme development of those characteristics which typify the hound: long, low-hung ears, loose skin, long muzzle, and somber expression find in him their greatest degree of perfection. In fact, the skin of the head and face is so loose and ample that it falls into deep folds and wrinkles; the weight of the ears pulls it into furrows, and the lower eyelid falls away from the eye, disclosing a deep haw. ‘The ears, Of thin, fine leather, are so long as to trail _when the nose is down. '» The head is well domed, the occipital point is. very prominent, the flews and dewlap reach excessive development, ronly equaled in the St. Bernard. The bloodhound shoulat Gand 23 to 27 inches and weigh from 80 to 95 or 100 pounds. He should be black and tan; in strict conformity with the standard as shown in the picture, or all deep tan.. The more primitive coloring, the black and tan, is generally preferred. The tail is not carried quite so gaily as in the case of foxhounds and beagles. Any appreciable amount of white betrays impurity of strain. In disposition he is the gentlest of gentle hounds, though his rather fearsome name has earned him an unjust notoriety with those who do not know much about dogs. 213 Only a few kennels breed bloodhounds now. They are used by police departments, both in this country and in Europe, and if brought to the scene‘of a crime within a few hours after it has been. committed, and if the criminal fled across eround not too much trampled over by othet people, they can render valuable assist- ance by leading the police directly to the man they are seeking, There have been bloodhounds credited with following a trail thirty hours aftersit was made, but such performances must be ‘made under ara conditions and are very rare, to.say the east. FOXHOUNDS (For illustration, see page 218) The English foxhound for more than 300 years has been one of the principal factors in the great English sport of fox-hunting. Per- haps no other single sport has done so much to mold the national character. The dogs in packs follow the fox across country, and the fox- hunters, under the direction of a ‘master of foxhounds,” ride after them. The fine qualities developed by hard riding, by facing all kinds of weather, and by the dan- gers incident to jumping high fences and wide ditches, coupled with the sportsmanly behavior which constitutes the etiquette of the hunting field, were just the traits required to make gal- lant soldiers and successful colonists. The English foxhound, while of ancient line- age and highly standardized in England, has not been found to meet exactly the. require- ments of the rougher sport in this country. Thus, through the efforts of a few assiduous fox-hunters, there has been produced a some- what rangier, lighter, and more courageous dog, known as the American foxhound. The lighter built and more speedy American foxhound is used either in packs, followed by mounted hunters, as in England, or singly, or in couples, to drive the fox within range of a gun. “The development of this breed has been largely due to the imitiative and energy of a few men, notably Mr. Harry W. Smith, of Worcester, Massachusetts, in the North, and Brigadier General Roger D. Williams, of Lex- ington, Kentucky, in the South. In essentials the American and English breeds are, of course, very similar. The Fne- lish dog is a little squarer and more pointer-like in the “head, with shorter ears and straighter, longer legs. Our dog seems more like a hound to us, with its fuller leather and more elastic pastern and hock and stifle. The English dog looks rather stiff and stilty in comparison, though undoubtedly just what the Englishman wants. And surely the English huntsman knows just exactly what he wants. The hound is a very primitive type of dog, and one of the proofs of this is his unvarying and rigid adherence to his pattern of color. White, of course, is not natural, but the result BASSET op) a) A =) fe) a Q e) O | aa] BEAGLE POINTER DALMATIAN 215 216 of ages of domestication, and may occur any- where on a dog, as partial albinism, without regard to symmetry or rule. It will be found, however, that through all the ages nothing has been able to upset the fundamental pattern on all the hound-like dogs, which. we see preserved in its purity in the black and tan bloodhound. White may sup- plant it anywhere, but if there is color it will invariably fall according to this design. Thus beagles, foxhounds, and many other dogs with hound blood in them will without exception have their black marks in the proper area for black to come, and their tan marks likewise, whether they come in large patches or as ticks or flecks of color in a white ground. The drawings show the main characteristics of the two types, as well as their markings. THE BEAGLE (For illustration, see page 214) The beagle is not over 15 inches high. He must not be bandy-legged like the dachshund, nor long and low in the body, these qualities being reserved for the basset. He should be an active, intelligent, well proportioned, and capable little dog, with plenty of tenacity of purpose, though great speed is not to be ex- pected. The ears, while long, do not in any way equal those of the bloodhound or basset, reaching just to the tip of the nose. He must have no terrier traits, either physi- cal or temperamental, nor any throaty tendency nor flews. The expression is just like that of a very alert foxhound. The legs must be strong and straight, the stifle well let down, and thew hock srainlys well bent and = themneet strong and close, with full, hard pads. Any hound colors are correct—that is, black saddle and neck, with tan legs, hips, shoulders, and head, interrupted anywhere by white. "hey carry a gay stern, and are in every way very engaging, safe, companionable little dogs. Like all hounds, they make friends easily, and are therefore more easily led astray than some dogs, particularly when young. Harriers resemble foxhounds, but are some- what smaller, and, as the name implies, are kept for hunting hares. ‘They are not used in this country, but in England they are hunted in packs as in fox-hunting, the hunters follow- ing on horseback. The beagle and basset are smaller hounds, used chiefly for hunting hares and rabbits, and are usually followed on foot. ‘There are smooth-coated and rough-coated varieties of both breeds. BASSET (For illustration, see page 214) The basset, which is little known in this country, was imported into England from France between fifty and sixty years ago. It was a popular sporting dog in Germany and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Russia also at that time. With its keen scent, extremely short legs, and very slow movements, it was well equipped for finding game in dense cover. The face of the rough basset is often very wistful; it is one of the most beautiful canine faces ‘ know. The basset is doubtless a coueueel of the old long-eared hound and the dachshund. In- deed, the type is exactly described if we picture a small bloodhound set on a dachshund’s legs, and further words become unnecessary, except to say that the breed “comes” in two forms— smooth or hound-coated and rough or terrier- coated. The latter has never, I think, and the former but seldom, been introduced into this country, where the more active (though possibly more erratic) beagle has so firm a hold. In Europe it is used as a rabbit dog, being low enough to enter the warren. Here, where the rabbits do not dig, but live on the surface, the lively beagle is more useful than his slow, sedate, and steady congener. Any “hound color” is correct, THE POINTER (For illustration, see page 215) So far we have spoken of dogs which when used for hunting purposes are usually sup- posed to catch and kill the game which they follow. We now come to a class of hunting dogs which are not expected to kill the game, but to help their masters to kill it, or to re- trieve it after it has been killed. In the very front ranks stand the pointer and the setters—English, Irish, and Gordon—and which is the best is largely a matter of indi- vidual taste. The chief duty_of each is to scent out the game (usually such birds as partridge, grouse, and quail), and, when near enough, point out to the gunner the spot where it lies concealed. As the hunter approaches, the birds rise and are shot on the wing. Very often the dogs are trained to pick up and bring in the game after it is shot. The pointer, as the illustration shows, is smooth coated, and his name suggests his busi- ness. This most popular of upland hunting-dogs has undergone many changes in standard as to size, conformation, and color. But certainly no “strain” has been more successful, nor stamped its virtues more generally upon fol- lowing generations of pointers, than the famous “graphic” pointers of 20 years ago, and it is one of the best of these that was used as a model. The working pointer should be a lean, hard- limbed, and well-muscled dog of about 60 pounds weight, though Io pounds either way would meet the preferences of different fan- ciers. He must be keen of eye and nose, obe- dient, teachable, and staunch. Many otherwise fine pointers lack the courage of their convic- tions, and it is easy to spoil a good dog either by too gentle or too rough handling. Colors are legion ; white should predominate, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE with liver, lemon, or black distributed in al- most any fashion, according to taste. No finer upland bird-dog exists, and his endurance and energy are things to marvel at. As in all working dogs, the “tools of his trade” must be right. Soft, spready feet, weak legs or back, small or “snipy’ nose are all vital defects. The head is shaped very like that of a setter, but should be wider across the ears. A good, square profile is essential, with a well-defined stop. The tail, strong and full at the base, should taper rapidly and be as straight as possible. The breed is so popular and so widely used that there is little difficulty in getting well- balanced pointers. The continental “pointing griffon” is a type of growing popularity, with little to commend it above the better-known field-dogs except its novelty. It may be described as a wire-haired pointer, whose coat is rough and quite long, particularly over the eyes and on the muzzle. It has a terrier-like expression that is rather prejudicial to the impression it makes upon one familiar with the frank, loyal look of a setter or pointer. DALMATIAN, OR COACH DOG (For illustration, see page 215) The Dalmatian was originally a “pointer” and in his native country was used for sport- ing purposes. But in England he was found to be very inferior to the native pointer, and, as he showed a. marked fondness for horses and stables, he was specially trained as a Scoach oF carriage” dog. For more than a hundred years before the day of the automobile, it was a common thing on English roads to see one of these muscular, deep-lunged, spotted dogs trotting easily be- tween the hind wheels of a fashionable ‘ ‘turn- out’—so close, in ‘fact, that it had the appear- ance of “weavi ring’ in and out as the horses’ heels flew. back. The automobile has virtually done away with it as a vehicle guardian and companion; still its unusual appearance has been sufficient to maintain it among the fancy and a goodly number find their way to the big shows. The coach dog strongly resembles a small, straight-legged pointer in general conforma- tion, and differs chiefly in the shorter ear, straight front, and less arched stifle. In color it must be white, evenly spangled all over with round, clearly defined spots of black or dark brown. Black is preferable and more usual. These spots must be sharp, and the more even and uniformly distributed the better. They may be confluent on the ears—it is a virtue to have dark ears—but elsewhere on the body it is a fault. In size they should be from half an inch to an inch in diameter, roughly. The legs should be strong and straight, of good bone, for speed and endurance. The feet should not be large, but compact, and with toes well arched and pads deep and elastic. Taal The coach dog should be from 1g to 23 inches high and weigh from 35 to 50 pounds. SETTERS (For illustration, see page 219) Setters have long but “flat” silky coats and plumed tails, and as a rule very gentle faces, full of expression. In olden times, when it was customary to “net” game, these dogs were taught to point the birds and then to crouch or “set,” that the net might be thrown over and beyond them; hence the name. The English, Irish, and Gordon setters are almost too well known to need any physical description. Fashions have changed somewhat, and will probably continue to do’so, in these as in other popular breeds. still, the needs are so definite; and perform- ance is such a necessary foundation for ap- pearance, that the setters will probably never deviate very widely from the present standard, except in minor points attained by crossing the known types. It is doubtful if any serious breeder would trust other than setter blood in these already very beautiful and useful dogs. In this country no dog is so well fitted for hunting grouse, pheasants, quail, and feathered upland and woodland game in general. In comparing the three principal types, the English is the largest and strongest, and is largely white, with liver, tan, orange, or black blotches and “ticking,” "The Irish is the light- est and most finely drawn, and is all rich ma- hogany tan; he has a more high-strung dispo- sition than either of the others, and is rather more nervous and subject to temperamental weaknesses, though when well trained and in- telligently handled is unsurpassed as a field and hunting dog. The Gordon is a north British development, to be used chiefly on the red grouse of the heathery uplands, and is black, with deep tan chops, ear-linings, chest, belly, feet, and feather, and the characteristic tan spots over the eyes and on the cheeks. For several years he was bred to a very delicate, slender-headed type; he was then a very affectionate and beautiful creature, but lacked the staunchness such a hunting dog must have. The present standard dictates a dog of almost exactly the conforma- tion of the English setter: wide across the fore- head, strong, fairly broad, and very deep in the chest, with plentiful bone in legs and good, hard, compact feet. In this country, where the autumn woods abound in russet browns and deep shadows, the solid red and the black and tan dogs are harder to follow with the eye than those with a fair amount of white; hence the English setter and the mainly white pointer are favorites among the hunters, though the Irish has many adher- ents among those desiring a beautiful and com- panionable dog. The Gordon is nearly obsolete in this country. The English has been modified in several re- spects, and excellent types have come to be GQNNOHXOdU NVOITYAUNV . QNNOHXOdU HSITONG YALLAS HSTIONG YALLAS HSlal YALLAS NOGAXOO BIN) known by the kennel names of their breeders, such as Belton and Llewellyn setters. ‘These are excellent quail-dogs, being somewhat more of the build of the Irish setter and consider- ably lighter and more delicately put together than the staunch old English setter. Both are white, with much fine ticking of black which in the long white coat has a bluish appearance. All setters should show quite a marked stop, have full, sympathetic, and intelligent eyes, soft, fine, nearly straight hair, a full feather along the back of all four legs, as well as from the lower side of the tail. They should be built much like a pointer, ex- cept that they lack the springy arched quality of legs and back, being rather more careful, but fuel less rapid, workers than these rangers of the open fields. The stifle should be straight from front or back instead of free and out- turned. Under his soft and’ rather silky coat, the setter should be hard, finely muscled, and com- pact, and none of these dogs should be allowed to get fat and lazy, as they so often become in the hands of affectionate owners. No dog has a more wheedling way with him, and it takes a_ rather firm nature to withstand his wiles. RETRIEVER (For illustration, see page 223) Many breeds of dogs have been trained to’ find and bring in game which has been shot, but retrievers, as their name implies, are bred specially for that purpose. English sportsmen had for some time been experimenting with different breeds in an effort to find a dog ex- actly suited for retrieving game, when, about the middle of the last century, there was intro- duced from Labrador a hardy, black-coated, small-eared, medium-sized dog, which seemed to answer the purpose. He was a typical water dog and not subject to ear canker, which so often develops in spaniels used to retrieve waterfowl. This Labrador dog, crossed ‘probably with the English setter, and perhaps with other breeds, produced the retriever, which may be either black: or liver brown. In size about like a pointer, covered all over with a coat of tight, curly hair, Astrakhan-like, except for his) smooth head and:tace, le 4s’ a curlous-looking dog. He is a capable and teachable creature, however, and makes a capi- - tal assistant in the duck-blind or as a gun-dog, where birds are the quarry. The curly retriever may be either coal black or dark liver brown. He should weigh about 65 to 80 pounds. There is also a smooth retriever, which is much like the curly in form and size, but has straight hair. The Labrador retriever is shorter of leg than the other types and generally more solidly built. It is generally some shade of brown, and none of the retrievers should show more than a ‘trace of white on the chest. All have smaller THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ears than the pointer or setter, and the curly type carries his close to the head. The original “Labrador,” or something very like, still exists under the same name, as a dis- tinct and recognized breed: He has all the good qualities a both of these highly intelli- gent parents. CHESAPEAKE RETRIEVER (For illustration, see page 223) This is an essentially American dog and has come to a high state of perfection along the © eastern seaboard, and, as an introduced type, is much esteemed in the ducking marshes of the Northwest. His parentage is supposed to be chiefly otterhound and Labrador, but it 1s altogether probable that other blood runs in his, veins, as he is one of the dogs that has been developed for a particular use through particular qualities his ancestors were found in actual practice to possess. The result is a very curious, very excellent, but not very stable nor beautiful dog. But no known dog is such an unswervable retriever or can stand ‘a fraction) or theme posure to icy wind and icy water which this hardy fowling dog seems to revel in. To meet this rigorous demand, he has a curious, deep woolly undercoat that seems never to wet through, such, as we find on water-dwelling mammals like the otter; this is protected and covered by a»harsh, strong coat of regular hair, straight or slightly curly, from which one good shake drives practically all the water. her will chase a wounded duck over or under the ice and will follow the liveliest “cripple” till it wearies. In open deep-water duck hunt- ing such a dog is invaluable. They vary From 60 to 80 pounds in weight and from 22 to 25 inches in height. Fhe ear is quite short and set rather biehl giving a squarer look to the head than in the setter, which it remotely resembles. They are tawny brown or “sedge color” generally, though other less desirable colors are met with occasionally. THE IRISH WATER SPANIEL (For illustration, see page 223) Identified more or less with the retrievers, because they perform. similar duties, are the sporting spaniels, which, because they are di- vided into so many branches, constitute per- haps the largest dog family in the world. The English “Kennel Club” recognizes Irish water spaniels, water spaniels other than Irish, Clumber spaniels, Sussex spaniels, field span- iels, English springers,, Welsh springers, and cocker spaniels. They are all used to assist the gunner to find his game and to retrieve it atte Auasi smote The Irish water spaniel is in a class by him- self. You need to see him but once to remem- ber him forever. It is said that he was the very last dog to be made, and that it was only THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE by using the remnants of half a dozen other breeds that enough material was found of which to make him. When he comes up to you for the first time, you'll probably laugh at him; but don’t laugh too long; there ll be tears in your eyes if you do. For this quaint creature who looks as if he had borrowed from friends everything he has on, including his tail, has such an honest face, such a charming expression, and such a dignity of manner that hell win your sympa- thy and your respect before the first smile of amusement has left your face. As a water dog, he is generally regarded as superior to any other member oi his family, though most ’ spaniels take kindly to the water. Formerly quite a popularly known dog for sniping and ducking, the old Irish water span- iel seems to have been almost entirely aban- doned, and few are now seen in this country. Perhaps the uses to which he was put are more satisfactorily met by the setters and retrievers, both oi which are stronger and heavier and can equal him in work in the water. The type of this breed should weigh about 50 pounds and be of a uniform liver-color. The coat is quite long and tightly curled, but by no means woolly. It is long on the crown, but the face, front of hind legs, and most of the tail should be clothed in short, soft, rather dull hair, giving the appearance of having been clipped. It is very different in appearance from the land spaniel of the cocker type, being in shape and size not greatly unlike the poodle, but:diif- fering much from this breed in texture of coat: and in the perfectly smooth face. In disposi- tion it is like both the poodle and the spaniels generally—kind, affectionate, playful, and bright, but showing a strong tendency to be a little aloof with strangers. They have also a strong trend toward obesity in age, when they become heavy, untidy, and decrepit. CLUMBER, FIELD, AND COCKER SPANIELS (For illustration, see page 227) These rather closely related dogs may, like the setters, be considered each in relation to the others. The clumber is the largest, weighing up to 65 pounds, though the average is probably about 50. He is perhaps best described as a very low, heavily built English setter, all white except for lemon or orange ears and eye- patches, with ticking of the same on forelegs and as little as possible elsewhere. He is a benign, affectionate creature and very sedate in manners. As a gun-dog, he is used in England on woodcock, snipe, and other lowland birds, but he has never been much used or bred in this country. The soft, deep eye shows consider- able haw in mature dogs. The coat should be almost perfectly straight, and the tail, belly, and legs, down to the hocks, should be full- feathered. 221 The cocker is the smallest of the three and is an active, playful, intelligent little dog, which takes on the spaniel dignity rather later in life than the clumber and the business-like field spaniel. He gets his name, “cocker,” from the use to which he was bred in hunting woodcock.. They are easily trained to fowling, being already predisposed in scenting out and flushing grouse-like birds (including the do- mestic hen). This tendency is taken advantage of and developed, to force grouse up into the trees, where they are easily shot. The cocker rushes his bird and then barks and keeps it busy and preoccupied. If the hunter himself flushed the game, it would go far and probably not again be seen. The cocker should weigh from 18 to 24 pounds. In color he may be black, red, liver, or lemon, with or without white. These colors should be clear and pronounced, not pale or washed out, and if predominant over white should be virtually solid, the white being re- stricted to a mere dash on the chest. If white predominates, the color should be solid on ears and face, except for the fore-face and a blaze up the nose. [m this case, color should be dis- tributed about as in the English setter. The ears, while long, silky, and set low, - should not reach beyond the nose when drawn forward. The legs must be strong, straight, and of good bone and not too short, and the squarely built body hard and muscular. They are admirable house-dogs, but when kept as such should be rather sparingly fed and kept in good trim. A fat spaniel is not an attractive object. The field spaniel is much larger and stronger than the cocker, but not so restless. He is, however, more active and lively than the clum- ber. While not so thoughtiul-looking and se- date as the latter, he is highly intelligent, good- natured, and obedient. His body is long and low, but he carries his head with an air of courage and determination. His coat is straight and silky, and his color may be solid black, solid liver, liver and white, black and white, black and tan, orange, or orange and white. The black and the liver are the colors preferred. The proper weight is from 30 to 45 pounds. NEWFOUNDLAND (For illustration, see page 226) Two dogs which rival the Eskimo in their ability to endure deep snow and extreme cold are the St. Bernard and the Newfoundland, both of which have become famous as savers of life. Both are well-known subjects of the poet and the painter, who delight to record their heroic deeds or their simple fidelity. The Newfoundland has the further unique distinction among dogs of being figured on a postage stamp of his native land. He is a won- derful swimmer and is credited with saving many people from drowning. It is a real pity that this noble, useful, and typically American dog should have lost popu- larity to such an extent that now he is almosi 222 GREAT DANES IQQINVGS GALVIN’ HOLdL~ YAATIALAA GALVOO-ATANO dHACIALAA AAVAIVSAHO 224 never seen. Only two strains are preserved, so far as can be learned—one in England and one in New Jersey. Therefore it was a great pleas- ure as well as a great assistance in the making of the plate to meet face to face at the West- minster show of 10918 the straight descendant of the very dog whose photograph had been the artist's model. The magnificent St. Bernard carries on better than any other breed the qualities that charac- terize the Newfoundland. For many years the breed, which had been perfected and stabilized in England, was used as a farmer’s helper, having the intelligence needed for a herding dog and the weight. and willingness to churn and do other real work. His benignity and unquestioned gentleness made him a very desirable guard and compan- ion for children, and his deep voice rather than his actual attack was usually a sufficient alarm against unwonted intrusions. Aside from these fine qualities, however, his mere beauty and staunch dependability should have been suffi- cient to preserve him from the fate that seems to be almost accomplished. Weighing from 120 to 150 pounds and stand- ing 25 to 27 inches at the.shoulder,’the deep- furred, massive-headed, and kind-eyed New- foundland was one of the most impressive of dogs. He was strong, active, and leonine both in looks and in action, having a rolling, loosely knit gait. There were two recognized colors— all black (white toes and breast spot were not defects, however) and white, with large black patches over the ears and eyes and on the body, the latter being known as Landseer Newfound- lands, because a dog of this type is the subject of Sir Edwin Landseer’s well-known painting, “A Distinguished Member of the Humane So- ciety.’ The forehead was domed almost to the point of looking unnatural; the broad fore- head, deep jaw, flews, and dewlaps betokened a kind and gentle nature. SPITZ (For illustration, see page 230) The “wolf spitz” of the mid-Victorian fan- cier is now seldom seen in this country; yet he is a very interesting dog, having much to do in the gradual evolution of many types popular today. Almost unaltered except in size, we see him now as the popular toy Pomeranian (see page 251); his influence is easily seen in the saucy black schipperke (see page 258) ; there is little doubt that he has a share in the various shepherd dogs of central Europe, and one can see strong probability that this strain reappears in the fine dogs of the North, represented by the Samoyed and sled dogs of the Eastern and the Eskimos of the Western hemispheres, though it is not clear how it got there. The true spitz is a dog weighing about 25 to 30 pounds, and the best dogs are white or cream-color, though fawn, brown, and even black dogs are found. The mixture of white in patches with any of these “self” colors is an unpardonable defect with the fancy. They are THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE bright, fascinating, pretty dogs; but it must in candor be said they are.very “choicy” in mak- ing friends and very ready to repel with sharp teeth any unwelcome advances by dogs or hu- mans they don’t know. ‘They are apt to be a real responsibility to the owner on this account. The Eskimo dog, Samoyed (page 234), spitz (page 230), and Chow-Chow (page 234), al- though differing in size and sometimes in color, probably had a common origin. ‘Their dense coats show that they all properly belong in the North, and their straight, upright ears and general appearance betray their blood rela- tionship to the wolf. The spitz, usually solid white or solid black, has long been a favorite in Germany. Thirty or forty years ago it was popular in this coun- try, but it is a dog of ‘uncertain temper, and that may be one reason why it is no longer in favor, except ima reduced form as ay toy dog. ALASKAN ESKIMO DOGS (For illustration, sez page 230) There is no set standard for Eskimo dogs, and nowadays one must go very far into the Arctic to find the packs pure and uncontami- nated with the blood cf the white man’s dogs; for the best huskie is the strongest, most will- ing, and obedient dog, whatever his lineage, and these qualities have undoubtedly been in- creased through the introduction of such strains as the Newfoundland, Dane, shepherd dog, and others of less pure but equally civil- ized blood. There are a good many names for the Eskimo dogs and a good many types, as their range covers a Stretch of country some 4,000 miles long and 1,500:*miles. wide, It is therefore easily understandable that the dog of the Aleu- tians and Alaska should present quite a differ- ent appearance from that of Hudson Bay or Greenland. The typical Alaskan “huskie’ is generally black or dark, with white and buff markings, distributed as shown in the plate. The brown leader is the famous dog Napoleon, from Nome, who went as leader to France in 19015. The white-faced dogs are “huskies”; the “masked” dog in the middle is a “malamute,” and the pale dogs are of the North Greenland type. All Eskimos are strong, wolfy, self-reliant dogs, with straight, strong legs, solid body, and massive head; even of jaw, keen of eye and ~ ear, and well equipped by nature for the semi- feral life they lead among their nomadic mas- ters. They have the pricked ears, deep-furred neck, dense waterproof coat, well-furred feet, and, gaily cargied) tail of “all the Aretie and northern Asiatic dogs, and are represented by similar dogs across northern Lapland, Russia, and Siberia. A good average weight for these dogs is about 70 pounds, though they often scale much more. ‘They share with the Asiatic dogs the peculiar horizontal width of jaw so marked in the Chow. ‘They are used by the Eskimos for THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pulling sledges and for hunting musk-ox and Polar bear which are overtaken and held at bay until the hunters arrive. NORTH GREENLAND ESKIMO DOG (For illustration, see page 231) Polaris was chosen as our model of this type because he has been considered the most perfect North Greenland Eskimo dog known. He shows the light color so prevalent among the dogs of the extreme north on both conti- nents, and the marked depth and breadth of muzzle. This seems to be a characteristic of many Asiatic dogs, the Chow and Tibetan mastiff notably, and may point to an Asiatic connection with Greenland via the Polar ice or across Arctic America. There is a. heavy, pale buff, deep-jawed dog found along the Arctic coast of America from the eastern to the western extent of land. No white man living has had more experi- ence with this breed than Admiral Robert E. Peary, who frankly admits that if it had not been for the sledge dogs he never would have discovered the North Pole. He is a firm be- liever in the pure-bred North Greenland Esk1- mo, which is practically a domesticated wolf, and most of the dogs which went to the Pole were of this type. A puppy from these famous animals, secured by one of the coauthors of this article from Admiral Peary, was named “Polaris,” and he developed into what Captain “Bob” Bartlett declared to be the finest living specimen of the breed. Polaris weighed about 100 pounds, but looked much larger, owing to his wonderful coat, which at its best measured nine inches long on the shoulder. The hair of the tail was 12%4 inches long. He took to the sledge and to the pack-saddle without any training whatever, and pulled a sledge three miles through deep snow the first time he was put in harness. He was extremely gentle and affectionate with people and with a little Scotch terrier of ours, but a devil incarnate toward everything else that walked, flew, or swam. From grass- hoppers and wild mice, through cats and pigs to sheep and cattle, there was nothing he could not or did not kill. Yet such was the magic of his smile, the twinkle of his eye, and the wheed- ling wave of his tail, that no one would believe anything against him unless he was caught in the act, which he usually wasn’t. He was finally presented to Dr. Wilfred Grenfell, and celebrated his arrival in Labrador by whipping every other dog in sight. SAMOYED (For illustration, see page 234) Due largely to the efforts of Mr. and Mrs. FE. Kilburn Scott, of Kent, England, the fine and picturesque Samoyed has become well es- tablished and pretty generally known both in England and America. 225 In appearance he is between a white spitz dog and a white Eskimo; in character he is one of the very nicest of dogs. He is of medium size, weighing about 4o pounds. He has a little of the width of jaw that char- acterizes the Chow and other Asiatic types, and has the characteristic of all Arctic dogs of car- rying his tail in a chrysanthemum-like pompom on his back. The fine dark eye, alertly pricked ear, and deep, soft, white coat make him every- where a conspicuous favorite. The feet are well protected from the cold by thick fur be- tween the toes, almost covering the black pads. While the dogs bred in England and America are all of the pure white or pale creamy type, black, black and white, and brown and white dogs are found among the wandering Samoyed people of Siberia and the Arctic shores of Russia and Nova Zembla. The Samoyed is a compact, staunch little sledge dog, used by the Samoyed, a semi- nomadic race living in northeastern Russia and Siberia. These people keep herds of reindeer, and some of the dogs are used in rounding up and driving these animals, much as collies are used in caring for sheep and cattle. CHOW (For illustration, see page 234) Though there are two types of Chow in China, whence we got it, the smooth type has never been popular here nor in England, and may be ignored in this connection. The rough or common Chow is a most attractive and dis- tinctive dog of medium size, always “whole” colored; red, black, brown, blue, or “smoke,” cream or white. The red and “smoke” are the favorites among breeders and owners; the darker and purer the color the better. Perhaps no dog has more individuality, nor knows his own mind better than the Chaw. He is frisky, playful, intelligent, and willing to obey his master implicitly; the rest of earth’s population has no interest for him whatever. Those the artist has known were entirely tol- erant of his presence, and even his caresses, in their own home or when their master was with them elsewhere. Off the porch or on the street they will not so much as notice a stranger, ex- cept that it is impossible to put a hand on them or elicit a glimmer of recognition. Of all dogs they are the most consistently a “one-man” type. The Chow has several real peculiarities, among which the most pronounced is the pur- plish black interior of the mouth, including the tongue. He is a very cobby dog, standing on four exceedingly straight legs. He is straighter in the stifle than any other dog. The muzzle should be short, the head square and massive, with a sort of scowl or frown that is helped by the widely set eyes. The fur is very dense and deep, with a sepa- rate underfur like that of the Eskimo or other Arctic dogs, from which the Chow is sup- posedly derived. It also has the wide chops, small eye, and curly tail of his congeners. SANVTGNNOAUMAN 226 THINVdS QTait THINVdS AHANNTO TAINVdS AWHAOOO 228 The feet are small and catlike and the pointed ears are held upright. ‘The neck all round has very deep fur, forming a sort of mane or ruff. All in all, he 1s about the most distinct type of dog to be seen. He has plenty of courage, though he is generally prudent and keeps out of trouble. With those he knows he is ex- tremely patient, being in this respect a fine dog to be among children. The Chow is a common dog in China, but in this country he is regarded as an aristocrat, which is not unreasonable considering his proud bearing and ancient lineage. Whether black, red, yellow, blue, or white, he is a dog of striking appearance and reminds one of an animated Chinese carving. ST. BERNARDS (For illustration, see page 235) The St. Bernard won both his name and his fame in the Swiss Alps, where for many years the monks of the Hospice St. Bernard have used dogs to assist them in saving the lives of travelers lost in the snow. One of these dogs, Barry, saved 40 people and was killed by the 4ist, who mistook him for a wolf. But the dogs used by the monks have changed greatly in appearance from time to time. Oc- casionally an avalanche will destroy a large number, and those remaining will be bred to Newfoundlands, Pyrenean sheep dogs, and others having similar characteristics. Some of the dogs kept at the hospice now resemble powerful foxhounds and would never be admitted to an American bench show in competition with modern St. Bernards, either smooth or rough coated, such as are pictured on page 235. The old-time working hospice dog had none of the grandeur of this more modern successor to his name, which has been compounded rather recently of several other dogs. Still he is about the most distinct of any of the large dogs, the Newfoundland being the only dog even remotely resembling him. Like all very large heavy dogs, this breed is greatly given to weakness in the legs, cowhocks and weak hips being rather the rule than the exception. The “dewclaw,” or extra hind toe, is also generally present (and was formerly considered desirable). The perfect St. Bernard is a very large, very strong, straight-backed, strong-legged, and heavily organized dog, the colors, as shown, being those most eagerly sought. They may be either rough or smooth in coat. The best American dogs are those of Mr. Jacob Rupert, Or Newel, ING Js ehacl Wiese (C2 IB. ihrash, oi California. Indeed, it is doubtful if their dogs are to be surpassed anywhere. The benign St. Bernard should show, in both types, broad, domed, massive head, loose skin, deep-set, rather mournful, eye, haw quite pro- nounced, and deep-folded flews and dewlap, though he should not be too EthikOaty. -aeViklae is not mentioned in most brief accounts of this dog is the tremendously impressive voice in THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE which he speaks. Probably no other dog has such a deep bass voice, nor such a volume of it. Yet it is as benign and kindly as his ex- pression of countenance, and would tend rather to inspire hope and confidence than fear, even with the timid. A The deep personal affection with which St. Bernard owners invariably invest their com- panions is the best expression of the character of these great, dignified and rather somber dogs, which inspire no fear, even in little children, and which return the stranger’s gaze with a look of calm, steady, and indulgent tolerance, and endure the advances of the unacquainted with a patience and dignity that speak worlds for their gracious and enduring disposition. COLLIE (For illustration, see page 238) There is little resemblance between the work- ing “collie” of the Scottish sheep-herder and the elaborately furred, slender faced, * bench- dog now so popular. The broad- skulled, rather neglected looking “‘shepherd dog” of our boy- hood, with his friendly, democratic manners (or lack of them) would get short shrift now at any show or gathering of the élite, while of all dogs his handsome, richly frilled de- scendant, with all the ear-marks of aristocracy, is the cause of more “Ohs” and “Ahs” than any other dog in the show. Nevertheless, one might see an “ornery-look- ing,” half-moulted type of the countryside han- dle a drove of 3,000 or more sheep in Sas- katchewan in a manner to bring one up stand- ing. And when, on returning at nightfall, he puts every ewe and lamb in one corral and every ram in another, without.error or vio- lence, one feels like asking him if he would shake hands with a mere spectator! It is doubtful if any borzoi-headed champion could do that with a lifetime of training. Still, the collie is a most intelligent and hand- some dog, and the present tendency is toward a greatly elongated and consequently narrowed head, forming “almost a straight or even slightly deflected line from nose to occiput. The neck, throat, and chest bear a great frill of long hair, and the back of the thighs also is very deeply and richly furred. The hair of the bodyaus long and straight, rather harsh, but with a deep and woolly undercoat. The feet, from hock and wrist down, should be smooth. In color, the collie may be black and tan; “sable,” or rich orange brown, with white frill, Collan andiysrace jimarmleciaiiea- mor white, with black spotting and freckling at random; “blue,” or mouse color, and white, or even pure white everywhere. Some few kennels specialize in white collies and advertise extensively; they are very beautiful dogs, though probably re- quiring more care to keep presentable than the more “practical” colors, as our mothers would call them. The collie should stand 20 to 24 inches and weigh from 40 to 60 pounds. He requires con- siderable exercise, and while growing up needs al THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 229 watching to prevent his acquiring a taste for chickens and even lamb. Once this predilec- tion gets established, it is hard if not impossible to eradicate. In this country we know the collie chiefly as a beautiful, vivacious, and alert companion, but in the great sheep-raising districts of Scotland, northern England, and Wales, he is an abso- lutely indispensable assistant of the shepherd. Not that the working collie looks very much like the long-muzzled, much-beruffled, and well- groomed specimens which grace the benches at our dog shows. He would never be allowed inside the ring at Madison Square Garden, and if he were he would stand about as much _chance of taking a prize as a blue-ribbon win- ner would have of defeating him in one of the great annual sheep-dog trials of his native land. He lacks the superficial beauty neces- sary to win in the show-ring but he has the brains, the courage, and the stamina without which the sheep industry of Great Britain would quickly come to a standstill. In the land of misty mountains one good dog can do the work of a dozen men, and there is no other animal which could possibly replace him. ; Obeying the voice, or, better still, the whistle, of his master, a good working collie will ’run out” to a distant pasture, round up his flock, separating them if necessary from other sheep, and bring them along at just the right speed; head off any which may try to take a wrong direction; go back and hurry those which lag behind; fight off strange dogs if necessary, and finally bring them into the fold without losing one. Next morning he will take them away to the pasture and guard them all day, if asked to do so, or help his master to drive them to the market, along the quiet country lanes and the crowded city streets alike, preventing every at- tempt of his charges to wander or stampede. The Shetland collie, a tiny sheep - herder weighing between six and ten pounds and 1m- ported from the Shetland Islands, is becoming known in the country as an attractive pet. SMOOTH COLLIE (For illustration, see page 238) The smooth collie is to be judged by exactly the same standards in everything, except coat, as the rough, or common, collie. The artist had never seen one and was some- what desperate for a model, when to his sur- prise he found that the Belgian farmer who comes for the neighborhood garbage was ac- companied by a fine specimen, brought with him in 1914 from home, whence he fled at the instance of the Hun! It is somewhat of a surprise to see what a collie looks like in short hair, but it rather in- creases our regard for him than otherwise. For he is a fine, strong, “doggy” animal, and in this example, at least, the ‘refinement’ which so often results in extremely nervous and high-strung dogs has not been sought. The present fad for long, slender, roman- nosed and narrow-faced collies seems to intro- duce an entirely undesirable slenderness of temper as well, quite different from the genial, easy-going dependability of the “old-fashioned” collie, wide between the eyes and ears. It is a distinct loss to the breed. ENGLISH SHEEP-DOG (For illustration, see page 238) Rapidly gaining in popularity, the curious woolly sheep-dog has become thoroughly estab- lished in the United States; he has long been used as a practical helper in the great sheep ranges of western Canada. He bears no re- semblance whatever to the familiar collie type of sheep-dog, but looks rather like a great long-legged, round-headed, bounding terrier. He has a formidable voice, very different in- deed from the rather fox-like yap of the collie, and while he is some 24 to 27 inches at the shoulder and weighs 60 to 80 pounds one can- not quite get away from the impression that he is, in fact, a huge terrier of some kind. The effect is heightened greatly by the long woolly hair on his head and face, which virtually hides the clever eyes, and makes a study of his actual head-form very difficult. The hair on back and hips is very long; when combed out they look very curious indeed. In color they are usually blue gray and white; any strong tendency toward brown is not good. The white usually occupies most of the head and fore-quarters. He is a dog of very striking appearance—one might almost say of un-dog-like appearance. He 1s large, rather tall on the legs, tailless, and covered from head to foot with a long, loose hair, which tosses about freely when he runs or jumps, giving him the appearance of a huge animated floor-mop. But if you part the hair on his face you will find a pair of beautiful, intelligent, friendly eyes. He is active, good- natured, and makes a fine companion. Dogs of this: breed were not always bob- tailed; originally they were probably as well provided with tails as other dogs. Many of them were uséd for herding, and consequently Except from = taxation litwiss said) that the drovers amputated the tails of their working sheep-dogs to distinguish them from those which were not exempted. It is believed by some authorities that this mutilation, continued through many genera- tions, created in the breed a tendency to pro- duce tailless and short-tailed offspring. What- ever the cause, it is certain that today many Old English sheep-dog puppies are born bob- tailed. When they are born with tails it is customary to dock them to within an inch or two of the root, and the operation is per- formed not more than four days after birth. The docking accentuates the characteristic rounded quarters and increases the somewhat bearlike appearance of the animal. OR oa Be. ae SPILZ KAN ESKIMO DOGS ALAS 230 NORTH GREENLAND ESKIMO EM, 232 GERMAN SHEPHERD, OR POLICE, DOG (For illustration, see page 239) On the continent of Europe there are many kinds of dogs used for guarding sheep, but those best known in this country are the Ger- man and Belgian sheep-dogs. They have come into unusual prominence within the last five years because of the notable part they have played with the Red Cross units and in other activities on the battlefields of France’ and Belgium. This is one of the handsomest and most at- tractive of dogs, and approximates more closely than any other the really wolf type. Strong and clean of limb, bright of eye, and alert in every sense, gifted with a very high intelligence and a wonderful memory for what he has been taught, he is a most excellent and useful working dog. The German shepherd dog should stand 22 to 26 inches at the shoulder and show in every line the qualities which he is supposed to pos- sess: “intelligence, alertness, loyalty, gentle- ness, courage, obedience, willingness, and de- votion.” He is a graceful, powerful dog, with beautiful lines and curves denoting both strength and speed. It is not necessary to mention the many uses he has been put to in the present war, as Red Cross, No Man’s Land patrol, messenger, and ration-carrier. It is perhaps as well to say here that any such active, restless, vigorous, and in- telligent animal as this becomes a grave respon- sibility to its owner and should be sedulously cared for and kept in control every minute. They become very dangerous when neglected or turned adrift or thrown on their own re- sources by being lost, and once they form a habit of chicken or sheep killing they become inveterate and persistent in their maraudings and ordinarily must be shot. One very beautiful dog of this kind was re- cently shot in the Catskills after repeated rav- ages which started a rumor of wolves in the region. This impression was very natural, and when the photographs sent to the Conservation Commission were identified as a dog the rustic sufferers were still only partly convinced. Dog it was, however, and apparently a very fine ex- ample of this new and interesting type. While the standard allows great range of color, those most often seen in this country are of the so-called “wolf” colors—dark tipping of hair over a tawny or buff ground. The muzzle (unlike that of a wolf) is usually blackish. Both the German and the Belgian dogs may be divided into three general types, namely, rough-haired, wire-haired, and smooth-haired. By their erect ears and general expression they betray their near relationship to the wolf. Some of the varieties are becoming popular in this country as companions, and while they do not seem demonstratively affectionate they are staunch and loyal and conduct themselves with quiet dignity which is equaled by few other breeds. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE BELGIAN SHEPHERD DOG (For illustration, see page 239) Many types of shepherd dogs have been de- veloped in Europe, and doubtless a good many have just “growed,” like Topsy. But it is not likely that the Belgian dog is of the latter class, for in common with several other Belgian va- rieties he has arrived at a very concise stand- ard, and has proved in the present war one of the most dependable and valuable of dogs for the purposes of finding and bringing aid to the wounded in No Man’s Land, as well as carry- ing messages where a man could not go and live. He is a trifle smaller than the better known and more extensively advertised German shep- herd, or “police,” dog, and is usually solid black in color. He is also a bit stockier and less rangy in build and has a little more width of brow. While not so strong as his big, light- colored German congener, nor so formidable as an antagonist, he is equally intelligent and capable, equally keen of scent and sight, and probably less of a responsibility for his owner. THE PYRENEAN SHEEP-DOG (For illustration, see page 242) One of the most beautiful dogs in the world is the Pyrenean sheep-dog, but, alas! the breed is almost extinct. ‘Technically speaking, this animated snowdrift is not a sheep-dog at all, but closely related to the mastiffs. In form of body and texture of coat he greatly resembles the Tibet mastiff, though the latter is not so tall on the legs and is quite different in color, being velvety black, with rich tan markings. Had the Pyrenean dog been a herder of sheep like the collie, no doubt his tribe would have been as numerous as ever; but the Spanish, and later the French, shepherds used him chiefly to guard their flocks against the ravages of the wolves and bears. When wolves and bears became scarce in the Pyrenean Mountains, the need of this valiant defender grew less and the breed was neglected, until now but a few specimens remain. The Pyrenean sheep-dog is one of the finest dogs that has been used in the manufacture of the present-day St. Bernard. It is quite possi- ble that the old hospice-dog (which died out when roads and railways cut hither and thither through the Alps) was more of this type than is generally supposed. The Pyrenean dog is one of the large dogs, but by no means so immense as the St. Bernard. A good male dog would probably weigh about 100 to 110 pounds, as against 250 pounds for the St. Bernard. He is usually pure white or cream-colored and bears a coat much like that of a Newfound- land, only with more underfur and of a more woolly texture. He has seldom been brought to this country or even to England. He is preeminently a guardian dog, used to insure safety to the flock from the attack of wolves, smaller and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE nimbler dogs being used for the purpose of driving and herding. The type is easier to conceive from the pic- ture than by a written description. Like all dogs bred for utility, and not yet taken up by “the fancy,” he is bound by no standard of per- fection and is subject to considerable variation. The best dog is the one that does his work best, which is as it should be. THE MASTIFF (For illustration, see page 242) If the Pyrenean dog is one of the most beautiful dogs in the world, surely the English ‘mastiff is one of the most famous. It is re- garded as probably the oldest of all British dogs, and, as we have seen, its ancestors were used by the Assyrians for hunting big game. It is believed that this large, powerful dog was introduced into Britain in the sixth cen- tury B. C. by the adventurous Pheenician traders, and was used by the Britons in hunting and in warfare. The Romans found him well established when they invaded the island in 55 B. C., and thereafter mastiffs, because of their great size, strength, and courage, were used to fight in the Roman amphitheaters. In more recent times the breed has become heavier and less active and has been used chiefly as a companion and a guardian of prop- erty. Perhaps the most famous strain of mastiffs in England is at Lyme Hall, in Cheshire; it is said to have come down in unbroken descent from the fifteenth century. When I [Mr. Baynes] was a small child my father’s place, “Harewood,” was close to Lyme Park, and one of my earliest recollections is of going with my parents to an entertainment at Lyme Hall. Coming away we descended into a flagged court-yard, and J] remember that we were at once surrounded by a number of huge, tawny dogs which I was told were the Lyme mastiffs. Many stories are told of the services ren- dered by these splendid dogs to their masters, the Lees of Lyme. It is said that when Sir Peers Lee lay wounded on the battlefield of Agincourt, he was guarded by a mastiff which had followed him to the war and which lay beside him through the night. Sir Henry Lee, of the same family, was saved from death by one of the dogs, which pinned to the floor a valet who had come to his master’s bedroom to murder him. The perfect mastiff may be either fawn with a dark face, ears and muzzle, or brindle. He stands about 28 inches, and should weigh about 170 pounds. claw, and the small, dark eye should show no haw. Strong, straight and heavy, both of body and limb, with a deep chest and massive square head, the perfect mastiff is an exceedingly splendid-looking animal. He is now bred mostly as a companion, and never sees service in his old romantic calling. He is probably part ancestor of the great Dane, whose principal other component is greyhound. One of the noblest of dogs, it is to be regretted There should be no dew- . 233 that his unwieldiness and expensive keep have rendered him rather unpopular, so that now he is indeed rarely seen. Points to avoid are a light, narrow, or un- dershot head, cow-hocks, sagging back and rolling gait, weak legs and bent pasterns, curly tail and pale face. BULLDOG (For illustration, see page 246) The English bulldog for hundreds of years and in almost every land has typified unflinch- ing courage and unshakable determination. As the lion has been used to represent the majesty of Great Britain, so the bulldog has been used to represent her persistence—her ability to “hang on” until she has accomplished whatever she has undertaken. As his name implies, the bulldog got his name from the fact that he was used in the old-time “sport” of bull-baiting, which was popular among certain classes in England for at least 700 years, until it was made illegal in 1835. Even after that, occasional matches were continued illegally until 1853, and the actual rings for bull-baiting still remain in several places in England. The “sport” was usually held at some “gar- den” maintained for this and similar purposes, or sometimes in a public market-place. Here a bull with a rope about his horns was teth- ered to a ring bolted to a rock or to a stake driven into the ground. The rope being about 15 feet long, the bull had considerable room in which to move without being able to endanger the lives of the onlookers. The object of the dog was to seize the bull’s nose in his teeth, pin it to the ground and not leave it. He was bred with an undershot jaw and a retreating nose, that he might hang on to the bull and breathe easily at the same time. The bull, of course, did his best to toss the dog with his horns, and often succeeded. Pepys, who witnessed a bull-baiting in South- wark in 1666, naively describes it as “a very rude and nasty pleasure.” The dogs were also used to bait full-grown bears and for dog-fighting. For such work they had to be not only strong, but very active They were real and splendid dogs in spite of the barbarous uses they were put to. The bulldog of today is a grotesque deform- ity — short-legged, short-winded, short-lived, and barely able to reproduce its kind. It is chiefly useful for infusing courageous blood into other breeds, for adding variety to a dog show, and as an example (to be avoided) of what can be done by senseless breeding to spoil a perfectly good dog. But they haven’t quite spoiled him, for he still retains his old-time dauntless courage, and he has a homely smile that would melt the hearts of even the few unfortunates who boast that they hate dogs. And here is an appropriate place to register a friendly protest against the arbitrary fixing of points for which dog owners must breed in order to win at the dog shows, without suffi- CHOW-CHOW or CHOW 234 ee Agus Cgauiz Guerie SMOOTH ST. BERNARD ROUGH ST. BERNARD i) Oo On 236 cient reference to the requirements of the dog as a working ally of man. No one feels more deeply the debt of grati- tude which we owe to the many intelligent and unselfish breeders who, often at great sacrifice of time and money, have given us our long list of useful and beautiful dogs. But there is ten- dency in the very proper enthusiasm over dog shows and show dogs to forget that the pri- mary object of breeding most dogs is to pro- duce animals which are useful in different fields of activity, and not to conform to a par- ticular standard unless that standard is the one most likely to develop dogs fitted in mind and body for the work required of them. With the idea of making as ugly and surly looking a beast as possible, the present stand- ard for the bulldog demands a type that is all but unfitted for existence, so great are the deformities exacted of this unfortunate dog. Undershot so that he can scarcely eat his food; teeth that should normally meet never being able to do so; the nose so jammed in that breathing through it becomes almost or quite impossible; the shoulders so muscled and legs so out-bowed as to make locomotion difficult, he is indeed a tribute to the art of man in its most perverted manifestation. The large, square, heavy head has the face deeply wrinkled, the lower jaw three sizes too long for its mate, the nose thumbed back into the face, the eyes very wide-set and low on the face and the ear wrinkled back to form a “rose.” ... ea 236 Bulldog, Spanish .......... Aue 236 OUR OE @, CORssc5g500000c 200 Seas SOUNM NUMAN, sao on doo on 0ddG00 259 252 (QiVo\ gies anton ca esore ccc ohace ne cic 234 225 WOACH OR eee eral cne ene 215 Dale CONTE S sees a Ooo evo 238 228 Collies Shetlondeeseis yen Sars 229 Collie, Simn@OWN ssococostoocce 238 229 y CON AO Staten ees iccato oro arbor Go ced-cid. 202 204 IDEyelaSawMinGl soc0coccocobob0 Oo 258 249 DWallmactiany Wye ere eee 215 217 Deerhound, Scottish ........ 206 208 DIM O eee el epee ee RS 202 204 Diseases spread by the dog... ... 279 Elkhound, Norwegian ...... 203 205 Eskimo dog, Alaskan....... 230 224 Eskimo dog, North Greenland 231 225 BSNS ID OS eusseueee uae sees eu ool Aaeee 237 Foxhound, American ....... 218 213 Foxhound, HWnglish ......... 218 213 Gazellehound, Persian ...... 206 205 Greau Danes Ayes amis te eee DP 212 Greyhound 7.cc:qace eee 211 205 Greyhound, English ........ Brat 208 Greyhound, Ktalian’ <2 ..2...- oe 208 Grittonssbrabancone sas eee oe ese 249 Grifton Brusselsieeeea eee 255 248 Guebitom, Ione cosdSe0o006 Acne 217 COHN, SHONOOUN Gossdconnoc Bete 249 HMiarriers) 2206 5 «acute cocsscuets 216 Intelligence of dogs......... 253 Wahbradornd ows eeennene re 220 LAY, MIO! COS, csoscoco00d 279 INTAS Ieee sss eon eae eee 242 233 Niasititk. Milbetes mae Gyackedneers ees 225, 232 Mexican hairless dog....... 259 252 INRA WIACIIETAG! Sooonooouucoc 226 Zit Otterhound 45 sees os eee cies 2038 205 PR elds eSer Wi acss sin eects 254 248 AEG) oltre) aan tey a nem pair MaDe 215 216 POCEMAOE A apne eee 239 232 Romeraniane aise ae oe 251 245 Poodles, Corded, Curly, Toy. 259 249 Wes) See a eo niece co ene 263 252 RaQDIeSk oobi ae eae ee i reff 279 RACES SD OSEME Gene seen Aecs 208, 271 Reindeer dog, Siberian...... 234 225 Retriever, Chesapeake ...... 223 220 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE wretches that are as much a misery to themselves as théy are an evil) 10) the community. Bae The law has regard for every right of every owner of a dog who respects his neighbors’ rights, and seeks only to curb the carelessness of that owner who has a dog—whether pedigreed or mongrel— that is allowed out of bounds. And, in passing, it must not be forgotten that the only thing worse than a mongrel out of bounds is a pedigreed animal running amuck; for blooded dogs are more in- tense in their make-up than the mongrel, and therefore more destructive when they “go off the reservation.” COMMON DOGS For For picture, description, see page see page Retriever, Curly coated...... BOR 220 St. Bernard, Rough and smooth 235 228 Samoyed, or Siberian reindeer 234 225 Scent, Dog’s keen sense of... ... 256 Schipperke, Belgian ........ 258 249 Setter Belton ye ssc seis cies Bee 220 Setters Hnehishy 2255 45-5) ar 219 217 Setters Gordon secs oes 219 DIU Setters irish)... eee 219 PAT Setter, Llewellyn .......... see 220 Sheep dog, Wnglish......... 238 229 Sheep dog, Pyrenean........ 242 232 Sheep-killing dogs ......... neste 275 Shepherd, Belgian ......... 239 232 Shepherd, German ......... 239 232 Slughi, or gazellehound..... 206 205 Spaniel, Blenheim ... A pub acMP et eso 248 Spaniel, Clumber ........... PONT 221 SpamielhuCocker sao ceo 227 Dif Spaniel, English Springer..... .. 220 Spaniel eehieldies eer wee 227 221 Spaniel, Irish water........ 223 220 Spaniel, Japanese .......... 254 248 Spaniel, Ixing Charles....... 255 248 Spaniel, Prince Charles..... fats 248 SPINE, IRONY soooocebooodc 248 Sipamielee SUSSexa mre eens sits 220 SDLZl SUE airarta ae ae eee 230 224 Spitz AVWiOlf aes ee ences ee Biko 224, 249 Spaniel, Welsh Springer..... Shale 220 Merrier Airedale os cee. 250 241 Terrier, Bedlington ........ 250 244 (Norcia, IBOSWOIO So56d00d000e 243 240 Ae Bere eA bib Mle amereua nara subi sean cs 246 237 Nerrviers Cairmy 5.) oh vo ome ecn ons eas 244 Verrier, Dandie Dinmont..... —... 244 Terrier, Dobermann Pinscher. 243 240 Terrier, Hnglish white....... ates 237 Terrier,: Fox, Smooth, and Wireshairéd yc ann fae. 247 240 Perrier saris yo-cuewd se oe 247 241 Merrier ye Mialteser purse aoe 251 245 Terrier, Manchester ........ 243 PD 4rerrmiee, MCOWHSIN soobbnoaocs 262 244 Terrier, Sealyham ......... ae 244 Perrier. SKye@ ooo otis se wns 262 244 MernieryWelshe v2 i sien Stel se ets 247 241 Terrier, West Highland white 262 244 Terriers, Yorkshire: See ciecer 254 245 Mina ber “Wolfs 2:5 «cin hes 202 204 Variations of the dog....... Rae 190, 253 Wir DOSS into. eek ie tea rate ait 201, 257, 261 Wii Pets fee wa perros 263 208 Wolkta@pincl, Wea soasbbou05 207 209 Wolfhound, Russian ........ 210 PUP WV Olf eM bere te ses ear nets 204 Worship of the dog......... VoL. XXXV, No.4. |= WASHINGTON APRIL, 1919 THE NATIONAIL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ’ COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. WASHINGTON, D. C. THE CONE-DWELLERS OF ASIA MINOR* A Primitive People Who Live in Nature-Made Apart- ment Houses, Fashioned by Volcanic Violence and. Trickling Streams By J. R. SITLINGToN STERRETT The author of the following account of the Troglodytes of Cappadocia stood at the head of American geographers whose researches in Asia Minor have revealed to modern man many pages in the absorbing history of the human race. His death occurred at a time when he was completing arrangements for another expedition of greater magnitude than any he had previously undertaken. Dr. Sterrett’s photographs illustrating this article afford the only comprehensive idea of the cone-dwellings—formed by the forces of nature, but excavated by the Trog- lodytes—yet given to the Western World. of human migrations and human de- velopment that in that very land which historians and geographers char- Bererizes as the. cradle of ‘ civilization” there is to be found today a people whose mode of living is, in one of its basic prin- ciples, more primitive than that of the most benighted tribes of Africa or the South Pacific, remote from the warming and enlightening influence of modern thought and progress. Residing within a stone’s throw, meta- phorically speaking, of the wonderful civilization which flourished on the banks of the Nile 6,000 years ago; of the mighty kingdoms of Assyria and Baby- lonia which arose in the valleys of the |: IS a curious paradox in the history * See also, in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Macazine, “The Mole Men: An Account of the Troglodytes of Southern Tunisia,” Septem- ber, I91I, and “China’s Treasures,” including a description of the cliff temples of Lung-Men, October, IgI2. Euphrates and the Tigris, their power and splendor dazzling the world 2,000 years before the Christian era; and at the very threshold of ancient Greece, with its unrivaled culture and _ political advancement, the Troglodytes of Cappa- docia still retain toward their fellow-men an attitude of mind akin to that which obtained in the Stone Age, when there was no such thing as human society, but every man was his own law and the mor- tal enemy of his neighbor. The only difference between the so- ciety of these Troglodytes and that of primitive man consists in this, that primi- tive man did not brook the presence of any other man, while here the isolation of the clan takes the place of the isola- tion of the individual. CONES CLUSTER AROUND EXTINCT VOLCANO The caves, cones, and cliff dwellings of the Cappadocian Troglodytes of both O uoljUNfUODS 3} SUIMOYUS ‘9UdDS [vOIdA} & SI SI J : : I : é ae ‘AIJUNOD I[I}JoOf pue ussseq “S[]JOYS stow o1e Ady} [UN paqwmiodAsuo0y AT[eIo}] a1e sau. dy} JO JSOJY ‘STIOJS oUTU peY WYSII IY} UO 9UOd ST} JY} sas UD aM Pu ‘posodxd o1e SIoqWIeYD 1OL1o}UI VY} JO Aueu yey} ALME UayoIq A[Peq OS ST SaUOD asat} JO 9UO FO dv} IY, SHIOVNNId AaIM SAOVIVd WAHL 282 THIS PHOTOGRAPH IS INTENDED TO CONVEY A VIVID IMPRESSION OF THE UNEXCAVATED CONE IN ITS SEMI-PRISTINE BEAUTY , After its cap of lava had fallen. off, in consequence of the rotting of the stone under the weathering of millennia, the cone rapidly decreased in size. It originally had a cap and was very much larger than it is now. ancient and modern times are to be found in greatest number in the shadow of Asia Minor’s loftiest peak, snow-clad Mt. Argeus (called by the Turks Efjias Dagh), an extinct volcano whose erup- tion in the dim past laid the foundations and supplied the material for these re- markable habitations, while the Halys River of the ancients (now known as Kizil Irmak) in succeeding centuries be- Came «heir, tireless architect (see text, page 318, and map, page 315). The practice of living in caves, in cliffs, or in excavated cavities in the open plain is to be traced to a state of society which we of today have some difficulty in de- 283 picting to ourselves, And yet the central thought of the Troglodytic* habit is the basic principle upon which ancient civili- zation was founded. That basic thought was absolute isola- tion—a thought which is wholly an- tagonistic to our modern conceptions of society, whether we have in mind the community of a country-side, a village, a town, or a State; because, where abso- lute isolation is the dominant obsession * The term troglodyte is a Greek compound word, whose first element, trogle, means “hole,” while its second element is derived from the verb duo, which means “to go, get, dive, or plunge into.” Hence, a troglodyte is a man who goes into a hole—lives in a hole. IYSPOY ‘SoUOD OU} Ul aspnf 0} }[MoYJIP St JL YSnoy} ‘oyeuTsot19A0 Ue se Wat GAYAUNOH WaaH. OF, ALA SSUT[JIMP IY} 9JON ‘oAd popreun oy} Aq Ajayesmoov poptesot ST YSIYM ‘oof Porpuny Ino} 3e jYSsIoy oul91yx9 IY} snd ssajaavs} JapjO ay} Jo uC WOU ONIONVY “HONW- AWHA SHINVA SHNOOD AHL WO Ameneyiceel GUEEIL, 284 UL JO JOOP 9} 0} quays 0} pey ou “MOYS JIUIJUI FO SoJOY 90}-pue-To O }eY} OS ‘S[RAJOJUL Ie[NSo1 ye yd ‘sapoy FO SMOT iejnoipuadssed pue yoyjered om} Fo suvow Aq poutryye SI SsolsU] GNi0ud b - Y- (€6z o8ed ‘uoresysNy]! 99S) saat} OY} YA uostiedui0s Aq uMOYS ATIvd]I St SOUOD 9SOT]} FO JysIoy yeois Suy oy} se ‘ssuyjomp ojesedos OM} 9APY 9M 9UOD UY siq} UT “joof pue spuey yjoq suisn Aq ssnoy oq} IHL TAOKDV HOIH SI HONVALNA AHL ‘NOILLVULSOTVIL SIH NI SV “SHSVO ANVW NI 285 } ‘PUNOISIIOF JYSII 9} Ul UdTIOM 94} a1ION "ysed dJouror oy} UT UeUT Aq PazyeAROXD SIIqWIeYD JseA YIM Poquiodskouo0y SI I] ,,So]}SVI IY}, “IESSIEY YO} SSBLU STYy} Pe[ed ssapaavy Ja1e9 VY, *JOII}SsIp 10 soejd B FO yey} JO Surpooursid & JO sweU 94} SI [pry JoyJayYM UMOUH Jou si yt Inq ‘py JO 9]}SB) oy}, SULotU oleU oy, gIf aNv ‘o6z ‘o6z SudVd NO NMOHS HAV SV HONS ‘SAWTIVA ONIHONVAd ANVW JO LSdIW AHL NI GVIH ALOT SLI SIMI’I HOIHM ANOLS-SOINAd JO SSVN HOON V ‘nuvssv [dN SI SHNOD HIIHM ASHHL JO MAINA AHL 286 ‘AJINDIYUL 9jJOWIAT JSOW UL JdM9}SIXO UL SEPM Nevoyeld siy} ‘A1e1}UO 9Y} UG ‘“sauod dy} SUOTJUILU JOJLIM JUIIOUL OU JY} JORJ OY} WOLF Popuog}UOS OALY DUIOS se ‘o}VP JUdIII AJaAtyeseduiod FO JOU 1B SUOTPEUIOF DUO dy} ‘AL SUIPIODIIY “ALM PoYseA Udoq pure JO po}jor sey nvoyeyd oy} JO Jsot oY} [[P Jey} pue “Fjos}t n4aessy [p~ jo dojdt) oy} YUM Ajojyvutxosdde popuodso1s109 neojyejd oy} JO JoAo| [VUISIIO OY} FLY} SURO JY ‘Oto OOLTd Uy} SLY UOTSOJO JO JUNOWIL o[qBAlaUOSUT JSOLU[L UL Jey} SURO SIT, “Naessy [pr JO JYsI4t oy} UO UDds oq O} 918 SOUO DUY JOYJO oAY pue Hiessy [pp JO Jo] oy} Je 9Sptt dy} JO FiwWNS AJOA OY} UO SPURS DUOD [NJINeoq & 4OF ‘UOT}EADI[O SIy} Ye UAD SoUOd JO dduUNSOId OY} BON ‘oY UoIS ATAVI[O St UOISOJd JO Ssa01d ey, “Uotsed oyinb surewos sXemyy ArjuNO staddn oy} OS ‘MOjoq AoT[eA oy} 04 19JVM-UICI oy} Aq AvVMV JdaMs ATJFIMS 94e dUO}S-doILUNd JO SWIOJL PojzeIBojJUISIP oy, ‘“ouldodad JO ‘PART SUTA]AIAO Jo syods YIM ‘oUo}S-ooIWUNd UDd.Ieq ‘poxeu OY} 09S OM PUNOASIIOJ OY} UL “WUOLSo1 IJAPO[SGO1T, 911JUa sty} JO ALOJSIY OY} SUIVJUOD I oSNVI9q ‘ooUPIIOdUIT JeotG AOA JO SI ydeisoyoyd sty y, (HOVd ONIGHOANd AAS) AONVALSIAG WH NI NWAS SI ONVSSV fan WAH -yorq oy} Ul peussosip oq AvwW SporpuNny yy M ‘gu0d & sreadde punoiS8as0} JYSII oY} UT AjxeaN ‘“UOIsO1a JO HIOM 9Y} SMOYS } PUL d19UL dy] Woos Ady} JeY} SNOIOUINU OS ae S gif anv ‘96z ‘06z siioVd NO NMOHS WAV SV HONS “SNOANVO NOISOWT FO SHINAS V AO MUIA ‘ydeisojoyd siy AVUAINTD V SHAID ‘(ZQz-9Qz SUNVd WS) OUvssv fan AHL "(Gz€ a8ed 4x0} 90S) punois 3 Aq patoAod vase dy} UT 91e SoD 000‘0S neoyeld dy} JO JPAd] [eUISIIO ay} MOjoq ysnf soar] 91nj}o1d oy} JO PUNOASIIOF SJeIpoUIUT oY, “SWOTETTS QUOD IY, ‘Uses oq OF SI paq sotUNd oY} JO JAI] [eursi10 oy} ‘uOzTIOY 94} WO JO “sOURISIP Ie} SY} Ul ¢ WOU NAMVL “HdVYIDOLOHd SIND 288 a ‘QUOD dY} JO WYSIey 91NWUS sordno00 aanjord sy} JO 10}U99 9tf} vou 9u09 dy} JO ded oY} Jey} 9ION ‘giqissod sdeo osuswWUt oY} SoyxeU WOTVOYNeAYS dy} FO SYyJANOF-991Y} Jnoqe ‘Q8e[[IA oJApO[so1y, Ulopow wv Aq poidnss0 St 90URISIP IPP OY, ‘punoisyoeq oy} Ul Uses SI (Zgz-ggz sosed 90s) naessy [pq Alor sy) pue GUZVInIA NYG WAVE LON @INONS Wait GCNONOWDAIOT WH NI ANO AHL Sv A DON SI 1 -SONITIUMG OLNI GALVAVOXH UAUN WaeAM SHNOO0 AHL dO ANVI NAWIONdS V ANIA OS ATTM usaf GNVLSYHIGNNA OL ASV ‘C6z adsed UO pojeijsnyjI o1e se Yyons ‘systjaqo fo odeys a} Ul s1OW d1e SauOD dy} ‘s1vadde uoreoyIVeI}s D1OYM {ZuIpurys-d1f ATOIUS MOU d1¥ 4eY} SYSIJoqO pue seUOd YSno1Y} SUNT YIM “UOTBYTVIZs St 919Y} VdULISIP spp oy} UT “oud yoaysod ynq qyewus B SI Jaques oY} UT ‘pyey-soruind oy} FO Jado] [eUIsIIO 94} AjoyewTxoidde soars Jnjq oY} FO WHI 9Y} }f2a] 94} UG “UoIso1a Aq pollstoZ AaT[eA e JO opis suo 9as 9M oiNyoId STy} UT “JoYy}JO Yeo YIM pesesua AjasO]D IIe S19y}O afIYM “Sulpueys-so1f 91e YOIYM FO oUIOS ‘sauOD FO spuRsnoy} JO SUd} JO UVONPULIOF 94} SEM YNSeT dy} PUL ‘SxUSNYUL oAIseAqe oY} O} DULJSISOT JoIpIn}s B Patlayo suo0}S IY} soovjd uy “so}eM SUIMOT 9Y} Jo woe yUaATos ay} Aq sjods {je 3e Ayyenbo pue ATUoAS AeMe UIOM JOU SeM ddIWUNd JO sseU dy} Jey} Sees Osye UO {at0Y Uses st UOAULD & YONG nuvssv {dn YvaN ANOS V : HIGIM GNV Hiddd LVAND JO SNOANVO LO0 GHMOTION AAV VAVI FO Gd MOI HHL HONOUHL NAAW ‘dA SHA TASWAHYL AOYOT OL AWIAV AWHM HOIHM WALVM FAO SWVANXLS AHL SHIMOLNAO AHL JO ASHNOD AHL NI 290 ‘SHID Oy} UL SBUTJaMp pue ainzoId siy} Ul SpUL[MOT 9Y} UI Spjey [jets saas suo ‘OL ‘SUAAINDND ‘SNOTHW “SNV3a Lod ‘(HONVISIC AIGGIW AHL NI NAAS Hd NvO SV) JINX aNv Stdv¥) KINO LON HONGONd “ANOLS-AOIWAd AMITHSV GNV GALVYOMLNISIG FO ATIOHM SLSISNOD ‘TIOS ASOHM “SGNVWTdO AH NAAT 291 292 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HERE NOTICE THE LAYER OF LAVA SUPERIMPOSED UPON THE GREAT BED OF PUMICE-STONE On the right we see cones in the incipient stage—that 1s, in the actual process of forma- tion—and looking for all the world as if they were half buried in snow. From the lertnot the picture one gets an idea of how closely the cones stand together. difficult to thread one’s way through. them. of a man, there can be, strictly speaking, no such thing as a united State. HOW PRIMITIVE MAN VIEWED HIS FELLOW-BEINGS In the world in which primitive man lived, every man was the uncompromis- ing foe of every other man; the man who lived in one den could have nothing in common with the man who lived in the neighboring den. A pale, or dead-line, was drawn between each several den, and the owner of den A was an outlaw if he crossed that dead-line into the Kenny of the owner of den B. There were no rights of intermarriage ; the den owner’s woman was the captive of his spear; she was the slave of her captor. She bore him children, but the children and the mother alike remained the slaves of the lord of the den, who al- In places it is very lowed them to share the abode with him. He fought for them with all the savage tenacity of the bulldog, the lion, or the tiger ; and while he lived no other human being might enter that den and live to tell elie ‘tale. TROGLODYTE TYPES OF ASIA MINOR Several kinds of Troglodytes are still to be seen in various parts of Asia Minor. The most primitive type known to me is to; be, round! sin) Cilicia) Dracheray lineys may be seen) im many ‘places, butter, were thrust more particularly upon my attention in a pass in the Taurus Moun- tains some ten miles north of Ermenek (Germanicopolis). The inhabitants of this valley, known as Bakluzan Dere, are cliff-dwellers of the secondary type—that is, they have done considerable work in the way of improving their abodes, whose entrances ax THE CONE-DWELLERS OF ASIA MINOR 293 HERE THE CAPS OF THE OBELISKS ASSUME GREAT PROPORTIONS AND. THEY ARE HOUAL, TO ONE-EALP OF {ELE ENTIRE: HEIGHT OF THE OBELISKS have been walled in with fences of stout masonry. They have sought and found for them- selves complete isolation. They seem to have none of the instincts of agricultural man and they are wholly inhospitable. The entrances to their dwellings are high up in the almost perpendicular walls of the cliffs, and they are reached solely by means of long poles, which are light enough to be drawn up when the lord of the den and his family are safely housed. And when housed they really are safe from intrusion, for it would require a host to force an entrance against the will of the family. (For methods of ingress by other types of Troglodytes, see illus- tration on page 285.) | This very method of reaching the en- trance by means of a pole makes it im- perative for all the members of the sev- eral families of these cliff-dwelling Trog- lodytes to be strong and vigorous persons, for the sick, the aged, and the infirm can neither enter nor leave the dwelling, nor can they be brought in nor taken out by others, unless they be strapped to the back of a man, who would need to be not only strong, but very active as well. A PRACTICE OF KILLING AND INFIRM THE AGED One ancient writer tells us that some Troglodytes made a practice of killing all those who were not in first-rate physical condition, on the ground that a man who cannot earn his own living has no right to live; and when one sees these dwell- ings, one can imagine still another reason for killing off the aged and the infirm— 294 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CONES DIMINISH IN HEIGHT AS THIET RIM-ROCK OF THE BLUFF IS REACHED, FOR THERE THE CONES APPEAR IN THE PROCESS OF FORMATION Notice here the lava caps on the cones. Originally every cone had a cap of lava, and indeed the protecting stratum of lava was the primary cause of the wearing away of the pumice-stone into the shape of cones. because of their inability to get in or out of the house. The cliffs of the Bakluzan Dere are thickly studded with dwellings that give evidence of being inhabited by a large number of people, but I did not get a glimpse of any of them, nor was a single doorway open, though some of the en- trance poles had not been pulled up. Troglodytes, or semi-Troglodytes, of a ruder, but less inhospitable, type may be seen in many places in Lycaonia. At Serai, north of Karaman, a stratum of rock lies upon a bed of clay, which, of course, may be excavated ad infinitum without very great labor, and the forma- tion is made, as it were, for the Troglo- dytes. But the people who inhabit these abodes are not true Troglodytes, since they use them only during the long sum- mer season. The life there is most crude, and the cavities in the ground show no signs of having been improved by man. It is cer- ODEN DEE CONES ARE NEARLY PERFECT IN SHAPE, BUT IN PLACES WHERE STRATIFICATION DISTURBED AND RESISTED THE EROSIVE PROCESSES THEY ARE SLENDER AND ASSUME THE GENERAL OUTLINES OF THE COLUMN OR OBELISK But the obelisks have cone or sugar-loaf caps, or at all events they did have them origi- nally. Here the caps are very large. The picture shows a stratified formation, which runs horizontally through all the obelisks; consequently in past ages, before erosion set in, all of these obelisks were united in one solid mass of pumice-stone. Here the huge caps are of harder material than that of which the underlying mass consists. tain that the primitive Troglodytes lived isolation. The element of fear of man- in just such dwellings; but for all that, kind is not present—that is, no kind of these people are not primitive at heart, dead-line has been drawn against hostile for they have made no attempt to secure neighbors. ‘Joh se pdj}e1S9}UISIP JOU SI 9U10}s-s9IUINd o1eq OY} 9IOYM “PuNOoIsa10F AIOA IY} UI SOT] JISeP IYI opIYM ‘das 0} Asvo SI Uspsies sy, ‘opis Aq opis Susy ysaSap pur Uepses sn smoys jf se ‘SUrI}so10qUT OSIMIOYIO SI oInjoId oy, “sade oy} JO 9sino0d oy} UL AeMe paqjoI AJOIOIU OAeY AOU, “Sgz ased uo se ‘sajoy 90}-pue-1aSuy o]qQISTA OU dav d19Y J, GNNOYD AHL AAOTV HOIH SSHAONI WO SH'IOH YO SYOOd HLIM SAINOO ZO SHIdNVXH- SMOHS LI ‘TIILS Loa MATA WNV ISIC V SI SIFY AEE Oo MERE, 5O;OCO! CONES NEARY UDI ASSARU The overlying stratum of lava, being harder than the pumice-stone, offered a longer resistance to the abrasive influences, and the result was the caps that appear on so many of the cones. pictures. The Greeks have left us accounts of engrossing interest concerning the Trog- lodytes of antiquity. HOW THE TROGLODYTES LIVED 2,000 YEARS AGO The Greek geographer and historian, Agatharchides, who flourished about 175 B. C., wrote a book on the region about the Red Sea. It was intended as a ge- ography for his royal pupil, the heir to the throne of Egypt, who would find it to his interest to know as much as possi- ble about his territories on the Red Sea and about the strange people who lived there. This book has perished, but about fifty pages of it were quoted by other writers whose works have survived to our times, and among other things they have preserved Agatharchides’s account of the Troglodytes of the region of the Red Sea. Here is the account as quoted by Di- odorus Siculus: | 97 One good specimen appears in this picture; they are seen frequently in other itemracesmrnat inven 1m quie extreme south have the form of men, it is true, but they lead the life of animals. These are the Ethiopians and the Troglodytes. “The Troglodytes are called nomads by the Greeks.) But though they do lead a nomadic life and gain their daily food from their flocks, nevertheless they have organized governments, at the head of which stand sheikhs who are clad with absolute power. “They have their women and children in common, with the sole exception of the one woman who belongs to the sheikh. Should another man approach this woman, the sheikh exacts from him a fine consisting of a fixed number of sheep. | “THEIR FOOD A MIXTURE OF BLOOD AND MILK” “When the great rains come upon them, at the time of the annual recurrence of the periodic monsoons, the Troglodytes THE TALLEST CONES USUALLY STAND IN THE NEICHBORHOOD OF THE CENTER OF THe ERODED IVALEEMS, AS) HERE This tall cone is still inhabited and has about eight stories. Evidence of thrift is seen in the fruit spread out to dry in the sun on the floor of what was once an interior apartment. In the course of time its exterior wall has rotted away, leaving a great hole in the otherwise beautiful cone. The upper stories are given over to the pigeons, as may be seen from the windows that are now walled in. This is true of its neighboring cone also. 208 re IF WE ENTER THE DOORWAY OF ANY OF THESE CONE-DWELLINGS, WE FIND OURSELVES IN A SPACIOUS CHAMBER, ABOUT WHOSE SIDES NICHES AND SHELVES FOR THE STORAGE OF HOUSEHOLD GOODS EPAVE, BEEN ICU SEN tO; TEE SLONE But something not in the original plans of the architect has happened in the case of this apartment; for in reality it consists of two chambers, one above the other. The floor of the upper chamber has broken away, owing to the fact that it was left too thin to support the weight demanded of it. are like wells or chimneys. Its outline may be traced easily. The stairways to the upper stories They had no stairs, as we understand stairs, and one mounted to an upper story by means of finger-and-toe holes precisely like those which gave access to the front entrance. only two, three, or four stories. of the windows. live upon a mixture of blood and milk, which they first boil separately for a time and then stir in together. After these annual rains, when the pasture grounds have become parched by the excessive heat, they migrate to the marshy places, where they fight with each other for the possession of the pasture grounds. “They use for food only the old ani- mals and those that begin to grow sickly. It is for this reason that they do not apply the name of parent to human be- ings, but to bulls and cows, to rams and sheep. ‘These they call their fathers and their mothers, because these animals, and not the persons who begat and bore them, furnish them with their daily food. Some of these cones have as many as nine stories, but most of them have One can easily count the stories from the outside by means “Private individuals use as a beverage a decoction made from the thornbush, but from some flower or other they make for the sheikhs a drink that resembles the meanest kind of must known in Greece. “They migrate with their herds from pasture to pasture, and they avoid long residence in one place. ‘They wear a clout about their loins, but otherwise they go nude. All the Troglodytes practice circumcision, as do the Egyptians; but those among them who from a misfor- tune are said to be ‘stunted’ and have had their privy parts shorn away with a razor when they were still infants, pasture the country that lies between the Straits. “Those of the Troglodytes who are 209 ‘JYSII oy} ye soinjzsiode oY} UL SUIAIP JINIF OY} OJON “9UOS OY} YUM Sse 9}eIIWO[SUOD [PISI}JUT IUO SUIIOF HI JY} JOLJ OY} JOF JNq UO0d oy} jo dozdi} oy} UO UOTsOd s}I UTeJUTeW JOU plnoos deo oy} ‘saseo JaYy}O AUBUE UI se ‘atafZ ‘soUOd 9Y} FO 9UO UO ded IY} Vd1}ON ‘saAatYy} JO UWOT}EUSIA oY} WolfZ datz ATOATVeIedWIOD SI AleUeIS B YONG “Ssyoeq A194} UO UI posses Ussq pey I sv jsf ‘Us JO SyOVq JY} UO 9TOY 9UO ay} FO yNO JYSNoIq SeM JJ] ‘URACIL S OYINe OY} Ul speuUNUL 94} Pof yey} Aajzeq oy} swe YSiyM WoIZ ‘AreueIs v JUasoId ye IIe S9UOD 9914} Sey, “JOOP Sty} 0} Peo] SO]OY 90}-PUL-JOSUILY ‘aspoM oy} JO do} dy} ABOU JOOP e sey YIYM XouUL Podeys-aspoM & YIM sauvod posesud saiy} 91 Woy} JO Ho] oy} UO SHSQOH-NOYOId GNV SHIMVNVAD AUXV ANNLOId AHL AO YWALYNAD AHL NI SHNOOD WHTIVNS AHL 300 @d ‘poyeis -OJUISIP S][@M IPIS $}I 9IOFOq 9UOD ATPUdIIFZ oY} Aq Pdto}oYsS 919M Sol] -IWIe} INOF Jsvo] 3e Jey} MoYs (Sgz ased UO UMOYS so[OY 90}-pue-JosUy jensn oy} Jo suvoam Aq pey SeM ssodde YOIYM O}) AIO}S PTY} oY} UI AeMIOOP YJANOF & [IS puke JOOY punois oy} UO SAVMIOOP 9914} IJ, LVId ATINVA-ANOT V SVM DNIITHMG-ANOD AYOLS-HAII SIHWL THessy [pf] Jeu ‘sot10js 9014} JO S1O0H oY} UO jiMIy SUIAIP OY} 99S ULD 9UO d19FZF “SUNOTYD ‘syed ‘sSop yo odeys oY} UL syeut -ue 9]qejndaistp Fo Javed oy} UO UOTISeAUL AJOp Ady ‘UOT{eIO] A}JO] Igy} Jo uoseor Aq “1OF $4mMIZ Joy}O pue ‘sjoors1de ‘sadeis SuIxip I0¥ Aepoy peziyn ote ‘oinsodxoe todoid oy} sAvy Ady} Fr ‘staquivyo pasodxa yous GaSsOdX4, SUH NVHO AHL, ONIAVH'T ‘AVMV GLLOw HAVH SHAIISWAHL STIVM IVNUDLXY AHI, SHNOD ANVIV NI 301 THIS IS A GREEK TEMPLE WITH COLUMNED PORTICO AND NO VISIBLE MEANS OF INGRESS But the badly weathered and forlorn appearance of the cone tells us that disintegration has disfigured it greatly. Still its great cap of lava will protect it for many centuries yet to come. VE, PACADE), “DOORWAY, CAIND Vis Saulee Wiles OEE TS 5 CUR © Ela eA Salley, WELL PRESERVED The door leading from the vestibule into the church proper may be distinguished in the dark background. The cone on the right also has a good doorway. 302 THERE IS NO VISIBLE MEANS OF INGRESS TO THIS TEMPLE, WITH ITS COLUMNED PORTICO AND BROKEN COLUMNS: THE VILLAGE OF MARTCHAN (SEE ALSO PAGES 308-309) ; The absence of means of ingress is only apparent; for, as the disintegration of the stone is going on all the while, the cones are necessarily growing smaller, and the original finger- and-toe holes have simply rotted away. said to be heavy-armed wear circular shields made of raw ox-hide and carry clubs that are decorated with iron-plated knobs ; but the rest of them use bows and spears. MUCH MERRYMAKING AT TROGLODYTE FUNERALS “Their mode of burial is very singular. They bind together the neck and the knees of the dead person with withes made from the thornbush; then they carry the corpse thus bound up to a place at some distance from the camp, where with laughter and with merriment they hurl upon it stones as large as they can hold in their hands, until they succeed in covering and concealing the body with the stones. As the final ceremony they place a goat’s horn upon the heap, and then go to their several homes without the display of the slightest kindly feeling. “They do not fight, as the Greeks do, about land or about accusations which some one has made against them, but they do fight about the various pasture grounds which from time to time succeed each other according to the season. In these fights they begin by hurling stones at each other; then, after some of them have been wounded, they betake them to their bows and arrows. Many of them are soon killed, because they are experts in the use of these weapons and they shoot accurately, and moreover the men at whom they shoot are unprotected by defensive armor. “Eventually the old women throw themselves into the midst of the fray, and as they are held in great reverence, they soon put an end to the fights. For a custom prevails among the Troglodytes which forbids them to strike a woman under any circumstances whatsoever, and in consequence of this custom the fight- ing ceases as soon as the women appear upon the scene. 303 304 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE INTERIOR OF MANY OF THE CHURCHES ARE STILE COVERED WITH BPRESCOES. WHICH, HOWEVER, ARE MORE OR LESS OBLITERATED Among them we find portraits not merely of Greek saints, but traces even of pretentious paintings. In this photograph we see specimens of such mural paintings. Those who are familiar with Byzantine sacred painting will be able to detect a number of portraits of saints by means of the nimbus. The characteristic Byzantine columns and arches will also be noticed. In some cases the paintings are in very ancient style, while others are evidently more recent. “The old men, who on account of their age are no longer able to tollow the flocks, tie the tail of a bull round their necks and thus commit suicide by suffer- ing themselves to be dragged to death. But, under the pretense of kindly solici- tude, any one who wishes to do so may place ayrope about the meck of the man who unduly postpones his suicide, and so by means of this pointed reminder he is fonced tomlcave tis lite: “Tt is also their practice to put to death cripples and those who are afflicted with an incurable disease, for they maintain that the love of life is inexcusable in the man who can do nothing to justify his continuance in life. ‘That is the reasoa why all Troglodytes are sound in body and are mostly im the prime ef lite amor men of more than sixty years of age are not seen among them.” Strabo mentions some further details which he quotes from Artemidorus: “The food of the Troglodytes consists THE CONE-DWELLERS OF ASIA MINOR 305 THE INTERIOR WALLS OF THE CHURCHES SHOW CHARACTERISTIC BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE, OR RATHER THE IMITATION OF BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE It was by no means easy to secure photographs of these interiors. of meat and bones; the bones are crushed and mixed with the meat, so as to form a kind of minced hash, which is wrapped in fresh, untanned hides and roasted. This minced haggis is prepared in a va- riety of ways by the cooks, whom they regard as unclean persons. They con- sume not merely the minced meat of this haggis, but the bones and the skin as well.” HERODOTUS WROTE OF “ETHIOPIANS WHO DWELL IN HOLES” * Herodotus’s account of “the Ethiopians who dwell in holes” informs us that, “Of all the nations of whom any account has reached my ears they are by far the swift- est of foot. They feed on serpents, liz- ards, and other similar reptiles. Their language is unlike that of any other peo- ple ; it sounds like the screeching of bats.” These Troglodytes have been identified with the Tibboos of Fezzan. The his- torian’s criticism of their language was a typically (Greek view to) take, for the Greeks knew only their own tongue and they were conceited enough to believe that those who did not speak it simply did not speak at all, but either screeched like bats or twittered like birds. On the other hand, Xenophon gives us a delightful picture of the Troglodytes of Armenia, who have remained so un- changed throughout the centuries that his description might be used of them at this present moment. He says: “Tt was here that Polycrates, an Athe- nian and captain of a company, asked for leave of absence; he wished to be off on a_quest of his own; and, putting himself at the head of the active men of the 306 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GREAT NUMBERS OF THE CONE-DWELLINGS ARE NOW USED AS DOVECOTES FOR THE HOUSING OF THE FLOCKS OF PIGEONS THAT GIVE BOTH THEIR EGGS AND THEIR FLESH TO THEIR TROGLODYTE OWNERS The windows of such hen-coop cones are always walled in, though holes of ingress and egress are left for the birds. These cones are usually painted red or white on the outside of the holes as far as the arm can reach. The reason for this practice is not apparent, unless it is that the pigeons are thus supposed to be aided in locating their abodes. division, he ran to the village which had been allotted to Xenophon. “He surprised within it the villagers, with their headman and seventeen young horses which were being reared as a tribute for the king, and, last of all, the headman’s own daughter, a young bride, only eight days wed. Her husband had gone off to chase hares, and so he es- caped being taken with the other vil- lagers. “The houses were underground struc- tures, with an aperture like the mouth of a well, by which to enter, but they were broad and spacious below. The entrance for the beasts of burden was dug out, but the human occupants descended by a ladder. “In these dwellings were to be found goats and sheep and cattle, and cocks and hens, with their various progeny. The flocks and herds were all reared under cover upon green food. XENOPHON’S VISIT TO THE DWELLERS UNDERGROUND “There were stores within of wheat and barley and vegetables, and wine made from barley in huge bowls; the grains of barley malt lay floating in the bever- age up to the lip of the vessel, and reeds lay in them, some longer, some shorter, without joints. When you were thirsty you took one of these in your mouth and sucked. The beverage without admix- ture of water was very strong, and of a THE CONE-DWELLERS OF ASIA MINOR 207 DISINTEGRATION OF THE EXTERIOR WALLS IS FAR ADVANCED IN THIS ORIGIN-ALLY SPLENDID CONE, WLDEE ITs CAP) STILE IN POSITION This photograph was selected by Perrot as typical of the whole series, and it appears in his History of Hittite Art. delicious flavor to certain palates, but the taste must be acquired. “Xenophon made the headman of the village his guest at supper and bade him keep a good heart. So far from robbing him of his children, the native was as- sured that the Greeks would fill his house full of good things in return for what they took before they went away; only the headman must set them an example and discover some blessing or other for the army until they found themselves with another tribe. “To this the headman readily assented, and with the utmost cordiality showed the Greeks the cellar where the wine was buried. For this night, then, having taken up their several quarters as described, they slumbered in the midst of plenty, one and all, with the headman under watch and ward and his children with him safe in sight. “On the following day Xenophon took the headman and set off to Cheirisophus, making a round of the villages, and at each place faring sumptuously and merry- making. There was not a single village where the inhabitants did not insist on setting a breakfast before the visitors, and on the same table were spread half ‘punoisyoeq 94} UI sauod Aue pue UOZIIOY dT} Uo Uses SI (Qgz oSed 90s) niessy [p~_, pue ‘(60 pue Cok sased 90s) ueyyseyY JO 98eT[IA oY} SI sIyy, ‘puno180107 UL 1OOY-SUIYSeIY} 94} OSTe 9}0N ‘asnoy sty JO do} ay} uo ‘Ayjuaredde ‘sulA] pAvAUIA SUL B JO ddURISUI Uk 99S 9M JAINJoId sIy} JO PUNOIZdI0; dy} Ul ‘odeospur] 94} JO ssoupslom [etoues oY} “WOI} JoVIjop UeY} Joyye1 ‘0} ppe sasesn oIApO[So1, UsJopow syy, ‘“Surpjieys pure AuueouN udad SoUlI}UIIFO pue ‘“Burjeurosey sAeaye ose Soy} ‘ABU Fou} JoAoU ote Ady} PUL A}IUYUL 0} PoTIvA d1e [JaMp 0} SOAC]T d}ApO[So1, ueropeddeg usapow ay YoIyM prtue sodeospury sy yz WSNOH SNVW SIHL JO JOON AHL NO SMOUD GUVAANIA V 308 ‘XOUUG Popping oy} YM osnoy duo SUIIOJZ (SozyeoIpPUL o[qes ay} Se ‘o[dt9} YooI4) & ‘sopedey A[UO A][VoI a1e say sosnoy oyapduioo aq oj Jeadde yeyAA “(SIE ‘PIE sosed osje oas) IYM ‘9U0}S-9dIUINd Potiienb Ajisea ay} JO SYO[q WoIF ALCUIPIO OY} WOTF PYM JOpiSUOD FO INO JAvIT OM FF JN A][VUISIIO) OUOD JVI1S 9} LY} 99S ULI IUO jJZo] OY} UO ‘UROULIIIIGNS SI spOqe IY} JO 4sot oY} [eB 9] ydeisojoyd sty} AQ pojesSN][! [JOM SE JoVF SIU, po}oNAJSUOD St OUOTe asnoy sy} FO ‘Opesey 1O “YUOIF OY} Ajjuanbest,~ ‘“sSurpunosins wnHipwiny Aseurpso YM SloseypIA YsPyIny, OU UL stuojsno pue syqey Ul JoyIp Aoy} ‘punotosopun Ay[ehy (go ‘Lok sova OS'IV HAS) NVHOLAVIN fo a Jed }svo] Je 91 SSUTTJIMp Jloy} Jey} JOVF oy} UOTWL VIN 2 Shy ACO TIO, LilvS adv NOMS Sire dO SHA Tiv Ni SLal ll, 309 “JYSII 94} uo dnois ay 330N do} AIQA S}t OF apqeIqey st ou0d sip, “AEM yeYI UL pazitN uaaq Sey YIYM 9UO0d pjo duy & St Jay] AWIa1yXxA NOWWOD ALINO SI SINOW qad Tina NaYadOW JO ASOOHAYOLS ‘IVAA GNV YVAN FHL SV SHNOO 4H. gO aso AHL 241 UC 310 THIS IS NOT A TRUNCATED CONE The photograph was taken for the sake of the details, and the top of the cone and of the cliff lie outside the field of the camera. is the real habitation. On the left it is easy to see that the great cone We notice here the first example of an actual stairway; it is modern. On the right the rock has rotted away, leaving a great chamber exposed. Inside this chamber an enterprising modern Troglodyte has built the facade of his house, which, as one can easily see, fills only about one-half of the original chamber in which the Troglodyte of antiquity lived. Note cart wheels on right (see pages 322, 323). a dozen dishes at least—lamb, kid, pork, veal, fowls, with various sorts of bread, some of wheat and some of barley. DRINKING A GUEST’S HEALTH FROM THE COMMON BOWL . “When, as an act of courtesy, any one wished to drink his neighbor’s health, he would drag him to the big bowl, and when there he must duck his head and take a long pull, drinking like an ox. The head- man, they insisted everywhere, must ac- cept as a present whatever he liked to have. But he would accept nothing, ex- cept where he espied any of his relations, when he made a point of taking them off, him or her, with himself. “When they reached Cheirisophus there was a similar scene. There, too, the men were feasting in their quarters, garlanded with wisps of hay and dry grass, and Armenian boys were playing the part of waiters in barbaric costumes, only the feasters had to indicate by ges- ture to the boys what they were to do, as if they were deaf and dumb. “After the first formalities, when Cheirisophus and Xenophon had greeted one another like bosom friends, they in- terrogated the headman in common by means of the Persian-speaking inter- DRE LET: “What was the country? they asked. He replied, ‘Armenia.’ And again, ‘For whom are the horses being bred?) “They are tribute for the king,’ he replied. ‘And the neighboring country?’ ‘Is the land of the Chalybes,’ he said, and he described the road which led to it. “So for the present Xenophon went off, taking the headman back with him to his household and friends. “The horses in this country are smaller than the Persian horses, but are more 5 "neajzeld 9Y} FO JAI] [VUISIIO 94} SyJeUI Spue}s onbsow powop sy} YSIYM uo YowuMyY ay} Jo do} ey, “ouojs-oo1mnd patiszenb fo yinq [je 91e sapedez osnoy YL “Yisee oy} JO SfaMoq ay} OJUT AT[eWOZIIOY PUus}xs YoryM ‘sroquieyd dy} 0} ddUeIZUO SUIAIS sapedey oJ9uI 91% 104 UdEs Sosnoy IY} JO ye jou fl ysoy “4z€-bet sased uo uMmoOYs 1k suottoads [vIdANS YIYM Fo ‘syoowUMY IO ‘siapynoq eo1uind jeo1s soy} JO 9UO puNose ying st o8eqT{IA ayy, NAMVL Huam Sif anv vil saova NO SHNWOS IWS OINVNONVd OM) AHL HOIHM Woe “aNoYNA JO AOVTIIA AHL JO MAIA IVAHINAD V STAID HdVYO9OLOHd SIHL 312 ‘JYSII 9Y} UO au0d dy} SION JOP] ABU SUTTJaMP 9y} I19y SvotoyM ‘odeys i194} Aq pauoripuos ose “uny jee1s ssayy, “hem seynosd umo JT9Y} Ul SdATyeU 9Y} WTIIAOTIONL NYIGOW NI ANAS GOW AOUN ANZSI AUS - ib, lGUBNLOINNY Sir Sige 313 ‘oinjoid }xoU dY} UI UddS dq [JIM JYSII dy} UO diNjoN1}s pot10}s -OM} OYJ, ‘sasodind Surpyinq 10} popusejuL ouojs-adtuind fo syoo]q potisenb oie punoisstof oy} UL “(ZIe assed Ose 99S) qho1y) JO oSeTIA oy} JO [eordA} St oUa0S oY} osnjord SIY} Ul ‘“SaAaTY} WOT Sv [JOM SB UlvI WOIJ o}eS St O19Y} PotO}S St IVY AA “Stocusreyo A1eP. Ajosusp pue punotstopun dsoy} Ul day st ‘Avy ano fo oov{d ay} OY} O} OPeU ST YOIYM “Yeyo Joy} WAY ‘9jdood jesojsed-1mes pue ‘einjynolise “opna e Jo Awouo0ds poy -asnoy oY} 0} Sulsuojaq SuryyAsoAod pue Aue ABM SUIIO}S JOF pur Solieuevis Se APelyd pasn aie SloqweyD JOMJUL YY J, “VUIpIsol Pasivjusa siy Jo }4YS8ne MOUY psd sUO OU PU Y}IeO oY} OJUI ATO}UYPUT SUT[JOMpP SIY pus}xe9 UL opoqe Ue YONS JO JoUMO CYT, “punol Jesh ay} ssouylep Jysiupruy Ul Padojaausa 18 SWIOOI JaTIO OYJ, “WSI] YA woos ATUO 9U} ST ‘yoo1}s 94} UOdN susdo YSIYM “WOOL ‘apedefF 10 UOT; IY} BSD JY} SI SITY} UIY MA HITIO YO AAN IG WHT JO AOVA AHL NI LO “INOO W NI LON “GULVAVOXA SI ONITITAMG NYAGOW V NALAO 314 THIS PHOTOGRAPH WAS TAKEN FROM THE UPPER CHAMBER OF THE AUTHOR'S LODGING-PLACE AT URGUB (SEE PAGES 312 AND 314) To the uninitiated person there is not the slightest indication that we are in the presence of Troglodytic dwellings, and the reader will have to take the author’s word for it. group on the right is making life miserable for the present writer, who was at the moment examining something antique. This illustrates what happens to the traveling archeologist at ever yenutn: iges Zi Cre C3 Mt Kasbek We ae t me) Say Malgss Erivan’? O- Lys) i (ee So Peak ies ut” Sivas OY. 2 rgaecus o Zeitan Erzerum*s = o SF, Mt Ararat ee \ ae ie ke Van rput pitts? Pyan 1 \g\@crabriz | j yDiarbekir y | Urumiah Lake ea \ 79) | \ Scale of Miles 100 200 SKETCH MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF MT. ARGUS AND OF THE TROGLODYTES ~ Repo 1 (SEE PAGES 283 AND 3218) Sill =~ 2) ‘Ayyenb ouy Aida Fo ‘sjootide Ayaryd ‘ym4f pur ‘soyqvjosoA ‘sodvis saonpoad pure o[ijiof St ‘punolisolof oY} Ul otoY Woes sv ‘SKo|feA oy} UL [IOS oT, LOOlNdVY AHL TO AWOH “IVNIDIYO Ad, SI NOIOM AWWA SIH IVRW Adv NaHd SVH WIVID HHA 316 THE ELABORATE DOORWAY PROCLAIMS THAT THIS HUGE ROCK MASS, WITH ITS HUNDREDS OF CHAMBERS, WAS A PALATIAL RESIDENCE IN OLDEN TIMES, BUT NOW IT IS GIVEN OVER TO PIGEONS | The holes of ingress and egress for the pigeons are seen in the background of the two great | : openings in the wall. IN THESE MASSES THE PROCESS OF DISINTEGRATION WAS RETARDED BY THE ' SUPERINCUMBENT LAYER OF LAVA | This was evidently a fashionable street in Trogloville, if we may judge by the numerous rectilinear, and therefore decorative, window openings. They are too small to be exposed chambers that were once inside the cliffs. 317 318 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HAVE A VIEW OF THE EXTREME EDGE OF THER CONE FORMATION, AT THE POINT WHERE THE CANYON RUNS OUT INTO A 4 sf HERE WI WIGS, PILANIUINY On the extreme right of the picture we see a tiny one the author saw. It is almost perfect and it is the smallest c The soil, even of the level ground seen here, is still disintegrated pumice-stone and very fertile. cone with its large cap. spirited. The headman explained to the Greeks how they should wrap small bags or sacks around the feet of the horses and other cattle when marching through the snow, for without such precautions the creatures sank up to their bellies.” A BIBLICAL REFERENCE TO WEALTHY TROGLODYTES Often the cave-dwellers attained to great wealth and even to political impor- tance, “lhe prophet Obadialn Grae) acer tainly had such Troglodytes in mind when he speaks of the pride and the ar- rogance of the Edomites, of their feeling of confident security because of the fact that they dwelt in the lofty clefts of the hills, beyond the reach of their enemy. Mt. Argzeus (see text, page 283), now an extinct volcano, though it was still smouldering in the time of Strabo, is situated almost in the center of the pen- insula of Asia Minor (see map, page 315). The material ejected by this vol- cano during the many ages when it was active covers an immense area and, con- sists of a vast bed of pumiuce-stone or tufa of unknown depth, on top of which there flowed a sheet of lava which varies in depth from four to ten or twemtyeteer (SEE [DALES 222, 227, 220). The territory thus affected by the erup- tions of Mt. Argzus extends from the southwest to the northwest of the moun- tain for a distance of between thirty and forty miles, covering the entire region between Injesu, Martchan, Urgub, Udj Assaru, Nev Shehir, and Tatlar on the west and extending to Soghanlu Dere (valley) on the south, while on the north and northwest it extends far to the north of the Kizil Irmak (Halys), which has been flowing across the bed of pumice- stone from remote geological times. The pumice-stone 1s soft, Ttviceiue. ported that one man excavated a chamber 25 feet long, 13 feet broad, and 10 feet ~ high within the space of 30 days. FIRST EUROPEAN TRAVELER AMONG TROG- LODYTES CONSIDERED A GULLIVER Paul Lukas, who traveled in Asia Minor at the behest of Louis XIV, was the first European to visit this region, but his visit was very hurried, and, strange as it may seem, he thought that these cones THE CONE-DWELLERS OF ASIA MINOR 319 THIS PHOTOGRAPH RECALLS VERY FORCIBLY THE WORDS OF THE PROPHET OBADIAH, WHO, IN SPEAKING OF THE EDOMITES OF THE REGION OF PETRA, SAYS: “The pride of thy heart hath deceived thee, O thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock, whose habitation is high; that saith in his heart, Who shall bring me down to the ground? Though thou mount on high as the eagle, and though thy nest be set among the stars, | will bring thee down from thence, saith Jehovah.” But the inhabitants of “the Mount of Esau” were of a much later date and much more refined Troglodytes than those with whom we are dealing now. The summit of this pillar of the sky (near Urgiib) repre- sents approximately, but only approximately, the original level of the whole surrounding country. And if that be so, then an amazing amount of erosion and disintegration has taken place. A modern village cemetery is in the foreground. Note the human figures. were builded by man, and the stories he flections in regard to Lukas and this cone- told about the wonders he saw were not’ country: believed by any one. “Traveled persons are inclined to tell For instance, the German poet Wie- extravagant stories, and to exaggerate land gives utterance to the following re- what they have seen, and I cannot affirm ‘JJ9] 94} UO JeaYM SuIppajs 910N J JUsUTMOId & JOU ST UOTeWIIO; 7 ALT SIU} Ul WoIsoIs Aq posto; Aayea e& Ul sol] Jee], FO OSETIA IY], NAvavd ATIITLO GNV HOMO AMAA ‘TINS SI LI {ANOLS-40IWOAd AHL SHITIIAO IVE GTI VAV'I ISVA V SHHOVAY UNO ‘AIHHHS AUN ONISSVd WALA Navssv [adn Wok GUVMLSHM SAUNUNOL ANO SV ‘FF2T 94} UO HHI OY} Ul IqISIA otoyYMAIDAI st SoJApo;so1y, oy} Fo A}TAT}Oe yee jnq ‘odeospury] 1eyjey, oy} Jo oinjeo oud oy, ‘atnjord sty} JO punorsyoeq ay} Ur Uses st peoy AaTTeA ey y, ‘ple 320 OCCASIONALLY A GREAT BOULDER BREAKS AWAY FROM THE BLUFF AND THUNDERS DOWN UPON THE WRETCHED VILLAGE, LEAVING DEATH AND DESTRUCTION IN ITS WAKE __ Only four days before the author’s visit such a boulder had precipitated itself upon the village, burying twelve houses and killing five men (the women who were killed were prob- ably not counted). Several rocks were threatening to fall. The poor people appealed to the visitor as to one who must needs have superior knowledge: “Does danger threaten our house?” “Will that rock fall?” The largest piece of the devastating rock is seen in the fore- ground. visible. that Paul Lukas is wholly free from this universal weakness. To give only a few instances from his book of travels, I ask if there can be found a man who will not consider Lukas’s story about the innumer- able host of pyramids exaggerated? He affirms that each one of these pyramids is hewn from a single stone (page 283), and that they are hollowed out in such wise that they have fine doors for en- trances (page 317), that they have sev- eral apartments rising one above the other (page 282) and connected with 321 Its course can be traced, and the chambers exposed when it broke away are plainly The course of the rock may be discerned also in the preceding picture. each other by means of interior stair- ways, and that these apartments are lighted by large windows (page 324). “Many of these remarkable buildings,” continues Wieland with true Prussian su- periority and cocksureness, “according to our traveler, have never been excavated into dwellings (page 289), though the excavation of many of them had been be- gun, but was left in an unfinished state. “He asserts that on the one side of the bluff by which his caravan passed there were no fewer than 20,000 such build- ‘SUIJSII9IUI Iso die punois “910f 9} Ul STOOH-Surysosyy oy y, ‘SOPpINS se joe 0} SUIT[IM JOU OI SOAR Hal paw, “Syie) Y Yeo 94} FO Jorazur oy oy Tey JOPpuUeM 0} snosJesuEp si oy} pue o[qvurusiayur ysouye ose FUPET, ye stoquieys payearoxa PTL “poyeavoxo oie sur TH} 7eY} Yeoueq pue vary jo wines 10g OHM WINTd FH, 40 1Ova THT Nt CHULVAVOXA FAV AVIV JO SONITIAMG casi 1 yey} pres si iy ‘ame YIM soateu jussesd oy} oaidsur A [ TPP 24} Yor ur ‘9U0}s-99TtUNd SYM JO poq dsap 9 IVOSN SV ‘SYHTAWT OM. JO ST Ny 322 GULSINONILSIC Wa AVI Zit ALS LV SIOO'IM-ONIHSAUHT, AHI, NO! ANGE Cieiial@n acne) “(a8ed yxou 998) SSouoUl jo suvour Jo Aduonbsifur ay} FO uoseo1 Aq UOISeAUT 0} 9][qQeIT Sse] Pue Ssoadde JO YNOUJIP sJOWl PotopUSEeI diam YSIYM ‘Stoquivyd UBIUPIIA}qNs 9soy} FO sINjeU Suipeoids-1ey pue A}ISuUIUIUT 9Y} 9}eIJSH][I JoyJoq pynoo suryjON LHS AHL OL AVMV UVA SI SYAANVHO AO AGALIVIONW INIZVWV SIAL TIV OL MONVYULINA AHL GNV ‘AVMUOOd HWIDNIS V LON LN “VIGISIA TUV SONINAdO-MOGNIM JO LSOH V AYN LOId SINT JO AIVH IIHT AHL NI 324 THIS IS A PICTURE OF SOGHANLU DERE (ONION VALLEY), WHICH LIES A FULL, DAY’S JOURNEY SOUTH OF THE UDJ ASSARU (SEE PAGES 286, 287) AND URGUB REGION (SEE PAGES 312, 314) It is a canyon branching from the larger canyon of Ortakieui (Middle Village). (See Its cliffs are mere shells and they contain thousands on thousands of cham- Cones, though they do occur even here, are rare, but there are no temple or church facades, as at Martchan (see pages 303, 308). In this picture one sees five entrances, while all the numerous other openings are windows. Story rises upon story. Thousands of pigeons now have their homes in these dusky chambers in the rocks, for at this place they are no longer inhabited by man. Notice the windows painted on the outside. The author can give no explanation of the painting. In the numerous chapels pic- tures of Greek saints may still be seen on the walls; many of the saints represented in the pictures are named in Greek. In the floors of the chapels graves are cut, and in some of them we found human skeletons quite exposed. Indeed, graves are frequently found in the dwell- ings themselves, and so it seems clear that the people lived in the same rooms with their pages 328, 320). bers, churches, chapels, and graves. pigeons and their dead. ings, and that he had been told that on the other side of the valley a still greater number were to be seen. “Can anything be more incredible than that there can exist such a vast host of pyramids excavated into ordinary dwell- ing-houses? For they certainly did not spring from the earth like mushrooms. Moreover, not a single word about them is to be found in any ancient author nor in the narrative of any other traveler. We might understand this silence if Lukas had discovered the pyramids in the great Syrian Desert, but in a land as well known as Cappadocia—! “However, since Paul Lukas affirms that he saw them with his own eyes, they 325 must be there. But we shall have to strike out at least one nought from the number, which, according to his estimate, is more than 50,000. Five thousand such pyramids is still a very respectable num- ber, and in view of the hasty and super- ficial way in which Lukas saw them (for his caravan did not stop, nor was he per- mitted to leave it), he should have dis- trusted a calculation made by his eyes alone: THEIR ANCIENT STORY WAITS UPON -ARCH HOLOGISTS AND EXCAVATORS And yet Lukas was right, except in sup- posing that the cones were constructed by man, if indeed he did actually entertain } ‘(osed }XoU OsS[e 99S) YIva oy} Ul UappIy ASNVIIG IIISIAUL ‘SIOYJO SSa]JUNOD 91V I19Y} dloY UIIs sWIOOT AIvJUSUISeIFZ 9Y} PUlys| “1v9aq 0} poyoodxo seM Ht FYSIaM IY} Ie9q 0} UIY 00} sem a ud}fo pue ‘otoy uly} AJOA SUVdS JT ‘“SWOOI pasodutitadns OM} UsIMJaq }J9] IUO}S JY} JO ssaUyIY} oY} ‘spIOM sI9Y}0 ul ‘10 !SIOO 94} [[eVo Aeu OM JeYM JO SSoUMIIY} oY} 9S Avi 9UO Soor{d FO JoqUINU B UT “SaAPYS SV IAIDS O} PapUdJUI dtOM SaoqtUeYS pasodxs dy} JO s]feEM ay} UI soafoy OU GuSOdX# AGNVS MON AMID MHL JO YOIMALNI AHL NI HONO SYHIINVHO JO WAN ON V VHT, OS “SHNVOOHINVH Ad AVMV NUMOUE NAG SVE MOON MILL JO MOVE LHL TWIT ‘uuIn[oo [votapurfAo ev uses SI aAnyord 9} JO Je] 94} 0} pue ‘saSv}S JUSIGIOUL S}I Ul JOY WI9S SI UOTJEUTIOF 9UOS SY], “(€gz o8ed 90S) snwesIV “JN JO IdUoTOIA JUSTOUL oY} SojeoTPUL [elToyeUs DULITOA SIG} JO ssou -1seA dU, ‘pod sorund oy} St Ht YVouI “Qanqoid Sty} JO do} dy} 3 Uses ST pod BART oY], -QUO}S-adIUINd dy} JO YJdap snopusuiat} oY} YM PoredU0s se ‘UI ST ‘ainjzord sty} ur Y}dep e[qetaprsuos FO UMOYS IIYM ‘UOLSI1 IJOYM 9Y} JOAO JNO peoids St YOM eAe] JO UNjzeI}s 9, "4SO] SuUI}JasS JO IvoT JO} Wey} UI sINjUdA }OU OP SEsATJeU of} Jey} 9}edIAUT PUe SNOIOUWINU OS ‘SIOqUIeYD PoALOX JO YIOMJOU JseA BUO ST PIO Sy} FO JOMopUL oy y, ASVad SLI LV SHSQOHM NYAGOW AHL HLIM NOSINVdNWOO V WOULUVAddV ‘TIM AAVIO AHL WO THOM [VANS AAW 327 ‘SUdpIES JURIINXN] Sit YUM 9A9 9} SuUYSIap ‘optofZ AIOA St ATLA 97371] dy} Ul [IOS ay} nq {19k ay} JO UOS¥as JOY 9Y} SULINP S}SEM JJOSep-[Ules B VtIOfotOY} Pue ‘SsojtoqeM SI neo}eid SUIPUNOIINS 94], ‘[[aMolef Wt piq O} pey Joyyne oy} s1ayM IoY Moped jUTod ay} Je Payee SI spieX puesnoy} uO JO WNWIXeU dy} [JUN “ATIpeo}s SaseoIOUL Y}PIM s}t Jnq +spseé porpuny 3914} Noqe SI ‘“o19Y MITA WOIJ Uappry ysnf ‘(ased }xoU 90S) peal sj ye AaTjeA Sty} JO YIPIM oyy, “JoyemM JO Weatjs [[eUIS & ST STU} Of] | sAQ]][eA If} IIe JO 9SNed JAT}VIIO [CUISIIO OY], ‘“SHN[ oy} FO WII ot} Aq UdALS SI [aA] [e1ouUss ssoyM ‘neazejd Surpunosins oy} Ur SyPaId 91e SA2T[eA aS9t]} JO TV INAIMVINO AAOSV AW’TIVA AHI AO MAIA V SI SIH ‘INICIO, PULYDG JN[G ay} Ul a[qIstA 91e ssuI[aMp Jno-y9 wW O1 SnOJOWNN ‘“poyeoo, 9q URS WIR AIDA SI pue ‘a}Apoyso1y, e& Jjoswry sem A1OS015) ‘poopuy ‘syiseq oy} pue ATOSoIL) Jules poonpoid yorym ‘uorso1 Sty} UT SuOrjs SKeMTe SeM AjLURT}SIIYD MGOIN “AOOVIVIW “ANAATHO—NOIOUN WINN SI MHUND HOIHM NI WONIW VISV AO MOIWHLNI AH, NI Sat VITIA May S SIH NI SUXIHLO AV AWHHL . NAMOdS ‘TIILLS THI 10 INO Si HOIHM ‘INHIMVINO AO y Y cI UV a b IIA al L ¥ ) UVv'I b b - DEIN, 329 is THE ENTRANCE 10 THE VALLEY OF ORTAKIEUI (SEE PAGE 328) FROM THE PLATEAU IS ARTIFICIAL, CONSISTING OF A ROADWAY EXCAVATED THROUGH THE RIM-ROCK OF THE BLUFF The roadway descends sharply. No doubt this roadway has grown in depth as the valley itself grew in depth, for its beginning goes back to at least 2,000 years before Christ. It is now much worn, and animals find difficulty in getting down the slick and naked stone. 330 THE MURMAN COAST such a belief, for I have never been able to consult a copy of his book and I rely on Wieland for my information. It is true that I have not seen the entire field covered by this formation, but I worked faithfully inspecting and photographing the cones, and I find no difficulty in agree- ing with Lukas that there are more than 50,000 cones. 331 The cones of Cappadocia were char- acteristic features of the country in the third millennium before Christ. History - and archeology cannot trace them further, because, as yet, nothing is known about periods in Asia Minor more remote than that; but the spade and the-archeologist may soon reveal that history to a waiting world. THE MURMAN COAST Arctic Gateway tor American and Allied Expeditionary Forces in Northern European Russia Ii relatives atid friends «of American troops comprising, with French and British units, an ex- peditionary force operating along the Archangel-Vologda Railway line in north- ern Russia, have an especial interest at this time in the Murman Coast, which has been the gateway through which have passed all the munitions and supplies of food and clothing for this army during the winter months, when Archangel itself has been closed to the shipping world by aebarrier of ice. Murmansk, the chief port of the Mur- man Coast, is more than 300 miles nearer the North Pole than is Archangel, but, thanks to the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which temper the winds blowing over it. the Kola Inlet, on -which this army entrepot is situated, is open to navi- gation twelve months in the year. - Until the closing of her Baltic ports by German blockade and the sealing of her channel. of egress to the south through the Dardanelles by the alliance of Tur- key with the, Teutonic Powers, imperial Russia had‘ paid small heed to the great- est asset of her Arctic shores—the Kola ‘Inlet, an arm of the sea penetrating deep into the Murman Coast. It is true that a naval base had been established in Catherine Harbor, Kola Inlet, 20 years ago ; but its port of Alexandrovsk, which is 20 miles north of the new port of Murmansk, had lain neglected and the Slavs continued to depend entirely upon Archangel as a commercial gateway for this part of their vast domain. The port of Archangel, under the most favorable circumstances, is closed by ice to sailing vessels for six months in the year, to smaller steam craft. for four months out of the twelve, and to the largest types of ice-breaking ships for at least two of the winter months. This interruption to commerce, owing to ice floes in the Gorlo, the neck of the White Sea bottle, was of small conse- quence to the Slavs in the easy-going pre-1914 days; but after the tragic rout of the Isars forces at the ‘battle of Tannenberg, in the Mazurian Lakes re- gion, and the subsequent debacle on the Dunajec, Russia and her Allies knew that her continuance in the struggle against the Prussians would depend upon an ever-increasing flow of supplies and munitions to the inadequately equipped armies of Brusiloff, Alexieff, and the Grand Duke Nicholas. It became evident that any “time out” for the ice blockade of Archangel was unthinkable, and in this emergency the Murman Coast and its ice-free port was to come into its own. Until that time the region was almost as little known to the ssian) people "as to the yrest of the world. THE MURMAN NOW AIDS AMERICA Having served Russia when that coun- try was an ally of the Entente nations, the Murman region today is the short link in the chain which connects the forces of the Allies and America with their bases of supply overseas. The Q f Sodankyla LEGEND Railways —+—+——- 0 ————— Poor roads ~~ & Boris Glob} sy Pecheshga f VS (47 Aexandrovsi: g iY Cl Kandala 5S a Kuusamo” a] v Bo: TES le 7 NSS Kiantajarvi, | ae § : f RK Kajana Pee S ie * a olf nigh é 1a L777 rN R v VAD Zeit Lee e 2 9 Sy a Sardavala_~, ‘ee <> is $ Statute Miles 35° A. H. Bumstead, Cartographer A MAP OF THE MURMAN COAST AND THE TERRITORY THROUGH WHICH RUNS THE NEW MURMAN RAILWAY The Murman Railway was the artery which supplied with food, clothing, and munitions the American and Allied forces in Northern Russia during the winter months. journey from the United States to Petro- grad is 5,000 miles shorter by way of Halifax and the Murman ice-free port of Murmansk than by way of Seattle to Viadivostok and thence westward on the Trans-Siberian Railway. All during the past winter months 5,000 American troops, cooperating with 12,000 British, 2,700 French, 1,500 Si- berians, and 1,400 Italians, received a constant flow of supplies of food, cloth- ing, and munitions through Murmansk, 33 Z) — which did not come into existence until 1916. Murmansk is the northern terminus of the Murman Railway, a single-track line which connects the ice-free port with Petrograd by way of Kandalaksha, Kem, Petrozavodsk, and Zvanda, 660 of the goo miles of the line having been con- structed since 1914 in the face of some of the greatest obstacles ever encoun- tered in civil engineering. War work on the Murman Railway THE SEA NEVER FREEZES ON THE MURMAN COAST The beneficent Gulf Stream, which saves England from a climate similar to that of Labrador, also rescues the Murman from six months of ice-bound waters, such as block the harbors of the White Sea. Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky MOST OF THE FISHERMEN OF THE MURMAN COAST ARE ONLY TEMPORARY RESIDENTS The Pomoros, who dwell in the region west of the White Sea, travel northward to the Arctic shores in the summer and live in cantonments, or small, closely huddled villages. They are descendants of the Novgorod Russians, in whose annals there is mention of the village of Kola as early as the middle of the thirteenth century. 333 Ay TICE LEOUSE LO tk BAST 2O eAILE XeAINDIROMS Ke In addition to such beacons to guide the mariner, stations have been established on the Murman Coast for the study of meteorological conditions in order that fishermen may be warned of stormy weather. Life-saving boats put to sea when storm signals fly. tit Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky FISHING BOATS IN A QUIET HARBOR ON THE MURMAN COAST Murmansk, Russia’s only ice-free port in the north, is situated on the eastern shore of the Kola Inlet, 30 miles south of the Arctic coast. The inlet is a mile and a half wide at this point and there is a depth of 32 feet at the piers, while it is 70 feet deep a few hundred yards from shore. The inlet has no currents and large ships may be shifted from one side of the pier to the other without the aid of tugs. There is an eleven-foot tide. 334 gt SARE: Sata pmaess OS: pe es: THE RAPIDS OF THE PASVIK RIVER EIGHT MILES FROM ITS INFLUX INTO VARANGER FJORD Boris Glob, the most westerly Russian settlement of the Murman Coast, is situated on the banks of this river (see page 338). Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky TYPE OF CANOE USED BY MURMAN FISHERMEN Until the war-time necessity arose for an open harbor twelve months in the year, even the Russians knew little about the Murman country, but with the outbreak of the European conflict Kola Inlet became of vital importance to the whole Slavic empire. é 335 A SINGLE HABITATION IN THE MIDST OF MILES OF DESOLATION Most of the houses of the Murman region are one-story structures, built of unhewn logs. The crevices are packed with native moss. In the western end of the Murman, forests of birch, pine, and spruce are to be found within 20 or 25 miles of the Arctic shore, but farther east, where the influence of the Gulf Stream wanes, the timber line is 60 to 70 miles inland. Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky SUMMER HOMES OF MURMAN FISHERMEN Whaling was a profitable industry on this coast more than forty years ago, but these animals have now entirely disappeared. Cod, herring, and salmon are the principal food fish. 336 : A ZIRINIAN AND HIS FLEET-FOOTED FOUR-IN-HAND During the nineteenth century a few Zirinians (also called Syrenians), a nomadic people residing on the west side of the Urals, migrated to Lapland in an effort to outrun a dis- ease which was destroying their herds of reindeer. The animals which they brought with them were of a splendid stock. The Zirinians are skillful in handicraft and are excellent hunters. Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky PECHENGA MONKS AT WORK ON TIMBERS FOR A HIGHWAY BRIDGE Wood is an extremely valuable commodity along the Arctic coast, but there are vast forests of birch and pine in the interior. Under the imperial régime the forests were strictly regulated by the administration of Archangel. 337 WHERE RUSSIA AND NORWAY MEET: THE WESTERN EXTREM ITDY © dsem MURMAN COAST At the mouth of the Pasvik River the two houses, the church, and the Lapp huts in the left foreground comprise the most westerly Russian settlement on the Murman Coast. The town is known as Boris Glob and is located on one square mile of Russian ground in Nor- wegian territory, this part of the coast having been given to Norway, with the exception of Borts Glob, in the treaty of 1825. i Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky AT THE OLEHER BND OF DHE MURIIAN: ON) LEE SHORBS Om ions | Weliiiciiy p Sib x A Russian town which is inhabited almost exclusively by trading people and fishermen. In the summer-time it is practically deserted, as the fisher-folk journey westward to the vari- ous settlements on the Murman Coast. This photograph was taken at midnight in June. 338 LOW TIDE AT MIDNIGHT IN JUNE: EASTERN MURMAN Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky HIGH TIDE IN THE SAME FISHING VILLAGE HARBOR SHOWN ABOVE While the hauls of fish during the spring and summer on the Murman Coast are extra- ordinarily heavy, much of the catch is wasted, owing to improper methods of cleaning, dry- ing, and salting. For this reason a large part of Russia’s sea food is imported from Norway. Many fishermen in the early spring sail to Troms6 and Hammerfest, Norway, with their schooners loaded with flour, which they exchange for Norwegian fish, while much of their own bountiful catch is permitted to spoil. 339 ON THE BLEAK TUNDRAS OF ARCTIC RUSSIA Many years ago the Russian Government made a brave effort to colonize this part of its vast domain, but the attempt proved abortive. The colonists cut away even the sparse woods which the region supported and introduced vodka among the native Lapps. The result was mutually tragic. Piotoeenne by Nathalie Loubovitsky CODFISH HUNG OUT TO DRY AT A POPULOUS FISHING SETTLEMENT ON THE MURMAN COAST These villages, where only men are to be found, present a curious aspect in summer, The fisher-folk come and go, busy night and day repairing their tackle and cleaning their catch. It is a land of the midnight sun, but no tourists ever find their way to it. 340 AETERNOON THA IN ONE OF THE ARCTIC OUTPOSTS OF CIVILIZATION These are men of Pechenga, a settlement situated on the Pechenga Inlet, 18 miles from the Arctic seacoast and 65 miles northwest of Murmansk, the terminus of the Murman Rail- road. A new wagon road, built since the outbreak of the world war, connects Pechenga with Kyro, 100 miles to the southwest. From Kyro a fair road, over which an automobile has passed, leads to Rovaniemi, the northern terminus of the Finnish Railway which runs to SS Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky Wie WOULD CALE DLHIS CAMPING OUT IN AMERICA, BUT IT IS THE STERN REALITY OF LIFE RATHER THAN RECREATION ON THE KOLA PENINSULA When the old régime sent settlers to the Murman Coast, each family was promised 2,000 rubles as a household nest-egg, but even with this bonus the frugal peasants failed to find life attractive. 341 “JOJUIM UT JSaq st jnq “1e94 3y} Jo awn Aue je@ papoaet} oq uvo (IPE a8ed osye 90s) imaiueaocy 0} peor uosem OU “SPeol Wepeoeus YIM OSETIA pozis-1iej & st eSusyI9g “IeM pjzom 24} %10Foq JULSIP So]IWI OOO'T Sooe{d WOT, auIed UdIP[IY) “sjusted 1194} Aq 9peul SMOA SNOISIPaI- JO JUST Y[Ny Ul OUI] & Je OM IO ILIA & IOj JUSMOT Hes ULUINY siq} JO Atajseuour oy} ur pooejd aie sjidnd oy y SHNOW Ad GHLONGNOD VONAHOUd NI OOHOS ONIMOTIVL V SHERRY AYs}aoqno’y atpeqjwN Aq sydessojoyg ‘UOTJEZTIAIN 10} ADUISL [NF -lamod e se Ala}seuUOU 94} SuIAva] ‘C1O1I UL Pop pue esudyIog 3e s1e9A ‘Ayary} Juods oyM juesvod afduis ev ‘ueYyeUO[ Jaye JO UOTeIIP 9} Jopun potojsar sem jf Ainjusd YJUseoulu oy} Uy “AIN}UdD YUIId}UDA_S oy} url AT1V9 UOISeAU YSsIpamMs v Aq padorsap sem Ardjseuow oy} , “UT “I, 4|OH,, se UMOUY }iuay e& Aq AInjJUdD Y}U99}XIS dy} UT pepunoy VONAHOUd LV AYALSVNOW AMSLAAO'IOS AHL AO SNNOW \ — ° \\ \“< \ SS € 342 SOLICUOISSIUT ULISSNY FO s}1OPa ay} JO j[Nset oy} se sueysiyD AT[eurmou ore Kay} ‘Asis ATUO Woy} popoye SCY UONLZYIAID OIA ‘PuRLUT pue yseod ey} UO YIOq “poynqisysip AToprM aie Ady, ‘sdde’] o1v saursisoqe oy, “SJUBISIUIUT 94} Puke SoAT}eU oY} —sdno18 OM} JO pasodulod SI e[Nsutusd e[OY ey} Jo uorendod oy, ISVOD NVNYOW YHL YO NVNOM OG-OL-TIAM V ‘O01 pur MOUS JO So]IW JOAO UOT}EJIOdsURI] JO SURIU BOS SOAT}JLU JY} SI UOT}Ip -pe Ul pue “IapJoy SIY O} SUTYJO[D puke Poo}; YOY soysiuinyF [eurtue sity, ‘dde’T 94} 0} SI Joopuret ay} ‘sisvo UeIeYeS oY} UL JaTJOMp oY} 0} 9913 wed oy} pue volouly [e1jUdD FO IAI}LU 9} O} SI eULUeq ay} JEU, CNHIYA [Std SIH GNV ddv'l V AYsuaoqno’y atpeqyeny Aq sydvisojoyg 343 ‘SP4IG OY} SUILOJYSIIZ IO Sjsou dy} SUIAOI}SOP JNOY}IM Popoa]][OO st UMOP-Japlo IY, ‘spuelsy oury Aq-41eou oy} UO JOyVeS Ady} YOIYM SYONpP Japlo vy} JO UMOP 9Y} Wor, 9UI0d “UI DUIOS DALIOpP AWULIFSIIYD) FO }sOdjnO sty} UI Sasnfodt snorsija4 oJ, WANVALS ONISSVd V LHW OL LNO DNIMOY AYALSVNOW HHI, LV GHAO'IdNa NVWMYOM V AUNV (LHOIY Te. OL.) VONAHHOTd TO MNOW V Ays}iAoqno’y atjeyyen Aq sydeisojoyg ‘posret Os[e aie Aajieq pue ‘ahi ‘sa0yejod jo satyjuenb yews ‘uozLIOY 94} eAOqe ATJUe}SUOD si UNS 94} UdYM SyI9M Ma} 94} Sulinp JUCLINXN] SI UOT{2JIS9A JY} ISeUIeIP [eINyeU SI 919Y} 9I9YM Jnq ‘ssoq jo asuedxd }SeA & SI BINSUIUSG LOY JY} JO 4JseOd UdY}IOU dy} JO Iso, AVG GNV ,.LHOIN,, AISQOANILNOO ISOWIV SHNIHS NOS AHL NAHM ‘SHINOW VANINAS AAA AHL ONTAN ATLNVAGNOAGVY MOND SSVYD CNV AVH BG Ge WAY 344 ‘parajunooua aie doop jaoj oz puv ST S}f1IpMoOUsS ‘S}sa1O} OY} UL “IOUT -piu ul pue sIq} Ul Ault a] ‘tlods poof JO Sai yuenb ‘ourys 0} s[rey uns oy} ‘Qunf Ul JUaNbaI;UT JOU IIe SUIIOJSMOUG ‘pf1OM ay} Jo JAed pure Mo] suns A[ddns vs oy} US AA “UNS dy} UT Way} A1p 0} pure spate J pue VIOSNINUd VION AHL NO SYMLSIS MONS ‘ plod ‘o}e] st sulids oy} pur SUO] S}SV[ 1O}JUIM OIL], UL Wat} Yes O}—YSY Sutrasosoid JO shAveM OM} ATMO DALY SOATCU dL], WSISM=NOS 66 9 LSVOO NVNUOW AHL NO doOw Vas Ayspiaoqno’y otyeyjen Aq sydessojoyg 345 AMIBOB, Cie Ole THE DEAD IN PECHENGA Monuments erected to the monks of the famous Greek Church monastery founded by the “Holy Trifan” in the sixteenth century. Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky LADIES OF LAPLAND The two women with the tall hats are married. Those with the scarfs are débutantes. The youngest, the one with the striped waist, is fifteen years of age. The Lapps-are a semi- nomadic people, depending largely on their reindeer herds for food and winter clothing. They comprise a large element of the population of the Murman region. 346 FISHERMEN 'S HUTS BUILT UPON SAND AND SNOW: MURMAN COAST It matters not whether their foundations are shifting, as they are for use through the summer stay only. ee SS Se . : Photographs by Nathalie Loubovitsky THERE IS LITTLE TO ENLIVEN HUMAN EXISTENCE HERE—NOT EVEN A MOVIE EVER FLICKERS The temperature sometimes rises to 80 or 90 in the shade in summer and will last for a week. Then a strong northeast wind sends the mercury down to 45 degrees. The tempera- ture is affected by the icebergs which are brought down by the cold currents from the north. 347 048 began January I, 1915, with the appoint- ment by the Russian Government of Viladamir Goriachkovsky as the engineer. At his disposal were placed 100,000 workmen recruited from all parts of the empire. The line had to run through a terrain presenting the most discouraging diffi- culties—swamps, bogs, frozen lakes, and almost impenetrable forests. In Russia’s peril, construction work could not wait upon the advent of spring. Soundings were made through the ice by means of long iron rods to determine earth contours, in order to establish the safest roadbeds in swampy country. Much of the surveying during the long nights of the Arctic winter had to te done by lantern light. The German propaganda bureau spread reports of frightful mortality among the workmen, but as a matter of fact, al- though the laborers lived under the most primitive conditions, in tents, the death rate was extremely low. About one per cent of those taken ill succumbed to scurvy. itis) true= that when the irs tars began to run over the partly completed road there were occasions when the track suddenly subsided, due to the fact that the rails had been laid upon what were thought to be rocks, but which proved, with the thaw of spring, to be ice. Under the circumstances, however, these mis- haps were comparatively rare, and no serious accidents resulted. The swampy character of the right of way is indicated by the act tliat Ciererake sO Ditdges on the line. VO wigan Anaecican ancl Ahiedl troops operating along the Archangel- Vologda line in the winter of 1918-1919, when the harbor of Archangel was sealed, supplies were shipped by steamer to Mur- mansk, where they were unloaded and sent by rail to Kandalaksha, a distance of 170 miles, and thence transported by sledges across the frozen White Sea to Archangel, 200 miles to the east. MURMANSK’S DAY IN THE SUN Even before the boom occasioned by the decision of the Allies and America to dispatch an expeditionary force to Rus- sia, Murmansk had grown to be quite a THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE settlement, with its 3,500 to 4,000 inhab- itants augmented from week to week by refugees whose number fluctuated from a few hundred to 3,000. As was the case with all building opera- tions in the empire, the Russian Revolu- tion interfered materially with the growth of the port, which is situated on the east bank of the Kola Inlet, 30 miles south of the Arctic shore. Most of the buildings ane Ol ome story and) are comsimuctedsonr unhewn logs, chinked with native moss. The streets under the Russian régime were entirely of dirt. On both sides of the inlet, which is one and a half miles wide at this point, hills rise to a height of several hundred feet. The harbor is un- obstructed by hidden rocks or shoals, and the ship berths can accommodate the largest ocean-going freighters. The Murman (a corruption of Nor- man) is the name given to the 260-mile stretch of Arctic seaboard which forms the northern boundary of the Kola Pen- insula, a vast plateau having an average elevation of 1,000 feet and covered with swamps, peat-bogs, forests, and lakes, lying almost entirely within the Arctic Circle and embracing an area as large as England and Wales combined. Before the war the Murman Coast was practically uninhabited throughout the Greater part Of the year. ~limny sumac however, Lapps and Russian fishermen from Archangel and the Pomorya dis- trict (lying west of the White jsea) formed fishing communities to take ad- vantage of the bountiful schools of sal- mon, cod, and herring off shore. The Lapps live in the interior of the peninsula in winter, tending their herds of reindeer, which furnish them with food, clothing, and transportation. In times of peace there is a considerable lumber in- dustry, but otherwise the peninsula is comparatively non-productive, as only the scantiest crops of rye, barley, potatoes, and hay can be grown. ‘The animal life is similar to that of most other high lati- tudes, including foxes, bear, martens, ot- ters, elk, deer, and hares. Mosquitoes are a serious pest in sum- mer, even the reindeer being forced to flee to the high ground of the Chibinski Mountains, near the middle of the penin- sula, to escape the harassing swarms. ON THE PRAIL OF A HORSE PFHIEF By Hersperr W. GLeEASON ES, he was a genuine Horse Thief, ) and we followed his trail for over 100 miles. But we never caught up with him! Hence it may be well to advise the expectant reader, at the very outset, that this tale is utterly barren in respect to those exciting episodes in which six-shooters are wont to play a prominent part, ending with a limp figure Sieuine up tO a tree. There were two reasons why we never caught up with the Horse Thief. First, he had twenty years the start of us; and, secondly, we hadn’t the remotest interest in the Horse Thief himself, even if at any time we had been close upon his heels; but we were tremendously inter- ested in his trail. TEs eCOURSE OF THE MIGHTY COLUMBIA The Columbia River is a mighty stream, and throughout its entire length of 1,400 miles it possesses a variety and depth of interest hardly to be surpassed by that attaching to any other river on earth. Although only half as long as the Mississippi, so many and so important are its tributaries that it fairly equals the latter stream in the volume of water which it pours into the ocean. Few great rivers follow so devious a course. Rising in the Kootenay District of British Columbia, it first flows in a northwesterly direction for 200 miles; then it makes a sharp bend and flows due south for nearly 300 miles, halting on the way to form the famous Arrow Lakes; next it crosses the International Bound- ary into the State of Washington, where, for a distance of 600 miles, it turns and twists toward every point of the com- pass, as if it were seeking to bestow the blessing of its waters upon every portion of the great “Inland Empire,” as the fruitful plains of eastern Washington are called. Just before reaching the Oregon bound- ary it receives the waters of the Snake River, whose source lies 950 miles away in Yellowstone Park. 349 Then, with its breadth increased in many places to a mile or more, it follows a general westerly course for 300 miles, forming the dividing line between Ore- gon and Washington, and finally, as it approaches the ocean, it broadens out into a superb bay, 25 miles long and from 5 to 9 miles wide, ever maintaining its current against the ocean tides, although themimnuvence ofthe pdcs is saelt yas! mar back as the Cascades—160 miles from its mouth. Around this lower stretch of the Co- lumbia there clusters a wealth of ro- mance, Indian legend, historical interest, and heroic commercial enterprise. Here, too, the scenic beauty of the river, which is marked throughout its entire course, reaches its climax. Right through the lofty Cascade Range the river cuts its way—a feat which no other river for a distance of 1,200 miles along the range is able to accomplish. To one traveling by steamer over this portion of the river, or speeding along the newly completed Columbia Highway by automobile, there is unfolded a con- tinuous panorama of marvelous beauty. The Dalles, Celilo Falls, Castle Rock, Cape Horn, Multnomah Falls, Rooster Rock, the Cascades, Oneonta Gorge, Table “WMountain. St. Peters Dome — these are but a few of the many points of interest which delight the eye and uplift the soul. AN EXPLORER THREE MONTHS ‘TOO. LATE Crowning all, there are the three great “Guardians of the Columbia,” as they have been called—Mt. Hood, Mt. Adams, and Mt. St. Helens—huge extinct volca- noes (or possibly they are only slumber- ing), whose snowy crests pierce the azure at elevations from 10,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea. Now, the Lower Columbia, with its his- torical associations, its scenic grandeur, its thriving cities, its extensive fisheries and fruit ranches, has long been famous; but it is only within a few years that the Photograph by H. W. Gleason AT THE HEAD OF HORSE THIEF CREEK (SEE PAGE 352) Proceeding from an enormous glacier which reaches far back into the mountains, the “creek” is a full-fledged mountain river at its very birth. 350 ON THE TRAIL OF A HORSE THIEF region around the source of the river has received any public attention. To be sure, David Thompson, the noted Eng- lish explorer, spent a winter on Lake Windermere as long ago as 1810 and built there a fort to defend himself against the Indians—an event of no slight historical importance; for ‘Thompson, whose purpose was to establish English interests in control of the Columbia, de- scended the river the following season only to find, when he arrived at the mouth of the river, the American flag waving at Astoria. He was three months too late. Although Thompson afterward wrote an account of his Windermere sojourn and made a rough map of the neighbor- ing region, nearly a century elapsed be- fore the Upper Columbia Valley was known to any except a few ranchers and adventurous miners. Only within several years past has it been possible to reach the valley by railroad, and no detailed map of the country has as yet been made. THE SOURCE OF THE COLUMBIA The Columbia River finds its source in two lakes—Lake Windermere and Upper Columbia Lake—which lie in the broad basin separating the main range of the Rocky Mountains from the Selkirks at a point about 80 miles north of the Inter- national Boundary. The valley here trends north and south and is some three or four miles wide, being flanked on the east by the foothills of the Rockies and on the west by outlying summits of the Southern Selkirks—sometimes called the Purcell Range. Each range is pierced by deep canyons, through which flow jubilant mountain streams that seem glad to add their volume to the flood of the Columbia. The floor of the valley is remarkable for its park-like character. The larger trees—mostly Douglas spruce and yellow pine—never form forests, but stand apart, each with plenty of room, while the aspens and alders and various shrubs are grouped gracefully here and there, with a profusion of wild flowers occupy- ing the open spaces. This park-like aspect is naturally much enhanced by the lake scenery. The two dol lakes are nearly equal in size, each cover- ing an area of four or five square miles. Lake Windermere is the more pictur- esque of the two, its winding shores be- ing emphasized by a series of bluffs, prettily terraced, which rise 50 feet or more above the level of the lake (see page 353). The Upper Lake, a few miles far- ther up stream, is the real beginning of the Columbia. Both lakes are charming in outline, and present, under varying conditions of storm and calm, sunlight and shadow, a never-ending succession of pleasing ef- fects. Seldom does one find a combina- tion of mountain, lake, and open wood- land so profoundly appealing and so commandingly beautiful. Especially note- worthy are those days when there is a gathering of the clouds, now on one range and now on the other. Such variety in form, such majesty and yet delicacy of outline, such pearly trans- parency—and then again such leaden density—of substance, such brilliant illu- mination, such marshaling of glory—it is all beyond the power of words to de- scribe. The climax of beauty, however, comes in the early fall season, when the trees and shrubs have donned their brightest raiment and there is a riot of color throughout the valley and on the parallel slopes of the mountains—save on the ex- treme summits where rests a coverlet of new-fallen snow. DAYS OF HOLY CALM Day after day of holy calm prevails. The winds have ceased even their whis- pering, and the lake surfaces reflect with startling exactness every feature, whether of form or color, of the surrounding landscape. One standing by the lake shore at such a time may almost hear the antiphonal chant of rejoicing flung across the valley from one mountain range to the other, and sodden indeed must be the soul which does not feel itself uplifted by the supernal beauty. As indicated above, the iron horse has at last found its way to the Upper Co- lumbia Valley. Previously the trip was made by steamer from the town of Golden, on the main line of the Canadian 302 Pacific Railway. And what a trip that was! Only some 85 miles in total dis- tance, it consumed the better part of two days’ time; for the :little:river steamer, flat-bottomed and with a draft so lght that it could pass over sand bars which were covered with only a few inches of water, was at the mercy of the persistent and tortuous current, with the result that it would frequently poke its nose now into one bank and now into the other, in utter disregard of helm and helmsman. Even so, to the traveler delighting in Nature’s beauty the trip was over all too quickly; for the magnificent double panorama through which the steamer passed—the Rockies on one side and the Selkirks on the other, their lofty summits clad in perpetual snow and their steep escarpments tinted with ochres and pur- ples, and even vermilion—formed a vision of ceaseless charm. More than one voyager has declared that this trip up the Columbia far exceeds in beauty anything which the Rhine has to offer. If one can afford the time, by all means let the journey be made by steamer. Next to that, by automobile. A splendid road has recently been con- structed by the provincial government through the entire valley, and still an- other automobile highway, of wonderful scenic interest, has been built over the mountains from Banff to Lake Winder- Tatenes THE TRAGIC STORY OF HORSE THIEF CREEK It was in this region that we followed the Trail of the Horse Thief. We were told that some score of years previous, after gathering his four-footed plunder, he had gone up the valley and then turned westward into one of the side canyons, intending to take his horses over the mountains and down into Montana. But on reaching the head of the canyon he found his way barred by lofty moun- tains, hung with tremendous glaciers. Caught in this cul-de-sac, he was easily apprehended by the officers of the law, who dealt with him according to his de- serts and restored the horses to their rightful owners. Ever since, the stream which flows through the canvon by which THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE he sought to make his escape has been known as Horse Thief Creek. One bright day in August a party of four of us arrived at Lake Windermere. For two or three days we gave ourselves up to the enchantments of the lake and its surroundings; and then, with saddle horses and pack outfit, we started up Horse Thief Creek. Entering the can- yon, we found ourselves on a high bench overlooking the stream, whose volume and roar seemed to belie the appellation of “creek.” It was really a huge moun- tain torrent, in places 30 or 40 yards wide and tossing its waves in the unbridled energy of its current (see page 350). A BATTALION OF “‘HOODOOS” Evidences of its activity in sculpturing the walls of the canyons were everywhere apparent. In one place there was a reg- ular battalion of “hoodoos”—fantastic pinnacles of mixed clay and gravel, the result of a curious process of erosion. In another place the river found its way through a narrow gorge, with vertical walls 300 feet deep. Now and then we caught a glimpse of a waterfall or boil- ing cascade—indeed, there were but few quiet places along the lower stretch of oe snyere, | As we approached the head of the can- yon, after passing through an extensive forest of mountain hemlock and fir, we suddenly came out upon a scene of rare sublimity. Here was a great amphithea- ter, surrounded by noble peaks belong- ing to the highest crest of the Selkirks, their lower slopes clad with a luxuriant dark-green forest, while from their snow- enshrouded summits descended here and there sparkling glaciers of utmost purity. Wonderful above all else was the mag- nificent ice-stream which coursed down from a vast snow-field directly in front of us. Swinging from behind a rocky promontory in the form of a gigantic letter “S” it came down to the very floor of the valley—obviously the main source of the river whose course we had been following—while towering above all was a superb “snow dome”’ of dazzling white- ness. And there was music all around us. Standing in one spot, we counted no less than eight distinct waterfalls leaping eee Ce ee : Photograph by H. W. @icaeen BLUFFS ALONG SHORE, LAKE WINDERMERE (SEE PAGE 351) The winding shores of Lake Windermere are emphasized by a series of bluffs, prettily terraced, which rise from the lake level. 353 “AQ[[CA IY} SUIYOOTIIAO SIIyDIOY IY} JO S{[IYJOOF AJ9ySIy oy} Jo ou wous UdyL} SE MOIA SINT, “SYIPYISG oy} wWoIZ sureyunow AYIoY oy} JO asuer ureut oy} Sutjyesedas ‘yJnNos pue ysOU spuds} AdTTEA MVad AUZNVMS WOU HIMON ONIMOOT ‘AWTIVA VIAWOA'IOD wadan uoseey) “MA “H 4q Yydessojoyg erquinjoy)) taddq ay, 354 ‘SULIOF PotNyd[nos AyTsnoLims pue jurend juososd UojZO “axe, oy} punoiv jeoy Aoy} sv ‘sssoqooI oy} puv ‘yvOr snosapuNny} v Aq poru -RCWIOIIV “JT FO SYOTY WIIG YO Yeaiq A][EUOISvIIO d19Y} ‘OYV] OY} OJUL UMOP SOWOD YOIYM ‘JOLOV]S SI} WOLf ‘SOSSVAITI IS1OASULVA} JO UOISSoooNS SUO] V PU SUTIOW [IPO gqVJOU V YA “opiM opt Vv AT[HF ‘Toloveps JUOUIpotd JUSYIUSeUL V ST d4OY} ‘AYV] oY} SsOsv ‘o}Isoddo Aypo11C7 “Ajneoq ‘ a}ISinDxo JO Saud} oATYddesS WvI[S SISSVAIIO PUL SoINSSy ISOYM WOAF ‘Stoloe[s Giodns JO Soltos spoyYM Vv SULIveq SuIvJUNOW d1Vsefeur AG—opIs YIAO0U dy} UO JdaoX9—papuNnoLINs AToJo[AW09 “Y}PIA UT [IU V PUL Y}ouls] Ul SoTIU OM} Joqe ‘1OJOS UT ony{q A[Aeod “1o}eVM FO YooYS AOAC] & st ohvP 93e*T NOIOMU WHAIM VIGINOIOD :aAVIN AMVT LV SHHOUV'I S,TIVA’ uosva|y) ‘MA “TT Aq Ydessojoyg JJ Photograph by H. W. Gleason FOOT OF PIEDMONT GLACIER, LAKE MAYE At the head of Lake Maye there lies this splendid example of a piedmont glacier—the active agent in byegone ages in carving out the immense amphitheater in which it is located. 350 Photograph by H. W. Gleason AMONG THE CREVASSES ON PIEDMONT GLACIER ABOVE LAKE MAYE “Some of the crevasses we could jump across, but more often there was the necessity of making long detours around the ends of the yawning chasms. In many cases these crevasses were of appalling depth, and while we could not but admire the wonderful azure of their deep, converging walls, they all evinced a certain receptive attitude which was somewhat dis- concerting to a ‘tenderfoot’ and led us to be extremely alert in negotiating slippery places. Happily the glacier was ‘dry’—that is, not covered with fresh snow, which often conceals the jaws of the crevasses and makes crossing a glacier exceedingly hazardous—so that all possible danger was perfectly obvious and readily avoided.” 358 from the heights above and cascading to the river in a chorus of joyous song. Camp was soon made on a grassy plot by the river bank, sheltered by a grove of young firs and close to a delicious spring of clear, cold water. From here we made many excursions to glacier and mountain top. One morning we took an early start by candle light, ascended the great Horse Thief Glacier, and after some hours of hard work, enlivened by many interesting episodes, succeeded in reaching the sum- mit of a high peak that had attracted us for several days. This was clearly the first time human feet had ever stood upon the summit, and we were rewarded with a view of alpine grandeur rarely equalled. In every di- rection, as tar as te eye could reach there extended a perfect ocean of snow- capped peaks, ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 feet in altitude—nameless, nearly also tem Realizing that any one of these thou- sands of peaks, if it were standing in the neighborhood of a great city, would be famous the world over, and that a great part of the region in the midst of which we stood was still awaiting exploration, we felt almost as if we were discoverers of a new continent. Unfortunately, for- est-fire smoke, which had crept in during the night, dulled to a considerable degree the clearness of the view and rendered our cameras useless. From careful aneroid measurements, we calculated the height of the mountain to be about 11,200 feet. We named it Mii Jb“ ainer 2 leaching Clie Ox Windermere Valley. Our chief object on another excursion was to climb Mt. Jumbo—a feat which no one had ever accomplished. Starting as usual, before daybreak, we scrambled over the lower slopes of Jumbo Glacier without much difficulty, but be- fore long we found ourselves entrapped ina maze Of Seracs) oT ice) pinnacles. which compelled slow and very careful progress. This caused us to take to the rocks, and at length, with the aid of the rope, we succeeded in reaching the steep rocky slope to the left of the glacier and then on to the summit of the ridge. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Arrived here, the bright sunshine with which we had thus far been favored seemed inclined to desert us, and ominous clouds were seen rising in the southwest. We chose to push on, however, for from this point it was simply a long pull across the snow-field to the base of the final peak. So we roped up and started. For an hour we made rapid progress, care- fully avoiding the many concealed cre- vasses and feeling confident of attaining our goal. But meanwhile the clouds had been gathering in increasing array, and when within only half an hour of the final sum- mit a terrific blizzard struck us full in the face. Enveloped in a blinding snow, driven by the wind, it was impossible to stand against it or even to see our way more than a few feet ahead. There was no possible alternative. We simply had to turn our backs to the storm and retrace our steps across the snow- field—defeated ! Such an experience, while disappoint- ing, is to the true mountaineer simply “a part of the game,” and he looks for better luck next time. But the “next time” did not come for us on this trip. For three days we lingered in camp, waiting in vain for the clouds to clear away. But the weather as a whole continued decidedly unfavorable, and meanwhile a vast quantity of fresh snow had fallen on the mountain tops, making high-altitude trips quite out of the question. So we regretfully packed up our belongings and hit the trail back for “civilization.” “Going to the mountains is going home,” was a favorite phrase with John Muir, the beloved evangelist of outdoor life, and from this text he was wont to preach most eloquently and convincingly. Happy are those who have discovered this truth ; for it means not merely physical recrea- tion and esthetic delight, but a keen men- tal stimulus—a new sense of the real values of life and a blessed inspiration toward better things. America possesses exhaustless resources for those who are desirous of “going home,’ and some of the greatest and most satisfying of these are to be found in the region where we followed the Horse Thief Trail. THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES NOW A NATIONAL MONUMENT The President of the United States Sets Aside for the American People the Extraordinary Valley Dis- covered and Explored by the National Geographic Society HE members of the National Geo- graphic Society have occasion for much gratification in the fact that President Wilson has created the Katmai National Monument, embracing an area of 1,700 square miles in Alaska, as the result of the five expeditions which the Society sent to this region for the pur- pose of studying the effects of the great Katmai volcanic eruption in 1912. The findings of the National Geo- graphic Society’s expeditions, published in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for February, 1913, January, 1917, and February, 1918, comprise all that is known about this remarkable region which Prof. Robert F. Griggs, leader of the 1915, 1916, and 1917 expeditions, has described as one of the greatest won- ders, if not the greatest, of the natural world. The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, an awe-inspiring phenomenon, where the processes of Nature in the creation of areas suitable for man’s habitation may be studied as they can be in no other spot on earth, was discovered and named by Professor Griggs’ party in 1916. ‘The next year it was partially explored. Dur- ing 1919 it is hoped that this monumental research work can be completed (see page 366). AMERICA’S GREATEST NATURAL-WONDER PLAYGROUND OF THE FUTURE Realizing that when means of trans- portation are improved, the Katmai terri- tory will become the great natural-won- der playground of America, President Wilson, on the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, Franklin K. Lane, and of the Director of the National Park soervice, stephen I. Mather, has set it aside for all the people for all time in the following proclamation: WHEREAS, There exists upon the southern coast of Alaska a belt of un- usual volcanic activity which has during the last several years exhibited at various points energy of a violence which at- tracts the special attention of scientific watchers, AND WHEREAS, Mount Katmai, one of the volcanoes in this belt, has proved upon investigation to have unusual size and character, and to be of importance in the study of volcanism, inasmuch as its eruption of June, 1912, was one of excessive violence, ranking in the first order of volcanic explosive eruptions and emitting several cubic miles of material during its first three days of activity, AND WHEREAS, The results of this eruption are still fresh, offering excellent opportunities for studying the causes of the catastrophe and its results and af- fording a conspicuous object-lesson in volcanism to visitors interested in the operation of the great forces which have made and still are making America, Anpd WHEREAS, The volcanic neigh- borhood is shown by the explorations of the National Geographic Society to con- tain many other striking features of an active volcanic belt produced so recently that they are still in the formative stage; and in particular The Valley of the Ten Thousand Smokes, a valley of hot springs in a condition of development toward a possible future geyser field, in distinction from the present dying geyser field of the Yellowstone, AnD WHEREAS, This wonderland may become of popular scenic, as well as sci- entific, interest for generations to come, inasmuch as all its phenomena exist upon 359 ‘adIVYOSIP MOU V JOF SOINUIW DAY EM O} PeY J9AJOSGO ue Sey JoOAIN “PWUINS 9Y} WOIF VsOO] SHvIIq Joyjoue s10Jaq W0}}0q 94} Sayovet A[psey Sispjnoq suidoyjes JO oyouejeAe ouO yey} UOTSsodons pidesr yons ut sadojs sno}ydioeid s}i UMOP SuIDUNOd siopynoq yeas puss 0} ponunuos sey UleJUNOYT SuTT][e,y ‘ATOAOOSIP Ss} 9dUIS s1va 99IY} 9Y} JNoYSno1yy, “psyejap oq pjnoo [eAsojul s.ivgk & SulInp ssueYD ON QIOI NI NIVINQOW ONITIVA GNV Vi\dndvAON Jos1eqjasepy ‘yy [neg Aq ydesso0j0yg 360 THE TEN THOUSAND a scale of great magnitude, arousing emo- tions of wonder at the inspiring specta- cles, thus affording inspiration to patri- otism and to the study of Nature, Now, THEREFORE, I, Wooprow WIL- soN, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the power and au- thority in me vested by section two of the Act of Congress entitled “An Act for the Preservation of American An- tiquities,’ approved June 8, 1906 (34 Stat., 225), do proclaim that there are hereby reserved from all forms of ap- propriation under the public-land laws, and set apart as the Katmai National Monument, certain lands particularly de- scribed as follows, to wit, beginning at the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey triangulation station, latitude 5 57 52 47.040", ‘longitude P55 eon 20: ae established in 1908 about one-half west of Katmai Bay on top of a hundred-foot bluff on the Alaska Peninsula,named Cape Kubugakli; thence north 40° 00” west to the intersection with longitude 155° 40’; thence due north to the “intersection with latitude 58° 35’; thence due east to the intersection with a line bearing north 60° oo’ west from Cape Gull; thence south following said line to the shore- line at Cape Gull; thence west following the shoreline of the coast to a point di- rectly below the triangulation station, situated on the bluff at Cape Kubugakli ; thence up the bluff to the said station, the point of beginning; embracing approxi- mately 1,700 square miles of land, as shown upon the diagram hereto attached and made a part of this proclamation. Warning is hereby given to all unau- thorized persons not to appropriate or injure any natural feature of this monu- ment or to occupy, exploit, settle, or lo- cate upon any of the lands reserved by this proclamation. The Director of the National Park Service, under the direction of the Secre- tary of the Interior, shall have the super- vision, management, and control of this monument, as provided in the Act of Congress entitled “An Act to Establish a National Park Service, and for other purposes,’ approved August 25, 1916 (39 Stat., 535). In WitNeEss WHEREOF, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. SMOKES MONUMENT 361 Done in the District of Columbia this twenty-fourth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and eighteen, and of the Inde- pendence of the United States of Amer- ica the one hundred and forty-third. Wooprow WILSON. By the President: Ropert LANSING, Secretary of State. PREEMINENT AMONG THE WONDERS OF THE WORLD All subsequent study and comparison confirms and deepens the opinion ex- pressed in the accounts of the discovery of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, that this and the associated volcanic phe- nomena stand preeminent among the wonders of the world. Search through the literature of volcanoes, and conver- sation with travelers who have visited all the show places of the earth, make it quite certain that nowhere else in the present-day world is there anything at all similar to this supreme wonder. The unique character of the Ten Thou- sand Smokes is generally recognized by those who have given the matter con- sideration. But how long will they last? Are the vents really the chimneys by which exit is found for the emanations from a vast mass of molten magma that, having risen from the depths, has all but burst through the surface bodily? Or, are they due merely to the vaporization of surface water by the heated products of the great eruption? Are they lkely to endure for a long time, or will they probably dwindle rapidly, as nature set- tles down again after the great cataclysm Ob. (1912? So far as the observations of a single year could do so, the studies of 1917 in- dicated that they were real volcanoes, whose probable life was to be measured by decades rather than by days or months. But no single season’s w ork could settle these questions. It was considered highly important that a watch be kept on devel- opments the succeeding year. Notwith- standing the absorption of every one’s energies in the prosecution of the war last summer, it was considered advisable, therefore, to keep some record of their condition. —Two members of the expedi- tion of 1917, Jasper D. Sayre and Paul R. ‘AJsnorassd 194 dy} UIES Ise] UoYM sv oUTeS dy} ATasIoaId seM ‘sajoreWIN} J9y}0 JO QI61 ‘SHMOWS GNVSNOHL NUL dO AVTIVA XHL NI SHIONVIWOAA AHL Ao a1heg ‘q szodsef Aq ydeisojoyg se ‘stq} JO UOIIpUuod OTT, HNO ONIHdVUD0OLOHd 362 LE: LEN THOUSAND Hagelbarger, volunteered to undertake the journey and to extend the scientific studies begun on the previous expedi- tions. This party entered the valley not by the route heretofore used from the Pa- cific, but from the Bering Sea and Nak- nek Lake. As they came in they were able to explore much country hitherto but little known, discovering three good- sized lakes not previously shown on any map, Lake Tom and the two Savonoski lakes. They found the Naknek route by far the best way to get supplies into the country, and opened a trail up to the Val- ley of Ten Thousand Smokes from the head of the lake. The country is so smooth and open in this direction that they consider it possi- ble to use a motorcycle with a side-car attachment as a substitute for man-back packing. If this proves practicable, the expedition of 1919 will be able to work with a degree of comfort undreamed of in former years. THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES UNCHANGED When they came up into sight of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes they saw at once that its volcanoes had not changed appreciably in the year’s inter- val. In almost every detail the Smokes were exactly the same as in 1917. The only change observed was in the dis- covery of two areas of mud pots, which, if present, were overlooked the year be- fore (see page 366). The Cookstove, Novarupta, and all the big vents were in exactly the same condition as when last seen. Falling Mountain continued its remark- able activity, shooting off hundreds of tons of rock daily. Never, during the three seasons since it was discovered, has there elapsed a five-minute interval dur- ing periods of observation when its slopes were quiet. Throughout all three years great falls of rock have followed each other in such rapid succession from its lofty precipices that one avalanche of galloping boulders hardly reaches the bottom before another breaks loose from the summit. Thus, although a series of rock-falls would seem necessarily much more ephemeral even than a volcano, the cause SMOKES MONUMENT 363 responsible for these avalanches on Fall- ing Mountain, whatever it may be, has been continuously operative over a long period. It is very much hoped that the work of the coming season may yield some explanation of this remarkable Falling Mountain top. SMOKE HOT ENOUGH TO MELT ZINC The party of 1918 made the first meas- urements of the temperatures of the vents. They were so much hotter than had been expected that in 1917 we had been entirely unprepared to measure the temperatures we encountered, and had to resort to general descriptive terms in- stead of the precise statements which we would have desired. But in 1918 the ex- pedition was supplied with suitable py- rometers by the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution and made many records of temperature throughout the valley. As was anticipated, most of the larger vents were found to be far above the boil- ing point of water. The valley is so hot that hot springs, or geysers, are quite im- possible in most places because all water is instantly vaporized. Many of the vents were found to be above 300° C. (572° F.), while a number exceeded 400° Ce thethortest, 432 5. (Sto: i.) shown on page 364, was hot enough to melt zinc with ease. It is clear that the studies made thus far give no indication of any diminution in the Smokes, much less do they suggest a probable date for their extinction. It may be considered established, therefore, that the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is a relatively permanent phenomenon. The pictures that have been brought back have been sufficient to convince the world that it is indeed one of the greatest wonders of nature. But only those few human beings who have been privileged to enter the awesome confines of this great nest of volcanoes can realize how inadequate the pictures really are and how poor the impressions they convey of the real character of this wonder of wonders. Far better than still pictures would be “movies,” by which it would be possible to give some idea of the size of the place and of the ever-changing character of its smokes ; how they surge up around the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Paul R. Hagelbarger THE HOTTEST FUMAROLE FOUND IN THE VALLEY This little crack had a temperature of 432° C. (810° F.), more than hot enough to melt zinc. reached with the instruments available in 1918. men as they work; how they come roar- ing out from the myriad vents ; how their gases are collected for study; how their temperatures are measured ; how the ex- peditions cook their meals in the puffing steam; how enormous the volcanoes really are and how tremendously hot. The projected expedition of 1919 plans to secure a series of films portraying the remarkable features of the district. The members of The Society will be glad to know that the production of motion pic- tures has been put in charge of Emery C. Kolb, one of the celebrated brothers whose adventurous trip through the Grand Canyon is familiar to all.* But even the movies must fall very far short of the reality. The valley is one of those things which must be seen and * See, in the NationaL GrocrapHic Maca- ZINE for August, I914, “Experiences in the Grand Canyon,” by Ellsworth and Emery Kolb. Probably some of the big volcanoes were even hotter, but their centers could not be studied before its real majesty begins to make itself felt. Thus far no mortal man has ever en- tered its portals save only the members of the Katmai expeditions of the National Geographic Society. To all of those who have been thus privileged has come the desire to share the great wonder that has been theirs. They have felt that their mission of making the place known to the world would not be accomplished until it became possible for any one to visit its borders and behold for himself the stu- pendous spectacle there spread before him. It is a special gratification, therefore, to the members of the National Geo- graphic Society that the President of the United States has made this region an integral part) of the great systempson American National Parks, which com- mand the admiration of the world. THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES MONUMENT 360 Photograph by Jasper D. Sayre MEASURING THE TEMPERATURE OF A FUMAROLE The temperature of this insignificant little hole was 300° C. (572° F.). Others in the same line near by ran above 400° C. (752° F.). The difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions at opposite ends of the thermocouple sets up an electrical current whose mtensity, recorded by the meter in the foreground, is a measure of the temperature. PLANS FOR OPENING THE KATMAI DISTRICT To many it will appear, doubtless, that the new Katmai National Monument is so remote that there is little possibility of its ever becoming a place of popular re- sort. But if one will examine the geo- graphical situation of the area, he will see that it is far otherwise. It is much less remote and far more accessible than was the Yellowstone Park at the time of its creation. The difficulties incident to its exploitation as a show place are much less than those that have been so success- fully overcome at the Grand Canyon, which thousands upon thousands of peo- ple visit without any realization of the problems that had to be solved ere their pea and pleasure could be provided or. Katmai and the Ten Thousand Smokes lie less than one hundred miles to one side of what is certainly destined to be the greatest tourist route in the world— the trip up along the Alaska coast by Kodiak and Cook Inlet into the interior via the new Government railroad now under construction. From Kukak Bay, which is a fine har- bor, suitable for the largest ships, it is Ditae scant e25uramlese overland! stomulie Crater ot Katmai va, suitable, road were available, it would, therefore, be easy for one to leave a steamer after breakfast and in an automobile roll through the whole of the volcanic district in a single day, returning to his ship in time for dinner. Few there are, to be sure, who would not be compelled by the wonders they saw to stop over until the next boat; but, so far as covering the ground is con- cerned, it would be only a short day’s tour for a motor car. The only problems are the road and the organization necessary to furnish the 366 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A LITTLE SPULDERING MUD POT Although common in the Yellowstone Park, such phenomena are rare in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, for the reason that the temperature of the latter is for the most part so high that water is instantly vaporized. Semuice nequired julie kexplotation sould route over the mountains for such a road ig an important part of the program of the expedition the coming summer. If this quest is successful and a feasible route into the country be discovered, we shall begin to feel that the way is opened for the Katmai National Monument to become in fact, as well as in name, a real part of the National Park System, avail- able, as it should be, for the perpetual enjoyment and education of the public. THE SOCIETY'S EXPEDITION OF I9Q1Q Realizing the importance to science of a further study of the mysterious forces at work in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society has made a grant of $35,000 from the Society’s Re- search Fund for explorations of Katmai during 1919. Professor Griggs, who was the director of the National Geographic Society’s Mt. Katmai expeditions of 1915, 1916, and 1917, and who supervised the work of the small expedition of 1918, will head The Society’s expedition of 1919, which will be more elaborately equipped in every re- spect than any of the previous undertak- ings in this region. Professor Griggs will have as his asso- Giates this) year: Dr. &. ), Allentoriire Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, in charge of the chemieal work; Dr. ©) N. Hennes et thesGea- physical Laboratory, petrographer ; Ge Zies, of the Geophysical Laboratory, chemist ; J. W. Shipley, chemist; Emery C. Kolb, motion-picture photographer ; Frank I. Jones, photographer ; J. S. Hine, zoologist ; Jasper D. Sayre, topographer ; Paul R. Hagelbarger, topographer; Lu- cius C. Folsom, assistant to the director; D. B. Church, assistant photographer ; A. J. Basinger, assistant zoologist ; Ralph Hagelbarger, Richard it) sklelt. blew Jacob, August FE. Miller, Julius Stone, ic, EONS Wallace= Charlessaviorn and W. L. Henning, assistants. WOE xX XV, No. 5 WASHINGTON May, 1919 THE NATIONAL GEOGIRAPIRIC MAGA ZIINIE 7 COPYRIGHT, 1919. BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C. Gee TNDUST RIAL TITAN OF AMERICA* Femmsylvania, Once the. Keystone of the, Original Thir- teen, Now the Keystone of Forty-eight Sovereign States By JoHN OLIvER La GorcE AuTuHor oF “THE WARFARE ON OUR IsasTERN Coast,”’ ““RoUMANIA AND Its RUBICON,” ETC. Oe oth MP | -a-survey- of. the ; Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in a magazine article is akin to describing an empire on a sheet of note paper ; for more than a dozen of the sov- ereign nations of the earth as they were in the years before the Prussian ran amuck were smaller in area, and more than half of the rulers of the world gov- erned fewer people than live within the confines of that State. With vast natural resources, immense industries, plus the unconquerable spirit of progress that tends to create local happiness and national well-being, the Keystone State, as it is proudly called, challenges admiration and stirs the im- agination. Measured in terms of our own coun- try, Pennsylvania has many surprises for the investigator of its position in the Union. One might add the populations of four far-western States to that of all New England and still have fewer peo- ple than dwell in the land of William Penn. Draw a line from the Canadian border to the Rio Grande on the merid- ian that separates the Dakotas and Ne- braska from Montana and Wyoming, and all of the people who live between * This is the first of a series of articles on Our States. that line and the shores of the Pacific would barely suffice to equal Penn-land’s population. Traveling through the State, one quickly gathers the impression that it is peopled with foreign-born. Its vast in- dustries have laid heavy drafts upon the labor markets of the world in times gone by, and for years not a ship that carried an immigrant to America came without a quota bound for the iron, steel, and coal centers of the Commonwealth. MANY NATIONS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE STATE'S ARMY OF LABOR An analysis proves, however, that even with the influx of alien labor, Pennsyl- vania outranks every other State in the Union in the number of sons and daugh- ters of native parentage. Even New York has a million fewer people whose parents were born under the zgis of the American flag. Still, the State is distinguished for its great number of foreigners. No other State has so many Welsh, Austrians, or Hungarians. It has more Welsh than County Radnorshire, more Austrians than the Province of Salzburg, more Hungarians than any two cities in Hun- gary, Budapest excepted. It has as many English as the counties of Cambridge 368 piven da ficile a alin caplochl cl unpane una mule non cocedente 3200 prmonia non gediclenes 18 wesi, c Yona e Vales, per Dasfranganane Ge ose, ties Compouiia son secetiera, in commmcens, dcun calle 0 bagacho che contenga a artical. ZAWIADOMIENIE csperducmn pocagum, dyramat, proch tub sane ethuchipace vay nalezona byd mare KAPS BIC NOTE IAG $2000.00 fb swe unsere aedle ersania adoRegy, : SHE FSR HR PEPTIDE ¢ genie SQL TARRY OIE astyhaly. UWEDOMLENIE neomrowawame mzparecre of Mau 30 -¢9 108, 0 a oo : Sees > mpeich aby inne cxpodaixe predmeny. pus Yany Y Se ape ue nan aes SERS goss (aden 1 deabe 96 ee Se : SOURS SES, GOO SEE BI mA a3 ORE 5 x - gapesajet AONE predmety. 2 Bisa BE. PEE Sess eskar gaz de aresthh, haxary £2’ if ie iz aT E33 ZOR a pRB, 16 aeoipbodne zac Ceynoresea Zevenlent ZAk08 —- cee sg feeds YE28 dypanit, eee : oe az do 2.000 dellaror pokutava rots (05 Map Beha ss oy gokernik, ins gt ph BRI acess} dels wransnere® S ey penne vost, Be ae genet zakon RESET megucar arene 2 ee nendbere tadne Okie gable, ¥ ke = a “CM SHEAFFER . Seperniontel af LAIR podlobois «eel nachos BPO 2 Mo BO vein! aE Tee S: LPS SE cee A LAND OF MANY TONGUES The cosmopolitan make-up of the population of Pennsylvania is shown by the above notice in six languages, posted in railway stations, warning the public against the transportation of explosives on passenger trains. and Oxford together; as many Irish as County Kerry ; as many Scotch as County Clackmannan; as many Russians as the Government of Kharkov. ESSENTIALLY A THRIFTY PEOPLE Pennsylvanians are not alone distin- guished because of the large numbers who boast of native ancestry, for an ex- amination of the census returns dealing with the ownership of the homes of the people of the nation reveals the fact that it has more home-owners than any other THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE State. They are essentially a thrifty people. Nearly seven hundred thousand families live under their own roof-trees—and the striking part of that situation is that most of these homes are mortgage-free. Many men have essayed to look into the future of the American people to see what the United States will be when the nation reaches its maturity. Perhaps Pennsylvania can supply the answer. When one travels through the farming and in- dustrial section of the southeast, visits the anthracite country of the northeast, wanders around through the splendid valleys of the central section, and then goes into the bi- tuminous and manufacturing region beyond the Alleghenies, he marvels at the number of people who find there a homeland, and at the tre- mendous volume of business which has been developed. Yet Pennsylvanians know that there is room in the State for mil- lions more, and see no reason why the country at large cannot support a population as dense as that of the IXeystone State today. Such a den- sity of population would make ours a nation of half a billion souls— more people than inhabit the entire continent of Europe. » The manufacturing industry of the State 1s< an epics Ons nuemana energy. What bit of fiction could thrill more than the facts showing how one-twelfth of the people of the United States, the busiest na- tion on earth, can succeed in pro- ducing one-eighth of the Republic’s manufactures and more than a fourth of its minerals! Or what story could appeal more than the one which tells how a district constituting only a thousandth part of the earth’s land sur- face and possessing only one-half of one per cent of the earth’s people produces one-sixth of the world’s pig iron and the same proportion of its coal! WHERE MANY INDUSTRIES THRIVE Yet. with all or ‘this’ concentration: Pennsylvania has a greater diversity of industries than any other State, leading THE INDUSTRIAL TITAN OF AMERICA 369 both New York and Illinois in that partic- lagen bins versatile geographic Titan forges the heaviest castings civilization has ever undertaken to make and the most delicate micrometers that science demands oe traversing the realms beyond the millionth of an inch. With equal success it fabricates tremen- dous testing machines that squeeze metals to the tune of millions of pounds, and makes watches whose _bal- ance-wheels measure time down to the hun- dred-thousandth part of a second, and chro- nometers that do, Mmayhape- even. tet times better than that. Wide-ranged, yet concentrated, famous for its heavy manu- factures, distinguished for its light ones, de- manding “the most powerful forges in the world, requiring the most delicate turning machines, producing raw iron, which for- merly could be bought for less than a cent a © A. Lloyd Lewis (PED EIRST UNL TeDISPATES ANE ENG > READE PETA The first production of this mint was the copper cent of 1793, fol- pound, and finished lowed the next year by silver dollars, and in 1795 by gold eagles. In steel worth, in some cases, hundreds of cho tng s an- ounce, Pennsylvania commands admiration for her manufacturing industries and com- pels attention for her position in the com- mercial world. Some one has observed that Pennsyl- vania bridges span most of the rivers of the earth, and that Pennsylvania locomo- tives run over Pennsylvania rails in the Occident and Orient alike, across Arctic wastes and through tropical jungles. through the heart of civilization and on the border of savage-land. ‘The clatter addition to its modern coinage establishment in Philadelphia, the United States now has mints in operation in San Francisco and Den- ver. The nation’s paper money is made in Washington. Cathe tole pies On, Neenmsylyaimial 1s heard throughout the world, along with the squeal of the edible porker of Illi- nois. hem statesmakess early: lalevom the country’s cotton lace, more than a third of its carpets and rugs, more than a third of its chocolates and cocoa, nearly half of its felt hats, and more than a third of its silk. It produces more asbestos manu- factures than all the rest of the country, and more bluing, ice cream, hammocks, “(1gf a8ed 908) P]IOM 9} Ul Sainjons}s 9}919U09 SUISOCWIT }sOUI OY} JO OM} oe LPURCMOT, Ppue UOS[OYDIN }V ‘s}oNp -CIA pUL SISpliq JO UOTJONAJSUOD dy} Ur AJsnO19UIsS j1 SKoTduID eIUBA[ASUUD “USWID pueT}IOg JO UONNpoid sy} UI UOTUL) 24} UI 9}e}1G SUIpPRoT 94} SY VINVA'IASNN4d ‘NOS’IOHOIN LV LONAVIA HHL :STIIH DNIGNNOWINS AHL SV ONIYNAGNG “AUMLH IN WAS NI @u¥adns uesi0yy “ff Aq ydesrsojoyg BE } Se 370 ‘syURq S}I UO Sol}ID FOLYD OY} O1V OLIVA -soy[IAA PUL SInqsitiefy, “satya snoyndod pue snorodsoid Aueut SurA1os puv viuvdA[Asuuod JO Javed Jd}VoIS OY} SUTUIVIP “SojLWt OOS JO 9SINOD B sey vVUULYINDSNG oy} ‘suorso0s Aduiems Ysno1y} MOU pur ‘spur, WF o[}41of YSnos1y} MOU ‘syULq PotloP1Od-ASivp UooA\joq MOU ‘OPULIG SULIOMO} JO SHI SUIPpIq1oy puv do0}s UdaMJoq MOU SUIMOL)T ¥ VNNVHYNOSAS AHL 1O SHHOVAN YddN GIOWId AHL JO SHNVA AYAMOTA AHL ONO'IV ney “TT wept Mm Aq ydessojoyg 371 ‘poxseur Ava wsaq OALY Spuviut0d snotieA Aq pjay suorysod 9y} “IVA [LAID dy} JO Sapq}eq VAISIODP 9Y} JO dUO ‘sTy} JO JUNOIIE SULIIOYSIY OY} SUTJoId19}UI UT S1oadS}YSIS PUL S}Uapnjs }sIsse OJ, “Jr MeS O1aY YORI se Ajnp 0} UOTOADP FO AIOYS & Surjo} yoea ‘AsjyUNOD Uuado oY} Ur ‘spooM 9} UI ‘Sasplq AUO}S UO ‘apispeol ay} Aq “SUIPIES UT 3SII Pjoy oY} UO SjusUIMUOMW OOF OYJ, “ASP ATeUTWIDG J9Ssod] dy} FO 4sSaI9 dy} Suoje HW Surjayered our] a}elopayzuoy oy} pue TIP s.djnpd 0} doy, punoy worzy sspry AdoJoWIID SUOTL SUIYOJII}S SUT] UOTUL, 94} YIM ‘solu o1enbs Cz jnoqe SsJoAOD ppoyetieq ey, ‘poAvs seM UOIUY) 9Y} pU IP9d0I1 0} URSIq ,ADLIOPIJUOD oY} FO 9p Ysry,, oy} s1oyM ‘SinqsAjox) JO pyoyopiyeq oy} uO SddJ} JO duN]D [NJoyeF yey} O} ‘UIOG SPA UOIUA, UBSTIOWY OY} IIaYM ‘T[eFZ souspusdspuy worF ‘ouT] JotIp V UL ‘SoU TII JOYS kv SI 7] TVISNV AGOOIG GNV ‘GYVHONO HOVad ‘GTaIS IVAHM AHL OL HIVIG AO AXTIVA AHL ONIMOOTYXAO GNV AOLVIS NAIWIVM DNIMOHS “dOL GNNOW WILLII WONT CISIAWILLVa DMNASALLAD AHL uoidty, “EEA Aq ydersojou 372 THE- INDUSTRIAL, TITAN OF AMERICA and leather than any other State repre- sented on our starry flag. A VERITABLE TREASURE-HOUSE As might well be imagined, such ver- satility in its manufacturing industries, coupled with seemingly endless natural resources, has created great wealth. Therefore, when it is stated that the es- timated true value of all the property in the Commonwealth amounts to more than fifteen billion dollars, on a pre-war basis of values, the mind fails to grasp its full meaning. But when one stops to consider that this is four billion dollars greater than the aggregate wealth of all New England and only five billion less than the national wealth of all Italy, the sig- nificance of the figure begins to appear. With this epitome of the State’s role as a component part of a powerful nation, one’s interest turns to the elements of its greatness. Politics gave it the familiar sobriquet—Keystone State. Yet ‘even politics is a matter of geography. . Six colonies lay to the east and north of Pennsylvania and six to the south, so it was the geographical keystone of the em- bryo nation. The early development of its iron deposits and opening up of its coal mines made it preéminently an in- dustrial keystone. By the time its limited supplies of iron ore were exhausted the industries based thereon had become so well established that even the discovery of unprecedented deposits of ore in Michigan and Minne- sota could not break the State’s position of leadership in those fields. The Moun- tain of Manufacture refused to go to the Mahomet of Ore, so the Mahomet of Ore came down the Great Lakes to the Mountain of Manufacture. Coal and limestone are as essential in the production of iron and steel as is the ore itself, and Pennsylvania has both in as great abundance as Minnesota has iron. Furthermore, heavy manufactur- ing seeks the neighborhoods of rich coal deposits as unerringly as the needle seeks the magnetic north. THE VALUE OF A FAVORED LOCATION By favor of location as well as by rich- ness of resource, Nature made Pennsyl- wemieva eteat stave, Call tlre roll or the O10 forty-eight commonwealths of the Amer- ican Union and another will not be found that shares with the land of Penn the honor of being in navigable connection with three of the nation’s water fronts— the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Great Lakes. Through the Delaware River the ship- ping of the world may come to the very foot of the chief street of her principal city. Down the Ohio the wealth of her mines may float, through the very heart of the nation, to New Orleans and the Cult of Mexico. “At rie are touched the broad waters of the unsalted seas, where the raw materials and the finished products of the West and East flow back and forth in the busiest water-borne com- merce in the world. With the Delaware River meandering southward in such a way as to give the State two great salients into New Jersey ; bounded on the north by the forty-sec- ond parallel and a bit of Lake Erie; sep- arated from Maryland and West Vir- ginia by Mason and Dixon’s Line, and from Ohio. by one,that runs nearly mid; way between the: eightieth and eighty- first meridians, the State is a parallelo4 gram except for the wandering course of the Delaware River, the arc of Delaware State, and the jog up to Lake Erie. THE ROLL-CALL OF COUNTIES From the Maryland line to the New York line is 158 miles, while from the Ohio line to the deepest salient in the Delaware River sector, between Trenton and Bristol, is 306 miles. ‘The diversity of physical aspect, soil, and resource is great. Southeast of the Blue Ridge Mountains lies one of the finest agricul- tural regions east of the Appalachian chain. Franklin, Adams, Cumberland, York, Lancaster, Lebanon, Berks, Bucks, Montgomery, Chester, and Delaware— was there ever a group of counties with fairer farms than these possess? Then come the eastern mountains and beyond, the wonderful succession of ridge and hollow that embraces the anthracite mines, the slate quarries, the cement rock beds, and so much else of the State’s re- sources. Further westward is the great Allegheny upland region, whose deposits 374 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE OIL, CITY AND THE ALLEGHENY RIVER It was western Pennsylvania that taught the world the use of petroleum and sent that substance on its grand march around the globe. Oils@ity is’ thevcenter onaiuneseneat, onl district of Pennsylvania. Situated 55 miles southeast of the Erie shore, It 1s estimated: that jin ten years there was a yield of sixty million barrels of oil from the valley of Oil Creek, which flows into the Allegheny River at this point. Although the present yield is inconsiderable, compared with the heyday of the oil flow, Oil City is still an important industrial center, with “its numerous oil refineries, machine shops, and foundries. of bituminous coal are richer than all the gold mines of the earth. A CANAL EQUIPPED WITH AMPHIBIOUS BOATS A high plain, undulating in wide, low swells, and gently descending southward and southwestward, this area comprises more than: halon the, tennitony On «tne State. Its oil and its gas have been al- most exhausted under the demands of in- dustry, but its coal mines go on and on, yielding more fuel in a year than all the world produced at the beginning of the American Civil War. With its unequalled situation as_re- spects the navigable waters of the nation, it was but natural that Pennsylvania should have early taken steps to develop her inland waterways. A hundred mil- lion dollars were spent in the building of canals to handle the State’s commerce. Public appropriations and private funds alike were made available for the build- EE ND US PREAT (PVA N Ol AMERICA ep) ~] Cr Photograph courtesy Philadelphia Commercial Museum NAVIGATING THE PENNSYLVANIA HILLS IN A BIFURCATED BARGE A view of the old canal-boat inclined railway across the Alleghenies between Hollidays- -burg and Johnstown. a century ago. ing of a network of waterways. As time went on, these spread out over the State like the branches of a tree. The Schuylkill Navigation Company built a ro8-mile canal up the Schuyllall River, and at one time had a thousand heats sim operation. — lhe Union Canal, from Middletown to Reading by way of Lebanon, was 77 miles long, with a 22- mile branch. It had more than a hun- dred lift-locks. Sixteen of these were in a tunnel just west of Lebanon, carrying inemeanall to Swatara Creek. Whe Mo= nongahela was canalized by the construc- tion of sixteen dams in order to form slackwater navigation. The Main Line Canal, connecting Phil- adelphia with Pittsburgh, was in reality half canal and half railway. The jour- ney began at Broad and Vine streets, Philadelphia. From there to Columbia, on the Susquehanna, sectional canal-boats Over this route passed the traffic between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh and railway cars were hauled on wheeled trucks. ‘There the boats were pinned to- gether and towed up the Susquehanna and Juniata rivers to Hollidaysburg. Here they were put on an inclined rail- way, dragged up the mountain by steam winches, and let down by the sate method to Johnstown. From there they proceeded to Pittsburgh through the Conemaugh, Kiskiminetas, and Allegheny rivers. WAGING A LOSING BATTLE Inadequately constructed to meet the competition of the railroads, as the latter transportation facilities improved and ex- panded, the canal system began to fail and now is practically in ruins. Every- where one sees decaying locks and rot- ting canal-boats, relics of a remarkable era. But recently the strain of the tre- mendous volume of local and through 376 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE trafic is too great, even for the splendid railroad systems of the State, and there is a strong move- ment to rehabilitate the canal system and to ex- tend it. Tentative plans have been formulated to con- aect Pittsburgh wae Lake Erie by a canal which will touch Ohio at Beaver, enabling the ores from Minnesota and Michigan to come into the Pittsburgh district by water, and the coal from the bituminous regions to float practically from the. mouth of the mine to the Northwest. Plans have also been made to bring Philadelphia into touch with New York waters by a canal across Jersey from the Delawane want Trenton, to Raritan Bay at South Amboy. | It is almost impossible for the layman to realize what vast A Bangediyitgy vojafzey O 98N@SiMI7 9YNGSWO0TE Cy eo A AH NIAVH 4207 4 $0970 ITIrAN0U"GFO D PooMmisi4g 2 . aYosN 2//Aua249 U) wnb0dWwI P/ai jr OYOGS7T7IM Q Meysaus O Oo o q Bis Oy NIM © Seoul Now 3 4p? yo? \ Py) a i) “s} > $ a , Bo Cysojpesg 2 uk oe oe OO Ce 6 SEE ey ©: ene comes 00 nS | SSS we s 2 : = SIIIW SaLNiLvils = —aaeaeaeaeaeaeaea——— SOOO SSS eee (ofe}] OS e) N a N 400 ‘pred Ajayenbope pue poures} AjTyYsno10yy QI SIOJLONPS Aloy} UsyM ATUO PIAsos div YI[CIMUOWWO) IY} FO SUIZIIO OINJNF OY} JO S}SotoqUl JSoq OY], ‘Ivo e OOS ULY} SSI] FO SolIe[esS SUTATIIII SJdYOvd} SII JO puesnoy} UsAI]O Y}IM ‘[Ropl WOT} Ie} St WIld}SAS [VUOTLONPS AreJUIUIIJ9 $.9}e]G IY} Jey} SSofuod StJoiIWIpe JsoyouNe}s Ss erueATASUUD JIHSNUZILIO Good OF, dvOoa AHL, NO ONILAVIS "eruvA[ASUUDg JO SpU] [VOD dy} se SiJouIUT AUP se 04 JUdIACTdUID SOAIS P[IOM JY} UI oIe IepIWIIS 194}0 ON “AIJSNPUL ULIURATASUUDg AIOAD JSOW]L FO SfooyM IY} PUTYoq USUI dy} 91k SLoUTW oY} “9deFINS oy} YJeousd }YsIU [eUIOJO FO PjIOM ay} UT AeML SuIMOIING AOoUNOS SLI OL WVALS DNIM’IVLIS uInosnyT [VIOIoOWIWIOD eiydjopeiyg Asey1n09 ydersojoyg THE INDUSTRIAL TITAN OF AMERICA Nowhere else in the world can fuel for power purposes be bought more cheaply than at Wilkes-Barre. Black diamonds in unbelievable quantities lie, ready to be mined, directly beneath the city’s fac- tories; and hundreds of millions of dol- lars. are invested in the long list of in- dustries that seek cheap power and make good profits here. Who that has traveled from Mauch Chunk to Wilkes-Barre on the Black Diamond or the Scranton Flyer has not admired the day scenery on the one or the night scenery .on the other? ‘Two railroads hug the Lehigh River from Mauch Chunk to White Haven, through as wild a mountain region as can be found east of the Rockies. From there they reach the top of Nescopeck Moun- tain above Penobscot by diverse routes. ‘ Behind the traveler lies a branch of the Lehigh Valley, with its rugged scenery, and in front of him is the wonderful Wyoming Valley, with collieries as thick as hops, and Wilkes-Barre a quarter of a mile beneath him. And at night, as the summit of the mountain is passed and myriads of lights, bright and dim, yellow and white and blue, flash up from Wilkes-Barre and its dozens of adjacent towns in the valley far below, the traveler passing that way for the first time well may wonder whether the heavens have of a sudden been in- verted, or whether a great silver lake be- neath him is reflecting thousands of stars. HOW ERIE BECAME A PART OF PENNSYLVANIA The story of how Erie became a part of Pennsylvania might have served as a tip to the Peace Conference on corridors to the sea. New York’s charter defined its western boundary as the meridian line extending southward to the forty-second parallel of latitude from the western ex- tremity of Lake Ontario. It was always assumed that the Pennsylvania-New York line would extend directly into Lake Erie, and that therefore the Erie site and Presque Isle belonged to New York. But the actual survey revealed the fact that there was a small triangle that did not belong to either State. Thereupon Massachusetts and Con- necticut both claimed it, on the ground 403 that the charter of the Plymouth Com- pany gave them all the land lying in their latitude as far west as the Pacific Ocean, not previously settled by other Christian powers. After protracted negotiations, New York, Massachusetts, and Connect- icut released their claims in favor of the Federal Government, which, in turn, sold the land to the State of Pennsylvania, giving her a harbor on the Great Lakes. However, Connecticut, in consideration of her release, reserved a tract in north- eastern Ohio. Hence, the Western Re- serve of the Buckeye State. Situated between the coal of Pennsyl- vania and the ore of Minnesota, pos- sessed of one of the finest harbors on the Great Lakes, Erie is host to some five hundred manufacturing establishments. It has the largest horseshoe factory and the largest pipe-organ plant in the world, and makes more baby carriages, gas man- tles, and clothes-wringers than any other city. It is one of the few industrial cities of America that is resolved not to neglect the esthetic side of its development. In pursuance of that purpose, it borrowed a chapter from the history of Chicago and created a city planning. commission which has laid out a goal for Erie to grow up to. CLIETES” WHICH: BOAST SUPEREATIVE, INDUSTRIES Fach of the State’s lesser centers of population possesses some industry in which its citizens experience justifiable pride. Harrisburg, in addition to enjoy- ing the distinction of being the Common- wealth capital, is one of the principal rail- road centers of the East, while one of its suburbs indicates in its name, Steelton, the nature of its industrial interests. Johnstown, likewise, is an iron and steel center. If quantity and quality of the manu- factured product signify, Allentown 1s the world’s cement capital, for two-fifths of America’s output is produced within a radius of 20 miles of this beautiful city of homes, which is also noted for its silks. Walk from one end of its main street to the other in the summer-time and every lamp-post you see supports a basket of flowers. Think of a bouquet-studded 404. street several miles long. In the winter evergreens take the place of the blossoms in the baskets. . The effect is charming. But it is characteristic of Allentown and the spirit of Pennsylvania. The importance of Altoona’s railroad shops is indicated in the fact that nearly half as many people found employment in them before the war as were required to man the Federal Government machine in Washington. Lancaster’s claim to fame is expressed in three superlatives: the largest linoleum factory, the largest umbrella factory, and the largest silk mill in the world. In ad- dition, its output of books and magazines devoted to science is extraordinary, and its stockyards are the most extensive east of Chicago. One of the finest watch fac- tories in the world is located here, and, although its industries give employment to 23,000 operatives, the city has never had a strike. York prides itself on the diversity of its industries rather than upon the magni- tude of any one, and in this particular it takes rank after Philadelphia and Pitts- burgh. McKeesport’s pride in the largest tin-plate plant in the world is justified, while Newcastle produces more tin in sheets and blocks than any other city; Chester is a veritable Vulcan-shop, with ships sliding from the ways, locomotives rumbling from its shops, and shells com- ing by the carload, in war time, from its munitions plants. | And so the story goes, from Pennsyl- vania city to Pennsylvania city. Where the ambition of one turns in the direction of silk, or tin, or heavy forgings, another is the center of a rich agricultural dis- trict, or finds gratification in the fact that it is distinguished for safeguarding and improving its people’s health. Take a Map Ob tide! state, ands every dow Tepre. senting a community of 10,000 or more inhabitants would furnish a text for an article on civic progress or industrial en- terprise. Outside of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania is much more populous than is New York outside of New York City. Indeed, Pennsylvania goes down to Philadelphia with 6,325,000 population, while New York goes down to the Bronx with 4q,- 723,000. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE It is the large number of cities of less than thirty thousand population that makes Pennsylvania, outside its chief city, such a populous State. A MONUMENT TO RELIGIOUS FREEDOM No bit of literature compiled regarding Pennsylvania could fairly represent that State without at least a passing reference to the religious sects which were trans- planted there in colonial times and which flourish to this day in nearly their primi- tive simplicity. When William Penn founded his col- ony, the central purpose of his life was to establish an asylum where the perse- cuted of all lands could come and worship God according to their own consciences and live according to their own religious convictions. The Quakers came by the thousands. Their meeting-houses sprang up every- where. Not content to express their re- ligion in their walk and conduct, they gave it expression in their dress and in their very words. The broad-brimmed hat and the Quaker bonnet were seen and the “thee” and “thou” were heard every- where. The lives the Quakers lived won the admiration of all who came into con- tact with them, and much of the sold development of the State is due to the high standard of integrity and fairness established and maintained by these peo- ple of Quaker faith. ; Mennonites from Holland and Switzer- land and the Rhine Country, persecuted by nearly all creeds alike, came in large numbers and developed into the success- ful agriculturists of the three original counties. The Dunkers of Switzerland came! as a’ body, root and) branch alive Schwenkfelders of Silesia, distressed by persecutions that were without pity, braved the perils of raging seas and un- tamed forests in order to find a haven where they could live in their faith. The Moravians followed later, to share with the other sects the blessings of tolerance iMene tand Of eemme Humble, unsung, content to play their quiet roles without the applause of men, like the bee that renders an unconscious service to the flower, these sects have wrought richly in the making of the nation. THE INDUSTRIAL TITAN OF AMERICA It seems like going back into an earlier century to visit the cloisters of Ephrata and Nazareth; it ap- pears passing strange to see the Amish Men- nonite, with his tail- less coat and broad- brimmed hat, on the streets of progressive anessrer: it Su r- prises the visitor to Allentown to _ hear well-dressed, up - to- tates people, from court officer to manu- member, talking Pennsylvania Dutch! Mee millions of America’s best farm- ers inherited their command of the soil from such ancestry; from such simple folk have sprung scores of governors of States, many jurists, a galaxy of educators, etc. The Pennsylvania pietist, in his ascetic way, has done his bit in mak- ing his State what it is—and his part in shaping the bone and sinew of the nation. THE STATE'S SHARE IN MAKING AND PRE- SERVING THE UNION Photograph by G. A. Conradi WASHINGTON PROFILE ROCK, SAYRE PARK, LEHIGH UNIVER- SITY > SOUTH’ BETHLEHEM Her magnificent highways and the eye-filling scenery of such re- gions as the Delaware Water Gap have an irresistible lure for the As for its history, whether in the re- moter period of colonial times or in the just-passing era of* America’s activities in the world war; whether in the battle for the establishment of the Union or the struggle for its maintenance, the Key- stone State has always played a role sec- ond to no other Commonwealth. It was on Pennsylvania soil that the Declaration of Independence was written; that the disheartened colonists were reorganized for victory at Valley Forge, and upon which the Constitution of the United States was proclaimed. pleasure-seeking autoist. It was from Pennsylvania that the men came who shed the first blood in the Civil War, and at Gettysburg the tide against disunion was turned, under the leader- ship of a Pennsylvania soldier. When America threw the weight of its power into the balance in the Armaged- don of liberty in Europe, Pennsylvania was in the van of those ready for action. No other division in France, outside of the Regular Army forces, was earlier in the fray than the Twenty-eighth, made wp) Janzelye of. Meystone troops. Wath 406 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by William H. Rau ALONG THE SUSQUEHANNA RIVER NEAR COLUMBIA, PENNSYLVANIA Railroad, canal, and river here sweep in splendid curves around the lofty rocks that make the valley little more than a gorge. casualties of 14,417 in the 177 days be- tween arrival at A. E. F. headquarters and the armistice, the division made a record not surpassed in the war. For days it was in the very thick of the hard- est fighting of the conflict. The State gave 298,000 men for the Army, 29,000 for the Navy, and 3,000 for the Marine Corps—a grand total of 330,000 men, to say nothing of the hun- dreds of thousands of workers in ship- yards, munition plants, etc., swered their country’s call. Of course, Pennsylvanians are proud of their State’s role in the nation’s activi- ties. And the coming of peace will find them at the forefront of those who shall provide the world with the munitions of peace—engines and cars, coal and steel, a thousand commodities, in the making of which Pennsylvania serves doubly—her- self and the ase world. who. an- BUNTING BIG GAME OF OTHER DAYS A Boating Expedition in Search of Fossils in Alberta, Canada By Barnum Brown ASSOCIATF CURATOR OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MuskumM oF NaturaL History With Photographs from the American Museum of Natural History bears the quest of big game has ap- pealed to man, his appreciation of the sport being measured chiefly by the size of the game and the difficulty of se- curing it. Today we must go to Africa for the biggest game; but there was a time in the dim distant past when America produced animals larger than any now living. That was so long ago that nothing remains of these creatures except their bones, and they are turned to stone. Hidden away under strata of earth, their spoor has long since grown cold, and the hunt I shall de- scribe is in consequence difficult. The animals are dinosaurs ; for the mo- ment we will call them lizards—not the creeping, crawling kind, but huge reptiles that stalked upright through the jungles, rivaling in size the elephant, the hippo- potamus, and the rhinoceros. The place is Alberta, Canada, and the _time of their existence 3,000,000 years ago. aeaicen the Great Lakes and the Rocky S INCE the days of our jungle fore- Mountains, just north of the Canadian boundary, lies a vast area of level land, prairie in the east and forested near the mountains, with a narrow intervening section that is brush-covered. East of the timbered belt the central part of Al- berta is level as far as the eye can see and dotted here and there by small glacial lakes, where nest countless numbers of ducks and geese (see map, page 425). THE CANADIAN FARMER’S ELDORADO Fifteen years ago this level section was prairie land covered with a luxuriant growth of grass, on which grazed com- paratively few cattle, with a ranch build- ing here and there, but sparsely settled withal. ‘Today the country is covered by a network of railroads, and near the rail- roads most of the available land is home- steaded. The soil is very rich and of consider- able depth, producing under favorable conditions enormous yields of small grain, yet only a fraction of the country is under cultivation. When fully produc- ing, the future wealth of this great terri- tory cannot even be estimated; it is the Canadian farmer’s Eldorado. a } A number of small rivers drain this area, uniting in the province of Alberta to form the Saskatchewan, which flows into Lake Winnipeg. The Red Deer River is one of these tributaries that rises in the mountains north of Banff. Num- bers of lesser streams fed by mountain snows and prairie lakes join it, making an irresistible stream that has cut through the prairie land, forming a miniature grand canyon, a mile wide at the top and from two to five hundred feet deep. ONCE: THE BED OF A GREAT INLAND SEA Although black, fertile soil forms the surface of the country, the earth below is composed of horizontal layers of clay and sandstone, and a journey of 250 miles down the river reveals four distinct geo- logic periods in the canyon walls. The strata representing these periods overlap like shingles on a roof, and in each are preserved the fossil remains of animals and plants which enable us to picture former conditions and life during past ages (see picture, page 413). In the lower reaches of the river, 200 miles from the mountains, only sea-shells are found in the rocks, indicating that the 407 yeod 8 19yy § "9784S JOofIod & Ul UTYS 9Y} FO UOlssoiduit oy} o oyds ul ‘apeut Aja}eoTJap Jay}yeI 919M AY T, SUIMOYS PUNOF Usdq ALY SUSUTDOdS [eIIAIS speoy IYl[-yonp ‘osivy] pey pue sjyiqey toy} ul (11V Sovd AMS) SAV YAHLO JO AWVS Id JWYSIUY “YY SopteyD Aq Surmeip & WOTFZ ‘UIOGSO 191FV ‘QAISUDJJOUL 9}IND 919M pue onenbe ‘ dZIS 19S IIOM SINesOUIpP Jen SUIS 9ST, Aos From a drawing by Charles R. Knight A COMMON SIGHT IN NORTH AMERICA MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO The most extraordinary feature of this animal was the row of thin plates on either side of the median line, and also the long and heavily armed tail. ocean—an inland sea extending from the Gulf of Mexico northward to the Arctic Ocean—covered this area during a long time, in which several hundred feet of strata accumulated. Where these rocks flank the mountains they are tilted at an angle of several de- grees, which shows that they were laid down before the complete elevation of the Rocky Mountains. This formation is called the Pierre. (Geologic formations are usually named from the “type’’ lo- cality in which first recognized, and wher- ever rocks of the same age appear they are designated by-that name. ) Near the close of the Pierre a part of the inland sea-floor was elevated above the ocean and became a land-mass of low altitude—a vast stretch of jungle-covered delta and coastal swamp, interspersed with bayous and lagoons. In the fresh and partly salt or brackish water lake and river beds of this period are preserved leaf impressions of a va- riety of trees, rarely teeth and fragmen- tary bones of mammals, and numerous re- mains of a great variety of reptiles (see 409 page 416). This is known as the Judith (Belly) River formation. Subsequently this area again sank be- low the sea for a long time and 4oo feet of deposits accumulated, in which only sea-shells and marine reptiles are to be found. This ocean deposit, also a part of the Pierre, is designated Bearpaw. Then a long period of elevation began, the rocks and fossils showing a gradual change from salt to brackish water con- ditions, which near the top became quite fresh. These beds, over 700 feet thick, are known as the Edmonton formation. Presumably the area was near sea-level and subject to frequent invasions of the sea—a condition that may be better un- derstood by comparison with the present everglades of Florida (see page 412). DE HONE Ob, AG HOS) OF CREPATIE ES In these marshes of prehistoric times dwelt a, host of reptiles, some large, some small, and of various forms, flesh- eaters and herb-eaters, but all sharing certain characters in common and known as dinosaurs. Not any were closely re- e ‘Sd|[Ipoo019 puke ‘sajjin} ‘simesourp earutsd fo SUPeUoT YI Pel o18 JOA out JO SHI ey], “syoejsey 91k WOZIIOY ey} UO sjoalqo yep oy], “peats IS OU SI d49q} JOARY I09q poy oy} Suoje soprur 10,4 SAVG YWHHLO AO AWVD OIG SI AYNVNO AHL NAHM ASIGVUVd S,NVWSLYOdS V “aoy B SWUIOF PUR] JO WOT}IaS JoJ1eNb AtoAd oriTesd oY} UO dAoqe ynq ‘UOHe}GeYy UeUINY Jo us 410 THE BIG GAME HUNTERS’ MOVING CAMP The big flat-boat drifts downstream with the current. by concerted action of both oars can be pushed broadside to avoid rocké. It is steered from the stern, and The mosquitoes are often so thick that no one can work without a net over the face and gloves on the hands. lated to any living reptile, yet they had some characters common to the lizards, crocodiles, and birds. Of the kinds characteristic of the pe- riod oné species, an herb-eater named Trachodon, was more than 30 feet long and about 15 feet high when standing erect (see page 408). Its head, with broadly expanded mouth, resembles that of a duck, but back of the beak there are more than two thousand small teeth, dis- posed in many vertical rows, each con- taining several individual teeth, the new ones coming up from below as the old ones wore out. The long hind legs terminated in three large hoofed toes, and the shorter, slen- der front feet were partly webbed. A long, thin, slender tail acted as a power- ful swimming organ, and the body was covered with rough tuberculate skin. Having no means of defense, it lived chiefly in the water, where it was free from attacks of the flesh-eaters. With the ‘“duck-billed” Trachodon there were other large closely related a een AII forms inhabiting the ace. Saurolo- phus was similar in build, but character- ized by a large crest extending above the skull, and pelvic bones that were devel- oped for attachment of powerful tail muscles. ,It was probably a distinctly aquatic type (see page 418). A DINOSAUR WITH PNEUMATIC BONES Along the shores lived Ornithomimus, bird mimic, as the name implies, one of the most remarkable of the dinosaurs. A skeleton found last year shows it to have been a toothless creature, the jaws sheathed like the beak of a bird. The bones were hght and pneumatic, like those of birds, but the skeleton closely resembles that of the flesh-eating dinosaurs. It was about i2 feet in length, with long, slender hind legs and shorter front legs. This was an agile creature, hacecne from the typical flesh- eaters in feeding habits and doubtless a shore-liv- ing type that may have fed on crusta- ceans. “SINVSOUIP UTPJUOD yey} Spoq UOJUOWpPy] JoyeM-YSHPpoe1q I[qeUIIOFUOD 9Y} 3Ie YOIYM sAoqe ‘(60h ased 99S) osy d1JIIG JO S}uswWIpos ukeId0 UO spue}s URW oT, YVAN ‘SNOILLIGNOD ‘IVINANILNOD OL WNI MHHNO MO’'TIIM AO HLAOW AHL UVW ATHYNd WOW AONVHO AHL ONIMUVWN ANOLSIH SIDO'IOND AO AODVd LTNVINOdWI NV 412 SCANN NING THE CLIFFS FOR-SLEEPING MONSTERS 35 .5°% In a single quarry along these cliffs bones representing several hundred daft duels ee 2 been washed out of the bank. On land there were hoofed quadru- pedal herbivorous kinds, some, like Mo- noclonius (see page 426), having an im- mense skull, six feet in length, with three horns, a short one over each eye and a longer one above the nose. The jaws ter- minated in a sharp clipping beak, like that of a turtle, and further back in the mouth there were rows of double-rooted teeth. The back of the skull was developed into a broad shield, with scalloped border, extending over the neck. It was ances- tral to the later Triceratops. A CREATURE FULLY ENCASED IN ARMOR, INCLUDING VISORS TO SAFEGUARD HIS EYES Strangest of all was the herbivorous Ankylosaurus, a stocky, short-legged, big- bodied creature, completely encased in armor. Dermal plates covered the skull, followed by rings of plates over the neck and rows of flat plates over the back and hips. Its tail terminated ina huge club, and the belly was covered by a pliable 413 mosaic of small, close-set plates. It was further protected by a movable plate that could be dropped down like a shutter over each eye, thus completing its protection from insects and formidable foes. Preying on the various herbivorous kinds were powerful flesh-eaters, Alberto- saurus, resembling those shown on page A29—an active animal 30 feet long and about 15 feet high. Armed with large, serrate dagger teeth and sharp, bird-like claws, it was capable of destroying any of its herb-eating relatives. It walked habitually on its hind legs, balanced by a long tail, while the short, reduced front legs could have been used only in grasp- ing its prey. That great numbers of these creatures lived in the ancient marshes is evident from the numerous remains found in the rocks. Ina single quarry, of which there are many on the Red Deer River, bones representing several hundred individuals have been washed out of the bank, and more or less complete skeletons and in- 414 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HIGH UP ON THE FACE OF A STEEP CLIFF WE FOUND A PARTIAL SKELETON OF THE WONDERFUL ARMORED DINOSAUR ANKYLOSAURUS (SEE PAGE 413) The skull lies just above the pick. The skeleton was disarticulated, but all bones were found on the same level as deposited millions of years ago. To secure the specimen, the whole face of the hillside was blasted off, making a cut 30 feet long, 4o feet high, and 20 feet back into the hill, before all of the bones of this specimen were secured. dividual bones are scattered all through the strata. WHEN SOUTHERN CANADA HAD A FLORIDA CLIMATE At that time southern Canada and the northern part of the United States en- joyed a climate similar to that of Florida, for fig fruits and palm leaves are often found in these same rocks. Numerous coal veins and petrified wood bespeak the tropical abundance of the vegetation. Above the Edmonton beds, flanking the mountains, there are several hundred feet of sandstones and clays called the Paska- poo beds, which were deposited after the dinosaurs became extinct (see page 412). These strata mark the beginning of the Age of Mammals. Whe giant reptiles had disappeared ; their remains are never found in this formation; but in places the beds contain mammal teeth, small bones, leaves, and fresh-water shells. It is probable that when this formation was deposited the country had been suffi- — ciently elevated to drain off the marshes, and that the drainage of the waters was the chief cause of extinction of the dino- saurs. They were creatures that did not migrate any great distance to more fa- vorable conditions, as do mammals, and it is quite possible that the particular food of the herbivorous forms became scarce. [he known plant remains are HUNTING BIG GAME OF OTHER DAYS hy, 415 “BAD LANDS” OF THE EDMONTON FORMATION OPPOSITE THE MOUTH OF BIG VALLEY This is the most picturesque section along the Red Deer River. Rains rapidly wash away the soft, friable clays, eroding the hillsides like organ pipes and exposing the fossil bones. The hard sandstone layers resist erosion and form terraces. in abundance. quite similar to those in the rocks imme- diately below, and inferentially the tem- perature had not changed. The geologic formations along the Red Deer were first determined by the Canadian Geological Survey, members of which secured a variety of fossils, chiefly from the Judith (Belly) River formation, where the fossils are better preserved and more abundant than those in similar rocks in the United States. HOW AND WHERE COLLECTORS GAME OF THE PAST HUNT BIG Usually fossils are found in “Bad Wands, a name applied by the Jesuit missionaries to desolate regions denuded of grass and eroded into picturesque hills and ravines. In such places camp is located near some spring or stream, and the collectors ride or walk over the exposures till the region is thoroughly explored. Here we found dinosaur bones Quite different are the conditions on the Red Deer River. In places the can- yon walls are nearly perpendicular, and the river winds in its narrow valley two to five hundred feet below the prairie, touching one side, then crossing to the other, so that it is impossible to follow up or down its course any great distance, even on horseback. For many years the American Museum of Natural Histcry of New York City has been making a systematic collection of fossils along this river, sending an ex- pedition there every summer, and each succeeding expedition has returned with notable results. As the only feasible way to work these banks is from a boat, the parties proceed to the town of Red Deer, where the Calgary-Edmonton Railroad crosses the river. There, with the aid of several carpen- ters, we constructed a flat-boat, 12 by 30 feet in dimension, similar to a Western (czv AOVd OSTV AAS) SNOJATIAS WIAA WOD SST MO AYOW NI HOI ATIVASONA “MXHUO GNVS FO GVEH AHL LV NOMVWAOd MAAN ATIMA ANE AO SANWT Gvd,, ANOSANALOId AHL AI6 ONE OF THE HORNED DINOSAURS, MONOCLONIUS (SEE PAGE 426) This skeleton was complete from the tip of the tail to the end of the beak. Even the tongue bones were preserved in position. ferry-boat. It was built upside down, and when calked water-tight was turned over and launched in the river near by. This boat was capable of carrying ten tons with safety (see page 411). As the river has a speed of four miles per hour, we never intended to go up- stream; so the boat was made on broad lines to be carried down by the current, its course directed by two great sweeps, or oars 22 feet long, one at each end of the boat, and nicely balanced on the gun- wale, so ‘that a man could push against it with his entire strength. Supplied with a season’s provisions, lumber for boxes, and plaster for encas- ing bones, we began our fossil cruise down a canyon that once echoed songs of the “Bois Brilé,” for this river was at one time the home of many fur-bear- ing animals and within the Hudson Bay Company territory. The first sixty miles of the river below the town of Red Deer is locally known as “the Canyon,’ where the speed of the current is considerably more than four miles per hour, but there are alternating stretches of slow-moving water and rap- ids at low water dangerous to rafts and large boats. 417 THE SAUROLOPHUS SKELETON UNCOVERED AND READY TO BE ENCASED IN PLASTER AND BOXED, PREPARATORY TO ITS LONG JOURNEY TO THER MUSEUM The skull at the lower end of the picture is still surrounded by ripple-marked sandstone ; the tail extends under the man. It was covered over by four feet of clay and a few spines of the vertebrz were sticking out of the bank, giving us a clue to its location. 418 Bo ae THE SKELETON OF THE NEW CRESTED DINOSAUR, CORYTHOSAURUS, FOUND NEAR STEVEVILLE This is an unusually complete skeleton more than thirty feet long, with the impression of the skin still preserved on the under side. In this type of “duck bill” the skull was sur- mounted by a high, curved crest, like that of a cassowary. The end of the tail was exposed, giving a clue to the skeleton. Spruce and poplar trees cover this sec- tion of the country, and each bend of the river presents some picturesque vista of especial interest, the stately spruce trees, silhouetted against the sky, adding a charm to the ever-changing scene. For- est fires and lumbermen have thinned out most of the larger trees, and for miles along the river the underbrush was col- ored pink by the ripe red raspberries. In the long midsummer days, in lati- tude 52°, there are many hours of day- light, and constant floating would have carried us many miles per day; but fre- quent stops were made to prospect for fossils, and we rarely covered more than twenty miles per day. High up on the plateau buildings and haystacks proclaim a well-settled country, but habitations are rare along the river, and for miles we floated through picturesque solitude, the silence unbroken save by the noise of the rapids. During the day an occasional flock of ducks or geese would be disturbed by our approach, though few signs of life were seen along the shore; but among the trees, when the mystic hush of night had stilled the camp, all the underworld was alive, and many little feet rustled the leaves where daylight disclosed no sign of life. THE NIGHT SOUNDS OF WILD LIFE Then the muskrat and beaver would take courage to investigate the big in- truder of their familiar haunts. From the distance some hungry coyote would send his plaintive cry echoing down the canyon, to be punctuated by the “put-put- put, put, put” of a partridge drumming to his mate, and from the trees above came the constant query, ‘““Who-who— who-who-oo ?” At intervals we would tie up the boat and go ashore to search the banks, that fossils might not be overlooked. No large fossils were found in rocks of the 419 420 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ANOTHER ANKYLOSAURUS QUARRY Lowering a 700-pound box, by means of block and fall, to the valley too feet below. ‘This specimen included the pelvis, a part of the animal not before known. Paskapoo age, but as soon as the Ead- monton rocks appeared in the banks large bones of dinosaurs became numerous, and in the picturesque exposures at the mouth of Big Valley they were especially abundant. EXCAVATING WITH CROOKED.AWL AND W HISK-BROOM At the foot of a butte lie scattered fragments of bone, and on the rivulet- scarred hillside other fragments appear, as we trace them up the waterways. Finally, ten, twenty, or thirty feet above, other pieces protrude from the bank, and this is our lead. Cautiously we follow in from the exposed surface, uncovering the bone with crooked awl and whisk- broom, careful not to disturb the bone itself; for, although stone, it is usually checked and fractured in many places by former disturbance of its bed or crys- tallizing of mineral salts, and is rarely strong enough to permit removal. Other bones may appear in the course of this preliminary work, and, if the find is desirable, the next step is carefully to gather every fragment, large and small, that has weathered out and fallen down the hillside; for when restored in the laboratory one of these pieces may be the critical point in the determination of a species. Then with pick and shovel the heavy ledges above are removed, and often a team and scraper and dynamite are used when a large excavation is to be made. As we near the bone layer the work is more carefully done, with ever in mind the probable position of the bones of the skeletom | A false stroke of the-pick aa excavation may cause days of mending in the laboratory and might destroy some delicate bone. When the bones are uncovered and brushed clean they are saturated with shellac till all small pieces adhere to each other; then the dirt is taken away from HUNTING BIG GAME OF OTHER DAYS 421 THREE MILES ABOVE TOLMAN FERRY WE FOUND THE HIPS AND PART OF A SKELETON OF A NEW, LONG-SPINED DINOSAUR NAMED HYPACROSAURUS The hip bones alone weighed 600 pounds and had to be dragged to the river on a sled. It belongs to the family of duck-bill dinosaurs (see page 408). the sides, more shellac applied, and finally each bone stands on a little pedestal. HOW THE MONSTER SKELETONS ARE PACKED If the specimen is a skeleton, we next determine where the bones may be sepa- rated or broken to cause least damage, and each part is covered first with tissue paper, and then with two or three layers of plaster-of-Paris bandages—strips of burlap dipped in plaster. When this is set and thoroughly hard, the block is un- dermined and turned over and bandages are applied to the lower surface to forma complete plaster jacket. This preparation is slow and tedious. A skeleton may be uncovered in three days, but it will often take three weeks to prepare it ready for boxing. Then heavy . ‘UISIIO JUde1 ATOAeIed -W0d FO IIB [vIJa}eU ay} ABME SUI}JND MOU 1B Jey} SIOATI 9} opIYM AO] VIS IRSU SBM BOI SI} UIYM “Aq 9UOS sase Ul Po}IsOdap s19M Ady} ‘ULSIIO AleUIUIPIS JO 91B SYOI 9soy} YsnoyyyV ‘uokued purity oInyerurmt e JNO sey JOATY 99d PIY PY} YryM ysnoiyy ‘skvejo AtejyUsUIpes JO pasodwmos giv spur] ofseid [ada] IY} ‘[IOS sdeJins YoR[q “Yot1 oy} opus) “Sestoy XIs OJ peor SIq ve oq Av JYSIOM FO UO} & [ret1} MOD paj}saAuOD styy dy (QIv AOvd OS'IV AUS) WHAXO GNVS JO LNO NOMOWTION HHL ONTINWH 422 OFTEN SKELETONS ARE FOUND IN ALMOST INACCESSIBLE PLACES, FROM WHICH THE PREPARED BLOCKS MUST BE DRAGGED ON THE SLEDS AND LOWERED OVER STEEP CLIFFS One section of a large carnivorous dinosaur skeleton weighed over two tons. Here a trail had to be made up the steep canyon wall, where a 700-pound box was all that a team could drag on a sled. boxes are made to dimension for each large block or several smaller ones, and the fossils are carefully packed in hay for shipment to the Museum. Thus, at Tolman Ferry a few frag- ments which were seen protruding from a hillside developed into a complete skele- ton. At first it was thought to be the well-known “duck-bill” dinosaur Tracho- don, but when the skull was revealed it was seen to be quite different. It proved 423 to be related, but a form entirely new to science and since named Saurolophius, meaning crested saurian, from the long spine extending backward from the top of the head. ZEST IN THE HUNT Today there are thousands of different species of reptiles inhabiting the earth, and during each of the long prehistoric periods there were probably as many or FREQUENTLY THE PREPARED BLOCKS WEIGH A TON OR MORE, AND IT IS NECESSARY TO HANDLE THEM WITH BLOCK AND TACKLE HALF-GROWN DUCKLINGS ARE EASILY CAUGHT BY HAND, AND THE EARLY SETTLERS SALTED THEM DOWN IN BARRELS FOR THE WINTER'S MEAT 424 105 x} SH bf rere Se ee Se STATES. * Ls R. imo (2 R. ; O. iF IC ; N GP as \ % re aa fe gr - Y, : ere SiC 'YELLO ces Bie Vl iinaniowac eee a ee Y Z| % % TDAH o 1% “ey, L w aye YY | oO M YN Z —_—-— ’ -— . Yg iON PACIFIC RR. YY CY . | td Thy OU, - \GREar | S Salt Lakers aztT 7) City LAKE cote WoT 4, Le, 5 == SE ee ¢ ; Localities where Dinosaur 7 (mea Z —— Remains have been found. Wj Cretaceous Formation. WW Judith (Belly) River Formation. O 50 100 200 300 STATUTE MILES MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT FINDS OF DINOSAURIAN REMAINS AND AREAS WHERE DEPOSITS WERE LAID DOWN DURING THE TIME THAT THESE ANIMALS LIVED The most fertile field for the hunter of big game of other days is a vast area of level land, prairie in the east and forested near the mountains, in the province of Alberta, Canada, between the Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, just north of the Canadian boundary. In the lower reaches of the Deer River, which drains a part of this region, sea-shells are found in the rocks, indicating that an inland sea, which extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, once covered this area. When the sea-floor was elevated above the ocean this section became a vast jungle-covered swamp. In these marshes of prehistoric times dwelt a host of reptiles known as dinosaurs (see pages 407 and 409). 425 426 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © American Museum RESTORATION OF MONOCLONIUS MADE UNDER THE DIRECTION OF PROF. EF. D. COPE, IB (CIBUAIRIEIIS) IR. KNIGHT This is one of the primitive horned dinosaurs, the Ceratopsia, in which the horn over the 1i0se was largest. In the later members of the family the horns above the eyes are largest (see page 427). Its remains are quite abundant in the Belly River beds. more different kinds, for reptilian life is now on the wane. Rarely does a season pass without sev- eral new genera being brought to light, and this possibility of discovery of the new and unknown adds zest to an already fascinating field of research. Any pros- pect may reveal some new creature of bizarre form, and we are constantly find- ing skeletons of animals known before by parts only. The Edmonton formation has been es- pecially interesting, for at least two-thirds of the species discovered in rocks of that age are new to Science. By the time we had reached Tolman, where a road crosses the river, our flat- boat, piled high with boxes of fossil ani- mals, had become a veritable fossil ark. This was in the latter part of September ; thin ice was forming on the river and it became too cold to do further effective collecting. The boat was then beached for the winter and the collection shipped back to the Museum. _ Each summer work has been continued from the point at which it ceased the year before and the search has been carried on thoroughly. Elsewhere complete dinosaur skeletons are rare, but in this part of Alberta they are not uncommon. In no other part of the world have so many Cretaceous dino- saur skeletons been brought to hght. One American Museum Expedition collected eight skeletons from a limited area ex- posed along three miles of the Red Deer River. CAMP LIFE WHILE ON THE HUNT Searching for préhistoric animals by boat is even more interesting than similar work inthe and ;Bad Wands? yon atte plains. Those who have husbanded drinking water on the desert through long hot summers keenly appreciate a river of snow water. Pike, pickerel, and sturgeon are caught in the Red Deer, and the persistent angler never fails to land a few “gold-eyes,” a HUNTING BiG GAME OF -OTHER DAYS 427 After U. S. National Museum, from a drawing by Charles R. Knight THIS EXTRAORDINARY DINOSAUR (TRICERATOPS, UPPER CRETACEOUS, NORTH AMERICA) WAS A STRICTLY LAND FORM AND GREW TO A LARGE SIZE—25 FEET IN LENGTH The head, with its accompanying neck frill, was enormous—8 feet in length in the large specimens. The creature was herbivorous, the jaws containing many fine teeth, evidently used in crushing vegetable food. The enormous horns grew upon a bony cover, as do the horns of a cow, and the upper jaws ended in a horny, turtle-like beak. The two erect dino- saurs in the background are Trachodons, a contemporaneous species (see page 408). species of fresh-water herring delicious when properly baked. _ After a long day’s search along the face of the hillsides or work in the quarry, the collector returns to camp hungry and exhausted, but soon to be revived by a good camp supper. Then the hour be- fore sundown is spent with rod or motor- boat. The winds have ceased, and as the sun disappears over the rim, long purple shadows conjure fantastic forms on the rugged canyon walls; then a cheerful camp-fire, pipes, and stories of other days and scenes. All, of course, are not roseate scenes. The particular fly in our ointment has been the mosquitoes, which last year flocked to anything that moved, in num- bers that I hesitate to estimate. But to the lover of camp life the days of dis- comfort and privation are those soonest forgotten. Asa result of the past four years’ work in Canada, the American Museum Ex- peditions have collected 300 large cases, or three and one-half carloads of fossils, two-thirds of which are exhibition speci- mens, including twenty skulls and four- teen skeletons of large dinosaurs, besides many partial skeletons. ‘This material represents many genera and species new to science, and defines the anatomy and distribution of several heretofore but par- tially known creatures. But the field has by no means been ex- hausted. Under miles of prairie land the same strata are undoubtedly filled with similar fossils ; erosion is rapid, and as the river continues to wear its banks away new fossils are exposed. In a few years the same territory can be explored with similar results, and for all time to come the Red Deer River will be a classic lo- cality for collecting prehistoric treasures. A GREAT MARINE LIZARD-LIKE FORM FROM THE KANSAS CHALK The long and powerful jaws were armed with numerous sharp teeth and the limbs were developed into short paddles. The specimen here shown is some 30 feet in length and was found in almost perfect condition. See corte Peas A SMALL, ACTIVE DINOSAUR, ABOUT FIVE FEET IN HEIGHT, FOUND IN WYOMING The picture shows one capturing an ancestral bird whose jaws contained sharp teeth like those of a lizard. 428 After Osborn, from a drawing by Charles R. Knight THIS FORMIDABLE DINOSAUR, THE LARGEST OF THE CARNIVOROUS FORMS, WAS SOME AO FEET IN LENGTH (SEE PAGE 413) It must have presented a most imposing sight as it stalked about in search of food. The great 5-foot jaws were armed with long and sharp teeth, capable of tearing the tough skins of such antagonists as the great Triceratops of the same period (p. 408). This latter creature could not escape by running away, and so was forced, no doubt, to back into some dense forest growth whenever possible, presenting merely its sharp-horned head to its adversary. After Osborn, from a drawing by Charles R. Knight THIS GREAT CARNIVOROUS DINOSAUR HAS BEEN KNOWN FOR SOME YEARS PAST, BUT ONLY RECENTLY HAS A COMPLETE SKELETON OF IT BEEN PLACED ON EXHIBITION The creature is depicted feeding upon the remains of a Brontosaurus, whose actual verte- bre, chiseled by the sharp teeth of some similar creature, are placed beneath the mounted skeleton in the American Museum. 429 INDIANA’S UNRIVALED SAND-DUNES—A NATIONALE PARK OFFEROR UNE By OrpHeus Mover SCHANTZ DUNE, region ordinarily signifies an inhospitable, wind-swept tract of country, barren of vegetation and sparsely inhabited by animal life. The term “‘sand-dune” long ago denoted a land to be avoided by travelers when- ever possible. i ss oi Seen Photograph by Frances La Follette A POPLAR WHICH CONVERTS ITS BRANCHES INTO ROOTS AND ITS ROOTS INTO BRANCHES, AS THE WIND BLOWS At one time this tree of the Indiana sand- dunes was buried up to the dark line. The limbs then did duty as roots, but now that it is being uncovered they are again performing their normal function as limbs. 430 Lack of water, intense heat, and the ever-drifting sand itself - were sufficient causes for shunning any dune country as a highway. Charles Kingsley, in Westward Ho, says: “The Spaniards neared and neared the fatal dunes that fringed the shore for many a weary mile.” The dunes of the Atlantic coast, driven inland by the terrific storms off the ocean, at times have devastated large areas of fertile land, relentlessly destroying all vegetation, and the dune regions of in- terior America were the bane of early pioneers. At the head of Lake Michigan, includ- ing the entire shoreline of Indiana and parts of the adjoining shores of Illinois and Michigan, there is a dune country, unique and wonderful and entirely differ- ent from our usual ideas of sand-dunes. The vegetation of the average desert or sandy region is usually an interesting example of the survival of the fittest, and most of the plant families remaining have adapted themselves to the severe ae Photograph by J. R. Daniels A FIND FOR THE ORNITHOLOGIST He sits and blinks the day away amid trees and shrubs of bewildering beauty growing on the shores of a fresh-water sea. Photograph by H. Mertsky THE OUTLINES OF THE DUNES ARE ALWAYS GRACEFUL Their size is indicated by comparison with the human figure. The lake appears in the distance. Alfred lL. Fitch Photograph by UP HILL AND DOWN DALE IN INDIANA S COMBINATION DESERT AND OASIS The verdure-clad billows of sand constitute a veritable botanical garden, which is a paradise for birds and plants of many species. 431 Photograph by Arthur E. Anderson AT THE HEAD OF LAKE MICHIGAN THERE IS A DUNE COUNTRY UNIQUE AND WONDERFUL It includes the entire shoreline of Indiana and parts of the adjoining shores of Illinois and Michigan. te Photograph by A. E. Ormes A WINTER LANDSCAPE IN THE DUNES 432 conditions of their environment. Desert plants, too, are often strikingly beautiful when in blossom; but their period of growth and luxury is very short, lasting only through the rainy season. A SEA OF SAND, BUT NO DESERT DROUGHT Conditions are reversed in the Indiana dunes, for here there is never a long period of drought, and in place of a des- ert area there is a natural propagating garden, where a most astonishing num- ber of rare and beaytiful plants congre- gate, having migrated both from the north and south to this unusually favored locality (see pages 434-435). Here, on the shores of a great fresh- water sea, whose moisture is constantly being carried southward by the prevail- ing northwest winds, and tempered both in summer and winter by its position on the lake, is a region so wonderful that it should be kept for all time as a great natural park for study and the recreation of millions of people of the Middle West. There are about 20 miles of shoreline, averaging a mile or more in width and 433 ‘pha eae by Irwin S. eR THE INDIANA SAND-DUNES AND LAKE MICHIGAN SHORE containing approximately 30 square miles of land in the dunes, still unspoiled by commercial industries. This region is situated within easy reach of more than 10,000,000 people at a nominal cost for transportation. - A visit to almost any one of the na- tional parks is a luxury beyond the reach of the majority of the people of the Mid- dle West; but the Lake Michigan dune region can be visited at all seasons and at a cost of, at the most, a few dollars. The dunes are popular even in mid- winter, and many a party of students and other outdoor enthusiasts has enjoyed the scenery and the bracing air of the lake at that time of year (see pages 437, 440). MANY CHARMS FOR MANY MEN The attractions of the dunes are so varied that all classes may here find rec- reation suited to their wishes. The tramper, the geologist, the botanist, the zoologist, the student of early American history, and those who seek only fresh air and clear skies, can find all they de- sire, and more than they hoped for, in Photograph by H. Mertsky AMONG THE LUPINES IN THE SAND-DUNES Great masses of bird’s-foot and other violets, lupines, phlox of different colors, trilliums, waxy bells of wintergreen and blueberry, hepaticas, trailing arbutus—not just a few flowers, but acres of them and miles of acres—make a natural flower garden which cannot be dupli- cated artificially. Photograph by 1. T’. Gable WHERE THE WAVES BREAK UPON THE DUNES OF INDIANA Canoeing here resembles the exhilarating sport of surf-board riding in the Hawaiian Islands. 434 Photograph by Arthur E. Anderson THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE DUNES LENDS ITSELF TO THE FORMATION OF MARVELOUS PLANT SOCIETIES this wonderland of sandy beach and for- ested lake shore. The outlines of the dunes are always graceful; for Nature, though sometimes cruel, displays wonderful skill as an artist, and the exposed wind-carved sands are arranged in beautiful curves and out- lines against the sky. The topography of the dunes lends it- self to the formation of marvelous plant societies: great shallow ponds, with their typical borders of marsh-loving plants; deep, sheltered hollows, perfectly dry at the bottom; active stream beds, thickly fringed with willows, alders, and button- bush, with thickets of giant mallows on the mucky shores; north slopes, with trailing arbutus, wintergreen, partridge berry, hepaticas, and violets, and rare ferns and orchids spread in artistic pro- fusion; moving dunes, whose leeward sides extend slowly and surely south, in time covering even tall trees, with their smothering blanket of sand; old dunes, clothed to their crests with vegetation, and at intervals “blow-outs,’ where re- 435 verse winds have uncovered ghostly tree trunks, gray and weather-beaten and en- tirely denuded of bark, but the wood still sound and perfectly preserved by the sand shroud with which it was sur- rounded. PLANT LIFE OF MARVELOUS VARIETY Many trees adapt themselves to the severe conditions on the more exposed dunes, frequently sending out roots from the trunk to take advantage of the en- croaching sand, and if again uncovered the roots immediately function as branches. This is particularly true of the cottonwood, which also sends out roots of remarkable length close to the surface of the sand, in this way making use of surface moisture (see page 430). Trees, shrubs, and many plants from the far north grow side by side with others whose natural habitat is many miles south of the lake, and the plant life is bewildering to the uninitiated and a joy to the botanist. The combination of underlying sand and humus, with abun- 436 Photograph by Frances Ja Follette SAND-DUNE WOODLANDS IN WINTER Each succeeding season among the dunes brings its pictures of natural beauties and scenic charms. dant moisture, makes a condition of soil thatismideal and @ietnesuleiSeayl Getusiamt plant erowth that is almost tropical. The dune-floor vegetation is more striking than the arborescent growth, and the wealth of herbaceous plant life is re- markable. Even on the exposed lake beach and on newly formed sand drifts pioneer plants are constantly springing up. Hardy grasses, sea rockets, artemi- sias, sand cherries, and many others take advantage of the slightest opportunity, and around these plants embryo dunes form, which in time grow and join the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ever-changing and fascinating panorama of dune succession. As soon as a slight covering of humus accumulates, possession is taken) ly.) thie stronger plant growth, and bearberry, juniper, arrow woods, and sumacs soon fill up the vacant spaces, prepar- ing the way for the tree growth that i is waiting its turn. The black oak is the most con- spicuous tree of the older dunes, but it is accompanied by many others, mostly deciduous, al- though there are a few ever- greens and one other conifer— the tamarack. Basswood, poplars, tulip, sassa- fras, juneberry, flowering dog- wood, white and gray pines, and occasionally white oaks, are all to be found in the drier parts of the dunes; and in the lower lands sour gum, red maple, swamp white oak, pawpaw, cherry, and the larger sumacs grow luxuri- antly in the peaty soil. A NEW GREEN FOR EVERY SEASON Fach season in the dunes has its own individual attraction. In springtime the dark greens of pines and junipers make a fit- ting background for the delicate shades of the opening foliage of the deciduous trees, with their soit greens, | pinks, sand @inedss Great splashes of white blossoms of shad bush, cherry, plum, and viburnums ; the striking blossoms of flowering dogwood and button bush ; masses of red maple pendants and the delicate coloring of the oaks make a strong appeal to the esthetic sense of the lover of Nature. Over all the taller growth are scattered © draperies of vines, softening the rigid outlines and adding their blossoms to the marvelous display. The herbaceous plant en is even more varied and wonderful. Great masses of bird’s-foot and other violets, lupines, phlox of different colors, trilliums, waxy bells of wintergreen and blueberry, hepaticas, trailing arbutus—not just a few flowers, INDIANA’S UNRIVALED SAND-DUNES but acres of them and miles of acres—make a natural paradise which cannot be artificially dupli- cated (see page 434). The marshes have their own individuality of sedges, cat tails, reeds, and borders of the larger ferns—royal, cinnamon, and in- terrupted. The Virginia chain fern in one of the drier marshes crowds out the less vigorous plant life, coloring with its fer- tile fronds great stretches of the marsh a beautiful sepia. The blending of browns and greens in the marshes softens the landscape to an exquisite symphony of color in pleasing contrast to the more vivid coloring of the higher land adjoining. AUTUMN’S FLAMING DUNE LANDSCAPE It is in autumn, however, that the dune coloration is at its best, for then the entire region be- comes a flaming landscape of gorgeous reds and yellows. Na- ture goes into her winter rest with a last effort in color that is beyond adequate _ description. The sour gum, red maple, su- macs, and sassafras discard their modesty and vie with each other in a gorgeous riot of autumn coloring. The foliage of the black oak, as it changes, combines mado, eteen, and bronze, and covers the ridges with a garment of beauty. Many of the trees and lesser shrubs and other plants bear edible fruits. providing a sumptuoys larder for hosts of birds and small animals. The bird life of the region surrounding the end of Lake Michigan is very abundant, and during migrations nowhere in the United States are there more varieties of both land and shore birds to be seen than here. Conditions of food, shelter, and cli- mate are particularly favorable for these visitors. Although the game birds are sadly persecuted, they still visit the dunes in great numbers each year, scarcely a A37 Photograph by Frances La Follette THIS IS A SAND-DUNE COVERED WITH SNOW The dune country, easily accessible to 10,000,000 Ameri- cans, has its special lure for every month of the year. season passing without having among its records some rare migratory visitor or new nesting record. The ruffed grouse, golden eagle, horned owl, and the great blue heron still visit the dunes, and in winter-time the evening grosbeak, crossbills, and pine finches are attracted by the wealth of food. Geologically, the dunes and distinctly traceable old shorelines tell the fascinat- ing story of the Glacial period antedat- ing Lake Michigan. The near-by uni- versities bring their classes to the dunes OSROTYD JO JIS 9Y} 0} }LOTJOq WoIZ ACM Jay} PUNo}F ss99UO0Id YuSI.T ay} yey} A1jUNOD suUNP 9y} YBnosy} sem IT ‘saAjasuay} souNp oy} Aq — powsof JozeoyyYydwe [einjeu & Ul poseys A[Soul}jy Sem UOIUL) UPSTIOWY oY} JO Jred & UOTS91 STYy} epeul YSIYM S}UIA dy} JO UOT}eJUaSaId [er10}9Id SIT, SHNOG-GNVS VNVIGNI HHL JO AYOLSIH ATUVA AHL ONIAVALAOd INVADVd V AO ANHOS AHL Joo) ‘_ *H Aq ydessojoyg 438 DOWN MOUNT TOM: as a most necessary object-lesson of their natural-science courses. HISTORIC ASSOCIATIONS IN THE DUNE COUNTRY Historically, also, the dunes have their place in the earlier history of the West. The old Indian trails can still be pointed out, and it was through the dunes that the pioneer French found their way from Deimort to the site of “Chicago, at the mouth of the Chicago River. Nature organizations of Chicago and Indiana have done much to bring the dunes to the attention of thousands of people who never before knew them ex- cept. superficially from the railroad or trolley line, and each year they are be- coming better known and appreciated. As a result of this education the resi- dents of the adjacent country are begin- ning to realize that they have a truly re- markable forest area within a few hours’ ride; that miles of beautiful beaches are free to the tired city dweller, and that Photograph by Irwin S. Rosenfels INDIANA SAND-DUNES here they can go out in the pure air and see the sun rise and set over the lake, without a sign of skyscraper or factory visible anywhere. The consideration of the dunes as a national park has received the serious attention of Congress to the extent that in 1916 a public hearing was held in Chi- cago to gather data in connection with the proposed project. At this hearing hundreds of men and women of promi- nence gave evidence as to its advantages. In the spring of 1917 a pageant was given in a great natural amphitheater in the dunes, which vividly portrayed the early history of the dunes, illustrating with striking exactness the stirring events which made it American. SHAT IEE, BEV ERESERVED © The interest of the public in the dunes has been materially advanced by the pub- lic hearing and the great pageant, and a new epoch has been reached in the cam- paign for theif preservation. If this re- 439 WHEN ARCHITECT WINTER BUILDS AMONG YOU" MIGHT (BE WatE PEARY. SB Oylaslnaeis THE SANDS ONLY THE DUNES : ING DHE + ERICH ARPS: OF NEE DUNES AN ICE BRIDGE ALONG THE DUNES The snow king converts the southern shores of Lake Michigan into the semblance of Green- land’s icy mountains. Photographs by C. G. Dudley. 440 HELIUM, THE NEW BALLOON GAS gion is allowed to pass into the hands of commercial industries, the people of the State of Indiana and of the entire coun- try will lose for all time their free access to Lake Michigan. The importance of prompt action can- not be urged too strongly, as the demand for large tracts of land with railway and water facilities would soon result in the HELIUM, THE NEW By G. SHERBURNE RoGERs, 44] destruction of the natural advantages of this remnant of scenic beauty and fasci- nating forest and plant life. Under commercial occupancy the growth of centuries could be destroyed in a short time. It would be a catastro- phe if this opportunity for preserving an incomparable breathing spot on Lake Michigan should be neglected. BALLOON GAS Pas D OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ELIUM, the new incombustible H gas which promises to revolution- ize the science of ballooning, ap- pears to be the latest addition to the long list of natural products with which the United States is bounteously endowed. In fact, the only workable supplies of the gas that have yet been discovered anywhere in the world are found in the United States, and this country thus has a powerful advantage in the competition for supremacy in the air which the next decade is bound to witness. The history of helium, which derives its name from the fact that it was first discovered in the sun—almost 30 years before it was identified on earth—and which was later found to be related to that most precious and wonderful of all elements, radium, is in itself of interest; but the discovery of the supposedly rare helium in ordinary natural gas by one scientist, the conception of another that helium would be ideal for inflating bal- loons, and the labors of still others in de- vising methods for extracting it from natural gas and in locating supplies ade- quate for this country and its allies, form an interesting chapter in the account of America’s contribution to the war. The qualities of helium that make it so valuable for use in balloons are its light- ness and its incombustibility. Helium is the lightest of the so-called inert gases, which do not combine with oxygen or any other substance and therefore can- not explode or burn.’ Hydrogen, the gas commonly used in filling balloons, is, on the other hand, highly inflammable. Many a great bal- loon, or rigid airship, costing thousands or hundreds of thousands of dollars to construct, has been destroyed by fire in a few minutes—some by lightning, some by sparks from the motor, and others by any one of the numerous accidents that may happen even when the craft is in its hangar. WEAKNESS OF HYDROGEN-FILLED BALLOONS In military balloons or airships the fire hazard is, of course, greatly increased, a single well placed incendiary bullet be- ing sufficient to transform the. whole costly structure into a mass of flames; and in this event the fate of the crew is practically sealed. This weakness, in- herent in all hydrogen-filled balloons, was not only a potent factor in the practical failure of the German Zeppelin program, but has always been a drawback to the development of lighter-than-air craft. With the fire hazard completely elimi- nated by the use of helium, however, the risks of ballooning are greatly decreased and many new possibilities open up. The power plant of the airship may be placed as close as desired to the great gas bag without fear of sparks, and by thus mak- ing the design more compact, and so re- ; ‘UOTJIN.AJSOP JO SaIuIse JY} JO oWIOS d10 JVM JO OWT} UL JoT[NG AreIpusoUT UL IO “SoUTUJYSI] JO 9NOIYS & ‘snyeiedde ssofotIM oY} WoI1Z yreds e “UOIDaUUOD [edTI}DII9 DATJOJap YW “so [q1S1IIp JO} ses jueAonq oy} se posn si Ussoi1pAy se suo] Os ‘aydorjseyeos e YoNS asneo ued sdeysiul FO I109s & JO 9UO Aue JEM UT Se [Jam se govod UT WOTIAH WIGVNWVWIANI-NON HIM GHTTIA NAL OVA DILNVOID aHL GVH WIdISSOdWI Nwid AAVH GINOM WFNUGIOOV NV HONS :-VNOHV INO “TUS IWOl ‘NOO'TVIVE NYOONGAH V 4O NOISOTdXH cl solneuolsy Av} FO uorstarcy Asojznoo ydeasojoyd SD Ars : Pa AS SVE NES 442 AOVd ONIGHOXAd AHL NO NMOHS sorpneuodlgy ATVI JO UOISTATCT Asoyinoo yde1s0j0Y g NOISO’Id Xel pe U ¥ [TL Woh yl V NOOTIVA NYOOUGAH V WO Waar SI PVE TIV 443 44 ducing the wind resistance, the speed and cruising radius of the craft may be ma- terially increased. MACHINE-GUNS CAN BE MOUNTED ON TOP OF AEE M ATLRSEIRS In military airships machine-guns may be mounted directly on the envelope in- stead of being tucked away in the gon- dolas, as far as possible from the dan- gerous gas; and, on the other hand, all danger of attack with incendiary bullets disappears. ‘This is not simply theory; tests have been conducted on model bal- loons filled with helium, and all efforts to explode them or bring them down with incendiary bullets failed. There is always a chance in a thousand that an anti-aircraft shell might explode directly within the envelope, and it might also be possible to bring down a helium- filled balloon by driving an airplane through it bodily, but otherwise it would seem to be invulnerable. Assistant Secretary Roosevelt, of the Navy, has summed up these advantages in his statement that “with the fire risk eliminated, the rigid airship, or Zeppelin, will be one of the most powerful weapons known.” The only apparent disadvantage of helium is the fact that it is about twice as heavy as hydrogen, 100 cubic feet of helium weighing 17.8 ounces and the same volume of hydrogen only 9 ounces. Both gases, however, are so exceedingly light in comparison with air (which weighs 8 pounds per 100 cubic feet) that this is of little practical importance, the buoyancy, or lifting power, of helium be- ing 93 per cent that of hydrogen. More- over, this greater weight has its compen- sations, for hydrogen is so light that it passes through the walls of the gas bag and escapes at a far more rapid rate than helium. THE SUN GAVE US THE CLUE TO: HELIUM Helium is one of nature’s own prod- ucts, being a true chemical element—a body that cannot be broken up or decom- posed into other simpler substances—and is not to be confused with materials like mustard gas, which are manufactured compounds. Helium, moreover, is one of the most interesting of all the elements. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Prior to about 1860 the chemist could deal only with substances that he could actually hold in his hands and weigh on the chemical balance; but the invention of the spectroscope opened up a new held, for it permitted him to study at a distance the gases or vapors given off by all substances when heated. The spectroscope depends on the fa- miliar principle of the prism, which breaks up sunlight into the colors of the rainbow or spectrum; but it is arranged to take advantage of the fact that the light given out by a white-hot mass of iron, for example, produces certain char- acteristic lines rather than the continu- ous band of rainbow colors. Each ele- ment has its characteristic spectrum by which it may be identified, whether it happens to be on the laboratory table or in some distant star. : In 1868 an eclipse of tne sun was visible in India, and for the first time the spectro- scope was used to examine the colored atmosphere which envelops the sun. Many of our familiar earthly elements, like sodium, iron, hydrogen, etc., were identifed, but the British astronomer, Lockyer, observed a bright yellow line in the spectrum which did not correspond with that of any known substance. He concluded, therefore, that he had discov- ered a new element, and named it helium, after the Greek word for the sun, #Auos. HOW HELIUM WAS FOUND ON EARTH It was not until 1895, or twenty-seven years later, that helitm was acmally, found Yon the earth, “and- the wernemm-= stances attending its discovery are inter- esting. Imvis888 Dr. Hillebrand of the Waas: Geological Survey, found that the heavy, black mineral uraninite, when treated with acid, gave off an inactive gas, and having proved that this gas was in part | nitrogen, he concluded, as no other such gases were then known, that it was all nitrogen. Four years later, however, Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay discovered a new element in the atmos- phere—a heavy, inert gas which they named argon. In 1895 Ramsay heard of Hillebrand’s work on the inert gas given off by uran- inite and at once suspected that this gas HELIUM, THE NEW BALLOON GAS 445 tae oe = z aS Official = hor photograph, U. S. Naval Air Service RESCUING AN AVIATOR FROM ONE OF THE FLORIDA KEYS To demonstrate the ease and accuracy with which its dirigibles can be navigated, the crew of one of the U. S. Navy’s airships “marooned” one of their number on an island and sailed away. After a brief cruise, the dirigible was brought back and its rope ladder dropped over- board, within reach of the aviator who had been left behind. In the photograph the rescued man is seen climbing afoft as their airship resumes its journey. might contain argon. Accordingly, he extracted some of the gas for himself; but he, too, was mistaken, for it proved to be not argon, but the element helium, which Lockyer had seen in the sun so long before. After that, oddly enough, it was only a year or so before various other chem- ists detected helium in the atmosphere, in the gas given off by mineral springs, and in the volcanic fumes of Vesuvius. None of these gases, however, contain more than a fraction of one per cent of helium—the atmosphere itself contains only four ten-thousandths of one per cent—and although helium was _ thus found to be widely distributed, it was always regarded as one of the rare ele- ments. Although the discovery of helium in natural gas has proved to be a great boon to the United States, it was a rather sor- Photograph courtesy Division of Military Aéronautics MILITARY OBSERVERS DESCENDING IN PARACHUTES FROM THEIR BALLOON The observation balloon, which has been successfully attacked by a Hun aviator, can be seen far above. A moment after the taking of this photograph, at Dravigny, France, the kite balloon burst into flames as the result of incendiary bullets fired into its hydrogen-filled bag (see illustration, next page). ‘The two observers can be clearly distinguished swinging safely to earth, sustained by the graceful white parachutes. 446 Photograph courtesy Division of Military Aéronautics INCENDIARY BULLETS, WHICH DESTROYED THIS OBSERVATION BALLOON, WILL HAVE NO TERRORS FOR THE AERONAUTS OF THE NEXT WAR (FOR THE FIRST PHASE OF THIS INCIDENT OF THE WAR IN THE AIR, SEE THE PRECEDING. PAGE) At the time of the signing of the armistice, America was just entering upon quantity pro- duction of helium. The first shipment to France of 150,000 cubic feet of the new balloon gas had been made. Gas fields already located in the United States are capable of producing, if the necessity arises, 250,000,000 cubic feet of helium gas annually for the next three years, and there are excellent prospects that other fields will he found. 447 tak NATIONAL ChOGwA PEG Wi\G \ZiNis Photograph from U. S. Naval Observatory CORONA OF THE SUN DURING A TOTAL ECLIPSE: SCIENCE DISCOVERED HELIUM IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF THE SUN LONG BEFORE IT WAS KNOWN TO EXIST ON OUR OWN PLANET It was during a total eclipse of the sun, visible in India in 1868, that Lockyer, a British astronomer, saw in the spectroscope a bright yellow line which did not correspond to the line of any then known element. Hie called it helium, after the Greek word for sun. Twenty- seven years later an element was found on earth which gave the same bright yellow line in the spectrum. Thus, what the sun had revealed half a century ago as existing more than ninety million miles beyond our reach, began to be studied at first hand in 1895. Today that gas promises to make the ship of the skies a safe and practical reality. rowful event for one of its good citizens. In 1903 a well was drilled at the little vil- lage of Dexter, in southern Kansas, and a great flow of natural gas was encoun- tered. The nearest gas field at that time lay a considerable distance to the east, and the owner of the well, having visions of Dexter becoming a great manufactur- ing center, invited the countryside to assemble and celebrate the event. On the day appointed, and in the pres- ence of a goodly crowd, the well was opened and the gas allowed to roar forth; whereupon, in order to make the demon- stration dramatically complete, a lighted torch was thrust into the gas—and the HELIUM, THE NEW BALLOON GAS torch promptly went out. Several more attempts were made, but the gas abso- lutely refused to burn. Gloom descended on the assemblage, and visions of cheap fuel and manufacturing wealth ~ went elimmering. A sample of this gas was sent to the University of Kansas for analysis and the secret of its firéproof qualities was at once revealed, for it was found to con- tain only about 14 per cent of the com- bustible hydrocarbons which ordinarily make up natural gas, and to consist for the most part of nitrogen. : MILLIONS OF: FEET OF HELIUM GAS WASTED As nothing like this had been discoy- eicamoctone, ror. Elx P. Cady, of the University of Kansas, examined this inert portion of the gas further and finally discovered helium in it. He at once collected samples of gas from a number of other localities in Kansas and elsewhere and found a little helium in all but one; but the Dexter sample, which contained 1.84 per cent, was the richest of all. | I may add that all our recent work has confirmed this relation; gases high in nitrogen, and therefore poor in heating value, are likely to carry considerable helium; and, on the other hand, no high- grade hydrocarbon gas has been found to carry enough helium to be of value. The announcement of Professor Cady’s discovery created some interest in scien- tific circles, but as no one knew of any practical use for helium it had no com- mercial value. After the Dexter episode similar gas was found at many points in southern Kansas, but because of its poor burning qualities it was contemptuously called the “wind gas.” It was generally encoun- tered at shallow depths by wells aiming for the deeper-lying oil sands, and, being usually under enough pressure to inter- fere with the drilling, was regarded as a great nuisance. It was customary to allow this wind gas to blow wild into the air until ex- hausted; and how many million cubic feet of valuable helium have been wasted in this way no one can ever estimate. No one seems to know just who con- 449 ceived the idea of using helium in bal- loons, though apparently it originated in England. Like all great ideas, it is beau- tifully simple; yet, so long had helium been regarded simply as a chemical curi- osity, that apparently the stimulus of war was necessary for the correlation of two well-known facts: first, that helium would be ideal for balloons; and, second, that plentiful supplies were available. At any rate, within a few months after the war began a search for helium in the gases of English coal mines was started, but 1t met with no success. It was later extended to Canada, but the quantities of helium found in the natural gas there were too small to be of value. Italy, when she entered the war, also took a hand in the search, and unsuccess- ful attempts were made to extract helium from the volcanic gases that issue from the fumaroles around Naples. ORGANIZING THE CAMPAIGN FOR HELIUM PRODUCTION When the United States joined the Allies, the military value of helium was at once brought to the attention of the Army and Navy authorities, and a vigor- ous campaign was begun for the produc- tion of helium in quantities sufficient not only for this country, but for England and France as well. The two main problems were obvious: first, to develop methods of extracting helium from the natural gas; and, sec- ond, to determine the geologic occurrence of the gas, and so to locate adequate supplies. The task of developing methods of ex- tracting the gas was accomplished by the Bureau of Mines, acting in codperation ~ with the Army and Navy. Late in 1917 two small experimental plants using dif- ferent methods were erected in Fort Worth) lexaswto treat othe as) onthe Petrolia field; and some months later a third plant, using still a different method, was erected in the field itself. As the apparatus used in all these pro- cesses requires rather delicate adjustment — and manipulation, some time was natu- rally consumed in determining the most efficient working conditions; but just prior to the armistice the first shipment of 150,000 cubic feet of helium, com- 450 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pressed and stored in steel tanks, had been started to Europe. This was enough to fill four of the ordi- nary kite balloons, though the large dirigibles require one to two million or more cubic feet of gas. A GREAT ACCOMPLISHMENT © Huddleston Studio A SEXTET OF SKY-SCRAPERS READY FOR A FLIGHT AT U. S. ARMY BALLOON SCHOOL, ARCADIA, CALIFORNIA Although quantity production of helium was achieved just too late to be of value in the actual hostilities, it was in itself a great accomplish- ment, for the world’s total output of helium up to 1915 was probably less than 100 cubic feet, the market value of which was about $1,700 a cubic foot. Our helium Yomebne other hand, can be produced by the first two methods at less than 10 cents a cubic foot, and ithe tine process fulfills the expectations of Bureau of Mines experts, this fig- ure will be still further reduced. | All. of our helium so ‘tare howe ever, has been the product of the first two experimental plants; the third plant has not yet been put on a. practical working basis, though the fact that it holds promise of produc- ing helium much more cheaply than the other two justifies further ex- perimentation with it. The details of the process of ex- tracting helium are highly technical, but the general scheme is easily understood. All of the main con- stituents of natural gas, including the nitrogen, become liquefied when cooled to about —328° Fahrenheit ; but the helium remains a gas at this exceedingly low temperature and is thus easily separated. The principle by which these low , but as its lifting power ge Navy dirigible airship has cost in the neighborhood of $4,000. perdreadnought of the skies, the The avera At the present price of hydrogen, the The British su gas. O cents a cubic foot $850 to $1,100). ,000 to $30,000 worth of hydrogen gas. anufactured at less than 1 his non-inflammable substance would © Cc , now being tested, proves practical. 5 gen from 2 y has a capacity of 35,000 cubic feet of 750,000 cubic feet, which represents $ can now be m Helium gas 5. (costing for inflation with hydro $300 and $37 , inflation of a similar type of balloon with t reduced if a third method of manufacture The standard observation balloon of the United States Arm oo temperatures are attained is one = oe s known to every motorist who 1s un- ¢g*-3-2 fortunate enough to have to pump £9282 up his own tires. When air is com- “32g pressed in a tire it becomes hors i e228 the tire is allowed to cool to ordi- £65 nary temperature and the valve is Fe es then opened and the air allowed to S3_.2 escape, it becomes cool. Sees Similarly, the natural gas is put Bee a wince a very high pressure and then ‘on = refrigerated, and when a ie 2526 expand it becomes so cold tha aT Si, ae of its constituents except helium be HELIUM, THE NEW BALLOON GAS come liquid. The liquid, after being sepa- rated from the helium gas, is allowed to warm up until it returns to its normal gaseous condition, when it is put back into the mains and used as ordinary natural gas. This process does not in the least in- (irene @éality ot the natural gas for heating purposes—in fact, it improves it, for the helium, the only substance re- moved, is incombustible. THE SEARCH FOR HELIUM-BEARING GASES While the experimental work on ex- tracting helium was under way, members of the Geological Survey, of whom I was “one, were engaged in a search for further supplies of the helium-bearing gas, for it was very evident that the Petrolia, Texas, field, in which operations were started, would supply only a- fraction of the quantity desired by the United States alone. Furthermore, a gas field is an ephemeral thing, some fields lasting ten years and others only a year or so; so that it was necessary not only to keep the supply ahead of the demand, but to esti- mate as closely as possible how long each field would last, and in this way avoid the mistake of installing expensive machinery in a practically exhausted field. This work was begun in June, 1918, and in September the Geological Survey was able to advise the military authori- ties that sufficient supplies of the gas had been located to furnish over five million cubic feet of helium per week, or enough to meet the demands of the United States and of Great Britain and France as well. The search for helium was simplified by the fact that all the helium-rich gases are apparently poor in heating value, and information as to the heating quality of a gas is usually not difficult to obtain. fie snichest gas is the wind) gas > 01 southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma, which for so many years had consistently been allowed to go to waste. A sample of this gas which I collected in the Augusta field, Kans., contained over 2 per cent of helium and is the richest variety known. WHERE AND HOW THE GAS OCCURS We soon found, moreover, that in the Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas fields the helium gas occurs only in a certain group 451 of geologic formations, and that in the strata above and below this group the helium content is very low. Another characteristic of the rich gas is its com- mon occurrence at shallow depths—the best gas usually occurs above 600 or 800 feet, and gas in sands deeper than 1,600 feet is very poor in helium. These three principles, once established, narrowed down the promising areas con- siderably and permitted intensive studies of the richest supplies. In some of the best fields practically every gas well was sampled, the samples being taken in small steel tubes, especially designed for the purpose, and sent immediately to the Bu- reau of Mines laboratory for analysis. Possible sources outside of the Kansas- Oklahoma-Texas area were not neglected, however ; many samples were collected in Ohio, Wyoming, Louisiana, Montana, California, and elsewhere, but only in Ohio were valuable supplies discovered. OUR LARGEST HELIUM FIELD The largest of the helium gas fields is Petrolia, which 1s located on the flat prai- ries of northern Texas, about 100 miles north of Fort Worth. The gas here is found in sands from 1,400 to 1,600 feet deep and carries practically 1 per cent of helium, which is regarded as a good working proposition. It is the Petrolia gas that is now being treated by the small experimental plants, and the Government has taken a ten- year lease on the helium output of the field and is now erecting plants capable of turning out at least 50,000 cubic feet a day. At present there are about fifty gas wells in Petrolia, some of which origi- nally produced as much as 30 or 40 mil- lion cubic feet of raw gas a day. When the field was first opened, about 1910, the gas issued under a pressure of 700 pounds per square inch, but the field has now seen its best days and the pressure has declined to less than 100 pounds. Had the demand for helium come three years earlier, Petrolia alone could prob- ably have furnished enough to satisfy the military program of the United States, but the production of the field has now fallen to a point where the helium con- tent totals less than a million cubic feet ‘ysiqqni Sesioew jo wee poyeuey e 01 JoAY YJowweuw Suge! donpst 0} JUsIOYFNS uo0q San p[nom “ses LSeOpAT ate) $]U19}109 » S}I Suipojdxe pue SU Ooh. oy} Suljiust pue suryono4y zane 24} WoOIZ yreds a[ouls YW ‘syor}e sued -I1e JSUIVSe BSUdJap JO} seq oy} JO do} uo uns ® JUnOW 0} sooeid snolosuep & sem UI ‘So[qIstitp JO ses Surly] oy} se wMITIY FO 9sn dy} a10Jog AdOTIANA HHL AO dol NO daLNOOW NAS V DNIMOHS ‘ALYVd ONIGNVI V dO SENVH AH NI dIHSUIV ‘IVLSVOO V a week. When the first gas well was drilled at Petrolia, I estimate that the field contained slightly over a_ billion cubic feet of helium, which is a pretty respectable accumulation for a “rare ele- ment.” About 100 miles south of Petrolia lies the great oil and gas region in which the famous Ranger field is located. The gas fence district occurs im formations slightly older than the helium-rich strata farther north, and for this reason we had little hope that it would prove helium- bearing; but, needless to say, this infer- ence was checked—and fully confirmed— by actual tests. I believe, however, if gas is discovered, as it probably will be, in the area southwest of Petrolia that it will prove to be of value for its helium content. THE HELIUM-BEARING AREA OF KANSAS The helium-bearing area of Kansas is far larger than any yet discovered in Texas and contains a number of fields which in the aggregate yields much more gas than Petrolia. Some of the Kansas 453 Official photograph, U. S. Naval Air Service U. S. NAVY DIRIGIBLE. C-I READY TO START ON A 1,500-MILE FLIGHT FROM ROCKAWAY BEACH, LONG ISLAND, TO KEY WEST, FLORIDA gas, moreover, contains twice as much helium as the Petrolia gas, though on the average the Kansas variety is only slightly richer. The Eldorado field—the richest oil field ever developed in Kansas, and one of the most prolific fields of high-grade oil in the world—yields gas which aver- ages about 1% per cent of helium. This gas is found at a depth of goo to 1,200 feet, or considerably above the rich oil sands. A few miles to the south is the Augusta field, which yields two distinct varieties of gas—a “wind gas,” practically incom- bustible, which occurs at 500 feet and carries: about 2. per -cent‘of helium, and a deeper gas which carries about half a penecemb: The gas resources of both these fields have fallen off considerably in the last few years, though the total helium con- tent of their combined product is still nearly a million cubic feet per week. The old Dexter field, in which the helium-bearing gas was first discovered, is now exhausted, though the early diffi- ‘DJIOM dy} UL otoyMAUL UMOUY WNY FO UOIPE[NUINIR 4so}e918 9} SI Sollieid SNOUO}JOUOUT aso} yyeous g SCISIA SVO WOITHH UNO AO LSHOUVI AHL ‘SVX4L “VIIOULd LV STTIM AHL FO MAIA V AIAING [VIBOJOI *S *—) Wo1z sydeisojoyg “jJUNWIUIDAOS 9Y} Aq posn Sulaq MOU pue eI[OIJOg 3e puNo; se3 oy} ueY} wHIPoY UT J9YyoII ATJYSI[S ses soonpotsd osye yt pue ‘sesueyy Ul podoyaaap JOA PII [IO Jsoyors SHSQOHAUOLS WOAITHH SHYALVN JO XNO :SVSNVM “GTHIT OdVYOCTA AHL NI SMAIA oy} St SIL, 454 HELIUM, THE NEW BALLOON GAS culties in the way of burning the gas were overcome, and for years it was pro- duced in large volumes and used as fuel. HELIUM GAS THE BANE OF HOUSEWIVES To light a gas stove in Dexter, how- ever, was always a difficult feat, and it became a matter of pride on the part of every good housewife to develop the dex- terity necessary to this operation. The stove was first filled with crumpled news- paper, which was set afire; then the gas was turned on, its flow being skillfully manipulated, until by the time the paper had burned out the gas had become hot enough to take fire. About 7,000 cubic feet of this gas was necessary to produce the heat of 1,000 cubic feet of the ordinary variety, how- ever, and we who think of gas at a dollar a thousand will pray that no such variety is discovered in our own neighborhoods. Although the old Dexter field is ex- hausted, there is favorable territory in the vicinity in which further supplies may be discovered, and about 20 miles east- ward lies the Sedan field, which produces gas carrying over I per cent of helium. At present the actual production of this field is small, but this is chiefly because there is little market for the gas on ac- count of its poor heating qualities. With proper development, this area may be- come the most prolific of all. The Geological Survey is preparing to issue a detailed report on the helium- bearing gas fields and a further descrip- tion of them here would be tedious. The only promising source of supply outside of the mid-continent area is lo- cated in Vinton County, Ohio, about 80 miles south of Columbus. This gas oc- curs in strata considerably older than those in the Kansas and Texas areas and Comtams only a third of a per cent of helium; but, on the other hand, there is an enormous quantity available and it is under high pressure. Whether it could Hesworked ‘at a profit by the present methods is doubtful; but if the new ex- traction process materializes, it should make this great supply available as a commercial source of helium. The gases of Louisiana, Wyoming, Montana, and California occur in strata that are much younger than those of the 455 mid-continent area, and I think there is little prospect of locating a helium supply in those States. The fields already described, however, are capable of producing, if necessary, a quarter of a billion cubic feet of helium a year for the next three years, and there is an excellent chance that further sup- plies will be discovered in northern Texas, northern Oklahoma, and southern Kansas. NO OTHER COUNTRIES HAVE DISCOVERED RICH. HELIUM RESOURCES So far as we know, no other countries have any commercial supplies of helium, though it would, of course, be foolish to state that none will ever be discovered. Great Britain, however, was thoroughly searched for helium gases during the war without success. : In France there are some mineral springs which emit gas rich in helium, but the total volume per year is insignifi- cant. Far larger volumes of helium are contained in the “fire-damp” of French and Belgium coal mines, but the propor- tions are so small that there is little hope of extracting the helium commercially. The return of Alsace puts France in possession of an oil field in which some gas is produced, but the normal variety contains only a trace of helium. A deep test-hole near Pechelbronn, however, found in the older formations a little gas which carries 0.4 per cent. In Italy some gas is produced on the northern flank of the Apennines, but two analyses of this gas showed only very minute quantities of helium. Germany produces a little gas near Hamburg, but the helium content is only 0.014 per cent, and the Austrian gas pro- duced near Wels contains even less. The only gas field in Europe which compares in size with our American fields is located in Transylvania, and several analyses of this gas show less than 0.002 . per cent helium. The Roumanian and Galician oil fields on the Carpathian front yield very little gas, and the Baku fields of Russia are also primarily oil producers. Some gas has been found in Russia, near Samara, which carries considerable nitrogen, and may possibly be helium- 456 bearing, but there is not much likelihood of its becoming a commercial source. HOW DOES HELIUM GAS HAPPEN? It is a pity that the story of helium can- not be closed with a theory explaining its origin and occurrence, but no satisfactory theory has yet been suggested. Geolo- gists believe that natural gas itself is a product of the decay of the vegetable and animal remains buried in the rocks; but, as helium is found also in mineral spring and volcanic gases, this seems to have no special significance. Some believe that the helium has arisen from great depths in the earth and has simply mingled with whatever gases it happened to meet, but the largest volumes of helium are found in regions remote from any known fissures through which the gas could ascend, and, furthermore, it is difficult to understand why the helium should rise almost to the surface and there remain. There is, of course, an enormous vol- ume, in the aggregate, of helium in the at- mosphere (where it is about as valuable as the gold in sea-water), but there is no good reason to suppose that the helium in natural gas has been absorbed from that source. THE RADIUM THEORY There is a third possibility, more at- tractive and fascinating, perhaps, than the other two, namely, that helium is derived from radium. Every one now knows the wonderful qualities of radium—its property of giv- ing off heat enough to burn the flesh if a tiny grain of radium is placed on it; its faculty of being luminous in the dark, and so on. Radium is ordinarily con- sidered one of the chemical elements, but its discovery upset all the old notions about the permanency and indivisibility Of the elements: for the extracrdinary properties of radium are due to the fact that it is continually breaking down, at a slow, but constant, rate, into other sub- stances. One of these substances is a gas called radium emanation, and this in turn breaks down into another body, called Radium A, and so on through a whole chain of THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE similar substances until it finally becomes the unromantic element which we call lead. 3 This is only half the story, however, for when radium breaks down into the emanation, the other substance formed is helium, and as each one of the other radio-elements disintegrates it also gen- erates helium. It is curious to reflect that these changes are constantly proceeding, even in the minute quantities of radium in the luminous dials of our watches, and that under our watch crystals infinitesi- mal volumes of helium are being gen- erated hourly. RADIUM WIDELY DISSEMINATED As the world’s total output of refined and purified radium amounts to only four or five ounces, valued at over three mil- lion dollars an ounce, it may well be asked how so rare and precious a substance can be called upon to explain the vast ac- cumulations of helium in natural gas. As a matter of fact, however, although deposits of radium ore rich enough to mine are few, the element itself is widely disseminated through ordinary rocks. The quantities are so exceedingly minute that were it not for the great activity of radium, it could never be detected; but by the use of an instrument known as the electroscope, incomparably more delicate than the finest-assayers’ balance, the pres- ence of only a few trillionths of 1 per cent of radium in a rock may easily be determined. The amount of radium in a pound of rock or in a ton is utterly insignificant, but the total quantity in a cubic mile is enough to generate, according to a cal- culation of mine, about half a cubic foot of heliuma year. This, too, sounds small ; but multiply the cubic mile by a few thou- sand and the year by a few million and © the total volume of helium begins to as- sume formidable proportions. There is really little doubt but what there is enough radium scattered through the earth’s crust to account for all the helium we know of, though whether the helium actually did originate in this way is a matter concerning which scientists disagree. INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV—JULY-DECEMBER, 1918—WILL BE MAILED TO MEMBERS UPON REQUEST MOE. SXXV, No. 6 WASHINGTON JUNE, 1919 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ‘ COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. WASHINGTON, D. C. TEE} VEEN NTAL Cary ihe Romance of Geneva, Capital of The League of Nations By Ratrtpu A. GRAVES AUTHOR OF “FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE PAST,” HETHER the League of Na- \\ tions prove a will-o’-the-wisp, leading peoples into a morass of war-breeding misunderstandings, or the beacon guiding them into the paths of perpetual peace, Geneva, its capital, will be known henceforth as the Millennial City. . If the League succeeds, the Swiss municipality will become the city set on a hill, the center of man’s moral universe. Viscount Bryce has said that there are four cities that beiong to all men rather than to any one nation—cities that have influenced the whole world, or round which its history has at one time or an- other revolved; cities in which students and philosophers from every country are equally imterested. #o these four—Je- rusalem, Athens, Rome, and Constanti- nople—must now be added Geneva. Jerusalem gave to western civilization its religion. Athens was our great pre- ceptress in liberty, literature, and art. Rome was the mother who gave us our laws and to most of us our language, while the power of her political and ec- clesiastical institutions still sways half the globe. Constantinople, after the sacking of Rome, became the preserver of civili- zation, was the birthplace of the Justinian Code, the seat of an empire for fifteen “SHIPS FOR THE SEVEN SEAS,” ETC. hundred years, and the link between the waning glories of the Orient and the growing splendors of the Occident. Gen- eva now becomes the fountain-head of what may be either the most noble tri- umph or the most colossal failure in the history of human endeavor. A HALF-WAY HOUSE BETWEEN BELLIGER- ENTS DURING THE WAR Seated serenely on both banks af the River Rhone, where it leaves the limpid waters of Lake Geneva as a placid stream, in contrast to the muddy turbulence of its ingress at the other end of the lake, Gen- eva is not the metropolis of the miniature Republic of Switzerland, for Zurich sur- passes it in population by 50 per cent and Bern is the capital. But it is doubtful whether before the world war any other city of its size was visited annually by as many tourists, for it was the main gate- way into the world-famous “playground of Europe.” During the European conflict many of the finest Swiss hotels, which in seasons past have entertained thousands of Amer- icans, suffered greatly for lack of wealthy patronage, and the federal government found it advisable to come to their financial relief by passing an ordinance UI poloyoue syeoq Aipuney] jo ey]I10 3 : f syoo SUT}CUIOSe} SSO] OU a1e je Se tape 3 ee Se Dee Ns er eke a ee Sm, punos3eq niu ldo au clisaas cata sio}eM provjd oy} Ur prorat ApUeSUOD se a SPOUSE [EASATG ou) “MOM, JO cules ay} JO yeas yuoueusod Supe Wiad cosene ay ae ae I ny SUISURYIIDAD PUe S}YSIoy IsoyM suTe}UNOW Aq PaposIOUE Octo Mie Ba SOMOS nie SEMEL Tey ) I UR 9SIM JY} }OMP oto] 6 AIMV'I IVLSAYO AHL AO SYA TLVM ONIdAHIS AHL WOU SANSSI 1 - ¢ LI AWIHM SANOHY WAIN AHL AGIMLSV ‘VAANWAD 458 be eee: Poo ueyig: morons aS isin Rey EpaSabIR SUGRNSINS) RHRERRS: Bask BESSA Es VERE NINTAL Clty extending the time for payment of in- terest on mortgages. Other hostelries, however, were as crowded during the four years of horror and bloodshed as are the fashionable caravansaries of New York during Horse Show and Automobile Show weeks. But it was a kind of patronage different from any to which Geneva had catered since the days of the Reformation. Refugees from the belligerent countries flocked here, and thousands of interned soldiers were fed and housed by the government at a con- tract price, the country to which the sol- dier belonged reimbursing the Swiss. Here, too, assembled the propagan- dists of every creed and complexion. Geneva, and in fact all Switzerland, fairly seethed with plot and counterplot, as agents and spies trafficked in military secrets and in the honor of foreign public officials. Here the nascent nations of middle Europe organized their bureaus of publicity and sent forth their pleas for recognition. Thus the Republic became the busy half-way house between the bel- ligerent forces. THE SORROWS AND GLORIES OF GENEVA’S PAST Although its recorded history goes back beyond the Christian era, to the time when Julius Cesar, in his commentaries on his first expedition into Gaul, mentions it as a stronghold of the Allobroges, its growth has been phenomenal only in its leisure- liness. Today, after twenty centuries, it has less than one-third the population of the century-old capital of the United States. But size has never been an infallible criterion by which to appraise influence. In the days of Peritles, the period of her greatest glory, Athens could boast of only 50,000 freemen—scarcely more than would have filled the stadium of Herodes Atticus, laid out by Lycurgus in the suc- ceeding century! Coupled with the heroism of the strug- gle of the Genevese against the Dukes of Savoy to secure political independence was the noble humanitarianism which prompted its inhabitants to accord shelter and succor to the fugitives from the sham- bles of the St. Bartholomew massacres 459 in France and the persecutions during that era in England. The city enjoys the distinction of being the birthplace of the International Red Cross, but also has some dark chapters in its past—the religious excesses of the Reformation, when the persecuted be- came the persecutors. With such historic events must be as- sociated the names of native sons, vis- itors, and exiles whose lives have added luster to the city and romance to its story. Rousseau, of whom Napoleon said, “Without him, France would not have had her Revolution” ; and the patriot Bonivard, whose trials Byron immortal- — ized as the Prisoner of Chillon, were Gen- evans) Hagel the Sailya SuinGayatOr sais day, who could not be made to desist from preaching, even though the women of his congregation dragged him up and down the aisles of the church by his beard, made the lake city his headquarters during his ascendancy. And John Calvin, “who found Geneva a bear garden and left ita docile school of piety,” was virtual dicta- tor here for a quarter of a century. Here, too, came Voltaire, who, as an exile from the court of Frederick the Great and from his own France, found it “very pleasant to live in a country where rulers borrow your carriage to come to dine with you.” John Knox, the Scotch reformer, described this, his city of refuge, as “the place where I fear nor ashame to say is the most perfect. school of Christ that ever was on the earth since the days of the Apostles”; but Madame de Staél, even amid the luxury of her Coppet estate, could not be reconciled to her banishment from Paris, as she gazed upon the sublimest glaciers of the Swiss Alps and sighed for “a sight of the gutters of the Rue du Bac.” Byron and Shelley spent the fruitful summer of 1816 in ad- joining villas in the outskirts. A PHANTOM PROCESSION OF THE GREAT Such are the people of Geneva’s past— some gay, but most grave—with whom we can promenade arm in arm in phan- tom procession through the beautiful Jardin Anglais; along quays from which we glimpse the gleaming radiance of Mont Blanc; beneath the magnificent monument erected to the memory of © Donald Met aien THE CASTLE ON LAKE GENEVA WHERE THE PRISONER OF CHILLON WAS CONFINED FOR SIX YEARS After his release from the dungeon of this castle, Francois de Bonivard, the original of Byron’s “Prisoner of Chillon,’ was commissioned to write a history of Geneva. His style was more forceful than elegant. For example, in speaking of the manner in which the city was hemmed in by its enemies, he wrote: “One could scarcely spit over the walls without spitting on the Duke of Savoy,” and “As the glutton likes a good plump fowl, so the Duke likes Gen- eva.” without getting their feet wet.” Duke Charles ‘or Brunswick) who be- queathed 20,000,000 francs to the city he loved so well; through the narrow, step- like streets of the old town up to the eleventh century cathedral, and to the por- tals of the famous Hotel de Ville, within the shadow of whose walls Servetus heard pronounced the sentence of death at the stake. It is a poor European city that cannot trace its origin back to the age of myth and mythology. It took Geneva a long time to extend its family tree to Hellenic days, but traditionists now declare that four centuries ago there was discovered in the castle of Chillon a document which makes the lake city a contender with Rome for antiquity. It will be remembered that the Eternal City was founded by the descendants of Afneas and his followers, who escaped He likened some of his timorous fellow-patriots to “those who want to catch the fish from the Greeks after the fall of Troy. Geneva, which under Calvin’s régime was to acquire the appellation, the “Protest- ant Rome,” likewise turns to Troy for its traditional founder — Lemanus, son of Paris, whose abduction of the fair Helen from the palace of Menelaus brought on the Trojan war. And, to provey tients case, Genevan guide-books point to their lake, Leman (from the old Latin name for Lake Geneva, revived in the eigh- teenth century), named in honor of their mythical progenitor. Leaving the realm of fiction and tradi- tion, the settlement at the southwestern extremity of the Alpine lake remained under the domination of Rome from the time of Cesar until the break-up of the empire. In that period of five centuries it was twice razed—once by the Ostro- goths and once by Attila and his Huns. 460 A MARINE BUTTERFLY ASAIL IN THE SHADOW OF THE SWISS ALPS The advent of many commodious saloon steamers on Lake Geneva has not banished en- tirely these picturesque craft with their lateen sails of red. The first steamer to ply the waters of the lake was the Guillaume Tell, built in Geneva by an Englishman 96 years ago. 461 THE GENEVA LIGHTHOUSE The level of the waters of Lake Geneva is subject to curious fluctuations, known as seiches. During these disturbances the whole mass of water in the lake swings rhythmically from shore to shore. A seiche has been known to cause a fluctuation of six feet in the level of the water at Geneva. One explanation advanced for this phenomenon is the sudden varia- tion in atmospheric pressure on the surface of the lake. 462 Lae Meee NNTAL Criy In 800, together with the rest of the ter- ritory now embraced in Switzerland, it was an integral part of Charlemagne’s dominions. Then for six centuries the city’s history presents no points of com- pelling interest, the chief events being a succession of struggles between the prince-bishops and the counts of Gene- vois and Savoy for ascendancy. A (CIMENG Ol? (CA WAa ING In spite of political turmoil within and the constant danger of attack from with- out, this was an era of gayety in Geneva. Every one took life lightly. In the even- ings, behind locked gates of the land for- tifications and with the lake front pro- tected by a row of stakes interwoven with heavy chains, the Genevese made the nar- row streets their drawing-rooms. Be- neath the flare of flambeaux they held high carnival, the women of exalted de- gree mingling with the common folk and dancing in the open with the gallants of the day. | The fact that during the day these streets were filled with lepers and beggars did not oppress the revelers. Nor was the cost of living high, if we are to ac- cept the testimony of travelers, in whose diaries we find the entry that entertain- ment could be had at such inns as the Cocd Vinegar, the Hot Kuite, or the Crowned Ox for man and beast at five pence a day! THE SWISS CONFEDERACY A FRIEND IN NEED Geneva probably would have been ab- sorbed into the possessions of the Italian House of Savoy at this period in her his- tory had it not been for the assistance Momence to time of the cities ot the Swiss Confederacy. In the fifteenth cen- tury Fribourg, a prosperous cloth manu- facturing community, formed a commer- cial alliance with the Genevese, whose fairs were famous throughout western Europe. This alliance aroused the ire of the reigning Duke of Savoy, who was the father-in-law of Louis XI of France. He induced that sovereign to forbid French merchants to attend the Geneva fairs, and at the same time to change the time for holding the rival Lyons fairs, so 463 that they would conflict with those of the lake city. This was a serious blow and very nearly effected the commercial ruin of the Genevese. During the first quarter of the six- teenth century, after the Reformation had gained full headway in middle Europe, a staunch Geneva patriot, Philibert Ber- thelier, succeeded in concluding a de- fensive alliance with Fribourg against Savoy, but not without bitter opposition from a strong ducal party in Geneva it- self. The city was divided into two hos- tile factions—the Mamelukes, adherents of the Duke, and the Fidgenossen, or partisans of the Swiss Confederacy. It is interesting to note that from this term Fidgenossen (literally, oath companions) is supposed to have been derived the word Huguenot, subsequently applied to the French Protestants of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. THE PRISONER OF CHILLON One of the most picturesque figures in the history of Geneva during this period was Berthelier’s associate in arms, Fran- cois de Bonivard, who, when his victori- ous friends rushed into his dungeon at Chillon crying, “Bonivard, you are free!” responded with the query, “And Gen- eva?” Upon being assured that his city was also saved, he went home rejoicing. Bonivard was a man of many contra- dictions. In inn and tavern he plotted revolution with compatriots who styled themselves the Children of Geneva. He engaged in armed strife for the possession of the priory of Saint Victor, and waged guerrilla warfare against a band of young “bloods” of Savoy, who called themselves Knights of the Spoon because they wore about their necks spoons with which to “eat” Geneva when they should capture it. He bore with sangfroid his six years’ imprisonment in the Castle of Chillon, four of which were spent in the dungeon beneath the level of the lake, chained to a pillar so that he could walk only three steps back and forth. He defended him- self against the charge of beating one of his four successive wives by proving that “she needed it,” thereby causing the re- proof of the council to be shifted from his shoulders to hers, and in a subsequent domestic tragedy played a chivalric réle © Donald McLeish THE TOWER OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. PIERRE AND THE HOUSE IN WHICH JOHN KNOX, THE SCOTCH REFORMER, RESIDED DURING HIS SOJOURN IN GENEVA IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY The cathedral, which crowns the highest point in the old section of the city, is a Roman- esque structure, said to have been erected during the first half of the eleventh century and rebuilt in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. One of its treasured relics is a chair under the pulpit, which is said to have belonged to Calvin. 404 THE Mar eENNIAL? CITy worthy of one of the Arthurian knights. Such was the stormy career of this Gen- evan. THE LAST TRAGIC EPISODE The story of the last grim episode in his life deserves to be told. Having reached the age of nearly three- score and ten, and while still engaged in his literary pursuits, one of his works be- ing his “Chroniques de Geneve,” which he was commissioned to write by the City Fathers, Bonivard took into his house a - young woman who had fled to him for protection. The kindly act scandalized the proprie- ties of the religious community and he was called upon to marry the girl. All arguments that his relations with his ward were of a Platonic nature, and that he was old enough to be her grandfather, were of no avail. The marriage was sol- emnized. In a short time Bonivard’s worst fears were realized. This fourth wife, weary of her septuagenarian spouse, became in- volved in a love affair and the guilty pair were haled to trial. . Bonivard, who had not lodged the com- plaint, loyally testified in his wife’s be- half, declaring that he did not believe the charges, and that she had always been a dutiful helpmate, his only cause for com- plaint being (and here we may assume that the veteran was adroitly pleading his wife’s cause with the intense religion- ists who were her judges) that she had nagged him for his remissness in preach- ing the gospel and had beaten him for in- viting friends to his house to drink wine. It was a noble effort, but the evidence against the young wife was overwhelm- ing. Her lover was decapitated and she, after the practice of the age, was sewn in a sack and thrown into the Rhone. HOW CALVIN CAME TO -GENEVA Mention has been made of Guillaume Farel, the intrepid zealot whose mission- ary work, extending over a period of nine years, was responsible in a large measure for Geneva’s definite adoption of the Protestant faith in 1535. But his in- fluence did not end here. By one of those curious chances upon which hinge events of monumental mio- 465 ment, the young French philosopher, John Calvin, a native of Picardy, passed through Geneva one evening on his way to Strassburg. He had intended spend- ing only one night; but Farel, hearing of his arrival, rushed to him and, with the fiery impetuosity which characterized every act of his life, convinced Calvin that it was his duty to remain and assist in the organization of a theocratic State. _Both men were soon driven from the city because they refused to officiate at a communion service for their “godless flock”; but upon his recall several years later, Calvin, who was then only 32 years of age, laid the foundation for a govern- ment which in its rigorous supervision of the private lives of the people has seldom, if ever, been equaled. Geneva became known as the City of Calvin as well as the Protestant Rome. Every act of the individual was under the scrutiny of the Council, of which Calvin was the moving spirit. A CODE WHICH TOOK THE JOY OUT OF LIFE The austerity of the Calvin code pre- sents many amusing phases to the mod- ern reader. For example, a hairdresser was imprisoned because he made one of his clients too beautiful. Any man who swore “without necessity” was required to take off his hat, “kneel down in the place of his offense, clasp his hands, and kiss the earth.” The wearing of silk or embroidered hose was prohibited; like- wise the adornment of one’s person with chains of silver or gold, and eating or drinking in taverns outside of the city. Hosts and hostesses were enjoined to warn their guests to be in their own lodg- mes alter the trumpet sound to the watch or the ringing of the bell” (nine o'clock at night). The penalties inflicted for wrong-doing under this hierarchy were of varying severity. The punishment meted out to Bonivard’s wife has been related. In the case of Clement Marot, the famous French poet, who made the first met- rical version of the Psalms and wielded tremendous influence upon Protestant thought in France, tradition says that the offender was whipped about the streets of the city upon complaint of an inn- keeper, who had learned that his distin- JI WO1} popuodsns [Jaq pouo}-jsodvap pue js JO anjej}s oY} IeaM 0} PosoIArsd st ysto’JoW prevog © MOD }S9q OYJ, 99831 IY} SULIVIM “YSIY ploy “AQT[VA BY} O} YOeG p19y SdIV AA OL ‘9]}}9 SuluANjor JO uorssao0.1d ay} JO peoy oy} ye Jno sdojs A]pnosd ays ‘you Peoy Y}IM “pue “suIOY Joy UsaMjoq ‘SIOMOP UI Pay}ed1M ‘UISITA Passo[gq oy} 94} pes] 0} Uasoys oq Aew Ajnvaq ouldyy sty} Jawuins sy} JO pud dy} JV AVM UWHH NO 466 TEED, MODLIIEININILAE, {Cl ys guished guest had made love to the ac- cuser’s wife. This bit of gallantry on the part of Marot had been prompted by a spirit of retaliation for his host’s insist- ence that the poet ask a blessing before every meal. Of course, the indelible blot upon this period of Geneva’s history and upon the careers of her men of authority was the infliction of the death penalty upon here- tics. The two most notable martyrs were Jacques Gruet and Michael Servetus. The former, convicted of having an heretical document in his possession, was subjected to the torture of the corde. The victim’s wrists were bound tightly behind him with a cord, to which was then attached a rope thrown over a pul- ley, and by this means the sufferer was suspended in the air. Gruet underwent this intermittent torture for three weeks before “confessing.” When he finally admitted his heresy he was taken to Champel, about two miles from the town hall, and there put to death. Dr. Servetus, an eminent Spanish phy- sician, while on a visit to Geneva, was burned at the stake following a doctrinal controversy with Calvin. ‘But the blackness of such tragedies was mitigated, in so far as such crimes can be atoned, by the generosity and so- licitude of the Genevese for the perse- cuted of their own faith who took refuge here from many lands. OPEN ARMS FOR HUGUENOT FUGITIVES There is no more beautiful picture of Christian charity than the scene in this city when, on August 30, 1572, merchants of Lyons brought news of the massacre of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew’s Day. Pastors were dispatched to the frontiers to meet the fugitives who were reported to be on their way to this asy- lum, and the venerable Theodore de Béze, who had succeeded Calvin as the spiritual head of the Council, directed the whole population to fast and pray for the suf- ferers. | Two days after the receipt of the news of the massacre the first fugitives began to arrive. In all, more than 2,300 refu- gees were housed and fed in this com- munity, which at that time boasted of 467 only 1,200 households. Although almost bankrupt herself, Geneva shared her all with the panic-stricken hundreds who arrived empty-handed. A final episode remains to be related of the period antedating the advent of Rous- seau. For a quarter of a century, begin- ning in 1578, the Genevese had succeeded in resisting the revived attacks of their hereditary enemy, the House of Savoy. At last the Council, after resolving “to ask the advice of God and M. de Béze,” declared war. The citizen army numbered scarcely more than 2,000, as opposed to 18.000 Savoyards. Many Hun-like atrocities were committed. One prisoner is said to have been skinned alive, and peasants were hung up and roasted before their own fireplaces. The Genevese attempted to retaliate, but de Béze, actuated by a spirit far in advance of his age, convinced them that by such acts they would be dis- honoring their own city. THE NIGHT OF THE ESCALADE The closing act in the long drama oc- curred on the night of December 11, 1602, when the Duke’s men, under General d’Albigni, made a treacherous assault upon the city. There were 4,000 troops comprising the main body of d’Albigni’s forces. These were preceded by a storming party of 200, which succeeded in gaining the ramparts unobserved, a single sentry be- ing surprised and slain in silence. Un- fortunately for the assailants, however, they decided to await the coming of dawn before launching the main attack. In the meantime a company of the Genevese guard stumbled upon the storming party. In the melée a gun went off and one man of the guard, the drummer, escaped. He sounded the alarm. It was now impossible to wait for day- light. The storming party gave their battle-cry and hurled themselves upon the town, expecting d’Albigni’s 4,000 men to follow immediately; but the drummer’s work had been done. An intrepid band of defenders at the Porte Neuve loaded a cannon to the muzzle with scraps of metal and old chains. Training the piece along the ramparts, the charge swept the © Paul Thompson IMPROVING MUSCLES AND MAINTAINING MORALE AMONG THE MEN OF SWITZERLAND'S NATIONAL MILITIA Service in the militia is compulsory and universal among the Swiss, with few exemptions, except for physical disability. Liability for military service extends from the 20th through the 48th year. corps of the militia. 20 to 32 years comprise the Ausguz, moat, destroying the ladders of the scal- ing party, and the city was saved. The Duke of Savoy, who had been given a premature report of the success of this venture and had dispatched couri- ers to various courts of Furope announc- ing the gratifying results of his enter- prise, upon receiving a true version of his ignominious rout, shouted at d’Al- bigni, “You blockhead, you have made a pretty mess of things!’ ihrem heapue spurs to his horse and rode for Turin, without thought of the fate of his de- feated army. To this day the Genevese gather at their cathedral on every anniversary of the Escalade, as this battle is called, and sing the 124th Psalm, the one which the venerable de Béze bade them sing on the morning after the night of their deliver- ancen) Lf at hadinotsbeen tie Londiyano was on our side, when men rose up against us i 468 or “Elite,” Those who are excused or are rejected pay additional taxes. The men from The story of Jean Jacques Rousseau, who delighted to style himself “the citi- zen of Geneva,” although he did not take up his residence in the city of his birth until he was more than 40 years of age, is too familiar to warrant recital here. He is a careless tourist, however, who fails to make a pilgrimage to the little house at No. 40 Grand’ Rue, where this son of a watchmaker and dancing master was born, or who does not linger over the balustrade of the beautiful Pont du Mont Blane and look down upon Rous- seau’s Island and its Pradier bronze of the famous philosopher and people’s ad- vocate. | THE PARADOXICAL ROUSSEAU. Perhaps even more paradoxical than Bonivard’s were the career and the char- acter of this Genevan immortal. Mc- Crackan has summed up his contradic- tions thus: “Although by temperament A SWISS COWHERD IN NATIVE COSTUME _ In each hand he holds an embroidered yoke and a huge bell. These are to be awarded the prize animals of his herd. Note his decorated pipe, which is an essential accessory of the holt- day regaliay 469 © Donald McLeish ALMOST A TRAGEDY > ON THE FACE OF A DANGEROUS ICE SLOPE IN THE ALPS Among Geneva’s many handsome quays, the most famous is the Quai du Mont-Blanc, from which a superb view of the majestic Mont Blanc group of mountains, to the southeast, across the lake, is obtained. The summit of Mont Blanc was reached for the first time on August 8, 1786, by Jacques Balmat, a chamois hunter of Chamonix, who had been spurred to thet undertaking by a large reward offered by the famous Geneva naturalist, De Saussure. The elder Dumas, interviewing Balmat nearly 50 years after the event, quotes the mountain-climber as describing his sensations upon achieving the summit: “I was the king of Mont Blanc; ] was the statue of that immense pedestal.” 470 Photograph by A. G. Wehrli UPWARD HO FOR THE HAY MARKET! THE GRASS HARVEST OF THE VALLEY STARTING FOR THE SWISS HEIGHTS It is estimated that Switzerland has more than 300,000 peasant proprietors out of a total urban and rural population oi less than 4,000,000. of the country is under grass and meadows. facture of cheese and condensed milk. gross and sensual, he described the ut- most delicacy and refihement of love in his “Nouvelle Heloise’; he who aban- doned his illegitimate children to the Foundlings’ Hospital was a radical re- former in the education of the young; a mediocre musician, playwright, and poet, but an original and courageous philoso- pher ; incapable as a political leader, but unrivaled as an advocate of popular rights.” A PILGRIMAGE TO VOLTAIRE’S VILLA Nor does the twentieth century visitor to Geneva neglect a morning’s walk to Ss ~ More than a third of the productive area The chief agricultural industries are the manu- 471 Ferney, where Voltaire spent his declin- ing years. Both he and Rousseau took up their residence in Geneva in the same year (1754), and in death they rest side by side in the Pantheon in Paris; but it cannot be said that they dwelt in mutual amity. The great scoffer’s plays, staged in the vicinity of Geneva, were the occa- sion of a bitter war between the exiled cynic and the vituperative citizen. The inscription in the chapel at Ferney, “Deo erexit Voltaire,” never fails to pro- voke from the guide the elder Dumas’ ironic explanation of it: “It was erected to prove to the whole world, which had 472 While the mountain republic revels in the sobriquet, ‘““The Play- ground of Europe,” it could also with much truth lay claim to the title of “a school-room for the continent and England,” for its insti- tutions of learning are widely known. Of its seven universities, that of Geneva, founded by Calvin in 1559 and generally recognized as one of his greatest gifts to the city, is the most famous, although that of Basel is a century older. become very anxious about the disputes of the creature with his Creator, that Voltaire and God had finally become rec- onciled; the world heard the news with satisfaction, but it always suspected that Voltaire had made the first advances.” A mile or two farther along the north- enn shore of the lake primes te traveler to Coppet, where Madame de Staél held her brilliant court, surrounded by such Photograph by Edgar K. Frank YOUNG SWITZERLAND AT A DRINKING FOUNTAIN THE NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE satellites as the beau- tiful Madame Reé- camer, Guizopugine French historian, and Sismondi, the Swiss chronicler; Madame Le Brun, the noted artist, and Cuvier, the French naturalist. Yet,» with “alive wealth and her bril- liant coterie of wor- shipers, who revolved around her as their sun, from which they derived their intellec- tual light and emo- tional warmth, she was unhappy, holding that a day of Paris was better than a dec- ade of exile, even though that exile be softened by every ma- terial comfort and scenic charm. THE HOME OF THE RED CROSS The world recog- nizes Geneva as the maternal city of the International Red Cross. Not only did her citizen philanthro- pist, «Henri, Danan arouse the world with his book, “Un Souve- nir de Solferino,” in which he described the sufferings of those left on the field after that terrible battle in 1859, but it was to this city that the two famous conventions of 1864 and 1906 were called to deal with the problems of aid to the wounded and to noncombatants. In the latter year the representatives of 35 nations met and agreed upon the articles under which the Red Cross now operates throughout the world. So, delegates from every clime and of every political creed, representing the League of Nations, will not be strangers © Donald McLeish A SWISS MISS AND HER PLAYMATE Her ancestors fought “the small battles of immortal memory”; she, her parents, and her descendants are to be hosts to the League of Nations. The Swiss Confederation, which students of history characterize as “a well-nigh perfect union,” suggests in its make-up the possibilities for success of the new venture upon which the free nations of the world are enter- ing. Its “twenty-five small States, differing from each other in nearly every point—religious, political, social, industrial, physical, and linguistic—are so organized as to constitute a federa- tion which maintains public welfare, individual rights, and general harmony” (see “The Races of Europe,” in. Tue GrocrapHic for December, 1918). 473 : ‘s1Surtm £5y} d10F0q spxek pospuny [es1oAas yO douKIsIp v 10} opis Aq SpIS SUIMOP JdjIVf IY} JO StofeM pdf-ioroeys ‘Appnur dy} pu iowioj dy) Jo ssoyem ony Ieaj[o ay} ‘aATW oy} Aq pourol st suOYY 9Y} JUIOd SIy} MOTOq oTIUL V ‘suoneN JO onseo’] oy} Jo owoy JuouRUIOd oY} IOF o}Is ay} Se Poyo]JaS Usaq SeY ‘CAUIF) JO 19}U99 IY} WIOIZ SojIU AY ‘aye] oY} JO Satoys dy} UO yted popoom VY ‘osel[oy oy} Ysnosy} uses ApjOuT|sIpul oq Ae JoIperg Aq onj}e}s ozZU0IGg asoyM ‘neassnoy soenboef ueaf ‘uazty19 o}eAI1d snowy jsou SPAQUOL) JO ATOWOU OY} 0} PoyeIpop SI WeoI}Splu UT Ja[SI papuosfZ oY, “OULT_ “IJ Pe[S-Mous JO JWUINS oIYsofew oY} SWOO] JULISIP dy} UT GTIOM AHL AO IVLIdvO AHL SV ALIO SIH NUSOHOD AAVH SNOILVN NAAAS-ALNAML JO SHLVOUTAG AOVAd AHL, JouejuOY sprIuty Asoyinoo ydercojoyg 474 THE MILLENNIAL CITY to the Millennial City, nor the city to them. GENEVA IS FRENCH IN LANGUAGE AND CUSTOMS Of the 25 Swiss cantons, the German language is spoken by a majority of the inhabitants in 19; but Geneva is one of the five where French is not only the popular language, but French customs and French habits of thought prevail. In the remaining canton Italian is the dominant tongue. Geneva Canton is not naturally pro- ductive, but the frugal industry of its people causes it to yield a very respect- able harvest of fruits, grain, wines, and vegetables. In extent, the canton meas- ures 108 square miles, compared with the 70 square miles comprising our District of Columbia. Four-fifths of this area is cultivated—a far higher average than ob- tains throughout Switzerland, as indi- cated by the fact that before the war the little republic depended upon the outside world for five-sixths of all its wheat and a fourth of its meat. From a material and physical stand- point, Geneva will make an ideal world capital. Its industrial activities are con- siderable, yet neither noisy nor sordid. Famous for its watches, the manufacture of which was introduced by Charles Cusin, of Autun, in 1587, it is also the home of the music-box. Industrial statistics, which show that there are more than five hundred fac- tories in the Canton of Geneva, convey a wrong impression to an American, for under the Swiss system of classification every workshop, even though it employ only two or three people, is called a fac- tory. In these numerous small establish- ments chocolate, preserved fruits, syn- thetic perfumery, cigars and cigarettes, parts of watches, and jewelry are made. The manufacture of watches, espe- cially the wrist-watch type, condensed milk, and chocolate flourished during the war, and many a Genevan would have amassed a large fortune had it not been for the fact that the cost of materials as well as the cost of living increased from 100 to 300 per cent. In the manufacture of chocolate, the Swiss were greatly handicapped by the fact that their nor- AT5 mal sources of raw materials were Africa and South America. As typical of the minutie of Switzer- land’s manufacturing industries, it is the boast of one important firm that it con- ducts an international trade in the sale of the small bows which are attached to leather bands inside our hats. HANDICAPPED BY DEARTH OF COAI, Heavy manufacturing establishments have never found a home in Geneva, as Switzerland lacks mineral resources, es- pecially coal. More than half a century ago coal was mined in the adjoining can- ton of Valais, but the industry was aban- doned owing to the inferior quality of the output. During the war, however, when the price of fuel mounted to un- heard-of heights, even necessitating radi- cal curtailment of the State - operated transportation facilities, this Valais mine was reopened. Though poor in coal, Geneva and her sister cities have a wealth of water power, and it is highly probable that the republic will electrify its 3,700 miles of State- owned railways in the near future. One practice which will seem strange to most of the representatives of the League of Nations will be the 24-hour clock, which the Swiss Federal Council last year decreed should be adopted upon the return of normal conditions. The 24-hour system of time-keeping, beginning at the midnight hour, has been in use by astronomers and in one or two European countries for a number of years, but it is unfamiliar to the western lay world. According to these regula- tions, the Swiss transportation system, telegraph lines, customs service, and all institutions under Federal control will be operated by the new-style timepiece, one o'clock in the afternoon being designated as the thirteenth hour, etc. THE SITE FOR THE LEAGUE’S PERMANENT HOME Geneva has set aside as a site for the permanent home of the League of Na- tions a beautiful wooded park bordering on the lake some five miles from the cen- ter of the city. Behind the park tower the snow-clad Jura Mountains. While there are many villages in the vicinity of 476 the park which are suitable for offices and for quarters of the delegates and their secretarial staffs, the capitol build- ing itself must be built. Thus every external attribute con- ducive to comfort and pleasure will be provided for the statesmen whom it is proposed to commission with the respon- sibility for international justice, liberty, and world peace. The aspect of Lake Geneva from this site will prove a constant source of de- light to the visitor, its brilliant blue waters in calm weather reflecting at dawn and eventide the indescribable alpenglow of the mountains to the south, while the lateen sails of barge and pleasure craft THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE present a perpetually changing picture, as if staged anew each moment for every spectator. While here and there among the lit- erary estimates and appreciations of its beauties one finds a somewhat critical note, as that of William Wean rlowellls who only saw in the city “an admirable illustration printed in colors for a holiday number to imitate a water-color sketch,” an overwhelming majority of those who have enjoyed Geneva’s hospitality will lean rather to Ruskin’s estimate, that it is “a bird’s nest of a place; the most lovely spot and the most notable. without any possible dispute, of the European uni- verse. DEVIL-FISHING IN THE GULF STREAM By JoHN OLIvER La GorcE AUTHOR OF “PENNSYLVANIA, THE INDUSTRIAL TITAN OF AMERICA,” ““WARFARE ON OuR EASTERN COAST”’ HAW the yrolline praigie Olmewe . \ \ Far West was to the buftalo in the olden days, when it roamed in countless thousands to and fro in search of new pastures and salt, the ever- rolling Gulf Stream—that mighty, warm river which parallels the east coast of F'lorida—is to the fish legions of our semi- tropical seas. How many fishermen realize that there are found in the Atlantic Ocean offshore between Miami and Key West nearly 600 varieties of fish—an amazing total which constitutes one-fifth of the entire fauna of the American Continent north of Pan- ama ! To even sketch the possibilities of sport fishing along the far-flung coral reef off Miami, the southernmost city of the Florida mainland and the fourth in size within the borders of the State, one must discount the old question: “Are all fisher- men intentionally disingenuous, or do only liars fish?” for the facts concerning the variety, gameness, weight, and diversi- ned mcolor ot the «ciizensmottnendeen, abounding in these waters, require a high rating as to the personal veracity and the courage to prove that ancient proverb about truth being stranger than fiction! The fresh-water fisherman who, armed with light tackle, matches his wits against the quickness of the black bass, the bril- liant generalship of the brook trout, or the fierce charge of the muskellunge, in his inland streams and lakes, may not con- sider it superior sport to ‘“‘wet his line” in salt water along the North Atlantic coast, for not many of the fish in cold seas are considered foemen worthy of his steel. DISCOVERING A NEW WORLD OF SPORT Yet a different story can be told of their warm sea brethren, and he needs only to hunt out, tor example the) teaglesouicig pon, the dashing sailfish, or the powerful and valiant bonefish, not to mention a score of other finished fighters of the Gulf Stream, to realize that he is called upon to extend his every faculty and skill to bring such game alongside as trophies of his prowess. It would be interesting to have a mo- tion-picture record of the thoughts which flash through the mind of even an ex- perienced inland fisherman the first time he feels the tiger-like swoop of a five-foot barracuda, the yank of a hundred-pound amberjack, or the sullen surge of a big Photograph iby Charles W. Kotcher GETTING THE FISH ASHORE AFTER IT HAD BEEN PARTIALLY DISMEMBERED It took a long while and much effort to get the devil-fish ashore at Bimini so that the hide and cartilage structure could be preserved for mounting. 477 478 grouper on his line; for even when armed with the heaviest rod, a reel as big in comparison as the cylinder of an automo- bile engine, and a line which approaches a hawser in thickness, he is pretty sure to wish, at least subconsciously, that his equipment was twice as formidable and his arm thrice as strong. What, indeed, must his sensation be the first time when, looking overboard at his baited hook 30 feet below im) the jclear waters of the Gulf Stream, he sees, as plainly as if in a mirror, the approach and attack of a giant jewfish, which is just as likely to weigh 500 pounds as 50, for it sometimes grows as big as a pony along the Florida coral reef and is just about as strong! UNRELATED MONSTERS OF THE DEEP When one starts in to tell of the amaz- ing variety of undersea life along the Florida east coast, it is difficult to decide where to begin and end, for it is an inex- haustible subject. Such being the case, I will not attempt a survey of it now, but will confine myself to the experience of our party in hunting and capturing a devil-fish, said to be the largest specimen taken in American waters in twenty years. In the general mind the devil-fish and the octopus are frequently confused, whereas they belong to entirely different fish families, and the only physical re- semblance between these two gentry lies in the fact that they both live in the same waters. The devil-fish, or Manta biros- tris of science, belongs to the giant ray family—a huge batlike creature which uses its body fins as a bird does its wings in flying, with a waving, undulating mo- tion, which propels it along beneath the water at remarkable speed. Aside from its immense wing-spread, the outstanding feature of the devil-fish, and the one from which it derives its satanic name, are the lobes, or, as they are sometimes termed, cephalic fins, which extend outward and upward from each side of its flat head like curling horns. In the adult fish the head fins are from three to four feet in length and about six inches wide. Nature has fashioned them of a leathery muscle tissue which spells strength in every ounce. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE When the giant ray dashes into a school of fish, these head fins are of great assist- ance in obtaining food, for, like the arms of a boxer, they are in constant motion, whirling about and sweeping its living prey into the yard-wide mouth with al- most lightning speed, as it hurls its great body about in its natural element. The remarkable strength and twisting movements of the so-called horns are re- sponsible for many of the allegations lodged against this fish as a menace to mankind, whereas, unless attacked and in panic, the huge sea-bat hurts no one. As a matter of fact, however, there are a number of authentic reports of the devil-fish’s running foul of a ship’s an- chor chain. True to instinct, it clasps the chain tight by wrapping its tenacula horns or feelers about it, applies its tre- mendous strength, lifts the heavy anchor as if it were a feather, and starts to sea with the anchor, chain, and ship, to the amazement and terror of the crew, who cannot believe their very eyes, as their vessel moves onward at a fast pace with- out a sail set or an engine’s turning over, when, to all appearances, a moment be- fore their vessel was moored to the ocean floor. THE OLD MAN OF THE SEA The octopus, on the other hand, al- though sometimes termed “devil-fish,” is of another family entirely, an inverte- brate, known to science as the typical genus of Cephalopods, or, in plain words, the highest class of mollusca, in which squids, cuttle-fish, and octopi are grouped. In Pacific waters the giant octopus, tech- nically known as Octopus punctatus, grows to an immense size; indeed, cap- tured specimens have measured a radial Spread of 20 to 130) feet In appearance the octopus is most re- pulsive, having a large, ugly head, a fierce-. looking mouth, armed with a pair of pow- erful horny jaws, shaped much like a parrot’s beak, atopped with two diabolli- cal eyes set close together, which are posi- tively capable of sending forth a demo- niac glare when angered. The grotesque head is mounted on a somewhat oval body, from which radiate eight arms, usually united at the body base by a membrane. ‘The arms or tentacles are DEVIL-FISHING IN THE GULF STREAM provided with rows of suckers, with which it clasps and clings to its prey with uncanny strength and quickness. As a rule, it will not give battle to man unless angered or injured, but when chal- lenged will fight to the last, doing its best to pull the object of its wrath beneath the surface of the waters. THE START FOR THE HUNTING GROUNDS From the Florida reef the run across the Gulf Stream to the nearest islands of . the Bahamas is a matter of 65 miles. We started from Miami at ncon, guests of James A. Allison, on board his sea-going motor yacht L’Apache, with a 25-foot motor-driven fishing boat bobbing along behind in tow. In the party of fishermen were Mr. Allison, Captain Charles H. Thompson, of Miami, the internationally known au- thority on the fish of the east coast of Florida ; Commodore Charles W. Kotcher, A. G. Batchelder, and the writer, to- gether with the captain and crew of the LT? Apache. Assisted by the northeastward pressure of the ever-moving Gulf Stream, we made splendid progress, and that evening cast anchor behind Bimini, a tiny isle which rests like a jeweled feather on a summer sea, the westernmost outrider of the Lower Bahama group. Bimini is a quaint little coral dot a few miles long and a quarter of a mile wide, quite cov- ered with clusters of coconut palms and tropical plants, its tallest headland rising but a few feet above the surface of the old Atlantic—an out-of-the-world spot peopled by a few score of Bahama ne- groes, who eke out a precarious existence by fishing, gathering shells, and, in a small way, cultivating sisal, the fibrous plant from which hemp rope is made. Approaching the island, the ocean bot- tom for miles offshore is carpeted with snow-white sand, and so clear is the water that there is no difficulty in study- ing the vast marine gardens 30 to 50 feet below the surface. Due to the white sand beneath the sea and the glorious blue of the sky, with the ever-changing cloud effects overhead, the bewildering gradations of color to be seen in these waters challenge descrip- tion and fill the heart of the artist with 479 despair, although he paint with the in- spired brush of genius. OVERSEAS CEREMONY The Bahamas being colonies of Great Britain, of course her authority extends even to this little-known spot. There- fore, Bimini boasts a port officer—an English gentleman, who also serves as the Crown Commissioner, Police Magis- trate, Customs Collector, and Consular Official for examination of passports, as well as being physician and school teacher to the island’s inhabitants. In short, he is the Twentieth Century Pooh Bah, who, with much courtesy and dignity, meets the infrequent foreign craft when it drops anchor upon arrival, inspects all qualifying documents, then sadly waves adieu from the beach when the visitor sails away. « THE SEA SUPPLIES THE LARDER Up to the day of our arrival, there hadn’t been a piece of fresh beef or a bit of butter on the table of the Crown’s Representative for nine months, much less that of a single one of Bimini’s humbler inhabitants, for the isle is more than a hundred miles from Nassau, and even the mail-boat was conspicuous by its absence during the period of the Eu- ropean war, when enemy submarines were in South Atlantic waters. So it is that the sea furnishes food for the Biminites, supplemented by a few vegetables, flour, and salt meats, when they can get supplies from Nassau. Conch, the marine animal which inhabits the beautiful spiral shell, so fashionable as a parlor ornament a generation ago, is the chief article of food, and the na- tives consume thousands of them each year; indeed, it can be considered their main article of food. After we had received and returned the official call of the Crown’s Repre- sentative, we had visitations alongside from several shore boats, manned. by dusky-hued merchants, each tradesman clad, on an average, in one and a half garments, who, with a happy grin and a hungry look, offered for sale varieties of sponges, brilliantly colored conch shells, sea-beans, and tortoise shell, the last- named article being obtained from the "pooy Jo} pasn Ayperodso sutoq Sonsodoid ojqenyea s}t JO vsnevsoq 10}}e] OY} “YOuOI puv ysy uodn AjosjUo ysowye sary Ao, “‘opeur st odor yor wo.sy ‘fests Sueajnos ALM [els & UT pue surysy Aq sural prezeydey e& ures ‘soorsou euUleYyed yuo Jod 66 ‘sjueyqeyUt oy J, “s}10d vprsop,y aoyjJO pue TUPI TY OIF Surres s}yVA JOF UoAeY Sulsinto wv se sejndod AOA 9WOI9q 0} pouljsop sf dnoss eueye| JIMO] oY} FO WII Ud}SOM OY} UO ISI 9]q}I] SIU, INIWId JO YOUUVH ANIL AHL NI LASNAS Joppeyoyeg “5 ‘vy 4q ydeasojoyg SUI}SIIOJUL pue JurenD sv uosI[[y “Vy sowef Aq ydeis ‘QIOYSJO oyu ye Uses oq ULd aYIDd pT OJ, “AIP pue “aAry ‘UsOG o1v Ady} YOY UOdN d]Jst ot} sz d1V SJULIIGCLYUL OT, “}JVApP }Vo1S 00} JOU FO s}yOeA SUI}ISIA JOF JOGIeY oj[qej}1OFJWIOD pue IFS & STOO GNV’ISI VNVHV4 ‘INIWId LV HOVAd AHL oj0Ug TUTUNE, JO purycr oO“, 482 hawk-bill turtle, which is quite plentiful in these waters. TEE ORE OK WEE iROPNICAT aN iG rst It was like pulling teeth to go below deck and leave the wondrous beauty of the tropical night, with the soft, cool touch of the ever-blowing trade wind, the shadowy grace of the giant coconut palms swaying and whispering on the near-by beach in the moonlight, while the surf. grounding upon the coral strand on the outer side of the isle, lulled us with its crooning obligato. But the wiser heads spoke of the need of a good night’s rest to prepare for the battle royal which we hoped was in the offing, and so we regretfully went below and to dreamland instead of having a try at the tarpon which we could hear jump- ing and rolling on the surface, like playful puppies, only a few hundred yards astern. At sunrise the next morning all hands were up and ready for the fray. The chef soon had a hot breakfast served, after which we piled aboard our motor- driven fishing boat, upon which our rods, lines, and harpoons had been made ready the night before. Making a course out through the island channel to the open sea, all of us except- ing the steersman hung over the side to enjoy the amazing sights below in the deep ocean pools. One of us would ex- citedly point to a squad of six or eight big tarpon lazily wallowing about far be- low—lords of their element, unafraid; therefore ready to give battle to anything except, perhaps, a tiger shark. Another startled angler would call from the other side that a 10-foot hammer- head or a nurse shark was rolling an eye at him from the ocean floor, while still another inland fisherman wanted to jump down among a school; numbering pos- sibly ten thousand large and small man- grove snappers, busily parading up and down a long stretch of coral shelf on the bottom, which afforded them instant hid- ing places in case of the sudden appear- ance of hungry enemies. Passing out over the entrance bar, we Set a COUnse mon te Opem sea, and soom all were scanning the pulsing bosom of the Gulf Stream for big game, like the crew of a submarine destroyer peeling THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE their eyes for a periscope in the danger zone. Strange as it may seem, the fish of the warm seas do not appear to have the slightest apprehension of danger from the noise of a motor-boat, and if attracted by the bait or not disturbed by the ap- proach of a natural enemy below water. one can not only get very close to them, but has little difficulty in keeping the big fish in sight, once they are located and something of their habits known. After a while Captain Thompson called our attention in his quiet way to a long, dark shadow not far below the surface a couple of boat-lengths away, and the boat was turned toward the first sign of our quarry, which he said was a “herring- hog,” a species of porpoise. It proved to be an adult about eight feet long, weigh- ing around four hundred pounds, and as this species destroys great quantities of foodfish, we went for it. Reaching the proper position to strike, a hand harpoon was thrown, found its mark, and away the herring-hog went at a fast clip, the line fairly smoking from the barrel. And soon we were being towed along—a novel sensation to the novice. One of the less experienced fishermen of the party was given the harpoon line with instructions to bring the big fellow along- side forthwith, and further instructed above all to “keep his head up,” the rest of us sitting back to enjoy his attempts to obey orders. About twenty minutes after the strike and while yet the herring-hog was show- ing slight signs of tiring, although this could not be said of the perspiring fisher- man into whose care he had been given, a considerable disturbance was observed on the surface of the water about a quar- ter of a mile away, and it was judged to be either a leopard shark at kill or a battle royal between two big denizens of the deep. Anything camibe expected im tece waters. tk REAL B@SINESS OF “Eek spa It was our business, however, to have ring-side seats at this battle, whatever it was. So all hands took hold of the her- ring-hog line and, reversing the engine, which was not very sportsmanlike, but decidedly effective in checking it, we DEVIL-FISHING IN THE GULF STREAM brought him alongside without further loss of time; then turned our attention to the new mystery now close at hand. We were all excited at the thought of getting a harpoon into a big leopard shark, which will fight any and everything that swims, and, according to all deep-sea fishermen, is really the only member of the shark family of whom man need be afraid while in the water. But the reader can imagine how our interest was increased when all at once Captain Thompson, who, having uncanny eyesight plus long experience with sub- sea life, suddenly exclaimed: “Stand by, men ; it’s the biggest devil-fish I have ever seen !” As we drew near it seemed to me that the entire bottom of the ocean in that area was suddenly dark and slowly mov- ing off, and I discerned in the translu- cent depths a gigantic shadow which had the appearance of a huge bird flapping its wings and swinging its long, thin tail from side to side, as it flew slowly along. While we were coming up within strik- ing radius of the fish, which was evi- dently devouring something it had killed and was paying no attention to anything else, our harpoon lines, used in dispatch- ing the herring-hog, had been straightened out and put in readiness for the combat which was to come. As soon as we came near enough, Cap- tain Thompson let fly with his heaviest harpoon, and then, as the little boy said when he dropped the cat into the pail of stewed tomatoes, “the fun began.” I am sure that none of us was ready for what followed. ‘The devil-fish rose as though hurled upward by a submarine explosion beneath it. One of its great bat- like fins broke above the curface, sending gallons of water over ‘us and splintering the harpoon pole against the boat’s side Fomiedt mad been a mateh stem; then its 10-foot pectoral wing struck the water with a terrific impact, making a noise which could have been heard several miles away. For a moment the monster seemed be- wildered, and that lost moment cost him dear, for it enabled us to throw another harpoon, which struck deep into its body near the spine. Away it started to sea, taking our harpoon line with it, at a pace 483 which made us apprehensive regarding its length, although we had, as we thought, a wide margin for safety. Gradually all hands put their weight against the line, and as the boat was by this time moving properly on an even keel, we took a wrap around a bow cleat and started seaward— giant fish, boat, and crew! Every once in a while the devil-fish would literally hurl itself several feet out of the water, and its huge body would come down with a crash like the explo- sion of a 42-centimeter shell! Moreover, each time it broke on the surface it looked larger than before. Now and then it would sound for deep water in an effort to shake us off, and several times it went down so far that we stood by with hatchets to cut the lines at the last moment, in the event the bow should be drawn completely under water, as came perilously near happening more than once. All of a sudden the lines slackened, and we frantically hauled in as the monster turned and dashed toward the boat, com- ing up almost, but not quite, under our craft, its gigantic bulk lifting one side of the heavy launch well out of water and giving us a pretty stiff scare. THE BEGINNING OF THE END With his usual skill and presence of mind, however, Captain Thompson let drive another harpoon he had at hand, which found lodgment in the devil-fish’s head, and away it dashed again. “With two harpoon lines, one in each side of the body, we were actually able to drive the monster as one would a runaway horse, swerving it toward the distant shore of Bimini and into more shallow water by the process of pulling first on one line and then on the other, which course was a little too much for the fish to resist. Meanwhile time was flying. By this time the devil-fish had towed us for about ten miles, and although it was losing much blood, it was still going strong; so our next experiment was to throw out and let drag our anchor in order that this maneuver might further impede its progress. But this expedient made little difference to this giant, for it continued to pull us along as if our heavy craft were only a birch canoe. ‘OpeUL SEM OINjoId SIq} USM SU01}S SuUIOS T]HSs sem ynq ‘sopier Auew younry AKIY IY} POMO} PeY JO}SUOW LoS OY], “95kS SIY} 1 YSyY oY} FO svg pvos oy} Ur suoodiey 991Y} d1oM O1OYy, “Inoy ue SoyIt OL JO poodds poyeurrjsa ue Je JeOq-10}0U JOOJ-Sz & SUIMO}] ATTENIOe “19}eM DAOGE SUY ONI[-SUIM S}I FO Sdi} oy} YIM “YS-[IAep yueis oy} Jo ydeisojoyd oqeyteulot JsOu VV dif, OL dil WOU SSOMOV LAHTI OMI-ALNUML uoSTI[Y “V sours Aq ydersojoyg 484 -pud}xo oY} You uOST]| ‘SINOY 19AO Sur JYSY; SUC] SJ PUB POO] FO SsO] Jord WOIF YLIM SUIMOIS Pue ddvJINS dy} Youd Joo XIS JNoqe seA JULIs oT, ‘oWLU s}I SONY} Ysy-]IANp M WOIF ‘Peo OY} IVAU SUIAINO SULZ ONI]-UIOY OA\} OY} OJON LNANAITA TV Vv ‘vy sowef Aq ydeisojoyg TOL VN ‘JoJeM JOPUN YSY-[IAop OAT] V JO opr Jodo ydeisojoyd Jssy oy} A;poyqnopug, Sl NI HSIa-WAIG UNVIS WHHL PR SO ROR antes Spunod poipuny inoj ynoqe SUIYSIOM PUL Y}SUs] UL oof yYySto ynoqe ‘astodsod jo Soloods & “SOY-SUIIIOY & SI jfo] ay} UO JreyM oY} Woz sulsuevy joafqo yiep oyy, ‘s]jrs 10 ‘sny -eivdde suryyeosd oy} Ayyjeot Ur ose ‘oyIqowojne UMOUY-[JaM B FO pooy dy} oI] JOO] YIM ‘A]JOq sit UO syUIA FO Saltas ay J, “YS JO Jooyds v OyUT saysep HE UOYM Joysnd oy} Aq YNou sz OJUL poof oA] sdoaMs jt UON}OU IefMoID e Aq YoryA YA “YSY-[IAep oy} FO suy peoy o¥I][-u10Y ‘Surpino oy} 9J0N SYOLdVO SLI GNV HSId LNVIO AEH, JOYS “4 [4e_ Aq ydesZ0j,04g 486 ‘YSY-[TAOp of} JO oprStopun oy} St MOTA SIT, * UdAD pue ‘solt} UszOp v dyOIq sodot oY], “poydess ysy ssny oy} JO WYSIOM pvop dy} UjIM YIO[C osrey we pue ‘odos vpurut js ojoyd oq O} JAeVYM OY} opis DIARY OY} JO Sossouyory} AULUE ‘MolIoYsSYy oouods vey JaeM]L}S Uo NOILOUdSNI WO LVIIGVH Sil tO PHO GITINd HSIW-TIAWd WH 99105) &’T 'C ‘ff Aq Ydessoj,0Y F a Pp SuUOTe PUL 19}eM JY} FO NO ATyeyAed dy ONIVAID Pur posses dinjonsys FaeyM Oyj JO}SUOLU Vos oY} [[Nnd O} [[v} pue IY JO JAOJJO ponunyuos oy} posmbo.s 4] 487 488 After an hour or so, however, during which it alternated between trying to pull the bow under water and suddenly turn- ing and endeavoring to come up under us, the anchor began to catch hold better, and our giant was becoming a little more amenable to reason, so that a number of times we were able to haul in slack, re- arrange our limes,, and even to get up within 20 or 30 feet, as it labored along with its great batlike fins, a little less powerful in stroke and somewhat slower, in plain sight, five or six feet below the SUIMAICE Ot wae wane. It was at this point that Mr. Allison secured the pictures, which we have every reason to believe are the first and only actual photographs of a giant devil-fish alive in its natural element. These pho- tograplis, «beeatise Jon) tne stettracion lor light in the water, do not give a clear idea of this monster’s enormity, and make it hard to realize that our remarkable catch measured 22 feet across from the tip of One Pectoral MMO! MeTOtlem andi ect TUneld ssrOm Wine MNeAd TO wae SIC! Oi Une tail, and, moreover, weighed considerably more than 3,000 pounds. Seeing that it was well-nigh impossi- DIE CO Give te a Gea lolly, aimcl mmeie aye any minute in its jockeying the fish might come up squarely under the boat and up- Seu US im Some Ot alll Une we Could clo. and as all manner of sharks had been at- tracted by its struggle and loss of blood, we naturally did not relish the thought of any such experience, so we signaled to the L’ Apache for a gun. | Luckily, about this time, a fast-sailing little island sponge boat approached us to see what the excitement was all about, and we managed to make the spongers understand that they must go back to the yacht and bring the rifles, which had, LMOrhinarclyay Deen OrsOurcn mimeo hurry to get started in the early morning. VICTORY AFTER HOURS OF BATTLE The native mariners were most willing to help, and made all haste possible; so, after another half hour of skirmishing and ring generalship on both sides, the ship’s motor-driven dory came tearing out with an express rifle, and we were THE NATIONAL GCROGRAPHI© MAGAZINE enabled to\give our giant its coupmae Grace: Until that moment not one of us real- ized that nearly five hours had elapsed since we first tackled this Jumbo of the deep, and none of us knew how tired we were, for in good truth we had peenmnran too busy to give a thought to such small matters. Although this fish finally had four harpoons in its body and a dozen shots in its head and heart, it was by no means dead, and even then we had con- siderable difficulty in towing it into the harbor, some miles away. Naturally, the natives of Bimini were “very much interested im the \capatimemsion devil-fish destroy great numbers of food- fish, and we experienced no difficulty in engaging the services of 15 of them to help to get the carcass ashore, having de- cided to try to remove the hide and bony structure for mounting. By bringing into play a heavy block and tackle borrowed from the islanders, which was used for lifting and weighing cargoes of sisal fiber, and after much breaking of ropes, to say nothing of the wharf structure’s being in serious danger of collapse because of the great weight of the fish, we finally succeeded in getting most of its body out of water, so that it could be photographed and weighed by means of a large sisal scale. ‘The utmost capacity of this scale was 3,000 pounds, and this is all which is claimed for the fish, although we judged it weighed 4,000, or possibly 5,000, pounds. Through the courtesy of some friends, who had run over from the Florida coast in a fast express cruiser to join us in the sport, but who arnived) 100 ate stoma part in the actual capture, we were en- abled to send back the necessary parts to an expert taxidermist for mounting, al- though it was a serious question to know what to do with so enormous a thing after it was mounted, for not many rooms will take care ‘of. a fish measurime, 22mmicen across, and it was decided it would be pre- sented to the Cocolobo Club, the unique cruising and fishing club located near Miami, where a special room is being built tO) Feceivenit: SIGH T-SEEING IN SCHOOL Taking Twenty Million Children on a Picture Tour ot the World Dy jescm 1. BuRRALL CHIEF oF SCHOOL SERVICE OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY O FACTOR of American life af- fects us as a people more vitally than does the public school. It takes care of our boys and girls during more than half of their waking hours for nine or ten months every year. It molds their habits of body and mind for life. How many are there of these boys and girls in our schools today? More than twenty million—enough to fill four mag- nificent cities the size of our great New York, or eight the size of our energetic Chicago. The armies of war disband, but these children continue to come on and on, wave after wave, year after year, a mighty army mobilized for service and for life. Let us visualize them as marching some fine morning four abreast across the con- tinent from the Golden Gate, and see how long the line will be. Here they advance, across the Sierra Nevada and the Great Basin, between the snow-covered peaks of the Rockies, down across the Great Plains—marching stead- ily on—crossing the Mississippi, passing Photograph by M. O. Williams “THIS IS THE WAY WE CO TO SCHOOL,’ IN. CHINA Every hour of the 24 sounds the call of the schools to hosts of girls and boys somewhere on the globe. 489 Be: aE hotograph by Lieut. Col. Alfred Heinicke A WRITING LESSON IN PERSIA This budding savant, with his reed pen, Chinese ink, and knee-cap desk, gravely insists that, although Persian is undoubtedly the finest language on earth, it surely must be the hardest to write. 490 SIGHT-SEEING IN SCHOOL the headwaters of the Ohio, through the storied Appalachians, to the Nation’s Capital—an unbroken line, four abreast, across the United States, with several thousand left over in San Francisco for good measure. There they are—the school children of the United States— with golden hair and brown hair, black eyes and blue, with rosy lips and spring- ing step, all marching together in the army of the public schools. CHILDREN THE CUSTODIANS OF THE FUTURE And each unit in this stupendous num- ber represents an eager, throbbing, little soul, looking out in joyous anticipation or in timid wonder toward the life ahead. Whatever is in the schools sends its vital currents through all these minds and hearts out into the life of our land. When we think that within a few short years the fate of our country will be in the hands of these children, that inevit- ably they will be the next America, we realize the importance of the training that they should have. ! The schools have suffered many an up- heaval, but none at all comparable with the great crisis brought on by new con- ditions arising from the war. Educators all over the land are meeting these needs in amazing measure. For several years vast changes have been going on, which, accelerated by the War, are now so far-reaching in their results as to amount to a practical revolu- tion in aim, tending to alter radically the materials used as well as the methods of teaching. GEOGRAPHY TEACHING—OLD AND NEW An excellent illustfation of recent and rapid advance is seen in the work in ge- Gemipay. Lo appreciate all that this means, we must think back to our own geography lessons. We remember the reading over and over of the lesson and the halting recita- tions of such facts as we could call to mind. We learned, “An island is a body of land completely surrounded by water” and “A mountain is a high elevation of land composed mainly of rock.’ We struggled through, “Ponds and lakes are bodies of water that occupy depressions 491 in the land.” Whatever depressions in the land might be, it was beyond us to fathom ; but woe engulfed us if we could not tell that lakes occupied them. We sometimes had ten or more of these definitions in one day, and some of us were “kept in” on sunny afternoons be- cause we just could not make them stick in our minds. We could not visit the real islands, peninsulas, straits, and gulfs, and pictures of them were few and ex- pensive. So the ‘hard definition road was the only way to the dim and often inadequate mental pictures we formed of these things. As we read over and over the pages of our books, few of us ever dreamed of the fascination of Mother Earth and the lure of her mysteries. But now our children have pictures of the snowy peaks, with timber-line and flowery meadow below. For them, as well as for the few who can travel, the Rocky Mountains lift their lofty ranges, the Yellowstone offers its wonders, and Niagara Falls pours out its rainbow spray. Pictures can now bring to our children all of the beauties and wonders of the earth. THE MAP COMES TO LIFE Even a map can glow with fire and meaning! ‘The interests of our sturdy, active boys and girls center in the world about them. ‘They are full of curiosity about all the varied wares of the corner grocery. ‘The bunches of bananas turn- ing slowly from green to yellow set them to wondering whence they came. That seems a far cry from the map of Central America and a study of “the sur- face, climate, population, products, and capital cities’ demanded by courses of study; yet now the pictures make the magic connection. With them the chil- dren go on a journey to Costa Rica. Paying neither carfare nor hotel bills, they, nevertheless, visit the banana plan- tations, learn of banana culture, and be- come acquainted with the black boys and men who gather the luscious fruit for them. Costa Rica becomes a most interesting place. Now they like to study the:map, for that country is no longer a small pink spot, but a place where real people live and work and play. : "ySe] J[NIYJIP pue SuO] sy} Yono1T} sossaisoid ssepd st} “sotpod sutAeMS JO JUsWTUedMIODIL 9} 0} “SUOS-SuIs S1UYJAYI UT “s[OOYdS asay} JO alqo yea1s 9} St Jivoy Aq YOO oY} d}too1 0} SAO JY} YORI} O} OfIYA “JOR SNOIIOJIIOW LV PotoPISUOD JOS} UL ST ULION SY} WOIF SISIOA JO SUIPRdI ISU dT, ‘ VOIUAVY HLAON VUMSIG LV IOOHDOS NVGHNWVHOW UIV-NUdO NV ysio" PW preuod O oe Se Photograph by Harriet Chalmers Adams PES, Virb GaGch PUMP IN, THE PHILEPPINES This Ifugao mother has brought her baby to the bamboo water tube for a drink, and per- haps a bath. drained rice terraces higher up. Other regions become equally vivid. Washington is not a black dot in a tiny yellow square, where an unknown quan- tity called the Government makes laws; but it is its own true self—a city of beautiful parks and wide streets, of stately buildings and historic monuments, a capital city of which any girl or boy can be proud. So the pictures bring the maps to life, and we find the children locating coun- tries, rivers, and lakes, with a personal interest in each. Let us trace throughout the schools this fundamental change in geography teaching that has come about through pictures. Let us see how they give new life to the work from primary through grammar grades. GEOGRAPHY FOR THE PRIMARY CLASS No child needs to learn to read before he can know of the world beyond his horizon. He can have his geography les- sons from the beginning. He no longer uses the laborious path of the printed 493 Water is piped from the heights in this manner and is not impure unless it has page or even depends upon the clever oral pictures that the teacher is supposed to be able to give about “Little .Indian, Sioux or Crow,” or “Little frosty Eski- mo.’ He now has innumerable pictures of far-away folks. He sees the Eskimo father at his hunting, the mother in her fur clothing, and the children with their toys. At Thanksgiving time, when the stories of Pilgrim life and adventure arouse in- terest in the Indian, he learns how the red children live. In the spring the pictures tell him about his little black and brown brothers, who romp and play where the sun is high in the sky at noon and where no snow falls. By the same happy pic- ture path he learns of the lives of chil- dren in England and Holland, in far- away China and Japan. PIGLOREAL sPELYSICATL, GEOGRAP ERY But, meanwhile, as he grows his in- terest broadens. Suddenly he wants to know where the brook comes from, what 494 IMSe, INAIMKOINVAIE, GwOGIRAI Mac MAGAZINE Photograph by Harriet Chalmers Adams MARKET SCENE AT ILOILO, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS The market at Jaro, a suburb of Iloilo, is famous for its cloth of native weave. The finest jusi and pina in the Philippines is woven near Iloilo. At the window of every other house on the island a woman is seen at a crude loom. makes the stones in its bed so smooth, and why the quartz pebbles are so white, while other rocks are gray or black. Then it is that pictures lead him to the story Onthe miehty, torees of water) Elemeed not begin by reading about detritus and erosion. He sees pictures of brooks and tivers, dashing down the hills near their sources, flowing broad and free across the plains, and lazily idling through their vast deltas. He visits neighboring hills and sees how heavy rains dig out gullies in un- protected soil. ‘Then he studies views of wooded and denuded slopes, and of floods caused by careless deforestation. From these he gains ideas of conservation and the wise use of our national resources. He has illustrations showing the skill and value of the forest ranger, and becomes careful in lighting his own camp-fires. Best of all, he gets the idea of his respon- sibility for the care of public property. “What belongs to all of us is for me to enjoy, but not to hurty te) thimlSee “The Duration of Life and Conditions Associated with Longevity, A Study of the Hyde Genealogy,” by Alexander Graham Bell; published by the Genealogical Record Office, 1601 35th Street, Washington, D. C. $1.00. Photograph by Gilbert Grosvenor NINE SONS HAVE BEEN CONTRIBUTED TO THE WORLD’S POPULATION BY MR. AND MRS. MORRISON, OF ST. ANN’S, CAPE BRETON, NOVA SCOTIA “The persons whose parents both died before sixty lived, on the average, 32.8 years (the Hyde Genealogy). Those whose parents both lived beyond eighty averaged 52.7 years; and where the parents died at the intermediate age periods the duration of life was intermediate.” AN EVEN DOZEN SITS AROUND THE FAMILY BOARD AT EACH MEAL IN THE HOME OF Hh, ARILBISIRAD | IVIL S LAD) Longevity is an index of constitution. Tong-lived persons have left more descendants in pro- portion to their numbers than the others, and therefore, on the average, had larger families. 506 Photograph by Corey, supplied by Louise Lacey, Secretary of the @oneaiosicnl Recon Office ELISHA CLARK PECKHAM, AGED Q2, MIDDLETOWN, R. I., WITH MRS. PECKHAM AND THEIR ELEVEN CHILDREN. ONE CHILD DIED AT THE AGE OF TEN YEARS The children of long-lived parents are, on the average, stronger, more vigorous, and longer- lived than the children of others, and there are more of them per family. THE CENTENARIAN CLUB OF LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, WHOSE MOTTO IS, “LIVE A HUNDRED YEARS AND GROW-OLD GRACEFULLY” Left to right, standing; Dr. J. M. Morrison, Vice-President, 97; Rev. H. Judd, 91; Rev. N: A. Millerd, oo; A. AJ Annas, 06; Dr. A. 1..Canfield,.o0;\C. R. Post; 92;\J. B.F. Jarchow, 92; Senator C. C. Cole, 94. Left to right, sitting: Dr’ A. M. Sherman, 92; Dr. J. M. Peebles, 96; ©. Selleck, 94; Dr. KE. C. Prugh, 905; Mrs. M. K. Bartlett, 92; Mrs. J. F. Howard, 92; Mrs. M. Offenbach, 90; Mrs. Stevens, 94; Rev. S. H. Taft, President, 92. Mrs. Taft in rear. 507 VIQI “€ JoqoyO Us1oq sem dyG ‘AEP dy} JO SMOU dy} AOSOTD Surmoyjoy ‘AT[eJUOUL JJoTe St 9YS PUe POOS SI JYSIsado OFT “Avpoy yIeey Jose “XO UI ST “SIMA “eYsOUudy UI ‘soyrenG sapivyD “say ‘JoIYSnep 194 YIM SOAT] OYM “SIOIYT, “SIT “SMOT[OF Itoy} JO Airsofewm jsva oy} JO posses JACY JLY} SOSVISIP OY} O} “JULISISOI Jsvot Je IO ‘OUNUIWT 9q 0} SOATOSUTOTY poaoid savy oyM ojdood o1e ase pjoO ou1d1}X9 0} DAY OYM Moz OY, AVGHIAId HIVOI WH NO SNAIL “M VSINO'T ‘SUN IYO P1092 [eoIsoTeauory 9y} Jo A1e}9199 Se S ‘Aa0e’T astno’y fq porjddns ydes80j,0yg ‘ssouisnd A193I019 SIY JO JUoWSeULU dy} WOT O1T]91 0} WIY pasneo Jo surids yoeo uopies yonsy siy Sunuryd worsy Aypioy.C “spy poqwoea -o1d jou pry wry JoAo passed prey sivoA porpuny e uey) o10ur yey Joey OL V8 2 0} poal] aJ1M SIFT “UdIPTYyS 3YS19 Jo JsaSunod ayy sem 2H ‘06 9q_ 0} poAtT Joyjour sty Inq “Sh ye porp royIeZ sIFT ‘uoye] sem ydes3 -o}0Yd SI} WoyM OSB FO sivdk TOT sea “puryo1y ur us ‘AT[I9y.C uyof[ SHONVHO GINOA\ JO AUNLNAD V NVHL AYOW NUNS SVH TH Ulead “H “I Aq ysesBozoyg 508 WHO SHALL INHERIT LONG might have had more children had they lived longer. Mothers who died between forty and sixty had 6.2 children apiece, and we would naturally expect that no further increase in the size of the family would be found in the case of mothers who Giedsat slater ages. bie) as a matter of fact, the mothers who Gicds between sixty and eighty averaged 610) ‘children apiece, and the mothers who lived beyond eighty had average families on 72 children.* When we remember that in all these cases the children were born berore the mothers had passed middle life, it becomes obvious that the mothers who reached old age were inherently more fer- tilemiaam tae Others. There is thus some correlation between longevity and fecun- dity. The parents who lived the longest had the most children, on the average. But how about the children? Did they, too, live longer than , oe others? Yes, upon the average, they id. The average duration of life of the 1,594 persons referred to above was 40.6 years. Their fathers, on the average, lived 70.9 years, and their mothers 66.0 years. Thus the fathers and mothers, on the average, lived longer than their chil- dren. This is always found to be the case *See “The Duration of Life,” etc., by Alex- ander Graham Bell. Table 17, relating to 671 fertile marriages of females resulting in the production of 4,022 children, or 6.0 children per marriage. IEAM O09 Photograph ibe Charles Martin THE OLDEST HUMAN BEING OF WHOSE BIRTH WE HAVE AUTHENTIC RECORD Mrs. Ann Powder, of Baltimore, Md., photographed on her tr1oth birthday, in the summer of 1917. She died a few months later. when we deal with large numbers; and the reason is very obvious; for, of course, no fathers or mothers died in infancy or childhood, whereas many of the children died young. LONGEVITY IS AN INHERITABLE CHARACTERISTIC Investigation shows that a larger pro- portion of the children of long-lived par- ents lived to be old and a smaller propor- tion died young than in the case of the others. The Hyde statistics afford conclusive 510 evidence that a tendency to longevity is an inheritable characteristic. For ex- ample, divide the 1,594 cases into three groups: t. Those: whose parents, neither of them, lived to be eighty. 2. Those having one parent who lived to be eighty or older, and 3. Those having parents both of whom lived to be eighty or older. Now note the proportion of long-lived persons in each group. Only about 5 per cent of the persons in group one lived to be eighty; about 10 per cent of the per- sons in group two, and 20 percent in eroup three (exact percentages 5.3, 9.8. and 20.6). Few of the persons who did not have long-lived parents behind them lived to be old. The long-lived propor- tion was practically doubled where one parent lived to be old and quadrupled where both parents lived to be old. ‘The evidence indicates that heredity is deeply involved in the production of longevity. If we divide the 1,594 cases into groups arranged according to the ages reached ny ne jercsacs, giacl Ween Callebllence une average duration of life of all the persons in each group, not simply the proportion who lived to be old, we find that the per- sons constituting the longest-lived group were the offspring of the longest-lived narents, the members of the shortest- lived group came from the shortest-lived parents, with intermediates intermediate. Number of Cases Mother’s age at death —60 60-80 80+ e: ; sear 206 184 re a) | ow o 2 E « tn B AS) SOR 172 ot wi (to) O s taj & S 128 120 74 | The persons whose parents both died betore Sixty lived) om thelaveragems2:6 years. [hose whose parents both lived beyond eighty averaged 52.7 years; and where the parents died at the intermediate THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE age periods the duration of life was inter- mediate. The figures indicate very clearly that there is a correlation between the dura- tion of life of the individual and the duration of life of his parents; and, con- versely, we may conclude that the longest- lived parents, on the average, had the longest-lived children; the shortest-lived parents the shortest-lived children; with intermediates intermediate. We have only to glance around us at the different forms of animal life to find plentiful indications that the duration of life is influenced, and indeed controlled, by heredity. Each species has its own limit of life, and man is no exception. The contrasts are often very yaneae: For example, a horse born the same day as a child dies of old age before the child has reached full maturity. Just think of the differences. The horse may become a parent when the child is only a toddling three-vear-old, a grandparent by the time the child is six, and several generations of horses may appear before the child has even reached marriageable age. The duration of life of each species is controlled and limited by heredity, and heredity even establishes different limits for groups of animals within the same species. The long-lived tend to produce long-lived offspring, the short-lived, short- lived offspring, etc. A million people may be born on the Average Duration of Life Mother’s age at death — 60 60-80 80 + ; | | ar 42.3 45.5 52.7 S “Ss oO oO Le) (j=) =) ake 35.8 38.0 45.0 Tit Oe wn gh oO oS a 32.8 33.4 Fa a) ron) ae) — 60 same day, and we know that multitudes of them will die during the very first year of life. So great is the mortality during infancy and childhood that we may be perfectly certain that the majority of the WHO) SEALE INE RIT TONG EREEe »Photograph by W. T. Oxley, from the Collections of the Genealogical Record Office IO: FIVE GENERATIONS OF WOMEN IN A MINNESOTA HOUSEHOLD Mrs. Karl Melden was 89; her daughter, Mrs. Anne Kastell, 61; granddaughter, Mrs. Han- nah Gustafson, 41; great-granddaughter, Mrs. Ann Bergernt, 21; and great-great-grand- daughter, Mary Valdine, aged 7 months, when this photograph was taken. Note the remark- able inheritance in similarity of the eyes, even in the baby. people will have passed away long before the lapse of fifty years. The extreme limit of human life probably does not ex- tend very far beyond the hundred-year mark, and only very few live to be even eighty or ninety. The few who live to extreme old age are people who have proved themselves to be immune, or at least resistant, to the diseases that have carried off the vast majority of their fellows. They have been exposed to all the diseases and acci- dents of life and have not succumbed. They have proved themselves to be re- sistant, not to a single disease alone, but to all diseases; and the fact that they “SyJUOUL Q pose ‘aJoqIg YNY FO sJoyJOUI dy} ‘(aToqIG AsTsaAA “SIP MOU) POOM epoA pue {soyjowpurss e st Sv ye poon “[ “VW ‘SIJN +89 72 Joyjow -puevis-jeois & ST WofoIA eye “SIP ‘Joyysnep JoPY “4g ye Joyj}OUI -puris-yeois-yeo1s ev MoU St dinjord ys1y oy} JO ATOSoILT) “q Sa WihlV1l SUVHA oo SLNV -ANHOSAA JOWVIG S AVUANAW OW ‘SUW JO ATINVA ANO ‘Zc ‘ON 6 "(€1S ased Osje 308) € pase ‘pooMm epoA ‘Joi Sneppurss-yeo13-JeI13 Joy pue '€c pase ‘PooMm ‘( cy ‘sd ‘JoSsneppueis-jyeois Joy ‘fy pase “‘WolorA eye “SII ‘Jayysneppuess Joy {9g pase ‘A10sI15j ‘gq ‘[ ‘SIJ ‘JOY SNep sy 6g pase ‘APIINOP PIUTAe’T “SIPY SMOYS ‘OSe siv9dk gz Uoye} ‘Ydersojoyd sty J, SdNOWD NOLIVAIANAD-AAIA WAISSHO -ONS UNOT -ATINVA AVAXYOWOW ATaVMAVNAA AHL “1 ON 512 ‘Ywop Joy JO oul} oY} ye sjurpUddssop SulAl] 4OI—uodAp[Iyopuess-jeo18-jeo1s xXIS pue ‘UdIp[Iyopuess -yeais SS “uosppiyopurss bY ‘uoIppIYyo o1Y} SUIAT] I1oOM 9194} “Yeap s ACIINPPI “SIV JO oun oy} FY “6g pure ‘zZ ‘of Suroqg so8e sy) ‘Suray [JMS o1e so1yy, ‘24 pure “of “bg ‘(AroSo14) “W) PE :S98e SUIMOT[OF oY} Je IMOJ pue AdULJUL Ul Pop Ano}F SuoapyiyD Ir pry Aoyy, “1g Jo a8e oy} ye porp pueqsny Joy{ “SSUIPpoOM UdpjOs 1foy} 9}e1qGoJIO 0} PIAT] [[W S4o}sts ysasunoOA 9914} JoF{ ‘“Uotpyiyo suru FO js1y OY} SEM ALIINGYOP VIUIAr’T ‘sayy ‘UdIP[IYD OM} JO JOYJOU oY} ‘Og ‘VY pose ‘1ojYsneppueis-}e918-]e018 “SIJ Mou st ‘€ ‘ON JO ‘SUdAd}G SApL{sy pure icy ye JoyJOoWpurRAS & ‘suUdAD}G SABIINJI “SIPT ‘SuoAo}g sApeyy aj] pue {ez pose ‘sudadjg oluUuy ‘SIP “Io}ysonep Joy ‘JayJOUIpPULIS-jeoI1s & SI ‘IYI “SIP ‘Joyyonep siy - ‘SIP ‘TOUSNeP Ss a[YJoJT ‘“SIPY : ov pose ‘opysopy eiuiar’yT ‘sap ‘10; 4ys8nvp [IQ pose ‘1oy}yefpULIS-jeoIs-jeoIs e IWIODOq svYy ACIINPPOPY 119qG0y SUOS Jay + ZQ pose ‘j1aqoy ‘UOS Jsopja Joy $Sg pose ‘AvrIN POP “SII WLW SIVAA OI ANI'T WIVW AHI, TO SAVUNNWOW FHL ‘VON ATINVA AVITOAWOW AHL JO dNOWD WHHLONV “£ ‘ON 513 514 transmit to their offspring a tendency to live long shows that the disease-resistant quality is handed down to their descend- ants. | Of course, longevity itself is not a thing that is capable of direct inheritance ; but the fact that longevity seems to run in families shows that a tendency to long life can be inherited. It 1s not longevity itself that is transmitted, but something else that tends to produce long life. What is really inherited is probably a tough, wiry Constitution, which enables the for- tunate possessor to survive the multitu- dinous ills that flesh is heir to and live on to the extreme limit of human life. From this point of view, the attainment of old age is extremely significant. The people who live to be old represent the disease-resistant strain of their gen- eration ; and, on account of their superior fecundity, this disease-resistant quality is distributed very largely through the pop- ulation. The weak and delicate do not, lave THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE as a rule, live very long; nor are they ca- pable of bearing large families. It is the strong and vigorous who live to extreme old age and leave many descendants be- hind them. The children of long-lived parents are, on the average, stronger, more vigorous. and longer-lived than the children of others; and there are more of them per family. Here, then, we have evidence of the existence of a natural process at work among human beings tending to improve the vigor and vitality of succeeding gen- erations.” * The Genealogical Record Office, Alexander Graham Be'l, Director, 1601 35th Street, Wash- ington, D. C., will be glad to receive informa- tion concerning all authentic cases of persons now living who are more than 90 years of age. The data should include the date of birth of the individual, the age at which his or her parents died, and the number of chil- dren and ages of his or her children and direct descendants. AZORES Picturesque and Historic Half-way House of American Transatlantic Aviators By Arminius IT. HAEBERLE FORMERLY AMERICAN CONSUL aT ST. HF, picturesque Azorean archi- pelago, situated between the 37th and 4oth degrees of latitude, lies in the path of steamers plying between New York and the Mediterranean, as well as in the course of those sailing be- tween Panama and the ports of northern Europe. The central cluster or this ‘eroup, formed by the islands of Fayal, Pico, Sao Jorge, Graciosa, and Terceira, lies more than 840 miles directly west of Lis- bon. About 150 miles northwest of this centrally located group are Flores and Corvo, and approximately the same dis- tance to the southeast Santa Maria, and the largest and most important of all, St. Michaels (Sao Miguel). The Azores are not, as is generally supposed, a colonial possession, but form MICHAELS an integral part of Portugal. For politi- cal and administrative purposes, they are divided into three districts, each sending its representatives to congress at Lisbon. Owing to their location, the Azores have played a very important part in the history of sea navigation, just as they have within the last few weeks played a vital role in aérial navigation as the half- way house in the epochal transatlantic flight by American ‘naval officers in the American seaplane NC-4, and as ports of safety for the equally daring aviators who piloted the less successful NC-1 and NC-3. The keen interest that the Azoreans manifested in the first transatlantic flight had a deeper cause than mere curiosity. They remember that the first sailing ves- NOILIGHdXY AAMIVO-WAMMVH GULVA-TII HHL AT NASOHD ALNOW AHL OSIV ! LHOTTA OLLNWILV -SNVUL WAHL NI SYOLVIAV NVOISHWV TINASSHOONS AHL JO SHLNOU AHL GNV SHYOZV AHL AO SdNOVD WAUAL AHL INIMOHS dVW 010g op DIA & SE 54 UVW VINVS — Sens “ep. 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S. Navy Air Service A VIEW OF TREPASSEY BAY, NEWFOUNDLAND, FROM ONE OF THE NC SEAPLANES: THE PORT OF DEPARTURE FROM THE AMERICAN CONTINENT FOR THE U. S. NAVY'S FLEET OF THREE FLYING BOATS BOUND FOR THE AZORES, PORTUGAL, AND PLYMOUTH The Navy maae elaborate provisions for its flyers in the establishment of bases of supply and repair at Halifax, Trepassey Bay, and in the Azores. a tank steamer and two American destroyers. In the foreground may be seen The supply ships of the seaplanes, the Aroos- took and the Prairie, are anchored in the middle distance, up the bay. sel that crossed the Atlantic, over four hundred years ago, landed at one of their islands. They were the first to receive from Columbus the news of the discovery of a new world, and they hailed with de- light the opportunity to welcome to their shores the first man +o win the title of “Columbus of the Air.” HISTORY OF THE AZORES The discovery of Madeira, the Cana- ries, and the Azores Islands was a direct result of the persistent efforts of Prince Henry the Navigator, of Portugal, to double Cape Bojador and to discover a new route to India. It was during the glorious period of Portuguese explora- tions ‘that Goncalo Velho Cabral discov- ered Santa Maria, the most southerly of the Azores, in 1432. In the course of succeeding years, covering a period of 517 more than a decade, the other islands were discovered. From that time on down to modern days the Azores, or Western Islands, be- came the scene of many an historic event. The first of these was the visit of Co- lumbus on his return from America, in 1403. | Tossed about by a severe tempest, the great Italian navigator and his men made a vow that if their lives were spared they would worship, stripped of a part of their clothes, in the first church they reached. A few days later they sighted the Island of Santa Maria, where Columbus an- chored and sent a part of his men to a small chapel near the shore to attend mass, in fulfillment of his vow. ‘Today this chapel is one of the most interesting historical places on the island. Aten the) discovery or Brazil, the “AouInof Ie styULTJesUeIY OY} JO So] Jsasuoy oy} ‘purypunozmony ‘Keg Aossedosy, wos, yySty IwSsiu-ye ue 1077" ‘41 Avy UO (ow Sotozy) “wt -d oz: 1 ye 340d sty} OjUr Ajoyes ouvfdees sty yYSsno1q pesy “DO “VY Jopuewwod-jueucnory ‘Soy Surdojaauod uv ysnosy J, WAOW NV SUTIN OO AO GiIXdS ADVWAAV NV LY ‘SHLANIW C1 @Nv Ssunow SI JO LHD SNIMVANG-aI0 -OHY V YALIV GHYOHONV V-ON @HL ANXUHM “IVAVA JO GNV’ISI THI JO TNOdVAS ATIHO AHL WAIVMAMVANT SLI HLIM AVE VINOH dJoqoey “I, “VY Wosz ydesisojoyg 518 THE AZORES Azores were visited by ships plying be- tween Portugal and South America. Vessels returning from the Western Hemisphere and from India, loaded with gold, silver, and spices, sought their way among the islands that became, in ac- cordance with the turbulent spirit of the sixteenth century, the scene of many gal- lant fights for the ownership of these precious cargoes. Those interested in the naval exploits of Drake, Sir Richard Granville, Frob- _isher, and other bold spirits of the six- teenth century, will find abundant ro- mance in the early history of the Azores. Here they fought with vessels of the Spanish Armada of Philip II, and it was here that the U.S. privateer, General Armstrong, was sunk in the harbor of Fayal during the war of 1812. Today the Azores are important as a coaling station for vessels engaged in peaceful commercial pursuits. ORIGIN OF THE AZORES ISLANDS Although much has been written about the origin of the islands, this is still a matter of conjecture. Interesting argu- ments have been advanced to prove they are remnants of the lost continent, At- lantis. One theory is that the islands are the topmost peaks of a subterranean range of mountains extending north and south, and another that they were at one time a part of the continent. English geographers have taken a deep interest in the study of the islands, and it 1s not improbable that botanical investigations will prove that the latter theory 1s correct. But whatever may have been the origin of the islands, they are certainly the re- sult of tremendous volcanic eruptions that have continued to,change their phys- ical aspect ever since their discovery in the fifteenth century. On every hand are evidences of former upheavals, from the gray lava stones that are used in the construction of houses and the building of roads to the underlying streaks of ashes that are visible in places where the surface soil has washed away, and the many cup-shaped craters and beautiful lakes on the tops of the mountains. According to a Moorish account, writ- ten before the thirteenth century, an Arabian caravel started from Portugal O19 to discover new lands. Sailing westward for eleven days, the sailors suddenly found themselves in a sea of “fetid gases” and confronted by dangerous rocks and shoals, which so frightened them that they turned southward. It is quite possible that these daring Arabian sailors reached the Azorean waters dur- ing a volcanic disturbance, which pre- vented their further discoveries. It is most interesting to compare with this account a strange phenomenon that is described in the early archives of the Azores Islands in connection with the discovery of St. Michaels. Upon leaving the shore of this newly found land, the discoverer made a sketch of the island and noted especially the presence of two peaks that towered high above the others, one on the eastern and the other on the western extremity. Soon afterward, he returned from Por- tugal to establish a settlement, but when he approached the island he was sur- prised to find that during his absence the western peak had entirely disapppeared. Trees and large quantities of pumice- stones were seen floating in the sea. To- day the town of Sete Cidades, built in the hollow of a crater, marks the site of the old peak. The violent earthquakes that disturbed the Azores during the succeeding centu- ries down to the eighteenth are too nu- merous to mention. But the annals of the islands vie with those of Italy in graphic accounts of the ever-interesting and terrible volcanic phenomena. Cities were buried, mountains disappeared and sent their ashes to unbelievable distances; islands hundreds of feet high suddenly appeared and as suddenly disappeared, and flames of fire illuminated whole islands and their intervening waters. icone FOlsi nicer a night on. tire: island bearing the same name, is interesting as the central and the highest volcano of the islands. It 1s considered by some as the principal communication of this re- gion with the interior of the earth. Light clouds of vapor occasionally rise from its summit and the ashes at the top are still warm. St. Michaels has perhaps suffered more from volcanic disturbances than any of the other islands; but Santa Maria, only ‘sJoolIde pue SSI Posie IACY SJULJIGeYUL 9Y} OWI} Jey} sOUTS pue ‘IgAamoy ‘ZSQI UL SOUTA oy} pado1jsop snsunz YW ‘“ourM snowy & Poonpoid ose AInjuI. & JyeYy UY} s1OW! 9]}WT] & [JUN YIM “Ary pozisoA -jnd JO posodurod Si owivu aes ay} JO PURISI dy} FO [IOS AY, “Se1ozVy oY} JO Yead ysotjfFo] 9Y} St OST ‘Joof 009'4 URY} 210U FO JYSIoy & O} SUISTY SHYOZV AHL FO dNOW ‘IVYLNAO AHL AO GNV'ISI [SOWNYALSIM AHL “IVAVAI WOU NYAS SV OOId AO ONVO’IOA AHL sroqory “I, “°V wos ydeisojoyg sera Sei ne ete 520 WS08, AVZOIRUaS 53 miles south of St. Michaels, has al- ways been free from eruptions and even heavy earthquakes. AZOREAN EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES There is perhaps no country in the world that has such a heavy tide of em1- gration, in proportion to the number of its inhabitants, as the Western Islands. Some of the emigrants go to Brazil, but by far the majority to the United States. .During the year before the world war 6,000 Azoreans emigrated to the United States, and it is estimated that there are 35,000 Azoreans in California and over 60,000 in New Bedford, Massachusetts, Providence, Rhode Island, and other parts of New England, making a total of almost 100,000. ‘The population of all the Azores is scarcely 300,000. Many of the emigrants return home, and almost all of the inhabitants of some of the islands have been in the United States. It-is not unusual, even on the small islands, remote from foreign influence and the busy world of the twentieth cen- tury, to hear a boy of 17 discuss his con- templated trip to Massachusetts, a gray- haired sefor speak of the bark Sarah that carried him to American shores in 1850, or an aged mother refer to her son in the far-off land of California. Most of these emigrants sail from Ponta Delgada, the capital. of St. Michaels, where they gather from all the islands. Two Portuguese steamers make their monthly rounds to the various Azorean ports, bringing back to St. Michaels old men who have visited relatives and are now returning to America, and young men and young women, boys and girls, about to seek their fortunes in the New World. Those are busy days in the port of St. Michaels. On first view, the Azorean emigrants, gathered on the wharf, differ little from those of other countries; but an opportunity to study them more closely will reveal many interesting faces and figures. ‘These peasants have lived in a healthful, mid-ocean climate and led their simple lives among the hills and rugged mountains of their native land. Dejec- tion is not pictured on their faces. Many Of tiem! are tall and strong. But’ per- 521 haps the most notable feature to a stranger is the healthy glow of their faces. Unfortunately, many do not find the fortune they seek in America. Some go to the western part of the United States and continue to lead a healthful life on the ranches in California and Nevada, but others seek employment in the manu- facturing centers of the eastern States. Not accustomed to the cold climate and indoor work, or the result of denying themselves some of the necessaries of life in order to accumulate enough money to return home, it sometimes happens that they contract consumption. While this is by no means the rule, the government of St. Michaels has, in connection with its hospital, a special department for those afflicted with this disease. ST, MICHAELS—‘A VISIT TO PARADISE” “You are going to a paradise,” was the information I received from a friend when he heard of my contemplated trip to the Azores. Naturally, my expecta- tions ran high. Unfortunately, when our boat anchored off St. Michaels, February clouds, sending down sudden squalls, were hanging low over the hills. But, even with high expectations and the in- terference of low clouds, the scene was not disappointing. A sudden burst of glory is not es- sential for a terrestrial paradise. St. Michaels does not overwhelm you .with the grandeur of a Rocky Mountain scene. lg caprunes: you subtle) Wattle by: little impressions pile up in your memory until your fancy lingers in the beautiful gar- dens, whose walls are covered with wis- teria and climbing roses, in the magnif- cent parks, and among the extensive hedges of hydrangea that bloom along the country roads. By way of contrast, St. Michaels will fret and frown amid fearful, stormy seas. But you are compensated when, on a sunny day, you stand on the summit of one of the many peaks and behold the tranquil scene below you. Then you will see the island studded with towns and vil- lages, the verdant hills laid out in check- ered fields and cultivated to the very tops, picturesque dome-like windmills turning their long wings, and the harbor and sur- Ot bo AUIBOB, INVAIEIKOUNUAL, Photograph from A. T. Haeberle PANORAMIC VIEW OF PONTA DELGADA, ST. MICHAELS, AZORES: FROM THIS HARBOR THE NC-4 BEGAN THE FINAL LEG OF ITS EPOCHAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE TRANSATLANTIC FLIGHT This was also the port of refuge into which Commander Towers piloted, under its own power, the crippled NC-3, after a remarkable sixty-hour battle with a storm-tossed sea. rounding ocean dotted with sails that glisten in the bright sunshine. PONTA DELGADA, THE MID-OCEAN TERMINAL FOR AVIATORS Ponta Delgada, the largest city in the Azores, has 17,600 inhabit- ants. Fortunately, it has preserved some of its old features, the in- heritance of past centuries—just enough to breathe an atmosphere of quaintness and to make the place so delightfully attractive that the jum- ble of high, massive chimneys, the tall walls, and the small balconies that overhang the streets become a part of one’s life. Modern buildings there are, such as the imposing hospital, the quar- antine station, the Governor’s Pal- ace, and many private residences. But it is not these one cares to talk about in a place that can boast in- teresting relics of the past. Ponta Delgada still has a num- ber of houses that have been handed down through generations in ac- cordance with the law of the mor- gados. The morgado was the old- est son, who inherited the estate of his father and upon whom devolved the duty of providing for the other members of his family. The architecture of these houses is the same as that used in olden times by the morgados of northern Portugal, ‘Elere they ares bullegen massive lava rock. The interiors are divided into spacious rooms, provided with many windows and doors that often connect with long rows of balconies. Ornamental de- signs worked in plaster of Paris decorate the painted walls and ceil- ings. Large chimneys stand like sentinels on the roofs. These chim- neys, having long, narrow openings, are in some cases eight feet wide at the lower part, where they rise from the fireplace in the kitchen. The date showing when the house was built and a coat of arms made of plaster of Paris are sometimes found above the entrance. Many of the morgado residences are pro- vided with a special chapel for the members of the family. ‘The best DE AZORE.S 523 Hes i aks Photograph from A. T. Haeberle ERE Te 1 HICK-WALLED, (MELA TCH-ROOKED! COUNTRY HOUSE OF THE AZOREAN PEAS AND ee NO aEnE, CORNESTACK WO Ess lpr These peasants live in a healthful, mid-ocean climate and lead simple lives among their hills and rugged mountains. example of this class of architecture in st. Michaels is the old palace of Santa Catharina. ; Back of the houses are flower gardens surrounded by high walls. ‘These walls, sometimes 15 feet high, are found every- where on the island, often inclosing the roads for a long distance. Some writers have attributed these walls to the neces- sity for fortification against foreign in- vaders in the early days of the island, but in reality they were built to protect the orange groves from the wind. Next to the walls, Faya, or beech trees, were planted as a further shelter. . Like the houses, these walls are made of lava stones, skilfully piled on top of each other and the crevices filled with small pieces. | it ROMANTIC GLORY (OB “MAE, CHURCH OF HOPE Many of the gardens have high stone towers that command a view of the sea and surrounding country. There are several historical churches and convents in Ponta Delgada, of which wine (Clie Or wae “Colle? eincl ware Church and Convent of “Esperanca” are of greatest interest. The former ‘was burlteby the Jestinsmimy nO25e VVinens ein 1760, the Jesuits were expelled from the Azores during the reign of Don José, this church and the adjoining property were sold at public auction. In this way they came into the possession of one of the principal families of St. Michaels. Although a private church, it is open to public worship. ‘The architecture is that of the Jesuit churches of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Colegio Church is frequently visited by tourists because of the elaborate wood carving of the interior. But the church that holds the foremost place in the hearts of pious Azoreans 1s “Bsperancayson Chuncimot tlope. | it is the abode of their most devoutly wor- shiped image, “Santo Christo,” the origin of which dates back to the founding of JOOd JoyeVM oy} dooy yoryar ‘sref-1oyeM snosod sev o1ay uses ov YIYM Jo Sofdurexe ‘Arojod ose ayeul soArjeu DY} SPpULISE ay} UO PUNOJ oq 0} AvjO OURd]OA pot OY} WoOIT ,SUIYJATOAD FO oI] B 9ALY SURdIOZY OY} PUL FPS} Ul P[JOM oI] B ST spoeyry[ “3S,, SHMOZV AHL :STAVHOIN “1S fO GNVW'ISI 4H NO SOLHIVd OlIdnd GNV NIVINOOA AOVITIA V LV dpioqory °y, “VW Wo1z ydestsojoyg 8 524 ‘osejodiyoie Satozy oy} Jo yeydes UF ATJOIIIP WOIF ATWO Jey} Pue ‘dTGISIA ddvF S.JoIvIM dy} Jo diajs Aut} & ynq st o1oy} ‘oq 0} JULoLU oe SyRO]O oY} sv ‘yeoryy oy} SUIYSIINOY oY} ‘Vpes[oq eyuog Ut dUd9s 490.I4$ Vo ‘quoi v podse SHUOZ Vi eeirint Nel cn. Sr eel) LSOWITV SI LOU AHL Lad ‘NUNWOM GWIIHA AO GNv’I NVGANWVHOW V NI LON AUV AM PPI IAQTY “_ [Uy woszz ydessojoyg [> uot, AA 525 ‘osejodiyoie oY} 0} Snouasiput “preziy e ‘aytjdar Jo soroods suo ATUO St 9104} JOZ ‘puvjosry se [jam se YorjyeT 3S IIoy} Pel{ sey Jsnul soiozy oT, “s1oe ULITIOWIY SY} ULY} SSO] SE YIM “JOII}SIP SI} UL DINSsvoW puLT JO uN ssonsni10g say} ,,‘o11onbye,, yoed uo SI¢ 0} S$ WoOIF FO [eJUT JenuUe Ue JoTjoo pue jt oseoz OYM ‘sJoUMO-puUR] AY YeIM Aq Po][OI}JUOD SI SpuUvISI ay} JO pu] oY} Jo yonsT SVNVNV@ JO SHHONOG DILNVDID WZIAWHSAN SHYOZV AHI NI SMOVIS NwWOO dpJoqoey “I, “V Wosz ydessojoyg 526 Pal AZORES the convent connected with this church. No one can remain long in St. Michaels without becoming acquainted with the truly important part this image plays in the religious lfe of the people—a ‘worship peculiar to the island of St. Michaels. In the sixteenth century twenty-seven nuns founded a convent in Caloura, a small town in the southern part of the island. Ejighteen of these, fearing the ravages of Moorish invaders, entered the ‘more securely protected convent in Villa Franca, the old capital, while the less timid decided to remain at Caloura. Two noblemen of that town, feeling compassion for the faithful nine who re- fused to leave, undertook to raise suffi- cient money to build a convent in Ponta Delgada. Two of the nuns were sent to Rome to make the necessary arrangements with the Pope. They brought back not only the desired permission to found a new convent, but also the image of Ecce momen or canto. Christo, which was placed in the new convent upon its com- plewion,m I541. - Years ago the Portuguese Government abolished all convents and _ prohibited women from taking the vow. But the Convent of Esperanca was placed in the hands of a religious society and allowed to remain open under the auspices of an abbess. Today about forty women live there, performing their religious duties, but free from the usual vow and strict rule. Many of the inmates of Esperanc¢a earn their living by making confection- eries that have become famous in the island. TWO FAMOUS ¥ESTIVALS The procession of Santo Christo takes Placevon the fiith Stunday after Easter. In the afternoon of the day before, the image is taken out of the convent, where it remains all year. It is carried into the adjoining church, which is kept open all night for the 15,000 people who come from far and near, many of them from other islands, to worship and witness the great procession of the year. The pil- grims walk long distances, and make their beds in the park in front of the 527 church or sleep in the vestibule itself. Nor do the faithful worshipers in the United States forget their beloved im- age. Generous contributions arrive from America, and, in remembrance of absent friends, the American flag is produced in the form of pyrotechnical displays in the Park of San Hranciseo. Santo Christo is often spoken of by Chew islandens| sas Welne. icon sO ich, which is certainly true; it is impossible to estimate his wealth; but the costly jewelry and precious stones that have been offered at his shrine and with which he is adorned represent a value of thou- sands of dollars. The second of the great religious fes- tivals is the Imperio do Espirito Santo, or Holy Ghost, which extends over a period of ten or more weeks, from Easter Sun- day until Saint Peter’s Day. The season is marked by a series of processions, but the principal and most interesting feature is the poor people. On the last Sunday mordomos, or chiefs, whose duty it is to collect money and other gifts, are selected for the ensuing year. A SEASON OF CHARITY Generous quantities of flour, wheat, beans, and cattle are frequently received from those whose fortunes enable them to bestow freely. ‘The money is used to purchase wine and food. During the Espirito Santo holidays the wheat and flour are converted into bread, the cattle are killed, and everything is distributed among the poor. The resi- dents of certain streets form so-called imperios, or unions, each one electing its mordomo and distributing the collected gifts among its members. The food is placed in carts drawn by oxen, and both carts and animals are decorated with gar- lands and rosettes of bright flowers. The festivities of Santo Christo and Espirito Santo are eventful days for the inhabitants of the rural districts, who think little of pleasure during the year. The husband or father leaves his home at daybreak to till the soil, while the fe- male members of the family attend to their domestic duties, carry their corn to * This term is used in a most respectful man- ner by the Azoreans. Photograph from Emil P. Albrecht A MODISTE WOULD STARVE IN THE AZORES—FASHIONS NEVER CHANGE The cloaks worn by the women last a generation at least; some- Granddaughter dons grandmother’s apparel without chagrin and without causing comment when she appears on one of times several. the main thoroughfares of Ponta Delgada. the nearest windmill, and bring back the meal for the week. Mass on Sunday morning and a walk or visit in the afternoon constitute, in many cases, the only change in their sim- ple lives until the approach of the festivi- ties of Santo Christo and Espirito Santo. Then the men take out their violins, guitars, and accordions and lead their families to Ponta Delgada to worship, to see the decorations, and to sing and dance. The native dances are on the order of our square dances, men and women wind- ing in and out, with slight variations, ac- cording to the figures of the different dances. If the father is a musician, he will play his violin as he walks along the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE country Toad. =aitens an interesting sight to see a whole family marching home to the tune of lively native melodies. One of the churches is situated on a high elevation and affords a perfect view of the city, harbor, and sur- rounding country. The real name of the church is “Mae de Deus” — Mother of God. When Colonel Roosevelt stopped at dais isieinGl Cm lms journey to. Africa, he vasels Was” So © tt, cues nen Called. lavorosewelis lear AN tablet on the church bears the Portuguese inscription, ‘Passeio Publico Theodere Roosevelt.” CARNIV Aly, “AUB Sey THE AZORES It was my good for- tune, 10» arrive aumoe _Michaels in time to witness the carnival festivities. Two Sun- days are devoted to amusement during this time. Wax balls, called “limas,” are filled with water and — used to bombard people who may venture within range. Formerly, these balls were thrown promiscuously, but now certain places are set apart for that purpose. One may walk with safety through the city on carnival days, but if a person ventures near the happy revelers, he does so on his own responsibility. The most attractive feature of carnival time is the “Battle of Flowers” in the square of San Francisco. ‘Those wishing to participate prepare their coaches for that purpose, covering them with elabo- rate floral designs. Since the introduction of automobiles, these are also used, the bodies and wheels of the cars often form- ing solid masses of flowers and oranges. DEE eAZ ORES The coaches are loaded with baskets full of flowers and combertt Soon the street and park be- come a solid mass of people, and the prog- _ fess of the vehicles is obstructed. Then the battle begins and rages everywhere un- til the battlefield is covered with a thick carpet of flowers and confetti, and the im- maculately dressed women and girls, flushed with the ex- citing hardship of at- tack and defense, pre- sent a fascinating pic- ture. ‘su PONTA DELGADA’S WONDERFUL GARDENS Ponta Delgada has some of the most wonderful botanical gardens in the world. They have been pro- nounced by some as ranking next to those in Portugal, and by others as inferior only to the famous gar- dens of Brazil. That of José de Canto was begun in 1848. Sefior Canto was connected with all the different nurseries in the world, Photograph from A. 'T. Haeberle AN AZOREAN PEASANT FAMILY ENTERING PONTA DELGADA TO PARTICIPADE, EN LEE BES MVALIBS | OF SANTO CHRISTO As they march along the road they sing native melodies to the accompaniment of guitar, accordion, and violin. Note that all the and it was his ambi-* men of the family are barefooted. tion to gather speci- mens of all the trees and plants that could be obtained. The result is a marvelous collection. The gardens contain tree ferns origi- nally from Australia, many species of palms (such as the date, sago, and fan), Australia myrtle, great varieties of aloes, magnificent roses and camellias, India- rubber trees, banyan trees, acacias, mag- nolias, dracenas, brilliant red flame trees, screw-pines, and fine specimens of the cedar of Lebanon. The dragon trees (Dracena draco) grow well, and at Praia, in the southern part of the island, there is a long avenue of them. This species is exceptionally in- teresting because of the famous dragon tree of Orotava, on Teneriffe, that ex- isted until 1867. Humboldt estimated its age at 10,000 years. It is said to have been so large that ten men with arms out- stretched could scarcely surround it. St. Michaels does not distinguish itself because of rare flowers. It is rather the 20) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from A. T’. Haeberle THE PROCESSION OF SANTO CHRISTO IS PONTA DELGADA’S NEW YEAR'S, LABOR DAY, AND FOURTH OF JULY ALL IN ONE The celebration takes place on the fifth Sunday after Easter, and the inhabitants of St. Michaels walk long distances to the capital, where they make their beds in the park in front of the church or sleep in the vestibule itself the night before the eventful day (see text, page 527). great exuberance with which they grow when introduced and their splendid de- velopment that surprise. Riding through the country, one will suddenly find him- self among hedges of hydrangea and in- cense (Phetu lacca undulata). Here the white calla lily, the pink belladonna lily, the bright Guernsey lily, fresias, rambling Dorothy Perkins, wisterias, begonias, and gladioli blossom in indescribable profu- sion. Years ago the Faster lily was raised for export. The flower grew so well that millions were planted, but the extensive fields were suddenly destroyed by a dis- ease, and fortunes were lost. Owing to LER AZORES THE “ROOSEVELT CHURCH” AT PONTA DELGADA, ST. Or ) — Photograph from A. T. Piebene MICHAELS: THE AZORES Its real name is “Mother of God”; but when Colonel Roosevelt was on his way to Africa he visited this spot, which has since been called Roosevelt Park. commemorates the event. the destruction of this flower, of the orange trees and the vineyards, years ago, the government now maintains an agron- omer’s station to examine all plants brought to the island. “SHE CAPOTE AND THE CAPELLO” The handkerchief still forms the prin- cipal head covering of the older women of the peasant class, while the younger wear fancy scarfs. Wooden shoes are also worn by many of the peasant women and servants. The old carpauca, with its cape falling over the shoulders to protect the neck from the cold, is not used as ex- tensively by the men‘as in former years, but the tasseled cap used by the laboring class is often seen in the streets of Ponta Delgada. In the cities many of the women wear a special garb known as the “capote and capello.” The capote is a long blue cloak, to which is attached the large bonnet- A tablet on the church shaped hood known as capello, which completely hides the face, extending far out in the front and back. This cos- tume is not found elsewhere in Portugal. The Portuguese land measure is called “alqueire,” which is less than the Amer- icanacre. Much of the land of the islands is controlled by wealthy land-owners, who lease it and collect an annual rental of six milreis to twenty milreis, or about $5 to $15 in United States currency, on each alqueire. The rent is generally paid in money, but sometimes in the products of the field. One man often leases from 20 to 30 alqueires. MILKMEN SLEEP IN CAVES Although emigration has affected, to some extent, the cultivation of farm lands, the owners can profitably use the unoc- cupied parts for grazing purposes, as there is a good market for cattle. This pasture land is also rented out. In winter, OS eS Gs IBHotoeneon from Emil P. ipreent ON THE QUAY AT PONTA DELGADA Through the archway to the left can be seen the entrance to the arcades of the Casa des Arcas, which faces on the inner harbor. ‘The woman in the foreground wears the familiar “capote and capello.” 532 CEE AZORES when the cattle graze in the fields, the rent is based upon the alqueire ; but in summer, when they are driven to the hills, where the land is not measured, the charge is based upon the size of the herd. The men who attend to the milking go up into the hills in the evening, where they sleep in caves, in order to round up the cows early in the morning and milk them. The milk is then taken to town in large tin cans packed on burros. Fields of broad beans and lupine are everywhere in evidence. These products are used as fertilizers. Walls of lava stone divide the green fields into small squares, giving the hills a characteristic checkered appearance. HOTHOUSES HEATED BY FERMENTATION Formerly, oranges were the principal emudcle Of export, and in 1872 300,000 boxes were shipped abroad, representing a value of about $500,000. From that time on the orange industry gradually declined, as a result of the destruction of the trees by disease, and agriculturists turned their attention to the growing of pineapples. 3 The first pineapples were grown in a small town, Livramento, but now the principal centers are Ponta Delgada and Villa Franca. The fruit is not planted in fields, as in the warmer climates of Mex- ico and Central America, but carefully nursed in hothouses, without artificial heat. To produce the necessary heat, beds of special fermenting material are made. The hothouses, approximately 40 by 90 feet, face north and south and contain as many as 3,000 plants. The young pine- apples need replanting, and therefore several hothouses are used before the fruit is ready for market. In the first house the earth 1s prepared bye covering a heavy layer of small branches with soil that has been previ- ously used. This is turned over and watered. The young plants are placed about a foot apart and covered with a layer of loamy soil. After being carefully watered, they are allowed to remain undisturbed for about 12 weeks. When they appear above the ground the glass roofs are covered with a coat of whitewash to soften the light of the sun. 533 The plants are transplanted to the sec- ond hothouse after they have reached a height of about six inches. The beds in the second hothouse consist of three lay- ers, the bottom one being old soil that has been used in the hothouse; the second, new earth; and the top, a thoroughly rotted hothouse soil. The plants are placed two feet apart and allowed to grow until they are one foot high. Then follows the interesting process of smoking the plants. This method is the result of an accidental discovery. Years ago the furnace in one of the hothouses began to smoke and filled the entire house with fumes. The planter believed that his crop was ruined, but discovered later, to his surprise, that all his plants not only matured more quickly, but also simultane- ously. Since then it has been learned that pineapples requiring several years to ma- ture under the old system will show signs of bearing forty days after being smoked, and then mature more evenly. The furnaces used for smoking are filled with green grass or foliage and allowed to smoke three nights in succession. The plants mature in about one year from the time of planting. The average cost of producing one pine- apple, packed Tom export, 1S) avout 24 cents. While this is expensive, the fruit is remarkably free from all fibrous sub- stances. ‘The pineapples are packed in ex- celsior and shipped to England on fruit boats devoted especially to this- trade. The pineapples raised in St. Michaels sell for four and five shillings apiece in London. A GREAT WINE COUNTRY The second great industry of St. Michaels is the manufacture of wine. It sometimes happens that the crop is so great that there are not enough pipes on the islands to hold the wine, and growers have to build special cement tanks. Several kinds of sweet and sour wines are manufactured, but that most widely used is a red wine (vinho de cheiro). It contains a very small percentage of alco- holvand has a rich grape Havor. A liter of this pure wine is sold for 60 reis, or about five cents in American currency. It is almost impossible to become intoxi- cated on this ‘‘vinho de cheiro,” and Be SSA Photograph by Emil P. Albrecht | OX-DRAWN WATER WAGONS OF THE AZORES Over the creamy or soft gray walls of gardens billows of flowering vines droop down, purple and crimson and yellow. 534 = Photograph by A. T. Haeberle THE THERMAL, SPRINGS OF FURNAS VALLEY, NEAR PONTA DELGADA, BESPEAK THE VOLCANIC ORIGIN OF THE AZORES Here the waters seethe and boil and send up clouds of smoke, as in the geyser region of the Yellowstone. This ts the Aix-les-Bains of the Azorean archipelago, with numerous bath- houses for invalids afflicted with rheumatism and palsy. drunkenness among the people of the island is rare. The island of St. Michaels is moun- tainous, but less precipitous than most of the others. That the hills can be so suc- cessfully cultivated is due to their even, well-rounded outlines. But three of them are old craters, with beautiful lakes and picturesque valleys—one in the eastern part, known as Furnas; one in the center, the Lagoa do Fogo, or Fire Lake, and an- other in the western part, Sete Cidades, or Seven Cities. ST, MICHAELS FAMOUS SUMMER RESORT A description of St. Michaels would be incomplete without a visit to Furnas and Sete Cidades. A great number of towns and villages follow the coastline of the island, nestling peacefully among ‘suejsdes fo suvout Aq yoeoq oy} UO dn yozed Atay} JO SsvdIed PosoquIoUISIP dy} Suyney uss div ssopeyM dy} d19FT «MOlq,, 0} Usas Useq peYy suivs 9Y} ofoyM Jods oy} YAM OUT] UL YING sory [eUSIS OM} Aq Pod}CIPUL St UOTDOIIpP OYJ, *MOTAq S}eOq dy} UT SuNTeM UOdU oI} 0} UdATS SEM [BUSTS B Po}sIs SEM oTeYM B JoAquUsYyM pur ‘syead Aq-1vau ay} JO UO UO PoUIvULeW Se JNOYOO] & ‘savy "JS JO pur]S! oy} UO ‘seyjode) 1V OOV SUVAA Mat V SGNWISI HHL. NO GAHSINNOTA AYLSOGNI SINT NAHM AYAVNO WIAHL ONINSUNd NI SGOHIAW NVOININV GIsn SYWIVUM NVHXOZV sloqaeyT Ly “VW wlo1rz ydeisojoyg ee ee 536 THE AZORES DOU the hills and valleys. Passing along the southern road to Furnas, clusters of white houses appear unexpectedly, disap- pear, and reappear above or below, as the road winds over the hills. Twenty-seven miles from Ponta Del- gada lies Furnas Lake. Its beauty is en- _hanced by a chapel of Gothic architecture on the southern shore that seems to add to the stillness of the place. A short dis- tance beyond is the valley of Furnas, in- ~ closed by steep mountain walls. This valley marks an important spot in the history of volcanic disturbances of past centuries, and contains a number of important thermal baths, the waters of which boil and seethe and send up clouds * of smoke. ‘To appreciate the full beauty of the valley, the foremost Azorean sum- mer resort, it is necessary to look down upon the town and lake and opposite mountain ranges from the heights of the northern road that descends into the old crater, where today the town of Furnas is located. There is a charming spot in the valley of Furnas called “Tanque.” ‘This park is of interest to American readers, for it was there that the historian Prescott spent a part of his time during his stay Cimtmemisiand. | Prescott, came to St. Michaels to visit relatives, and to this day his Azorean kindred, both English and Portuguese, cherish his memory. HOW et Eta SlCr T-Sh ER TRAVELS, EN) TER AZORES When people go to Sete Cidades they Pray 10m a mine day, for that is one con- dition—a perfect light to play upon the picture. We were fortunate enough to have the best of weather. A coach drawn by three horses took us to the little town of Lomba da Cruz in less than two hours. There we exchanged the vehicle for don- keys and mounted in native fashion. The saddle used by the peasants is a heavily cushioned frame, provided with elevated cross-pieces in front and_ be- hind. ‘The rider mounts sideways and may grip these cross-pieces like the sides of a chair. The first sensation is some- what startling, but after a little practice this way of riding is not unpleasant. A muleteer accompanied each donkey and supplied all the life and energy which donkeys the world over lack. ‘Chega la!” “Chega-te asno!” they shouted in a singing tone, with a long, drawn-out accent on the penult. The ascent is steep, but with the aid of many a “Chega la!” we steadily climbed toward the top amid ferns, heather, and tulip trees. A MARVELOUS PiChURE, HROM TEE EDGE OF A CRATER After dismounting, we were asked to close our eyes and be guided to a place overlooking the entire scene. A picture should be unfurled quickly. Perhaps this added to the effect. When we opened our eyes we found ourselves standing on the edge of a ridge 2,000 feet above the old crater that had puzzled the discoverer of the island centuries ago. On the north and east steep mountain walls, rising to a height of 1,700 feet and covered with green trees, encircle the crater and reflect their hues in the clear waters of the lake below. The two round lakes are known as “Lagoa Grande” and “Lagoa Azul.” Although they are con- nected, each retains its distinctive color— the one a beautiful blue; the other a green. Folk-lore attributes this phenom- enon to the girl who jumped into one lake, which assumed the color of her petticoat, while her parasol, dropping into the other, changed the color of the smaller body of water. On the western edge of the lakes is the small valley, with summer residences, zing! wne village or See Cicaces, sync looks like a town in miniature when viewed from the top of the mountains. The mountains are lower in the north- west, where the lava flowed down the mountain side during the eruption. As I looked into the valley, I recalled the scene on the “Lookout Mountain” of Juan Fernandez, the old Robinson Crusoe Island, where Alexander Selkirk had scanned the ocean in search of a vessel that might take him away from his soli- tary abode. Here was the same view of the ocean on both sides. I recalled scenes ithe eAndesmon Sout wmenrica. and glimpses of the beautiful Honduran val- ley of Cantaranas from the top of San Jtanciton idee: “Oooo; feet high.) But none of those was so beautiful a picture. They were simply fragments of the great ‘gdoanyy 0} pojy1odxo d1e S19}sqo] JO Spursnoyy, ‘uonepndod uvosozy ay} Jo uoljA0do1d apqvsapisuod eB IOF POOYTOAT] V SOYSTUINF Vos OT, HSIA WIdIdd TO SUiVHINVA ANVW HAI Wekh SHUOZV WHI INIGNOOWANS SAALVM' AHL DEE AZORES world the eye desired to reach but could not. They left one wondering what was beyond. But Sete Cidades is a complete painting, placed in a wonderful frame— the painting of a little village among the pines, resting peacefully on the edge of two beautiful lakes. That is all! A LITTLE OF EVERYTHING “We live happily. We have a little of everything on this island,’ remarked a resident of this city. He was right. St. Michaels is a little world in itself, and the Azoreans have a little of everything. They raise their own wine and tea and have their own mineral water and thermal baths; they have their own tobacco and manufacture their own cigars; they cultivate large quantities of sugar-beet and manufacture their own sugar. The rich volcanic earth and humid, but healthful, climate lend themselves to the cultivation of great varieties of agricultural products, includ- ing vegetables and fruits of the temper- ate and tropical zones. ‘Twenty-one thou- sand head of cattle graze in the hills and help to form one of the principal indus- tries of the islands, the manufacture of cheese. The sea furnishes a livelihood for a large number of its inhabitants. Thou- sands of lobsters are exported to the Continent. | The island is covered with a network of roads, over which 150 automobiles travel for pleasure and business. In the year before the war St. Michaels’ exports were valued at $1,839,954. For a small island home, 41 miles long, this is a record worthy of note. HORTA A CABLE CENTER» FOR THE WORLD Santa Maria, the second island of the eastern district, is much smaller than St. Michaels. On a clear day its outline may be discerned from St. Michaels. Villa do Porto, on the Bay of Santa Luzia, is the largest town. This island furnishes much of the red volcanic clay that is used in the manufacture of all kinds of pot- tery, such as the porous water bottles that keep the water cool, vases, jars, and other receptacles, some of which are very artistically designed. ‘The mountains of this island range from 1,700 to 1,900 feet. 939 _ Of the central group, Fayal is the most important. The city of Horta is the prin- cipal port. It has a well-protected har- bor and is the great cable station of the Atlantic. Nine cables connect the Azores with all parts of the world. A message has been sent around the world from New York via Horta in 11 minutes. The lace workers of Fayal are famous for their skill in making a beautiful drawn work called “crivo.” The patterns of animals used 60 years ago came from Brazil and are of primi- tive, medieval design. One lace expert stated that these designs date back to the fourteenth century. They were probably carried from Portugal to Brazil in the sixteenth century. But the Brazilian meshes were coarser than the present crivo work, which has extremely fine meshes. These meshes, forming the groundwork into which the patterns are woven by hand, are always square. They are so fine and the work so delicate that it takes four months to make a five-inch border for a piece one yard square. Today pro- miscuous patterns are used as well as the old animal reproductions. SPANISH INFLUENCE SEEN: IN TERCEIRA The islands of Pico, Terceira, Sao Jorge, and Graciosa lie close to Fayal. Pico is separated from Fayal by a narrow channel, only five miles wide. Terceira is the most interesting of this group from an historical point of view. A naturally fortified place, Angra, the picturesque capital, was the central point of battles and political disturbances of by- gone times. The castle of S. Joao Ba- tista, the old Spanish fortification built on the slope of Monte Brazil, is an in- teresting relic of the seventeenth century. The massive walls of this castle extend down to the sea front and to the edge of the city. To this day Terceira shows traces of the domination of Spain over Portugal in the latter part of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth centuries. The short jacket, tight trousers, and Span- ish style of hat distinguish the inhab- itants of Angra from those of the other islands. ‘I9Y}O dy} OUT [Joy [Osvsed onjpq Joy opryM Yr OJUr poduimnf oY [IIS e JO yeoorjod JY} 0} IOJOO s}q SOMO dL] U90I13 oY} Jey} Skes pussa’T “Ud0I3 ‘19Y}0 dy} JO dsoyy ONG 91 suo FO StoJVM OY, "[NzyY wvose’y] pure opueig, vosv’[—soyr] AUT} OM} FO SaIOYS U1IISIM IY} 0} SSUT[D Sapeplg 3104 JO ISeIIIA oJ, SHYOZV AHL OL SLISIA WAH ONINNG GUNIVIMALNGA WIAM WOID'THE FO d1IOdOW'I ONIN ALV'I AHL GNV OOVNOW JO HONIYd AHL AWHHM ‘STAVHOINW “LS ‘SHAVdIO ALNS LV THLOH ISHGOW AH dloqaey “\, “V wos ydeisojoyg 540 ‘(C6h o8ed ‘uorjerjsnqI cos) sourddyiyg oy} Jo Jopuda ‘6 ‘uorerodeaa pider sasned yorym ‘AjarreA Snoiod ay} JO st A193 Uape]-JeY oY} JO Jey} ueY} peo] Joyysoy we st youd s,to[ppod uvsiozy sry, -j0d 94} 1OJ ‘Jooo A[Ssurysosajor sAeMe si ssel 9say} JO OUD Woy yuLIp VW SMVHOIN WS NI SHAMIS DNIITHS a19qae HY “I, VdVOITAG VINOd JO YHIOOO-YALVM OLLALVdIaad AHL V wo.1j sydersojoyg 541 AN AZOREAN ._DRAY AND ITS‘ LEADER Photographs from A. T. Haeberle THE TASSELED CAP, WORN BY THE LABORING CLASS, IS OFTEN SEEN IN THE STREETS OF PONTA DELGADA: AZORES This genial barefooted native is a fruit vender. The wicker hampers borne by his donkey contain many varieties of semitropical fruits, including figs, oranges, bananas, pomegranates, lemons, grapes, apricots, and perhaps a few of the delicious hothouse pineapples for which the islands are famous and which sell in the London markets for four or five shillings each. Note the Chinese lanterns which festoon the trees, indicating that this is the Espirito Santo festival season. 542 S aetiadenis sheet a eee Fs. mane ‘7 2 eee * ¥ mnie’ ieee, eee : a & Photograph from A. T. Haeberle A FIELD OF EASTER LILIES IN THE AZORES Years ago these flowers were raised by the millions for export, just as they are now an important source of revenue for the people of Bermuda. The bulbs were suddenly stricken with a blight, however, and fortunes were lost by the Easter-lily growers. The Spanish pastime of bull-fighting was also introduced, and still exists, but in so modified a form that the bull-fights of Terceira are quite unlike those of Srgemeplaces. lt is a sport not for the people, but by the people. When the bull charges, men and boys scramble up the walls and windows and disappear in the open doorway. A rope is attached to the horns of the bull to check, if necessary, the progress of the infuriated animal. THE CORVO COW A “SHETLAND” VARIETY Corvo is the smallest of the Azorean islands. It is so small that it looks like the very tip of an old volcano peeping out of the water. It is the home of less than a thousand souls, who live in almost com- plete isolation, for the Portuguese vessels call there only once every three months, and even then will sometimes forsake it when the weather is too rough to land. A lake has formed in the crater, called “Caldeira,” containing nine small islands, that look as if they might be a miniature reproduction of the Azorean archipelago. The Corvo cow has developed in pro- portion .to the size of its home. It is a neatly formed little animal, not much more than three feet high when fully de- veloped, but is a good milcher. Corvo now has a wireless to save it from complete separation, but years ago the inhabitants built bonfires on its south- ern shores when they desired to communt- cate some urgent message to their neigh- bors on the island of Flores. The island of Flores is the second of the northeastern group. It is about three times the size of Corvo. Many of the towns are built against the cliffs that rise abruptly out of the water. The coast of Flores is full of treacher- ous shoals that often tax the skill of the Azorean sailors to the utmost. Several years ago the Slavonia, of the Cunard Line, was driven in a dense fog on the rocks of this island and hung for a long time with her bow fastened to the shoals on the very edge of great depths. When BOTH SHEEP AND GOATS TAKE THE PLACE OF BELGIAN DOGS BETWEEN THE SHAFTS IN THE AZORES Note the lava rock of which the houses are constructed. It is the cheapest building material en: ail available in the mid-Atlantic islands. Ss SS J. J. Killeler & Co. LISBON FROM THE BAY OF TAGUS, CONTINENTAL SEAT OF GOVERNMENT OF THE AZORES AND THE PORT WHICH MARKED THE COMPLETION OF MAN’S FIRST TRANS- ATLANTIC FLIGHT, ACCOMPLISHED BY AMERICAN NAVAL AVIATORS The capital of Portugal, which had a population equal to that of Washington before the war, is rated by travelers the most beautiful city in Europe, Constantinople and Naples alone excepted. A Portuguese proverb runs, “He who has not seen Lisbon does not know what beauty is.” 544 PEs eAZORES she was finally lifted off by a heavy wave, caused by a passing steamer, she sank in only a few fathoms of water and may be seen today from the precipices above. The Azoreans are good sailors. Al- though the sea between the islands is very rough at times and navigation very haz- ardous, their small boats are seen every- where, even among the dangerous rocks, plying between the various islands. | Extensive trade in cattle and dairy products is carried on not only between the islands, but also between the Azores and Lisbon. THE FUTURE OF THE AZORES For years preceding the war European nations had been busily engaged in pre- paring for new trade opportunities fol- lowing the opening of the Panama Canal, and the inhabitants of the Azores were JB UA Bs O12 08 lis) Ber plunging the world into a war of aggrandizement, the Ger- man Empire in Europe had an area equal to our New England States plus that of New York, Pennsylvania, and Wirginia. Today this Germany, which expected to be all-powerful, is shorn of territory equal to all the New England States, Maine excepted, and may lose by the vote of peoples in the affected territories additional areas equivalent to the State of New Jersey. Her name on a far-flung colonial empire of 1,270,000 square miles has been blotted from the map of the world. Thus do the discord-makers not only fatleto inherit the earth, but they have taken from them even that which they had. The boundaries of the new Germany, aepmmited by ithe Peace Treaty.of Ver- sailles (accurate in so far as can be deter- mined by the official summary of the document), are shown on page 546. The areas which Germany surrenders outright to her enemies are: Alsace-Lor- raine, 5,600 square miles, to France ; two small districts surrounding Malmedy and 045 likewise deeply interested. The “Junta Cerale 2 ors local covernment) of 16t Michaels, was active in its efforts to es- tablish large hotels in Ponta Delgada and Furnas and to connect the principal points of the island with an electric rail- way. With the return of peace, the islands are taking on new life. The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded are probably 85 and 45 degrees. With a semitropical climate, famous thermal baths, and a favorable location, it certainly would appear that the inhabitants of St. Michaels are justi- fied in their ambition to make their island the famous summer and winter resort of the Atlantic. Norte.—The writer is greatly indebted to Colonel Chaves, the Junta Geral of Ponta Del- gada; Miss Sophia Brown, Mr. J. J, da Costa, and others for their assistance in securing data and views for this article. NEW GERMANY Fupen, 382 square miles, to Belgium; portions of Silesia, Posen, West Prussia, and East Prussia, 27,686 square miles, to Poland ; and the 40-square-mile northeast tip of East Prussia in the vicinity of Memel. In addition to these areas, Germany loses sovereignty over the international- ized Saar basin, 738 square miles, and the free city of Danzig, 729 square miles. Those regions that may be lost to the former Teutonic Empire by vote of a ma- jority of the inhabitants embrace 5,785 square miles (an area larger than the State of Connecticut) in Fast Prussia, which may go to Poland; three strips of territory in Schleswig, aggregating an area larger than Delaware, which may go to Denmark, and 910 square miles of Hast. Prussia above the Niemens River, about whose future the Peace Treaty summary is ambiguous. Nor do these statistics of area convey the full story of Germany’s reparation, for many of these districts of which she is thus deprived are among the richest in mineral resources and in population of all her domains. “(SPS o6ed )X0} 99S) APB] 0} SuIpsOooF ‘ATaAtjoadsod ‘yPUIUIC] 10 purjod Ojul pozyeiod -1oout eq 10 AuPuitory JO Jaed v uTeUIad 07 YSIM Ady] JOYJOYM 9}OA Aq JUIUIIJIP OF 91R | Sa}OsIgaTd,, SP PpeywUsisap sPeaiv dy} Ul SuIptsar ajdood OU, ALVA AOVAd AH AG GALIWI’T SV ANVWYAID MAN AEE - ° Bag SRY TUN youunyye : | Aunutsos) 0} 7807 Ee yiuvyAot | (| Oudawaxay 7) Nope) —) ———— a —. « : ayynysstug © if os oy 1 ye s noN ujaddo Shoqzneseiy uaps enesoly dunqopseBwp fe) OLMSUNLI > Ig S U9UTA.1ge y ‘ ee ee me : = f- UNYJOVS Chord G.nquepe : = for # L esto {Vv . ee =e , YONG ee fe ee Dysttias RUS; a paraiso" eg | "x , hisstidd ISVA, Bs : 4 eS WOM? 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